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 (Qatnell UttiuetBUy Siibrary 
 
 CHEMISTRY LIBRARY 
 
_ Cornell University Library 
 
 TP 10.C77 1879 
 
 ¥.2 
 
 Cyclopaedia of practical receipts and co 
 
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 3 1924 004 067 058 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004067058 
 
COOLETS CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 PEACTICAL EECEIPT8 
 
 COLLATERAL INFORMATION IN THE ARTS, MANUFACTURES, 
 PROFESSIONS, AND TRADES, 
 
 INCLDDINO 
 
 MEDICINE, PHARMACY, AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY; 
 
 DESiaNED A3 A 
 
 COMPEEHENSIVE SUPPLEMENT TO THE PHARMACOPCEU AND GENERAL 
 
 BOOK OP REFERE^fCE FOR THE MANUFACTURER, TRADESMAN, 
 
 AMATEUR, AND HEADS OF FAMILIES. 
 
 SIXTH EDITIOIf, 
 
 REVISED AND PARTLY REWRITTEN BT 
 
 RICHARD V. TUSON, M.I.C., F.C.S., London and Berlin, 
 
 FBOFESSOB OF OUmUSTDY AND TOXIOOLOOT IK TUB BOTAL TBTEKIHART COLLBOi; rOBMEMLT LIOnTRBB 
 ON OIXBXIBTBT AT THB OQABINO OB033 HOSPITAL. 
 
 VOL. IT. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 
 
 1, 3, AND 6 BOND STREET. 
 
 1880. 
 
/f- /^//^ 
 
 UNIVERSITYI 
 LmRARV 
 
 ^^TD/ y3/3 
 
A CYCLOPEDIA 
 
 PRACTICAL RECEIPTS, &c. 
 
 VOLUME II 
 
 Ink, LitllogTapli'ic. Prep. 1. Mastic (in 
 tCHrs), 8 oz. ; shell-lnc, 12 oz. ; Venice tur- 
 pentine, 1 oz. J melt together, add, of wax, 1 
 lb. I tallow, 6 oz. ; when dissolved, further 
 odd of httrd tallow soap (in shavings), 6 oz. ; 
 and when the whole is perfectly combined 
 add of lampblack, 4 oz. j lastly, mix well, cool 
 a little, and then pour it into moulds, or upon 
 a slab, and when cold cut it into square 
 pieces. 
 
 2. (I-asteyrie.) Dry tallow soap, mastic 
 (in tears), and common soda (in fine powder), 
 of c;ich 30 parts; shell-lac, 150 parts; lamp- 
 black, 12 parts ; mix as last. Both the above 
 are used for writing on lithographic stones. 
 
 3. (Atjtogbaphio.)— o. Take of white wax, 
 8 oz., and white soap, 2 to 3 oz. ; melt, and 
 when well combined, add of lampblack, 1 oz. ; 
 mix well, heat it strongly, and then add of 
 shell-lac, 2 oz. ; again heat it strongly, stir 
 well together, cool a little, and pour it out as 
 bel'ore. With this ink lines may be drawn of 
 the finest to the fullest class, without danger 
 of its spreading, and the copy may be kept for 
 J ears before being transferred. 
 
 b. From wliito soap and white wax, of each 
 10 oz. ; mutton suet, 3 oz. ; shell-lao and mastic, 
 of each 6 oz. ; lampblack, Si oz. ; mix as 
 above. Both the above are used for writing 
 on lithographic paper. When the last is em- 
 ployed, the transfer must be made withinaweek. 
 
 Ohs. The above inks are rubbed down with 
 n little water in a small cup or saucer for use, 
 in the same way as common water-colour 
 cakes or Indian ink. In winter the operation 
 should be performed near the fire, or the 
 saucer should be placed over a basin contain- 
 ing a little tepid water. Either a steel pen or 
 a camel-hair pencil may be employed with 
 the ink. See Lithoqbapht. 
 
 Ink, Mark'ing. Syn. Indelible ink. Peb- 
 MANENT I. Ot this there are several varieties, 
 of which the following are the most valuable 
 and commonly used : — 
 
 1. Nitrate of silver, i oz. ; hot distilled 
 water, 7 fl. dr. ; dissolve, add of mucilage, i 
 oz. ; previously rubbid with sap green or syrup 
 of bui'kthorn, q. s. to colour. The linen must 
 be first moistened with ' liquid pounce,' or ' the 
 preparation,' as it is commonly called, and 
 when it has again become dry, written on 
 with a clean quill pen. The ink will bear 
 dilution if the writing is not required very 
 black. 
 
 The POCNCE or pbefabation. A solution 
 
 of carbonate of soda, 1} oz. ; in water, 1 pint, 
 slightly coloured with a little sap green or 
 syrnp of buckthorn, to enable the spots welted 
 with it to be alterwards known. 
 
 2. (Without pbefabation.) Take of ni. 
 Irate of silver, i oz. ; water, J oz. ; dissolve, 
 add as much of the strongest liquor of am- 
 monia as will dissolve the precipitaie formed 
 on its first addition, then further add of mu- 
 cilage, 11 dr., and a little sap green, syrnp of 
 buckthorn, or finely pondered indigo, to colour. 
 Writing oxicnted with this ink turns black 
 on being passed over a hot Italian iron, or 
 held near the fire. 
 
 3. Tercbloride of gold, li dr.; water, 7 
 fl. dr.; mucilage, 2 dr.; sap green, q. s. to 
 colour. To be written with on a ground pre- 
 pared with a weak solution of protochloride of 
 tin, and dried. Dark pui*ple. 
 
 4. (Uev. J. B. Reade.) Nitrate of silver, 
 1 oz., tartaric acid (pure), 3 dr., ate tritu- 
 rated together in a mortar in the dry state; 
 a little water is then added, by which crystals 
 of tartrate of silver are formed, and the nitric 
 acid set free ; the latter is then saturated with 
 liquor of ammonia, sufiicient being added to 
 dissolve all the newly -formed tartrate of silver, 
 avoiding unnecessary excess; lastly, a little 
 gum and colouring matter is added. 
 
 6. (Rev. J. B. Reade.) To the last is added 
 an ammoniacal solutitm of a salt of gold. Mr 
 Ke.ule has used for this purpose the " purple of 
 Cassius,' the byposulphate, tliearamonio-iodido, 
 the ammonio-periodide of gold, but any other 
 compound of gold which is soluble in ammonia 
 will do as well. This ink is unacted on by 
 nearly all those reagents which remove writing 
 executed with solutions of the salts of silver 
 alone, as cyanide of potassium, the chlorides 
 of lime and soda, tec, 
 
 6. (Redwood.) Nitrate of silver and pure 
 bitartrate of potassa, of each 1 oz. (or 4 parts), 
 are rubbed together in a glass or Wedgwood- 
 ware mortar, and after a short time liquor of 
 ammonia, 4 oz. (16 parts, or q. s.), is added ; 
 when the solution i-s complete, archil, 4 dr. 
 (or 2 parts) ; white sugar, 6 dr. (or 3 paits) ; 
 and powdered gum, 10 dr. (or 5 parts), are 
 dissolved in the liquor, after which sufiicient 
 water is added to make the whole measure 
 exactly 6 fi. oz., when it is ready to be bottled 
 for use. The last three are used in the same 
 manner as No. 2. 
 
 7. (Dr Smellie.) From sulphate of iron, 
 1 dr. ; vermilion, 4 dr. ; boiled linseed oil, 1 
 
 57 
 
898 
 
 INKS 
 
 oz.j triturated together until perfectly «mootli. 
 Used with type. 
 
 8. (Soubeiian.) Nitrate of copper, 3 parts ; 
 carbonate of soda, 4 parts ; nitrate of silver, 
 8 parts; mix, and dissolve in liquor of am- 
 monia, 100 parts. Used lilje No. 2. 
 
 9. (Ure.) A strong solution of chloride of 
 platinum, with a little potassa, and sugar apd 
 gum, to thidteu. 
 
 10. The fluid contained between the kernel 
 and shell of the cashew nut. On linen and 
 cotton it turns gradually black, and is very 
 durable. This has been called anaoaedium 
 
 or CASHEW-KUT INK. 
 
 11. Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts ; lamp- 
 black, 1 part J sugar, 4 parts ; all in fine 
 powder, and triturated to a paste with a little 
 water. Used with types or stencil-plates; 
 the part, when dry, being well rinsed in water. 
 Brown. 
 
 12. Black oxide of manganese and hydrate 
 of potassa are mixed, heated to redness in a 
 crucible, and then triturated with an equal 
 weight of pure white clay, and water, q. s. to 
 pfive it due consistence. Used like the last. 
 (Brown.) 
 
 13. (Aniline Black Marking Ink.) This 
 ink is prepared by means of two solutions, one 
 cf copper, the other of aniline, prepared as 
 follows : — 
 
 (1.) COPPBB SOLTTTION. 8'52 grams of 
 crystallised chloride of copper, 10'65 grains of 
 chlorate of soda, and 5'35 grams of chloride 
 of ammonium are dissolved in 60 grams of 
 water. 
 
 (2.) Anilinb solution. 20 grams of hy- 
 drochlorate of aniline are dissolved in 30 grams 
 of distilled water, and to this are added 20 
 grams of solution of gum Arabic (1 part of 
 gum to 2 of water) and 10 grams of glycerin. 
 
 By mixing in the cold 4 parts of the aniline 
 solution, with 1 part of the copper solution, a 
 greenish liquid is obtained which can be em- 
 ployed directly for the marking; but as this 
 liquid can only be preserved for a few days 
 without decomposition, it is advisable to keep 
 the solution separately, until the ink is re- 
 quired for use. 
 
 The ink may be used either with a pen, or 
 a stencil plate and brush ; if it do not flow 
 freely from the pen it may be diluted with a 
 little water without fear of weakening the in- 
 tensity of the colour. At first the writing 
 appears of a p.ale green colour, but after expo- 
 sure to the air it becomes black, or it may be 
 changed to a black colour immediately, by 
 passing a hot iron over the back of the fabric, 
 or heating it over the flame of a spirit lamp. 
 As, however, a dry heat is apt to make the 
 fibre siiturated with the ink, brittle, it is pre- 
 ferable to hold the marked fabric over a vessel, 
 contuining water in full ebullition ; the heat 
 of the vapour is sufficient to determine almost 
 immediately, the reaction by which aniline 
 black is formed. After the steaming, the writ- 
 ing sliould be washed in hot soapsuds, which 
 
 gives the ink a fine blue shade. The ink is 
 not acted upon by acids or alkalies, and if care 
 be taken that the fibres are well saturated with 
 it, there is no danger of its being removed by 
 washing. (' Dingler's Journal.') 
 
 14. In addition to the above formulse, the 
 following of M. Henry may he worthy of at- 
 tention in large establishments where economy 
 is an object z-^Take 1 oz. of iron filings and 3 
 oz. of vinegar, or diluted acetic acid. Mix 
 the filings with half the vinegar, and agitate •■ 
 them continually till the mixture becomes 
 thick, then add the rest of the vinegar and 1 
 oz. of water. Apply heat to assist the action, 
 and when the iron is dissolved, add 3 oz. of 
 sulphate of iron, and 1 oz. of gum previously 
 dissolved in 4 oz. of water; and mix the whole 
 with a gentle heat. To be used with brush 
 and stencil plates. 
 
 15. (Crimson Marking Ink.) Dissolve 1 oz. 
 of nitrate of silver, and IJ oz. of carbonate of 
 soda in crystals, separately in distilled water, 
 mix the solutions, collect and wash the preci- 
 pitate on a filter, introduce the washed pre- 
 cipitate still moist into a Wedgwood mortar, 
 and add to it tartaric acid 2 dr. and 40 gr., 
 rubbing together till effervescence has ceased ; 
 dissolve carmine 6 grains, in liquor ammonia 
 (882) 6 oz., and add to it tne tartrate of 
 silver, then mix in white sugar, 6 dr., and 
 powdered gum Arabic, 10 dr., and add as much 
 distilled water as will make 6 oz. (' Fharm. 
 Journal.') 
 
 Obs. The products of the first two of the 
 above formulae constitute the marking ink of 
 the shops. They have, however, no claim to 
 the title of ' INDELIBLE INK,' " which no art 
 can extract without injuring the fabric " — as 
 is generally represented. On the contrary, 
 they may be discharged with almost as much 
 facility as common iron-moulds. This may 
 be easily and cheaply effected hy means of 
 ammonia, cyanide of potassium, the chlorides 
 of lime and soda, and some of the hyposul- 
 phites, without in the least injuring the tex- 
 ture of the fabric to which they may be 
 applied. The only precaution required is 
 that of rinsing the part in clean water imme- 
 diately after the operation. The 'markingink 
 without preparation' is more easily extracted 
 than that ' with pi-eparatiou.' The" former has 
 also the disadvantage of not keeping so well 
 as the latter, and of depositing a portion of 
 fulminating silver, under some circumstances, 
 which renders its use dangerous. The thinner 
 inks, when intended to be used with type or 
 plates, are thickened by adding a little more 
 gum, or some sugar. 
 
 Ink, Mark'ing. S^/n. Paokbe's ink. Ink 
 bottoms. Used by packer's for marking bales, 
 boxes, &o. 
 
 Ink, Perpet'ual, Frep. 1. Pitch, 3 lbs.; 
 melt over the fire, and add of lampblack, | 
 lb. ; mix well. 
 
 2. Trinidad asphaltum and oil of turpentine, 
 equal parts. Used in a melted state to fill in 
 
INK POWDERS— INOCULATION 
 
 899 
 
 the Icttfrs on tombstones, mnrblts, ic. With- 
 out actunl violence, it will endure aa long as 
 the stone itself. 
 
 Ink, Print'or's. See Pbintiito Ink. 
 
 Ink, Pur'ple. 1. A strong decoction of log- 
 wood, to which a little alum or chloride of tin 
 lias been added, 
 
 2. (Normandy.) To 12 lbs. of Campenchy 
 wood add as many giiUons of boiling water, 
 pour the solution through a funnel with a 
 strainer made of coarse flannel, or 1 lb. of hy- 
 drate, or acetate of deutoxlde of copper finely 
 powdered (having at the bottom of the funnel 
 a piece of sponge) ; then add immediately 14 
 lbs. of almn, and for every 340 galls, of liquid 
 add 80 lbs. of gum Arabic or gum Senegal. 
 Let these remain for three or four days and a 
 beautiful pm-ple colour will be produced. 
 
 Ink, Ked. Prep. 1. Brazil wood (ground), 
 4 oz. ; white-wine vinegar (hot), li pint; 
 digest in glass or a well-tinned copper or ena- 
 mel sanccp.in, until tho next day, then gently 
 simmer for half an hour, adding towiirds the 
 end gum Arabic and alum, of each \ oz, 
 
 2. Ground Brazil wood, 10 oz. ; white 
 vinegar, 10 pints; macerate for 4 or 5 days; 
 then boil as before to one half, and add of 
 roach alum, 4} oz. ; gum, 5 oz. ; and when 
 dissolved, bottle for use. 
 
 3. As the last, but using water or beer 
 instead of vinegar. 
 
 4. Cochineal (iu powder), 1 oz. ; hot water, 
 ) pint ; digest, and when quite cold, add of 
 spirit of hartshorn, i pint (or liquor of am- 
 monia, 1 oz., diluted with 3 or 4 oz. of water) ; 
 macerate for u few days longer, and then 
 decant the clear. Very fine. 
 
 5. (Buchner.) Pure carmine, 20 gr.; liquor 
 of ammonia, 3 fl. oz. ; dissolve, then add of 
 powdered gum, 18 gr. Half a drachm of pow- 
 dered drop lake may be substituted for the 
 carmine where expense is an object. Colour 
 superb. 
 
 6. (Henzeler.) Brazil wood, 2 oz. ; alum 
 and cream of tartar, of each j oz. ; rain water, 
 16 fl. oz. ; boil to one half, strain, add of gum 
 (dissolved), J oz. ; and when cold, f urtlier add 
 a tincture made by digesting powdered cochi- 
 neal, 1^ dr., in rectified spirit, li fl. oz. 
 
 7. (liedwood.) Guarancine and liquor of 
 ammonia, of each 1 oz. ; distilled water (cold), 
 1 pint; Iritur.ite together in a mortar, filter, 
 and dissolve ia the solution, gum Arabic \ oz. 
 
 Ink, Se'pia. Sie Sepia. 
 
 Ink, Sil'ver. From silver leaf or powdered 
 silver, as gold ink. 
 
 Ink. Sympathet'io. Syn. Diplomatio ink. 
 Invisible i. Fluids which, when used for 
 writing, remain invisible until the paper is 
 heated, or acted on by some other chemical 
 agent. Sympathetic inks have been frequently 
 employed as the instruments of secret corre- 
 spondence, and have often escaped detection; 
 but by he.iting the paper befoi-e the fire until 
 it begins to grow discoloured by the heat, the 
 whole of them may be rendered visible. 
 
 The following are the most common and 
 amusing sympathetic inks: — 1. Sulphate of 
 copper and sal ammoniac, equal parts, dissolved 
 in water; writes colourless, but turns yellow 
 when heated. — 2. Onion juice ; like the last. 
 — 3. A weak infusion of galls ; turus black 
 when moistened with weak copperas water : — 
 4. A weak solution of sulphate of iron j turns 
 BLUE when moistened with a weak solution of 
 prussi.ite of potas.sa, and black when moist- 
 ened with infusion uf galls. — 5. The diluted 
 solutioHs of nitrate of silver and of tcrchloride 
 of gold; become respectively dabk BBOWS 
 and PCEPLB when exposed to the sunlight. — 
 6. Aqua fortis, spirits of salts, oil of vitriol, 
 common salt, or saltpetre, dissolved in a large 
 quantity of water; turus ybllovt or brown 
 when heated. — 7. Solution of chloride or nitm- 
 muriate of cobalt ; turns obekh when heated, 
 and disappears a^'ain on cooling. If tho salt 
 is pure, the marks turn blue. — 8. Solution of 
 acetate of cobalt, to which a little nitre has 
 been added ; becomes eosb colouiied when 
 heated, and disappears on cooling. — 9. A weak 
 solution of the mixed chlorides of cobalt ond 
 nickel ; turns QUEEN. The last three are 
 about the best of our sympathetic inks. — 10. 
 Solution of acetate of lead; turns bbownish- 
 black when exposed to the fumes of sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen. — H. A weak solution of 
 nitrate of mercury ; turned black hy heat 
 and sulphuretted fumes. — 12. Itice water or 
 decoction of starch ; turned blue by a solu- 
 tion of iodine in weak spirit, and by the fumes 
 of iodine, if the paper is first slightly moistened 
 by exposun^ to steaoi or damp uir. 
 
 Ink, Vi'olet. The same as pukple ink, 
 but weaker. 
 
 Ink, Yel'low, 1. From gamboge (in coarse 
 powder), 1 oz. ; hot water, 5 oz. ; dissolve, and 
 when cold, add of spirit, J oz. 
 
 2. Boil French berries, i lb., and alum, 1 
 oz., iu rain water, 1 quart, for half an hour, 
 or longer, then strain and dissolve in the hot 
 liquor gum Arabic, 1 oz. 
 
 Ink, Zinc Labels, to write on. >'.y». HoK- 
 TICULTDBAL INK. 1. Dissolve 100 gr. of 
 tetrachloride of platinum in a pint of water. 
 A little mucilage and lamp black may be 
 added. 
 
 2. Sal ammoniac 1 dr. ; verdigris, 1 dr. ; 
 lampblack, i dr. ; water, 10 dr.; mix. 
 
 INK POWDERS. Prep. 1. Aleppo galls, 
 4 oz. ; sulphate of iron, IJ oz. ; gum Arabic, 1 
 oz. ; lump sugar, J oz. ; (all quite dry and in 
 powder) ; mix, and divide into 3 packets. A 
 pint of boiling water poured over one of them 
 produces, in a few hours, a piut of excellent ink. 
 
 2. Aleppo galls, 3 lbs.; copperas, 1 lb. ; gum 
 Arabic, i lb. ; white sugar, \ lb. ; all in pow- 
 der ; mix, and divide into two-ounce packets, 
 to be used as the last. Ink powders are very 
 useful in travelling. 
 
 INK STAINS, to remove. See Spots. 
 
 INOCULA'TION. Syn. Inocdlatio, L. In 
 medicine and surc/ery, the application of poi- 
 
900 
 
 INOSINIC ACID— INTEMPERANCE 
 
 Eonous or infections matter to any part of the 
 body for the purpo-e of propagiiting a milder 
 form of disease, and thus preventing or les- 
 sening the virulence of future attacks. In 
 this country the term is generally restricted 
 to the artifii'ial propagation of smallpox,' See 
 Vaccination, 
 
 INOSIiJ'IC ACID. An acid said by Liebig 
 tn exist in the juice of the flesh of animals, 
 after it has deposited its kreatine. 
 
 IN'OSITE. A species of unfermentahle 
 sugar, discovered by Scherer in the juice of 
 flesh. It forms beautiful crystals, 
 
 IN'SECTS. Sy». Insecta, L, A class of 
 invertebrate animals belonging to the sub- 
 kingdom Annuloso. The true insect is defined 
 as an articulated animal, having six legs, 2 
 antennae, 2 compound eyes; a small brain at 
 the anterii>r extremity of a doube medullary 
 cord ; its circulation is effected by a pulsating 
 dorsal vessel, provided with numerous valves; 
 its respiration by tracheae, which foim 2 
 lateral trunk?, and ramify through the body. 
 The generiition of insects is oviparous. There 
 are two distinct sexes. The adult state is 
 attained through a series of metamorphoses. 
 In general, every insect possesses 2 pairs of 
 wings; the trunk in the adult animal is 
 usually composed of 3 chief parts — the head, 
 thorax, and abdomen. The trunk of an insect 
 may also be described as consisting of 13 seg- 
 ments, of which 1 constitutes the head, 3 
 constitute the thorax, and 9 the abdomen. 
 Insects are arranged in the following orders: 
 — 1. Hymenoptera, including bees, wasps, ich- 
 neumon-flies, &c. — 2. Coleoptera, including 
 all those kinds commonly called beetles. — 3. 
 Nenroptera, dia'.?>in-flies, ephemerae, white 
 ants, &c. — 4. Strepsijitera, the stylups, &c. — 
 5. Lepido]itera, the butterflies and moths. — 6. 
 Diptera, the house-fly and other 2-winged 
 insects. — 7. Orthopteia, crickets, grasshoppers, 
 locusts, earwigs, &c. — 8. Hemiptera, bugs, 
 frog-hoppers, aphides, &c. — 9. Aptej'a, fleas, 
 &c. There are several animals belonging to 
 the classes mteiopoda and arachnida which 
 are commonly but erroneously called 'insects.* 
 Of these the centipedes, spiders, and acarides, 
 or mites, are well-known examples. Several 
 useful products, as silk, wax, honkx, cochi- 
 neal, lac, canthakides, &c., are supplied by 
 insects. The class includes numerous creatures 
 which are extremely destructive, and others 
 which are regarded as domestic pests. In the 
 articles devoted to tliese offensive insects 
 various methods of exterminating them are 
 noticed. A powder for destroying insects has 
 recently bien introduced into this country, 
 and has been found peculiarly efficacious. 
 This powder, which is known under various 
 
 names (iNSEOTS-DESIEOYINa POWDIK, IHJ- 
 
 mont's INSECTICIDE, &c.), is produced by the 
 Pyrethrum roseum Cancaslcum, a composite 
 flower growincj wild in the Caucasus. The' 
 central or tubular florets of the disc are alone 
 employed, and when ground, furnish the 
 
 powder of commerce. This powder, though 
 so destructive to insect life, has no injurious 
 effect upon man or domestic animals. See 
 AcAKi, Ant, Bee, Bug, Bites and Stings, 
 Canthaeides, Cochineal, Lao, Pedicitii, 
 Silk, &c. 
 
 IMSECT'ICIDE POWDER. See Insects. 
 
 INTEM'PEKANCE. Under this head we 
 refer to habitual indulgence in the use of 
 spirituous or fermented liquors,whether accom- 
 panied or not by fits of intoxication or drunk- 
 enness. 
 
 The pernicious influence of intoxicating 
 liquors upon individuals and upon society has 
 been so often and ably exposed by the clergy, 
 judges, and magistrates, and by philanthro- 
 pists of every kind, that it would be folly to 
 do more than refer to it here. Fully one half 
 of the dark or disreputable deeds of those who 
 fill our gaols, and fully an equal proportion of 
 the poverty and wretchedness which pauperises 
 our population and crowds our workhouses, are 
 traceable to this damning vice of the Anglo- 
 Saxon race — intemperance. 
 
 To cure habitual dbunkbsness various 
 means have been proposed, most of which are 
 more ingenious than useful. The following, 
 however, deserves respectful notice: — 
 
 Dr Kain, an eminent American physician, 
 recommends tiirtar emetic, given in alterative 
 and slightly nauseating doses, for the cure of 
 habitual drunkenness. " Possessing," he ob- 
 serves, " no positive taste itself, it communi- 
 cates a disgusting quality to those fluids in 
 which it is dissolved. These liquors, with 
 the addition of a very small quantity of emetic 
 tartar, instead of relieving, increase the sen- 
 sation of loathing of food, and quickly pro- 
 duce in the patient an indomitable repug- 
 nance to the vehicle of its administration. My 
 method of prescribing it has varied according 
 to the habits, age, and constitution of the 
 patient. A convenient preparation of the 
 medicine is 8 gr., dissolved in 4 oz. of boiling 
 water ; J an oz. (say a table-spoonful) of the 
 solution to be pnt into half a pint, pint, or 
 quart of the patient's favorite liquor, and to 
 be taken daily in divided portions. If vomit- 
 ing and purging ensue" (which is seldom the 
 case), " I should direct laudanum to allay the 
 irritation, and diminish the dose. In some 
 (■ases the change suddenly produced in the 
 patient's habits has brought on considerable 
 lassitude and debility, which, however, were of 
 short duration. In a majority of cases no 
 other effect has been perceptible than slight 
 nausea, some diarrhoea, and a gradual but very 
 uniform distaste to the menstruum." 
 
 Dr W. Marcet has described the more 
 or less disordered state of the brain, nerves, 
 muscles, and stomach, brought on by the 
 continual use of alcohol, even without in- 
 toxication being produced. The symptoms of 
 this state, which he terms cheonio alco- 
 holism, are quite distinct from those of de- 
 LIBIUM TEEMENS, which is au acute and vio- 
 
INTERMITTENT FEVER— INULIN 
 
 901 
 
 lent diaturbance of the nervous system. From 
 oxporimeiits on a large number of patients, 
 l>r Marcet has arrived at tlie importHnt con- 
 clusion, that oxide of zinc is the true antidote 
 in cases of slow alcoholic poisouing. It sefms 
 to act ai u strong tonic on the nerves, being 
 at the same time a powerful sedative and anli- 
 Bpasniodic' 
 
 The symptoms of actual intoxication, or the 
 disordered condition of tlie intellectual func- 
 tions and volition, produced by taking exces- 
 sive quantities of alcoholic liquors, need not be 
 described. 
 
 Among the remedies employed to remove 
 the 'tit of drunkenness,' the prepii rations of 
 ammonia, and the vegetitble acids, are the most 
 common and important. About 2 or 3 fl. dr. 
 of arom.itic spirits of ammonia (spirits of sal 
 volatile), or a like quantity of solution of 
 acetate of ammonia (niindererus spirit), mixed 
 with a wine-glassful of water, will in general 
 neutralise or preatly lessen the action of in- 
 toxicating liquors. In some cases these fluids 
 produced vomiting, which is, however, a good 
 symptom, as nothing tends to restore an ine- 
 briated person so soon as the removal of the 
 liquor from the stomach. Hence tickling the 
 fauces with the finger or a (eatlier, until sick- 
 ness comes on, is a method very commonly 
 adopted by drunkards to restore themselves to 
 a sober state. Tlie use of aromatic water of 
 ammonia was first suggested by Mr Bromly. 
 With a like intention, some persons have 
 recourse to soda water, wliicli acts by the free 
 carbonic acid it contains, and also as a dilueut 
 and, from its coldness, as a tonic on the coats 
 of the stomach. The carbonates and bicarbon- 
 ates of soda and potassa are also favourite re- 
 medies with habitual drunkards. Among the 
 vegetable acids, acetic acid is the one that 
 appears to possess the greatest power of re- 
 moving intoxication ; and after this follow the 
 citric, tartaric, malie, and carbonic acids. 
 These substances are commonly taken by sol- 
 diers before going to parade. The usual dose 
 of vinegar is a small teacupful. lu the West 
 Indies lime juice and lemon juice are bad re- 
 course to. Both these juices act from the 
 citric acid they contain. The use of bitter 
 almonds, as a means of lesseninc: or retarding 
 the effects of fermented liquors was known to 
 antiquity, and is still common among heavy 
 drinkers at the present day. Even small doses 
 of medicinal prussic acid have been foolishly 
 taken with a like intention. See Abstinence, 
 Alcohol, bffects of, Delieiusi tkemens, 
 &c. 
 
 INTERMIT'TENT FEVER. St/n. AG0B. A 
 disease consisting of paroxysms or periods of 
 fever with perfect intermissions or periods 
 without fever. Marsh miasmata, or the 
 effluvia arising from stagnant water or marshy 
 ground, when acted upon by beat, are the 
 most frequent causes of this malady. For 
 
 ' ■ On Cliroaic AlcoUolic latoxicatioa." By W. Mucet, 
 U.O., Ib6:!. 
 
 the prevention of ague in situations where it 
 prevails endemically, small doses of quinine 
 should be taken t«o or three times a day, 
 and flannel clothing should be constantly 
 worn. 
 
 Symp. Each febrile paroxysm is of three 
 periods or stages — the cold, the hot, and the 
 sweating stage, and these occur in regular suc- 
 cession. The cold stage commences with great 
 languor and aversion to motion ; a sense of 
 coldness down the back soon follows ; then the 
 extremities become cold, the tingi-rs shrunken, 
 and the nails blue; the skin assumes that 
 peculiar conditii>n which is commonly known 
 as 'goose-skin;' the patient shivers, his ttith 
 chatter, and he is glad to draw close to the tire 
 or envelop himself in blankets. After this 
 state of things has continued for a greater or 
 less time, the heat of the surface begins to 
 return, the patient has flushinps and becomes 
 warmer and warmer, and ultimately the whole 
 surface isof adry burrdngbeat; intense thirst, 
 restlessness, severe headache, and sometimes 
 delirium, charaeteri-e this second orhotsta;;e. 
 After this staLce has continued for some time, 
 another change comes over the patient ; mois- 
 ture appears on the face and forehead, the 
 harsh and hot =kin becomes soft, and at last a 
 copious sweat breaks out over the whole sur- 
 face. This is the third orsweatin:.' stage, and 
 after it has passed, the several functions of tiio 
 system return to their ordinary condition. The 
 paroxism may return daily {QroTiDiAN aoue); 
 or every other day (tbktian a.) ; or every 
 fourth day, including that of the first attack 
 (qfautan a.). 
 
 IVeatm. During the cold stage everything 
 should he done to bring on the hoc ; tlie patient 
 should be placed in a warm bed, with warm 
 pans or bottles of water; he may be allowed 
 the fi'ce use of warm diluent drinks. In the 
 liot stage the opposite course should be 
 adopted; the coverings must be diminished 
 and lemonade and other cooling drink adminis- 
 tered. In the sweating stage there is no 
 occasion for any treatment beyond care to 
 avoid checking the perspiration by premature 
 exposure. During the intermission the dis- 
 ease must be fought with the tonics, Peruvian 
 bark, or its chief alkaloid, quinine. The most 
 effective form of this remedy is the sulphate, 
 which may be given in doses of fiom 2 to 4 jir. 
 every three hours, the rlo-e being greater for a 
 quartan than tor a quotidian. See Aqce-caee, 
 Fbvee, &c. 
 
 INTOXICA'TIOS. See Intemperance. 
 
 IN'UIiIN. Syn. IxuLiNK, Alantine, Dah- 
 LINE. A peculiar starch-like substance, first 
 obtained by Rose from the root of Inula Se- 
 lenium or elecampane. It has been found in 
 several other vegetables. 
 
 Prep. From the rasped root, by the same 
 method that is adopted (or arrow-root or potato 
 farina ; or by boiling the sliced root in 7 or 8 
 times its weight of water, and after filtration. 
 
902 
 
 lODATE— IODINE 
 
 whilst hot, allowing tlie decoction to repose for 
 a short time. 
 
 Prop., dj'c. Only very slightly soluble in cold 
 water ; very soluble in boiling water, but is 
 nearly all deposited as the solution cools; it is 
 precipitated by alcohol. 
 
 In ulin is distinguished from starch by giving 
 a yellow or yellowish-brown instead of a blue 
 colour with iodine; in the decoction not being 
 precipitated by either acetate of lead or infu- 
 sion of galls ; and by the precipitate formed in 
 the cold decoction by an infusion of gall-nuts 
 not disappearing until the liquid is heated to 
 above 212°, whilst tlie precipitate from starch 
 redissolves at 122° Pahr. It appears to be a 
 substance intermediate between starch and 
 gum. 
 
 I'ODATE'. Spn. lOBAS, L. A salt of iodic 
 acid. The iodates closely resemble the chlo- 
 rates of the corresponding metals. They are 
 recognised by the development of free iodine 
 when their solutions are treated with reducing 
 agents; thus, sulphuretted hydrogen passed 
 into a solution of iodate of potassium reduces 
 this salt to an iodide, iodine being liberated 
 and sulphuric acid and water formed. They 
 deflagrate like the chlorates when heated with 
 combustibles. They are all of sparing solubility, 
 and mimy are quite insoluble in water. They 
 may be made by adding iodine to soluble hy- 
 drates or carbonates, and crystallising the 
 sparingly soluble iodate from the very so- 
 luble iodide. See Iodic acid, Iodine, and 
 Potassium. 
 
 lODHY'DKIC ACID. See Htdeiodic acid. 
 
 lOD'XCACID. HIO3. Si/n. Aoidttm iodi- 
 
 CUM, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. Iodate of sodium is dissolved in 
 sulphuric acid in considerable excess, the solu- 
 tion boiled for 15 minutes, and then set aside 
 to crystalWse. 
 
 2. Decompose iodate of barium by dilute 
 sulphuric acid, 
 
 3. (Boursen.) Iodine, 1 part; nitric acid 
 (sp. gr. 1'5), 40 parts; mix, keep them at 
 nearly the boiling temperature for several 
 hours, or until the iodine is dissolved, then 
 evaporate to dryness, and leave the residuum 
 in the open air at a temperature of about 
 59° Fahr. ; when, by attracting moi^ture, it 
 has acquired the consistence of a syrup, put it 
 into a place where the temperature is higher 
 and the air drier, when in a few days very 
 fine white crystals of a rhomboidal shape will 
 form. <■ 
 
 Prep., Sfc. Iodic acid is n crystalline solid, 
 white or yellowish-white; it is decomposed 
 into oxygen and iodine by a heat of about 450° 
 to 500° Fahr — a property of which we avail 
 oui'selves for the conversion of the salts of 
 this acid (iodates) into iodiries. It is very 
 soluble in water, and is rapidly decomposed 
 wlien heated with inflammable bodies. Iodic 
 acid is used as a test for morphia and sulphur- 
 ous acid. It has been employed as a tonic, 
 stimulant, and alterative, in catarrhal hoarse- 
 
 ness, strumous cases, incipient phthisis, &o. — 
 Dose, 3 to 6 gr. 
 
 Vest. When iodic acid is mixed with an 
 equal quantity of an alkaloid (preferably qui- 
 nine), on a capsule or watch-glass, and a drop 
 or two of water added, several distinct explo- 
 sions occur, accompanied by the copioiis evo- 
 lution of gas. No other substance exhibits a 
 similar reaction. See lODATE. 
 
 I'ODIDE. Sl/n. lODtlBET*, Htdbiodate*, 
 lODIDUM, lODrKETUM, HtDEIODAS, L. A 
 
 compound of iodine with a metal or other 
 basic radical. The iodides belong to the same 
 class of bodies as the bromides and chlorides, 
 and may be, for the most part, made in the 
 same manner. All the principal iodides are 
 noticed under the names of their respective 
 bases. See Iodine, &c. 
 
 rODINE. I. Syn. Iodum, B.P.; Iodinium 
 (Ph. L. & D.), lODlNETJM (Ph. E.), L. ; Iode, 
 Fr. ; loD, Ger. An elementary substance 
 accidentally discovered in 1812, by De Cour- 
 tois, a saltpetre manufacturer at Paris. It was 
 first examined and described by M. Clement, 
 in 1813, and its precise nature was soon after- 
 wards determined by Sir H. Davy and M. 
 Gay-Lussac. In 1819, some six years after 
 its discovery, iodine was first employed in 
 pharmacy. The merit of the introduction of 
 this powerful curative agent into medicine is 
 due to Dr Ooindet, a physician of Geneva, 
 who in that year commenced a series of ex- 
 periments upon it as a remedy for bronchoeelo 
 or goitre. It is found in each of the three 
 kingdoms of nature, but exists in greatest 
 abundance in the vegetable family Alga 
 (Seaweeds). 
 
 Prep, Iodine is principally manufactured 
 in the neighbourhood of Ghisgow, from the 
 mother-waters of kelp known as iodine lye. 
 
 1. Kelp, the half vitrified ashes of seaweed, is 
 exhausted with water, and the solution filtered; 
 the liquid is then concentrated by evaporation 
 until it is reduced to a very small volume, the 
 chloride of sodium, carbonate of sodium, chlo- 
 ride of potassium, and othersalts,beingremoved 
 as they successively assume the crystalline 
 form ; oil of vitriol is now added, in excess, to 
 the residual dark-brown mothei -liquor (iodine- 
 lye), and the evolved gases are either kindled 
 or allowed to escape by a flue; the liquid, 
 after standing some time, is decanted or 
 filtered, heated to about 140° Fahr., and 
 mixed with as much binoxide of manganese as 
 there was oil of vitriol employed; the whole 
 is then introduced into a cylindrical leaden 
 still, furnished with a very short head and 
 connected with 2 or 3 large globular glass 
 receivers, and heat is applied, when fumes of 
 iodine are evolved and condensed in the re- 
 ceivers. During the distillation very great 
 care is taken to watch the process, and prevent 
 the nook of the still becoming choked with 
 condensed iodine. For this purpose the head 
 of the still is usually furnished with a movablo 
 stopper, by which the process may be watched. 
 
IODINE 
 
 903 
 
 and addUiont of mnn^nncsc or aulphnric acid 
 made, if required. To render tlie product 
 pure, it should be pressed between blutling 
 paper, and tlien resublimed in gluss or stone- 
 ware. 
 
 2. A solution of sulphate of copper, 4 
 parts, and protosulphate of iron, 9 parts, are 
 added to the mother-liquid of the soda-works, 
 as long as a white precipitate is thrown down ; 
 this preeipitiite (iodide of copper) is collected, 
 dried, and mixed with its own weight of finely 
 powdered black oxide of manganese, and dis- 
 tilled by a strong heat in a retort, wlien dry 
 iodine pu«ses over. By the addition of sul- 
 phuric acid with the manganese, a le^s heat is 
 required, but the [iroduct is wet with water, 
 like that of the lust formula. 
 
 3. The residual liquor of the manufacture of 
 soap from kelp (or other iodine Ive), of the sp. 
 gr. of 1-374, is heated to 236° Fahr., vyith 
 sulphuric acid diluted with half its weight 
 of water, after which the liquor is allowed to 
 cool, and is e tlier decanted or filtered; to 
 every 12 fl. oz. of the filtrate 1000 gr. of 
 black oxide of manganese, in powder, are 
 added; the mixture is put into a glass globe 
 or matrass with a wide neck, over which is 
 inverted another glass globe, and heat is ap- 
 plied by means of a charcoal chauffa-, when 
 iodine sublimes very copiously, and condenses 
 in the upper vessel j as soon as the latter is 
 warm, it is replaced by another, and the two 
 globes are thus applied in succession, as 
 long as violet fumes are evolved. The iodine 
 is washed out of the globes with a little cold 
 water. A thin disc of wood, having a hole in 
 its centre, is placed over the shoulder of the 
 nnitrass, to prevent the heat from acting on 
 the globular receiver. On the large scale, a 
 leaden still, as before described, may be em- 
 ployed, and receivers of either stoneware or 
 glass ; and the addition of the sulphuric acid 
 is made in a basin or trough of stoneware or 
 xvood. Prod. 12 oz. yifld 80 to 100 gr. 
 
 4. Another method of preparing iodine has 
 been patented by a Mr Stanford, which con- 
 sists of compressing the wet weed, drying in 
 an oven, and distilling at a high temperature. 
 The inventor claims that double the usual 
 amount of iodine is obtained besides other 
 useful products. 
 
 5. Considerable quantities of iodine are now 
 obtained from the mother-liquor of Chilian 
 saltpetre or nitre (nitrate of soda). In 1873, 
 a nitre refinery in Peru which separates the 
 iodine in combination with copper, as cuprous 
 iodide, by means of bisulphide of soda and 
 sulphate of copper, produ( od 15,000 kilos of 
 cupi-ous iodide, corresponding to bOOO kilos of 
 iodine. 
 
 Other methods of obtaining it from Chilian 
 nitre consist in treating the mother-liquors 
 left after the salt has been crystallised out 
 with sulphurous acid, until the separated 
 iodine l)CL;in8 to redissolve. Nitrous acid has 
 also beeu substituted tor sulphurous. The 
 
 iodine so procured is purified by snblimation, 
 whilst that which remains in the residual saline 
 matter is removed by treatment « ith chlorine. 
 
 Prop. Iodine is usually met with under the 
 form of semi-crystalline lumps having a sen i- 
 metallic lustre, or in micaceous, friable scales, 
 somewhat resembling plumbago or gunpowder. 
 By carefully conducted sublimation, or by the 
 slow evaporation of its solution in hydriodic 
 acid, it may be obtained in rhombic plates an 
 inch long. It has a greyish-black colour, a 
 hot acrid taste, and a di-agreeable odonr not 
 much unlike that of chlorine. It fusis at 
 -25^ into a deep-brown liquid, volatilises 
 slowly at ordinary temperatures, boils at 347 , 
 forn.ing a maguiticent violet-coloured vapour, 
 when mixed with water it rapidly lises with 
 the steam at 212° Fahr. It dissolves in about 
 7000 parts of water, and freely in alcohol, 
 ether, solutions of the iodides, liqui<l hydriodic 
 acid, chloroform, petroleum, bisulphide of 
 carbon, &c. Most of these solutions have the 
 brown colour of liquid iodine, but some (par- 
 ticularly those formid by the last three sol- 
 vents named above) have the beautilul violet 
 colour of the vapour. It bleaches like chlo- 
 rine, only nioro Coelily. Iodine has an ex- 
 tensive range of affinity ; with the metals 
 it forms compounds termed iodides, of which 
 several are used in medicine. Its principal 
 compounds with oxygen are the iodic and 
 periodic anhydrides. Sp. gr. 4*916 to 4'948. 
 According to Debaugne, the addition of 
 syrup of orange peel or tannin to water 
 greatly increases its power of dissolving 
 iodine. 2 gr. of the latter will enable 9H. oz. 
 of water to take 10 gr. of iodine. A know- 
 ledsre of these facts may prove useful to the 
 pharmaceutist. 
 
 Pur. It is entirely soluble in rectified spirit, 
 and in a solution of iodide of potassium. On 
 applying heat to it, it first liquefies, and then 
 (wholly) sublimes in violet-coloured vapour. 
 The iodine of commerce is usually that of 
 the first sublimation, and generally contains 
 from 12J to 208 "^ water. Some of the foreign 
 iodine, prepared by precipitation with chlorine, 
 without subsequent sublimation, even contains 
 l-4th part of water, and has 'a dead leaden- 
 grey colour, and evolvi s a sensible odonr of 
 chlorine. Coal, plumbago, oxide of manga- 
 nese, crude antimony, and charcoal, are also 
 frequently mixed with iodine to increase its 
 weight. Water may be detected by the loss 
 of weight it suffers when exposed to strong 
 pressure between bibulous paper; or more 
 accurately by drying it in the manner directed 
 below, — chlorine may be detected by the odour, 
 and the other substancts mentior.ed above, by 
 their insolubility in rectified spirit and in a 
 solution of iodide of potassium. Before use 
 as a medicine it should be dried by being 
 placed in a shallow basui. of earthenware, in a 
 small confined space of air, with 10 or 12 times 
 its weight of fresh-burnt lime, till it siarcely 
 adheres to the side of a dry bottle, or else pre- 
 
904 
 
 IODINE 
 
 pared from the commercial iodine as follows : 
 — Place it in a deep circular porcelain capsale, 
 and having covered it accurately with a glass 
 matrass filled with cold water, apply a water 
 heat to the capsule for 20 minutes, and then 
 allow the whole to cool ; should the sublimate 
 attached to the bottom of the matrass include 
 acicular prism of a white colour, and a pungent 
 odour, it must be scraped off with a glass rod, 
 and rejected ; the apparatus is then to be again 
 exposed to a gentle and steady heat until the 
 whole of tlie iodine has sublimed ; the subli- 
 mate is, lastly, to be collected from the bottom 
 of the matrass, and at once enclosed in a stop- 
 pered bottle. 
 
 Tests. Free iodinemay be recognised by the 
 violet colour of its vapour, by its imparting a 
 violet colour to bisulphide of carbon, and by 
 its striking a blue colour with starch. The 
 latter test is so delicate, that water containing 
 only t io'uoo th part of iodine acquires a per- 
 ceptible bine tinge on the addition of starch. 
 Free iodine may be eliminated from solutions 
 of iodides by chlorine, nitric acid, concentrated 
 sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese, 
 and may be made evident by adding starch- 
 paste. This re;(gent serves to detect minute 
 traces of iodine in insoluble as well as in 
 soluble compounds of that element. The sub- 
 stance under examination is mixed in a retort 
 with concentrated nitric acid, and a strip of 
 white cutton cloth moistened with a solution 
 of starch suspended from the stopper ; in a 
 few hours the cloth will become coloured blue 
 if the most minute trace of iodine be present. 
 By mixing the liquid containing the iodine 
 with the starch and acid, and lightly pouring 
 thereon a small quantity of aqueous chlorine, 
 a very visible blue zone will be developed at 
 the line of contact, even in very dilute solutions. 
 
 Iodides give a pale yellowish precipitate 
 with nitrate of silver, scarcely soluble in am- 
 monia, and insoluble in dilute nitric acid; a 
 bright yellow one witli acetate of lead ; and a 
 scarlet one with bichloride of mercury. This 
 distinguishes them from the iodates which give 
 white precipitates with the same reagents. In 
 solutions of alkaline iodides, chloride of palla- 
 dium produces & black precipitate. 
 
 Mstim. The proportion of free iodine in a 
 mixture may be estimated : by separating it 
 by heat, and collecting and weighing the 
 sublimate; by solution in rectiKed spirit, 
 adding water, and collecting the result- 
 ing precipitate, which must then be dried 
 and weighed ; by dissolving it in a solution 
 of iodide of potassium, and then adding a 
 standard solution of hyposulphite of sodium, 
 until the whole of the free iodine is taken up, 
 and the mixture no longer strikes a blue colour 
 with starch. 24-8 gr. of the hyposulphite 
 are necessary to absorb 12-7 gr. of free iodine ;' 
 
 ' For details of tin's antl other methods of accurately 
 deterniinliigthe pcr-ceritage ot ioiiine, Iree or coniliiued, 
 the ivader is referred to Sutton's " Systematic Huudbook 
 of Volumetric Analysis." 
 
 by comparing the tint of a solution prepared 
 by chloroform with that of a standard solu- 
 tion containing a known quantity of iodine, as 
 in Crum's process for estimating chlorine. 
 
 Uses, ^0. Iodine is chiefly used as a medi- 
 cine, a chemical test, and in photography. 
 Until within the last year it was largely used 
 in the manufacture of the green coal-tar 
 colours ; these latter are now chiefly made 
 from anthracene. In small doses it appears to 
 be both alterative and tonic, rapidly difl'using 
 itself through the body, and exerting a stimu- 
 lating action on the organs of secretion. It 
 is also said to' be diuretic, and in some cases 
 to have produced diaphoresis and salivation. 
 Iodine has been exhibited in the following 
 diseases, as well as in most others depending 
 on an imperfect action of the absorbents, 
 or accompanied by induration or cnlarge- 
 met^t of individual glands or organs: — 
 Internally, in brouchocele, gditre, Derbyshire 
 neck, scrofula, ovarian tumours, enlargement 
 or induration of the lymphatic, prostate, and 
 parotid glands, amenorrhoea, leucorrhcea, dis- 
 eases of the muco-genital tissues, phthisis, 
 chronicnervous diseases, lepra, psoriasis,chronic 
 rheumatism, dropsies, hydrocele, &c. : — Hxter- 
 nally, in scrofula, numerous skin diseases, 
 (especially the scaly), erysipelas,diseased joints, 
 chilblains, burns, scalds, various wounds, to 
 check ulceration, to promote absorption, &c. 
 — Dose, \ gr. dissolved in spirit, or in water by 
 means of an equal weightof iodide of potassium. 
 It is seldom exhibited alone, being usually com- 
 bined with the last-named substance, whicli, 
 in fact, is now generally preferred by practi- 
 tioners. It is applied externally in the form 
 of ointment, solution, or tincture. 
 
 Iodine, Bro'mides of. Bromine and iodine 
 unite rapidly by mere mixture. By careful 
 distillation a red vapour is obtained, which, on 
 cooling, condenses into red crystals, of a form 
 resembling fern leaves. This is said to be the 
 protobromide (IBr). By adding more bromine, 
 these crystals are converted into a fluid, said to 
 be a pentabromide (IBrj). 
 
 Iodine, Chlo"rides of. When dry chlorine is 
 passed over dry iodine, at common tempera- 
 tures, heat is evolved, and a yellow solid ter- 
 chloride {ICI3) results when the iodine is fully 
 saturated, and an orange-red liquid protoclilo- 
 ride (ICl) when the iodine is in excess. They 
 both absorb moisture in the air, are volatile, 
 and very soluble in water. 
 
 Iodine and Hydrogen. Hydeiodic acid, 
 
 HI. Sun. lODHYDRIC ACID ; AciDtTM HtDEI- 
 ODICUM, L. An acid compound of iodine and 
 hydrogen. Prep. 1, (Gaseous).— a. Into a 
 glass tube, closed at one end, introduce a little 
 iodine, then a small quantity ot roughly pow- 
 dered glass moistened with water, next a few 
 small fragments of phosphorus, and upon this 
 some more glass; this order (iodine, glass, 
 phosphorus, glass) is to be repeated until the 
 tube IS one half or two thirds filled; a cork and 
 
IPECACUANHA. 
 
 905 
 
 and delivery tube are t]ien to be fitted, a 
 gentle heat applied, and the gns collected by 
 ' downward diaplaoement ' or over mercury. If 
 the gns be passed into water a solution of 
 hydriodic acid will be obtained. 
 
 Ob». Hydriodic acid gas can only be retained 
 a short time over mercury, owing to its action 
 ou that metal. 
 
 6. Pour a little water over some pentiodide 
 of phosphorus, previously put into a glass 
 retort, apply a gentle ueut, and collect the gas 
 as before. 
 
 c. Heat together in a retort water, iodide of 
 potassium, iodine, and phosphorus, aud collect 
 the gns as In b. 
 
 d. Place pure iodide of barium in a retort, 
 and decompose it with sulphuric acid. 
 
 2. (Solution of Htdeiodio acid.) — a. 
 The gas prepared by either of the above 
 methods pussed into cold distilled water. 
 
 b. Iodine, in fine powder, is suspended in 
 water, and a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen 
 passed through the mixture as long as sulphur 
 is deposited, or until it becomes colourless. 
 The liquid is then gently heated, to expel the 
 excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, and either 
 decanted or filtered. A cheap and excellent 
 process. 
 
 c. (Mbdicinal Hidhiodio acid.) Dr 
 Buchanan. — Tartaric acid, 264 gr. ; pure 
 iodide of potassiuii, 830 gr. ; dissolve each 
 separately in 1^ fl. oz. of water; mix the 
 solutions, and when the precipitate has settled 
 decant the cleiir liquid, and add a sufficieucy of 
 water to make it up to 6i fl. oz. The liquid 
 retains a little acid tartrate of potassium in 
 solution, but this does not interfere with its 
 medicinal properties. This preparation " pos- 
 sesses all the therapeutic powers of iodine 
 without its irritating pi-operties." (Pereira.) 
 — Dose, i to 1 fi. dr., gradually increased to 
 2 or 3 il. dr., twice or thrice daily. 
 
 Prop., ii'C. Guseiius hydriodic acid is co- 
 lourless, fumes in the air, is very soluble in 
 water, and has a density of about 4'4. Liquid 
 hydriodic acid, when strong, is very liable to 
 decompose, and should be kept in well-stop- 
 pered bottles. Both the gas and the solution 
 are decomposed by potassium, zinc, iron, and 
 other metals, with tlie evolution of hydrogen 
 and the t'ormatiun of salts called iodides. 
 
 Iodized Cotion wool. (Mehu.) Prep. 
 Finely powdered iodine (5 to 10 per cent.) is 
 strewn upon loose cotton wool in sucli a 
 manner tiint the glass jar in which this ope- 
 ration is performed contains alternate layers 
 of cotton wool and iodine. The mixture is 
 gently heated in the open jar on a water bath 
 to expel the air; when this is aecomplished 
 the jiir is closed and the application of heat 
 continued for about two houi-s, during which 
 the iodine vapour thoroughly penetrates the 
 wool, imparting to it a yellow colour. 
 
 lODO'FORM. CHI J. <Syn. Iodoformum, L. 
 A solid, yellow, crystallisable substance, 
 obtained by the action of iodine ou alcohol. 
 
 Prep, 1. An alcoholic solution of potash 
 is added to tincture of iodine, carefully 
 avoiding excess; the whole is then gently eva- 
 porated to dryness, the residuum is washed 
 with water, and then dissolved in alcohol; 
 the alcoholic solution yields crystals by evapo- 
 ration. 
 
 2. (Paris Pharmaceutical Society.) Pure 
 carbonate of potash, 2 parts ; alcohol (84°) 
 5 parts; distilled water, 15 parts; The 
 potash, water, alcohol, and the Iodine reduced 
 to powder are placed together in a flask, and 
 the whole heated in a water bath until the 
 decoloration of the liquid. Another i part of 
 iodine is then added and heat again applied, 
 and the addition of the element is repeated 
 until the liquid remains sli^'litly brown 
 coloured. It is then decolorised by the addi- 
 tion of one or two di'ops of caustic potash 
 solution, and upon cooling crystals ot iodolorm 
 are obtained. 
 
 These are collected upon a filter, washed 
 lightly with cold distilled water, then dried 
 upon blotting paper and enclosed in well- 
 stoppered bottle. 
 
 By the evaporation of the mother liquor 
 iodide of potiissium is obtained. 
 
 Prop., (^c. Nearly insoluble in water ; freely 
 soluble in alcohol; the solution is decomposed 
 by caustic potassa into formic acid and iodide 
 of pntHSsa. — Dose, 4 gr. to 3 gr. Medicinal 
 applications, the siime as those of iodine itself. 
 IF£CACUAN'HA . Syn. (Ipecaci'anha.L. j 
 IPKCACCHAN, E., B. P.) Radix iPECAcrANiiJE, 
 Ipecacuanha (Ph. L. E. & D ), L. The dried 
 root of Cephaelia Ipecacuanha, or the true 
 ipecacuanha plant, one of the Cinchonacea, 
 " Ashy coloured, tortuous, very nineh cracked, 
 and marked in rings with deep fissure.-', having 
 an acrid, aromatic, bitterish taste." (Ph. 
 L.) It occurs in pieces 3 or 4 inches long, 
 and about the size of a writing quill. — Dose. 
 As an emetic, 10 to 20 gr., assisted by the 
 copious use of warm water ; as a nauseant, 1 
 to 3 gr. ; as an expectorant and sudorific, J to 
 1 gr. It is undoubtedly the safest and most 
 useful medicine of its class. It has recenl.ly 
 been highly recommended in dyspepsia, com- 
 bined with other bitters or aperients. Almond 
 meal is sometimes used as an adulterant in 
 ipecacuanha powder. 
 
 The following is Bucbolz's analysis of 
 ipecacuanha root: — 
 
 Emetic extractive (emetina) . . 4'13 
 
 Solt resin 243 
 
 Wax 0-75 
 
 Gum 2517 
 
 Starch 9-00 
 
 Woody fibre .... 10-80 
 
 Bitter extractive .... 101- 
 
 Sugar 2-00 
 
 Extractive, gnm and starch ex- "1 g^.gg 
 
 tracted by potash 
 
 Loss 
 
 0-80 
 
 10000 
 
908 
 
 IRIDIUM— lEON 
 
 The annexed process for the determination 
 of the emetina in ipecacuanha is by ZeiiofEslcy : 
 — Take 15 graivimes of the root, mix with 15 
 drops of dilute sulphuric acid, and so much ol 
 85 per cent, alcohcl that tlie volume shall be 
 155 c. c. Digest 24 hours, iilter, measure 
 100 0. c. of the filtrate, evaporate the alcohol, 
 and add a deci-normal solution of iodo- 
 hydrargyrate of potassium until no more 
 reaction takes place. The number of c. v. of 
 the reagent nsed multiplied by 0'0189 ( moo ath 
 of an equivalent of emetine) gives the amount 
 of emetine in the 10 grammes of root to which 
 the 100 c. c. of liquid corresponds. The deci- 
 normal solution of iodo hydrargyrate of po- 
 tassium is made by dissolving 13'546 grammes 
 of mercuric chloride and 49'8 grammes of 
 potassium iodide in water, and making up to 
 1 litre. 
 
 Quantitative determination showed that 
 one c. c. of such a solution corresponds to 
 00189 gramme of emetine. To perform 
 the volumetric estimation, the standard 
 solution is added to the liquid containing 
 the alkaloid, until no more tnrbidiiy is 
 produced. To determine the end of the 
 reaction, filter a few drops on to a watch- 
 glass (placed on black glazed paper) and 
 touch with a glass rod previously moistened 
 with the standard solution. To prevent loss 
 both filter and filtrate should be returned to 
 the liquor. 
 
 IKID'IUM. Ir. A rare metal discovered 
 by Descotils in 1803, and by Tennant in 1804, 
 in the black powder left in dissolving crude 
 platinum. This powder is an alloy of iridium 
 with osmium. The metal is also found native 
 and nearly pure amongst the Uralian platinum 
 ores. 
 
 Frep. The native alloy of iridium and osmium 
 remaining after dissolving crude platinum in 
 aqua regia is reduced to powder, mixed with 
 an equal weight of dry chloride of sodium, and 
 heated to redness in a glass tube, through 
 which a stream of moist chloride gas is trans- 
 mitted. The further extremity ot the tube is 
 connected with a receiver containing liquor of 
 ammonia. Chloride of iridium and chloride 
 of osmium are produced; the former remains 
 in combination with the chloride of sodium; 
 the latter, being volatile, is carried forward 
 into the receiver, where it is decomposed into 
 osmic and hydrochloric acids, which combine 
 with the ammonia. The contents of the tube, 
 when cold, are treated with water to dissolve 
 out the double chloride of iridium and sodium ; 
 the solution thus formed is mixed with an 
 excess of carbonate of sodium, and evaporated 
 to dryness. The residue is ignited in a cru- 
 cible, boiled with water, and dried; it then 
 cousi.-ts of a mixture of sesquioxide of iron 
 and a combination of oxide of iridium with 
 sodium hydrate. It is reduced by hydrogen 
 at a high temperature, and treated succes- 
 sively with wat( r and strong hydrochloric acid, 
 which remove the alkali and the iron, leaving 
 
 metallic iridium in a divided state. By strong 
 pressure and exposure to a welding heat, a 
 certain degree of compactness may he given 
 to the product. 
 
 Frop., Sec. Brittle, white, very hard, only 
 fusible by the strongest heat of Deville's gas 
 furnace. In its pure state it is not acted upon 
 by any of the acids, but it is oxidised by fusion 
 and nitre, and by ignition to redness in the air. 
 ^n ingot of iridium, weighing 27J oz., melted 
 by Deville's process, was displayed in Messrs 
 Johnson and Matthey's case at the Interna- 
 tional Exhibition of 1862. An alloy of iridium 
 and osmium (artificial or native) has been em- 
 ployed for tipping the nibs of gold pens (ever- 
 lasting pens). 
 
 Iridium, Chlo'rides of. Dichloeidb. IrClj. 
 An olive-green powder formed by transmit- 
 ting chlorine over powdered iridium, heated 
 to a dull red, or by digesting the hy^rated 
 protoxide in hydrochloric acid. SesquiChxo- 
 BIDE, Ir^Clj, obtained by calcining iridium 
 with nitrate of potassium, digesting in nitric 
 acid, washing with water, and solution in 
 hydrochloric acid. Tetbachloeidb, IrCl4, ob- 
 tained in solution by adding hydroiluosilicic acid 
 to the tetrachloride of iridium and potassium 
 (formed when chloride is passed over a heated 
 mixture of iridium and chloride of potassium). 
 Hexachloeide, IrCl5,'obtained in combination 
 with potassium by heating iridium with nitrate 
 of potassium, dissolving in aqua regia, and 
 evaporating to dryness. 
 
 Iridium, Ox'ides of. Monoxide, IrO, pre- 
 pared by adding potassium hydrate to the hexa- 
 chloride of iridium, and digesting the precipi- 
 tate in an acid. It is a heavy black powder, 
 insoluble in acid. Sesquioxide, Ii^Oj, is best 
 prepared by fu.'sing in ii silver crucible a mix- 
 ture of carbonate of potassium and the double 
 chloride of iridium and potassium, and boiling 
 the product in water. Bluish-black teioxide, 
 IrOg, is produced when carbonate of potas- 
 sium is gently heated with hexachloride of 
 iridium. A greyish-yellow hydrate, containing 
 alkali. 
 
 lEITIS. A very dangerous disease of the 
 eye, producing inflammation in the iris or 
 coloured circle which surrounds the pupil. 
 Iritis is frequently produced by rheumatism, 
 as well as by scrofula and gout, and often 
 places the sight in great peril. 
 
 The symptoms are pains around the ball of 
 the eye and on the brow, which increase at 
 night, cloudiness of the cornea, difficulty, and 
 inequality of contraction in the pupil, change 
 of colMur in the iris, frequently disturbed 
 vision, and much pain in and watering from 
 the eye when the patient is placed in the light, 
 particularly a strong light. 
 
 We have described the principal symptoms 
 of this serious disorder in order that any one 
 affected by them may at once seek the assist, 
 ance of a skilful surgeon or oculi-t. 
 
 rnON. Fe. Syn. Feebum, L. ; Feb, Fr. ; 
 EiSEN, Ger. The history of this most important 
 
IRON 
 
 907 
 
 niptal extends to the remote past. The discovery 
 of an iron nid in one of tlie Assyrian bronzes 
 brought to England by Mr Layard established 
 the inti-'resting fact that this uiet>il was known 
 and commonly employed, where strength was 
 required, nearly 3000 yenrs ago. Kust of iron 
 and scales of iron were used as medicines at a 
 period equiilly remote. 
 
 Sources. Iron in a metallic state (native iron) 
 is of very rare occurrence; but it invariably 
 enters into the composition of meteorites. 
 Combined with oxygen and other elements, as 
 iron ores, it occurs in nearly eviry part of the 
 eartli. These ores may be divided into the 
 oxides and the carbonates. The oxides may be 
 again divided into four distinct classes, viz. — 
 (1) Magnetic iron ore, consisting ofSlJ prot- 
 oxide and 69§ sesquioxide, with an insignifi- 
 cant proportion of silica ; (2) specular iron, or 
 iron glance, composed of the sesquioxide, with 
 a small admixture of ma)i:netic oxide ; (3) red 
 hiomatite, consisting of the sesquioxide nearly 
 ill a state uf purity; and (4) brown lieemntite, 
 the hyclrated sesquioxide of iron. Tlie car- 
 bonutes are principally two, viz. — (5) spathose 
 iron, tlie protocarbonate of iron in a sparry 
 condition, and (6) cliiy ironstone or black band 
 ironstone, wliich consists of the protocar- 
 bonates associated with clay and carbonaceous 
 matter. 
 
 Swedish iron is made almost entirely from 
 No. 1, wlilch occurs in massive beds at Aren- 
 dahl and Duniiemora, in Sweden. This iron 
 is (if great purity, being perfectly free from 
 sulphur and phosphorus. The titaniferous iron 
 sand found at Taruniiki, in New Zealand, con- 
 sists almost entirely of No. 1 and the metal 
 titaniuin. No. 2 found principally in the 
 islsnd of Elba, in the form of rhombohedral 
 crystals. The micaceous iron ore found in 
 small quantities in Wales and Lancasliire has 
 nearly the same composition, but crystallises in 
 brilliant plates. No. 3 occurs in radiated fibrous 
 masses in different parts of the world. It is 
 found in hirge quantities in Wales and Lan- 
 casliire, some of the specimens from tlie latter 
 locality containing nearly 99-!} "^ '''^ sesqui- 
 oxide. It makes excellent iron. No. 4 occurs 
 in reddish-brown masses of a botryoidal form. 
 It is a valuable ore, and is found in England, 
 Wales, and Scotland. No. 5 is found chiefly at 
 Siegen, in Prussia. No. 6 is the principal ore 
 of the Staffordshire and Scotch iron districts, 
 where it occurs in great abundance, associated 
 with the fuel and the flux required for smelt- 
 ing it. Iron is contained in plants, and forms 
 an essential component of the blood of the 
 higher animals. ' 
 
 Prep., Sec. Iron is only prepai-ed on the 
 large scale, and an account of tlie manufacture 
 would be out of plice here. Those requiring 
 detailed information must consult the elabo- 
 rate works of Peiiy, Hunt, Fairbairn, Phillips, 
 and other metallurgists. 
 
 Pure iron may be prepared by introducing 
 fine iron wire, cut small, 4 parts, and black 
 
 oxide of iron, 1 part, into a Hessian crucible ; 
 covering with a mixture of white sand, lime, 
 and carbonate of potassium (in the proportions 
 used for glass- making); and, after applying a 
 closely fitting cover, exposing the crucible to 
 a very high degree of heat. A button of 
 pure metal is thus obtained, the traces of 
 carbon and silicon present in the wire having 
 been removed by the oxygen of tlie bkck 
 oxiile. 
 
 Prop., S(c.- The properties and uses of iron 
 are too well known to require description. 
 Its applications are almost universal. It is 
 remarliably ductile, and possesses great tena- 
 city, but is less malleable than many of the 
 other metals. Its sp. gr. is 7"8ii. It is the 
 hardest of all the malleable and ductile metals, 
 and when combined with carbon (steel) 
 admits of being tempered to almost any 
 degree of hardness or elasticity. In dry air it 
 does not oxidise at common temperatures ; but 
 at a red heat it soon becomes covered with >• 
 scaly coating of black oxide, ami at an intense 
 white heat burns brilliantly with the produc- 
 tion of the same substance. Pure water, free 
 from air or carbonic acid, does not tarnish the 
 surface of polislied iron, but the combined 
 action of air and moisture, especially when u 
 little acid vapour is present, causes its surface 
 to be soon covered with rust, which is hydrated 
 sesquioxide of ii on (ferric hydrate). Neiirlyall 
 acids att'iek iron ; dilute sulphuric and hydro- 
 chloric acid do so with considerable eneri;y 
 and the evolution of hydrogen gas. At a red 
 heat iron decomposes water rapidly, liydr>>geu 
 being evolved, and the black oxide of iron 
 formed. Iron is magnetic up to a dull-red 
 iieat, at which point it loses all traces of that 
 property. It melts at about 3300° Pahr. 
 With oxygen, chlorine, iodine, tlie acids, &c., 
 it forms numerous important compounds. As 
 a remedial agent, when properly exhibited, 
 iron acts as a genial stimulant and tonic, and 
 generally proves beneficial in cases of chronic 
 debility, unaccompanied with orgnnic conges- 
 tion or intl.immation. The carbonate (ferrous 
 carbonate), as it exists in mineral waters, held 
 in solution by carbonic acid in excess, appears 
 to be the form most congenial to the human 
 body ; and from its state of dilution is rapidly 
 absorbed by the lacteals, and speedily imparts 
 a ruddy hue to the wan countenance. Iron is 
 undoubtedly one of the most valuable articles 
 of the materia medica, and appeirs from tlio 
 antiquity of its introduction into medicine, 
 and the number of its preparations, to have 
 been deservedly appreciated. 
 
 Tests. Iron forms two classes of salts, 
 namely, ferrous or proto salts, in which iron 
 exhibits a power of combining with two 
 atoms of any monad element, and the ferric 
 or persalts in which iron has a capacity of 
 uniting with three atoms of any monad 
 element. 
 
 The ferrous or proto salts have gei-crally a 
 greenish colour, but yield nearly colourless 
 
903 
 
 IRON 
 
 solutions, except when concentrated. Their 
 solutions are Itnown by the following re- 
 actions : — They are not precipitated by hydro- 
 sulphuric acid when acid, and but incom- 
 pletely when neutral. Sulphide of ammonium 
 produces a black precipitate, becoming brown 
 on exposure to the air, insoluble in alkalies, 
 but easily soluble in the mineral acids. Am- 
 monia and potassa give a greenish-white 
 precipitate, gradually becoming green and then 
 brown in the air. This precipitate occasionally 
 is of a bluish-black if excess of potassa is used. 
 The presence of ammoniacal salts interferes 
 with the action of these tests. Ferrocyanide 
 of potassium gives a nearly white precipitate, 
 becoming gradually blue in the air, and im- 
 mediately so on the addition of a little weak 
 nitric acid or chlorine water. Perricyanide of 
 potassium produces a rich deep-blue precipi- 
 tate, insoluble in hydrochloric acid. In highly 
 dilute solutions the effect is only a deep bluish- 
 green coloration. Phosphate of sodium pro- 
 duces a white precipitate, which after a time 
 becomes green. 
 
 The ferric salts, which are also called the 
 sequi or persalts of iron, have for the most 
 part a reddish-yellow colour, yielding deep- 
 coloured solutions, which exhibit the following 
 reactions : — They redden litmus paper. Hy- 
 drosulphuric acid in acid solutions reduces 
 ferric to ferrous salt«, giving a white or yellow 
 precipitate of sulphur only. In alkaline solu- 
 tions it yields a blackish precipitate, consisting 
 of sulphur and ferrous sulphide. Sulphide 
 of ammonium gives similar reaction. Ammonia 
 and potassa produce bulky reddish-brown pre 
 cipitates insoluble in excess. Ferrocyanide of 
 potassium gives a rich blue precipitate, in 
 soluble in hydrochloric acid, and readily de^ 
 composed by potassa. Ferricyanide of potas- 
 sium deepens the colour, but does not give a 
 blue precipitate, as it does with ferrous salts 
 (proto salts). Sulphocyanide of potassium 
 gives an intense ruby-red colour to neutral or 
 acid solutions. Tincture and infusion of galls 
 strike a black colour. Phosphate of sodium 
 gives a white precipitate, which becomes 
 brown, and finally dissolves on the addition of 
 ammonia. 
 
 Estim. The iron may be thrown down in 
 the state of ferric hydrate or hydrated sesqui- 
 oxide, washed, dried, ignited, and weighed. 
 The weight, in grains, multiplied by "7, in- 
 dicates the weight of metallic iron. 
 
 Fifty gr. of the ore are reduced to powder, 
 dissolved in aqua regia, with the aid of heat, 
 and the solution filtered in order to separate 
 the silica and a little alumina which sometimes 
 is left in an insoluble state; an excess of am- 
 monia is then added to the filtered liquor, 
 which produces a reddish-brown precipitate of 
 ferric hydrate mixed with alumina which is 
 collected on a filter, washed, and boiled w'ith 
 a solution of potassa, in order to dissolve 
 the alumina ; the whole is next thrown upon 
 a filter, washed, dried, carefully ignited, and 
 
 weighed. The above is well adapted to de- 
 termine the quantity of iron in clay iron- 
 stone, the most common ferruginous ore in 
 England. 
 
 The sulphur in cast and wrought iron, and 
 steel, may be estimated by the following 
 process, invented by M. Koppmayer : — 10 
 grammes of iron, finely produced and sifted, are 
 introduced into a bottle holding from \ to -Jrd 
 litre. The stopper has three holes. Through 
 one of these passes a funnel with a ground- 
 glass tap, its neck reaching to the bottom of 
 the bottle. Through the second passes the 
 tube at right angles, fitted with a tap and 
 reaching also to the bottom of the bottle. 
 
 Through the third hole passes a delivery 
 tube, connecting the bottle to the condensing 
 apparatus. 
 
 This latter consists of a series of bulbs ar- 
 ranged like a staircase, so as to permit the 
 gas to come into the greatest possible contact 
 with the standard solution of ioJine in iodide 
 of potassium, with which the condenseris filled, 
 this solution ought not to be exposed to light. 
 
 When the apparatus is arranged as above, 
 the atmospheric air is fir-^t driven out of the 
 bottle by means of a current of hydrogen gas, 
 introduced by the tnbe bent at right angles. 
 When it is considered that the air is entirely 
 expelled, the tap of this tube is closed. The 
 funnel is now filled with hydrochloric acid, its 
 tap is opened, and by means of the application 
 of heat the acid is allowed to run down upon 
 the iron without allowing any common air to 
 enter. Hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen 
 are formed which pass into the condenser. 
 
 Acid is thus added until all disengagement 
 of gas ceases. The bottle is then heated till 
 its contents boil, a little water having been 
 first added by means of the funnel. After 
 these operations, hydrogen is allowed to enter 
 anew to sweep out all remaining gases. The 
 iodised solution is then poured out, care being 
 taken to rinse the bulb-tube thoroughly, and 
 titrated with hyposulphite of soda, so as to 
 find the remaining proportion of free iodine. 
 The difi'erence between the original amount of 
 free iodine present in the solution, and the 
 amount thus found, shows the proportion of 
 iodine which has been converted into hydriodic 
 acid, and which is proportional to the sulphur 
 contained in the sample under examination. 
 
 Iron, Preparations of: — 
 
 Ferric Acetate. Fe2(CjH302)e. Syn. Pee- 
 
 ACETATE OP IRON J FeRKI SESCIUIACETAS, L. 
 
 Prep. Ferric carbonate, 1 part; acetic acid, 6 
 parts ; digest three days and filter. A dark 
 brownish-red, uncrystallisable liquid, very 
 soluble and powerfully astringent. The cal- 
 cined sesqnioxide of iron of the shops, com- 
 monly sold as carbonate of iron, does not 
 answer well for this or any of tlie sesqui- 
 compounds, owing to its being with difficulty 
 dissolved by acids, especially by the weaker 
 ones. — Dose. (Of the last) 10 to 25 drops, ia 
 water or wine. 
 
IRON 
 
 909 
 
 Ferric AlbTunlnata. Sj/n. Febbi albu- 
 min as, L. Frep. 
 
 Pmoipitnte a filtered solution of white of 
 egg with aDoth(.T of ferric sulphate or persul- 
 phate of irou, wash the deposit in water, and 
 dissolve it in alcohol holding potassium hydrate 
 in solution. 
 
 This preparation is highly spoken of by M. 
 Lnssaigne as especially adapted by its nature, 
 on theoretical grounds, lor combining with the 
 tissues of the body. 
 
 Terric Citrate. Fpj(C5HjO,)j. Si/n. Pee- 
 
 CITBATB OF IRON, CiTEATE OF SeSQUIOXIDE 01 
 I., ClTBATE OV I. ; 1<"eEBI OITBAS. 
 
 Prep, By saturating a solution of citric 
 acid in an equal weight of water with freshly 
 precipitated moist hydrated ferric hydrate, 
 evaporating at 150° Fahr. to the consistence of 
 a syrup, and spreading on glass plates to 
 dry. 
 
 liy either of the methods adopted for the 
 ammoniocitbatb, merely omitting the addi- 
 tion of tile amiiiunia. It much rexembles the 
 ammonio-citrate, but is only slightly soluble in 
 water, and has a rather less agreeable taste. — 
 Dose, 3 to 6 gr. 
 
 Ferric and Ammonium Citrate. Syn. Am- 
 
 MONIO CITKATE OV inON : AmMONIO FEBEIC 
 OITBATB ; FliKBI AMMONIO CITRAS. 
 
 L. There are several preparations in which 
 the term ' citrate of iron' has been ap- 
 plied. That coiniaonly known umlerthis name 
 is really a double citrate of iron and ammonia, 
 and appears to bo correctly called * ammouio- 
 citrate of iron.' 
 
 B.l'. Liquor Ferric Pcrsulphntis (B.P.), 8 ; 
 liquor ammonia, 19i ; citric acid (in crystals) 
 4; distilled water, a sufficiency, mix 14 of the 
 solution ot'nmmoiiia, with 40 of water, and all 
 gradually j tlie solution of ferric sulphate stir 
 constantly and briskly ; let the mixture stand 
 two hours, and put into a calico filter and 
 allow to drain. Wash well the precipitate 
 until it no longer gives a precipitate with 
 barium chloride. Dissolve the citric acid in 
 8 oz. of the water, and having applied the 
 lieat of a Hater bath add the precipitate of 
 ferric hydrate previously well drained, stir 
 them together until the whole or nearly the 
 whole of the hydrate has dissolved. Let the 
 solution cool, then add 5i of the ammonia, 
 filter through flannel, evaporate to the con- 
 eistency of syrup, and dry it in thin layers on 
 flat porcelain or glass plates at a temperature 
 not exceeding lOU". 
 
 Prep. (Pli. L.) Ferrous sniphate, 12 oz. ; car- 
 bonate of sodium, l:ii oz.; dissolve each sepa- 
 rately in boiling distilled water, 6 pints ; mix 
 the solutions whilst still hot, and allow the 
 prccipitaie to subside; alter a time decant 
 the supernatant liquor, wash the precipitate 
 frequently with water (drain it), add of citric 
 acid (in "powder), 6 oz., and dissolve by the 
 aid of a gentle heat; when the whole has 
 cooled, add of liquor of ammonia, Ph.L., 9 fl. 
 oz., and gently evaporate to the consistence of 
 
 a syrup ; in this state spread it very thinly on 
 flat earthenware dishes (or sheets of gla-s), 
 dry by a gentle heat, and when dry keep it in 
 well-stoppered bottles. 
 
 (Ph. D.) Citric acid, 4 oz. ; distilled water, 
 16 fl. oz.; hydrated ferric oxide, obtained from 
 the sulphate, 5 oz.; liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz., 
 orq. s. 
 
 (Wholesale.) A mixture of iron filinfrs and 
 citric acid, in powder, with barely sufficient 
 water to cover it, is kept in a warm situation 
 for some days, occasionally stirring the mass, 
 and replacing the water as it evaporates. A 
 saturated solution is next made in distilled 
 water, there being previously added more 
 citric acid (about half the weight of the acid 
 first used), as required; it is then neutralised 
 with liquor of ammonia (about 1} oz. of liquor 
 of ammonia, sp. gr. ■832, to every gallon of 
 the solution of sp. gr. 1025), and the solution 
 is concentrated by evaporation ; the proceas is 
 then completed as in No. 1. The first part 
 of this process produces a salt of the protoxiilo 
 of iron, or ferrous citrate, which is afterwards 
 converted, by exposure to the atmosphere, into 
 a citrate of the magnetic acid, or ferri, ferro. 
 citrate, and, lastly, into citrate of peroxide of 
 iron, or ferric citrate. 
 
 B.P. Liquor I'erri Persnlphatis 8. Liquor 
 ammonia) 19^. Citric acid (in crystals) 4. Dis- 
 tilled water, a sufficiency. Mix 11 of the solu- 
 tion of ammonia with 40 of water, and add 
 griidually the snlution of ferric sulphate. Stir 
 constantly, let the mixture stand 2 hours, and 
 filter through calico, and allow to drain. Wasli 
 until the washing ceases to precipitate barium 
 chloride, dis-olve the citric acid in 8 of water, 
 add the precipitated ferric hydrate, and heat in 
 a water bath until dissolved. Let the solution 
 cool, add 5i of the ammonia, filter throusjh 
 flannel, evaporate to the consistency of syi up, 
 and dry on flat porcelain plates in thin layers 
 at a temperature below 100° F. 
 
 Oba. Pharmaceutical writers have been so 
 diS'use in their disquisitions on the preparation 
 of this salt, as would lead to the inference that 
 there is some difiiculty attending it. The con- 
 trary is, however, the case. The only care 
 necessary is to spread the syrup solution very 
 thinly on warm sheets of glass to dry, which it 
 will rapidly do if they are placed in an atmo- 
 sphere of warm dry air, for which purpose a 
 ' drying closet ' is the most convenient. The 
 dry salt may then be easily detached from the 
 glass, and will form thin scales, or lamella!, of 
 great brilliancy and beauty. It is also better 
 to use a little more oxide than the acid will 
 dissolve, as the remainder will be employed 
 in a future operation. Less water may be 
 used, or even a larger quantity than that men- 
 tioned; but in the first case the liquid will 
 become difficult to filter— in the latter it will 
 require more evaporation. Boiling water dis- 
 solves about twice its weight of citric acid, and 
 there remains IJthsof this quantity in solution 
 when cold, and it takes rather more than 
 
910 
 
 IRON 
 
 twice the weight of the citric acid in moist 
 hydrated protoxide of iron to produce satu. 
 ration. 
 
 Prop., S^c. This heautiful salt is of a rich 
 ruby colour, and forms glistening transparent 
 scales, very soluble in aqueous menstrua, and 
 the resulting solution is less easily decomposed 
 by reagents than the solutions of most of the 
 other salts of iron. It is ' compatible ' with 
 the alkaline of carbonates and bioarbonates, 
 and several other salts, and is nearly tasteless, 
 advantages which have been perhaps overrated 
 hy both prescriber and patient. It is doubtful 
 whether this article has not obtained a larger 
 sale f rom its pleasing appearance than from its 
 medicinal virtues. Several persons who have 
 prepared it in lumps or powder, by the simple 
 evaporation of the solution to dryness, have 
 been unable to sell it under that form, even at 
 a lower price. 
 
 Am monio- citrate of iron is soluble in water; 
 the solution neither changes the colour of 
 litmus nor turmeric ; nor is it turned blue by 
 ferrocyaniile of potassium ; but either potas- 
 sium byiirate or lime water being added, it 
 throws down ferric hydrate, and ammonia is 
 evolved. From 100 gr. dissolved in water, 
 potassium hydrate precipitates about 34 gr. 
 ,of ferric hydrate. — Dose, 3 to 10 gr., in water, 
 wine, or bitter infusions. 
 
 Ferric and Strychnine Citrate. (U. S.) Syn. 
 Feebi bt stetchnijj citkas. Prep. Citrate 
 of iron and ammonia, 500 gr. ; stryolinia, 5 
 gr. ; citric acid, 5 gr. ; distilled water, 9 fl. 
 dr. Dissolve the citrate of iron and ammonia 
 in 1 oz. of the water, aud the strychnia and 
 nitric acid in 1 dr. of distilled water. Mix the 
 two solutions, evaporate the mixture over a 
 water hath, at 140° Fahr., to the thickness of 
 a syrup, and spread on glass plates, so that the 
 salt, when dry, may be obtiiined in scales. 
 
 Ferric and Magnesium Citrate. Syn. Cixnio 
 
 OF IKOlf AND MAGNESIA; FeEEI MAGNESIO- 
 CITEAS; FEREI ET MAGlfESI.E CITEAS, L. 
 
 Prep. As the last, hut using carbonate of 
 magnesium instead of ammonia to neutralise 
 the solution. — Dose, 2 to 10 gr. It has been 
 recommended as a chalybeate in the dyspepsia 
 of gouty and debilitated habits. 
 Ferric and Quinine Citrate. Syn. Citeate 
 
 OF QUININE AND lEON; FeEEI-QUINIO-CI- 
 
 TEAS, L. As the ammonio-citrate, but using 
 quinine, recently precipitated, instead of am- 
 monia, to neutralise the acid. 
 
 B.P. Pure ferric hydrate is prepared from 
 liquor ferri persulphatis, 4J pints, and liquor 
 ammonias, 8 pints, as in the ferric and ammo- 
 nium citrate. Sulphate of quinine 1 is mixed 
 with water 8, and sulphuric acid \\, and 
 when dissolved, ammonia added until the qui- 
 nine is precipitated. The precipitate is col- 
 lected and washed with 30 of water. Citric 
 acid 3 is dissolved in 8 of water by the aid of 
 a water bath, and the ferric hydrate, well 
 drained, added; stir together until dissolved, 
 and add the quinine, stirring well until all is 
 
 dissolved, and allow to cool ; add li of solution 
 of ammonia diluted with 2 of water, stirring 
 the solution briskly until the quinine at first 
 thrown down by the ammonia is redissolved; 
 filter and evaporate to a syrup, drying in thin 
 layers on Hat porcelain or glass plates at a 
 temperature of 100°. 
 
 Ferric citrate, 4 parts j citrate of quinine, 
 1 part; distilled water, q. s.j dissolve, gently 
 evaporate, and proceed as directed for am- 
 monio-citrate of iron. Greenish golden-yellow , 
 scales when prepared by the B. P. process, 
 soluble in 2 parts of water, and somewhat 
 deliquescent; entirely soluble in ether ; taste 
 bitter as well as chalybeate. — Dose, 2 to 6 
 dr. ; in cases where the use of both iron and 
 quinine is indicated. 
 
 Ferric and Sodium Citrate. Syn. Feeei 
 soDio-oiTKAS, Feeei et sodje citeas, L. 
 Prep. Prom citric acid, ('arbonate of sodium, 
 and iron or the hydrate, as the ammonio-citrate 
 or potassio-citrate. 
 
 Ferric Chlo'ride. Fe2Cl6. Syn. Sf.s- 
 
 QUICHLOEIDE OF lEON, PeECHIOEIDE OF 
 lEON, FEEMUEIATE OF I. ; FEEEI SESQDIOHLO- 
 
 EIDUM, L. Prep. 1. (Anhydrous.) By pas- 
 sing dry chlorine over heated iron filings. 
 Brown scales. 
 
 (Hydrated.) Dissolve ferric hydrate in hy- 
 drochloric acid, evaporate to the consistence 
 of a syrup, aud crystallise. Yellow or red 
 scaly crystals. The impure solution of this 
 salt has been greatly used as a sewage deodo- 
 riser. See TiNOTDEE. 
 
 Ferric and Ammonium Chloride (FcjCle 
 NH4CI. Aq). Syn. Double chloeides of 
 
 [EON AND AMMONIUM, AMMONIO CHLO- 
 
 eide of ieon ; Feeei ammonium chlo- 
 kidum. 
 
 Ferric oxide, 3 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 
 ^ pint ; digest in a sand bath until dis- 
 solved, then add of ammonium 2 J lbs., dis- 
 solved in water, 3 pints ; filter the liquid, 
 evaporate to dryness, and reduce the mass to 
 coarse powder. Orange-coloured crystalline 
 grains readily soluble in water. 
 
 Ammonio-chloride of iron is tonic, emmena- 
 gogue, and aperient. — Dose, 5 to 15 gr. ; in 
 glandular swellings, obstructions, &c. 
 
 Ferric Ferrocy'anide. (Fe4(FeCy6)3 . 18Aq). 
 Syn. Sesquifeeeocyanide of ieon, Peus- 
 siAN BLUE ; Feeei feeeocyanidum, F. bes- 
 QUIFEEKOOYANIDUM, L. Prep. Ferrous 
 sulphate, 4 oz. ; water, 1 pint ; dissolve, add to 
 the solution of nitric acid, 6 fi. dr., in small 
 portions at a time, boiling for a few moments 
 after each addition ; next dissolve ferrocyanide 
 of potassium, 4i oz., in water, 1 pint, and add 
 this last solution, by degrees, to the first 
 liquid, stirring well each time ; lastly, collect 
 the precipitate, wash it with boiling water, 
 drain, and dry it. — Dose, 3 to 5 gr., three or 
 four times daily, as an alterative, tebriluge, 
 and tonic, gradually increasing the quantity 
 until some obvious effect is produced ; in 
 
inoN 
 
 911 
 
 Agnen, epilepay, and neuralgia. See Pbussian 
 
 BL0S. 
 
 Ferric Hydrate. Fes(HO),. See under 
 Ferric Oxide. 
 
 Ferric Iodide. Fc,I,. Si/n. Febbi peeio- 
 DIDUM, L. Prep. Freely expose ii solution of 
 ferrous iodide to the air j or digest iodine, in 
 excess, on iron, under water, gently evaporate, 
 and sublime. A deliquescent, volatile red com- 
 pound, soluble in water and alcohol. It is 
 rarely employed in medicine. 
 
 Ferric Oxide. FejOj. Syn. Sebquioxide 
 o» IBON, Peboxide ov ieon, RbiJ oxide of 1. ; 
 
 FSBBI BESQtriOXYDUM, F. PBEOXYDUM, P. 
 
 OXTDUJI bi;bbuu, L. This substance is found 
 native under several forms, but that employed 
 in the arts is prepared by one or other of the 
 following methods : — 
 
 From metallic iron. From iron wire or 
 clean iron filings cut into pieces, moistened 
 with wa er, and exposed to tlic uir until com- 
 pletely converted into rust; it is then ground 
 with water, elutriated, and dried, i!i a similar 
 way to that adopted for chalk. For sale, it 
 is usually made up into small conical loaves or 
 lumps. 
 
 By calcination : — (Bbown-bed COLcothae, 
 Ceocus, Indiak bed, EonaB, Jewellees' e. ; 
 Febei oxtdum eubeum, L.) — C:ilcine ferrous 
 8ul)jhHtu until the water of crystallisation is 
 expelled, then roast it with a strong fire until 
 acid vapours cease to rise ; cool, wash the 
 residuum with water until the latter ceases to 
 aSect litmus, and dry it. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate, 100 parts ; common salt, 
 42 parts; ralcine, wash well with water, drj, 
 and levigate the residuum. This process 
 yields a cheap and bea,utif ul product, which is 
 frequently sold for the ferri sesquioxydum ; 
 but it is less soluble, and therefore unfitted for 
 a substitute for that preparation. 
 
 By precipitation ; — Feeei sesquioxydum 
 — B. P., Feeei oxtdum: eubeum — Ph. E. L. 
 Uy precipitating a solution of ferric sulphate 
 or chloride with ammonia, in excess, and 
 washing, drving, and igniting in the resulting 
 hydrate. Pure; anhydrous. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate, 4 lbs. ; sodium car- 
 bonate, 4 lbs. 2 oz. ; dissolve each separately 
 in water, 3 galls.; mix the solution wliiL^t 
 hot, set the mixture aside, that the precipitate 
 may subside, and subsequently wash and dry 
 it as before. Contains water, and a trace of 
 alkali. 
 
 Feeeic htdeate, Feeei peeoxtdum ht- 
 DEAIDM — (Ph. D., Feeeugo— Ph. E.) — a. 
 (Ph. E ) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz. ; sulphuric 
 acid, 3i fl. dr.; water, 1 quart; mix, dissolve, 
 boil, and gradually add of nitric acid, 9 fl. dr. ; 
 stirring well and boiling for a minute or two 
 after each addition, until the liquor yields a 
 yellowish-brown precipitate with ammonia ; 
 it mu^t then bo filtered and precipitated with 
 liquor of ammonia (fort.), Sj fl. oz. ; rapidly 
 added and well mixed in; collect the precipi- 
 tate, wash it well with water, drain it on a 
 
 calico filter, and dry it at a heat not exceeding 
 180° Fahr. When intended as an antidote for 
 arsenic it should not be dried, but kept in the 
 moist or gelatinous state. 
 
 Feeeic peboxide, moist (B. P.) Si/n. 
 Feeei peboxidum humidum. Prep. Mix 
 solution of persulpbateof iron (B. P.), 4fl. oz., 
 with 1 pint of distilled wa.ter, and add it f;ra- 
 dually to 33 fl. oz. of solution of soda (B. 1'.), 
 stirring constantly and briskly. Let them 
 stand for two hours, stirring occasionally; 
 then put on a calico filter, and wheu the liquid 
 has drained away, wash the precipitate with 
 distilled water till what passes through ceases 
 to give a precipitate with chloride of barium. 
 Lastly, enclose the precipitate without drying 
 it in a stoppered bottle, or other vessel, from 
 which evaporation cannot take place. 
 
 Hey hydeate op peboxide of ieon (B. P.). 
 Feeei peboxidum hydbatum. Dry the 
 moist peroxide, 1 II)., at a temperatuid not 
 exceeding 212° Fahr., till it ceases to lose 
 weight. Reduce to a fine powder. — Dose, 5 to 
 30 grains. 
 
 Prop. Ferric oxide, prepared by precipi- 
 tation (1, c), is an impalpable powder, o( u 
 brownish-red colour, odourless, insoluble in 
 water, freely soluble in acids, and possessing'a 
 slightly styptic taste, especially when recently 
 prepared. When exposed to heat its colour is 
 brightened, its sp. gr. increased, and it is ren- 
 dered less easily soluble in acids. The oxide 
 prepared by calcination is darker and brighter 
 coloured, le.^s soluble, and quite tastclc s. It 
 lias either a scarlet or purplish cast, according 
 to the heat to which it has been exposed. The 
 finest Indian red, or crocus, usually undergoes 
 a second calcination, in which it is exposed to 
 a very intense heat. It is then known as 
 * purple brown.* The best jeweller's rouge is 
 prepared by calcining the precipitated oxide 
 until it becomes scarlet. 
 
 The hydrate is of a yellowish-brown colour, 
 and though it can be dried without decomposi- 
 tion, it requires to be kept in a moist i-late. 
 It is best preserved in a well-stoppered bottle, 
 filled with recently distilled or boiled water. 
 
 Pur. Medicinal ferric oxide or sesquioxide 
 of iron (febei sesquioxydum, Ph. L. & D.) is 
 soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid, scanely 
 effervesciug, and is again thrown down by 
 potassa. Tlie strained liquor is free from 
 colour, and is not dlseolonred by the addition 
 of either sulphuretted hydrogen or ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium. 
 
 The hydrate (febei peeoxydum htdeatum 
 — Ph. D., FEEEUGO — Ph. E.) is entirely and 
 very easily soluble in hydrochloric acid, with- 
 out effervescence ; if previously dried at ISO' 
 Fahr., a stronger heat drives ofl' about 18|j of 
 water. 
 
 Uses, J^c. The precipitated oxide is em- 
 ployed in medicine as a tonic and emmeua- 
 gogue, in doses of 10 to 30 gr. ; and as an an- 
 thelmintic and in tic douloureux, in doses of 
 1 to 4 dr., mixed up with honey. It is also 
 
912 
 
 IRON 
 
 employed to make some preparations of iron. 
 The calcined oxide is employed as a pigment, 
 as an ingredient in a, plaster, &c. The hydrate 
 is used medicinally as a tonic in doses of 10 to 
 30 gr. ; and in much larger, as an antidote in 
 cases of arsenical poisoning. 
 
 We are indebted to Bunsen and Berthold 
 for the introduction of this substance as an 
 antRote to arsenic. A table-spoonful of the 
 moist oxide may be given every 5 or 10 
 minutes, or as olten as the patient can swallow 
 it. ( Pereira.) When this preparation cannot 
 be obtained, rust of iron or even the dry so- 
 called carbonate (sesquioxide) may be given 
 along with water instead. According to Dr 
 Maclagan, 12 parts, and to Devergie, 32 parts, 
 of the hydrate are required to neutralise 1 part 
 of arsenious acid. Fehlingsays that the value 
 of this substance as an antidote to arsenic is 
 materially impaired by age, even when kept in 
 the moist state. The presence of potassium, 
 sodium, ammonium, hydi'ates, sulphates, chlo- 
 rides or carbonates, is not of consequence, 
 and, therefore, in cases of emergency, time 
 need not be lost in washing the precipitate, 
 which, in such cases, need only be drained 
 and squeezed in a calico filter. The magma 
 obtained by precipitating ferrous sulphate with 
 magnesia, in excess, and which contains free 
 magnesia and magnesium sulphate, besides 
 ferric hydrate, precipitates arsenious acid not 
 only more quickly,but in larger quantity, than 
 ferric hydrate does when alone. It will even 
 render inert Fowler's solution, and precipitate 
 both the copper and arsenic from solutions of 
 Schweinfurt green in vinegar, which the pure 
 gelatinous oxide alone will not do. 
 
 Soluble Saccharated Oxide of Iron. (G.) 
 S^n. Fbeeum oxydatum sacchaeatitm so- 
 LUBiLE. I^rep. Solution or perchloride of 
 ii'ou (sp. gr. 1'480), 2 oz. (by weight) j syrup, 
 2 oz. (by weight) ; mix, and add gradually, so- 
 lution of caustic soda (sp. gr. 1'330); 4 oz. 
 (by weight); and set aside for 24 hours ; then 
 add to the clear liquid 30 fl. oz. of distilled 
 hot water; agitate and set aside. Pour off 
 the supernatant liquid from the precipitate 
 which will have formed, and pour on fresh dis- 
 tilled water; then collect the precipitate on a 
 filter and wash thoroughly with distilled 
 water. 
 
 Put the drained precipitate into a porcelain 
 vessel, and mix with it.9 oz. of sugar in pow- 
 der, and evaporate to dryness with constant 
 stirring over a water bath, then mix in enough 
 sugar in powder to make up 10 oz. by weight; 
 reduce to powder and keep in a closed vessel. 
 One hundred parts contain three of metallic 
 iron. 
 
 Ferric Nitrate. rejfNOj)^. St/m Peoto ni- 
 
 TEATE OE IKON, NiTEATE OF SESQUIOXIDE OF 
 
 lEON ; Feeei peeniteas, L. By digesting 
 nitric acid (diluted with about half its weight 
 of water) on iron or ferric hydrate. A deep- 
 red liquid, apt to deposit a basic salt. It is 
 used in dyeing, and has been recommended in 
 
 dyspepsia, calculous affections, and chronic 
 diarrhcea,— J)o«e, 5 to 10 or 12 drops. 
 
 Ferric Phosphate. Fe2H3(P04)8. S^». Fee- 
 
 EIC OETHOPHOSPHATE (Odling) ; FeEEI SES- 
 QTJIPHOSPHAB, PHOSPHAB FEEEICITS, L. A 
 white powder obtained by precipitating ferric 
 chloride by sodium phosphate.— fie* and dose. 
 As the last. 
 
 Fekeio pteophosphatb. Fe^(P20j)3. A 
 salt containing ferric iron combined with the 
 radical of pyrophosphoric acid. 
 
 Prep. By precipitating a solution of ferric 
 sulphate with one of pyrophosphate of sodium, 
 taking care to operate at a temperature belovir 
 59° Fahr. 
 
 Prop., S(c. A gelatinous precipitate which 
 dissolves with facility in excess of pyrophos- 
 phate of sodium. The citrate of ammonium is 
 the most eligible solvent according to M. Robi- 
 qnet, who first called attention to this salt as 
 a remedial agent. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Ferric Sulphate. Pe2(S04)3. Syn. Peksui- 
 
 PHATE OF lEON, SULPHATE OF SESQUIOXIDE 
 
 OF IBON; Feeei PEKSXTLPHAS, L. Prep. By 
 adding to a solution of ferrous sulphate ex- 
 actly half as much sulphuric acid as it already 
 contains, raising the liquid to the boiling- 
 point, and then dropping in nitric acid, until 
 the liquid ceases to blacken by such addition. 
 The solution evaporated to dryness furnishes 
 a buff-coloured mass, slowly soluble in water. 
 
 Prop., S[c. With the sulphates of ammonium 
 and potassium it unites to form compounds to 
 which the name 'iron alums' has been given. 
 It forms the active ingredient in the ' liquor 
 oxysulphatis ferri ' of Mr Tyson, and is said 
 by Dr Osborne to be a constituent of ' Widow 
 Welch's pills.' This salt is also formed when 
 ferrous sulphate is calcined with free exposure 
 to the air. Dissolved in water, it is used as 
 a test for hydrocyanic, gallic, and tannic 
 acids. 
 
 Ferric Sulphide. Syn. Pbesulphidb op 
 IKON. This compound is prepared in the 
 hydrated state (feeei peesulphueetum 
 htdeatum) by adding, very gradually, a 
 neutral solution of ferric sulphate to a dilute 
 solution of potassium sulphide, and collect- 
 ing, &c., the precipitate, as in the case of 
 the hydrated ferrous sulphide. Proposed by 
 Bouchardat and Sandras as a substitute for 
 ferrous sulphide, to which they say it is pre- 
 ferable. 
 
 Ferric Tan'nate. Syn. Feeei taiotas, 
 Feeeum tannicum, L. Prep. Prom tnnnin, 
 1 part ; boiling water, 150 parts ; dissolve, 
 add of freshly precipitated ferric hydrate 
 (dried at 212° Fahr.), 9 parts; evaporate by a 
 gentle heat to one half, filter, add of sugar 1 
 part, complete the evaporation, and at once 
 put it into bottles. — Dose, 3 to 5 gr., thrice 
 daily ; in chlorosis, internal haemorrhages, &c. 
 
 Double Ferric and Ammonium Tartrate. Syn. 
 
 AmMONIO TAETEATE of IKON, DOITEIE TAR- 
 TBATE OF IKON AND AMMONIUM; AMMONIO 
 
lEON 
 
 913 
 
 PEBMC TAETBATE, FbBBI AMMOUIO lAfi- 
 TBATE; Fliuai AMMOSIO TAETBA8. 
 
 Prep. (Aikin.) Tartaric acid, 1 part ; iron 
 filings, 3 parts ; digest in a sufficient quantity 
 of bnt water to barely cover the mixture for 2 
 or 3 days, observing to stir it frequently, and 
 to add just enough water to allow the evolved 
 gas to escape freely ; next add ammonia, in 
 slight excess, stir well, dilute with water, de- 
 cant, wash the undissolved portion of iron, 
 filler the mixed liquors, and evaporate to dry- 
 ness; dissolve the residuum in water, add a 
 little more ammonia, filter, and again gently 
 evaporate to dryness, or to the consistence of a 
 thick syrup, when it may be spread upon hot 
 plates of glass or on earthenware dishes, and 
 dried in a stove-room, as directed for the cor- 
 responding citrate. 
 
 Tartaric acid, 6i oz. ; water, 7 pints ; dis- 
 solve, neutralise the selection with sesquicar- 
 bonate of ammonium, and add 6J oz. more 
 tartaric acid ; to the solution heated in a water 
 batb, further add moist hydrated oxide of iron 
 (obtained from eesquioxide of iron, 53i dr., 
 dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and precipitated 
 by ammonia) ; when dissolved, filter, and eva- 
 porate, &c., as before. 
 
 Prop., 1(0. Glossy, brittle lamellffl, or irre- 
 gular pieces, of a deep garnet colour, almost 
 black, very soluble in water, and possessing a 
 sweetish and slightly ferruginous taste. By 
 repeated re-solution and evaporation its sweet- 
 ness is increased, probably from the conversion 
 of a part of its acid into sufjar. It contains 
 more iron than a given weight of the sulphate 
 of the same base. It is the most pleasant- 
 tasted of all the preparations of iron except 
 the aramonio-citrate, last noticed. — Dose, 3 to 
 10 gr. 
 
 Ferric and Potassium Tartrate, Syn. Tab- 
 
 TBATB OF POTASaA AND lEON, FEKEO-TAETEATE 
 OP P0TAS3A ; FeEEIO TABIEATB OE P. ; FeEKI 
 TAETAEATITM (B. P.), FeEEI POTASSIO-TAETEAS 
 
 (Ph. L.), Fbeeum taetaeizatum (Ph. E.), 
 Feeei taetaeitm (Pll. D.), Feeei et po- 
 TASsiE taetbas (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. (B. P.) 
 Prepare ferric hydrate from 4 fl. oz. of liq. 
 ferri persulphas, B. P., as in making the 
 double citrate, and add it to 2 oz. of the acid 
 tartrate of potassium, dissolved in 30 oz. of 
 water. Digest for 6 hours at 140°, allow to 
 cool, and decant off the clear solution, which is 
 to be evaporated down and dried on glass 
 plates.— (Ph. L.) Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz., 
 is dissolved in water, 1 pint, previously mixed 
 with sulphuric acid, i fl. oz. ; heat is applied 
 to the solution, and nitric acid, 1 fl. oz., gra- 
 dually added ; the solution is boiled to the con- 
 sistence of a svrup, and then diluted with water, 
 4 galls, (less "the pint already used) ; liquor of 
 ammonia, 10 fl. oz., is next added, and the pre- 
 cipitate washed, and set aside for 24 hours j at 
 the end of this time, the water being decanted, 
 the still moist precipitate is added, gradually, 
 to a mixture of bitartrate of potassium, 2 oz.. 
 and water, \ pint, heated to 140° Fahr. ; after 
 vol,. II. 
 
 a time the undissolved oxide is separated by a 
 linen cloth, and the clear solution either 
 gently evaporated to dryness or treated iu 
 the same manner as the citrate (lastly, pre- 
 serve it in well-stoppered bottles). The formulie 
 of the Ph. E., D., & U. S., are essentially tfie 
 same. The Ph. D. orders a heat not beyond 
 150° Fahr. to be applied to the mixture of the 
 oxide and bitartrate, with occasional stirring 
 for 6 hours, and the desiccation to be conducted 
 at the same tempei'ature. 
 
 Ohs. This preparation is a double salt of 
 potassium and iron ; it is therefore wrongly 
 called ' tartrate of iron' as is commonly heard. 
 It is totally soluble in water ; the solution is 
 neutral to litmus and turmeric, unaffected by 
 ferrocjaiiide of potassium, and not precipitated 
 by acids nor alkalies, nor acted on by the 
 magnet. Heated with potnssa, 100 gr. throws 
 down about 34 gr. of sesquioxido of iron. 
 Entirely soluble in cold water; taste freely 
 chalibi-ate. That of commerce has generally 
 a feebly inky taste, a slight alknline reaction, 
 is slightly deliquescent, dissolves'in 4 parts of 
 water, and is nearly insoluble in alcohol. 
 
 Potassiotartrute of iron is an excellent fer- 
 ruginous tonic. — Dote, 10 to 20 gr., made into 
 a bolus with aromatics, or dissolved in water 
 or other convenient menstruum. 
 
 Ferric Valerianate. Syn. Vaibbianate op 
 
 SESQUIOXIDE OF IBON, VaLEEIATE OP lEON; 
 Fekki valeeianas (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. 
 D.) By adding a solution of sodium vale- 
 rianate to another of ferric sulphate, and 
 collecting and washing the precipitate, which 
 is to be dried by placing it for some days 
 folded in bibulous paper, on a porous brick ; 
 after which it is to be carefully kept from the 
 air. 
 
 Prop., S;c. A reddish-brown amorphous 
 powder ; nearly insoluble in water; soluble in 
 rectified spirit, and in the dilute acids with 
 decomposition. Citrate or tai-tnite, fl.ivoured 
 with oil of valerian, is frequently sold for it. — 
 Dose, 1 to 3 gr. ; in anosmia and chlorosis 
 complicated with hysteria. 
 
 Ferroso-Ferric Hydrate. Fc3(HO)8. Syn. 
 Htdeatbd peeeoso-peeeic oxide, Ht- 
 DEATBD MA0NETIO OXIDE. (B. P.) Liquor 
 ferri persulphas, h\; ferri sulphas, 2; solu- 
 tion of soda, 80 ; distilled water, a sufficiency. 
 Dissolve the ferrous sulphate in 40 of water, 
 add the solution of soda, stirring them well, 
 boil the mixture, let it stand for two hours, 
 put in a calico filter, wash with distilled water 
 until the washing gives no precipitate with 
 barium eliloride, and dry at a temperature not 
 exceeding 120. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate, 6 oz. ; sulphuric acid, IbO 
 minima ; nitric acid, 4 fl. dr. ; stronger 
 solution of ammonia, 4i fl.oz.; boiling water, 
 3 pints; dissolve half of the sulphate in 
 half of the water, add the oil of vitriol, boil, 
 add the nitric acid gradually, boiling after 
 each addition for a few minutes ; dissolve the 
 remaining half of the sulphate in the rest of 
 
 58 
 
914 
 
 IRON 
 
 the boiling water ; mix the two solutions, add 
 the ammonia, stirring well (and boil for a 
 short time) ; collect the precipitate on a calico 
 filter, wash it with water until it ceases to 
 precipitate a solution of nitrate of barium, 
 artd dry at a heat not exceeding 183° Fahr. 
 The formulas of Gregory and Dr Jephson are 
 similar. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate, 8 oz., dissolved in a mix- 
 ture of water, 10 fl. oz., and sulphuric acid, 6 
 fl. dr., is converted by means of nitric acid, 4 
 fl. dr., diluted with water, 2 fl. oz., into ferric 
 sulphates ; this solution is then added to 
 another, formed by dissolving ferrous sulphate, 
 
 4 oz., in water, -^ pirit ; the whole is then 
 mixed with liquor of potassium hydrate, 2| 
 pints, and after being boiled for 5 minutes is 
 collected on a calico filter, and washed, &c., as 
 before ; and is to be preserved in a well-stop- 
 pered bottle. 
 
 Prop., ^c. The hydriite is a black sand- 
 like substance, consisting of very minute 
 crystals. When pure it is attracted by the 
 magnet, and is entirely soluble in hydrochloric 
 acid; and ammonia added to the solution 
 throws down a black precipitate. The oxide 
 is the chief product of the oxidation of iron at 
 a high temperature in the air and in aqueous 
 vapour. It is more permanent than ferrous 
 oxide, but incapable of forming salts. — Dose, 
 
 5 to 20 gr. two or three times a day. 
 Ferroso-ferric Oxide. Fe304. Sy». Ma&- 
 
 NEiio o. OS I. ; Feeki oxteum nigbum, F. o. 
 
 MAQNETIOUM (Ph. D.), OXTDTJM TEEEOSO- 
 
 PEKEiouM, L. This occurs native, but that 
 used in medicine is prepared artificially. 
 
 From the black scales of iron that fall 
 around the smith's anvil, by washing, drying, 
 detaching them from impurities by means of 
 a magnet, and then treating them by grinding 
 and elutriation, as directed for prepared 
 chalk. The product of this process is in- 
 ferior as a medicine to the hydrate obtained as 
 below, being less easily soluble in the juices of 
 the stomach. 
 
 Ferroso-ferric Oxide. Fp^Oj. Si/n. Ma&- 
 NEiio OXIDE. See Feeboso-feeeic oxide. 
 
 Iron, Black Oxide of. ( K. P.) Si/n. Feeei 
 
 OXYDUM MAGNETICTJM ; FeEEI OXTDUM NI- 
 
 Geum; Maetial .asTHlOPS. Frep. Dissolve 
 sulphate of iron, 2 oz., in 2 pints of distilled 
 water, and add solution of persulphate of iron 
 (B. P.), 55 fl. oz., then mix with solution of 
 soda, 4 pints (B. P.), stirring well together. 
 Boil the mixture, let It stand for 2 hours, stir- 
 ring occasionally, then put it on a calico filter, 
 and when the liquid has drained away wash 
 the precipitate with distilled w«ter till what 
 passes through ceases to precipitate chloride 
 of barium. Finally, dry the precipitate at a 
 temperature not exceeding 120° Fahr. — Dose, 
 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Ferrous Acetate. F(C2H 302)3. Si/n. Febei 
 AOETAS, L. Frep. 1. From freshly precipi- 
 tated ferrous carbonate dissolved in dilute 
 acetic acid. 
 
 a. By adding a solution of calcium acetate to 
 another of ferrous sulphate, and evaporating 
 the filtered liquid, out of contact with the 
 air. Small, colourless, or pale-greenish needles 
 or prisms, very soluble and prone to oxida- 
 tion. 
 
 Ferrous Arsenate. re3(As04)2. St/n. Feeei 
 AESENIAS, L. Prep. 1. From a solution of 
 sodium arseniate, added to a solution of ferrous 
 sulphate, the precipitate being collected, 
 washed in a little cold water, and dried. — 
 Dose, ,15 to -jV gr., made into a pill j in lupus, 
 psoriasis, cancerous affections, &c. Exter- 
 nally, combined with 4 times its weight of 
 ferrous phosphate and a little water, as a 
 paint to destroy the vitality of cancerous for- 
 mations. An ointment (20 to 30 gr. to the 
 oz.) is also used for the same purpose. They 
 are all dangerous remedies in non-professional 
 liands. 
 
 2. (B. P-) Prep. Sulphate of iron, 9 oz.; 
 arseniate of soda dried at 300° F., 4 oz. ; ace- 
 tate of soda, 3 oz. Dissolve the arseniate and 
 the acetate of soda in 2 pints, and the sulphate 
 of iron in 3 pints, of boiling distilled water, 
 mix the two solutions, collect the white pre- 
 cipitate which forms on a calico filter, and 
 wash until the washings cease to be affected 
 by a dilute solution of chloride of barium. 
 Squeeze the washed precipitate between folds 
 of strong linen in a screw-press, and dry it on 
 porous bricks in a warm air-chamber whose 
 temperature shall not exceed 100° F. — Dose, 
 -jJjth of a gr. 
 
 Ferrous Arsenite. re(As02)2. Sy». Feeri 
 AESENis, L. From the pota^slum arsenite, 
 and ferrous sulphate, as the last. A yellowish- 
 brown powder, occasionally used in medicine 
 as a tonic, alterative, and febrifuge. — Dose, 
 
 Ferrous Bromide. FeB^j. Si/n. Feeei 
 BEOMIDFM, L. Prep. (Moir.) Bromine and 
 iron filings, of each 1 part; water^S parts; 
 mix in a stoppered phial, set it aside, occasion- 
 ally shaking it, for 2 or 3 days, and when tlie 
 colour of the bromine has disappeared, and the 
 liquid becomes greenish, filter and evaporate 
 to dryness. — Dose, 1 to 6 gr., as a tonic, diu- 
 retic, and resolvent, in similar cases to those 
 in which iodide of iron is given. 
 
 Ferrous Carbonate. Fe(C03). Sgn. Peo- 
 
 TOCAEBONATE OF lEON; FbEKI CABBONAS, F. 
 SUBCAEBONAS, L. This occurs in nature as 
 BPATHOSE OEE, the chief constituent as of 
 CLAY lEONSlONE, and in many chalybeate 
 
 WATEES. 
 
 Prep. (B. P.) Ferrous sulphate (sulphate of 
 iron), 2 ; ammonium carbonate, IJ ; boiling 
 distilled water, 320; refined sugar, 1. Dis- 
 solve the sulphate and ammonium carbonate 
 each in i of the water, and mix; allow 
 to stand for 24 hours and decant, of the 
 clear solution, add the remainder of the 
 water to the precipitate, stir well, allow to 
 settle, and decant off. Collect the deposit 
 in a calico filter, press, rub in the sugar in a 
 
IRON 
 
 915 
 
 porcelain mortnr, and dry at a temperature 
 not exceeding 212° Fabr. Small coherent grey 
 lumps. Precipitate a solution of ferrous eul- 
 phute with a solution of sodium carbonate, 
 well wash the green powder with water which 
 has been boiled, and dry it out of contact with 
 the air. On the slightest exposure to air it is 
 converted into ferrous hydrate or oxide. This 
 change is for the most part prevented by 
 combining it with sugar, as in the following 
 preparation. 
 
 With sugar: Feeki CABBONiS baooabata, 
 
 B. P.; 8ACCHABINB C. OJ I.; FEBKUM CAB- 
 BONICUM BACOHABATUM, PEBEI CABBONAS 
 COM BACCHAEO— Ph. L., PBBBI CAEB0N4S 
 8AC0HABATDM — Ph. E. & D. L. — (Ph. L.) 
 Ferrous sulphate, 4 oz. j sodium carbonate, 
 4i oz. ; dissolve each separately in quart of 
 boiling water, and mix the solutions whilst 
 hot; after a time collect the precipitate, wash 
 it frequently with water, and add of sugar, 2 
 oz., previously dissolved in water, 2 fl. oz. ; 
 lastly, evaporate the mixture over a water 
 bath to dryness, and keep it in a well-closed 
 bottle. 
 
 Prop., S(c. A sweet-tasted greenish mass or 
 powder, consisting cliiefly of carboniite of iron. 
 It is one of the best of tlie chalybeatc-i. — Doxp. 
 5 to 10 gr. When pure, it should bo tiisily 
 soluble in hydrochloric acid with brisk uH'ur- 
 vescence. 
 
 Ferrous Chloride. FoClj. Si/n. Protochlo- 
 
 EIDB OF IRON; MURIATB OF IKOS ; FKBBT 
 CHLOiUDUM, L. Frep. 1. (Anhydrous.) By 
 passing dry hydrochloric acid gas over ignited 
 metallic iron. The chloride sublimes in yel- 
 lowish crystals. 
 
 2. (Hydratcd.) Dissolve iron filings or scale 
 in hydrochloric acid, evaporate and crystallise. 
 Soluble green crystals. 
 
 Forrons Citrate. Pe3(C6H507)j. Syn. Pbo- 
 
 TOOITBATB IliON, ClTRiTB OF FBOTOXIDE OP 
 iito:*. This snlt is easily formed by digesting 
 iron filings or wire with citric acid, and evapn. 
 rating the solution as quickly as possiljle out of 
 contact with the nir. It presents the appear- 
 ance of a white powder, nearly insoluble in 
 water, and rapidly passing to a higher state of 
 oxidation by exposure to the air. Its taste is 
 very metallic. It is exhibited under the form 
 of pills, mixed with gum or syrup, to prevent 
 it from being prematurely decomposed. 
 
 Ferrous Ferrlcy'anide. St/n. Fkbridoyakide 
 OF IBON. I'rep. By adding a solution of 
 potassium fcrricyanide (' red prussiate of pot- 
 ash') to a solution of ferrous sulphate (or any 
 other soluble ferrous salt), and collecting and 
 drying and precipitate. A bright-blue powder. 
 (See TuBNUutt's blce.) 
 
 Ferrous Hydrate. Fe2(HO)j. See under 
 Febbocb oxidb. 
 
 Ferrous Hydrate, Fe(H0)2. Miy be pre- 
 cipitjitcd from ferrous solutions as a white 
 powder, by alkaline hydrates. It rapidly 
 absorbs oxygen, and turns first green, aud 
 
 then red, by exposure to the air. Both the 
 oxide and hydrate are very powerful bases, 
 neutralising the acids and forming stable 
 shUs, which, when soluble, have commonly a 
 pale green colour, and a nauseous metallic 
 taste. 
 
 Ferrous Hypophosphlte. Sun. Febbi htfo- 
 PHOSPnis. From the double decomposition of 
 hypophosphlte of lime and sulphate of iron, as 
 hypophosphito of potash. 
 
 Ferrons Iodide. Felj. St/n, Protoiodide 
 OF iBON, Iodide of ieon; F. iodidfm, 
 Febbi hydeiodas, F. iodubetum, L. Prep. 
 (B. P.) Fine iron wire, 1; iodine, 2; dis- 
 tilled water, 10. Introduce the iron, iodine, 
 and 8 of water into a flii-k, heat it about ten 
 minutes, and boil until all the red colour is 
 gone. Filter thron^li paper into a polished 
 iron dish, washins with the rest of the water, 
 and boil until a drop of the solution taken out 
 on iron wire solidifies on eoMling. Pour on 
 porcelain and cool. (I'll. L. 183G ) Iodine, 
 6 oz. ; iron filinijs, 2 oz. ; water, 4J pints; 
 mix, boil in a sand bath until the liquid turns 
 to a pale green, filter, wash the residuum witli 
 .1 little water, evaporate the mixed liquors 
 in an iron vessel at 212° Fahr. to dryness, and 
 immediately put the iodide into well-stoppered 
 bottles. 
 
 Iodine, 1 oz., and clean iron filings or turn- 
 ings, i oz., are put into a Florence flask witli 
 distilled water, 4 fl. oz., and having applied a 
 gentle heat for 10 minutes, the liquid is boiled 
 until it loses its red colour; it is then at once 
 filtered into a second flask, the filter waslied 
 with water, 1 fl. oz., aud the mixed liquid is 
 boiled down, until it solidifies on cooling. 
 
 With sugar: Saccharine iodide of iron, 
 Sacchabumferriiodidi, Febriiodidumsac- 
 CHABATUM, L. Irou (in powder), 1 dr. ; water, 
 5 dr. ; iodine, 4 dr. ; obtain a solution of iodide 
 of iron, as above, and add to it of sugar of milk 
 (in powder), li oz. ; evaporate at a tempera- 
 ture not exceeding 122' Fahr., until the mass 
 has a tenacious consistence, then further add 
 of sugar of milk, 1 oz., reduce the mixture to 
 powder, and preserve it in a well-stoppered 
 bottle. Every 6 gr. contains 1 gr. of iodide of 
 iron. 
 
 From "syrup of iodide of iron" exposed in a 
 shallow vessel, in a warm place, until it crystal- 
 lises ; the crystals are collected, dried, and 
 powdered. A simpler plan is to gently evapo- 
 rate the whole to dryness, and to powder the 
 residuum. The saccharine iodide may be kept 
 for some time in a corked bottle without un- 
 dergoing decomposition. 
 
 Obs. The preparation of the above com- 
 pound, like that of the citrates, has formed a 
 fertile subject durin; some years for phar- 
 maceutical amateurs to dilate upon. There is 
 in reality not the least difficulty in the process. 
 As soon as iodine and iron are mixed together 
 under water much heat is evolved, and if too 
 much water be not used the combination is 
 soon complete, and the liquor merely requires 
 
916 
 
 IRON 
 
 to be evaporated to dryness, out of contact with 
 tlie air. at a heat not exceeding 2la° Fahr. 
 This is most cheaply and easily performed by 
 employing a ghiss flask, with a thin broad 
 bottom andva narrow mouth, by which means 
 the evolved stesm excludes air from the vessel. 
 The whole of the uncombined water may be 
 known to be evaporated when vapour ceases 
 to condense on a piece of cold glass held over 
 the mouth of the flask. A piece of moistened 
 starch paper occasionally applied in the same 
 way will indicate whether free iodine is 
 evolved; should such be the case, the heat 
 should be immediately lessened. When the 
 evaporation is completed, the mouth of the 
 flask should be stopped up by laying a piece of 
 sheet india rubber on it, and over that a flat 
 weight ; the flask must be then removed, and 
 when cold broken to pieces, the iodide weighed, 
 and put into dry and warm stoppered wide- 
 mouth glass phials, which must be immediately 
 closed, tied over with bladder, and the stoppers 
 dipped into melted wax. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Ferrous iodide evolves violet 
 vapours by heat, and ferric oxide remains. 
 When freshly made it is totally soluble in 
 water, and from this solution, when kept in a 
 badly stoppered vessel, ferric hydrate is very 
 soon precipitated; but with iron wire immersed 
 iu it, it may be kept clear in a well-stoppered 
 bottle. — Dgse, 1 to 3 gr., or more, as a tonic, 
 stimulant, and resolvent. It has been given 
 with advantage in anjemia, chlorosis, debility, 
 scrofula, and various glandular affections. 
 
 Ferrous lactate. Fe {C3\ifi^)^. Si/n. Pko- 
 
 TOLACTATE OF IKOS; FBBBI lAOTAS, FEEE0M 
 
 lAOTicuM, L. Prep. Boil iron filings in lactic 
 acid diluted with water, until gas ceases to be 
 evolved, and filter whilst hot into a suitable 
 vessel, which mnst be at once closely stopped ; 
 as the solution cools, crystals will be deposited, 
 which after being washed, first with a little 
 cold water, and then with alcohol, are to be 
 carefully dried. The mother liquor, on being 
 digested, as before, with fresh iron, will yield 
 more crystals. 
 
 Into sour whey, 2 lbs., sprinkle sugar of 
 milk and iron filings, of each, in fine powder, 1 
 oz. ; digest at about 100° Fahr., until the sugar 
 of milk is dissolved, then add a second portion, 
 and as soon as a white crystalline powder begins 
 to form, boil the whole gently, and filter into a 
 clean vessel; lastly, collect, wash, and dry the 
 crystals as before. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Ferrous lactate is a greenish- 
 white salt ; and when pure,forms small acicular 
 or prismatic crystals, which have a sweetish 
 ferruginous taste, and are soluble in about 48 
 parts of cold and in 12 parts of boiling water. 
 It has been regarded by many high authorities 
 as superior to every other preparation of iron 
 for internal use, as being at once miscible with 
 the lactic acid of the gastric juice, instead of 
 having to be converted into a lactate at the 
 expense of that fluid, as it is asserted is the 
 case with the other preparations of iron. — 
 
 Dose, 2 to 6 gr., frequently, in any form most 
 convenient. 
 
 Ferrous Ma'late (Impure). Syn. Fbbei 
 MALAS IMPUEUS, L. Prep. (P. Cod., 1839.) 
 Porphyrised iron filings, 1 part; juice of sour 
 apples, 8 parts ; digest for 3 days in an iron 
 vessel, evaporate to one half, strain through 
 linen whilst hot, further evaporate to the con- 
 sistence of an extract, and preserve it from the 
 air. — Dose, 5 to 20 gr., where the use of iron 
 is indicated. 
 
 Ferrous Nitrate. (FeNOglo. Sya. Pboto 
 
 NITEATE OF lEON, NiTBATE OF PEOTOXIDB OP 
 
 lEON ; Feeei niteas, L. By dissolving fer- 
 rous sulphide in dilute sulphuric acid, in the 
 cold, and evaporating the solution in vacuo. 
 Small green crystals, very soluble, and prone 
 to oxidation. 
 
 Ferrous Oxalate. (U.S.) Syn. Feeei oxa- 
 LAS. Prep. Sulphate of iron, 2 oz. ; oxalic 
 acid, 396 gr. ; distilled water, q. u. Dissolve 
 the sulphate in 30 oz. (old measure), and the 
 acid in 15 oz. (old measure) of distilled water. 
 Filter the solutions, mix them, shake together, 
 and set .iside until the precipitate is formed. 
 Decant the clear liquid, wash the precipitate 
 thoroughly, and dry it with a gentle heat. 
 
 Ferrous Oxide. FeO. Syn. Peotoxidb of 
 lEON, Feeei peotoxtdum, L. This substance 
 is almost unknown in a pure state, from its 
 extreme proneness to absorb oxygen and pass 
 into the sesquioxide. 
 
 Ferrous Phosphate. Syn. Phosphate of 
 lEON, Neuteal p. of peotoxide of ieon, 
 
 BiMETALIilC FEEBOUS OETHOPHOSPHATE (Od- 
 
 ling^J; Feeei phosphas (Ph. U. S.), L. A salt 
 formed from ordinary or tribasic phosphoric 
 acid. 
 
 Prep. (B. P.) Ferrous sulphate, 3 ; sodium 
 phosphate, 2i; sodium acetate, 1; boiling 
 distilled water, 80 ; dissolve the sulphate and 
 sodiuin salts, each in half the water, mix, and 
 stir carefully, filter through calico, wash with 
 hot dis'tilled water until it ceases to give a pre- 
 cipitate with barium chloride, dry at a heat not 
 exceeding 120" Fahr. (Ph. U. S.) Ferrous 
 sulphate, 5 oz.; sodium phosphate, 6 oz. ; dis- 
 solve each separate in 2 quarts of water, mix 
 the- solutions, and after repose for a short time 
 wash and dry the precipitate. 
 
 Prop.,S^e. A slate-colourod powder; inso- 
 luble in water; soluble in dilute nitric and 
 hydrochloric acid. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. ; in 
 amenorrhcea, diabetes, dyspepsia, scrofula, &c. ; 
 and externally, as an application to cancerous 
 ulcers. 
 
 Ferrous Sulphate. FeSO,. 7Aq. Syn. Peo- 
 
 TOSDLPHATB OF lEOIT, SuLPHATE OF IEON, COP- 
 
 PEEA3, Geben titeiol, Shoemakee's black ; 
 Feeei sulphas (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), Vit- 
 BIOLITM FEEEI. The Crude sulphate of iron or 
 green vitriol of commerce (feeei sttlphas 
 VENALls.Ph. L.)is prepared by exposing heaps 
 of moistened iron pyrites or native bisulphuret 
 of iron to the air for several months, either in 
 its unprepared state or after it has been roasted. 
 
IRON 
 
 917 
 
 VThen decompoBition is sufficiently advanced, 
 the newly formed salt is dissolved out with 
 water, and the solution crystallised by evapora- 
 tion, lu this state it is very impure. The 
 ferrous i^utphate or sulphate i^f iron employed 
 in medicine is prepared as follows : — 
 
 Prep. (B. P.) Iron wire, 4j sulphuric acid, 
 4; distilled water, 30. Pour the water on the 
 iron, add' the acid, and when the disengage- 
 ment of gas has nearly ceased, bqil for ten 
 minutes. Filter through paper. Allow to 
 stand twenty -four hours, and collect the 
 crystals. Sulpliuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 4 
 pints; mix, and add of commercial sulphate of 
 iron, 4 Ib-i. ; iron wire, 1 oz. ; digest with heat 
 and occasional agitation until the sulphate is 
 dissolved, strain whilst hot, and set aside the 
 liquor that crystals may form; evaporate the 
 mother-liquor for more crystals, and dry the 
 whole. 
 
 Dissolve the transparent green crystals of 
 the impure sulphale of iron in tlieir osvn weight 
 of water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, and 
 re-crystallise. 
 
 The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar. 
 
 Dried; Fisehi sctu'HAs exsiooata, 13. P.; 
 Fbuei sxtlphas exsiccatum — Ph. E., P. 8. 
 BlOOATtTM — Ph. D. From ferrous sulphate, 
 heated in a shallow porcelnin 6r earthen 
 vessel, not glazed with lend, till it becomes a 
 greenish-grey mass, and then reduced to pow- 
 der. The heat should be that of an oven, or 
 not exceeding 400° Fahr. Five parts of the 
 crystallised sulphate lose very nearly 2 parts 
 by drying. 
 
 Granulated; Pbbei sulphas geakulata, 
 Ii. (B. P.) A solution of iron wire, 4 oz., in 
 sulphuric acid, 4 fl. oz., diluted with water, li 
 pint, after being boiled for a few minutes, is 
 filtered into a vessel containing rectified spirit, 
 8 fi. oz., and the whole stirred until cold, 
 when the granular crystals are collected on a 
 filter, washed with rectilied spirit, 2 fl. oz., and 
 dried, first by pressure between bibulous 
 paper, and not beneath a bell-glass over 
 sulphuric acid, after which they are put into a 
 stoppered bottle, to preserve tliem from tlie air. 
 
 Frop., ifo. Ferrous sulphate forms pale 
 bluish-green rhombic prisms, having an acid, 
 styptic taste, and acid reaction ; it dissolves in 
 two parts of cold and less than one part of 
 boiling water; at a dull- rod heat it suffers 
 decomposition; sp. gr. 1-82. It is perfectly 
 soluble in water ; a piece of iron put into the 
 solution should not be covered with metallic 
 copper. 3y exposure to the air it effloresces 
 slightly, and is partly converted into a basic 
 ferric sulphate. — Dose, i to 4 gr., in pills or 
 solution ; externally, us an astringent or 
 styptic. In the arts, as sulphate of iron (cop- 
 peras), it is extensively used in dyeing, and 
 for various othor purposes. The dried sulphate 
 (ferri sulphus oxsiccatum) is chiefly used to 
 make pills. 
 
 Crude sulphate of iron is frequently con- 
 taminated with the sulphates of copper, zinc. 
 
 manganese, aluminium, magnesium, and cal- 
 cium, which, with the exception of the first, 
 are removed with difficulty. It also contains 
 variable proportions of the neutral and basic 
 ferric sulphates. The preparation obtained 
 by direct solution of iron in dilute sul- 
 phuric acid should, therefore, be alone used in 
 medicine. 
 
 In commerce there are four varieties of 
 crude sulphate of iron or copperas known, — 
 greenish-blue, obtained from acid liquors, — 
 pale green, from neutral liquors, — emerald 
 green, from liquors containing ferric sulphate, 
 — and oohrey brown, which arises from age and 
 exposure of the other varieties to the air. 
 Even the first two of these contain trices of 
 ferric sulphate, and hence give a bluish pre- 
 cipitate with ferrocyanide of potassium ; 
 whereas the pure sulphate gives one which is 
 at first nearly white. 
 
 Ferrous SiUphide. FeS. Si/n. Sulphitret 
 
 OP IRON, SuiPniDE OP I., PHOTOSULPniUE o» 
 
 I.; Feebi suli-hubkxcm; (Ph. E. & D.), L. 
 Prep. (Ph. E. &D.) Expose a bar of iron to 
 a full white heat, and instantly apply a solid 
 mass of sulphur to it, observing to let the 
 melted product fall into water; afterwards 
 separate the sulphide from the sulphur, dry, 
 and preserve it in a closed vessel. 
 
 From sublimed Bulpbnr, 4 parts; iron filings, 
 7 parts ; mixed together and beatvd in a 
 common fire till the mixture begins to glow, 
 and then removing the crucible from the heat, 
 and covering it up, until the reaction is at an 
 end, and the whole has become coUI. 
 
 Hydrated; Feeei peotosulphubetcm ht- 
 BBATITM, L. By adding a solution of ammo- 
 nium sulphide or of potassium sulphide to a 
 neutral solution of ferrous sulphate made with 
 recently distilled or boiled water; the precipi- 
 tate is collected on a filter, washed as quickly 
 as possible with recently boiled water, squeezed 
 in a linen cloth, and preserved in the pasty 
 state, under water, as directed under ferric 
 hydrate. 
 
 Prop., Sfo. The sulphide prepared in the 
 dry way is a blackish brittle substance, 
 attracted by the magnet. It is largely used 
 in the laboratory as a source of sulphuretted 
 hj drogeu. The hydrated sulphide is a black, 
 insoluble substance, rapidly decomposed by ex- 
 posure to the air. Proposed by Mialhe as an 
 antidote to the salts of arsenic, antimony, bis- 
 muth, lead, mercury, silver, and tin, and to 
 arsenious acid; more especially to white ar- 
 senic and corrosive sublimate. . A gargle con- 
 taining a little hydrated sulphide of iron will 
 instantly remove the metallic taste caused by 
 putting a little corrosive sublimate into the 
 mouth. (Mialhe.) On contact with the latter 
 substance it is instantly converted into ferrous 
 chloride and mercurious sulphide, two com- 
 paratively inert substances. It is administered 
 in the same way as ferrous hydrate. When 
 taken immediately after the ingestion of cor- 
 rosive sublimate, it instantly renders it in- 
 
918 
 
 IRON ALUM— lEON, DIALYSED 
 
 nocuous ; but when the administration is de- 
 layed until 15 or 20 minutes after the pjisun 
 has been swallowed, it is almost useless. 
 
 Ferrous Tar'trate. Syn. Feeki taeteas, 
 Febei PKOTOTAETEAa, L. Prep. 1. From 
 iron filings, 2 parts; tartaric acid, 1 part; 
 hot water, q. s. ; digest together until reaction 
 ceases, agitate the liquid, pour off the turbid 
 solution, and collect, wash, and dry the pow- 
 der as quiclily as possible, and keep it out of 
 contact with the air. 
 
 Crystallised potassium tartrate, 132 parts ; 
 ferrous sulphate, 139 parts; dissolve each 
 separately, mix the solutions, and collect the 
 precipitate as before. A nearly insoluble pow- 
 der ; seldom used. 
 
 Obs. By dissolving the corresponding hy- 
 drates in a solution of tartaric acid, employing 
 the former in slight excess, and evaporating, 
 both the ferrous and ferric tartrate are easily 
 obtained. 
 
 IRON AL'UM. See Alttms. 
 
 IRON CEMENT'. See Cements. 
 
 IRON, DIALYSED. (Paris Pharmaceutical 
 Society.) Syn. Pbeefm dialysatcm. Oxide 
 DE FEB DIALTBE. Prep. Solution of ferric 
 chloride (sp. gr. 1'245), 100 grams ; solution of 
 ammonia (sp. gr. 1'169), 35 grams ; add the 
 ammonia in small quantities to the ferric chlo- 
 ride ; at first the precipitate formed is redis- 
 solved very rapidly, but afterwards disappears 
 more slowly. When the liquor has again be- 
 come transpai'ent, it is introduced into the 
 dialyser ; the distilled water in which the 
 vessel containing the ferruginous solution is 
 placed, must be frequently renewed. After a 
 time the highly coloured solution is no longer 
 precipitated by silver nitrate, and gives no 
 acid reaction. It is then absolutely free from 
 the disagreeable taste of certain ferruginous 
 preparations. A small quantity of hydro- 
 chloric acid always remains in the liquor, 
 which may be shown by precipitating the oxide 
 of iron by a slight excess of ammonia, filter- 
 ing, adding an excess of nitric acid, and then 
 silver nitrate. Ten c.c. are evaporated, and 
 from the residue must be calculated how much 
 distilled water is required to be added to pro- 
 duce at 10 per cent, solution. 
 
 2. ('American Journal of Pharmacy.') Take 
 10 parts of liq. ferri perclilor. (B. P.), pre- 
 cipitate by liquor ammonitB, and wash the pre- 
 cipitate thoroughly. Mix this with 12 parts 
 of liq. ferri perclilor. (B. P.), and place in a 
 dialyser. The dialyser is placed in a suitable 
 vessel with distilled water, the water under it 
 renewed every 24 hours. The operation is 
 continued until no trace of chlorine exists, at 
 which time the preparation is found to be 
 neutral. It usually takqs from twelve to 
 fifteen days to complete the process. 
 
 The resulting preparation, which should be 
 of a deep dark red colour, contains about 5 
 per cent, of the oxide of iron, If the solution 
 after completion of the operation should con- 
 tain more than 5 per cent, of iron, it may be 
 
 diluted with dialysed water till it reaches that 
 point. 
 
 The above formula is said to furnish an 
 article precisely similar to the original Bravais' 
 dialysed iron. 
 
 3. (E. B. Shuttleworth.) Add ammonia to 
 a solution of perchloride of iron as long as the 
 precipitate formed is redissolved. A solution 
 is produced which contains ferric hydrate dis- 
 solved in ferric chloride, with free chloride of 
 ammonium. Either the liquor ferri perchlor. 
 fort. (B. P.), or the liquor ferri chloridi 
 (U. S.), may be conveniently used, and the 
 liquor ammonise, sp. gr. "959 or -960, of either 
 Pharmacopoeia will be found a convenient 
 strength. If the ammonia be added to the 
 strong solution of iron, considerable heat is 
 evolved, and, on cooling, the preparation be- 
 comes gelatinised — often so much so that 
 the vessel containing it may be inverted. It 
 is better to avoid this result, and to such end 
 the solution of perchloride must be diluted 
 until of a sp. gr. of about 1-300. This degree 
 may be nearly enough approached by diluting 
 two measures of the B. P. liquor with one of 
 water; or adding one measure of water to 
 five of the U. S. preparation. This solution 
 will generally remain permanently bright and 
 fluid. The amount of liquor ammonias required 
 will of course vary with the acidity of the per- 
 chloride. The liquor ferri B. P. will sometimes 
 bear as much as an equal volume. A gela- 
 tinised solution, even when made from the un- 
 diluted liquor, will often become fluid when 
 put upon the dialyser, but, as I have said be- 
 fore, it is better to work with bright solutions. 
 
 4. (l)rPile.) Dr Pile, noticing the fact that 
 chloride of sodium is one of the most rapid 
 crystalloids to dialyse, used a solution of carbo- 
 nate of sodium to add to the solution of ferric 
 chloride in place of the ammonia so generally 
 recommended, and with great success. The 
 solution of ferric chloride (U. S.) which has 
 been neutralised by a cold solution of carbo- 
 nate of sodium is poured int(9 a fioating dia- 
 lyser. Starting with 1 pint of solution of 
 ferric chloride, which on being treated with 
 the sodium solution and ready to dialyse, had 
 a sp. gr. of 1'175, it had in 5 days increased to 
 5 pints. The water in which the dialyser 
 floated was changed daily. At the end of five 
 days it had passed through the membrane all 
 the crystalloids. Was free from taste of foreign 
 substances, and owing to increase of bulk had 
 now the sp. gr. of 10295, and on evaporation 
 yielded 5 per cent, dry oxide of iron. Too 
 long dialysation will cause the solution of iron 
 to become gelatinous. 
 
 Mr Shuttleworth' says that an efficient 
 dialyser may be made out of one of the flat hoops 
 of an ordinary flour barrel, a bell jar, or even 
 an inverted glass funnel. He gives the pre- 
 ference to the former, and limits its diameter 
 to ten or twelve inches; if it exceeds this, 
 the septum is liable to bulge in the centre, 
 • I ' Canadian Pbarmaciutical Journal,' Oct, 1877. 
 
IRON FILINGS— IRON LIQUOR 
 
 919 
 
 and to miike tho layer of Uqnid too deep at 
 lliat. point. 
 
 The pHFcbment paper employeil for the sep- 
 tum must be entirt-ly free from liolea ; this 
 is an casuntiul coTidition, aud If any should be 
 discovered— by the Kimple process of spong- 
 ing thi' upper surface of the paper with water, 
 and tlii'U carefully examining the under sur- 
 fiice, — they must be stopped by meiins of a 
 little white of egg, applied and coagulated by 
 heat; or by a drop of collodion. 
 
 The parchment paper is not the Itind ordi- 
 narily known under that name, but a less 
 porous description, which has been niade by 
 previous immersion in dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Well-washed bladder, deprived of its outer 
 coat, also makes a good septum. 
 
 The septum should be tied around the hoop 
 with twine, but not too tightly, and should be 
 BO arranged that its edges shall be left stand- 
 ing up around the hoop, so as to absorb any 
 liquid escaping from the hoop at its junction 
 with the septum. The dialyscr being ready 
 for use, the liquid intended for dialysis is 
 poured into it to a deptli of not more than 
 half iin inch, and the dialyscr with its coutents 
 is then floated on the surface of some dis- 
 tilled water, contained in a suitable receptacle. 
 
 The hoop must only be allowed to sink just 
 below the level of tho water ; if it gets below 
 this point, it will be necessary to keep it up 
 by some support or tho other. 
 
 It is necessary to change the water in the 
 outer vessel daily. For the first two or three 
 days distilled water should ahvnys be used. 
 When this is not obtainable rain water should 
 be enipliiyed. When the water shows the 
 absence of chlorides, and tho preparation ceases 
 to have a ferruginous taste, the operation 
 may be regarded as finished. The process 
 generally occupies one or two weeks. 
 
 " A pig's bladder, completely filled with the 
 iron solution, securely tied, and immersed in 
 water frequently changed, answers well for 
 making this preparation. Tho process re- 
 quires a longer time than with a carefully re- 
 gulated and properly conducted dialysis, but it 
 entails considerably less trouble. 1 consider it 
 an advantage to procure the bladder perfectly 
 fresh, as it is then easily cleaned by pure 
 water, and alkaline ley need not be used. 
 Great care is necessary in tying the neck 
 carefully. This can be best accomplished by 
 a few turns of iron wire. Above this may be 
 secured a piece of twine, to suspend the blad- 
 der, by means of a stick, or rod, placed on the 
 edge of the vessel containing the water. The 
 bhidder should be perfectly full, and immersed 
 altogether in water. The attraction of the 
 solution for the water is so great, that consi- 
 derable pressure is manifested, and should any 
 parts or holes be in the bladder, the liquid 
 will be forced out, water will take its place, and 
 failure result."' 
 
 Pretty general consent appears to have fixed 
 I ' Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal,' Oct., 1877. 
 
 the strength of the solution of dialysed iron 
 at five per cent. Where .it exceeds this, the 
 solution must he diluted with distilled water ; 
 and where it falls short of the amount, it will 
 have to be reduced to the required volume 
 by standing it in a warm and dry situation. 
 The employment of much heat must be par- 
 ticularly avoided as it very frequently leads 
 to the destruction of the compound ; hence 
 every eare should be taken to render the eva- 
 poration of the fluid nnnecssary. 
 
 There seems little doubt that the so-called 
 " dialysed iron " is an oxychloride of the metal. 
 Prof. Maisch " believes it to be a very basic 
 oxychloride of iron. On the supposition that 
 the oxychloride and chloride of iron are both 
 present in the liquid put into the dialyser, the 
 origin of the oxychloride admits of easy ex- 
 planation : — The chloride being a crystalloid, 
 diffuses through the septum into the outer 
 water, and thus becomes separates from the 
 oxychloride, which being a colloid, and incapa- 
 ble of a passage through the membrane, re- 
 mains in solution in the dialyi^er. 
 
 The comparative freetlom from taste and 
 easy assimilation of the oxychloride of iron 
 render it a valuable therapeutic agent. The 
 dose of the five per cent, solution is 15 to 50 
 drops daily, in divided doses. .Svnip forms 
 a pleasant vehicle for its administration. 
 
 Dialysed iron has been successfully employed 
 in a case of arsenical poisoning. The * Ame- 
 rican .Journal of Pharmacy ' for January, 
 1878, contains an interesting paper by l)r 
 Mattison detailing a series of experiments, 
 which conclusively prove its value as an anti- 
 dote to arsenic. Dr Mattison recommends 
 the administration of the iron to be imme- 
 diately followed by a teaspoonful or more of 
 common salt. 
 
 IRON Fr'IiIHGS. Si/n. Febbi kamestta 
 (Ph. L. 1836). Feeei limatuba (Ph. E), 
 Ferbi scobs (Ph. D.). The usual method of 
 preparing iron filings for medieal purposes has 
 been already noticed ; the only way, however, 
 to obtain them pure, is to act on a piece of 
 soft iron with a clean file. The Fr. Cod. 
 orders them to be forcibly beaten in an iron 
 mortar, and to be separated from oxide and 
 dust by means of a fine sieve, and from the 
 grosser parts by means of a coarse hair-sieve. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in sugar or honey, as a 
 chalybeate; in larger doses it is an excellent 
 vermifuge, especially for ascarides or the small 
 thread- worm. 
 
 lEOIT LIftTJOS. Syn. Pteolighite op 
 IKON, Dtee's acetate op I., Black iiquoe. 
 Tab ikon l. ; Febbi acetas vexalis, L. 
 This article, so extensively nsed in dyeing, is 
 a crude mixed acetate of the protoxide and 
 sesquioxide of iron. It is usually prepared by 
 one or other of the following methods : — 
 
 1. Old scraps of iron (hoops, worn-out tin- 
 plate, &c.) are left in a cask of pyroligneons 
 acid, occasional agitation being had recourse 
 . ' Ibid., Oct.. 1877. 
 
920 
 
 IRON, REDUCED —ISSUE 
 
 to, until a sufficiently strong solution is ob- 
 tained. By keeping the acid moderately warm 
 in suitable vessels it will become saturated 
 with the iron in a few days. With cold acid, 
 on a large scale, forty days or more are re- 
 quired to complete the process. 
 
 2. A solution of pyrolignite or crude acetate 
 of lime, is added to another of green copperas, 
 as long as a precipitate is formed; after re- 
 pose, the clear liquor is decanted. 
 
 IROir, EEDTTCED. Syn. Qubvenne ibon ; 
 Febeum keeaotum (B. p.), Feeei Pulvis, L. j 
 Fee Eeduii, F. Prep. This preparation, which 
 consistsof metallic iron in a line state of division 
 mixed with ii variable amount of magnetic 
 oxide of iron, is made by passing perfectly dry 
 hydrogen over peroxide of iron heated to red- 
 ness in a gun-barrel. 
 
 Frop. A greyish-black powder, attracted 
 by the magnet, and exhibiting metallic streaks 
 when rubbed with firm pressure in a mortar. 
 Rapidly absorbs oxygen, and must, therefore, 
 be preserved from the air in well-stoppered 
 bottles. It dissolves in hydrochloric acid with 
 the evolution of hydrogen. 10 grains added 
 to an aqueous solution of 50 gi-ains of iodine 
 and 50 grains of iodide of potassium, and di- 
 gested with them in a small flask at a gentle 
 beat, should leave not" more than 5 grains 
 undissolved, which should be entirely soluble 
 in hydrochloric acid. 
 
 XTsea. In medicine it is chiefly given to 
 restore the condition of the blood in all anaemic 
 states of the system. There is no pulveru- 
 lent state of iron so convenient as this for 
 children, as it has no taste, and only a very 
 small dose is required. — Dose, 1 to 5 grains 
 (children, i to 1 grain), in powder, pill, or 
 between bread and butter. 
 
 Iron reduced by Electricity. See Elbo- 
 TEiciTT, Irott reduced by. 
 
 Iron, to remove Rust from Polished. Rust 
 of iron may be removed from a polished grate 
 by means of emery paper, or by scraping some 
 Bath-brick to a fine powder, mixing it with a 
 little oil and rubbing the spots well with a 
 piece of flannel dipped in tliis mixture; after 
 which some whiting should be applied by 
 diligent friction. This operation requires 
 daily repetition until the rust has disappeared. 
 Steel fire-irons, fenders, &c., when put aside in 
 the summer, should be previously smeared 
 thinly over with a species of paraffin, known 
 to druggists by the name of 'vaseline' or 
 'cosmoline,' or with grease, mercurial oint- 
 ment, &c. 
 
 Iron, to remove the Stains of, from Marble. 
 Rub on very cautiously (confining it to the 
 surface only occupied by the spot) some 
 strong hydrochloric acid, removing it directly 
 the spot disappears. Should this cause any 
 diminution in the polish, this may be restored 
 by means of emery paper. 
 
 IRON WIRE. Syn. Feeeum in pila 
 TEACTUM (Ph. L.), Feuei mlum (Ph. E.), 
 Feebi riLA (Ph. D.), L. This is the only 
 
 form of metallic iron retained in the Ph. L, 
 It is used to make preparations of iron. 
 
 ISATINE. CgHjoNA- ■*■ jeHow crystal- 
 line body obtained by the oxidation of indigo. 
 When acted upon by potash it becomes con- 
 verted into aniline. Isatine may l)e formed 
 by heating indigo in a dilute solution of di- 
 chromate of potash and sulphuric acid, or by 
 treating indigo under proper conditions with 
 nitric acid. 
 
 ISCHU'RIA. In pathology, retention, stop- 
 page, or suppression of the urine. 
 
 I"SINGLASS. Syn. Ichthtocolia, L. 
 The finest kinds of isinglass are obtained from 
 various species of the genus Acipenser, or 
 sturgeon, that from the great sturgeon being 
 perhaps the most esteemed. It is the air-bag, 
 swimming bl.Tdder, or sound, dried without 
 any other preparation than opening, folding, 
 or twisting it. The picked or cut isinglass of 
 the shops consists of the lamps of staple isin- 
 glass picked in shreds by women and children, 
 or cut by machines. 
 
 JProp., S(c. Good isinglass is the purest 
 natural gelatin known. Its quality is deter- 
 mined by its whiteness, absence of the least 
 fishy odour, and ready and almost entire solu- 
 bility in boiling water; the solution forming 
 a nearly white, scentless, semi-transparent, 
 solid jelly, when cold. It is soluble in weak 
 acids, and this solution is precipitated by al- 
 kalies. The aqueous solution is not precipi- 
 tated by spirit of the common strengths. 1 
 part of good isinglass dissolved in 25 parts of 
 hot water forms a rich, tremulous jelly. It is 
 very commonly adulterated. Of the different 
 varieties of isinglass, the Russian is the best 
 and most soluble. See Geiatin. 
 
 ISOM'ERISM. In c?iemistry, identity of 
 composition, with dissimilarity of properties. 
 Isomeric compounds (isomerides) are such as 
 contain the same elements in the same pro- 
 portions, but which differ from each other in 
 their chemical properties; thus, formate of 
 ethyl and acetate of methyl are isomeric, 
 having precisely the same ultimate composi- 
 tion, though differing in the arrangement of 
 their elements. 
 
 ISOMORPHISM. In chemistry, the quality 
 possessed by bodies differently composed of 
 assuming the same crystalline form. Isomor- 
 phous substances are found to be closely allied 
 in their chemical nature; and the fact of two 
 bodies crystallising in the same form has 
 often led to the discovery of other points of 
 similarity between them. The alums, for 
 instance, no matter what their component"!, 
 all crystallise in octahedra, and a crystal of 
 potassium-alum, if transferred to a solution of 
 chrome-alum, will continue to increase with 
 perfect regularity from the deposition of the 
 latter salt. 
 
 IS'SUE. Syn. Fonictjltts, L. In surgery, 
 a small artificial ulcer formed on any part of 
 the body by means of caustic or the lancet, 
 and kept open by daily introducing an ISSUE 
 
ISSUE PEAS-IVOHr 
 
 921 
 
 FBA covered with Fome digestive or stimnlating 
 ointment; die wliole beiug duly secured by au 
 appropriate bBDdage. 
 
 ISSUE PEAS. Sgn. Piss peo fonticulis, 
 L. Tliose of tlie sliops are ttie iiniuaturc fruit 
 of t)ie orange tree (oBANaE bebbies). Tbey 
 are usually smoothed in a lathe. Issue peas 
 are also 'turned' from orris root.' Tlio fol- 
 lowing compound issue peas are occasionally 
 employed: — 
 
 1. Orris root (in powder) and Venice tur- 
 pentine, of each I part; turmeric, 2 parts; 
 beeswax, 3 pai-ts; melted together and made 
 into peas whilst warm. 
 
 2. Beeswax, 3 parts; melt, add of Venice 
 turpentine, 1 part; mix, and further add, of 
 turmeric, 2 parts; orris root (in powder), 1 
 part ; mix well, and form the mass into peas 
 whilst warm. Moro irritating than the 
 common pea. 
 
 3. (Dr Gi ay.) Beeswax, 12 parts ; ver- 
 digris and white hellebore, of each 4 parts; 
 orris root, 3 parts; canthnrides, 2 parts; 
 Venice turpentine, q. s. Used to open issues 
 instead of caustic, but their employment 
 requires c»re. 
 
 ISSUE PLAS'TERS. See Plastebs. 
 
 ITCH. S</n. YopkJ, Scotch FiddleJ:; 
 PsoEA, Scabies, L. ; Gaib, Fr. In pathologt/, 
 a cutaneous disease, caused by a minute insect 
 lodging under the skin, and readily comrau- 
 niiated by contact. There are four varieties 
 of itch, distinguished by nosologists by the 
 names — scabies papuUformis, or rank itch ; — 
 scabies lymphatica, or watery itch ; scabies 
 purulenta, or pocky itch ; scabies cachectica, a 
 species exliibiting appearances resembling 
 each of the previous varieties. Our space 
 will not permit more than a general notice o( 
 the common symptoms, and the mode of cure 
 which is equally applicable to each species, 
 and will not prove injurious to other skin 
 diseases simulating the itch. 
 
 The common itch consists of an eruption of 
 minute vesicles, principally between the 
 fingers, bend of the wrist, &c., accompanied 
 by intense itching of the parts, which is only 
 aggravated by scratching. The usual treat- 
 ment is repeated applications of sulphur oint- 
 ment (simple or compound), well rubbed in 
 onco or twice a day, until a cure is effected; 
 accompanying its use by the internal exhl- 
 hition of a spoonful or more of flowers of 
 sulphur, mixed with treacle or milk nishtand 
 morning. Where the use of sulphur ointment 
 is objei tional)le, a sulphur bath, or a lotion or 
 bath of sulphurated potash, or of chloride 
 of lime, may bo employed instead. 
 
 In the 'Canadian Pharmaceutical Journal' 
 for 1872 is a paper by Professor Rothmuud 
 reconimeiulin? the employment of balsam of 
 Peru in this objectionable disease. The writer 
 states that one application generally effects a 
 cure, and that its use does away with the 
 necessity of baths. He recommends the 
 balsam being rubbed all over the naked body. 
 
 Carbolic acid is another and much cheaper 
 remedy proposed by the same author. To 
 obviate its caustic action he advist.s the acid 
 to be mixed with glycerin or linseed oil, in the 
 proportion of one scruple of the acid to two 
 ounces of either excipient. He considers the 
 objection to this remedy may be that it enters 
 too rapidly into the circulition. Another 
 agent employed by Professor Eothmund is a 
 lotion composed of one part of carbulate of 
 sodium dissolved in 12 parts of water. The 
 affected parts of the skin are to be rubbed 
 with this three times a day. 
 
 It is i'urther recommended to continue this 
 treatment 8 or 10 days after the cure, in order 
 to kill any acari or their eggs that may have 
 lurked among the clothes or bed-linen. See 
 Bath, Lotion (Itch), Ointment, I'sobiasis, 
 &c. 
 
 I'VORT. The osseous portion of the tusks 
 and teeth of the male elephant, the hippopota- 
 mus, wild boar, &c. That of the narwhal or 
 seahorse is the most esteemed, on account of 
 its superior hardness, toughness, trauslucency, 
 and whiteness. The dust or shavings (ivohy 
 DUST, IVOHT SUAVINGS) of the turner form n 
 beautiful size or jelly when boiled in water. 
 Veoetable itohx is the hard albumen of the 
 seed of the Phytelepluis macrocarpa, one of the 
 Palm family. 
 
 Ivory may be dyed or stained by any of the 
 ordinary methods employed for woollen, after 
 being freed from dirt and grease; but moro 
 quickly as fullows : — 
 
 1. Black. The ivory, well washed in an 
 alkaline lye, is steeped In a wiiik neutral 
 solution of nitrate of silver, aiid then exposed 
 to the light, or dried and dipped iuto a weak 
 solution of sulphide of ammonium. 
 
 2. Blue. Steep it in a weak solution of 
 sulphate of indigo which has been nearly neu- 
 tralised with salt of tartar, or in a solution of 
 soluble Prussian blue. A still better plan is 
 to steep it in the dyer's green indlL'O-vat. 
 
 3. Beown. As for black, but using a 
 weaker solution of silver. 
 
 4. Geeen. Dissolve verdigris in vinegar, 
 and steep the pieces therein for a short time, 
 observing to use a glass or stoneware vessel ; 
 or, in a solution of verdl^^ris, 2 parts ; and sal 
 ammoniac, 1 part, in soft wnter. 
 
 5. PUBPLE. Steep it in a weak neutral so- 
 lution of terchloride of gold, and then expose 
 it to the light. 
 
 6. RsD. Jliike an infusion of cochineal in 
 liquor of ammonia, then immerse the pieces 
 therein, having previously soaked them for a 
 few minutes in water very slightly aeidulated 
 with aquafortis. 
 
 7. Yellow, a. Steep the pieces for some 
 hours in a solution of sugar of lead, then take 
 them out, and when dry. Immerse them in a 
 solution of chromate of potassa. 
 
 b. Dissolve as much of the best nrpiment in 
 solution of jmmonia as it will take up, then 
 steep the pieces therein for some hours; 
 
922 
 
 IVORY BLACK— JABOKANDI 
 
 lastly, take them out and dry them in a warm 
 place, when they will turn yellow. 
 
 Ivory is etched or engraved by covering it 
 with an etching ground or wax, and employing 
 oil of vitriol as the etching fluid. 
 
 Ivory is rendered flexible by immersion in a 
 eolution of pure phosphoric acid (ap. gr. 1'13), 
 until it loses, or partially loses, its opacity, 
 when it is washed in clean cold soft water, and 
 dried. In this state it is as flexible as leather, 
 but gradually hardens by exposure to dry air. 
 Immersion in hot water, however, restores it^ 
 softness and pliancy. According to Dr Ure. 
 the necks of some descriptions of injants' 
 FBEDIN& BOTTLES are thus made. 
 
 Ivory is whitened or bleached by rubbing it 
 with finely powdered pumice-stone and water, 
 and exposing it to the sun whilst still moist, 
 under a glass shade, to prevent desiccation and 
 the occurrence of fissures; observing to repeat 
 the process until a proper effect is produced. 
 Ivory may also be bleached by immersion for a 
 short time in water holding a little sulphurous 
 acid, chloride of lime, or chlorine, in solution ; 
 or by exposure in the moist state to the 
 fumes of burning sulphur, largely diluted with 
 air. Cloez recommends the ivory or bones to 
 be immersed in turpentine and exposed for 
 three or four days to sunlight. The object to 
 be bleached should be kept an eighth or a 
 fourth of an inch above the bottom of the 
 bath by means of zinc supports. For the 
 prepanitiou of ivory intended for miniature 
 painting Mr Ernest Spon in his useful work, 
 ' Workshop Receipts,' says : " The bleaching 
 of ivory may be more expeditiously performed 
 by placing the ivory before a good fire, which 
 will dispel the wavy lines if they are not very 
 strongly marked, that frequently destroy the 
 uniformity of surface." 
 
 Ivory may be gilded hy immersing it in a 
 fresh solution of proto-sulphate of iron, and 
 afterwards in solution of chloride of gold. 
 
 Ivory is wrought, turned, and fashioned in a 
 similar manner and with similar tools to those 
 used for bone and soft brass. 
 
 Obs. Bone for ornamental purposes is treated 
 in a similar way to ivory, but less carefully, 
 owing to its inferior value. The bones of 
 living animals may be dyed by mixing madder 
 with their food. The bones of young pigeons 
 may thus be tinged of a rose colour in 24 
 hours, and of a deep scarlet in 3 or 4 days; 
 but the bones of adult animals take fully a 
 fortnight to acquire a rose colour. The bones 
 nearest the heart become tinged the soonest. 
 In the same way logwood and extract of log- 
 wood will tinge the bones of young pigeons 
 purple. (Gibson.) 
 
 1. Ivory, Artificial Let a paste be made of 
 isinglass, egg-shell in very fine powder, and 
 brandy. Give it the desired colour, and pour 
 it while warm into oiled moulds. Leave the 
 paste in the moulds until it becomes hard. 
 
 2. (L'Union Pharmaceutique.i Two parts 
 of caoutchouc are dissolved in 36 parts of 
 
 chloroform, and the solution is saturated with 
 pure gaseous ammonia. The chloroform^ is 
 then distilled off at a temperature of 85° C. 
 The residue is mixed with phosphate of lime or 
 carbonate of zinc, pressed into moulds and 
 dried. When phosphate of lime is used the 
 product possesses to a considerable degree the 
 nature and composition of ivory. 
 IVOEY BLACK. See BiACK pigments. 
 
 JABOEANDI. Syn. Iabobandi, Jambo- 
 BANDi. The above names are given by the 
 natives of Brazil, Paraguay, and other parts 
 of South America to any indigenous plants 
 possessing strongly stimulant, diaphoretic, 
 and sialagogue properties, which are princi- 
 pally employed in those countries as antidotes 
 for the bites and stings of venomous snakes 
 and insects. 
 
 As far as they have been examined, all the 
 plants known under the generic name 'jabo- 
 randi' have been traced to the two natural 
 orders, RutacetB and Piperacea. Those exer- 
 cising the most marked physiological efieots 
 appear to belong to the former or the ruta- 
 ceous division, and are very probably different 
 species of Pilocarpus. The drug was first 
 introduced into Europe by Br Continho, of 
 Pernambuco, who some four years since sent a 
 sample of it to Dr Gubler, of Paris, by whom 
 it was administered to some of the patients of 
 the Beaujon Hospital there. The jaborandi 
 with which these experiments were made was 
 identified by Professor Baillon, of Paris, as 
 belonging to the Pilocarpus pinnaius (pinnati- 
 folius). Four to six grams of the bruised 
 leaves and twigs were infused in a cup of 
 water, and the patient being put to bed, in 
 ten minutes after taking the draught, finds 
 himself bathed in a perspiration lasting for 
 four or five hours, this being so profuse as to 
 render several changes of linen necessary 
 during the time. Accompanying the dia- 
 phoresis are great salivary and bronchial 
 secretions, which sometimes will not permit 
 the patient to speak without his mouth 
 becoming filled with water. 
 
 The quantity of saliva is stated to have 
 sometimes equalled a litre in measure. These 
 experiments have been repeated in this 
 country with analogous effects ; in one case 
 reported with jaborandi obtained from the 
 Beaujou Hospital, and in another from 
 London ; results the similarity of which 
 strongly point to a coiTCspondiog composition 
 in the two specimens of the plant used, if, as 
 seems not improbable, they may have be- 
 longed to different species. A case of im- 
 paired vision following the administration 
 of jaborandi is also recorded ; but this seems 
 evidently to have been the effect of an over- 
 dose of the drug.* 
 
 When jaborandi is administered in divided 
 doses instead of producing salivation or 
 sweating, it acts as an active diuretic only, 
 * * Fharm. Journal,* 3rd seiies, v, 364 and 561. 
 
JABORANDI 
 
 923 
 
 incrcBsin); the flow of nrino to nearly double 
 tlio usuitl amount. M. Albert Kobins snyg: — 
 " Tlie effect of jaborandi on animals is very 
 marked ; guineapi|;s are seized with saliva- 
 tioii, weeping and diarrhoea, true ecchymoses 
 liein^ fi)iind in the intestines, and dogs be- 
 come instantly salivnted, their gastric secretion 
 being also much increased."' 
 
 Drs Coutinho and Gubler affirm they have 
 employed jaborandi in dropsy, bronchitis, 
 diabetes, and various other diseases, and that 
 tliey have found it fully answer their expecta- 
 ti<m>i ; and in one case of albuminuria it is nar- 
 rated that a permanent diminution of albumen 
 from 14-40 to 12 grammes followed its use. 
 
 An alkaloid has been obtained from the 
 piperaceous jaborandi by ParodI, and named 
 by him Jaborandine. Some short time after- 
 wards Mr A. W. Gerrard succeeded in separating 
 the alkaloid from the rutaceons jaborandi, to 
 which, in accordance with Mr Holmes' sug- 
 gestion, and because Fnrodi had anticipated 
 
 him in the adoption of the previoas title, he 
 gave the name pilocarpine. 
 
 Mr Gerrard recommends the following 
 process for the preparation of pilocarpine : — 
 "Prepare a soft extract either with leaf or 
 bark, with 50 per cent, alcohol. Digest this 
 with water, filter and wash. Evaporate the 
 filtrate to a short extract, cautiously add 
 ammonia in slight excess, shake well with 
 chloroform, separate the chloroform solution, 
 and allow it to evaporate ; the residue is the 
 alkaloidal pilocarpine with probably a small 
 amount of impurity." Mr Gerrard has also 
 succeeded in preparing a crystalline nitrate 
 and hydroclilorate of the alkiiloid, both of 
 which possess the medicinal powers of the 
 jaborandi. 
 
 The abridged description of a sample of 
 jaborandi from Pernambuco is from Mr Holmes' 
 paper in the ' Pharmaceutical Journal.'' The 
 cut is from the last edition of Royle's ' Materia 
 Medica.' " The specimens of the plant examined 
 
 a." 6 11 c 
 
 Pilocarptu pitinatifoUuj. a, flower; }, flower with tbe petals removed; e, carpels- 
 
 appear to belong to a shrub about 5 feet high. 
 The root is cylindrical, hardly tapering at all, 
 nearly J inch in diameter for the first 12 inches, 
 and very sparingly branched. Bark of root of a 
 ^ ' Medical Times and Gazette.' 
 
 pale yellowish brown, abont a line in thickness, 
 and has a short fracture. The root has an 
 odour like a mixture of bruised pea-pods and 
 orange-peel. Its taste is first like that of 
 > Srd series, t, (81. 
 
924 
 
 JAGGERY— JALAP. 
 
 green peas; this eoon disappears, and gives 
 rise to a tingling sensation. The stem is i 
 inch in diameter near the root, narrowing to J 
 inch in the upper branches. The bark is 
 thin, greyish-brown, longitudinnlly striated, 
 and in some specimens sprinkled over with a 
 number of white dots. The wood of the stem 
 is yellowish-white and remarkably fibrous. 
 The leaves (one of which is represented in the 
 drawing) are imparipinnate, about 9 inches 
 long, with from 3 to 5 pairs of opposite leaf- 
 lets, which are articulated to the rachis, and 
 have very short, slightly swollen petlolates. 
 The rachis of the leaf is swollen at the base. 
 
 The pairs of leaflets are usually about IJ 
 Inch apart, the lowest pair being about 4 
 inches from the base of the rachis. The 
 leaflets are very variable in size, even on the 
 same leaf. Their general outline is oblong- 
 lanceolate. They are entire, with an emargi- 
 nate or even retuse apex and an unequal base, 
 and texture coriaceous. The veins are promi- 
 nent on both sides of the leaf, and branch 
 from the midrib at an obtuse angle in a pin- 
 nate manner. When held up to the light the 
 leaflets are seen to be densely pellucidly punc- 
 tate. These pellucid dots, which are receptacles 
 of secretion, are not arranged, as in another 
 kind of jaborandi, in lines along the veinlets, 
 but are irregularly scattered all over the leaf, 
 and appear equally numerous in every part. 
 The whole plant is glabrous." 
 
 Mr Holmes says there appear to be two 
 varieties, if not species, of this Pilocarpus, 
 the one being perfectly smooth in every pstrt, 
 as above described, and the other having the 
 stems, petioles, and under surface of the 
 leaves covered with a dense velvety pubescence 
 composed of simple hairs. 
 
 JAG'GEEY. Si/n. Pam sbgab. A coarse 
 brown sugar made in India by the evaporation 
 of the juice of several species of palms. The 
 following are the principal varieties of this 
 product : — 
 
 1. Cocoa jaggeet. From the juice of the 
 Cocoa-nut palm (Cocos nucifera). 
 
 2. Malabar jaggeet. From the juice of 
 the Gumraut palm (Saguerus saccherifer), 
 
 3. Mtsokb jaggeky. From th^ juice of 
 the wild Date-palm (Phaeniic sylvesWis) j 17 
 galls, yields 46 lbs. 
 
 4. Paimtea jaggeet. From the juice of 
 the Palmyra palm {Borassus Jlaielliformis) ; 
 6 pints yield 1 lb. 
 
 JA'LAP. Si/n. jALAPa; radix, Jalapa, 
 B. P. (Ph. L. & D.) CoNVOLVUM jalap js eadix 
 (Ph. E.), L. The dried tubercles of the JExo- 
 gonium purga, I. jalapa — (Royle.) Jiilap is a 
 powerful stimulant and drastic purgative, 
 producing copious liquid stools; but when ju- 
 diciously administered, both safe and efiica- 
 cious. It appears to be intermediate in its 
 action between aloes and scammony. — Dose, 
 10 to 30 gr., in powder; in constipation, cere- 
 bral affections, dropsies, obstructed monstrna- 
 
 tion, worms, &c. Owing to its irritant pro- 
 perties, its use is contra-indicated in inflam- 
 matory affections of the alimentary canal, and 
 after surgical operations connected with the 
 abdomen and pelvis. It is usually adminis- 
 tered in combination with sulphate of potassa 
 or bitartrate of potassa and ginger; with mer- 
 curials, as the case may indicate. The powder 
 is very generally adulterated. 
 
 Jalap Biscuits. 1. An ounce of jalap mixed 
 with 16 ounces of the materials for ginger- 
 bread or other kind of cake. 
 
 2. Pure resin of jalap, 56 grams, powdered 
 sugar and flour, 1000 grams; tincture of va- 
 nilla, 10 grams, white of egg. No. 20, yolk of 
 egg. No. 40. 
 
 Let the resin be emulsified with the yolks 
 of the egg, add successively the sugar, tinc- 
 ture, and -flour, and mix thoroughly into a 
 paste, with which thorouglily incorporate the 
 whites of eggs, previously beaten up. Let the 
 mass be divided into 144 biscuits, and bake. 
 
 Jalap, Res'in of. Syn. Besina jalaps, L. 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. E.) See Exteaot op Jalap. 
 
 2. (NativfUe.) Jalap root is digested iu 
 boiling water for 24 hours, and after being re- 
 duced to thin slices more water is added, and 
 the whole boiled for 10 minutes, with occa- 
 sional agitation ; the liquid is then expressed 
 in a tincture press, and the boiling and press- 
 ing repeated a second and third time (these 
 decoctions by evaporation yield aqueous ex- 
 teaot op jalap); the pressed root is next 
 treated with rectified spirit, q. s., and boiled 
 fur 10 minutes, and then allowed to cool; the 
 tincture is then pressed' out, and the boiling 
 with fresh alcohol and expression is repeated 
 twice ; a little animal charcoal is added to the 
 mixed tinctures, and, after thorough agitation, 
 the latter are filtered; the liquid is now dis- 
 tilled until nothing passes over, the superna- 
 tant fluid is poured olf the fluid resin, and the 
 latter dried by spreading it over the surface 
 of the capsule, and continuing the heat. The 
 product is a friable and nearly colourless resin, 
 which forms a white powder resembling starch. 
 Prod. Fully 10^ of pure resin. 
 
 3. (Planche.) Resinous extract of jalap is 
 dissolved in rectified spirit, the tincture agi- 
 tated with animal charcoal, and after filtration 
 gently evaporated to dryness. 
 
 Pur. The jalap resin of commerce is gene- 
 rally adulterated with scammony, gum, guaia- 
 cum or resin. When in a state of purity, it 
 does not form an emulsion with milk, like 
 scammony resin, but runs into a solid mass. 
 It is insoluble in fixed oils and turpentine, 
 whilst the common resins are freely soluble in 
 those menstrua. Its alcoholic solution, dropped 
 on a piece of absorbent white paper, and ex- 
 posed to the action of nitrous gas, does not 
 acquire a green or blue colour; if it does, 
 guaiacum resiu is present. 2g of this adul- 
 teration may be thus detected. (Gobley.) It 
 is insoluble in ether; but guaiacum resin, 
 common resin, and some others, are so; the 
 
JALAPIC ACID— JAPANNING 
 
 92S 
 
 decanted pllicr shonM not become opalescent 
 wlien mixed witli water, and aljould evaporate 
 without leaving any residuum. Powdered 
 jalap resin plactd in cold water does not dis- 
 solve, but forma n semi-lluid, transparent mass, 
 as if it had been melted. Dissolved in a 
 wntcli-gliiss with a little oil of vitriol, a rich 
 crim-ou-coloured solution is obtained, from 
 which, in a few hours, a brown viscid resin 
 separates. Tliese last two characteristics dis- 
 tinguish it from other resins. 
 
 Obs. Eiirthenware or well-tinned copper 
 vessels must ahme be used in the above pro- 
 cesses, as ciintiet with copper or iron turns 
 the resin blacic, and this tinge can only be re- 
 moved by redissolving the resin in alcohol, 
 the addition of animal charcoal, and re-evapo- 
 ration. 
 
 Jalap resin is an energetic cathartic. — Dose, 
 1 to 5 gr. See Jalapin. 
 
 Jalap, Factitions Sesin of. Si/n. Re3inx 
 JALAPX PAOTiTiA, L. A substance frequently 
 sold for jalap resin is made by fusing a mixture 
 of pale yellow resin and scammony resin, and 
 adding, when it has cooled a little, but still 
 semi-Huid, a few drops of balsam of Peru or 
 tiilu ; the mixture is then poured into small 
 paper capsules or tin moulds. Its eflects re- 
 semble those of jalap resin, but it iuflaraes 
 less. (Landerer.) 
 
 Jalap, Soap of. Syn. Sapo jalapjb, Safo 
 JALAriNUS, L. frep, (Ph. Bor.) Kesin of 
 jalap and Castile soap, of each I port ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 2 parts, or q. s. to dissolve the in- 
 gredients softened by a gentle boat ; subse- 
 quently evaporate the mixture by the heat of 
 a water bath until reduced to 4| oz., or it has 
 acquired the consistence of a piil-mass. 
 
 Prop., ^c. A greyish-brown mass, soluble 
 in rectified spirit. Said to be milder in its 
 action than the resin alone. — Dose, 5 to 15 oz. 
 
 JALAF'IC ACID. Syn. Odoeous pkin- 
 CIPLE op Jalap. — Pereira. Prep. Add an 
 alcoholic solution of acetate of lend to a similar 
 solution of jalap resin, collect the precipitate 
 (jalapiite of lead), and throw down the lead 
 by means of sulphuretted hydrogen. (See 
 Absinthic acid.) a brownish, soft, greasy 
 sub.itance, smelling strongly of jalap, soluble 
 in alcohol and alkali, and slightly so in ether. 
 Jalap resin contains about 13§ of this sub- 
 stance. 
 
 JAL'APIN. CsiHsjO,,. Syn. Jalapina. 
 Jalap resin is commonly sold under this name, 
 but pure jalapin is prepared by one or other 
 of the following formulas t — 
 
 Prep. 1. The liquid filtered from the jala- 
 pate of lead in preparing jalapic acid is a 
 solution of aci tate of jalapin, which, after any 
 trace of lend is removed, by adding a few drops 
 of dilute sulphuric acid, aud filtration, yields 
 the whole of its jalapin, as a precipitate, on 
 the addition of 5 or 6 times its volume of 
 water; this is collected, washed with a little 
 cold distilled, water, and dried by exposure to 
 a current of warm dry air. 
 
 2. (Hume.) Coarsely powdered jalap ia 
 digested in strong acetic acid for 14 days, 
 the 'tincture filtered ammonia added in ex- 
 cess, and the whole agitated strongly; the 
 mixture is then filtered, the deposit washed 
 in cold water, redissolved in acetic acid, re- 
 precipitated by ammonia, and again washed 
 and dried. 
 
 Z. (Kayser.) Pure jalap resin, in powder, is 
 diuested for some time in boiling ether, by 
 which means the jalapic acid is lemoved, and 
 pure jalapin remains undissolved. 
 
 Prop., S^c. Atransparent, colourless, scent- 
 less, insipid resin, very soluble in alcohol, but 
 insoluble in ether. It is the active purgative 
 principle of crude jalap resin. 
 
 JAMArciITE. Syn. Jamaicina. A pecu- 
 liar alkaloid obtained by Huttensclimidt from 
 the bark of the Cabbage-tree (Andira in- 
 ermis). 
 
 Prep. The aqueous solution of cabbnge- 
 tree bark, treated with sulphuretted hydrogen 
 and evaporated. 
 
 Prop. Yellow crystals soluble in water and, 
 to a limited extent, in alcohol ; fusible, and 
 very bitter tasted. It forms salts with the 
 acids, which, in small doses, produce restless- 
 ness and trembling; and in larger ones, 
 purging It is said to be vormifui;e. 
 JAMES'S POWDER. Sec Powdebs. 
 JAMS. Syn. Pkesbrves. Conserves of frnit 
 with sugar, prep'.ired by boiling. In the latter 
 respect they diU'er from the conserves of the 
 apothecary. 
 
 Prep. The pulped or bruised fruit is boiled 
 along with i to J of its weight of loaf sugar, 
 until the mixture jellies, when a little is plxced 
 on a cold plate; the semi-fluid mass is then 
 passed through a coarse hair sieve whilst hut, 
 to remove the stones and skins of the fruit, 
 and as soon as it has cooled a little is pouird 
 into pots or glasses. It is usual to tie these 
 over, when cold, with paper which has been 
 dipped in brandy. The pots must then be 
 placed aside in a dry and rather cold situa- 
 tiou. 
 
 I'he following fruits are those from which 
 jams are commonly prepared : — Apricots, cher- 
 ries (various), cranberries, currants (black, 
 red, and white), gooseberries (ripe and green), 
 mulberries, Orleans plums, raspberries, and 
 strawberries. Red currants are commonly 
 added to the last, to remove insipidity. 
 JAPAM'. See Vaenish, aud below. 
 JAPANHING. The art of covering paper, 
 wood, or metal, with a coating of hard, bril- 
 liant, and durable varnish. The varnishes or 
 lacquers employed for this purpose in Japan, 
 China, and the Indian Archipelago, are resin- 
 ous juices derived from various trees belong- 
 ing to the natural order Anaeardiaceie, espe- 
 cially Stagmaria vemicijlua, Holigama longi- 
 folia, Semecarpus Jnarcardium, and species of 
 Sus (Sumach). For use, they are purified by a 
 defecation and straining, and are afterwards 
 mixed with a little oil, and with colouring 
 
926 
 
 JAPONIC ACID— JELLY 
 
 matter, as required. In this country var- 
 nishes of amber, asphaltum, or copal, or mix- 
 tures of them, pass under the names of 'japan' 
 
 and 'JAPAN TABNISH.' 
 
 Proe. The surface is coloured or painted 
 with devices, &c., as desired, next covered witii 
 a highly transparent varnish (amber or copal), 
 then dried at a high temperature (135° to 1,65° 
 Pahr.), and, lastly, polished. Wood and paper 
 are first sized, polished, and varnished. For 
 plain surfaces, asphaltum. Tarnish or japan is 
 used, See Vaenishino. 
 
 JAPONIC ACID. CijHioOs, When catechn 
 is exposed to the air in contact with caustic 
 alkalies, black solutions (alkaline japonates) 
 are formed ; with carbonated alkalies, red so- 
 lutions (alkaline rubates); the acid of the 
 former may be separated. It is a black pow- 
 der, insoluble in water, soluble in alkalies, and 
 precipitated by acids. Buric acid forms red 
 insoluble compounds with the earths and some 
 other metallic oxides, 
 
 JAEAVE. The Spanish name for saesa- 
 FAEILLA BEER. See Beekb (in pharmacy). 
 
 JASPER. Syn. Iaspis, L. A mineral of 
 the quartz family, occurring in rocky masses. 
 It takes various shades of red, yellow, brown, 
 and gi-een, and is occasionally banded, spotted, 
 or variegated. It was formerly used as an 
 amulet against h83morrbages and fluxes. It is 
 now extensively worked up into rings, seals, 
 snuff-boxes, vases, &c., for which it is well cal- 
 culated from its extreme hardness and suscep- 
 tibility of receiving a fine polish. 
 
 JATRO'PHIC ACID. Syn. Ceotonic AOId, 
 Iateophio a. a peculiar fatty acid disco- 
 vered by Pelletier and Caventon, and originally 
 regarded by them as the cathartic principle 
 of croton oil and croton seeds, but since 
 shown by Redwood and Pereira to be nearly 
 inert. 
 
 Prep. The oil is saponified by caustic pota«sa, 
 and the resulting soap is decomposed by tar- 
 taric acid ; the fatty matter which fioats on 
 the surface of the liquid is then skimmed off 
 the aqueous portion, and the latter submitted 
 to distillation ; the liquid in the receiver is a 
 solution of jatrophic acid. 
 
 Prop., S(c. Volatile ; very acid ; has a nau- 
 seous odour ; is solid at 23°, and vaporizes at 
 3.5° Pahr. It forms salts with the bases, none 
 of which possess any practical importance. 
 
 JATI'MANGE. Prep. From isinglass, 1 oz.; 
 boiling water, 12 oz. ; dissolve, add of any 
 sweet white wine, 4 pint; the yolks of 2 eggs 
 beaten to a frpth, and the grated yellow peel 
 of two lemons ; mix well, and heat the whole 
 over the fire until sufficiently thickened, stir- 
 ring all the time ; lastly, serve it np or pour 
 it into moulds. 
 
 JAUN'DICE. Syn. loTBEUS, Moebtts ltt- 
 TBOins, L. A disease characterised by a yel- 
 low colour of the eyes and skin, deep-coloured 
 urine, and pale alvine evacuations. It appears 
 to arise from a disordered action of the brliarj 
 organs. The treatment consists of the admi- 
 
 nistration of saline aperients, and small doses 
 of blue-pill, followed by tonics and diaphoretics. 
 The action of these remedies should be pro- 
 moted by the copious use of diluents (particu- 
 larly saline water), and exertion in the open 
 air, when possible. When there is much pain 
 and vomiting, anodynes (or opium, morphia, 
 &c.) may be administered. Janndice is not 
 in itself a dangerous disease, but it some- 
 times lays the patient open to attacks of others 
 which are so. 
 
 Animals. — Jaundice affects cattle, givingrise 
 to a tawny hne of the skin and membranes, 
 Pleuro-pneumonia is frequently followed by 
 jaundice. The best remedies are large doses 
 of Epsom salts combined with ginger; and if 
 these fail to remove the costiveness, a drachm 
 of calomel should be added. If necessary, the 
 above purge must be repeated next day, the 
 action being assisted by giving the animal 
 warm fluids. 
 
 Tonics and stimulants are also sometimes 
 superadded to the above treatment. 
 
 JEL'LT. Syn. Gblatina, L. A term now 
 very loosely applied to various substances which 
 are liquid or semi-liquid whilst warm, and be- 
 come gelatinous on cooling. 
 
 Jellies are coloured by the addition of the 
 usual stains used by confectioners, and are 
 rendered transparent by clarification with 
 white of egg. 
 
 Jelly, Almond. Syn. Gelatiita amtoda- 
 LAETJM, L. Prep. From rich almond milk, 
 i pint ; thick hartshorn jelly, i pint ; susar, 
 ii oz. ; with 2 or 3 bitter almonds and a little 
 lemon peel, to flavour, heated together, strain ed, 
 and moulded. 
 
 Jelly, Ar'row-root. Syn. Gelatina m aeantje, 
 L. From arrow-root, \\ oz., to water, 1 pint. 
 Tons les mois jelly is made in the same way. 
 
 Jelly, Bis'cuit. Prep. From white biscuit 
 (crushed beneath the rolling-pin), 4 oz. ; cold 
 water, 2 quarts ; soak for some hours, boil to 
 one half, strain, evaporate to 1 pint, and add, 
 of white sugar, | lb., red wine, 4 oz., and 
 cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful. In weakness of the 
 stomach, and in dysentery and diarrhea, and 
 in convalescence combined with rich beef 
 gravy or soup. 
 
 Jelly, Bladder-wrack. (Dr Russell.) Syn. 
 Gelatina fuci. Prep. Bladder-wrack {Fucus 
 vesiculosus), 2 lbs. ; sea water, 2 lbs. ; macerate 
 for 15 days. Applied to glandular tumours. 
 
 Jelly, Bread, Syn. Panada ; Geiatina 
 PANis, L. Prep. Cut a French roll into slices, 
 toast them on each side, and boil in water, 
 1 quart, until the whole forms a jelly, adding 
 more water if required ; strain, and add sugar, 
 milk, &c., to palate. It may be made with bnith 
 from which the fat has been skimmed, instead 
 of water. Used as the last. 
 
 Jelly, Broth. Syn. Soup-jellt. Prom broth 
 or sonp from which the fat has been skimmed, 
 evaporated until it becomes gelatinous on cool- 
 ing. A few shreds of isinglass are commonly 
 added. See Soup (Portable). 
 
JELLY 
 
 927 
 
 Jelly, Calvei' Feet. Prep. For each foot take 
 of water 3 pints, and boil to one half ; cool, 
 ekim off the fat, and again boil for 2 or 3 
 minutes with the peel of a lemon and a little 
 spice ; remove it from the fire, strain through 
 a jeliy bug (see Filtkatioh), add the juice of 
 u lemon and a glass of wine, and when it has 
 cooled a little put it into glasses or ' forms.' 
 
 Obt. If this jelly is required to be very 
 transparent it must be treated as follows : — 
 After Ihe fat is removed it should be gently 
 warmed, just enough to melt it, next well 
 beaten with the white of an egg and the sea- 
 soning, and then brought to a boil for a minute 
 or two, when it will be ready for straining, 
 &c. The calves' feet should not be bought 
 ready boiled, but only scalded. Cows' feet 
 (' CO'W HKBLs') make nearly as good jelly as 
 that from calves' feet, and are much more 
 economical. 
 
 Jelly, Ceylon Moss. Syn. Gblatina gbaoi- 
 lAKlJ?, L. JPrep. (Dr Sigmond.) Boil Ceylon 
 moss (Oranularia liohenoides), i oz. in water, 
 1 quart, for 25 minutes, or till the liquid jellies 
 on cooling; strain and flavour. Very nutri- 
 tious ; recommended in irritation of the mucous 
 membranes and phthisis. 
 
 Jelly, Copaiba. (M. Caillot.) Syn. Gbla- 
 TtNA coi'AlBA. Prep, Isinglass, 4 parts ; 
 water, 40 parts ; dissolve in a water bath, and 
 add 20 parts of sugar ; pour the clear liquid 
 jelly into a warm mortar, and add copaiba, 60 
 parts; triturate, and pour in a vessel to jelly. 
 Flavour with some aromatic essential oil or 
 balsam of tolu. 
 
 Jelly, Cor'sican Moss. St/n. Gelatina hel- 
 MISTHOOORTI, L. JPrep. (P. Cod.) Corsicaii 
 mi)S3 (Oracilaria Selminthooorton), 1 oz. ; 
 water, q. s. ; boil 1 hour, and strain 8 fl. oz. ; 
 to this add of isinglass (previously soaked in 
 a little water), 1 dr. ; refined suirar, 2 oz. ; 
 white wine, a wine-glassful. Vermifuge. See 
 DECOCTIOIf. 
 
 Jelly, Fruit. Under this head we include 
 those jellies made from the juices ol 
 fruits. 
 
 Frep. The strained juice mixed with J to i 
 its weight of refined sugar, uniil it 'jellies' on 
 cooling, observing to carefully remove the 
 scum as it rises. The process should be con- 
 ducted by a gentle heat, and it is preferable 
 not to add the sugar until the juice is some- 
 what concentrated, as by lengthened boiling the 
 quality of the sugar is injured. 
 
 Oba. Jellies are sold in pots or glasses, like 
 JAMS. Both jams and fruit jellies are refrige- 
 rant and laxative ; they are, however, mostly 
 employed as relishes, especially during fevers 
 and convalescences. The principal fruit jellies 
 are : — Apple, BARnERBT, ohebby (from either 
 Cornelian or Kentish cherries), oubeant (black, 
 white, and red), kldeebbebt, ooosebeebt, 
 PLDM, QUINCE, easpbeeby. See Lemon and 
 Obanqe jelly. 
 
 Jolly, Glycerin. Syn. Gelatina glyce- 
 BlNi. Mix glycerin to the required consist- 
 
 ence with compound tragacanth powder. Or 
 take powdered gum Arabic, \ oz. ; syrup, 4 oz. 
 (3 oz. of sugar to 1 oz. of water); the yolks 
 of 3 eggs; olive oil, 4 oz. ; glycerin, 2 oz. Rub 
 the gum and syrup well together, add the 
 yolks, and when mixed add the oil and plvce- 
 rine, previously triturated together. Applied 
 to chapped bauds, abrasions, &c. See Glycb- 
 BIN ov Stabch. 
 
 Jelly, Gra"vy. By evaporating meat gravies 
 
 Jelly, Harts'hom. Syn. Gelatina cobnit 
 CEBVi, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Hartshorn shav- 
 ings, 8 oz. ; wash it in water, then boil in clean 
 water, 3 pints, till reduced to one half; strain, 
 press, add of sugar, 4 oz., the juice 'of one 
 lemon, and the white of an egg beaten up with 
 a little cold water ; mix well, clarify by heat, 
 evaporate till it jellies on cooling, then add 
 the peel of the lemon, and set it in a cool place. 
 It may be flavoured with wine, spices, &c. 
 Very nutritious. 
 
 Jelly, Iceland Uoss. Syn. Gelatina li- 
 CHENIS, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Iceland moss, 
 2 oz. ; soak for 1 or 2 days in cold water, then 
 boil for 1 hour in water, q. s. to yield a strong 
 solution ; stain, decant the clear after repose, 
 apply heat, and dissolve therein of isinglass, 
 1 dr. ; evaporate the whole to a proper con- 
 sistence, put it into pots, and set them in a 
 cool place. Nutritions. Recommended in 
 phthisis. The jelly of Iceland moss and cin- 
 chona (OELATINA LI0HEN18 CtTM CINCHONA — 
 P. Cod.) is made by adding to the above syrup 
 of cinchona, 6 fl. oz. 
 
 Jelly, Iceland Moss (Sweetened). (P. C.) 
 Syn. Gelatina liohenis sacchakata. Prep. 
 Saccharatcd Iceland moss (see Iceland moss, 
 SacCHABATEd), 7i oz. ; sugar, 7i oz. ; nut. r, 
 15 oz. ; orange-flower water, 1 oz. Boil the 
 first three substances and remove the scum 
 which forms, and then let the jelly flow into 
 a vessel which contains the orange-flower 
 water. 
 
 Jelly, r'rish Moss. Syn. Gelatina chon- 
 DBi, L. Prep. From Irish or carrageen moss. 
 See Decoction. 
 
 Jelly, I"Binglass. Syn. Confectionkes' 
 JELLY ; Gelatina ichthyocoll^, L. Pr/-p. 
 From isinglass dissolved Hi water by boiling, 
 and evaporated till it ' jellies ' on cooling, 
 adding flavouring, as desired, li oz. of good 
 isinglass makes fully a pint of very strong jelly. 
 See Blancmange, Isinglass, Caltes-fjiKT 
 Jellt, &c. 
 
 Jelly, Lem'on. From isinglass, 2 oz. ; water, 
 1 quart; boil, add of sugar 1 lb., clarify, and 
 when nearly cold add the juice of 5 lemons, 
 and the grated yellow rinds of 2 oranges and 
 of 2 lemons ; mix well, strain off the peel, and 
 put it into glasses. 
 
 Jelly No'yean. As Prircn jellt, but 
 strongly flavoured with bitter almonds. 
 
 Jelly, Or'ange. From orange juice, 1 pint; 
 let it stand over the grated yellow rind of 3 
 or4of the oranges for a few hours, then strain, 
 and add, of loaf sugar, J lb., or more, isinglass 
 
928 
 
 JEEVINE— JUNIPER BERRIES 
 
 i oz., dissolved in water, 1 pint ; mix, and put 
 It into glasses before it cools. 
 
 Jelly, Puncli. From isinglass, 2 oz.j sngar. 
 If lb.; water, 1 pint; dissolve, add of lemon 
 juice, i pint; the peels of 2 lemons and of 2 
 oranges; rum and brandy, of each i pint; 
 keep it in a covered vessel until cold, then 
 liquefy it by o. very gentle heat, strain, and 
 pour it into moulds, A pleasant and decep- 
 tive way of swallowing alcohol. 
 
 Jelly, Quince. (E. P., 1744.} St/n. Gbla- 
 TINA OYDONIOEUM. Frep. Juioe of quinces, 
 
 3 lbs. ; sugar, lib. ; boil to a jelly. 
 
 Jelly, Rice. Sj/n. Cbeme de Riz. From 
 rice bdlled in water, sweetened, and flavoured. 
 
 Jelly, Sago. Prep. Soak sago in cold water 
 for 1 hour, strain, and boil in fresh soft water 
 until it becomes transparet; then add wine, 
 sugar, clear broth, milk, or spices, to flavour. 
 1 oz. of sugar makes a pint of good jelly. 
 
 Jelly, Salep. (Soubeiran). S^n. Gelatina 
 SALEPiE. Frep. Ground salep, 4 dr. ; sugar, 
 
 4 oz. ; water, a sufiicient quantity. Boil to 
 12 oz., and flavour to the taste. 
 
 Jelly, Ta'pioca. As Saoo jellt, but using 
 tapioca in lieu of sago. 
 
 JEEVINE. CjoHjNjOj An alkaloid dis- 
 covered in 1837, by Simon, in the root of the 
 Veratrum album, and by Mitchell, in 1874, in 
 the root of the Veratrum viride. Dr H. C. 
 Wood, jun., describing the physiological efiects 
 of jervine, says they consist " in general weak- 
 ness, lowering of arterial pressure, a slow 
 pulse, profuse salivation, and finally convul- 
 sions." Jervine was analysed by Will, who 
 ascribed to it the above composition. 
 
 JES'UIT'S BARK. See ClifCHOlfA. 
 
 JESUIT'S DROPS. See Dbops. 
 
 JESUIT'S POWDER. Powdered cinchona 
 bark. 
 
 JET. A variety of mineral bituminous 
 carbon, very hard, and susceptible of a fine 
 polish. 
 
 JEWELS. See Diamond, Emebaid, Gems, 
 &c. 
 
 JEWEL'RY. The gold in articles of jewelry, 
 whether solid or plated, which are not intended 
 to be exposed to very rough usage, is generally 
 ' coloured,' as it is called in the trade. This 
 is done as follows : — 
 
 1. (Reb sold ooiouE.) The article, after 
 being coated with the amalgam, is gently 
 heated, and, whilst hot, is covered with gilder's 
 wax ; it is then ' flamed' over a wood fire, and 
 Btrongly heated, during which time it is kept 
 in a state of continual motion, to equalise the 
 action of the fire on the surface. When all 
 the composition has burned away, the piece is 
 plunged into water, cleansed with the 'scratch- 
 brush' and vinegar, and then washed and bur- 
 nished. To bring up the beauty of the colour, 
 the piece is sometimes washed with a strrag 
 solution of verdigris in vinegar, next gently 
 heated, plunged whilst hot into water, and 
 then washed, first in vinegar, or water soured 
 with nitric acid, and then in pure water ; it 
 
 is, lastly, burnislied, and again washed and 
 dried. 
 
 2. (Oe-molit coioue.) This is given by 
 covering the parts with a mixture of powdered 
 hematite, alum, common salt, and vinegar, and 
 applying heat until the coating blackens, when 
 the piece is plunged into cold water, rubbed 
 with a brush dipped in vinegar, or in water 
 strongly soured with nitric acid, again washed 
 in pure water, and dried. During this process, 
 the parts not to be dried in 'or-molu colour' 
 should be carefully protected. 
 
 The frauds practised in reference to the 
 • fineness' of the metal used in jewelry is 
 noticed under Gold (Jeweller's). See also 
 AssAYiNo, Diamond, Gems, Gildins liquoe, 
 GiLDiNct wax, &c. 
 
 JEW'S PITCH. See Asphaititm. 
 
 JOURNAL BOXES, Alloy for. Copper, 24 
 parts; tin 24 parts; antimony, 8 parts. First 
 melt the copper, then add the tin, and lastly 
 the antimony. 
 
 JUICE (Spanish). See Extbact and 
 
 LlQUOEIOE. 
 
 JU'JUBE. A fruit resembling a small plum, 
 produced by various specie^ of Zizt/phus. Com- 
 bined with sugar, it forms the jujube paste 
 of the shops, when genuine; but that now 
 almost always sold under the name is a mix- 
 ture of gum and sugar, slightly coloured and 
 flavoured. 
 
 JU'LEP. Syn. Julap ; Julepum, Julepus, 
 Juiapium, L. a term usually regarded as 
 synonymous with 'mixtube'; but according 
 to the best authorities, implying a medicine 
 which is used as a vehicle for other forms of 
 medicine. The word comes through the 
 French, from a Persian expression, which sig- 
 nifies 'sweet drink.' A julep, according to 
 Continental writers, is a drink of little activity, 
 generally composed of distilled waters, infu- 
 sions, and syrups, to which mucilages and acids 
 are sometimes added ; " but never powders or 
 oily substances, which could interfere with its 
 transparency." In England the juleps of old 
 pharmacy are now classed under ' mixtuees.' 
 
 JU"NiPER BERRIES. Syn. Junipeki 
 BAOO^, J. communis BACOa; (Ph. E.), JUKI- 
 PEEU8 (Ph. L.), L. The fruit of the Juniperus 
 communis, or common juniper tree. In the old 
 Ph. L. & D. both the tops and berries (juni- 
 peki peuotUs ET OACUMINA— Ph. L. 1836; 
 JUNIPEEUS — BACC^, CACUMINA — Ph. D. 1862) 
 were ordered. The berries are stomachic and 
 diuretic, and have been long employed in drop- 
 sies, either alone or combined with foxglove 
 and squills. The tops (summitates) have 
 been highly praised in scurvy and certain 
 cutaneous affections. — Dose, 1 to 2 dr., made 
 into a conserve with sugar, or in the form of 
 infusion or tea. 
 
 Donath found 100 parts of the berries to 
 contain — 
 
 Water .... 2944 
 Volatile oil . . . -91 
 Formic acid . . . 1-86 
 
JUNKET— KAMALA 
 
 929 
 
 Broaghl forward . 
 
 32-21 
 
 Acotic acid 
 
 ■94 
 
 Sralic acid (combined) 
 
 •21 
 
 Oxalic acid 
 
 traces 
 
 \Vax-like fatty matter . 
 
 ■64 
 
 Green resin (from ethereal 
 
 
 solation) 
 
 8-46 
 
 Hard brown resin (from 
 
 
 nlcoboUc solution) 
 
 1-29 
 
 Bitter principle (called 
 
 
 juniperin) . 
 
 •37 
 
 Pectine . . . . 
 
 •73 
 
 Albuminous substance! . 
 
 4-45 
 
 Sugar . . . . 
 
 29 65 
 
 Col hi lone , 
 
 1583 
 
 Mineral sabstances . 
 
 233 
 
 9M1 
 JUN'KET. St/n. DBVONsniBB jonket, 
 CuuD JELLT. Ji'rom warm milk put into a 
 bowl, and then turned with a little rennet ; 
 some scalded cream and sugar are next added, 
 with a sprinkling of cinnamon on the top, 
 without breaking the curd. Much esteemed by 
 holiday folk iji the western counties during 
 the hot weather of summer. Sometimes, very 
 strangely, a little brandy finds its way into 
 these trifles. 
 
 JUTE. This is the fibre yielded by the 
 Cof chorus eapaularis, a lime tree growing in 
 India and China. It is the material of which 
 sacks, gunny bags, and coarse thread are made. 
 It mixes even with linen or cotton, and hence 
 may not improbably be employed as a sophis- 
 ticant of these substances. 
 
 The plates on piige 929 exhibit the different 
 microscopic appearances of the three sub- 
 stances. 
 
 KALEIDOSCOPE. . Syti. Flo-web-olass. A 
 pleasing philosophical toy invented by Sir 
 David Brewster, which presents to the eye a 
 series of symmetrical changing views. It is 
 foi-med as follows : — Two slips of silvered glass, 
 from 6 to 10 inches long, and from 1 to 1 i 
 inch wide, and rather narrower at one end 
 than the other, are joined together lengthwise, 
 by one of their edges, by means of a piece of 
 silk or cloth glued on their backs j they are 
 then placed in a tube of tin or pasteboard, 
 blackened inside, and a little longer than is 
 necessary to contain them, and are fixed by 
 means of small pieces of cork, with their faces 
 at an angle to each other that is an even 
 aliquot part of 4 right angles (as the J, J, -stj, 
 &c.). The other end of the tube is then closed 
 wiih an opaque screen or cover, through which 
 a small eveliole is made in the centre; and 
 the other end is fitted, first with a plate of 
 common glass, and at the distance of about Jth 
 of an inch, with a plain piece of slightly ground 
 glass, parallel to the former; in the inter- 
 mediate place or cell are placed the objects to 
 form the images. These consist of coloured 
 pieces of glass, gla.«s beads, orany other coloured 
 diaphanous bodies, sufiiciently small to move 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 freely in the cell, and to assume new positions 
 when the tube is shaken or turned round. A 
 tube 80 prepared presents an infinite number 
 of changing and symmetrical pictures, no one 
 of which can be exactly reproduced. This 
 toy is so easily constructed, is so very inex- 
 pensive, and at the same time so cap.ible of 
 affording an almost inexhaustible fund of 
 amusement to the young, thot we advise our 
 juvenile friends to try their bands at its con- 
 struction. Any common tube of tin or paste- 
 board may be used, and strips of glass smoked 
 on one side will answer for mirrors. 
 
 KA'LI. The name formerly applied to a 
 speciesof SoiioiaemployedformakingBARiiLA. 
 It is sometimes used as a designation for the 
 crude alkalies, and is the Qerman synonym for 
 ' potassa.' 
 
 Kali, Acid'ulated. Syn. Leuon and eaii, 
 LsuoNZATED K. A common preparation of 
 the shops for making a pleasant effervescing 
 drifught. It is sometimes incorrectly styled 
 ' citrate of potash.' Prep. 1. Carbonate of 
 soda and tartaric acid, of each 6 oz. ; lump 
 sugar, 1 lb.; all in the state of fine powder, 
 and separately dried by a very gentle heat, 
 after which they are mixed together, flavoured 
 with essence of lemon, 1 dr., rubbed through a 
 gauze sieve in a warm dry situation, put into 
 bottles, and corked down immediately. 
 
 2. Fitiely powdered white sugar, 16 lbs. ; 
 tartaric acid, 4i lbs. ; carbonate of soda, 4 lbs. ; 
 essence of lemon, 1 oz. ; as the last. Keeps 
 well. A dessert-spoouful of either thrown 
 into a glassful of water makes a pleasant effer- 
 vescing draught. 
 
 KA'LIUM. [L.] Potnssium. 
 
 KAL'YCOB. A cosmetic lotion ; it resem- 
 bles ' Gowland'b Lotion,' but is got up in a 
 rather more pleasing style. See Lotion. 
 
 KAUAIiA. A powder consisting of the 
 minute glands obtained from the capsules of 
 the RoUlera tinctoria, a plant belouging to 
 the nat. ord. Euphorbiacea. Kamala is im- 
 ported from India, where it is known under 
 the name of kameela. The rottlera, from 
 which it is obtained, is a tree from 15 to 20 
 feet in height, indigenous to India and to 
 many of the East Indian Is^lands. 
 
 Kamala has long been employed in India as 
 a remedy for tapeworm, and within the last 
 few years has been given for the same purpose 
 in this country with very general success. It 
 may be administered in doses of from thirty 
 grains to three drachms, suspended in water, 
 rubbed up with mucilage, or mixed with syrup. 
 In large doses, such as three drachms, it some- 
 times purges violently. After the third or 
 fourth motion the worm is generally evacuated 
 dead. A second dose may be taken in about 
 four hours should the first fail to act ; or in- 
 stead of a second dose, some castor oil may be 
 given. Kamala is also used extcrnnUy by the 
 natives of India in various skin complaints, 
 particularly in scabies. It is also said to have 
 proved useful in herpetic ringworm. 
 
 59 
 
JUTE 
 
KAOLIN— EERMES 
 
 931 
 
 Dr ilnderson obtained from the resinous 
 colnuring maiter, which ia the principal con- 
 stituent of kamula, u yellow crystalline sab> 
 ■t«nce, to which he gave the name rottUrin. 
 The existence of rottlerin has since been con- 
 firmed by Mr Groves, who found that it 
 becomes changed by exposure, a circumstance 
 to which hu attributes its non-detection in old 
 specimens of the drug, and to which may very 
 reasonably be attributed Leube's failure to 
 find it. 
 
 The 'British Pharmacopoeia' ascribes the 
 following ' characters ' to kaniala :— " A fine 
 granular mobile powder, of a brick-red colour; 
 it is with difficulty mixed with water, but 
 when boili-d with alcohol the greater part is 
 dissolved, forming a red solution. Ether dis- 
 eolves most of it, the residue consisting prin- 
 cipally of tufted hairs. It nliould be free from 
 sund or earthy impurities." 
 
 Karaala forms a very considerable article of 
 export from India, it being a valuable dye. 
 
 KA'OIiIN'. Syn. China ci,at, Poboblain 
 0. A fine white clay, derived from the decom- 
 position of the felspar of granitic rocks. The 
 potteries and porcelain works of this country 
 are chiefly supplied with this substance from 
 cxten^iv« tracts of it which occur near St 
 Austie, Cornwall. See Clay. 
 
 Eisner ' gives the following process for dis- 
 tintcnishing kaolin from ordinary clay : — He 
 agitates it in a test-tube wicli pure strong 
 sulphuric acid till n uniform mixture is pro- 
 duced, decants the acid after subsidence, 
 dilutes it carefully with six volumes of water, 
 and supersaturates tiie cooled solution with 
 ammonia- 
 Kaolin thus treated separates but slowly 
 from the strong acid, and the diluted acid 
 solution gives an immediate white precipitate 
 witii ammonia, whereas ordinary day is but 
 slightly attacked by the acid, separates quickly 
 from it, and the acid after dilution gives but 
 an insishificant precipitate with ammonia. 
 
 KAFKOMOR. Syn. Capnomor. A colour- 
 less oil obtained from crude kreasote by dis- 
 tillation with potassa. It boils at 360° Fahr., 
 has a peculiar odour, and is insoluble in water, 
 but readily soluble in an alkaline solution of 
 krea>ote. 
 
 EATAL'TSIS. Syn. Catalysis, Contact 
 ACTION. Terms applied to a class of chemical 
 actions in which the decompositions, and the 
 recombination of the elements of compound 
 bodies, is apparently excited by the mere pre- 
 sence of, or contact witlj, other bodies, which 
 do not tliemselves suffer such a change. 
 
 KAVA-KAVA. See Ava. 
 
 KELP. The alkaline ashes obtained by 
 burning various species of sea-weed, formerly 
 much used for the preparaiion of carbonate 
 of soda. The weeds most valued for the 
 purpo>e are the Fucus vesictdosua^odosus, and 
 tfrratus, and the Laminaria ouliosa ani 
 digitala. 
 
 ' Dingl., 'Pot. Journ.'(WaUB). 
 
 Of late years the manufacture of kelp, like 
 that of barilla, has been almost abandoned, 
 except as a source of iodine. Mr E. C. C. 
 Stanford, by carefully collecting and com- 
 pressing the weed, and afterwards subraittini; 
 it to dry distillation, doubles the yield of 
 iodine and bromine, and obtains in addition 
 various valuable hydrocarbons. See Babilla, 
 lODiNK, Soda, &c. 
 
 KEE'MES. Syn. Keemkb gbains, Al- 
 
 KBBMKS; GeaNCM TINOTORIUM, L. The 
 dried bodies of the female Coccus Ilieu of 
 Linnseus, a small insect of the order Semiptera, 
 which flourishes on the Ilex oak. It has been 
 u«ed as a red and scarlet dye-stuff ever since 
 the time of Moses ; but is now superseded in 
 this country by cochineal, which gives colours 
 of much greater brilliancy. 
 
 EER'MES MIN'EEAl. Syn. Kebsies 
 MINEBALB, E. MINEBALIS, L. An amorphous 
 tersulphide of antimony, containing a small 
 admixture of teroxide of antimony and sul- 
 phuride of potassium. Frep, 1. Ik the Htr- 
 MID WAY.— o. (P. Cod.) Carbonate of soda 
 (eryst.), 128 parts (say 21 parts), is dissolved 
 in water, 1280 parts (say 210 parts), contained 
 in a cast-iron pan; tersulphide of antimony 
 (in fine powder), 6 parts (say 1 part), is next 
 added, and the whole boiled lor an hour, with 
 constant agitation with a wooden spatula ; 
 the boiling liquid is then filtered into a heated 
 earthen pan containing a small quantity of 
 very hot water, and the solution is allowed to 
 cool as slowly as possible; the red powder 
 which is deposited is collected on a cloth, pn 
 which it is well washed with cold water, and 
 the superfluous water being removed by pres- 
 sure, the powder is dried by a gentle heat, 
 and is, lastly, passed througli a fine silk-gauze 
 sieve, and preserved from light and air. 
 
 b. (Wholesale.) From black sulphuride of 
 antimony, 4 lbs. ; carbonate of potassa, 1 lb. ; 
 boll in water, 2 galls., for half an hour, filter, 
 &c., as before. The undissolved portion of 
 sesquisulphuret of antimony may be boiled 
 again several times with fresh potassa and 
 water, until the whole is dissolved. Inferior 
 to the last. 
 
 c. (Clczbll's KEEMES.) Prom tersulphide 
 of antimony, 4 parts j crystallised carbonate of 
 soda, 90 parts; water, 1000 parts; boil, &c., 
 as in 1, a, and dry the powder, folded up in 
 paper, at a heat not exceeding 90° Fahr. 
 
 2. In the dey way. — a. (P. Cod.) Car- 
 bonate of potassa, 100 parts; tei-sulphide of 
 antimony, 50 parts; sulphur, 3 parts; mix, 
 fuse in a Hessian crucible, pour tbt melted 
 mass into an iron mortar, and when cold reduce 
 it to powder; next boil it in water, 1000 parts, 
 contained in an iron vessel, filter the solution, 
 and otherwise proceed as before. Product : 
 large, hnt of inferior quality. 
 
 4. (Fownes.) From tersulphide of anti- 
 monv, 5 parts; carbonate of soda (dry). 3 
 parts; water, 80 parts; fuse, &c., as before. 
 Nearly equal to 1, a. 
 
932 
 
 KETCHUP 
 
 e, (Berzelins.) Carbonate of potassa (pure), 
 3 parts; tersulphide of antimony, 8 parts; 
 water, q. s. Resembles the last. 
 
 Prop., ^c. An odourless, tasteless powder, 
 insoluble in both water and alcohol, and, when 
 pure and carefully prepared, entirely soluble 
 in hydrosulphate of ammonia. As prepared 
 by the formulas 1, a, and 1, o, it is a very dark 
 crimson powder, of a velvety smoothness ; but 
 that from the other formulae has a brownish- 
 red colour, more or less deep. The secret of 
 preparinj? this compound of a fine and velvety 
 quality, like that imported from the Conti- 
 nent, consists simply in filtering the solution 
 whilst boiling hot, and allowing it to cool very 
 slowly, by placing the vessel in an appropriate 
 situation for that purpose. Another important 
 point, according to Rose, is to employ suffi- 
 cient alkali to keep the whole of the teroxide 
 of antimony in solution as the liquid cools, 
 instead of allowing a part of it to he deposited 
 with the kermes. This is the reason of the 
 superior quality and mildness of that prepared 
 according to the directions of the French 
 Codex. The liquor decanted from the 'kermes 
 mineral' yields the golden sulphide of anti- 
 mony on the addition of an acid, for which 
 purpose the acetic is generally employed. 
 
 IDose, i gr. to 3 or 4 gr., as a diaphoretic, 
 cathartic, or emetic. It occupies in foreign 
 practice the place of our James's Powder. 
 
 KETCH'OP. Syn. Catchdp, Catsup, Katoh- 
 UP. The juice of certain vegetables strongly 
 salted and spiced, so as to be used as sauce ; 
 or a simple sauce made without the natural 
 juice as a substitute for the true ketchup. 
 The following are the principal varieties : — 
 
 Ketchup, Camp. Prep. Take of good old 
 beer, 2 quarts; white wine, 1 quart; anchovies 
 4 01.; mix, heat it to the boiling-point, re- 
 move it from the fire, and add of peeled shalots, 
 3 oz.; mace, nutmegs, ginger, and black pepper, 
 of each, bruised, \ oz. ; macerate for 14 .days, 
 with frequent agitation, then allow it to settle, 
 and decant and bottle the clear portion. 
 
 Ketchup, Cu' cumber. Prep. From ripe cu- 
 cumbers, in the same way as mushroom ketchup. 
 Very luscious. Mixed with cream, or melted 
 butter, it forms an excellent white sauce for 
 fowls, &c. 
 
 Ketchup, Marine'. Prep. Take of strong old 
 beer, 1 gall.; anchovies, 1^ lb.; peeled shalots 
 (crushed), 1 lb.; bruised mace, mustard seed, 
 . and cloves, of each i oz. ; bruised pepper and 
 ginger, of each J oz. ; mushroom ketchup and 
 vinegar, of each 1 quart; heat the mixture to 
 the boiling point, put it into a bottle, and ma- 
 cerate for 14 days, frequently shaking ; then 
 strain through flannel, and bottle it for use. 
 Excellent with anything ; like the last, it 
 makes good white sauce, and keeps well. 
 
 Ketchup, Mush'room, Prep. 1. Sprinkle 
 mushroom flaps, gathered in September, with 
 common salt, stir them occasionally tor 2 or 3 
 days, then lightly squeeze out the juice, and 
 add to each gallon cloves and mustard seed. 
 
 of each, bruised, } oz.; allspice, black pepper, 
 and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz.; gently heat 
 to the boiling-point in a covered vessel, mace- 
 rate for 14 days, and decant or strain. Should 
 it exhibit any indications of change in a few 
 weeks, bring it again to the boiling-point, 
 with a little more spice, and a table- spoonful 
 more salt. 
 
 2. Take of mushroom juice, 2 galls.; pi- 
 mento, 2 oz.; cloves, black pepper, mustard 
 seed, and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 oz.; salt, 
 1 lb. (or to taste); shalots, 3 oz. ; gently 
 simmer for 1 hour in a covered vessel, cool, 
 strain, and bottle. 
 
 3. Take of mushroom juice, 100 galls. ; 
 black pepper, 9 lbs. ; allspice, 7 lbs. ; ginger, 
 5 lbs.; cloves, 1 lb. (all bruised); salt, q. s. ; 
 gently simmer in, a covered tin boiler for 1 
 hour. 
 
 Ketchup, Oys'ter. Prep. Pulp the oysters, 
 and to each pint add, of sherry wine, or very 
 strong old ale, 1 pint; salt, 1 oz.; mace, i oz.; 
 black pepper, 1 dr.; simmer very gently for 
 10 minutes, strain, cool, bottle, and to each 
 bottle add a spoonful or two of brandy, and 
 keep them in a cool situation. Cockle ketch- 
 up and MUSSEL KETCHUP are made in the 
 same way. Used to flavour sauces when the 
 fish are out of season ; excellent with rump 
 steak, &c. 
 
 Ketchup, Pon'tac. Prep. Take of the juice 
 of elderberries and strong vinegar, of each 1 
 pint; anchovies, i lb.; shalots and spice, q. s. 
 to flavour ; boil for 5 minutes, cool, strain, and 
 bottle. Used to make fish sauces. 
 
 Ketchup, Toma'to. Prep. Prepared from 
 tomatoes or love apples, like mushroom ket- 
 chup, except that a little very strong Chili 
 vinegar is commonly added. An admirable 
 relish for * high' or rich flavoured viands. 
 
 Ketchup, Wal'nnt. Prep. 1. Take of the 
 expressed juice of young walnuts, when tender, 
 1 gall. ; boil 10 minutes, skim, add of ancho- 
 vies, 2 lbs.; shalots, 1 lb.; cloves and mace, of 
 each 1 oz. ; 1 clove of garlic, sliced ; simmer 
 in a covered vessel for 15 minutes, strain, cool, 
 and bottle, adding a little fresh spice to each 
 bottle, and salt, q. a. Will keep good in a cool 
 place for 20 years. 
 
 2. Take of green walnut shells, 16 galls.; 
 salt, 5 lbs. ; mix and beat together for a week, 
 press out the liquor, and to every gallon add, 
 of allspice, 4 oz. ; ginger, 3 oz. ; pepper and 
 cloves, of each 2 oz. ; all bruised; simmer for 
 half an hour, and set aside in a closed vessel 
 and in a cool situation until sufficiently clear. 
 
 3. Take of walnut juice, 1 gall.; vinegar, 1 
 quart; British anchovies (sprats), 3 or 4 lbs.; 
 pimento, 3 oz.;. ginger, i oz.; long pepper, J 
 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; shalots, 2 oz. j boil and 
 bottle, as before. 
 
 4. Prom the juice of walnut shells, 30 galls.; 
 salt, 1 bushel ; allspice and shalots, of each 
 6 lbs. ; ginger, garlic, and horse-radish, of 
 each 3 lbs. ; essence of anchovies, 3 galls. ; as 
 before. 
 
KIBES— KINO 
 
 933 
 
 Ketchnp, Wine. Frep. Take of mnshroom 
 or walnut ketchup, 1 quart; chopped ancho- 
 vies, \ lb.; 20 shalots; scraped horse-radish, 
 2 oz. ; spice, q. s. ; simmer for 15 minutes, 
 cool, and add of white and red wine, of each 1 
 pint ; miicerate for 1 week, strain, and bottle. 
 
 General 'Remarks. In preparing the above 
 articles, vessels of glazed earthenware, or stone- 
 ware, or well-tinned copper pans, shoald alone 
 be used to contain them whilst being boiled or 
 heated, as salt and vegetable juices rapidly 
 corrode copper, and render the ketchnp poi- 
 sonous. Nothing in the shape of copper, lead 
 or pewter should be allowed to touch them. 
 Even a plated copper spoon left in a bottle of 
 ketchnp for some time will render its contents 
 poisonous. Unpleasant and even dangerous 
 fits of vomiting, colic, and diarrhcca have re- 
 sulted from the neglect of this precaution. 
 See Sauce, &c. 
 
 KIBES. Tlie vulgar name for ulcerated 
 chilbbins. 
 
 KID'NEYS. Syn. Renes, L. (In anafomy.) 
 The kidneys, as almost every one knows, are 
 abdominal viscera which secrete the urine, and 
 form the great channels by which the effete 
 nitrogenous matter is removed from the blood. 
 They are subject to various affections, both 
 functional and organic, chronic and acute, of 
 which some are imperfectly understood, and 
 others only admit of alleviation, but not of 
 being cured. See Ubinb and Ueinaey af- 
 fections. 
 
 Kidneys. (In cookery.) Soyer recommends 
 kidneys to be dressed by gently broiling them, 
 having previously split them, " so as nearly to 
 divide tliem, leaving the fat in the middle," 
 and " run a skewer through them, that they 
 may remain open." After being rubbed with 
 a little butter, and seasoned with salt and 
 pepper, "they may be served on toast, or with 
 any sauce." "You may also egg and bread- 
 crumb them." "Five minutes su6fice for a 
 sheep or lamb's kidney of common size." 
 (Soycr.) One or two lamb's kidneys, plainly 
 broiled and served up with the gravy in them, 
 eaten along with a little dry-toasted bread, 
 form a most excellent and appropriate 
 luncheon or dinner for a dyspeptic or conva- 
 lescent. 
 
 KIESEBITE. A sulphate of magnesia 
 found in the refuse salt (abraumsalz) of 
 Stassfnrt, neur Magdeburg. It forms about 
 12S of the abraumsalz. It is employed for 
 washing wool and for the manufacture of 
 ' permanent white' by treatment with chloride 
 if barium ; also for the preparation of Glauber 
 salts, and of hypochlorite of magnesia for 
 bleaching linen. See LiifBtr. 
 
 KING'S CUP. Frep. Yellow peel of 1 
 lemon ; lump sugar, IJ oz. ; cold water, 1 pint; 
 infuse 8 or 10 hours, and strain. The addition 
 of a tenspoonful of orange-flower water is a 
 great improvement. Used as a diluent in 
 cases where acid liquors are inadmissible. See 
 Lemonade. 
 
 KING'S EVIL. SeeScROPCLA. 
 
 KING'S YELLOW. See Yellow pig- 
 ments. 
 
 KI'NIC ACID. HCyHuOj. Syn. Qttinic 
 ACID, ClNCHONic ACID. A peculiar monobasic 
 acid occurring in the cinchona barks, in 
 which it exists associated with the alkaloids. 
 
 Kinic acid is somewhat extensively diffused 
 throughoul the vegetable kingdom, being 
 found in the bark of every.species of the true 
 cinchonas, as well as in the leaves of the oak, 
 the elm, the ash, the ivy, the privet, and the 
 coffee plant and berries. It occurs in 'the 
 cinchona barks most probably combined with 
 the alkaloids, which therefore exist in the 
 plant as kinates. 
 
 It is readily obtained from kinate of lime 
 by the action of dilute sulphuric acid; the 
 filtered solution evaporated to the consis- 
 tence of a syrup, gradually deposits large 
 crystals resembling those of tartaric acid. 
 
 Henry and Plisson give the following 
 directions for the preparation of kinic acid : — 
 Make a decoction of cinchona bark with water 
 containing some sulphuric acid, and filter 
 whilst hot, and to the filtrate add gradually 
 freshly precipitated oxide of lead, until the 
 liquid becomes neutral, and changes from a 
 red to a pale yellow colour; care must be 
 taken to add sufficient oxide. The filtrate is 
 freed from lead by passing sulphuretted 
 hydrogen through it, and filtered milk of lime 
 is then added to precipitate the quinine and 
 cinchonine; and tlie filtered liquid is evapo- 
 rated to a syrup, which yields on cooling 
 crystalline callic kinate. To separate tBe 
 acid from the calcic salt, Berzelius directs an 
 aqueous solution of the salt to be made and to 
 be precipitated by basic acetate of leadj the 
 washed precipitate, suspended in water, is 
 then decompo-cd by sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 and tlie solution filtered and evaporated. Or 
 the calcium kinate may be decomposed by an 
 aqueous or alcoholic solution of sulphuric acid.* 
 
 Kinic acid is, in the form of large tubular 
 crystals, fusible at 161° C. These crystals 
 dissolve in two parts of water; they are also 
 soluble in spirits of wine, but scarcely, if at 
 all, in ether. 
 
 It forms salts called kinates. Kinate of 
 calcium is obtained from an acidulated infu- 
 sion of cinchona bark, by adding an excess 
 of lime, filtering, evaporating to a syrup, and 
 setting the liquid aside to crystallise. These 
 crystals are purified by re-dissolving them, 
 treating the solution with a little animal 
 charcoal, aud crystallising the salt as before. 
 The liquid from which the bark-alkaloids liave 
 been precipitated by hydrate of lime affords an 
 almost inexhaustible supply of this salt. See 
 
 KiNONE. 
 
 KI'NO. Syn. Gum kiso ; King (B. P., Ph. 
 L. E. & D.) The juice flowing from the in- 
 cised bark of the Pterooarpus Marsvpium or 
 Indian, hardened in the sun. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 » Watts. 
 
934 
 
 KIRSCHWASSER— KOUSSO 
 
 gr., in powder; as an astringent in chronic 
 diarrhoea, &c. 
 
 Kino, Factitions, met with in the shops, is 
 made as follows : — Logwood, 48 lbs.; tormentil 
 root, 16 lbs. ; madder root, 12 lbs. ; exhaust by 
 coetion with water, q. s.; to the liquor add of 
 catechu, 16 lbs. j dissolve, straiii, and evapo- 
 rate to dryness. Frod. 24 lbs. Extract of 
 mahogany is also commonly sold for kino, 
 
 KIRSCH'WASSER (-vas ser) [Ger.]. Syji. 
 KiESCHEKWABSEB. A spirituous liquor dis- 
 tilled in Germany and Switzerland from 
 bruised cherries. From the rude manner in 
 which it is obtained, and from the distillation 
 of the cherry-stones (which contain prussic 
 acid) with the liquor, it has often a nauseous 
 taste, and is frequently poisonous. When 
 properly made and sweetened, it resembles 
 noyeau. 
 
 EISH. An artificial graphite occasionally 
 produced in iron-sraelting furnaces. It occurs 
 in brilliant scales, and is said to possess pecu- 
 liar efficacy in certain forms of anaemia and 
 chlorosis. 
 
 KITCH'EN . The late Alexis Soyer set down 
 as one of the crying favilts of our countrymen 
 the employment of an apartment for the 
 Icitehen which is either too small or inconve- 
 niently situated, and which, in general, is not 
 sufficiently provided with ' kitchen requisites.' 
 '^ As a workman cannot work properly without 
 the requisite tools, or the painter produce the 
 proper shade without the necessary colours, in 
 like manner does every person wishing to 
 eijonoraise his food and to cook it properly re- 
 quire the proper furniture wherewith to do it." 
 The neglect of these matters, which is so 
 general, is, undoubiedly, a mischievous and 
 deceptive economy. 
 
 KNIVES, to Clean. After being used all 
 knives should be wiped on a coarse cloth, 
 so as to ensure their freedom from grease 
 previous to being cleaned. The practice of 
 dipping the blades in hot water not only fails 
 to remove any grease that may be on them, 
 but is almost sure to loosen the handles. It is 
 very essential to remove any grease from 
 them, since if this remain it will spoil the 
 knife-board. 
 
 For cleaning knives, a proper knife-cleaning 
 machine, purchased of a good maker, is best. 
 But where this is not used, the knife-board 
 ought to be covered with very thick leather, 
 iipon which emery powder should be placed. 
 The emery gives a good polish to the knives, 
 and does not wear them out so quickly as Bath- 
 brick. When the points of the knives be- 
 come worn very thin, they should be rounded by 
 the knife-grinder. Where the bundles are good 
 it will sometimes be worth while to fit them 
 to new blades. 
 
 KNOX'S POWDER. iVep. From common 
 salt, 8 parts ; chloride of li\ne, 3 parts ; mixed 
 together. An ounce of it dissolved in a 
 tumblerful of water furnishes a solution 
 
 which is similar to Labarraque's disinfecting 
 fluid. 
 
 KffiCHLIN'S LIQUID. Prep. From copper 
 filings, 96 gr. ; liquor of ammonia, 2 fl. oz. ; 
 digested together until it turns of a full blue 
 colour, and then mixed with hydrochloric aciu, 
 5 fl. dr.; distilled water, 5 lbs.— Co«e, 1 to 2 
 teaspoonfuls daily ; in scrofula. It is poisonous 
 in large doses. 
 
 KOOCH'LA NUT. See Nux vomica. 
 
 EOU'ffllSS. A liquor prepared by the Cal- 
 mucs, by fermenting mare's milk, previously 
 kept until sour, and then skimmed. By dis- 
 tillation it yields a spirit called rack, racky, or 
 araka. 21 lbs. of fermented milk yield about 
 f pint of low wines, and this, by rectification, 
 gives fully J pint of strong alcohol. It has 
 lately come into use as a remedy for phthisis 
 and general debility. 
 
 The following formula from the Zeitschriff 
 des Oesterr. Apoth. Ver. (1876, 526), for the 
 preparation of so-called KoTTMlBS ExTEACT, 
 is said to be a good one : — 
 
 Powdered sugar of milk . 100 parts 
 Glucose (prepared from starch) 100 „ 
 Cane sugar .... 300 „ 
 Bicarbonate of potassium . 36 „ 
 Common salt . . . 33 „ 
 
 Dissolve these ingredients in 600 parts of 
 boiling frcsli whey of milk, allow the solution 
 to cool, then add 100 parts of rectified spirit, 
 and afterwards 100 parts of strained fresh 
 beer yeast. Stir the mixture well and put into 
 bottles containing a quarter of a litre each. 
 The bottles must be well corked and kept in a 
 cool place. 
 
 For the preparatiori of Koumiss add 5 to 6 
 tablespoonfuls of this extract to a litre of 
 skimmed, lukewarm milk, contained in a 
 bottle of thick glass; cork well, keep the 
 bottle for half a day in a moderately warm 
 room (at 16° — 20° C), and afterwards in a cool 
 cellar, shaking occasionally. The bottle 
 should he filled to within 3 — 4 centimfetres of 
 the cork. After two days the Koumiss is 
 ready for use. 
 
 KOUS'SO. Syn. Cusso, Kosso. This sub- 
 stance is the dried flowers of the Brayera an- 
 theVmintica, an Abyssinian tree which grows to 
 the height of about 20 feet, and belongs to 
 the natural order Bosaceaj. It is one of the 
 most effective remedies known for both va- 
 rieties of tapeworm. The dose for an adult 
 is 3 to 5 dr., in powder, mixed with about 
 half a pint of warm water, and allowed to 
 macerate for 15 or 20 minutes. The method 
 prescribed for its successful administration is 
 as follows : — The patient is to he prepared by 
 a purgative or a lavement, and the use of a 
 very slight diet the day before. The next 
 morning, fasting, a little lemon juice is to be 
 swallowed, or a portion of a lemon sucked, 
 followed by the dose of kousso (both liquid and 
 powder), at S or 4 draughts, at short intervals 
 I of each other, each of which is to be washed 
 
KEEASOTE 
 
 935 
 
 down with oold water acidulated with U'raon 
 jaice. The action of the medicine is sabae- 
 (juently promoted by drinl(ing wealc tea with- 
 out either milk or augar, or water flavoured 
 with lemon juice or toasted bread; and if it 
 does not operate in the course of 3 or 4 hours, a 
 done of castor oil or a saline purgative is taken. 
 
 The flavour of kousso is rattier disagreeable 
 and nauseating. Its operation is speedy and 
 effectual ; but at the same time it is apt to 
 produce, in large doses, great prostration of 
 strength, and other severe symptoms, which 
 unfit it for administration to tlie delicate of 
 both sexes, or during preguancy or affections 
 of the lower viscera. Care should be talcen 
 not to purchase it in powder, as, owing to its 
 high price, it is uniformly adulterated. The 
 powdered kousso of the shops is, in general, 
 nothing more than the root-bark of pomegra- 
 nate, coloured and scented. 
 
 KBE'ASOTE. S^n. Cbeabote, Creosote, 
 Kbbobotb; Cbeasotuk (B. p.. Ph. L. & D.), 
 CuEAzoTDM (Ph. E.), h. A peculiar substance, 
 discovered by Reichenbach, iind so named on 
 account of its powerful antiseptic property. It 
 is a product of the dry distillation of organic 
 bodies, and is the preservative principle of wood 
 smoke and pyroligneous acid. 
 
 Prep. Kreasote is manufactured from wood- 
 tar, in which it is sometimes contained to the 
 amount of 20J to 86g, and from crude pyro- 
 ligneous acid and pyroxilic oil. 
 
 1. (P. Cod.) Wood-tar is distilled in a 
 wrought-iron retort until white vapours of 
 paraffin appear; the heavy oily matter which 
 forms the lower layer of the product is col- 
 lected, washed with water slightly acidulated 
 with sulphuric acid, and then distilled in a 
 glass retort, rejecting the first portions, which 
 are chiefly eupion ; the distillate is treated with 
 a solution of potassa (sp. gr. 1-12), the mixed 
 liquids being shaken strongly together; after 
 it is settled, the layer of eupion which forms is 
 removed from the surface, and the potash- 
 solution of kreasote exposed to the air until it 
 becomes black ; it is then saturated with dilute 
 sulphuric acid, the water liquid rejected, and 
 tlie remainder (consisting of crude kreasote) 
 submitted to distillation in glass ; the treat- 
 ment by exposure, potassa, sulphuric acid, and 
 distillation is repeated three times or of tener, 
 until the combination of kreasote and pobissa 
 ceases to become coloured by the action of the 
 air J it is, lastly, saturated with concentrated 
 phosphoric acid, and again distilled, rejecting 
 the first portion that comes over. 
 
 2. (M. Simon.) A copper still, capable of 
 containing 80 Berlin quarts, is filled to one 
 third with the oil of wood-tar, and heat is 
 applied; first, the more volatile matters pass 
 over ; these do not contain kreasote, and are, 
 therefore, rejected; hut when, by gradually 
 increasing the temperature, there passes over a 
 very acid liquid, which becomes turbid, and at 
 the same time an oil separates from it when 
 mixed with water, the product is collected, and 
 
 the distillation* continued nntil the operator 
 notices a squirting in the still, when this part 
 of the process is complete ; the distilled pro- 
 duct is then nearly saturated with potassa 
 and returned to the still, which, in the mean- 
 time, has been well cleaned out, and about half 
 filled with water, and the distillation is recom- 
 menced ; at first an oil comes over, which floats 
 on water, and which consists chiefly of eupion, 
 and is, therefore, rejected; as soon, however, 
 as the oil begins to sink in the water which 
 comes over with it, it is charged with kreasote, 
 and is carefully collected ; the distilling aque- 
 ous fluid being reintrodnced from time to 
 time into the still, and the di-tillation con- 
 tinued so long as any oil continues to come 
 over with it; the heavy oily distillate is now 
 agitated with liquor of potassa. sp. gr. ri20; 
 the portion which remains undissolved is eu- 
 pion, and is skimmed off; the potassa-solution 
 of kreasote still, however, contains a consi- 
 derable quantity of eupion, the greater portion 
 of which may be separated by dilution and 
 distillation with an equal quantity, or with at 
 least ^ths of its volume of water, fresh water 
 being added from time to time, as long as any 
 eupion comes over with the distilled liquor; 
 when this has ceased to pass over, sulphuric 
 acid is poured into the still in quantity exactly 
 sufficient to saturate ^rd only of the potassa 
 formerly employed, and the distillation is 
 again renewed; kreasote now distils over, the 
 first portions of which, however, still contain 
 eupion, after which pure kreasote follows; that 
 is to say, " a kreasote which, when mixed with 
 6 or 8 times its quantity of a solution of pure 
 potassa, furjiishes a mixture which, by the ad- 
 dition of any further quantity whatever of 
 water, does not become turbid.*' The combi- 
 nation of kreasote remaining in the still is 
 now mixed with sulphuric acid in slight excess, 
 and the distillation renewed, the water coming 
 over with it being from time to time returned 
 into the still; and when no further oil passes 
 over with the water, the process is complete. 
 The kreasote thus obtained is redistilled with 
 the water which has passed over with it, whilst 
 the distilled water, as before, is allowed from 
 time to time to run back into the still. The 
 kreasote thus obtained is then colourless ; but 
 it contains a considerable quantity of water in 
 solution, which is separated by distillation iu 
 a glass retort. The water distils firtt, and 
 then kreasote, which, after cleaning the neck 
 of the retort from the water, must be received 
 in another dry receiver. If the kreasote as- 
 sumes a red colour after being exposed for 
 some time to the air, it must be re-distilled, 
 and then it keeps very well. Korne found that 
 tar prepared from turf furnishes much more 
 kreasote than that from fir- wood, &c. 
 
 3. (Ure.) In operating upon pyroligneous 
 acid, if we dissolve effloresced sulphate of soda 
 in it to saturation, at the temperature of 267° 
 Fahr., the kreasote separates, and floats upon 
 the surface ; it is then decanted, and left iu 
 
936 
 
 KREATIN— KEBNIC ACID 
 
 repose for some days, during *hich it deposits 
 a fresh portion of salt tind vinegar ; it is next 
 saturated whilst hot with carbonate of potassa, 
 and distilled along with water ; a pale yellow 
 oily liquid passes over, which is rectified with 
 phosphoric acid, &c., like the crude product of 
 kreasote from tar. 
 
 Frop. Kreasote is a colourless, transparent 
 liquid, heavier than water, of a peculiar un- 
 pleasant penetrating odour resembling that 
 of smoked meat, and a very pungent and 
 caustic taste ; its vapour irritates the eyes ; it 
 boils at 400° Fahr., and is still fluid at— 16-6° 
 Pahr. ; it produces on white filter paper greasy 
 spots, which disappear if exposed to a heat of 
 212° Fahr. ; dissolves in 80 parts of water, and 
 mixes in all proportions with spirit of wine, 
 the essential and fatty oils, acetic acid, naph- 
 tha, disulphide of carbon, ammonia, and po- 
 tassa ; it dissolves iodine, phosphorus, sulphur, 
 resins, the alkaloids, indigo blue, several salts 
 (especially the acetates and the chlorides of 
 calcium and tin) ; reduces the nitrate and ace- 
 tate of silver ; is resinified by chlorine, and 
 decomposed by the stronger acids. The aque- 
 ous solution is neutral, and precipitates solu- 
 tions of gum and the white of eggs. It kin- 
 dles with difiiculty, and burns with a smoky 
 flame. When quite pure, it is unaltered by 
 exposure to the air. Sp. gr. 1'071, at 68° Fahr. 
 A slip of deal dipped into it, and afterwards in 
 hydrochloric acid, and then allowed to dry in 
 the air, acquires a greenish-blue colour. It 
 turns a ray of polarised light to the right, 
 whereas carbolic acid does not affect polarisa- 
 tion. 
 
 Pur. The fluid commonly sold in the shops 
 for kreasote is a mixture of kreasote, picamar, 
 and light oil of tar ; in many cases it is little 
 else than impure carbolic acid, with scarcely a 
 trace of kreasote. Pure kreasote is perfectly 
 soluble in both acetic acid and solution of 
 potassa; shaken with an equal volume of water 
 in a narrow test-tube, not more than the 
 l-80th part disappears ; otherwise it contains 
 water, of which kreasote is able to assume 
 1-lOth without becoming turbid. If it can be 
 dissolved completely in 80 parts by weight of 
 water, at a medium temperature, it then forms 
 a perfectly neutral liquid. An oily residue 
 floating on the surface betrays the presence of 
 other foreign products (eopion, kaphomoe, 
 pioamab), which are obtained at the same time 
 with the kreasote during the dry distillation 
 of organic substances. 
 
 Kreasote is " devoid of colour, has a pecu- 
 liar odour, and is soluble in acetic acid. When 
 it is dropped on bibulous paper, and a boiling 
 heat is apjilied for a short time, it entirely es- 
 capes, leaving no transparent stain." (Ph. L.) 
 '*' Entirely and easily soluble in its own weight 
 of acetic acid." (Ph. E.) Sp. gr. 1-046 (Ph. 
 L.), 1-066 (Ph. E. & D.). The density and 
 boiling point of absolutely pure kreasote is 
 given above. When prescribed in pills with 
 oxide of silver, the mass will take fire unless 
 
 the oxide be first mixed with liquorice or other 
 powder. (Squire.) 
 
 Uses. Kreasote has been recommended in 
 several diseases of the organs of digestion and 
 respiration, in rheumatism, gout, torpid ner- 
 vous fever, spasms, diabetes, tapeworm, &c. ; 
 but its use has not, in genera), been attended 
 with satisfactory results. It is given in the 
 form of pills, emulsion, or an ethereal or spi- 
 rituous solution. Externally it has been em- 
 ployed in various chronic diseases of the skinj 
 sores of different kinds, mortifications, scalds, 
 burns, wounds (as a styptic), caries of the 
 teeth, &c. ; mostly in the form of an aqueous 
 solution (1 to 80) ; or mixed with lard (5 drops 
 to 1 dr.), as an ointment; dissolved in rectified 
 spirit, it forms a useful and a popular remedy 
 for toothache arising from decay or rottenness. 
 In the arts, kreasote is extensively employed 
 to preserve animal substances, either by wash- 
 ing it over them, or by immersing them in its 
 aqueous solution. A few drops in a saucer, or 
 on a piece of spongy paper, if placed in a 
 larder, will effectually drive away insects, and 
 make the meat keep several days longer than it 
 otherwise would. A small quantity added to 
 brine or vinegar is commonly employed to im- 
 part a smoky flavour to meat and fish, and its 
 solution in acetic acid is used to give the fla- 
 vour of whisky to malt spirit. See Carbolic 
 
 ACID. 
 
 KRE'ATIN. CjHjNaOj-Aq. Syn. Ceea- 
 TIN. A crystallisable substance obtained 
 from the jnice of the muscular fibre of animals. 
 It was first obtained by Chevreul, but has 
 recently been carefully studied by Liebig. 
 
 Frep. (Liebig.) Lean flesh is reduced to 
 shreds, and then exhausted with successive 
 portions of cold water, employing pressure ; 
 the mixed liquid is heated to coagulate the 
 albumen and colouring matter of the blood, 
 and is then strained through a cloth; pure 
 baryta water is next added as long as a pre- 
 cipitate forms, the liquid is filtered, and the 
 filtrate is gently evaporated to the consistence 
 of a syrup; after repose for some days in a 
 warm situation, crystals of kreatin are de- 
 posited ; these are purified by redissolving 
 them in water, agitating the solution with 
 animal charcoal, and evaporating, &c., so that 
 crystals may form. 
 
 Prop., S;c. Brilliant, colourless, prismatic 
 crystals ; readily soluble in boiling water, 
 sparingly so in cold water and in alcohol ; the 
 aqueous solution is neutral, bitter tasted, and 
 soon putrefies. 
 
 KEEAT'ININ. C4H7N3O. This substance 
 exists in small quantities, both in the juice of 
 flesh and in conjunction with kreatin in urine. 
 It is also produced by the action of the stronger 
 acids on kreatin. It forms colourless prisma- 
 tic crystals, which are soluble in water, andtlie 
 solution has a strongly alkaline reaction. It 
 is a powerful organic base, and produces crys- 
 tallisable salts with the acids. 
 
 KKE'NIC ACID. See Ceehio acid. 
 
KRYSTALLINE— LAC 
 
 937 
 
 KKYSTAL'UKE. The name flriginally ap- 
 plied by Unverdurben to ANiLlirE. 
 
 KUSTITIEN'S METAL. Prep. Take of 
 nuille«ble iron, 3 partu ; boat it to whiteness, 
 und add ot antimony, 1 part ; Molucca tin, 72 
 parts ; mix under charcoal, and cool. Used to 
 C'lut iron and other metals with a surface of 
 tin; it polishes without a blue tint, is hard, 
 »nd has the advantage of being free from lead 
 and arsenic. 
 
 KTANrZIira. a method of preserving 
 woud and cordage from decay, long known 
 and practised; patented by Mr Kyan many 
 Nears since. It consists in immersing the 
 niHterials in a solution of corrosive sublimate, 
 1 part, and water, 60 or 60 parts, either uuder 
 strong pressure or the contrary, as the ur- 
 gency of the case or the dimensions of the 
 articles operated on may require. See Uby 
 BOT. 
 
 KY'AITOL. A substance obtained from coal- 
 tiir oil, and at first thought to be an indepen- 
 dent principle, but since shown to be identical 
 
 with ANILINB. 
 
 IiABAEKAQUE'S FLUID. See Solution of 
 Chloiiidk op Soda. 
 
 LAB'DANUM. Syn. Lasanitu. An odo- 
 rous, resinous substance found on the leaves 
 and twin's of the Oi/ttua creticut, a plant 
 growing in the island uf Candia and in Syria. 
 It was formerly much used for making stimu- 
 lating plasters. The fuUowing compound is 
 often vended for it : — 
 
 Labdanum, Facti"tions. Prep. Prom gum 
 nniine, resin, Venetian turpentine, and sand, of 
 each 6 parts ; Spanish juice and gum Arabic, 
 of each (dissolved in a little water), 3 parts ; 
 Canada balsam, 2 parts ; ivory black, 1 part ; 
 balsam of Peru, q. s. to give a faint odour. 
 
 LA'BELS capable of resisting the action of 
 OILS, SPIUITS, WATER, STHUPa, and DILUTE 
 ACIDS, may be obtained as Ibllows : — Lay a 
 coat of strained white of egg over the label (an 
 ordinary paper one), and immediately put the 
 vessel into the upper portion of a common 
 steum-pan, or otherwise expose it to a gentle 
 heat till the albumen coagulates and turns 
 opaque, tlien take it out and dry it before 
 the fire, or in an oven, at a white heat of about 
 212° Fahr. j the opaque white film will then 
 become hard and transparent. The labels on 
 bottles containing STEONa ACIDS or alkaline 
 SOLUTIONS should be either etched upon the 
 glass by means of hydrofluoric acid, or be 
 written with incorrodible ink. See Etching 
 and Ink. 
 
 LAB'ORATOKT. Stin. Labobatorium., L. 
 A place titled up for the performance of expe- 
 rimental or manufacturius operations in che- 
 mistry, pharmacy, and pyrotechny. For full 
 information respecting the best mode of fitting 
 up a chemical laboratory, the reader is referred 
 to works especially devoted to chemical mani- 
 pulation.' Almost any well-lighted spare room 
 
 > Tlie Uteit and beat work ia the ' Handbook of Cbe- 
 
 may be fitted up as a small laboratory at very 
 little expense. The gas-furnaces and improved 
 lamps introduced of later years have to a cer- 
 tain extent rendered chemists independent of 
 brick furnaces. A strong working bench, 
 fitted with drawers and cupboards, and having 
 gas-pipes at intervals for attaching different 
 kinds of jets, is an indispensable fixture. A 
 close cupboard or closet, which ia connected by 
 a pipe with the chimney or the external air, 
 ia required to receive vessels emitting corrosive 
 or evil-smelling vapours ; the door of this 
 closet should be of glass. A sink, with a 
 copious supply of water, must be at hand, for 
 washing apparatus. A glass, a stoneware 
 barrel, with a tap of the same material, is 
 required for holding distilled water. Shelve*, 
 supports for apparatus, and drawers, should be 
 provided in abundance. The fine balances and 
 other delicate instruments should be kept iu a 
 separate apartment. With regard to appa- 
 ratus, we may state that the articles most fre- 
 quently required in a laboratory are the gas 
 or al(!ohol lamps ; iron pans for sand bath and 
 water bath ; evaporating dishes ; precipitating 
 jars, funnels, and wash-bottles ; retort-^, flasks, 
 and test-tubes ; mortars and pestles ; retort- 
 and filtering stands ; rat-tnil and triangular 
 files, and glass rod and tubing. 
 
 The principal philosophical instrument- 
 makers sell chests or cabinets filled with appa- 
 ratus and chemicals, under the name of 
 ' P0BT4 BLE labobatoeies.' Those sold by 
 Mr J. J. Griffin and by Messrs Jackson and 
 Townson are, perhaps, the most complete. 
 Tiiey are well adapted for illustrating all the 
 more valuable facts of chemical science, ami 
 performini; all the ordinary operations of 
 qualitative analysis. 
 
 LABUSNINE. A poisonous alkaloid, found 
 in the unripe seeds of the laburnum plant, 
 associated with another poisonous alkaloid 
 called CytUtine. 
 
 LAC. Si/n. Lacca, L. a resinous substance 
 combined with much colouring matter, pro- 
 duced by the puncture of the female of a small 
 insect, Cidled the Coccus lacca or ficua, upon 
 the young branches of several tropical trees, 
 especially the Ficua ladica, Ficua religiosa, and 
 Croton iaccifenim. The crude resinous exuda- 
 tion constitutes the stick-lac of commerce. 
 Shbll-lao or shellac is prepared by spread- 
 ing the resin into thin plates after being 
 melted and strained. Seed-lao is the residue 
 obtained after dissolving out most of the 
 colouring matter contaiued in the resin. 
 
 Shell-lac is the kind most commonly em- 
 ployed in the arts. The palest is the best, and 
 is known as 'orange-lac' The darker varie- 
 ties — 'liver-coloured,' 'ruby,' 'garnet,' &c. — 
 respectively diminish in value in proportion 
 to the depth of their colour. 
 
 Uses, ^c. Lac was formerly much used in 
 
 mical Manipniation,' by Greville TN'iHIaras. Faraday's 
 famous w ork on the Baiue subject haa long been out of 
 print. 
 
933 
 
 LAC DYE— LACQUER 
 
 medicine ; its action, if any, is probably that 
 of a very mild diuretic. It is now chiefly used 
 in DENTIFBIOES, TAEBISHES, L4.CQCEES, and 
 BEALING-WAX. 
 
 Lac, Bleached. Sgn. White lac; Lacca 
 AI.BA, L. By dissolving lac in a boiling lye 
 of pearlash or caustic potassa, iiltering and 
 passing chlorine through the solution until all 
 the lac is precipitated; this is collected, well 
 washed and pulled in hot water, and, finally, 
 ' twisted into sticks, and thrown into cold water 
 to harden. Used to make pale varnishes and 
 the more delicate coloured sealing-wax. 
 
 LAC DYE. Sgn. Lac, Lac-iakb, Indian 
 COCHINEAL. A colouring substance used to 
 dye scarlet, imported from India. 
 
 Prep. By dissolving out the colour of ground 
 stick-lac by means of a weak alkaline solution, 
 and then precipitating it along with alumina 
 by adding a solution of alum. 
 
 Oba. To prepare the lac for dyeing, it is 
 ground and mixed with diluted ' lac spirit,' and 
 the whole allowed to stand for about a week. 
 The ' cloth ' is iirst mordanted with a mixture 
 of tartar and ' lac spirit,' and afterwards kept 
 near the boil for three quarters of an hour, in 
 a bath formed by adding a proportion of the 
 prepared lac dye to the mixture used for mor- 
 danting. Lac dye is only applicable to 
 woollen and silk. The colours it yields are 
 similar to those obtained from cochineal, but 
 less brilliant. 
 
 lAC SPIRIT. See Tin moedants. 
 
 LACE. This decorative fabric is made by 
 interweaving threads of linen, cotton, or silk, 
 into various patterns and designs. Although in 
 some instances lace is made by hand, the 
 greater part is now manufactured by machi- 
 nery worked by steam or water. The hand- 
 made lace was called bone, pillow, or bobbin 
 lace, these two latter names having been given 
 it from its having been woven upon a pillow 
 or cushion by means of a bobbin. The manu- 
 factured article is bobbin net. Lace and the 
 machinery by which it is produced is of so 
 complex a nature that Dr Ure says of one par- 
 ticular form of it " it is as much beyond the 
 most curious chronometer in the multiplicity 
 of mechanical device as that is beyond a com- 
 mon roasting jack." 
 
 Owing to the improvements in machinery in- 
 troduced of liite years,it maybe mentioned that 
 a piece of lace which twenty years since could 
 only be produced at a cost of 3s. 6d. for labour, 
 may now be turned out for Id., and a quantity 
 of the fabric which sold for £17, now real- 
 izes only 7s. A pair of curtains, each four 
 yards long, may be made in one frame in two 
 hours. 
 
 The following statistics relating to the 
 British lace industry are of interest: — "In 
 1843 there were 3200 twist net and 800 warp 
 frames, returning £2,740,000 that year; in 
 1851, 3200 bobbin net and 800 warp, giving 
 a return of £3,846,000; and in 1866,3552 
 bobbin and 4U0 warp, returning i£5,I30,000. 
 
 There has since been no actual census, but 
 about the same number is now at work, and the 
 returns and profits arc greatly increased by im- 
 proved quality and patterns of goods produced. 
 The returns of 1872 were certainly f 6,000,000 
 at least; and from advancing wages and de- 
 mand for Lever's laces, must still rapidly in- 
 crease. Men are now earning by making them 
 from £4 to £6 for 56 hours' weekly labour."i 
 
 Lace, Gold and Silver, to Clean. Reduce to 
 fine crumbs the interior of a 2-lb. stale loafj 
 and mix with them \ lb. of powder blue. 
 Sprinkle some of this mixture plentifully on 
 the lace, afterwards rubbing it on with a piece 
 of flannel. After brushing ofE the crumbs rub 
 the lace with a piece of crimson velvet. 
 
 Lace, to Scour. Take a perfectly clean wine 
 bottle; wind the lace smoothly and care- 
 fully round it; then gently sponge it in 
 tepid soap and water; and when clean, and 
 before it becomes dry, pass it through a weak 
 solution of gum and water. Next pick it out 
 and place it in the sun to dry. If it be desired 
 to bleach the lace, it should be rinsed in some 
 very weak solution of chloride of lime, after 
 removal from which it must be rinsed in cold 
 water. Starch and expose it; then boil and 
 starch, and again expose it if it has not 
 become sufficiently white. 
 
 The following method is also said to whiten 
 lace : — It is first ironed slightly, then folded 
 and sewn into a clean linen bag, which is then 
 placed for 24 hours in pure olive oil. After- 
 wards the bag, with the lace in it, is to be 
 boiled in a solution of soap and water for 15 
 minutes, then well rinsed in lukewarm water, 
 and finally dipped in water containing a small 
 quantity of starch. The lace is then to be 
 taken from the bag, and stretched on pins to 
 dry. 
 
 To scour point lace proceed as follows : — 
 " Fix the lace in a prepared tent, draw it tight 
 and straight, make a warm lather of Castile 
 soap, and with a tine brush dipped in rub over 
 the lace gently, and when clean on one side do 
 the same on the other ; then throw some clean 
 water on it, in which a little alum has been 
 dissolved, to take off the suds ; and, having 
 some thin starch, go over with it on the wrong 
 side, and iron it on the same side when dry ; 
 then open with a bodkin and set it in order. 
 To clean the same, if not very dirty, without 
 washing, fix it as before, and go over with 
 fine bread, the crust being pared off', and when 
 done, dust out the crumbs." (Ernest Spon.) 
 
 Black lace may be cleaned by passing it 
 through warm water containing some ox- 
 gall, rinsing it in cold water, and then passing 
 it through water in which a small quantity of 
 glue has been previously dissolved by means 
 of heat ; it should then be taken out, clapped 
 between the hands, and dried on a frame. 
 
 LACQUER. A solution o"f shell-lac in 
 alcohol, tinged with saffron, annotta, aloes, or 
 other colouring substances. It is applied to 
 > ' British MaiiufacturiDg Industries.' Stanford. 
 
liACTALBUMEN— LACTIC ACID 
 
 939 
 
 wood and metals to impart a golden colour. 
 See Vaunisii. 
 
 LACTALBU'UEN. See Caseiit. 
 
 LACTATE. S^n. Lactab, L. A aalt of 
 lactic iicid. The lactates are characterised by 
 yielding an emirmous quantity of pe-fectly 
 pure carbonic oxide gas when heated with 5 or 
 6 parts of oil of vitriol. Most of these salts 
 may be directly formed by dissolving the 
 hydrate or carbonate of the metal in the dilute 
 acid. 
 
 LACTA'TION. See Iitfawct, NuBBiwa, 
 &c. 
 
 LACTIC ACID. HjC„Hi„Oe. Syn. Acid op 
 UILK; AciDUit LAOTICUM, L. A sour, syrupy 
 liquid, discovered by Scheele in whey. It is 
 also found in some other animal fluids, and in 
 several vegetable juices, especially in that of 
 beet-root, 
 
 LHctic acid is by no means an unimportant 
 constituent of the human organism. It is 
 contnincd iu the gastric juice, and is fre- 
 quently formed in the sweat. It has also 
 been dctetted in the saliva of persons suffering 
 from diabetes. A modification of the acid, 
 termed siirkolactic acid, occurs in the fluids of 
 the muscular tissue. 
 
 It is likewise a product of the fermentation 
 of many vegetiible juices, such as turnips, 
 carrots, beet-root, and cabl)nge, which latter 
 vegetable, after undergoing the lactic fermen- 
 tation, liecomes converted into the sauer krnut 
 of the Germans. 
 
 In the form of calcic lactate it occurs in 
 DUX vomica. 
 
 Prep. 1. Dissolve lactate of barium in 
 water, precipitate the barium with dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, carefully avoiding excess, and 
 gently eviipnrate to the consistence of a syrup, 
 or until it acquires the density 1'215. Lactate 
 of calcium may be used instead of Iftctate of 
 barium, in which case a solution of oxalic ocid 
 must be employed as the precipitant. Pure. 
 (See No. 5.) 
 
 2. Milk (skimmed or stale), 1 gall. ; bicar- 
 bonuto of sodium, i lb. ; dissolve and expose 
 the liquid to the air for some days, until it 
 becomes sour, then saturate the excess of acid 
 with some more bicarbonate of sodium, and 
 again expose it to the air ; repeat this as often 
 as the liquid becomes sour ; next heat the 
 liquid to the boiling point, filter, evaporate to 
 dryness (or nearly), and exhaust the residuum 
 with rectified spirit; filter the alcoholic so- 
 lution, which contains lactate of sodium, add 
 sulphuric acid as long as it causes a preci- 
 pitate to form, again filter, and concentrate 
 the clear liquid by evaporation. 
 
 3. (Boutron and Fremy.) Milk, 3 or 4 
 quarts ; snRar of milk, 200 to 300 gr. ; mix, 
 and expose fur 2 or 3 days in an open vessel 
 at 70° to 80° Kahr., then saturate with bicar- 
 bonate of sodium, again expose at a moderate 
 temperature, saturate with more bicarbonate 
 of sodium, and repeat the process until the 
 whole of the sugar of milk is decomposed ; 
 
 then coagalate the casein by heat, filter, eva- 
 porate, extract the acid lactate of sodium by 
 alcohol of sp. gr. -810, and decompose it by 
 the cautious addition of dilute sulphuric acid; 
 again filter, distil off the alcohol, and evaporate 
 as before, 
 
 4. (Scheele.) Evaporate sour whey to |th 
 of its bulk, saturate with slaked lime, filter, 
 add 3 or 4 times the quantity of water, cau- 
 tiously precipitate the lime with a solution of 
 oxalic acid, filter, and gently evaporate to 
 dryness in a warm bath ; digest the residuum 
 in strong rectified spirit, and again filter and 
 evaporate. 
 
 5. ( Wackenroder.) Sugarof lead, 25 parts; 
 finely powdered chalk, 20 parts; skimmed 
 milk, 100 parts; water, 200 part'*; iligested 
 together at about 75" Fahr. In six weeks the 
 chalk will be dissolved ; the whole is then 
 heated, but not to boiling; the cheese ia 
 strained off, pressed, and the decanted liquid is 
 clarified by albumen and evaporated, to let the 
 lactate of calcium crystallise; the salt is re- 
 crystallised and decomposed, either by sul- 
 phuric acid or by the exact quantity of oxalic 
 acid. This is, perhaps, the most etl'ective mode 
 of prepnring lactic acid. 
 
 6. (Wholesnle.) — a. Good raw cane-sngar, 
 7 lbs., is dissolved in milk (skimmed or stale), 
 2 galls., and cheese (in a moist or putrescent 
 state), i lb., and chalk, 4 lbs., previously 
 rubbed to a cream with water, !( gall., is then 
 added; the mixture is then exposed in a 
 loosely covered jar, at a temperature of 80° to 
 86° Pahr., with occasional stirring, for 2 or 3 
 weeks, or until the whole is converted into a 
 semi-solid mass of crystals of lactate of cal- 
 cium; this is purified either by draining otf 
 ond expressing the liquid portion, dissolving 
 the residue in water, and evaporating the solu- 
 tion for crystals ; or the whole is pnt into a 
 stoneware vessel and heated to the boiling- 
 point, by which the casein is coagulated, and 
 the lactate of calcium is dissolved ; the solu- 
 tion filtered whilst hot, furnishes the salt in 
 crystals on cooling ; these crystals are sub- 
 sequently dissolved in water, and the filtered 
 solution decomposed by oxalic acid, as before. 
 
 4, Prom Ciiue-sugar, 4 parts ; moist cheese, 
 1 part ; chalk, 3 parts j water, 20 parts ; as 
 the last. 
 
 Obs. Lactic acid prepared by any of the 
 used formulto may be rendered quite pure by 
 dilution with water, saturation with baryta, 
 evaporation, crystallisation, resnlution in 
 water, and the careful addition of dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, as in No. 1 ; the liquid is, lastly, 
 again filtered and evaporated. Another plan 
 is to convert the acid into lactate of zinc, by 
 the addition of commercial zinc-white, and to 
 redissolve the new salt in water, and then de- 
 compose the solution with a stream of sul. 
 phuretted hydrogen. In all cases the evapora- 
 tion should be conducted at a very gentle heat, 
 and, when possible, finished o\er sulphuric 
 acid, or in vacuo. For particular purposes 
 
940 
 
 LACTIC FERMENTATION— LACTOMETER 
 
 this last product must be dissolved in ether, 
 filtered, and the ether removed by a very 
 gentle heat. Care must also be taken to 
 remove the solid lactate of calcium at the 
 proper period from tlie fermenting liquid, as 
 otherwise it will gradually redissolve and dis- 
 appear, and on examination the liquid will be 
 found to consist chiefly of a solution of buiy- 
 rate of calcium. 
 
 Prop. The product of the above formulae 
 is a solution of lactic acid. It may be concen- 
 trated in vacuo over a surface of oil of vitriol 
 until it appears as a, syrupy liquid of sp. gr. 
 1'215 ; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; 
 exhibiting the usual acid properties, and form- 
 ing salts with the metals, called lactates. 
 Heated in a retort to 266° Fahr.; a small por- 
 tion distils over, and the residuum on cooling 
 concretes into a yellowish, solid, fusible mass, 
 lery bitter, and nearly insoluble in water. 
 This is lactic acid, which has lost half (1 equiv.) 
 of its basic water. By long boiling in water 
 this substance is reconverted into lactic acid. 
 Heated to 480° Fahr., it suffers decomposition, 
 lactide (the anhydrons, concrete, or sublimed 
 lactic acid of former writers) and other pro- 
 ducts being formed. This new substance may 
 be purified by pressure between bibulous paper 
 and solution in boiling alcohol from which 
 it separates in dazzling white crystals on 
 cooling. By solution in hot water and evapo- 
 ration to a syrup, it furnishes common lactic acid. 
 Uses. Lactic acid has been given in dyspep- 
 sia, gout, phosphatic urinary deposits, &c. 
 From its being one of the natural constituents 
 of the gastric juice, and from its power of 
 dissolving a considerable quantity of phos- 
 phate of calcium, it appears very probable that 
 it may prove beneficial in the above complaints. 
 — Dose, 1 to 5 gr. ; in the form of lozenges, or 
 solution in sweetened water. 
 
 LACTIC FERMENTA'TION. The peculiar 
 change by which saccharine matter is con- 
 verted into lactic acid. Nitrogenous sub- 
 stances, which in an advanced state of putre- 
 I'active change act as alcohol-ferments, often 
 possess, at certain periods of their decay, the 
 property of inducing an acid fermentation in 
 sugar, by which that substance is changed into 
 lactic acid. Thus, the nitrogenised matter of 
 malt, when suflered to putrefy in water for a 
 few days only, acquires the power of acidifying 
 the sugar which accompanies it ; whilst in a 
 more advanced state of decomposition it con- 
 verts, under similar circumstances, the sugar 
 into alcohol. Tlie gluten of grain behaves in 
 the same manner. Wheat flour, made into a 
 paste with water, and left for four or five 
 days in a warm situation, becomes a true lactic 
 acid ferment ; but if left a day or two longer, 
 it changes its character, and then acts like 
 common yeast, occasioning the ordinary pa- 
 nary or vinous fermentation. Moist animal 
 membranes, in a slightly decaying condition, 
 often act energetically in developing lactic 
 acid. The rennet employed in the manufac- 
 
 ture of cheese furnishes a well-known example 
 of this class of substances. 
 
 In preparing lactic acid from milk, the acid 
 formed, after a time, coagulates and renders 
 insoluble the casein, and the production of 
 the acid ceases. By carefully neutralising 
 the free acid by carbonate of sodium, the caseiu 
 becomes soluble, and resuming its activity, 
 changes a fresh quantity of sugar into lactic 
 acid, which may be also neutralised, and by 
 a sufficient number of repetitions of this pro- 
 cess all the sugar of milk present may, in 
 time, be acidified. This is the rationale of 
 the common process by which lactic aciil is 
 obtained. Cane-sugar (probably by previously 
 btcoming grape-sugar) and the sugar of milk 
 both yield lactic acid; the latter, however, 
 most readily, the grape-sugar having a strong 
 tendency towards the alcoholic fermentation. 
 If the lactic fermentation be allowed to pro- 
 ceed too far, the second stage of the process 
 of transmutation commences, hydrogen gas and 
 carbonic acid gas are evolved, and the butyric 
 fermentation, by which oily acids are formed, 
 is established. 
 
 Pasteur ascribes the lactic fermentation to 
 the agency of a specific kind of ferment, which 
 occurs in the form of a greyish layer depo- 
 sited upon the surface of the sediment 
 formed during the fermentation of the sugar, 
 casein, and chalk (see Lactic acid, V), in the 
 manufacture of lactic acid. 
 
 If to a mixture of yeast, or any nitrogenous 
 substance, and water, sugar, and then chalk, be 
 added, and finally a very small quantity of this 
 greyish substance, taken from a portion of a 
 liquid undergoing active lactic fermentation, 
 lactic acid fermentation is almost immediately 
 setup, the chalk disappears owing to the forma- 
 tion of calcic lactate, and the greyish sub- 
 stance is copiously deposited. When placed 
 under the microscope this ferment is seen to 
 be composed of " little globules, or very 
 short artienlations, cither isolated or in 
 threads, constituting irregfular flocculent par- 
 ticles, much smaller than those of beer yeast, 
 and exhibiting a rapid gyratory motion." If 
 these little particles be washed thoroughly 
 in pure water, and then placed in a solution 
 of sugar, lactic acidification immediately com- 
 mences in the saccharine liquid, and goes on 
 steadily until stopped by the excess of free acid. 
 LACTIDE. See Lactic acid. 
 liACTIN. See Suoae of Milk. 
 LACTOMETER. Syn. Galactometee. An 
 instrument for ascertaining the quality of milk. 
 Milk may be roughly tested by placing it in a 
 long graduated tube sold for the purpose, and 
 allowing it to remain until all the cream has 
 separated and measured, then decanting off the 
 clear whey, and taking its specific gravity ; the 
 result of the two operations, when compared 
 with the known quantity of cream and the 
 density of the whey of an average sample of 
 milk, gives the value of the sample tested. 
 See Mile. 
 
LACTOSE— LAKE 
 
 941 
 
 A little instrument called a ' mUk-teater ' is 
 ■old in London at a low price. It is essen- 
 tinlly a liydrometer wbicli sinlsB to a given 
 lonrk on the stem in pure water, and floats at 
 aaotlier murk at tlie opposite end of the scale 
 in pure milk. . The iDtermrdiate space indi- 
 cates the quantity of water (if any) employed 
 to adulterate the article. As the sp. gr. of 
 pure milk varies, the indications of the ' tester' 
 cannot be depended on. 
 
 LACTOSE. See Suoab o; Mile. 
 
 LACTUCA. (B.P) Si/n. LErrcCB. The 
 leaves and lioweringtops of the wild iudij^enous 
 plant Lactuia viroga. They are sedative, 
 narcotic, and powerfully diuretic ; also mildly 
 laxative and diaphoretic. Given in dropsy and 
 visceral obstructions. See Lettuce, Extbact 
 
 OF. 
 
 LACTXrCA"SIUM. %». Lettttoe opium. 
 Thbidacb; Lactuoabium (Ph. E. <fc D.), 
 The inspissated milky juice of the Lactuca 
 tativa (common garden lettuce), or the Lao- 
 tuca virota (strong-scented wild lettuce), ob- 
 tained, by incision, from the flowering stems, 
 and dried in the air. The latter species yields 
 by far the greatest quantity. M. Arnaud, of 
 Nancy, adopts the following method of pro- 
 curing this substance, which appears to be the 
 most productive and simple of any yet pub- 
 lished : — liefore the development of the lateral 
 branches, the stems of twelve plants are cut, 
 one altir anntlier, a little below the com- 
 Hiencement of these branches; returning to 
 the first one, a milky exudation is. found on 
 tlie cut portion, and on that which remains 
 fixed in the earth ; this milky exudation is 
 adroitly collected with the end of the finger 
 (or with a bone knife), which is afterwards 
 scraped on the eds^e of a small glass ; the same 
 operation is performed on twelve other heads, 
 and so on ; on the third day it is repeated on 
 every portion of the plant remaining in the 
 ground, a thin slice being first cut off the top ; 
 this is done every day until the root is reached. 
 As soon as the liictucarium is collected it coagu- 
 lates ; the harvest, of each day is divided int^o 
 small pieces, which are placed on plates, very 
 Dear each other, but without touching, and 
 allowed to dry for two days, after which they 
 are set aside in a bottle. In this way 15 or 
 20 times the ordinary product is obtained. 
 
 I'eop., Sfc. Lactocarium is anodyne, hyp- 
 notic, antispasmodic, and sedative, allaying 
 pain and diminishing the force of the circula- 
 tion. It has been recommended in cases in 
 which opium is inadmissible, and has been ad- 
 ministered with advantage in chronic rheuma- 
 tism, colic, di;irrhcBa, asthmu, and troublesome 
 cough of phthisis, the irritability and watch- 
 fulness in febrile disorders, k<s. — Dose, 2 to 
 6 gr. I made into pills, lozenges, or tincture. 
 
 LACTU'cm. Syn. Lactucincm, L. This 
 is the active principle of hictucarium, and is 
 found in thejuice of several species of lettuce. 
 
 Prep. Exhaust lactucariura with hot recti- 
 fied spirit, agitate the tincture with a little 
 
 animal charcoal, filter, add a little milk of 
 lime, and evaporate to dryness ; digest the 
 residuum in hot rectified spirit; filter, and evapo- 
 rate by a gentle heat, so that crystals may form. 
 
 Prop., S^c. A nearly colourless, odourless, 
 fusible, neutral, bitter Bobstance; sparingly 
 soluble in cold water and in ether, but freely 
 soluble in alcohol. It possesses feeble basic 
 properties. Good lactucarium contains fully 
 20^ of this substance. 
 
 LAS'ANUM. See Labdancm. 
 
 LAENNEC'S CONTKA-SIIMnLAKT. See 
 Dbauoht. 
 
 TiAKE. Syn. Lacca, L. Animal or vegetable 
 colouring matter, precipitated in combination 
 with oxide of tin or alumina; usually the 
 latter. The term was formerly restricted to 
 red preparations of this kind, but is now in- 
 discriminately applied to all compounds of 
 alumina and colouring matter. The terra 
 ' LAKE,' when unqualified by an adjective, is, 
 however, understood to apply exclusively to 
 that prepared from cochineal. 
 
 Prep. Lakes are made — 1. By adding a 
 solution of alum, cither alone or partly satu- 
 rated with carbonate of pota«sa, to a filtered 
 infusion or decnction of the colouringsub^tance, 
 and after agitation precipitating the mixture 
 with a solution of carbonate of potash. — 2. By 
 precipitating a decoction or infusion of the 
 colouring substance made with a weak alkaline 
 lye, by adding a solution of alum. — 3. By ogi- 
 tating recently precipitated alumina with » 
 solution of the colouring matter, prepared as 
 before, until the liquid is nearly decoloured, 
 or the alumina acquires a sufficiently dark 
 tint. The first method is usually employed 
 for acidulous solutions of colouring matter, or 
 for tliose whose tint is injured by alkalies ; 
 the second, for those that are brightened, or at 
 least uninjured, by alkalies ; the third, for 
 those colouring matters that have a great 
 aflinity for gelatinous alumina, and readily 
 combine with it by mere agitation. By atten- 
 tion to these general rules, lakes may be pre- 
 pared from almost all animal and ve^'itiil)le 
 fohiuring substances that yield their colour to 
 water, mmy of which will be found to possess 
 great beauty and permanence. The precise 
 process adapted to each particular substance 
 may be easily ascertained by taking a few 
 drops of its infusion or decoction, andobserv. 
 ing the effects of alkalies and acids on the 
 colour. The quantity of alum or of alumina 
 employed should be nearly sufficient to de- 
 colour the dye liquor; and the quantity of 
 carlionate of potas«a should be so proportioned 
 to the alumasto exactly precipitate the alumina 
 without leaving free or carbonated alkali in 
 the liquid. The first portion of the precipitate 
 has the deepest colour, and the shade gradually 
 becomes paler as the operation proceeds. A 
 beautiful ' tone ' of violet, red, and even purple, 
 may be communicated to the colouring matter 
 of cochineal by the addition of perchloride of 
 tin ; the addition of arseniate of potassa (neu- 
 
942 
 
 LAKE 
 
 tral arsenical salt) in like manner gives shades 
 which ma; be sought for in vain with alum or 
 alumina. After the lake is precipitated, it 
 must be carefully collected, washed with cold 
 distilled water, or the purest rain water, until 
 it ceases to give out colour, and then carefully 
 dried in the shade. In this state it forms a 
 soft velvety powder. That of the shops is 
 generally made up into conical or pyramidal 
 . drops (drop lake), which is done by dropping 
 the moist lake through a small funnel on a 
 clean board or slab, and drying it by a gentle 
 heat as before. A very little clear gum water 
 is commonly added to the paste to give the 
 drops consistence when dry. 
 
 Lake, Blue. S^n. Lacca ccebulea, L. Pre- 
 pared from some of the blue-coloured flowers ; 
 fugitive. The name is also applied to lump 
 archil (lacca ccerulea), to moist alumina coloured 
 with indigo, and to mixed solutions of pearlash 
 and prussiate of potash, precipitated with 
 another solution of sulphate of iron and alum. 
 These are permanent and beautiful, but are 
 seldom used, in consequence of indigo and 
 Prussi^in blue supplying all that is wanted in 
 this class of colours. 
 
 Lake, Brazil-wood. Si/n. Dbof lake ; Lacca 
 IN GLOBULis, L. J'rep. 1. Take of ground 
 Brazil-wood, 1 lb. ; water, 4 galls. ; digest for 
 24 hours, then boil for 30 or 40 minutes, and 
 add of alum, H lb., dissolved in a little water ; 
 mix, decant, strain, and adii of solution of tin, 
 i lb.; again mix well and filter; to the clear 
 liquid add, cautiously, a solution of salt of 
 tartar or carbonate of soda, as lon^ as a deep- 
 coloured precipitate forms, carefully avoiding 
 excess; coUeut,wash, dry, &o., as directed above. 
 
 Obs. The product is deep red. By col- 
 lecting the precipitate in separate portions, 
 lakes varying in richness and depth of colour 
 may be obtained. The first portion of the 
 precipitated lake has the brightest colour. 
 An excess of alkali turns it on the violet, 
 and the addition of cream of tartar, on the 
 brownish red. The tint turns more on the 
 violet red when the solution of tin is omitted. 
 Some persons use less, others more, alum. 
 
 2. Add washed and recently precipitated 
 alumina to a strong and filtered decoction of 
 Brazil wond. Inferior to the last. 
 
 Lake, Carminated. St/n. Cochineal lake, 
 Flobencb l., Flobentine i,., Paris l., 
 Vienna l. ; Lacca Floeentina, L. Prep. 
 1. The residuum of the cochineal left in making 
 carmine is boiled with repeated portions of 
 water, until it is exhausted of colour; the 
 resulting liquor is mixed with that decanted 
 oif the carmine, and at once filtered; some 
 recently precipitated alumina is then added, 
 and the whole gently heated, and well agi- 
 tated for a short time ; as soon as the alumina 
 has absorbed snffici'^nt colour, the mixture is 
 allowed to settle, after which the clear portion 
 is decanted, the lake collected on a filter, 
 washed, and dried, as before. The decanted 
 liquor, if still coloured, is now treated with 
 
 fresh alumina until exhausted, and thus a lake 
 of a second quality is obtained. Very fine. 
 
 2. To the coloured liquor obtained from the 
 carmine and cochineal as above, a solution of 
 alum is added, the filtered liquor precipitated 
 with a solution of carbonate ^f potassa, and 
 the alum or alumina; this brightens the 
 lake collected and treated as before. Scarcely 
 80 good as the last. 
 
 Obs. Some makers mix a little solution of 
 tin with the coloured liquor before adding 
 colour. The above lake is a good glazing 
 colour with oil, but has little body. It may 
 be made directly from a decotion of cochineal. 
 (See heloto.) 
 
 Lake, Cochineal. Prep. 1. Cochineal (in 
 coarse powder), 1 oz. ; water and rectified 
 spirit, of each 2^ oz. ; digest for a week, 
 filter, and precipitate the tincture with a few 
 drops of solution of tin, added every two hours, 
 until the whole of the colouring matter is 
 thrown down; lastly, wash the precipitate in 
 distilled water, and dry it. Very fine. 
 
 2. Digest powdered cochineal in ammonia 
 water for a week, dilute the solution with a 
 little water, and add the liquid to a solution 
 of alum, as long as a precipitate falls, which 
 is the lake. Equal to the last. 
 
 3. Coarsely powdered cochineal, 1 lb.; water, 
 2 galls.; boil 1 hour, decant, strain, add a 
 solution of salt of tartar, 1 lb., and precipitate 
 with a solution of alum. By adding the alum 
 first, and precipitating the lake with the alkali, 
 the colour will be slightly varied. All the 
 above are sold as cabminated or Flobsnce 
 LAKE, to which they are often superior. 
 
 Lake, Green. Made by mixing blue and 
 yellow lake together. Seldom kept in the 
 shops, being generally prepared extempora- 
 neously by the artist on his palette. 
 
 Lake, Lac. Prep. Boil fresh stick-lac in a 
 solution of carbonate of soda, filter the solution, 
 precipitate with a solution of alum, and pro- 
 ceed as before. 
 
 Lake, Lichen. See Oecein, 
 
 Lake, Madder. Si/n. Lacca bttbi^, L. co- 
 lumbina, L. Prep. 1. (Sir H. C. Inglefield.) 
 Take of Dutch grappe or crop madder, 2 oz. ; 
 tie it in a cloth, beat it well in a pint of water 
 in a stone mortar, and repeat the process with 
 fresh water (about 5 pints) until it ceases to 
 yield colour ; next boil the mixed liquor in an 
 earthen vessel, pour it into a large basin, and 
 add of alum 1 oz., previously dissolved in 
 boiling water, 1 pint; stir, well, and while 
 stirring, pour in gradually of a strong solution 
 of carbonate of potassa (' oil of tartar'), IJ oz.; 
 let the whole stand until cold, then pour off 
 the supernatant yellow liquor, drain, agitate 
 the residue with boiling water, 1 quart ^in 
 separate portions), decant, drain, and dry. 
 Product, i oz. The Society of Arts voted 
 their gold medal to the author of the above 
 formula. 
 
 2. Add a little solution of acetate of lead 
 to a decoction of madder, to throw down the 
 
LAMB— LAMP 
 
 brown colouring matter, filter, add a solution 
 of tin or alum, precipitate with a Bolntion of 
 ciirboimte of loda or of potuawi, and otlierwise 
 proceed as before. 
 
 3. (Ure.) Ground madder, 2 lbs.; water, 
 1 gall. ; macerate with agitation for 10 mi- 
 nutes, strain off the water, and press ttie re- 
 mainder quite dry; repeat the process a second 
 and a third time ; then add to the mixed 
 liquors, alum i lb., dissolved in water, 3 
 (|Uurt8 ; and heat in a water bath for 3 or 4 
 hdurs, adding water as it evaporates; next 
 filter, first through flannel, and, when sufB- 
 ciently cold, through paper; then add a solu- 
 tion of carbonate of potassa as long as a pre- 
 cipitate falls, which must be washed until the 
 water comes off colourless, and, lastly, dried. 
 If the alkali be added in 3 successive doses, 3 
 dill'ercnt lakes will be obtained, successively 
 diiiiinixhing in beauty, See Maddeb,' Mas- 
 deb, Ubd, &c. 
 
 Lake, Or'ange. Frep. Take of the best 
 Spanish annntta, 4 oz. ; pearlash, } lb.; water, 
 1 gall. ; boil for half an hour, strain, precipi- 
 tate with alum, 1 lb., dissolved in water, 1 gall., 
 observing not to add the latter solution when 
 it ciasits to produce an effervescence or a pre- 
 cipitate ; strain, and dry the sediment in 
 small squares, lozenges, or drops. The addi- 
 tion of some solution of tin turns this lake on 
 the LEUON YEtLOW; acids redden it. See 
 Lake, Yellow. 
 
 Lake, Ked. Prep. Take of prarlash, 1 lb, ; 
 clean shreds of scarlet cloth, 8^ lbs. ; water, 5 
 galls. ; boil till the cloth is decoloured, Hlter 
 the decoction, and precipitate with a solution 
 of alum, as before. See the Laees noticed 
 above (Brazil-wood, Carmiuatod, Cochineal, 
 and Madder). 
 
 Lake. Yelloir. Prep. 1. Boil French ber- 
 ries, quercitron bark, or turmeric, 1 lb., and salt 
 of tartar, 1 oz., in water, 1 gall., until reduced 
 to one half, then strain the decoction, and 
 precipitate with a solution of alum. 
 
 2. Boil 1 lb. of the dye-stulf with alum, i 
 lb.; water, 1 gall., as Iwfore, and precipitate 
 the decoction with a solution of carbonate of 
 potash. See Lake, Okakge (above). 
 
 LAMB in its general qualities closely re- 
 sembles mutton, of which, indeed, it is merely 
 a younger and more delicate kind. It is well 
 adapted as an occasional article of food for the 
 convalescent and dyspeptic; but it is unequal 
 for frequent use, more especially for the 
 healthy and robust, to the flesh of the adult 
 animal. 
 
 LAMBS, DISEASES OF. Among other dis- 
 eases, these animals are particularly prone to 
 one affecting the lungs, in consequence of the 
 existence of parasites (Strongylus bronchialU) 
 in the air-passages. See Pauasites. 
 
 L».MP. A contrivance for producing arti- 
 ficial light or heat by the combustion of in- 
 flammable liquids. The term ' lamp ' is also 
 applied to a portable gas-burner (oas-lamp), 
 and to a tubular candle-holder, which, by the 
 
 aid of a simple mechanical device, keeps the 
 flame at one height (candle-lauf). 
 
 Oil LAUF3 were employed for illumination 
 among the nations of antiquity, at the earliest 
 period of which any record exists. The As- 
 syrian, Greek, and Roman lamps preserved 
 in our museums are generally noble specimens 
 of art-workmanship. Though elegant in form, 
 and rich in external embellishment, the ancient 
 lamp was simply a vessel to contain the oil, 
 with a short depression or spout on the one 
 side, in which the wick is laid. Lamps of 
 this rude construction are still iu common use 
 in many countries. 
 
 No important improvement in the principle 
 and construction of lumps as a source of light 
 occurred until a comparatively recent date ; 
 the smoke, dirt, and disagreeable odour of the 
 common lamp having previously led to its 
 disuse umoni; the superior classes in favour of 
 caudles. At length, in 178^, M. Argand made 
 a revolution in illumination by the invention 
 and introduction of the well-known lamp which 
 bears his name. In the Aboamd lamp a hol- 
 low tubular wick of woven cotton replaces the 
 solid bundles of fibres, and is so arranged that 
 air passes through it into the interior of the 
 flame. Over the burner is placed a c\ lindrical 
 glass chimney, open at the bottom, and sur- 
 rounding the flame at a short distance from it, 
 by which another current of air is made to act 
 on the exterior portion of the flame. In this 
 way a due supply of oxygen is secured, and 
 sufficient heat generated for the perfect com- 
 bustion of the gaseous products of the oil, and 
 the smoke and soot which escape from the 
 ordinary lamp are converted into a brilliant and 
 smokeless flame. 
 
 The earliest table-lamps constructed on 
 Argand's principle had one serious defect — 
 the oil vessels had to be placed almost on a 
 level with the burners, in a position which 
 caused them to cast objectionable shadows. 
 This defect was almost entirely removed by 
 making the oil vessel in the tonn of a flattish 
 ring, connected by slender tubes with the 
 burner. The more elegant contrivances, known 
 as the modebatob lamp and Cabcel lamp, 
 which are now so much used for burning colza 
 and similar oils, cast no shadow. In these the 
 oil, in^tead of being sucked np by the wick, 
 or descending to it by the force of gravity, is 
 driven np by mechanical means from the oil- 
 reservoir contained in the foot or pedestal. A 
 spiral spring, actint; upon a piston, elevates 
 the oil in the ' moderator,' while a little pump 
 worked by clockwork does the same duty in 
 the ' Carcel.' The burner and wick in each 
 are formed on Argand's principle. 
 
 For burning the hydrocarbon oils distilled 
 from coal and petroleum, lamps of very ^imple 
 construction are used. These oils, iu conse- 
 quence of their diffusive character, rise to a 
 considerable height up a wick, and therefore 
 do not require meclianical lamps. The wicks 
 of HlDuo-CAiiBOit LAMPS are Usually flat, but 
 
944 
 
 LAMP 
 
 sometimes circular. To cause perfect com- 
 bustion, a strong draught of air is created by 
 placing over the flame a tall glass chimney, 
 usually much contracted above the flame. A 
 metallic cap, with an orifice the shape of the 
 flame, is placed over the burner, its use being 
 to deflect the currents of air upon the flame. 
 
 The reservoirs of hydro-carbon lamps ought 
 always to be constructed of some bad con- 
 ductor of heat, as glass or porcelain. 
 
 For chemical operations, many forms of lamp 
 are used. The ordinary glass bpibit-lamp, 
 fitted with a ground-glass cap, is quite indis- 
 pensable for minor experiments. (See engr. 1.) 
 
 Stonewiire wick-holders are preferable to those 
 of brass, which become greatly heated, and 
 endanger the splitting of the glass. "An 
 effective spirit-lamp may at any time be con- 
 structed out of a vial having a glass tube 
 passing through the cork, a cover being formed 
 I'lom a test-tube inverted over the wick, and 
 fitting with moderate tightness on the su- 
 perior extremity of the cork " (Greville Wil- 
 liams). Alcohol or wood spirit is the fuel used. 
 
 The Aroasd lamp, when intended as a 
 source of heat for chemical purposes, is so 
 modified as to adapt it to burn either oil, 
 spirit of wine, or wood-spirit, and the com- 
 bustion is greatly aided by the chimney, which 
 in this case is made of copper. (See engr. 2 and 
 3.) The lamp itself is also made of metal, 
 and furnished with ground caps to the wick- 
 holder and aperture by which the spirit is 
 introduced, in order to prevent loss of spirit 
 hy evaporation when the lamp is not in use. 
 When in use this aperture must always be left 
 open, otherwise an accident is sure to happen, 
 as the heat expands the air in the lamp, and 
 the spirit is forcibly expelled. 
 
 In those situations in which coal-gas is 
 cheap, it may be used with great economy 
 and advantage as a source of heat in most 
 chemical operations. Eetorts, flasks, capsules, 
 and other vessels, can be thus exposed to an 
 easily regulated and constant temperature for 
 many successive hours. Small platinum cru- 
 cibles may be ignited to redness by placing 
 them over the flame on a little wire triangle. 
 Of the various gas lamps now used in the 
 laboratory, the first and most simple consists 
 of a. common Argand gas-burner fixed on a 
 
 heavy and low foot, and connected with a 
 flexible gas-tube of caoutchouc or other ma- 
 terial. (See engr. 4.) • With this arrangement 
 it is possible to obtain any degree of heat, 
 from that of the smallest blue flame to that 
 which is sufiicient to raise a moderately large 
 platinum crucible to dull redness. When gas 
 mixed with a certain proportion of air is 
 burnt, a pale blue flame, free from smoke, and 
 possessing great heating power, is obtained. 
 A lamp for homing the mixture may easily be 
 made by fitting a close cover of fine wire 
 gauze over the top of the chimney of the last- 
 mentioned contrivance. The gas is turned on, 
 and after a few minutes ignited above the wire 
 gauze. (See page 946). The ingenious and 
 useful burners of Bnnsen and Griffin are so con- 
 structed that gas and air mixed in any propor- 
 tions, or gas alone, may be burnt at pleasure. 
 Bunsen's is a most efiicient and convenient form 
 of buruer. (See illustration on next page.) It 
 consists of a gas jet, surrounded by a metal 
 tube, about 6 to 9 inches high and about \ inch 
 in diameter; having at the bottom four large 
 holes. On the admission of air, when the gas 
 is turned on, the air rushes in by these orifices, 
 and mingling with the gas, the mixture as- 
 cends to the top of the tube and is there ig- 
 nited, giving rise to a flame of great heat, but 
 without luminosity, owing to the simultaneous 
 combustion of the carbon and the hydrogen. 
 The burner, however, is so contrived that by 
 shutting off the supply of air entirely, or 
 limiting it, the flame may be made more or 
 less luminous at pleasure. To distribute the 
 flame, a rosette burner is placed on the top of 
 the tube. 
 
LAMP 
 
 945 
 
 An improved variety of this burner has been 
 designed by Bunscn, and is figured below. 
 
 Imptovcd Burnen burner. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 It is so contrived as to give a flame that is 
 H very niueli better sulistitute for the flame of 
 tlie blowpipe, than the ordinary Bunsen's bur- 
 ner, and may hence be employed for redacin?, 
 oxidising, fusing, and volatilisine, as well as 
 for the observation of coloured flames. Fig. 
 1 is a sheath which, by tuinnsf round, 
 regulates the admission of air. When it is 
 used the conical chimney, dddd. is placed 
 in e e; it is of a size sufficient to allow 
 of the flame burning tranquilly. In 
 fig. 1 the flame is represented of h:ilf its na- 
 tural size. 'J'his flame it will be seen consists 
 of three divisions, viz. — 1, a a a a the dark 
 zone, which is composed of cold gas mixed with 
 about 62 per cent, of air. 2, a cab the man- 
 tie formed by the burning mixture of gas and 
 air. 3, aba, the luminous tip of the dark 
 cone, which only appears when the orifices for 
 the air are partially closed. Riductions may 
 be performed in this part of the flame. 
 
 Bunsen, however, divides the flame into six 
 parts, to which he attributes as many lunc- 
 tioiis. These six divisions of the flame he 
 names as follows : — 
 
 1. Tlie base at a has a relatively low 
 temperature, because the burning gas is here 
 cooled by tne constant current of fresh air, 
 and also because the lamp itself conducts the 
 heat away. This part of the flame serves for 
 discovering the colours produced by readily 
 volatile bodies, when less volatile matters which 
 colour the flame are also present. At the re- 
 latively low temperature of this part of the 
 flame, the former vaporises alone instanta- 
 neously, and the resulting colour imp.irted to 
 the flame is for a moment visible unmixed 
 with other colours. 
 
 2. The Fusing Zone. This lies at /3, at a 
 distance from the bottom of somewhat more 
 than one third of the height of the flame, 
 equidistant from tlie outside and the inside of 
 the mantle, which is broadest at this part. 
 This is the hottest part of the flame, viz., 
 about 2300°, and it therefore serves for test- 
 ing substances, as to their fusibility, volatility, 
 emissiou of light, and for all processes of fu- 
 sion at a high temperature. 
 
 3. The lower Oxidising Zone lies in the 
 outer border of the fusing zone at y, and is 
 especially suitable for the oxidation of oxides 
 dissolved in vitreous fluxes. 
 
 4. The upper Oxidising Flame at i consists of 
 the non-luminous tip of the flame. Its action 
 is strongest when the air holes of the lamp 
 are fully open. It is used for the roasting 
 away of volatile products of oxidation, and 
 generally for all processes of oxidation, when 
 the highest temperature is not required. 
 
 5. The lower reducing Zone lies at S, in the 
 inner border of the fusing zone next to the 
 dark cone. The reducing gases are here mixed 
 with oxygen, and, therefore, do not possess 
 their full power, hence they are without action 
 on many substances which are deoxidised in 
 the upper reducing flame. This part of the 
 
 60 
 
946 
 
 LAMP PLACK— LANTHOPINE 
 
 flame is especially suited for reduction on 
 charcoal or in vitreous fluxes. 
 
 6. The tipper reducing Flame lies at »/, in 
 the luminous tip of the dark inner cone, which, 
 as already explained, may be produced hy di- 
 minishing the supply of air. This part of the 
 flame must not be allowed to get large enough 
 to blacken a test tube filled with water and 
 held in it. It contains no free oxygen, is rich 
 in separated incandescent carbon, and there- 
 fore has a much stronger action than the 
 lower reducing zone. It is used more parti- 
 cularly for the reduction of metals collected 
 in the form of incrustations. 
 
 The subjoined is a drawing of the gauze 
 burner, which is an open cylinder with wire 
 gauze at the top. 
 
 Argan(l*s lamp, with wire-gauze cap. 
 
 When this is placed over the gas burner, a 
 supply of air is drawn in at the bottom by 
 the ascending current of gas, and the mixture 
 burns above the gauze, with a very hot flame, 
 quite free from smoke, the metallic meshes 
 preventing the flame from passing down to 
 the gas belcjw. See Illumination, Fuel, 
 FuENACE, Gas, Labokatoet, &c. 
 
 Lamp, Flameless. Si/rt. Glow lamp. A 
 coil of fine platinum wire is slipped over the 
 wick of a spirit lamp, the greater part being 
 raised above the cotton ; the lamp is supplied 
 with ether or alcohol, lighted for a moment 
 and then blown out. The coil continues to 
 glow in the mixed atmosphere of air and com- 
 bustible vapour, until the liquid in the lamp 
 is exhausted. 
 
 Lamp, fflonochromat'ic. A lamp fed with a 
 mixture of a solution of common salt and spirit 
 of wine. It gives a yelluw light, and makes 
 every object illuminated by it appear either 
 yellow or black. The human features are 
 changed in a remarkable degree; the counte- 
 nance appealing truly ghastly and unearthly. 
 
 Lamp, Safety. Si/n. Minee's lamp, Davy, 
 Geoedy. The safety lamp of Sir H. Davy 
 and George Stephenson a\*e similar in prin- 
 ciple, and were independently invented about 
 the same time. That cf Sir H. Davy consists 
 of a common oil lamp, surmounted with a 
 cylinder of wire gauze, tlic apertures of which 
 are not greater than the ij'nth of an inch 
 square, and the wire of which it is made to 
 the Vnth to the tt'ii"' of .'in inch in diiimetcr. 
 (See engr.) The fire-damp (carbouetted hydro- 
 gen) along with air passes through the 
 meshes into the interior of the gauze cylinder. 
 Here it ignites, but the flame which is pro- 
 
 duced by its combustion cannot explode a 
 mixture of fire-damp and air 
 by which the lamp may be sur- 
 rounded. The flame is pre- 
 vented from passing to the 
 exterior of the gauze by the 
 cooling action of the metal of 
 which it is constructed. When 
 fcjB this lamp is taken into an 
 
 vili \ explosive atmosphere, although 
 
 the fire-damp may burn within 
 the cage with such energy as 
 sometimes to heat the metallic 
 tissue to dull redness, the 
 flame is not communicated to 
 the mixture on the outside. 
 These appearances are so re- 
 markable, that the lamp be- 
 comes an admirable indicator 
 of the state of the air in dif- 
 ferent parts of the mine, and 
 if its admonitions are attended 
 to, gives the miner time to 
 withdraw before an explosion takes place. 
 
 Lamp, Telescope. This ingenious contri- 
 vance, invented by Messrs Murray and Heath, 
 is intended for microscopic illumination. It 
 consists of three brass tubes, sliding one within 
 the other, the oil vessel being contained in the 
 inner tube. The height of the lamp is regu- 
 lated to the greatest nicety by simply turning 
 one tube in the other, interior spiral guides 
 preventing all chance of slipping. The great 
 adviintage of this arrangement is absence of 
 the stand and bar usually employed for raising 
 and lowering the lamp, which enables it to be 
 used on all sides, and to be .brought much 
 closer to the microscope than other lamps. 
 See engr., p. 947. 
 LAMP BLACK. See Black pigments. 
 LAMP'EEY. 5y». Geeat lampeey, Seal. 
 This fish is the Petromizon marinus of Lin- 
 nsous. It generally quits the sea in the spring, 
 for the purpose of spawning, and remains in 
 our rivers for a few months. Its flesh is soft 
 and glutinous, and though esteemed a delicacy, 
 is extremely difficult of digestion, if not other- 
 wise unwholesome. Potted lampreys are 
 usually so highly seasoned as to become a 
 dangerous article of food. Henry I is said to 
 havft lost his life from the effects of a surfeit 
 of lampreys. 
 
 LANDANINE. CajH-jsNOg. An alkaloid 
 obtained by Hesse from the aqueous extract 
 of opium. It is homologous with morphine 
 and codeine. It dissolves in strong sulphuric 
 acid with a rose-red colour, in strong nitric acid 
 with an orange red colour, ard in ferric chlo- 
 ride with emerald green colour. 
 
 LANTHA'KIUM. Logj. A rare metal, dis- 
 covered by Mosander, associated with oxide of 
 cei iura. Oxide of lanthanium is a pale salmon- 
 coloured powder, unaffected by ignition in open 
 vessels. According to Zsrhiesche the atomic 
 weight of lanthanium is 90'18. See Ceeium. 
 LANTHOPINE. CzjHjsNOi. A base ob- 
 
LAPIS— LARCH BARK 
 
 947 
 
 Uined by Hesie in urnall qaantity, asaocisted 
 witli otlier bases from the aqueous extract of 
 opium. It is homologous with papaverine. 
 Strong nitric acid dissolvex ir, giving rise 
 to an orange red colour. Strong sulphuric 
 acid gives with it a faint violet colour. 
 
 LA'PIS. [L.] A stone. The term was 
 much employed by the old chemists, and is 
 still commonly applied to several preparations 
 used in medicine. 
 
 Lapis Cansticns. See Fotassittm. 
 
 Lapis Divi'niis. St/a. Ditime Siohe; Lapis 
 
 OPHTHAr.MICTrS,X.; PlEBREDIVINB.Fr. Prep. 
 1. (Bi'er.) Verdigris, uitre, and alum, equal 
 parts, melted together, 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Alum, nitre, and blue vitriol, 
 of each 3 ox. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; as last, 
 
 3. (Woolfuss.) Blue vitriol, nitre, alum, and 
 camphor, equal parts, melted together, adding 
 the camphor Inst. Astringent and detergent. 
 1 oz,, dissolved in water, 1 pint, formed a once 
 celebrated lotion. 1 dr. in water, 1 pint, is 
 still used ns a collyrium. 
 
 Lapis Infernalis. See Nitrate of Siltgb. 
 
 Lapis Lazn'li. See Ultbamarine. 
 
 Lapis Lydios. St/n. Lydian stons. A sili- 
 ceous slate, used as a touchstone by jewellers. 
 
 Lapis Kedicamento'sus. Si/n. Medicinal 
 STONE; Lapis mieabilis, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 
 17(6.) Alum, litharire, and Armenian bole, 
 of each 6 nz. ; colcothar of green vitriol, 3 
 oz. ; vinKgiir, 4 (I. oz. ; ra.ix, and evaporate to 
 diyncss. Formerly used to make an astrin- 
 
 gent and detergent lotion : — 1 oz. to water, 1 
 pint. Once a popular application to ulcers, 
 and in other c.ises; now disused. 
 
 Lapis Valnerar'ioB. Very similar to Lapis 
 
 DIVINCS. 
 
 LARCH BARK. The inner bark of the 
 Larix Europaay the common larch, has been 
 lately introduced, under the form of a tincture, 
 into the British Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 Dr Stenhouse obtained from the bark a 
 peculiar vohitili- constituent, possessed oi' acid 
 properties for which the name of lariximic acid 
 lias been proposed. The other trees of the 
 pine family are deficient in this scid. The 
 young bark abounds most in it. Gum, starch, 
 resiu, and that variety of tannic acid, which 
 foi:ms olive green precipitates with the salts 
 of iron, have also been found, in addition to 
 other substances, in larch bark. 
 
 The inner bark, employed internally, has a 
 special action on the mucous membranes, and 
 
948 
 
 LARD— LAVEMENT 
 
 acts as an astringent and mild stimulant. It 
 is said to have been given witli excellent results 
 in bsemoptvsis, as well as in bronchitis at- 
 tended with copious expectoration, and in dis- 
 eases of the urinary passages. Externally has 
 been found serviceable in psoriasis, chronic 
 eczema, and some other sicin diseases. It is 
 best to combine its extract or tincture with 
 glycerin when it is to be used outwardly. See 
 
 TlIfCTUBE OF LAKCH BAKK. 
 
 LARD. Syn. HoG'SIAED,AXT7NOE; Adeps. 
 (Ph. L.), AxDK&iA (Ph. E.), A. suillus (Ph. 
 D.), A. POEci, A. PRiEPARATTJS (B.P.), L. The 
 fat of tlio pig (Sasscrofa — Linn.) melted by a 
 gentle heat, and strained through flannel or a 
 hair sieve. The fat about the loins yields the 
 whitest and hardest lard. " That which has 
 been cured with chloride of sodium is not to be 
 employed." (Ph. L.) " It is not to be used 
 without being first carefully washed with 
 water." (Ph. L. 1866.) Used chiefly to make 
 ointments, and in cookery. See Adeps. 
 
 LARD'ING. By many this is regarded as 
 belonging to the higher style of cookery only, 
 and too troublesome and extravagant to be 
 adapted to the kitchens of the middle classes 
 and the poor. This, we are assured, is not the 
 case. On the contrary, ** it is an economical 
 process, and will make lean meat go much 
 farther than without it." The process of lard- 
 ing is as follows : — " Get what is called a 
 larding needle, that is, a piece of steel from 6 
 to 9 inches long, pointed at one end, and 
 having four slits at the other to hold a small 
 strip of hacou when put between them. It 
 will, perhaps, cost tenpence. Cut the bacon 
 into pieces 2 or 3 inches long, and J to 4 an 
 inch square ; put each one alter the other in 
 the pin, insert it in the meat, and leave only 
 about half an inch out; using 8 pieces to each 
 pound." (Soyer.) 
 
 LARK. The Alauda aroensis (sktiabk) 
 and the Alauda cristata (pibld-laek), with 
 several other species of the same genus, form 
 a light and nutritious article of food, by many 
 esteemed a delicacy. The last, according to 
 Galen and Dioscorides, eaten either roasted or 
 boiled, ' helps the colic' The heart, applied 
 to the thigh, was also regarded to possess the 
 same virtue. 
 
 LARYNGITIS. Inflammation of the larynx, 
 or upper part of the windpipe. The symptoms 
 that indicate this most dangerous malady are 
 sore throat, accompanied with considerable 
 pain in front of the throat, difficulty in breath- 
 ing and swallowing, considerable hoarseness, 
 change or loss of voice, a sense of suffocation, 
 fever, restlessness, flushing of the face, and an 
 eager desire for fresh air. Wo have described 
 the accompaniments of this dread disease, in 
 order that any one seized with an attack may 
 know its nature, and at once send for his me- 
 dical attendant. Should circumstances prevent 
 his doing so immediately, as many leeches as 
 possible should be applied to the centre of the 
 throat. 
 
 LAUD'ANUM. This name is now under- 
 stood to denote, exclusively, the common 
 tincture of opium of the Pharmacopoeia ; but 
 formerly the term was applied to several pre- 
 parations of opium differing greatly from each 
 other, both in their strength and mode of pre- 
 paration. (See below.) 
 
 Laudanum, Dutchman's. From the flowers 
 of bull's hoof or Dutchman's laudanum (^Passi- 
 flora merucuja — Linn.) infused in rum. Nar- 
 cotic. Used as a substitute for tincture of 
 opium in the West Indies. 
 
 Laudanum, Ford's. This ismerely the com- 
 mon tincture of opium aromatised with a little 
 cloves and cinnamon. 
 
 Landanum, Houlton's. Prep. Prom opium 
 2^.oz. J distilled vinegar, li pint; digested 
 together for a week, the filtered tincture gently 
 evaporated nearly to dryness, and then redis- 
 solved in weak spirit (1 of rectified spirit to 
 7 of water), 1 quart. — Dose, 10 to 60 drops. 
 
 Laudanum, Neumann's. A fermented in- 
 fusion of opium evaporated to the consistence 
 of honey. 
 
 Laudanum, Quince. Syn. Extractitm opii 
 CTDONiATtiir, Laudanum ctdoniatum, L. 
 Prep. 1. Extract of opium made with quince 
 juice; a few drops of the oils of cinnamon, 
 cloves, and mace being added before the mass 
 cools. Now seldom used. 
 
 2. Laudanum, LIQUID-QUINCE; Laudanum 
 
 LIQUIDUM OTDONIATUM, L. 1. 0. PAKATUM 
 
 FEEMENTATIONE, L.) A fermented infusion 
 of opium prepared withquince juice, aromatised 
 with cloves, cinnamon, aloes wood, and yellow 
 sandal wood, and evaporated so as to possess 
 about twice the strength of the ordinary tinc- 
 ture. Now obsolete. 
 
 Laudanum, Rousseau's. Wine of opium 
 prepared by fermentation. See "Wine. 
 
 Laudanum, Smith's Concentrated. Resem- 
 bles Battley's mquob opii sedatitus, but 
 possesses about 6 times its strength. 
 
 Laudanum, Swediaur's. Prep. From extract 
 of opium, 2 parts, dissolved in a mixture of 
 alcohol, 1 part, distilled water, 8 parts. Every 
 5 drops contain 1 gr. of opium. 
 
 Laudanum, Sydenham's Liquid. Syn. Lau- 
 danum LIQUIDUM Stdenhami, L. Similar to 
 Wine of Opium— Ph. L., but rather stronger, 
 and aromatised with a httle cloves and cinna- 
 mon. Wme of opium ia now always sold 
 for it. 
 
 Laudanum, Tartarised. Syn. Laudanum 
 LIQUIDUM taktakizatum, L. A tincture of 
 opium prepared with spirit alkalised with salt of 
 tartar, and flavoured with aromaties. Obso- 
 lete. 
 
 LAUGH'IIIG- GAS. See Nitrous oxide. 
 
 LATJR'EL. See Cheeez laurel. Sweet 
 BAY, Oil, &c. 
 
 LA'VA. The matter thrown out by vol- 
 canoes. The beautiful ornamental vases,jng3, 
 and other objects sold under the name, are a 
 superior sort of unglazed coloured porcelain. 
 
 LAVE'MENT. See Enema. 
 
LAVENDER -LEAD 
 
 949 
 
 LAVENDEK. The flonrers or flowering tops 
 of Lavandula vera or coininon garden laven- 
 (Ut. Au essential oil, spirit, and tincture, pre- 
 pared from it, are ofBciual iu the Fharma- 
 copcnias. 
 
 Lavender Dye (for ooTTOJf). For 100 yards 
 of material. Talie 1 lb, of logwood, and 2 
 IIm. of sumach, and scald tbcm sepiirately. 
 Then decant them into a proper sized tub, 
 let them cool to 150° Falir., and tidd 2 gills of 
 vitriol. \\'inch the goods in this 20 minutes ; 
 lift, and run them slightly through acetate or 
 iron ; wasli them in two waters ; then give 1 
 lb. of logwood as before, raise with a pint of 
 chloride of tin, wash in two waters ; then in a 
 tub of cold water put 4 oz. extract of indigo, 
 enter and winch in this 15 minutes, lift ; give 
 one water, and dry. 
 
 Lavender Dye (for wool). Boil 51 lbs. of 
 logwood with 2 lbs. of alum. Then add 
 10 oz. of extract of indigo. When cold put 
 in the goods, and gradually raise to the boiling 
 point. For 50 lbs. 
 
 Lavender, Ked. See TurcTDim. 
 
 Lavender, Smith's British. I'rep. From 
 Englisli oil of lavender, 2 oz. ; essence of am- 
 bergris, 1 oz. i eau de Cologne, 1 pint ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart. Very fragrant. See Watsb 
 (Lavender). 
 
 Lavender, to Dye Silk. (iVTustpratt.) Into 
 a vessel with warm water, as hot as the hiind 
 can bear, dissolve a little white snap, enough 
 to raise a lather ; then add one (;ill of archil 
 liquor, and work the goods iu this for fifteen 
 minutes ; ring out and dry. 
 
 Boil one ounce of cudbear, and add the solu- 
 tion to the soap and water instead of 
 archil, which will give a lavender having :\ 
 redder tint than with the archil. If a still 
 redder shade of lavender bo required the soap 
 may beiliepensod with. 
 
 Lavender Water. See Spirits, PERrnsiED. 
 
 LAX'ATIVES. Si/n. Lenitives; Laxa- 
 TivA, Laxantia, Lenitiva, L. lliUl purga- 
 tives or cathartics. The principal of these 
 are — almond oil, cassia pulp, castor oil, con- 
 fection of senna, cream of tart.ir, figs, grapes, 
 honey, phosphate of soda, prunes, sahid oil, 
 tamarinds, &c, 
 
 LAT'ERS. Among gardeners, a mode of 
 propagating plants, by laying down the shoots 
 of young twigs, and covering n portion of 
 them with the soil, without detach iiii; them 
 from the parent plant. To facilitate tlie 
 rooting of such layers, the part beneath the 
 soil is fractured by twisting or bruising it, or 
 it is paitly cut through witli a sharp knife, 
 immediutil y under a bud. When the hiyei- has 
 taken root, it is divided from the parent stem, 
 and truii'^planted or potted. In this way, with 
 a little care, nearly all plants may be multi- 
 plied. 
 
 LEAD. Pb. Eq. 207. Si/n. PLfMBUM. 
 This metal, like gold, silver, and iron, appears 
 to have been known in the most remote ages 
 of antiquity. The ore from which it is allno^t 
 
 exclusively extracted, as being the only one 
 found in abundance, is the native sulphide or 
 sulphurct of lead, called by mineralogists 
 galena. 
 
 Prep. On the large scale lead is obtained by 
 roasting galena in a reverberatory furnace, 
 and smelting the residue along with coal and 
 lime. The lead thus obtained geiierally con- 
 tains small quantities of both silver and gold, 
 which it often pays to extract, by a method 
 termed ' Pattinson's process.' This process 
 is founded on the circumstance that, when 
 melted, lead containing silver is allowed to 
 cool. The lead crystallises out first, leaving au 
 alloy of lead and silver still fused. By re- 
 moving the crystals of lead, as formed, until 
 about four fifths are removed, the residue is 
 an alloy of lead and silver much richer than 
 the original. Ri-peated several times, this 
 yields a rich alloy of silver and lead that is 
 expelled and the silver obtained. 
 
 Another method for tlic removal of silver 
 from lead is one employed in Glasgow, and 
 known as the ' Flack-Ouillim process. It is 
 thus described in ' Uinsler's I'oljte<hnic 
 Journal,* ccxxxv, 67-70, and in ' Engineering ' 
 for September 15th, 1876. " Eighteen tons 
 of rich lead are melted, and one per cent, of 
 zinc added. The molten mass then allowed to 
 cool, the crust which forms is removed, and 
 the lead sweated out in a small pot. The lead 
 in the large pot is then treated with another 
 half per cent, of zinc in the same way. A 
 third addition of a quarter per cent, of zinc 
 suffices to remove the greater part of the re- 
 maining silver, 5 dwts. being left in the lead per 
 ton. This lead is then run mto the improving 
 pan, and the last traces of zinc oxidised out. 
 
 Pure lead for chemical purposes may be ob- 
 tained as follows, although the lead of com- 
 merce is nearly pure : 
 
 By reducing nitrate of lead with charcoal. 
 
 By heatinrr the oxide left by igniting pure 
 acelate of lead with black flux. 
 
 Flop., S(Q. The general properties of lead 
 are too well known to require notice here. 
 The sp. gr. of tliat of commerce is abont 
 H3o ; but in a state of absolute purity its 
 greatest densitv is 1145. It melts at about 
 600° Fahr., and when very slowly cooled, crys- 
 tallises in octahedrons. At a white heat it 
 boils, and is volatilised. When exposed to 
 moist air, it soon becomes covered with a grey 
 film. It is scarcely acted on bv hydrocldoric 
 or sulphuric acids, although alter so iie time 
 both coat it with a film of chloride or sulphate. 
 It is rapidly acted on by nitric acid, with for- 
 mation of the nitrate. Pure water put into a 
 leaden vessel and exposed to the air soon cor- 
 rodes it, and dissolves the newly formed 
 oxide ; but river and spring water have little 
 action upon lead, provided there is no free 
 carbonic acid present, the carbonates and sul- 
 phates in such water destroying their solvent 
 powers. It has been found that a very small 
 amount of phosphate of sodium or of iodide of 
 
950 
 
 LEAD 
 
 potassium, dissolved in distilled water, prevents 
 its corrosive action on this metal. The lead in 
 contact with such water gradually becomes 
 covered with a superficial film of an insoluble 
 salt of lead, which adheres tenaciously, and 
 prevents further change. Prom this it appears 
 that ordinary water (' hard water '), which 
 abounds in mineral salts, may be more or less 
 safely kept in leaden cisterns; but distilled 
 water and rain water, and all other varieties 
 that contain scarcely any saline matter, speedily 
 corrode, and dissolve a portion of lead, when 
 kept in vessels of that metal. When, how- 
 ever, leaden cisterns have iron or zinc fasten- 
 ings or braces, a galvanic action is set up, the 
 preservative power of saline matter ceases, and 
 the water speedily becomes contaminated with 
 lead, and unfit.for consumption as a beverage. 
 Water containing carbonic anhydride also acts 
 on lead, and this is the reason why the water 
 of some springs (although loaded with saline 
 matter), when kept in leaden cisterns, or raised 
 by leaden pumps, possesses unwholesome pro- 
 perties. 
 
 M. Fordos, in a communication to the 
 ' Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie,' xix, 20, 
 states that in the course of some experiments 
 on the applicability of lead for water pipes 
 Hud cisterns he could not detect a trace of 
 lead in ten litres of river water taken from the 
 lexden cistern of one of the Paris hospitals. 
 But upon sliaking pure water with shot and 
 air, a coating of carbonate of lead was formed 
 on tlie sides of the bottle, which almost ren- 
 dered the glass opaque. On dissolving the 
 tilin in nitric acid, and estimating the lead, 
 it was found that one litre of water had pro- 
 duced five milligrammes of the carbonate. 
 Wine and vinegar would also dissolve that 
 film ; and as sliot is commonly used for clean- 
 ing wine bottles, lead frequently finds its way 
 into wines, a fact which may account fur 
 many of the cases of chronic poisoning by lead 
 which occur in large towns. The detection of 
 small quantities of lead in forensic investiga- 
 tion would afford, therefore, no proof of any 
 intentional poisoning. 
 
 Orfila's erroneous statement that lead is a 
 normal constituent of the human organism 
 may also be accounted for in this way. 
 
 Free carbonic acid is evolved during the 
 fermentation or decay of vegetable matter, 
 and hence the absolute necessity of preventing 
 the leaves of trees falling into water-cisterns 
 formed of lead. The ' eau de rose' and the 
 ' eau d'orange ' of commerce, which are pure 
 distilled water holding in solution small quan- 
 tities of essential oil, and are imported in 
 leaden canisters, always contain a small quan- 
 tity of lead, and deposit a sediment, which is 
 not the case when they are kept in glass or 
 incorrodible vessels. 
 
 Lead and all its preparations are highly 
 poisonous J and whether imbibed in almost 
 infinitesimal quantities with our daily bever- 
 ages and food, or swallowed in larger and 
 
 appreciable doses, is productive of the most 
 disastrous consequences, the real cause being 
 unfortunately seldom suspected. > 
 
 Mr G. Bischof writes : — Some eight months 
 ago a tube was passed in my laboratory, which 
 is supplied with water by the New River Com- 
 pany, into the slate cistern so as to act as a 
 syphon to supply some apparatus with water. 
 The external surface of the tube inside the 
 cistern was therefore alternately exposed to 
 the action of air and water, according to the 
 level of water in the cistern. 
 
 Recently I noticed a white efflorescence on 
 the greater part of the tube inside the cistern. 
 An adjoining cistern of sheet lead, with a lead 
 overflow pipe fixed into the bottom, shows 
 nowhere any such corrosion. 
 
 On cutting the tube it became evident that 
 it is a composition tube, that is to say, a lead 
 tube, containing some antimony. On analysis 
 it was found to be composed of — 
 
 Lead 
 Antimony 
 
 98-3 
 1-7 
 
 100-0 
 
 Although the external diameter of the tube 
 is only half an inch, 0'29 gram of efflorescence 
 was obtained per foot by gentle rubbing. This 
 dried at 100° C. contained 1-02 per cent, of 
 sulphuric acid, corresponding with 41 per 
 cent, of sulphate of lead. The remainder, ex- 
 cept 1-13 per cent, of a residue insoluble in 
 nitric acid, is carbonate of lead. 
 
 The alternate exposure to air and water 
 appears not essential to the corrosion, as I 
 have observed a similar effect when the same 
 tubing remained constantly under water. The 
 interior of the tube has also been corroded, 
 although of course no permanent efflorescence 
 could be formed, owing to the rapid flow of 
 the water. 
 
 The frequent practice of plumbers of nsing 
 composition tubing in connection with water 
 supplies is therefore highly reprehensible, 
 being fraught with considerable danger to 
 the health of those using the water for drink- 
 ing or cooking. 
 
 Mr Louis Siebold detected lead in eight out 
 of ten samples of concentrated solution of 
 acetate of ammonia as well as in a sample 
 of the ordinary solution of the British 
 Pharmacopoeia. In pursuing bis investigations 
 Mr Siebold found that solutions of acetate of 
 ammonium are capable of dissolving lead from 
 glass. He therefore advises that all forms of 
 the solution, more particularly the concen- 
 trated liquor employed by many chemists for 
 making the weaker solutions, should be kept 
 in bottles free from lead. 
 
 With the acids lead or its oxides form salts, 
 usually white in colour, and in the majority 
 nearly insoluble in water, but readily soluble 
 in acids. 
 
 Tests. The oxides and salts of lead, mixed 
 ' 'Journiil of the Chemical Society," April, 1867. 
 
LEAD 
 
 951 
 
 witli a little carbonate of soda, and pxposed 
 on a cliaicoKl support to the reducing flaine of 
 tlie blowpipe, readily yield a soft and ductile 
 globule of inetiiUio lead, and the charcoal, »t 
 the same time, becomes covered with a yel- 
 lowish incrustation of oxide of lead. Both 
 metallic lead and its oxides are soluble in 
 nitric acid, furnishing a solutioa which may 
 be examined with ea^e. 
 
 Solution of lead salts may be recognised by 
 the following reactions : — Sulphuretted hy- 
 drogou, Bulphydrate of iimmonium, and the 
 alkaline sulphides, give black precipitates, in- 
 soluble in the cold dilute acids, alkalies, allia- 
 line sulphides, and cyanide of potassium. 
 Potassium and sodium hydrates give a white 
 precipitate, soluble in excess. Ammonia (ex- 
 cept with the acetate) gives a white precipi- 
 tate, insoluble in excess. The carbonates of 
 potassium, sodium, and ammonium, give a 
 white precipitate, insoluble in excess. Dilute 
 sulphuric acid (in excess), and solutions of the 
 sulphates give a white precipitate, sparingly 
 soluble in dilute acids, but soluble iu a hot 
 boiling solution of potassium carbonate. Chro- 
 mate and bichromate of potassium give yellow 
 precipitates insoluble in dilute nitric acid, and 
 soluble in solution of potassium hydrate. 
 Iodide of potassium gives a yellow precipitate, 
 soluble in great excess by heat, and separating 
 in small, brilliant, golden-yellow scales, as the 
 liquid cools. A piece of polished zinc precipi- 
 tates metallic lead in an arborescent form, 
 hence called tlie lead tree. To prepare for these 
 tests, a solid supposed to contain lead should 
 be digested in nitric acid, when the solution, 
 evaporated to dryness and redissolved in water, 
 may be tested as above. 
 
 Eatim. This has been already referred to 
 under previous heads. The ores of lead (ga- 
 lena) may be digested in nitric acid, when 
 the solution may be treated with sulphuric 
 acid, and the lead estimated from the weight 
 of the precipitated sulphate. This is called 
 an assay in the wet way. The method 
 adopted by practical mineralogists is an assay 
 in the dry way, and is conducted as follows : — 
 A small but powerful air-furnace, charged 
 with coke, is brought to as high a tempera- 
 ture as possible, and a conical wrought-iron 
 crucible plunged into the midst of it; as soon 
 as the crucible has attained a dull-red heat, 
 1000 gr. of the galena, reduced to powder, 
 are thrown into it, and stirred gently with 
 a long piece of ttiff iron wire flattened at the 
 one end, in order to expose as large a surface 
 of the powdered ore to the air as possible, 
 observing now and then to withdraw the wire, 
 to prevent it becoming red hot, in which case 
 some of the ore would permanently adhere to 
 it, and bo reduced before the intended time ; 
 ■ the roasting is completed in 3 or 4 minutes, 
 and any portion oi' tlio ore adhering to the 
 stirrer beiiic detached by a knife, and re- 
 turned into the crucible, the latter is covered 
 up, and allowed to attain a full cherry-red 
 
 heat, when abont 2 or 3 spoonfuls of reducing 
 flux are added, and the whole brought to a 
 full white heat; in 12 to 15 minutes, the 
 portion of metal and scoria adhering to the 
 sides of the crucible are scraped down into 
 the melted mass with a small stick of moist 
 green wood, after which the crucible is again 
 covered, and the heat urged for 2 or 3 minutes 
 longer, so as to keep the mass in a perfectly 
 liquid state duringthe whole time ; the crucible 
 is then removed from the lire with the cru- 
 cible-tongs, and adroitly tilted so as to dis- 
 charge its contents into a small, ingot-mould 
 of brass, observing to rake the scoria from the 
 surface to the sides of the crucible, so as to 
 allow the molten lead to be poured out without 
 it ; the scoria is then reheated in the crucible 
 with about 4 spoonful of flux, and after being 
 cleansed with a piece of green wood, as before, 
 is at once poured into a second mould, which 
 is instantly inverted ; the little button of lead 
 thus obtained is added to the lead in the other 
 mould, and the whole is accurately weighed. 
 The weight, divided by 10, gives the per- 
 centage of lead (including silver, if present) 
 in the ore examined. 
 
 One half of the lead thus obtained is put 
 into a dry cupel of bone ash, and placed in the 
 cupelling furnace, and treated as described in 
 the article on assaying; the metallic button 
 left on the cupel is then detached and weighed. 
 The weight, divided by 5, gives the per-centage 
 of pure silver. 
 
 Ohs. The flux commonly employed in the 
 above assay is composed of red argol, 6 parts ; 
 nitre, 4 parts; borax, 2 parts; fluor spar, 1 
 part ; well pulverised and thorougldy mixed 
 together. When the ore is very refractory, 
 about a spoonful of carbonate of potassium 
 should be added for each 1000 grains of ore, 
 in which case the roasting may be dispensed 
 with. The quantity of silver in argentiferous 
 galena varies from -nrooi! to i part of the 
 whole. Whenever this ore contains above 2 
 parts of silver in the 1000, it is found to be 
 profitable to extract the latter. Indeed, by 
 Pattison's process it is found that as small a 
 proportion as 1 in 8000 can be extracted with 
 profit. 
 
 Uses. The uses of lead in the arts are well 
 known. It enters-into the composition of many 
 important alloys (pewter, type-metal, shot- 
 metal, solder, &c.), it furnishes us with several 
 valuable pigments (chrome yellow, &c.), and it 
 is extensively used in dyeing. Some of its 
 preparations are employed in medicine. 
 
 Ant., ^c. Administer an emetic of sulphate 
 of zinc or sulphate of copper, and, if necessary, 
 tickle the lauces with the finger or a feather, 
 to induce vomiting. Should this not succeed 
 the stomach-pump may be had recourse to. 
 Epsom or Glauber's salts, or alum, dissolved in 
 water, or water acidulated with sulphuric acid, 
 followed by tea, water gruel, or barley water, 
 are the proper antidotes, and should be taken 
 as soon after the poison has been swallowed as 
 
952 
 
 LEAD 
 
 possible. In poisoning by white lead, Dr 
 Alfred Tajlor recommends the administration 
 of a mixture of snlpbate of magnesium and 
 vinegar, as preferable to the sulphate alone. 
 When the symptoms are those of painter's 
 colic, the treatment recommended under that 
 bead should be adopted. In paralysis arising 
 from lead, small doses of strychnine and 
 its preparations may be cautiously ad- 
 ministered. A symptom of poisoning by lead 
 is the formation of a narrow leaden blue line, 
 from -Jijth to -^th of an inch wide, bordering 
 the edges of the gums, attached to the neck of 
 two or more teeth of either jaw. (Dr Burton.) 
 This discoloration may often bo detected or ren- 
 dered more conspicuous by rinsing the mouth 
 out with water holdi^ig a little sulphuretted 
 hydrogen or sulphydrate of ammonium in 
 solution. Chevallier and Rayer recommend the 
 use of sulphurous or heprttic mineral waters, or 
 of artificial solutions of sulphuretted hydrogen 
 or alkaline sulphides in water, both in cases of 
 acute and chronic poisoning by lead ; but the 
 practical success of this plan does not appear 
 to have been in proportion to theoretical autici- 
 pations. The moist and 'freshly precipitated 
 sulphides of iron are said by their advocates to 
 be infallible if taken sufficiently early. 
 
 Lead in Aerated Water. Some time since 
 Sir Robert Cbristison condemned the use 
 of syphons for lemonade, owing to the ac- 
 tion of free tartaric acid upon lead, and the 
 rapidity with which waters containing any free 
 acid become charged with lead in syphons. 
 According to Professor Miller, 00175 gr. of 
 lead per gallon is not an unusual amount for 
 average cistern water. Mr John S. Thomp- 
 son, however, reports to the Edinburgh Uni- 
 versity Chemical Society that, after such water 
 has been aerated and put into a syphon, the 
 amount of lead dissolved in it begins to rise in 
 a rapid manner. Thus in potash water, drawn 
 from a syphon, 0'0408 grain of lead per gallon 
 was found to be present, being nearly 25 
 times the quantity found in the same water 
 before it entered the syphon. Pure aerated 
 water again drawn in a similar manner from 
 a syphon gave 00816 gr. of lead per gallon, 
 or exactly double the amount found in the 
 potasb water, showing at once the well-known 
 protective action that salts of the alkalies and 
 alkaline earths have on lead. " Although," says 
 the 'Medical Journal,' " tliese results are suffi- 
 ciently high and alarming; still, when the 
 water is drawn off in small quantities at a 
 time, as is frequently the case with invalids, 
 the results are found to be still higher ; thus, 
 when potash water was so treated, 0'04.55 gr. 
 of lead per gallon was found, while aerated 
 water, drawn off in small quantities, gave 
 0'0933 gr. of lead per gallon, showing a 
 very marked rise in both cases. The cause of 
 this increase in quantity of the lead appears 
 to be owing, not so much to the lengthened 
 period of contact between the liquid and the 
 metal as to the fact that the nozzle of the 
 
 syphon, being exposed to the atmosphere in a. 
 moist state, becomes rapidly oxidised or car- 
 bonated, and is left in the most suitable con- 
 dition ibr entering into solution, so that, when 
 merely small portions of the liquid are drawn 
 off each time, a comparatively concentrated 
 solution of lead is obtained. These results," 
 continues the same authority, " compare accu- 
 rately with those which were obtained by 
 Alessra Savoi'y and Moore, in examining the 
 contents of a series of syphons of aerated water 
 for Dr George Owen Rees, F.R.S., whose atten- 
 tion was drawn to the subject by detecting 
 symptoms of lead-poisoning in himself after he 
 had been in the habit for some time of drinking 
 such aerated water." 
 Lead, Acetate of. Pb(CjH303)2. Syn. 
 
 PltJMBIO ACETATE, SUaAR OV LEAD, PLUMB! 
 
 A0ETA3. (B. P.) JPrep. Litharge (in fine pow- 
 der) 24 J acetic acid, 40; distilled water, 20; 
 mix the acetic acid and the water, add the 
 litharge, and dissolve with the aid of a gentle 
 heat, filter, evaporate until a pellicle forms, and 
 crystallise. Drain and dry the crystal. 
 
 Acetic acid (sp. gr. 10843), 23 parts, is 
 gently heated in a copper boiler rendered 
 electro-negative by means of a large flat piece 
 of lead soldered within it, and litharge (pure, 
 and in fine powder), 13 parts, is sprinkled in ; 
 the heat is then continued, with constant stir- 
 ring, until the acid is saturated, when the 
 mother-waters of a former process, if any, are 
 added, and the whole is heated to the boiling 
 point, and allowed to settle until cold; the 
 clear portion is now decanted, and evaporated 
 in a similar vessel until the liquor has the sp. 
 gr. 1'266 or 1'267, when it is run into salt- 
 glazcd stone-ware vessels (the edges of which 
 have been well smeared with candle grease), 
 and allowed to crystallise. The product is 38 
 to 38^ parts of crystallised sugar of lead. It 
 is found to be advantageous to preserve a very 
 slight excess of acid during the boiling and 
 crystallisation, to prevent the formation of any 
 basic acetate the presence of which impedes 
 the formation of regular crystals. 
 
 From litharge, 112 lbs. ; acetic acid (sp. gr. 
 1-057), 128 lbs. Prop. 180 to 184 lbs. 
 
 Prop. Pure acetate of lead forms colourless,' 
 transparent, prismatic crystals, slightly efflo- 
 rescent in dry air ; it is soluble in 8 parts of 
 alcohol and in IJ part of cold water; the 
 aqueous solution has a sweet astringent taste, 
 and feebly reddens litmus, but turns turmeric 
 and the juice of violets green; when gently 
 heated, it melts in its water of crystallisation; 
 by continuing the heat, the whole of the water 
 is expelled, and the dry acetate obtained ; at a 
 higher temperature the salt suffers decomposi- 
 tion, and acetic acid, acetone, &c., is given off. 
 Commercial acetate of lead is in general a 
 confused crystalline mass, somewhat resembling 
 broken lump sugar. It is powerfully astrin- 
 gent and poisonous. 
 
 When pure it is completely soluble in dis- 
 tilled water acidulated with acetic acid form- 
 
LEAD 
 
 953 
 
 in;; a tranipnrent ooloarleos solution, "88 
 gruins diatolvt'cl in wnter require lor complete 
 precipitation 200 grains nioasures of the volu- 
 metric solution of oxalic acid." (B. P.) 
 
 Uses, ifc. Acetate of lead ia extensively em- 
 ploved in dyeing and calico-printing. Inme- 
 dicine it is used as an astringent, styptic, and 
 liminoatiitic ; in pulmonary, uterine, and intes- 
 tinal hmmiirrhage, colliquative diarrlicea, phthi- 
 sical Biveata, &c. It is usually combined with 
 morphia or opiam, and with acetic acid to pre- 
 vent it passing into the state of the poisonous 
 carbonate in the stomach. — Vote, j gr. to 2 
 gr. (Collier); 1 to 2 gr. to 8 or 10 gr., twice 
 or thrii-e a day (Pereira) ; 3 gr. to 10 gr., 
 every 6 or 8 hours (A. T. Thomson). Exter- 
 nally, as a coUyrium, 10 gr. to water, 8 fl. oz. 
 (A. T. Thomson) ; as a lotion, 20 gr. (A. T. 
 (Thomson), 1 dr. (Collier) to water, 8 or 10 fl. 
 oz.; as an injection, 40 gr. to rose water, \ 
 pint. The lotion is cooling and sedative, and 
 is commonly used in excoriations, local inflam- 
 mations, &c. 
 
 Basic Acetates. There are several of these 
 salts, but only one is of any importance. 
 
 Tribasic Lead Acetate or Doable Plumbic 
 Acetate, and Dioxide. Pb (CjHsOjjj 2 Hb O. 
 
 5y». SUBACETAT£ OF LEAD ; UaSIO LEAD CI- 
 THATE ; GoDLARD'S ACETATB OF LEAD; PlUMBI 
 BUDACE IAS ^U. P.). Prep. Litharge, 7 ; acetate 
 ■of Ic.icl, 10; iind distilled wntur, 40; are boiled 
 half an hour, and evaporated down, and allowed 
 to crystallise out of contact with air. 
 
 Used under the form of " Plumbi subacetas 
 liquor" v. (». P.) 
 
 Lead, Arse"uiate of. Pby(As04)3. %». Arse- 
 nate OF L. ; Plcmw ausenias, L. Prep. 
 Gradually ndd a solution of acetate of lead to 
 another of araeniate of sodium. A white, in- 
 soluble powder. Proposed as an external 
 application in certain forms of caucor. 
 
 Lead, Bro'mide of. PbUrj. Syn. Plumbi 
 BKOMIDDM, L. Prep. By precipitating a solu- 
 tion of neutral acetiite or nitrate of lead with a 
 solution of bromide of potassium. A white, 
 crystalline powder, sparingly soluble in water. 
 It fuses by heat into a red liquid, which turns 
 yellow when cold. It has been used in the 
 same cases its iodide of lead. 
 
 Lead, Car'bonate of. PbCOj. Syn. Plumbi 
 OABBONAS, L. Prep. By precipitating a cold 
 solution of either acetate or nitrate of lead with 
 a solution of an alkiiline carbonate, observing 
 to well WMsh the precipitate aud dry it in the 
 shade. 'This preparation is seldom employed, 
 the commercial carbonate (white lead) being 
 subntituted for it. See White fioments. 
 
 Lead, Chloride of. PbClg. Syn. Culobide 
 IBAD; Plumbi ohloeidum: (Ph. L. 183H). 
 Prep. (Ph. \i. 1836). Dissolve acetate of lead, 
 19 oz., in boiling water, 3 pints ; next dissolve 
 chloride of sodium, 6 oz., in bi>iling watjjr, 1 
 pint ; mix the two solutions, and when cold 
 wash and dry the precipitate. A white, crys- 
 talline ponder. 
 
 Dissolve finely powdered litharge in boiling 
 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, and set aside the fil- 
 tered solution to cool. Brilliant colourless 
 needles. 
 
 Prop. Soluble in 135 parts of cold and in 22 
 parts of boiling water; it melts when heated, 
 and solidifies on cooling, forming a horn-like 
 substance (horn lead; plumbi corneum). 
 
 Uses, S(c. In the Ph. L. 1836, chloride of 
 lead was ordered to be employed in the prepa- 
 ration of ' bydrochlorate of morphia.' Mr 
 Tuson highly recommends it in cancerous affec- 
 tions, to allay pain and restrain morbid action, 
 either in the form of a lotion or ointment. 
 
 Various mixtures of lead chloriies and oxide 
 are employed as a white pigment under the 
 name of ' Pattison's white.' It is prepared by 
 rapidly mixing a boiling solution of lead 
 chloride with an equal volume of lime water. 
 Another similar compound is called 'patent 
 yellow' or 'Turner's jullow.' 
 
 Lead, Chromate of. PbCrO^. Syn. Lemox 
 yellow, Leifsic yellow, Paris yellow. 
 Prep. By adding a filtered solution of acetate 
 or nitrate of lead to a like solution of chromate 
 of potassium, as long as the precipitate forms, 
 which is collected, washed with water, and 
 dried. For information respecting the manu- 
 facture of this substance on the large scale, 
 as a colouring substance (chrome yellow), see 
 Yellow fiqmbntb. 
 
 Lead, Dichromate of. Si/n. Chrome oravse, 
 Chbomb red. PbCrO, . PbO. Prep. By add- 
 ing to a solution of nitrate or acetate of lead a 
 solution of chromate of potassium, ti which an 
 equivalent of potassa has been added. This 
 compound is of a splendid scarlet colour. See 
 Hed piqmbnts. 
 
 Lead, Cy'anide of. PbCy,. Syn. Plumbi 
 OYANIDUM, L. Prep. By adding hydrocyanic 
 acid to a solution of acetate of lead, as long as 
 a precipitate forms, which, after being washed 
 with distilled water, is dried by a very gentle 
 heat, and preserved from the light and air. 
 Sometimes used as a source of medicinal 
 hydrocyanic acid. 
 
 Lead, Iodide of. Pblj. Syn. Lead iodide ; 
 Plumbi iodiduu (B. P., Ph. L. E D.). Prep, 
 (B. P.) Nitrate of lead, 4; iodide of pot.is- 
 sium, 4; distilled watr, a sufficiency. Dis- 
 solve with the aid of heat the nitrate of lead 
 in 30 of water, and the iodide of poiassium 
 in 10 of water, mix, collect the precipitate, 
 wash, and dry at a gentle heat. 
 
 Prop., S(c. A rich yellow-coloured powder, 
 soluble in acetic acid, alcohol, and boiling 
 water; when heated, it fu-es and volatili'^es in 
 yellow vapour, but with a higher degree of 
 heat, violet vapours of iodine are evolved, 
 leaving a residuum (lead) which is wholly 
 soluble in nitric acid. — Dose, i gr. to 4 gr. 
 or more, made into a pill ; as a deobstruent 
 and resolvent, in enlargements of the cervical, 
 axillary, aild mesenteric glands, and in scrofu- 
 lous aliections and scirrhous tumours. 
 
 Lead, Nitrate of. PbCXO,),. Syn. Plumbi 
 NITKAS, L. (B. P., Ph. E. D.) 
 
954 
 
 LEAD 
 
 Frep. (Ph. D.) Litharge (in fine powder), 
 1 oz.j pure nitric acid, 2 fl. oz., diluted with 
 water, \ pint; mix, apply a sand-hent, and 
 evaporate to dryness, occasionally stiiTing; 
 boil the residuum in water, 2i pints ; filter, 
 acidulate with a few drops of nitric acid, eva- 
 porate to a pellicle, and set the liquid aside to 
 cool; lastly, dry the deposited crystatls on 
 bibulous paper, and preserve them in a well 
 closed bottle. 
 
 (Commercial.) By dissolving white lead 
 in dilute nitric acid, and crystallising. 
 
 Vses, S(c. This salt is extensively used in 
 calico printing, and in the preparation of the 
 iodide and otlier salts of lead. It was for- 
 merly much esteemed in asthmas, h£emor- 
 rhages, and epilepsy. It is now often used in 
 an external application in cancer, ulcers, 
 wounds, and various cutaneous affections. It 
 is the basis of Liebert's celebrated 'cosm^- 
 tique infallible,' and of Ledoyen's ' disinfect- 
 ing fluid.' A very weak solution is an 
 excellent application to chapped nipples, lips, 
 hands, &c. — Dose, i to 1 gr. ; in the form of 
 pill or solution, washed down with a table- 
 spoonful of water very slightly acidulated 
 with nitric acid. 
 
 lead, Nitro-sac'charate of. Syn. PlttmBi 
 KITKOSACCHAKAS, L. Prep. (Dr S. E. Hos- 
 kins.) Nitric acid, 1 part; water, 19 parts; 
 mix ; in this dilute acid saccharate of lead (in 
 fine powder) is to be dissolved, and set aside 
 that crystals may form, which are to be dried 
 by pressure between the folds of bibulous paper. 
 A weak solution of the talt, acidulated with 
 saccharic acid, lias been employed by Dr Hos- 
 kins as a solvent for phosphatic calculi, with 
 apparent success. 
 
 Lead, Oxide of. PbO. Syn. MouoxiDB OP 
 LEAD, Protoxide or lead. Yellow oxide 
 OE LEAD, Plumbi oxtdum (B. P.) Prep. 
 This substance is obtained perfectly pure by 
 expelling the acid from nitrate of lead, by 
 exposing it to heat in a platinum crucible ; 
 or, still better, by adding ammonia to a cold 
 solution of nitrate of lead until the liquid 
 becomes faintly alkaline, washing the precipi- 
 tate with cold water, drying it, and heating it 
 to moderate redness for 1 hour. 
 
 Prop., ifc. Pure protoxide of lead has a 
 lemon -yellow colour, and is the best of all the 
 salts of lead. It is very heavy, slightly so- 
 luble in water, and freely so in acids, particu- 
 larly when in the hydrated state ; the aqueuus 
 solution has an alkaline reaction; at a red 
 heat it melts, and assumes a semi-crystalline 
 form on cooling ; in the melted state it ra- 
 pidly attacks and dissolves siliceous matter, 
 with which it unites to form glass (flint 
 glass) ; when heated along with organic sub- 
 stances of any kind, it is easily reduced to the 
 metallic state. 
 
 On the commercial scale, this oxide is pre- 
 paied by heating the grey film or dross that 
 forms on the surface of melted lead when 
 freely exposed to the air. When the process 
 
 s arrested, as soon as the oxide acquires a 
 uniform yellow colour, it is called massicot; 
 when the heat is still further increased, until 
 it fuses or partially vitrifies, it forms litharge 
 of which there are several varieties. See 
 Litharge, Massicot. 
 
 Lead, Red Oxide of. Syn. Red lead. Minium. 
 Prep. This is prepared by exposing anf used pro- 
 toxide of lead to the air for a long time, at a 
 dull red heat. It is a very heavy powder, of a 
 fine red colour, decomposed by a strong heat 
 into protoxide of lead, and oxygen gas, which 
 is evolved. Somewhat uncertain in its com- 
 position, but is generally of the composition 
 Pb304 or Pb022PbO. See Red Pigment. 
 
 Lead, Dioxide. PbOj. Syn. Bikiodidk op 
 LEAD, Peroxide op lead, Pccb oxide op 
 LEAD. Prep. By digesting red oxide of lead 
 in dilute nitric acid ; or by infusing a mixture 
 of protoxide of lead and chlorate of potassium 
 at a heat a little below redness, and washing 
 the powdered mass in water; or by transmit- 
 ting a current of chlorine gas through a solu- 
 tion of neutral acetate of lead. This oxide 
 gives up half its oxygen at a read heat; acids 
 also decompose it. Its chief use is in chemical 
 analysis, to separate sulphurous acid from 
 certain gaseous ' mixtures, which it converts 
 into sulphuric acid, which it at the same time 
 absorbs, forming sulphate of lead. It has 
 recently been employed as an oxidising agent 
 in the manufacture of the aniline dtes. 
 
 Lead, Pyrolig'nite of. Sugar of lead made 
 with rough pyroligneous acid. Used in dyeing, 
 chiefly for the preparation of acetate of 
 alumina. 
 
 Lead, pac'charate of. Syn. Plumbi sao- 
 OHARAB, L. Prep. (Dr S. E. Hoskins.) 
 Nitric acid, 2 parts; water, 10 parts; mix in 
 a porcelain capsule, add of sugar, 1 part ; and 
 apply heat until reaction ceases ; then dilute 
 the liquid with distilled water, neutralise it 
 with powdered chalk, filter, and add to the fil- 
 trate a solution of acetate of lead, as long as a 
 precipitate (saccharate of lead) forma ; lastly, 
 collect the precipitate on a filter, wash and 
 dry it. Used to make nitro-saccharate of lead, 
 and as a source of saccharic acid. 
 
 Lead, Sul'phate of. PbSOi. Syn. Plumbi 
 sulphas, L. This salt occurs native in trans- 
 parent octohedra (lead vitriol), and is obtained 
 in large quantities as a by-product in the pre- 
 paration of acetate of aluminum for dyeing. 
 
 Prep. By adding dilute sulphuric acid to a 
 solution of a soluble salt of lead. It is very 
 sparingly soluble in water and in dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, soluble in strong hydrochloric afiid 
 and bitartrate of ammonium. 
 
 Lead, Sul'phide of. PbS. Syn. Plumbi 
 SULPHIDE. This occurs abundantly in nature 
 in the form of galena. 
 
 Prep. By fusing metallic lead with sulphur 
 or by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through 
 a solution of a salt of lead. 
 
 Lead, Tan'nate of. Syn. Plumbi tannas, 
 L. Prep. Precipitate a solution of acetate of 
 
LEAD DUST— LEATHEE 
 
 955 
 
 lend with an infusion of galls, and wash and 
 dry tliu precipitate. Astringent, sedative, and 
 liiL'iniistntic. — Doae, 1 gr. and upwards, uiade 
 into a pill. It h:is been highly recoinmended 
 iu the t'orm of ointment and cntaplasms, in 
 bed-Rores, cliroiiic alcera of the feet, white 
 ■wcUiugs, &c. 
 
 Lead, Tar'trate of. Syn. Plumbi tabtbas, 
 L. Prep. By precipitating acetate of lead, 
 by tartrate of ammonium, washing and drying. 
 
 LEAD DUST. Syn. PuLVis PLtJMBi, Plum- 
 bum BiviaUM, li. Prep. By melting new lend, 
 adding bruised charcoal, mixing with violent 
 agitation, which must be continued until the 
 metal ' sets,' and then pounding and washing 
 awiiy the ohiinoal. Used by potters. 
 
 LEAD, GEANULATED. Prep. By melting 
 new lead, and pouring it in a small stream from 
 an iron ladle with a hole drilled in its bottom, 
 into a pail of water. Used to make solutions 
 and alloys. 
 
 LEAD, SED. See Bed fiombkts. 
 
 LEAD, WHITE. See WuirE pigment. 
 
 LEAD PYROPH'ORUS. See Pibophorus. 
 
 LEATH'EB. Syn. CoBlUM, CoBius, L. 
 Leather is the skin of animals which has been 
 prepared by one or other of several processes 
 adopted for the purpose, having tlie common 
 object of preventing its spontaneous destruc- 
 tion by putrefaction, besides other objects, 
 which are more or less peculiar to each variety 
 of this useful substance. 
 
 Leather is only prepared on the large scale, 
 and primarily either by tlie pi-ocess of ' tan- 
 NINO' or ' TAWINO,' in the manner briefly de- 
 scribed under these heads. 
 
 GuBBiED irEATUEB is leather which has been 
 tanned, and sold to the currier, who, after 
 soaking it in water, and rubbing it to soften it, 
 pares it even with a broad, sharp knife, rubs 
 it with a piece of polished stone or wood, 
 and, whilst still wet, besmears it with oil or 
 grease (dubbing), which gradually penetrates 
 the leather as the moisture evaporates. It 
 next undergoes the operation of ' waxing,' 
 which consists of first rubbing it on the flesh 
 side with a mixture of oil and lamp black ; it 
 is then ' black-sized' with a brush or sponge, 
 and, when dry, is lastly 'tallowed' with a 
 proper cloth, and ' slicked' upon the flesh side 
 with a broad and polished lump of glass. 
 Leather curried on the hair or grain side, 
 termed ' black on the grain,' is blackened by 
 wettincr it with iron liquor, and rubbing it 
 with an iron ' slicker' before applying the oil 
 or grease. The grain is finally raised by the 
 'pommel' or 'graining board' passed over it 
 in various directions. 
 
 Leather is dyed or stained by the appli- 
 cation, with an ordinary brush, of any of the 
 strong liquid dyes, in the cold or only gently 
 heated, to the surface of the skin previously 
 stretched on aboard. The surface, when dry, 
 is commonly finished off with white of efff and 
 the pommel or smoothing stick. Bookbinders 
 geoi rally employ copperas water as a black 
 
 9t:iin or sprinkle ; a solution of indigo as a blue 
 one ; and a solution of salt of tartar or commou 
 soda, as a brown one. 
 
 Leather, before being japanned or varnished, 
 as in the preparation of what is called ' eua- 
 mbllbd' and ' patent leatheb,' is carefully 
 freed from grease by the application of ab- 
 8orl>ent substances or hard pressure between 
 rollers, and the surface is nicely shaved, 
 smoothed, and polished by appropriate tools, 
 the varnish is then applied to the grain siiie 
 for the former, and the flesh side of the skin 
 for the latter, which is previously stretched 
 out tight on a board to receive it. The whole 
 is, lastly, submitted to a gentle stove-heat to 
 harden the varnish ; and the process is re- 
 peated, if necessary. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. These are well known, and are all 
 but universal. The leather manuacture of 
 Qreat Britain is equU in importance ai^ utility 
 to any other department of our industry, and 
 inferior in point of value and extent only to 
 those of cotton, wool, and iron. " It we look 
 abroad on the instruments of husbandry, on 
 the implements used in most of the metilianic 
 trades, on the structure of a multitude of 
 engines and machines; or if we contemplate 
 at home the necessary parts of our cbithing — 
 breeches, shoes, boots, gloves — or the furni- 
 ture of our houses, the books on our shelves, 
 the harness of our horses, or even the sub- 
 stance of our carriages ; what do we see but 
 instances of human industry exi-iled upon 
 leather p What an aptitude has this single 
 material in a varii-ty of circumstances for the 
 relief of our necessities, and sujiplyintr conve- 
 niences in every state and stage of life ! 
 Without it, or even without it in the plenty 
 we have it, to what difficulties should we be 
 exposed ?" (Dr Campbell.) Leather is a kind 
 of natural felt, but of much closer and firmer 
 texture than that of artificial origin. " The 
 thinner and softer kinds of leather arc some- 
 times used as body-clothing; but its speciiil 
 and proper purpose is the manufacture of 
 coverings for the feet, to protect them from 
 cold and water." (Eras. Wilson.) See Japan- 
 ning, Vabnish, &c. 
 
 Leather, destmction of, by Gas. It is 
 well-known that the binding of buoks suffer 
 considerable damage, when the books are kept 
 in apartments lighted by coal gas. 'f hat the 
 cause of this deterioration is due, as was be- 
 lieved, to the combustion of the bisulphide of 
 carbon contained in the gas, and its consequent 
 oxidation into sulphuric acid, is exem[>lified by 
 the following interesting communication Irom 
 Professor Church, published in the ' Chemical 
 News ' for October 19th, 1877. He says :— 
 "Vellum seems unaffected; morocco suffers 
 least ; calf is much injured, and rnssia still 
 more so. The disintegration is most rapid 
 with books on the upper shelves of a library, 
 whither the heated products of combustion 
 ascend, and where they are absorbed and con. 
 denscd. 
 
956 
 
 LEAVEN— LEECH 
 
 By comparing specimens of old leather, with 
 specimens of new, it is quite clear that the 
 destructive influence of gas is due mainly to 
 its sulphur. 
 
 True there are traces of sulphates in the 
 dye and size of new leather bindings, but the 
 quantity is insignificant and theie is practically 
 no free sulphuric acid. That leather may be 
 destroyed by the oil of vitriol produced by the 
 burning of gas in a library is proved by the 
 following observations and analyses. 
 
 The librarian of one of our public libraries 
 forwarded to me the backs of several volumes, 
 which had been 'shed' by the books on the 
 upper shelves in an apartment lighted by gas. 
 The leather of one of these backs (a volume 
 of the ' ArchsBoIogia ') was carefully scrapeii 
 off so as to avoid any paper or size from 
 underneath. This task of scraping was easy 
 enough, ^or the leather was reduced to the 
 cousisteucy of Scotch snuff. On analysis of 
 the watery extract of this leather, the follow- 
 iug figures were obtained : — 
 
 — o "o ^ — 
 
 Free sulphuric acid in decayed 
 leatVier .... 
 
 Combined 
 
 6'21 per cent. 
 2-21 „ 
 
 8-42 
 
 IEAVEN. Dough which has become sour 
 or run into a state of incipient putrefaction. 
 When a small quantity of it is added to recent 
 dough, it excites fermentation, but is apt to 
 produce a disiigreeable taste and odour in the 
 bread. It is now superseded by yeast. Both 
 these substances are used in the same way. 
 
 LEAVES (Medicated). Syn. Folia medi- 
 OATA, L. On the Continent several prepara- 
 tions of this kind are in use. In many cases 
 the leaves of tobacco deprived of nicotin, by 
 soaking them in water, are dried, and then 
 moistened or steeped in a tincture or infusion 
 of the medicinal substance. In this way bel- 
 ladonna, camphor, and henbane, are often 
 administered. Cruveilhier recommends opiated 
 belladonna leaves for smoking in troublesome 
 coughs, phthisis, spasmodic asthmas, &c., to be 
 prepared as follows : — Belladonna leaves, 1 oz., 
 are steeped in an infusion of opium, 10 gr., 
 in water, 1 fl. oz. (or less), and are then care- 
 lully dried in the shade. " MtrsTAED leaves 
 (RiggoUot's) consist of mustard moisfened 
 with water, spread on paper, and dried." 
 (Squire.) See CiGAES (in ;pharmaey), and 
 Vegetables. 
 
 Leaves, Hovr to Dissect. " For the 
 dissection of leaves,'' sajs Mrs Cussons, " I 
 iind the process of maceration too long and 
 tedious, to say nothing of the uncertainty as 
 to the results. I have therefore adopted the 
 use of alkali in saturated solution, the speci- 
 mens to be inb'oiiuced while the liquid is 
 heated to the boiling point ; the time of im- 
 mersion to be regul:ited by the cliaracter of 
 tlie various leaves and the nature of the epi 
 dermis to be removed. When the specimen is 
 
 freed from epidermis and cellular tissue, it 
 must be subjected to the action of chlorine 
 to destroy the colouring matter. The intro- 
 duction of peroxide of hydrogen not only 
 serves to render the lace-like specimen purer 
 in colour, but also preserves it. In destroying 
 the colouring matter in ferns this also is in- 
 valuable; added to the chlorine it gives i> 
 solidity to the bleached fronds, and appears to 
 equalise the action of the chlorine. For 
 skeletonising capsules the slow process of 
 maceration by steeping in rain-water is alone 
 available ; a moderate heat may be applied to 
 hasten the process, but alkali is useless. The 
 only known flower which can be dissected is 
 the Hydrangea japonica. The fibi-ous nature 
 of the petals renders it easy to skeletonise in 
 the perfect truss in which it grows. Skele- 
 tonised leaves and capsules appear to gain in 
 the process a toughness and durability not 
 possessed by them in their natural state." 
 
 LECANOK'IC ACID. See Oesbllinic acid. 
 
 LEECH. Sj/n. Hieudo (B. P., Ph. L. & 
 D.), L. The ofiicinal leech of the Pharma- 
 copoeias is the Sanguisuga medicindlh {Sirudo 
 medicinalis — Guv.), familiarly kuown as the 
 ' old English' or ' speckled leech.' It is also 
 occasionally called the ' Hamburg grey' or 
 ' Russian leech,' from being imported from 
 those parts. Its characteristics are — Back, 
 greenish or olive- green, sometimes almost 
 black or intense brown, with 6 rusty-red or 
 yellowish longitudinal stripes, which are mostly 
 spotted witli black. — Belly, dirty yellow or 
 liglit olive green, spotted more or less with 
 black. The spots are very variable in size and 
 number ; in some cases few, in otliers so 
 numerous as to form the prevailing tint of the 
 belly. This variety, which is the most valu- 
 able of the commercial leeches, is chiefly im- 
 ported from Hamburg. 
 
 Another variety of leech, the Sanguiswga 
 officinalis, familiarly known as the ' Hamburg' 
 or ' French green leech,' is imported from 
 Bordeaux, Lisbon, and Hamburgh. Its charac- 
 teristics are — Back, brownish olive-green, 
 with 6 reddish or rusty yellow longitudinal 
 bands. — Belly, light dirty pea-green, or yel- 
 lowish green, free from spots, but exhibiting 
 two lateral stripes. This leech is vastly in- 
 ferior to the preceding variety, and some of 
 those imported from France and Portugal are 
 absolutely useless, from their indisposition to 
 bite, arising from the fraud practised by the 
 collectors and dealers of gorging them with 
 blood to improve their apnearHnce before 
 sending them to market. The above are the 
 species of leech commonly employed in medi- 
 cine in this country, but many''others are 
 noticed by writers on the subject. 
 
 LeechfS are best preserved in water ob- 
 tained from a pond, and occasionally clianged ; 
 when kept in spring water they soon die. 
 The introduction of a hand to which an 
 ill-flavoured medicine or odour adheres into 
 the water in which they are kept is often 
 
LEECHING— LEMON 
 
 957 
 
 ■nfllcient to poison them. The application of 
 •aline matter to tlie skin of leeches, even in 
 very BrouU quantities, iininediiitely occasions 
 tlie expulsion of the contents of the stomach ; 
 hence a few grains of common salt are fre- 
 quently spriukled over them, to make them 
 d'sgorge the blood which they have swallowed. 
 The frequent changinfT of the water in which 
 leeches are kept is iiijudiciou'. Once a month 
 ill winter, and once a week in summer, is 
 deemed sufficiently often by the large dealers, 
 unless the water becomes discoloured or 
 blooJy, when it should be changed every day, 
 or evei'y other day. When clean pond water 
 cannot be obtained, clean rain water that has 
 been well exposed to the air should alone be 
 employed. Mr J. R. Kenworthy recommends 
 placing in the water a few balls of irregular 
 lamps of pure clay, about 24 inches in dia- 
 meter ; a method which we can recommend as 
 both simple and successful. The plan adopted 
 by M. Fee is as follows : — Place 7 inches of a 
 mixture of moss, turf, and eh»i'conl, in a 
 marble or stone trough, over which sprinkle 
 some small pebbles. At one end of the 
 trough, and about half way up, place a thin 
 shelf of stone or marble, pierced with small 
 holes, on which put first some moss, or por- 
 tions of marsh horse- tail {Equisetum paluttre), 
 and on this a layer of pebbles to keep it down ; 
 then pour in water suiBciently high jnst to 
 moisten the moss and pebbles, put in the 
 leeches, and tie over the mouth of the trough 
 with a cloth. Another plan consists in keep- 
 ing the leeches in a glass tank, or aquarium, 
 pnivided with a pebbly bottom and a few 
 healthy aquatic plants. 
 
 Propag. According to Dr Wagner, an 
 annual feast on living blood is necessary to 
 render leeches able to grow and propagate. 
 These conditions can only be fulflUed by re- 
 storing to the breeding cisterns those which 
 have been already employed. All artificial 
 methods of feeding them by bladdersor sponges 
 of blood have been found to fail. He recom- 
 mends the employment of two tanks, with the 
 bottom formed of loam, clay, or turf, sur- 
 rounded by an inner border of a similar sub- 
 stance, and an outer one of sand — the one for 
 leeches fit for medical use — and the other for 
 breeding, or for such leeches as have been 
 applied. No leeches are to be taken from the 
 breeding tank until a year has elapsed after 
 their having been applied and fed with human 
 blood; and their removal to the first tank 
 should take place in September, or October, as 
 by this time the breeding season is over. By 
 this plan all leeehes that have been applied 
 are to be carefully restored to the breeding 
 tank, without making them disgorge the blood 
 they have swallowed. 
 
 LEECH'INQ. This consists in the applica- 
 tion of leeches to any vascular part of the 
 body, for the purpose of withdrawing blood 
 from it, and thus allaying local inflammation, 
 distension of vessels, &c. Leeches are most 
 
 conveniently applied by means of a common 
 pill-box or a wine glass. The part should be 
 previously washed perfectly clean, and if 
 covered with hair should be closely shaved. 
 Sometimes leeches are indisposed to bite; in 
 such cases, allowing them to crawl over a 
 piece of dry linen or calico, rolling them in 
 porter, moistening the part with a little milk 
 or sweetened milk, or drawing a little blood 
 by a slight puncture or scratch, will usually 
 make them bite freely. To stop the bleeding 
 from leech-bites various plans are adopted, 
 among which the application of nitrate of 
 silver or creasote, or gentle pressure tor some 
 hours with the finger, are the most successful. 
 Of late years a piece of matico leaf or soldier's 
 herb, applied in the same manner as a piece of 
 lint, has been commonly adopted to stop the 
 bleeding of leech-bites. 
 
 LEEK. Syn. Vo-B.-B.ViS.,'L.'t\\e Allium pomim 
 (Linn.). Its general properties are iiitenueili. lie 
 between those of the onion and garlic. The 
 juice is said to be powerfully diuretic, and 
 capable of dissolving phosphate calculi. 
 
 LEGU'MIN. Vegetable casein. It is found 
 most abundantly in the seeds of leguminous 
 (podded) plants, e.g. beans, peas, &c., as well 
 as in the sweet and bitter almond. 
 
 In properties it closely resembles the casein 
 of milk. 
 
 Legumin may bo obtained from peas or from 
 nliuunds ns follows: — After digesting the 
 crushed seeds for 2 or 3 hours in warm wattr, 
 the undissolved portion is removed by strain- 
 ing through linen, and the strained liquid, 
 after depositing the starch suspended in it, is 
 next filtered and mixed with diluted acetic 
 acid. The white flocculent precipitate which 
 is thus produced, is then collected on a filter 
 and washed. It is afterwards dried, powdered, 
 and digested, first in alcohol, and afterwards 
 in ether. 
 
 R'lclileder considered that, as thus obtained 
 by Dumas and Cahours, it was not absolutely 
 pure, since as it was not entirely soluble in a 
 cold concentrated solution of potash, he 
 recommeu led the alkaline solution being de- 
 canted from the undissolved portion, and 
 again precipitated by the addition of acetic 
 acid. 
 
 Legumin as thus prepared was believed by 
 Rochleder to be pure, and was found on 
 analysis to give results analogous to those fur- 
 nished by casein. 
 
 In the seed, legumin occurs associated with 
 considerable quantities of the phosphates of 
 calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Rennet 
 coagulates it like it does the casein of milk, 
 its similarity to which is exemplified by the 
 manufacture of a kind of cheese from peas and 
 beans by the Cliinese. 
 
 Dried peas contain about a fourth of their 
 weight of legumin. 
 
 LEM'ON. Sgn. LiMO, L. The fruit o< 
 the Citrus limonum or lemon tree. The juice 
 
958 
 
 LEMON ACID— LEMON PICKLE 
 
 pjeel, aud essential oil are officinal. See Oil, 
 and below, 
 
 LEM'ON ACID. See Citbio acid. 
 
 LEM'ON FLA'VOUfi. See Essence op 
 Lemon. 
 
 LEM'OIT JUICE. SyM. Limonis Btrccrs 
 (B. P.), Sncona LiitoNtrM (Ph. L. ifc D.), L. 
 The juice of the lemon, obtained by squeezing 
 and straining. When freshly expressed, it is 
 turbid, owing to the presence of macilage and 
 extractive matter. These substances render 
 the juice IJable to decomposition, and various 
 metliods have from time to time been proposed 
 for preserving it. Amongst these may be 
 mentioned the addition to the fresh juice of 
 one per cent, of bisulphite of calcium, or ten 
 per cent, of proof sjiirit. 
 
 " We have examined the juice expressed 
 from two varieties of lemons, viz. Palermo 
 and Messina, with the following results : 
 
 Palermo. Messina. 
 " Ounces of juice yielded 
 
 by 100 lemons . ■ - 108 96 
 
 Specific gravity of juice 1014-85 1038-56 
 Percentage of citric acid 8'12 7'04 
 Percentage of ash . 0-289 0-301 
 
 " 100 parts of the ash of the juice of Palermo 
 lemons gave ; 
 
 Sulphuric acid . 
 
 . 10'59 
 
 Carbonic acid . 
 
 . 16-33 
 
 Chlorine . 
 
 . 0-81 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 . 6-74 
 
 Ferric phospliate 
 
 . 1-32 
 
 Lime 
 
 . 8-89 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 . 3-02 
 
 Potash 
 
 . 47-84 
 
 Soda 
 
 . 3-32 
 
 Silica 
 
 . 072 
 
 Loss . . 
 
 . 0-42 
 
 100-00 
 
 " If lemons are kept n, few months before 
 squeezing, the yield of juice is slightly in- 
 creased, but its specific gravity and percentage 
 of citric acid remains unaltereil. It is erroneous 
 to suppose that the acid of the lemon is, by 
 keeping, changed into sugar. We have kept 
 lemons for 12 mouths, and found that the per- 
 centage of acid was not diminished. A certain 
 proportion of sugar was formed, but at ttie 
 expense of the soluble starch contained in the 
 cell-walls of the lemon. Lemon juice on being 
 kept is found to decrease in density, but thi- 
 amount of acid remains the same." (Hark- 
 ness.) 
 
 Lemon juice may be preserved by heating it 
 to 150° Fahr., filtering, and setting it aside in 
 bottles completel}' filled. If this process be 
 performed in the winter, the juice, it is said, 
 may be kept perfectly good for 12 months. 
 Fresh lemon juice is prevented from decomposi- 
 tion and rendered fit for exportation by mix- 
 ing it with j'ljth of alcohol. (Schweitzer.) 
 
 The Merchant Shipping Act of 1867 re- 
 
 quires that after a. ship has been at sea ten 
 days 1 oz. of lime or lemon juice, mixed with 
 1 oz. of sugar and J pint of water, sliall be 
 served out to each of the crew between the 
 hours of 12 and 1 in the day. 
 
 Adult. Lemon juice is frequently adulte- 
 rated, the adulterants being water, sugar, or 
 gum, and sulphuric or acetic acid. The modus 
 operandi is, to dilute the genuine juice with 
 water, and then bring up the density with the 
 sugar or gum, and the percentage of acid with 
 one or other of the above acids. The examina- 
 tion of lemon and lime juice supplied to the 
 navy is now conducted in the Inland Revenue 
 Laboratory, Somerset House, and it speaks 
 well for that department when we say that 
 cases of scurvy on board ships are now of 
 very rare occurrence. No juice is passed un- 
 less it comes up to a certain standard in 
 specific gravity, and percentage of citric acid, 
 and any sample containing any other acid is 
 at once rejected. 
 
 Prop. Lemon juice is refrigerant and anti- 
 scorbutic, and has long been extensively em- 
 ployed in the preparation of cooling drinks 
 and effervescing draughts, which are justly 
 esteemed as wholesome summer beverages, as 
 well as palliatives in fevers, nausea, &c. In 
 scurvy, there is no remedy equal to fl-eshly 
 expressed lemon juice ; and in acute rheuma- 
 tism and gout, according to the united testi- 
 mony ot Dr Owen Rees, Dr Babington, and 
 numerous Continental practitioners, it has been 
 exhibited with considerable success. In agues, 
 dysentery, English cholera, nausea, and vomit- 
 ing, heartburn, putrid sore-tliroat, hospital 
 gangrene, syphilis, and numerous skin diseases, 
 it has proved most serviceable. See Citeio 
 Acid, Gout, &c. 
 
 Lemon Juice, Factl"tiouB. Si/n. Soltttio 
 
 ACIDI OITBICI, SuCCrs LIMONUM PACTITIITS, 
 L. Prep. 1. Citric acid, li oz. ; carbonate of 
 potassa, 45 gr. ; white sugar, 2^ oz. ; cold 
 water, 1 pint ; dissolve, add the yellow peel of 
 a lemon, and in 24 hours strain through a hair 
 sieve or a piece of muslin. 
 
 2. As the last, but using 15 or 16 drops 
 of oil of letaon, to flavour instead of the lemon 
 peel. 
 
 Obs. The above is an excellent substitute 
 for lemon juice, and keeps well in a cool 
 place. Tartaric acid, and even vinegar, are 
 sometimes used instead of citric acid ; but it 
 is evident that it then loses all claim to being 
 considered as an imitation of lemon jnice, and 
 to employ it in lieu of which -would be absurd. 
 
 lEM'ON PEEL. S^n. Coktex mmonum 
 (B. P., Ph. L.), L. " The fresh outer part of 
 the rind." (B. P.) " The fresh and the dried 
 exterior rind of the fruit ;" the latter dried 
 " in the month of April or May." (Ph. L.) 
 Candied lemon peel (cortex limonum con- 
 DiTUs) is employed as a dessert, and as a fla- 
 vouring ingredient by cooks and confectioners. 
 It is reputed stomachic. See Candyino. 
 
 LEMOH PIC KLE. See Sauce. 
 
LEMONADE— LENS 
 
 959 
 
 LEKONAOE'. Sgn. Leuon sherbet, 
 EiHo'a CUP ; Liuonaduh, L. ; Limonase, 
 Fr. Prep. 1. Lemona (Hliccd), 2 ia no. ; aug»r, 
 2^01.; boiling water, li pint; mix, cover up 
 tlie vesecl, and let it stand, witli occasional 
 stirring until cold, then pour oH the clear 
 through a piece of muslia or u clean hair 
 sieve. 
 
 2. Juice of 3 lemons; yellow peel of 1 lemon; 
 SHRar, i lb. ; cold water, 1 quart ; digest for 5 
 or 6 hours, or all night, and decaut or strain 
 us before. 
 
 3. Citric acid, 1 to 1) dr. ; essence of lemon, 
 10 drops ; sugar, 2 oz. ; cold water, 1 pint ; 
 agitato together until dissolved. 
 
 Ob». Lemonade is a pleasant, cooling sum- 
 mer beverage, and when made as above inny 
 be drauk in large quantities with perTect 
 safety. It also forms an excellent refrigerant 
 and antiseptic drink in fevers and putrid dis- 
 eases generally. Turtaric acid is commonly 
 substituted for citric acid, from being cheaper; 
 it i-, hciwevcr, much inferior, being less whole- 
 some and less agreeable. Lemonade for 
 icing is prepared as above, only u.-ing a little 
 more sugar. Orange slierliet, or orangeade 
 for icing is made in a similar way from 
 orangi'S. 
 
 Lemonade, Aera'ted. S</n. Limonadum 
 
 AEEATDM, L. ; LiMONADE GAZEU8E, Fr. JPrep. 
 1. (P. Cod.) Water, charged with 6 times its 
 volume of ciirbonic acid gas, 1 pint; syrup of 
 lemon, 2 oz. ; mix. 
 
 2. (Without a bottling machine.) — a. Into 
 each bottle put lemon syrup, 1 to 1^ oz. ; 
 essence of lemon, 3 drops j sesquicarboiiate of 
 soda, i dr. ; water, q. s, to nearly fill the 
 bottle; have the cork fitted and ready at 
 hand, then add of tartaric acid (ervst.), 1 dr. ; 
 instantly close the bottle, and wire down the 
 cork ; it shoulil bo kept inverted in a cool 
 place, and, preferably, immersed in a vessel of 
 ice-cold water. 
 
 A. As tlie last, but substituting lump sugar, 
 i oz., for the lemon syrup. 
 
 c. From lump sugiir, 1 oz. j essence of lemon, 
 3 drops; bicarbonate of potassa, 25 gr. ; water 
 q. s., as No. 1 ; then add citric acid (ery.'t.), 
 45 gr., and cork, &c., as before. The hist is 
 most wholesome, especially for the scorbutic, 
 dyspeptic, gouty, and rheumatic. 
 
 Ol>». The best aerated lemonade nf the 
 London makers is prepared by putting li 
 fl. oz. of rich lemon syrup into each bottle, 
 which is then filled up with aerated water at 
 the bottling iiiaihine. 
 
 Lemonade, Aiitima"niated. Syn. Likoka- 
 BUM ANTIMONIATOM, L. Prep. By adding 
 tartar emetic, 1 gr., to each pint of ordinary 
 lemonade. — Dose. A wineglassful every ) 
 hour or hour ; as a diaphoretic and expectorant. 
 See Antimonv (Potassio-tartrate). 
 
 Lemonade, Ape"rient. Syn. Limokadum 
 I»iXATiv0M, L. Prep. 1. Sugar, 1 oz. ; 
 lemon juice, J H. oz. ; sulphate of soda, 3 dr.; 
 water, 8 &. oz.; put them into a soda-water 
 
 bottle withoat shaking, have the cork ready 
 fitted, add of sesquicarbonate of soda (incryst.), 
 i dr., and instantly cork the bottle, wire it 
 down, and keep it in a cool place, inverted. 
 For a dose. 
 
 2. Heavy carbonate of macrnesia, li dr. ; 
 refined sugar, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon, 5 or 6 
 drops ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; bottle as last, then 
 add of citric acid (cryst.), 3 dr., and in- 
 stantly cork, &c., as before. For a dose. It 
 should be kept for at least 24, hours before 
 being taken. 
 
 Lemonade, Lactic. Syn. Limonaduv lac- 
 TICUM, L. Prep. ( JIagendie.) Lactic acid, 1 
 to 4 dr.; syrnp, 2 oz. ,- water, 1 pint; mix. 
 Ilecommended in dyspepsia, &c. 
 
 Lemonade, Uillc. S^n. Limonasttm lactis, 
 L. Prep, Take of sugar, J lb.; water, 1 pint; 
 dissolve, add the juice of 3 lemons; milk or 
 whey, i pint; stir the whole together and 
 strain through a hair sieve. Some persons add 
 a glassful of sherry. 
 
 Lemonade, Uln'eral. Si/n. Limonadb mi- 
 nerals, Fr. On the Continent this name is 
 applied to various drinks consisting of w.ttcr 
 acidulated with the mineral acids ;ind sweet- 
 ened with sugar. Thus we have limonade 
 ehloihydrique, nitrique, phosphoriquc, sul- 
 phurique, &c., all of which aie used as cool- 
 ing drinks in fevers, inflammations, skin 
 diseases, &c. 
 
 Lemonade, Port'able. See Powders. 
 
 LEMONADE POWDERS. Sec Powders. 
 
 LEMONATED KALI. See Kali, Potas- 
 SIFM (Citrate), &e. 
 
 LEN'ITIVES. In medicine, purgatives which 
 act in a gentle manner, and have a soothing 
 effect. See Laxatives. 
 
 LENS. In optica, a piece of glass or other 
 transparent medium, having one or two curved 
 surfaces, either convex or concave. A descrip- 
 tion of the different kinds of lenses belongs to 
 a work on optics. It may, however, be useful 
 to the chemicar student to remark here that 
 the CoDDiNQTON and Stanhope lenses, which 
 may now be bought at any of the opticians, 
 neatly mounted and of great power, for a few 
 shillings, will be found of the greatest service 
 in examining minute crystals, precipitates, 
 &c. ; and for all ordinary purposes offer a cheap 
 and efficient substitute for more complicated 
 microscopes. An extemporaneous instrument, 
 possessing considerable power, may be made 
 by simply piercing a small circular hole in a 
 slip of metal, and introducing into it a drop of 
 water, which then assumes a spherical form on 
 each side of the metal, while the latter is held 
 ill a horizontal position. The ingenious little 
 TOT microscopes sold about the streets of 
 London, under the form of a perlor.ited pill- 
 box, at one penny each, consist of snch a lens 
 made with Canada balsam iiist<ad of water, 
 whi<h has the property of hardening without 
 losing its transparency after exposure for a 
 few hours to the air. A still simpler substitute 
 for a lens is a piece of blackened card-paper 
 
960 
 
 LENTIL— LEUCOERH(EA 
 
 with the smallest possible needle-hole pierced 
 through it. Any very small object held in a 
 strong light, and viewed through this hole at 
 the distiinoe of about an inch, will appear 
 quite distinct, and from 10 to 12 times larger 
 than its usual size. We have often found this 
 little instrument of incalculable service in 
 situations and under circumstances in which a 
 more powerful or complicated apparatus was 
 uuattainable or could not be applied. 
 
 Another method for the manufacture of an 
 extemporaneous lens, by Mr Francis, is the 
 following: — Procure a piece of thin platinum 
 wire, and twine it once or twice round a pin's 
 point, so as to form a minute ring with a 
 handle to it. Break up a piece of flint glass 
 into fragments a little larger than a mustard 
 seed ; place one of these pieces on the ring of 
 wire, and hold it in the point of the flame of a 
 candle or of a gas-light. The glass will melt 
 and assume a complete lens-light or globular 
 form. Let it cool gradually and keep it for 
 mounting. It may be mounted by placing it 
 between two pieces of brass which have corre- 
 sponding circular holes cut in them of such a 
 size as to hold the edge of the lens. 
 
 lEN'TIL. Syn. Lens, L. The seed of the 
 JFrotim Lens, a plant of the natural order 
 Leguniinosas. The lentil is considerably smaller 
 than an ordinary pea, and is of the shape of a 
 double convex lens. Several varieties are cul- 
 tivated on the Continent of Europe and in 
 many parts of Asia, where they are largely 
 consumed as human food. Lentils are more 
 nourishing than any other description of pulse, 
 but are veputed difficult of digestion, apt to 
 disorder the bowels, and injurious to the eyes. 
 Several alimentary preparations, sold at high 
 prices as cures for dyspepsia, constipation, &c., 
 contain lentil flour as the principal ingredient. 
 
 Composition of Lentils. 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 
 . 25-2 
 
 Starch, &c. 
 
 . 560 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 . 2-4 
 
 Patty matter . 
 
 . 2-6 
 
 Mineral matter 
 
 . 2-3 
 
 Water . . . . 
 
 . 11-5 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 
 (Paten.) 
 
 Lentils on account of their difficult digesti- 
 bility require to be very thoroughly cooked. 
 See EnviLENTA and Rbtalbnta. 
 
 LEPROSY. Syn. Lepba. A disease of the 
 skin distinguished by circular scaly patches. 
 
 LEPIANDKIN. A peculiar crystalline 
 principle obtained from the root of Leptandra 
 Virginica, s North American plant belonging 
 to the nat. order Scrophulariacece. Leptan- 
 drin is chiefly employed in American medical 
 practice as a cathartic and cholagogue, in 
 which latter function it has been recommended 
 as a substitute for mercury. It is stated to be 
 very serviceable in cases of duodenal indi- 
 
 gestion and chronic constipation, — Dose, J to 
 i grain. 
 
 Mr Wayne obtained leptandrin by adding 
 subacetate of lead to an infusion of the root, 
 filtering, precipitating the excess of lead by 
 carbonate of sodium, removing the carbonate 
 of lead by filtration, passing the filtered liquid 
 through animal charcoal to absorb all the 
 active matter, washing the charcoal with 
 water till the washings began to be bitter, 
 then treating it with boiling alcohol, and 
 allowing the alcoholic solution to evaporate 
 spontaneously. By dissolving the powder 
 thus obtained in water, treating this with 
 ether, and allowing the ether to evaporate, 
 needle-shaped crystals were obtained, which 
 had the bitter taste of the root. Leptandrin 
 is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. 
 
 LETH'ARGY. Syn. Lbthaeous, L. A 
 heavy, unnatural sleep, sometimes bordering 
 upon apoplexy, with scarcely any intervals of 
 waking, from which the patient is witli diffi> 
 culty aroused, and into which he again sinks 
 as soon as the excitement is withdrawn. It 
 frequently arises from plethora, in which case 
 depletion is indicated ; or from the suppression 
 of some usual discharge or secretion, which it 
 should then be our business to re-establish. It 
 also often arises from over mental fatigue and 
 nervous debility, when relaxation from busi- 
 ness, the use of a liberal diet, and ammoniacal 
 stimulants and antispasmodics, are found use- 
 ful. When depending on a determination of 
 blood to the head, cupping may be had re- 
 course to, and all sources of excitement avoided. 
 In all cases the bowels should be moved as 
 soon as possible by means of mild purgatives. 
 
 IiET'TUCE. Syn. Lactuca, L. The early 
 leaves or head of the Lactuca sativa, or garden 
 lettuce, forms a common and wholesome salad. 
 They are reputed as slightly anodyne, laxative, 
 hypnotic, and antaphrodisaic, and have been 
 recommended to be eaten at supper by those 
 troubled by watchfulness, and in whom there 
 exists no tendency to apoplexy. The leaves and 
 flowering tops of L. virosa are officinal in the 
 B. P., the "flowering herb" (laotitca), in the 
 Ph. L. ; the " inspissated juice," in the Ph. E. ; 
 and the " inspissated juice and leaves," in the 
 Ph. D. The " inspissated juice " pf Lactuca 
 virosa, or strong-scented wild lettuce, is also 
 officinal in the Ph. E. ; and both the "leaves 
 and inspissated juice" of the same variety are 
 ordered in the Ph. D. The last species is more 
 powerful than the cultivated lettuce. See 
 Extract and LAOTUCABitrM. 
 
 lEUCOREHOE'A. Syn. Whites; Catae- 
 KHrs TAGtiNiE, PLtroE AXBUS, L. The sym- 
 ptoms of this disease are well known to most 
 adult females. The common causes are de- 
 bility, a poor diet, excessive use of hot tea, 
 profuse menstruation or purgation, late hours, 
 immoderate indulgence of the passions, fre- 
 quent miscarriages, protracted or difficult 
 labours, or local relaxation. Occasionally it 
 is symptomatic of other affections. The treat- 
 
LEVANT NUT— LIGHT 
 
 9G1 
 
 ment must bo directed to the restoration of 
 the general health, and imparting tonicity to 
 the parts affected. Tepid or soa bathing, or 
 ■honer baths; bark, chnlybeates, and oiher 
 tonics; with local affusions of cold water, and 
 mild astringent injections, as those of black tea 
 or oak bark, are generally found suceessl'ul in 
 ordinary eases. 
 
 LEVANT' NUT. See CoccULTJs rsDicrs. 
 
 LEVIGA'TION. St/n. Levioatio, L. Tlie 
 process of reducing substances to fine powder, 
 by making them into a paste with water, and 
 grinding the mass upon a hard smooth stone 
 or slab, with a conical piece of stune having a 
 flat, smooth, under surface, called a ' muller.' 
 Levigation is resorted to in the preparation of 
 paints on the small scale, and in the elu- 
 triation of powders. The term is also, some- 
 times, incorrectly applied to the lengthened 
 trituration of a substance in a marble or 
 Wedgwood-ware mortar. 
 
 LEVORACE'MIC ACID. See Kacemic 
 
 ACID. 
 
 lEY'DEN JAR. Si/n. Letden phial, 
 Elkoteioal jae. An instrument for the 
 accumulation of the electric fluid. Its sim- 
 plest form is that of a wide-mouthed jar of 
 rather thin glass, coated on both sides with 
 tin-foil, except on the upper portion, which is 
 left uncoated, and having a cover of baked 
 wood, through which passes a brass wire, ter- 
 minating in a metallic knob, and communi' 
 eating with the inner coating. To charge the 
 jar, the outer coating is connected with the 
 earth, and the knob put in contact with the 
 conductor of an electrical machine. The inner 
 and outer surfaces of the glass thus become 
 respectively positive and negative, and the 
 particles of the glass become strongly polarised. 
 On making connection between the two coat- 
 ings with a conducting substance, discharge 
 takes place by a bright spark and a loud snap ; 
 and if any part of the body be interposed in 
 the circuit, a shock is felt. 
 
 IIBAVIUS'S LIQUOR. See TiK (Tin oblo- 
 bide). 
 
 LI'CHEN. In pathology, a dry papulous or 
 pimply eruption of the skin, terminating in 
 scurfy exfoliations. " Lichen exhibits great 
 variety in its outward characters in different 
 individuals; in one the pimples are brightly 
 red; in another, of debilitated constitution, 
 they are bluish and livid ; in a third they are 
 developed around the base of hairs; in a 
 fourth they appear as circular groups, and 
 increase by their circumference, while they 
 fade in the centre, forming so many rings of 
 various size; in a fifth, a mndificution of the 
 precedinir, they have the appearance of flex- 
 uous bands; while in a sixth they are remark- 
 able for producing intensity of suffering, or 
 nnasual disorganisation of the skin. They 
 are all occasioned by constitutional disturbance, 
 sometimes referable to the digestive, and some- 
 times to the nervous system. In some in- 
 stances, however, they depend upon a local 
 TOL. II. 
 
 cause. I have had a crop of lichenous pimples 
 on the backs of my hands from rowing in hot 
 weather; and in hot climates that annoying 
 disorder called prickly heat is a lichen." (Eras. 
 Wilson.) The treatment of this affection is 
 noticed under EiiuPTioss (Papular). 
 
 LICHENS. Syn. LicnEKES— Juss., Lichen- 
 ALE8 — Lind., L. Indoiany, these arecryptoga- 
 mous plants, which appear under the form of 
 thin, flat crusts, covering rocks and the barks 
 of trees. Some of them, like Iceland moss 
 {Cetraria Islandica), are esculent and medi- 
 cinal and employed either as medicine or food ; 
 and others, when exposed in a moistened state 
 to the action of ammonia, yield purple or blue 
 colouring principles, which, like indigo, do 
 not preexist in the plant. Thus, the Socella 
 tinctoria, the Variolaria orcina, the Lecanora 
 tartarea, fyc, when ground to a paste witti 
 water, mixed with putrid urine or solution of 
 carbonate of ammonia, and left for some time 
 freely exposed to the air, furnish the archil, 
 litmus, and cudbear of commerce, very similar 
 substances, differing chiefly in the details of 
 their prep.iration. From these the colouring 
 matter is easily extracted by water or very 
 dilute solution of ammonia. See Aechii,, 
 CiTDBEAB, and Litmus. 
 
 LIEBER'S HERBS OF HEALTH— Gesnnde- 
 heitskranter Liebersche — Blankenheimer Thee 
 — Blankenheimer Tea — Herba Galeopsidis 
 Granrtiflora) Concisa (Yellow Hemp Nettle). 
 
 LIGATURE. In surgery, a small waxed 
 piece of cord or string formed of silk or thread, 
 employed for the purpose of tying arteries, 
 veins, and other parts, to prevent hiBmorrhage, 
 or to cause their extirpation. To be safe and 
 useful they should be round, smooth, and suffi. 
 ciently strong to permit of being tied with 
 security without incurring the danger of 
 breaking or slipping. There are many cases 
 recorded in which emigrants, soldiers, and 
 travellers have lost their lives from the sim- 
 ple inability of those around them to apply 
 a ligature. 
 
 LIGHT. Syn. Lumbk, Lux, L. Light 
 acts as a vivifying or vital stimulus on organ- 
 ised beings, just as privation of light, or 
 darkness, disposes to inactivity andsleep. " In 
 maladies characterised by imperfect nutrition 
 and sanguinification, as scrofula, rickets, and 
 ana3mia, and in weakly subjects with oede- 
 raatous (dropsical) limbs, &c., free exposure to 
 solar light is sometimes attended with very 
 happy results. Open and elevated situations 
 probably owe part uf their healthy qualities to 
 their position with regard to it." On the 
 contrary, "in diseases of the eye, attended 
 with local vascular or nervnus excitement, in 
 inflammatory conditions of the brain, in fever, 
 and in mental irritation, whether attended or 
 not with vascular excitement, the stimulus of 
 light proves injurious, and, in such cases, dark- 
 ness of the chamber should beenjoined. After 
 parturition, severe wounds, and surgical ope- 
 rations, and in all inflammatory conditions, 
 
 61 
 
962 
 
 LIGHT, ELECTRIC 
 
 exclusion of strong light, contributes to the 
 well-d ing of the patient." (Ptreira.) 
 
 LIGHT, ELECTRIC. We believe we are 
 correct iu stating, that within the lust two or 
 three years some 600 registrations for patents, 
 more or less, have been taken out for elec- 
 tricity applied to the purposes of artificial 
 illumination. Conceding that many, if not 
 the greater part, of these inventions may 
 prove useless, their number is nevertheless an 
 index of the mental activity that has lately 
 been directed to the subject of electric light- 
 ing ; and although we are far from affirming 
 that the problem of the practical application 
 of electricity to the lighting of our streets and 
 dwellings may eventually be successfully 
 thought out, still, we think, looking upon 
 these constant endeavours to accomplish the 
 end in view as links in the chain of that ex- 
 perimental evolution and gradation which has 
 characterised the course of most great dis- 
 coveries, we are justified in regarding them as 
 not altogether improbable auguries and pre- 
 cursors of subsequent success. 
 
 Shortly after Faraday's discovery in 1830 
 of electrical induction, or the power of a bar 
 of magnetised steel to set up in a certain 
 direction a current of electricity in a coil of 
 insulated wire when introduced into it, Pixii, 
 reducing the result of Faraday's researches to 
 practice, constructed an instrument, which 
 appears to have been the first dynamic mag- 
 neto-electric machine. By Pixii's contrivance 
 a current of electricity was generated by 
 means of the poles of a permanent horseshoe 
 magnet being made to revolve across those of 
 an electro, or temporary magnet, the induced 
 electricity set up in which in its turn esta- 
 blished in the surrounding helix a current of 
 electricity, which being made to escape by the 
 terminals or ends of the wire coils could be 
 applied to practical use. 
 
 The dynamic electro-magnetic machines of 
 Saxton and Clarke, which succeeded Pixii's, 
 may be regarded as modifications of this latter, 
 since they differed only in the arrangement 
 of their parts and mode of action. All three 
 machines were chiefly in use in chemical and 
 physical laboratories, whence they have gra- 
 dually been supplanted by the far more useful 
 Euhmkoiff's coil, a very powerful variety of 
 the electro-magnetic instrument. In a small 
 form Clarke's is now chiefly used for medical 
 purposes. That electro-magnetic machines, as 
 cheaper and more convenient sources of 
 electric force, should have been applied to the 
 purposes of telegraphy, will be an obvious 
 inference. 
 
 Among the most important and effective of 
 the various instruments for attaining this end, 
 it will suffice to mention the magneto-electric 
 machine of Messrs Siemens and Halske, first 
 brought into use in 1854. 
 
 Except, however, in the case of short dis- 
 tances, or with telegraphs belonging to private 
 persons or commercial firms, these instruments 
 
 have not met with very general adoption. 
 This is owing to the great tension of the in- 
 duced current, and the consequent difficulty of 
 insulating the wire, particularly for long dis- 
 tances, objections from which the old galvanic 
 apparatus is in a much greater measure free. 
 Mr Henley was the first to use the dynamic 
 magneto-electric machine for working the 
 electric telegraph soon after this instrument 
 had been adopted in England ; but as we have 
 seen, the method, except in the cases quoted, 
 have been in great measure abandoned. A 
 large magneto-electric machine has lately been 
 invented by Wheatstone, the induced spark 
 from which is used for firing mines. 
 
 The first electro-magnetic machine used for 
 lighting purposes appears to have been one 
 that was the joint invention of MM. Nollet 
 and Vari Malderen, of Brussels, a circumstance 
 to which it probably owes its name of the 
 ' Alliance Machine.' 
 
 NoUet, who brought out his invention 
 (which is a modification of Clarke's) in 1850, 
 originally designed it for the electrolysis of 
 water, the hydrogen resulting from which it 
 "as proposed to pass through camphine, or 
 some other hydro-carbon illuminant, and to 
 burn as gas. Additionally it was designed to 
 use the hydrogen as a source of motive power 
 by exploding it in a suitably constructed 
 engine. Owing to the improvements, how- 
 ever, effected in the machine by Van Mal- 
 deren, by which it became a powerful gene- 
 rator of magneto-electricity, this purpose was 
 abandoned. ' The Alliance Machine ' consists 
 of a cast-iron frame, on the circumference of 
 which 40 powerful horseshoe magnets, each 
 capable of supporting a weight of 120 to 130 
 lbs., are fixed, in eight series of 5 magnets 
 each. A number of circular metal discs, 
 around the circumference of which are at- 
 tached sixteen bobbins of insulated wire fixed 
 to a horizontal shelf turned by a pulley, are in 
 such a position with regard to the magnets, 
 that with each revolution of the shaft each 
 bobbin passes sixteen alternate poles of the 
 magnets, and will have had sixteen alternate 
 currents set up or induced in it. Until re- 
 placed by the later and smaller mngneto- 
 electric machine, the * Alliance ' has been the 
 one mostly employed for the production of the 
 electric light in France, and it is still in use 
 in the lighthouses of H6ve and Grisnez, as 
 well as in those of many other places in that 
 country. In 1856 Mr Holmes took out a 
 patent for a machine, which differs from 
 Nollet's in increasing the number of bobbins 
 by arranging them in concentric circles be- 
 tween two brass discs. By this device the 
 bobbins revolve more quickly in succession in 
 front of the poles of the magnets, a plan 
 which ensures the generation of a greater 
 number of currents for every revolution. 
 
 Like the first application of Nollet's, 
 Holmes' machine was used for lighthouse illu- 
 mination. It was in work from December, 
 
LIGHT. ELECTRIC 
 
 1858, until Juno, 1862. at the South Foreland 
 lit;litliouae, since which time it has been re- 
 moved to Dungenc88, in the lighthouse of 
 which station it hus been in use ever since. 
 
 When applied to lighting purposes, both 
 the ' AUIuQce ' and Holmes', and the other 
 machines named, are worked in conjunction 
 with tlie carbon points, which when arranged 
 with proper machinery constitute tlie electric 
 lamp. 
 
 Wild's and Ladd's are powerful dynamic 
 magneto • electric instruments, capable of 
 yielding large quantities of the electric fluid. 
 
 Ai'titiclal illumination by means of elec- 
 tricity has, however, been more or less occa- 
 sionally practised for other than lighthouse 
 purpo^e8. 
 
 For instance, in 1854, during the building 
 of the Napoleon Docks at Rouen, when 800 
 workmen were engaged nightly for four 
 hours, the electric light was used for several 
 nights with perfect success, the men being 
 able to carry on their work at a distance of 
 more than 100 yards from the source of the 
 light. 
 
 . In 1862 and 186.3 it was frequently em- 
 ployed in Spain during the night in the con- 
 struction of railways. During the lute Franco- 
 German war in 1870 it was applied to sub- 
 marine illumination, and more lately it has 
 been used in a series of street illumination in 
 St Petersburg. 
 
 The eli'ctnc light apparatus was placed on 
 the tower of the Admiralty Buildings of th.it 
 city, and by means of it throe of the larger 
 streets were illuminated at night from 7 until 
 10 o'clock. In this latter case, as well as in 
 that of the Eouen Docks, the lamps were 
 supplied with the electric current generated 
 in batteries. 
 
 It nitty be said, however, to have been only 
 within the last two years that the question of 
 electric lighting has developed into a burning 
 one, and that the light Itself hus become so 
 much more generally and extensively adopted. 
 
 Tuis new era in the history of artificial 
 illumination uniy be said to date from the in- 
 troduction of two forms of dynamic magneto- 
 electric apparatus, the one invented by Dr 
 Sieineus, the eminent telegraphic engineer, 
 the other by M. Gramme, of Paris, who, from 
 having been formerly a journeyman carpenter, 
 has now become the head of a manufacture 
 which forms a most important branch of 
 scientific industry. 
 
 In the apparatus of Gramme and Siemens 
 three marked features and improvements over 
 the older machines liave been achieved : — 
 
 1. A great reduction in size, and, conse- 
 quently, in coat, and requisite space for the 
 machiiio. 
 
 a. The method of generating large quanti- 
 ties of electricity by the mutual action between 
 the different pa'rts of the same machine, and 
 the induction therein set up.' 
 
 ' Xliia iliscuvery was mudo independently and nearly 
 
 3. The production of the electric cnrrent at 
 a much less expenditure of motive power. 
 
 On this latter point Professor Tyndall, in his 
 report to the elder brethren of the "Trinity 
 House, states that magneto-electric machines 
 of old construction cost ten times more, oc- 
 cupied twenty-five times the space, and 
 weighed fourteen times as much as the recent 
 machines, while they produced only one-fifth 
 of the light with practically the same driving 
 power; which in effect amounts to this— that 
 taking illuminating effect in each case into 
 consideration, the new machines cost one- 
 fiftieth, and are, as regards space occupied, 
 125 times more advantageous than the earlier 
 forms. 
 
 In all the older and larger machines the 
 current of electricity, as it was given off from 
 the wire and passed through the carbon paints, 
 was alternate, or first in one direction and 
 then in the opposite — that is, it was a mo- 
 mentary current, first positive and then 
 negative. 
 
 In Siemens' machine, and in one form of 
 Gramme's, the curreut is direct — that is, it 
 pursues one uniform course in its passage 
 through the carbon points of the lamp, and 
 in its circuit from the terminal of one wire to 
 that of the other. 
 
 Scientific opinion is somewhat at variance 
 as to the disadvantages of the indirect cur- 
 rent ; many electricians consider that it causes 
 the partial destruction of the contact^, and 
 sets up unnecessary heat in the machine. In 
 magneto-electric machines employed in electro- 
 metuUurgic operations, it is essential the cur- 
 rent should be a direct one. 
 
 In the Gramme machine the electro-magnet 
 consists of a ring computed of soft iron wire 
 attached to a horizontal spindle or axis, which 
 latter is turned by an end!e-s strap revolving 
 on a pulley. Around this iron ring ore wound 
 a number of coils, each having 300 turns, of 
 insulated copper wire, each coil being bent 
 inside the ring, and ti.<ced to an insulated piece 
 of brass. 
 
 The wire being continuous, each coil is con- 
 nected with the adjacent one, the whole of 
 the coils thus forming a single conductor. 
 The series of pieces of brass to which the wire 
 is soldered are formed into a circle, which 
 surrounds the axis of the machine, each piece 
 of brass being insulated from its neig-hbour. 
 The iron-wire ring with its attachments is so 
 arranged, that when the shaft or axis to which 
 it is fixed is turned, it revolves between the 
 poles of a powerful horseshoe magnet in the 
 same plane with it. As it turns the ring 
 gives rise in the coils to two different and 
 diverse currents of electricity, one in one half 
 of the coils around the ring, and the other in 
 the other half. 
 
 These currents are made to pass to the 
 circle composed of the insulated pieces of 
 
 aimultiineously by Drs Siemens and Sir Charles WLeat- 
 stooe. 
 
961 
 
 brass, which are arranged radially to the axis 
 of the machine. 
 
 Two bmss brushes press against these insu- 
 lated brass radii, one on each side. 
 
 These brushes are connected one to each 
 terminal of the machine, and so contrived as 
 always to be in contact with the coils, not 
 becoming insulated from one coil until contact 
 is established with the next one, an arrange- 
 ment which gives rise to a continuous current 
 of electricity always, and in the same direc- 
 tion. 
 
 The Gramme, although of very small dimen- 
 sions, is an extremely powerful machine. It 
 easily decomposes water, and will heat an iron 
 wire 8 inches in length and a 25th of an inch 
 in diameter to redness. 
 
 The following description of the Siemens 
 magneto-electric machine is from a paper 
 read some few months back at the Society of 
 Arts by Dr Paget Higgs, and is extracted 
 from the journal published by that body : 
 
 " In the latest form of constraction of the 
 Siemens magneto-electric machine the arma- 
 ture, as the revolving coil may be called, con- 
 sists of several lengths of insulated copper 
 wire, coiled in several convolutions upon a 
 cylinder. The whole surface of the cylinder 
 is covered with wire, laid on in sections, each 
 convolution being parallel to its longitudinal 
 axis. For about two tliirds of its surface the 
 wire cylinder is surrounded by curved iron 
 bars, there being just sufficient space left 
 between these curved iron bars and the wire 
 cylinder to allow of its free rotation. The 
 curved iron bars are prolongations of the cores 
 of large, flat electro-magnets; the coils of 
 these electro-magnets and the wire on the 
 cylinder (from brush to brush) form a con- 
 tinuous electrical circuit. On revolving the 
 cylinder (which is supported on a longitudinal 
 axis in suitable bearings, the axis carrying a 
 pulley) an initially weak current is generated 
 into its wires by their passage through the 
 
 LIGHT, ELECTRIC 
 
 magnetic field, formed by the residual mag- 
 netism of the iron coils of the electro-magnets, 
 and the current being directed into the coils 
 of tlie electro- magnets, increases the magne- 
 tism of the cores, which again induce a 
 stronger current in the wire cylinder. This 
 material action may continue until the iron 
 has attained its limit of magnetisation. The 
 maximum magnetic power acting upon each 
 convolution is attained at every revolution of 
 the armature, when the convolution passes 
 through the centre of both magnetic fields, 
 and gradually faUs to zero as the convolution 
 becomes perpendicular to that position. Each 
 convolution has, therefore, a neutral position, 
 and a convolution leaving that position on the 
 one side of the axis and advancing towards 
 the north pole of the electro-magnet would be 
 subject to a direct induced current, and that 
 portion of the convolution on tlie opposite side 
 of the axis would be traversed by a current of 
 opposite direction as regards a given point, 
 but of the same direction as regards circuit. 
 Each of the sections of wire coiled upon the 
 cylinder consists of two separate coils, leaving 
 four ends; two of these ends are connected to 
 each of the segments of a circular commu- 
 tator divided into parts. Bnt all the coils 
 are connected to the several segments of 
 commutator in such a manner that the 
 whole of the double sections form a con- 
 tinuons circuit, but not one continuous helix. 
 Two brushes placed tangentially to the seg- 
 ments of the commutator collect the electric 
 currents; these brushes are connected one 
 to each electro-magnet, and the two free 
 ends of the electro-magnet coils are con- 
 nected to the conducting wires leading to the 
 lamp. 
 
 The dimensions, weight, number of revolu- 
 tions made by the armature, light equivalent 
 in normal candles, and horse-power required 
 for driving, are for the three sizes of machines 
 as follows : — 
 
 Dimension In Inches. 
 
 Weisht 
 in ibs. 
 
 Bevohitiona 
 of cjUuaer. 
 
 Candles* 
 Light. 
 
 Horae Power. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Height. 
 
 25 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 28-3 
 
 8-8 
 
 9-5 
 
 12-6 
 
 298 
 
 419' 
 
 1279 
 
 1100 
 650 
 
 480 
 
 1,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 lito2 
 3i to 4 
 9 to 10 
 
 In the lamp which it is preferred to use 
 with the Siemens machine, the points of the 
 carbons after being separated are brought 
 together again by the gravitation of the top 
 carbon and its holder. The descent of the top 
 carbon actuates by means of the straight rack 
 it carries at its lower end, a large pinion, the 
 spindle of which carries a small pinion, gear- 
 ing into a second neck attached to the lower 
 carbon holder, the superior weight of the top 
 carbon and holder, in conjunction with the 
 
 multiplying ratio of the two pinions, producing 
 a continual tendency of the carbons to 
 approach each other. The large and small 
 pinions are connected to each other, and to 
 the spindle that carries them, by an arrange- 
 ment of friction discs, and the object of this 
 construction is to allow of the two racks being 
 moved equally and simultaneously up or down 
 for the purpose of focussing the light when 
 required. This movement is effected by means 
 of bevelled gearing, and actuated by a milled 
 
LIGHT KLECTRIC 
 
 eco 
 
 head, which can be pressed into position when 
 required. On the spindle carrying the large 
 and small pinions and the friction discs is 
 placed a toothed wheel, cipnnectcd with the 
 •pindle by a pawl and ratchet. 
 
 This wheel is the first of a train of wheels 
 and pinions driving a regulating fly in the 
 usual way. The pawl and ratchet are provided 
 to allow of the rapid distancing of the carbon 
 holders when it becomes necessary to intro- 
 duce fresh carbons. The spindle of the fly 
 also carries u small finely-toothed ratchet 
 wheel. This ratchet wheel is actuated by a 
 spring pawl, carried at the end of a lever, 
 which lever is the continuation of the arma- 
 ture of the electro-magnet, in such i manner 
 that when the armature is attracted by the 
 eh'Ctromagnet, the spring pawl engages in 
 tile teeth of the ratchet wheel, and causes the 
 wheels in gearing therewith to act upon the 
 racks of the carbon holders to draw them 
 apart. 
 
 The action of the lamp is as follows : — The 
 current passes from the conductor to the top 
 carbon holder, thence through the carbons to 
 the bottom carbon holder, then to tlie coils of 
 the electro-miignet situated in the base of the 
 lamp. From the coils of the electro-ningnet 
 the circuit is completed to the other con- 
 ductor. Upon the current passing tlirough 
 the circuit, the armature of the electro-mngiiet 
 is attracted, and the abutment from the nrmn- 
 tnro lever caused to short-ciicuit the coils of 
 the electro-magnet, releasing the armature. 
 The armature being released, the short-circuit 
 is removed from the coils of the electro- 
 magnet, and the cycle of movement repeated j 
 in this manner an oscillatory motion is given 
 to the armature lever, which by the spring 
 pawl actuates the ratchet wlieel, the train of 
 clockwork, and tlie raeks of the caibon 
 holders, forcing the carbons apart until the 
 distance between their points sufficiently 
 weakens the current, so tijat it no longer 
 attracts the armature of the electromagnet. 
 Thus, by the combined action of gravitation of 
 the top carbr)n in drawing the carbons to- 
 gether, and of the current to separate the 
 carbons when they approach loo closely, a 
 working distance is m lintaiued between the 
 points with perfect automatism. 
 
 Siemens' lamp is at the present time em- 
 ployed in the Lizard Lighthouse, in Messrs 
 Siemens' Engineering Works in lilngland and 
 Walej", as well as in other localities or build- 
 ings requiring powerfully lighting up. 
 
 An interesting illustration of the value of 
 the electric light to the sailor is furnished by 
 the 'Telegraph Journal' of April 5th, 1878. 
 This publication contains a letter from the 
 captain of the S.S. ' Faraday,' narrating how 
 that vessel was by its meani prevented from 
 running into another vessel during a dense fog. 
 
 Siemens' magneto-electric apparatus and 
 lamp Here used on the occasion above re- 
 ferred to. 
 
 In every form of contrivance for electrical 
 illumination the lamp or lighting apparatus 
 consists of carbon points separated by a very 
 slight interval, through which the current of 
 electricity passes by means of terminal wires 
 attached to the dynamo-electrical machine. 
 
 The lighting effect Is produced by the pas- 
 sage of the electric spark through the small 
 gap which separates the carbon points, in 
 which interval extremely minute but sol'd 
 particles of carbon, given off by the points, 
 are heated up to incandescence in the path of 
 the spark, and thns give rise to the intensely 
 luminous focus known as "the electric light.' 
 The brilliancy of the light of course depends 
 upon the quantity of electricity employed. 
 
 A very large number and variety of designs 
 and patents lor electric lamps have made their 
 appearance in England, America, France, and 
 Kussia within the period following the inven- 
 tion of the small, powerful, and economic 
 dynamo-electric machines of Siemens and 
 Gnimme. 
 
 The lighting apparatus generally attached 
 to and worked by that variety of Gramme's 
 machine generating the continuous current is 
 that known as the ' Serrin Lamp.' Two car- 
 bon electrodes placed vertically one above the 
 otlier (the positive being the upper one) are 
 fixed on brass holders, which are so connected 
 by a suitably contrived clockwork movement, 
 combined with the working of an electro- 
 magnet in connection with the electric circuit, 
 as to maintain the two carbon poles during 
 their combustion at the necessary distance 
 from each other. Serrin's lamp differs in de- 
 tail from Siemens', but, like this latter, is 
 autonnitic in principle. In Paris it was the 
 one in general use until the introduction of 
 the Jablochkolf candle, and, with the Duboscq 
 lamp, may he looked upon as the precursor of 
 the various lamjis and regulators now em- 
 ployed in electric lighting. Serrin's lamp or 
 regidator, with some slight modification in 
 the machinery, is also used in the Lontin 
 system of electric illumination, by which 
 separate lights are supplied by separate cir- 
 cuits of electricity, l^outin's method is that 
 by which the Gaiety Theatre in the Strand is 
 lighted ; and is also used at the Western Rail- 
 way Station (Gare, St Lazare) at Paris. The 
 Jablochkoff candle, which in Paris has lately 
 superseded the Serrin lamp, probably because 
 its use renders unnecessary the use of auto- 
 matic machinery, is the invention of a Russian 
 engineer, whose name it bears. 
 
 It consists of two sticks of gas carbon, about 
 9 inches long and ^th of an inch thick, which 
 are placed vertically side by side, and insulated 
 from one another by a very thin strip of 
 kaolin or china clay (a silicate of alumina and 
 potash), the whole forming a candle. Each 
 carbon rod is connected with one of the 
 terminal wires of a Gramme dynamo-electric 
 machine, the electric current from which, 
 however, not being continuous, sets up an 
 
966 
 
 LIGHT, ELECTKIC 
 
 alternate current between the tips or poles of 
 the candles, which are gradually consumed 
 like an ordinary taper, and with this only dif- 
 ference in action between Serrin's and Sie- 
 mens' lamps, that whereas in these latter the 
 spark passes from the top to the bottom carbon 
 point, in the JabloehkofE candle it jumps from 
 side to side. The inventor contends that the 
 kaolin by becoming heated diminishes the re- 
 sistance of the circuit, and thus permits of the 
 passage of the electric spark more easily 
 through the carbons, and also, we believe, 
 asserts that the kaolin being clectrolytically 
 decomposed as the carbons are consumed, 
 becomes converted into silica, which melts and 
 drops down, whilst the aluminium liberated 
 contributes luminosity during combustion to 
 the flame. 
 
 One of the chief advantages, however, 
 claimed by M. JabloehkofE is, that he can 
 divide the circuit into a number of different 
 lights, as the resistance of the circuit is 
 uuiform. 
 
 A large number of Jablochkoff candles are 
 employed in the celebrated ' Magasins du 
 Louvre,' one of the most extensive commercial 
 establishments in Paris for the sale of sillcs, 
 ribbons, gloves, &c., and clothing of every 
 description. 
 
 The pure white light diffused by electricity 
 admirably adapts it for viewing colours of all 
 kinds at night, whether seen in pictures or on 
 fabrics and raiments, and more particularly 
 blues and greens, the hues of which are fre- 
 quently indistinguishable from each other by 
 gaslight. The candle is also used to light the 
 courtyard of the Hotel du Louvre, a large 
 building contiguous to, and with its apart- 
 ments ruuning over, the Magasins, as well as 
 in several shops. 
 
 JablochkofE's system is also in work in Paris 
 in front of many public buildings, and by its 
 means the Place and Avenue de I'Opera, to- 
 gether occupying a space 900 yards long by 
 30 wide, are. brilliantly illuminated every 
 night. 
 
 That celebrated circus, so well known to 
 every visitor to Paris, the Hippodrome, is also 
 lighted by it. 
 
 Another form of electric lamp is that of M. 
 Eapieff, now in use in the machine-room of 
 the 'Times' newspaper office. In this lamp 
 there are four carbon points instead of two. 
 M. Eapieff, like M. Jablochkoff, states that by 
 means of his system he is enabled to supply 
 several lamps with the same electric current. 
 In the Wallace-Farmer lamp slabs of carbon 
 instead of points are had recourse to. 
 
 In the lamps of M. Regnier in one variety 
 two revolving carbon discs are used, whilst in 
 another a rod of carbon descends upon a disc 
 of the same material, an arrangement which 
 the inventor states leads to the subdivision of 
 the current and its separate utilisation by a 
 number of such lights. 
 
 One of the latest and apparently most suc- 
 
 cessful methods for dividing the electric 
 current, so that one and the same current 
 shall be made simultaneously to supply and 
 render incandescent a series of carbon points, 
 and in so doing give rise to as many effective 
 electric illuminators, is that of Mr Werder- 
 maun. Mr Werdermann, observing the dis- 
 parity of consumption between the positive 
 and negative poles of the electrodes, found by 
 experiment that when the sectional area of 
 the negative pole was sixty-four times greater 
 than tlie positive one, the electric arc was so 
 far reduced, that the two carbons were in con- 
 tact. Under these conditions the electric arc 
 was iniinitely small, the negative electrode 
 was not consumed, whilst the positive one was 
 incandescent. Two supplies of electric light, 
 therefore, ensued, one by the electric arc, and 
 the other by the incandescent carbon of the 
 positive electrode. Under these circnmstances, 
 if it were possible to devise a plan by which 
 the positive pole as it consumed should be 
 kept in uniform contact with the negative 
 pole, the difficulty which had hitherto proved 
 the stumbling-block to using a series of lights 
 from one current would be annihilated. 
 
 Mr Werdermann demonstrated the correct- 
 ness of his premises by a practical illustration 
 of his plan very lati-ly (November, 1878) at 
 the British Telegraph Manufactory, 374, 
 Euston Boad. The current from u dynamo- 
 electric Gramme macliine of 2-horse power 
 was conducted to two electric lamps, each 
 having an illuminating value equal to 360 
 candles each. The light so produced is de- 
 scribed by a spectator as " being soft and sun- 
 like, and as being capable of being looked at 
 without discomfort, though it was not shaded." 
 These being extinguished, ten smaller lamps 
 were ignited by means of the same current, 
 each one having an illuminating power equal 
 to forty candles. " The lamps burned steadily 
 with a beautiful soft and clear white light. 
 First one of the ten lights was then extin- 
 guished, and afterwards a second, the only 
 effi^ct on the remainder being that they became 
 slightly more brilliant."' 
 
 Unlike Mr Edison, Mr Werdermann does 
 not believe in the indefinite divisibility of the 
 electric light. It will be observed that the 
 candle power of the light becomes diminished 
 by subdivision. Two lights gave a light equal 
 to 700 candles, whereas the same current 
 divided into ten lights gave an aggregate 
 light of only 400 candles. 
 
 The following extract from the ' Times ' of 
 December 5th, 1878, illustrates the financial 
 aspect of the electric light question : — 
 
 "At the usual weekly meeting of the Society 
 of Arts, held last evening, Dr C. W. Siemens, 
 F.R.S., in the chair, a paper on electric light- 
 ing was read by Mr J. N. Shoolbred, M. Inst. 
 C.E. The object of the author was to present 
 some results of the application of electric 
 lighting to industrial purposes, especially as 
 * ' Daily News.* 
 
LIGHT, ELECTRIC 
 
 967 
 
 regards coat. He noticed first the Holmes 
 uiiJ the Alliance magneto-electric maoliines, 
 giving alternating currents and single lights 
 for lighthouse use. Secondly, he referred to 
 the dy niimn-eleotric machines, producing single 
 1 gilts for general industrial purposes, as well 
 as for lightliouses, and including the Siemens 
 and the Gramme machines. In his third 
 group the author included the machines used 
 for producing divided lights, each group in- 
 dicating a marked period representing a clearly 
 defined stage of progress in electric lighting. 
 With regard to cost, Mr Shoolbred stated that 
 in every instance his figures and particulars 
 were those afforded by the users of the various 
 lights, and not by the inventors or their repre- 
 sentatives. In the case of the Holmes machine 
 the aununl cost per lighthouse was about 
 £1035, incluHive of interest, repairs, and 
 wages. With the Siemens machine the annual 
 cost was about £194 per lighthouse, including 
 interest and the other expenses. With the 
 Alliance machine as used at Havre the cost 
 was about £174 per annum per lighthouse, 
 interest, &c., included. The single- light 
 Gramme machine has been in use in the Paris 
 goods station of the Northern of France Rail- 
 way for two years. Six machines have been 
 kept going with one light each, and the cost 
 Is found to be 5d. per light per hour, or with 
 interest on outlay at 10 per cent., 8rf. per 
 hour. The same light at the ironworks of 
 Messrs Powell at Rouen was stated to cost 
 4rf. per light per hour, exclusive of interest 
 and charge for motive power, the latter being 
 derived from one of the engines on the works. 
 In 1877 a series of experiments were carried 
 out with the Lontin light at the Paris ter- 
 minus of the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean 
 Railway. The passenger station was lighted, 
 and the results were so satisfactory that the 
 company have entered into a permanent con- 
 tract with the proprietors of the Lontin light 
 tor lighting their Paris goods station with 12 
 I'ghts, at a cost of 5d. per light per hour. 
 The Western of France Railway Company 
 have had 6 Lontin lights in the goods station 
 at the Paris terminus, St Lazare, since May 
 last, and 12 lights in the passenger station 
 since June. Careful experiments have shown 
 the cost to be 8d. per light per hour, inclusive 
 of interest. Referring to the JablochkofE 
 light, Mr Shoolbred placed before the meeting 
 Bouie particulars with regard to it^ application 
 in the Avenue de I'Op^ra, Paris, which were 
 afforded him by M. J. AUard, the chief en- 
 gineer of the lighting department of the City 
 of Paris. It appears that the authorities pay 
 the Societe Generale d'filectricite 37f. 2c. per 
 hour for the 62 lamps in use there. These 62 
 lamps supersede 344 gas-jeta which were pre- 
 viously used, and which cost the authorities 
 7'244f. per hour. The electric illumination, 
 however, is considered as equal to 682 gas- 
 jets, or about double the original illumination 
 — that b, to a cost of 14'45f. per hour as 
 
 against 37'2f. for the electric light, the cost 
 of which, therefore, is 2'6 times that of the 
 gas. The contract for lighting by electricity 
 was terminated by the City of Paris on the 
 30th ult., and the authorities have declined to 
 renew it except at the price paid for gas, 
 namely, 7'224f. (or about 6*.) per hour, and 
 that only until the 15th of January next. 
 These terms have been accepted by the 
 Society, so that the price paid to them will be 
 at the rate of about 1 jd. per light per hour. 
 Mr Shoolbred stated that the Society place 
 their expen^^es at l'06f. (or just lid.) per light 
 per hour, which, however, they hope shortly 
 to reduce by one half. A series of careful 
 photometric experiments carried out by the 
 municipal authorities with the Jablochkoff 
 lights, above referred to, showed each naked 
 light to possess a maximum of 300 candles of 
 intensity. With the glass globe this was re- 
 duced to 180 candles, showing a loss of 40 per 
 cent., while during the darker periods through 
 which the lights passed the light was as low 
 as 90 candles. The foregoing were the only 
 authenticated particulars which the author 
 could obtain as regards the working of the 
 various electric systems of electric lighting. 
 In cnuclusion, Mr Shoolbred referred to the 
 KapieS light at the ' Times ' office, which, he 
 observed, worked fairly and with regularity, 
 which could not be said of all others, and it 
 might therefore be entitled to take rank as an 
 established application of electric illumination. 
 The paper was illustrated by the Siemens, 
 RapiefC, Serrin, and other forms of electric 
 light, which were shown in operation." 
 
 That the electric light is eventually destined 
 to supplant coal gas in illuminating the fronts 
 of large buildings, open spaces, squares, as- 
 sembly rooms, public halls, theatres, picture 
 galleries, workshops and factories, &c., seems 
 no very extravagant prediction. We have 
 already seen that it has for some years been 
 employed in one lighthouse; and we have the 
 testimony of Mr Douglas, of the Trinity 
 House, at a very recent meeting of the Society 
 of Arts, that at the Souter Point Liglithouse 
 there had been only two stoppages in eight 
 years, once through a bad carbon breaking,, 
 and once through the lighthouse-keeper going 
 to sleep. 
 
 In addition to places above specified, 
 amongst other localities in which it is in 
 work, we may mention the chocolate factories 
 of M. Menier, at Noiselle, his india-rubber 
 works at Grenelle, his sugar refinery at Nice, 
 and Messrs Caille's works at Paris. In this 
 country it was employed in the erection of the 
 Tay Bridge, as well as in the works of Messrs 
 Head, at Stockton-on-Tees, and in London it 
 may be nightly seen burning before the 
 Gaiety Theatre in the Strand, at Billingsgate 
 Market, and frequently lighting up the front 
 of the Stereoscopic Company's premises in 
 Regent Street. Further, we may add that 
 the Metropolitan Board of Works are making 
 
963 
 
 LIGHTNING— LIGNIN 
 
 tlie experiment of lighting the Victoria Em- 
 bankment and the City anthorities the Holborn 
 Viaduct, with the JablochkofE candle. The 
 former have placed a dynamo-electric appa- 
 ratus, worked by a steam engine of 20-horse 
 power, close to the foot of Hungerford Bridge, 
 from whence wires will be carried right and 
 left towards Westminster and Blaokfriars re- 
 spectively. 
 
 We believe the main conducting wire is 
 carried under the coping-stone of the parapet 
 running along the Embankment, and that tlie 
 carbon points are fixed on the top of a certain 
 number of gas standards which now surmount 
 the wall of the Embankment. 
 
 That electricity is more economical as a 
 method of artificial lighting than coal-gas the 
 figures previously given seem to demonstrate, 
 and there can be no question as to the much 
 greater luminosity and pnrity of the light 
 over the gas flame, qualities which render it 
 an admirable substitute for the sunlight, the 
 absence of which it may be said to supply at 
 night. One disadvantage urged against its 
 employment in weaving rooms is, that it casts 
 such dark and distinct shadows that these are 
 frequently mistaken for the threads them- 
 selves, an objection which is said to have been 
 remedied by placing the light as near the 
 ceiling as possible. The non-generation of 
 carbonic acid and sulphurous products such as 
 are given oflfby burning gas, although of slight 
 importance when the light is employed in the 
 open air, becomes a great advantage when it 
 is used in crowded assembly rooms or theatres, 
 since the atmospheric contamination caused 
 by carbonic acid becomes of course consider- 
 ably reduced. The abseface of sulphur com- 
 pounds especially qualifies the light for use in 
 large libraries. If it be true that the light 
 gives rise to an appreciable amount of ozone, 
 this constitutes another point in its favour. 
 Opinion is at variance as to the possibility of 
 the practical application of the electric light 
 for illuminating private houses and dwellings 
 in such a manner as to supply the place of the 
 gas we now burn in them. One serious im- 
 pediment to the probable accomplishment of 
 this result certainly seeins to be the fact that 
 electricity for lighting purposes caa only 
 practically be convejed to short distances 
 from its source, which would necessitate the 
 establish inent and supervision of a number of 
 generating miichines near the houses to be 
 lighted. Another obstacle, which hitherto has 
 not been overcome, is the circumstance that 
 the current when subdivided yields propor- 
 tionately a greatly diminished amount of 
 ligiit. For instance, one light which had a 
 certain photometric candle valve would yield 
 when divided into two an aggregate amount 
 of light considerably less than the one; and if 
 divided into three still leas, and so on. This 
 has been pointed out when noticing Mr Wer- 
 uermann's invention for the divisibility of the 
 light. Mr Edison, an American inventor. 
 
 asserts that he has conquered this difBculty, 
 and additionally perfected a machine for 
 measuring the current used in the electric 
 light. He states that it consists of an ap- 
 paratus placed in every house lighted by 
 electricity, which registers the quantity of 
 electricity consumed, and uses for the purpose 
 1000th part of the quantity employed in the 
 building. 
 
 Dr Siemens, no mean authority, doubts the 
 practicability of applying electric lighting to 
 household illumination. 
 
 A matter of primary importance in connec- 
 tion with the successful working of the 
 electric light is the quality of the carbon 
 points. In their manufacture gas carbon 
 obtained from the necks of the retorts used 
 in gas-making, as being the hardest and 
 purest, is employed. 
 
 Superior, however, as this form of carbon is 
 to every other description of the substance, it 
 is never chemically pure, and as any foreign 
 substance imparts to the light the irregularity 
 or flickering that sometimes accompanies it, 
 it is necessary the impurities should be re- 
 moved. To effect their separation the carbon 
 has to undergo several processes, such as soak- 
 iug in caustic potash to remove the silica, 
 treatment with strong acids, several washings, 
 grinding, &c. It is then kneaded and put 
 into moulds, in which it is subjected to a 
 pressure as high as 12 tons to the square 
 foot. Subsequently the points so made are 
 baked. 
 
 IiTGHTNING. See Accidents. 
 
 LIG'NIlf. CsHijOs. Syn. Cellulose. This 
 is woody fibre deprived of all foreign matter. 
 It forms about 95 per cent, of baked wood, and 
 constitutes the woody portion of all vegetable 
 substances. Fine linen and cotton are almost 
 entirely composed of lignin, the associated 
 vegetable principles having been removed 
 by the treatment the fibres have been sub- 
 jected to during the process of their manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Pure lignin is tasteless, inodorous, insoluble 
 in water and alcohol, and absolutely innutri- 
 tions ; dilute acids and alkaline solutions 
 scarcely affect it, even when hot ; oil of vitriol 
 converts it into dextrin or grape sugar, ac- 
 cording to the mode of treatment. When 
 concentrated sulphuric acid is added very gra- 
 dually to about half its weight of lint, linen 
 rag, or any similar substance shredded 
 small, and contained in a glass vessel, with 
 constant trituration, the fibres gradually swell 
 up and disappear, without the disengagement 
 of any gas, and a tenacious mucilage is formed, 
 which is entirely soluble in water. If, after a 
 few hours, the mixture be diluted with water, 
 the acid neutralised by the addition of chalk, 
 and, after filtration, any excess of lime thrown 
 down by the (cautious addition of a solution of 
 oxalic acid, the liquid yields, after a second 
 filtration, and the addition of alcohol in con- 
 siderable excess, a gummy mass, which pos- 
 
LIGNltE— LIME 
 
 969 
 
 reatieii all the chnracteri of pare dextrin. If. 
 instoad of nt once aaturating the diluted acid 
 •olution with cimlk, we boil it f <ir 4 or 5 hours, 
 the dextrin it entirely converted into grape 
 ■ugar, which, by the addition of chalk and 
 filtration, as before, and evaporation by a 
 gentle heat to the consistence of a syrup, will, 
 after repose for a few days, furnish a concrete 
 mass of crystallised sugar. By strong pressure 
 between folds of porous paper or linen, redis- 
 solving' it in water, agitation with animal char- 
 coal, and recrystHllIsatlon, brilliant colourless 
 crystals of griipe sugar may bo obtained. 
 Hemp, linen, or cotton, thus treated, yield fully 
 their own weight of gum, and 1 per cent, of 
 their weight of ^rape sugar. During the above 
 transforiiiatldn, the sulphuric acid is converted 
 into sulpholignic acid, and may he procured in 
 a Kcparatc state. A solution of oxide of copper 
 in ammonia, or solution of basic carbonate of 
 copper in strong ammonia, dissolves cotton, 
 which may then be precipitated by acids in 
 colourless flakes. 
 
 LIQ'NITE. Syn. Brown coal. Wood 
 and other matter more or less mineralised and 
 converted into coal. The lignites are gene- 
 rally dark brown, and of obvious woody struc- 
 ture. Tliey are distinguished from true coals 
 by burning with little flame and much smoke. 
 Those of Germiiny are largely used as a source 
 of panifflii and burning oils. 
 
 LKyifUM ri'TS. S(;e GuAiACUK Wood. 
 LIME. CaO. St/n. Oxide of calcium ; 
 Chadx, Fr. J Kalk, Ger. Lime, when pure, 
 and as a chemical and medical reagent, will be 
 found treated of under Calcium (Oxide ol). It 
 is prepared on the large scale for commerce by 
 calcining chalk, marble or limestone, in kilns, 
 and is called quicklime, caustic lime, burnt 
 lime, stone lime, &c. The lime kilns are usually 
 of the form of an inverted cone, and are packed 
 with alternate layers of limestone and fuel, 
 and the burnt lime rnked out from the bottom. 
 The lime thus obtainf^d is a pale yellow powder, 
 combining eagerly with water, and crumbling 
 to a light white powder, "slaked lime," with 
 the evolution of much heat. Lime which 
 slakes well is termed "fat lime," while it it 
 slakes badly is termed " poor lime." The 
 slaked lime, the Galois hysbas of the B. P., 
 is fresh lime spriukled with water till it falls 
 to powder. 
 
 lime. Salts of. See under Calcium. 
 
 Lime, Fyrolignite of. An impure acetate 
 of calcium used lor making mordants in dyeing 
 and calico printing, as a substitute for the 
 more expensive uceiutc of lead. 
 
 Lime, Chloride of. Si/n. BLEAcnixa pow- 
 SEu, Chlobiitaied limb, Htfoculobiie of 
 
 CALCIUM. 
 
 This article was formerly believed to be a 
 compound of lime and chlorine (CaO.Cl), and 
 consequently received the name of • chloride of 
 lime.' We now know, however, that it Is not 
 a definite substance, but a mixture of calcium 
 hypochlorite, calcium chloride, and calcium 
 
 hydrate. The value of this preparation is due 
 to the readiness with which the calcinm hypo- 
 chlorite is decomposed by acids, even by the 
 carbonic acid of the air, with the evolution of 
 hypochh)rous acid which abstracts hydrogen 
 from many vegetable colouring matters, badly 
 smelling guses, &c. : the former are thereby 
 bleached and the latter deodorised. 
 
 Chloride of lime is most extensively used for 
 blenching linen, calico, and similar fabrics, 
 thousands of tons being made near Xiwcastle 
 alone every year. It is also largely employed 
 as a deodoriser. 
 
 Prep. Freshly slaked lime Is thinly spread 
 out in a proper vessel and exposed to an atmo- 
 Hphero of chloruie gas until it is saturated. 
 Now included in the Materia Medica. 
 
 Slaked lime (fresh), 20 parts, common salt, 
 1 part, are mixed together, and the powder 
 placed in long earthenware vessels into which 
 chlorine is passed until the mixture begins to 
 grow damp, or until one part of it, dissolved in 
 130 parts of water, is capable of decolouring 
 4^ p^rts of sulphate of indigo (see CiiLO- 
 bimetet), when the whole is transferred to 
 dry bottles. 
 
 (Wholesale.) The chlorine is generated 
 from the usual materials mixed in leaden 
 vessels, heated by steam, and the gns, after 
 passing through water, is conveyed by a leaden 
 tube into an apartment built of sllii'cous sand- 
 stone, and arranged with shelves or Invys, con- 
 taining dry fresh slaked lime, placed one above 
 another, about an inch asnnder. The process, 
 to produce a first-clnss article, is continued 
 for 4 or 5 days. During this time the lime 
 is occasionally agitated by means of Iron rakes, 
 the handles of which pass through boxes of 
 lime placed in the walls of the chamber, which 
 thus act as valves. 
 
 The successful manufacture of bleaching 
 powder is dependent upon the careful ob- 
 servance of a number of conditions, such »s 
 the quality of the limestone, * which should be 
 free from iron ; the presence of magnesia ut 
 the time is also vei-y objectionable, since it gives 
 rise to the formation and preseuce in the bleach- 
 ing powder of deliquescent chloride of mag-' 
 nesium ; the apportionment of the water in 
 slaking the lime is also a mutter of no incon- 
 siderable Importance, the lime forming into 
 balls, which fail to properly absorb the gas if 
 the water be insufficient, whilst if it be in 
 excess, it yields a powder deficient in chlorine. 
 When slaked, the lime is passed throush a sieve 
 to free it from small pebbles. After being 
 slaked it is kept for 2 or 3 days before beiug 
 used, as It is found that under these circum- 
 stances it absorbs chlorine more readily than 
 when recently prepared. Previous to its 
 entrance into the lime chamber, the chlorine 
 is passed through water, to free It from vapour, 
 and solid particles of chloride of manganese. 
 
 1 Avery pure kind of limestone, and one which is 
 largely iisVd ui the prepamuou ot bleucliing powder, is 
 found' at Buxtou. 
 
970 
 
 LIME— LIMESTONE 
 
 The temperature of the chamber into which 
 the chlorine is passed ought not to exceed 62° F. 
 An excess of chlorine has been found to yield 
 a powder deficient in hypochlorite. 
 
 Bleaching powder, unless protected from 
 the air (carbonic acid), slowly parts with its 
 chlorine. In summer it has been estimated 
 that it loses as m\icli as 86 per cent, of the gas, 
 and in winter about 26 per cent. 
 
 Frop.,Sfc. Chloride of lime is a pale, yellow- 
 ish-white powde)-, generally more or less damp, 
 and evolving a chlovine-like odour of hypo- 
 chlorous acid. Its soluble constituents dissolve 
 in about 20 parts of water. It is decomposed by 
 acids with the evolution of chlorine and oxygen 
 (l)ypoehlorous acid). Good chloride of lime 
 should contain from 32f to 86^ of chlorine, of 
 which, however, but 25J to 30$ can be easily 
 liberated by an acid. 
 
 Estim. See Chlokombtet. 
 
 Uses. Chloride of lime is employed in medi- 
 cine as a deodoriser and disinfectant. An 
 ointment of chloride of lime has been used in 
 Bci'ofula, and a lotion or bath, moderately 
 dilute, is one of the cleanest and readiest 
 ways of removing the ' itch,' and several other 
 skin diseases. It is also in great use as a disin- 
 fectant, and may be used either in substance 
 or solut on. A sm.ill quantity of the powder 
 spread on a flat dish or plate, and placed on 
 the chimney-piece, and a like quantity in an 
 opposite part of the room, will continue to 
 evolve sufficient chlorine or hypochlorous acid 
 to disinfect (? Ed.) the air of an apartment for 
 several days. The evolution of chloritie is pro- 
 moted by occasionally renewing the exposed 
 suiface, by stirring it with a piece of stick, and 
 after it becomes scentless, by the addition of a 
 little acid, as strong vinegar, or hydrochloric 
 acid, or oil of vitriol, largely diluted with water. 
 Of late, however, it has been partly superseded 
 by sulphurous acid, carbolic acid, &c. The 
 most extensive consumption of chloride of lime 
 is, however, for bleaching textile fabrics. 
 When employed for this purpose, the goods 
 are first immersed in a dilute solution of this 
 substance, and then transferred to a vat con- 
 taining dilute sulphuric acid. The chlorine 
 thus disengaged in contact with the cloth, 
 causes the destruction of the colouring matter. 
 This process is generally repeated several 
 times, it being unsafe to use strong solutions. 
 White patterns may thus be imprinted upon 
 coloured cloth; the figures being stamped with 
 tartaric acid thickened with gum water, the 
 stuff is immersed in the chloride bath, when 
 the parts to which the acid has been applied 
 remain unaltered, while the printed portions 
 are bleached white. 
 
 Concluding Remarlcs. — Chloride of lime is 
 now scarcely ever made on the small scale, 
 as it can be purchased of the large manufac- 
 turer of better quality and cheaper than it 
 could possibly be made by the druggist. The 
 chief precaution to be observed in the manu- 
 facture of good bleaching powder is to main- 
 
 tain the ingredients at a rather low tempe- 
 rature. 
 
 LIME. The fruit of Citrus limetta. It re- 
 sembles' the lemon, but is smaller and has a 
 smoother skin. It is imported into Great 
 Britain in a preserved state for use as a dessert. 
 Its juice is also largely imported for the pre- 
 paration of CITBIO ACID, and for the preven- 
 tion of scurvy on board ship (see below). 
 
 LIME JUICE. Syn. Lemon .Juice. The 
 juice of the fruits of various species of Citrus, 
 principally limes, is known in commerce un- 
 der these names. It is very variable as to 
 quality, which depends upon the method of 
 extraction, the quality of the fruit, and the 
 honesty of the shipper. 
 
 We have examined the juice expressed from 
 limes sent from the West Indies, from Ja. 
 maica, and from South Africa, with the follow- 
 ing results : 
 
 . W. Indies. Jamaica. S. Africa. 
 Specific gravity 
 
 of juice.. .1041-30 10i4-18 104490 
 Per cent, of 
 
 citric acid . 796 8-66 8'50 
 
 Per cent, of ash 0-321 0-401 0364 
 
 The yield from limes is very sm-ali, and the 
 freshly expressed juice contains a large amount 
 of pulp. This, however, on standing a few 
 weeks, separates, and a clear sherry-coloured 
 liquid is obtained. 
 
 A concentrated lime or lemon juice is nsed 
 by calico printers. It is a " dark, treacly- 
 looking fluid, marking from 48° to 54° Twad- 
 dell," and contains about 30 per cent, of pure 
 citric acid. 
 
 Adult. See Lemon juice. 
 
 Estim. Lime juice is only valuable on ac- 
 count of the citric acid it contains. If of 
 good quality, 100 gr. will neutralise from 70 
 to 76 gr. of pure crystallised carbonate of soda. 
 " For commercial purposes each grain of car- 
 bonate of soda neutralised may represent a 
 half grain of crystallised citric acid (equal to 
 38 gr. of dry acid), and the value of the lime 
 juice be calculated in proportion." (O'Neill.) 
 As commercial lime juice contains variable pro- 
 portions of vegetable extractive matter, the 
 indications of the hydrometer cannot be de- 
 dended upon. Acidimetet, Citeic acib.&c. 
 
 LIME'STOHE. A general term applied to 
 a great variety of rocks in which carbonate of 
 lime is the principal constituent. 
 
 Estim. The value of chalk, limestone, marble, 
 &c., fop hydraulic mortars and cements, may 
 be determined as follows ! 
 
 A given weight (say 100 gr.) of the sample 
 is reduced to powder and digested in hydro- 
 chloric acid diluted with about an equal weight 
 of water, with frequent agitation for an hour 
 or longer; the mixture is then diluted with 
 thrice its volume of water, thrown upon a 
 filter, and the undissolved portion washed, 
 dried, ignited, and weighed. This weight 
 indicates the per-centage of clay and silica or 
 sand, and the loss that of the lime or calcium 
 
LINCTUS 
 
 971 
 
 oxide, mngneainm oxlilc, and ferric oxide, 
 preseut in the substance ezitmined. In most 
 cases tliese results will bo sufficient to show 
 the quality of the limestone for the purpose of 
 nialcing mortar or cement. 
 
 The filtrate and the washings are mixed 
 together, and ammonia is added in excess ; the 
 bulky, reddish-brown precipitate is collected, 
 waslied, dried, ignited, and weighed. This 
 gives the per-centage of ferric oxide. 
 
 The filtrate from last is then treated with 
 oxalate of ammonium, and the quantity 
 of lime determined in the manner described 
 nuder the head of Calcium. 
 
 The liquid filtered from the precipitate in 
 last is boiled for some time with carbonate of 
 potassium until ammoniacal fumes are no 
 longer evolved; the precipitate is then col- 
 lected on a filter, washed with hot water, dried, 
 and strongly ig'nited for 3 or 4 hours, and, 
 lastly, wcigliod. This gives the per-ceutage 
 of maguesium. 
 
 MNC'TUS. [L., Eng.] Sj/n. liOOH, Lo- 
 BOCH, LiNOTITBE, Lambatite ; LoOCH, Fr. A 
 medicine of the consistence of honey, intended 
 to be licked off a spoon. This form of medi- 
 cine is well adapted to females and children, 
 but is not much used in England at the pre- 
 sent time. Those employed in modern phar- 
 macy and preseriliiiig are included under the 
 heiKlnCONPBOTION, CONSEBTB, Or ElECTUAET. 
 — Tne Dose, when it is not otherwise stated, is 
 a teaspoonl'ul oeciisionally. 
 
 Llnctns, Aold. (Dr Copland.) Syn. LiN0Tti3 
 ACiDCa. Frep. Honey of roses, 10 dr. ; hy- 
 drochloric acid, 20 minims ; syrup of red 
 poppies, 2 dr. Mix. 
 
 iinctus of Borax. (TJniv. Coll. Hosp.) Syn. 
 LlKCTDS DOEAOIS. Prep. Borax, 3 dr.; 
 honey, 1 oz. Melt, and stir together, and 
 then add syrup, 1 oz. 
 
 Llnctns, Caca'o. Syn. Linctus cacao, L. ; 
 Ckemk db Tbonciiin, Fr. Prep. From 
 cocoa-butter, 2 oz.; white sugar (in powder), 
 syrup of capillaire, and syrup of tolu, of ea(!h 
 1 0?. ; mix. Demulcent and pectoral ; in 
 coughs, spre throats, hoarseness, &c. 
 
 Linctos, Common. Prep. From oil of al- 
 monds and syrup of tolu, of each 1 oz. ; pow- 
 dered white sugar, 2 dr. As the last. 
 
 linctus, Cough. Syn. Peotobal iiNCTtrs ; 
 LiNCTUS pecto BALIS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Latham.) 
 Compound ipecacuanha powder (Dover's pow- 
 der), i dr. ; compound tragacanth powder, 2 
 dr.; syrup of tolu, confeution of hips, and 
 simple oxymel, of each 1 oz. — Dose, 1 tea. 
 spoonful, 3 or 4 times a day. " This linctus 
 has been extensively used, as a remedy for 
 ciiughs, in the West-end of London, having 
 been found to beasafeand generally efficacious 
 remedy." (Redwood.) The preceding as well 
 as the following are also useful preparations. 
 
 Iilnctns, Demnlcent. Syn. Linctus db- 
 >rui.cENS, L. ; Looch de Teonohin, Fr. 
 Prep. From oil of almonds, syrup of capillaire, 
 manna and cassia pulp, of each 2 oz. ; pow- 
 
 dered gum tragacanth, 20 gr. ; orange-flower 
 water, 2 fl. oz. As the last. Tlie above is 
 the quantity for two days, which is as long as 
 it will keep. 
 
 Linctus of Egg. Syn. Linctus oti ; Lo- 
 HOCH ovi. Prep. Oil of almonds, \ dr.; 
 yolk of 1 egg; syrup of marshmallow, 1 oz. 
 Mix. 
 
 Linctus, Emonient. Syn. Oily emulsion ; 
 
 LOHOOH OLEOSUM, E.VIULSIO OLEOSA, L. ; 
 
 LoooH nuiLEUX, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod) Oil of 
 almonds, powdered gum, and orauge-fljwer 
 water, of each 4 dr. ; syrup of marshmallow, 
 1 oz. ; water, 3 ft. oz. or q. s. ; for an emulsion. 
 In troublesome coughs, 
 
 Linctns, Ezpec'torant. Syn. Linctus ex- 
 PECTOEANS, LoHOCH E., L. Prep. 1. Oxymel 
 of squills, confection of hips, syrup of marsh- 
 mallow, and mucilage of gum Arabic (thick), 
 equal parts. Demulcent and expectorant. 
 
 2. (Dr Copland.) Oil of almonds and syrup 
 of lemons, of each 1 fl. oz. ; powdered ipeo icu- 
 anha 6 gr. ; confections of hips, 1 oz. com- 
 pound powder of tragacanth, 3 dr. 
 
 3. (Ziinetti.) Kermes mineral, 4 gr. ; manna, 
 6 oz. ; oil of almonds, syrup of squills, and 
 syrup of senega, of each 2 dr. Laxative, de- 
 mulcent, and expectorant. The above are 
 useful in hoarseness, tickling coughs, sore 
 throats, &c. 
 
 Linctns, Green. Syn. Linctus vibidb; 
 LoHOCH TIEIDE. Prep. Pistachio nuts (or 
 sweet almonds), no. 14; syrup of violets, 1 
 oz.; oil of almonds, i oz. ; gum tragacanth 
 15 gr. ; tincture of saffron, 1 scruple; orange- 
 flower water, 2 dr. ; water, 4 oz. Mix. 
 
 Linctus of Linseed. (E. 1744.) Syn. 
 Linotus lini; Lohoch lini. Prep. Fi-esh 
 drawn linseed oil, 1 oz. ; syrup of tolu, 1 oz. ; 
 sulphur, 2 dr. ; white sugar, 2 dr. Mix. 
 
 Linctns of Manna. (E. 1744.) Syn. 
 Linctus mann^; Lohoch mannjb. Prep. 
 Equal parts of manna, oil of almonds, and 
 syrup of violets. Mix. 
 
 Linctns of Naphthalin. (Dupasquier) Syn. 
 Linctus naphthalini; Lohoch naphthal- 
 INI. Prep. To one common lohoch add from 
 8 gr. to 30 gr. of naphthalin. The latter 
 must be well triturated with the gum. — Dote. 
 One teaspoonful, as an expectorant. 
 
 Linctus, Pectoral. Syn. Fox lungs ; Linc- 
 tus PECTOBALIS, LorfOCH E PULMONE VUL- 
 PIUM, L. Prep. From spermaceti and Spanish 
 juice, of each 8 oz- ; water, q. s. to soften the 
 liquorice ; make a thin electuary, and add of 
 honey, 3 lbs. ; oil of aniseed, 1 oz. ; mix well. 
 A popular and excellent demulcent in coughs. 
 It formerly contained the herb' fox lun«?, 
 but spermaceti is now substituted for that 
 article 
 
 Linctns of Poppies. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. 
 Linctus papaveeis. Frep. Compound tinc- 
 ture of camphor, syrup of poppies, and svrup 
 of tolu, of each equal parts. Mix. — Dose, 1 
 fl.dr. 
 
 Linctus of Spermaceti. (E. 1744.) Syn. 
 
972 
 
 LINEN 
 
 LllrOTUS CSTACBI; LOHOCH CBTACEI. Frep. 
 Spermaceti, 2 dr. j yolk of egg, q. s.; tritu- 
 rate, and add gradually oil of almonds, i oz. ; 
 syrup of tolu, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 Linctus of Syrup of White Poppies. (P. C.) 
 Syn. Linctus steupi papavebis albi; 
 
 LOHOOH STEUPUS PAPAVBEIS AlBI. Prep. 
 White lohoch, 5 parts ; syrup of poppies (P. 
 C), 1 part. Mix. 
 Linctus, Turpentine. Syn, Linctus btimu- 
 
 lANa, L. TEEEB1NTHIN.E, LOHOCH ANTHEL- 
 
 MINTICUM, L. Frep. (Recamier.) Oil of 
 tnrpcntiue, 2 dr. ; honey of roses, 3 oz. ; mix. 
 — Dose. A teaspoonful, night and morning, 
 followed by a draught of any weak liquid; iu 
 worms, more especially tape-worm. 
 
 Linctus, White. Syn. LiMCTUS AIBUS, mis- 
 tuba ALBA, Lohoch album, L. ; LoocH 
 BLANC, Fr. Frep. (P. Cod.) Jordon almonds, 
 4J dr. ; hitter almonds, i dr. ; blanch them by 
 steeping them in hot water and removing the 
 skins ; add of white sugar, i oz. ; gum traga- 
 caiith, 20 gr. ; beat to a smooth paste, and 
 further add of oil of almonds and orange- 
 flower water, of each 4 dr. ; pure water, 4 fl. 
 oz. A pleasant demulcent iu tickling coughs. 
 
 LIS'EJS. Syn. Linteum, L. Linen is a 
 textile fabric made of the libre-flbi'es of the 
 Linum usUaiissimum, or common flax, a plant 
 which from time immemorial has been culti- 
 vated for this purpose. It is remarkable for 
 the smoothness and softness of its texture, and 
 is hence highly esteemed in temperate climates 
 as an elegant and agreeable article of clothing 
 to be worn next the skin. Its fibres are better 
 conductors of heat, more porous, and mijre at- 
 tractive of moisture, than those of cotton, 
 which render it less adapted for body linen in 
 cold weather, as well as in hot weather and 
 hot climates, than calico. The latter, however, 
 lacks the luxurious softness and freshness of 
 linen, whilst the peculiar twisted and jagged 
 character of its fibres render it apt to excite 
 irritation in extremely delicate skins. The 
 common prejudice in favour of old linen and 
 Hax lint lor dressing wounds is thus shown to 
 have reason on its side, and, like many otlier 
 vulgar prejudices, to he supported by the in- 
 vestiijatious of science. 
 
 Identif. Linen fabrics are commonly sophis- 
 ticated with cotton, which is a much less 
 costly and a more easily wrought material. 
 Various jilans have been proposed to detect 
 this fraud, many of which are too complicated 
 and difficult for practical purposes. The Ibl- 
 Jowitig commend themselves for their sim- 
 plicity and ease of application : — 
 
 1. A small strip (a square inch, for instance) 
 of the suspected cloth is immersed for 2 or 3 
 minutes in a boiling mixture of about equal 
 parts of hydrate of potassium and water, 
 contained in a vessel of silver, porcelain, or 
 hard glass ; after which it is taken out and 
 pressed between the folds of white blotting 
 paper or porous calico. By separating 8 or 
 10 threads in each direction, their colour may 
 
 be readily seen. The deep yellow threads 
 are linen, the white or pale yellow ones are 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 2. A small strip of the cloth, after having 
 been repeatedly washed with rain water, 
 boiled in the water, and dried, is immersed for 
 1 to 2 minutes in sulphuric acid ; it is then 
 withdrawn, carefully pressed under water 
 with the fingers, washed, immersed for a few 
 seconds in ammonia, solution of carbonate of 
 potassium, or solution of carbonate of sodium, 
 again washed with water, and dried between 
 filtering paper. By this treatment the cotton 
 fibres are dissolved, while the linen fibres are 
 merely rendered thinner and more translucent 
 according to the duration of the experiment ; 
 after a shoi*t immersion, the cotton fibres 
 appear transparent, while the iinen fibres re- 
 main white and opaque. 
 
 3. Bottger recommends the linen stuffs to 
 he dipped into an alcoholic solution of rosolic 
 acid, then into a concentration solution of 
 sodium carbonate, and finally washed with 
 water. The linen fibre assumes a pink colour, 
 whilst the cotton fibre remains unaltered. 
 
 4. (By the micboscope.) The indications 
 afforded by both the previous tests, although 
 quite visible to the naked 
 eye, are rendered still 
 more palpable by the use 
 of a magnifying glass of 
 small power, as the com- 
 mon pocket lens. Under 
 a good microscope the 
 presence of cotton in a 
 linen tissue is very per- 
 ceptible. The fibres of 
 cotton present a distinctly 
 flat and shiivelled ap- 
 pearance, not unlike that 
 of a narrow, twisted rib- 
 bon, with only occasional 
 joints ; whilst those of flax are ronnd, straight, 
 and jointed. The fibres of cotton, after being 
 exposed to the action of strong alkaline lyes, 
 untwist themselves, contract in length, and 
 assume a rounded form, but still continue dis- 
 tinct in appearance from the fibres of linen. 
 The engraving represents a fibre of linen (1) 
 and a fibre of cotton (2), as they appear when 
 magnified 155 diametei's. The difference be- 
 tween the two may be perceived, although less 
 distinctly through a good Stanhope or Cod- 
 dington lens, provided the object be well 
 illuminated. 
 
 Dyeivg. Linen and cotton, from the simi- 
 larity of their behaviour with dye-stuffs, are 
 treated in nearly the same manner. The 
 affinity of their fibres for colouring matter is 
 very much weaker than that of the fibres of 
 silk and woollen. On this account they are 
 dyed with greater ditTiculty than those sub- 
 stances, and the colours so imparted are, in 
 general, less brilliant and permanent under 
 similar conditions. Linen shows less disposi- 
 tion to take dyes than cotton. The yarn or 
 
LINEN 
 
 973 
 
 cloth, after being aconred and blenched in the 
 unuitl tuuiiner, requires to have an additional 
 tendency given to it, by elieniieal means, to 
 conileuse and retain the inateTials of the dye- 
 bath in its pores. This is effected by steeping 
 the goods in solntions (mordants) which have 
 ut once an affinity for both the fibres of the 
 cloth and the colouring matter. A similar 
 process is employed in dyeing most other sub- 
 stances ; but with cotton and linen, attention 
 to this point is essential to the permanency of | 
 the dye. These matters are more fully ex- 
 plained under the heads CXEiKa and Mos- 
 
 DANT. 
 
 The following new process for bleaching 
 linun, having been omitted from our article on 
 "Bleacliiug" is inserted here: — 
 
 Mr Hodges' process, which is known in 
 Ireland as the " Chemico-Mechanical Pro- 
 cess," owing to tlie patentee turning to account 
 the advantages derivable from the employment 
 of mechanical contrivances driven by steam, 
 combined with the intt'oductlon of a new me- 
 thod of obtaining the hitherto little used 
 hypochlorite of magnesia, may be said to date 
 from the discovery of the substance, known 
 as Kieserite (native sulphate of magnesia), 
 whicli occurs as an essential constituent of the 
 Abraumsalts of Stassf urth. For some time after 
 the introduction of this substance into the 
 market, it was considered of little value except 
 for the production of Bpsom salts; but 
 Mr. Hodges, in the course of some investi- 
 gations in bleaching jute, having had occa- 
 sion to employ large quantities of hypo- 
 chlorite of magnesia, it occurred to him that 
 kieserite might be substituted for the more 
 expensive crude sulphate of magnesia; and 
 the importation into Ireland of the sample for 
 this purpose was tlie first that was ever sent 
 into that country for the manufacture of a 
 bleaching liquor, or, indeed, for any other use. 
 Mr. Hodges on experimenting with the kiese- 
 rite, found that it not only supplied the place 
 of the crude sulphate, but acted as a better 
 precipitant for the lime of the bleaching pow- 
 der, which is employed in the production of the 
 hypochlorite of magnesia ; and that it also pro- 
 duced a stronger and clearer solution. With- 
 out entering into a minute description of the 
 process which is at present successfully car- 
 ried out in a factory erected for the purpose 
 in the neighbourhood of Belfast), the follow- 
 ing outline will be sufBcientto show the nature 
 of the methods adopted. The kieserite, which 
 is imported from Germany in square blocks, 
 on arriving at the works, is conveyed to a 
 house, on the ground-floor of which it is 
 stacked until required, when it is ground to a 
 fine powder, and placed in barrels, is drawn up 
 by means of a crane to a room at the top of 
 the building, at one end of which is a row of 
 three tanks furnished with water taps, agi- 
 tators, and false bottoms. In one of the end 
 tanks a definite quantity of the kieserite pow- 
 der (varying according to its strength, is as- 
 
 certained by analysis) is placed and dissolved 
 in agiven quantity of water,the solution being 
 assisted by agitators, and on settling the clear 
 liquor is siphoned over into the middle tank. 
 In the third tank bleaching powder (hypochlo- 
 rite of lime), varying in quantity according 
 to the strength of the kieserite solution, is 
 placed. The bleaching powder after being 
 agitated with water is allowed to settle, and 
 the clear solution is siphoned over into the 
 middle tank containing the clear kieserite 
 solution, the agitator being kept in motion, 
 not only during the mixing of the liquids, but 
 for some time after. The mi.\ed liquids are 
 then allowed to remain undisturbed all night, 
 after which the clear hypochlorite of magnesia 
 solution is siphoned into a large settling tank, 
 which is situated in the room below. Prom 
 this vessel it is conducted through wooden 
 pipes (which are so contrived that they can 
 be opened and cleansed at will), into a large 
 cistern standing in the bleaching house. This 
 cistern is fitted with a ball-cock, by which 
 arrangement the liquid can be drawn oSf by 
 a system of wooden pipes as required. The 
 bleaching house in which the cistern is situated 
 is fitted up in an original manner, and covers 
 something more than an acre of ground; whilst 
 the reeling-shed, which is the only part of the 
 works our limits will permit us describe, is 
 240 feet long by 24 feet broad, and contains 
 ten steeps and twelve reel boxes. Each box 
 is provided with water, a solution of the 
 bleaching agent, and steam pipes, and is 
 capable of reeling at a time about 500 lbs. of 
 yarn. Above the box is a line of rails or 
 pillars. A travelling crane runs along the 
 reels, and carries the reels from one box to 
 another. Attached to this crane is a newly- 
 invented hydraulic pump, by means of which 
 the reels with th^arn on them can be lifted 
 in a few seconds from one box to another. 
 
 After the yarn has been boiled, washed, and 
 passed through the squeezers in the usual 
 manner, it is put on to a wagon, in which it is 
 carried, by means of a line of rails, down to 
 the first reel box. Here it is placed on to the 
 reels, which are made to revolve by means of 
 steam ; first in one direction and then in ano- 
 ther, through a solution of carbonate of soda, 
 previously heated by means of the steam-pipes 
 before mentioned. The yarn having been 
 sufficiently scalded and so saturated with soda, 
 the reels to which it is attached are raised by 
 the hydraulic pump out of the box, and the 
 yarn allowed to drain for a few minutes, after 
 which the travelling crane carries it on to the 
 next box. Into this box the yarn is again 
 lowered by the pnmp and made to revolve as 
 before, but this time through a solution of the 
 bleaching agent, which immediately re-acting 
 on the carbonate of soda with which the yarn 
 is charged, renders this bleaching agent free 
 from the danger which attends the employ- 
 ment of chlorine, or the ordinary bleading 
 powder used in the older methods of bleaching. 
 
974 
 
 LING— LINIMKNT 
 
 After the yarns liave been brought to the de- 
 sired shade in the solution of Hodges' bleach- 
 ing agent they are either removed as before to 
 a new box, and there washed before being 
 scoured, or they are thrown into one of the 
 steeps filled with water for the night. These 
 operations are repeated with weaker solutions 
 in the remaining reel boxes, cither once or 
 twice according to the shade required. 
 
 Mr Hodges claims as the chief features of 
 his Invention that it consists, first, in the em- 
 ployment of a bleaching agent which has not 
 hitherto been practically employed, and a 
 cheap method for its production ; second, in 
 the preparation of the yarn prior to being sub- 
 mitted to the action of the bleaching agent, 
 this preparation setting free not only the 
 imprisoned chlorine of the hypochlorite, 
 but also another powerful bleaching agent, 
 oxygen ; third, in new and improved machi- 
 nery, by which the work of bleaching the 
 yarn is greatly shortened ; fourth, in doing 
 away with the tedious and expensive operation 
 of exposing the yarn on the grass ; if this last 
 were the only feature in Mr Hodges' inven- 
 tion, the patentee would have greatly im- 
 proved the process of bleaching, not only, 
 however, does the new process supplant the 
 old long and tedious one, but a great eco- 
 nomy of time is additionally gained in other 
 parts of the process, added to these advan- 
 tages it is stated that a superior finish is 
 given to the yarns, and that in consequence a 
 much greater demand for them has arisen. 
 
 Mr Hodges contends that the absence of 
 caustic lime from his new bleaching compound 
 gives it great advantages over the old bleach- 
 ing powder, particularly in its application to 
 finely woven fabrics, such as muslins, &c. He 
 also says that fabrics bleached by it receive 
 an increased capacity for iitibibing and retain- 
 ing colouring matter, a fact of considerable 
 importance to the dyer and calico-printer, as 
 they are thus enabled to communicate to the 
 fabrics tints which have heretofore been con- 
 sidered impossible. See Kieberite, 
 
 The domestic mangement of linen may here 
 receive » few moments' attention. Fruit 
 stains, iron-moulds, and other spots on linen, 
 may, in general, be removed by applying to 
 the part, previously washed clean, a weak 
 solution of chlorine, chloride of lime, spirits of 
 salts, oxalic acid, or salts of lemons, in warm 
 water, and frequently by merely using a little 
 lemon juice. When the stain is removed the 
 part should be thoroughly rinsed in clear 
 warm water (without soap) and dried. Recent 
 iron-moulds or ink spots on starched linen, 
 as the front of a shirt, may be conveniently 
 removed by allowing a drop or two of melted 
 tallow from a common candle to fall upon them 
 before sending the articles to the laundress. 
 The oxide of iron combines with the grease, 
 and the two are washed out together. If the 
 spot is not entirely removed the first time, the 
 process should be repeated. Linen, that has 
 
 acquired a yellow or bad colour by careless 
 washing may be restored to its former white- 
 ness by working it well in water to which 
 some strained solution of chloride of lime has 
 been added, observing to well rinse it in clean 
 water both before and after the immersion in 
 the bleaching liquor. The attempt to bleach 
 unwashed linen should be avoided, as also 
 using the liquor too strong, as in that case the 
 linen will be rendered rotten. 
 
 IiING. The Qalus mohta (Linn.), an inferior 
 species of the cod-fish tribe, common in the 
 Northern seas, and used as a coarse article of 
 food by the poor. 
 
 LDflMENT. Syn. LiNiMENTini, L. A 
 semifluid ointment, or soapy application to 
 painful joints, swellings, burns, &c. The 
 term is also occasionally extended to various 
 spirituous and stimulatmg external apphca- 
 tions. A preparation of a thinner consistence, 
 but similarly employed, is called an ' embko- 
 CATION.' These terms are, however, fre- 
 quently confounded together, and misapplied. 
 Liniments are generally administered by fric- 
 tion with the hand or fingers, or with some 
 substance (as a piece of flannel) capable of 
 producing a certain amount of irritation of the 
 skin. Sometimes a piece of linen rag dipped 
 in them is simply laid on the part. In most 
 cases In which liniments are found beneficial, 
 the advantage obtained from them is attri- 
 butable rather to the friction or local irritation 
 than to any medicinal power in the preparation 
 itself. The greater number of cerates and 
 ointments may he converted into liniments by 
 simply reducing their consistence with almond 
 or olive oil, or oil of turpentine. 
 
 I/iniment, Ac'id. Sgn. Linimentum aci- 
 
 DTTM, L. AOIDI STTLPHTTBICI, L. Prep. 1. 
 (Sir B. Brodie.) Salad oil, 3 oz. ; oil of vitriol, 
 i dr. ; mix, then add of oil of turpentine, 1 
 oz., and agitate the whole well together. As 
 a counter-irritant, in rheumatism, stiff joints, 
 &c. It closely resembles the ' Gulltoniak 
 Embkocation.' 
 
 2. (Hosp. P.) Olive oil, 3 oz. ; oil of tur- 
 pentine, 2 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. dr. An 
 excellent-alterative, stimulant, diseutient, and 
 counter-irritant, in chronic rheumatism, stiff 
 joints, indolent tumours, and various chronic 
 diseases of the skin. 
 
 liniment of Albumen. (Dr Chvistison.) 
 Syn. Linimentum albumhhs. Prep. Equal 
 parts of white of egg and rectified spirit, 
 agitated together. In excoriation froUi 
 pressure. 
 
 Liniment of Am'ber-oil. Syn. LnfnuENTirM 
 snooiNi, L. Prep. 1. From olive oil, 3 parts j 
 oils of amber and cloves, of each 1 part. Re- 
 sembles ' Roche's Embrocation.' 
 
 2. (Opiated ; Linimentum succini opia- 
 TUM, L.) From rectified oil of amber and 
 tincture of opium, of each 2 fl. oz. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 Anodyne, antispasmodic, and stimulant. A 
 once popular remedy in cramp, stiff joints, 
 &c. 
 
LINIMENT 
 
 973 
 
 Lioiment of Ainmo"iila. Syn. Ammoniaoal 
 LiNiMBKT, Volatile l., Oil and h abtsuobn ; 
 
 LlNIMBNTUM AMMONI^B (B. P., Ph. L. E. & 
 D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of am- 
 munia, 1 ; olive oil, 3 ; mix. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. <t E.) Liquor of ammonia (sp. 
 pr. -960), I fl. oz. i olive oil, 2 fl. oz. j shake 
 tliem together until they are mixed. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) To the last add of olive oil, 
 1 fl. oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used in 
 rheumatism, lumbago, neuralgia, sore throat, 
 ppasms, bruises, &c. When the skin is irri- 
 tiible more oil sliould be added, or it should be 
 diluted with a little water. 
 
 4. (Camphorated ; LiNiMENTnn ammonije 
 
 CAMPHOKATUM, EmBBOCATIO AMM. CAMPHO- 
 BiTA, L.)— a. (Hoap. F.) Olive oil, 3 oz.j 
 camphor, \ oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, 
 and when cold, add of liquor of ammonia, 
 
 1 fl. 0/.. 
 
 b. Soup liniment, 2 oz. ; olive oil and liquor 
 of ammonia, of each 2 dr. As the last; 
 more especially for sprains, bruises, chilblains, 
 &c. 
 
 5. (Compound; Dr Gbanvillb's countee- 
 
 lEBITANT OB ANTIDYNOUS LOTION; LlNI- 
 MKNTITM AMMONIiE C0MP08ITUM, L. — Ph. E.) 
 — a. (Steonokb.) From liquor of ammonia 
 (sp. gr. -880), 5 fl. oz. ; tincture of camphor, 
 
 2 fl. oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 1 fl. oz. ; mix. It 
 should be kept in a well-stoppered bottle and 
 in a cool situation. 
 
 h. (Wbakbe.) Solution of ammonia (■8801, 
 6 fl oz. ; tincture of camphor, 3 fl. oz. ; spijit 
 of rosemary, 2 fl. oz. 
 
 Ohs. The above formulas ore nearly identi- 
 cal with the original ones of Dr Granville ; 
 the principal difference being in his orderln<r 
 liquor of ammonia of the sp. gr. '872, instead 
 of '880. They arc counter-irritant, rubefacient, 
 vesicant, and cauterising, according to the 
 mode and length of their application. The 
 milder lotion is sufficiently powerful to pro- 
 duce consiiieruble rubefaction and irritation in 
 from 1 to 5 or 6 minutes; vesication, in 8 or 
 10 minutes ; and cauterisation, in 4 or 5 
 minutes longer. For the latter purpose the 
 stronger lotion is generally employed. Accord- 
 ing to Ur Granville, these lotions are prompt 
 and powerlul remedies in rheumatism, luui- 
 bngn, cramp, neuralgia, sprains, swollen and 
 painful joints, headache, sore throat, and nu- 
 merous otiicr affections in which the use of a 
 powerful counter-irritant has been recom- 
 mended. They are ordered to be applied by 
 means of a piece of linen, 6 or 7 times folded, 
 or a piece of thick, coarse flannel wetted with 
 the lotion, the whole being covered with a 
 thick towel, and firmly pressed against the 
 part with tl.c hand. The stronger lotion is 
 only intended to be employed in apoplexy, and 
 to produce cauterisatiuu. See Cocntebikbi- 
 TANT8. 
 
 6. (From bksquicaebon ate of ammonia ; — 
 
 LiNIMENTUM AMMONIJB BESQCICARB0NATI3 — 
 Ph. L.) Solution of sosquicarbonate of ammo- 
 
 nia, 1 fl. oz. ; olive oil, 3 fl. oz. j shake them 
 together until mixed. This preparation re- 
 sembles ordinary liniment of ammonia in its 
 general properties, bat it is much less active, 
 owing to the alkali being carbonated. It ia 
 the ' oil and hartshorn' and the ' volatile lini- 
 ment' of the shops. 
 7. (With Tuepentine.) (Dr Copland.) 
 
 Syn. LiNIMKNTITlI AMMONIiE CUM TEBEBIN- 
 thina. Prep. Liniment of ammonia, \\ 
 fl. oz. ; oil turpentine, \ fl. oz. ; mix. 
 
 Liniment, An'odyne. See Linimbnts op 
 Belladonna, Moephia, Opium, Soap, ie. 
 
 liniment, Antispasmod'ic. Syn. Ltnimen- 
 
 TUM ANTISPABMODICUM, L. CAJKPUTI COM- 
 POSITUM, L. Prep. (Hufeland.) Oilsofcaje- 
 put and mint, of each 1 part ; tincture of 
 opium, 3 parts; componnd camphor liniment, 
 24 parts. Anodyne, stimulant, and rube- 
 facient. 
 
 Liniment, Arceos's. Compound elemi oint- 
 ment. 
 
 Liniment of Arnica. Syn. Auvjct. opo- 
 deldoc. LiNIMENTUM ABNIC.E. Prep. Dis- 
 solve by heat Castile soap, 4 parts, and cam- 
 phor, 1 part, in rectified spirit, 10 parts. Add 
 tincture of arnica, 5 parts. 
 
 Liniment of Belladon'na. Syn. Ltximextum 
 belladonnje, B.P. L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Pre- 
 pared the same as LiNIMENTUM aconitii. A 
 fluid ounce is equal to a solid ounce. Pre- 
 scribed with equal parts of soap liniment, or 
 compound camphor liniment, and is an excel- 
 lent topical application for ncur^ilgic pain. 
 
 2. Extractofbelladonna,ldr.; oil of almonds, 
 2 oz. ; lime water, 4 fl. oz. In eczema, and 
 some other cutaneous affections, to allay irri- 
 tation, &c. 
 
 3. (Cutan. Hosp.) Extract of belladonna, 
 4 dr.; glycerine, 1 oz. ; soap liniment, 6 oz. 
 As the last. 
 
 4. (Guy's Hosp.) Extract of belladonna 
 
 1 oz. ; soap liniment, 8 fl. oz. 
 
 5. (Phoebus.) E.itract of belladonna, 40 gr. ; 
 rectified ether, 1 dr.; cherry-laurel water, 
 
 2 H. oz. As a friction to the abdomen in lead 
 colic. 
 
 Obs. The above are reputed excellent sti- 
 mulants, auodynes, antispasmodics, and re- 
 solvents, in various diseases, as rheumatism, 
 neuralgia, painful affections of the skin and 
 joints, tumours, &c. &c. 
 
 Liniment of Belladonna and Chloroform. 
 (Mr Squire.) Syn. Linimentum bella- 
 DONNiE et chloeofoemi. Prep. Belladonna 
 liniment, 7 fl. dr. ; belladonna chloroform 
 (made by percolating the root with chloroform) 
 1 fl. dr. ; sprinkled on piline and applied to the 
 loins, excellent in lumbago. 
 
 Liniment of Borax. (Swediaur). Syn. 
 LiNIMENTUM BOEAOIS. Prep. Borax, 2 dr.; 
 tini-tnre of myrrh, 1 oz., distilled water, 1 oz. ; 
 honey of roses, 2 oz. Mix. 
 
 Liniment of Caj'eput Oil. Syn. Linimentum 
 OLEI CAJKPUTI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Copland.) 
 Compound camphor liniment and soap lini- 
 
976 
 
 LINIMENT 
 
 ment, of each li fl. oz. ; oil of cajeput, 1 
 fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Dr Williams.) Oil of cajeput, i fl. dr. ; 
 castor oil, 1 fl. dr. ; olive oil, 4J fl. dr. A warm, 
 antispasmodic, diffusible stimulant and rube- 
 facient; in spasmodic asthma, colic, chronic 
 rheumatism, spasms, chest affections, &c. See 
 Antispasmodic L. (above). 
 
 linimentum Calcis. (B. P.) Solution of 
 lime, 1 ; olive oil, 1 ; mix. The best liniment 
 for burns and scalds. 
 
 liniment of Cam'phor. Syn. Camphobated 
 
 OIL, CaMPHOE BMBEOCATION ; LlNIMENTUM 
 
 Camphob* (B. p., Ph. L. E. & D.), Oleum 
 camphoeatum.L. Frep. 1. (B. P.) Camphor,!; 
 olive oil, 4 ; dissolve. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. & E.) Camphor, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 
 4 fl. oz. ; gently heat the oil, add the camphor 
 (cut small), and agitate until dissolved. The 
 Dublin College orders only i theabove camphor. 
 Stimulant, anodyne, and resolvent ; in sprains, 
 bruises, rheumatic pains, glandular enlarge- 
 ments, &c. 
 
 3. (Compound ; Linimentitm camphors 
 COMPOSITCM— B. P., Ph. L. & D.)— o. (B. P.) 
 Camphor, 5 ; English oil of lavender, i ; strong 
 solution of ammonia, 10; rectified spirit, 20. 
 Dissolve the oil and camphor in the spirit °and 
 gradually add the ammonia. 
 
 i. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 2J oz. ; oil of lavender, 
 1 fl. dr.; rectified spirit, 17 fl. oz. ; dissolve, then 
 add of stronger liquor of ammonia, 3 fl. oz., and 
 shake them together until they are mixed. 
 
 u. (Ph. L. 1836.) Liquor of ammonia, 7i 
 fl. oz.; spirit of lavender, 1 pint; distil off 
 1 pint, and dissolve in it camphor, 2i oz. The 
 formula of the Ph. D. 1826 was nearly 
 similar. 
 
 d. (Wholesale.) Camphor (clean), 21 oz. ; 
 English oil of lavender, 3| oz. ; liquor of am- 
 monia, 2 J lbs. ; rectified spirit, 7 pints ; mix, 
 close the vessel, and agitate occasionally, until 
 the camphor is dissolved. Powerfully stimu- 
 lant and rubefacient. It closely resembles, and 
 is now almost universally sold for, Ward's 
 ' Essence for the Headache.' 
 
 e. (Ethereal.) Si/n. Linimeniitm cam- 
 rsouM ETHEBEUM. Frep. Camphor, 1 dr. ; 
 ether, 1 dr.; oil of vipers, 2 dr. Mix. 
 
 Liniment of Canthar'ides. Syn. Liniment 
 op Spanish ilies; Linimentum ltttje, 
 Lin. canthabidis (Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Dr Collier.) Tincture of cantharides and 
 soap liniment, equal parts. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Cantharides (in fine powder), 
 3 oz. ; olive oil, 12 fl. oz. ; digest for 3 hours 
 over a waterbath, and strain through flannel, 
 with expression. 
 
 3. (Ph. U. S.) Spanish flies, 1 oz. ; oil of 
 turpentine, 8 fl. oz. ; proceed as last. The 
 above are ii'ritant and rubefacient; but 
 should be used cautiously, lest they produce 
 strangury. 
 
 Liniment of Capsicum. 1. (Dr Copland.) 
 Si/n. LiNiMENTUM Capsici. Prep. Compound 
 camphor liniinint, 1 fl. oz. ; volatile lini- 
 
 ment, 1 fl. oz.j tincture of capsicum, 3 fl. 
 oz. ; mix. 
 
 2. (Dr Turnbull.) Capsicums, 1 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 3 fl. oz. Macerate 7 days, and 
 strain for use. 
 
 Liniment of Colchicam. (Ear Infirmary.) 
 Si/n. LiNiMENTCM coLCHici. Prep, Soap 
 liniment, 1 fl. oz.; wine of colchicum seed, 
 i fl. oz. ; mix. 
 
 Liniment of Colocynth. (Heim). St/n. 
 LiNiMENTCM cOLOCYNTHlDia. Prep. Tinc- 
 ture of colocynth, i fl. oz. ; castor oil, 1^ oz. 
 
 Liniment of CUo"ride of Lime. St/n. Li- 
 
 NIMBNIUM CALCIS CHLOEINAT.ffi), L. Prep. 
 1. Chloride of lime, 1 dr. ; water (added gra- 
 dually), 3 fl. oz.; triturate together in a glass 
 mortar for 10 minutes, pour off the liquid por- 
 tion, and add of oil of almonds 2 fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Kopp.) Solution of chloride of lime (or- 
 dinary), 1 part; olive oil, 2 parts. 
 
 3. (Waller.) Chloride of lime (in fine pow- 
 der), 1 part; soft soap, 2 parts; soft water, 
 q. s. to make a liniment. 
 
 Obs. The above are cleanly and excellent 
 applications in itch, scald head, herpes, lepra, 
 foul ulcers, &c. 
 
 Liniment of ChVioform. Sj/n. Linimektttm 
 CHLOEOPOEMI, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Chlo- 
 roform, 1 ; liniment of camphor, 1 ; mix. The 
 oil in the camphor liniment prevents the eva- 
 poration of the chloroform. Stimulating on 
 application to a tender skin. ' 
 
 2. Ciiloroform, 1 fl. dr. ; almond oil, 7 fl. dr. ; 
 mix in a phial, and agitate it until the two 
 unite. 
 
 3. (Tuson.) Chloroform, 1 fl. dr.; soap 
 liniment, 2 fl. oz.; as the last. Used as an 
 application in neuralgic pains, rheumatism, 
 &c. 
 
 Liniment of Cod-liver OIL Syn. Linimenthm 
 
 OLEI MOIiBHViB, L. O. JACOEIS ASELLI, L. 
 
 Prep. (Dr Brach.) Cod-liver oil, 2 fl. oz.; 
 liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz. ; mix. Resolvent, 
 dispersive ; applied to glandular tumours, 
 scrofulous enlargements, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Cro'ton Oil. S^n. Linimentum 
 ceotonis (B. p.. Ph. D.), L. olei ceotonis, L. 
 o. TIGLII, L. Prep. 1. (B.P.)Crotouoil,l; 
 oil of cajeput, 3i; rectified spirit, 3i; mix. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Croton oil, 1 fl. oz. ; oil of tur- 
 pentine, 7 fl. oz. ; miz by agitation. 
 
 3. (J. Allen.) Croton oil and liquor of po- 
 tassa, of each, 1 fl. dr. ; agitate until mixed, 
 then add of rose water, 2 fi. oz. 
 
 4 (Pereira.) Croton oil, 1 part; olive oil, 
 5 parts. 
 
 Obs. The above are used as counter-irri- 
 tants; iu rheumatism, neuralgia, bronchial 
 and pulmonary affections, &c. When rubbed 
 on the skin, redness, and a pustular erup- 
 tion ensue, and iu general the bowels are 
 acted on. 
 
 Liniment, Diuretic. Syn. Linimentttm 
 DiUKETictTM, L. Prep. 1. (DrCalini.) Squills 
 (in fine powder), 1 dr. ; gastric juice of a calf, 
 2 oz.; mix. 
 
LINIMENT 
 
 911 
 
 2. (Dr Christison.) Soap liniment, tincture 
 of foxglove, and tincture of squills, equal parts. 
 la dropsies ; rubbed over the abdomen or loins 
 twice or thrice a day. 
 
 liniment, Emol'Iieiit. Stm. Linimentuh 
 ALBm, L. KUOLLiKNS, L. Prep. From cam- 
 phor, i dr. ; Pernvian balsam, J dr. ; oil of al- 
 monds, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve by heat, add of glyce- 
 rin, i &, OZ., agitate well, and, when cold, 
 further add of oil of nutmeg, 15 drops. 
 Excellent for chapped bands, lips, nipples 
 &c. 
 
 Liniment of Foxglove. (Dr Boyle.) 8t/n, 
 LlKiMENxr.M DioiTALlB. Pr^. Infusion of 
 digitali», 2 fl. oz. ; water of ammonia, 2 R. dr. ; 
 oil of poppy seed, 4 fl. dr. ; mix. To be rubbed 
 on the abdomen 3 or 4 times a day. 
 
 Liniment of Gar'Uc. Si/n. LiNiMBNTtru 
 Alll, L. Prep. From juice of garlic, 2 parts ; 
 olive oil, 3 parts; mix. In hooping-cough, 
 infantile convulsions, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Qin'ger, Syn. Linimentum 
 ZINOIBEBIS, L. Prep. (Dr TurnbuU.) Ginger, 
 1 part i rec'tified spirit, 2 parts ; make a tinc- 
 ture or essence. For short-sightedness. A few 
 drops are occasionally rubbed on the forehead 
 for 8 or 10 minutes at a time. How this tinc- 
 ture came to be called a liniment we are at a 
 loss to determine. 
 
 Liniment of Glycerin. (Mr Startin,) Syn. 
 Linimentum qltoebini. Prep. Soap lini- 
 ment, 3 oz. ; glycerin, 1 oz. ; extract of bella- 
 donna, 1 oz. J mix. For gouty, rheumatic, and 
 neuralgic pains. A little veratrine is sometimes 
 added. 
 
 Liniment, Green. (Dr Campbell.) Sgn. 
 LiNiMENTnM TIBIDB. Camphor, 1 oz. ; olive 
 oil, 6 oz. ; extract of hemlock, 1 oz. ; spirit of 
 ammonia, 2 oz. Mix. 
 
 Liniment of Hellebore. (Dornbleuth.) Si/n. 
 Linimentum helleboei. Prep, Soft soap, 
 4 oz. J hellebore powder, 2 oz. j hot water, q. s. 
 
 Liniment, Hunga"rian. Sgn. Linimentum 
 HUNOAEIOUM, L. Prep, (Soubeiran.) Pow- 
 dered cantbaridcs and sliced garlic, of each 
 1 dr.; camphor, bruised mustard seed, and 
 blaclt pepper, of each 4 dr. j strong vinegar, 
 6 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 12 fl. oz. ; macerate a 
 week, and filter. An excellent rubefacient and 
 counter-irritant. 
 
 Liniment of Hydrochlo"ric Acid. Syn. Li- 
 nimentum MUEIATICUM, L. ACIDI MUEI- 
 atici, L. a. htdeochloeici, L. Prep, 1. 
 (Hosp. F.) Olive oil, 2 oz. ; white wax, 2 dr. ; 
 dissolve by a gentle heat, add of balsam of 
 Peru, 1 dr. ; hydrochloric acid, 2 dr. ; mix well. 
 An excellent application to chilblains before 
 they brciik. 
 
 2. (W. Cooley.) Olive oil, i pint; white 
 spermaceti (pure) and camphor, of each 4 oz. ; 
 mix with heat, add of hydrochloric acid, i fl. 
 oz., and proceed as before. Equal to the last, 
 ond cheaper. Tliis was extensively employed 
 among the seanieu of the Koyal Navy by Mr 
 Cooley with uniform success. 
 
 Liniment of I'odide of Fotas'sium. Syn. 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Linimentum iodchetcm oelatinoscu, L. 
 Gklee pocb le GOiTKK, Fr. I'rcp. (Foy.) 
 Iodide of potassium, 4 dr. ; proof spirit, 2 oz. ; 
 dissolve, and add the liquid to a solution of 
 curd soap, 6 dr., in proof spirit, 2 oz., both 
 being at the time gently wanned ; lastly, aro- 
 matise with rose or neroli, pour it into wide- 
 mouthed bottles, an(Uieeptbem closely corked. 
 In goitre, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Iodide of Sulphur, (Prof, E. 
 Wilson.) Syn. Linimentum srLPHUKis 
 lODiDl, Prep. Iodide of sulphur, 30 gr. ; 
 olive oil, 1 fl. dr. ; triturate together. 
 
 Liniment of I'odine. Syn. Linimentum 
 
 lODI (B, P.); IoDUBETTED LINIMENT; LlNI- 
 
 mentum iodinii, L, iodueetum, L. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Iodine, 5; iodide of potassium, 2; 
 camphor, 1 ; rectified spirit, 40 ; dissolve. 
 
 2. (Cutan, Hosp.) Compound tincture of 
 iodine and laudanum, equal parts. 
 
 3. (Dr Copland.) Soap liniment, 1 oz. j 
 iodine, 8 to 10 gr. 
 
 4. (Guihourt.) Iodide of potassiun, 1 dr.; 
 water, 1 fl. dr.; dissolve, and add to it white 
 soap (in shavings) and oil of almonds, of each 
 10 dr., previously nielted together. Some per- 
 fume may be added. In scrofula, glandular 
 enlargements, rheumatism, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Ipecacuanha. (Dr Neligan.) 
 
 ^». 1.1INIMENTUM IPEOACUANUX. Prep. 
 Ipecacuanha in fine powder, 4 dr.; lard, 2 dr. ; 
 olive oil, IJ fl. oz. 
 
 Liniment of Juniper, (Dr Sully) Syn. 
 Linimentum juijipeei. Prep. Oil of juni- 
 per, 1^ oz. ; lard, 2 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 6 drops. 
 For scald-heud. 
 
 Liniment of Labdannm. (Quincy.) Syn. 
 
 LiNI.MENTUM LABSANI ; LiNIMENTDM CBI- 
 
 NISCANI. Prep. Labdanum, 6 dr.; bear's 
 grease, 2 oz. ; honey, J oz, ; powdered southern- 
 wood, 3 dr. ; oil of nutmeg, 1 dr. ; balsam of 
 Peru, 2 dr, ; mix. To restore the hair. 
 
 Liniment of Lead, Syn. Linimentum 
 PLUMBi, L. Prep. (Gaozey.) Acetate of lead, 
 40 gr. ; soft water, 12 fl. oz. ; olive oil, 6 oz. ; 
 mix, and agitate well. Astringent and refrige- 
 rant. Useful in excoriations, especially when 
 accompanied with inflammation. 
 
 Liniment of Lime, Syn. Liniment fob 
 buens, Carbon oil; Linimentum calci3 
 (Ph. L. E & D.), L. AQUiB CALCis, Oleum 
 UNI CUM CALCIS, L. Prep. 1. From olive 
 oil (linseed oil — Ph. E.) and lime water, equal 
 parts, shaken together until they are mixed. 
 Very useful in burns and scalds. 
 
 2. (Compound; Linimentum c.mcis com- 
 posiTUM. L.) — a. (Camphorated — W. Cooley.) 
 Camphor liniment and lime water, equal parts. 
 
 b. (Opiated— W, Cooley.) Lime water and 
 camphor liniment, of each 1 oz. ; extract of 
 opium, 5 gr. ; mix. Both are used as anodynes 
 to allay pain and irritation in severe burns, 
 chilblains, &c., for which purpose they are ex- 
 cellent. All the above liniments with lime 
 water should be used as soon as possible after 
 
 62 
 
978 
 
 LINIMENT ' 
 
 being prepared, as tlie ingredients separate by 
 Iseeping. 
 Liuiment of Mercury. Syn. MEBCTTEtAi. 
 
 LINIMENT ; LlNIMENTUM HYDEAEaTKI (B. P., 
 
 Ph. L,), Lin. h. compositum (Ph. L. 1836), 
 L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ointment of mercury, 
 1 ; solution of ammonia, 1 j liniment of cam- 
 phor, 1. Melt the oinftttent in the liniment, 
 add the ammonia, and shake them together. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 1 oz. ; spirit of wine, 
 1 fl. dr.; sprinkle the latter on the former, 
 powder, add of lard and mercurial ointment 
 (stronger), of each 4 oz. ; rub them well to- 
 gether, then gradually add of liquor of am- 
 monia, 4 fl. oz. ; and mix well. Stimulant 
 and dise.utient. It resembles mercurial oint- 
 ment in its effects ; but thougli milder in its 
 operation, it more quickly produces sali- 
 vation. 
 
 Liniment of Mor'phia. Syn. Linimentum 
 MOEPHi^, L. Frep. (W. Cooley.) Pure mor- 
 phia, 3 gr. ; put it into a warm mortar, add 
 very gradually, of oil of almonds (warm), 1 
 fl. oz., and triturate until the morphia is dis- 
 solved, then add of camphor liniment, 1 oz. 
 An excellent topical anodyne and antispas- 
 modic, which often allays pain when other 
 means have failed. 
 
 Liniment of Mas'tard. Syn. Linimentum 
 BiNAEis, L. Prep. 1. Flour of mustard (best), 
 1 oz. ; water, tepid, 2 fl. oz. ; mix, and add of 
 glycerin, liquor of ammonia, and olive oil, of 
 each 1 A. oz. 
 
 2. (Beral.) Carbonate of ammonia (in fine 
 powder), 1 part; camphor (in powder), 2 
 parts ; oil of lavender, 4 parts ; tincture of 
 mustard, 6 parts; mix, dissolve by agitation, 
 add of simple liniment (warm), 56 parts, and 
 again agitate until the whole is perfectly 
 incorporated. 
 
 3. Black mustard seed (ground in pepper- 
 mill or otherwise well bruised), i lb. ; oil of 
 turpentine, 1 pint ; digest, express the liquid, 
 filter, and dissolve it in camphor, fib. Stimu- 
 lant and rubefacient. A popular and useful 
 remedy in rheumatic pains, lumbago, colic, 
 chilblains, &c. The last is a close imitation of 
 Whitehead's ' Essence of Mustard.' 
 
 4. (Lin. oiei tolatilis sinapis.) — a. Prom 
 volatile oil of black mustard seed, i dr. ; oil of 
 almonds, X fl. oz. As a rubefacient. 
 
 6. From volatile oil, 1 part ; alcohol (sp. gr. 
 ■815), 1 to 2 parts. As a vesicant. 
 
 Liniment of Mustard (Compound). Lini- 
 mentum sinapis compositum (B. p.). Oil of 
 mustard, 1 dr. ; ethereal extract of mezereon, 
 40 gr. ; camphor, 2 dr. j castor oil, 5 dr. ; rec- 
 tified spirit, 32 dr. ; dissolve. 
 
 Liniment, Narcotic. (P. Codex.) Syn. 
 Liniment oalmant ; Linimentum nakooti- 
 CUM. Frep. Anodyne balsam, 8 parts ; com- 
 pound wine of opium, cold cream, of each 1 
 part. Mix. 
 
 Liniment of Ifi'trate of Mercury. Syn. Ci- 
 
 TEINB liniment ;• LINIMENTUM HYDEAEG-YEI 
 
 niteatib, L. Frep. (Sir H. Halford.) Oint- 
 
 ment of nitrate of mercury and olive oil, equal 
 parts, triturated together in a glass mortar, or 
 mixed by a gentle heat. This liniment is 
 stimulant, discutient, and alterative, and in its 
 general properties resembles the ointment of 
 the same name. For most purposes the quan- 
 tity of oil should be at least doubled. 
 
 liuiment of Nnx Vom'ica. Syn. him- 
 MBNTUMNUOiSTOMic^L. Frep. (Magendie.) 
 Tincture of uux vomica, 1 fl. oz. ; liquor of 
 ammonia, 2 fl. dr.; mix. As a stimulating 
 application to paralysed limbs. The addition 
 of i fl. dr. each of glycerin and salad oil ren- 
 ders it an excellent application in chronic 
 rheumatism and neuralgia. 
 
 Liniment of Oil of Ergot. Syn. Linimentum 
 OLEi EEQCTiE. Frep. Oil of ergot, 1 dr.; 
 oil of almonds, or sulphuric ether, 3 dr.; mix. 
 
 Liniment of O'pium. Syn. Anodyne iini- 
 MENT ; Linimentum opii (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), 
 L. opii or L. anodynum (Ph. D.), L. baponis 
 cum opio, L. Frep. 1. (B. P.) Tincture of 
 opium, 1 ; liniment of soap, 1 ; mix. 
 
 2. Tincture of opium, 2 fl. oz.; soap lini- 
 ment, 6 fl. oz. ; mix. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 6 oz. ; opium, 
 li oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; digest for 
 three days, then filter, add of camphor, 3 oz. 
 oil of rosemary, 6 fl. dr., and agitate briskly. 
 
 4. (Ph. D.) Soap liniment and tincture of 
 opium, equal parts. 
 
 5. (Wholesale.) Soft soap, li lb. ; powdered 
 opium and camphor, of each J lb. ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 gall. ; digest a week. 
 
 Obs, This preparation is an excellent ano- 
 dyne in local pains, rheumatism, neuralgia, 
 sprains, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Phos'phorus. Syn. Linimen- 
 tum PHOSPHOEATUM, L. Frep. (Augustin.) 
 Phosphorus, 6 gr. ; camphor, 12 gr. ; oil of 
 almonds, 1 oz.; dissolve byhe.at; when cold, 
 decant the clear portion, and add of strongest 
 liquor of ammonia 10 drops. A useful fric- 
 tion in gout, chronic rheumatism, certain 
 obstinate cutaneous affections, &c. 
 
 Liniment de Rosen. (P. C.) Prep. Oil of 
 mace, 4 parts; oil of cloves, 4 parts; oil of 
 juniper, 9 parts. Mix. 
 
 Liniment, Sim 'pie. Syn. Linimentum sim- 
 plex (I'h. E.), L. Frep. (Pii. E.) White 
 wax, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 4 fl. oz. ; melt together, 
 and stir the mixture until it is cold. Emol- 
 lient; resembles spermaceti ointment in all 
 except its consistence. 
 
 Liniment of Soap. Syn. Opodeldoc, Cam- 
 phoeated tinciuee op soap. Balsam op s. ; 
 Linimentum saponis (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.) 
 L. saponaceum, Tinotuea saponis campho- 
 eata,Balsamum saponis, L. Frep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Hard soap (cut small), 2^ oz. ; camphor, li 
 oz. ; English oil of rosemary, 3 dr. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 18 oz. ; distilled water, 2 oz. ; mix 
 the water and spirit, add the other ingredients, 
 digest at a temperature not exceeding 70° 
 Fahr., agitating occasionally for seven days, 
 and filter. 
 
LINIMENT 
 
 979 
 
 2. '(Ph. L.) Castile aoap (cut amall), 2^ oz. ; 
 camphor (smttll), 10 dr.; spirit of rosemary, 
 18 fl. oz. ; water, 2 fl. oz. ; digest with fre- 
 quent agitation until the solid substances are 
 dissolved. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Castile soap, 6 oz. ; camphor, 
 2i oz. ; oil of rosemary, 6 fl. dr. ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart. 
 
 4. (Ph. D.) Castile soap (in powder), 2 oz. ; 
 camphor, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 fl. oz. 
 
 5. (LiNiMBNTSAVONNEAn — P. Ood.) Tinc- 
 ture of soap (P. Cod.) and rectifled spirit 
 ('863 or 41 o. p.), of each 8 parts ; olive oil, 1 
 part. 
 
 Obt. This article, prepared according to the 
 directions of the Pharmacopoeia, from ' soap 
 made of olive oil and soda ' (Castile soap), is 
 apt to gelatinise in cold weather, and to deposit 
 crystals of elaidate and stearate of lime. This 
 may be avoided, when expense is not an objec- 
 tion, by first well drying the soap, employing 
 a spirit of at least 85g, and keeping the pre- 
 paration in well-closed bottles. A cheaper and 
 better plan is to substitute the ' soft soap ' of 
 the Ph. L. (' soap made with olive oil and po- 
 tiissa ') for the Castile soap ordered by tlie 
 College. The soft soap of commerce imparts 
 to the liniment an unpleasant smell. The 
 following formula, one of those commonly 
 adopted by the wholesale druggists, produces 
 a very good article, though much weaker than 
 that of tlie Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 6. (Wholesale.) Camphor (cut small), IJ lb.; 
 soft soap, 7 lbs.; oil of rosemary, 3 fi. oz. ; 
 rectified spirit of wine and water, of each 3J 
 galls.; digest with occasional agitation for a 
 week, and filter. This is the ' opodeldoc ' or 
 ' soap liniment' of the shops. 
 
 Uses. Soap liniment is stimulant, discutient, 
 and lubricating, and is a popular remedy in 
 rheumatism, local pains, swellings, bruises, 
 sprains, &c. 
 
 7. (With Opium.) See Linihent op 
 Opium. 
 
 8. (Sulphuretted; Linimentum saponis 
 
 BtTLPHUBETDM, L. SCLPHUEO - SAPONACEUM 
 
 — Jadelot, L.) Sulphuret of potassium, 3 oz.; 
 soap, 12 oz. ; water, q. s. ; melt together, and 
 add of olive oil, 12 oz.; oil of origanum, 1 fl. 
 dr.; mix well. An excellent remedy for the 
 itch, and some allied skin diseases. 
 
 Liniment of Strychnia. (Dr Neligan.) %». 
 LiNlMENTDM SIBYCUNI J!. Strychnia, 30 gr. ; 
 olive oil, li fl. oz. Ten drops to be rubbed 
 over the temples in amaurosis. 
 
 Liniment of Sul'phide of Carbon. Syn. 
 
 LiNIMENTUM CABBONIS SUIPHTJBETI, L. Prep. 
 1. From bisulphide of cai-bon, 1 dr.; cam- 
 phorated oil, 1 oz.; mix. 
 
 2. (Lampadius.) Camphor, 2 dr.; bisnl- 
 phuret of carbon, 4 fl. dr. ; dissolve, and add 
 of rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. In rheumatism, 
 gouty nodes, ic. 
 
 Liniment of SulpWric Acid. See Lini- 
 ment, Acid. 
 
 Liniment, Tripliarm'ic. Syn. LixiMEKirsi 
 
 TRipnAEMiCTM (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep. 
 Take of lead plaster and olive oil, of each 4 
 oz. ; melt, add of strong vinegar, 1 fl. oz., and 
 stir until cold. Cooling and deeiccative; iu 
 excoriations, bums, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Tnr'pentine. Si/n. Kentish's 
 
 LINIMENT ; LiNIMENTUM TEBEBINTHINJB (B. 
 P., Ph. L. & D.), L. TKHEBINTHINATUM (Ph. 
 E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 
 16; camphor, 1; soft soap, 2; dissolve the 
 camphor in the turpentine, then add the soap, 
 and rub till thoroughly mixed. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Soft soap, 2 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; 
 oil of turpentine, 10 fl. oz. ; shake them to- 
 gether until mixed. Stimulant; ia lumbago, 
 cholera, colic, &o. 
 
 8. (Ph. L. 1824.) Resin cerate, 6 oz.; oil 
 of turpentine, 4 fl. oz. ; mix. An excellent 
 application to burns. 
 
 4. (Ph. E.) Besiu ointment, 4 oz.; camphor, 
 4 dr. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and stir in 
 oil of turpentine, B fl. oz. 
 
 5. (Ph. D.) Oil of turpentine, 6 fl. oz.; 
 resin ointment, 8 oz. ; mix by a gentle heat. 
 This forms Dr Kentish's celebrated applica- 
 tion to burns and scalds. The parts are first 
 bathed with warm oil of turpentine or brandy, 
 and then covered with pledgets of lint, smeared 
 with the liniment. 
 
 6. (Compound — a. B. Linimentuk tebe- 
 BINTHIN.E ACETicuM.) Oil of turpentine, 1 ; 
 acetic acid, 1 ; liniment of camphor, 1 ; mix. 
 
 i. (LiNIMENTUM TEBEBINTHIN^ COMPOSI- 
 
 TUM, L.) Acetic: St John Lono'b lini- 
 ment; LiNIMENTUM TEEEDINTHIN^ ACETI- 
 CUM, L.) Oil ot turpentine, 3 oz. ; rose water, 
 2i fl. oz. ; acetic acid, 6 dr.; oil of lemons, 1 
 dr. ; yolk of egg, 1 ; make an emulsion. As a 
 counter-irritant in phthisis. 
 
 c. (Ammoniated — Debreync.) Lard, 8 oz. ; 
 melt, and add, of oil of turpentine and olive 
 oil, of each 1 oz. ; when cold, further add of 
 camphonitoil spirit, 4 fl. dr.; liquor of ammo- 
 nia, 1 fl. dr. In sciatica, lumbago, &c. 
 
 d. (Opiated — Recamier.) Oil of turpentine, 
 1 fl. oz. ; oil of chamomile, 2 fl. oz. ; tincture 
 of opium, 1 fl. dr. In neuralgia, &c. 
 
 e. (Sulphuric — Ph. Castr. Ruthena.) Oil 
 of turpentine, 2 oz. ; olive oil, 5 oz. ; mix, and 
 add of dilute sulphuric acid, IJ dr. See Acid 
 
 LINIMENT. 
 
 Liniment of Vera' trine. Syn. Linimentum 
 tebatbi.e, L. Prep. (Brande.) Verstiine, 
 8 gr. ; alcohol, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add of 
 soap liniment, i fl. oz. In neuralgic and rheu- 
 matic pains, gout, &c. 
 
 Liniment of Ter'digris. Syn. Oxtmel op 
 
 TEEDIOBIS; LiNIMENTUM JBBUGINIS (Ph. L.), 
 
 Oxtmel .eeuginis (Ph. L. 1738), Oxtmel 
 CUPBT subacetatis (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L.) Verdigris (in powder), 1 oz. ; vinegar, 
 7 fl. oz. ; dissolve, filter, through linen, add of 
 honey, 14 oz., and evaporate to a proper con- 
 sistence. 
 
 Obs. This preparation is wrongly named 
 a ' liuiment.' The College, after ' beating 
 
980 
 
 LINOLEIC ACID— LIQUEFACTION 
 
 about the bush' for nearly a century, found 
 a right name for it in 1788j but, as in many 
 other cases, soon abandoned it for another less 
 appropriate. 
 
 Oxymel of verdigris is stimulant, detergent, 
 and escharotic. It is applied to indolent 
 ulcers, especially of the throat, by means of a 
 camel-hair pencil ; and, diluted with water, it 
 is used as a gargle. Care must be taken to 
 avoid swallowing it, as it occasions vomiting 
 and excessive purging. 
 
 Liniment, Ver'mifage. Syn. Linimentum 
 
 ANTHBLMINTIOUM, L. VEEMIFUGUM, L. Prep. 
 Castor oil, 1 oz. ; essential oils of wormwood 
 and tansy, of each i oz. j Dr Peschier's ethe- 
 real tincture of pennyroyal buds, 20 drops; 
 mix. Employed in frictions on the abdomen 
 in cases of worms in children. Its activity 
 may be still further increased by the addition 
 of a little garlic juice. (' Journ. de Med.') An 
 excellent medicine. 
 
 Liniment, Vesicating. (Dr Montgomery.) 
 iS^M. LlNiMENTUM TE3I0ANS. For children. 
 Prep. Compound camphor liniment, 4 fl. dr. ; 
 oil of turpentine, 2 fl. dr. To produce imme- 
 diate vesication in adults. Mix one part of 
 the strongest liquor ammonise, with two of 
 olive oil, and apply six drops on spongio-piline 
 for ten minutes. 
 
 Liniment, Ware's. Prep. From camphor 
 liniment, 1 oz. ; solution of carbonate of po- 
 tassa, 1 dr. In amaurosis. 
 
 Liniment, White's. The old name for sper- 
 maceti ointment. 
 
 Liniment, White. Syn. Linimekiitm 
 ALBUM. Prep, Rectified oil of turpentine, 
 2 oz.; solution of ammonia, 2 oz. ; soap lini- 
 ment, 3 oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 1 oz. Mix in 
 the above order, and gradually add with con- 
 tinual agitation, distilled vinegar, 8 oz. For 
 chapped hands. 
 
 Liniment, Wilkinson's. Prep. (Phoebus.) 
 Prepared chalk, 20 gr. ; sulphur, lard, and 
 tar, of each ^ oz. ; mix, and add of Boyle's 
 fuming liquor, 10 or 15 drops. In certain 
 chronic skin diseases, neuralgia, &c. 
 
 Linimentnm Acoulti. (B. P.) Aconite root, 
 in powder, 20; camphor, 1; rectified spirit, 
 to percolate, 30. Moisten the root for 3 days, 
 then pack in a percolator, and pour sufficient 
 rectified spirit upon it to produce with the 
 camphor 20. 
 
 Strength, 1 in 1. Applied with a camel- 
 hair pencil, alone or mixed in equal propor- 
 tions, with a soap liniment or compound cam- 
 phor liniment, and rubbed on the part. Seven 
 parts of this, and 1 part of chloroformum 
 belladonna, and sprinkled thinly on imperme- 
 able piline, is the best application for neural- 
 gia or lumbago. 
 
 Linimentum Fotassii lodidi cnm Sapone. (B. 
 P.) Hard soap, in powder, 15 ; iodide of potas- 
 sium, 14 ; glycerin, 1 ; oil of lemon, | ; water, 
 1. Dissolve the soap in 7 of water by heat 
 of a water bath ; dissolve the iodide of potas- 
 sium in the remainder of the water, and mix 
 
 by trituration the two solutions, and when cold 
 add the oil of lemon, and mix thoroughly. 
 
 LINOLEIC ACID. Cti^^O^. 'This may be 
 obtained by saponifying linseed oil. It is a 
 liquid acid, and rapidly oxidizes when exposed 
 to the air, becoming converted into oxylinoleic 
 acid, which is incapable of solidification even 
 at low temperatures. 
 
 LIN'SEED. Syn. Flax seed ; LiNi semina, 
 L. The seed of Linum usitatissimum (Linn.), 
 or common flax. (Ph. L.) Oily, emollient, 
 demulcent, and nutritive. Ground to powder 
 (linseed meal ; farina lini), it is used for poul- 
 tices. The cake left afte"- expressing the oil 
 (linseed cake) contains, when of average 
 quality, in 100 parts, moisture, 12'70; oil, 
 11-32 ; albumenoids, 28'21 ; mucilage, &c., 
 29-42; indigestible fibre, 12-46; ash, 5-89. 
 It is used for feeding cattle. Under the form 
 of tea or infusion it is used as a diluent, and 
 to allay irritation in bronchial, urinary, and 
 other like affections. See Infusion of Linseed. 
 
 LINSEED CAKE. See Linseed. 
 
 LINT. Syn. LlNTEUM, L. White linen- 
 cloth, scraped by hand or machinery, so as to 
 render it soft and woolly. The hand-made lint 
 is now little used ; it was prepared from pieces 
 of old linen-cloth. The machine-made lint is 
 prepared from a fabric woven on purpose. A 
 lint made from cotton (cotton-lint) is now 
 largely manufactured ; it is much inferior to 
 the true lint, being a bad conductor of heat. 
 Lint is used for dressing ulcers, either alone 
 or smeared with some suitable ointment or 
 cerate. 
 
 Lint, Medica'ted. Syn. Linteum medioa- 
 
 TUM, L. HIGSUM, L. IHPEENALE, L. Prep. 
 1. Nitrate of silver, 20 to 30 gr.; distilled 
 water, I fl. oz. ; dissolve, saturate dry lint, i 
 oz., with the solution, and expose it in a saucer 
 or capsule to the light and air, until it has 
 become black and dry. 
 
 2. Nitrate of silver and nitrate of copperi 
 of each J dr. ; lint, 1 oz. ; water, 1 J fl. oz. ; 
 as the last. Used to dress old and indolent 
 ulcers. 
 
 LIP SALVE. See Salte. 
 
 LIQUA'TION. The process of sweating out 
 by heat the more fusible metals of an alloy. 
 Metallurgists avail themselves of this method 
 in assaying and refining the precious metals 
 and procuring antimony and some other metals 
 from their ores. 
 
 LI(IUEFA"CIENTS. Syn. Eesoivents; 
 Liquefacientia, Resoltentia, L. Inphar- 
 macy, substances or agents which promote 
 secretion and exhalation, soften and loosen 
 textures, and promote the absorption or re- 
 moval of enlargements, indurations, &c. To 
 this class belong the alkiilie.s, antimony, bro- 
 mine, chlorine, iodine, mercury, sulphur, &c., 
 and their preparations. 
 
 LIQUEFACTION. The assumption of the 
 liquid form. It is usually applied to the 
 conversion of a solid into the liquid state, 
 which may arise from increase of temperature 
 
LIQUEFACTION 
 
 981 
 
 (fasion), absorption of water from the atmo- 
 sphere (deliquescence), or the Hction of a body 
 already Aaid (solution). 
 
 Liqnefkotioil of Oases. Under the combined 
 influence of pressure and cold, all the gaxea 
 may be liquetied, and some even solidified. 
 Tlie first tatinfactory experiments in this 
 direction were made by Faraday, who suc- 
 ceeded in reducing to the liquid condition eight 
 bodies which had hitherto been regarded as 
 permanent gascfl, namely, ammonia, carbonic 
 anhydride, chlorine, cyunogen, hydrochloric 
 acid, nitrous oxide, sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 and sulphurous anhydride. His method of 
 proceeditig was very simple: — the materials 
 were sealed up in a strong, narrow, glass tube, 
 bent so as to form an obtuse angle, together 
 with a little 'pressure gauge,' consisting of a 
 slender tube closed at one end, and having 
 within it, near the open extremity, a globule 
 of mercury. The gas, being disengaged by 
 the application of heat or otherwise, accumu- 
 lated in the tube, and by its own pressure 
 brought about liquefaction. The force re- 
 quired for this purpose was judged of by the 
 diminution of volume of the air in the pressure 
 gauge. By employing powerful condensing 
 syringes, and an extremely low temperature, 
 Faraday subsequently succeeded in liquefying 
 olcHaut gas, hydriodic and hydrobromio acids, 
 phosphuretted hydrogen, and the gaseous 
 fluorides of silicon and boron. He failed, how- 
 ever, with oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, nitric 
 oxide, carbonic oxide, and coal-g^s, all of 
 whicli refused to liquefy at the temperature 
 of — 166° Fahr., while subjected to pressures 
 varying in different cases from 27 to 58 atmo- 
 spheres. 
 
 Within the last year, however, viz, toward 
 the end of 1877, these hitherto refractory 
 gases have been reduced to the liquid, and, in 
 the case of hydrogen, to the solid state. These 
 results have been accomplished by subjecting 
 the gases to a pressure considerably greater 
 than that employed by Faraday, combined with 
 the expedient of the sudden removal of this 
 pressure, whereby the escaping jius (previously 
 enormously reduced in temperature) in the 
 act of expansion robs the remainder of so 
 much of its heat as to leave it in the fluid 
 condition. 
 
 The liquefaction of oxygen was accomplished 
 indepcnilently )iy M. Cailletet, of Paris, and 
 M. Pictet, of Geneva; tlie French chemist 
 having effected it on December 2nd, 1877, and 
 the Swiss one on the 22nd of the same month. 
 
 Simultaneously with Cailletet's announce- 
 ment of the liquefaction of oxygen, that of 
 carbonic oxide was made by the same chemist; 
 who, about three weelcs alter at a meeting in 
 the Paris Academy of Sciences, stated that he 
 had also reduced hydrogen, nitrogen, and at- 
 mospheric air to the fluid state. 
 
 In the previous November he had been 
 equally successful in converting gaseous nitric 
 oxide into a liquid. 
 
 M. Cailletet, in a communication to the Paris 
 Academy of Sciences, read by M. Dumas at a 
 meeting of that body on 24th December, 1877, 
 thus describes the process by which he lique- 
 fied the gases oxygen and carbonic oxide. 
 
 If oxygen or pure carbonic oxide be enclosed 
 in a tube such as I have before described, and 
 placed in an apparatus for compression like 
 that which has already been worked before the 
 Academy,' and the gas be then lowered in 
 temperature to 29° C, by means of sulphurous 
 acid and at a temperature of about 300 atmo- 
 spheres, the two gases preserve their gaseous 
 stHte. 
 
 " But if they are allowed to snddenly expand, 
 this expansion, according to the formula of 
 Poissoii, reducinj,' them to a temperature at 
 least 200^ C. below their initial temperature, 
 causes them immediately to assume the appear- 
 ance of an intense fog, which is caused by the 
 liquefaction and perhaps by the solidification 
 of the oxygen or carbonic acid. 
 
 "The same phenomenon is also observed, 
 upon the expansion of carbonic acid, and of 
 protoxide and binoxide of nitrogen, when under 
 strong pressure. 
 
 " This fog is produced with oxygen, even 
 when the gas is at the ordinary pressure, pro- 
 vided time is allowed for it to part with the 
 heat it acquires in the mere act of compres- 
 sion. 
 
 " This I demonstrated by experiments per- 
 formed on Sunday, the 16th December, at the 
 Chemical Laboratory of the Ecole Noynale 
 Sup^rieure, before a certain number of savants 
 and professors, amongst whom were some 
 members of the Academy of Sciences. I had 
 hoped to find in Paris, together with the ma- 
 terials necessary for the production of a high 
 degree of cold (protoxide of nitrogen or liquid 
 carbonic acid), a pntnpcapable of supplying the 
 placeof my compression apparatus atCli&tillon- 
 sur-Seine. Unfortunately a pump well fixed and 
 suited to this sort of experiment could not bo 
 found in Paris, and I was obliged to send to 
 Clidtillon-sur-Seine for the refrigerating sub- 
 stances for collecting the condensed matters 
 on the walls of the tube. 
 
 "To know whether oxygen and carbonic 
 oxide are in a liquid or a solid state in the fog 
 would necessitate an optical experiment more 
 easy to imagine than to accomplish, because 
 of the form and the thickness of the tubes 
 containing them. Furthermore, chemical 
 reactions will assure me that the oxygen 
 is not transformed into ozone in the act of 
 compression. I shall reserve the study of all 
 these questions till the apparatus I am now 
 having made is complete. 
 
 " Under the same conditions of temperature 
 and pressure, even the most rapid expansion 
 of pure hydrogen gives no trace of nebulous 
 < This apparatus, which coDsists of a hollow steel cy- 
 linder, to which is nitached a Btrooi; ^lass tube, is 
 descrtbed in the 'Coniptes ReoduB,' tome 85, p. 851. 
 The gas is Tnrced into it oy nirans of a hydraulic pump 
 with the intervention of a cushion of mercury. 
 
982 
 
 matter. There remains for me only nitrogen 
 to study, the small solubility of which in water 
 induces me to believe that it wUl prove very 
 refractory to all change of condition."' 
 
 M Pictet's process for liquefying oxygen, 
 although differing in the method of working, 
 is similar in principle to that of M. Cailletet. 
 His paper, which was read at the same sitting 
 
 LIQUEFACTION OP GASES 
 
 of the Academy as M. Cailletefs, thus de- 
 
 " A and B, in the accompanying figure, are 
 two double section and force pumps, coupled 
 together on the compound system, one causing 
 a vacuum in the other in such a manner as to 
 obtain the greatest possible difference between 
 the pressures of suction and forcing. 
 
 The pumps act on anhydrous sulphurous 
 acid contained in the cylindrical receiver c. 
 The pressure in this receiver is such that the 
 sulphurous ar.id is pv«porated from it at a 
 temperature of 65° C. below zero. 
 
 The sulphurous acid is forced by the pumps 
 into a condenser, B, cooled by a current of 
 cold water; here it liquefies at the tempera- 
 ture of 25° above zero, and at a pressure of 
 about 2| atmospheres. 
 
 The sulphurous acid returns to the receiver 
 C as it liquefies by the little tube d. 
 
 E and P are two pnmps resembling the pre- 
 ceding, and coupled in the same manner. 
 They act upon carbonic acid contained iu a 
 cylindrical receiver H. 
 
 The temperature in this latter receiver is 
 such that the carbonic acid evaporates from it 
 at a temperature of 140° C. below zero. 
 
 The carbonic acid forced on by the pumps 
 is driven into the condenser K, enclosed in the 
 sulphurous acid receiver o, which has a tem- 
 perature of 65° below zero ; the carbonic acid 
 here becomes liquefied at a pressure of five 
 atmospheres. 
 
 ■ ' Comptea Rendus,' tome 6, p, 1213. 
 
 The carbonic acid, in proportion as it lique- 
 fies, returns to the receptacle H by the small 
 tube Ic. 
 
 I. is a retort of wrought iron, sufficiently 
 thick to resist a pressure of 500 atmospheres. 
 It contains chlorate of potassium, and is heated 
 in such a manner as to give ofE pure oxygen. 
 It communicates by a tubulure with an in- 
 clined tube, M, made of very thick glass, one 
 metre in length, which is enveloped by the 
 receiver, s, containing carbonic acid at the 
 temperature of 140° below zero. 
 
 A tap, N, situated upon the tubulure of the 
 retort, permits of the opening of an orifice, P, 
 which leads into the surrounding air. 
 
 After the four pumps have been worked for 
 several hours by means of a steam engine of 
 15-horse power, and when all the oxygen has 
 been disengaged, the pressure in the glass tube 
 is 320 atmospheres, and the temperature at 
 140° below zero. 
 
 Upon suddenly opening the orifice, P, the 
 oxygen escapes with violence, producing, in 
 doing so, so considerable an expansion and ab- 
 sorption of heat as to cause a liquefied portion 
 to appear in the glass tube, and to spirt out 
 
LIQUEUR 
 
 983 
 
 from the orifice when the apparntni 
 sloped. 
 
 It ought to be stated that the quantity of 
 liquefiej oxygen contained in the tube one 
 metre long and O'Ol m. in internal diameter, 
 occupied about a tliird oF its length, and issued 
 from the orifice P in the form or a liquid jet. 
 
 In a rommunication to M. Dumas, received 
 two days after the above sitting, M. Pictet 
 described his experiments more fully, prefac- 
 ing the account by the following very inter- 
 esting remarks : — " The end to which I have 
 been tending for the last 3 years has been to 
 seek to demonstrate experimentally that mole- 
 cular cohesion is a general property of bodies 
 without exception. 
 
 " If the permanent gases cannot be liquefied, 
 it must be concluded that their constituent 
 particles do not attract each other, and are 
 therefore independent of this Inw. 
 
 " To succeed experimentally in bringing the 
 molecules of a gas into the closest possible 
 proximity, and thus to obtain its liquefaction, 
 certiiin indispensable conditions are necessary, 
 which I thus sum up : 
 
 " 1. To have a gas that must be perfectly 
 pure and without a trace of foreign gas. 
 
 " 2. To have at one's disposal very powerful 
 means of compression. 
 
 "3. To obtain an intense degree of cold, and 
 the abstraction of heat at these low tempera, 
 turca. 
 
 " 4. To have a large surface of coudensation 
 maintained at these low temperatures. 
 
 " 5. To have the power of utilising the ex- 
 pansion of the gas under considerable pressure 
 to the atmospheric pressure, which expansion 
 added to the preceding means compels lique- 
 faction. 
 
 " With these five conditions fulfilled, we 
 may formulate the following problem. 
 
 " When a gas is compressed at 500 or 600 
 Atmospheres, and kept at a temperature of 
 —100*' or 140°, and then let expand to the 
 pressure of the atmosphere, one of two things 
 must occur. Either the gas, obeying the action 
 of cohesion, liquefies and yields its heat of 
 condensation to the portion of the gas, which 
 expands and is lost in the gaseous form j 6t 
 under the hypothesis that cohesion is not a 
 natural law, the gas passes beyond absolute 
 zero, that is to say, it becomes inert, a dust 
 without consistence. The work of expansion 
 would he impossible, and the loss of heat 
 absolute." 
 
 Spite of M. Ciiilletet's supposition that 
 nitrogen would prove a very incoercible gas, 
 his experiments showed the contrary, since he 
 found that it easily condensed under a pres- 
 sure of about 2U0 atmospheres and at a tem- 
 perature of 13° C, the conditions as to its 
 sudden expansion being observed. 
 
 Hydrogen, the lightest of all the gases, 
 which M. Ciilletet could only procure in the 
 form of mist, was unmistakably liquefied by 
 M. Pictet within less than a fortnight after- 
 
 wards under a pressure of 630 atmospheres 
 and 140° of cold. 
 
 The tap which confined the gas at this 
 pressure, being opened, h jet of a steel blue 
 colour escaped from the orifice, accompanied 
 by a hissing sound, like that given off when 
 a red-hot iron is dipped into cold water. The 
 jet suddenly became intermittent, and a 
 shower of solid particles of the hydrogen fell 
 to the ground with a crackling noise. The 
 hydrogen was obtained by the decomposition 
 of formiate of potash by caustic potash, the 
 gas thus yielded being absolutely pure. 
 
 Cailletet states that he succeeded perfectly 
 in liquefying atmospheric air, previously de- 
 prived of moisture and carbonic acid, but he 
 omits to mention the pressure and reduction 
 of temperature to which the air was subjected. 
 He liquefied nitric oxide at the pressure of 101 
 atmospheres and at a temperature of — 11° C. 
 
 Carbonic anhydride is liquefied on the 
 large scale by condensing it in strong vessels 
 of gun-metal or boiler-plate. Thilorier was the 
 first to procure it in a solid condition. It re- 
 quires a pressure of between 27 and 28 atmo- 
 spheres at 32° F. (Adams.) The liquefied acid 
 is colourless and limpid, lighter thnn water, 
 and four times more expansible than air ; it 
 mixes in all proportions with ether, alcohol, 
 naphtha, oil of turpentine, and sulphide of 
 carbon ; and is insoluble in water and fut oils. 
 When a jet of liquid carbonic anhydride is 
 allowed to issue into the air from a narrow 
 aperture, such an intense degree of cold is 
 produced by the evaporation of a part, that 
 the remainder freezes to a solid (solid carbonic 
 anhydride), and falls in a shower of snow. 
 This substance, which may be collected, affords 
 a means of producing extreme cold. Mixed 
 with a little ether, and poured upon a mass of 
 mercury, the latter is almost instantly frozen. 
 The temperature of this mixture in the iiir wiis 
 found to be — 106° Fahr. ; when the same mix- 
 ture was placed beneath the receiver of an air- 
 pump, and exhaustion rapidly performed, the 
 temperature sank to — 166°. This degree of 
 cold was employed in Faraday's last experi- 
 ments on the liquefaction of gases. 
 
 LIQUEUB. [Fr.] Syn. Coedial. A stimu- 
 lating beverage, formed of weak spirit, aro- 
 matlsed and sweetened. The manufacture of 
 liqueurs constitutes the trade of the ' com- 
 pounder,' ' rectifier,' or ' liquoriste.' 
 
 The materials employed in the preparation 
 of liqueurs or cordials are rain or distilled 
 water, white sugar, clean flavourless spirit, 
 and flavouring ingredients. To these may be 
 added the substances employed as ' finings,' 
 when artificial clarification is had recourse to. 
 
 The utensils and apparatus required in tlie 
 business are those ordinarily found in the 
 wine and spirit cellar; together with a copper 
 still, furnished with a pewter head and a 
 pewter worm or condenser, when the method 
 ' by distillation ' is pursued. A barrel, hogs- 
 head, or rum puncheon, sawn in two, or simply 
 
S84 
 
 LIQUEUR 
 
 • uuheaded,' as tte case may demand, forms 
 an txcellent vessel for the solution of the 
 sugar; and 2 or 3 fluted funnels, with some 
 good white flannel, will occasionally be found 
 useful for filtering the aromatic essences used 
 for flavouring. Great care is taken to ensure 
 the whole of the utensils, &c., being per- 
 fectly clean and ' sweet,' and well ' seasoned,' 
 in order that they may neither stain nor 
 flavour the substances placed in contact with 
 them. 
 
 In the preparation or compounding of li- 
 queurs, one of the first objects which engages 
 the operator's attention is the production of 
 an alcoholic solution of the aromatic prin- 
 ciples which are to give them their peculiar 
 aroma and flavour. This is done either by 
 simple solution or maceration, as in the manu- 
 facture of tinctures and medicated spirits, or 
 by maceration and subsequent distillation. The 
 products, in this country, are called ebsences 
 or SPIBITB, and by the French infusions, 
 and are added to the solution of sugar (stettp 
 or capillaike) or to the dulcified spirit, in 
 the proportions required. Grain or molasses 
 spirit is the kind usually employed for this 
 purpose in England. As before observed, it 
 should be of the best quality ; as, if this is 
 not the case, the raw flavour of the spirit is 
 perceptible in the liquor. Rectified spirit of 
 wine is generally very free from flavour, and 
 when reduced to a proper strength with clear 
 soft water, forms a spirit admirably adapted 
 for the preparation of cordial liquors. Spirit 
 weaker than about 45 o. p., which has been 
 freed I'rom its own essential oil by careful rec- 
 tiflcation, is known in trade under the title of 
 * pure,' * flavourless,' 'plain,' or ' silent spirit.' 
 Before macerating the ingredients, if they 
 possess the solid form, they are cnarsely 
 pounded, bruised, sliced, or ground, as tl>e 
 peculiar character of the substance may indi- 
 cate. This is not done until sliortly before 
 submitting them to the action of the men 
 struum; as, after they are bruised they 
 rapidly lose their aromatic properties by ex- 
 posure to the air. Wlien it is intended to keep 
 them for any time in the divided state they 
 should be preserved in well-corked bottles or 
 jars. The practice of drying the ingredients 
 before pounding them, frequently adopted by 
 ignorarit and lazy workmen for the sake of 
 lessening the labour, is, of course, even more 
 destructive to their most valuable qualities 
 than mere exposure to the air. The length ot 
 time the ingredients should be digested in the 
 spirit should never be less than 5 or 6 days, 
 but a longer period is preferable when distil- 
 lation is not employed. In either case the 
 time may be advatitageously extended to 10 
 days or a fortnight, and frequent agitation 
 should be had recourse to during the whole 
 period. When essential oils are employed to 
 convey the flavour, they are first di^slilved in 
 a little of the strongest rectified spirit of wine, 
 in the manner explained under Essence ; 
 
 and when added to the spirit, they are mixed 
 up with the whole mass as rapidly and as per- 
 fectly as possible. In managing the still, the 
 fire is proportioned to the ponderosity of 
 the oil or flavouring substance, and the re- 
 ceiver is changed before the faints come over; 
 as these are unfitted to be mixed with the 
 cordial. In many cases the addition of a few 
 pounds of common salt to the liquor in the 
 still facilitates the process and improves the 
 product. Ingredients which are not volatile 
 are, of course, always added after distillation. 
 The stronger spirit is reduced to the desired 
 strength by means of either clear soft water 
 or the clarified syrup used for sweetening. ' 
 The sugar employed should be of the finest 
 quality, and is preferably made into capil- 
 laire or syrup before adding it to the aro- 
 matised spirit; and not until this last has 
 been rendered perfectly ' fine ' or transparent, 
 by infiltration or clarification, as the case may 
 demand. Some spirits or infusions, as those 
 of aniseed, caraway, &c., more particularly 
 require this treatment, which is best performed 
 by running them through a clean wine bag, 
 made of rather fine cloth, having previously 
 mixed them with a spoonful or two of mag- 
 nesia; but in all cases clarification by simple 
 repose should be preferred. Under proper 
 management, liqueurs or cordials prepared of 
 good materials will be found perfectly ' clear ' 
 or ' bright ' as soon as made, or will become so 
 after being allowed a few days for defecation ; 
 but in the hands of the inexperienced operator, 
 and when the spirit employed is insufficient in 
 strength or quantity, it often happens that 
 they turn out 'foul' or 'milky.' When this 
 is the case, the liquid may be ' fined down ' 
 with the whites of 12 to 20 eggs per hogshead; 
 or a little alum, either alone or followed by a 
 little carbonate of sodium or potassium, both 
 dissolved in water, may be added, in the 
 manner described under Fihinos. 
 
 An excellent and easy way of manufacturing 
 cordial liquors, especially when it is inconve- 
 nient to keep a large stock on hand, is by 
 simply 'aromatising' and 'colouring,' as cir- 
 cumstances or business may demand, spirit 60 
 or 64 u. p., kept ready sweetened for the pur- 
 pose. To do this to the best advantage, two 
 descriptions of sweetened spirit should be pro- 
 vided, containing respectively lib. and 31bs. 
 of sugar to the gallon. From these, spirit of 
 any intermediate sweetness may be made, 
 which may be flavoured with any essential oil 
 dissolved in alcohol, or any aromatised spirit 
 or ' infusion ' (see helow), prepared either by 
 digestion or distillation. As a general rule, the 
 concentrated essences, made by dissolving 1 oz. 
 of the essential oil in 1 pint of the strongest 
 rectified spirit of wine, will be found admirably 
 adapted for this purpose. These essences, 
 which should be kept in well-corked bottles, 
 are employed by dropping them cautiously 
 into the sweetened spirit until the desired 
 flavour is produced. During this operation 
 
LIQUEUR 
 
 985 
 
 the UqnoT ahould be frequently and violently 
 (hakon to prodaco complete admlxtare. If 
 by any accidoMt the essence is added in too 
 large a quantity, the resultiug ' milkiness ' or 
 excess of flavour may be removed by the 
 addition of a little more apirit, or by clarifica- 
 tion. In this way the majority of the liqueurs 
 in common use may be produced extempo- 
 nineouoly, of nearly equal quality to those 
 prepared by distillation. For those which are 
 coloured, simple digestion of the ingredients 
 is almost universally adopted. The " process 
 by distillation" should, however, be always 
 employed to impart the flavour and aroma of 
 volatile nromatics to the spirit, when expense, 
 labour, and time are of less importance than 
 the production of a superior article. 
 
 The French liqueuristes are famed for tlie pre- 
 paration of cordials of superior quality, cri'iiui- 
 like smoothness, and delicaje flavour. Their 
 success chiefly arises from the employment of 
 very pure spirit and sugar (the former in a 
 larger proportion than that adopted by the 
 English compounder), and in the judicious 
 npplicatiim of the flavouring ingredients. 
 They distinguish their cordials as 'eanx' 
 and 'extraits' (waters, extracts), or liqueurs 
 which, though sweetened, are entirely devoid 
 of viscidity ; and ' baumes,' ' crimes,' and 
 Miuiles' (balms, creams, oils), which con- 
 tain sufiicient sugar to impart to them a 
 syrupy consistence. The greatest possible 
 attention is given to the preparation of the 
 aromalised or flavouring essences, in France 
 called ' infusions.' These are generally made 
 by macerating the aromatic ingredients in 
 spirit at about 2 to 4 u. p. (sp. gr. 022 to 
 •925), placed in well-corked glass carboys, 
 or stoneware jars or bottles. The maceration 
 is continued, with occasional agitation, for 3, 
 4, or even 5 weeks, when thearoinatised spirit 
 is either distilled or Hltered ; generally the 
 former. The outer peel of cedrats, lemons, 
 oranges, limettes, bergaraottes, &c., is alone 
 used by our Continental neighbours, and is 
 obtained either by carefully peeling the fruit 
 with a knife, or by ' oleo-saccharum,' by rub- 
 bing it olf with a lump of hard white sugar. 
 Aroiuiitic seeds andwoodsare bruised bypouud- 
 ing before being submitted to infusion. The 
 substances employed in Prance to colour li- 
 queurs arc, for — blue, soluble Prussian blue, 
 sulphate of indigo (nearly neutralised with 
 chalk), and the juice of blue flowers and ber- 
 ries; — amber, fawn, and brandy coliur, burnt 
 sugar or spirit colouring; — green, spinach or 
 parsley leaves (digested in spirit), and mix- 
 tures of blue and yellow ; — red, powdered 
 cochineal or brazil wood, either alone or mixed 
 with a little alum ; — violet, blue violet petals, 
 litmus, or extract of logwood ; — purple, the 
 same as violet, only deeper ; — yellow, an aque- 
 ous infusion of snfllower or French berries, 
 aud the tinctures of saffron and turmeric. 
 
 A frequent c.inse of failure in the manufac- 
 ture of liiiueurs and cordials is the addition 
 
 of too mnch flavouring matter. Persons nn- 
 accustomed to the use of strong aromatic 
 essences and essential oils seldom sufficiently 
 estimate their power, and, consequently, are 
 very apt to add too much of tlieni, by which 
 the liqueur is rendered not only disagreeably 
 high flavoured, but, from the cicess of oil pre- 
 sent, also ' milky,' or ' foul,' either at once, or, 
 what is nearly as bad, on the addition of 
 water. This source of annoyance, arising 
 entirely from bad manipulation, frequently 
 discourages the tyro, and cuts short his career 
 as a manufacturer. From the viscidity of cor- 
 dials they are less readily ' fined down ' than 
 unsweetened liquor, and often give mnch 
 trouble to clumsy and inexperienced opera- 
 tors. The most certain way to prevent dis- 
 appointment in this re-pect is to use too little 
 rather than too much flavouring ; for if the 
 quantity proves insufficient, it is readily 
 'brought up' at any time, but the contrary 
 is not effected without some trouble and delay, 
 
 A careful attention to the previous remarks 
 will render this branch of the rectifier's art 
 far more perfect and easy of performance than 
 it is at present, and will, in most case-^, pro- 
 duce at once a satisfactory article, ' fine, sweet, 
 and pleasant.' 
 
 The cordials of respectable British 'com- 
 pounders ' contain fully 3 lbs. of white lump 
 sugar per gallon, and are of the strength of 60 
 to 64 u. p. The b.iumes, cremes, and huiles 
 imported from the Continent are richer both 
 in spirit and sugar than ours, and to this may 
 be referred much of their superiority. Mere 
 sweetened or cordialised spirits (eanx, of the 
 Pr.) contain only from 1 to IJ lb. of sugar per 
 gallon. 
 
 The purity of liqueurs is determined in the 
 manner noticed under Bbandy, Wine, &c. 
 
 The following list embraces nearly all the 
 cordials aud liqueurs, both native and im- 
 ported, met with in trade in this country : — 
 
 Absinthe. Si/n. Extbait d'absinthe de 
 Suisse ; Swiss bxtbact of wokmwood. I'rep. 
 From the tops of Absmlhum majus, 4 lbs.; 
 tops of Ahsinthum minus, 2 lbs. ; angelica root. 
 Calamus aromaticua,C\\inese aniseed, and leaves 
 of dittany of Crete, of each 15 gr. ; brandy or 
 spirit at 12 n. p., 4 galls.; macerate for 10 
 days, then add water, 1 gall. ; distil 4 galls, by 
 a gentle heat, and dissolve in the distilled 
 spirit, of crushed white sugar, 2 lbs. Tonic 
 and stomachic. 
 
 Alker'mes. This liqueur is highly esteemed 
 in some parts of the South of Europe. 
 
 Frep. 1. Bay lejives and mace, of each 1 lb. ; 
 nutmegs and cinnami>n, of each 2 oz. ; cloves, 
 1 oz. (all bruised) ; cognac brandy, SJ palls. ; 
 macerate for 8 weeks, frequently shaking, 
 then distil over 3 galls., and add of clarified 
 spirit of kermes, 18 lbs.; orange-flower water, 
 1 pint ; mix well, and bottle. This is the ori- 
 ginal formula fur the ' alkermes de Santa 
 jilaria Novella,' which is much valued. 
 
 2. Spice, as last j British brandy, 4 galls. 
 
LIQUEUR 
 
 water, 1 gall. ; macerate as before, and draw 
 over 4 galls., to wliich add, of capillaire, 2 
 galls., and sweet spirit of nitre, i pint. Cassia 
 is often used for cinnamon. Inferior to the 
 last. 
 
 An'iseed Cordial. Prep. 1. From aniseed, 
 2 oz. (or essential oil, li dr.), and sugar, 3 lbs. 
 per gall. It should not be weaker than 
 about 45 u. p., as at lower strengths it is 
 impossible to produce a full-flavoured article 
 without its being milky, or liable to become so. 
 
 2. (Anisette de Boedeaux.) — a. (Foreign.) 
 Aniseed, 4 oz. ; coriander and sweet fennel 
 seeds, of each 1 oz. (bruised) ; rectified spirit, 
 i gall . ; water, 3 quarts ; macerate for 5 or 6 
 days, then draw over 7 pints, and add of lump 
 sugar, 2i lbs, 
 
 i. (English.) Oil of aniseed, 1 5 drops ; oils 
 of cassia and caraway, of each 6 drops ; rub 
 them with a little sugar, and then dissolve it 
 in spirit (45 u. p.), 3 quarts, by well shaking 
 them together ; filter, if necessary, and dis- 
 solve in the clear liquor sugar, li lb. See 
 
 I'EPPEEMIHT {helovi). 
 
 Balm of Molucca. Prep. From mace, 1 dr.; 
 cloves, i oz. ; clean spirit (22 u. p.), 1 gall. ; 
 infuse for a week in a well-corked carboy or 
 jar, frequently shaking, colour with burnt 
 sugar q. s., and to the clear tincture add of 
 lump sugar, 4i lbs.; dissolved in pure soft 
 water, i gall. On the Continent this takes 
 the place of the ' cloves ' of the English re- 
 tailer. 
 
 Bit'ters. These have generally from 1 to 
 li lb. of sugar per gallon.^ 
 
 Cax'away Cordial. Prep. Generally from 
 the essential oil, with only 2^ lbs. of sugar per 
 gall. 1 fl. dr. of the oil is commonly reckoned 
 equal to i lb. of the seed. The addition of a 
 very little oil of cassia, and about half as much 
 of essence of lemon or of orange, improves it. 
 See Brandt (Caraway). 
 
 Ce'drat Cordial. Prep. From essence (oil) 
 of cedrat, J oz. ; pure spirit (at proof), 1 gall ; 
 dissolve, add of water, 3 pints, agitate well; 
 distil 3 quarts, and add an equal measure of 
 clarified syrup. A delicious liqueur. See 
 Ceeme and Eau (helow). 
 
 Cin'namon Cordial. Prep. This is seldom 
 made with cinnamon, owing to its high price, 
 but with either the essential oil or bark of cas- 
 sia, with about 2 lbs. of sugar to the gall. It 
 is preferred coloured, and therefore may be 
 very well prepared by simple digestion. The 
 addition of 5 or 6 drops each of essence of 
 lemon and orange peel, with about a spoonful 
 of essence of cardamoms per gall., improves it. 
 1 oz. of oil of cassia is considered equal to 8 lbs. 
 of the buds or bark. 1 il. dr. of the oil is 
 enough for 2i galls. It is coloured with 
 burnt sugar. 
 
 Cit'ron Cordial. Prep. From the oil or 
 peel, with 3 lbs. of sugar per gall., as above. 
 (See below.) 
 
 CitroJielle. iSi/n. Eatt de Baebabes. Prep. 
 1 See article Bittkes, 
 
 I. From fresh orange peel, 2 oz. ; fresh lemon 
 peel, 4 oz. ; cloves, i dr ; corianders and cin- 
 namon, of each 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 4 pints ; 
 digest for 10 days, then add of water, 1 quart, 
 and distil 4 gall. ; to the distilled essence add 
 of white sugar, 2 lbs., dissolved in water, 1 
 quart. 
 
 2. Essence of orange, i dr. ; essence of 
 lemon, 1 dr. ; oil of cloves, and cassia, of each 
 10 drops J oil of coriander, 20 drops ; spirit 
 (58 0. p.), 5 pints ; agitate until dissolved, 
 then add of distilled or clear soft water, 3 
 pints; well mix, and filter it through blotting 
 paper, if necessary ; lastly add of sugar (dis- 
 solved), q. B. 
 
 Clairet. Sgn. Rossams des sin geaines. 
 Prep. From aniseed, fennel seed, coriander 
 seed, caraway seed, dill seed, and seeds of the 
 candy-carrot (Aihamantia cretensis — Linn.), 
 of each (bruised) 1 oz. ; proof spirit J gall. ; 
 digest for a week, strain, and add of loaf sugar, 
 
 1 lb., dissolved in water, q. s. 
 
 Cloves. Syn. Clove coediai.. Prep. Prom 
 bruised cloves, 1 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to 
 every 3 galls, of proof spirit. If distilled, some 
 common salt should he added, and it should 
 be drawn over with a pretty quick fire. It 
 requires fully 3 lbs. of sugar per gall., and is 
 generally coloured with poppy flowers or burnt 
 sugar. The addition of 1 dr. of bruised pi- 
 mento, or 5 drops of the oil for every oz. of 
 cloves, improves this cordial. See Balm op 
 Molucca {above). 
 
 Coriander Cordial. Prep. From corianders, 
 as the last. A few sliced oranges improve it. 
 
 Creme d'Anis. As aniseed cobdial, only 
 richer. 
 
 CrSme des Barbades. As citeonelle, adding 
 some of the juice of the oranges, and an addi- 
 tional lb. of sugar per gall. 
 
 Creme de Cacao. Prep. Infuse roasted 
 caracca-cacao nuts (cut small), 1 lb., and va- 
 nila, \ oz., in brandy, 1 gall., foV 8 days; 
 strain, and add of thick syrup, 3 quarts. 
 
 Creme de Cedrat. Syn. Huile de Cedbat. 
 Prep. From spirit of citron, 1 pint ; spirit of 
 cedrat, 1 quart; proof spirit, 3 quarts; white 
 sugar, 16 lbs., dissolved in pure soft water, 
 
 2 galls. 
 
 CrSme de ffiacarons. Prep. 1. From cloves, 
 cinnamon, and mace, of each (bruised) 1 dr.; 
 bitter almonds (blanched and beaten to a 
 paste), 7 oz. ; spirit (17 u. p.), 1 gall. ; digest 
 a week, filter, and add of white sugar, 6 lbs., 
 dissolve in pure water, 2 quarts. 
 
 2. Clean spirit (at 24 u. p., sp. gr. -945), 2 
 galls. ; bitter almonds, J lb. ; cloves, cinnamon, 
 and mace, of each in coarse powder, li dr.; 
 infuse for 10 days, filter, and add of white 
 sugar, 8 lbs. ; dissolved in pure water, Igall. ; 
 lastly, give the liqueur a violet tint with infu- 
 sion or tincture of litmus and cochineal. An 
 agreeable, nutty-flavoured cordial, but, from 
 containing so much bitter almonds, should be 
 only drank iu small quantities at a time. The 
 
UQUEUB 
 
 987 
 
 Knglish use only one half the above quantity of 
 uluiunils. 
 
 Cr6me de Naphe. Prep. Prom sweetened 
 spirit (60 u. p.) containing i\ lbs. of sugar per 
 gull., 7 quarts ; orange-flower water (foreign), 
 1 quart. Delicious. 
 
 Crime de Noyeau. See Noyeau. 
 
 Crime d'Oraoge. Prep, rrora oranges, 
 (sliced), 3 dozen; rectilied spirit, 2 gxlls. ; 
 digest for 14 days ; add, of lump sugar, 28 lbs. 
 (previously dissolved in water, 4i galls.); 
 tincture of s:iffron, \\ fl. oz. ; and orange- 
 flower water, 2 quarts. 
 
 CrSme de Fortngal. Flavoured with lemon, 
 to wliich a little oil of bitter almonds is 
 added. 
 
 Curaf ao. Prep. From sweetened spirit (at 
 56 u. p.), containing 3i lbs. of sugar per gall., 
 flavoured with u tincture made by dige>ting 
 the ' oleo-saccharum ' prepared from Seville 
 oranges, 9 in number ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; and 
 niacu, J dr., in rectified spirit, 1 pint. It is 
 coloured by digesting in it for a week or 10 
 days Brazil-wood (in powder), 1 oz., and alter- 
 wards mellowing the colour with burnt sugar, 
 q. 8. 
 
 Delight of the MandaxlnB. From spirit (22 
 u. p.), 1 gall. ; pure soft water, \ gall. ; white 
 sugar (crushed small), 4^ lbs. ; Chinese aniseed 
 and ambrette or musk seed, of each (bruised) 
 \ oz. ; saHlower, \ oz. ; digested together in a 
 carboy or stone bottle capable of holding 
 double, and agitated well every day for u fort- 
 night. 
 
 £aa de Cedrat. Syn. Cidbat wateb. As 
 ciiKME SB obdbat, buC using less sugar. 
 
 Ean de Chasseurs. See Feffebmint {below). 
 
 Eau de Vie d'Andaye. Syn. Eau se tie 
 b'Anis; Aniseed liqueub beandt. Prep. 
 From brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall. ; sugar, 
 
 1 lb. ; dissolved in aniseed water, 1 pint. 
 Gold Cordial. Prep. From angelica root 
 
 (sliced), 1 lb. ; raisins, i lb. ; coriander seeds, 
 
 2 oz. ; caraway seeds and cassia, of each 1 J oz. ; 
 cloves, \ oz. ; figs and sliced liquorice root, of 
 each 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 8 galls. ; water, 1 gall. ; 
 digest 2 days, and distil 3 gallons by a gentle 
 heat ; to this add, of sugar, 9 lbs., dissolved in 
 rose water and clean soft water, of each 1 
 quart ; lastly, colour the liquid by steeping in 
 it of hay saffron, 1^ oz. This cordial was once 
 held in much esteem. It derives its name 
 from a small quimtity of gold leaf being for- 
 merly added to it. 
 
 Huile d'Anis. See Cbeme d'Ams {above). 
 
 Hnile de Vanille. Flavoured with essence or 
 tincture of vanilla. It is kept in a decanter, 
 and used to flavour liqueurs, grog, &c. 
 
 Hnile de Venus. Prep. From the flowers 
 of the wild carrot, 2\ oz., and sugar, 3 lbs. to 
 the gall. It is generally coloured by infusing 
 a little powdered cochineal in it. 
 
 Jargonelle. Syn. Jaeoonelle cobdial. 
 Flavoured with essence of jargoiu'lle pear (ace- 
 tute of amyl). Fine-upple cordial ami liqueui-s 
 
 from some other fruits are also prepared from 
 the new fruit essences. See EsBEHCB. 
 
 lem'on Cordial. Prep. Digest fresh ond 
 dried lemon peel, of each 2 oz., and fresh 
 orange peel, 1 oz., in proof spirit, 1 gall., for 
 a week ; strain with expression, add of clear 
 soft water q. s. to reduce it to the desired 
 strength, and lump sngar, 3 lbs. to the gallon 
 The addition of a little orange-flower or rose 
 water improves it. 
 
 Liqnodilla. Flavoured with oranges and 
 lemons, of each, sliced, 3 in number; with 
 sugar 21 lbs. per gall. 
 
 Lov'age Cordial. Prep. Prom the fresh roofs 
 of lovage, 1 oz. to the gallon. A fourth of this 
 quantity of the fresh roots of celery and sweet 
 fennel are also commonly added. In some 
 parts a little fresh valerian root and oil of 
 savine are added before distillation. It is much 
 valued by the lower classes in some of the pro- 
 vinces for its stomachic and emmenagogue 
 qualities. 
 
 Oil of Ce'drat. See Cbeub sb Cedbat 
 {above). 
 
 Orange Cordial. Like i.emon cobdial or 
 CBEME B'oEANOB, from fresh orange peel, J lb., 
 to the gallon. 
 
 Farfait Amour. Syn. PeeeectLovb. Prep. 
 Flavoured with the yellow rind of 4 lemons, 
 and a teaspoonful of essence of vanilla to the 
 gallon, with sugar, 3 lbs., and powdered 
 cochineal q. s. to colour. 
 
 Fep'permint. Syn. Pbppeemint cobdial, 
 SpOBTSMAN's 0., X. MINT; Eau db chas- 
 SEUBB, Fr. This well-known compound is in 
 greater demand in every part of the kingdom 
 than all the other cordials put together. 
 
 Prep. 1. From peppermint water and gin 
 or plain spirit (22 u. p.), of each 1 pint ; lump 
 sugar, I lb. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) English oil of peppermint, 
 5 oz., is added to rectified spirits of wine, 3 
 pints, and the mixture is agitated well toge- 
 ther for some time in a corked bottle capable 
 of holding 4 pints or more ; it is then emptied 
 into a cask having a capacity of upwards of 
 100 galls., and perfectly white and flavourless 
 proof spirit, 36 galls., is poured in, and the 
 whole well agitated for ten minutes; a solu- 
 tion of the best double refined lump sugar, 
 2} cwt., in about 35 galls, of pure filtered rain 
 water, is then added, and the contents of the cask 
 well * rummaged up' in the usual manner for 
 at least 15 minutes ; sufficient clear rain water 
 to makeup the whole quantity to exactly 100 
 gallons, and holding in solution alum, 5 oz., 
 is next added, and the whole is again well agi- 
 tated for at least a quarter of an hour, after 
 which the cask is bunged down, and allowed 
 to repose for a fortnight before it is ' broached' 
 for sale. 
 
 Obs, The last formula produces a beautiful 
 article provided the ingredients are of good 
 quality. Care on this point is particularly 
 necessary in reference to the essential oil, 
 which should ouly be purchased of some known 
 
983 
 
 LIQUEUR DE LA MOTTE— LIQUOE 
 
 respectable dealer. The sugar should be suffi- 
 ciently pure to dissolve in a wine-glassful of 
 clear soft water without injuriug its trans- 
 parency, and the cask should be a fresh- 
 einptiedgin pipe, or one properly prepared for 
 gin, as. If it gives colour, it will spoil the cor 
 dial. When these particulars are attended to, 
 the product is a bright transparent liquor as 
 soon as made, and does not require fining. 
 Should there be the slightest opacity, the 
 addition of 2 oz. of salt of tartar, dissolved 
 in a quart of hot water, will have the effect 
 of * clearing it down * in the course of a few 
 days. The product is 100 galls, of cordial at 
 64 u, p. 
 
 Pimen'to. St/ii. Pimento oobdial, Pimento 
 DEAM. Kather strongly flavoured with allspice 
 or pimento. It has obtained a great repute iti 
 the West Indies in diarrhoea, cholera, and 
 bowel complHints generally. 
 
 Rasp'berry Cordial. Prep. From raspberry 
 brandy, capillaire, and water, equal parts. A 
 similar article is prepared by flavouring sweet- 
 ened spirit with the new ' raspberry essence.' 
 
 £at'ifia. The numerous liqueurs bearing 
 this name are noticed in another part of this 
 volume. See Eatifia. 
 
 Shrub. See the article Shbitb in another 
 part of this work. 
 
 Sighs of Love. Prep. 1. From proof spirit 
 flavoured with otto of roses and capillaire, 
 equal parts. 
 
 2. From sugar, 6 lbs., pure soft water, q. s. 
 to produce a gallon of syrup, to which add, of 
 eau de rose, 1 pint; proof spirit, 7 pints. It 
 is stained of a pale pink by powdered cochineal. 
 A very pleasant cordial. A drop or two (not 
 more) of essence of ambergris or vanilla im- 
 proves it. 
 
 Tears of the Widow of Malabar. Prep. As 
 BALM OP Molucca, but employing cloves 
 (bruised), i oz., mace (shredded), 1 dr., and 
 a teaspoontul of essence of vanilla for fla- 
 vouring. Some add of orange-flower water, 
 i pint, It is slightly coloured with burnt 
 sugar. 
 
 Tent. From plain spirit (22 u. p.) and port 
 wine, of each 1 quart; sherry and soft water, 
 of each 1 pint; orange-flower water and lemon 
 juice, of each i pint; essence of ambergris, 
 2 drops (not more) ; sugar, 2 lbs. See Wine. 
 
 Us'quebangh. See the article UsQUEBAvan 
 in another part of this work. 
 
 LIQUEUR DE LA MOTTE. [Fr.] See Deops 
 (Golden) and Tinctube. 
 
 LldUEUK DOREE. [Fr.] Prep. .Take of 
 cinnamon, bitter orange peel, and Peruvian 
 bark, of each { oz. ; hay saffron, i oz. ; brandy 
 and Malaga wine, of each 3 quarts; digest tor 
 a week, strain, and add of lump sugar, 2 lbs. 
 Tonic, stomacliict and stimulant ; chiefly used 
 as an afjreeable alcoholic dram. 
 
 LIftUEUR DE PRESSAVIN. [Fr.] Prep. 
 From oxide of mercury (freshly precipitated) 
 and cream of tartar, of each 1 oz. ; hot water, 
 1 quart ; dissolve and filter. For use 2 spoon- { 
 
 fuls of this liquor are added to 1 quart of 
 water. — Dose. A wine-glassful 3 or 4 times a 
 day, avoiding the use of common salt. This 
 is simply a solution of potassio-tartrate of mer- 
 cury, and may be taken in the usual cases in 
 which mercury is administered. 
 LIftUODIN'NA. See Liqtjeitb. 
 LIQUIO-AMBAR. Si/n. Cofaibje balsam. 
 A fluid balsamic juice obtained from the Zrijaid- 
 amber styracijlua, an American tree. It cosely 
 resembles liquid bioeax in its properties, 
 and may be applied to the same purposes. See 
 Stteai. 
 
 LIQ'UOR. 8yn. LlQUOE, L. ; LiQUEUB, 
 Fr. This term is given in the London Phar- 
 macopoeia to those aqueous solutions commonly 
 though improperly called 'watees;' ammo- 
 niae liquor potassfe, &c. It is now more cor- 
 rectly applied to the ' watees ' of the British 
 Piiarmacopceia. See Solution. 
 
 The term 'liquor' has also, of late years, 
 been applied to certain concentrated prepara- 
 tions, most of which would be more correctly 
 terined 'fluid exteacts,' as they merely 
 dift'er from good extracts in their consistence, 
 and from ordinary extracts in containing less 
 starchy matter, albumen, and gum. There is 
 also usually a little spirit added to them to 
 prevent decomposition. Liquors of this kind 
 may be prepared of the finest quality by the 
 same processes that are required for the pre- 
 paration of good soluble extracts ; observing 
 to stop the evaporation as soon as the consist- 
 ence of treacle is acquired, and when cold, to 
 add l-4th or l-5th part of their weight (after 
 evaporation) in rectified spirit. The addition of 
 3 or 4 drops of the oils of cloves and mustard 
 seed, dissolved in the spirit, will secure them 
 from any risk of ' moulding ' or fermenting ; 
 in fact, with this addition many of them will 
 keep well without spirit, provided they are 
 evaporated sufliciently, and kept in a cool 
 place. The liquors, which are merely con- 
 centrated infusions or decoctions, and which, 
 in their consistence, do not even approximate 
 to ex tracts, may be made in the manner directed 
 under those heads. 
 
 Much confusion would be prevented if the 
 terms 'concentrated decoction,' ' concentrated 
 infusion,' &c., were adopted for those vegetable 
 preparations possessing eight times the usual 
 strength; 'liquors' for those of a higher 
 strength, but still sufficiently liquid to be 
 treated as such in dispensing, &c. ; and ' fluid 
 extracts' for those possessing considerable 
 consistence, and approaching the common ex- 
 tracts in their degree of concentration and 
 mode of preparation. See Decoction, In- 
 fusion, Essence, Extbact, Solution, &c. 
 
 *#* The following formulte present some 
 illustrations of the preparation of this class of 
 medicines. 
 
 Liquor of Ammonia. Syn. Liquor Ammo- 
 Ni,E. Prep. Strong solution of ammonia, 1 
 pint ; distilled water, 2 pints; mix and pre- 
 serve in a stoppered bottle. Sp. gr. -gsg. 
 
LIQUOR 
 
 989 
 
 Llqaor of Ammonln, Stronger. Sj/n. Liqcob 
 AuuoniM FOKTIOB. Prep. Mix chloride of 
 Rininoniura in course powder 3 lbs., and slaked 
 lime 41bt., und introdnce the mixture into an 
 iron bottle, placed in a metal pot surrounded 
 by aund. Connect the iron tube which screws 
 air-tight into the bottle in the usual manner, 
 by corks, glass tubes, and caoutchouc collars, 
 with a Woulf's bottle capable of holding a 
 pint ; connect this with a second Woulf's 
 bottle of the same size, the second bottle with 
 a matrnss of the capacity of three pints, in 
 which 22 oi. of distilled water are placed, and 
 the matrass by means of a tube bent twice at 
 right angles, with an ordinary bottle contain- 
 iug distilled water 10 oz. Bottles 1 and 2 
 are empty, and the latter and the matrass 
 which contains the 22 oz. of distilled water 
 are furnixlied ench with a siphon safety- 
 tube charged with a very short column of 
 mercury. 
 
 The heat of a fire, which should be very 
 gradually raised, is to be now applied to the 
 metal pot, and continued until bubbles of con- 
 densiblc gas cease to escape from the extremity 
 of the glass tube which dips into the water of 
 the matrass. 
 
 The process being terminated, the matrass 
 will contain about 43 tl. oz. of strong solution 
 of ammonia. Bottles 1 and 2 will now in- 
 clude the first, about 16, the second, about 10 
 fl. oz. of a coloured ammoniacal liquid. 
 
 Place this in a flask closed by a cork, which 
 should be perforated by a siphon safety-tube 
 containing a little mercury, and also by a 
 second safety-tube bent twice at right angles, 
 and made to p iss to the bottom of the terminal 
 bottle used in the preceding process. Apply 
 heat to the flask until the coloured liquid it 
 contains is reduced to three fourths of its 
 original bulk. The product now contained 
 in the terminal bottle will be nearly of the 
 strength of solution of ammonia, and may be 
 made exactly so by the addition of the proper 
 quantity of distilled water, or of strong 
 solution of ammonia. Density "191, contains 
 32*6 per cent, of ammonia. 
 
 Antidotes. — Vinegar and water followed by 
 acidulated demulcent drinks. 
 
 Liquor, Anodyne. See Spirit of Gtheb. 
 
 Liquor, Antinephritic. Si/n. Liquor akxi- 
 NBPHBiTictJS, L. Prep. (Adams.) Poppy 
 heads, 6 oz. ; water, 1.J pint j boil to one third, 
 strain with pressure, and add of nitrate of 
 potassa, 1 oz. — Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonf uls night 
 and morning ; in gravel and painful affections 
 of the kidneys and bladder. 
 
 Liquor, Antipodag'ric (Begnin's). Syn. Hoff- 
 mann's OOrT LIQUID; LlQUOB ANTIPODAG- 
 BI0C8 HoFFMANNll, L. Prep. From Boyle's 
 fuming liqiiir, 1 part; spirit of wine, 3 parts. 
 Sudoritic. — Dose, 20 to 30 drops; or exter- 
 nally, in gout, and other painful affections, 
 either alone or combined with camphor. See 
 AmMONII'M, PERStTLPniDE OF. 
 
 Liquor Antipsor'ic. S^n. LiQUOE anti- 
 
 PSOEiorg, LoTio A., L. Prep. (Van Mons.) 
 .Sulphuretof sodium, li dr. j hydrochlorate of 
 ammonia, 75 gr. ; dissolve each separately in 
 water, J pint, mix the solutions, and filter. In. 
 itch and other moist skin diseases. 
 
 Liquor, Bleaching. See Solution of Chlo- 
 EiDB OF Lime. 
 
 Liquor, Blistering. B. Sgn. Liquob Kpis- 
 
 PA8TICU8 LiNIMENTUM CANTHAEIDES. Prep. 
 Mix cantharides in powder, 8 oz. ; and acetic 
 acid, 4 fl. oz. Pack in a percolator, and after 
 24 hours pass ether slowly through until 20 
 fl. oz. are obtained. Keep in a stoppered 
 bottle. 
 
 Liquor, Boyle's Pu"ming. The perhydro- 
 sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 Liquor of Calum'ba. Sgn. Liquor ca- 
 LUMB^, L. Same as cohoentbatbs ikfusion 
 of oaluhba. 
 
 Liquor of Cam'phor. See Ebsencb. 
 
 Liquor of Chiret'ta. Same as Cohcen- 
 
 TBATED INFUSION OF CHIBBTTA. 
 
 Liquor of Cincho'na. Si/n. Liquob of 
 
 BABK ; CONOENTBATKD INFUSION OF BABE, 
 
 Inspissated i. or b. ; Infusum oinchonjK 
 8PIS8ATUM (Ph. L), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 3 lbs., is mace- 
 rated in distilled water, 6 pints, at two suc- 
 cessive operations, as directed under extract 
 of cinchona— Ph. L. ; the mixed infusions 
 are evaporated by the heat of a water bath tg 
 one fourth, and placed aside to settle ; the 
 clear portion is decanted, the remainder 
 strained, and the mixed liquid again evapo- 
 rated until its sp. gr. reaches 1-200; to this, 
 when cold, rectified spirit is dropped in, by 
 degrees, " so that 3 fl. dr. may be added 
 to each fl. oz. of the liquor; " lastly, allow it 
 to repose for 20 days, that the dregs may 
 subside. 
 
 Ois. It is not at all clear whether the Col- 
 lege means 3 fl. dr. of spirit to be added to 
 each fl. oz. of the liquid before its addition, or 
 that it is to be added so that each fl. oz. of the 
 product shall contain that quantity. We pre- 
 sume the former. 1 9. dr. of this preparation 
 is said to represent fully 4 fl. oz. of the in- 
 fusion OF CINCHONA — Ph. L. ; but it is ob- 
 vious that it must be liable to gi-eat variations 
 in strength. " In a general way I fl. dr. may 
 be considered equal to 3 fl. oz. of the infusion." 
 (Pereira.) As commonly met with, this pre- 
 paration is nearly destitute of the cinchona 
 alkaloids. 
 
 2. Yellow cinchona bark, bruised, 56 lbs., and 
 water holding in solution sulphuric acid, 1^ lb., 
 are macerated together, with occasional agi- 
 tation, in a covered earthen vessel, for 48 hours, 
 after which the liquor is expressed, and the 
 residuum or marc is treated with fresh water; 
 the mixed strained liquid is then evaporated 
 as rapidly as possible in earthenware, to 
 exactly 6 lbs.; to this rectified spirit, li lb., is 
 added, and the whole is set aside for a week or 
 10 days; the clear portion is, lastly, decanted 
 and preserved in well-closed buttles. The pro- 
 
990 
 
 LIQUOR 
 
 duct is very rich in quinine. It is 96 times 
 as strong as the dbooction op oinohona — 
 Ph. L., and 12 times as strong as the above 
 preparation of the Ph. L. This preparation 
 resembles the 'liQFOB cinchona' sold by 
 certain bouses in the trade at 248. per lb., 
 wholesale. 
 
 3. Exhaust the bark as above by macera- 
 tion in 3 successive waters without acid, filter, 
 evaporate the mixed liquors to 7 lbs., and pro- 
 ceed as before. Inferior to the last, and less 
 rich in the cinchona alkaloids. Very thick ; 
 scarcely liquid. 
 
 4. From palk baek : — (LiQUOE cinchona 
 VATJLTDS ; Infusum cinohon^: spissatum — 
 Fh. ii.) From pale bark, as the last. See 
 Ineubion op Cinchona. 
 
 Liquor, Disinfect'ing. See Solution (Chlo- 
 rides of Lime, Soda, and Zinc), and DlsiN- 
 
 FEOTINa COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Liquor of Er'got. . S^n. Essence of ergot 
 of eye, conoenteated infusion of e. ; 
 Essentia becalis coenuti, Liquoe eboot^, 
 Infusum EE&OTiE concenihatum, L. Frep. 
 Recent ergot of rye (reduced to coarse powder 
 by pounding, or preferably by grinding it in a 
 pepper-mill), li lb., and boiling distilled water, 
 4 lbs., are digested together in a closed vessel, 
 with frequent agitation until cold, and then 
 put into a wide-mouthed bottle, along with 
 rectified spirit, 2 lbs. j the whole is then allowed 
 to macerate for a week, after which the liquor 
 is expressed and filtered. Obs. 4 fl. dr. of 
 this essence are equal to 1 dr. of ergot in sub 
 stance. It is 8 times the strength of the 
 INFUSION (as usually prepared according to the 
 formula of Pereira and others), and 2i times 
 the strength of the tinctuee of eegot of the 
 London Apothecaries' Hall. This is the only 
 essence of liquoe of eegot known in the 
 wholesale trade. 
 
 Liquor of Flints. See Solution. 
 
 Liquor of Gntta Percha. B. Sfftt. Liquoe 
 Gutta peecha. Gntta percha in thin slices, 
 1 oz. J carbonate of lead in fine powder, 1 oz. ; 
 chloroform, 8 ti. oz. Add the gutta percha to 
 
 6 fl. oz. of chloroform in a stoppered bottle, 
 and shake them frequently till solution has 
 been effected. Then add the carbonate of lead 
 previously mixed with the remainder of the 
 chloroform, and having several times shaken 
 the whole together set the mixture aside, and 
 let it remain at rest until the soluble matter 
 has subsided. Lastly, decant the clear liquid 
 and keep in a well-stoppered bottle. 
 
 Liquor, Libavius'a. Bichloride of tin. 
 Liquor of Mat'ico. Syn. Conoenteated 
 
 infusion op , MATICO ; LiQUOE MATICONIS, 
 INPUSUM MATICONIS CONCENTEAIUM, L. 
 Frep. From matico leaves, 1 lb.; rectified 
 spirit, i pint; distilled water, 32 fl. oz.j digest 
 10 davs, express, and filter. 1 fl. dr. added to 
 
 7 fl. dr. of water is equal to 1 fl. oz. of the 
 common infusion. 
 
 Liquor of Myrrh. Si/n. Solution of mteeh ; 
 Liquoe MYEEHiE, Loco liquaminis myb- 
 
 EHiE, L. JPrep. (Ph. Bor.) Extract of myrrh 
 (Ph. Bor.), 1 oz. ; distilled water, 5 fl. oz. ; 
 mix thoroughly, decant, and strain. It should 
 be of a brownish-yellow colour, and turbid, 
 — Dose, i to 1 fl. dr. 
 
 Liquor of O'pium. Sgn. Liquoe opii, L. o. 
 concenieatus, L. opiatus, L. See Black 
 
 DEOP.' 
 
 1. (Messrs Smith.) Opium, 4 oz., is made 
 into an extract, and ' denarcotised ' by ether; 
 it is then dissolved in alcohol, filtered, evapo- 
 rated nearly to dryness, and redissolved in 
 water q. s. to furnish 12 oz. of solution ; to this 
 is added, of rectified spirit, 2f oz., with water 
 q. s. to make the whole up to 16 oz. — Dote, 
 3 to 12 drops. 
 
 2. (Acetic; LiQUOE OPll ACETICUS, L.) See 
 Laudanum (Houlton's). 
 
 3. (Citric; Liquoe opii citeicus, L.) — a. 
 Powdered opium, IJ oz. ; lemon juice, li pint; 
 evaporate to one half, cool, add of rectified 
 spirit, 5 fl. oz., and the next day decant or 
 filter; same strength as * laudanum.* 
 
 b. (Liquoe MOEPHiiE citbatis — ^Dr Por- 
 ter.) Opium, 4 oz. ; citric acid, 2 oz. ; tritu- 
 rate, and add of boiling water, 15 fl. oz. ; 
 digest with agitation for 24 hours, and filter. 
 This last has above three times the strength of 
 ' LAUDANUM.' It is sadly misnamed. 
 
 4. (Hydrochloric; Solution of Mubiate op 
 Opium ; Liquoe opii hydbochloeicus, L. — 
 Dr Nichol.) Powdered opium, li oz. ; dis- 
 tilled water, 1 pint ; hydrochloric acid, li fl. 
 oz. ; digest a fortnight, and strain with ex- 
 pression. Same strength as 'LAUDANUM.' Ac- 
 cording to Dr Nichol, this is preferable to 
 every other preparation of opium. 
 
 5. (Sedative; Battlet's Sedative solu- 
 tion op Opium ; Liquoe opii sedativub, L. 
 — a. Hard aqueous extract of opium (bruised), 
 3 oz., is boiled in water, li pint, until dis- 
 solved; to the solution, when cold, rectitied 
 spirit, 6 oz. is added, together with water, q. s. 
 to make the whole measure exactly 1 quart; 
 the liquor is, lastly, filtered. 
 
 b. Prom hard extract oF opium, 22 oz. ; 
 boiling water, 13 pints ; rectified spirit, 3 pints ; 
 as the last. 
 
 c. From extract of opium — Ph. L., 4} oz.; 
 water, 1 quart; boil till reduced to 34 fl. oz.; 
 cool, fllter, and add of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz., 
 and water, q. b. to make up exactly 1 quart. 
 
 Obs. The first two forraulte, which vary only 
 in their quantities, are identical with that em- 
 ployed by Mr Battley. As hard extract of 
 opium is not always at hand, we have intro- 
 duced a formula in which the ordinary extract 
 is ordered. It gives a precisely similar pro- 
 duet to the others, provided the cold aqueous 
 decoction is filtered before adding the spirit. 
 Battley's liquoe opii sedativus is an excel- 
 lent preparation, less exciting than opium or 
 laudanum.— Dose, 10 to 30 drops. Dr Chris- 
 tison states that 20 drops of Battley's solution 
 are equal to 30 drops of the common tincture. 
 ' Under Deops, p. 691. 
 
LIQUORICE 
 
 991 
 
 Llqnor, Pancreatic (Van den Corput). Syn. 
 LiQl'OB I'anohkatini. Pancreatiii and ear- 
 biiiiateof |iolash, of each 10 gr. ; balm water, 
 2} tl. oz. J ayrup of orange peel, 5 dr. — Doie, 
 i H. oz. to 1 H. oz. 
 
 Liquor of Fepiin. (Mr Sqaire.) Si/n. Li- 
 (jnott PKP8INI. Prep. 1 drachm of Bou- 
 dault's peiisin in 1 oz. of distilled water. 
 Salt must be added if it is to be preserved. — 
 Dose. A teaxpoonf 111. 
 
 Liquor of Khn'barb. Sj/n. LiQUOB bhei, 
 Inpuscm hhei conoenthatum, L. Prep. 1. 
 Hhubarb (well bruised), 6} oz. ; water, q. n. ; 
 rectified spirit, i pint ; proceed as for INFDSION 
 OF OALUMBA (conc.) ; to produce a quart. 8 
 times the usual strength. 
 
 2. See iNPDBloir 07 RnVBABB (Concen- 
 trated). 
 
 3. See Extract op Rhitbabb (Fluid). 
 
 Llqnor of Sarsaparil'Ia. Si/n. Fluid ex- 
 tract OP 8AKBAPABILLA ; LlQUOR 8AKZ£, ES- 
 SENTIA 8AB8APABILL.B, L. Prep. Either the 
 simple or the compouud liquor of sarsaparilla 
 may be made from the corresponding decoc- 
 tion, or, preferably, the infusion prepared with 
 water at 125" Fahr., by carefully evaporating 
 it until Bufficiently concentrated, and then 
 straining it through flannel, and adding a 
 little spirit. Jamaica sarsaparilla should be 
 alone employed, as the other varieties, espe- 
 cially the Honduras, not only possess less 
 medicinal virtue, and yield less extract, but are 
 very liable to ferment and get mouldy, unless 
 an undue proportion of spirit is added to 
 them. See Extract op Sabsapabilla 
 (Flnid). 
 
 Liquor of Sen'na. Si/n. Liqttor SENNiG, L. 
 Both the PLUID extbaot and the concen- 
 trated INPU8I0N OP 8ElfNA are called by this 
 name, but more generally the former. The 
 following are additional formulse : — 
 
 1. (Duncan.) Senna, 15 lbs. ; boiling water, 
 B galls, i proceed by the method of displace- 
 ment, evaporate the product to 10 lbs., add of 
 molasses, 6 lbs. (previously concentrated over a 
 water bath until it begins to congeal on cool- 
 ing), dissolve, and further add of rectified 
 spirit, li pint, together with water q. s. to 
 make the whole measure exactly 12 pints. 
 Every fl. oz. represents 1 oz. of senna. 
 
 2. (Ur Twoedy.) As the last, but using 
 tincture of ginger (prepared with rectified 
 spirit), 1^ pint, instead of the spirit there 
 ordered. 
 
 Liquor of Soap. Si/n. Liquor baponis, L. 
 See Tincture. 
 
 Liquor, Styp'tic. Syn. Liquob bttfticus, 
 L. Prep, (f h. SlevicoHolsat. 1831.) Alum 
 and sulphate of copper, of each 1^ oz. : sul- 
 phuric acid, 1 oz. ; water, 1 lb. ; dissolve, and 
 tilter. 
 
 Liquor of Tarax'acnm. Si/n. Fluid ex- 
 
 TltACTOP DANTlKLION; EXTBACTUM TAEAXACI 
 PLUIDUM, LiQCOK TABAXACI, L. Prep. 1. 
 Dandelion roots (dricdl, 28 lb<., are rinsed in 
 clean O.U1 water to remove dirt, and then 
 
 sliced small, and macerated in enough cold 
 water to cover them for 24 hours j the liquid 
 is next pressed out, and after the fecula has 
 subsided the clear portion is decanted, and 
 heated to 180° or 190f Fahr., to coagulate the 
 albumen; the liquid is then filtered while hot 
 and evaporated by steam, or preferably by a 
 current of warm air, until it is reduced to 
 22^ lbs. ; to this rectified spirit, 6 lbs., is added, 
 and after thorough agitation the vessel is set 
 aside for a week or a fortnight, after which 
 the clear portion is gently poured from the 
 sediment and preserved in well-closed bottles 
 in a cool place. A very fine article. It 
 represents an equal weight of the root. 
 
 2. The expressed j nice of dandelion is heated 
 to near the boiling point, strained, and evapo- 
 rated, as the last, to a proper consistence ; ith 
 or ^tli of rectified spirit is then added, and the 
 liquid is otherwise treated as before. Very 
 odorous and pale coloure<^ . 
 
 3. Dried root (coarsely powered), 1 lb. ; 
 water, li pint; rectified spirit, i pint; digest 
 a week, express the liquor, pass it through a 
 hair sieve into a bottle, and in 10 days decant 
 the clear portion. 
 
 4. (Ph. Bar.) Extract of dandelion, 3 
 parts; water, 1 part (or q. s.); triturated 
 together. 
 
 5. (W.Procter.) Fresh root, 2 lbs., is sliced 
 and reduced to a pulp, and macerated with ^th 
 of its bulk of rectified spirit for 24 hours; it 
 is then subjected to strong pressure, the marc 
 is treated with water containing a little spirit, 
 1 pint, and the liquid is again expressed ; the 
 mixed product is evaporated to 12 fi. oz., and 
 when cold, rectified spirit, 4 fl. oz. is added, 
 and the whole filtered. 
 
 Oba. Liquor of taraxacum has a very large 
 sale. The dose is 1 to 2 fi. dr. tjec Ex- 
 tbaot. 
 
 Liquor of Valer'ian. See Extbact op 
 Valerian (Fluid). 
 
 Liquor of Vanil'Uu Si/n. Fluid extbact 
 OP VANILLA; Liquob VANiLLiE, Extkactum 
 T. PLUIDUM, L. Prep. 1. Vanilla ( sliced ), 
 1 lb.; rectified spirit. 3 pints; prepare a tinc- 
 ture either by displacement or maceration, 
 and reduce it, by distilbition at the lowest 
 possible temperature, to IJ lb. ; put this into 
 a strong bottle whilst hot, add of white sugar 
 (tandy (in powder), i lb., cork down, and agi- 
 tate the whole uufSl it is nearly cold. Very 
 fine. Used chiefly for its odour and flavour. 
 It represents half its weight of vanilla. 
 
 2. (W. Procter.) Vanilla (cut into thin 
 transverse slices), 1 oz. ; sugar, 3 oz. ; tritu- 
 rate until reduced to fine powder, put it into 
 a strong pint bottle, along with syrup, i pint : 
 water, 2 oz. ; tie down the cork, and set the 
 bottle for half an hour iq boiling water; cool, 
 straiu, and treat the residue in a like manner 
 with a mixture of water, 6 fl. oz., and rectified 
 spirit, 1 fl. oz. ; lastly, mix the two products. 
 Greatly inferior to the last. 
 
 LIQ'UO£IC£. Si/n. Stick liquobicb; Li- 
 
992 
 
 LISBON DIET DKINK 
 
 QUOEITIA, GLTCTEBHIZiE EADIX (B. P.), GlT- 
 CTBEHIza) badix.Gltctebhiza (Ph. L. & D.), 
 G. »LABEA (Ph. E), L. " The root or under- 
 ground stem of the Glt/cyrrhiza glabra, fresh 
 and dried, cultivated in Britain." " The recent 
 and the dried root of Chlyet/rrhiza glabra," or 
 common liquorice. "The f'rpsh root is to be kept 
 buried in dried sand for nse." (Ph. L.) It has a 
 sweetish taste, and is slightly aperient, expec- 
 torant, and diuretic. It is a popular demul- 
 cent and pectoral. Its extract and solution 
 are much used as a domestie remedy for cougb. 
 As a masticatory it allays thirst and irritation. 
 Composition of the fresh root of liquorice : 
 
 Glycjrrbizin . 
 
 
 8-60 
 
 Gum 
 
 
 26-60 
 
 Matter soluble in 
 
 alcohol. 
 
 
 chieHy resin 
 
 
 0-75 
 
 Albumen . , 
 
 
 0-97 
 
 Starcli . • 
 
 
 22-91 
 
 Woody fibre • 
 
 
 13-36 
 
 Moisture 
 
 
 26-81 
 
 Ash, 307 per cent 
 
 
 — 
 
 100-00 
 (Hassall.) 
 Eoussin asserts that the sweetness of liquor- 
 ice root is not due to glyeyrrhizin, as has been 
 hitherto assumed, but to an ammoniacal com- 
 pound of that substance. Glyeyrrhizin, when 
 purified four successive times by dissolving it 
 in alcohol, and precipitating the foreign matter 
 accompanying it by ether, is a yellowish sub- 
 stance, insoluble in cold water, and almost 
 tasteless. Treated with dilute solution of pot- 
 ash or soda, it rapidly develops a sweet taste. 
 In liquorice root, however, it is not contained 
 in combination with either of these two alka- 
 lies, but appears to exist as an ammoniacal 
 compound, for solutions of potash and soda 
 liberate ammonia, both from the root and the 
 extract. In its compounds with the alkalies 
 glyeyrrhizin plays the part of an aeid, as it 
 forms true salts capable of undergoing decom- 
 position with most of the metallic salts, and 
 also with the salts of the organic alkaloids. 
 With ammonia it forms two compounds, a basic 
 salt, which yields a deep yellow solution, and 
 another containing less ammonia, the solution 
 of which has an amber colour. The former is 
 produced by dissolving glyeyrrhizin in water 
 with an excess of ammonia. Upon evaporating 
 the resulting deep yellow solution to dryness 
 it leaves a yellowish, scaly, shining, brittle, 
 non-hygroscopic residue, which constitutes the 
 second ammoniacal compound. This is readily 
 soluble in cold water, to which it imparts a 
 pale yellow colour and a very sweet taste. The 
 solution turns deep yellow on the addition of a 
 few drops of solution of ammonia, owing to 
 the formation of the basic componnd. The 
 pale yellow solution possesses, in a, marked 
 degree, the taste of liquorice root, which, in- 
 deed, owes its sweetness to this glycyrrhizate 
 of ammonia, or ammoniacal glyeyrrhizin, as 
 
 the author prefers to call it. One gram of 
 this compound imparts the sweet taste of the 
 root to two litres of water. 
 
 The author gives the following process for 
 the preparation of the ammoniacal glyeyr- 
 rhizin in the pare state : The carefully-selected 
 roots, freed from all portions presenting a 
 dark fracture, are scraped, and then well 
 pounded, so as to reduce them to a kind of 
 stringy tow. This substance is macerated in 
 cold distilled water for some hours, pressed, 
 and treated a second time in the same manner. 
 The two liquors are mixed aud allowed to 
 stand for some time to deposit the starch. 
 The supernatant liquor is then boiled and fil- 
 tered, to separate the coagulated albumen. 
 After cooling, sulphuric acid diluted with its 
 weight of water is added gradually, with 
 brisk stirring, until a precipitate is no longer 
 formed. The precipitate, at first gelatinous 
 and flocculent, after standing some time, forms 
 a compact semi-solid mass at the bottom of 
 the vessel. The supernatant liquor is rejected, 
 and after roughly washing the precipitate 
 several times with pure water it is finally 
 kneaded repeatedly in distilled water until all 
 trace of acidity has disappeared. The mass is 
 then well drained and agitated in a flask with 
 three times its weight of 90° alcohol until dis- 
 solved, when a similar quantity of 96° to 98° 
 alcohol is added to the syrupy liquid so pro- 
 duced. A little pectic aeid is thua precipi- 
 tated, which is removed by filtration. Ether 
 is then added to the alcoholic liquor as long as 
 a precipitate is formed. After standing 
 twenty-four or even forty-eight hours a black- 
 ish pitchy substance is deposited, which ad- 
 heres to the gliiss, and allows of the dear 
 liquor being decanted. To this clear liquor is 
 added, in small quantities at a time, alcohol of 
 90° charged with gaseous ammonia, which 
 determines the formation of a yellow, rather 
 heavy, flocculent precipitate of glycyrrhizate 
 of ammonia. This precipitate is washed ra- 
 pidly on a fine cloth with a mixture of equal 
 parts of alcohol and ether, pressed and dried 
 in a current of warm air, or over sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 The author suggests the addition of ammo- 
 niacal glyeyrrhizin to pill masses, powders, or 
 mixtures, and states that its power of masking 
 the taste of nauseous medicines is equal to 100 
 times its weight of sugar. Sulphate of qui- 
 nine, sulphate of magnesia, iodide of potas- 
 sium, and ipecacuanha, lose much of their 
 taste by such an addition. 
 
 A dose of cod-liver oil or syrup of iodide of 
 iron is rendered more palatable by being pre- 
 ceded by a small dose of the solid ammoniacal 
 glycerin.! Its extract is the common MQtio- 
 EicE, Spanish liquoeice, or Spanish jdice, 
 of the shops. See Exteact, &c. 
 
 IISBON DIET DRINK. 1. (Foy.) Prep. 
 Guaiacum wood, rasped, 1 oz. ; sarsaparilla, 
 bruised, 3 oz. j mezereon, sliced, i oz. ; crude 
 
 ' • Journal de Fliarmacie et de Cliimie,' xii 6—11. 
 
LIST— LITHIUM 
 
 993 
 
 antimony (in a rap). 2 oz. ; water, 12 pints, 
 lioil down to 8 pints, and add — red San- 
 ders, rasped, wliite sandal, rasped, of eaci) 
 8 oz. ; rosewood, rasped sassafras bark, sliicd, 
 of each 1 oz. j liquorice root, sliucd, i oz. 
 Infuse for four hours, strain, and add syrup 
 according to taste. — J)o»e, 1 to 2 pints a day. 
 
 2. (Pearson.) Sarsaparilli, bruised, 4 oz.; 
 dried walnut peel, 4 oz. ; guaiacum, rasped, 
 1} oz. ; crude antimony (in a rag), i oz. ; 
 water, 4 pints. Boil down to 3 pints. 
 
 LIST, The border or selvage torn off a 
 piece of cluth. It is used by the French 
 polishers and law stationers to form their 
 rubbers, and for numerous other purposes. 
 
 LITH'ARGG. Syn. Semi-titeified oxide 
 OF lEAD; Plumbi oxtdum (Ph. L.), Plumbi 
 
 OXTDm SEMIVITBEUM (Ph. D.), LlTHAB&T- 
 BDM (Ph. E.), L. The litharge of commerce 
 is semi-vitrified protoxide of lead, obtained 
 chiefly by scraping oft the drops that form 
 on the surface uf melted lead exposed to a 
 currentof air (dross of lead; plumbum ustum), 
 and heating it to a full red, to melt out any 
 undeoomposed metiil. The fused oxide, in 
 cooling, forms a yellow or reddish semi-crystal- 
 line mass, which readily separates into scales; 
 these, when ground, constitute the ' powdered 
 litharge' of the shops. Litharge is also pre- 
 pared by exposing red lead to a heat suffi- 
 ciently high to fuse it, and 'English litharge' 
 is obtained as a secondary product, by liquefac- 
 tion, from argentiferous lead ore, when it is 
 often called ' silver stone.' 
 
 Pur. " Entirely, or almost entirely, soluble 
 in dilute nitric »cid. This solution is blucU- 
 cru'd by sulphuretted hydrogen. Potassn 
 throws down a white precipitate, which is re- 
 disxolved by adding the same in excess. If 
 sulpliatK of soda be added to 100 gr. of this 
 oxide dissolved in nitric acid, 135 gr. of sul- 
 phate of lead is precipitated." (Ph. L.) " 50 
 gr. dissolve entirely, and without effervescence, 
 in Xi fl. oz. of pyroligneous acid, and the solu- 
 tion precipitated by 53 gr. of phosphate of 
 soda remains precipitable by more of the test." 
 (Ph. E.) The solution in both acetic and nitric 
 acid should be colourless. It is of great im- 
 portance to the pharmaceutist to obtain pure 
 litharge, as the slightest impurity will often 
 colour and spoil his lead plaster (emp. plumbi), 
 and solution of diacetate of lead (liq. piumbi 
 
 DIACETATIS). 
 
 Utei. Litharge is employed in pharmacy, 
 to make plasters and several other preparation> 
 of lead ; by painters as a ' drier ' for oils ; and 
 for various oth<r purposes in the arts. 
 
 Obt. The litharge of commerce is distin- 
 guished by its colour as lithae&e op gold 
 
 (MTTlAEGTEtTM AITET, L. ATJEIUM, L. CHEI- 
 BlTis), which is diirk coloured and impure, and 
 LITHABOE op 8ILVEE (SILTEE STOME; LI- 
 THAEGYErM AEOBNTI, L. AEGENTETTM, 1. AB- 
 OVBITIB), which is purer, and paler coloured. 
 The dark colour of the former is generally said 
 to be owing to the presence of red lead. 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Foreign litharge generally contains copper and 
 iron ; and, not infrequently, a little silver 
 and silica. Tliese are readily detected by the 
 usual tests. In grinding litharge, about 1 lb. 
 of olive oil is usually added to each 1 cwt. to 
 prevent dust. The best solvents of lithurcre 
 are nitric acid and ncetic acid. As it slowly 
 absorbs the carbonic acid of the air, it gene- 
 rally effervesces slightly when treated with 
 acids, and this etfervescence is stronger in 
 proportion to its age. See Lead. 
 
 LITHIUM. Li. The metallic base of LI- 
 THIA, first obtained by Sir II. Davy by exposing 
 hydrate of lithinm in contact with mercury 
 to galvanic action, and decomposing the re- 
 sulting amalgam by distillation. It is now ob- 
 tained by fusing pure chloride of lithium iu a 
 small, thick, porcelain crucible, and decompos- 
 ing it while in a fused state by a current of 
 electricity. It is a white met il, like sodium, 
 very oxidisable, fusing at 856°, and having a 
 sp. gr. of -59. It is the lightest metal known. 
 It belongs to the ' alkaline group,' of which 
 potassium, sodium, ciesium, and rubidium, are 
 the other membei-s. 
 
 Lithium forms salts analogous to those of 
 sodinra, but usually somewhat less soluble. 
 They can be distinguished from those of potas- 
 sium and sodium by the phosphate and carbo- 
 nate, being only sparingly soluble in water, 
 — from those of barium, strontium, and cal- 
 cium, by forming crystallibabie and soluble 
 salts with sulphuric acid and oxalic acid, — and 
 from those of magnesium, by the solution of 
 its carbonate exhibiting an alkaline reaction. 
 Heated on phitiuum, they tinge the flume of 
 the blowpipe carmine red. The salts of lithium 
 may generally be formed by dissolving the 
 hydrate or carbonate in dilute acids. 
 
 Lithium, Benzoate. LiCyHjOj, HjO. (Paris 
 Pharm. Society.) Benzoic acid, 1-2 grams ; 
 lithinm carbonate, 37 grams. Suspend the 
 benzoic acid in 10 parts of water, add the 
 lithium carbonate, and heat. Solution takes 
 place with efl'ervescence, and upon evaporation, 
 handsome, much flattened, more or less elon- 
 gated prismatic crystals are obtained. 
 
 Lithium benzoate is very soluble in water. 
 One grain of the salt calcined, and then treated 
 with slight excess of sulphuric acid, and heated 
 to redness should give 0'376 gram of lithium 
 sulphate. 
 
 Lithium, Bromide of. LiBr. To 37 grams 
 of carbonate of lithium suspended in 200 
 scrams of distilled water, 80 grams of bromine 
 are added. A current of sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen is then passed through the mixture until 
 the whole of the bromide has disappeaied. 
 Hydro-bromic acid is thns formed, which de- 
 composes the carbonate of lithium, bromide 
 of lithium being produced and sulphur set 
 free. The mixture is then gently heatod to 
 drive off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen 
 and to agglutinate the sulphur. After fil- 
 tration the liquor is concentrated, and if it be 
 desired to obtain the bromide in crystals, the 
 
 63 
 
994 
 
 LITHOFBACTEUR— LITHOGRAPHY 
 
 desiccation is finished under a bell jar by means 
 of sulphuric acid. 
 
 lithium, Car'bonate of. LijCO,. Syn. Cae- 
 
 BONATB OP LITHIA; hliniM CAKBONAS (B. 
 P.). Prep, To an aqueous solution of sul- 
 phate of lithinm add a strong solution of car- 
 bonate of ammonium, collect the precipitate, 
 drain, and press, wash with a little rectified 
 spirit, and dry. By dissolving it in boiling 
 water, and slowly evaporating the solution, 
 crystals may be obtained. 
 
 Prop., ^c. It resembles carbonate of mag- 
 nesium in appearance ; is soluble in about 100 
 parts of cold water, and in considerably less of 
 boiling water, and is insoluble in alcohol. The 
 tests for its purity given in the B. P. are — in 
 giving no precipitate with oxalate of calcium 
 or lime water, and leaving, when 10 grains are 
 neutralised with sulphuric acid and ignited, 
 14"86 grains of dry sulphate. It has been 
 proposed by M. Lipowitz, Dr Garrod, and 
 other.-!, as a solvent for uric acid calculi. Ac- 
 cording to Biswanger, 1 part of carbonate of 
 litbia in 120 parts of water takes up, at blood- 
 heat, nearly 4 parts of uric acid. Mr Alex- 
 ander Ure recommends a dilute solution of this 
 substance as an injection in lithic calculus, as 
 it is a better solvent of uric acid than either 
 borax or the alkaline carbonates. " Of all the 
 various menstrua hitherto recommended, none 
 appear to promise more favorably than the 
 carbonate of lithia." " If by means of in- 
 jections " (of this solution) " we can reduce a 
 stone at the rate of a grain or more an hour, 
 we shall not merely diminish the bulk of the 
 calculus, but further loosen its cohesion, disin- 
 tegrate it, so to speak, causing it to crumble 
 down, and be washed away in the stream of 
 urine." (Mr A. Ure.) — Dose, 2 to 5 gr., 
 twice or thrice a day; as an injection, 1 gr. to 
 water, 1 ft, oz. 
 
 Lithium, Citrate of. JAj^^fij. Syn. Li- 
 THI2E CITEAS (B. P.). A white deliquescent 
 amorplious powder, made by acting on 50 
 grains of lithium carbonate with 100 of citiic 
 acid, and is readily soluble in 2^ parts of water. 
 Tests, S(c. 20 grains burnt at a low red 
 heat until white leave 10'6 grains of carbonate 
 of lithium. Its medical properties are similar 
 to those of the carbonate. — Dose, 5 to 16 
 grains, largely diluted. 
 
 Lithium, Citrate of. Effervescing. (Paris 
 Pharm. Society.) Citric acid, 40 grams; so- 
 dium bircarbonate, 50 grams; lithium bicar- 
 bonate, 10 grams. Mix the powders and place 
 them in a flat-bottomed vessel having a large 
 surface ; heat to about 100° C, stirring the 
 powder continually until it takes the granular 
 form, then by means of appropiiate sieves 
 obtain granules of suitable and uniform size, 
 and preserve the preparation in well-closed 
 bottles. 
 
 Lithium, Oxide of. LijO. Syn. Lithia, 
 An alkaline earth found in petalite, &c., and 
 in small quantities in most mineral waters. 
 Prep. Petalite (a silicate of aluminum 
 
 and lithium) in powder mixed with twice 
 its weight of fluor spar is heated with strong 
 sulphuric acid as long as acid vapours are 
 given ofl'. The residue is treated with am- 
 monia, boiled, and filtered, evaporated to dry- 
 ness, and heated to redness. The residue con- 
 sists of sulphate of lithium, from which the 
 oxide is obtained by decomposing it with ace- 
 tate of barium, filtering and heating after 
 having evaporated the solution to dryness. 
 
 This yields the so-called oxide, which is in : 
 reality the hydrate, LiHO, and is a white, non- 
 volatile, soluble, caustic solid. The true oxide 
 is a white powder decomposed by water form- 
 ing the hydrate, and obtainable by igniting the 
 metal in oxygen. 
 
 Lithia, Effervescing Solution of. Syn. Li- 
 
 QTJOB LITHI2E EFFEKVESCENS. Cottip. Water 
 
 charged with carbonic acid and holding in so- 
 lution carbonate of lithium. 10 fl. oz. contain 
 5 grains of the carbonate. — Props. Colourless 
 liquid, possessing powerful diuretic properties. 
 — Use. Antilithic, for dissolving calculi of uric 
 acid. — Dose, 5 to 10 fl. oz. 
 
 LITHOFKACTEDB. See Blastino pow- 
 
 DEKS. 
 
 LITHOS'RAPHT. The art of tracing letters, 
 figures, and other designs, on stone, and trans- 
 ferring them to paper by impression. Our 
 notice of this beautiful and useful art must 
 necessarily be brief. 
 
 There are two methods of lithography in 
 general use. In the one, a, drawing is made 
 on the stone with a lithographic crayon, or 
 \"ith lithographic ink ; in the other method 
 thi; design is made on lithographic paper, 
 which, on being moistened and passed through 
 the press, leaves its design on tlic surface of 
 the stone, reversed. In either method, water 
 acidulated with nitrous acid, oil of vitriol, 
 or hydrochloric acid, is poured over the stone, 
 and this, by removing the alkali from the chalk 
 or ink, leaves the design on it in a permanent 
 form, at the same time that it ' etches ' away a 
 portion of the lights, and renders the surface 
 more absorbent of water. 
 
 The process of lithographic printing is as 
 follows : — Water is thrown over the stone, the 
 roller charged with printing ink is passed 
 over the surface, the paper is applied, and a 
 copy is obtitined by the action of the litho- 
 graphic press. The same process must be had 
 recourse to for each copy. The nature of the 
 stone is such that it retains with great tenacity 
 the resinous and oily substances contained in 
 the ink or crayon employed to form the design 
 and also absorbs water freely ; this, combined 
 with the peculiar aflftnity between resinous and 
 oily substances, and their mutual power of re- 
 pelling water, occasions the ink on the print- 
 ing roller to adhere to the design, and to leave 
 untouched the lights. 
 
 The stones are prepared for lithography by 
 polishing in the ordinary way ; the style of 
 work for which they are intended determining 
 the degree of labour bestowed upon them. 
 
LITHONTEYPnCS— LIVER 
 
 995 
 
 For creyon drawings the anrfnce shoald have a 
 fine grain, but the Hniah of the stone roust de- 
 pend upon the desired softness of the intended 
 drawing; for writing or drawing on in ink the 
 surfaco.niust receive a higher polish, and must 
 be finished off with pumice-stone nnd water. 
 
 The best litlingraphic stnnes are obtained 
 from Solenliofen, near Munich, and from Piip- 
 pentieim, on tlie banlcs of the Danube. The 
 white lias which lies immediately under the 
 blue, near Bath, also yields good lithographic 
 atones, and furnishes the principal portion of 
 those employed in this country. See Cbatons, 
 Ikk and Papeb. 
 
 LITHONTRYP'TICS. St/n. Lithotetptics, 
 LiTHONTBYPTicA, L. Under this head are 
 intended numerous substances (lithics; li- 
 THicA, L.^ used to prevent the formation of 
 uriniiry calculi, or to dissolve them when h1- 
 ready formed. Those employed with the 
 former intention are more correctly termed 
 ANTiiiTHiCB (antilithica, L.), and tlioae with 
 the Istter, LiTHONTBTPTros, or ltthonlttics 
 
 (lITllONTBTPTICA, LITHONLTTIOA, L.). 
 
 The following are the principal substances 
 included under this head by phurmacologicHl 
 writers: — Alkalies and their carbonates, ben- 
 zoic acid, borax, carbonate of llthia, efferves- 
 cing solution of lithia, carbonic acid, cinna- 
 niie acid, diluents (genenilly), diuretics (gene- 
 rally), juniper, malic acid, Malvern waters, 
 mineral acids, nitrosaccharate of lead, opium, 
 phosphate of soda, phosphoric acid, poppies, 
 turpentines, uva ursi, vegetiibleacids, vegetable 
 astringents, vegetable bitters, Vicliy waters, 
 wall pellitory, water (pure). 
 
 LIT'MUS. Sj/n. TnBNSOLK; LiCMtrs, Lacca 
 
 CiJBULEA, L. MU8IVA, L. MDBOI, L. A blue 
 substance prepared by the united influence of 
 water, air, ammonia, nnd either potassa or 
 8odu, from Hooella tincioria, Lecanora tar^ 
 taren, or any of the other tinctorial lichens 
 capable of yielding archil, by a process essen- 
 tially similar to that adopted for the latter 
 sub-tance, except that chalk is genenilly used 
 to form the paste, which is moulded into cakes 
 and dried. 
 
 P«r., 4'c- " Soluble in both water and 
 alcohol. Its blue colour is reddened by acids, 
 and is restored by the addition of alkalies." 
 (Ph. L. 1836.) It is extensively used by the 
 dyer as a red and crimson colouring matter, 
 and by the chemist as a test for acids. 
 
 The colouring matter of litmus, when puri- 
 fied as much as possible, mny be kept for an 
 indefinite period unaltered in glycerin. Lit- 
 mus is treated with hot water, and the soln- 
 lion, after concentration, is mixed with a suffi- 
 cient quantity of alcohol (of 80 per cent.) to pre- 
 cipitate tlie colouring matter. After standing 
 for twenty hours the alcohol Is poured off, and 
 carries with it a dirty blue foreign substance, 
 which frequently occurs in litmus, aud is not 
 iiltcrwl by acids. The sediment is treated 
 with hot water, which dissolves it on account 
 of the potassium carbonate which is present. 
 
 To remove this carbonate, sulphuric acid 
 is added till the liquid assumes a faint wine 
 tint; it is then heated to ixiiling for a few mi- 
 nutes, and again rendered bluaby the addition 
 of a few drops of lime water. After the lapse 
 of twenty-four hours the liquid is filtered, 
 and evaporated to a syrup, and left all night 
 in a cool place, when the potassium sulphate 
 crystallises out in the form of a crust. It is 
 then filtered through a moist cotton mixed 
 with glycerin, and carefully preserved from 
 damp.' Rpc Archil, Citdbeab, &c. 
 
 LIVE-LOKG. Digestive candy. See Can- 
 
 DTINO. 
 
 IIV'EE. Syn. Hepae, L. A largo abdo- 
 minal viscus, the exclusive duty of which, 
 until recently, was stated by physiologist-* to 
 be to secrete bile; but the secretion of suu'ar 
 for combustion in the lungs or capillaries is 
 njw said to be one of its chiif duties. The 
 liver is subject to several diseases, both func- 
 tional and organic, among which intiammation 
 (hepatitis) holds the most prominent place. 
 The acute form of this disease is ushered in 
 with pain in the region of the liver, with sick- 
 ness, costive.ncss, and a strong, hard, and fre- 
 quent pulse, with trnat pain about tlie clavicle 
 and shoulders. There is cough, oppressed 
 breathing.andoftenvoraitingof bilious matter. 
 The urine is scanty, and of a saffron-yellow 
 colour, aud the skin and eyes are also tinged 
 yellow. The treatment consists chiefly in 
 purging with salines accompanied with mer- 
 curials, the use of untimoni.ils, and a blister 
 applied over the region of the liver. Bitter 
 tonics, as calumba, cascarilla, and gentian 
 may afterwards be had recourse to ; and if the 
 patient resides in a hot climate a change to a 
 temperate one should be made, if possible. 
 Chronic hepatitis requires similar treatment, 
 but of a less active character. The more usual 
 causes of diseases of the liver, besides those 
 common to the other viscera, are residence in 
 tt hot climate, and the exees^ive use of highly 
 seascmed food and alcoholic liiinors. 
 
 Liv'er. Syn. H kpab, L. In chemistry and 
 pharmacy, a term formerly applied to nume- 
 rous substances, on account of tlieir colour ; as 
 liver of antimony (hepab antimonii), liver of 
 sulphur (hepar BtTLPntJBls), Ac. . 
 
 Liver, Edible. The live is of animals, 
 such as the bullock, the calf, and the sheep, 
 contain a large amount uf nitrogenous matter,' 
 as may be seen from the foUo'ving analysis by 
 Payen : 
 
 ComposVion of Calfs Liver. 
 Nitrogenous matter . . . 20'10 
 
 Fat 3-58 
 
 Carbo-hydrates (amyloid matter). 45 
 Saline matter . . . 1'51 
 AVater 7233 
 
 9803 
 
 1 J. C Mnrtennon, from "Clicra. Centr.,' traiislalcd 
 into ihe 'Journal of the ClienncHl Sociity." 
 
 " Hence the iastinct that leads man 10 cook it wivli a 
 food rich in carbou — such as fat bacon. 
 
996 
 
 LIVER AND BACON— LODGING-HOUSES 
 
 They are gpnerally regarded as indigestible 
 articles of diet, and as such should be avoided 
 by dyspeptics. 
 
 It is of great importance to have the livers 
 of animals thoroughly cooked, so as to ensure 
 the destruction of a dangerous parasite — the 
 Distoma hepatica, the liver fluke — that fre- 
 quently infests them. 
 
 The f oie gras, of wliich the celebrated Stras- 
 bourg pie is made, is the abnormally enlarged 
 or, rather, diseased liver of the goose, brought 
 to its enormous size and fatty condition by 
 subjecting the bird to close confinement in a 
 hot place and overfeeding it. 
 
 LIVER AND BACON. The liver must be 
 washed, not soaked, then wiped dry and cut 
 into slices. Flour each slice. Remove the 
 rind from the bacon, and cut it into rashers. 
 Let the bacon be fried first, then stand it in a 
 hot dish before the fire during the time the 
 liver is being fried in the melted fat from the 
 bacon. When the liver is cooked place it on 
 the bacon. Next mix a dessert-spoonful of 
 flour into a smooth ))aste with a cupful of 
 water, stir in it a pinch of pepper and salt, 
 and pour it into the frying-pan ; let it just 
 boil, stirring it meanwhile, and, lastly, strain 
 it over the liver and bacon. 
 
 LIXIVIA'TION. Tlie process of dissolving 
 out or extriicting the saline matter of bndies, 
 more espncially of ashes, the residua of distil- 
 lations, &c., by means of ablution or digestion 
 in water. The solution so obtained is called a 
 ' LYE,' ' LET,' or ' LIXIVIUM,' and the salts re- 
 sulting from tiie evaporation of such solutions 
 ' HXIVIAL SALTS.' 
 
 ILA'MA. Syn. GuANACO; Lama, L. A 
 genus of animals of the family Hovidce and 
 tribe Camelina. The llama is confined to South 
 America , and may be regarded as the repre- 
 sentative of the camel in the New World. The 
 most important species are Lama vicugna (the 
 vicuna) and L. Guanacus (the QUANACo). The 
 wool of llamas is woven into stuffs for 
 ponchos, and made into cords, sacks, &c. See 
 Alpaca. 
 
 lOAD'STONE. Syn. Lodestone, Magub- 
 siAN STONE, Magnetic ibonstone. Native 
 magnetic oxide of iron (FcgO^). It is often 
 found massive, frequently crystallised, and 
 occasionally in beds of considerable thickness. 
 Its colour varies from reddish black to deep 
 prey. Native magnets from Arabia, China, 
 and Bengal are commonly of a reddish colour, 
 and are powerfully attractive. These found in 
 Germp.ny and England have the colour of un- 
 wrought iron ; those from Macedonia are more 
 black and dull. 
 
 LOAM. A native mixture of clay, sand, and 
 oxide of iron, with more or less chalk. Loamy 
 soils are of this description. They are called 
 heavy or light, according to the proportion of 
 clay ; and sandy, calcareous, or gravelly, just as 
 sand, gravel, or chalk, form a characteristic 
 portion of them. 
 
 LOBEL'IA. Syn. Indian tobacco; Lo- 
 
 belia (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), L. " The flow- 
 ering herb of Lobelia injlata" (B. P., Ph. L.), 
 or bladder-podded lobelia. The herb has an 
 unpleasant odour, and an acrid, burning, nau- 
 seous taste, somewhat resembling that of to- 
 bacco. In small doses (1 to 3 gr.) it is expec- 
 torant and diaphoretic; in larger doses (5 to 
 15 gr.) nanseant and emetic; and in excessive 
 doses, poisonous. According to Dr Pereira, its 
 principal value is that of an anti-spasmodic. 
 It has been highly recommended by Dr 
 EUiotson in spasmodic asthma. He commences 
 with small doses, and gradually increases 
 them unless headache or nausea occurs. Others 
 give a full dose at or before the commencement 
 of the fit. It has been also tried in croup, 
 hooping-cough, and other diseases of the 
 respiratory organs, with variable effect. 
 
 Lobelia is the panacea of Dr Cofiin, the 
 author of the pretended system of medicine 
 irreverently called * Coflinism.' 
 
 LOBEL'IC ACID. The acid existing in de- 
 coction of lobelia. It closely resembles gallic 
 acid. It reddens litmus, and is precipitated by 
 several metallic salts. 
 
 LOBEL'INE. Syn. Lobelina, L. A light 
 yellowish-brown oily substance, found by 
 Calhoun, of Philadelphia, in Lobelia infiaia. It 
 is volatile, soluble in alcohol, ether, and water ; 
 and in oil of turpentine, oil of almonds, and 
 some other fixed oils ; with the acids it forms 
 crystallisable salts, which are soluble. It may 
 be obtained from the seeds by the action of 
 alcohol acidulated with acetic acid, evaporat- 
 ing, treating with magnesia and then with 
 ether, and again evaporating. 1 oz. of the seeds 
 furnishes 2 gr. When perfectly pure, 1 gr. will 
 kill a large dog. 
 
 LOB'SXEES. See Shell msh. 
 
 LOCK'SOY. Eice boiled to a paste and drawn 
 into threads. Used to thicken soups. It is 
 imported from China. 
 
 LODGING-HOUSES. The following sections 
 of the Public Health Act of 1875 embody the 
 regulations in force with regard to common 
 lodging-houses: 
 
 (S. 76.) Every local authority shall keep a 
 register, in which shall he entered the names 
 and residences of the keepers of all common 
 lodging-houses within the district of such 
 authority, and the situation of every such 
 house, and the number of lodgers authorised 
 according to this Act to be received therein. 
 
 A copy of any entry in such register certi- 
 fied by the person having charge of the re- 
 gister to be a true copy shall be received in 
 all courts and on all occasions as evidence, and 
 shall be sufficient proof of the matter regis- 
 tered without production of the register, or of 
 any document or thing on which the entry is 
 founded ; and a certified copy of any such 
 entry shall be supplied gratis by the person 
 having charge of the register to any person 
 applying at a reasonable time for the same. 
 
 (S. 77.) A person shall not keep a common 
 lodging-house or receive a lodger therein until 
 
LODGING-HOUSES 
 
 997 
 
 the boaae hns been regintered in accordance 
 with the provisions of this Act, nor until his 
 name as the kee|)cr thereof hns been entered 
 in the register kept under this Act; provided 
 thiit when the person so registered dies his 
 widow or any mi-mber of his family may keep 
 the house as a common lodging-house for not 
 more thnn four weeks after his death without 
 being registered os the keeper thereof. 
 
 (S. 78.) A house shall not be registered as a 
 common lodging-house until it has been in- 
 spected and approved for the purpose by some 
 officer iif the local authority ; and the local 
 authority may refuse to register as the keeper 
 of a common lodging-house a person who does 
 not produce to the local authority a certificate 
 of character in such form as the local autho- 
 rity direct, signed by three inhabitant house- 
 liolders of the parish respectively rated to the 
 relief of the poor of the parish within which 
 the lodging-house is situated, for property of 
 the yearly rateable value of £6 or upwards. 
 
 (S. 79.) The keeper of every common 
 lodging-house sliall, if required in writing by 
 the local authority so to do, affix and keep un- 
 defaced and legible a notice with the words, 
 " Uegistered common lodging-house," in some 
 conspicuous place on the outside of such 
 hou!<e. 
 
 The keeper of any such house who, after 
 requisition in writing from the local aiittiority, 
 refuses or neglects to affix or renew such 
 notice, shall be liable to a penalty not exceed- 
 ing £5, and to a further penalty of 10*. for 
 every day that such refusal or neglect con- 
 tinues after conviction. 
 
 (S. 80.) Every local authority shall from 
 time to time make bye-laws : 
 
 1. For fixing from time to time, varying 
 the number of lodgers who may be re- 
 ceived into a common lodging-house, 
 and for the separation of the sexes 
 therein; and — 
 
 2. For promoting cleanliness and ventila- 
 tion iu such houses; and — 
 
 8. For the giving of notices and taking 
 precautions in the case of any infectious 
 disease; and — 
 4. Qenerally for the well-ordering of such 
 houses. 
 (S. 81.) Where it appears to any local 
 authority that a common lodging-house is 
 without a proper supply of water for the use 
 of the lodgers, and that such a supply can be 
 furnished thereto at n. reasonable rate, the 
 local authority may by notice in writing re- 
 quire the owner or keeper of such house, 
 within a time specified tlierein, to obtain such 
 supply, and to do all works necessary for that 
 purpose ; and if the notice be not complied 
 with accordingly, the local authority may re- 
 move such house from the register until it is 
 complied with. 
 
 (S. 83.) The keeper of a common lodging- 
 house shall, to the satisfaction of the local 
 authority, liiuewash the wuUs and ceilings 
 
 thereof in the first week of each of the months 
 of April and October in every year. Penalty 
 for neglect, £2 or less. 
 
 (S. 83.) The keeper of a common lodging- 
 house in which beggars or vagrants are re- 
 ceived to lodge shall from time to time, if 
 required in writing by the local authority so 
 to do, report to the local authority or to such 
 person as the local authority direct, every 
 person who resorted to such house daring the 
 preceding day or night, and for that purpose 
 schedules shall be furnished by the local 
 authority to the person so ordered to report, 
 which schedules he shall fill up with the infor- 
 mation required, and transmit to the local 
 authority. 
 
 (S. 84.) The keeper of a common lodging- 
 house shall, when a person in such house is ill 
 of fever or any infectious disease, give imme- 
 diate notice thereof to the medical officer of 
 health of the local authority, and also to the 
 poor-law relieving officer of the union or 
 parish in which the common lodging-house is 
 situated. 
 
 (S. 85.) The keeper of a common lodging- 
 house, and every other person having or acting 
 in the care or management thereof, shall, at 
 all times when required by any officer of the 
 local authority, give him free access to such 
 house or any part thereof. Penalty for re- 
 fusing such access, £5 or less. 
 
 (S. 86.) Auy keeper of a common lodging- 
 house, or other person having or acting in tlie 
 care or management thereof, who — 
 
 1. Receives any lodger in such house 
 without the same being registered 
 under this Act ; or — 
 
 2. Pails to make a report after he has 
 been furnished by the local authority 
 with schedules for tlie purpose, in pur- 
 suance of this Act, of the persons re- 
 sortitig to such house ; or — 
 
 3. Fails to give the notices required by 
 this Act, where any person has been 
 confined to his bed in such house by 
 fever or other infectious disease, — 
 
 Shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, 
 and in the case of a continuing ofFence to a 
 further penalty not exceeding £2 for every 
 day during which the offence continues. 
 
 (S. 87.) In any proceedings under the pro- 
 visions of this Act relating to common lodg- 
 ing-houses, if the inmates of any bouse or part 
 of a house allege that they are members of the 
 same family, the burden of proving such alle- 
 gation shall lie on tlie persons making it. 
 
 (S. 88.) Where the keeper of a common 
 lodging-house is convicted of a third offence 
 against the provisions of this Act relating to 
 common lodging-houses, the Court before 
 whom the conviction for such third offence 
 takes plHce may, if it thinks fit, adjudge that 
 he shall not at any time within five years after 
 the conviction, or within such shorter period 
 after the conviction as the court thinks fit, 
 keep, or have, or act in the care or manage- 
 
998 
 
 LOGWOOD— LOTION 
 
 ment of a common lodging-house without the 
 previous licence in writing of the local autho- 
 rity, may withhold or graiit on such terms or 
 conditions as thev think fit. 
 
 (S. 89.) For the purposes of this Act the 
 expression 'common lodging-house' includes, 
 in any case in which only part of a house is 
 used as a common lodging-house, the part so 
 used of such house. 
 
 Bye-laws as to Souses let as Lodgings. 
 
 (S. 90.) The Local Government Board may, 
 if they think fit, by notice published in the 
 ■London Gazette,' declare the following enact- 
 ment to be in force within the district or any 
 part of the district of any lopal authority, and 
 from and after the publication of such notice 
 such authority shall be empowered to make 
 bye-laws for the following matter (that is to 
 say): 
 
 1. For fixing the number, and from time 
 to time varying the number, of persons 
 who may occupy a house or part of a 
 house which is let in lodgings, or occu- 
 pied by members of more than one 
 family, and for the separation of the 
 sexes in a house so let or occupied. 
 
 2. For the registration of houses so let or 
 occupied. 
 
 3. For the inspection of such houses. 
 
 4. For enforcing drainage and the pro- 
 vision of privy accommodation for such 
 houses, and for promoting cleanliness 
 and ventilation in such houses. 
 
 6. For tlie clc:msing and limewashing at 
 stated times of the premises, and for 
 the paving of the courts and courtyards 
 thereof. 
 6. For the giving of notices and taking 
 of precautions in case of any infectious 
 disease. 
 This section shall not apply to common 
 lodging-houses within the provisions of this 
 Act, relating to such houses. 
 
 LOG'WOOD. Syn. Cam PEACHT WOOD ; Ha;- 
 
 MATOXTLCM (Ph. L. E. & D.), HiEMATOIYLI 
 riQNUM (B. p.), LlGKTJM Campechense, L. 
 Campechiahtim, L. 'J'he heart-wood of Hts- 
 matoxylon Campecftianum, a native of the 
 coast of Campeachy, but now common in the 
 West Indies and India. It is a valuable 
 astringent, and its' decoction, extract, and in- 
 fusion are useful remedies in chronic diarrhoea 
 and dysentery, und in haemorrhages, &c. The 
 extract is an efficient substitute for catechu 
 and kino. 
 
 Logwood is extensively employed in dyeing 
 and calico printing, for the production of reds, 
 violets, purples, blacks, drabs, &c. It readily 
 yields its colour both to spirit and boiling 
 water. The colouring matter requires a large 
 quantity of water to dissolve it, but when dis- 
 solved can be concentrated to any degree by 
 boiling down. The infusion is of a fine red, 
 turning on the purple or violet ; acids turn it 
 on the yellow, and alkalies deepen it. To 
 stuffs mordanted with alum it gives various 
 
 shades of violet and purple, according to 
 the proportions of the materials. By using 
 solution of tin as the mordant, various shades 
 of red, lilac, and violet, may be obtained. 
 The addition of a little Brazil wood is com- 
 monly made to brighten the red. With a 
 mordant of sulphate or acetate of iron it dyes 
 black ; and with the addition of a little sul- 
 phate of copper greys of various shades. It 
 is, however, chiefly employed, in conjunction 
 with gall-nuts, for blacks, to which it imparts 
 a lustre and velvety appearance. Silk is 
 usually turned through the cold decoction, 
 but for wool the decoction is used either hot 
 or boiling. Logwood is one of the cheapest 
 and most easily managed of the dye stuffs. It 
 is also used to make ink. See Hemaioxtlin, 
 
 LO'HOCH. See Lincttjs. 
 
 LOS'ICA. A species of lute applied as a 
 coating to chemical vessels before exposing 
 them to the fire. Its application is called 
 LOEiCATioN. See Lute. 
 
 LO'TIOK. ;S^». LoTio,L. An external ap- 
 plication, or wash, consisting of water holding 
 in solution medicinal substances. Lotions m»y 
 be prepared of any soluble medicaments that 
 are capable of exerting their action by contact 
 with the skin. Writers on pharmacology have 
 arranged them in classes, as sedative, anodyne, 
 stimulant, &c., according to their effects. Se- 
 dative and refrigerant lotions are commonly 
 employed to allay inflammation; — anodyne and 
 narcotic lotions, to relieve pain; — stimulant 
 lotions, to induce the maturation of tumours, 
 &c. ; — detergent lotions, to clean foul ulcers ; — 
 repellent and resolvent lotions, to discuss tu- 
 mours, remove eruptions, &c. ; — counter-irri- 
 tant lotions, to excite a secondary morbid 
 action, with the intention of relieving one 
 already existing. Lotions are usually applied 
 by wetting a piece of linen with them and 
 keeping it on the part affected ; or, in slight 
 cases, by moistening the part with the fingers 
 previously dipped into them. Lotions are 
 more agreeable if made with rose water, but 
 are not thereby rendered more efficacious. In 
 all cases, distilled water, or filtered soft water, 
 is alone admissible as the solvent. 
 
 As lotions are, in general, mere extempora- 
 neous or magistral preparations, it will, of 
 course, be only necessary here to give the for- 
 mula for a lew of those which are the most 
 useful or the most frequently employed. These 
 wUl serve as examples from which others may 
 be prepared. As a general rule, the medium 
 dose of any substance dissolved in a fiuid 
 ounce of dislilled water, forms a lotion of the 
 proper strength, under all ordinary circum- 
 stances ; or, what is the same thing, the me- 
 dium dose in grains, taken in scruples, is suffi- 
 cient for a pint of such a lotion. Thus, 
 the dose of sulphate of zinc is 1 to 3 gr., 
 
 1-^3 
 therefore — = 2 gr., which is the pro- 
 
LOTION 
 
 999 
 
 portion of sulphate of zinc to be taken for 
 1 H. oz of wutvr, or 40 gr. for 1 pint. Aguiu, 
 the dose of biuliloride of mercury ia | to f gr. ; 
 
 therefore 
 
 A + l 
 - — „— =^i gr- i or nearly i gr. per 
 
 fl. oz., and 81 gr. per pint. In this method 
 ex'rcme or unusual doses, as, for instance, 
 tlioso of sulphate of zinc, as an emetic, in 
 )>oi8onitig, &c., are not taken into tlie calcu- 
 lation. In all cases in which lotions are in- 
 tended for extremely susceptible parts, it is 
 proper to dilute thein with an equal bulk of 
 water. Wlien intended for eye-wat«rs (COL- 
 lyria), they should be diluted with at least 8 
 to 4 times their bulk of water. See Embuo- 
 CATION, Liniment, Ac. 
 Lotion of Ac'etate of Ammo"ziia. Syn. 
 
 LOTIO AMMONIJS ACBTATIS, L. Frep. 1. 
 !>alutiou of acetate of ammonia, 1 part j water, 
 2 parts. 
 
 'i. (Hosp. F.) Solution of acetate of am- 
 monia, rectified spirit, and water, eqi\al parts. 
 Discutient and refrigerant. In oriiiuary in- 
 flammaiions. 
 
 Lotion of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. Lotio 
 pirMBi AOBTATis, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) 
 Acetate of lead, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 8 H. oz. 
 Sometimes a little vinegar is added. In ex- 
 coriations, burns, sprains, contusions, &c. See 
 SOLnilON OP DiAOETATE OF LEAD. 
 
 2. Acetate of lead, 2 gr. ; distilled water, 
 1 oz. (Ophthalmic Hospital.) 
 
 Lotion of Ac'etate of MercuTy. Si/n. Lotio 
 H;DliAU»TRl ACBTATIS, L. Prep. Acetate 
 of mercury, 1 scruple ; distilled water, 1 pint. 
 Mix. 
 
 Lotion of Ac'etate of Zinc. Si/u. Lotio 
 ziNci AOEi'ATis, L. Prep. 1. (Beral.) Acetate 
 of zinc, li dr. J water, 1 pint. Astringent! 
 siuiilar to lotion of sulphate of zinc. 
 
 2. Acetate of zinc, 1 to 2 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
 An astringent coUjrium in ophthalmia, and as 
 injection in gonorrhoea after the acute stage 
 has passed. Neither tincture nor wine ot 
 opium gives a precipitate with this lotion. 
 
 Lotion, Acetic. Si/n. Loiio aceti, L. 
 Prep. 1. Vinegar, 1 part ; water, 2 or 3 parts. 
 For bruises, contusions, &c., and as a general 
 refrigerant application to sound parts. 
 
 2. Vinegar, 1 fl. oz. ; cold water, \ pint ; as 
 a wash in chronic ophthalmia, &c. 
 
 lotion. Acid. See Lotions of Acetic, Ni- 
 TGlo, and Pbosphobic acid, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Acon'itine. Syn. Lotio aconi- 
 TIN^, L. Prep. (Turnbull.) Aconitine, 8 gr. ; 
 rectitied spirit, 2 fl. oz. In neuralgia ; applied 
 by means of a small piece of sponge mounted 
 at the end of a stick. It must never be em- 
 ployed when the skin is broken or abraded; 
 and it would be wise, in most cases, to dilute 
 it with double its volume of proof spirit. 
 
 Lotion, Al'kaline. Syn. Lotio alk^lina, L. 
 POTASSiB OABBONATIB, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
 From salt of tartar, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint. 
 Stimulant and detergent. Diluted with an 
 
 equal bulk of water, it forms an excellent cos- 
 metic wash to remove scurf from the hair. 
 Sometimes it is made with almond milk instead 
 of water. 
 
 Lotion, Almond, Alkaline. (Dr A. T. 
 Thomson). Syn. Solution of potash, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 eumlsion of bitter almonds, 54 fl. oz. To 
 remove the scurf in porrigo furf urans, applied 
 twice a day diluted with warm water. 
 
 Lotion of Al'nm. Syn. Lotio Aurimns, L. 
 Prep. From alum, li dr. ; distilled or rose 
 water, 1 pint. Astringent. For sore gums, 
 nipples, excoriations, &c. 
 
 Lotion, Ammonio-Camphorated. Syn. Aqua 
 sedativa, L. Eau bedativb de baspail; 
 Eau, ov lotion ammoniacals oaufub^b. 
 No. 1. Liquor ammonite ('923), 6 parts; cam- 
 phorated spirit, 1 part ; salt, 6 parts ; water, 
 10 parts. No. 2 contains 8 parts, and No. 3 
 10 parts of ammonia. 
 
 Lotion, Ammoui'acal. Syn. Lotio ammo- 
 nia, L. AMMONlACALis, L. Prep. 1. Liquor 
 of ammonia, 3 fl. dr.; cold water, 5 A. oz. As 
 a stimulant to indolent ulcers, and in certain 
 skin diseases. 
 
 2. (Swediaur.) Liquor of ammonia, spirit 
 of thyme, and spirit of camphor, equal parts. 
 In headaches; applied to the forehead and 
 temples, and in otiier cases, as a counter- 
 irritant. In most cases it should be used di- 
 luted. 
 
 3. (Opiated— Dr Kirkland.) Sal volatile, 
 .3J fl. oz. ; tincture of opium, \ fl. oz. ; water, 
 4 fl. oz. Anodyne, stimulant, and rt^solvent. 
 
 Lotion, Antiphlogis'tic. Syn. Lotio anti- 
 PHLOOISTICA, L. Prep. 1. (Copland.) Solu- 
 tion of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. dr. ; solution uf 
 acetate of ammonia, 2 H. oz. ; distilled water, 
 1 pint. KL^frigerant, sedative, and repellaiit. 
 Used to allay iuHammatiun, &e. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Opium, 2 dr., dis- 
 tilled vinegar, i pint. Anodyne and refrige- 
 rant; in swelled joints, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Ar'nica. Syn. LoTio abnic^, L. 
 Prep. 1. Tincture of arnica, 1 11. dr. ; rose 
 water, 2} fl. oz. In contusions, bruises, extra- 
 vasations, &c. 
 
 2. (Niemann.) Arnica flowers, \ oz. j hot 
 vinogar, 3 fl. oz. ; boiling water, 5 fl. oz., in- 
 fuse until cold, and strain, in acute hydro- 
 cephalus; or with water, q. s. to measure a 
 pint, as a common lotion. 
 
 Lotion, Arsenical. Syn. Lotio absknioai.I3, 
 L. acidi aeskniosi, L. Prep. 1. Arse- 
 ninus acid, 5 gr. ; water, 1 pint. In psoriasis, 
 ic. 
 
 2. (Compound — M. le Febre.) Araenious 
 acid, 8 gr. ; boiling water, 16 fl. oz. ; dissolve, 
 and add of extract of hemlock, 1 oz. ; solution 
 of diacetate of lead, 3 fl. oz. ; tincture of 
 opium, 1 fl. dr. Every morning, in cancer. 
 
 Lotion, Astrin'gent. Syn. Lotio asibin- 
 OENS, L. See Lotions of Alum, Sulphate 
 op Zino, &c. 
 
 Lotion, Barlow's. Prep. From sulpburet of 
 potassium (in powder), 3 dr.; soap (sliced). 
 
1000 
 
 LOTION 
 
 li dr. ; lime water, 7J fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 2 
 &. oz. In itch, ringworm, &c. 
 
 lotion, Bateman's. Prep. Prom bichloride 
 of mercury, 2 gr. ; compound spirit of liiveu- 
 der, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, aud add of distilled 
 water, 4 fl. oz. In obstinate cutaneous erup- 
 tions, more especially those of a papular 
 character. 
 
 lotion of Belladon'na. St/a. LoTio eelia- 
 DONN^, L. Prep. (Graefe.) Extract of bel- 
 ladonnii, i dr. ; dilute solution of diacetate of 
 lead, i pint. Applied to tumours and glan- 
 dular enlargements. 
 
 lotion of Benzoin. Lotio benzoini. Tinc- 
 ture of benzoin, 1 ; rose water, 40. A nice 
 lotion to protect the face from the heat of the 
 sun. 
 
 Lotion of Biclilo"rlde of Mercury. St/n. 
 Lotio HYDBABaTEi bichloeidi, L. h. chlo- 
 BIDI COEBOSIVI, L. Prep. 1. Corrosive sub- 
 limate, 5 to 10 gr. ; distilled water, 1 pint. 
 The addition of 5 or 6 gr. of hydrochlorate of 
 ammonia, or as many drops of hydrochloric 
 acid, increases the solvent action of the water, 
 and renders the preparation less liable to 
 change. Some persons dissolve the sublimate 
 in 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rectified spirit before adding 
 it to the water; but this is unnecessary. In ob- 
 stinate eruptions, glandular swelling, obstinate 
 sores, &c. ; also as an injection. 
 
 2. (Good.) Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. ; sal 
 ammoniac, 2 dr.; nitre, 4 dr.; water, 6 fl. 
 oz. ; dissolve. In itch, &c. For use, it should 
 be diluted with about 3 times its bulk of 
 water. 
 
 3. (Lotio htdeaegtei amtctoalina — St 
 B. Hosp.) Blanched bitter almonds, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 1 pint j make an emulsion, and add o( 
 bichloride of mercury (dissolved in a little 
 rectified spirit), 10 gr. This resembles Gow- 
 land's lotion, and may be used for it. 
 
 lotion of Bismuth. Lotio Bismuthi. Ni- 
 trate of bismuth, 6 gr. ; corrosive sublimate, i 
 gr. ; spirits of camphor, IJ minim ; water, 1 
 oz. A soothing lotion in chronic skin affec- 
 tions. 
 
 lotion, Black. See Lotion, Mbecueial. 
 
 lotion of Borax. Si/n. Lotio bobacis, L. 
 BOEACICA, L. Prep, 1. (Dr Abercrombie.) 
 Borax, 2i dr. ; distilled vinegar, i pint. In 
 ringworm. 
 
 2. (Copland.) Borax (in powder), 1 dr. ; 
 rose water and orange-flower water, of each 
 3 fl. oz. ; dis.-olve. A fragrant and efiective 
 application to sore gums, sore nipples, exco- 
 riations, &c. 
 
 3. (Ur Johnson.) Borax, 2 dr.; precipi- 
 tated chalk, 1 oz. ; rose water and rectified 
 spirit, of Ciich 3 oz. For sore nipples. 
 
 4. (Dr Meigs.) Borax, i oz. ; sulphate of 
 morphia, 6 gr. ; rose water, 8 fl. oz. To 
 allay itching and irritation, especially pruritus 
 vulvae. 
 
 5. Borax, 1; rose water, 24. Cosmetic. 
 Lotion, Bro'mine. S^n. Lotio beominii. 
 
 L. Prep. (Dr Glover.) Bromine, 1 dr.; 
 water, 1 pint. As an application to scrofulous 
 ulcers. 
 
 Lotion for Burns. See Linimekt. 
 
 Lotion, Camphora'ted. See Lotion, Eta-; 
 
 POEATINO-. 
 
 Lotion of Cap'sicnm. St/n. Lotio oapsici, 
 L. Prep. (Griffith.) Tinctures of capsicum 
 and camphor, of each 4 fl. oz. ; liquor of am- 
 monia, 2 fl. oz. A powerful rubefacient and 
 counter-irritHot. 
 
 Lotion of Carbolic Acid. (Mr Lister.) Si/n. 
 Lotio acidi caebolioi. Prep. 1 part of acid 
 in 20 of water is used to promote the healing 
 of wounds, abscesses, ulcers and burns. A 
 weaker solution of 1 in 40 is in comujon use in 
 the London hospitals. 5 drops to 1 fl. oz. of 
 glycerin forms a good application to eruptions 
 of the skin. 
 
 Lotion of Car'bonate of So'da. St/ii. Lotio 
 SODJE CAEBONATis, L. Prep, From carbonate 
 of soda, i oz. ; water, 1 pint. To allay itchiug 
 and irritation. See Lotion, Alzaline. 
 
 Lotion of Cher'iy Laurel.. St/n. Loxio 
 LAUEO-CEBASi, L. Prep. 1. Cherry-laurel 
 water (distilled), li fl. oz. ; di.'^tilled water, 
 J pint. Anodyne; useful to allay irritation, 
 &,c. Some persons with delicate skin employ 
 it as a wash after shaving. 
 
 2. Cherry-laurel water (distilled), 4 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit and ether, of each 1 fl. oz.; 
 extract of belladonna, 2 dr. ; agitate well to- 
 gether in the cold. An excellent application 
 in neuralgia, painful tumours, &c. 
 
 Lotion for Chilblains. See Chilblain, Li- 
 niment, &c. 
 
 Lotion of CMo"rate of Soda. Si/n. Loiio 
 soxiM chloeatis, L. Prep. (Darling.) Chlo- 
 rate of soda, 5 dr. ; water, J pint. In pru- 
 ritus, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Chlo'^ride of Ammoninm. Lotio 
 AMMONil ohloeidi. Chloride of ammonium, 
 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz. ; water, 10 oz. To 
 this vinegar is sometimes added. Used as a 
 ilressing for bruises. See also Lotion op 
 Htdeochloeate op Ammonia. 
 
 Lotion of ChVride of Lead. St/n. Lotio 
 plttmui chloeidi, L. Prep. (Tnson.) Chlo- 
 ride of lead, 1 dr. ; hot distilled water, 1 pint; 
 dissolve. In cancerous ulcerations, painful 
 neuralgic tumours, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Chloride of Tin. St/n. Lotio 
 STANNI chloeidi, L. Prep. (Nanche.) Chlo- 
 ride of tin, 1 gr.; distilled water, 2 to 3 fl. oz. 
 In cancerous ulcerations. 
 
 Lotion of Chloride of Zinc. St/n. Lotio 
 ziNCi chloeidi, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of 
 zinc, 10 gr. (or solutiou, i fl. dr.) ; water, 1 
 pint. Asa disinfeitaut and preventive lotion. 
 
 2. (Voght.) Chloride of zinc, 8 gr. ; extract 
 of aloes, 40 gr. ; distilled water, 4 fl. oz. In 
 atonic and foul ulcers. 
 
 Lotion, Chlorina'ted St/n. Lotio chlo- 
 EINATA, L. Prep. 1. (Lotio calcis chlo- 
 SINAT.E.) — a. From chloride of lime, 3 dr.j 
 
LOTION 
 
 1001 
 
 water, 1 pint ; agitate togrother for some time, 
 and strnin through iuuaUd. 
 
 b. (Uerheimi.) Chloride of lime, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 1 quart ; triturate and filter. 
 
 2. (LoTio boDjB chlobinat«.) From chlo- 
 ride of Boda, aa the lust. They are both ex- 
 celleut waahea for foul ulcera, the itch, &c. ; 
 and, when diluted for the teeth, to sweetftn 
 tlie breath, remove the amell of tobacco smoke, 
 to prevent infection, and for various purposes. 
 When intended for application to very tender 
 or abraded surfaces, they must be largely 
 diluted with water. 
 
 Lotion of Chlo"rofomi. 8gn. Lotio ohlo- 
 BOFOBMi, L. Prep. Chloroform (pure), li 
 fl. oz. ; rectilied spirit and cold distilled water, 
 of each i pint. Anodyne. A piece of oiled 
 silk should be laid over the rag to prevent 
 evaporation. The lotiou made with water, 
 as comuionly prescribed, is inert. 
 
 Lotion for Corni. See Cobk. 
 
 Lotion of Crea'eote. 5y». Lotio cbeasoti, 
 li. Prep. 1. Creasote, 2 fl. dr. ; liquor of 
 potassa, 3 fl. dr. ; water, \ pint. 
 
 2. Creasote, 8 fl. dr. ; vinegar and water, 
 of each ^ pint. In bums, itch, phagedenic 
 ulcerations, ringworm, chancre, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Cy'anide of Fotassinm. Syn. 
 Lotio potassi cyanidi, L. Prep. 1. (Caze- 
 nave.) Cyanide of potnssium, 10 gr. ; emul- 
 sion of bitter almonds, 6 fl. oz. In chronic 
 eruption! and other cases attended with much 
 itching or irritation. 
 
 2. (Foy.) Cyanide of potassium, 8 gr. ; dis- 
 tilled water, 1 fl. oz. In neuralgia, acute 
 rheumatism, &c. ; applied by means of com- 
 presses of lineu. Both the above are poisonous 
 if swallowi'd. 
 
 Lotion of Delphin'ine. 8yn. Lotio dkl- 
 PHlNlJi, Embrocatio d., L. Prep. (l)r 
 Turiibuil.) Delphinine, 20 to60 gr. ; rectified 
 spirit, 2 fl. 07,. Used us lotion of vbeatbia. 
 
 Lotion of Diac'etate of Lead. Syn. Goc- 
 
 LABD's LOTION; LOTIO PIUMBI DIACETATIB, 
 
 L. The dilute liquor of diacetato of lead 
 (liq. plumbi diacetatis dilutus — Ph. L.). 
 ISi'i' SOLCTION. Also Solution of subucetatc of 
 lead (B. P.), 3 minims, with 7 miuims to 1 oz. 
 water. 
 Lotion, Evap'orating. Sy». Lotto etapo- 
 
 EANS, L. VAP0BAN3, L. BPIIJITUS DILUTI, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Copland.) Sulphuric ether, rectified 
 spirit, and solution of acetate uf ammonia, of 
 each 1} fl. oz. ; rose water, Z\ fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Guy's Hosp.) Rectified spirit, 1 part; 
 water, 6 parts. 
 
 8. (Erasnms Wilson.) Rectified spirit, 1 
 part ; water, 4 to 6 parts. 
 
 4. (Camphorated — Ware.) Camphor, i 
 dr. ; elder flowers, \ oz. ; rectified spirit, 4 oz. ; 
 digest 24 hours, and strain. 
 
 Obi. The above are soothing and refrigerant, 
 if allowed to evaporate by free exposure ; 
 stimulant, if the evaporation is prevented by 
 covering the part with the hand, or a piece of 
 oiled silk. They ore useful applicatious in 
 
 nervous headaches, restlessness, itching and 
 irritability of the skin, Ac. "A little rose 
 water added to the simple water makes an 
 agreeable addition, and sometimes camphor 
 water (julep), or a little Goulard's extract, 
 may be deemed ndvautageous, when a greater 
 degree of calming effect is required." (Eras. 
 Wdson.) Eau de Cologne, diluted with an 
 equal quantity of water, is often used as an 
 evaporating lotion. 
 
 Lotion of Gall-nnts. Syn. Lotio galls, L. 
 Prep. From gall-nuts (bruised), ) oz. ; boiling 
 water, 1 pint ; infuse until cold, and strain. 
 Astringent. An excellent application to sore 
 nipples, or to strengthen them before suck- 
 ling ; spirit of wine, 3 fl. oz., may be advan- 
 tageously added to the cold infusion, and a 
 like portion of water omitted. Sec Decoction. 
 
 Lotion of Qlyc'erin. Syn. Lotio oly- 
 ciutiNi, L. OLTCBBIHI.E, L. Prep. 1. Gly- 
 cerin, loz.; water, 1 pint. To allay ilchint;, 
 and remove dryness, iSic., in various skin dis- 
 eases; also in cliaps of the nipples, lips, ami 
 hands. For the latter purpose the addition of 
 2 to 3 dr. of borax is recommended by some 
 writers. 
 
 2. Glycerin, 1 oz. ; thick mucilage, 2 oz. ; 
 lime water, 7 oz. In burns, scalds, chaps, 
 excoriations, &c. 
 
 3. (Startin.) Glycerin, 1 oz.; extract of 
 belladonna, 1 dr.; soap linimeut; 3 oz. ; tri- 
 turate together. In bruises, sprains, and 
 swelled joints; gouty, neuralgic, and rheu- 
 matic pains, &c. 
 
 4. (Startin.) Trisnitrate of bismuth, \ dr. ; 
 tincture of foxglove and dilute nitric acid, of 
 each 1 fl. dr. ; glycerin, 4 dr. ; rose water, 
 8i fl. oz. To allay the itching in prurigo, 
 and some other skin diseases. 
 
 Obs. Varions lotions may be prepared by 
 disi'Olving active medicinal substances in gly- 
 cerin. 
 
 Lotion, Goulard's. See Lotion of Diacb- 
 TATE of Lead. 
 
 Lotion, Oont. Syn. Lotio antabthbitica 
 L. Prep. 1. Glycerin, 1 oz. ; extract of 
 belladonna, 3 dr. ; reratrine, 10 gr., dissolved 
 in rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; mix, and further 
 add, of water, 17 fl. oz. It is poisonous if 
 swallowed. 
 
 2. (' Scudamobe's g. L.') From camphor 
 mixture, 9 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 3 fl. oz. 
 The above are applied on rags or compresses, 
 or are poured on the surface of poultices. 
 
 Lotion, Gowland's. This celebrated no>trnm 
 is prepared as follows : — I'ake of Jordan al- 
 monds, 1 oz. ; bitter ahnonds, \ oz. ; blanch 
 them, and make an emulsion in soft water, 1 
 pint; to this add of bichloride of mercury, 
 15 gr. ; previously dissolved in rectified spirit, 
 2 fl. dr., together with enough water to make 
 the whole measure 1 pint, and put it into 
 bottles. 
 
 Obe. This preparation is chiefly used as a 
 cosmetic to improve the complexion ; and also 
 as a wash for obstinate eruptions and minor 
 
1002 
 
 LOTION 
 
 glandular swellings and indurations. As a 
 beautifier of the complexion, it is employed by 
 simply wetting the skin with it, either by 
 means of the corner of a napkin or the fingers 
 dipped into it, after which it is gently wiped 
 o£E with a dry cloth Dr Paris represents this 
 nostrum to contain i dr. of corrosive subli- 
 mate in every pint, which is not the case 
 
 Lotion, Granville's Conuter-irritant. See 
 LiNiMEifT OF Ammonia (Compound). 
 
 lotion, Hemlock. Sj/n. LoTii coNli, L. 
 Prep. (Mid. Hosp.) Extract of hemlock, 3 
 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; 
 digest until cold, and strain. Anodyne and 
 resolvent ; in glandular enlargements, painful 
 ulcers, cancer, indarations, rheumatism, neu- 
 ralgia, &c. 
 
 Lotion, Hooping-cougli. (Struve's.) LoTio 
 ANTIPBHTUSSIOA, L. Prep. (Paris.) Potassio- 
 tartrate of antimony, 1 dr.; tincture of can- 
 tharides, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz. This is a powerful 
 counter-irritant, and should be used with cau- 
 tion ; as it is apt to induce a troublesome erup- 
 tion on the parts to which it is frequently 
 applied. 
 
 Lotion of HydrocMo"rate of Ammonia. St/n. 
 
 LOTIO AMM0NI2E HTDROOHLOEATIS, L. Prep. 
 1. (Weakeb.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 4 dr. i 
 water, 1 pint. As a wash in itch, ulcers, 
 tender feet, swelled joints, &c. 
 
 2. (Stkongek.) From sal ammoniac, 1 to 
 2 oz. ; water, 1 pint. In contusions, chronic 
 tumours, extravasations, chilblains, &c., when 
 the skin is not broken. Both are stimulant 
 and resolvent or discutient. Vinegar is often 
 substituted for the whole or part of the water, 
 and sometimes a fifth or sixth part of rectified 
 spirit is adfled. See also Lotion oe Chlobide 
 OP Ammonium. 
 
 Lotion, HydrociVric. Si/n. LoTio acidi 
 HTDKOCHLOitioI, h. Prep. 1. Hydrochloric 
 acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 1 pint. In lepra, and 
 several other skin diseases. 
 
 2. (Foy.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part; water, 
 16 parts. In chilblains, when the skin is un- 
 broken. 
 
 Lotion, Hydrocyan'io. Syn. Lotio htdeo- 
 
 CYANICI, L. AOIDI HYDEOOYANICl, L. Prep. 
 
 1. (Magendie.) Medicinal hydrocyanic acid, 
 1 to 2 fl. dr. ; lettuce water, 1 pint. In he- 
 patic afEections. 
 
 2. (Sneider.) Medicinal acid, IJ fl. dr.; 
 rectified spirit and water, of each 6 H. oz. 
 
 3. (A. T. Thomson.) Medicinal acid and 
 rectified spirit, of each 2 fl. dr. ; acetate of 
 lead, 16 gr. ; distilled water, 7i fl. oz. In im- 
 
 pL'tigO, &C. 
 
 Ohs. Lotions of prussie acid are employed 
 to allay pain and irritation in various chronic 
 skin diseases, especially the scaly and itchy 
 eruptions ; and in cancer, &c., with variable 
 success. See Hydeooyanic aoid. 
 
 Lotion of Hyposn'lphite of Soda. Syn. Lotio 
 SOD.E HYPOSdLPHiTia, L. Prep. (Startin.) 
 Hyposulphite of soda and alum, of each 1^ dr, ; 
 
 eau de Cologne, J fl. oz. ; rose water, 7i fl. oz. ; 
 in the advanced stages of acne. 
 
 Lotion of I'odide of Ar'senic and Mer'cury. 
 St/n. Lotio aesenioi et hydbaeoybi hy- 
 DEIODATIS, L. Prep. Fiom Donovan's solu- 
 tion, 1 part; water, 9 parts. In lepra, 
 psoriasis, and other scaly skin diseases. See 
 Solution. 
 
 Lotion of Iodide of Fotas'sium. Syn, Loiio- 
 POTASSil lODiDi, L. Prep. 1. From iodide of 
 potassium, 1 to 2 dr. ; water, 1 pint. In the 
 usual ca«es in which ioduretted preparations 
 are employed. 
 
 2. (Dr O. Ward.) Iodide of potassium, I 
 dr. ; water, J pint. In itch. (See below.) 
 
 Lotion of Iodide of Zinc. Syn. Lotio zinci 
 lODtDi, L. Prep. (Boss.) iodine, IJ dr.; zinc 
 filings, 1 dr. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; digest with heat 
 until the liquid becomes coloured, then filter. 
 In enlarged tonsils. 
 
 Lotion of I'odine. Syn. Lotto iodikii, L. 
 Prep. From iodine, 2 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 fl. 
 dr.; dissolve, well agitate the solution viith 
 distilled water, 1 pint, and filter. An ex- 
 cellent wash for scrofulous ulcers, and in 
 chronic ophthalmia, cutaneous scrofula, and 
 several chronic skin disease.s, particularly in 
 highly sensitive habits. 
 
 Lotion of Iodine Compound. Syn. Lotio 
 lODi COMP., L. Prep. 1. Iodide of potassium, 
 80 gr. ; iodine, 60 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of potassium and 
 iodide of sulphur, of each 1 dr.; water, 1 pint. 
 In itch ; either alone or diluted with an equal 
 bulk of water. 
 
 3. (Dauvergne.) Iodine, 3 dr. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 6 dr. ; water, 3 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and 
 label the bottle No. 1. Sulphuret of potassium, 
 4 oz. ; water, 8 fl. oz. ; dissolve. For use, a tea- 
 spoonful of No. 1, and a table-spoonful of No, 
 2, are to be added to about a pint of water. 
 In itch, and several other skin diseases. 
 
 4. (Lugol.) Iodine, 1 to 2 gr. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 3 to 6 gr. ; water, 1 pint. In scro- 
 fulous ophthalmia, fistulas, &c. ; and as a wash 
 in numerous skin diseases. 
 
 5. (Eighini.) Chloride of lime, 4 dr. ; water, 
 2\ fl. oz. ; triturate together, filter into a 
 stoppered bottle, and add of tincture of iodine, 
 1 dr. With a pint of water it forms an 
 effective application in itch. 
 
 6. (Soubeiran.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz.; 
 iodine, \ oz. ; water, 6 oz. ; dissolve. Used as 
 iodine paint ; also as a caustic to touch the 
 ^urfaces of scrofulous ulcers, and the eyelids in 
 scrofulous ophthalmia. 
 
 7. Iodide of potassium, J dr. ; iodine, 16 
 gr. ; water, 1 pint. This is the common and 
 best form of iodine lotion, but for certain 
 purposes it is used much stronger. (See 
 ahove^ 
 
 Lotion of Iron with Coninm. Lotio feeei 
 CUM CONIO. Sulphate of iron, 8 gr. ; extract 
 of conium, 8 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
 
 Lotion, Itch. Syn. Lotio antipsoeioa, L. 
 Prep. (Cazenave.) Sulphuret of potassium, 1 
 
LOTION 
 
 1003 
 
 dr. ; ioft ioap, 2 dr. j water, 8 fl. oz. ; dissolve. 
 An excellent remedy for the itch. It leaves 
 little smell behind, and does not soil the linen. 
 (See above.) 
 
 Lotion, Kirkland'i. See LoTloir of Mtbbh. 
 
 Lotion of Lemon Jnice. Sgn. LoTio aircci 
 LIMONIB, L. Prep. From the freshly ex- 
 pressed juice of lemon, diluted with 4 or 6 
 times its bulk of water. To render it more 
 agreeable, rose water may be employed, or a 
 few drops of eau <le Cologne added. It is cool- 
 ing and detergent, and forms an excellent ap- 
 plication to foul ulcers, and to allay the itching 
 in numerous cutaneous affections. 
 
 Lotion of Lime Wa'ter. %n. Lotio oalcis 
 BPIBITUOSA, L. Prep. (Ph. Chirur.) Rectified 
 spirit, 4 oz. ; lime water, 8 fl. oz. See Evapo- 
 EATINO lOTIOK (above.) 
 
 Lotion, Uammil'laiy. 8gn. Lotio balsami 
 Pkbuviani composita, L. Prej>. (Iverg.) 
 Unlsam of Peru, 1 dr.; yolk of 1 egg; make 
 an emulsion, nnd add of spirit of wild thyme, 
 3 fl. oz. For sore nipples ; to be followed, 
 whilst still wet, by a 'dusting' with a powder 
 composed of Peruvian bark, 1 dr. i gum Arabic, 
 2 dr. 
 
 Lotion, MercTi"rial. Prep. 1. (Black wash. 
 Black lotion. Mild phagedbnio l. ; Lotio 
 nioba (b.f.), l. htdbaeoyei oinebka, l.h. 
 niob*, l. h. ohlobidi odm calob, l. meb- 
 oubialis n., Aqua phaoed.enipa, mitis, L.) 
 
 a. (B. p.) From calomel, 3 gr. ; lime water, 
 1 oz. J well shaken together. 
 
 i. (Mid. Hosp.) To the last add of thick 
 mucilage, 1 fl. oz. 
 
 e. (Guy's Hospital.) From calomel, 1 dr., 
 lime water, 8 fl. oz. 
 
 Obt, Black wash is a favourite application 
 to all kinds of syphilitic and scrofulous sores. 
 The bottle should be well shaken before the 
 lotion is applied. 
 
 2. Yellow wash, Y. lotion. Phagedenic 
 L. ; Lotio flava, L. PHAOBDiUNioA, Aqua p., 
 Lotio hyobaroybi flava, L. h. bichlokidi 
 CUM calce, L.) — a. (B. P.) Corrosive subli- 
 mate, 18 gr. ; liine water, 10 oz. ; well shaken 
 togethir. 
 
 b. (8c B Hosp.) Corrosive sublimate, 20 
 Br.;llme water, 6 fl. oz. Used as the last, 
 but it is stronger and more active, from con- 
 taining H little undecomposed bichloride. 
 
 Lotion of Myrrh. St/n. Kibeland's lotion ; 
 Lotio uybbhji, L. Prep. l.(D'r Kirkland. 
 Tincture ol' myrrh and lime water, equal parts. 
 In scorbutic ulcers and gums. 
 
 2. (Compnaud; Lotio mybbh^ compo- 
 sita, L. — Ph. Chirur.) Honey of roses and 
 tincture of myrrh, of each 2 fl. dr. ; lime- 
 w»ter, 2| fl. oz. As No. 1 ; also used as a den- 
 tifrite. 
 
 Lotion of Ni'trate of Bis'mnth. Sgn. Lotio 
 BiSMUiHi nitbatis, L. Prep. (Cutan. Ho.sp.) 
 Subnitrace or trisnitrate of bismuth, i dr. ; 
 corrosive sublimate, 12 gr.; spirit of camphor, 
 i H. dr.; water, 1 pint. In itch, and some 
 other ernptious. 
 
 Lotion of Nitrate of Sil'ver. Si/n. Lotio 
 aboenti nitbatis, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of 
 silver, 15 gr. ; nitric acid, 10 drops; distilled 
 water, ^ piut. As a wash for indolent ulcers, 
 sore legs, &c. 
 
 2. (Jackson.) Nitrate of silver, 10 gr. ; 
 water, 1 fl. oz. For bed-sores ; applied, at first, 
 twice or thrice a day. 
 
 3. (Schreider.) Nitrate of silver, i dr. ; 
 nitric acid, 10 drops j water, li fl. oz. In chil- 
 blains, soft corns, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Nitrate of Silver (Strong). Lotio 
 ABOENTI NITBATIS F0BTI8. Nitrate of silver, 
 60 gr. ; distilled water, 1 oz. 
 
 Lotion of Nitrate of Sil'ver, Etherial. Loiio 
 
 ABOENTI NITBATIS .STHEBEA. Nitrate of 
 
 silver, 20 gr. ; distilled water, 1 dr. ; spirit of 
 nitrous ether, 1 oz. 
 
 Lotion of Ni'tre. Si/n. Lotio potass* 
 NITBATIS, L. Prep. 1. Nitre, 3 dr.; vinegar, 
 1 pint ; water, f pint. 
 
 2. Nitre, 2 dr. ; sal Ammoniac, 1 dr. ; vine- 
 gar and water, of each J pint. In sprains, 
 contusions, extravasations, tender feet, chil- 
 blains, &c. Diluted with an equal bulk of 
 water, it is a popular application to ' black 
 eyes.* 
 
 Lotion of Ni'tric Acid. St/n. Lotio acidi, 
 L. ACIDI NITBICI, L. Prep. 1. (C.)llicr.) 
 Nitric acid, J fl. oz. ; water, 1 pint. In lepra, 
 and other scaly skin diseases. 
 
 2. (Phcebus.) Nitric acid. 1 fl.dr.; lauda- 
 num, li fl. dr. J rose water, i pint. For vene- 
 real ulcers. 
 
 Lo'tion of Nitromnriat'ic Acid. Si/n. Lo- 
 tion op aqua beoia. /"re^. (Copland.) Ni- 
 tromuriatic acid, IJdr. ; water, 1 pint. In 
 gangrene and mortification. 
 
 lotion of Nux Vom'ica. Si/n. Lotio nucis 
 VOMIC.E, L. Prep. 1. Alcoholic extract of nux 
 vomica, 10 gr.; rectified spirit and water, of 
 each 2i fl. oz. In amaurosis. 
 
 2. (Radius.) Alcoholic exti-act of nux 
 vomica, 8 gr. ; liquor of ammonia (stronger), 
 i fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl, oz. In paralysed 
 limbs. 
 
 Lotion of O'pinm. Si/n. Lotio opii, L. opi- 
 ATA, L. Prep. 1. (Christisou.) Opium, 40 gr. ; 
 water, i pint ; infuse, add to the filtered liquid 
 a solution of sugar of lead, 40, in water, 
 i pint, and filter. 
 
 2. (St B. Hosp.) Opium, IJ dr. ; boiling 
 water, 1 pint; triturate and strain. Ano- 
 dyne ; the first is also refrigerant and dis- 
 cutient. 
 
 Lotion of Ox'ide of Zinc. 5y». Lotio zinci 
 OXYDI, L. Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Oxide of 
 z nc, 1 dr.; elder-flower water. It fl. oz. In 
 pustular erysipelas. 
 
 2. (Hosp. F.) Oxide of zinc, i dr.; muci- 
 lage, 2 fl. dr. ; water, 6 fl. dr. As an astrin- 
 gent and desiccaut, in scrofulous eruptions, 
 excoriations, moist chaps, &c. 
 
 Lotion, Fhageden'ic. See Mebcubial lo- 
 tion (above). 
 
 Lotion of Phos'phoric Acid. St/n. Lotio 
 
1004 
 
 LOUSE 
 
 ACiDi PHOSPHOEici, L. Frep. (Pereira.) Di- 
 lute phosphoric acid (Ph. L.), 1 fl. oz. ; water, 
 i pint. In caries and fistula. 
 
 Lotion of Potas'sa. See LoTio POTASsa:, 
 L. Prep, From liquor of potassa, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 water, 1 pint. Detergent ; in scorbutic erup- 
 tions, and foul ulcers, and to prevent infec- 
 tion. 
 
 Lotion of Potas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony. 
 Syn. LoTio antimonialis, L. antimonii po- 
 
 TASSIOTAETKATIS, L. RCBEFACIENS, L. Prep. 
 
 1; Tartar emetic, 1 dr. ; tincture of camphor, 
 2 fl. dr. ; water, 1 pint. As a local stimulant. 
 Diluted with twice or thrice its weight of 
 water, it is employed as a coUyrium in chronic 
 ophthalmia, and in specks on the cornea. 
 
 2. (Sir Wm. Blizard.) Tartar emetic, 20 gr. ; 
 boiling water, 1 fl. oz. Used to cleanse foul 
 ulcers, to repress fungous growths and warts, 
 and in ringworm, &c. 
 
 3. (Pereira.) Tartar emetic, 1 dr. ; hoiling 
 water, li fl. oz. ; dissolve. Employed as a local 
 irritant instead of the ointment. All the above 
 are rubefacient and counter-irritant. See 
 Antimony. 
 
 Lotion of Quin'ine. Syn. Lotio QTTiNa;, 
 Embeocatio (J., L. Prep. From disulphate 
 of quinine, 1 dr. ; rectifled spirit, 5 fl. oz. Ap- 
 plied over the spine in intermittents. 
 
 Lotion, Sapona'ceoua. Syn. Lotio saponis, 
 L. SAPONACEA (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prep. From 
 liquor of carbonate of potassa, \ oz. ; olive oil, 
 4 oz. ; rose water, 12 oz. ; agitate together. 
 Emollient ; chiefly as a cosmetic. 
 
 Lotion, Saviard's. Prep. (Foy.) Caustic 
 potassa, 1 dr. ; camphor, 20 gr. ; sugar, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 1 pint. As a wash for indolent ulcers. 
 
 Lotion, Struve's. See HoopiNGt-couGH 
 lotion. 
 
 Lotion of Snl'phate of Cop'per. Syn. Lotto 
 CUPEI stTLPHATis, L. Prep. 1. Blue vitriol, 
 1 dr. ; camphor julep, 1 pint. For phagedenic 
 ulcers, and in itch, &c. 
 
 2. (Dr Graves.) Sulphate of copper, 10 
 gr. ; water, 1 fl. oz. In chilblains, ringworm, 
 &c. 
 
 3. (Lloyd.) Sulphate of copper, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 1 pint. In itch j either alone or di- 
 luted. 
 
 Lotion of Sttl'phate of Iron. Syn. Loxio 
 PEEKI sulphatis. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr. ; 
 water, 1 oz. 
 
 Lotion of Snl'phate of Zinc. Syn. Lotio 
 ZINCI sulphatis. L Prep. 1. Sulphate of 
 zinc, f dr. ; water, 1 pint. Astringent ; in 
 some chronic skin diseases, as a wash for loose, 
 flabby granulations, and for ulcers that dis- 
 charge profusely, &e. 
 
 2. (Collier.) Sulphate of zinc, 2 dr. ; water, 
 1 pint. As a counter-irritant in pains of the 
 joints, periosteum, old sprains, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Sulphuret of Sodinm. (Dr 
 Barlow.) Syn. Lotio sodii sulphuekti. 
 Prep. Sulphide of sodium, 2 dr.; white soap, 
 2i dr. ; rectified spirit, 2 dr. ; lime water, 7 oz. 
 For ringworm. 
 
 Lotion of Tannin. (Mr Druitt.) Syn. 
 Lotio tannini. Prep. Tannic acid, 5 gr. j 
 distilled water, 1 oz. ; mix. On lint, covered 
 with oil silk, to sore nipples. 
 
 Lotion of Tar. iS^». Lotio picis liquids, 
 L. Prep. (Saunders.) Quicklime, 6 oz. ; water, 
 2i pints ; slnke, add of tar, 4 oz., and boil to 
 one half. This liquid may be advantageously 
 employed in various chronic skin diseases, 
 especially those affecting the heads of children. 
 See Infusion op Tab. 
 
 Lotion of Valer'ian. Syn. Lotio valeeian^, 
 Embeocatio antihtsteeica, E. emmena- 
 ooaA, L. Prep. From tincture of valerian 
 and proof spirit, equal parts. In hysteria, 
 suppressions, &c. 
 
 Lotion of Vera'trine. St/n. LoTio teea- 
 TEia), L. Prep. (Dr TurnbuU.) Veratrine, 
 20 to 60 gr. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. In gout, 
 rheumatism, &c. It is extremely poisonous, 
 and must only be used where the skin is sound, 
 and then with great caution. 
 
 Lotion of Ver'digris. Syn. Lotio .eeuoinis, 
 L. OUPEI citbatis, L. Prep. From verdigris, 
 3 dr. ; vinegar, i pint ; water, f pint. As a 
 wash for indolent, scrofulous, and venereal 
 ulcers. 
 
 Lotion of Vin'egar. See Acetic lotion 
 (above). 
 
 Lotion, Yellow. See Meecueial lotion 
 {above). 
 
 LOUSE. Syn. Pediculus. There are 
 several species of this offensive parasite infest- 
 ing the bodies of man and domesticated animals. 
 The three varieties of lice found on the human 
 skin are : — (1) The Pediculus corporis, (2) the 
 P. capitis, (3) the P. pubis. 
 
 (1.) The P. corporis, the body louse, is of a 
 dirty white colour, and varies from half to 
 two lines in length. Its body is broad and 
 elongated, with the margins divided into lobes, 
 and covered with minute hairs ; but it has a 
 narrow thorax, furnished on each side with 
 three legs, which terminate in claws. This 
 creature produces great irritation of the skin, 
 giving rise to a number of little pimples on 
 it, which frequently discharge a watery fluid. 
 It multiplies with extraordinary rapidity, 
 
 (2.) The P. capitis, the head louse, is much 
 smaller than the above. It is devoid of hairs, 
 with legs large in proportion to its body. It 
 gives rise to « very troublesome eruption, 
 attended with a watery discharge. It is 
 propagated by means of the ova or nits, which 
 are glued to the hairs of the head. 
 
 (3.) The P. pubis, the crab louse, is a small, 
 round variety, which attaches itself with con- 
 siderable tenacity to the hairs of the stomach 
 and lower part Of the body more particularly, 
 and, like the preceding parasite, glues its eggs 
 to the hairs- 
 Various applications have been recommended 
 for the destruction of these loathsome 
 parasites; amongst which we may mention 
 sulphur, stavesacre, white precipitate, and 
 cocculus indicus, in the form of ointments j 
 
LOZENGE 
 
 1005 
 
 cnrbolio m-id and perchloride of mercnry 
 lot oi)», niid tobiioco. Benzoic acid lias been 
 found of service in allaying the irritation. 
 Diligent washing witli soup and water should 
 be had recourae to previous to applying any of 
 the above remedies, and should the head be 
 infected, the hnir should he cut short, and 
 frequently combed with a small toothcomb. 
 
 Pedicnli are sometimes conveyed from Hlthy 
 to cleanly persons by means ol' dirty water- 
 closets, chairs, sheets, brushes and combs, and 
 in various otlier ways. 
 
 School children frequently obtain tbem in 
 consequence of their heads being brought into 
 too cloae contact with the heads of other 
 children infested by them. 
 
 LOZ'ENGE S,vn. Tkoohe ; TROOHiactrs, 
 Tabella, L.; Tablette, Fr. A small cake, 
 often medicated, consisting principally of pow- 
 dered sugar, made into a mass with some glu- 
 tinous liquid, without the aid of heat, and dried. 
 Thu form given to lozenges (tboohe tabbl- 
 is, TB0CHI8CI, tableiteb) is generally that of 
 a small round tablet or flattened cylinder j but 
 originally they were exclusively made in the 
 shape of a lozenge or rhomb, from which cir- 
 cumstance their liiniiliar name is derived. Lo- 
 zenges are distinguished from DBOPS OS 
 I'ASTILLES by the non-employment of heat in 
 their preparation ; and from PASTK8, by the 
 latter being formed of vegetable juice or pulp, 
 and having a softer consistence. 
 
 In the preparation of lozenges the dry 
 ingredients, separately reduced to a very fine 
 powder, are first perfectly mixed together, and 
 then beaten into a stiff paste with the glu- 
 tinous liquid employed to give them form ; the 
 mass is next rolled out to a desired thickness, 
 and cut into pieces of the proper shape by 
 means of a small cylinder or punch of steel or 
 tin-plate, called a ' lozcngo cutter.' The newly 
 formed lozenges are lastly dried by placing 
 them on an inverted sieve or frame covered 
 with paper in a dry, warm, and airy situation, 
 and are frequently turned until they become 
 hard and brittle, due care being taken to pre- 
 serve them from dust and dirt. To prevent 
 the mass adhering to the fingers and utensils 
 during the process of manufacture, a little 
 finely powdered starch, or a very little olive oil, 
 scented with the same aromatic as that con- 
 tained in the Inzenges, may be used. Mucilage 
 of gum Arabic or of gum tragacantb, thin 
 isinglass size, or the strained white of egg, are 
 the substances usually employed to make the 
 pulverulent materials adhere together. A 
 strained decoction of Irish mo«s is now fre- 
 quently used for the same purpose, for infe- 
 rior qualities. The larger the proportion of 
 gum which enters into the composition of 
 lozenges, the slower they dissolve in the mouth ; 
 hcnco powdered gum is frequently added to 
 the other tnuterials to increase their quality 
 in this respect, as m ell as to give an additional 
 solidity to those which, like chalk, for instance, 
 are of a peculiarly dry or crumbly nature. 
 
 Starch and potato flour are often added to 
 lozenge-masses inlieu of a portion of the nw'znr, 
 and even plaster of Paris is not unfrequeiitly 
 employed to give them weight j frauds which 
 are readily detected in the manner noticed 
 under Gum and Suoab. 
 
 As a general rule, medicated lozekoes 
 should weigh from 8 to 10 gr. each, and a 
 medium dose of their active ingredient should 
 be distributed through the bulk of 6 to 8 of 
 them, in which case 3 to 5 of them may be 
 safely taken as a dose, or sucked durin? the 
 lapse of 3 or 4 hours. This will be useful in 
 the preparation of those for which no esta- 
 blished proportions are given. In 'sending 
 out' corapoimds of this class containing active 
 medicaments, as moi-phia or opium, the retailer 
 as well as the manufacturer should be careful 
 that the quantity contained in each lozenge is 
 plainly marked on the label. 
 
 In lozenges intended for mouth cosmetics 
 or to perfume the breath, amberjrris is gene- 
 rally regarded as the most appropriate per- 
 fume; but hard smokers frequently prefer 
 cloves and cinnamon, and some ladies give the 
 preference to roses, orange flowers, and orris 
 or violets. 
 
 Lozenges are coloured with the same stains 
 as are used for liqueurs and sweetmeats. 
 
 Lozenges, as well as all othersimilar articles 
 of confectionery, should be preserved in well- 
 closed glass bottles, or jars, or in tin canisters, 
 so as to be perfectly excluded from the air aud 
 damp. • 
 
 Lozenges, Absorljent. Tkochisoi antacidi, 
 L. JPrep. 1. Take of precipitated chalk, i lb. ; 
 gum Arabic, 2 oz. ; double refined white sugar, 
 14 oz. ; all in impalpable powder ; oil of nut- 
 meg, i fl. dr.; pass the mixture through a fine 
 sieve, beat it up with mucilage q. s., roll the 
 mass into a thin sheet, and cut it into lo- 
 zen;;e9 ; lastly, dry them by exposing them on 
 a sheet nf white paper to the air, out of con- 
 tact with dust. 
 
 2. As the last, but substituting heavy car- 
 bonate of magnesia, 1) oz., for an equal weight 
 of chalk. In diarrhcca, heartburn, acidity, 
 &c. See LozENQES, Chalk, Magnesia, L., 
 Soda, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Aca'cia. See Lozenoes, Gr>r. 
 
 Lozenges, Acid'nlated. St/n. Acidulated 
 
 LEMON lozenges, TaBTABIO ACID 1. ; TbO- 
 
 CHisci AciDi tabtabici (Ph. E ), L. Prep. 
 From tartaric acid, 2 dr. ; oil of lemon, 10 
 drops; while sugar, 8 oz. ; mucilage, q. s. to 
 make a lozenge mass. The same ingredients 
 mixed with heat form acidulated or acid 
 DBOFS. Both are useful in coughs, hoarseness, 
 sore throats, &c. See Lozenges, Cayenne, 
 Citbic acid. Rose, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Al'kaline. See Lozenges, Soda, 
 ViCHT, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Alum. Si/n. Tbochisci ALU- 
 minis, L. Each lozenge contains IJ gr. of 
 alum. As an astringent. See LozENGBS, 
 AsinrNGENT. 
 
1006 
 
 LOZENGE 
 
 Lozenges, An'iseed. Syn, Tbochisoi anisi, 
 L. Frep. From oil of aniseed, li fl. dr. ; finest 
 white sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage, q. s. Carmina- 
 tive and stomachic. In colic, griping, &c.j 
 and 93 a pectoral. 
 
 Lozenges, Anthelmiu'tic. See Lozenges, 
 
 WOBM. 
 
 Lozenges, Antimonial. Syn. Tbochisoi an- 
 
 TIMONIALES, MOESULI STIBII KlTNKELII, L. ; 
 'I'ABLETTES DE KuNKEL, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
 Levigated sulphuret of antimony and car- 
 damom seeds, of each 1 oz. ; almonds 
 (blanched), 2 oz. ; cinnamon, i oz. ; sugar, 13 
 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. ; to be divided 
 into 15-gr. lozenges. As an alterative. 
 
 Lozenges. Ape"rlent. S^n. Tbochisoi ape- 
 BIENTES, L. Each lozenge contdins 1 gr. each 
 of calomel and scammony, and 2 gr. of jalap ; 
 or, instead of the last, i gr. of jalapine. 2 
 to 3 for a dose. 
 
 Lozenges, Astrin'gent. Syn. Teochisci 
 ASTKIHGENTES, L. Each lozenge contains li 
 gr. of alum and 2 gr. of catechu. In spitting 
 of blood, relaxed uvula, sore throat, &c. See 
 Lozenges, Alttm. 
 
 Lozenges, Bark. S^n. Teochisci cincho- 
 na;, L. Frep. (P. Cod.) Cinchona, 2 oz.; 
 cinnamon, 2 dr. ; white sugac, 14 oz. ; muci- 
 lage of gum tragacanth, q. s. j mi.\, and divide 
 into 16-gr. lozenges. Tonic. 
 
 Lozenges, Bath. St/n. Dawson's lozenges. 
 From extract of liquorice and gum Arabic, of 
 each li oz. ; sugar, 17 oz. It is both rolled 
 into lozenges aifti formed into pipes. Demul- 
 cent ; in tickling coughs, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Benzoic Acid. (Th. Hosp.) Syn. 
 Tkochisci acidi benzoici. Prep. Benzoic 
 add in powder, 175 gr.; tragacanth in powder, 
 70 gr. ; refined sugar in powder, 280 gr. ; red 
 currant paste, a snflicient quantity to make 
 
 1 lb. Divide into 350 lozenges, and dry at a 
 moderate heat in a hot-air chamber. A valu- 
 able stimulant and voice lozenge in nervo- 
 muscular weakness of the throat. 
 
 Lozenges, Bicarbonate of Soda. Tboohisci 
 soDiE BicAEBONATis. Bicarbonate of soda, in 
 powder, 3600 gr. (8i oz.) ; refined sugar, 25 
 oz. ; gum acacia, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 
 
 2 oz. ; distilled water, 1 oz. ; mix, and form in 
 720 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 5 
 gr. of bicarbonate of soda. — Dose, 1 to 6 
 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Bis'muth. St/'n. Tbochisoi bis- 
 MUTHi, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Subnitrate of 
 bismuth, 346 gr. ; carbonate of magnesia, 4 
 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 6 oz. ; sugar, 29 oz. ; 
 gum acacia, 1 oz. ; mucihigey 2 oz. ; rose 
 water, a sufiiciency ; make 720 lozenges. Each 
 lozenge contains 2 gr. of subnitrate of bismuth, 
 — Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges. 
 
 2. (Trousseau.) Each lozenge contains 1 
 gr. of subnitrate of bismuth. Tonic and anti- 
 spasmodic ; in chronic dyspepsia, gastrodynia, 
 nausea, cramp of the stomach, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Black Cur'rant. Teochisci eibis 
 NIGBI, L. Frep, From inspissated juice of 
 
 black currants and sugar, of each, in powder, 
 1 lb.; tartaric acid, i oz.j mucilage, q. s. In 
 hoarseness, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Bo"rax, Syn. Tbochisoi boea- 
 CIS, L. Each lozenge contains 3 gr. of borax. 
 One occasionally in aphthous sore mouth, sore 
 throat, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Bromide of Ammonium. Esch 
 lozenge contains 2 gr. of bromide of ammo- 
 nium. — Dose, 1 to 3 lozenges. In hooping- 
 cough. 
 
 Lozenges, Burnt Sponge. Syn. Tboohisci 
 spoNGia;, T. s. usT.aB, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
 Burnt sponge, 4 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage 
 of tragacanth, q. s. ; divide into 12-gr. 
 lozenges. In scrofula, glandular enlargements, 
 &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Caca'o. Si/n. Teochisci buttei 
 cacao, L. Each lozent;e contains l-3rd of its 
 weight of pure cacao butter. In habitual con- 
 stipation ; and in phthisis, scrofula, &c., instead 
 of cod-liver oil ; taken ad libitum. They are 
 usually scented with roses. 
 
 Lozenges, Caffeine. Sgn. Tbochisoi oap- 
 PEIN.E, L. Each lozenge contains i gr. of 
 caffeine and i gr. of citric acid. In hemicrania, 
 hypochondriasis, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Cal'omel. Si/n. Woem lozenges ; 
 Teochisci calomelanos, T. hydeaegtbi 
 CHIOEIDI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Each lozenge 
 contains 1 gr. of calomel. Alterative, Ac. They 
 afford a simple way of introducing mercury 
 into the system. During their use salt food 
 and acid liquors should be avoided. When 
 given for worms they should be followed, in a 
 few hours, by a purge. 
 
 Lozenges, Cam'phor. Si/n. Tboohisci cam- 
 PHOEJE, L. Bach lozenge contains } gr. of 
 (finely powdered) camphor. They must be kept 
 in a well-corked bottle. 
 
 Lozenges of Carbolic Acid. (Tb. Hosp.) 
 Si/n. Tbochisoi acidi cabbolioi. Prep. 
 Carbolic acid, 350 gr. ; gum Arabic, 220 gr. ; 
 refined sugar, 12i oz. ; muciliige, 1 oz. ; dis- 
 tilled water q. s. to make 1 lb. Divide into 
 350 lozenges, and finish as with benzoic acid 
 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Car'bonate of Lime. See Lo- 
 zenges, Chalk. 
 
 Lozenges, Cat'echu. S)/n. Cachotj lozenges; 
 Teochisci cateohu (B. P.), T. de teeea 
 Japonica, L. ; Tablettes de cachoc, Fr. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1744.) Catechu, 2 oz. ; 
 tragacanth, j oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz.; rose 
 water, q. s. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Extract of catechu, 4 oz. ; 
 sugar, 16 oz. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth 
 q. 8. ; for lO-gr. lozenges. 
 
 3. (Tbo. catechu et magnesia — P. Cod.) 
 Magnesia, 2 oz. ; powdered catechu, 1 oz. ; 
 sugar, 13 oz. ; mucilnge of gum tragacanth 
 (made with cinnamon water), q. s. to mix. 
 
 4. (Pebfumed.) See Cachou aeomatis^ 
 and Pastils. 
 
 5. (B. P.) Pale catechu, in powder, 720 
 gr.; refined sugar, in powder, 25 oz. ; gum 
 
LOZENGE 
 
 1007 
 
 Arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ; dU- 
 tilled water, a safGciency; divide into 720 
 lozengea. Kxcb lozenge contains 1 gr. of 
 catecliu. — Dose, 1 to 3 lozengea. 
 
 Obi. All the above are taken in diarrhoea, 
 in relaxation of the uvula, in irritation of the 
 larvnx, and as cosmetics to fasten the teeth, 
 and di8guise a fetid breath. The one con- 
 taining magnpsia (No. 3) is also sucked in 
 dyspepsia, acidity, and heartburn. 
 
 Lozenges, Cayenne'. Si/n. Tbochisoi cap- 
 sici, L. I'Mavoured with essence or tincture 
 of capsicum or cayenne, with a very concen- 
 trated Chili vinegar, or a little pure soluble 
 cayenne pepper. 
 
 2. (AoiDntATED.) To each lb. add of tar- 
 taric acid, i oz. Both are used in dyspepsia, 
 and to promote digestion and create an appe- 
 tite. They have also been recommended in 
 temporary deafness arising from exposure to 
 cold. They are generally tinged of a light 
 pink or red colour. 
 
 lozenges. Chalk. Syn. HKABTBtniK JjO- 
 
 ZENOEB ; TeOCHISCI OKETa; (Ph. E.), T. CAEDI- 
 
 ALQioi, Tabell£ Cabdialoics, L. Prep. (Ph 
 £.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz. ; gum Arabic, 1 oz. ; 
 nutmeg, 1 dr. ; white sugar, 6 oz. ; rose or 
 orange-flower water, q. s. Antacid and ab- 
 sorbent. 3 or 4 sucked ad libitum; in heart- 
 burn, dyspepsia, dinrrhooa, acidity of the 
 stomach und bowels, &c. 
 
 lozenges, Char'coal. Si/n. Tbochisci cab- 
 BONIS, L. Frep. 1. (P. Cod.) Prepared 
 cliarcoal, 4 oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz., mucilage, 
 q. s. to mix. In diurrhcea, cholera, dyspepsia, 
 &c. 
 
 2. (Tro. oaebonas cum chooolata — M. 
 Chevallier.) Charcoal and white sugar, of 
 each 1 oz. ; chocolate, 3 oz. ; mucilnge of gum 
 tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Nutritious ; used as 
 the last. 
 
 Lozenges, Cliing's Worm. Frep. 1. (Yel- 
 low.) From sad'ron, J oz. ; boiling water, 1 
 pint; infuse, strain, add, of calomel, 1 lb.; 
 powdered white sugar, 28 lbs. ; mix well, make 
 a mass with mucilage of tragacnnth.and divide 
 it into 7000 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 
 1 gr. of calomel. 
 
 2. (Beown.) Prom calomel, 7 oz. ; resinous 
 extract of jalap, 34 lbs. ; white sugar, 10 lbs. ; 
 mucilage of tragacanth, q. ». ; mix, and divide 
 into 6125 lozenges. Each lozenge contains 
 i gr. of calomel and 3) gr. of resinous extract 
 of jalap. 1 t.o 6 of the yellow lozenges over 
 night, IIS a vermifuge, followed by an equal 
 number of the brown ones the next morning 
 fasting. 
 
 Lozenges, Clilo"rate of Fotassa. Sj/n. Tbo- 
 chisci P0TAB8JB CHI.0BATI8, L. Frep. 1. 
 Each lozenge ccmtains IJ gr. of chlorate ol 
 potassa. In phthisis, sore throat, &c. 6 to 12 
 a day. 
 
 2. (B, P.) Chlorate of potash, in powder, 
 8600 gr. (8i oz.) ; refined sugar, in powder, 
 25 oz. ; Kun> aniiin, in powder, 1 oz. ; muci- 
 lage, 2 oz., distilled water, 1 oz., or a suffi- 
 
 ciency ; mix the powders, and add the muci- 
 lage and water to form a proper mass ; divide 
 in 720 lozenges. Ench lozenge contains 5 
 gr. of chlorate of potash, — I)o*e, 1 to 6 
 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Chloride of Ammonium. Each 
 lozenge contains 2 to 3 gr. of chloride of 
 ammonium. Used in bronchitis. — Dote, 2 to 
 4 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, CUo"ride of Gold. 1. (Tbochisci 
 AUBI CULOEIDI, L.) Each lozenge contains 
 ■^Zj gr. of neutral chloride of gold. 2 to 4 
 daily ; in scrofula, cancer, &c. 
 
 2. (With BODA ; Teochiboi auei bt bodii 
 
 CHLOBIDI, T. bodii AUBO-CHLORIDI, L. — 
 Chrestien.) Each lozenge contains -^th pr. 
 of soda-chloride of gold. Two daily ; as the 
 last. 
 
 Lozengea, Chloride of Lime. Syn. Tbo- 
 chisci CALCIS CHLORtDI, T. C. CHLOKINATiE, 
 L. Each lozenge contains i gr. of dry chlo- 
 ride of lime. They are frequently tinged 
 with a little carmine. Used to sweeten the 
 breath and whiten the teeth. They do not 
 keep well. 
 
 Lozenges of Chlorinated Soda. %n. Tbo- 
 chisci SOD* CHLOBiNAia:. Frep. Solution 
 of chloride of joda, 1 fl. dr ; sugar, 10 dr.; 
 gum Arabic, 2 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth, 
 q. s. (i dr. of camphor may be added). To be 
 lield in the mouth during infection. 
 
 Lozenges, Choc'olate. St/n. Tbochisci cno- 
 C01AT.E, L. From vanilla chocolate pressed 
 into sheets, and cut into pieces whilst hot. 
 
 Lozenges, Cincho'na. Si/n. Trochisci cin- 
 cnONM EXTBACTi, L. Each lozenge contains 
 li gr. of dry extract of bark. A little cinna- 
 mon or nutmeg is often added. See Babk 
 Lozenqes. 
 
 Lozenges, Cin'namon. Si/n. Trochisci cin- 
 NAMONI, L. From cinnamon (in fine powder), 
 1 oz., or the essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each lb. 
 of sugar. Carminative and stomachic. Cassia 
 lozenoes are made in the fame way, and are 
 frequently substituted for them. 
 
 Lozenges, Ci'trate of Iron. Si/n. Tbochisci 
 FEBKi ciTEATis, L. Each lozenge contains 
 l.i gr. of ammonio-citrate of iron. As a mild 
 cluil\be!ite tonic. They are sometimes made 
 witli equal parts of susjar and vanilla choco- 
 late. 
 
 Lozenges, Citrate of Magne'sia. St/n. Tbo- 
 chisci MAONESliE CITRATIS, L. E.ich 15-gr. 
 lozenge contains 5 gr. of pure citrate of 
 magnesia. Laxative. 
 
 Lozenges, Cit'ric Acid. Si/n. Tbochisci 
 ACIDI CITEICI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Citric 
 acid, 3 dr.; sugar, 16 oz. ; essence of lemon, 
 16 drops; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, 
 and divide into 12-gr. lozenges. In coughs, 
 hoarseness, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Clove. Si/n. Tbochisci caeto- 
 PHILLI. L. From cloves (powdered along with 
 sugar), 2 oz., or essential oil, 1 fl. dr., to each 
 lb. of sugar. They are frequently coloured. 
 Carminative and stomachic; also used as a 
 
1008 
 
 LOZENGE 
 
 restorative after fatigue, added to chocolate 
 to improve its flavour, and BUcked to sweeten 
 the breath. 
 
 Lozenges, Congli. Syn. Peotobal lozenges, 
 Pttlmonio l. ; Tbochisci anticatabehales, 
 L. Prep. 1. Blackcurrant lozenze-masa, 1 
 lb. ; ipecacuanha (in very fine powder), 2 dr. 
 For 12-gr. lozenges. 
 
 2. To the last add of powdered opium and 
 camphor, 1^ dr. 
 
 3. To either No. 1 or 2 add of oil of aniseed, 
 IJ fl. dr. 
 
 4. (Tabieites be TEONOHiif.) From pow- 
 dered gum Arabic, 8 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 16 
 drops; extract of opium, 12 gr. ; kerines mi- 
 neral, 1 dr. ; pure extract of liquorice, 2 oz. ; 
 white sugar, 32 oz. ; water, q. s. ; mix, and 
 divide into lO-gr. lozenges. 
 
 B. (Tablettes db Vakdammb.) From ben- 
 zoic acid, 1 dr.; orris powder, 2 dr.; gum 
 Arabic (powdered), 1 oz. ; starch, 2 oz. ; sugar, 
 16 oz. ; water, q. s. ; mix and divide into 15-gr. 
 lozenges. 
 
 6. Each lozenge contains i gr. of lactuca- 
 rium, \ gr. of powdered ipecacuanha, and ^ gr. 
 of powdered squills, together with Jrd of their 
 weight of pure extract of liquorice. 
 
 Ohs. To render the above serviceable in 
 coughs, hoarseness, &c., the bowels should be 
 kept gently open with some mild aperient, and 
 a light diet adopted, with abstinence from 
 stimulating liquors. See LozENftES, Emetine, 
 Ipecacuanha, &c. 
 
 lozenges, Cro'tonOil. Syn. Tbochisci ceo- 
 TONIB, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Croton oil, 5 
 drops; powdered starch, 40 gr. ; white sugar, 
 1 dr. ; chocolate, 2 dr. ; divide into 30 
 lozenges ; 5 or 6 generally prove cathartic. 
 
 lozenges, Cutebine. Syn. Tbochisci cube- 
 BINI, L. Prep. (Ph. Hamh.) Copaiba and 
 extract of cubebs, of each 6 oz. ; yolks of 3 
 eggs ; mix, add of powdered marshmallow root, 
 6 "z. ; make it into pipes of 12 gr. each, and 
 roll them in sugar. In gleet, &c., and in afEec- 
 tions of the mucous membranes of the throat 
 and fauces. Lablonye orders them to be 
 made of sugar, and flavoured with oil of 
 peppermint. 
 
 lozenges, CuTiehB. Syn. Tbochisci ctj- 
 BEBa;, L, Prep. 1. (Spitta.) Cubebs, 2 dr. ; 
 balsam of tolu, 6 gr. ; mix, and add of extract 
 of liquorice, 1 oz. ; syrup of tolu, 1 dr.; pow- 
 dered gum, q. s. ; divide into 10-gr. lozenges. 
 One of these, allowed to melt gradually in the 
 mouth, is said to alleviate the obstruction in 
 the nose, in coryza. 
 
 2. (U. S.) Prep. Oleoresin of cubebs, i fl. 
 oz. 0. m.; oil of sassalras, 1 fl. dr.; extract of 
 liquorice in powder, 4 oz. ; gum Arabic in 
 powder, 3 oz. ; sugar in fine powder, 3 oz. ; 
 syrup of tolu, q. s. Divide into 480 lozenge's. 
 
 lozenges of Cyanide of Gold. (Chrestien.) 
 Syn. Tbochisci aubi ctanidi. Prep. Cya- 
 nide of gold, 2 gr. ; chocolate paste, 1 oz. 
 Made into 24 lozenges. From 1 to 4 in the 
 day. 
 
 lozenges, D'Arcet'a. See Lozen&es, Vioht. 
 lozenges, Diges'tive. See Lozen&es, Khxt- 
 
 BAEB, GiNOEE, CANBT, DIGESTIVE, &C. 
 
 lozenges, Edinburgh. Prep. From extract 
 of poppies, 2 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 4 oz. ; 
 sugar, 10 oz.; rose water, q. d. to form a 
 lozenge mass. 
 
 lozenges, Emet'ine. Syn. Tbochisci eue- 
 TiN^, L. Prep. (Magendie.) — 1. From im- 
 pure or coloured emetine, 32 gr. (or pure erne- 
 tine, 8 gr.); white sugar, 2 oz. ; mucilage, 
 q. s. to mix; divide into 64 lozenges. Emetic. 
 — Dose, 1 for a child, and 4 ibr an adult. 
 They are generally tinged of a pink colour 
 with carmine. 
 
 2. From impure or coloured emetine, 32 gr, 
 (or pure emetine, 8 gr.) ; t^ugar, 4 oz. ; muci- 
 lage, q. s. ; divide into 256 lozenges. Pecto- 
 ral. One every hour, or of tener, for an adult. 
 The last are intended to take the place of ipe- 
 cacuanha lozenges, but are rather stronger. 
 
 lozenges, Escharot'ic. Syn. Tbochisci es- 
 CHAEOTici, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Corrosive 
 sublimate, 2 dr. ; starch, 4 dr. ; mucilage of 
 tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 3-gr. 
 oat-shaped granules. For external use only. 
 See Caustic (Zinc). 
 
 lozenges, Ferrocy'anide of Iron. Syn. Tbo- 
 chisci EEEBI EEEBOCTANIDI, T. CEBULEI, L. 
 Each lozenge contains If gr. of pure Prussian 
 blue. Alterative, febrifuge, and tonic; in 
 epilepsy, intermittents, diseases of the gan- 
 glionic system, &c. 
 
 lozenges. Fruit. Prep. From juice of black 
 currants (boiled to the consistence of an 
 extract), 1 lb.; juice of red cuiTants (similarly 
 treated), i lb. ; powdered gum tragacanth, \ 
 lb. ; sugar, 3 lbs. ; raspberry syrup, q. s. ; pear 
 essence, a few drops. Resemble black currant 
 lozenges, but are more agreeable. 
 
 lozenges, Garana'. See Lozenges, Pattl- 
 
 MNIA. 
 
 lozenges, Gin'ger. Syn. Tbochisci zingi- 
 BEEis, L. Prep. From the best unbleached 
 Jamaica ginger and gum Arabic, of each, in 
 very fine powder, \\ oz. ; double refined lump 
 sugar, 1 lb. ; rose water (tinged with saffron), 
 q. s. A still finer quality may be made by 
 using an equivalent proportion of essence of 
 ginger, instead of the powder. Inferior qnali- 
 ties are prepared with coarser sugar to which 
 some starch is of ten added. Ginger lozenges 
 are carminative and stomachic, and are useful 
 in flatulency, loss of appetite, &e. 
 
 lozenges. Gold. Syn. 'l^ocHisci AUEi, L. 
 Each lozenge contaius -^ gr, of pulverulent 
 gold. 
 
 lozenges, Gnm. Syn. Teoschisci ACACia: 
 (Ph. E.), T. gummi ababici, T. gummosi, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Gum Arabic, 4 oz. ; starch, 
 1 oz. ; white sugar, 12 oz. (all in very fine 
 powder) ; rose water, q. s. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Gum Arabic, 1 lb. ; sugar, 3 
 lbs. ; orange-flower water, 2 fl. oz. 
 
 3. (Transparent ) From the same materials, 
 
LOZEXGES 
 
 1009 
 
 but emplnyinp a fjentlo lioat. Demulcent; 
 uaeJ to allay tickling coughi. 
 
 Lozenges, Quaiacum. (lb. llosp.) Syn. 
 Tbocbisci ocaiaci. Prep. Quiiiacum re.-.iu 
 in powder, 700 gr. ; tragacanth, 70 gr. ; sugar, 
 280 gr. ; black currant paste, q. s. Divide 
 into 350 lozenges, and finish as benzoic acid 
 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Qum Tra'gacanth. Syn. Tro- 
 
 CniSCI TBAOACANTIl^S, 'I'. OUMMI T., L. Prep. 
 (Ph. E. 171I-) Compound powder of traga- 
 canth, 3 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz, ; rnse water, 4 fl. 
 oz, llesemlile Uie last, but are more durable 
 in the mouth. 
 
 Loieuges, Heart'bani, See Lozbnoes, 
 Chalk, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Iceland Moss. Syn. Tbochisci 
 LIOHENIS, L. (F. Cod.) Contain half their 
 weight of dried and powdered lichen jelly. 
 Besciuble gum lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Indian Hemp. Syn. Tsocnisoi 
 CANNABIS, D. 0. Indioi, L. (Ebriard.) Each 
 lozenge contaiud -^ gr. of extract of Indian 
 hemp. 
 
 Lozenges, I'odide of Iron. Syn. Tbochisoi 
 FEBBi lODiDi, L. Eiich lozenge contains \ 
 gr. of dry iodide of iron. 12 to 20 duily ; in 
 amenorrhcea, chlorosis, scrofulous debility, &o. 
 They are generally flavoured with a little nut- 
 meg or cinnamon. 
 
 Lozenges, Iodide of Fotasslam. Syn Tbo- 
 chisoi PoTASSi lODiDi, L. Each lozenge 
 contains 1 gr. of iodide of potassium, flavoured 
 with nutmeg or cinnamon. 10 to 15 daily ; in 
 scrofula, indurations, &c. One of the best 
 ways of taking iodide of potassium. 
 
 Lozenges, Ipecacuan'ha. Syn. Tbochisci 
 IPECACUANH.ii;, L, Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mix 
 ipecacuanha in powder, 180 gr. ; refined sugar 
 in powder, 25 oz. ; gum acacia in powder, 
 1 oz. ; add mucilage of acacia, 2 fl. oz., and 
 distilled water, 1 oz., or sufficient to form a 
 proper mass. Divide into 720 lozenges, and 
 dry in a hot-air chamber with a moderate 
 hcttt. Each lozenge contains i gr. of ipecacu- 
 anha. 
 
 2. (P. Cod., Hamb. do., and Ph. U. S.) Each 
 lozenge contains i gr. of ipccacnanha. 
 
 3. (Tbo. ipboao. cum CAMPHOBi.) Each 
 lozenge contains \ gr. of camphor, and i gr. 
 of ipecacuanha. 
 
 4. (Tho. ipecac, cum chocolatA — P. Cod.) 
 Each lozenge contains 1 gr. of ipecacuanha, and 
 12 gr. of chocolate cL la vanilla. The above 
 are pectoral and expectorant, and are very 
 useful in tickling and chronic coughs, hoarse- 
 ness, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Ipecacnanha and Morphia. Syn. 
 Tbochisci ipecacuanha et MORPHiiE (B.P.). 
 Each lozenge contains -^^ gr. ipecacuanha and 
 I'j gr. hydroclilorate morphia. — Dose, 1 to 6 
 lozenges. See LozENOES, HoBFHiA and 
 Ipecacuanha. 
 
 Lozenges, I'ron. Syn. Teoohisci pebbi, T. 
 OBAI.YBEATI, L. 1. Each lozenge contains 1 gr. 
 TOL. II. 
 
 of Quevenne's iron. See Lozbkoes, Reduced 
 
 IBON. 
 
 2. (Tbo. febei cabbonatis.) K;ich lozenge 
 contains H gr. of saccharine carbonate of iron. 
 They are both mild and excellent clialybentes. 
 See Lozenges, Steei.. 
 
 Lozenges, Jn'jnbe. See Paste, Jujube. 
 
 Lozenges, Ker'mes UineTal. Syn. Tbochisci 
 kebmetis, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Eich 
 lozenge contains \ gr. of kermes miniral, and 
 about J gr. of gum, made up with sugar and 
 orange-flower water. Diaphoretic and expec- 
 torant. 
 
 2. (Compound.) As the last, but with the 
 addition of J gr. of opium, J gr. of f quills, and 
 i gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and expec- 
 torant J both are very useful in catarrhs. 
 
 Lozenges, Lactate of Iron. Syn. Tbochisci 
 FEBBI LACTATis, L. Prep. (Cap.) Each 
 lozenge contains 1 gr. of lactate of iron. Tonic. 
 Useful in debility, accompanied with a diseased 
 state of the organs of digestion. 
 
 Lozenges, Lac'tic Ac'id. Syn. Tbochisci 
 Acisi LACTici, L. Each lozenge contains 1 
 gr. of lactic acid to about 12 ^^r. of sugar. 
 They are best flavoured with vanilla or nutmeg. 
 In dyspepsia, &c., especially in gouty subjects. 
 Those prepared by Magendie's formulse contain 
 a larger proportion of acid, but are much too 
 sour for frequent u^e. 
 
 Lozenges, Lactaca"riiiin. Syn. Tbochisci 
 LACTUOAEii, L.. Prep. (Ph. E.) Prepared 
 with lactucarium in the same manner as the 
 opium lozenges, Ph. E. Each of these lozenges 
 contains from ^ to f gr. of lactucarium. Ano- 
 dyne and demulcent. Used to allay tickling 
 coughs, &,c. 
 
 Lozenges, Lavender. Syn. Tbochisci la- 
 TANDULjB, L. From J fl. dr. of Mitcham oil 
 of lavender to each lb. of sugar, and tinged 
 red with liquid lake or cjirniine; or violet, 
 with litmus or indigo. Used chiefly to scent 
 the breath. Those of the shops are generally 
 deficient in odour. 
 
 Lozenges, Lem'on. Syn. Tbochisci limonis, 
 T. limonum, L. Prep. 1. From li fl. dr. of 
 oil of lemon to each lb. of double refined 
 white sugar. 
 
 2. (Acidulated.) See Lozenoes, Citbic and 
 Taetabic. 
 
 Obs, Lemon lozenges and drops are agree- 
 able sweetmeats, and those that are acidulated 
 are often very uf ef ul to promote expectoration 
 in coughs, &c. The lost are also made into 
 drops as well as lozenges, when they form the 
 
 ' ACIDULATED LEMON DK0P8 ' of the shops. 
 
 Those that are made of citric acid are by far 
 the most wholesome. Both lemon lozenges and 
 drops are generally coloured with infusion of 
 saffron or turmeric. 
 
 Lozenges, Lettuce. Syn Tbochisci lao- 
 TUCi, L. Prep. From extract of lettuce, ex- 
 tract of liquorice, gum, and sugar, equal parts. 
 Anodyne and demulcent ; in obstinate cough 
 without expectoration. See LozENasa, Lac- 
 tuoabium. 
 
 64 
 
1010 
 
 LOZENGES 
 
 lozenges, Lichen. See LozENfflES, Iceland 
 
 MOSS. 
 
 lozenges, Liquorice. Si/n. Black lozenges ; 
 Tbochisci gltcybbhizs, T. &. GLiBua;, T. 
 BECHici NiGRi, L. I'rep. 1. (Ph. E.) Ex- 
 tract of liquorice and gum acacia, of each 6 oz ; 
 white sugar, 12 oz. ; dissolve in water, q. s. ; 
 evaporate into a paste, and form into lozenges. 
 Pectoral and demulcent. Useful to allay 
 ticljling coughs and remove hoarseness. 
 
 2. (With OPIUM.) See Lozenges, OpitrM. 
 
 Lozenges, Magne'sia. Si/n. Heaetfpen loz- 
 
 BNGKS; TeOCHISCI MAGNESIA (Ph. E.), L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of magnesia, 
 6 oz. ; powdered white sugar, 3 oz. ; oil of nut- 
 meg, 20 drops ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to 
 mix. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Calcined magnesia, 4 oz. ; 
 sugar, 12 oz.; nutmeg, Idr.; mucilage of tra- 
 gacanth, q. ». ; for 10-gr. lozenges. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Calcined magnesia, 3 oz. ; 
 powdered gum tragacanth, 1 oz.; double refined 
 lump sugar, J lb. ; rose or orange-flower water, 
 q. s. to make a lozenge mass. 
 
 Obs. Magnesia lozenges are very useful in 
 heartburn, acidity, and indigestion. The con- 
 fectioners generally omit the nutmeg, and 
 make their mucilage with either rose or orange- 
 flower water, or else add the dry gum to tlie 
 mass, and then mix up the powders with one 
 or other of these liquids. It is also an im- 
 provement to use calcined magnesia, which is 
 about twice as strong as the carbonate, and 
 consequently less need be employed. 
 
 Lozenges, Manna. Si/a. TuocHisci mann.e, 
 L. Prep. (Van Mons.) Powdered tragacanth, 
 1 dr. ; white sugar, 12 oz. ; manna, 3 oz. ; 
 orange-flower water, q. s. to mix. Demulcent, 
 and in large numbers slightly laxative. 
 
 Lozenges, Marshmallow. Si/n. Tbochisci 
 ix,TB.MM, L. ; Tablettbs de guimaute, Fr. 
 Prep. (P. Cod.) Marshmallow root (decor- 
 ticated and finely powdered), 2 oz ; sugar, 
 14 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth (made with 
 orange-flower water), q. s. Demulcent and 
 expectorant. Useful to allay the irritation in 
 cough, &e. The preparations of marshmallow 
 have always been highly esteemed as pectorals 
 by the vulgar. 
 
 Lozenges, Jlin'inni. St/n. Tbochisci minii 
 (Ph. E. 1744), L. Prep. Prom red lead, 1 
 dr. ; corrosive sublimate, 2 dr. ; crumb of bread, 
 1 oz. ; rose water, q. s. ; to be made up into 
 oat-like grains. For external use only. 
 
 Lozenges, Morphia. Syn. Tbochisci mob- 
 phis (B.P., Ph.E.), T. M. HYDBOCHLOBATIS, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 
 20 gr. J tincture of tolu, J fl. oz. ; powdered 
 white sugar, 25 oz. ; dissolve the hydrochlorate 
 in a little warm water, mix it with the tincture 
 and the sugar, make a mass with mucilage of 
 gum tragacanth, q. s., and divide it into 15-gr. 
 lozenges. Each lozenge contains about jL gr. 
 of hydrochlorate of morphia. Used as opium 
 lozenges, but are pleasanter. The morphia 
 
 lozenges of the shops generally contain -j^ gr. 
 of hydrochlorate of morphia. (Pereira.) 
 
 2. (With IPECACITANHA, TBOCHISCI MOB- 
 PHI^ ET iPEOACUANHa; — Ph. E.) As the last, 
 adding of ipecacuanha, 1 dr. Each lozenge 
 contains about -J-^ gr. of hydrochlorate of mor- 
 phia, and Jj gr. of ipecacuanha. Anodyne and 
 expectorant ; in tickling coughs, &c., and to 
 allay pain. 
 
 3. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr. ; tinc- 
 ture of tolu, i oz. ; refined sugar, in powder, 
 24 oz. ; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 oz.; mucilage, 
 2 oz., or a sufficiency ; boiling distilled water, 
 i oz. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. Each 
 lozenge contains uV gr. of hydrochlorate of 
 morpliia. — Dose, 1 or 2 occasionally, for 
 cough. 
 
 Lozenges, Morphia and Ip'ecacnanha. Sgn. 
 Tbochisci morphia et ipecacuanha (B.P.) 
 Hydrochlorate of morphia, 20 gr.; ipecacu- 
 anha, in fine powder, 24 oz. ; tincture of tolu, 
 i oz. ; refined sugar, in powder, 24 oz. ; gum 
 Arabic, in powder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz., or a 
 sufficiency ; distilled water, i oz. ; divide the 
 mass into 720 lozenges. Each lozenge con- 
 tains ^5^ gr. of hydrochlorate of morphia and 
 ^ gr. of ipecacuanha. — Dose, 1 or 2 occasion- 
 ally, for cough. 
 
 Lozenges of Naphthalin. (Dupasquier.) St/n. 
 Tbochisci naphth alini. Prep. Naphthaliii, 
 5 scroples ; sugar, 20 oz. ; oil of aniseed to 
 flavour ; form a mass with mucilage of traga- 
 canth, and divide into lozenges of 15 gr. each. 
 Expectorant, and may he taken to the extent 
 of 20 a day. 
 
 Lozenges, Ni'tre. St/n. Tbochisci nitbici, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Nitre, 3 oz. ; white 
 sugar, 9 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. to 
 mix. Diuretic; but chiefly sucked, without 
 swallowing, to remove incipient sore throat. 
 
 2. Camphorated; Tbochisci nitei cam- 
 PHOEATi, L. — Chaus-ier. Each lozenge con- 
 tains ^ gr. of opi nm, J gr. of camphor, and 1 gr. 
 of nitre. In hoarseness, sore throat, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Nut'meg. Si/n. Tbochisci mt- 
 eistic^, L. Prom oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr., to 
 each lb. of sugar, and coloured with infusion 
 of saffron. Carminative and stomachic; in 
 colic, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, O'pinm. St/n. Anodyne lo- 
 zenges ; Tbochisci opii (Ph. E.), T. glycye- 
 BHiziE CUM opio, L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. 
 E.) Opium (strained), 2 dr.; tincture of tola, 
 ^ oz. ; triturate together, add of powdered 
 sugar, 6 oz.; extract of liquorice (soft) and 
 powdered gum acacia, of each 5 oz. ; mix, and 
 divide into 10-gr. lozenges. Each lozenge con- 
 tains 5 to ^ gr. of opium. Used to allay tick- 
 ling cough and irritation of the fauces, and as 
 an anodyne and hypnotic. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine powder), 
 2 dr. ; extract of liquorice, gum Arabic, and 
 sugar, of each 5 oz. ; oil of aniseed, J fl. dr.; 
 water, q. s. ; divide into 6-gr. lozenges. Each 
 lozenge contains -^ gr. of opium. As the 
 last. 
 
LOZENGES 
 
 1011 
 
 3. Extract of opium, 72 gr.; tinrtura of 
 tola, i oz. ; reflned sugiir (in powder), 2 oz. ; 
 extract of liquorice, 6 oz. ; distilled water, a 
 surticicncy. Divide the mass into 720 lozenges. 
 Each lozenge contains ^ gr, of extract of 
 opium. — Dose, 1 to 2 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Or'ange. Si/n. Tbocrisci au- 
 BANTii, L. From oil of orange, 1_J fl. dr. to 
 ench lb. of sugar, and infusion of saftron for 
 colonring. By adding nitric or tartaric ncid, 
 3 dr. 'ACIDULATED OnAHaE I,0ZENO£S' will 
 
 be formed. 
 
 Lozenges, Orangeflow'er. Sffn. Tbocbisci 
 AUBANTii PLOBUM, L. Frep. (P. Cod.) Pow- 
 dered sugar, 1 lb. ; neroli, 1 dr. ; orange-flower 
 water, q. s. ; make it into drops (pastllli) ; or, 
 omit the water, and make it into lozenges with 
 mucilage of tragacanth made with orange- 
 flower water. Delightfully fragrant. 
 
 Lozenges, Or'rii-root. Syn. Tbochibci ibi- 
 DIS, h. Prep. From orris root (in very fine 
 powder), 1 oz. ; sugar, 1 lb. j mucilage of tra- 
 gacanth, q. s. to mix. Used to perlume the 
 breath. 
 
 Lozenges Ox'alate of Fotassa. Syn. Tbo- 
 CmSCI POTASS* OXAlATia, T. p. bupeb-oxa- 
 LATIB, L. As ACIDCLATED LOZENGES, but 
 using quadraoxalate of potasaa (salt of sorrel) 
 instead of tart^iric acid. (See below.) 
 
 Lozenges, Oxal'ic Acid. St/n. Trochisoi 
 
 AOIDI OXALICr, L. A» ACI DULATED LOZENGES, 
 but using oxalic acid instead of tartaric acid. 
 The last two arc refrigerant, but their use is 
 objectionable, especially for patients who la- 
 bour under the oxalic diathesis. In large 
 quantities they are poisonous. 
 
 Lozenges, Faregor'ic. Si/n. Tnocuisci pa- 
 BEaOKici, L. Medicated with 2 fl. oz. of 
 paregoric and 2 dr. of tartaric acid, to each 
 lb. of s\igar, and tinged of a pink colour with 
 lake or cochineal. As a pectoral in catarrhs, 
 &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Fanllin'ia. Si/n. Tbochisci paul- 
 I,INI£, T. GUAHAN^, L. Prep. (Dr Gavrelle.) 
 Ench lozpnge contains nearly i gr. of extract 
 of giirim.i or pauUinia, and is flavoured with 
 vanilla. 12 to 20 daily, as an alterative and 
 tonic; in clilDrosis, diarrhoea. 
 
 Lozenges, Pec'toral. Sj/n. Tbochisci pec- 
 TOBALES, T. BECHICI, L. Prep. 1. (Dr 
 Grunn.) Powdered squills, 4 parts ; extract of 
 lettuce, 8 parts ; ipecacuanha, 18 parts ; 
 manna, 125 parts ; sugar, 250 parts; mucilage 
 of tragaranth. q. s. tn mix. 
 
 2. (Magendie.) See Lozenges, Emetine. 
 
 3. Black; T. bkchici nigei.) See Lo- 
 zenges, LlQUOKICE. 
 
 4. (White; T. dechici albi.) Orris root, 
 4dr. ; liquoiice powder, 6 dr.; starch, IJ nz. ; 
 sugar, 18 oz. ; muiilage of tragacanth, q. o. to 
 make a l-zenpo-niass. 
 
 5. (Yellow; T. bechici ilavi.) Pow- 
 dered orris root, 6 dr. ; siarch, 4 dr. ; liquo- 
 rice pn« dor, 3 dr. ; safl'ron, 2 dr. ; sugar, 8 oz. ; 
 muril;ii,'e of tr.igacanth, q. ». to mix. 
 
 Obt. All the above are used as demulcents 
 
 in coughs, colds, &c. Nos. 1 and 2 are ano- 
 dyne as well as demulcent. For other for- 
 mulas see Lozenoxb, Cough, Liquobice, 
 Opium, <fcc. 
 
 Lozenges, Pellitory. St/n. Tbochibci pt- 
 BETHBI, L. Prep. From pellitory, mastic, 
 and tragacanth, of each in fine powder, equal 
 parts ; orange-flower water, q, s. to mix. In 
 toothache. 
 
 Lozenges, Pep'permlnt. Si/n. Tbochibci 
 
 MENTH.E PIPEBITS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) 
 
 Oil of peppermint, 1 dr. ; powdered sugar, 
 16 oz. ; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Oil of peppermint, 1 fl. dr. ; 
 sugar, 12 oz.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) 1 fl. dr. of the finest Mitcham 
 oil of peppermint to each lb. of the finest double 
 refined white sugar, with mucilage of either 
 gum Arabic or tragacanth to mix. 
 
 Obs. The best peppermint lozenges are 
 made of the very finest double refined sugar 
 and of English oil of peppermint only ; care- 
 fully mixed up with very clean mucilage. The 
 commoner qualities are made by employing 
 inferior lump sugar and foreign oil of pepper- 
 mint, or, what is better, English oil of pepper- 
 mint, but in a loss proportion than for the 
 better sorts. The addition of starch, in quan- 
 tity varying from ^ to } of the whole mass, 
 is also commonly made to them ; and in the 
 cheapest varieties even plaster of Paris or 
 chalk isoccnsionally introduced by unprincipled 
 makers. Tlie addition of a very small quan- 
 tity of blue smalts, reduced to an impalpable 
 powder, is commonly made to the sugar, to 
 increase its whiteness. ' Tbanspaeent ' or 
 ' Semi-transparent peppermint lozenges' 
 are made from the same materials as the opaque 
 ones; but the sugar is not reduced to quite so 
 fine a powder, and the cake is rolled thinner 
 before cutting it. A little oil of almonds or 
 of olives is also occasionally mixed with the 
 ingredients, to promote the transparency; but 
 it tends to render the lozenges less white. 
 
 Peppermint lozenges and drops are useful 
 in flatulency, nausea, and griping; and judging 
 from the enormous and constantly increasing 
 demand for them, they arc more highly es- 
 teemed by the public than all other lozenges 
 and confections. 
 
 Lozenges, Fontefract. These are made of 
 the purest refined juice or exiract of liquorice, 
 and have long been esteemed as a demulcent. 
 
 Lozenges, Fop'py. St/n. Trochisci papa- 
 teeis, L. Prep. From extract of poppies, 
 3 oz. ; sugar, 15 oz. ; powdered gum traga- 
 canth, 2 oz. ; rose water, q. s. to mix. Used 
 in coughs as an anodyne and demulcent, in 
 lieu of opium lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Fnlmon'ic. See Lozenges, Cough, 
 Pectoral, Wafers, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Quinine'. S^n. Trochisci qui- 
 NINiE SULPHATIS, L. Prep. (Soubeirau.) Each 
 lozenge contains about -j^j gr. of sulphate 
 (disulphate) of quinine. Tonic and stoma- 
 chic in dyspepsia, &c.; but to render them 
 
1012 
 
 LOZENGES 
 
 useful, the quantity of the alkaloid should be 
 doubled. 
 
 Lozenges, Seduced Iron. S^n. Tbochisci 
 PEBEI EEDAOTI. (B. P.) Reduced iron, 720 
 gr. ; refined sngar, in powder, 25 oz. ; gum 
 Arabic, in ponder, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ; 
 distilled water, 1 oz., or a sufficiency. Mix the 
 iron, sugar, and guui, and add the mucilage 
 iind water to form a proper mass. Divide 
 into 720 lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air 
 chamber with a moderate beat. Each lozenge 
 contains 1 gr. of reduced iron. — Dose, 1 to 6 
 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Kednced Iron, with Chocolate. 
 (Bouchardat.) St/n. Tbochisci ohooolai^ 
 ET 7EBBI. Prep. Fine chocolate, 14 oz. ; 
 iron reduced by hydrogen, 1 oz. Soften the 
 chocolate by heat, mix with the iron, and 
 divide into lozenges of 15i gr. each. Levigated 
 iron filings are sometimes substituted for the 
 reduced iron ; others direct the peroxide. 
 
 Lozenges of Ehatany. (Th. Hosp.) S^n. 
 Tbochisci keameei^. Prep. Extract of 
 rbatany in powder, 1050 gr. ; tragacanth, 70 
 gr. ; sugar, 280 gr. ; red currant paste, q. s. 
 Mix, and divide into 350 lozenges, and finish 
 as in benzoic acid lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Bhn'barb. Si/n. Dioestiye lo- 
 ZENOKS ; Tbochisci ehei, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
 Powdered rhubarb, 1 oz. ; sugar, 11 oz. ; muci- 
 lage of tragacanth, q. s. ; divide into 12gr. 
 iozenges. Stomachic and laxative. Sucked 
 liefore dinner, they excite the appetite, and, 
 alter it, promote digestion. They are fre- 
 quently aroinatised with a little cinnamon or 
 vanilla. See Candy (Digestive). 
 
 Lozenges, Boee. %». Tbochisci bosx, L. 
 Prep. 1. (AoiDUiATED J T. E. A.C1DM.) From 
 otto, 5 to 10 drops; citric or tartaric acid, 
 3 dr.; sugar, 1 lb. ; mucilage, q. s. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. 1746.) Eed-rose leaves (pow- 
 dered), 1 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. ; mucilage, q. s. 
 
 3. (Pate de eose lozenqes.) As No. 1, 
 omitting one half of the acid. 
 
 4. (Red; T. e. eubei.) As No. 1; hut 
 coloured with liquid lake, or infusion of 
 cocliineal. 
 
 Obs. Some makers add of starch, 4 oz., 
 substitute oil of rhodium for otto of roses, and 
 use mucilage made with rose water; but the 
 quality of course suffers. Tliey are chiefly 
 used to perfume the breath. 
 
 Lozenges, Saffron. Si/n. Tbochisci ceoci, 
 L. Prep. From hay saffron (ip fine powder), 
 1 oz.; white sugar, 1 lb.; mucilage of gum 
 tragacanth, q. s. to mix. Anodyne, pectoral, 
 and emmenagogue; but chiefly used to raise 
 the spirits in hypochondriasis. 
 
 Lozenges, San'tonine. Sj/n. Tasteless woem 
 LOZENGES; TrOCHISCI SANIONUfl, L. Each 
 lozenge contains i gr. (nearly) of santouine. 
 5 to 10 daily, as a vermifuge. 
 
 Lozenges, Scammony. (Bouri&res.) Si/n. 
 Tbochisci scammonii. Frep. Resin of scam- 
 mony, 4 dv. ; calomel, 4 dr. ; sugar, fi oz. ; tra- 
 gacanth, 3 dr. ; tincture of vanilla, 40 minims. 
 
 Make into 300 lozenges. 1 or 2 for a child; 
 
 3 to 4 for au adult. 
 
 Lozenges, So'da. Sz/n. Tbocbisci SOC^s 
 BicAEBOMATig (Ph. E.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. 
 E.) Bicarbonate of soda, 1 cz. ; powdered 
 gum Arabic, i oz. ; sugar, 3 oz.; mucilage, 
 q. s. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From bicarbonate of soda 
 and powdered gum tragacanth, of each 2 oz. ; 
 double refined lump sugar, J lb.; rose water, 
 q. s. to mix. In acidity, heartburn, &c. See 
 Lozenges, Vioht. 
 
 3. (With GiNGEE; Tbochisci bod.*; bi 
 ZINQIBEBIS, L. To the last, add of ginger 
 (in very fine powder), li oz. ; powdered gum, 
 
 4 oz. 
 
 Lozenges of Soluble Tartar. (Ouibort.) ^n. 
 Tbochisci tab.taei solubilis. Frep, Boro- 
 tartrate of potash, 1 oz. j sugar, 7 oz.; muci- 
 lage of tragacanth, q. s. ; flavoured with 
 lemon. 
 
 Lozenges, Squills. Si/n. Tbochisci sciLL.fi, 
 L. 1. Each lozenge contains f gr. of powdered 
 squills and 2 gr. of extract of liquorice. 
 
 2. (With IPECACUANHA; Tbochisci sciLia 
 ET IPECACITANH.S, L. As the last, adding for 
 each lozenge 4 gr. of powdered ipecacuanha. 
 Both the above are useful cough lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Starch. St/n, Tbochisci alimy, 
 T. beohici albi. L. See Peciobal lo- 
 zenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Steel. St/n. Tbochisci febbi, T. 
 CHALtbbati, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Levigated 
 iron filings, 1 oz. ; sugar, 10 oz.; cinnamon, 
 2 dr.; mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, 
 and divide into 480 lozenges. Tonic, See 
 Lozenges, Ibon. 
 
 Lozenges, Snl'phor. Sj/n. Tbochisci sirii- 
 PHUEIS, L. Frep. (P. Cod.) From sulphur 
 (pure precipitate), 2 oz.; sugar, 16 oz.; mu- 
 cilage of tragacanth (made with rose water), . 
 q. s. to mix. Useful in piles and some skin 
 diseases. 
 
 Lozenges,Tannic Acid. Si/n. Tbochisci acibi 
 TANNici (B. P.) Tannic acid, 360 gr.; tinc- 
 ture of tolu, i oz, ; refined sugar, 25 oz. ; gum 
 acacia, 1 oz. ; mucilage, 2 oz. ; distilled water, 
 
 1 oz. Dissolve tlie tannic acid in the water ; 
 add first the tincture of tolu previously mixed 
 with the mucilage, then the gum and the 
 sugar, also previously well mixed. Form the 
 whole into a proper mass, divide into 720 
 lozenges, and dry them in a hot-air chamber 
 with a moderate heat. Each lozenge contains 
 i gr. of tannic acid. — Dose, 1 to 6 lozenges. 
 
 Lozenges, Tarta'ric Acid. See Lozenges, 
 Acidulated. 
 
 Lozenges, Toln'. Si/n. Balsamic lozenges; 
 Tbochisci, TOLUTANi,T.BALSAMici;,L. Frep. 
 1. (P. Cod.) Balsam of tolu and rectified 
 spirit, of each 1 oz. ; dissolve, add of water, 
 
 2 fl. oz., heat the mixture in a water bath, and 
 filter; make a mucilage with the filtered 
 Hquid,andgum tragacanth (in powder), 80 gr.; 
 add of sugar, 16 oz. ; make a mass, and cut it 
 into lozenges. 
 
LUBRICATING COMPOUNDS— LUNCHEONS 
 
 1013 
 
 2. (Wholesalp.) As the last, but using only 
 oni' half the weight of baUam of tola. Pectoral 
 and balsamic. 
 
 Loienges, Tronchin'i. St/n. Tablettes sb 
 Tbonchin, Fr. Soe Lozbnqeb. Cough. 
 
 Lozenges, Vanll'la. Spn. Tbochisci va- 
 mthjf:, h. Prep. 1. Essence of vanilla, 3 fl. dr., 
 to each lb. of sugar. 
 
 2. (Ouibourt.) From vanilla triturated to a 
 fine powder with 7 times its weight of sugar. 
 Antispasmodic, nervine, and stomachic. Used 
 to sweeten the breath, to flavour chocolate, 
 &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Vichy. 8yn. lyABCET's lozen- 
 ges ; 'I'ltocHisci tonm., L. ; Pastilles be 
 viCHT, Fr. Frep. 1. (P. Cod.) Bicarbonate 
 of ioda, 1 oz. j powdered sugar, 19 oz. ; muci- 
 lage of gum tragacanth, q. s. ; mix, and divide 
 into 20-gr. lozenges. 
 
 2. (D'Arcet.) As the last, adding a little 
 oil of peppermint to give a slight flavour. 
 Antacid or absorbent ; in heartburn, &c. 
 
 Lozenges, Vi'olet. 8yn. Tbocbisoi violjg, 
 T. VIOLABUM, L. Prep. Orris lozenges co- 
 loured with the juice of violets. 
 
 Lozenges, Wistaj'g Cough. Prep. Oum 
 Arabic, extract of liquorice, and sui^ar, of each 
 2J oz. J powdered opium, 1 dr ; oil of aniseed, 
 40 dropii ; for 60 lozenges. One, three or tour 
 times a day. 
 
 Loienges Worm. Si/n. TBOcntsci anthel- 
 
 MINTICI, MOBSULI CONTBA VEIIUES, L. Most 
 of the advertised nostrums under this name 
 have a basis of calomel (about 1 gr. per lozenge), 
 and require to be followed by a purge a few 
 hours afterwards. 
 
 1. (Ph. Austr. 1836.) Ethereal extract of 
 wormneed, 1 dr, ; jalap, starch, and sugar, of 
 each 2 dr. ; mucilage of gum tragacanth, q. e. ; 
 divide into 60 lozenges. 
 
 2. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Wormseed, 1 oz.; 
 etliiops mineral and jalap, of each 8 dr. ; 
 cinnamon, 2 dr. ; sugar, 7 oz. ; rose water, 
 q. s. See Lozenges, Calomel, Ching's, 
 Santonin, &c. (flhove). 
 
 Lozenges, Zinc. Syn. Tbooiiisci zinoi, T. 
 z. SULPHATI8, L. Prep. (Dr Copland.) Each 
 lozenge contains \ gr. of sulphate of ziac. An- 
 tispasmodic, expectorant, and tonic, and in 
 quantity emetic. 
 
 LUBRICATING COMPOUNDS. See Anti- 
 
 ATTBITION. 
 
 lU'CIFERS. See Matches. 
 
 LUMBA'OO. Rheumatism of the loins. It 
 is distinguished from nephritis, or iiiflimma- 
 tion of the kidneys, by the pain being aggra- 
 vated on stooping. The treatment consists of 
 strong stimulant embrocations or liniments, or 
 of blisters over the parts affected, with active 
 aperients, warmth, and diaphoretics (as Dover's 
 powder) at bedtime. 'I he hot or vapour bath 
 otten gives almost immediate relief. See 
 LiNIUENTOF BErXABONNA and CULOBOFOBM. 
 
 See RuEUMATiSM. 
 LU'MINOUS PHIAL. See Phobfhobits. 
 
 LU'irA,COENEA. [L.] Syn. HoBN silvbb. 
 Fused chloride of silver. 
 
 LU'SAR, CAUSTIC. Fused nitrate of silver. 
 See Catjstio and Silveb. 
 
 LUNCHEONS, HOT, by the River Side. 
 We extract the tollowing from ' Land and 
 Water' :— "In cold weather, by river side or 
 on mountain or moor, when not too far from 
 home, a hot lunch is often a desideratum, bnt 
 one not easily accomplished without a more or 
 less complicated apparatus and the trouble of 
 lighting a tire — often an impossibility from 
 the want of dry wood. A hot, substantial 
 meal at the end of a hard day's work is often 
 difficult to get when the time of return home 
 may depend entirely on the humour of the 
 flsh ; and for either purpose nothing will beat 
 the homely Hot Pot, or " Pat^ de Lancashire," 
 as I have seen it pretentiously termed, though 
 the latter name does not convey any of the 
 comforting, cheering sensation to the inner 
 man contained in the simpler denomination. I 
 have never seen a good recipe for it, so append 
 my own. Take a strong glazed earthenware 
 jar of a cylindrical Ibrm, ten inches deep and 
 twelve broad. At the bottom of this place a 
 layer, about an inch thick, of potatoes cut 
 into pieces, spiiikle with a little salt; on these 
 place a layer of four or five mutton chops, 
 season with salt and pepper, and a teaspoonf ul 
 of Worcester sauce. Pour in enough broih, 
 stock, or water to nearly cover the chops ; 
 then add another layer of potatoes (rather 
 thicker than the first), on which place two or 
 three chops, and two kidneys, cut into smallish 
 pieces for the sake of the gravy. If mush- 
 rooms are procurable, add a few with each 
 layer of meat, or, in p'ace of these, a few 
 oysters. Season, and continue the meat and 
 potatoes in jilternate layers until within an 
 inch of the top, when cover with small pota- 
 toes whole, or large ones cut into halves or 
 quarters; bake slowly In the oven till the 
 potatoes are quite soft inside, and brown and 
 well cocikcd at the top, when the dish is readj-. 
 If it is not wanted at once, it may easily be 
 kept hot, and the addition of a little stock 
 will pre\ent its getting dry. To serve out-of- 
 doors, wrap up in cloths, and carry in a small 
 hamper lined with straw, when it will keep 
 steaming hot for an hour or more. One of the 
 great excellences of this dish lies in the fact 
 that all the aroma of the meat is retained, 
 while the potatoes absorb any superfluous 
 gravy. Sliced onions will improve the flavour 
 for those who like them, especially when 
 mushrooms cannot be got. I have tested the 
 appreciation of this dish among a grouse- 
 driving party on the Yorkshire moors on a raw 
 December day, and there was no dissentient 
 voice as to its merits when thankfnlly dis- 
 cussed over the subsequent pipe. 1 have found 
 it not ungrateful, after a long day's fishing, 
 nearly up to my waist in water, when the 
 dinner ordered for six, with a view of taking 
 an evening basket, would have been mined 
 
1014 
 
 LUNGS-MACE 
 
 before my arrival at eleveu, had it consisted of 
 aught else t nay, I have assisted at more than 
 one bachelor supper in chambers, where it 
 formed the dish of the evening, and mid-day, 
 evening, or night I have always found it good. 
 
 IiTJNGS. In anatomy, the organ of respira- 
 tion occupying the thorax or chest. See 
 Kespibation. 
 
 lU'PUIIN. Syn. LtrpTiLiifi, LupuiiNE. 
 Under this name two products are known, 
 namely, 1. (Lupulinio geains, L. giands.) 
 The yellow powder obtained from the dried 
 strobiles or catkins of the hops, by gently rub- 
 bing and sifting tbem. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. ; 
 as an anodyne, tonic, &c. 
 
 2. The aromatic bitter principle of hops. 
 
 Frep. The aqueous extract of the yellow 
 powder or lupnlinic grains of the strobiles, 
 along with a little lime, are treated with recti- 
 fied spirit ; the filtered tincture is evaporated 
 to dryness, redissolved in water, and the solu- 
 tion is again filtered, and evaporated to dry- 
 ness ; the residuum is, lastly, washed with 
 ether, and allowed to dry. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. The latter product is a yellow- 
 ish-white, bitter, uncrysfctUisable substance, 
 soluble in 20 parts of water, very soluble in 
 alcohol, and slightly so in ether. The yellow 
 powder above alluded to (No. 1) is improperly 
 called lupulin ; a name which appears more 
 appropriate to the pure bitter principle thau 
 to the lupnlinic grains. 
 
 Adult. The lupulin sold to brewers is 
 largely adulterated with quassia. In some 
 samples, lately examined, the quassia amounted 
 to 70 per cent. 
 
 LU'PHS. In pathology, a disease affecting 
 the skin, remarkable for eating away the 
 parts which it attacks with extreme rapidity. 
 It is genernlly confined to the face, and com- 
 mences with small, spreading ulcerations, 
 which become more or less concealed beneath 
 bran-like scabs, and end in ragged ulcers, 
 which gradually destroy the skin and muscular 
 tissue to a considerable depth. 
 
 LUS'TEE. See Plumbago. 
 
 LUTE. Syn. LlTTiNG ; LuTUM, C^men- 
 TUJI, L. A composition employed to secure 
 the joints of chemical vessels, or as a covering 
 to protect them from tlie violence of the fire. 
 
 Prep. 1. Linseed meal, either alone or 
 mixed with an equal weight of whiting, and 
 made into a stiff paste with water. It soon . 
 becomes very hard and tough. 
 
 2. Ground almond cake, from which the oil 
 has been pressed, mixed up as the last. Both 
 the above are much used for stills, retorts, 
 and other vessels that are not exposed to a 
 heat higher th.in about 320° Pahr. They are 
 capable of resisting the action of the fumes of 
 volatile oils, spirits, weak acids, &c., for some 
 time. 
 
 3. Fresh-slaked lime made into a paste with 
 strained bullock's blood or size. As the last. 
 
 4. Plaster of Paris made into a paste with 
 water, and at once applied. It bears a nearly 
 
 red heat, but becomes rather porous and 
 friable. 
 
 5. Powdered clay or whiting made into 
 putty with water and boiled linseed oil. This 
 is commonly known as ' fat lute.' 
 
 6. A mixture of powdered clay and ground 
 bricks, made up with water or a solution of 
 borax. For joining crucibles, &c., which are 
 to be exposed to a strong beat. 
 
 1. Pipe-clay and horse-dung, made into a 
 paste with water. As a coating for glass ves- 
 sels, to preserve them from injury from expo- 
 sure to the fire. This composition is used by 
 the pipe-makers, and will stand unharmed the 
 extremest heat of their kiln for 24 hours. It 
 is applied by spreading it on paper. 
 
 8. As the last, but employing shredded tow 
 or plumbago for horse-dtnig. 
 
 Ohs. For the joints of small vessels, as tubes, 
 &c., especially those of glass or earthenware, 
 pieces of vulcanized Indian tubing.slippedover 
 and tied above and below the joint, are very 
 convenient substitutes for lutes, and have the 
 advantage of lasting for a long time, and 
 bearing uninjured the heat at which oil of 
 vitriol boils. Flat rings or " washers" of vul- 
 canised rubber are also excellent for still heads, 
 &c., whenever the parts can be pinched to- 
 gether by screws or clamps. 
 
 lYCOPO'DIUM. The fine powder known in 
 commerce under this name consists of the 
 minute spores of the common club moss, or 
 Lycopodium clavatum It is exceedingly com- 
 bustible ; thrown suddenly from a powder-puff 
 or bellows across the flame of a candle, it pro- 
 duces the imitation fiashes of lightning of our 
 theatres. The powder is also employed as a 
 ' dusting powder" in excoriations, and to roll 
 up boluses and pills. 
 
 According to M. Paul Cazeneuve, pine pollen 
 is occasionally substituted for lycopodium. 
 
 MACASO'KI. This only differs from TEK. 
 MiCELLi in the size of the pipes, which are 
 about as large as a goose-quill. When pro- 
 perly dressed it is very wholesome and nutri- 
 tious. A pleasant dish may be made by boiling 
 macaroni in water until soft, either with or 
 without a little salt, draining off the water, and 
 then stewing it with a little butter, cream, or 
 milk, and grated cheese, adding spice to palate. 
 It may be made into a • form' and browned 
 before the fire. 
 
 MAC'AEOONS (English). Frep. Take of 
 sweet almonds, 1 lb.; blanch and beat them to 
 a paste, add of lump sugar IJ lb. ; whites of 6 
 eggs J the grated yellow peel of 2 lemons ; mix 
 well, make it into ' forms,' cover with wafer 
 paper, and bake in a moderate oven. 
 
 MACE. Syn. Macib, L. The tough mem- 
 branous, lacerated covering (ariliode) of the 
 BirTMEG. It has a flavour and odour more 
 agreeable than that of nutmeg, wliich in its 
 general properties it resembles. It is used as a 
 flavouring by cooks, confectioners, and liqueur- 
 
MACERATIOK— MADDER RED 
 
 1015 
 
 istos ; find in medicine as a carminative. Scf 
 Oil, 4c. 
 
 MiCEEA'TION. Sgn. Macebatio, L. Tlie 
 Bteeping of a substance in cold water, for the 
 purpose of extracting the portion soluble in 
 that menstruum. The word is also frequently 
 applied to the infusion of organic substances 
 in alcohol or ether, or in water, either alka- 
 lisuil or aeidul:itcd. 
 
 UACKEREL. The Scomberscombrut(Ij\nn.), 
 a well-known spiny-Huned sca-lish, much es- 
 teemed at certain seasonsfor thetable. Though 
 nutritious, it is very apt to disagree with deli- 
 cate stomachs, and occasionally induces sym- 
 ptoms rocmbliiig those of poisoning. 
 
 MAD'DER. Si/n. RuDiA, RnBi£ badix, L. 
 Tlie root of Stibia tinctorum (Linn.), or dyer's 
 madder. The best madder has the size of a 
 common goose-quill, a reddjsh appearance, and 
 a strong odour. As soon as the roots are 
 taken from the ground they are picked and 
 dried; and before me thiy are ground in a 
 mill. Levant, Turkey, and Smyrna madder 
 is imported whole ; French, Dutch, and Zea- 
 land madder, ground. The finest quality of 
 ground madder is called ' crop' or 'grappe;' 
 * ombro' and ' gameno' arc inferior sorts, and 
 ' mull' the worst. 
 
 bladder contains several distinct principles 
 as — madder red, or alizarin ; — maddtr purple, 
 or purpurin ; — madder orange, or rubiacin ; 
 madder yellow, or xanthin, &c. The first of 
 these (noticed below) is by far the most 
 important. 
 
 jPur, Madder is frequently adulterated with 
 logwood, Brazil wood, and other dye-stuffs of 
 inferior value; and also, not uulrequently, 
 with brickdust, red ochre clay, sand, maho- 
 gany sawdust, bran, &c. These admixtures 
 may be detected as follows : — 
 
 1. When dried at ^13° Fahr., and then 
 incinerated, not more thanlOg to 12-JJ of ash 
 should be loft. 
 
 2. It should not lose more than SOg to 56^ 
 by exhaustion with cold water. 
 
 3. When assayed for alizarin (see below), the 
 quantity of this substance obtained should be 
 equal to that from a sample of the same kind 
 of madder which is known to be pnre, and 
 which has been treated in precisely the same 
 manner. The operation may be conducted as 
 follows : — 500 gr. of the sample are neighed, 
 and, after being dried by the heat of boiling 
 water or steam, are gradually added to an equal 
 weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, con- 
 tained in a gln's vessel, and stirred with a glass 
 rod; after a few hours the charred mass is 
 washed with cold water, collected on a filter, 
 and dried by the heat of boiling water ; the 
 carbonised muss ('garacine') is next powdered, 
 and treated with successive portions of recti- 
 fied spirit, to which a little ether has been 
 added, at first in the cold, and afterwards 
 with heat, until the liquid is no longer coloured 
 by it, when the mixed tincture is filtered, and 
 evaporated (distilled) to dryness ; the weight of 
 
 the residuum, divided by 5, gives the percent- 
 age of red colouring matter present. Or, — 
 Tlie dried carbonized matter is exhausted by 
 boiling it in a solution of 1 part of alum in 5 
 or 6 parts of water, and the decoction, alter 
 being filtered whilst in the boiling state, is 
 treated with sulphuric acid as long as a preci- 
 pitate falls, which is washed, dried, and weighed 
 as before. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Madder has been given in jaun- 
 dice and rickets, and as an emmenagogue. — 
 Doge, i dr. to 2 dr., twice or thrice a day. It 
 is principally employed as a dye-stulf. See 
 Red dyes, Ivoby, Ptjbpubin, &c., also 
 lelou). 
 
 MADDER RED. iSy». AtizABiN. C„H5,0<. 
 2Aq. The red colouring principle of madder, 
 first obtained in a separate form by Robi- 
 quet. 
 
 Prep. 1. The aqueous decoction of madder 
 is treated with dilute sulphuric acid as long as 
 a precipitate falls, which, after beiug washed, 
 is boiled in a solution of chloride of aluminum 
 as long as it gives out colour ; the liquid is 
 then filtered, precipitated with hydrochloric 
 acid, and the precipitate washed and dried. 
 It may be purified from a little adhering pur- 
 purin, by dissolving it in alcohol, again throw- 
 ing it down with hydrate of aluminum, boil- 
 ing the precipitate with a strong solution 
 of soda, and separating the alizarin from its 
 combination with alumina by means of hy- 
 drochloric acid; it is lastly crystallised from 
 alcohol. 
 
 2. (Jleillet.) Alum, 3 parts, is dissolved in 
 water at 140° Fahr., 30 parts, and madder, 13 
 parts, added to the solution ; the whole is then 
 gently boiled for 30 or 40 minutes, after 
 which it is thrown upon a filler, and sub- 
 mitted to strong pressure ; this treatment is 
 repeated with fresh solutions a second and a 
 tliii-d time ; the mixed filtrates are then de- 
 canted, and when nearly cold, oil of vitriol, 1 
 part, diluted with twice its bulk of water, is 
 added, care being taken to stir the liquid all 
 the time; the supernatant fluid is next de- 
 canted, and the residuum well washed, and, 
 lastly, dried in the air. If required quite pure, 
 it is dissolved, whilst still moist, in a solution 
 of li times its weight of carbonate of potassa 
 in 15 parts of water, and, after reprecipitation 
 with sulphuric acid, is washed and dried as 
 before. 
 
 3. (Robiquet & Colin.) Powdered madder 
 is exhausted with water of a temperature not 
 exceeding 68° Pahr., and, after being dried, 1 
 part of it is boiled for 15 or 20 minutes in a 
 solution of alum, 8 parts, in water, 40 parts ; 
 the liquid is filtered whilst boiling, the marc 
 well washed with a fresh solution of alum, the 
 mixed liquids precipitated with sulphuric acid, 
 and the precipitate washed and dried, as 
 before. 
 
 Obs. Alizarin has recently been produced 
 artificially by Graebe and Liebermann from 
 anthracene (C14HJ, a liquid hydrocarbon 
 
1016 
 
 MAGILP— MAGNESIUM 
 
 existing in coal-tar. For a description of the 
 process see AiiZABiN, AKTinciAL. 
 
 4. Madder exhausted by 2 or 3 macerations 
 in 5 or 6 times its weight of cpld water, is 
 submitted to strong pressure, to remove ad- 
 hering water, and the marc, whilst still moist, 
 is mixed witli half its weight of oil of vitriol 
 diluted with an equal quantity of water ; the 
 whole is kept at the temperature of 212° for 
 an hour, and after being mixed with cold 
 water is thrown on a linen strainer, well 
 washed with cold water, and dried. 
 
 5. From powdered mndderand oil of vitriol, 
 equal piirts, without heat, as described under 
 Maddsb. 
 
 6. (F. Steiner.) The ' used madder' of the 
 dye-works is run into filters, and precipitated 
 with sulphuric acid ; the matter thus obtained 
 is put into bags and rendered as dry as pos- 
 sible by hydraulic pressure ; the pressed cake 
 is next crumbled to pieces, placed in a leaden 
 vessel, and treated with l-5th of its weight of 
 oil of vitriol, afterwards assisting the action of 
 the acid by introducing steam to the mixture ; 
 the resulting dark brown carbonized mass is, 
 lastly, well wushed, dried, powdered, and mixed 
 with about 5 J of carbonate of soda, when it is 
 ready for sale. 
 
 Oba. The last three formula) produce the 
 ' gabance' or ' oaeancine' of commerce, now 
 so extensively used in dyeing. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Pure anhydrous alizarin crys- 
 tallises in magnificent orange-red crystals, 
 which may be fused and sublimed; it is freely 
 soluble in alkaline solutions, which it colours 
 purple or violet; and, in oil of vitriol, giving 
 a rich red colour ; water throws it down from 
 the last unchanged ; it is also soluble in hot 
 alcohol, a hot solution of alum, and, less freely, 
 in hot water. Hydrated alizarin occurs iu 
 small scales resembling mosaic gold. When 
 impure, it generally forms shining reddish- 
 brown scales. Commercial ' garancine' is a 
 deep-brown or puce-coloured powder, and will 
 probably, ere long, entirely supersede crude 
 madder for dyeing. The properties of garan- 
 cine as a dye-stuff are precisely similar to those 
 of madder. A solution of alum added to a 
 solution of alizarin, and precipitated by car- 
 bonate of potassa, furnishes a rose lake ; 
 which, after being washed with water and 
 dried, possesses a most charming tint. 
 
 MAGILP'. St/n. Megeliup. A mixture of 
 pale linseed oil and mastic varnish, employed 
 by artists as a ' vehicle' for their colours. The 
 proportions vary according to the work. It 
 is thinned with turpentine. 
 
 MAG'ISTEET. Syn. Magisteeium, L. The 
 old name of precipitates. The following are 
 the principal substances to which this term 
 has been applied : — Maoistert of alum, hy- 
 drate of alumina; M. of bismuth, sub-ni- 
 trate of bismuth ; M. OP DIAPHORETIC AN- 
 TIMOHY, washed diaphoretic antimony ; M. of 
 ori0ii (Ludolph's), crude morphia; M. OF 
 
 LAPIS CAiAMiNAEis Or M. OF ZINC, hydrated 
 oxide of zinc. 
 
 UAGNESIA. See Magnesium, Oxiss of. 
 
 Magnesia, Hydrate of. (P. Cod.) Syn. 
 Magnesia hydras. Obtained by boiling 
 magnesia in 20 or 30 times its weight of 
 water for 20 minutes, draining on a linen 
 cloth and drying. It contains 31 per cent, of 
 water. 
 
 Magnesia, lactate of. (Ph. Ger.) Syn. 
 Magnesia laotas. Prep. Mix 1 oz. (by 
 weight) of lactic acid in 10 oz. of distilled 
 water, just made slightly warm, and add light 
 carbonate of magnesia enough to neutralise it. 
 Filter and evaporate till crystals form. 
 
 MAGNE'SIAB' AF£"£I£NI (Effervescing). 
 Prep. 1. Heavy carbonate of magnesia, 
 2 lbs. ; tartaric acid and double refined lump 
 sugar, of each \\ lb.; bicarbonate of soda 
 (dried without heat), 1 lb. ; each separately 
 dried and in very fine powder ; essential oils of 
 orange and lemon, of each \ ft. dr. ; mix well 
 in a warm, dry situation, pass the whole through 
 a sieve, put it into warm, dry bottles, and keep 
 them well corked. 
 
 2. As the last, but substituting calcined 
 magnesia, 1 lb., for the heavy carbonate, and 
 adding sugar, | lb. The preceding furnish a 
 very pleasant effervescing saline draught. 
 
 3. (Moxon's.) — a. Takeofsulpliate of mag- 
 nesia, 2 lbs. ; dry it by a gradually increased 
 heitt, powder, add of tartaric acid (also dried 
 and powdered), lilb. ; calcined magnesia, J lb.; 
 finely powdered white sugar, 3 lbs.; bicarbonate 
 of soda (dried without heat), 1 lli. ; essence of 
 lemon, 1 dr. ; mix, and proceed as before. 
 
 6. (Durande.) Carbonate of magnesia, 1 
 part ; bicarbonate of soda, tai-trate of soda and 
 potassa (sel de Seignette), and tartaric acid, of 
 each 2 parts ; mix as before. 
 
 c. (Pharm. Journ.) Sulphate of magnesia 
 and bicarbonate qf soda, of each 1 lb. ; tar- 
 taric acid, i lb. ; mix as before. The last two 
 are much less agreeable than the others. 
 
 4. Carbouate of magnesia, 2 parts ; calcined 
 magnesia, 4 parts ; citric acid, 13 parts ; lump 
 sugar, 25 parts ; essence of lemon, q. b. to fla- 
 vour. Very agreeable. This is known as 
 ' EOGEB PUEGATIF.' 
 
 Obs. The above are very useful and popu- 
 lar medicines in indigestion, heartburn, nausea, 
 habitual costiveness, dyspepsia, &q. — Dose, 
 i to 2 dessert-spoonfuls, thrown into tum- 
 bler 3 parts filled with cold water, rapidly 
 stirred and drunk whilst effervescing, early in 
 the morning fasting, or between breakfast and 
 dinner. 
 
 MAGHESIAN lEMOlTADE'. See Citeatb 
 OF Magnesia nnd Lemonade (Anerient). 
 
 MAGNESIUM. Mg. Syn. Magnium, Tal- 
 OIUM. The metallic radical of magnesia. The 
 existence of this metal was demonstrated by 
 Sir H. Davy in 1808; but it was first ob- 
 tained in sufficient quantity to examine its pro- 
 perties by Bussy in 1830. 
 
 Prep. 5 or 6 pieces of sodium, about the size 
 
MAGNESIUM 
 
 1017 
 
 of pefti, are introduced into a test-tubo, and 
 I'OveriHl witii «mall fragments of eliloride of 
 magnpainm ; tiie latter is then tieated to near 
 it« point of fosion, wlien tiieflnme of the lamp 
 is applied to the sodium, so that its vapour 
 may pass through the stratum of heated chlo- 
 ride J when the vivid incandescence that fol- 
 lows is over, and the whole has become Cold, 
 the mass is thrown into water, and the insoluble 
 metallic portion collected and dried. 
 
 Commercial magnesium is prepared by eva- 
 porating solution of the chlorides of sodium 
 and magnesium, in the proportion of 1 to 3, to 
 dryness, mixing with one quarter of its weight 
 of fluor spar and a like amount of sodium, and 
 heating to bright redness in an iron crucible ot 
 proper construction. 
 
 On a larger scale it is prepared by heating 
 to redness a mixture of chloride of raagnesfum, 
 9 parts; fused chloride of sodiun, 1^ parts; 
 fluoride of calcium, 1^ parts ; and sodium in 
 slices, li parts. 
 
 Prop.,i(c. In colour and lustre it resembles 
 silver, but in chemical properties is more like 
 zinc; its sp. gr. '\* only 1'743 ; it is malleable ; 
 fusible at a read heat, and can be distilled like 
 zinc ; unaffected by dry air and by cold water ; 
 burns with brilliancy when heated to dull red- 
 ness in air or oxygen gas, yielding oxide of 
 magnesium ; inflatnesspoiitaneously in chlorine, 
 yielding chloride of magnesium ; it dissolves 
 in the acids with the evolution of hydrogen 
 gas, and pure salts of magnesium result. 
 
 It has been used somewhat extensively as an 
 illuminating agent for photographing at night, 
 aud also for the purpose of affording a brilliant 
 light for microscopic and magic lantern effects. 
 
 Magneainm, Bromide. Sgn. Maonesii 
 BUOMIDUM. To bromide of iron in solution 
 add calcined magnesia in excess, bent the 
 mixture, tilter, and evaporate the clear solu- 
 tion to dryness. 
 
 Magnesium, Carbonate of (light). Syn. 
 
 LlQUlCABBONATBOFMAaNEStA; CaBBONATE 
 
 OF M aohesia ; Maqnbbia; Magnesia oab- 
 B0NA8 LEVIS (B. P.). SMgCOa- MgO. 5H„0. 
 Prtp. 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of niaguesiuin, 
 4 lbs., and carbonate of sodium, 4 lbs. 9 oz. ; 
 boiling distilled water, 4 galls. ; dissolve 
 the salts separately in one half the water, 
 filter, mix the solutions, and boil for 2 
 hours, constantly stirring with a spatula, 
 distilled water being frequently added to com- 
 pensate for that lost by evaporation j lastly, 
 the solution being poured off, wash the preci- 
 pitated powder with boiling distilled water, 
 and dry it. The f.irmulse of the Ph. E. & D. 
 are essentially the same, except that the ebulli- 
 tion is limited to from 10 to 20 minutes. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Similar to the foregoing except 
 that precipitation takes place in the cold. The 
 formula of this compound is (Mg. 003)3. 
 M;.(HOV4Hsi)). 
 
 8. (Heury's.) Ordinary carbonate of mng- 
 nesia, the washing of which has been finished 
 with a little rose water. 
 
 4. Add a solution of carbonate of potassium 
 or sodium to the bittern or residnary liquor of 
 the sea-salt works, and well wash and dry the 
 precipitate as before. This is known in com- 
 merce as • Scotch magnesia.' 
 
 Ohs.^ The carbonate of magnesia of com- 
 merce is usually made up into cakes or dice 
 while drying ; or it is permitted to drain and 
 dry in masses, which are then cut into squares 
 with a thin knife. It is powdered by simply 
 rubbing it through a wire sieve. The presence 
 of iron in the solution of the sulphate of mag- 
 nesium, when the crude salt is employed, and 
 which is destructive to the beauty of the pre- 
 paration may be got rid of by the addition of 
 lime water until the liquor acquires a slight 
 alkaline reaction, and subsequent decantation 
 alter repose. 
 
 Hagnesinm, Carbonate of (Heavy), Siin. 
 Heavy Caebokateof Magnesia; Maonesis 
 OAEBONAS (B. P.). 3MKCO3. MgO.SHjO. Prep. 
 1. Apothecaries' Hall. A saturated solution of 
 sulphate of mngnesium, 1 part, is diluted with 
 water, 3 parts, and the mixture heated to the 
 boiling point ; a cold saturated solution of car- 
 bonate of sodium, 1 part (all by measure), is 
 then added, and the whole is boiled with con- 
 stant agitation until effervescence ceases; boil- 
 ing water is next freely poured in, and aft«r 
 assiduous stirring for a few minutes, and 
 repose, the clear liquid is decanted, and the 
 precipitate thrown on a limn cloth and tho- 
 roughly washed with hot water; it is, lastly, 
 drained, and dried in an iron pot. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Dissolve sulphate of magnesium, 
 10 oz., in boiling distilled water, \ pint ; and 
 carbonate of sodium (cryst.), 12 oz., in boiling 
 distilled water, 1 pint; mix the two solutions, 
 and evaporate the whole to dryness by the 
 heat of a sand bath ; then add of boiling water 
 1 quart, digest with agitation for half an hour, 
 and wash the insoluble residuum as before ; 
 lastly, drain it, and dry it at the temperature 
 of boiling water. 
 
 3. (B. P.) White granular powder precipi- 
 tated from a boiling solution of sulphate of 
 magnesium by a soluiion of carbonate of 
 sodium, the whole evaporated to dryness, and 
 the dry residue digested in water, collected on 
 a filter, aud washed. 
 
 Prop. The ordinary or light carbonate of 
 maguesia is a white, inodorous, tasteless potv- 
 der, possessing similar properties to calcined 
 magnesia, except effervescing with acids, and 
 having less saturating power. An ounce mea- 
 sure is filled by 45 to 48 gr. of the powder 
 lightly placed in it. The heavy carbonate is 
 sometimes folly thrice as dense (see below), but 
 in other respects is similar. 
 
 Dose. As an antacid, J to a whole teaspoonftil, 
 3 or 4 times daily; as a laxative J dr. to 2 dr. 
 It is commonly taken in milk. It is apt to 
 produce flatulence, but in other respects is 
 preferable to calcined magnesia. 
 
 General Remarks. Although commonly 
 called 'carbonate of magnesia,' the above 
 
1018 
 
 MAGNESIUM 
 
 Bubatance, whether in the light or heavy form, 
 appears to be a, compound of carbonHte with 
 hydrate, in proportions which are not per- 
 fectly constant. ( For B. P. formula see pre- 
 ceding article.) On account of the excess of 
 base in its composition it was formerly re- 
 garded as a subsalt (subcarbonate uf mag- 
 nesia). A great deal has been written use- 
 lessly respecting the preparation of these 
 carbonates, about which, however, there is 
 neither mystery nor difficulty, as some writers 
 would lead their readers to suppose. If the 
 solutions are very dilute, tlie precipitate is 
 exceedingly light and bulky ; if otherwise, it 
 is denser. By employing nearly saturated 
 solutions, and then heating them and mixing 
 them together whilst very hot, a, very heavy 
 precipitate is obtained, but it is apt to be 
 gritty or crystalline. The same occurs when 
 cold solutions are mixed, and no heat is em- 
 ployed. The lightest precipitate is obtained 
 from cold, highly dilute solutions, and sub- 
 sequent ebullition of the mixture. 
 
 Mr Pattinson, a chemist of Gateshead, pre- 
 pares a very beautiful and pure heavy carbonate 
 from magnesian limestone. The latter is cal- 
 cined at a dull red heat (not hotter) for some 
 time, by which the carbonicanhydride is ex polled 
 from the carbonate of magnesium, bnt not from 
 the carbonate of calcium, which hence con- 
 tinues insoluble. The calcined mass is next re- 
 duced to a milk with water in a suitable cistern, 
 and the carbonic anhydride resulting from its 
 own calcination forced into it under powerful 
 pressure. The result is a saturated solution of 
 carbonate of magnesia, the lime remaining 
 unacted on so long as the magnesium is in ex- 
 cess. The solution by evaporation yields the 
 heavy carbonate, whilst carbonic anhydride is 
 expelled, and may be again used in the same 
 manufacture. 154 to 160 gr. of the heavy car- 
 bonate are required to fill an ounce measure 
 when lightly placed in it, by which it appears 
 to be fully thrice as dense as the light car- 
 bonate. The bicarbonate of magnesium (raag- 
 nesiiB bicarbonaa, L.) exists only in solution. 
 The so-called 'fluid magnesias' of Murray, 
 Dinneford, Husband, &c^, are solutions of this 
 salt. The small prismatic crystals which are 
 deposited when ' fluid magnesia' is exposed to 
 the air for some time consist of hydrated neu- 
 tral carbonate, and not bicarbonate, as is some- 
 times stated. 
 
 Magnesium, Chloride of. MgCl^. Syn. Maq- 
 NESII OHLOEIDUM, L. Prep. (Liebig.) By 
 dissolving magnesia in hydrochloric acid, eva- 
 porating to dryness, adding an equal weight 
 of chloride of ammonium, projecting the mix- 
 ture into a red-hot ])latinum crucible, and 
 continuing the heat till a state of tranquil 
 fusion is attained. On cooling, it forms a 
 transparent, colourless, and very deliquescent 
 ma«s, which is anhydrous, and soluble in 
 alcohol. 
 
 Obs. Without the addition of the chloride of 
 ammonium it is impossible to expel tlie last 
 
 portion of the water without at the same time 
 driving off the chlorine, in which case nothing 
 but magnesia is left. The fused mass should 
 be poured out on a clean stone, and when 
 solid broken into pieces, and at once trans- 
 ferred to a warm, dry bottle. The P. Cod. 
 orders the solution to be evaporated to the sp. 
 gr. 1-384, and to be put, whilst still hot, into 
 a wide-mouthed flask to crystallise. — Dose, 1 
 to 4 dr. ; as a laxative. 
 
 ITaguesiiua, Cit'rate of. 'M.g^iCfHfij)^. Syn. 
 Masnesi^ citeas. L. Prep. There is some 
 difficulty in obtaining this salt in an eligible 
 form for medicinal purposes. When precipi- 
 tated from a solution it is insoluble. The 
 following formulae can be highly recommended. 
 
 1. (Parrish.) Dissolve crystallised citric acid, 
 100 gr., in water, 15 drops, and its own ' water 
 of crystallisation' by the aid of heat ; then stir 
 in calcined magnesia, 35 gr. ; n pasty mass will 
 result, which soon hardens, and may be pow- 
 dered for use. 
 
 Obs. The chief practical difficulty in this 
 process results from the great comparative 
 bulk of the magnesia, and the very small 
 quantity of the fused miiss with which it is to 
 be incorporated. A part of the magnesia is 
 almost unavoidably left uncombined, and the 
 salt is consequently not neutral. The uncom- 
 bined earth should be dusted off the mass be- 
 fore powdering the latter. A high tempera- 
 ture must be avoided. 
 
 2. (Robiquet.) Citric acid, 35^ parts, is 
 powdered and dissolved in boiling water, lOJ 
 parts ; when the solution is cold, and before it 
 crystallises, it is poured in a wide earthen 
 vessel, kept cold by surrounding it with water ; 
 then, by means of a sieve, carbonate of mag- 
 nesium, 21^ parts, is distributed evenly and 
 rapidly over the surface without stirring; when 
 the reaction ceases the mixture is beaten 
 rapidly as long as it retains its pasty consist- 
 ence. The salt should be dried at a tempera- 
 ture not exieeding 70° Fahr. 
 
 3. (.Effervescing; MAaMESiiE citeas ep- 
 PEETESCENS, L.) — a. Citric acid (dried and 
 powdered), 7 parts ; heavy carbonate of mag- 
 nesium, 5 parts; mix, and preserve in well- 
 corked bottles. 
 
 b. (Ellis.) Mix powdered citric acid, 2\ oZ., 
 with powdered sugar, 8 oz. ; triturate to a fine 
 powder, and drive off the water of crystallisa- 
 tion by the heat of a water bath ; add citrate 
 of magnesium (prepared by fusion), 4 oz., and 
 oil of lemons, 10 drops, and mix intimately ; 
 then add bicarbonate of sodium, 3 oz , and 
 again triturate until the whole forms a fine 
 powder, which must be preserved in stoppered 
 bottles. From 1 to 3 tablespoonf uls, mixed in 
 a tumbler of water, furnishes an effervescing 
 draught in which the undissolved portion is so 
 nicely suspended, that it can be taken without 
 inconvenience. 
 
 c. (Ph. Germ.) Light carbonate of mag- 
 nesia, 25 oz. ; citric acid, 75 oz. ; distilled 
 water, q. s. ; mix into a thick paste and dry at 
 
MAGNESIUM 
 
 1010 
 
 S(> Fahr. With 14 oi. of the dried mass mix 
 bicarbonate of soda, 13 vz.; citric acid, 6 oz. ; 
 Kutriir, 3 oz. Sprinkle over the mixture enough 
 rectirit'd spirit so as to make it sufficiently 
 moist to be f;ranuluted by rubbing through a 
 tinned iron sieve. 
 
 d. (Gxtemporaneoua.) Citric ac'd (cryst.), 
 20 gr. ; carbonate of magnesium, 14i gr. ; 
 mix in a tumbler of cold wattr, and drink 
 the mixture whilst effervescing. A pleasant 
 saline. 
 
 Oba, A dry white powder, sometimes sold 
 as citrate of magnesia in the shops, is quite a 
 different preparation to the above, and does 
 nut contain a pirticle of citric acid. The 
 following formula is that of a wholesale 
 London drug-house that does largely in this 
 article i — 
 
 Calcined magnesia, magnesium oxide, li lb. 
 (or ciirbonate, 2 lbs.) ; powdered tartaric acid, 
 li lb, ; bicarbonate of sodium, 1 lb,; dry each 
 article by a gentle heat, then mix them, pass 
 the mixture through a fine sieve in a warm 
 dry room, and keep it in well-corked bottles. 
 A few drops of essence of lemon and 3 lbs. of 
 finely powdered sugar are commonly adiled to 
 the above quantity. This addition renders it 
 more agreeable. 
 
 Prop., <^o. Citrate of magnesium ia a mild 
 and agreeable laxative ; its secondary efEects 
 resemble those of the carbonate. — Dose. As a 
 purgative, ) to 1 02. The dose of the effer- 
 vescing citrate must depend on the quantity 
 of magnesia present. A solution of this salt 
 in water, sweetened and flavoured with lemon, 
 forms magnesian lemonade. 
 
 Magnesium, Boro-cit'rate of. Syn. Maonesi^ 
 Bouo-ciTKAS, L. Frep. (Cadet.) Boraeie acid 
 (in powder), 113 gr. ; oxide of magnesium, 
 80 gr. ; mix in a porcelain capsule, and add 
 enough of a solution of citric aeid, 260 gr., 
 iu Hater, 3^ pints, to form a thin paste; then 
 add the remainder of the citric solution, and 
 gently evaporate, with constant stirring, to 
 dryness. A eooling saline, and, in small doses, 
 emmcnagogue and lithontriptic. — Dose. As an 
 aperient, 3 to 6 dr. 
 
 Uagnesium, Oxide of. MgO. Syn. Oxide of 
 Maonesidm, Calcined Magnesia, Magnesia 
 (B. P., Ph. L.). 
 
 Prej>. 1. (B.P.) Magnesium carbonate, heated 
 in a crucible until all the carbonic anhydride 
 is driven off. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. White heavy powder, scarcely 
 soluble in water, but readily soluble in acids 
 without effervescence. Its solution In hydro- 
 chloric acid, neutralised by a mixed solution of 
 ammonia and ammonium chloride, gives a 
 copious crystalline precipitate when sodium 
 phosphate is added to it. See next prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 Magnesia levls (B. P. Si/n. Light mag- 
 nesia. Prep. (B. P.) 1. Light carbonate of 
 magnesium heated in a Cornish crucible until 
 all the carbonic anhydride is driven off. 
 
 A bulky white powder, differing from the 
 
 magnesia (B. P.) only in its density, the 
 volume occupied by the same weight being 
 3i to 1. 
 
 The properties of the two varieties of mag- 
 nesium oxide are identical, and are used iu 
 medicine as antacids, laxatives, and antilithics, 
 and much used in dyspepsia, heartburn, &c. 
 — Dose, 10 to 20 gr. as an antacid and 20 
 to 60 gr. Hs a purgative. 
 
 Magnesium, Fhos'phate of. MgHPO,. 6Aq. 
 Si/n. Magnesia phospuas, L. Prep. From 
 the mixed solutions of phosphate of sodium and 
 sulphate of magnesium, allowed to stand for 
 sometime. Small, colourless, prismatic cr\s- 
 tals, which, necording to Graham, are soluble 
 in about 1000 parts of cold water. Phosphate 
 of magnesium exists in the grains of the 
 cereals, and in considerable quantity in beer. 
 It is also found in guano. 
 
 Magnesium and Anuno"nium, Phosphate of. 
 MgNH^.PO^, 6 Aq. Sj/a. Ammonio rno8- 
 PHATB OP MAGNESIA; MaGNESIJE BT AMMO- 
 NliE fHOSFHAB, L. This compound falls as 
 a white crystalline precipitate whenever am- 
 monia or carbonate of ammonium is added, 
 iu excess, to a solution of a salt of magnesium 
 which has been previously mixed with a solu- 
 ble phosphate, as that of soda. It sulfides 
 immediately from concentrated solutions, but 
 only after some time from very dilute ones. 
 
 Prop., Sic. Aminonio-phosphate of magne- 
 sium is very slightly soluble iu pure water; 
 when heated, it is resolved into pyrophosphate 
 of magnesium, and is vitrefied at a strong red 
 heat. It is found iu whcaten bran, guano, 
 potatoes, &,c., and occasionally forms one of the 
 varieties of urinary calculi. 
 
 Magnesium, Silicates of. There ore several 
 native silicates of magnesia, more or less pure, 
 of which, however, none is directly employed 
 in medicine. Meerschaum and steatite or soap- 
 stone are well-known varieties. Serpentine is 
 a compound of silicate and hydrate of mag- 
 nesium. The minerals augite and hornblende 
 are double salts of silicic acid, magnesium, and 
 calcium with some ferrous oxide. The beauti- 
 ful crystallised mineral called chrysolite is a 
 silicate of magnesium, coloured with ferrous 
 oxide. Jade is a double silicate of magne- 
 sium and aluminum, coloured with chromic 
 oxide. 
 
 Magnesium, Sulphate of. MgS04,7 Aq. Sj/n. 
 Epsom salt, MioNEsiiE sulphas (B. P. Ph. 
 L. E. & D.), Sal Epsomensis, L. This com- 
 pound was originally extracted Irom the saline 
 springs of Epsom, Surrey, by Dr Grew, in 
 1695. It is now exclusively prepared on the 
 large scale, and from either magnesian lime- 
 stone or the residual liquor of the sea-salt 
 works. 
 
 Prep. 1. From dolomite or magnesian 
 limestone. — a. The mineral, broken into frag- 
 ments, is heated witli a sufficient quantity of 
 dilute snlphuric acid to convert its carbonates 
 into sulphates; the sulphate of magnesium is 
 washed out of the mass with hot water, and 
 
1020 
 
 MAGNESIUM 
 
 the solution, after defecation, is evaporated 
 and crystallised, 
 
 b. The ' limestone,' either simply broken 
 into fragments or else calcined (burnt), and its 
 constituents quicklime and oxide magnesium 
 converted into hydrates by sprinkling (^laking} 
 it with water, is treated with a sufficient quan- 
 tity of dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve out 
 all the calcinum hydrate without touching the 
 magnesium hydrate; the residuum of the 
 latter, after being washed and drained, is dis- 
 solved in dilute sulphuric acid, and crystallised 
 as before. 
 
 2. From bittern. — a. The residual liquor or 
 mother-water of si^a-salt is boiled for some 
 hours in the pans which are used during the 
 summer for the concentration of brine; the 
 saline solution is then skimmed and decanted 
 from some common salt which has been depo- 
 sited, after which it is concentrated by evapo- 
 ration, and, finally, run into wooden coolers ; 
 in about 36 hours, l-Sth part of Epsom salt- 
 usually crystallises out. This is called ' singles.' 
 By re-dissolving this in water, and re-crystal- 
 lisation, 'doubles,' or Epsom salts fit for the 
 market, are obtained. A second crop of crys- 
 tals may be procured by adding sulphuric acid 
 to the mother-liquor, and re-concentrating the 
 solution, but this is seldom had recourse to in 
 England. Bittern yields fully 5 parts of sul- 
 phate of magnesia for every 100 part^ of com- 
 mon salt that has been previously obtained 
 from it. 
 
 b. A concentrated solution of sulphate of 
 sodium is added to bittern, in equivalent pro- 
 portion to that of the chloride of magnesium 
 in it, and the mixed solution is evaporated at 
 the temperature of 122° Fahr. (Ure) ; cubical 
 crystals of common salt are deposited as the 
 evaporation proceeds, a ter which, by further 
 concentration and repose, regular crystals ot 
 sulphate of magnesia are obtained. 
 
 c. A sufficient quantity of calcined arid 
 slaked magnesian limestone is boiled in bittern 
 to decompose the magnesium salts, and the 
 liquid is evaporated, &c., as before. This is a 
 very economical process. 
 
 Prop. Small acicnlar crystals, or (by care- 
 ful crystallisation) large tour-sided rhombic 
 prisms ; colourless ; odourless, transparent ; 
 slightly efflorescent; extremely bitter and 
 nauseous ; when heated, it fuses in its water 
 of crvstallisation, the larger poition of which 
 readily passes off, but one equivalent of water 
 is energetically retained; at a high tempera- 
 ture it runs into a species of white enamel ; it 
 dissolves in its own weight of cold water, and 
 in 3-4ths of that quantity of boiling water; it 
 is insoluble in both alcohol and ether. Sp. gr. 
 1-66. 
 
 Pur. Sulphate of magnesium is soluble in 
 an equal weight of water at 60° Fahr., by 
 which it may be distinguished fi'om sulphate of 
 sodium, which is much more soluble. 
 
 An aqueous solution in the cold is not pre- 
 cipitated by oxalate of ammonium. The 
 
 precipitate given by carbonate of sodium from 
 a solution of 100 gr. should, alter well wash- 
 ing and heating to redness, weigh 16'26 gr, 
 (B. P.) 
 
 Digested in alcohol, the filtered liquid does 
 not yield a precipitate with nitrate of .silver 
 nor burn with a yellow flame, and evaporates 
 without residue. "Not deliquescent in the 
 air." (Ph. L.) 100 gr. of the pure crystal- 
 lised sulphate yields 16^ gr. of calcined 
 magnesium oxide, (Pereira.) 10 gr., dis- 
 solved in 1 fi. oz. of water, and treated with a 
 solution of carbonate of ammonium, are not 
 entirely precipitated by 280 minims of solu- 
 tion of phosphate of sodium, (Ph, E.) 
 
 Uses, (^c. Sulphate of magnesium is an ex- 
 cellent cooling purgative, and sometimes 
 proves diuretic and diaphoretic. — Doge, 1 dr. 
 to 1 oz., as a purgative, or an antidote in pois- 
 oning by lead. Large doses should be avoided. 
 Instances are on record of their having proved 
 fatal, Dr Christison mentions the case of a 
 boy 10 years old who swallowed 2 oz. of salts, 
 and died within 10 minutes. The best anti- 
 dote is an emetic. A small quantity of Epsom 
 salts,' largely diluted with water (as a drachm 
 to i pint or f pint), will usually purge as 
 much as the common dose. This increase 
 of power has been shown by Liebig to re- 
 sult rather from the quantity of water 
 than the salt. Pure water is greedily 
 taken up by the absorbents; but water hold- 
 ing in solution saline matter is rejected by 
 tliose vessels, and consequently passes off by 
 the intestines. 
 
 Obs. Oxalic acid has occasionally been mis- 
 taken for Epsom salt, with fatal results. They 
 may be readily distinguished from each other 
 by the following chaiacteristics : — 
 
 OxALio Acid, 
 Tastes extremely soar. 
 Volatilises when heat- 
 ed on platiiinra foil. 
 Produces milkiness 
 when dissolved in 
 hard water. 
 
 Ei'SOM Salt. 
 
 Tastes extremely bit- 
 ter and nauseous. 
 
 Does not volatilise 
 when heateil on pla- 
 tinum foil. Does not 
 produce milkiues-' 
 when dissolved in 
 hard water, 
 
 Hagnesinm, Tar'trate of. Si/n. MAQirEBif 
 TABTKAS, Magnesia tabtaeioa, L. Prep. 
 By saturating a solution of tartaric acid with 
 carbonate of magnesium, and gently evapo- 
 rating to dryness. It is only very slightly 
 soluble in water. — Dose, 20 to 60 gr., or 
 more ; in painful chronic maladies of the 
 spleen. (Pereira, ex Radmacher.) The effer- 
 vescing tartrate of magnesium, commonly 
 sold under the name citrate, has already been 
 noticed. 
 
 Magnesium and Potas'sium, Tartrate of. Si/n. 
 
 POTASSIO-TAETEATE op MAGNESIA; MAGNBSI.B 
 POTASSIO-TAETEAS, M. ET POTASS.E TAKTSA8, 
 
 L. Prep. From acid tartrate of potassium 
 (in powder), 7 parts ; carbonate of magnesium, 
 2 parts; water, 165 parts; boiled until the 
 
MAGNET— MALIC ACID 
 
 1021 
 
 •olntion ia complete, and then evaporated nnd 
 crystallised. A mild aperient.— Z'ow, 1 to 5 
 dr. ; in scurvy, &b. 
 
 MAG'HET. Si/n. Maonzs, L. Besides its 
 application to the londstone, this name was 
 forinnrly given to several compound^ used in 
 medicine. — Ab8Bnical uaqnet (haones 
 AUSENiOALis), a substance once used as a 
 oau»tic, consisted of common antimony, sul- 
 phur, and arscnious acid, fused together until 
 they formed a sort of glass. Maqneb kfilefsls 
 was native cinnabar. 
 
 UAHOO'ANT. This is the wood of Swietenia 
 Mahogoni (Linn.), a native of the hotier 
 parts of the now world. It is chiefly imported 
 from Honduras and Cuba, The extract is 
 astringent, aud has been used in tanninj^, and 
 as a substitute for cinchona bark. The wood 
 is chiefly employed for furniture and orna- 
 mental purposes, and, occasionally, in ship- 
 building. 
 
 Imitations of mahogany are made by stain- 
 ing the surface of the inferior woods by one 
 or other of the following methods : 
 
 1. Warm the wood by the fire, then wash it 
 over with aquafortis, let it stand 24 hours to 
 dry, and polish it with linseed oil reddened by 
 digesting alkanet root in it; or, instead ofthf 
 hitter, give the wood a coat of varnish, or 
 French polish which has been tinged of a 
 mahogany colour with a little aloes and an- 
 uotta. 
 
 2. Socotrine aloes, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, 
 i oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint; dissolve, and 
 apply 2 or 3 coals to tlie suifiiee of the nond, 
 previously well smoothed and polished ; lastly, 
 finish it off with wax or oil tinged with ulkanet 
 root. 
 
 S. Logwood, 2 oz.; madder, 8 oz. ; fustic, 
 1 oz. ; water, 1 gall. ; boil 2 hours, and apply 
 it several times to the wood boiling hot ; whin 
 dry, slightly brush it over with a solution of 
 pearlash, 1 oz.; in water, 1 quart; dry, and 
 polish as before. 
 
 4. As the last, but using a decoction of log- 
 wood, 1 lb., in water, 5 pints. Tlie tint may 
 be brightened by adding a little vinegar or 
 oxalic acid, and darkened by a few grains of 
 copperas. 
 
 Stains and apots may be taken out of 
 mahogany furniture with a little aquafortis or 
 oxalic acid and water, by rubbing the part 
 with the liquid by means of a coik till the 
 colour is restored ; observing afterwards to well 
 wash the wood with water, and to dry it and 
 polish it ns before. 
 
 MAIZE. Syn. Indian coBir. The seeds of 
 Zea Mayt (Linn.). Like the other corn plants, 
 it belongs to the Grass family (Oraminaceai), 
 and has albuminous grains sufficiently large 
 ■ud farinaceous lo be ground into flunr. 
 
 Maize is extremely nutritious, and although 
 it ia poorer in albumenoid matters than wheat, 
 it is, of all the cereal grains, the richest in 
 fatty oil, of which it contains abont Sjj. 
 (Damns and Payen.) It is remarkable for its 
 
 fattening quality on animals, but is apt to 
 excite slight diarrbcea in those unaccustomed 
 to its use. Its meol is the ' polenta ' of the 
 shops. The peculiar starch prepared from it 
 is known as ' oouN ploub,' ' maizena,' Ac. 
 In America the young ears are roasted and 
 boiled for food. 
 
 The centesimal composition of maize is as 
 follows : — Flesh formers (albumenoid bodii s), 
 9'9; heat and fat formers (starch, dextrin, 
 and fat), 71-2, fibre, 4-0; ash, 1-4; water, 
 13-5. 
 
 Letheby says of maize : " The grain is said 
 to cause disease wheu eaten for a long time, 
 and without other meal — the symptoms being 
 a scitly eruption upon the hands, gre:it pros- 
 tration of the vital powers, and death alter a 
 year or so, with extreme emaciation. 
 
 These effects have been frequently observed 
 amongst the peasants of Italy, who use the 
 meal as their chief food, but I am not aware 
 of any such effects having been seen in 
 Ireland, where it is often the only article of 
 diet for mouths together." 
 
 Maixena. This is maize deprived of all its 
 albumenoid or flesh-forming constituents, as 
 well as of its fibre and ash, and is therefore 
 simply pure starch. Its food properties are, 
 therefore, the same as those of arrowroot. 
 COBN FLOVB and Oswego are only other names 
 for the same substance. 
 
 MALAO'HA. In pharmaci/, a poultice or 
 emollient application. 
 
 MA'LIC ACID. HaCjHjOj. Syn. AciBtrm 
 ualicum, L. This plant exists in the juice of 
 many fruits and plants, either alone or asso- 
 ciated with other acids, or with potassa or lime. 
 In the juice of the garden rhubarb it exists in 
 great abundance, being associated with acid 
 oxalate of potassa. 
 
 Prep. (Evcritt.) Thestiilksof common gar- 
 den rhubai'b are peeled, and ground or gmttd 
 to a pulp, which is subjected to pressnrc ; the 
 juice is heated to the boiling point, neutralised 
 with carbonate of potassa, mixed with acetate 
 of lime, and the insoluble oxalate of lime which 
 falls is removed by filtration ; to the clear and 
 nearly colourless liquid, solution of acetate of 
 lead is next added as long as a precipitate 
 ('miilate of lead') continues to form ; this is 
 collected on a filter, washed, difi'uscd through 
 water, aud decomposed by sulphnric acid, 
 avoiding excess, the last portion of lead being 
 thrown down by » stream of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen ; the filtered liquid is, lastly, care- 
 fully evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, 
 and left in a dry atmosphere until it becomes 
 converted into a solid and somewhat crystalline 
 mass of malic acid. If perfectly pure malic 
 acid is required, the malate of lead must be 
 crystallised before decomposing it with sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen. Prod. 20,000 gr. of the 
 peeled stalks yield 12,600 gr. of juice, of which 
 one imperial gallon contains 11,1391 S''- o' ^^J 
 malic acid. 
 
 Obs. By a similar process malic acid may be 
 
1022 
 
 MALLEABILITY— MALT 
 
 prepared from the juice of the berries of the 
 mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia), just when 
 they commence to ripen, or from the juice of 
 apples, pears, &c. 
 
 Prop,, <J-c. Malic acid is slightly deliques- 
 cent, very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, 
 and has a pleasant acidulous taste. The aque- 
 ous infusion scon gets mouldy by keeping. 
 When kept fused for some time at a low heat, 
 it is converted into f umaric acid j and when 
 quickly distilled, it yields maleic acid, while 
 tumaric acid is left in the retort. With the 
 bases malic acid forms salts called malntes. 
 Of these the acid malate of ammonia is in 
 large, beautiful crystals; malate of lead is 
 insoluble in cold water, but dissolves in warm 
 dilute acid, from which it separates on cooling 
 in brilliant silvery crystals ; acid malate of 
 lime also forms very beautiful crystals, freel,v 
 soluble in water; neutral malate of lime i.- 
 onl}' sparingly soluble in water; the first is 
 obtained by dissolving the latter in hot dilute 
 nitric acid, and allowing the solution to cool 
 very slowly. 
 
 MALLEABIL'ITY. The peculiar property 
 of metals which renders them capable of 
 extension under the hammer. 
 
 MALT. Sj/n. Bina, Btne, Brasium, Mal- 
 TUM, L. The name given to different kinds of 
 grain, such as barley, here or bigg, oats, rye, 
 maize, &c., which have become sweet, from 
 the conversion of a portion of their starch into 
 sugar, in consequence of incipient germination 
 artificially produced. Barley is the grain 
 usually employed for this purpose. 
 
 f^ar. Independently of variations of quality, 
 or of the grain from which it is formed, malt 
 is distinguished into varieties depending on 
 the heat of the kiln employed for its desicca- 
 tion. Wiien dried at a temperature ranging 
 between 90° and 120° Fahr., it constitutes 
 ' PALE MALT ;' when all the moisture has ex- 
 haled, and the heat is raised to from 125° to 
 
 135°, 'YELLOW,' or 'PALE AMBKE MALT,' is 
 
 formed ; when the heat ranges between 140° 
 and 160°, the product receives the name of 
 
 ' AMBEB MALT ;' at 160° to 180°, ' AMBER- 
 
 BEOWN,' or ' PALE BKOWif MALT,' is obtained. 
 Boasted, patent, or black malt, and 
 OEYSTALLISED MALT, are prepart'd by a process 
 similar to that of roasting coffee. Tlie malt 
 is placed in sheet-iron cylinders over a strong 
 fire, and the cylinders made to revolve at the 
 rate of about 20 revolutions per minute if 
 roasted malt is required, or 120 for crystal- 
 lised malt. In the former case the finished 
 malt has a dark brown colour ; in the latter, 
 the interior of the grain becomes dark brown, 
 whilst the husk as-umes a pale amber hue. 
 The temperature must never exceed 420°, or 
 the malt will become entirely carbonised. 
 
 Qual. Good malt has an agreeable smell 
 and a sweet taste. It is friable, and when 
 broken discloses a flonry kernel. Its husk is 
 thin, clean, and unshrivelled in appearance, 
 and the acrospire is seen extending up the 
 
 back of the grain, beneath the skin. The ad- 
 mixture of unmalted with malted grain may 
 be discovered, and roughly estimated, by 
 throwing a little into water, malt floats on 
 water, but barley sinks in it. The only certain 
 method, -however, of determining the value of 
 malt is to ascertain the amount of soluble 
 matter which it contains, by direct experiment, 
 rhis varies from 62 to 70^, and for good malt 
 is never less than 66 to 67^. If we assume 
 the quarter of malt at 324 lbs., and the average 
 quantity of soluble matter at 66g, then the 
 total weight of soluble matter will be fully 
 2131 lbs. per quarter; but as this, "in taking 
 on the form of gum and sugar " during the 
 process of mashing, "chemically combines with 
 the elements of water, so the extract, if eva- 
 porated to dryness, would reach very nearly 
 231 lbs. ; and this reduced to the basis of a 
 barrel of 36 gallons, becomes in the language 
 of the brewer, 87 lbs. per barrel, which, how- 
 ever, merely means that the wort from a 
 quarter of malt, if evaporated down to the 
 bulk of a barrel of 36 gallons, would weigh 87 
 lbs. more than a barrel of water." (Ure.) 
 
 Assay. 1. A small quantity of the sample 
 being ground in a coffee or pepper mill, 100 
 gr. are accurately weighed, and dried by ex- 
 posure for about 1 hour at the temperature of 
 boiling water. The loss in weight, in grains, 
 indicates the quantity of moisture per cent. 
 This, in good malt, should not exceed 6i gr. 
 
 2. A second 100 gr. is taken and stirred up 
 with about 4 pint of cold water ; the mixture 
 is then exposed to the heat of boiling water 
 for about 40 minutes ; after which it is thrown 
 on a weighed filter, and the undissolved por- 
 tion washed with a little hot water ; the undis- 
 solved portion, with the filter, is then dried at 
 212° Fahr., and weighed. The loss in weight, 
 less the percentage of moisture last found, 
 taken in grains, gives the percentage of solu- 
 ble matter. This should not be less than 66 
 gr. The same result will be arrived at by 
 evaporating the filtered liquid and ' washings ' 
 to dryness, and weighing the residuum. 
 
 3. A third 100 gr. is taken and mashed 
 with about i pint of water at 160° Fahr., for 2 
 or 3 hours ; the liquid is then drained off, the 
 residue gently squeezed, and the strained 
 liquid evaporated to dryness, as before, and 
 weighed. This gives the percentage of 
 saccharine matter, and should not he less than 
 about 71 gr., taking the above average of 
 malt as the standard of calculation. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Malt is chiefly employed in the 
 arts of brewing and distilation. Both roasted 
 and crystallised malt are merely used to colour 
 the worts produced from pale malt. 1 lb. of 
 roasted malt, mashed with 79 lbs. of pale malt, 
 imparts to the liquor the colour and flavour of 
 ' porter.' The paler varieties of malt contain 
 the largest quantity of saccharine matter. 
 After the malt has been kiln-dried, the rootlets 
 may be removed by means of a sieve. Before 
 malt is mashed for beer it must be broken up. 
 
MALT LIQUORS 
 
 1023 
 
 and the law requires that it bo bruised or 
 crushed by smooth metul rollers, and not 
 ground by milUtones. It hns also been pro- 
 posed to employ mult, instead of raw grain, 
 fnr fattening domestic animals, and as food 
 f»r their young and those in a sickly state. 
 Infusion of malt (sweet wort, malt tea) is 
 laxative, and hag been recommended as an 
 antiscorbutic and tonic. It has been given 
 with great advantnge in scurvy; but for this 
 purpose good, well-hopped, mild beer is equally 
 serviceable and more agreeable. See Bbewing, 
 Di8t:lation, Peementation, &c. 
 
 KALT UQ'UOBS. The qualities of ale, 
 bi'er, Hud porter, as beverages, the detection 
 of thoir adulteration, and the methods of pre- 
 paring them, are described under their resptc- 
 tive names and'in the article upon ' bbewinq' ; 
 the present article will, therefore, be confined 
 to a short notice of the cellar management, 
 and the diseases of malt liquors generally. 
 
 Age. The appearance and flavour to which 
 this term is applied can, of course, be only 
 given to the liquor by properly storing it 
 for a sufficient time. Fraudulent brewers and 
 publicans, however, frequently add a little oil 
 of vitriol (diluted with water) to new beer, by 
 which it assumes the character of an inferior 
 liquor of the class 1 or 2 years old. Copperas, 
 alum, sliced onions, Seville oranges, and cu- 
 cuuibers, are also frequently employed by 
 brewers for the same purpose. 
 
 Bottling. Clean, sweet, and dry bottles, 
 and (ound and good corks, should be had in 
 readiness. The liquor to be bottled should be 
 perfectly clear ; and if it be not so, it muit be 
 submitted to the opei-ation of ' fining.' When 
 quite tine, and in good condition, the bung of 
 the cusk shoulil be left out all night, and the 
 next day the liquor should be put into bottlen, 
 which, after remaining 12 or 24 hours, covered 
 with sheets of paper to keep the flies and dust, 
 must be securely corked down. Porter is 
 generally wired over. The wire for this pur- 
 pose should be 'annealed,' and not resilient. 
 If the liquor is intended for exportation to a 
 hot climate, the bottles should remain filled 
 for 2 or 3 diiys. or more, before corking them. 
 The stock of bottled liquor should be stored in 
 a cool siiuution ; and a small quantity, to meet 
 present demiinds only, should be set on their 
 sides in a warmer place to ripen. October beer 
 should not be bottled before Midsummer, nor 
 March beer till Christmas. 
 
 CLorciNESS. Add a handful of hops boiled 
 in a gallon of the beer, and in a fortnight due 
 it down. 
 
 Fining. See CLAErFiCATioN and Brewing. 
 
 Flatness. When the liquor is new, or has 
 still much undecomposed .••ugar left it it, a 
 sufficifnt remedy is to remove it into a warmer 
 situation for a few days. When this is not 
 the case, 2 or 3 pounds of moist sugar (foots) 
 may be ' rummaged ' into each hogshead. In 
 this way a second fermentation is set np, nnd 
 in a few days the liquor becomes brisk, and 
 
 carries a head. This is the plan commonly 
 adopted by publicans. On the small scale the 
 nddition of a few grains of carbonate of soda, 
 or of prepared chalk, to each glass, is commonly 
 made for the same purpose ; but in this case 
 the liquor must be drunk within a few minutes, 
 else it becomes again flat and insipid. This 
 may bo adopted for home-brewed beer which 
 has become sour and vapid. 
 
 Foxing or Bucking. The spontaneous 
 souring of worts or beer during their fer- 
 mentation or ripening, to which this name is 
 applied, may generally be remedied by adding 
 to the liquor some fresh hops (scalded), along 
 with some black mustard seed (bruised). Some 
 persons use a little made mustard, or a solution 
 of alum or of catechu, and in a week or 10 days 
 afterwards further add some treacle, or moist 
 sugar. 
 
 Frosted beer is recovered by change of 
 situation ; by the addition of some hops boiled 
 in a little sweet wort; or by adding a little 
 moist sugar or treacle to induce a fresh fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 Heading. This is added to thin and vapid 
 beer to make it bear a frothy head. The 
 most innocent, pleasant, and eflectivc addition 
 of this sort is a mixture of pure ammonio- 
 citrate of iron and salt of tartar, about equal 
 parts in the proportion of only a few grains 
 to a quart. 
 
 Improving. This is the trade synonym of 
 'adulteration' and 'dootorino.' Never- 
 theless there are cases in which ' improvement ' 
 may lie made without affecting the wholesome 
 character of the liquor. Of this kind is the 
 addition of hops, spices, &c., during the matu- 
 ration of beer that exhibits a tendency to de- 
 teriorate. For this purpose some persons cut 
 a half quartern loaf into slices, and after 
 toasting them very high, place them in a coarse 
 linen bag along with i lb. of hops, and 2 oz. 
 each of bruised ginger, cloves, and mustard 
 seed, and suspend the bag by means of a string 
 a few inches below the surface of the beer (a 
 hogshead), which is then bung' d close. The 
 addition of a little ground capsicum in the 
 same way is also a real improvement to beer, 
 when judiciously made. 
 
 MustinSss. To each hogshead, racked 
 into clean casks, add 1 lb. of new hops boiled 
 in a gallon of the liquor, along with 7 lbs. of 
 newly-burnt charcoal (coarsely bruised, and 
 the fine dust sifted off), and a 4-lb. lo.if of 
 bread cut into thin slices and toasted rather 
 black ; ' rouse up ' well every day for a week, 
 then stir in of moist sugar 3 or 4 lbs., and 
 bung down for a fortnijiht. 
 
 Recovering. This is said of nnsnleahle 
 beer when rendered saleable, by giving it 
 'head' or removing its 'tartness.' 
 
 Ripening. This term is applied to the 
 regular maturation of beer. It is also used 
 to express the means by which liquors already 
 mature are rendered brisk, sparkling, or fit 
 and agreeable for immediate use. In the 
 
1024 
 
 MALTIN— MALTING 
 
 language of the cellar, malfc liquors are said 
 to be ' up ' when they are well charged with 
 gaseous matter, and bear a frothy head. These 
 qualities depend on the undecomposed sugar 
 uadergolng fermentation, which, when active, 
 can only be of comparatively short duration, 
 and should, therefore, be repressed rather than 
 excited in beers not required for immediate 
 consumption. When we desire to give ' brisk- 
 ness ' to these liquors, whether in cask or 
 bottle, it is only necessary to expose them for 
 a few days to a slight elevation of tempe- 
 rature, by removing them, for instance, to a 
 warmer apartment. This is the plan success- 
 fully adopted by bottlers. The addition of a 
 small lump of white sugar to each bottle of ale 
 or beer, or a teaspoonful of moist sugar to 
 each bottle of porter, just before corking it, 
 will render it fit for drinking in a few days in 
 ordinary weather, and in 2 or 3 days in the 
 heat of summer. A raisin or a lump of sugar 
 candy is often added to each bottle with a 
 like intention. The Parisians bottle their 
 beer one day and sell it the next. For this 
 purpose, in addition to the sugar as above, 
 they add 2 or 3 drops of yeast. Such bottled 
 liquor must, however, be drunk within a week, 
 or else stored in a very cold place, as it will 
 otherwise burst the battles or blow out the 
 corks. 
 
 RopiNESs. A little infusion of catechu or 
 of oak bark, and some fresh hops, may be 
 added to tlie beer, which in a fortnight should 
 be rummaged well, and the next day 'fined' 
 down. 
 
 SoTTENEsa. Powdered chalk, carbonate of 
 soda, salt of tartar, or pearlash, is commonly 
 added by the publicans to the beer, until the 
 acidity is nearly removed, when 4 or 5 lbs. of 
 moist sugar or foots per hogshead are ' rum- 
 maged ' in, together with suf&cient water to 
 disburse double the amount of the outlay and 
 trouble. Such beer must be soon put on 
 draught, as it is very apt to get flat by keep- 
 ing. Oyster shells and egg shells are also 
 frequently used by brewers for the same 
 purpose. To remove the acidity of beer, on 
 the small scale, a few grains of carbonate of 
 soda per glass may be added just before drink- 
 ing it. 
 
 STOBiNa. The situation of the beer-cellar 
 sliould be such as to maintain its contents at a 
 permanently uniform temperature, ranging 
 between 44° and 50° Fahr., a condition which 
 can only be ensured by clioosing for its locality 
 an underground apartment, or one in the 
 centre of the basement portion of a large 
 building. 
 
 VAMPiNa. Half fill casks with the old 
 liquor, fill them up with some newly brewed, 
 and bung close for 3 weeks or a month. 
 
 MALTtN. A nitrogenous ferment obtained 
 from malt, which it is believed by Dubrunfaut 
 to be the active principle, and is more ener- 
 getic than diastase. The above chemist states 
 it may be precipitated from extract of malt. 
 
 by the addition of two molecules of alcohol at 
 90 per cent. According to Dubrunfaut maitiu 
 exists in all cereal grains, and in the water 
 of rivers and 'brooks ; but not in the well 
 water of Paris, 
 
 M ALTDf G. The method of convert! ng bar- 
 ley, wheat, oats, or any other description of 
 grain into malt. There are four successive 
 stages in the process of malting, viz., steeping, 
 couching, flooring, and kiln-drying. 
 
 1. Steeping or moistening. — The grain is 
 placed in a large wooden or stone cistern, and 
 sufficient water run in to cover it. Here it 
 remains for a period of from 40 to 60 hours, 
 depending on the temperature of the weather, 
 or until it becomes soft enough to be easily 
 pierced with a needle, or crushed between the 
 thumb and finger without yielding a milky 
 juice. While in steep the grain swells, in- 
 creasing nearly one fifth in bulk, and about 
 50 per cent, in weight. The water is then 
 drained off, and the grain is ready for the next 
 operation. 
 
 2. Couching or germinating. — From the 
 cistern the swollen barley is thrown out into 
 the couch frame to the depth of from 14 
 or 20 inches, where heat is generated and ger- 
 mination induced. Here it is allowed to re- 
 main for from 20 to 30 hours, according to the 
 state of the weather, untill the acrospire or 
 pumule shoots forth. Were the grain to re- 
 main long in the couch, particularly in warm 
 weather, it would be either unduly forced or 
 turn sour. Whilst in couch it rises in tem- 
 perature about 15 degrees, and gives oif some 
 of its extra moisture. This is called sweating, 
 and as the rootlets now begin to shoot out^ 
 means must be taken to check the germina- 
 tion. 
 
 3. Flooring or regulating. — This consists in 
 spreading the, heated barley on the floor at 
 different depths, according as it is required to 
 increase or retard germination. During this 
 stage of the operation the art of the maltster 
 may be more properly said to commence, as 
 now all his judgment is brought into requisi- 
 tion. The grain must be turned three or four 
 times a day, and at each turning the layer is 
 spread out more and more, until it is reduced 
 to the depth of about three or four inches. 
 The chief object to be attained by this opera- 
 tion is a regular germination of the grain. 
 
 4. Kiln-drging. — The sprouted barley is 
 next spread in a thin layer on the malt kiln, 
 and heat applied. The temperature to which 
 the kiln is raised varies according to the pur- 
 pose for which the malt is required, the differ- 
 ence between pale, amber, and brown malt 
 depending solely on the degree of heat to 
 which each has been subjected, and the manner 
 in which the heat has been applied (see Mali). 
 If the malt were not kiln-dried it would not 
 keep, hut would become mouldy. By the pro- 
 cess of drying, the vitality of the seed is de- 
 stroyed, and it may then be preserved without 
 suffering further change. 
 
MANGANESE 
 
 1025 
 
 Product. — Good barley yields about 80" by 
 weigbt and 109J by measure, ol' dried and 
 sifted miilt. Of the loss by weight 12g must 
 be referred to water existing in the raw 
 grain. 
 
 UAK"GANESE. Mn. Syn. Mansane- 
 BIDM, L. A hard, brittle metnl, discovered by 
 Gahn in the black oxide of mnnganeso of 
 commerce. 
 
 Prep. Rotluee manganoiis carbonate to fine 
 powder, niukc it into a paste with oil, adding' 
 about 1-lOtli of its weight of calcined borax, 
 place the mixture in a Hessian crucible lined 
 with charcoal, lute on the cover, and expose it 
 to the strongest heat of a smith's forge for 2 
 hoars ; when cold, break the crucible and pre- 
 serve the metallic button in naphtha. 
 
 Obt. The product is probably a carbide of 
 manganese, just as steel is a carbide of iron. 
 Devillc has lately prepared pure manganese 
 by rciluein^ the pure oxide by means of an 
 iusufiicient quantity of sugar charcoal in a 
 crucible made of caustic lime. 
 
 Prop. As prepared by Delvillc, metallic 
 manganese has a reddish lustre, like bismuth ; 
 it is very hard and brittle j when powdered, 
 it decomposes water, even at the lowest tem- 
 perature. Dilute Bulpliuric acid dissolves it 
 with great energy, evolving hydrogen. Sp, 
 gr. 7'X3. In an oxidised state manganese is 
 abundant in the mineral kingdom, and traces 
 of it have been found in the ashes of plants 
 and in mineral waters. 
 
 The salts of manganese may be easily pre- 
 pnred in a state of purity by dissolving the 
 precipitated carbonate in the acids. Most of 
 them are soluble, and several are crystal- 
 Usable. 
 
 Teata. Manganous salts are distinguished 
 as follows: — Tlie hydrates of potassium and 
 sodium give white precipitates insoluble in ex- 
 cess, and rapidly turning brown. The presence 
 ol' ammonium salts interferes with these tests. 
 Ammonia gives similar results. 
 
 Ferrocyariide of potassium gives a white pre- 
 cipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives no 
 precipitate in acid solutions, and precipitates 
 neutral solntions only imperfectly; but in 
 alkaline solutions it gives a bright, flesh- 
 coloured, insoluble precipitate, which becomes 
 dark brown on exposure to the air. Sulphide 
 of ammonium, in neutral solutions, also yields 
 a similar precipitate, which is very character- 
 istic. A compound of manganese fused with 
 borax in the outer flame of the blowpipe gives 
 a bead, which appears of a violet-red colour 
 whilst hot, and upon cooling acquires an ame- 
 thystirte tint ; this colour is lost by fusion in 
 the inner flame. Heated upon platinum foil 
 with a little carbonate of sodium, in the onter 
 flame, it yields a green mass whilst hot, which 
 becomes bluish green when cold. 
 
 Kanganons Ace'tate. Mn(C3H30^2- ^V"- 
 
 ACBTATE OF PHOTOXIDB OF MANGANESE; MaN- 
 OANII ACETA8, L. Prep. 1. By neutralising 
 concentrated acetic acid with manganous cur- 
 VOL. II. 
 
 bonate, and evaporating the solution so that 
 crystals may form. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. The crystals, when pure, are of 
 a pale red colour ; perm:inent in the air ; 
 soluble in alcohol, and 3i parts of water, 
 and possess an astringent and metallic taste. — 
 Doae, 5 to 10 gr., as an alterative, haematiuic, 
 &c. 
 
 Manganous Carljonate. MnCO,. Syn. Cab- 
 
 BONATE OP PEOTOXIDE 01 MANGANESE; MaN- 
 GANE3II CAEB0NA8, L. Prep. Ueduce the 
 black oxide of manganese of commerce to fine 
 powder, and after washing it in water acidn- 
 lated with hydrochloric arid, dissolve it in 
 strong hydrochloric acid, and evaporate the 
 resulting solution to dryness ; dissolve the re- 
 sidue in water, and add to the solution suflieient 
 sodium carbonate to precipitate all the iron 
 present ; digest the mixrd precipitate in the 
 remainder of the liquid, filter, add ammonium 
 sulphide until it begins to produce a flesh- 
 coloured precipitate, then filter, and add sodium 
 carbonate as long as a precipitate falls; lastly, 
 well wash the newly-formed carbonate in 
 water, and dry it by a gentle heat. 
 
 2. By directly precipitating a solution of 
 the chloride with sodium carbonate, and wash- 
 ing and drying the powder as before. 
 
 Prop., S^o. A pale bnft or cream-coloured 
 powder; insoluble in water; freely soluble in 
 acids ; exposed to a strong beat, it loses its 
 carbonic acid, absorbs oxygen, and is con- 
 verted into the red oxide. It is chiefly em- 
 ployed in the preparation of the other salts of 
 manganese. 
 
 Uauganous Chlo"ride. MnClj. Syn. Fbo- 
 
 TOCHLOUIDE OP MANGANESE, MCBIATE OF M.; 
 
 Manganesii chlobidum, L. Prep. 1. By 
 saturating hydrochloric acid with manganous 
 carbonate ; the solution is greatly concentrated 
 by evaporation, when crystals may be obtained, 
 or it is at once evaporated to dryness ; in 
 either case the product must be placed in 
 warm, dry, stoppered bottles, and preserved 
 from the air. 
 
 2. From the dark brown residual liquid of 
 the process of obtaining chlorine from bin- 
 oxide of manganese and hydrochloric acid; 
 this liquid is evaporated to drj ness, and then 
 slowly heated to dull redness in an earthen 
 vessel, with constant stirring, and kept at that 
 temperature for a short time; the greyish- 
 looking powder thus obtained is treated with 
 water, and the solution separated from the 
 ferric oxide and other insoluble matter by 
 filtration; if any iron still remains, a little 
 manganous carbonate is added, aud the whole 
 boiled for a few minutes ; the filtered solution 
 is then treated as before. This is the least 
 expensive and most convenient source of this 
 salt. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Eose-coloured tubular crystals ; 
 inodorous; very soluble both in water and 
 alcohol; very deliquescent; when gradually 
 heated to fusion the whole of the water is 
 expelled, and at a red heat it slowly suffers 
 
 65 
 
1026 
 
 MANGANESE 
 
 decomposition. Astringent, tonic, hfflinatinic, 
 and alierative. — Dose, 3 to 10 gr. ; in scor- 
 butic, sypliilitio, and certain chronic cutaneous 
 afEections ; ansemia, clilorosis, &c. 
 
 Manganons Hydrate. Mn(H0)2. Syn. Ht- 
 
 DEATED PEOIOXIDE OF MiNOANESE. Frep. 
 Formed by adding potassium livdrate to 
 mauganous sulpliate, and filtering and drying 
 the precipitate in vacuo. White powder ra- 
 pidly absorbing oxygen and burning first green 
 and then brown Irom formation of higher 
 oxides. 
 
 Manganons I'odide. Mnl:. Syn. Manqa- 
 NESii lODiDUJf, L. Pre/>. By dissolving the 
 carbonate in hydriodic acid and evaporating 
 the filtered liquid in vacuo or out of contact 
 with air. — Dose, 1 to 3 gr. ; in anaemia, 
 chlorosis, &c., occurring in scrofulous subjects. 
 
 Manganons Oxide. MnO. Syn. Pbotoxidb 
 OF Manganese. Frep. By passing a current 
 of hydrogen over manganous carbonate heated 
 to whiteness in a porcelain tube. Olive-green 
 powder rapidly oxidising on exposure to air, 
 and soluble in acids forming maugauous 
 salts. 
 
 There are four other oxides and two oxy- 
 hydrates that may be treated of here, but of 
 which only the peroxide and the manganates 
 and permanganates are of practical import- 
 ance. 
 
 Manganons manganic Oxide. MnsO^, or 
 MnO, MnjOj. Syn. Bed oxide of manga- 
 nese, Pkotosksquioxidb of manganese. 
 Found nntive as " Hansmanite" It is pro- 
 duced by igniting manganous carbonate, or 
 manganic, oxide, or manganic peroxide. Red- 
 dish-brown, coloured crystals or powder, and 
 communicates an amethyst colour to glass 
 when fused with it. 
 
 Manganous-manganic Peroxide. Mn^O^ or 
 MnOj.MnjOa, Syn. Intbkmediatb, oxide 
 OF manganese. Found native as " Varvicile," 
 as a black hard crystalline mass. Decomposed 
 when heated into a lower oxide and oxygen. 
 
 Manganons Phosphate. MnH.FO^-i- 6Aq. 
 Syn. Phosphate of peotoxide op manga- 
 nese ; Manganesii phosphas, L. Prep. By 
 precipitating a solution of manganous sul- 
 phate with a solution of sodium phosphate. 
 It must be preserved from the air. — Dose, 3 
 to 12 gr. ; in anaemia, rickets, &c. 
 
 Manganous Snl'phate. MnS04. Syn. Siri,- 
 
 PHATE OF PEOTOXIDE OF MANGANESE ; MaN- 
 
 Ganesii SULPHAS, L. Frep. 1. By dissolving 
 manganous carbonate in dilute sulphuric acid, 
 and evaporating the filtered solution so that 
 crystals may form, or at once gently evapo- 
 rating it to dryness. Pure. 
 
 2. (Commercial.) By igniting manganic 
 peroxide (pyrolusite) mixed with about 1-lOth 
 of its weight of powdered coal in an iron 
 crucible or gas-retort, and digesting the resi- 
 duum of the calcination in sulphuric acid, with 
 the addition after a time of a little hydro- 
 chloric acid ; the solution of manganous sul- 
 phate thus obtained, after defecation, is 
 
 evaporated to dryness, and heated to redness 
 as before ; the mass, after ignition, is crushed 
 small, and treated with water ; the solution is 
 nearly pure, the whole of the iron having been 
 reduced into the state of insoluble peroxide. 
 Used by the calico printers. Cloth steeped in 
 the solution, and afterwards passed through a 
 solution of chloride of lime, is dyed of a per- 
 manent brown, 
 
 Frop., S;e. Pale rose-coloured crystals of 
 the formulae MnS04, 7Aq. j MnS04, 5Aq. ; or 
 MnS04, 4Aq. ; according to the method of 
 crystallising, furnishing a solution of a rich 
 amethystine colour. With sulphate of potassa 
 it forms a double salt (' manganese alum '}.— 
 Dose. As an alterative and tonic, 5 to 10 gr. ; 
 as a cholagogue cathartic, 1 to 2 dr., dissolved 
 in water, either alone or combined with infu- 
 sion of senna. According to Ure, its action is 
 prompt and soon over ; 1 dr. of it occasions, 
 after the lapse of an hour or so, one or more 
 liquid bilious stools. In large doses it occa- 
 sions vomiting, and in excessive doses it de- 
 stroys life by its caustic action on the stomach. 
 (Dr G. C. Mitscherlich.) It has been adminis- 
 tered with manifest advantage in torpor of the 
 liver, gout, jaundice, syphilis, and certain skin 
 diseases; and, combined with iron, in ansmia, 
 chlorosis, rickets, &c. 
 
 Manganous Tar'trate. MnC4H405. Syn. 
 Manganesii taeteas, L. Frep. By satu- 
 rating a solution of tartaric acid with most 
 manganous carbonate. Alterative and tonic. 
 — Dose, 4 to 12 gr. 
 
 Manganate of Barium. BaMn04. Green 
 insoluble powder, obtained by fusing barium 
 hydrate, potassium chlorate, and manganic 
 peroxide together, and washing the product. 
 
 Manganate of Potassium. K^MnOj. Finely 
 powdered manganic peroxide,, potassium chlo- 
 rate, and potassium hydrate, made into a thick 
 paste with water, and heated to dull redness. 
 The fused product is treated with a small 
 quantity of water, and crystallised by evapo- 
 ration in vacuo. 
 
 Dark green, almost black crystals, readily 
 soluble in water, but decomposed by excess, or 
 by acids into manganic peroxide, and potassium 
 permanganate. 
 
 Manganate of Sodium. M2Mn04. Prepared 
 on the large scale by heating a mixture of 
 manganic peroxide and sodium hydrate to red- 
 ness in a current of air. Used in strong solu- 
 tion as a disinfectant under the name of 
 " Condy's green fluid." 
 
 Manganic Acid. H2Mn04. This acid has 
 not yet been obtained free, but some'of its 
 salts are extensively employed as disinfectants, 
 as " green Condy's fluid." The chief com' 
 pounds are the following : — 
 
 Manganic Hydrate. Mn2(H0)j. Syn. Hy- 
 
 DEATED BBSQUIOXIDE OF MANGANESE. 
 found native as " manganite," in reddish- 
 brown crystals. Frep. By passing a current 
 of air through recently precipitated and moist 
 
MANGANESE 
 
 1027 
 
 manganous hydrate. Soft dark brown powder 
 converted into the oxide by beat. 
 
 Hsnganic Oxide. MujOj. Syn. Sesqui- 
 OXIDB OP MANGANEBK. Found native as "Bran- 
 mite," and readily formed by exposing man- 
 ganons hydrate to the action of air, and drying, 
 or by gently igniting the peroxide brown or 
 black powdei- decomposed by heat. 
 
 Manganic Peroxide. MnO^. St/n. Pes- 
 
 MANGANIO OXIDE, BiNOXIDE Off MANOAKESE, 
 
 Peroxide of manganese, Black oxide of 
 
 MANGANESE, OxiDE OP MANGANESE, MaN- 
 
 oanebii oxidum niobum (B. p.), Manqa- 
 KEsii binoxtdum (Ph. L.), Mangamese 
 oxydum (Ph. E.). 
 
 it is the only oxide of manganese that is 
 directly employed in the arts. It is a very 
 plentiful mineral production, and is found in. 
 great abundance in some parts of the West 
 of England. The manganese of the shop is 
 prepared by washing, to remove the earthy 
 matter, and grinding in mills. The blackest 
 samples are esteemed the best. It is chiefly used 
 to supply oxygen gns, and in the manufacture 
 of glass and chlorine ; in dyeing and to form 
 the salts of manganese. It hns been occasion- 
 ally employed in medicine, chiefly externally 
 in itch and porrigo, made into an ointment 
 with lard. It has been highly recommended 
 by Dr Erigeler in scrofula. Others have 
 employed it as an alterative ami tonic with 
 variable success. When slowly introduced into 
 the system during a lengthened period, it is 
 said to produce paralysis of the motor nerves. 
 (Dr Coupar.) — Dose, 3 to 12 gr., or more, 
 thrice daily, made into pills. 
 
 Pur. Native binoxide of mancrancse (py- 
 rolusite) is usually contaminated with variable 
 proportions of argillaceous matter, calcium 
 carbonate, ferric oxide, silica, and barium 
 sulphate, all of which lower its value as a 
 source of oxygen, and for the preparation of 
 chlorine. Tlie richness of this ore can, there- 
 fore, be only determined by an assay for its 
 principal ingredient. 
 
 Assay. There are several methods adopted 
 for this purpose, among which the following 
 recommend themselves as being the most ac- 
 curate and convenient. 
 
 1. A portion of the mineral being reduced 
 to very fine powder, 50 gr. of it are put into 
 the liitle apparatns employed for the analysis 
 of carbonates described at page 406, together 
 with about i fl. oz. of cold water, and 100 gr. 
 of strong hvdrochloric acid, the latter con- 
 tained in the little tube (b) ; 50 gr. of crystal- 
 lised oxalic acid are then added, the cork 
 carrying the chloride of calcium tube fitted in, 
 and the whole quickly and accurately weighed 
 or counterpoised ; the apparatus is next inclined 
 so tliat the acid contained in the small tube 
 may be mixed with the other contents of the 
 flask, and the reaction of the ingredients is 
 promoted by the application of a gentle heat ; 
 the disengu<;ed chlorine resulting from the 
 mutual decomposition of the hydrochloric acid 
 
 and the manganic peroxide converts the 
 oxalic acid into carbonic acid gas, which is 
 dried in its passage through the chloride of 
 calcium tube before it escapes into the air. 
 As soon as the reaction is complete, and the 
 residual gas has been driven offby a momentary 
 ebullition, the apparatns is allowed to cool, 
 when it is again carefully and accurately 
 weighed. The loss of weight in grains, if 
 doubled, at once indicates the percentage rich- 
 ness of the mineral examined in manganic 
 peroxide; or, m^re correctly, every grain of 
 carbonic anhydride evolved represent! 1'982 
 gr. of the peroxide. 
 
 2. (Frcsenius and Will.) The apparatus 
 employed is the ' alkalimeter' figured at page 
 30. The operation is similar to that adopted 
 for the assay of alkalies, and is a modification 
 of the oxalic acid and sulphuric acid test for 
 manganese, originally devised by M. Berthier, 
 The standard weight of manganic peroxide 
 recommended to be taken by Fresenius and 
 Will is 2 91 grammes, along with 6'5 to 7 
 grammes of neutral potassium oxalate. The 
 process, with quantities altered to adapt it for 
 employment in the laboratories of these coun- 
 tries, is as follows: — Manganic peroxide (in 
 very fine powder), 50 gr. ; neutral potassium 
 oxalate (in powder), 120 gr. ; these are put 
 into the flask A (see engr., p. 31), alona; with 
 sufficient water to about l-4th fill it ; the fla!>k 
 .^ and /i (the latter containing the sulphuric 
 acid) are then corked air-tight, and thus con- 
 nected iu one apparatus, the whole is accu- 
 rately weighed. The opening of the tube i 
 being closed by a small lump of wax, a little 
 sulphuric acid is sucked over from the fl isk B 
 into the fl;vik A ; the disengagement of oxy- 
 gen from the manganese immediately com- 
 mences and this reacting upon the oxalic 
 acid present, converts it into carbonic anhy- 
 dride gas, which passing through the concen- 
 trated sulphuric acid in the flask B, which robs 
 it of moisture, finally escapes from the appa- 
 ratus through the tube d. As soon as the 
 disengagement of carbonic aiid ceases, the 
 operator sucks over a fresh portion of sulphuric 
 acid, and this is repeated at short intervals, 
 until bubbles of gas are no longer disengaged. 
 The little wax stopper is now removed, and 
 suction is applied at h until all the carbonic 
 acid in the apparatus is replaced by common 
 air. When the whole has become cold it is 
 a?ain weighed. The loss of weight, doubled, 
 indicates the amount of pure manganic per- 
 oxide, in the sample, as before. 
 
 3. (Otto.) 50 gr. of the sample reduced to 
 very fine powder are mixed in a glass flask, 
 with hydrochloric acid li fl. oz., diluted with 
 i oz. of cold water, and portions of ferrous 
 sulphate, from a weighed sample, immediately 
 added, at first in excess, but afterwards in 
 smaller doses, until the liquid ceases to give a 
 blue precipitate with red prussiate or potash, 
 or to evolve the. odour of chlorine ; heat being 
 employed towards the end of the process. The 
 
1028 
 
 MANGE -MANNACROUP 
 
 quantity of ferrous sulphate consumed is now 
 ascertained by again weighing the sample. If 
 the peroxide examined was pure, tlie loss of 
 weight will be 317 gr. ; hut if otherwise, the 
 percentage of the pure peroxide may be ob- 
 tained by the rule of three. Thus : suppose only 
 298 gr. of the sulphate were consumed, then 
 
 317 : 100 : : 298 : 94, 
 nnd the richness of the sample would be 94§. 
 The percentage value of the oxide for evolving 
 chloiine may be obtained by multiplying the 
 weight of the consumed ferrous sulphate by 
 •2588, which, in the above case, would give 
 76g of chlorine. For this purpose, as well as 
 )br chlorometry, the ferrous sulphate is best 
 prepared by precipitating it from its aqueous 
 solution with alcohol, and drying it out of 
 contact with air until it loses its alcoholic 
 odour. 
 
 Obs, Before applying the above processes 
 it is absolutely necessary that we ascertain 
 whether the peroxide examined contains any 
 carbonates, as the presence of these would 
 vitiate the results. This is readily determined 
 by treating it with a little dilute nitric acid : — 
 if effervescence ensues, one or more carbonates 
 are present, and the sample, after being 
 weighed, must he digested for some time in 
 dilute nitric acid in excess, and then carefully 
 collected on ■• filter, washed, and dried. It 
 may then be assayed as before. The loss of 
 weight indicates the quantity of carbonates 
 present, with snffieient accuracy for technical 
 purposes. The determination of this point is 
 the more important, as these contaminations 
 uot merely lessen the richness of the mineral 
 in pure manganic peroxide, but also cause a 
 considerable waste of acid when it is employed 
 in the manufacture of chlorine. 
 
 Permanganic Acid. HMnOj. Obtained by 
 distilling cautiously potassium permanganate 
 and sulphuric acid. Dark violet — black li quid, 
 green by reflected light, and rapidly absorb- 
 ing water forming a violet solution. Oxidises 
 organic matter with explosive violence. 
 
 Permanganate of Barium. Ba (MnO)45. Black 
 soluble prisms, formed by decomposing silver 
 permanganate by means of barium chloride, 
 and cautiously evaporating. 
 
 Permanganate of Potassium. KMn04. Prep. 
 Potassium chlorate, or nitrate, and potassium 
 hydrate are made into a paste with water, and 
 manganic peroxide added j the mass is dried 
 and heated to redness. The residue is boiled 
 with water, filled through asbestos, and eva- 
 porated down and recrystallised. 
 
 Dark purple, red, almost black anhydrous 
 long prisms, readily soluble in 16 pints of 
 water. Decomposed in presence of acids by 
 most organic matter. 
 
 Permanganate of Silver. AgMn04. Frep. 
 Precipitate a strong solution of silver nitrate 
 by means of a concentrated solution of potas- 
 sium permanganate. Small black prisms, 
 soluble in 100 parts of water, with a purple 
 colour. 
 
 Fermanganateof Sodium. KaMnO^. Obtained 
 as a dark purple lic^uid by passing a current of 
 carbonic anhydride through sodium m^nga- 
 nate. Condy's red fluid is chiefly a sodium 
 permanganate dissolved in water. 
 
 MAHGE. An eruptive disease, correspond- 
 ing to the itch in man, resulting from the 
 burrowing into the skin of minute animalcules 
 (mites or acari), and common to several do- 
 mestic animals, more especially the dog and 
 horse. Like the itch, it is contagious. The 
 causes are confinement, dirt, and bad living. 
 The treatment should consist in the immediate 
 removal of the cause, the frequent use of soft 
 soap and water, followed by frictions with sul- 
 phur ointment, solution of chloride of lime or 
 sporokton, the administration of purgatives, 
 and a change to a restorative diet. Dun states 
 that in India a very efficient remedy for mange 
 is employed by the native farriers, which con- 
 sists of castor oil seeds well bruised, steeped 
 for twelve hours in sour milk, aud rubbed into 
 the skin, previously thoroughly cleansed with 
 soap and water. "The itchiness disappears 
 almost immediately and the acari are speedily 
 destroyed." A dressing consisting of 1 oz. of 
 chloride of zinc (Burnett's disinfectant fluid) 
 and 1 quart of water may also be applied with 
 advantage. 
 
 MAN"GEL WUE'ZEL. Syn. Mangold- 
 
 WUEZEL, HTBEID BEET, RoOT OP SCAECITT. 
 
 The Beta vulgarit, var. campestris, a variety 
 of the common beet. The root abounds in 
 sugar, and has been used in Germany as a sub- 
 stitute for bread in times of scarcity. In these 
 countries it is chiefly cultivated as food for 
 cattle. The young leaves are eaten as spinach. 
 The percentage composition of mangold wur- 
 zel is as follows : — Flesh-formers (albumenoid 
 bodies), 1"54; heat and fat-formers (sugar, 
 &c.) 8-60; indigestible fibre, 1-12; ash, 0-96; 
 87-78. 
 
 MAN'HEIM GOLD. A gold-coloured brass. 
 See GoM) (Dutch). 
 
 MANTJA Si/n. Manna (B. P., Ph. L., E., 
 & D.), L. A concrete exudation from the stem 
 of Fraxinus ornns and F. rotundifolia, ob- 
 tained by incision. (B. P.) "The juice 
 flowing from the incised bark " of " Fraxinu^ 
 rotundifolia and F. orrnis, hardened by the 
 air." (Ph. L.) The finest variety of this 
 drug is known as flake manna, and occurs in 
 pieces varying from 1 to 6 inches long, 1 or 2 
 inches wide, and ^ to 1 inch thick. It has a 
 yellowish-white or cream colour; an odour 
 somewhat resembling honey, but less pleasant; 
 a sweet, mawkish taste ; and is light, porous, 
 and friable. It is laxative In doses of 1 to 2 oz. 
 Manna Factitious, made of a mixture of 
 sugar, starch, and honey, with a very small 
 quantity of scaramony to give it odour and 
 flavour, and to render it purgative, has been 
 lately very extensively offered in trade, and 
 met with a ready sale. 
 MAH'NACEOUP. A granular preparation 
 
MANNITE— MANURES 
 
 1029 
 
 of wheat deprived of bran, used as an article 
 of food for eliildren and invalids. (Brande.) 
 
 MAN'NITE. OjHuO,. Syn. Makna buoab, 
 MrsnBOOM s. ; Mannita, L. A sweet, crys- 
 tallisable aubstiinue, found in manna and in 
 several other vegetable productions. It has 
 been formed artiHc-iallv by the action of sodium- 
 amalgnm upon au alkBlinc solution of cane 
 sugar. 
 
 Prep. 1. Digest manna in boiling rectified 
 spirit, and filter or decant the solution whilst 
 hot; the mannite crystallises ns the liquid 
 cooU in tnfts of slender, colourless needles. 
 
 2. (Ruspini.) Maunn, 61b8. ; cold water (in 
 which the white of an egg has been beaten), 
 8 lbs. ; mix, boil Tor a few minutes, and strain 
 thesyrupthrough linen whilst hot; the strained 
 liquid will form a semi-crystalline mass on 
 ciioling; submit this to strong pressure in a 
 cloth, mix the cake with its own weight of 
 cold water, and again press it; dissolve the 
 cake thus obtained in boiling water, add n little 
 animal charcoal, and filter the mixture into n 
 porcelain dish set over the fire ; lastly, evapo- 
 rate the filtrate to a pellicle, and set the syrup 
 aside to crystallise. L.irge quadrangular 
 prisms ; perfectly white and transparent. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Mannite has a powerfully sweet 
 and agreeable taste; dissolves in 6 parts of 
 cold water and about half thiit quantity of 
 boiling water; freely soluble in hot, and 
 slightly so in cold alcohol ; fuses by heat with- 
 out loss of weight; with sulphuric acid it 
 combines to form a new acid compound. It 
 is distinguished from the true sugars by its 
 aqueous solution not being susceptible of the 
 vinous fermentation, and not possessing the 
 property of rotary polarisation. When pure, 
 it is perfectly destitute of purgative proper- 
 ties. It is now extensively imported from 
 Italy, and is chiefly used to cover the taste of 
 nauseous medicines, and as a sweetmeat. 
 
 UANUEES'. Substances added to soils to 
 increase their fertility. The food of vegetables, 
 as far as their organic structure is concerned, 
 consists entirely of inorganic compounds j and 
 no organised body can serve for the nutrition 
 of vegetables until it has been, by the process 
 of decay, resolved into certain inorganic sub- 
 Ftances. These are carbonic acid, water, and 
 ammonia, which are well known to be the 
 final products of putrefaction. But even 
 when theie are applied to vegetables, their 
 growth will not proceed unless certain mineral 
 suhstanaes are likewise furnished in small 
 quantities, eitljer by the soil or the water used 
 to moisten it. Almost every plant, when 
 burned, leaves ashes, which commonly contain 
 silica, potHssa, and phosphate of lime; often, 
 also, magnesia, soda, sulphates, and oxide of 
 iron. Tiiese mineral bodies appear to be es- 
 sential to the existence of the vegetable tis- 
 sues ; so that plants will not grow in soils 
 de<titute of them, however abundantly sup. 
 plied with carbonic acid, ammonia, and water. 
 The carbon of plants is wholly derived from 
 
 carbonic acid, which is either absorbed from 
 the atmosphere, and from rain water, by the 
 leaves, or from the moisture and air in the soil, 
 by the roots. Its carbon is retained and assi- 
 milated with the body of the phint, while its 
 oxygen is given out in the gaseous form ; this 
 decomposition being always effected under the 
 influence of light at ordinary temperatures. 
 The hydrogen and oxygen of vegetable!-', 
 which, when combined with carbon, constitute 
 the ligneous, starchy, gummy, saccharine, 
 oily, and resinous matters of plants, are de- 
 rived from water chiefly absorbed by the 
 roots from the soil. The nitrogen of vege- 
 tables is derived chiefly, if not exclusively, 
 from ammonia, which is supplied to them iu 
 rain, and in manures, nnd which remain iu 
 the soil till absorbed by the roots. 
 
 According to the celebrated ' mineral 
 theory ' of agriculture advanced by Liebig a 
 soil is fertile or barren for any given plant 
 according as it contains those mineral sub- 
 stances that enter into its composition. Thus, 
 " the ashes of wheat-straw contain much silica 
 and potassa, whilst the ashes of the seeds con- 
 tain phosphate of magnesia. Hence, if a soil 
 is deficient in any one of these, it will nut 
 vield wheat. On the other hand, a good crop 
 of wheat will exhaust the soil of these sub- 
 stances, and it will not yield a second crop 
 till they have been restored, either by manure 
 or by the gradual action of the weather in 
 disintegrating the subsoil. Hence the benefit 
 derived from fallows and from the rotation of 
 crops. 
 
 " When, by an extraordinary supply of any 
 one mineral ingredient, or of ammonia, a 
 large crop has been obtained, it is not to be 
 expected that a repetition of the same indivi- 
 dual manure next year v\ill produce the same 
 effect. It must be remembered that the un- 
 usual crop has exhausted the soil probably of 
 all the other mineral ingredients, and that they 
 also must be restored before a second crop can 
 be obtained, 
 
 " The suit most essential to the growth of 
 the potato is the double phosphate of ammonia 
 and magnesia ; that chiefly required for hay is 
 phosphate of lime ; while for almost all plants 
 potassa and ammonio are highly beneficial." 
 
 From these principles we " may deduce a 
 few valuable conclusions in regard to the 
 chemistry of agriculture. First, by examining 
 the ashes of a thriving plant, we discover the 
 mineral ingredients which must exist iu a soil 
 to render it fertile for that plant. Secondly, 
 by examining a soil, we can say at once whether 
 it is fertile in regard to any plants the ashes 
 of which have been examined. Thirdly, when 
 we know the defects of a soil, the deficient 
 matters may he easily obtained and added 
 to it, unmixed with such as are not required. 
 Fourthly, the straw, leaves, &c., of any plant, 
 are the best manure for that plant, since every 
 vegetable extracts from the soil such matters 
 alone as are essential to it. This important 
 
1030 
 
 MANUSCRIPTS— MABASCHINO 
 
 principle has been amply verified by the success 
 attending the use of wheat-straw, or its ashes, 
 as manure for wheat, and of the chippings of 
 the vines as a manure for the vineyard. When 
 these are usSd (in the proper quantity) no 
 other manure is required. Fiftlily, in the 
 rotation of crops, those should be made to 
 follow which require different materials; or 
 a crop which extracts little or no mineral 
 matter, such as peas, should come after one 
 which exhausts the soil of its phosphates and 
 potassa." (Liebig.) 
 
 The experiments of Messrs Lawes and Gil- 
 bert have forced upon them opinions differing 
 from those of Baron Liebig on some important 
 points in relation to his 'mineral theory,' which 
 endeavours to prove that " the crops on a field 
 diminish or increase in exact proportion to 
 the diminution or increase of the mineral sub- 
 stances conveyed to it in manure." The results 
 obtained by the English investigators appear 
 to prove that it is impossible to get good crops 
 by using mineral manures alone, and tliat nitro- 
 genous manures (farm-yard manure, guano, 
 ammoniacal salts, &c.) are fertilising agents 
 of the highest order. 
 
 Of the chemical manures now so much used 
 bone-dust is, perhaps, the most important, as 
 it supplies tlie phosphates which have been ex- 
 tracted by successive crops of grass and corn, 
 the whole of the bones of the cattle fed on 
 these crops having been derived from the soil ; 
 its gelatin also yields ammonia by putrefaction. 
 Guano acts as a source of ammonia, containing 
 much oxalate and urate of ammouta, with some 
 phosphates. Nighfcsoil and urine, especially 
 the latter, are most valuable for the ammonia 
 they yield, as well as for the phosphates and 
 potassa; but are very much neglected in this 
 coiintrv, although tlieir importance is fully 
 appreciated in Belgium, France, and China. 
 Nitrate uf soda is valued as a source of ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 All organic substances may be employed as 
 manures; preference being, liowever, given to 
 those abounding in nitrogen, andwliich readily 
 decay when mixed with the soil. 
 
 The analysis of manures, soils, and the ashes 
 of plants, for the purpose of ascertaining their 
 composition and comparative value, is not 
 easily performed by the inexperienced; bat 
 a rough approximation to their contents, suffi- 
 ciently accurate for all practical purposes, mav 
 be generally made by any intelligent person 
 with proper care and attention. See Aoeicul- 
 TPBE, Bone-dust. Guano, &c. 
 
 Manures, Artificial. Various formula: be- 
 longing to this head will be found dispersed, 
 under tlipir respective names, throughout this 
 work. The following are additional ones : — ■ 
 
 1. (Anderson.) Sulphate of ammonia, com- 
 mon salt, and oil of vitriol, of each 10 parts ; 
 chloride of potassium, 15 parts ; gypsum and 
 sulphate of potassa, of each 17 parts ; salt- 
 petre, 20 parts ; crude Epsom salts, 25 parts ; 
 sulphate of soda, 33 parts. For clover. 
 
 2. (Huxtable.) Crude potash, 28 lbs.; com- 
 mon salt, 1 cwt. ; bone-dust and gypsum, of 
 each 2 cwt.; wood-ashes, 16 bushels. For 
 either corn, turnips, or grass. 
 
 3. (Johnstone.) Sulphate of soda (dry), 
 11 lbs. ; wood-ashes, 28 lbs. ; common salt, 
 J cwt. J crude sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt. ; 
 bone-dust, 1 bushels. As a substitute for 
 guano. 
 
 4. (Lawes' 'Superphosphate.') See Co- 
 
 PBOWTE. 
 
 5. (Fertilising powder.) A mixture of 
 very fine bone-dust, 18 parts; calcined gypsum, 
 and sulphate of ammonia, of each 1 part. Tbe 
 seed is ^rdered to be steeped in the ' drain- 
 ings' from a dunghill, and after being drained, 
 but whilst still wet, to be sprinkled with the 
 powder, and then dried. See FiowBBS, Limb 
 (Superphosphate), &c. 
 
 lEAIirUSCRIFTS, Faded, to Eestore. One 
 of the methods in use for the restoration of 
 old or faded writing is to expose it to the 
 vapours of hydrosulphate of ammonia (hydro- 
 sulphide of ammonium) until the ink becomes 
 darkened by the formation of sulphide of iron. 
 Another consists in carefully washing, or 
 sponging, the faded manuscript over with a 
 weak solution of the ammonic sulphide, and as 
 soon as the characters become legible, soaking 
 it in water so as to remove the remaining sul- 
 phide, and then drying it between folds of 
 blotting paper. A third plan, and one at- 
 tended with less risk to the paper, is to brush 
 over the manuscript with a moderately strong 
 aqueous solution of gallo-tannie acid, to wash 
 with water, and af teriyards to dry it at s 
 temperature of about 150° Fahr. 
 
 The solution of gallo-tannic acid may he ob- 
 tained by making a strong infusion of bruised 
 nutgalls in boiling water, and when cold, 
 straining it. Some old and mediseval manu- 
 scripts are written in inks made of carbon. 
 To such the above treatment is inapplicable ; 
 being suited only to those traced in ordinary 
 writing ink. For parchments the latter 
 method is preferable. 
 
 MAPS. These, as well as architect's and en- 
 gineer's designs, plans, sections, drawings, &c., 
 may bo tinted with any of the simple liquid 
 colours mentioned under 'velvet 0OI0UK8,' 
 preference being given to the most transparent 
 ones, which will not obscure the lines beneath 
 them. To prevent the colours from sinking 
 and spreading, which they usually do on com- 
 mon paper, the latter should be wetted 2 or 3 
 times with a sponge dipped in alum water (3 
 or 4 oz. to the pint), or with a solution of 
 white size, observing to dry it carefully after 
 each coat. This tends to give lustre and 
 beauty to the colours. The colours for this 
 purpose should also be thickened with a little 
 gum water. Before varnishing maps after 
 colouring them, 2 or 3 coats of clean size should 
 be applied with a soft brush — the first one to 
 the back. 
 
 MAKASCHl'NO (-keno). Syn. Mabasquiit, 
 
MARBLE— MARBLING 
 
 1031 
 
 Pr. A delicnte liqueur spirit distilled from a 
 peculiar cherry growing in Dalmatia, and alter- 
 wards Bweetonud with sugar. The best is 
 from Zarn, and ia obtained troin the mara^oi 
 cherry only. Au inferior quality is distilled 
 from a mixttire of cherries and the juice of 
 liquorice root. 
 
 UAK'BLfi. Syn. Limestone, Habd cab- 
 donate OF Lime : Mabmob, Calcis cabbonab 
 Dunua, M. album (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. 
 Warbles are merely purer and more compact 
 varietiis of limesloue, which admit of being 
 sawn into slabs, and are susceptible of a fine 
 polish. White marble is employed ibr the 
 preparation of carbonic acid and some of the 
 salts of lime. It contains about 65^ of lime. 
 Sp. gr. 2-70 to 2-8o. The tests of its purity 
 are tlie same as those already noticed under 
 Chalk. 
 
 Marble is best cleaned with a little soap-and- 
 water, to which some ox-gull njay be added. 
 Acids should be avoided. Oil and grease may 
 bo geni'rully removed by spreading a paste 
 made of soft sonp, caustic potiish lye, and 
 fullers earth over the part, and allowing it 
 to remain there for a few days; after which 
 it must be washed off with clean water. Or, 
 equal parts of American potiish (crude car- 
 bonate of potash) and whiting are made into a 
 moderately stiff paste with a suifitiency of 
 boiling water, and applied to the marble with 
 a brush. At the end of two or three days the 
 paste is removed and the marble washed with 
 aoap-and-wator. Any defect of polish may be 
 brought up with tripoli, followed by putty 
 powder, both being used along with water. 
 
 Marble is mended with one or other of the 
 compounds noticed under Cements. 
 
 Marble may be stained or dyed of various 
 colour^ by applying coloured solutions or tinc- 
 ture to the stone, nmiie sufficiently hot to 
 make the liquid just siumier on the surface. 
 The following are the substances usually 
 employed for tliis purpose: — 
 
 Blue. Tincture or solution of litmus, or 
 an alkaline solutiou of indigo. 
 
 Beown. Tincture of logwood. 
 
 Cbimson. A solution of alkanet root in oil 
 of turpentine. 
 
 Plksii colowb. Wax tinged with alkanet 
 root, and applied to the marble hot enough to 
 melt it freely. 
 
 Gold colocb. A mixture of equal parts of 
 white vitriol, sal ammoniac, and verdigris, 
 each in fine powder, and carefully applied. 
 
 Gbken. An alkaline solution or tincture 
 of lap green, or wax strongly coloured with 
 verdigris ; or the stone ia lirst stained blue, 
 and then the materials for yellow <stain are 
 applied. 
 
 Ued. Tincture of dragon's blood, alkanet 
 root, or cochiueal. 
 
 Yellow. Tmcture of gamboge, turmeric, 
 or laflron ; or wax coloured with aunotta. 
 Success in the application of these colours 
 require! cou^iderable experience. By their 
 
 skilful use, however, a very pleasing effect, 
 both of colour and grain, may be produced. 
 
 MARBLING (of Books. &c.'). The edi;(s and 
 covers of books are 'marbled' by laying the 
 colour on them with a brush, or by means of 
 a wooden trough containing mucilage, as fol- 
 lows : — Provide a wooden trough, 2 inches 
 deep, 6 inches wide, and the length of a super- 
 royal sheet; boil in a brass or copper pan any 
 quantity of linseed and water until a thick 
 mucilage is formed; strain this into the trough, 
 and let it cool; then grind on a marble slab 
 any of the following colours in table beer, 
 tor — blue, Prussian blue or indigo ; — red, 
 rose-pink, vermilion, or drop lake; — yellow, 
 king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. ; — white, flake 
 white; — black, ivory black, or bnrnt lamp- 
 black ; — brown umber, burnt u., terra di 
 sienna, burnt s. ; black mixed with yellow or 
 red also makes brown ; — green, blue imd yellow 
 mixed; — purple, red and blue mixed, i'ur 
 each colour provide two cups — one for the 
 ground colours, the other to mix ihem with 
 the ox-gall, which must be Used to thin them 
 at discretion. If too much gall is used the 
 colours spread ; when they keep their place on 
 the surface of the trough, on being moved 
 with a quill, they are fit Ibr use, All things 
 being in readiness, tlie prepared colours are 
 successively sprinkled on the surface of the 
 mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are 
 waved or drawn about with a quill or a stick 
 according to taste. When the design is thus 
 formed, the book, tied tightly between cutting 
 boards of the same size, is lightly pressed with 
 its edge on the surface of the liquid pattern, 
 and then withdrawn and dried. The cover^i 
 may be marbled in the same way, only the 
 liquid colours must be allowed to run over 
 them. The film of colour in the trough may 
 be as thin as possible; and if any remains 
 after the marbling, it may be taken ofl' by 
 applying paper to it before you prepare for 
 marbling again. This process has been called 
 Fbench mabblinq-. 
 
 To diversify the effect, a little sweet oil is 
 often mixed with the colours before sprinkling 
 them on, by whicVi means a light halo or circle 
 appears round each spot. In like manner 
 spirit of tni'pentine, sprinkled on the surface 
 of the trough, produces white spots. By 
 staining the covers with any of the liquid dyes, 
 and then dropping on them, or running over 
 them, drops of the ordinary liquid mordants, a 
 very pleasing effect may be produced. Vinegar 
 black, or a solution of green copperas, thus 
 applied to common leather, produces blark 
 spots or streaks, and gives a similar efl'ect with 
 most of the light dyes. A solution of alum or 
 of tin in like manner produces bright spots or 
 streaks, and soda or potash water dark ones. 
 Tliis style has been called Egyptian makble. 
 — Soap maebling is done by throwing on the 
 colours, ground with a little white soap to a 
 proper consistence, by means of a brush. It 
 is much used for book-edges, stationery, sheets 
 
1032 
 
 MARGARIC ACID— MARSHMAIiLOW 
 
 of paper, ladies' fancy work, &o. — Thbbad 
 MAKBLE is given by first covering the edge 
 uniformly of one colour, then laying pieces of 
 thick thread irregularly on different parts of 
 it. and giving it a fine dark sprinkle. When 
 well managed the effect is very pleasing. — 
 Rice marble is given in a similar way to the 
 last by using rice. — Teeb mabblb is done on 
 leather book-covers, &c., by bending the board 
 a little in the centre, and running the marbling 
 liquid over it in the form of vegetation. The 
 knots are given by rubbing the end of a candle 
 on those parts of the cover. — Wax mabble is 
 given in a similar way to thread marble, but 
 using melted wax, which is removed after the 
 book is sprinkled and dried ; or a sponge 
 charged with blue, green, or red may be passed 
 over. This, also, is much used for stationery 
 work, especially for folios and quartos. The 
 ' vinegar black ' of the bookbinders is merely a 
 solution of acetate of iron, made by steeping a 
 few rusty nails or some iron filings in vinegar. 
 All the ordinary liquid colours that do not 
 contain strong acids or alkalies may be used, 
 either alone or thickened with a little gum, 
 for marbling or sprinkling books. 
 
 Speinklino is performed by simply dipping 
 a stiff-haired paintei^'s brush into the colour, 
 and suddenly striking it against a small stick 
 held in the left hand over the work. By this 
 means the colour is evenly scattered without 
 producing 'blurs ' or 'blots.' 
 
 Papee, pabteboaed, Ac, in sheets, are 
 marbled and sprinkled in a similar manner to 
 that above described, but in this case the gum 
 trough must, of course, be longer. 
 
 MASGAEIC ACID. This term was formerly 
 applied to a mixture of palmitic and stearic 
 acids, produced by decomposing the alkaline 
 soaps of solid fats with an acid, but it is now 
 given to a fatty acid which can only be ob- 
 ' tained artificially. 
 
 MAR'GAKIN. Syn. Maegaeate of gi-tce- 
 BYL. A constituent formerly supposed to 
 exist in solid fats, but now regarded as a 
 mixture of stearin and palmitin. 
 
 MARINE' ACID. See Htdeochioeio acid. 
 
 MARL. A natural mixture of clay and 
 chalk, with sand. It is characterised by efier- 
 vescing with acids. According to the pre- 
 dominance of one or other of its component 
 parts, it is called argillaceous, calcareous, or 
 sandy marl. It is very generally employed as 
 a manure for sandy soils, more particularly in 
 Norfolk. See Sons. 
 
 MAR'IKIAIiADE. Originally a conserve made 
 of quinces and sugar ; now commonly applied 
 to the conserves of other fruit, more especially 
 to those of oranges and lemons. 
 
 Prep. Marmalades are made either by 
 pounding the pulped fruit in a mortar with 
 an equal or a rather larger quantity of pow- 
 dered white sugar, or by mixing them to- 
 gether by heat, passing them through a hair 
 siex e whilst hot, and then putting them into 
 pots or glasses. The fruit-pulps are obtained 
 
 by rubbing the fruit through a fine hair sieve, 
 either at once or after it has been softened by 
 simmering it for a short time along with a 
 little water. When heat is employed in mixing 
 the ingredients, the evaporation should be 
 continued until the marmalade 'jellies' on 
 cooling. See Conseeves, Conpectioms, Eiec- 
 Tir ABIES, Jams, Jellies, and below. 
 
 Marmalade, Apricot. From equal parts of 
 pulp and sugar. 
 
 Marmalade, Mixed. From plums, pears, and 
 apples, variously flavoured to palate. 
 
 Marmalade, Orange. Prep. 1. From oranges 
 (either Seville or St Michael's, or a mixture 
 of the two), by boiling the peels in syrup until 
 soft, then pulping them through a sieve, adding 
 as much white sugar, and boiling them with 
 the former syrup and the juice of the fruit to 
 a proper consistence. 
 
 2. By melting the confection of orange peel 
 (Ph. L.), either with or without the addition 
 of some orange or lemon juice, and then passing 
 it through a sieve. 
 
 3. (Candied oeange mabmaladb.) From 
 candied orange peel, boiled in an equal weight 
 each of sugar and water, and then passed 
 through a sieve. 
 
 4. (Scotch mabmalade.) — a. Seville orange 
 juice, 1 quart ; yellow peel of the fruit, 
 grated; honey, 2 lbs.; boil to a proper con- 
 sistence. 
 
 b. Seville oranges, 8 lbs. ; peel them as thinly 
 as possible, then squeeze out the juice, boil it 
 on the yellow peels for i of an hour, strain, 
 add white sugar, 7 lbs., and boil to a proper 
 consistence. 
 
 Marmalade, Quince. Syn. Diactdoniuu. 
 From quince flesh or pulp and sugar, equal 
 parts; or from the juice (miva cydoniorum, 
 gelatina c), by boiling it to half, adding an 
 equal quantity of white wine and f rds of its 
 weight of sugar, and geiitly evaporating the 
 mixture. 
 
 Marmalade, Tomato. Like afbicot mab- 
 malade, adding a few slices of onion and a 
 little parsley. 
 
 MABMORA'TUM. Finely powdered marble 
 and quicklime, well beaten together ; used as 
 a cement or mortar. 
 
 MAE'ROW (Beef). This is extensively em- 
 ployed by the perfumers in the preparation of 
 various pomades and other cosmeties, on 
 account of its furnishing an exceedingly bland 
 fat, which is not so much disposed to rancidity 
 as the other fats. It is prepared for use by 
 soaking and working it for some time in luke- 
 warm water, and afterwards melting it in a 
 water bath, and straining it through a piece of 
 muslin whilst hot. When scented it is es- 
 teemed equal to bear's grease for promoting 
 the growth of the hair. 
 
 MARSH GAS. Light carbonetted hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 MARSH'S TEST. See Aesshioits acid. 
 
 MARSHMALLOW. Syn. ALTHaiA (Ph. L. 
 & E.), L. The root (leaves and root— Ph. E. 
 
MARTIN'S POWDER— MASTICATOEIES 
 
 1033 
 
 of Althaa officinalu, Linn,, or common mnrsh- 
 mallow. (Ph. L.) It is emollient and demul- 
 cent; the decoction is useful in irritution of 
 the respiratory and urinary organs, and of the 
 alimentary canal. The flowers as well as the 
 root are reputed pectoral, 
 
 HARTIN'S POWDES. A mixture of white 
 araenic and the powdered stems of Orobanche 
 virginiana (Linn.),a plant common in Virginia. 
 An American quack remedy for cancer. 
 
 UASS. Syn. Massa, L. This term is com- 
 monly applied in pharmacy and veterinary 
 medicine to certain preparations which are not 
 made up into their ultimate form. Thus, we 
 have ' ball-mas'-es,' 'pill-masses,' &e. ; of which, 
 for convenience, large quantities are prepared 
 at a time, and are kept in pots or jars, ready 
 to be divided into balls or pills, as the demands 
 of business may require. (See below.) 
 
 UASSES (Veterinary).) 
 
 Massa Aloes. Mass of aloes. Syn. Catr- 
 ABTlo MASS. Prep. Take of Barbadoes aloes, 
 in small pieces, 8 parts ; glycerin, 2 parts ; 
 gini^er, in powder, 1 part ; melt together in a 
 water bath, and thoroughly incorporate by 
 frequent stirring — U«e. Cathartic for the 
 horac. — Dose. From 6 to 8 dr. 
 
 Uaasa Aloes Composita. Cokpoitiis.mass 
 OF ALOES. Syn. Altkbative mass. Prep. 
 Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 oz. ; 
 soft soap, 1 oz. ; common mass, 6 oz. ; 
 thoroughly incorporate by beating In a mortar, 
 BO as to form a mass. — Uae. Alterative for the 
 horse, — Dose, 1 oz. 
 
 HaagaAntimoniiTartarata Composita. Cou- 
 
 POtlND MASS OF TABTAEATED ANTIMONY. Syn. 
 
 FxvEB BALL. Prep. Take of tartrated auti- 
 mony, in powder, i dr. ; camphor, in powder, 
 i dr. ; nitrate of potash, in powder, 2 dr. ; 
 common mass, a sufficiency j mix so as to form 
 a bolus. — Use. Febrifuge for the horse. — Bose, 
 The above mixture constitutes 1 dose. 
 Uassa Belladonnte Composita. Comfottni) 
 
 MA88 OF BELLADONNA. Syn. CoUGH BALL. 
 Prep. Take of extract of belladonna, J to 1 
 dr. ; Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 1 dr. ; nitrate 
 of potash, in powder, 2 dr. ; common mass, a 
 sufficiency; mix so as to form a bolus. — Use. 
 For the horse in chronic cough. — Dose, The 
 above mixture constitutes 1 dose. 
 
 Hassa Cathecha Composita. Compound 
 mass op catechu. Syn. Astbinobnt mass. 
 Prep. Take of extract of catechu, in fine pow- 
 der, 1 oz. ; cinnamon bark, in fine powder, 1 
 oz. ; comm^m mass, 6oz. ; mix. — Use. Astrin- 
 gent for the horse. — Dose, 1 oz., in the form 
 of a bolus. 
 
 Uassa Communis. CoMMosr mass. Prep. 
 Take of linseed, finely ground, and treacle, of 
 each equal parts ; mix together so as to form 
 a moss. — Use, An excipient for medicinal 
 agents when they are to be administered in the 
 form of bolus. 
 
 Uaasa Capri Solphatls. Mass of sulphate 
 OF copPEB. Syn. Tonic Mass. Prep. Take 
 > Reprinted from Tnson'i ' Veterinary Fliarmacopoeia.' 
 
 of sulphate of copper, finely powdered, 1 oz. ; 
 ginger, in' powder, 1 oz.; common mass, 6 
 oz. ; mix. — Use. Tonic for the horse. — Dose, 
 6 to 8 dr. 
 
 Uassa Digitalis Composita. Compound 
 MASS of digitalis. Syn, Cough ball. Prep. 
 Take of Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz. ; 
 digftalis, 1 oz. ; common mass, 13 oz. ; mix. — 
 Use, For the horse in chronic cough. — Dose, 
 1 oz. once or twice a day. 
 
 Moasa Ferri Snlphatis. Mass of sulphate 
 op lEON. Syn, Tonic mass. Prep, Take of 
 sulphate of iron, in powder, 2 oz. ; ginger, in 
 powder, 1 oz. ; common mass, 5 oz. ; mix. — 
 Use, Tonic for the horse. — Dose, 6 to 8 dr. 
 
 Uassa Besinse Composita. Compound mass 
 of kesin. Syn. Diubetic mass. Prep. Take 
 of resin, in powder, nitrate of potash, in pow- 
 der, hard soap, of each equal parts ; mix.— 
 Use. Diuretic for the horse. — Dose, 1 oz. 
 
 Uassa Zingiberis Composita. Compound 
 MASS OP QiNOEU. Syn, Cordial mass. 
 Prep, Take of ginger, in powder, gentian 
 root, in powder, treacle, of each equal part'', a 
 Hufficiency ; mix so as to form a mass. — Use, 
 Stomachic for the horse. — Dose, 1 oz. 
 
 UAS'SICOT. Syn. Masticot, Yellow pbot- 
 
 OXIDE of LEAD; PlUMBI OXTDUM FLAVUM, 
 
 Cbeussa oitbina, L. The dros-i that forms 
 on melted lend exposed to a current of air, 
 roasted until it acquires a uniform yellow 
 colour. Artists often apply the same name to 
 white lead roasted until it turns yellow. 
 Used as a pigment. 
 
 UAS'TIC. Syn, Mastich, Gum mastic ; 
 Mastiche, L. The " resin flawing from the 
 incised bark of Pistaeia Lentiscus, var. Chia," 
 (Ph. L.) It occurs in pale yellowish, trans- 
 parent, rounded teara, which soften between 
 the teeth when chewed, and giving out a 
 bitter, aromatic taste. Sp. gr. 107. It is 
 soluble in both rectified spirit and oil of tur- 
 pentine, forming varnishes. It is chiefly used 
 aa a ' masticatory,' to strengthen and preserve 
 the teeth, and perfume the breath. 
 
 Mastic. Fine mortar or cement u»ed for 
 plastering walls, in which the ingredients, in 
 a pulverulent state, are mixed up, either en- 
 tirely or with a considerable portion of linseed 
 oil. It sets very hard, and is ready to receive 
 paint in a few days. See Cements. 
 
 MASTICA'IIOi)'. The act of chewing food, 
 by which it not only becomes comminuted, 
 but mixed with the saliva, and reduced to a 
 form fit for swallowing. It has been justly 
 regarded by the highest authorities as the 
 first process of digestion, and one without 
 which the powers of the stomach are over- 
 tasked, and often performed with difficulty. 
 Hence the prevalence of dyspepsia and 
 bowel complaints among persons with bad 
 teeth, or who 'bolt' their food without 
 chewing it. 
 
 UAS'IICATOBIES. Syn. Masticatobia, 
 L. Substances taken by chewing them. They 
 are employed as intoxicants, cosmetics, and 
 
1034 
 
 MASTICOT— MATCHES 
 
 raedicinals ; generally with the first intention. 
 The principal masticatory used in this country 
 is tobacco. In Turkey, and several otlier 
 Eastern nations, opium is taken in a similar 
 manner. In India, a mixture of areca nut, 
 betel leaf, and lime, performs the same duties ; 
 whilst in some other parts of the world pre- 
 parations of the cacao are employed. As cos- 
 metics, orris root, cassia, cinnamon, and sandal 
 wood are frequently chewed to scent the 
 breath. Among medicinala, mastic and myrrh 
 are frequently chewed to strengthen the teeth 
 and gums ; pellitory, to relieve the toothache; 
 and rhubarb, ginger, and gentian, to relieve 
 dyspepsia and promote tlie appetite. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Augustin.) Mastic, pellitory 
 (both in powder), and white wax, of each 1 
 dr. ; mixed by heat and divided into 6 balls. 
 In tootliaclie, loose teeth, &c. 
 
 2. (W. Cooley.) Mastic, myrrh, and white 
 wax, of each 1 part; rhubarb, ginger, and 
 extract of gentian, of each 2 parts ; beaten up 
 with tincture of tolu, q, s., and divided into 
 boluses or lozeng'es of 10 gr. each. One or 
 two to be chewed an hour before dinner ; in 
 dyspepsia, defective appetite, &c. 
 
 3. (Qnincy.) Mastic, 3 oz. ; pellitory and 
 stavesacre seed, of each 2 dr.; cubebs and 
 nutmegs, of each 1 dr. ; angelica root, i dr. ; 
 melted wax, q. s. to make it into small balls. 
 As a stimulant to the gums, and in toothache. 
 
 4. Opium, ginger, rhubarb, mastic, pellitory 
 of Spain, and orris root, of each 1 dr. ; melted 
 spermaceti, q. s. to mix; for 6-gr. pills. As 
 the last, and in toothache and painful gums, 
 
 MASTICOT. See Massicot. 
 
 MATCHES (Cooper's). Syn. Sweetenino 
 MATCHES. These are made by dipping sti'ips 
 of coari-e linen or canvas into melted brimstone. 
 For use, the brimstone on one of them is set 
 on fire, and the match is then at once sus- 
 pended in the cask, and the bung loosely set 
 in its place. After the lapse of 2 or 3 hours 
 the match is removed and the cask filled with 
 liquor. Some persons pour a gallon or two of 
 the liquor into the cask before ' matching ' it. 
 The object is to allay excessive fermentation. 
 The operation is commonly adopted in the 
 Western Counties for cider intended for ship- 
 ment, or other long exposure during transport. 
 It is also occasionally employed for inferior and 
 ' doctored ' wines. . 
 
 MATCHES (Instantaneous light). Of these 
 there are several varieties, of which the one 
 best known, and most extensively used, is the 
 common phosphorus match, known as the ' con- 
 greve ' or ' Inciter.' ' We need not describe 
 
 ' The origiiwl 'lucifkrs,' or 'i.tbiit-beaeing 
 MAiciiKS,' invented in 1826, conaieted of strips of paste- 
 boiinl, oi- flat splints of wood, tipped first wiih sulphur, 
 aiid,tlifn with a mixture of sulpliide of Hntimony and 
 cliloriite of poUssa, and were ignited hy drawing tliem 
 brtikly through foldeiJ glass-paper. Tliey required a con- 
 Biderahle effort to ignite tlieni, and fhe compusition was 
 opt to be torn off l»y the violi-nce of the friction. Tlie 
 terrn ' lucifer' havinir become familiar, «as applied to tlie 
 simpler and miire effective match afterwards introduced 
 under the names of 'coftcKhVE' and 'co^GEEVE light,' 
 
 the 'chemical matches,' 'phosphorus bottles,' 
 and ' prometheans,' in use during the early 
 part of the present century, as these are quite 
 obsolete. We will simply sketch the general 
 process of manufacture now in use for phos- 
 phorus matches : 
 
 \Januf. The wooden splints are cut by steam 
 machinery from the very best quality of pine 
 planks, perfectly dried at a temperature of 
 400° Fahr, English splints are of two 
 sizes — ' large' and 'minnikins;' the former 
 2i inches longer, and the latter somewhat 
 shorter. In the manufacture donble-lengths 
 are used, so that each splint may be coated 
 with the igniting composition at both ends, 
 and then cut asunder in the middle to form 
 two matches. In England the splints are 
 usually cut square in form, but in Germany 
 they are cylindrical, being prepared by forcing 
 the wood through circular holes in a steel 
 plate. The ends of the double splints having 
 been slightly charred by contact with a red- 
 hot plate, are coated with sulphur by dipping 
 them to the requisite depth in the melted ma- 
 terial. In some cases the ends are saturated 
 with melted wax or paraffin instead of sulphur. 
 The splints are then arranged in a frame 
 between grooved boards in such a manner that 
 the prepared ends project on each side of the 
 frame. These projecting ends are then tipped 
 with the phosphorus composition, which is 
 spread to a uniform depth of about -I inch on 
 a smooth slab of stone, kept warm by means of 
 steam beneath. Wlien partially dry, the 
 tipped splints are taken from the frames, cnt 
 through the middle, and placed in heaps of 
 100, ready for ' boxing,' 
 
 The different compositions for tipping the 
 matches in use in different countries and fac- 
 tories all consist essentially of emulsions of 
 phosphorus in a solution of glue or gum, with 
 or without other matters for increasing the 
 combustibility, for colouring, &c. In England 
 the composition contains a considerable 
 quantity of chlorate of potassa, which imparts 
 ti snapping and flaming quality to the matches 
 tipped with it, and but little phosphorus, on 
 account of the moisture of the climate. In 
 Germany the proportion of phosphorus used is 
 much larger, and nitre, or some metallic per- 
 oxide, replaces chlDrate of potassa. The Ger- 
 man matches light quietly with a uiild lambent 
 flame, and are injured quickly by damp. 
 The following formulffl have been selected: 
 
 1. (Enolish.) Fine glue, 2 parts, broken 
 into small pieces, and soaked in water till 
 quite soft, is added to water, 4 parts, and 
 heated by means of a water bath until it is 
 quite fluid, and at a temperature of 200° to 
 212° Fahr. The vessel is then removed from 
 the fire, and phosphorus, IJ to 2 parts, is gra- 
 dually added, the mixture being agitatid 
 briskly and continually with a ' stirrer ' having 
 wooden pegs or bristles projecting at its lower 
 end. When a uniform emulsion is obtaintd, 
 chlorate of potassa, 4 to 5 parts, powdered 
 
MATfi— MATURATION 
 
 1035 
 
 glass, 3 to 4 p irts, nnd red lead, smnlt, or other 
 f uluuring mutter, ii sulticiciit quantity (all in 
 a stiite of very fiue powder) arc ndilcd, one at 
 11 time, to prevent accidents, and the stirring 
 contiuuud until the mixture is comparatively 
 cool. 
 
 Aicordingf to Mr G. Gore, the above propor- 
 tions arc those of the best quality of English 
 composition. The matches tipped with it 
 dellagrate with a snapping noide. {See above.) 
 
 2. (German.) — a. (BOttger.) Dissolve gum 
 Arabic, 16 parts, in tlie least possible quiintity 
 of water, add of phosphorus (in powder), 9 
 parts, and mix by trituration ; then add of 
 uitre, 14 pnrts ; Vermillion or binoxide of man- 
 ganese, 16 parts, and form the whole into a 
 paste, as directed above ; into this tlie matches 
 are to be dipped, and then exposed to dry. 
 As soon as the matches arc quite ilry they are 
 to be dipped into very dilute copal varnish or 
 lac varnish, and again exposed to dry, by 
 which means they are rendered waterproof, or 
 at least less likely to suli'er from exposure in 
 damp weather. 
 
 b. (Bijttger.) Glue, 6 parts, is soaked in a 
 little cold water for 24 hours, after wliich it 
 is liqnelied by trituration in a hciited mortar; 
 phosphorus, 4 parts, is now added, and rubbed 
 down at a heat not exceeding 150° Fuhr. ; 
 nitre (in iine powder), 10 parts, is next mixed 
 in, and afterwards red ochre, 6 parts, and 
 smalt, 2 parts, are further added, and the 
 whole formed into a uniform paste, into which 
 the matches are dipped, as before. Cheaper 
 than the last. 
 
 0. (Diesel.) Phosphorus, 17 parts ; glue, 21 
 piirts; red lead, 24 parts; nitre, 88 parts. 
 Proceed as above. 
 
 Obs. Matches tipped with the above (a, h, 
 and o) inflame without fulmination vvlien 
 rubbed against a rough surface, and are hence 
 termed ' noiseless matches ' by tlie makers. 
 
 3. (Safety matches.) The latest improve- 
 ment of note in the manufacture of matches 
 is that of Laudstrom.of Jonkoping, in Sweden, 
 adopted by Messrs Bryant and May (Patent). 
 It consists in dividing the ingredient of the 
 match-mixture into two separate compositions, 
 one being placed on the ends of the splints, as 
 usual, and the other, which contains ihe phos- 
 phorus, being spread in a thin layer upon the 
 end or lid of the box. The following are tlie 
 compositions used by the patentee: — a. (For 
 the splints.) Chlorate of potassa, 6 parts; sul- 
 phuret of antimony, 2 to 3 parts ; glue, 1 part. 
 — 4. (Kor the friction surface.) Amorphous 
 phosphorus, 10 parts; sulphuret of antimony 
 or peroxide of manganese, 8 parts; glue, 3 to 
 6 parts ; spread thinly upon the surface, which 
 has been previously made rough by a coating 
 of glne and sand. 
 
 By thus dividing the composition the danffcr 
 of Are arising from ignition of the matches 
 by acciilcntal friction ii< avoided, as neither 
 the portion on the splint nor that on the box 
 can be ignited by rubbing against an unpre- 
 
 pared surface. Again, by using the innocuous 
 red or amorphous pho'pborus, the danger of 
 poisonini,' is entirely prevented. 
 
 MATE. Syn. Paraguay Tea. This is the 
 dried leaf of a small shrub, the Ilex Para- 
 gaayenaei, or Bnizilian holly, growing in 
 Paraguay and Brazil; by the inhabitants of 
 which places, as well as S'luth America gene- 
 rally, it is largely employed in the form of » 
 beverage as tea. Its active ingredient. Para- 
 guaine, formerly supposed to be a distinct 
 principle, has from further researches into its 
 composition been discovered to be identical 
 with theine and cati'eine — the alkaloids of tea 
 and coffee. 
 
 Mr Wanklyn ascribes the following compo- 
 sition to mate : — 
 
 Moisture ... 
 Ash .... 
 
 Soluble organic matter . 
 Insoluble organic mutter 
 
 6-72 
 
 5-86 
 2510 
 62-32 
 
 10000 
 
 IIATE"BIA UED'ICA. A collective name 
 of the various substances, natural and arti- 
 ficial, employed as medicines or in the cure of 
 disease. In its more extended sense it includes 
 the science which treats of their sources, pro- 
 perties, classification, and applicHtiuns. The 
 materia medica of the Pharmacopaia is a mere 
 list, with occasional notes, " embracing the 
 animal, vegetable, and chemical substances, 
 whether existing naturally, prepared in offi- 
 cinal chemical preparations, or sold in whole- 
 sale trade, which we (the College) direct to be 
 used either in curing diseases or in preparing 
 medicines." (Ph. L.) 
 
 MAT'ICO. Syn. Soldikk'shebb ; Mateco 
 (B.P., Ph. D.); Matica, Heeba matice, L. 
 The dried leaves of a Peruvian plant, gene- 
 rally believed to be the Artanihe elongata, one 
 of the Piperaieie. The leaves have been em- 
 ployed. with considerable success as a mecha- 
 nical external styptic; applied to leech-bites, 
 sliglit cuts, and other wounds &c., and pressed 
 on with the fingers, they seldom fail to arrest 
 the bleeding. Matico has also been much 
 lauded as an internal astringent and styptic, in 
 lioemorrhages from the lungs, stomach, bowels, 
 uterus, &c. ; but as it is nearly destitute of 
 astringent properties, its virtues in these cases 
 must have been inferred from its external ac- 
 tion. As an aromatic, bitter stimulant, closely 
 resembling the peppers, it has been proposed 
 as a substitute for cubebs and black pepper, 
 in the treatment of diseases of the mucous 
 membranes, piles, &c. — Dose, i to 2 dr. ; in 
 powder ; or under the form of infusion, tinc- 
 ture, or boluses. 
 
 MATUEA'TIOIT. Growing ripe. Amongst 
 surgeons this term is applied to the process of 
 suppuration, or that which succeeds inflamma- 
 tion, and by which pus or matter is collected 
 in an abscess. Warmth, irritation, and a 
 liberal diet promote this change; cold, seda- 
 
1036 
 
 MEAD— MEASURE 
 
 tives, and depletion, retard it. The maturation 
 of fermented liquor is noticed under BfiEWiN a, 
 MAtT LiQUOES, Wines, &o. 
 
 MEAD. Syn. Mellina, L. An old English 
 liquor, made from the combs from which the 
 honey has been drained, by boiling them in 
 water, and fermenting the saccharine solution 
 thus obtained. It is commonly confounded 
 with metheglin. Some persons add 1 oz. of 
 hops to each gallon ; and, after fermentation, a 
 little brandy. It is then called sack mead, 
 See METHEaLiN. 
 
 JIEAIi. The substance of edible grain ground 
 to powder, without being bolted or sifred. 
 Barley meal and oat meal are the common 
 substances of this cIbss in England. In North 
 America the term is commonly applied to 
 ground Indian corn, whether bolted or not. 
 (Goodrich.) The four resolvent meals of old 
 pharmacy {quatuor farina resolventes) are 
 those of barley, beans, linseed, and rye. 
 
 HEALS. The "periods of taking food, 
 usually adapted, in conformity with conveni- 
 ence and the recurrences of hunger, are those 
 which are best adapted to the purposes of 
 health ; namely, the morning meal, the midday 
 meal, and the evening meal." " That these 
 are the proper periods for meals is evident 
 from the fact of their maintaining their place 
 amid the changes which fashion is constantly 
 Introducing." " If we look at these periods in 
 another point of view, we shall find an interval 
 of four hours left between them for the act of 
 digestion and subsequent rest of the stomach. 
 Digestion will claim between two and three 
 hours of the interval; the remaining hour is 
 all that the stomach gets of rest, enough, per- 
 haps, but not too much, not to be justly in- 
 fringed." (Eras. Wilson.) 
 
 HEA'SLES. Syn. Rubeola, Moeeilei, L. 
 
 This very common disease is characterised by 
 feverishness, chilliness, shivering, head-pains, 
 
 swelling and inflammation of the eyes, shed- 
 ding of sharp tears, with painful sensibility 
 to light, oppressive cough, difficulty of breath- 
 ing, and sometimes vomiting or diarrhoea. 
 These are followed about the fourth day by a 
 crimson rash upon the skin, in irregular cres- 
 cents or circles, and by small red points or 
 spots, which are perceptible to the touch, and 
 which, after four or five days, go off with des- 
 quamation of the cuticle. The fever, cough, 
 &c., often continue for some time; and unless 
 there have been some considerable evacuations, 
 either by perspiration or vomiting, fcbey fre- 
 quently return with increased violence, and 
 occasion great distress and danger. 
 
 Treat, When there are no urgent local 
 symptoms, mild aperients, antimonial diapho- 
 retics, and diluents, shonld be had recourse to; 
 but when the Inflammatory symptoms are 
 emergent, and the lungs are weak, especially 
 in plethoric habits, blood may be taken. The 
 cough may he relieved by expectorants, demul- 
 cents, and small doses of opium ; and the diar- 
 rhoea by the administration of the compound 
 powder of chalk and opium ; the looseness of 
 the bowels, however, had better not be inter- 
 fered with, unless it be extreme. 
 
 Measles are most prevalent in the middle of 
 winter, and though common to individuals of 
 all ages, are most frequent amongst children. 
 The plethoric, and those of a scrofulous habit, 
 or one which has a syphilitic taint, suffer most 
 from them. 
 
 Like the smallpox, the measles are conta- 
 gious, and seldom attack the same person more 
 than once during life. See Rash 
 
 MEASURE. Syn. Mehsttka, L. The unit 
 or standard by which we estimate extension, 
 whether of length, superficies, or volume. 
 The following tables represent the values and 
 proportions of the principal measures employed 
 in commerce and the arts :— 
 
 
 Table I. English Lineal Measures. 
 
 
 Incites. 
 
 i'eet. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 FuTlongB. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1- 
 
 •083 
 
 •028 
 
 ■00505 
 
 •00012626 
 
 •0000157828 
 
 12- 
 
 1- 
 
 •333 
 
 •06060 
 
 •00151515 
 
 •00018939 
 
 36- 
 
 3- 
 
 1- 
 
 •1818 
 
 •004515 
 
 •00056818 
 
 198- 
 
 16-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 !• 
 
 •025 
 
 •003125 
 
 7920- 
 
 660- 
 
 220- 
 
 40^ 
 
 !• 
 
 •125 
 
 63360- 
 
 5280- 
 
 1760- 
 
 320^ 
 
 8^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 •** The unit of the above table is the yard, of which no legal standard has existed since 
 that established by the statute of 1824 was destroyed by the fire which consumed the two 
 Houses of Farliameut in 1834. 
 
MEASURE 
 Taois II. Eaglith Meamira of Superficiet. 
 
 1037 
 
 Squire Feat. 
 
 Square Yards. 
 
 Polci. 
 
 Kooda. 
 
 Acre*. 
 
 1^ 
 
 9- 
 272-25 
 10890- 
 43560- 
 
 •1111 
 1- 
 
 80-25 
 1210- 
 4840- 
 
 •00367309 
 •0330579 
 1- 
 40- 
 160- 
 
 •000091827 
 •000826448 
 •025 
 
 1^ . 
 
 4^ 
 
 •000022957 
 •000206612 
 •00625 
 •25 
 1^ 
 
 TlBlB III. English Measure of Volume. — The Ihpebial Standabd, and the relative value 
 of its divisions, including those used in Medicine, milk their eqcitalehtb «» avoirdupois 
 and troy weight. 
 
 in 
 
 «^ 
 
 f3 
 
 0. 
 
 Oij. 
 
 c. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Minima 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eqnivnlentj in 
 
 or 
 drops. 
 
 Fluid 
 Drucliiiii. 
 
 Fluid 
 Ouncea. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Pecks. 
 
 Busliels. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 diltlUed tcater, at 
 62" Fnljr., in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Trny 
 
 Avoird 
 
 1- 
 
 -016g6l!66 
 
 -00208333 
 
 •00010416 
 
 •00006-208 
 
 -00001 SOS 
 
 
 
 
 grains. 
 
 wtiglit 
 
 -91146 
 
 
 60- 
 
 1- 
 
 -136 
 
 •00626 
 
 -003126 
 
 -00078125 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 __ 
 
 64 f,S75 
 
 It. or. 
 
 481)- 
 
 8- 
 
 1- 
 
 -05 
 
 -025 
 
 •00026 
 
 ^ 
 
 __ 
 
 _ 
 
 437-6 
 
 1 
 
 9600- 
 
 IfiU- 
 
 20- 
 
 1- 
 
 -6 
 
 -135 
 
 -0625 
 
 -016626 
 
 ■001953125 
 
 876(1- 
 
 1 4 
 
 192()0- 
 
 »20- 
 
 40- 
 
 3" 
 
 1- 
 
 ■35 
 
 -125 
 
 ■03125 
 
 -0U391I625 
 
 17500- 
 
 3 8 
 
 76800 
 
 15»U- 
 
 161)- 
 
 8- 
 
 4- 
 
 1- 
 
 •6 
 
 125 
 
 •OI6G25 " 
 
 70000- 
 
 10 
 
 
 SoOO- 
 
 ,SJO- 
 
 16- 
 
 8- 
 
 3- 
 
 1- 
 
 •35 
 
 -03135 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 1-280- 
 
 64- 
 
 33- 
 
 8- 
 
 4- 
 
 1- 
 
 -126 
 
 _ 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 512- 
 
 256- 
 
 64- 
 
 3.. 
 
 8- 
 
 1- 
 
 — 640 
 
 •#• The standard unit of the above table is the gallon, which is declared, by statute, to be 
 capable of " containing ten pounds avoirdupois weight of distilled water, weighed in the air at 
 the temperature of 62° Fahr., the barometer being at 30 inches." The pound avoirdupois 
 contains 7000 grains, and it is declared that a cubic inch of distilled water, under the above 
 conditions, weighs 252-458 grains ; hence the capacity of the imperial gallon and its divisions 
 are as follows : — 
 
 Imperial gallon = 277-274 cubic inches. 
 
 „ quarts = 69-3185 „ 
 
 „ pint = 34-65925 „ 
 
 Fluid ounce = 1-73296 „ 
 
 „ drachm ■= -21662 „ 
 
 t+t The imperial gallon is l-5th larger than the old wine gallon, — l-60th smaller than the 
 old beer gallon, and — l-32nd larger than the old dry-measure gallon. 
 
 Table IV. French Metrical or Decimal Measures of Length. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Eq, in Metres. 
 
 Equivalents in 
 
 English Inches, at 
 32°falit. 
 
 English Lonf; Measure, at 
 62° FaLr. 
 
 Millimetre . . . 
 CeDlimetre . . . 
 D^cim^tre . . . 
 
 Metre 
 
 DecumMre . . . 
 Huctometro • • . 
 Kilometre . , . 
 Myrianiitre . . . 
 
 •001 
 •01 
 •1 
 1^ • 
 10^ 
 100^ 
 1000^ 
 10000- 
 
 . . -03937 
 . . -39371 
 . . 3-93708 
 . . 39-37079 
 .' . 393-70790 
 . . 3937-07900 
 . . 39370-79000 
 . 393707-90000 
 
 Miles, l-ur. Ids. Feet. Inch. 
 
 1 3-37 
 10 2 9-7 
 109 1 1078 
 4 213 1 10-3 
 6 1 156 9-17 
 
 •«• The standard unit of the above table is the mfetre, which has been determined to be 
 89-37079 ioclics. at 32° Fahr. (Capt. Kater) ; the English foot is taken at 62" Fahr. The true 
 length of the m^tre, reduced to the latter temperature, is 89-370091 English inches ; a number 
 
1038 
 
 MEAT 
 
 which varies from that in the table only at the fourth decimal figure. It will be perceived 
 that the principle of nomenclature adopted in applying the names, was to prefix the Greek 
 numerals to the decimal maltiples, and the Latin numerals to the decimal subdivisions. 
 
 
 Table V. French Mefrical or Decimal Measures of Volume. 
 
 
 Names. 
 
 Eq. in Litre,. ^I' '" ^S '''•''"= 
 
 Equivalent in Engliaii Measures. 
 
 
 
 
 GttU. Fiats. 0». Dr. 
 
 Minims. 
 
 Millilitre .... 
 
 ■001 
 
 •0610 
 
 
 16-9 
 
 Centilitre . 
 
 
 
 •01 
 
 •6103 
 
 2 
 
 49- 
 
 Decilitre . 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 61028 
 
 3 4 
 
 10-36 
 
 Litre . . 
 
 
 
 1- 
 
 61-028 
 
 1 15 1 
 
 43-69 
 
 Decalitre . 
 
 
 
 10- 
 
 . 610-28 
 
 2 1 12 1 
 
 16-9 
 
 Hectolitre 
 
 
 
 100- 
 
 . 6102-8 
 
 22 1 4 
 
 49- 
 
 Kilolitre . 
 
 
 
 1000- 
 
 . 61028- 
 
 220 16 6 
 
 40- 
 
 Myrialitre 
 
 
 
 10000- 
 
 .610280- 
 
 2201 (= 2754 busheh). 
 
 
 *,* The standard unit in the above table is the litre, or the cube of the t'j of a mfetre. Tlie 
 French centiare contains 1 square m^tre, — the are, 100 do., — the hectare, 10,000 do. The old 
 Paris piiit is equal to 1-678 English imperial pint. 
 
 ■^+t The capacity of solids and aeriform fluids is taken in cubic inches, or feet, in England. 
 In France, the stere, or m^ti-e cube, equal to 35-31658 English cubic feet, is the standard unit. 
 
 Table VI. Miscellaneous Measures and their Equivalents t 
 
 Tea or coffee spoonful 
 Dessert „ . 
 
 Table „ . 
 
 Wine-glassful . 
 Tea-cupful . . 
 Breakfast-cupful 
 Tumblerful . . . 
 Basiuful .... 
 Thimbleful 
 
 Pinch (of leaves and flowers) 
 Handful „ „ 
 
 Cubic inch of water, at 62° Fahr, 
 „ foot „ „ 
 
 Line 
 
 Barleycorn 
 Hand 
 Chain . 
 
 (average) = 
 
 1 fl. dr. 
 
 2 „ 
 
 4 „ 
 
 2 fl. oz. 
 
 5 ,. 
 8 .. 
 8 „ 
 
 12 „ 
 
 ifl. dr. 
 
 Idr. 
 
 10 „ 
 252-458 gr. 
 62-32106 lb. 
 
 : inch. 
 
 = 4 poles or 22 yards. 
 
 MEAT. The muscular tissue or flesh of the 
 principal animals constituting the food of 
 man may be said to be composed of the same 
 proximate principles, and, given an equal 
 digestibility and power of being assimilated, 
 may be also said to have au equally nutritive 
 value. 
 
 Since meat, however, is generally eaten with 
 a certain amount of fat, which accompanies it 
 in varying quantity, the capacity of the meat 
 for forming muscle will, of course, be in 
 inverse proportion to the amount of fat it 
 contains; on the contrary, its power of raising 
 the bodily temperature will be in direct pro- 
 portion. Moleschott (quoted by Parkes) gives 
 the following as the mean composition of 
 fresh beef, as determined by all the Conti- 
 nental chemists : — 
 
 Water . " . . . , 73-4 
 Soluble albumen and hsematin . 2-25 
 
 Insoluble albuminous substances 15-20 
 Gelatinous substances . . 3'30 
 
 Fat 2-87 
 
 Extractive matter . . . 1-38 
 
 Creatiu 0-068 
 
 Ash 1-6 
 
 Dr Parkes remarks of the amount of fat 
 given in the above analysis " that it is evi- 
 dently too low. 
 
 In the above table we recognise in the albu- 
 minous and gelatinous substances the source 
 of the muscular tissue of the human organism. 
 The ash contains the chlorides, carbonates, 
 and phosphates of potassium, sodium, and 
 calcium. From these salts are derived the 
 
MEAT 
 
 1039 
 
 hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, the so- 
 dium of the bile, and the calcium phosphate 
 and carbonate of the skeleton. Iron is also 
 present, and this finds its way into the blood. 
 
 The flavour of meat is much inftiienced by 
 the food of tlie animal. The flesh of the 
 Pampas pig is found to be rank and disagree- 
 able when the animal is killed in its wild state ; 
 il', however, the food be changed for the better, 
 the flesh becomes altogether different and 
 quite eatable. The pork of pigs fed on flesh 
 is said to give off a strong odour, the fab at 
 the same time being unusually soft. Soft fat 
 is also said to form in animals that have been 
 fed on oily foods. 
 
 When meat is roasted, the fire gradually 
 coagulates the albumen of the joint, the coagu- 
 lation commencing at the surface, and spread- 
 ing by degrees to the interior. Unless the 
 roasting be continued long enough, sufficient 
 heat will not reach the parts nearest the centre 
 to eflect their coagulation ; and it' under these 
 circumstances the meat be removed from the 
 fire, the uncoagulated or inner parts will pre- 
 sent the well-known red and juicy appearance 
 known as ' underdone.' Although a certain 
 quantity of the gravy (which consists of the 
 soluble and saline ingredients) escapes in the 
 process, the greater part is retained. The 
 brown agieeably sapid substance formed on 
 the outside of the nio.vt is known as osmozome, 
 and which is concentrated gravy. The melting 
 fat which collects below forms the dripping. 
 The loss in the meat is principally water. 
 
 The chemical effects of boiling are explained 
 under the article devoted to that sulyect. 
 
 Meat generally loses from 30 to 40 per cent., 
 and sometimes as much as 60 per cent, in 
 weight, by cooking. 
 
 Tiie amount of hone varies, being seldom 
 lees than 8 per cent. It amounts in the neck 
 and brisket to about 10 per cent, and from one 
 third to sometimes half the total weight in 
 shins and legs of beef. 
 
 The most economical parts are the round 
 and thick flank, next to these the brisket and 
 stickiog-piece, and lastly, the leg. 
 
 In choosing mutton and pork, selection 
 should be made of tlie leg, after this of the 
 shoulder.' 
 
 " Oxen," says M. Bizet, "yield of best qua- 
 lity beef 57 per cent, of meat, and 43 per cent. 
 \NHste. The waste includes the internal vis- 
 cera, &c. Second quaUty of beef, 54 per cent, 
 meat and 46 per cent, waste; third quality 
 beef, 51 per cent, meat and 49 per cent, waste. 
 In milking-cows, 46 per cent, meat and 54 
 per cent, waste. Calves yield 60 per cent, 
 meat, and 40 per cent, loss ; and sheep yield 
 50 per cent, meat, and 50 per cent, loss." Dr 
 Parkes differs from Bizet as to the latter's 
 value of the ment of the calf. He says the 
 flesh of young animals loses from 40 to 50 
 per cent, in cooking. 
 
 It seems to be agreed, however, that animals 
 * Letlifby. 
 
 when slaughtered shonid be neither too young 
 nor too old. The flesh of young animals, 
 although more tender, is less digestible than 
 that of older ones ; it is also poorer in salts, 
 fat, aud an albuminous substance called ayn- 
 tonin. 
 
 Consumption of Heat. Dr Letheby, writing 
 in 1868, says that in London "the indoor opera- 
 tives eat it to the extent of 14"8 oz. per adult 
 weekly ; 70 per cent, of English farm labourers 
 consume it, and to the extent of 16 oz. per man 
 weekly j 60 per cent, of the Scotch, 30 of the 
 Welsh, and 20 of the Irish also eat it. The 
 Scotch probably have a larger allowance than 
 the English, considering that braxy mutton^ is 
 the perquisite of the Scotch labourer ; but the 
 Welsh have only an average amount of 2 J 
 oz. per adult weekly j and the Irish allowance 
 is still less. It is difficult to obtain accurate 
 returns of the quantity of meat consumed in 
 Loudon; but if the computation of Ur 
 Wynter is correct, it is not less than SOJ oz. 
 per head weekly, or about 4i oz. per day for 
 every man, woman, and child. In Paris, ac- 
 cording to M. Armand Husson, who has 
 carefully collected the octroi returns, " it is 
 rather more than 49 oz. per head weekly, or 
 just 7 oz. a day." Bondin states that through- 
 out France the consumption is about 50 
 grammes daily, or under If oz. 
 
 Dr Letheby, in his work ' On Food,' gives 
 the following as the characteristics of good 
 meat : — 
 
 " 1st. It is neither of a pale pink colour nor 
 of a deep purple tint, for the former is a sign 
 of disease, and the latter indicates that the 
 animal has not been slaughtered, but has died 
 with the blood in it, or has suffered from acute 
 fever. 
 
 "2nd. It has a marked appearance from the 
 ramifications of little veins of fat among the 
 muscles. 
 
 " 3rd. It should be firm and elastic to the 
 touch, and should scarcely moisten tlie fingers 
 — bad meat being wet, and sodden and flabby, 
 with the fat looking like jelly or wet parch- 
 ment. 
 
 " 4th. It should have little or no odour, and 
 the odour should not be disagreeable, for dis- 
 eased meat has a sickly cadaverous smell, and 
 sometimes a smell of physic. Tliis is very dis- 
 coverable when the meat is chopped up and 
 drenched with warm water. 
 
 "5tli. It shonid not shrink or waste much 
 in cooking. 
 
 " 6lh. It should not run to water, or become 
 very wet on standing for a day or so, but 
 should, on the contrary, dry upou the surface.^ 
 
 " 7th. When dried at a tempevature of 212" 
 or thereabout, it should not lose more than 
 from 70 to 74 per cent, of its weight, whereas 
 bad meat will often lose as much as 80 per 
 
 cent. „ J , 
 
 " Other properties of a more refined ctia- 
 racter will also serve for the recognition of bad 
 ' See further on. 
 
1040 
 
 MEAT 
 
 meat, as that the juice of the flesh is alkaline 
 or neutral to test-paper, instead o{ being dis- 
 tinctly acid, and the muscular fibre, when ex- 
 amined under the microscope is found to be 
 sodden and ill-defined." 
 
 Unsound meat — diseased meat. Dr Letheby , 
 in his ' Lectures on Food,' published in 1868, 
 states that the seizure and condemnation, in 
 London, of meat unfit for human food, during 
 a period extending over seven years, amounted 
 to 700 tons per annum, or to about l-750th of 
 the whole quantity consumed. These 700 tons 
 he dissects into lbs. as follows : — " 805,653 lbs. 
 were diseased, 568,375 lbs. were putrid, and 
 193,782 lbs. were from animals that had not 
 been slaughtered, but had died from accident 
 or disease. It consisted of 6640 sheep and 
 lambs, 1025 calves, 2896 pigs, 9104 quarters of 
 beef, and 21,976 joints of meat." 
 
 He admits, however, that this amount, 
 owing to the difficulties and Inefficiency of the 
 mode of supervision, bears a very insignificant 
 proportion to the actual quantity which escaped 
 detection, and which was, therefore, partaken 
 of as food. Professor G»mgee says that one 
 fifth of the meat eaten in tlie metropolis is 
 diseased. In 1863 the bodies of an enormous 
 number of animals suffering from rinderpest, 
 as well as from pleuro-pneumonia, were con- 
 sumed in London ; and we know that thou- 
 sands of sheep die every year, in the country, 
 of rot; the inference from which latter fact is 
 that, since the carcases are neither eaten there 
 nor buried on the spot, they are sent up to, and 
 thrown upon, the London markets. The worst 
 specimens find their way to the poorer neigh- 
 bourhoods, where, as might be expected, their 
 low price ensures a ready sale for them. These 
 sales, it is said, mostly take place at night. 
 
 The above statements, which, if we exclude 
 Professor Gamgee's figures, do not solve the 
 problem as to the quantity of unsound meat con- 
 sumed in London, not unreasonably justify the 
 assumption that it is very considerable ; and 
 this being admitted, we should be prepared to 
 learn that it was a fertile source of disease of 
 a more or less dangerous character. 
 
 There is, however, such extensive divergence 
 in the various data bearing upon this point, 
 that no satisfactory solution of it can be said 
 to be afforded. Thus, Livingstone states that, 
 when in South Africa, he found that neither 
 Englishmen nor natives could partake of the 
 flesh of animals affected with pleuro-pneumonia 
 without its giving rise to malignant carbuncle, 
 and sometimes, in the case of the natives, to 
 death, and Dr Letheby attributes the in 
 creased number of carbuncles and phlegmons 
 amongst our population to the importation 
 from Holland of cattle suffering from the 
 same disease. On tlie contrary, Dr Parkes 
 says he was informed, on excellent autliority 
 that the CafEres invariably consume the flesl: 
 of their cattle that die of the same epidemic, 
 without tlie prodnction of any ill effects. 
 Ag.iu, there are numerous well-attested cases 
 
 in which the flesh of sheep which have died 
 from hraxy (a disease that makes great 
 ravages amongst the flocks in Scotland) is con- 
 stantly eaten without injurious results by the 
 Scotch shepherd. The malady causes death in 
 the sheep from the blood coagulating in the 
 vital organs, and the sheep that so dies becomes 
 the property of the shepherd, who, after re- 
 moving the offal, is careful to cut out the dark 
 congealed blood before cooking it.' Sometimes 
 he salts down the carcase. In cases, however, 
 where thorough cooking or an observance of 
 the above precautions have been neglected, 
 very dangerous and disastrous consequences 
 have ensued. During the late siege of Paris 
 large quantities of the flesh of horses with 
 glanders appear to have been eaten with no 
 evil consequences : and Mr Blyth, in his ' Dic- 
 tionary of Hygifene,' quotes a similar case from 
 Tardieu, who states that 300 army horses 
 affected with glanders (morve) were led to 
 St Germain, near Paris, and killed. For several 
 days they served to feed the poor of the town 
 without causing any injury to health. 
 
 A similar exemption from any evil effect 
 following the consumption of diseased flesh 
 is recorded by Professor Brucke, of Vienna. 
 
 Not many years since the cattle of a locality 
 in Bohemia, being attacked by rinderpest, were 
 ordered by the Government to be slaughtered, 
 after which they were buried. The poor 
 people dug up the diseased carcases, cooked 
 the meat, and ate it, with no injurious 
 result. 
 
 Parent Duchitelet cites a case where the 
 flesh of seven cows attacked with rabies was 
 eaten without injury ; and Letheby states that 
 pigs with scarlet fever and spotted typhus 
 have been used for food with equally harmless 
 results. The flesh of sheep with smallpox had 
 been found to produce vomiting and diarrhoea, 
 sometimes accompanied with fever. 
 
 One obvious suggestion of the immunity 
 from disease recorded in part of the cases above 
 given is that the injurious properties of the 
 flesh had been destroyed by the heat to which 
 it had been subjected in the process of cook- 
 ing, combined with the antiseptic and protec- 
 tive power of tlie gastric juice. The subject, 
 however, has not been sufficiently examined 
 to warrant the conclusion that every kind of 
 unsound meat niny be rendered innocuous by 
 culinary means. 
 
 But even were this so the idea of partaking 
 of meat which had once been unsound, from 
 whatever cause, and, as in the instances above 
 quoted, with the pustules of smallpox, the 
 spots generated by typhus, and the rash of 
 scarlet fever upon it, becomes unspeakably re- 
 pulsive and revolting. But we must not be 
 misled because of the difficulty of reconciling 
 the contradictory statements above given, nor 
 by the evidence some of them appear to afford 
 as to the innocuous character of diseased meat, 
 since it is just possible that closer and more 
 1 Letheby. 
 
MEAT 
 
 1041 
 
 prolongpil observation of the facts may have 
 led to diflVi'unt conclusiooa, Tlius, lor ex- 
 aiapte, pork, iiifpsted with that formidable 
 I'lituzouii, the Trichina firalit, had been par- 
 taken of for years, under the impress on that 
 it WHS a perfectly healthy food, until Ur 
 Zencker, of Dresden, diKcovered that the para- 
 site was the cau^e of a frightful disease, which 
 he called Triohinoaia, and which had hitherto 
 baffled all attempts to find out its origin. Dr 
 Lctheby, writing on this subject, says ; " I have 
 often iiad occasion to investigate cases of mys- 
 terious disease, which had undoubtedly been 
 caused by unsound meat. One of these, of 
 more than ordinary interest, occurred in the 
 month of November, 1860. The history of it 
 is this : — A forcquarter of cow-beef was pur- 
 chased in NcH-gate Market by a sausirge- 
 maker who lived in Kingsland, and who im- 
 mediutt'ly converted it into sausage-meat. 
 Sixty-six persons were known to have eaten of 
 that meat, and sixty-four of them were at- 
 tacked with sickness, diarrhoea, and great 
 prostration of vital powers. One of them 
 died ; and at the request of the coroner I made 
 a searching inquiry into the matter, and I 
 ascertained that the meat was diseased, and 
 that it, and it alone, had boeif the cause of all 
 the mischief."' 
 
 Here are two instances in which but for 
 subsequent investigation the evil effects nar- 
 rated would nut have been debited to dis- 
 eased meat, but to some other cause. 
 
 One of the principal and by far the most 
 prolific sources of food-poisoning is the sausage, 
 the eating of which, in Germany more pur- 
 ticularly, has caused the death of a numbei' of 
 persona. 
 
 The sausages in which these poisonous 
 qualities occasionally develop themselves are 
 the largo kinds made in Wurtemburg, in 
 which district alone they have caused the 
 deaths of more than 150 out of 400 persons 
 during the last fifty years. The poisonous 
 character of the sausage is said to develop 
 itself generally in the spring, when it becomes 
 musty, and also soft in the interior. It is 
 then found to be acid to test paper, and to 
 have a very disagreeable and tainted flavour. 
 
 Should it be eaten when in this state, after 
 from about twelve to twenty-four hours the 
 patient is attacked with severe intestinal 
 irritation in the form of pains in the stomach 
 and bowels by vomitings, and diarrhoea. 
 
 To these symptoms succeed great depres. 
 Bion, coldness in the limbs, weak and irregular 
 pulse, and frequent fainting fits. •• Should the 
 sufferer be attacked with convulsions, and 
 difficult respiration, the seizure generally ends 
 in dentil. The nature of the poisonous sub- 
 stance that gives rise to these effects in the 
 sausage has not yet been determined. Liebig 
 believed them to be due to the presence in the 
 meat of a particular animal ferment, which 
 he conceived acted on the blood by catalysis, 
 
 * Letheby, ' Lectures on Food,' LongniAii sad Co. 
 TOL. U. 
 
 and thus rendered it diseased. Others have 
 surmised that a poisonous orgardc alkaloid 
 may have been produced in the decaying meat; 
 and others again that the effects may have 
 been caused by some deleterious substance of 
 a fatty nature. M. Van den Corput was of 
 opinion that the mischief was due to the pre- 
 sence in the meat of a poisonous fungns, 
 which he calls a aarcina botulina. This hist 
 theory receives support from the fact that a 
 peculiar mouldiness is always to be observed 
 in these dangerous sausages, and that this is 
 coincident with the development of their poi- 
 sonous qualities. 
 
 Several effects have been produced by other 
 kinds of animal food — as veal, bacon, ham, 
 salt-beef, salt-fish, cheese, &c., and the food 
 has usually been in a decayed and mouldy con- 
 dition. It would be tedious if I were to detail, 
 or even to enumerate the eases recorded by 
 medico-legal writers ; but I may perhaps refer 
 to a few of them. In 1839 there was a popu- 
 lar f^te at Zurich, and abuut 600 persons par- 
 took of a repast of cold roast veal and ham. 
 In a few hours most of them were suffering 
 from pain in the stomach, with vomiting and 
 diarrhoea ; and before a week had elapsed 
 nearly all of them were seriously ill in bed. 
 They complained of shiverings, giddiness, 
 headache and burning fever. In a few cases 
 there was delirium, and when they teiminated 
 fatally there was extreme prostration of the 
 vital powers. Careful inquiry was instituted 
 into the matter, and the only discoverable 
 cause of the mischief was incipient putrefac- 
 tion and slight mouldiness of the meat." A 
 case is recorded by Dr Geisler of eight persons 
 who became ill from eating bacon which was 
 mouldy ; and another by 5l. OUivier of the 
 death of four persons out of eight, all of 
 whom had partaken of partially decomposed 
 mutton. 
 
 If some of the foregoing statements fail to 
 demonstrate that the act of partaking of 
 diseased meat is a necessary source of danger 
 to health, there can be no such doubt as to 
 the pernicious and perilous consequences 
 which ensue when meat is consumed contain- 
 ing in its tissues the ova and larvse of certain 
 parasitic creatures. If the fleshy part of a 
 piece of measly pork be carefully examined, it 
 will be found to be more or less dotted about 
 with a number of little bladder-like spots, in 
 size about as large as a hemp-seed.^ 
 
 If now we carefully rupture one of these 
 little bodies or cysts, there will be found in it 
 a minute worm, which under the microscope 
 will be seen to have a head from which pro- 
 ceed a number of little hooks that perform a 
 very disagreeable office should the parasite 
 be taken into the human stomach by any one 
 making a meal oft' measly and undercooked 
 pork. For, then, being liberated from its sac, 
 or nidus, by the action of the gastric juice of 
 the stomach on this latter, the creature passes 
 > See article " Cjsticerci." 
 
 66 
 
1042 
 
 MEAT 
 
 into the intestines. To these it attaches itself 
 by means of the booklets on its head, and 
 instantly becomes a tupevvorm.wbicti grows by 
 a succession of jointed segments it is able to 
 develop, and each one of which is capable of 
 becoming a separate and prolific tapeworm 
 filled with countless eggs. 
 
 These eggs reach the land through the 
 agency of manure (for they are found in the 
 intestines of the horse), and from this source 
 they get into the stomachs of pigs and oxen, 
 where they hatch not into tapeworm, or tenia, 
 but, travelling through the animal's stomach, 
 burrow into its muscular tissue. Here they 
 establish and envelop themselves in the little 
 cyst or small bladder-lilie substance, whose 
 presence, as explained, constitutes the condi- 
 tion called " measly" pork, and here they 
 remain dormant until such time as, taken into 
 the stomach, they may again become tape* 
 worms, to be again expelled and to perpetuate 
 by their ova the round of metamorphosis. 
 From the circumstance of their being met 
 with enclosed in little sacs or cysts, these 
 parasites have been termed Cysticerci. The 
 variety of them we have just been considering 
 as occurring in pork is called the Cystieercus 
 eellulosce, whilst the tapeworm to which it 
 gives rise is known as the Tinea solium: 
 
 Another variety of Ch/sticercus is met with 
 in the flesh of the ox, the cow, and the calf. In 
 the human body this also develops into a tape- 
 worm called the Tinea mediocanellata: Tape- 
 worm is a very common disease in Bussia and 
 Abyssinia, and its prevalence is no doubt due 
 to the habit of giving the children in those 
 countries raw meat to suck, under the impres- 
 sion that the child is strengthened in conse- 
 quence. From experiments made by Dr 
 Lewis it was found that a temperature of 
 150° F., maintained for five minutes, was suffi- 
 cient to destroy these cysticerci. 
 
 Another and more formidable entozoon, 
 communicable by unsound meat, is the JEeii- 
 nococcus hominis,^ which represents one of the 
 metamorphoses of the Tinea echinococcus, the 
 tapeworm of the dog. In Iceland, where a 
 sixth of the population are said to suffer from 
 the ravages of the Echinococcus hominis, it is 
 ■the custom to feed the dogs on the flesh of 
 -slaughtered animals affected witli this parasite, 
 which in the body of the dog develops into a 
 tapeworm. The innumerable eggs which the 
 worm produces are, however, incapableof being 
 "hatched in the dog's intestines. They have to 
 find another and more suitable habitat, and 
 tliisas secured for them as follows : — Segments 
 of the tapeworm, with their countless ova, 
 being voided with dog's excrement, fall into 
 ■the running water, and on to the fields and 
 pastures, whence they gain their entrance into 
 the«tomachs of human beings, oxen, and sheep. 
 Hereithe eggs become hatched, not into tape- 
 worms, ihut into JSlcMnococci hominis, or pro- 
 spective tapeworms. Burrowing through the 
 ' ' See article '• Echinococcus hominis." 
 
 membranes of the stomach, the echinococcns 
 establishes itself most commonly in the liver, 
 but not unlrequently in the spleen, heart, 
 lungs, and even the bones of man. In the 
 animal economy they enclose themselves in 
 little sacs or cysts, and give rise to the most 
 alarming and painful diseases, which hitherto 
 have proved incurable. They attack the 
 brain in sheep, and are the cause of the disease 
 known as " staggers." Sheep are also infested 
 by another parasite known as the JDistoma 
 hepatica, the ravages of which give rise in 
 the sheep to that devastating disease — " the 
 rot." The creature is also known by the name 
 of the " liver-fluke," since it principally at- 
 tacks this important organ in the animal. The 
 liver-fluke is of constant occurrence in the 
 livers of diseased sheep, and unless destroyed 
 by thorough, cooking will of course pass into 
 the human economy. Tlie embryo fluke gains 
 admission to the sheep's body through the 
 instrumentality of small snails, to the shells 
 of which it attaches itself. In wet weather the 
 snails crawl over the grass of the meadow 
 which forms the pastures of the sheep, and 
 are swallowed by it. Once in the sheep's 
 stomach the embryo becomes a fluke, and 
 commences its depredations on the animal's 
 liver. After this, the reason why the rot 
 attacks sheep after a continuance of wet 
 weather will be evident. 
 
 The most terrible of all the meat parasites 
 is a minute worm about ^^t^ of an inch long, 
 found in the flesh of pork. This creature, 
 which is named the Trichina spiralis (from the 
 form it assumes when coiled up in the little 
 cyst or capsule which encloses it), when it gets 
 conveyed into the human stomach with impro- 
 perly cooked or underdone pork, soon becomes 
 liberated from its confinement owing to the 
 destruction of its envelope by the gastric 
 juice. Once in the stomach the parasite grows 
 rapidly, giving birth to innumerable young 
 trichincB, which, by first boring through the 
 membranes of the alimentary canal, pierce 
 their way through the different parts of the 
 body into the muscular tissue, where they 
 become encysted, and where they remain until 
 conditions favorable to their liberation again 
 occur. 
 
 Until such time, however, as they have 
 become enclosed in the cyst, their movements 
 give rise to indescribable torture, and to a 
 disease known as trichinosis, of which it has 
 been estimated more than 50 per cent, of those 
 attacked by it die. The symptoms of trichi- 
 nosis commence with loss of appetite, vomit- 
 ing, and diarrhoea, succeeded after a few days 
 by great fever — resembling, according to Dr 
 Aitken, that of typhoid or typhus. As might 
 be expected the pains in the limbs are extreme. 
 Boils and dropsical swellings are not unusual 
 concomitants of the malady. 
 
 Hitherto this frightful disease has been 
 mostly confined to Germany, where there have 
 been several outbreaks of it since its discovery 
 
MEAT, AUSTRALIAN— MEAT EXTRACTS 
 
 1043 
 
 in 1860 by Dr Zenckcr. Feidler says that 
 only free triohina ure killed by a temperRture 
 of 155° P.; and that when they are in their 
 cysts a greater heat may be necessary. From 
 what has been said the importance of efficient 
 cooking muat become manifest. There must 
 always be rifk in underdone pork, whether 
 boiled or roasted. In the pig, the trichina, if 
 present, may always be found in the muscles 
 of the eye. In Germany the makers of pork 
 saa^uges are now said to have these muscles 
 subjected toa microscopicexamination previous 
 to using the meat, which, of course, is rejected 
 if the examination has been unfavorable. 
 
 The tricliinoe, if present in the flesh of pork, 
 may be seen as small round specks by the 
 naked eye, the surrounding flesh itself being 
 rather darker than usual owing to the inflam- 
 mation set up in it. All doubt, however, on 
 this point may be removed by having recourse 
 to the microscope. Dr Parkes says a power 
 of 60 to 100 diameters is sufficient, and that 
 " the best plan is to tiike a thin slice of flesh, 
 put it into liquor potasi^te (1 part to 8 of water), 
 and let it stand for a few minutes till the 
 muscle becoini'S clear; it must not be left too 
 long, otlierwise the trichinsB will be destroyed. 
 Tlie white Specks come out clenrly and the 
 worm will be seen coiled up. If the capsule 
 is too dense to allow tiie worm to be seen, a 
 drop or two of weak hydrochloric acid should 
 be added. If the meat be very fat a little 
 etiier or benzine may be put on it iu the first 
 place." 
 
 Legislation relative to meat inspection and 
 seizure. — The law recognising the importance 
 of the supply of pure and wholesome meat 
 gives considerable powers to the difl!erent sani- 
 tnry oflicers who are appointed to inspect it. 
 See Food, Inspkctiok of. 
 
 MEAT, AUSTRALIAN. See Meat pre- 
 
 SEEVINO. 
 
 MEAT BISCUITS. Prep. 1. The flour is 
 mixed up with a rich fluid extract of meat, 
 and the dough is cut into pieces and baked in 
 the usual manner. 
 
 2. Whoaten flour (or preferably the whole 
 meal), 8 parts ; fresh lean beef or other flesh 
 (minced and pulped), 2 parts; thorouglily in- 
 corporate the two by hand-kneading or ma- 
 chinery, and bake the pieces in a moderately 
 heated oven. Both the above are very nutri- 
 tious ; the last more especially so, 1 oz. makes 
 a pint of good soup. 
 
 MEAT, COLO, to Stew. Let the cold meat be 
 cut into slices about half an inch thick. Take 
 two large-sized onions, and fry them in a wine- 
 glass of vlnei^arj when done, pour them on to 
 the meat; then place the whole in a stewpan, 
 and pour over sufficient water to cover it. 
 After stewing about half an hour add sufficient 
 flour and butter to thicken the gravy, and also 
 pepper, salt, and ketchup, to flavour ; then let 
 it simmer gently for another lialf an hour. 
 St'rve up with a little boiled rice around it. 
 
 MEAT EXTRACTS. Some preparations of 
 
 this nature have been already noticed under 
 the heads Essence and Exteact ; the follow- 
 ing are additional and highly valuable for- 
 mulse: — 
 
 Prep. 1. (Dr Breslan.) Young ox-flesh 
 (free from fat) is minted small, and well 
 beaten in a marble mortar, at flrat alone, and 
 afterwards with a little cold or lukewarm 
 water; the whole is then submitted to the 
 action of a press, and the solid residuum is 
 treated in the same manner, with a little more 
 cold water; the juice (reddish in colour) is 
 now heated to coagulate the albumen, strained, 
 and finally evaporated in a wiiter b-ith to the 
 consistence of an extract. As ordinary flish 
 contains only 1« of kreatine, while that of the 
 heart, according to Dr Gregory, contains from 
 l'87g to 1'415, this is the part employed by 
 Dr Breslan. The product possesses an agree- 
 able odour and taste ; and is easily soluble in 
 water. 
 
 2. (Falkland.) Fresh lean beef (or other 
 flesh), recently killed, is minced very fine, and 
 digested, with agitation, in cold water, 1 pint, 
 to which hydrochloric acid, 6 drop-j, and com- 
 mon salt, 1 dr., Iiave been added ; after about 
 an hour the whnlc is thrown upon a fine huir 
 sieve, and the liquid jiortion allowed to drain 
 oft without pressure, the first portions that 
 pass through being returned until the fluid, at 
 first turbid, becomes quite clear and trans- 
 parent ; when all the liquid has passed through, 
 cold Wiiter, J pint, is gently poured on, in 
 small portions at a time, and allowed to drain 
 throngh into that previou^ly collected. The 
 product is about } pint of cold extract of flesh, 
 having a red colour, and a pleasant, soup-like 
 taste. It is administered cold to the invalid — 
 a teacupf ul at a time, and must on no account 
 be warmed, as the application of ev.n a very 
 slight heat causes its decomposition and the 
 separation of a solid mass of coagulated albu- 
 men. This cold extract of flesli is not only 
 much more nutritious than ordinary beef tea, 
 but also contains a certain quantity of the red 
 colouring matter of blood, in which there is a 
 much larger proportion of the iron req\iisite for 
 the formation of blood-particles. The li\dro- 
 chloric acid also greatly facilitates the process 
 of digestion. This formula is a modification of 
 the one recently roeonimended by Liebig for 
 the preparation of n highly nutritive and 
 restorative food for invalids. 
 
 3. (ExTRACTrM Sanqtiinis botib— Dr 
 Mauthner.) Pass fresh blood (caught from 
 the slaughtered animal) through a sieve, 
 evaporate it to dryness in a water bath, and 
 when cold rub it to powder. — Dose, 10 to 20 
 gr., or more, per diem, in a little water. 
 
 Obs. The above preparations are intended 
 to supersede the inefficient compounds— beef 
 tea, meat soups, &c. — during sickness and con- 
 valescence. JIM. Bicslau and Mauthner de- 
 scribe their extracts of flesh and blood as 
 being peculi:irly advantageous in scrofulous 
 exhaustion, exhaustion from ansemia, diar- 
 
1044 
 
 MEAT 
 
 rhoea, &c. The extract of Falkland or Liebig 
 is represented as having been employed both 
 in the hospitals and in private practice at 
 Munich with the most extraordinary success. 
 It is said to be capable of assixnilation with 
 the least possible expenditure of the vital force. 
 
 Meat, Fluid. This preparation consists of 
 lean meat, in which the albumen has been 
 changed so as to be non-coagulable by heat, 
 and the fibrin and gelatin from their normal 
 insoluble condition to one admitting of their 
 being dissolved in water. 
 
 lu tliis soluble condition, the first stage 
 effected in stomach digestion, the several bodies 
 are known as peptones or albuminose, and the 
 proportion of their simple constituents remains 
 the same as in ordinary fibrin, albumen, and 
 gelatin. 
 
 The alteration is effected by finely mincing 
 meat and digesting it with peptone, hydro- 
 chloric acid, and water, at a temperature of 
 about 100° Fahr., until dissolved. 
 
 The solution is then filtered, the bitter prin- 
 ciple, formed during the digestion, removed by 
 the addition of a little pancreatic emulsion, 
 and the liquor, which has been neutralised by 
 the addition of carbonate of soda, evaporated 
 to a thick syrup or extractive consistence. 
 
 Fluid meat is the only preparation which 
 entirely represents, and yields the amount of 
 nourishment afforded by, lean meat ; it differs 
 altogether from beef tea and extracts of meat, 
 as all these contain only a small portion of 
 the different constituents of meat. A patent 
 has been granted to its inventor, Mr Darby. 
 
 Meat, Liebig's Extract of. Syn. Extkaot 
 OF Flesh, Exteaotum cakno. This prepa- 
 ration is an aqueous infusion evaporated to 
 the consistence of a thick paste, of those prin- 
 ciples of meat which are soluble in water.' 
 
 It is chiefly composed of alkaline phosphates 
 and chlorides, a nitrogenous crystalline base 
 known as kreatine, various extractive matters, 
 which it has been surmised may have origi- 
 nated in the decomposition of certain nitro- 
 genous bodies, and possibly of a small quantity 
 of lactic acid, as it contains neither albumen 
 nor fibrin, two of the most important and 
 nutritious ingredients of fiesh ; it must not, 
 therefore, be regarded as a concentrated form 
 of meat. Liebig says that it requires 34 lbs. 
 of meat to yield 1 lb. of this extract — a 
 statement which, as Dr Pavy justly remarks, 
 shows how completely the substance of the 
 meat which constitutes its real nutritive por- 
 tion must be excluded. This absence of direct 
 nutrient power, now admitted by physiologists, 
 whilst disqualifying the extract as a sub- 
 stitute for meat, does not, however, preclude its 
 use in certain cases of indisposition requiring 
 the administration of a stimulant or restora- 
 tive, in which circumstances it has been found 
 a useful and valuable remedy, and has been 
 suggested as a partial substitute for brandy 
 
 ' " Altered as they te by the Application of Heat." 
 Deane and Brady, ■ Fharmaceutical tfournal,' Oct. 1866. 
 
 where there is considerable exhaustion or 
 weakness, accompanied with cerebral depres- 
 sion and lowness of spirits. In this latter 
 respect its action seems analogous to strong 
 tea. 
 
 In the vast pastures of Australia and the 
 pampas of South America are countless herds 
 of oxen and sheep, whose numbers far exceed 
 the food requirements of the comparatively 
 sparse population of those districts. The fat, 
 horns, hoofs, bones, skins, and wool of these 
 cattle, which form the chief part of the wealth 
 of those countries, are exported principally to 
 Europe. Until within a few years, however, 
 no means had been adopted for the utilisation 
 of the superfluous flesh of the animals, beyond 
 employing it as a manure. By manufacturing 
 it, however, into " extract of meat," this waste 
 has been remedied, and immense works for 
 its preparation are now erected both in South 
 America and in Australia. The process fol- 
 lowed by the different makers, although vary- 
 ing in some particulars, is essentially the same, 
 and consists in extracting by water, either hot, 
 cold, or in the form of the steam, those portions 
 of the meat which are soluble in that fluid, and 
 subsequently evaporating the solution so ob- 
 tained until it becomes of a proper consistence 
 to be put into jars. The extract so obtained 
 keeps well (if all the fat and gelatin are, re- 
 moved), and is most conveniently adapted for 
 exportation. It is said that the extract as 
 being obtained from cattle that have had 
 English progenitors possesses a flavour supe- 
 rior to that which comes from South America, 
 where the animals are of a different and inferior 
 bi:eed. 
 
 The following interesting description of the 
 manufacture of " Liebig's Extract of Meat" 
 is taken from the Buenos Ayres ' Standard * of 
 September, 1867. The establishment, of which 
 it is a description, is at Fray Bentos, on the 
 Uruguay, South America. " The new factory 
 is a building which covers about 20,000 square 
 feet, and is roofed in iron and glass. We first 
 enter a large flagged hall, kept dark, cool, and 
 extremely clean, where the meat is weighed, 
 and passed through apertures to the meat- 
 cutting machines. We next come to the beef- 
 cutting hall, where are four powerful meat- 
 cutters, especially designed by the company's 
 general manager, M. Geibert ; each machine 
 can cut the meat of 200 bullocks per hour. 
 The meat being cut is passed to ' digerators ' 
 made of wrought iron j each one holds about 
 12,000 lbs. of beef; there are nine of these dig- 
 erators, and three more have to be put up. Here 
 the meat is digerated by high-pressure steam 
 of 75 lbs. per square inch ; from this the liquid 
 which contains the extract and the fat of the 
 meat proceeds iu tubes to a range of ' fat se- 
 parators ' of peculiar construction. Here the fat 
 is separated in the hot state from the extract, 
 as no time can be lost for cool operation, other- 
 wise decomposition would set in in a very 
 short time. 
 
MEAT PRESERVING 
 
 1045 
 
 _ " We proceed downgtaire to an iminense hall, 
 •ixty feet high, where the fat separators are 
 working ; below them is a range of five cast- 
 iron elariflcrs, 1000 gallons each, worked by 
 high-pressure steam through Hallet's tube 
 lystein. 
 
 " Each clarifier is proWded with a very in- 
 genious steain-tap. In the monstrous clari- 
 fiers the albumen, fibrin, and phosphates 
 are separated. From hence the liquid 
 extract is raised by means of air-pumps, 
 driven by two thirty horse-power engines, up 
 to two vessels about twenty feet above the 
 clarifiersj thence the liquid runs to the 
 other large evaporators. Now we ascend the 
 staircase reaching the hall, where two im- 
 mense sets of lour vacuum apparatus are at 
 work, evaporating the extract by a very low 
 temperature; here the liquid passes several 
 filtering processes before being evaporated in 
 vacuo. \Ve now ascend some steps and 
 enter the ready-making hall, separated by a 
 wire gauze wall, and all the windows, doors, 
 Ac, guarded by the same to exclude flies and 
 dust. The ventilation is maintained by patent 
 fans, and the place is extremely clean. Here 
 are placed five ready-making pans constructed 
 of steel plates, with a xystem of steel discs 
 revolving in the liquid extract. 
 
 " These five pans, by medium of discs, 100 in 
 each pan, effect in one minnte more than two 
 million square feet evaporating surface. 
 
 " Here concludes the manufacturing process. 
 The extract is now withdrawn in large cans 
 and deposited f'lr the following day. 
 
 " Ascending a few steps we enter the decrys- 
 tallising and packing hall, where two large 
 cast-iron tanks are placed, provided with hot 
 water baths under their bottoms; in these 
 tanks the extract is thrown in quantities of 
 10,000 lbs. at once, and here decrystallising is 
 made a homogeneous mass and of uniform 
 quality. Now samples are taken and analysed 
 by the chemist of the establishment, Dr 
 Seekamp, under whose charge the chemical 
 and technical operations are performed. 
 
 " It may be mentioned that the company's 
 butcher killed at the rate of 80 oxen per 
 hour; separating by a small double-edged 
 knife the vertebrse, the animal drops down 
 instantaneously on a waggon, and is conducted 
 to a place where ISO men are occupied dress- 
 ing the meat for the factory, cutting each ox 
 into six pieces ; 400 are being worked per day." 
 
 Mr Tooth at a meeting before the " Food 
 Committee " lield at the Society of Arts in 
 January, 1868, said that he did not claim any 
 difference in the composition of his article 
 (which was made in Australia) as compared 
 with that made by the South American 
 Company. 
 
 In the annexed table the composition of 
 some of the extracts of meat of commerce is 
 given: — 
 
 
 Liebig's Conipaoy. 
 
 Tooth, 
 Sydney. 
 
 Frencli Company, 
 South America. 
 
 While- 
 head. 
 
 Twenty- 
 man. 
 
 Water .... 
 Extractive, soluble in al- 
 cohol 
 Extractive, insoluble . 
 Mineral matter 
 
 18-56 
 
 45-43 
 18-93 
 22-08 
 
 16-00 
 
 53-00 
 13 00 
 18-00 
 
 17-06 
 
 51-28 
 10-57 
 21-09 
 
 16-50 
 
 28-00 
 
 46-00 
 
 9-50 
 
 24-49 
 
 22-08 
 
 44-17 
 8-96 
 
 20-81 
 
 13-37 
 
 59-10 
 
 6-72 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 ! 10000 
 
 The following are the characteristics of ex- 
 tract of meat of good quality. It should always 
 have an acid reaction, its colour sho\ild be a 
 pale yellowish brown, and it should have an 
 agreeable meat-like odour and taste. It should 
 be entirely soluble in cold water, and should 
 be free from albumen, fat, and gelatin. 
 
 Meat Pie. Stew 2 lbs. of beef steak with 
 one small onion, the gravy from which is to be 
 thickened with flour, and flavoured with pepper 
 and salt. Put it into a baking dish, and cover 
 with a lard crust. It should be baked for one 
 hour. The addition of two kidneys willgreatly 
 improve the pie. 
 
 Meat (Australian) Pie. Take 2 lbs. of Aus- 
 tralian meal, or IJ lb. of meat and J lb. of 
 kidney. Season to taste, pour in a little water, 
 cover with a lord crusit, and bake not more 
 than half an hour. 
 
 MEAT PRESERVING. " The Belgian ^fuse'e 
 
 de I'Industrie notes the following methods of 
 preserving meat; as the most deserving of 
 attention amongst those communicated to the 
 French Academy of Sciences, and published in 
 the Comptes Sendus. 1. M. Bundet's method, 
 by which the meat is kept in water acidulated 
 with carbolic acid in the proportion of 1 to 5 
 parts of acid per 1000 of water. A series of 
 experiments proved that all kinds of meat could 
 thus be kept fresh for lengthened periods, 
 without acquiring an ill taste or odour. 
 
 " The meat may be placed in barrels or air- 
 tight tin cpies, filled with acidulated water of 
 the strength above specified, and headed up ; 
 or the pieces may be packed in barrels or cases 
 in alternate layers with charcoal, pounded 
 small, and saturated with water containing 
 ^^j_ of carbolic acid. The charcoal serves as 
 a vehicle for the antiseptic fluid, and as an 
 absorbent of any gaseous matters given ofl" by 
 
1046 
 
 MEAT PRESERVING 
 
 the meat. The latter should he wrapped in 
 thin linen covers to prevent the charcoal work- 
 ing its way into the tissues. 
 
 "This method, it ia suggested, might be 
 employed in curing pork in place of ' salting,' 
 or of the more lengthy and costly process of 
 'smoking;' and also tor the preservation of 
 poultry, game, butter, eggs, &e. 
 
 " 2. In the case of South American meat 
 M. Baudet proposes the use of large sacks of 
 caoutchouc. The meat should be packed in 
 them, with alternate layers of charcoal as above 
 described, and each sack, when fiUed, should be 
 hermetically closed by drawing another empty 
 caoutchouc sack, cap-wise, over it. The 
 caoutchouc, it is supposed, would fetch enough 
 in the market — its low price notwithstanding 
 — to cover expenses of packing and freight, and 
 so permit the meat to be sold in Europe at a 
 very small advance on cost price. If intended 
 for use a second time, the empty bags should be 
 steeped in boiling waterfor a few minutes, to re- 
 move any organic impurities adhering to them. 
 
 " 3. M. Gorge's method, which is in use in 
 La Plata, consists in washing and drying the 
 meat, and afterwards steeping in successive 
 waters containing hydrochloric acid and sul- 
 phite of soda, and then packing it in air-tight 
 cases holding 1, 5, or 10 kilog. each. Meat 
 thus treated requires to be soaked in warm 
 water for about half an hour before use. 
 
 " 4. M. Leon Soubeiran has recommended 
 braying and drying, in the fashion adopted by 
 the Chinese and itfougols, as described by M. 
 Simon, French consul in China, in a coinmu- 
 nication made by him to the Soci^te d'Accli- 
 matation. The pemmican of our Arctic 
 voyagers and the charqui of South America are 
 familiar examples of meat preserved by analo- 
 gous processes. The late M. Payen, a distin- 
 guished member of the Academy, insisted upon 
 the great perfection to which this system might 
 be carried by the aid of hot-air stoves and suit- 
 able apparatus." 
 
 Besides the foregoing, numerous patents 
 have from time to time been taken out, and 
 processes proposed for the preservation of 
 meat ; so as to enable it to be sent from those 
 distant countries, such as South America, 
 Australia, Canada, &c., where it is greatly in 
 excess of the wants of the population, to other 
 lands, in which the supply is as much below 
 the demand, and the meat at such a price as 
 to preclude its being regularly used as an 
 article of food by the body of the people. 
 
 As the putrefactive changes set up in dead 
 flesh are dependent upon the combined in- 
 fluences of moisture, air, and a certain tempe- 
 rature, it follows that most of the various 
 methods of meat preservation resolve them-, 
 selves into so many different efforts to remove 
 the meat from the operation of one of the con- 
 ditions above specified as necessary for its 
 decomposition. 
 
 The okarqui or jerked beef of South Ame- 
 rica affords an example of meat preserved by 
 
 means of being deprived of moisture. It 
 occurs in thongs or strips which have been 
 prepared by placing freshly killed meat between 
 layers of salt and drying them in the sun. 
 Charqui, although it retains its soundness for 
 a great length of time, and is rendered eat- 
 able by soaking in water and prolonged cook- 
 ing, is difficult of digestion and wanting in 
 flavour, and if any fat be associated with it, 
 this is liable to become rancid. 
 
 Pemmican is meat which, after being dried 
 and powdered, is mixed with sugar and cer- 
 tain spices, both of which assiist to preserve 
 the meat as well as to improve its flavour, 
 and to remove the tendency to rancidity caused 
 by any fat that may be accidentally present. 
 
 Another process for the preservation of meat 
 by means of desiccation is that of MM. Blu- 
 menthal and Chollet, who, in ISSi, obtained 
 a patent for preparing tablets composed of 
 dried meat and vegetables, which, after being 
 several times dipped into rich soup, were 
 dried in warm air after each immersion. 
 
 At a meeting of the Food Committee, held 
 at the Society of Arts, in May, 1868, specimens 
 of dried beef and mutton in powder, from 
 Brisbane, were shown by Mr Orr, who said 
 they had been dried on tinned plates by means 
 of steam. Dr A. S. Taylor, P.R.S., who exa- 
 mined the sample, found it perfectly fresh and 
 good. It had been prepared at least six 
 months previously. 
 
 At a subsequent meeting, the Committee 
 reported that the soup prepared from this 
 desiccated meat, with the addition of «. small 
 quantity of vegetables, was considered very 
 successful, and the Committee were of opinion 
 that meat so preserved was likely to prove a 
 valuable and cheap addition to the food re- 
 sources of the people. 
 
 The specimen from which the soup was 
 made had been in the Society's possession, and 
 formed part of the contents of a tin opened 
 upwards of two years ago. The preservation 
 was perfect. 
 
 We have only space briefly to describe some 
 of the more jirominent of the processes which 
 have been devised for the preservation of meat 
 by excluding atmospheric air. 
 
 Mr Tallerman, a large importer of Aus- 
 tralian meat, stated in evidence before the 
 Pood Committee of the Society of Arts, in May, 
 1870, that in the preservation of the meat he 
 sent over to this country he had recourse to 
 a very old practice, which was that of packing 
 the joints in fat, the meat being previously 
 salted or cured. Instead of the meat being 
 packed in brine, the casks with the meat are 
 filled up with melted fat. 
 
 In Mr Warrington's patent, which dates 
 from 1846, it is proposed that animal sub- 
 stances shall be preserved by enveloping them 
 in a layer of glue, gelatin, or concentrated 
 meat gravy, or otherwise by dipping them in 
 warm solutions of such substances, or by 
 wrapping them in waterproof cloth, or by 
 
MEAT PRESEUVINO 
 
 1047 
 
 covering them with caoutchouc, giitta perchR, 
 or varnish, or thin criani of pluxtrr of Paris, 
 which when mt wiis suturuted witli melted 
 suet, wax, or stfiirin. 
 
 Tlie pu tent of Prof. Ked wood, which resemblpB 
 Mr Warrington's in eeeliing to exclude at- 
 mospheric air by surrounding the meat with 
 an imperviouR substance, claimed tl>e use of 
 p»rai&n for this purpose, the par»ffin being 
 ufternards coated with a mixture of gelatin 
 and treacle, or gelatin and glycerin. The 
 paraffin is easily removed from the meat by 
 plunging this latter into boiling water, whiih 
 dissolves the outer coating of gelatin mixture, 
 and at the same timcmelts the paraffin and 
 liberates the enclosed joint. 
 
 Messrs .Tunes and Trevethick's patent con- 
 sistcil in exhausting of air the vessel contain- 
 ing the meat, then forcing into it a mixture 
 of nitrogen and sulphurous acids, and subse- 
 quently soldering the apertures. Ur Letheby 
 says meat, fish, and poultry preserved in this 
 manner have been found good after seven or 
 eight years; and specimens of them were 
 exhibited in the London Exhibition of 18(i2. 
 
 The removal, however, uf atmo^pheric air 
 from the vessels containing the meat it is 
 designed to preserve is now principal^ ac- 
 complished by means of steam. The germ of 
 this idea originated with M. Pierre Antonie 
 Angilbert more than half a century ngo, but 
 the modification of Angilbert's process, which 
 in principle is that generally adopted by the 
 importers of Australian and Snuth American 
 cooked meat, as well as by the l<)nglish preparers 
 of the article, originated with Messrs Goldner 
 and Wertheimer, nearly forty years since, 
 and, briefly, is as follows : — The Ireshly killed 
 meat is placed in tins, with a certain quantity 
 of cold water. The tins and their contents 
 are then securely soldered down, with the ex- 
 ception of a small opening not larger than a 
 pin-hole, which is left in the. lid. The tins 
 are next placed in a bath of chloride of cal- 
 cium, the effect of which is to heat the water 
 in them up to the boiling point, and after a 
 certain time to more or less cook the ment 
 contained in them. When the meat is thought 
 to be sufficiently cooked, and whilst the steam 
 arising from the boiling water is escaping 
 from the aperture, this last is carefully soldered 
 down, the steam not only having driven out 
 all the atmospheric air from the vessel, but in 
 the act of escaping having prevented the in- 
 gress of any from without. To still further 
 guard against the entrance of air, the tins 
 are covered over with a thick coating of paint. 
 
 Previously to their being allowed to leave 
 the preserving works they are tested by being 
 placed for some time in an apartment in which 
 the temperature is sufKcieutly high to set np 
 putrefactive action in the meat if any air has 
 been left in the tins, the evidence of which 
 would be the bulging out of the tins, owing 
 to the liberation of certain gaseous products of 
 dicomposilion. When no diatensiin from in- 
 
 side takes place, the result is considered satis- 
 factory, and the vessels are regarded as pro- 
 perly and hermetically sealed. In some eases 
 the vessels, instead of being heated in a bath 
 of chloride of calcium, are exposed to the 
 action of steam. If the operation be success- 
 fully performed, the meat so prepared will keep 
 perfectly good and sound for years. 
 
 Mr Kichard Jones effects the removal of the 
 air from the vessels containing the meat as 
 follows :— The meat is put into the tins and 
 entirely soldered up, with the exception of a 
 small tube about the size of a quill, which is 
 soldered on the top of the tin. This tube is 
 placed in connection with a vacuum chamber, 
 and the air exhausted from the tin by means 
 of it. In cooking the meat be also employs 
 a chloride of calcium bath. 
 
 Dr Letheby, in one of his Canton Lectures on 
 Pood, delivered in 1865, speaking on this part 
 of the subject, and on the above method of 
 meat preservation, says : — " To-night, through 
 the kindness of Messrs Crosse and Blackwell, 
 I am able to show you a specimen of preserved 
 mutton which has been in the case forty-four 
 years, and you will perceive that it Is in excil- 
 lent condition. It formed part of the stores 
 supplied by Messrs Dunkin and Gamble, in 
 
 1824, to His Majesty's Exploring ship Fury, 
 which was wrecked in Prince Regent's Inlet in 
 
 1825, when the cases were landed with the 
 other stores, and left upon the beach. 
 
 "Eight years afterwards, in August, 1833, 
 they were found by Sir John Ross in the 
 same condition as they were left ; and he 
 wrote to Mr Gamble at the end of that year, 
 saying, ' that the provisions were still in a 
 perfect state of preservation, although an- 
 nually exposed to a temperature of 92° below 
 and 80° above zero.' Some of the cases were 
 left untouched by Sir John Ross ; and after 
 a further interval of sixteen years the place 
 was visited by a party from Her Majesty's 
 ship Investigator, when, according to a letter 
 from the captain. Sir James Ross, ' the pro- 
 visions were in excellent condition, after hav- 
 ing lain upon the beach, exposed to the action 
 of the sun, and all kinds of weather, for 
 a period of nearly a quarter of a century.' 
 Messrs Crosse and Blackwell have placed the 
 original letters in my hands for perusal, andthey 
 show beyond all doubt that meat preserved in 
 this manner will keep good for nearly half a 
 century — in fact, the case of boiled mutton 
 now before you has been preserved for forty- 
 four years." 
 
 The generality of the samples of preserved 
 meat from Australia are excellent in quality 
 and flavour,' except that in most cases the' 
 meat has been overcooked, which has arisen 
 
 * The "Food Committee of the Society of Arts, who have 
 CHretnlly and impartially examiaed uumeroua samples of 
 AuBlraliaa and South Aniericsii preserved mrat, say : "It 
 is perlertly sweet and fresh, hut somewhat insipid from 
 overeookinv, and it srema hkely the flavour could he 
 improvrd if the duration of exposure to heat could be 
 shortened without eadangering the preservation." 
 
1048 
 
 MEAT PRESERVING 
 
 from the too prolonged contact of the meat 
 with the steam, which it is judged necessary 
 shall he generated iu such quantities as to en- 
 sure the certainty of the exclusion of the air. 
 Another inconvenience attending the process, 
 viz. the liability of the sides of the tin to 
 collapse, owing to tfte vacuum formed in its 
 interior, has been remedied by the introduc- 
 tion into the vessel of some inert gas, such as 
 carbonic acid, or nitrogen. 
 
 Preserved meat at the present time forms a 
 very considerable article of export both from 
 Australia and South America. In the former 
 country there are several establishments of a 
 colossal character, where the work of tinning 
 the meat is carried on, in many of which 
 establishments hundreds of cattle are slaugh- 
 tered daily. The, largest establishments of the 
 kind are at Sydney and Melbourne, whence 
 extensive shipments are being constantly made. 
 The following figures are taken from the Board 
 of Trade returns : — 
 
 Valve of Meat preserved otherwise than ly 
 Salting, 
 
 ImportB from Total 
 
 Australia. Imports. 
 
 1871 . . £481,093 . £610,228 
 
 1872 . . 657,945 . 816,463 
 
 1873 . . 557,552 . 733,331 
 
 1874 . , 509,698 . 757,001 
 
 1875 . . 249,611 . 592,196 
 
 Since 1876 tinned meat has been imported 
 from North America. 
 
 Several methods have been proposed for the 
 preservation of meat by subjecting it to such 
 conditions that the surrounding temperature 
 should be sufficiently low to arrest putrefac- 
 tion. In Mr Harrison's process the reduction 
 of temperature was effected by the application 
 of melting ice and salt, made to run down the 
 outside of the iron chambers containing the 
 meat. It is affirmed that although the joints 
 submitted to this treatment were solidly frozen, 
 no loss of either flavour or immediate decompo- 
 sition of the meat took place. Mr H arrison's ex- 
 periment wfis perfectly successiul in Australia, 
 but broke down during the voyage of a large 
 cargo of meat shipped from Australia in 1873, 
 owing to a defect in the construction of the 
 ice chamber of the vessel and the failure of 
 the supply of ice. 
 
 Of other forms of refrigeration applied for 
 this purpose we may mention the process of 
 M. Tellier, by which he proposes to place (on 
 ship-board or elsewhere) joints of meat in a 
 chamber through which a current of air 
 charged with ether or other volatile substance 
 may be passed, with a view to reduce the 
 temperature to 30° P. Also that of M. Pog- 
 giale, from whose report to the Paris Aca- 
 demy of Medicine it appears that in cham- 
 bers contrived on principles similar to M. 
 Tellier's, all kinds of butcher's meat and 
 poultry have been hung for ten weeks, at the 
 end of which time they were found perfectly 
 
 fresh and wholesome. The agent used in the 
 latter case for the production of cold was 
 methylic ether. 
 
 The process, however, of refrigeration which 
 has proved not only the most, but in every re- 
 spect successful, was first satisfactorily carried 
 out since 1876, in which time large cargoes of 
 dead meat have been constantly sent to our 
 metropolitan markets, as well as to Glasgow, 
 from New York. The following extract from 
 the 'Dundee Advertiser" gives some interesting 
 details of this process : — 
 
 " As to dead meat, the first sale was held 
 on the 5th of June, when 100 carcases of 
 beef and 72 of mutton were disposed of. Since 
 then there has never been a smaller supply, and 
 on the average about 150 carcases have been 
 sold weekly. Last week 210 carcases were 
 sold, and on Wednesday evening there were 
 no fewer than 33 lorries, each laden with three 
 tons of butcher's meat. The freight paid for 
 carriage to Glasgow, Liverpool, and London, 
 last week amounted to £1900. Altogether, 
 since the importation began, a million and a 
 quarter pounds of dead meat have been sold 
 in Glasgow. The result of this importation 
 has been a reduction in retail price of Id. per 
 lb., ijistead of an increase in price, which must 
 have taken place without the increased supply. 
 
 " The oxen are collected chiefly in the states 
 of Illinois and Kentucky. They are there 
 reared in enormous numbers on the prairies. 
 Before they reach New York they are driven 
 over railway for fully a thousand miles. Those 
 animals the carcases of which are to be sent 
 to this country are killed the day before the 
 departure of the steamer. As soon as the 
 carcases are dressed they are put into a cool- 
 ing room capable of containing 500, and 
 subject to a constant Current of cold air, sup- 
 plied by means of a 25 horse-power engine. 
 This sets the beef and extracts the animal heat. 
 Each carcase i^ next cut into quarters,and these 
 are sewn up in canvas, and during the night 
 transferred on board the vessel. Six of the 
 Anchor Line mail steamers have been fitted up 
 with refrigeration compartments, constructed 
 on a patented principle specially for the con- 
 veyance of meat. 
 
 " After the quarters have been bung up in the 
 room the door is hermetically closed. Adjoin- 
 ing the compartment is a chamber filled with 
 ice. Air tubes are connected with the beef 
 room, and through tliem the animal heat as- 
 cends, and by means of a powerful engine it 
 is blown across the ice, and returned to the 
 beef room iu a cold state. A temperature of 
 about 38° is thus maintained in the beef-room. 
 If it were to get so low as 32° — freezing- 
 point — the meat would be seriously injured.' 
 The heat i«, therefore, regulated by a ther- 
 mometer, and when the temperature gets too 
 low, the speed of the engine is slackened, the 
 normal degree of cold being thus maintained 
 
 ^ Mr Harrison's experimeats make this statement 
 doubtful. 
 
MEAT PRESEnVINQ— MECONIC ACID 
 
 1049 
 
 almost without variation dnrinfi; the voyage. 
 C'atlle killed on Thoisdny in New York are 
 •old that day fortnight in GlnBgow." 
 
 The firat patent for the preservation offood 
 by means of ico was granted to Mr John Ling 
 in 1845. 
 
 Lastly, mention mast not be omitted of 
 another method for the preservation of meat, 
 which consists in the application to it of cer- 
 tain antiseptic substances, the action of which 
 in preventing putrefaction is due to their 
 power of destroying minute parasitic organixms 
 of low animal or vegetable life, that would 
 otherwise attack and set up decomposition 
 in the meiit. Our ordinary salted meats owe 
 their immunity from decay, as is well known, 
 to the presence in their tissues of common 
 fait. Meat preserved, however, bv this 
 means is tough, indigestible, and wanting in 
 many of its most important soluble constitu- 
 ents, wliicli, dissolving part of the salt, run off 
 from the meat and are lost. 
 
 Amongst other agents which have been 
 found serviceuble as antiseptics, and for which 
 from time to time numerous patents have been 
 taken out, are nitrate of potash, acetate and 
 hydrochlorate of ammonia, the sulphates of 
 soda and potash, and bisulphate of lime. The 
 writer remembers purtaking, some years 
 since, of some Canadian turkey, which had 
 been preserved by moans of this latter sub- 
 stance, and the turkey having been killed 
 some two months before being eaten. It was 
 perfectly sound and of excellent flavour. In 
 this instance the bird had been sent from 
 Canada, witli several others, packed in water- 
 proof casks, filled up with a weak solution of 
 bisulphite of lime. 
 
 In some cases the saline solution is mcnly 
 brushed over the outside of the meat; whilst 
 in others it is injected into the substance of 
 the flesh. 
 
 Thiebierge's process consists in dipping the 
 joints for five minutes into dilute sulphuric 
 acid, of the strength of about ten of water to 
 one of acid. Tlie me?it after being ttiken out 
 is carefully wiped and dried, and is then hung 
 
 for keepiu'f. 
 
 Sulphurous acid also forms the subject of 
 several patents for the preservation of meat. 
 In the process of Laury, for which a patent 
 was taken out in 1854, the gas was introduced 
 into the vessels containing the food. In that 
 of Belford, for which a provisional specifica- 
 tion was granted the same year, the meat was 
 soaked for 24 hours in a solution of sulphurous 
 and hydroi-hloric acids (the latter beins in 
 the proportion of a hundredth of the volume 
 of the former). The addition of the h\ dro- 
 chloric acid was made with the intention of 
 decomposing any alkaline sulphites that 
 might be formed by the combination of the 
 alkaline salts of the meat with the sulphur- 
 ous acid. 
 
 Dr Dewar's process, which is very similar 
 to the foregoing, proposes, instead of exposing 
 
 the meat to sulphurous acid fumigation, to 
 immerse it in a solution of the acid of the same 
 strength as that of the British Pharmaco- 
 poeia. On being taken out of the liqnid the 
 meat, or other article, is, as speedily as 
 possible, dried at a temperature not exceeding 
 140° P., so that the albumen may be preserved 
 simply in a desiccated, and n<i'« in a coagu- 
 lated condition. 
 
 In the patent of Demait, which dates from 
 1855, the meat was directed to be hung up in 
 a properly constructed chamber, and exposed 
 for some time to the action of the gas. 
 More recently, Professor Gamgee has taken 
 out a patent, which is a modification of 
 Demait's, and which consists in banging up 
 the carcase of the animal, previously killed 
 wiien under the influence of carbonic oxide, 
 in a chamber filled with this latter gas, to 
 which a little sulphurous acid has been added, 
 the chamber having been first exhausted of 
 air. The carcase is iillowed to remain in the 
 chamber from 24 to 48 hours, after which It 
 Is hung in dry. air. It is stated that meat 
 subjected to the above treatment hos been 
 found perfectly sound and eatable after an 
 interval of five months. 
 
 M. Lanjoirois proposes to preserve animal 
 substances from decay by the addition to 
 them of 1 per cent, of magenta. He states 
 the process had been applied to slices of beef, 
 which, after being kept for several months, 
 yieliled, after being washed and boiled, very 
 good soup. Commenting on this suggestion 
 for the preservation of meat, tlie 'Chemical 
 News' very sensibly and properly remarks: 
 " It is to be hoped the magenta employed will 
 be free from arsenic." 
 
 The potent of M. de la Peyrouse (which 
 dates from 1873) also consists in excluding 
 the air by enveloping meat In fat. In this 
 process, however, the fat is mixed, when in a 
 melting condition, with a certain quantity of 
 the carbonates of sodium, potassium, and 
 ammonium, as well as with some chlorides 
 of magnesium and alumiuinni, with the object 
 of preventing the fat becoming mncldaud de- 
 composing, and thus imparting a disagreeable 
 flavour to the meat. 
 
 In M. George's process the meat is partially 
 dried, and then steeped in successive waters 
 containing hydrochloric acid and sulphate of 
 fodn. 
 
 MECON'IC ACID. HaCyHO,. Sgn. Acidtim 
 MECONICCM, L. A peeuliar acid, first obtained 
 by Sertuerner from opium, in 18C4. 
 
 Frep. Meconate of lime is suspended in 
 warm water, and treated with hydrochloric 
 acid. Impure meconic acid crystallises on 
 cooling, and may be purified by repeated treat- 
 ment in the same way with hydrocliloric acid. 
 Its purity is ascertained by its leaving no 
 residue when heated in a platinum or glass 
 capsule. 
 
 Prop. Meconic acid forms beautiful pearly 
 scales; possesses a sour astringent taste; is 
 
1050 
 
 MECONIN— MEDICINES FOR PASSENGER SHIPS 
 
 soluble in boiling water, and to a less extent in 
 cold ; it is also soluble in alcohol. With the 
 acids it forms salts called ' meconates,' most 
 of which are crystallisahle. Meconate of lime 
 is obtained by beating a solution of chloride of 
 calcium with an infusion of opinm made with 
 cold water, and neutralised by powdered mar- 
 ble, and collecting the precipitate. Meconate 
 of potassa is prepared by direct solution of the 
 base in the impure acid obtained from meco- 
 nate of lime till the liquor turns green, heat 
 being applied, when the salt crystallises out as 
 the liquid cools ; it may be purified by pressure 
 and recrystallisation. 
 
 Tests. Meconic acid is characterised by — 1. 
 Turning ferric salts red, and the red colour 
 not being destroyed by the action of corrosive 
 sublimate. — 2. Precipitating a weak solution 
 of ammonio-sulphate of copper green. — 3. With 
 acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, and chloride 
 of barium, it gives white precipitates, which 
 are soluble in nitric acid. — i. It is not reddened 
 by chloride of gold. 
 
 MEC'ONIN. C,„H,o04. A white, crystalline, 
 odourless, neutral substance, discovered by 
 Couerbe in opium. 
 
 MECO'HIUM. See Ophjm. 
 
 HEDICINES. However skilful the medical 
 practitioner may be, and however juiiicious his 
 treatment, both are interfered with, and their 
 value more or less neutralised, if the reme- 
 dies he orders are not administered precisely 
 according to his instructions. It is the duty 
 of the attendant on the sick to follow im- 
 plicitly the directions of the physician, as well 
 in exactly complying with his orders as in 
 doing nothing that she has not been ordered 
 to do. At the same time there are exceptions 
 to this rule, in which a suspension of the 
 remedy, or a deviation from the order of the 
 physician, is not only allowable, but is abso- 
 lutely required. Thus, from idiosyncrasy or 
 some other cause, the remedy in the doses or- 
 dered may have no effect, or may produce one 
 widely different from that intended or ex- 
 pected. In such cases it is evident that a 
 strict adherence to the direction of the phy-i- 
 cian would be productive of evil; but he 
 should be immediately apprised of the circum- 
 stance." The common practice of neglecting 
 to administer the doses of medicine at the pre- 
 scribed time, or after prescribed intervals, and 
 then, to compensate for the omission, giving 
 the medicine more frequently or in larger doses, 
 cannot be too severely censured, as destructive 
 to the welfare of the patient and injurious to 
 the credit of the physician. 
 
 For the purpose of disguising the taste of 
 medicine, or lessening their nauseating pro- 
 perties, Dr Pollio has recommended a means 
 founded on the physiological fact that a strong 
 impression on the nerves (whether of vision, 
 hearing, or taste) renders that which follows 
 less perceptible than under the usual circum- 
 stances. Instead, therefore, of applying to 
 
 the mouth agreeable substances after swal- 
 lowing nauseous medicines, we should prepare 
 it beforehand, in order that the taste of the 
 medicine may not be perceived. Aromatic sub- 
 stances, as orange or lemon peel, kc, chewed 
 just before taking medicine, effectually pre- 
 vent castor oil, &c., being tasted. In preparing 
 the mouth for hitters, liquorice is the only 
 sweet that should be used, the others creating 
 a peculiarly disagreeable compound taste. We 
 have noticed already the effect of oil of orange 
 peel in correcting the nauseating qualities of 
 copaiba. See Dose and Pbesokibino. 
 
 MEDICINES FOR FASSENBEK SHIPS. 
 The annexed scale of medicines, medical 
 stores, and Instruments ibr ships clearing 
 under the Passengers Acts, other than steam- 
 ships engaged in the North Atlantic trade, 
 has been issued and caused to be published 
 by the Board of Trade, and is intended to 
 supersede the scales hitherto in force. 
 
 The quantities mentioned in the scale are 
 for every 100 passengers, when the length of 
 the passage, computed according to the 
 Passengers Act, is 100 days and upwards. 
 Half the quantity of medicines indicated, but 
 the same kind and quantity of medical stores 
 should be taken when the passage is less than 
 100 days. 
 
 N.B. — There is a separate scale for North 
 Atlantic steam passenger ships. 
 
 The medicines are to be prepared according 
 to the British Pharmacopoeia, to be plainly 
 labelled in English, and the average doses for 
 an adult stated, according to the British 
 Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 All bottles are to be stoppered, and all 
 medicines indicated thus (*) are to be marked 
 with a red poison label. AH fluid quantities 
 are to be measured hy fluid lbs., oz., or dr. 
 
 LttS. oz. tlT. 
 
 Acid, Acetic . . . .060 
 
 * „ Carbolic . . .010 
 
 * „ Carbolic (a powder con- 
 taining not less than 20 per 
 cent, of pure carbolic or 
 cresylic acid) . . 112 
 
 Acid, Citric . . . .030 
 „ Gallic . . . .010 
 „ Hydrocyanic Dil. . .004 
 „ Nitric . . . .010 
 „ Sulph. Dil. . . .060 
 .Ether . . , , . .010 
 
 Alumen 10 
 
 Ammon. Carb. . . .060 
 Amylum . . . ,10 
 
 Argent. Nit. (Stick) . .002 
 Calx Chlorate . . .700 
 
 Camphor . . . .060 
 Charta Epispatica, 4 sq.ft., in case 
 *Chlor.ofZinc (Burnett's sol. of) 16 
 *Chloroform . . . .080 
 Copaiba . . . .080 
 
 Creosote . . . .002 
 
 Cupri Sulph 10 
 
 Emp. Cantharidis . . .010 
 
MEDICINES FOB PASSENGER SHIPS 
 
 1051 
 
 Uedicincs for Passenger SMpi- 
 
 Fcrri et Quinite Cit. 
 
 .. Sulph 
 
 Qlycerin .... 
 
 „ Acid. Tanuic 
 •Hjdrat. Chloral . 
 Hydrarg. cam Crctil , 
 „ SubchloriUi . 
 Lini Farina .... 
 
 Lin. Cainph 
 
 „ Opii .... 
 
 „ Siiponis .... 
 
 *Liq. Atropite .... 
 
 „ Calcis .... 
 
 • „ MurphiiB Acetatia . 
 
 * „ Plumbi SubacKtutis . 
 
 „ PotassB .... 
 
 * „ „ Pcrmanganatis 
 (B. P. or Condy's Crimson 
 Fluid) 
 
 Mngncs, Sulph 
 
 Mist. Si'nnce Co. (omit Extract of 
 Liquorice and substitute Aro- 
 matic Spirit of Ammonia, 1 
 oz. to 1 pint of tlie mixture) 
 01. Croton 
 „ Lini . . . 
 „ Mentlia3 Pip. . 
 „ Morrhum . . 
 „ Oliva: . . 
 
 „ Uiciui . . 
 „ Terebiulhinffl . 
 •Opium . 
 'Plumbi Acetatis 
 Potassa; Bicarb. Pulv. 
 Potassii lodid. 
 Pulv. Antimouialis . 
 
 • „ Astringcns (double .the 
 
 quantity indicated to be 
 
 taken to all tropical ports. 
 
 Pulv. Catechu Co., Pulv. 
 
 CretBB Arom. cum Opid — 
 
 equal parts). 
 
 „ Cretaj Arom. cum Opid . 
 
 • „ Ipecac 
 
 Co. . 
 
 „ Jalapee Co. . . . 
 
 „ Potiissic Nitratis . . 
 
 „ Rhei Co. . . . 
 
 „ Scammon. Co. 
 Quiniffi Sulph. (double the 
 
 quantity indicated to be taken 
 
 to all tropical ports) . 
 
 SodiB Bicarb 
 
 Sp. .£tber. NitrosI . . . 
 ,, Ammon. Arom. . . . 
 
 -continued. 
 LUi. oz. dr. 
 
 Rectif 
 
 I, Sulphur Subliraatum. . 
 Syr. Ferri lodiili 
 •Sol. Morphia! Acetat. (a neutral 
 solution containint; 4 grains 
 in a drnchm, and so marked. 
 To be labelled — for hypoder- 
 mic injection) . > . 
 Tr. AriiicEe .... 
 
 Tr. CamphorsB Co. . 
 „ Digitalis . 
 „ Ergotse 
 
 „ Ferri Perchloridi 
 • ., Opii . 
 „ Seillse 
 
 „ Valerian. Ammon 
 ' Uug. Cetacei . 
 
 „ Hydrargyri . 
 „ „ Ox. Rub. 
 
 „ Siilph. . 
 ,, Zinci 
 Vin. Colrhici 
 
 „ Ipecac. . 
 Zinci Sulpbatis 
 Desiccated Soup 
 
 LIta. oz. dr. 
 
 8 
 6 
 6 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 All pills to he made and marked 5 grains. 
 
 Fil. Aloes cum Myrrb& . . 2 doz. 
 
 „ Col. c. Hyoscy . . . 4 „ 
 
 „ Hydrarg. . , , 3 „ 
 
 „ Ipecac, cum Scill^ . . 5 „ 
 
 „ Quiniee . . . . 6 „ 
 
 ,, Sapon. Co. . . . 6 „ 
 
 Medical Stores, 
 
 Lint 10 oz. 
 
 Tow 1 lb. 
 
 Adhesive Plaster ... 3 yds. 
 
 Male Syringe .... 1 
 
 „ Glass ... 1 
 
 Fcmnle 1 
 
 Pliials (assorted) ... 2 doz. 
 
 Phial corks . . . . 6 „ 
 
 Sponges 3 
 
 Bed-pan 1 
 
 Paper of Pins .... 1 
 
 Hernia I'rusfi, 36 in., reversible. 1 
 
 Paper of Pill Boxes ... 1 
 
 Gallipots 6 
 
 Leg and Arm Bandages . . 6 
 
 Ciilico 3 yds. 
 
 Flannel Bandages, 7 yds. long, 6 
 
 in. wide .... 2 
 
 Flnnnel 2 yds. 
 
 Triangular Bandages, base 48 
 
 in., sides 33 in. . . each 2 
 
 fMinim Measures 
 
 +1 oz, 
 
 t2oz 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 4 yds. 
 1 ., 
 
 tSet of Splints . 
 ■j-Waterpi-oof sheeting . 
 
 toiled Silk 
 
 t Enema Syringe and Stomach Pump 1 
 
 •j-Bnx of Small Scales and Weights 1 
 
 ■j-Wedgwood Mortar and Pestle . 1 
 
 „ Funnel ... 1 
 
 tSpatulas 2 
 
 fAuthorised Book of Directions for 
 
 Medicine Chests ... 1 
 
 tBriti^h Pharmacopoeia . . 1 
 
 + One set only of these articles reqnired, IrrespectiTe 
 of nutiilier ol paaseni^ers. 
 
 N.B.— Only one set of inslTumenta required, without 
 regnrd to the numher ot surgcuua, pusaeugerB, or the 
 length ot the voyage. 
 
1052 
 
 MEERSCHAUM— MERCURIAL DISEASE 
 
 
 1 Tenaculum. 
 
 
 1 Artery Forceps. 
 
 
 1 Operating ditto. 
 
 
 1 Finger Knife. 
 
 u 
 
 1 Curve Bistoury, Probe Point. 
 
 6 
 
 1 Curve Bistoury, Spear Point. 
 
 a; 
 
 2 Probes. 
 
 
 1 Silver Director. 
 
 (S 
 
 1 Caustic Case. 
 
 a 
 
 1 Scissors. 
 
 hH 
 
 1 Spatula. 
 
 
 12 Needles. 
 
 
 1 Skein Ligature Silk. 
 
 
 3 Lancets. 
 
 
 1 Amputating Saw. 
 
 
 2 „ Knives. 
 
 
 1 Bone Forceps. 
 
 
 3 Tooth „ 
 
 Instruments. 
 
 1 Skull Forceps. 
 1 Trephine. 
 1 Elevator. 
 1 Hey's Saw. 
 
 1 Trephine Brush. 
 
 2 Scalpels. 
 
 1 Hernia Knife. 
 
 2 Trocars and Canulas. 
 1 Aneurism Needle. 
 1 Hernia Director. 
 
 1 Tourniquet. 
 
 2 Silver Catheters (Nos. 4 and 8). 
 4 Elastic Gum Catheters (Nos. 3, 6, and 7). 
 1 Clinical Thermometer; 
 1 Hypodermic Syringe. 
 1 dozen charged Tubes for Vaccination. 
 1 Set of Midwifery Instruments. 
 
 MEER'SCHAUM. Syn. Eoumb de meb, L. 
 A native silicate of magnesia. It has a sp. gr. 
 ranging between 2'6 to 3'4 ; is readily acted 
 on by acids, and fuses before a powerful blow- 
 pipe into a white enamel. The finest quali- 
 ties are found in Greece and Turkey. Its 
 principal a)iplication is to the manufacture of 
 tobacco-pipes. The Germans prepare their 
 pipes for sale by soaking them in tallow, then 
 in white wax, and, finally, by polishing them 
 with shavegrass. Genuine meerschaum pipes 
 are distinguished from mock ones by the beau- 
 tiful brown colour which they assume after 
 being smoked for some time. Of late years 
 some of the pipemakers have produced a com- 
 position clay pipe, which closely resembles 
 meerschaum in appearance, and is '* warranted 
 to colour well." The composition, which is 
 comparatively valueless, is made up into pipes 
 of suitable patterns, which are frequently suld 
 to the ignorant for "meerschaums." See 
 Cements, Htdeaumc. 
 
 ME'GRIM. /%». Meaoeim:, Hemiobasia, 
 L, A pain affecting one side of the head only, 
 often periodic, like an ague, and generally of a 
 nervous, hysterical, or bilious character. It is 
 clavus when there is a strong pulsation, con- 
 veying the sensation of a nail piercing the part. 
 See Headache. 
 
 MEG'RXMS. Syn. Meaorims, Veetioo. In 
 veterinary medicine this term is applied to 
 Iiorses which when at work reel, then stand 
 for a minute dull and stupid, or fall to the 
 ground, and lie partially insensible for a few 
 minutes. " Horses subject to this affection 
 should be driven with a breastplate or pipe 
 collar, so as to prevent pressure on the veins 
 carrying the blood from the bead ; the bowels 
 should be kept in good order; an occasional 
 laxative is advisable, and a course, either of 
 arsenic or quinine, or of arsenic and iron." 
 (Dun.) 
 
 MEI'ANCHOIT. See Hypochohdeiasis 
 and Insanitt. 
 
 MELIS'SIC ALCOHOL, A substance ob- 
 
 tained byBrodie from beeswax. By oxidation 
 it yields ' melissic acid.' 
 
 MELLA'GO. The old name for a medicine 
 having the consistence of honey, with a some- 
 what sweetish taste. Mellago taraxaci is fluid 
 extract of dandelion. 
 
 MELTING-POINT, The temperature at 
 which solids assume the liquid form. 
 
 MEN'STRUUM. [L.] A solvent or dis- 
 solvent. The principal meusteua employed 
 in chemistry and pharmacy to extract the 
 active principles of bodies by digestion, de- 
 coction, infusion, or maceration, are water, 
 alcohol, oils, and solutions of the acids and 
 
 0.1 K fl IvlPR 
 
 MERCU"RIAL BAL'SAM. See Ointmbnt 
 OF Nitrate of Meecuet. 
 
 MERCU"RIAL DISEASE'. Si/n. MOBBTIS 
 IIEEOURIALIS, Hydkaeqteiasis, L. This 
 results from the injudicious or excessive use 
 of mercury, or exposure to the fumes of this 
 metal. The common and leading symptoms 
 are a disagreeable coppery taste ; excessive 
 salivation j sponginess, tumefaction, and ul- 
 ceration of the gums ; swollen tongue ; loosen- 
 ing of the teeth; exfoliation of the jaws; 
 remarkably offensive breath; debility; ema- 
 ciation; ending (when not arrested) in death 
 from exhaustion. Fever, cachexia, violent 
 purging and griping, a species of eczema (ec- 
 zema MEEC0EIALE, lEPEA MEBCTTEIAIIS), and 
 other forms of skin disease, are also phases, of 
 the same affection, the first of which occasion- 
 ally proves fatal under the influence of sudden 
 and violent physical exertion. 
 
 The treatment, in ordinary cases, may con- 
 sist in free exposure to the open air, aviiiding 
 either heat or cold; the administration of 
 saline aperients, as Epsom salts, phosphate of 
 soda, &c. ; the free use of lemon juice and 
 water as a common drink ; with weak gargles 
 or washes of chloride of soda or chloride of lime 
 to the gums, mouth, and throat. Severe cases 
 often resist every variety of treatment, and 
 instances are recorded in the medical journals 
 in which the use of even small doses of mer- 
 
MERCURY 
 
 1053 
 
 curUla, administered by the faculty, have, 
 owing to tile poi'iiliar idiosynLiusy of the 
 patients, been followed by the most horrible 
 ■ufforinf;!!, terminating in death. 
 
 MEE'COBY. Hg. 8i/n. QciOKSiLTBB, 
 Hydbaboybum (B. p.. Ph. L. E. and D.) ; 
 Mkbccbs, Vif absent, Fr. ; Quecksilbeb, 
 Cii'r. A remarkable metal, which has been 
 known from a very early period. 'ITie Romans 
 employed it as a medicine externally, as did 
 the Arabs; but tho Hindoos were probably the 
 first to prescribe it internally. 
 
 Sources. The most important are the mines 
 of Iilriii, in Carniola; Alinaden, in New Cas- 
 tile; and New Almaden, in California, where 
 it exists combined with sulplmr, under the 
 form of cinnabar. From this ore the pure 
 metal is obtained by distilling it with lime or 
 iron filing-', in iron retorts, by which the sul- 
 phur it cuutains is seized and retiiined, while 
 the mercury rises in the state of vapour, and 
 i* condensed in suitable receivers. Quicksilver 
 is commonly imported in cylindrical iron bot- 
 tles, containing i cwt. to 1 cwt. each. It is 
 also imported in smHll quantities from China, 
 contain^! in bamboo bottles holding about 
 20 lbs. each. 
 
 Prep. Mercury, as imported, is usually 
 sufficiently pare for medicinal purposes with- 
 out any further preparation. Mere mechanical 
 impurities, as floating dust, dirt, &c., may be 
 got rid of by squeezing the metal through 
 chamois leather or flannel, or by filtering it 
 through a small hole in the apex of an inverted 
 cone of paper. It can be further cleaned by 
 shaking wt-U with a little strong nitric acid, 
 washing with distilled water, and drying by 
 blotting paper, or filtering througli warm 
 chamois leather. 
 
 Prop., S(e. Mercury, at all common tem- 
 peratures, is a heavy liquid, possessing a nearly 
 vilver-whlte colour, and a brilliant metallic 
 lustre; solidifies (treezes) at — 40° Fahr., and 
 is then ductile, malleable, and tenacious ; boils 
 at 662" Fiihr., and escapes in colonrless trans 
 parent vapour, of gi'eat density ; it also volati 
 liscs slowly at the ordinary temperature of 
 the atmosphere. The presence of minute quan- 
 tities of lead and zinc greatly retard its evapo- 
 ration at its boiling' heat. It unites with oxy- 
 gen, chlorine, iodine, &c., forming numerous 
 compounds. With the metals it unites to 
 form AMALO-AMS. The only acids which act 
 directly on metallic mercury are the sulphuric 
 and nitric, but for this purpose the former 
 must be heated and concentrated. Nitric 
 acid, however, even when dilute and in the 
 cold, dissolves it freely. Pure mercury is un- 
 altenible in the air at ordinary temperatures. 
 8p. gr. 13-59 at GO" Fahr. j about 14- when in 
 the solid state. 
 
 Vaes, S(c, .Mercury is applied to various 
 purposes in the arts ; as the amalgamation of 
 golil and silver, ' wash gilding,' the ^silvering 
 of lni>kiiig-glassoa, the manufacture of ba- 
 rometers and thermometers, and the prepara- 
 
 tion of several very valuable medicines. In 
 its metallic state it appears to be inert when 
 swallowed, unless it meets with much acidity 
 in the alimentary canal, or is in a state of 
 minute division ; its compounds are, however, 
 all of them more or less poisonous. 
 
 Mercury has been employed in one or other 
 of its forms in almost all diseases ; but each of 
 its numerous preparations is supposed to have 
 some peculiarity of action of its own, com- 
 bined with that common to all the compounds 
 of this metal. The mercurials form, indeed, 
 one of tho most important classes of the 
 materia medica. 
 
 Teats. 1. Metallic mercurt/ is detected by 
 its liquid condition and volatility ; and, when 
 in a finely divided or pulverulent state, by ti.e 
 microscope, or by staining a piece of cupper 
 white when tho two are rubbed together. 
 
 Mercury, when present iu combination, can 
 be detected as under : 
 
 When intimately mixed with anhydrous 
 sodium carbonate, and heated in a small 
 test-tube, under a layer of the carbonate, de- 
 composition ensues, and a crust of grey sub- 
 limate form's on the cooler portion of the tube. 
 When examined by a lens this crust is seen to 
 consist of minute metallic globules. By fric- 
 tion with a bright glass or iron rod these are 
 uuited into globules, which are visible to the 
 naked eye. 
 
 A perfectly clean and bright piece of 
 copper, immersed in a slightly acid solution of 
 mercury, becomes in a short time covered with 
 a grey or whitish stain, which assumes a silvery 
 lustre when gently rubbed with a piece of soft 
 cork or leather, and is removed by the subse- 
 quent application of heat. A single drop of 
 liquid may be tested on a bright copper coin in 
 this way. 
 
 The plate of copper with the deposit of 
 mercury, obtained as above, after being waslied 
 with a weak solution of ammouia, and in dis- 
 tilled water, and dried by pressure between 
 the folds of bibulous paper, may be cut into 
 small pieces, and heated in a test-tube, in 
 order to obtain metallic globules. When the 
 suspected solution contains organic matter, 
 bright copper filings may be employed, and 
 the process modified so as nearly to resemble 
 Reinsch's test for arsenious acid. According 
 to Orfila, " scraped copper plate" is capable of 
 detecting the presence of twoo"' P"''' <>' ^'^ 
 rosive sublimate in a solution. MM- Trousseau 
 and Reveil state that a plate of yellow copper 
 (brass) is even more susceptible than one of 
 red copper. 
 
 (Smithson's electrolytic test.) This con- 
 sists in the use of a polished wire or plate of 
 gold or copper round which a strip or thread of 
 zinc or tin is wound in a spiral direction. The 
 suspected liquid is acidulated with a few drops 
 of hydrochloric acid, and after immersion for 
 a longer or a shorter period (as half an hour 
 to an hour or two), the gold will have become 
 white if any mercury is present. The coil of 
 
1054 
 
 MERCURY 
 
 zinc or tin is then removed from the gold, and 
 the latter, after being washed and dried be- 
 tween the folds of bibnlous paper, is heated 
 in a test-tube, to obtain metallic globules, as 
 before. 
 
 An ingenious extemporaneous application of 
 the electrolytic test may be made as follows : 
 — Place a drop or two of the suspected liquid 
 on a clean and bright gold or copper coin, and 
 apply a bright key, so that it may at once 
 touch the edge of the coin and the solution. 
 (See engr.) An electric current will then be 
 
 a. A. g;o1d or copper coin. 
 
 b. Drop of suspected solution. 
 e. A bnght key. 
 
 established as before, and a white spot of re- 
 duced mercury will appear on the surfuce of 
 the metal, which may be recognised in the 
 manner already explained. 
 
 The salts of mercury are divided into two 
 classes — mercurous, where mercury is a monad 
 element, and unites with one atom of chlorine ; 
 and mercuric salts, where it plays the part of 
 a dyad element, or unites with two atoms. 
 The latter of these will be taken first. 
 
 Mercury, Pure. (Ph. B.) Syn, Htdear- 
 GYBUM PtTRUM. Place commercial mercury, 
 3 lbs., in a glass retort or iron bottle, and 
 applying heat cause 2J lbs. of the metal to 
 distil over into a flask employed as a receiver. 
 Boil on this for five minutes hydrochloric acid, 
 3 dr., diluted with distilled water, 9 fi. dr., 
 and having by repeated affusions of distilled 
 water, and decantations, removed every trace 
 of acid, let the mercury be transferred to a 
 porcelain capsule, and dried- first by filtering 
 paper, and finally on a water bath. 
 
 Mercuric Salts. Tests. Sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen and ammonium sulphide, added in very 
 small quantities, produce on agitation a per- 
 fectly white precipitate, which acquires suc- 
 cessively a yellow, orange, and brownish-red 
 colour, as more of the test is added ; and, 
 nltimately, when the test is added in consider- 
 able excess, an intensely blai-k colour. This 
 precipitate is insoluble in excess of the precipi- 
 tant, potassium hydrate, potassium cyanide, 
 hydrochloric add, or nitric acid, even when 
 boiling ; but it dissolves readily and completely 
 in potassium sulphide and in ' aqua regia' with 
 decomposition. These reactions arc charac- 
 teristic. 
 
 Ammonia gives a white precipitate. 
 
 Potassium hydrate gives a reddish precipi- 
 tate, turning yellow when the test is added in 
 excess. The presence of ammonia causes the 
 precipitate to be white, and when the solu- 
 
 tion contains much acid both reactions are 
 imperfect. 
 
 Alkaline carbonates give a brick-red preci- 
 pitate. 
 
 Potassium iodide gives a scarlet precipitate, 
 which is soluble in excess, and in alcohol, and 
 splution of sodium chloride. 
 
 The alkaline bicarbonates either do not dis- 
 turb the solution, or only cause a slight degree 
 of opalescence. 
 
 Mercuric Acetate. Hg(C2H302)2. St/n. 
 Peotaoetate op meecuet. JPrep. By dis- 
 solving mercuric oxide in warm' acetic acid. 
 It crystallises in brilliant micaceous lamina, 
 soluble in their own weight of cold water, and 
 somewhat more soluble in boiling water. Ac- 
 cording to Robiqnet, this is the basis of 
 Keysets antivenereal pills, which do not con- 
 tain snbacetate of mercury, as has been 
 asserted. 
 
 Mercuric Bromide. .HgBrj. Syn. Pkoto- 
 
 BBOMIDE OP MEKOUEY, HyDEABOYEI EIBBO- 
 
 MIDUM. Prep. Two equal parts of bromine 
 and mercury and sublime. Soluble reddish 
 mass; resembles the iodide in its actiou. — 
 Dose, ,L to i gr. 
 Mercuric Chloride. HgClj. Si/n. Peoto- 
 
 OHLOEIDE OP MEECUEY, PeECHIOEIDE OF 
 MEECUEY, BiCHLOEIDE OE MERCCEY, COE- 
 EOSITE SUBLIMATE ; HYDEAEGYEI PEEOHLO- 
 
 EiDUM (B. P.), Hyeeaeoyei BICHLOBIDUSI 
 (Ph. L.), Sttblimatus coEEOsrvua (Ph. E.), 
 Subiimatum coeeosivom (Ph. D.), Hydeae- 
 
 OYEI CHLOEIDTTM COEEOSIVTJM (Ph. U. S.), 
 
 Hydbaeoyei mueias coEEOsivtrs, L. This 
 is the ' corrosive sublimate' of the shops. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs.; sul- 
 phuric acid, 21i fl. oz. ; boil to dryness, and 
 rub the residuum, when cold, with sodium 
 chloride, 1^ lb., in an earthenware mortar; 
 lastly, sublime by a gradually increased heat. 
 
 2. (Ph. K.) Mercury, 4 oz.; sulphuric acid, 
 2 fl. oz. 3 fl. dr. ; pure nitric acid, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 dissolve, add of sodium chloride, 3 oz., and 
 sublime as before. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) ' Persulphate of mercury' (mer- 
 curic sulphate), 2 parts ; dried sodium chlo- 
 ride, 1 part; triturate, &c., as before. 
 
 4. (Ph. B.) Reduce sulphate of mercury, 
 20 oz., and chloride of sodium, dried, 16 oz., 
 each to fine powder, and having mixed them 
 add black oxide of manganese, in fine powder, 
 1 oz., thoroughly by trituration in a mortar, 
 place the mixture in an apparatus adapted for 
 sublimation, and apply sufficient heat to cause 
 vapours of perchloride of mercury to rise into 
 the less heated part of the apparatus arranged 
 for their condensation. 
 
 Obs. In preparing corrosive sublimate, as 
 well as calomel, by the common process, the 
 solution of the mercury is usually made in an 
 iron pot, set in a furnace nnder a chimney, to 
 carry off the fumes; and the sublimation is 
 conducted in an earthen alembic placed in a 
 sand bath, or in an iron pot, covered with a 
 semi-spherical earthen head. Corrosive sub- 
 
MERCURY 
 
 1055 
 
 limate may also be maile by the dirnct solution 
 of mercuric oxide in hydrochloric acid, or by 
 bringing its constituents together in the state 
 of vapour. The latter plan was patented by 
 the late Dr A. T. Thomson. 
 
 Prof. The mercuric chloride of commerce 
 occurs in white, semi-transparent, crystalline 
 masses, of considerable density ; it possesses an 
 intense coppery taste, is soluble in about 16 
 parts of cold, and in 3 parts of boiling water ; 
 the boiling solution deposits its excess of salt 
 in lonf; white prisms as it cools; soluble in 
 alcohol and ether, in the latter so much so 
 that it has even the property of withdrawing 
 it from its aqueous solutions ; the addition of 
 hydrochloric acid, ammonious chloride or cam- 
 phor, increases its solubility in all these men- 
 strua. It i< decomposed by contact with nearly 
 all metitUic bodies, and in solution by various 
 organic substances, and by exposure to light. 
 Sp. gr. 5 2 (5-14 to 5-42— Liebig). It melts 
 at about 509° Fahr., and boils and volatilises 
 at a higher temperature. 
 
 Testa. The presence of mercuric chloride 
 may, under most circumstances, be readily de- 
 tccttil by the tests given. To distinguish it 
 from otiier salts, special tests for chlorine or 
 hydrochloric acid must be applied. If on fil- 
 tering the solution, acidulating it with dilute 
 nitric acid, and testing it with silver nitrate, 
 a cloudy white precipitate be formed, which is 
 insoluble in excess of the precipitant, and in 
 nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia water, and 
 blackened by lengthened exposure to light, 
 corrosive suldimate is shown to be present in 
 the substance examined. Calomel, the >mly 
 compound of mercury with chlorine besides 
 corrosive sublimate, is an insoluble powder, 
 which could not, therefore, be found in the 
 filtered liquid. Calomel, or the white precipi- 
 tate formed by the mercurous salt, with hy- 
 drochloric acid and the soluble chlorides, is 
 soluble in excess of the precipitant, and is not 
 only insoluble in liquor of ammonia, but is 
 immediately blackened by it. 
 
 For the purpose of demonstrating the pre- 
 sence of corrosive sublimate in a highly co- 
 loured liquid, or one loaded with organic 
 matter, it is necessary to agitate it for some 
 minutes with an equal volume of ether. 
 After repose for a short time, the ethereal 
 solution is decanted, and allowed to evaporate 
 spontaneously. The residuum (if any) con-- 
 tains the corrosive sublimate, which, after 
 being dissolved in distilled water, is readily 
 recognised by the above characteristics. 
 
 When the substance under examination con- 
 sists of food, or the contents of the digestive 
 canal, or of animal tissue, it is in general 
 necessary to destroy the organic matter in a 
 nearly >imil.ir way to that described under 
 Aesbnious acid. The process adopted by 
 Devergie for this purpose consists in di-scilving 
 the substance in concentrated hydrochloric 
 acid, and passing a stream of chlorine throuarh 
 the liquid.— Flandin tirst carbonises the mass 
 
 with i or i its weight of concentrated sul- 
 phuric acid, at 212° Fahr, and then saturates 
 the acid in the cold, witli dry ' chloride of 
 lime,' added in fragments, assisting the action 
 by stirring, and further adding, by degrees, as 
 the matter thickens and becomes white, a suf- 
 ficient quantity of distilled water. — Lassaigne 
 boils the suspected mixture for some time with 
 a solution of sodium chloride; a method which, 
 according to Orfila, is not sufficiently delicate 
 to withdraw minute portions of mercury from 
 flesh. — Millon agitates organic liquids (more 
 especially blood, milk, &c.) in large flasks con- 
 taining gaseous chlorine, which is frequently 
 renewed. — Orfila either dissolves the matter 
 in aqua regia, and passes a stream of chlorine 
 through the liquid, or he carbonises it by 
 means of concentrated sulphuric acid, in close 
 vessels. — Personne proceeds by a similar me- 
 thod, but avoids raising the temperature of 
 the substances operated on. — Reveil employs 
 either the last method or that of Millon. In 
 all cases it is advisable to operate in close 
 vessels, on account of the volatility of the 
 bichloride; Orfila's apparatus consists of a 
 matrass, provided with a bent tube, the one 
 end of which is plunged into a jar of cold dis- 
 tilled water. The corrosive sublimate is found 
 both in the volatilised matter and in the ciir- 
 bonised residuum, and is extracted from the 
 latter by boiling it for 15 or 20 minutes in 
 aqua regia. 
 
 When the organic matter has been destroyed 
 by any of the above processes, and a colourless 
 and filtered solution in distilled water obtained, 
 the usual tests may be at once applied. But 
 in this way we can only detect the presence 
 of mercury, but are unable to decide in what 
 way it has entered the system, although we 
 may infer it from other circumstances. It is, 
 therefore, abAlutely necessary, in nil medico- 
 legal investigations, to previously employ ether 
 (see above), in order that we may be enabled 
 to examine the deleterious matter in its 
 original form, or that in which it was swal- 
 lowed. 
 
 Uses, &fc. Mercuric chloride is employed as 
 an alterative, diaphoretic, and resolvent, in 
 the chronic forms of secondary syphilis, rheu- 
 matism, scrofula, cancer, old dropsies, nume- 
 rous skin diseases, &c. ; and externally, as a 
 caustic, in cancer, and made into an ointment, 
 lotion, or injectiou, in a vast number of skin 
 diseases, ulcers, gleet, &c., and as a preventive 
 of contagion. It acts quicker than the other 
 preparations of mercury, and it is less apt to 
 induce salivation; but it has been said that its 
 effects are less apparent. — Dose, xj; *<> i S^;' 
 either made into a pill, or in solution. It is 
 highly poisonous, and must be exhibited and 
 handled with the greatest caution. Its use is 
 contra-indicated in cases complicated with pul- 
 monary affections or nervous derangement. 
 
 Poi'i.— 1. Symptoms. Strong coppery or 
 metallic taste; intense pain in the mouth, 
 pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, and intestines; 
 
1056 
 
 MERCUEY 
 
 nausea, vomiting (often bloody), diarrhoea, and 
 (sometiiuea) violent dysentery (tiicse evacua- 
 tions are generally more frequent than in 
 poisoning by other metallic compounds). 
 After a certain time there is generally an 
 abatement of the severity of the symptoms ; 
 the circulation becomes slower, the pulse small 
 and thready, the respiration gentle, and the 
 skin cold ; syncope then supervenes, and great 
 general insensibility, always commencing at 
 tile pelvic extremities ; and sometimes con- 
 vulsions occur ; the secretion of urine is gene- 
 rally diminished, sometimes even entirely sup- 
 pressed ; but the patients always urinate if 
 the sublimate lias been employed in a very 
 diluted state, and if drinks have been admin- 
 istered. Death 'often appears to result from 
 the shock to the nervous system, from intense 
 exhaustion, or from mortification or intense 
 inflammation of the primsB viae. Poisoning by 
 corrosive sublimate is distinguished from that 
 by arsenic, by the countenance being flushed, 
 and even swollen; whereas, in poisoning by 
 arsenic, it is wholly contracted and ghastly, 
 and by the whitened condition of the epithe- 
 lium of the mouth. 
 
 2. Antidotes. White of egg, hydrated ferric 
 sulphide or ferrous sulphide, and gluten, are 
 each of thein powerful antidotes. White of egg 
 has proved efficacious in'numerous cases. It 
 requires the white of one egg to decompose 
 4 gr. of corrosive sublimate. (Peschier.) The 
 recently precipitated protosnlphuret of iron 
 is, however, according to Mialhe, the antidote 
 par excellence, not only to corrosive sublimate, 
 but to the salts of lead and copper. The 
 gluten of wheat has also been recommended 
 (Taddei) ; or, what is equally efficacious, wheat 
 flour mixed up with water. When any of the 
 above are not at hand, copious draughts of 
 milk may be substituted. Iron* filings have 
 been occasionally used as an antidote. All 
 these substances should be taken in consider- 
 able quantities ; the dose should be frequently 
 repeated, and the general treatment similar to 
 that in cases of poisoning by arsenic. Vomit- 
 ing should be, in all cases, immediately in- 
 duced, to remove, if possible, the poisonous 
 matter from the stomach. 
 
 Mercuric- ammonium Chloride. HgNH2Cl. 
 Si/n. Ammonio-chloeide op Meeoury, Am- 
 
 MOIflATED OHLOEIEE OP MEECTJBY, WHITE 
 PRECIPITATE, LeMERT'S W r., COSMETIO MER- 
 CUEY ; HYDRAECfYEI AMMONIATUM (B.T.), 
 
 IIydraegyei ammonio-ohxobidum (Ph. L.), 
 
 HYDBARGYECM PRa;CIPITATUM: ALBUM (Pll. 
 
 E.) 
 
 J?rep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercuric chloride, 6 
 oz. ; distilled water, 3 quarts; dissolve, with 
 heat, and when the solution has cooled, add of 
 liquor of ammonia 8 fl. oz., frequently shaking 
 it; lastly, wash the precipitate with water, 
 and dry it. The formula) of the Ph. E. & D. 
 are nearly similar. 
 
 2. Mercuric chloride and ammonium chlo- 
 ride, of each J lb. ; water, 3 quarts : dissolve. 
 
 and precipitate with solution of potassium 
 hydrate, q. s. 
 
 JProp., ifc. A white, inodorous, light mass, 
 or powder ; insoluble in alcohol, partially 
 soluble in boiling water, and wholly dissolved 
 by sulphuric, nitric, and hydiochloric acids, 
 without effervescence. It is totally dissipated 
 by heat. When heated with solution of potash, 
 it exhales ammonia, and assumes a yellow 
 colour. Used to make an ointment, which is 
 employed in herpes, porrigo, itch, and other 
 skin diseases, &c. ; and by the lower orders as 
 a dusting powder to destroy pediculi, an appli- 
 cation which, from its liberal employment, is 
 not always a safe one. It is highly poisonous, 
 and must not be swallowed. 
 
 Mercuric and Ammouinm Chloride. 
 NH4Cl,HgCl2. Syn. Chloride op meecuey 
 
 AND AMMONIUM, SAL ALEMEROTH ; HY- 
 
 drarotei bt ammonii chloeidum, L. Prep. 
 (P. Cod.) From mercuric chloride and am- 
 monium chloride, equal parts, triturated 
 together. " The object in adding the am- 
 monium chloride here is to render the corro- 
 sive sublimate more soluble in water. The 
 action of the latter is not otherwise altered." 
 (Redwood.) It is chiefly used for lotions and 
 injections. 
 
 Mercuric and Quinine Chloride. Syn. Chlo- 
 ride OF MEECUBY AND QUININE; HTDEAE- 
 GYEI ET QUINiE CHLOEIDUM, L. Prep. 
 
 (M'Dermott.) From mercuric chloride, 1 
 part ; quinine chloride, 3 parts ; separately 
 formed into saturated solutions with water 
 and then mixed ; the crystalline precipitate is 
 collected and dried by a gentle heat. — Dose, 
 ^ to i gr., made into a pill with crum of 
 bread ; daily, as an alterative in debilitated 
 habits; or combined with opium thrice daily, 
 to produce salivation. 
 
 Mercuric Cyanide. HgCy, or Hg(CN)2. 
 Syn. Cyanide of meecuey ; Hydeaeoybi 
 
 CYANIDUM, H. BICYANIDUM, H. CYAHUEETUII 
 
 (Ph. U. S.), L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1S36.) Ferric ferro- 
 cyanide (pure Prussian blue), 8 oz. ; mercuric 
 oxide, 10 oz. ; distilled water, 4 pints; boil 
 for half an hour, filter, evaporate, and crystal- 
 lise ; wash what remains frequently with boil- 
 ing distilled water, and again evaporate, that 
 crystals may form. 'I'his is Proust's process. 
 The formula of the Ph. U. S. is similar. 
 
 2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Prussian blue (pure), 6 
 parts ; mercuric oxide, 5 parts ; distilled water, 
 40 parts ; as the last. 
 
 3. (Desfosses.) Potassium ferrocyanide, 1 
 part, is boiled for i hour with mercuric sul- 
 phate, 2 parts, and distilled water, 8 parts; 
 the deposit is separated by 61tration, and the 
 liquid evaporated to crystallising point. 
 
 4. (Winckler.) Saturate dilute hydrocyanic 
 acid with mercuric oxide ; evaporate and crys- 
 tallise. Pure. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Heavy, colourless, inodorous, 
 square prisms; tasting strongly metallic; 
 soluble in 8 parts of cold water; slightly 
 
MERCURY 
 
 105 
 
 Bulublo in alcohol. Those made by the firnt 
 two fornmliD iire uf a pale yellow colour. It is 
 traQBpnrent and totuUy soluble in water. 
 The solution, on the addition of hydrochloric 
 acid, evolves hydrocyanic acid, known by its 
 smell ; and a glass moistened with a solution 
 of nitrate of silver, and held over it, gives a 
 deposit soluble in boiling nitric acid. When 
 heated it evolves cyanogen, and runs into 
 globules of metallic mercury. It has been 
 administered in some hepatic and skin diseases, 
 and has been proposed as a substitute for 
 corrosive sublimate. (Parent.) It has been 
 said to act directly on the skin and bones, and 
 to have proved useful in allaying the pain of 
 nodes and in dispersing them. (Mendaga.) 
 It is, however, principally used as a source of 
 cyanogen and hydrocyanic acid. — Dose, ^-g to 
 i gr. (be;,'inniag with the smaller quantity), 
 made into pills with crum of bread, or in 
 alcoholic solution ; as a gargle or lotion, 10 
 gr. to water, 1 pint; as an ointment, 10 or 12 
 gr., to lard, 1 oz. 
 
 Mercnriclodide. Hglj. Syn. Peotiodide 
 OP MEBOUBY, Red iodide op mebcuey. Io- 
 dide OP MEBOtrilT, BiNIODIDE OFMEEOnET; 
 UXDBABSYBI lODIDUM EUBBUM (B. P.), 
 HtDEAEOYEI lODlDnM, H. BINIOBIDTIM (Ph. 
 
 E), H. lODiDTTM eubeum (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Mercuric chloride (corrosive sub- 
 limate), <1; potassium iodide, O; boiling dis- 
 tilled water, 80. Dissolve the mercuric chlo- 
 ride In 60 of water, and the pot:assium iodide 
 in the remainder, and mix the two solutions. 
 Allow to stand, decant the supernatant liquor, 
 and collect the precipitate on a filter, wash 
 twice with cold water, and dry at 212° F. 
 
 a. (Ph. L. 1836.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; iodine, 
 10 dr. J rectified spirit, q. s. (2 or 3 fl. dr.); 
 triturate until the globules of mercury dis- 
 appear, and the mixture assumes a scarlet 
 colour, then dry it in the shade, and preserve 
 it in a well-stoppered vessel. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Mercury, 2 oz. ; iodine, 2J oz.; 
 spirit, q, s. ; triturate together as last, dissolve 
 the product, by brisk ebullition, in concen- 
 trated solution of sodium chloride, 1 gall., 
 filter whilst boiling hot, wash the crystals 
 that are deposited as the solution cools, and 
 dry them. 
 
 4. (Ph. I).) Mercuric chloride, 1 oz. ; hot 
 distilled water, 23 fl. oz. ; dissolve potassium 
 iodide, 1^ oz. ; water, 5 fl. oz. ; dissolve ; 
 when the solutions are cold, mix them, collect 
 the precipit;ite on a paper filter, drain it, 
 wash it with distilled water, 10 fl. oz., and dry 
 it at a heiit not above that of boiling water. 
 
 Prop., S(c. A bright scarlet powder, inso- 
 luble in water, but soluble in alcohol and 
 ether, and in the solutions of several of the 
 iodides and chlorides. It is also soluble in 
 cod-liver oil, and in several other fixed oils. 
 Readily sublimed. — Dose, \ to \ gr., dis- 
 solved in alcohol or made into a pill ; in the 
 same cases as the subiodldes, from which it 
 
 TOL. II, 
 
 differs chiefly in its greater energy and poi- 
 sonous qualities. 
 Mercuric Oleate, See Ointment op Oleate 
 
 OP MEUCtTET. 
 
 Mercuric and Potassium Iodide. Hgl, . KI. 
 Syn. Iodide op meboubt and potas- 
 sium, lODO-HTDEAEGTEATB OP POTASSIUM; 
 
 Hydeaeotbi kt potassii iodidum, L. 
 Prep. 1. (M. Boullay.) Mercuric iodide, po- 
 tassium iodide, and water, equal parts; 
 dissolve by heat, and crystallise by evapora- 
 tion or refrigeration, or gently evaporate to 
 dryness. 
 
 2. (Puche.) From mercuric iodide and 
 potassium iodide, equal parts, triturated to- 
 gether.— Z)o*e, I'j to^ gr., dissolved in water; 
 in the same cases as the binioilide, and in 
 chronic bronchitis, hooping-cough, inflamma- 
 tory sore throat, &c. 
 
 Mercuric and Potassium lodo-cy'anide. Syn. 
 
 HydBAEOYEI ET potassii lODO-OTANIDrM, 
 L. Prep. To u concentrated solution of 
 mercuric cyanide add a rather strong solution 
 of potassium iodide, and dry the precipitate by 
 a gentle heat. 
 
 Prop., ifc. Small, white, pearly, crystalline 
 plates or scales. It is chitfly used as a test of 
 the purity of hydrocyanic acid. When put 
 into this liquid it is instantly turned red if 
 any mineral acid is present. 
 
 Mercuric Nitrate. Hg(N03)j. Syn. Peo- 
 
 TONITKATE OP MEECUEY, PeENITBATE OP 
 
 MEBOUUY. Prep. 1, (Neittbal.) This is 
 obtained by solution of mercuric oxide, in 
 excess of nitric acid. The solution, evaporated 
 in a bell-jar over sulphuric acid, yields crystals 
 which are neutral. The same compound is 
 obtained as a crystalline powder when the 
 syrupy liquid is dropped into strong nitric 
 acid. 
 
 (Basic.) Ist. 2Hg(N0a)H0 . HjO. Prep, 
 a. By saturating hot dilute nitric acid with 
 mercuric oxide. The salt, which is bibasic, 
 crystallises on cooling. 
 
 h. By dissolving mercury in excess of nitric 
 acid, with heat, until the solution, when di- 
 luted with distilled water, ceases to give a 
 precipitate with common salt. It is now a 
 mixed , solution of the neutral and bibasic per- 
 nitrates ; but by evaporation crystals of the 
 latter salt only are deposited. The acid solu- 
 tion (before evaporation) is used as a caustic 
 in cancerous, syphilitic, and other ulcerations ; 
 but it frequently produces intense pain, and 
 occasionally the usual constitutional effects of 
 mercury. It was formerly given in similar 
 cases to those in which the bichloride is now 
 employed. — Dose (of the dry salt), j\j to ^ 
 gr. This is the preparation ordinarily referred 
 to under the name ' pernitrate of mercury.' 
 
 2nd. 2Hg(N03)HO . HgO. c. By saturat- 
 ing strong nitric acid with mercury, by heat, 
 throwing the solution into cold water, and 
 collecting and drying the precipitate. This 
 salt, which is tribasic, is also formed when 
 
 67 
 
1058 
 
 MERCURY 
 
 the preceding crystallised salts are put into hot 
 water. 
 
 Obs, This last preparation is a heavy, yellow 
 powder, but the shade varies according to its 
 basicity, which increases with the temperature 
 of the water employed to effect the precipita- 
 tion, until, at the boiling temperature, the 
 colour is a dull red. It is extensively em- 
 ployed for the extemporaneous preparation of 
 the ointment of nitrate of mercury, according 
 to the formula on the following label which 
 accompanies each bottle : — " Hydrarg. snb- 
 nitras." " Two scruples, mixed with one 
 ounce of simple cerate, make the ung. hydrarg. 
 nit. of the London Pharmacopoeia." We need 
 scarcely add that this statement, so unblush- 
 ingly uttered, is a dangerous falsehood. An 
 ointment so made possesses neither the quan- 
 tity of mercury nor of nitric acid employed 
 in the Pharmacopoeia preparation, besides 
 wanting many of its most sensible and valuable 
 properties. 
 
 Mercuric Oxide. HgO. Syn. Peotozidb 
 
 OF MEBCUET, ReD OXIDB OP MERCURY, 
 
 Oxide of m., Binoxide of m., Deutoxide 
 OF M., Peroxide of m. ; Hydkaboyei oxt- 
 DUM, H. o. EUBEUM, B. & L. There are 
 several methods by which this substance may 
 be prepared. The following are those which 
 have been ordered at different times in the 
 Pharmacopoeias : — 
 
 1. By precipitation (Hydbae&yei binoxy- 
 DUM — Ph. L. 1836.). Mercuric chloride (corro- 
 sive sublimate), 4 07,. j distilled water, 6 pints ; 
 dissolve and add of liquor of potass, 28 fl. oz. ; 
 drain the precipitate, wash it in distilled 
 water, and dry it by a gentle heat. 
 
 Obs. A bright orange-red powder. It 
 usually contains a little combined water ; hence 
 its readier solubility in acids than the oxide 
 prepared by heat. When heated sufficiently 
 it yields oxygen, and the mercury either runs 
 into globules or is totally dissipated. It is 
 entirely soluble in hydrochloric acid. (Ph. L. 
 1836.) The preparation of the shops has fre- 
 quently a bi'ick-red colour, and contains a 
 little oxy chloride, arising from too little alkali 
 being used. 
 
 2. By calcination of the nitrate (Red pre- 
 cipitate ; Hydbaeoyri niteioi oxyditm 
 Ph. L. Hydearoyri oxidum eubkum, B. P., 
 Ph, L., Ph, D.) Prep. B. P. Mercury, by 
 weight, 8; nitric acid, 4i; water, 2. Dissolve 
 half the mercury in the water and acid, evapo- 
 rate to dryness, and triturate with the rest of 
 the mercury until well blended. Heat in a 
 porcelain capsule, repeatedly stirring, until 
 acid vapours cease to be evolved. 
 
 Mercury, 3 lbs.; nitric acid, 18 fl. oz. (IJ 
 lb.. Ph. L. 1836) ; water, 2 quarts ; dissolve 
 by a gentle heat, evaporate to dryness, powder, 
 and calcine this in a shallow vessel, with a 
 gradually increased heat, until red vapours 
 cease to arise. The process of the Ph. E. 
 and D. are similar, except that the Dublin 
 College directs the evaporation and calcination 
 
 to be performed in the same vessel, without 
 powdering or stirring the mass. 
 
 Obs. Bright red crystalline scales, which 
 usually contain a little undecomposed per- 
 nitrate of mercury; in other respects it re- 
 sembles the last two preparations. It is more 
 generally used as an escharotic and in oint- 
 ments than the precipitated oxide. It is vola- 
 tilised by beat without the evolution of nitrous 
 vapours. 
 
 According to Mr Brande it contains about 
 2} per cent, of nitric acid. According to Mr 
 Barker the process of the Ph. D. yields the 
 finest coloured product j but Mr Brande states 
 that " the nitrate requires to be constantly 
 stirred during the process, which is usually 
 performed in a cast-iron pot." On the large 
 scale, the evaporation is generally conducted 
 in a shallow earthen dish, and as soon as the 
 mass becomes dry a second dish is inverted 
 over it, and the calcination is continued, with- 
 out disturbance, until the process is concluded. 
 The heat of a sand bath is employed. 120 
 lbs. of mercury, and 48 lbs. of nitric acid (sp. 
 gr. 1"48) yields 112 lbs. of red precipitate. 
 (Brande.) 
 
 Vses, l(c. Red oxide of mercury, whether 
 obtained by calcination or precipitation, pos- 
 sesses the same general properties. It is very 
 slightly soluble in water, but sufficiently so to 
 give that fluid an alkaline reaction, and a me- 
 tallic taste. It was formerly employed in 
 medicine to induce salivation; but is now 
 chiefly used as an escharotic, either in the form 
 of powder or made into an ointment. — Dose, 
 I to 1 gr., combined with opium. It is very 
 poisonous. 
 
 Mercuric Sulphide. HgS04. 8yn. Peoto- 
 
 SULPHATE of MEEOUEY; HyDEABQYEI SUL- 
 PHAS (Ph. B.), H. PEHSULPHA3, H. BIPERSUL- 
 
 PHAS, L. Prep. 1. (Neutral.) — a. By boiling 
 together sulphuric acid and metallic mercury 
 until the latter is wholy converted into a heavy, 
 white, crystalline powder; the excess of acid 
 is removed by evaporation. Equal weights 
 of acid and metal may conveniently be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 b. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve mercury, 6 
 parts, in a mixture of sulphuric acid, 6 parts, 
 and nitric acid, 1 part, by boiling them in a 
 glass vessel, and continue the heat until the 
 mass becomes perfectly dry and white. Used 
 to make calomel. 
 
 c. (Ph. B.) Place 20 oz. of quicksilver in a 
 porcelain capsule with 12 fl. oz. of sulphuric 
 acid, and apply heat until nothing remains hut 
 a white, dry, crystalline salt. Used to make 
 perohloride and chloride of mercury. 
 
 2. (Basic.) HgSO^.jHgO. Syn. Tbibasio 
 
 SULPHATE OF MERCUBY, TURPETH MINEEAL, 
 
 TuEBiTH M., Queen's yellow, Subsdlphatb 
 
 OF MEROURYf, TeIBASIC PERSULPHATE OF 31. J 
 
 Hydbaeoyei subsulphas, H. s. flatus, 
 Teepethum mineealb, L. — a. Dissolve mer- 
 cury in an equal weight of sulphuric acid by 
 boiling them to dryness, fling the mass into 
 
MERCURY 
 
 1059 
 
 hot water, and wash and dry the resulting 
 yellow powder. 
 
 b. (I'h. D. 1826.) Mercuric sulphate, 1 
 pnrt ; wnrm water, 20 parts ; tritarate together 
 in an eiirthen mortar, wash well with distilled 
 water, drain, and dry it. 
 
 Prop., (fo. A heavy, lemon-yellow powder, 
 soluble in 2000 parts of cold, and about 600 
 parts of boiling water. By long-continued 
 wasliing with very hot water it loses all its 
 remaining acid, and is at length converted 
 into red oxide of mercury. — Dote. As an altera- 
 tive, }^ to I gr. ; as an emetic, 3 to 5 gr. ; as 
 an errliine, 1 gr. j mixed up with a pinch of 
 liquorice powder or fine suofE. It is a powerful 
 poisiin, and one of the least useful of the 
 mercurial preparations. 
 
 Oba, The temperature of the water em- 
 ployed to decompose the neutral sulphate 
 influences the shade of colour of the resulting 
 salt in a similar manner to that pointed out 
 under the nitrate. It is now superseded as 
 a pigment by chrome yellow and orpiment, 
 which are not only more beautiful, but cheaper 
 preparations. 
 
 Hercnric Sulphide. HorS. St/n. Photo- 
 
 BULPHIDB OF MEBCnET, RED SULPHCEBT OF 
 MKKCPET, FAOTtTIOtrs CINNABAR, VbEMILION, 
 STTLPHUKBT of MEKUBT, StTLPniDE OF M., 
 BlSUtPHCnET OP M.+ ; Htdeaeotbi bisul- 
 PUUKETUM (Ph. B. & Ph. L.), ClNNABAniS 
 
 (Ph. K), H. srLPnrEETijMEnBEtrM. L. Fre^'- 
 (Ph. L.) Quicksilver, 24 oz. ; sulphur, 5 oz. ; 
 melt together, and continue the heat till the 
 mixture swells up, then cover the vessel, re- 
 moife it from the heat, and when cold, powder 
 and sublime it. (Ph. B.) Quicksilver, 2 lbs. ; 
 sulphur, 6 oz. 
 
 Prop., 1(0. Mercuric sulphide has n dark- 
 red semi-crystalline appearance in the mass, 
 but acquires a brilliant scarlet colour by pow- 
 dering. It is tasteless, odourless, and in- 
 soluble. It is chiefly used as a pigment; but 
 it is occasionally employed in medicine as a 
 diaphoretic and vermifuge, and in some cuta- 
 neous diseases and gout. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 gr. ; Hs a fumigation, about \ dr. is thrown 
 on a plate of iron heated to dull redness. For 
 the last purpose it is inferior to mercurous 
 oxide, owing to the more irritating nature of 
 its vapour. 
 
 Tetl>. Mercfhotjs SALTS. Sulphuretted 
 hydrogen and ammonium sulphide give black 
 precipitates, insoluble in dilute acids, ammo- 
 nium sulphide, potassium cyanide, and hot 
 nitric acid, but slightly soluble in sodium 
 sulphide, and decomposed by nitrohydrochloric 
 acid. 
 
 Potassium hydrate and ammonia give black 
 grey or black precipitates, which are insoluble 
 in excess of the precipitant. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic 
 chlorides occasion a precipitate, which assumes 
 the form of a very fine powder of dazzling 
 whiteness, insoluble in excess, but soluble in 
 aqua re).'ia and liquid chlorine. Pot.issinm 
 
 hydrate and ammonia turn it dark grey or 
 black. 
 
 Potassium iodide gives a greenish-yellow 
 precipitate, soluble in ether, and subliming in 
 red crystals when heated. 
 
 MercnroM Acetate. Hg(C2H3G3). Syn. 
 Acetate of meecuet, Scbacetate. iVfp. 
 (P. Cod.) Difsolve mercurous nitrate, 1 part, 
 in water (slightly acidulated with nitric acid), 
 4 parts, and precipitate the liquid with a 
 solution of sodium acetate, gradually added, 
 until in slight excess ; carefully wash the 
 precipitate with cold water, and dry it in the 
 shade. 
 
 Prop., Ifc. Small, white, micaceons, flexible 
 scales ; insoluble in alcohol ; soluble in about 
 300 parts of water ; blackened by light ; and 
 carbonised by a strong heat. It has been 
 said to be one of themildestof the mercurials ; 
 but this cannot be the case, as it occasionally 
 acts with great violence on both the stomach 
 and bowels, producing much pain and prostra- 
 tion. — Dose, J to 1 gr., night and morning, 
 gradually increased. 
 
 Mercurous Bromide. HgBr. Si/a. SuB- 
 
 BEOMIDE op MKBCUEY; HydEARQTKUM BBO- 
 MIDUM, L. Prep. (Magendie.) By precipi- 
 tating a solution of mercurous nitrate by 
 another of potassium bromide. It closely 
 resembles calomel in both its appearance and 
 properties. — Vose, 1 to 5 gr. 
 
 Mercurous Chloride. HgCI or Hg^CI;. Si/n. 
 Calomel, SgscHLOEiDE of mebcubt, Mek- 
 oitetchloeide; Htdeaeotbi suBCHLOEiDtiii 
 
 (B. P.), HTDEABeTEI CHLOEIDCM (Ph. L.), H. 
 
 0. MiTB (Ph. U. S), Calomelas (Ph. E. &D.), 
 L. This substance is one of the best known, 
 and probably the most valuable, of all the 
 mercurials. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 2 lbs. ; sulphuric 
 acid, 21) fl. oz. ; mix, boil to dryness (in a 
 cast-iron vessel), and when the resulting mass 
 has cooled, add of mercury, 2 lbs., and tritu- 
 rate the ingredients in an eartheiiwiire mortar 
 until they are well mixed; then add of sodium 
 chloride, H lb., and again triturate until the 
 globules are no longer visible ; next sublime 
 the mixture, reduce the sublimate to the finest 
 possible powder, diligently wash it with boil- 
 ing distilled water, and ilry it. — Prod. 117 of 
 118§ of the weight of mercury employed. 
 
 2. (Ph. F.) Mercury, 4 oz., is dissolved in 
 a Hiixture of sulphuric acid, 2 ft. oz. 3 fl. dr., 
 and nitric acid, j fl. oz., by the aid of heat; 
 when cold, mercury, 4 oz., is added, and the 
 remainder of the process is conducted as 
 before. 
 
 3. (CalOMELIS StTBLIMATUJI. — Ph. D.) 
 Sulphate of mercury, 10 parts; mercury, 7 
 parts ; dry sodium chloride, 5 parts ; triturate, 
 &c., as hefnre, and atterwiirds rcsublime it, into 
 a large chamber or receiver. 
 
 4. (Ph. B.) Same as Dublin. 
 
 5. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Quicksilver, 60 lbs., 
 and sulphuric acid, 70 lbs., are boiled to dry- 
 ness in a cast-iron vessel ; of the dry salt, 
 
1060 
 
 MERCUEY 
 
 62 lbs. are triturated with quicksilver, 40i lbs., 
 until the globules are extinguished, when 
 sodium chloride, 34 lbs., is ndded, and after 
 thorough admixture the whole is sublimed, 
 &c., as before.— Prod. 96 to 100 lbs. 
 
 6. (Jewel's Patent.) The receiver, which is 
 capacious, is filled with steam, so that the 
 calomel vapour is condensed in it in a state of 
 extremely minute division. The engr. repre- 
 sents the apparatus now usually employed 
 when this plan is adopted. The product is 
 extremely white, and of the finest quality, It 
 is sometimes called ' hydrosublimed calomel ' 
 and ' hydrosublimate of mercury.' The ' flow- 
 ers of calomel,' of old pharmacy, were prepared 
 in a nearly similar manner. 
 
 a. Furnace. 
 
 b. An earthenware retort, havinp a shoit and wide 
 
 neck, coutaining the ingredients for making 
 calomel. 
 
 c. An earthen receiver, having three tuhulatures. 
 (/. A vessel containing water. 
 
 e. A Bteam-boiler. 
 
 7. (Soubeiran.) The crude calomel mixture 
 is heated in an earthen tube in a furnace, and 
 a current of air is directed uninterruptedly 
 into the tube by means of a small ventilator. 
 This sweeps away, as it were, the vapours of 
 calomel, and in a straight tube will carry them 
 a distance of 60 feet, to avoid whicli the end 
 of the recipient is immersed in water, by which 
 means the calomel is moistened and falls down. 
 This plan, slightly modified, is now extensively 
 adopted in this country. 
 
 8. (Peecipitated caiosiel; Calomelas 
 PE^ffiOiPiTATUM, L.) Digest pure quicksilver, 
 9 parts, in nitric acid (sp. gr. 1 02 to 1'25), 8 
 parts, until no more metal will dissolve, apply- 
 ing heat as the effervescence ceases ; then mix 
 the hot liquid quickly with a boiling solution 
 of sodium cliloride, 8 parts, dissolved in water 
 (slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid), 
 64 parts ; lastly, well wash the precipitate in 
 boiling distilled water, and dry it. The pro- 
 duct, when the process is skilfully managed, is 
 perfectly white and pure. 
 
 Prop. A heavy, white, tasteless powder; 
 insoluble in water, alcohol, and cold dilute 
 nitric acid ; volatilises at a temperature below 
 redness, and yields a white or yellowish-white 
 sublimate ; hot nitric acid oxidises and dissolves 
 it ; alkalies, tlie alkaline carbonates, and lime 
 water, decompose it, with the production of 
 the black oxide ; ammonia converts it into a 
 dark slate-grey coloured powder (black pke- 
 CIPITAIB — Kane). Sp. gr. 7'14 (BouUay; 
 7-156— Pelouze and Premy ; 7'176— Ure). 
 
 Pur. Calomel is frequently contaminated 
 witVi small quantities of corrosive sublimate, 
 which may he detected by digesting a little in 
 alcohol, decanting the clear portion, and test- 
 ing it with a drop or two of potassium hydrate, 
 when a reddish precipitate will be formed if 
 any mercuric chloride be present. It is pul- 
 verulent, whitish, and sublimes entirely by 
 heat. It becomes black on the addition of 
 potassium hydrate, then, heat being applied, it 
 runs into globules of mercury. Neither silver 
 nitrate, lime water, nor sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen, being added to the water in which it has 
 been washed, or boiled throws down anything. 
 Uses. Calomel is one of the milder mer- 
 curials, and in this respect takes its position 
 immediately after blue pill, mercury with 
 chalk, and the grey oxide; but it probably 
 ranks before all the other salts of mercury. 
 Universal experience appears to show it to he 
 a most valuable alterative when judiciously 
 administered. With this intention it is given 
 in doses of i to 1 gr., generally combined with 
 antimonials, as in Plummer's pill, and re- 
 peated every night, or every other night, for 
 some time, tbllowed by a mild saline aperient 
 in the morning. As a purgative, 2 to 5 gr., 
 either combined with or followed by other 
 purgatives, as jalap, rhubarb, senna, colocynth, 
 Epsom salts, &c. As a vermifuge, 2 to 5 gr., 
 over-night, followed by a suflacient dose of 
 castor oil next morning. Combined with opium 
 it is frequently used in various complaints to 
 produce salivation, or bring the system under 
 the influence of mercury. It is also employed 
 as a sedative and errhine, and in a vast num- 
 ber of other indications. It is, indeed, more 
 frequently used, and in a greater variety of 
 complaints, than probably any other medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Obs. Of the two methods of preparing 
 calomel, that by precipitation is not only the 
 best, hut the most economical. That by sub- 
 limation is, however, the one generally adopted 
 in England. Mr Brande states that " a small 
 portion of sodium chloride is apt to remain 
 combined with it, which might affect its me- 
 dical uses." Such a contamination is not 
 found in carefully prepared precipitated calo- 
 mel, although we doubt whether the quantity 
 of it which exists in any of the samples we 
 have met with (being merely a trace) would 
 at all interfere with its therapeutical action ; 
 more especially when it is recollected that 
 alkaline chlorides are present in, not merely 
 the primas vige, hut also in every part of the 
 animal body. The late Mr Fownes, a chemist 
 who was unsurpassed in the accuracy of his 
 researches, and the caution and delicacy with 
 which he expressed his opinions, once assured 
 us that calomel was more easily and cheaply 
 prepared of the best quality by precipitation 
 than by sublimation, and that if, from careless 
 manipulation, it occasionally contained a 
 minute quantity of common salt, this was of 
 much less importance than the contamination 
 
MERCURY 
 
 1061 
 
 of corrosive Bublimnte, wliich was frequently 
 proflent in samples of sublimed ctilomel. 
 
 To produce a superior article of chIotucI in 
 the dry way is a somewliHt difficult task, and 
 tlie prcees-i frequently fails in the hands of 
 inriperieneed operators. The solution of the 
 mercury is best made in «n iron vessel, and 
 the sublimation should be conducted (pre- 
 ferably) in an cartlii'nware retort with a short 
 but very wide necli, and fitted in a spacious 
 receiver, having a large fiat bottom, also of 
 earthenware, and containing a little cold water. 
 On the small scale the heat may be applied 
 by means of a sand bath. The form above 
 given for CMlomel, by precipitation, prodiicesa 
 large product, perfectly free from corrosive 
 sublimate and raercurnua nitrate, and is conse- 
 quently free from the objections frequently 
 raised against that mode of preparing it. 
 
 " The form in which calomel sublimes 
 depends much upon the dimensions and tem- 
 perature of the subliming vessels. In small 
 vessels it generally condeiises in a crystalline 
 cake, the interior surface of which is often 
 covered with beautiful quadrangular pi-ismatio 
 crystals, transparent, and of a texture fome- 
 what elastic or horny. In this state it ac- 
 quires, by the necessary rubbing into powder, 
 a decided yellow or buff colour, more or less 
 deep, according to the degree of trituration it 
 has undergone. If, on the contrary, the calo- 
 mel be sublimed into a very capacious and 
 cold receiver, it falls in an impalpable and 
 perfectly white powder, which requires only 
 one eUitriation to fit it for use ; it then remains 
 perfectly colourless." (ISrande.) 
 
 The long-continued action of steam on calo- 
 mel iu a state of minute division is attended 
 by the (briiuition of a small quantity of corro- 
 sive sublimate. (Righini.) Boiling water, 
 hot air, and light, also produce a like effect. 
 
 MercurouB Iodide. Hgl. Syn. Subiodide 
 OF MKRoniY, Green iodide of meecuet, 
 Mkecueotjs iodide ; Htdbaeqyei iodidum 
 vihidb (b. p.), hrdkaegyei btjbiodum, h. 
 
 IODIDUM (Ph. L.), H. I. TIEIDE (Ph. D.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (U. p.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; iodine, 278 
 gr. J rectified spirit, a sufficiency. Rub the 
 io.line and mercury in a porcelain mortar, 
 moistening occasionally with a few drops of 
 spirit, and continue the trituration until the 
 mass assumes a uniform green colour, and no 
 metidlic globules are visible. 
 
 2. Precipitate a solution of mercurous 
 nitrate by another of mercurons potassium 
 iodide ; wash the precipitate, first in a solution 
 of si'dium chloride, and then in pure water ; 
 lastly, dry it in the shade. 
 
 8. (Ph. L.) Mercury, 1 oz. ; iodine, 5 dr. ; 
 tritnrate together, gradually adding of recti- 
 fied spiiit, q. 8. (about 1 to 2 fl. dr.), until 
 globules are no longer seen ; dry the powder, 
 by a gentle heat, in the shade, as quickly as 
 possible, and preserve it in a well-stoppered 
 black glass vessel. The formula of the Ph. D. 
 is similar. 
 
 Frop., l(c, A heavy, greenish-yellow pow- 
 der ; insoluble in water, alcohol, and a solution 
 of common salt ; soluble in ether, and slightly 
 so in an aqueous solution of iodide of potas- 
 sium. " Freshly prepared, it is yellowish. 
 Heat being cautiously applied, it sublimes in 
 red crystals, which quickly turn yellow, and, 
 on access of light, blacken. It is insoluble in 
 a solution of chloride of sodium." The process 
 of the Ph. L. and F. P. does not answer when 
 larger quantities than 4 or 5 oz. are prepared 
 at once, owing to the great heat generated by 
 the reaction of the ingredients, and the con- 
 sequent volatilisation of a portion of the iodine, 
 by which the colour of the product sufiVrs. — 
 Z)o«e, ^ to 1 gr., made into pills ; " iu syphilis 
 and scrofula, especially where they occur in 
 the same individual." It is also used exter- 
 nally, in the form of ointment. It is very 
 poisonous. 
 
 UercuTons Nitrate. HgNO,. Syn. Subni- 
 
 TEATE OF MERCO El' ; HydEAEGYEI SUBNITEAS, 
 H. NITEAS, H. PE0T0NITEA8, L. Pref. 1. 
 (Neutral.) By digesting mercury in excess 
 of cold dilute nitric acid, observiuj; to remove 
 the short prismatic crystals within a short time 
 after they are formed ; these, when drained, 
 and redissolved in water slightly acidulated 
 with nitric acid, furnish crystals of pure neu- 
 tral mercurous nitrate by cautious evaporation. 
 
 2. (Bas-ic.) Deposited after some time, 
 when excess of mercury has been employed as 
 above. A fine crystallised salt. 
 
 Prop., S(c. Both the above are decomposed 
 by water, but the former may be dissolved in 
 a very small quantity without decomposition. 
 When the neutral salt is triiurated with an 
 excess of sodium chloride, and w.iter sub- 
 sequently added, the whole of the u'ercury 
 is thrown down as calomel, and the filtered 
 supernatant liquid does not contain corrosive 
 sublimate. If this salt is detected, the 
 salt examined contained mercuric nitrate, and 
 if any basic mercurous nitrate was present, 
 the newly formed calomel has a grey or black 
 colour, due to presence of oxide. — Dose. Of 
 the ncutriil salts, -jV to J gr. It is seldom 
 used internally, A solution is sometimes em- 
 ployed as a mild caustic to ulcers ; and, more 
 dilute, as a lotion in lepra, porrigo, psoriasis, 
 &c. ; or made into an ointment, in the same 
 diseases. 
 
 Mercurous Oxide. HgjO. Syn. Suboxidb 
 
 OF MKSCUET, GbET O. OF M., BLACK O. OF II., 
 
 Meboueous o.. Dioxide of m., Peotoxide of 
 M.t; Htdeaeotei suboxyddm, H. oxtdifm, 
 H. o. oineeeum, H. o. nioeum, L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L. 1836.) Calomel, 1 oz. ; lime water, 
 1 gall. ; mix, agitate well together, decant the 
 clear liquid after subsidence, and well wash 
 the sediment with distilled water; lastly, drain 
 and dry it, wrapped iu bibulous paper, in the 
 air. 
 
 2. (Ph.D. 1826.) Sublimed calomel, 1 part; 
 solution of potassium hydrate (warm), 4 parts ; 
 triturate together, &c., as last. 
 
1062 
 
 MERCURY 
 
 3. Brisldy triturate calomel in a mortar 
 with pure potassium lij'drate, in excess; wash 
 it with water, and dry it in the shade. 
 
 Prop., tfc. A very dark grey or hlack 
 powder, suffering decomposition hy exposure 
 to liglit and air, becoming olive coloured, from 
 a portion being resolved into metallic mercury 
 and binoxide. Digested for a short time in 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, it remains undis- 
 solved, and the filtered liquid is not affected 
 by potassium hydrate, or by ammonium oxa- 
 late. It is totally solable in acetic acid, and 
 entirely dissipated by heat. As a medicine 
 pure mercurous oxide is one of the mildest 
 of the mercurials, and is used both internally 
 and externally ; but chiefly as a fumigant, or 
 made into an ointment. — Dose, \ gr. to 3 gf. 
 twice a day. 
 
 MercnrcHS Phosphate, Syn. Htbeaegtei 
 PHOSPHAS, L. Prep. Add a solution of mer- 
 curous nitrate (slightly acidulated with nitric 
 acid) to a solution of sodium phosphate, and 
 wash and dry the precipitate which forms. In 
 its physical characters it closely resembles 
 calomel, than which it is said to be more ap- 
 propriate in certain cases, especially in secon- 
 dary syphilis. Alkalies turn it black. — Dose, 
 I to 1 gr., made into a pill with sugar and 
 aromatics. 
 
 Mercurous Sulphate. Hg2S04. Syn. Stte- 
 
 StTLPHATE OP MEECUET, SrLPHATE OF THE 
 SUBOXIDE OF M., PEOTOSUIPHATE OP M.f ! 
 HXDEAEGTEI SUBBUlPHAa, L. Prep. By 
 adding sulphuric acid to a solution of mercu- 
 rous nitrate. The salt falls as a white crys- 
 talline powder. 
 
 Mercurous Sulphide. Hg2S. Syn. Stjb- 
 
 STTLPnATE OF MEEOUET ; HtDEAEOYEI SUB- 
 SULPHtJEETUM CUM BTOPHTJEE, H. S. NI- 
 
 aEUM, L. Prep. 1. (Pure.) This falls as a 
 black precipitate when a solution of mercurous 
 nitrate is treated with sulphuretted hydrogen 
 or ammonium sulphide. 
 
 2. (Impure; Ethiops mineeal; Htdrae- 
 
 GTEI SUIPHTJEETDM CDM BUIPHTJEE, H. S. 
 
 wiaEUM— Ph. L. 1824 & Ph. D. 1826); 
 jEthiops mineealis— Ph. L. 1836 & Ph. X>. 
 1826.) Quicksilver and sulphur, equal parts, 
 triturated together in a stoneware mortar — 
 Ph. U.) until globules are no longer visible. 
 
 Prop., S^c. The last preparation of mer- 
 curous sulphide is alone employed medicinally. 
 It is a heavy, insoluble, black powder. It is 
 frequently met with imperfectly prepared, and 
 sometimes adulterated. It is said to be a 
 mixture of" mercurous sulphide and sulphur, 
 in variable proportions depending on the 
 length of the trituration. On the large scale 
 it is genenlly made by melting the ingredients 
 together, and afterwards reducing the mass to 
 a fine powder in a mill or mortar. It is said 
 to be vermifuge and alterative, and has been 
 used in some cutaneous and glandular dis- 
 eases, but appears to be nearly inert. — Dose, 
 5 to 30 gr. 
 
 Mercurous Tartrate. (P. Cod.) Syn. Peoto- 
 
 TAETEATE OF MEEOITET. HtdEAEGTEI TAE- 
 teas. Made by adding a solution of proto- 
 nitrate of mercury in water, slightly acidu- 
 lated with nitric acid, to a solution of tartrate 
 of potash as long as a precipitate forms. 
 Wash it with distilled water, dry it in the 
 shade, and keep it in bottles covered with 
 black paper. — Dose, 1 to 2 gr. 
 
 MEKCUHT, Other Frepa,ratioiiB of. 
 
 Mercury, Hahuemanu's. Syn. Hahne- 
 mann's SOLTJBLE MBBCUEY, H.'s BI.ACB: OXIDE 
 
 OP M., Black peeoipitate of m. ; Htdeae- 
 OTEi PEa;cipiTAnrM niqeum, Mbecuehis 
 SOLUBILIS Hahnemanni, L. — o. By dropping 
 weak ammonia into a solution of mercurous 
 nitrate as long as the precipitate formed is of 
 a black colour ; the powder is washed, dried 
 in the shade without artificial heat, and then 
 preserved from the light and air. 
 
 (Ph. Bor. 1847) Solution of mercurous 
 nitrate (recent; sp. gr. I'l), 9i oz. ; distilled 
 water, 2 lbs. ; mix, filter, and add to the solu- 
 tion of ammonia (sp. gr. -960), i oz., diluted 
 with water, 4 fl. oz. ; collect the powder im- 
 mediately on a filter, wash it with water, 5fl. 
 oz., and dry it, &c., as before. A very black 
 powder. — Dose, i to 1 gr. 
 
 Mercury, Precipitates of. 1. Black peeoi- 
 pitate, Hahnemann's soluble mercury (basic 
 mercurous and ammonium nitrate). 2. Geeen 
 
 P. (MEECOBIUS PESCIPITATUS TIEIDIS, LA- 
 
 CEETA TIBIDIS), from equal parts of mercury 
 and copper, separately dissolved in nitric acid, 
 the solutions mixed, evaporated to dryness, 
 and then calcined until red fumes cease to 
 arise. Caustic. 3. Red p., mercuric oxide. 
 4. White p., ammonio-chloride of mercury. 
 
 Mercury, Ward's. Syn. Ammonio-niteate 
 OP meecuey; Hydeaeoyei ammonij! kitsas, 
 L. To nitric acid, 4 parts, contained in a 
 spacious bolt-head or matrass, add, gradually, 
 ammonium sesquicarbonate, 2 parts ; after- 
 wards add of mercury, 1 part, and digest in a 
 gentle heat, until the solution is complete. 
 
 Mercury with Chalk. Syn. HYDEAEOTExna 
 CUM Ceeta. Geey pow'dee (B. p.) Prep. 
 Rub 1 oz. (by weight) of mercury, and pre- 
 pared chalk, 2 oz., in a porcelain mortar, until 
 metallic globules cease to be visible to the 
 naked eye and the mixture acquires a uniform 
 grey colour. — Dose. Prom 3 to 8 gr. 
 
 A little water is said to aid in the extinc- 
 tion of the mercury. Mr Bottle suggests a 
 slight departure from the Grey modus operandi 
 followed by the British Pharmacopoeia in the 
 above preparation. He proposes to substitute 
 for the tedious process of trituration in a 
 porcelain mortar the agitation of the mercury 
 with the chalk in a wide-mouthed glass bottle ; 
 by which means the metal may be minutely 
 subdivided, at a considerably less expendi- 
 ture of time and labour. 
 
 Mercury with Magnesia. (Ph. D.) Syn. 
 Hydeaegyeum cum maonesia. Pure mer- 
 cury, 1 oz., carbonate of magnesia, 2 oz. Bub 
 together i n a porcelain mortar until the glo- 
 
MESLIN— METALS 
 
 1063 
 
 bulet cca.se to be visible and tbe mixture 
 acquires a uniform grey colour. — Dote, 3 to 8 
 grainii. 
 
 Mercury, YeUow Oxide of. (Ph. B.) Syn. 
 HydBABQYRIOITDCM FLAVUM. Prep. Per- 
 chloride of mercury, 4 oz. ; solution of soda (Ph. 
 B.), i pints ; distilled water, q. s. Dissolve the 
 perchloride in 4 pints of distilled water, adding 
 the solution by the application of heat, and 
 add this to the solution of soda. Stir them 
 together, allow the yellow precipitate to sub- 
 side, remove the supernatant liquor by d«- 
 cantation, thoroughly wash the precipitated 
 oxide on a calico filter with distilled water, 
 and finally dry it by the heat of a water 
 bath. 
 
 MES'LIH. A mixture of various kinds of 
 grain. (Brande.) 
 
 BETAQAL'LIC ACID. Obtained by heating 
 dry gallic acid, by a quick fire, to about 480° 
 Fahr., or until it froths, melts, and becomes 
 black and solid, then dissolving the residuum 
 in an alkali, filtering, and precipitating by an 
 acid. An insoluble, black powder. 
 
 ME'TAl. Syn. Mbtallum, L. See Metals. 
 METAL'LICA. [L.] Preparations of the 
 mclaU. One of the divisions of the Ph. L. 
 
 METAL'LIC TREES. See VEaETATiON 
 (Metallic). 
 
 METAL'LO-CHROMES. A name given by 
 Nobili to extremely thin films of peroxide of 
 load deposited by electrolytic action upon 
 plates or polished steel, so as to produce an 
 iridescent play of colours. The effect is olten 
 very beautil'ul. 
 
 MET'ALLOIDS. A name sometimes applied 
 to the NON- METALLIC ELBMEMIS. 
 
 METAL'LURGY. " The art of extracting 
 metals from their ores, and adapting them to 
 various processes of manufacture." (Percy.) 
 
 "Notwithstanding the striking analogy 
 which exists between common chemical and 
 metallurgic operations, since both are era- 
 ployed to isolate certain bodies from each 
 other, there are essential differences which 
 should bo carefully noted. In the first place, 
 the quantity of materials being always very 
 great in metallurgy, requires corresponding 
 adaptations of apparatus, and often produces 
 peculiar phenomena ; in the second place, the 
 agents to be employed for treating great 
 masses must be selected with a view to eco- 
 nomy, as well as chemical action. In analyti- 
 cal chemi^try, the main object being exactness 
 of result and purity of product, little atten- 
 tion is bestowed upon the value of the reagents, 
 on account of the small quantity required for 
 any particular process. But in smelting metals 
 upon the large scale, profit being the sole 
 object, cheap materials and easy operations 
 are alone admissible."' 
 
 The limits of this work do not permit of 
 more than ■> general reference to the leading 
 operations of metallurgy under this head. 
 The»o are— digging, picking or sorting, stamp- 
 « ' Ur«t Diet, of Arti, Manufacture«, and Mines," 441i edit. 
 
 ing or crushing, and wa<>hing, included under 
 the general term, • dressing ore ; ' — roasting 
 or calcination, which is either performed with 
 the fuel in contact with the ore, or in rever- 
 beratory furnaces; and the liquation or reduc- 
 tion to the reguline form. The application of 
 these processes is noticed under the leading 
 metals. Those who desire to study the sub- 
 ject minutely are referred to the treatises of 
 Dr Percy, Robert Hunt, Karsten, and Le 
 Play. 
 
 MET'ALS. Syn. MeTalla, L. Metals are 
 elementary bodies, which are generally dis- 
 tinguished by their lustre and power of con- 
 ducting heat and electricity. When their 
 solutions are electrolysed, the metals always 
 appear at the electro-negative surface, and 
 are hence termed electro-positive elements. 
 
 Formerly, when science was much less ad- 
 vanced than at present, the metals constituted 
 a well-detined class. The propeities which 
 were regarded as specially characteristic were 
 physical, and were not founded on chemical 
 relations ; thus, lustre and high specific 
 gravity were considered to be essential cha- 
 racters of all metals. But we are now ac- 
 quainted with metals which have a lower 
 specific gravity than water (litliiuin, sodium, 
 &c.), and with so-called non-metallic elements 
 which present a strong metallic lustre (carbon 
 in the state of graphite,crystallised silicon). 
 It will therefore be seen that the term 'metal' 
 is rather conventional than strictly scientific. 
 By far the greater number of elementary 
 bodies at present known are metals. Their 
 physical characters and leading chemical pro- 
 perties are noticed under each of them in its 
 alphabetical place. The following table ex- 
 hibits some useful particulars : — 
 
 Table of some of the properties of some of 
 
 the metals. 
 
 Names arranged in the order of their 
 
 Dactility. 
 
 MiilleuUility. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 Caliper. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Nunies arranged in the order of their 
 
 /puwer of coiidacting 
 Beat. 
 Silver. 
 Copper. 
 Gold. 
 Tin. 
 Iron. 
 Lead. 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Power of conducting 
 Electricity. 
 Silver. 
 Copper. 
 Gold. 
 Zinc. 
 Iron. 
 Tin. 
 Lead. 
 Antimony. 
 Bismuth. 
 
1064 
 
 METANTIMONIC ACID— MICBOSGOPE 
 
 METANTIMON'IC ACID. HiSb^,. The 
 name given by M. Fremy to that vai-iety of 
 aattmonic acid obtained by decomposing pen- 
 tacliloride of antimony with excess of water. 
 It differs from common antimonio acid in 
 being tetra, and forming two different classes 
 of salts with the acids. The acid metanti- 
 moniate of potassium is the only reagent which 
 yields a precipitate with the sodium salts, and 
 is therefore of great value in chemical analysis. 
 It is prepared by fusijig antimonio acid with 
 excess of potassa, in a silver crucible, dissolving 
 the fused mass in a little culd water, and 
 allowing it to crystallise in vacuo. The re- 
 sulting crystals (metantimoniate of potassa), 
 by solution in pure water, are resolved into 
 free potassa and the acid salt. See Anti- 
 mony. 
 
 METAPEC'TIC ACID. See Pectin. 
 
 METAPEC'TIN. See Pectin. 
 
 METAPHOSPHOE'IC ACID. See Phos- 
 THOEIO ACID. 
 
 METHEG'LIN. Syn. Hydeomeli, H. TI- 
 NOSUM, Mellis visum, L. JPrep. From 
 honey, 1 cwt. \ warm water, 24 galls. ; stir 
 well until dissolved ; the next day add of yeast, 
 1 pint, and hops, 1 lb., previously boiled in 
 water, 1 gall.; along with water q. s. to make 
 the whole measure 1 barrel; mix well, and 
 ferment the whole with the usual precautions 
 adopted for other liquors. It contains on the 
 average from 7§ to 8f of alcohol. See Mead. 
 
 ME'THYL. CHj. The hypothetical radical 
 
 of PTEOXTLIO SPIKII (wOOD-BPIKIT, METHYLIC 
 
 AICOHOL) and the methyl series. It forms a 
 number of compounds analogous to those of 
 ethyl. 
 
 METHYLAMINE. Syn. Mbthyha. CHg, 
 HjN. A colourless gas possessing a very 
 powerful odour of ammonia, and a strongly 
 alkaline reaction. It differs from ammonia, 
 however, in being non-inflammable. In other 
 respects it bears a considerable resemblance to 
 It. Water at 55° Pahr. dissolves more than 
 eleven hundred times its bulk of methylamine. 
 It may be easily condensed to a liquid by means 
 of a freezing mixture. 
 
 To obtain it nascent hydrogen is made to 
 react on prussic or formic acid. Methylia 
 exists in herring brine, and is a frequent 
 product of the destructive distillation of sub- 
 stances containing nitrogen. Most of its salts 
 are verv soluble in water. 
 
 METHYLATED SPIRIT. A mixture of 
 1 part of methylic alcohol (wood spirit;) and 
 9 parts of ethylic alcohol (spirit of wine). See 
 Spirit. 
 
 METHYLENE CHLORIDE. CHjCla. Syn. 
 Methylene bichloride. There are various 
 methods of obtaining this compound : — 1. By 
 heating chloroform with zinc filings and 
 dilute sulphuric acid. 2. By acting on me- 
 thylene iodide with chlorine. In this process 
 prolonged treatment with chlorine, at ordinary 
 temperatures, is required to remove the last 
 traces of iodine. (Buttlerow.) Chloride of 
 
 methylene is a colourless mobile fluid, having 
 a smell like chloroform, and a burning taste. 
 It is used as an aneesthetic in place of chloro- 
 form. According to Dr Armstrong, the sub- 
 stance known as methylene ethbe is a me- 
 chanical mixture of bichloride of methylene 
 and ethylic ether. Dr Richardson says of this 
 latter it is not so quick in its action as the 
 methylene chloride, bnt that it is safer. See 
 Anjfsthettcs 
 
 METHYLIC AIiCOHOI. See Wood Spibit. 
 
 MEZE'EEON. Syn. Gaeou; Mezebeon 
 
 BARK, MeZEEEI COETEX (B. P.); MeZEEEON 
 
 —Ph. L., E., & D. The dried bark of the 
 Daphne Mexereum, mezereon ; or Daphne 
 Laureola, spurge, or wood-laurel. The " bark 
 of the root of Daphne Mezereum," or spurge 
 olive. (Ph. L.) A stimulant and diuretic. 
 It is employed as a sudorific and alteiative, in 
 syphilis, rheumatism, scrofula, and chronic 
 cutaneous diseases, usually in conjunction with 
 sarsaparilla. It has also been used as a mas- 
 ticatory in toothache, paralysis of the tongue, 
 &c. On the Continent it is used as a vesicant. 
 For this purpose it is softened by soaking it 
 in hot vinegar, and is then bound on the part, 
 and renewed after intervals of some hours, 
 until vesication is produced. 
 
 MICE. See Rat3. 
 
 MI'CEOSMIC SALT. NaNH4HP04, Syn. 
 Teibasic phosphate op sodium and ammo- 
 nium. Prep. 1. Phosphates of soda and 
 ammonia, equal parts ; water, q. b. ; dissolve 
 separately, mix the solutions, evaporate, and 
 crystallise. A slight excess of phosphate of 
 ammonia aids the crystallisation. 
 
 2. (Pownes.) Phosphate of sodium, 6 parts ; 
 water, 2 parts ; liquefy by heat, and add of 
 sal ammoniac (in powder), 1 part ; common 
 salt separates, and after its removal the liquid 
 is concentrated so that crystals may form. 
 Used as a flux in blowpipe assays. 
 
 MrCEOSCOPE. The value of the micro- 
 scope in chemistry and the collateral sciences 
 is now so generally acknowledged that it would 
 be folly to do more than merely allude to the 
 subject here. 
 
 In the compound microscope, which has 
 quite superseded the ' simple microscope' as an 
 instrument of research, the object is magnified 
 in the first instance by the object-glass, and 
 then remagnified by the eye-piece. It follows, 
 therefore, that the magnifying power of the 
 instrument may be increased either by increas- 
 ing the power of the object-glass or that of 
 the eye-piece. It must be borne in mind, how- 
 ever, that in increasing the power of the eye- 
 piece we do not magnify the object itself in a 
 greater degree, but simply increase the image 
 of the object formed by the object-glass. Any 
 imperfections which may exist in the latter 
 are thus greatly increased. At first the great 
 drawback to the use of the compound micro- 
 scope was its deficiency in achromatism; but 
 the researches of Mr licster and Dr Goring 
 led to the aehromatising of the object-glass. 
 
MILDEW— MILIARY FEVER 
 
 1065 
 
 which n-as the first of the rapid stridea to- 
 wxrda pertVction made by this instrument 
 during the Inst twenty years. The two most 
 useful ohject-glassea are the 'quarter-inch/ 
 which ahould magnify from 200 to 220 dia- 
 meters, and the ' inch,' which ahould magnify 
 from 30 to 40 diameters. The definition of 
 tlieae gliiascs ahould be good, and they should 
 transmit plenty of light. Any linea in a 
 structure examined by them should appear 
 shiirp iinil distinct, and there should be no 
 coloured t'ringea around the object. It is of 
 great importance that the object-glasses are 
 kipt pcrfeitly free from dust. A few shreds 
 of wash-leal liir of the finest quality should be 
 kept in n pill-box for cleaning them. Before 
 rubbing them with the leather they may be 
 breallied upon, but no whiting or liquid of 
 any kind should be used, aa each object-glass, 
 being achromatic, ia a very delicate piece of 
 workmanship, consisting of two lenses of flint 
 and crownglasa cemented together by Canada 
 balsam. Compound microscopes are now aold 
 by the best London makers at very low pricea. 
 A really good instrument, adapted to most of the 
 wants of the chemical, pharmaceutical, or me- 
 dical student, may be obtained for five guineas. 
 
 The following formuliD for the preparation 
 of the chief substances, togetlier with the 
 principal reagents required in the working of 
 the microscope, are from Dr Lionel Beale's 
 valuable book, ' How to Work with the 
 Microscope :'' 
 
 Seagents — 
 
 1. Alcohol, of various strengths. 
 
 2. Ether, to dissolve oil globules. 
 
 3. Nitric acid (1 part of atrong acid to 5 of 
 water) 
 
 4. Sulphuric acid (1 to 5). 
 
 5. Hydrochloric acid. 
 
 6. Acetic acid, glacial and dilute (1 to 5). 
 
 7. Chromic acid, very dilute, to harden 
 tissues. 
 
 8. Solution of potash, saturated and dilute 
 (1 to 10). 
 
 9. Solution of soda (25 gr. of fused soda 
 to 1 oz.). 
 
 10. Ammonia (1 part of the strongest solu- 
 tion to 3 of water). 
 
 11. Nitrate of baryta, a cold saturated solu- 
 tion of. 
 
 12. Nitrate of silver (120 gr. to 2 oz.). 
 These two are for the mineral acids. 
 
 13. Oxalate of ammonia in solution. Test 
 for lime. 
 
 14. Solution of iodine saturated, t". e. 1 to 
 7000 parts of water. Another solution is — 
 1 gr of iodine and 3 of iodide of potassium in 
 1 oz. of distilled water. 
 
 1. Cements. — I. Brumnoiek Black. Boil 
 together k lb. foreign asphaltnm and i\ oz. of 
 linseed oil (previously thickened with litharge), 
 then mix to a proper consistence with oil of 
 turpentine (about 1 pint). 
 
 2. Gold iSize. Boil 25 parts of linseed oil 
 
 ' Hnrrisou, 69, Pall Mall. 
 
 with 1 of minium and ^ri part of umber for 
 3 hours ; pour off the clear fluid, and mii with 
 equal parts of powdered white lead, and yellow 
 ochre, added in small succe-sive portions. 
 Then boil well the whole again, and pour off 
 the clear fluid. It dries slowly, but firmly. Both 
 this and the last are dissolved by turpentine. 
 
 3. Ooadbtf's Marine Olue. Dissolve sepa- 
 rately in coal naphtha equal parts of shell-lac 
 and India rubber. Mix thoroughly with heat. 
 
 4. Sealing-wax Varnish. Dissolve the best 
 sealing-wax in enough atrong spirit of wine to 
 reduce it to the proper consistence. This is brittle. 
 
 5 Canada Balaam. This dries sponta- 
 neously. 
 
 Solutions of shell-lac, gum, and various 
 other ccmentf and glues are employed by 
 microscopic manipulators. 
 
 Preservative Fluids. Canada balsam, spirit 
 and water, glycerin, solution of gelntin, satu- 
 rated solution of alum, chloride of zinc, and 
 chloride of calcium, are all used to preserve 
 microscopic objects. 
 
 The following formulie will be found 
 useful : — 
 
 1. Ooadbg's Solution. Bay salt, 4 oz. ; 
 alum, 2 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 gr. ; boil- 
 ing water, 4 pints. Mix and filter. It may 
 often be more diluted. 
 
 2. T/iwaite's Fluid, Mix spirit of wine, 
 1 oz., with creosote suflicient to saturate it; 
 rub up with chalk to form a thin paste, and 
 mix gradually with 16 oz. of water. To this 
 may be added an equal quantity of water, 
 saturated with camphor. 
 
 3. Simple Creosote Solution. Dissolve creo- 
 sote, 1 dr., in pyrolifjneous acid, 1 dr., and 
 mi."C gradually with cold water, 1 pint. 
 
 4. FassinVs Solution. For blood-globules, 
 nerves, and white tissves generally . Perchloride 
 of mercury, 1 part ; chloride of sodium, 2 parts; 
 glycerin, 13 parts; distilled water, 113 oarts. 
 
 MIL'DEW. Syn. KrsT, Blight." The 
 mouldy appearance on the leaves of plants 
 produced by innumerable microscopic fungi. 
 The hop, wheat, and the choicest garden fruit 
 trees, are those most commonly attacked. The 
 causes are said to be excess of moisture, and 
 absence of the free circulation of air and sun- 
 shine. On the small scale, finely powereil 
 sulphur is occasionally dusted over the parts 
 affected, aa a remedy. 
 
 MILIARY FEVEE. Syn. Miliabia, L. 
 Among the other symptoms are — anxiety and 
 frequent sighing, the perspiration has a strong 
 and peculiar smell, and there is a sensation of 
 pricking on the neck and breast, followed by 
 an eruption of small red pimples, which in 
 two or three davs become white vesicles, dry 
 up, peel of, and are succeeded by others. The 
 moist weather of spring and autumn are the 
 periods in which it is most prevalent; and de- 
 licate females, particularly in child -bed, are 
 those most liable to its attacks. Snmetimes 
 it assumes a m:dignant character. The treat- 
 ment of this affection con.-.ists chiefly in com- 
 
1066 
 
 MILK 
 
 bating the depression of the system hy a sup- 
 porting diet; but everything that lieats or 
 stimulates the skin should be avoided. The 
 apartment should be kept cool and well venti- 
 lated, and cooling saline laxatives and bitter 
 tonics, with cooling drinks, should also be had 
 recourse to. 
 
 MILK. Si/n. Lac, L. The value of milk 
 as an article of food is clearly shown by the 
 fact of it being sufficient to support, and to 
 increase the growth of, the young of every 
 species of the mammalia; at once supplying 
 materials for the formation of the osseous, 
 fleshy, and liquid portions of the body. " The 
 substances present in milk are wonderfully 
 adapted to its office of producing materials 
 for the rapid growth and development of the 
 animal frame. It contains an azotised mat- 
 ter, casein, nearly identical in composition with 
 muscular flesh, fatty principles, and a pecu- 
 liar sugar, and, lastly, various salts, among 
 which may be mentioned phosphate of lime, 
 held in complete solution in a slightly alkaline 
 liquid. 
 
 " The white and almost opaque, appearance 
 of milk is an optical illusion. Examined by a 
 microscope of even moderate power, it is seen 
 to consist of a perfectly transparent fluid, in 
 which float about numbers of minute transpa- 
 rent globules; these consist of fat surrounded 
 by an albuminous envelope, which can be 
 broken mechanically, as in the churning, or 
 dissolved by the cliemical action of caustic 
 potassa, after which, by agitating the milk 
 with ether, the fat can be dissolved." (Fownes.) 
 
 Comp. Cows' MILK, of average quality, 
 contains from lOg to 12g of solid matter when 
 evaporated to dryness by steam heat, and has 
 the mean sp. gr. 1-030; while that of the 
 skimmed milk is about 1'035; and of the cream, 
 1'0244. (Ure.) The average ceeam of cows' 
 milk contains 4-5g of butter, 3-5§ of curd, 
 and 92g of whey. (Berzelius.) The skim- 
 med MILK consists of water, 92-9g ; curd, 2-8g 5 
 sugar of milk, 3-5g; lactic acid, lactate of 
 potassa, and a trace of lactate of iron, -eg, 
 chloride of potassium, phosphate of potassa, and 
 earthy phosphates (lime), ■26. (Berzelius.) 
 
 The following analysis of fresh milk is by 
 M. Hnidlen :— 
 
 Water 
 
 
 873-00 
 
 Butter 
 
 
 30-00 
 
 CasKin 
 
 
 48-20 
 
 Milk sugar 
 
 
 43-90 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 
 2-31 
 
 „ magnesia 
 
 
 •42 
 
 „ iron 
 
 
 •07 
 
 Chloride of potassium 
 
 
 1-44 
 
 „ sodium 
 
 
 •24 
 
 Soda in combination 
 
 with' 
 
 
 casein . . 
 
 • 
 
 •42 
 
 1000. 
 
 Professor Wanklyn has devised and pub- 
 lished in his excellent little manual 'Milk 
 
 Analysis'' a process by which a very thorough 
 chemical examination of milk may be accom- 
 plished with great facility and expedition. 
 
 In his preliminary remarks he condemns, as 
 utterly unreliable and misleading, the infer- 
 ences to be drawn from those hydrometric in- 
 struments, the lactometer or lactodensimeter, 
 and creamometer. " A very little considera- 
 tion," he says " will suffice to make intelligible 
 the obliquity of the indications of the lacto- 
 meter and to show how untrustworthy it must 
 be. The lactometer, as of course will be un- 
 derstood, is simply the hydrometer applied to 
 milk ; and readings of the instrument are nei- 
 ther more nor less than speciflc gravities. The 
 more milk-sugar, and casein, and mineral 
 matter there is in a given specimen of milk, 
 the greater (other things being equal) will be 
 its density or specific gravity, and the higher 
 the lactometer reading. 
 
 " If, however, fat globules (as happens in the 
 instance of milk) be diffused through the 
 fluid, then, because fat is lighter than water, 
 the eff'ect of the other milk solids on the gra- 
 vity of the liquid, will be more or less neu- 
 tralised. The density of milk -fat is about 0-9, 
 water being 1-0. Now, if a solution of casein 
 and milk-sugar, of specific gravity 1-030, be 
 sufficiently charged with fat globules, its spe- 
 cific gravity may be sent down even below the 
 gravity of water. How much would be re- 
 quired to bring about such a result is a mat- 
 ter of simple calculation. 
 
 " This being understood, it will be obvious 
 that if the specimens of milk difl'er in specific 
 gravity, there must be two distinct and equally 
 valid ways of accounting for the difference. 
 
 " The milk with the lower gravity may be 
 milk let down with water, or let down with 
 fat, i. e. milk let down by being enriched." 
 
 In support of this last assertion Professor 
 Wanklyn quotes corroborative instances af- 
 forded by the examination of different speci- 
 mens of milk known as ' strippings,' these 
 being the last portions of milk yielded by the 
 cow at the termination of the milking. All 
 these 'strippings' had a, lower specific gra- 
 vity than normal milk. 
 
 Further, Professor Wanklyn points out that 
 the specific gravity of organic fiuids is a falla- 
 cious index of the amount of solids they may 
 contain, as is illustrated by the fact, that 
 whilst a 10 per cent, solution of chloride of 
 
 Potassium has a specific gravity of 1-065 at 
 5° C, and a 10 per cent, solution of casein 
 and milk sugar, has a specific gravity of only 
 about 1-035. 
 
 The creamometer meets with equal con- 
 demnation in Professor Wanklyn's little book, 
 since different specimens of milk vary consi- 
 derably in their yield of cream, and a perfectly 
 pure sample of milk may yield less cream 
 than one which has been tampered with. 
 
 A complete analysis of milk involves the 
 determination of the water, the fat (the essen- 
 ^ Trubuer and Co. 
 
MILK 
 
 10C7 
 
 tial constituent of tho cream), the casein, 
 niilk-auL'iir, and ash. 
 
 The following is an outline of Professor 
 Wanltljn'a neat and ingenious method of 
 analysis: — 
 
 Ily means of an accurately {graduated pipette, 
 lie tir>t places 6 cubic centimetres of tlie milk 
 in a small weighed platinum dish (about 14 
 grammes in weight) just previously ensuring 
 the sample from which the milk is taken 
 being thoroughly mixed. 
 
 The dish is then placed over a water-hath 
 (the water in which must be kept vigorously 
 boiling the whole time) for three hours, at the 
 end of which time all the water having been 
 driven off, there will remain in the dish a 
 completely dried up residue. 
 
 The increase in weight between the empty 
 dish and the residue, will give the weight of 
 the ' milk solids ' from 6 c.c. of milk. Of 
 course, if tliis weight be multiplied by 20, the 
 yield Irom 100 c.c. of milk will be obtained. 
 
 To reduce this to a percentage statement it 
 is necessary to remember that 100 c.c. of ave- 
 rage milk weigh 102'9 grammes. The next 
 proceeding consists in the determination of 
 the fat. This is done by treating the dried 
 milk solids resulting from the 5 c.c. of milk 
 with ether. There are several important mi- 
 nutiiB necessary to bo observed in connection 
 with this part of the process, for the parti- 
 culars of which the reader is referred to Pro- 
 fessor Wanklyn's book. Suffice it to say, that 
 if properly performed, the whole of the fat 
 is dissolved by the ether, and being separated 
 from the non-fatty portion of the residue is 
 weighed and calculated as ' fat.' 
 
 If, then, the amount found as fat be deducted 
 from the whole of the milk solids previous to 
 their treatment with ether, the ' milk solids, 
 not fat,' will be arrived ut. Professor Wank- 
 lyn estimates the casein ' as follows :— He 
 treats the milk solids, not fat, with hot alcohol, 
 by which moans he dissolves out from them, 
 and removes the milk-sugar and the soluble 
 chlorides. The remaining residue, consistinc; 
 ol iMsein and phosphate of sodium (chemi- 
 cally combined with the casein), is dried on 
 a water-bath until it ceases to lose weight. 
 It is tlieu weighed along with the vessel con- 
 taining it, and ignited. The combined weight 
 of tlie vessel and phosphate of sodium remaining 
 after ignition being deducted from the weight 
 previous to ignition, the difference is the casein. 
 
 Another and quicker method, recommended 
 by Professor Wanklyn, for the determination 
 of the casein, is to measure it by the amount 
 of albuminoid ammonia it is capable of yield- 
 ing when subjected to the 'albuminoid am- 
 monia process,' invented by Messrs Wanklyn, 
 Chapman, and Smith. 
 
 The alcoholic solution filtered off from the 
 combined casein and posphate of soiiium, 
 contains the milk sugar aud soluble chlorides. 
 
 ' Under the head " Casein " Pr..f Wanklyn includes 
 tlje entire nitru}£enuu3 nuitenaU uf niilk 
 
 It is evaporated to dryness on a water-bath, 
 and the residue with the vessel containing it, 
 is weighed. It is then gently ignited, and the 
 weight of the remaining residue being de- 
 ducted from the total weight before ignition, 
 gives the yield of milk sugar. Or the milk 
 sugar may be determined by trituration with 
 a standard copper solution. 
 
 For the determination of the ash it is only 
 necessary to ignite the milk solids from 5 c.c. 
 of milk, in the small platinum dish, by which 
 operation all the organic matter being driven 
 otf, that which remains behind constitutes the 
 ' ash ' aud is weighed .as such. 
 
 It will be obvious that in order to deter- 
 mine with anything like rigid accuracy the 
 quality of any sample of milk by analysis, not 
 only must a normal standard for tlie purpose 
 of comparison bo adopted, but such normal 
 standard must represent very closely and with 
 but little variation the deKnite composition 
 of all sound and genuine milk. 
 
 Professor Wanklyn says that "the following, 
 which is the result of several concordant ana- 
 lyses of country-ted milk, may be taken as 
 representing normal milk. In 100 grammes 
 of milk — 
 
 . 12'5 grammes. 
 . 87-5 
 
 Solids (dry at 100° C) 
 Water 
 
 100-0 
 
 " The 125 grammes consist of 9'3 grammes 
 of ' solids which are not fat,' and 32 granimrs 
 of fat." The above data, which are founded 
 on the examination of a very large number of 
 different samples of milk, are confirmed by the 
 researches of Miillerand Eisenstuck, who were 
 employed by the Rnyal Agricultural Society 
 of Sweden in a similar investigation. The 
 labours of these chemists extended over a 
 twelvemonth, and the result of them was 
 to show that the milk yielded day by day, for 
 a whole vear, by a herd of cows was remark- 
 ably constant in composition. 
 
 Professor Wanklyn gives the following for- 
 muliB for the calculation and statement of 
 the results of milk analysis. He says. Treat- 
 ing the question quite rigidly, which I believe 
 is the proper way of dealing with it, we arrive 
 at the following : — 
 
 Prohlem 1. Given the percentage of ' so- 
 lids, not fat' ( = o), in aspeiimen of sophisti- 
 cated milk (i. e. milk, either watered, or 
 skimmed, or both)— required the number of 
 grammes of genuine milk which was employed 
 U) form 100 grammes of it. 
 
 Answer. Multiply the percentage of 'so- 
 lids, not fat' by 100, and divide by 9-3. 
 
 Or— 100 
 
 a. 
 
 9-3 
 
 Problem II. — Given the percentage of 
 ' sohds. not fat ' (= a), also the percentage of 
 fat (= h), in a specimen of sophisticated 
 milk— required the number of grammes of 
 
1068 
 
 MILK 
 
 fat which have been removed by skimming 
 from the genuine milk which was employed 
 to form 100 grammes of it. 
 
 Amuier. — 3'2 
 
 —^ a — b. 
 9-3 
 
 In translating fat into cream, the rule is 
 that a removal of 0'2 gramme of fat equals a 
 removal of 10 gramme of cream. This rule 
 is directly founded on experiment. I do not, 
 however, claim a high degreee of accuracy for 
 the measurement of the cream. 
 
 Finally, a slight refinement may he noticed. 
 If a specimen of sophisticated milk has been 
 produced by both skimming and watering, it 
 will be obvious, on consideratiun, that the ex- 
 traneous waters employed in manufacturing 
 100 grammes of it is equal to the difference 
 between 100 and the quantity of genuine milk 
 employed to make 100 grammes of sophisti- 
 cated milk, together with a quantity of water 
 equal to that of fat removed by skimming. 
 100 3-2 
 
 Extraneous water= 100 a + — a—b 
 
 9-3 9-3 
 
 100 + 3'2 
 
 = 100 a—b 
 
 9-3 
 
 Save for the purpose of finding out the 
 presence of matters other than an excess of 
 water in the milk (a contingency regarded as 
 very improbable), the estimation of the casein 
 and milk sugar is unnecessary. The deter- 
 iiiination of the ash is for the object of 
 learning If foreign mineral matters, such 
 as chalk or any other inorganic impurity, are 
 present. Professor Wanklyn says he believes 
 that such like extraneous bodies are never em- 
 ployed. The chief, if not the sole, form of 
 dishonesty are watering and skimming. 
 
 The amount of ash, however, is a good cri- 
 terion as to the extent of dilution that has 
 been practised, a deficient amount being, of 
 course, confirmatory of a watered milk. 
 
 The determination of the amount of ' solids, 
 not fat,' is, in almost every instance, all that 
 is necessary to enable an opinion to be arrived 
 at as to whether the sample of milk has had 
 water added to it or not. 
 
 Out of filty-six samples of milk supplied to 
 the different London unions in 1873, Professor 
 Wanklvn reports that he found only fifteen 
 unwatered, or nearly unwatered. Of these 
 fifteen samples nine had been skimmed, 
 leaving only six that were at once unwatered 
 and unskimmed. These figures, therefore, 
 show that only about 10 per cent, of the milk 
 supplied iu the above year to the Metropolitan 
 unions was genuine. He adds — " It is curious 
 to compire the language of the contract under 
 which (as it appears from Mr Rowsell's report) 
 the dealer supplied the various unions with 
 milk, with the quality of the article as exliibited 
 by the analysis. ' New unskimmed milk una- 
 dulterated,' ' genuine as from the cow,' * best 
 
 new unskimmed milk, to produce 10 per cent, of 
 cream,' occur in these contracts." 
 
 Prop. These are well known. Perfectly 
 fresh milk is slightly alkaline, but soon be- 
 comes acid on exposure to the air, and after 
 a time white coagula of casein (CI7SD8) sepa- 
 rate from it. This change is immediately 
 effected by the addition of rennet or an acid. 
 That from the first, when dried and pressed, 
 constitutes cheese. 
 
 Fur., Tests, Sfc, The common frauds prac- 
 tised by the milk-dealers are the addition of 
 water and the subtraction of part of the cream. 
 Sometimes potato starch is added to the milk, 
 to give it a creamy or rich appearance, and this 
 addition is still more frequently made to cream, 
 to increase its consistence and quality. 
 
 The presence of potato starch may be 
 determined by boiling some of the milk with 
 a little vinegar, and after separating the 
 coagulum by a strainer, and allowing the liquid 
 to become cold, testing it with solution or 
 tincture of iodine. If it turns blue, starch, 
 flour, or some other amylaceous substance, has 
 been used to adulterate it. In most cases it 
 will be sufficient to apply the test to the un- 
 prepared suspected milk. 
 
 It has frequently been stated that chalk, 
 plaster of Paris, gum, gelatin, sugar, flour, 
 mucilage of hemp-seed, the brains of animals, 
 and other similar substances, are often added 
 to London milk, but there is no reason to 
 suppose there is auy truth in these assertions, 
 as some of these articles are too costly to be 
 used, and the presence of others would so alter 
 the flavour or appearance of the milk, or 
 would so soon exhibit themselves by sub- 
 sidence, as to lead to their detection. 
 
 Fres. Milk may be preserved in stout 
 bottles, well corked, and wired down, by heat- 
 ing them, in this state, to the boiling-point, 
 in a water bath, by which means the oxygen 
 of the small quantity of enclosed air becomes 
 absorbed. It must be afterwards stored in a 
 cool situation. By this method, which is also 
 extensively adopted for the preservation of 
 green gooseberries, green peas, &c., milk will 
 retain its properties unaltered for years. A 
 few grains of carbonate of magnesia, or, still 
 better, of bicarbonate of potassa or soda, may 
 be advantageously dissolved in each bottle 
 before corking it. 
 
 Under Bethel's patent the milk or cream is 
 scalded, and, when cold, strongly charged with 
 carbonic-acid gas, by means of a soda-water 
 machine, and the corks are wired down in the 
 usual manner. The bottles should he kept 
 inverted, in a cool place. 
 
 An excellent method of preventing milk 
 from turning sour, or coagulating, is to add to 
 every pint of it about 10 or 12 gr. of carbonate 
 or bicarbonate of soda. Milk thus prepared 
 may be kept for eight or ten days in tem- 
 perate weather. This addition is harmless, 
 and, indeed, is advantageous to dyspeptic 
 patients. According to D'Arcot, ^trotb part 
 
MILE 
 
 1069 
 
 of the biciirbonnte is sufficient for tlie purpose. 
 Au excess of nllcali uatd in this niauner may 
 b.' detected by tlie milk turning turmeric 
 paper brown, oven after it has been kept 
 some hours, and by the ash obtained by erapo- 
 ratinf^ a little to dryness, and then heating it 
 to dull redness, ifftTveacing with an acid. (See 
 baloto.) 
 
 *«* Milk should not be kept in lead or zinc 
 vessels, as it speedily dissolves a portion of 
 tlienc metals, and becomes poisonous. 
 
 Concluding Remarki. The piincipal differ- 
 ence between cows' milk and human milk con- 
 sists in the former containing more casein and 
 less sugar of milk than the latter. The re- 
 markable indisposition to coagulate is another 
 character which distinguishes human milk 
 from cows' milk. Prof. Falkland, who has 
 practically investigated the subject has pre- 
 pnrud II nutritive fluid for infants from cows' 
 milk, closely resembling that of the iiealthy 
 adult woman. His process is, however, unne- 
 cessarily complicated, and, therefore, unsuited 
 to those who would have to employ it in the 
 nursery. To remove this objection we have 
 adopted the following formula : — Sugar of 
 luilk, 2 oz. ; hot water, \ pint ; dissolve, and, 
 when the liquor has become quite cold, add it 
 to fresh cows' milk, } pint, and stir them 
 together. This quantity, prepared morning 
 Hud evening, will constitute the proper food 
 for an infant of from 5 to 8 months old. 
 More may be allowed it if it 'craves' it; 
 but there must be no 'cramming.' At first it 
 will be advisable to remove a little of the 
 cream from the milk before adding to it the 
 saccharine solution ; but after a few days this 
 will be found to be unnecessary, and, indeed, 
 injnrious. One very important particular to 
 be attended to is, the employment of pure 
 cows' milk, obtained from a healthy grass-fed 
 animal only. With this precaution, and the 
 use of ft good FEEDlNGhBOTTLE, the infant will 
 thrive nearly as well as on the breast of any 
 humnu female, excepting its mother's. (See 
 below.) ' 
 
 AasES' MILE closely resembles human milk 
 In eulour, smell, and consistence, but it con- 
 tiins rather less cream. (See below.) 
 
 Ewes' mile closely resembles cows' milk, 
 than which, however, it is slightly richer in 
 cream. 
 
 Goats' milk, for the most part, resembles 
 cows' milk, hut its consistence is much 
 greater, and it contains much more solid 
 matter. (See below.) 
 
 Mabes' mile, in consistence; is between 
 that of cows' and human milk. Its cream is 
 not converted into butter by agitation. See 
 BcTTEB, Cheese, Lactic Acid, &c. 
 
 Mili as u cauae or carrier of disease. — 
 Milk of a mother labouring under strong 
 mental emotion is, as is well known, capable 
 of seriously endangering the health of the 
 suckling babe. Payne narrates the case of 
 a wumim sutfering uuder a nervous aflection 
 
 whose milk, two hours after an attack of the 
 disease, became viscid, like the white of an 
 egg. Similarly, a deterioration and consequent 
 alteration in properties is iodnced in the milk 
 of the cow if she be over driven, exhausted, 
 or harassed. The food of the animal like- 
 wise exercises au in6uence on the quality of 
 its milk ; thus when cows are fed on turnips, 
 wormwood, decayed leaves, and plants of the 
 cabbage or onion famishes, the flavour of these 
 substances is imparted to their milk. The 
 milk of animals that have fed on poisonous or 
 deleterious jilants is capable of setting np 
 toxic symptoms in human beings partaking of 
 it. In June, 1875, the inhabitants of a certain 
 quarter of Rome were attacked with an epide- 
 mic, distinguished by great gastro-intestinal 
 irritation. The cause of the outbreak was 
 traced to the use of goats' milk, yielded by 
 goats that had eaten of the meadow saS'ron, 
 the Colchimim autumnale. It also appears 
 that in the Western States of America the 
 milk of cows that have fed on the poison-oak, 
 the Shus toxicodendron, has on several occa- 
 sions given rise to attacks of illness in 
 children, marked by extreme weakness, vomit- 
 ing, fall in bodily temperature, swollen and 
 dry tongue, and constipation. Boiling seems 
 to remove the dangerous properties of the milk. 
 
 Milk, as has been ^hown by Fuchs, is some- 
 times infested by a fungus, the Oidium lactit 
 or PenicilUum, which is capable of giving rise 
 to gastric irritation, and sometimes to severe 
 febrile gastritis.' 
 
 Although the evidence as to the power of 
 the milk of animals affected with epizootic 
 diseases to convey the particular affection to 
 human beings is contradictory, there is little 
 reason to doubt that soured milk may become 
 a carrier of infection from the ailing or con- 
 valescent subject to the healthy one. 
 
 Typhoid and scarlet fever have been known 
 to have originated in this manuer. 
 
 The outbreak of the former malady in 
 Marylebone in 1874 was traced to the con- 
 tamination of milk by the remains of the 
 water which had been used in rinsing the 
 milk pans. This water had been obtained from 
 a well into which the excrete from a typhus 
 patient had percolated from a privy. 
 
 At Leeds a similar outbreak was caused by 
 the absorption by the milk of the typhoid 
 eflluvium. In the case of scarlet fever the 
 malady has been conveyed by means of the 
 throat-discharges and cuticle falling into the 
 milk from the persons of servants and others 
 employed in dairies. 
 
 Milk, Al'mond. See EiinisiON and Mix- 
 tube. 
 
 Milk, Arrowroot. Prep. From arrowroot, 
 1 table-spoonful, first wetted and stirred with 
 a little cold water, afterwards adding, gradu- 
 ally, of boiling water, i pint ; and, lostly, of 
 boiling milk, i pint ; with sugar, spice, wine, 
 &o., to palate. Very nutritious, and excellent 
 I ParkeB. 
 
1070 
 
 MILK 
 
 in chronic diarrhoea. Some persons employ 
 all milk. 
 
 Milk, Choc'olate. Prep. Dissolve chocolate 
 (scraped), 1 oz., in boiling new milk, 1 pint. 
 Nutritous; but apt to offend delicate sto- 
 machs. 
 
 Milk, Coffee. Prep. 1. C"ffee, 1 oz.; 
 boiling water, i pint; infuse for 10 or 15 
 minutes in a warm situation, and add the 
 strained liquid to bailing milk, | pint. 
 
 2. Coffee, 1 oz. ; tie it loosely in a piece of 
 muslin, and simmer it for 15 minutes in milk, 
 1 pint. Both the above have been recom- 
 mended for persons of spare habits, and for 
 those disposed to affections of the lungs, more 
 especially for the asthmatic. 
 
 Milk, Faeti"tlons. Syn. AbtificiaIi miik. 
 Of the numerous compounds which have been 
 proposed as substitutes for natural milks, the 
 following are examples : — 
 
 1. (Factitious asses' milk ; Lac asini- 
 
 UUM PACTITIUM, LAC A. AETIFIOIALE, L.) — O 
 
 Cows' milk, 1 quart ; ground rice, 1 oz. ; 
 oringo root (bruised), 1 dr, ; boil, strain, and 
 add sugar candy (or white sugar), 1 oz. 
 
 b. Whites of 2 eggs ; lump sugar, 1 oz. ; 
 cows' milk (new), % pint ; mix, then add syrup 
 of tolu, f oz. 
 
 c. Water, 1 pint ; hartshorn shavings, 1 oz. ; 
 boil to a jelly ; then add lump sugar, 2 oz. ; 
 cool, add new milk, 1 pint; syrup of tolu, 
 i oz. Used as substitutes for asses' milk, 
 taken freely as a beverage. A cupful, with or 
 without a spoonful of rum, 3 or 4 times daily, 
 is a popularremedy in consumption and debility. 
 
 2. (?. goats' MILK — A. T. Thomson.) 
 Fresh mutton suet (minced), 1 oz. ; tie it in a 
 muslin bag, and boil it in cows' milk, 1 quart; 
 lastly, add of sugar candy, 2 gr. In scrofu- 
 lous emaciation, and in the latter stages of 
 phthisis. The proportion of suet in the above 
 may be advantageously increased a little. 
 The LAC CUM SERO of Guy's Hospital is a 
 similar preparation. 
 
 3. (P. HUMAN MILK ; LaC HUMANUM PAC- 
 TITIUM, L.) — a. See above. 
 
 b. (Bosenstein.) Almonds (blanched), 2 in 
 number ; white sugar, 1 dr. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 make an emulsion, strain, and add of fresh 
 cows' milk, 6 fl. oz. As a substitnte for the 
 breast in nursing. 
 
 Milk, Preserved'. Syn. Milk powdee; 
 Laotis pulvib, Lao pulveeaium, L. Prep. 
 1. Fresh skimmed milk, 1 gall. ; carbonate of 
 soda (in very fine powder), IJ dr. ; mix, eva- 
 porate to l-3rd by the heat of steam or a 
 water bath, with constant agitation, then add 
 of powdered white sugar, 3i lbs., and complete 
 the evaporation at a reduced temperature ; 
 reduce the dry mass to powder, add the cream 
 (well drained) which was taken from the milk, 
 and after thorough admixture put the whole 
 into well-stoppered bottles or tins, which must 
 be at once hermetically sealed. 
 
 2. (Legrip.) Carbonate of soda, i dr.; 
 water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve, add of fresh milk, 
 
 1 quart ; sugar, 1 lb. ; reduce it by heat to 
 the consistence of a syrup, and finish the eva- 
 poration on plates by exposure in an oven. 
 
 Obs. About an ounce of the powder agitated 
 with a pint of water, forms an agreeable and 
 nutritious drink, and a good substitute for 
 milk at sea. It may also be used for tea or 
 coffee in a solid form. This process, whicii 
 it very old, has been recently patented. See 
 Milk {above). 
 
 The condensed or preserved milk, now in 
 such general use, and which is met with in 
 tins as milk which has been more or less de- 
 prived of water by evaporation in vacuo. It 
 occurs in the market in two forms — in one 
 simply as condensed milk, and in the other as 
 condensed milk mixed with a large quantity 
 of sugar. Milk preserved as above without 
 sugar will keep only for two or three days ; 
 whereas with sugar it may be preserved for 
 an almost indefinite time. Either variety 
 mixed wjth the proper quantity of water 
 becomes normal milk again, the sweetened 
 kind being, of course, milk with the addition 
 of a considerable amount of cane sugar. 
 Professor Wanklyn says be has examined the 
 principals brands of preserved and condensed 
 milk sent to the London market, and finds 
 they contain their due proportion of fat. 
 He gives the following analyses of the pro- 
 duce of the English Condensed Milk Company : 
 
 Pbesekved Milk. 
 
 In 100 
 
 )arts by 
 
 weight. 
 
 Water . 
 
 . 
 
 . 20-5 
 
 Fat 
 
 , 
 
 . 10-4 
 
 Casein . 
 
 , 
 
 . 110 
 
 Ash 
 
 , 
 
 . 20 
 
 Cane and milk 
 
 sugar 
 
 . 561 
 100-0 
 
 Condensed Milk. 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 . 51-12 
 
 Fat 
 
 
 . 1211 
 
 Casein 
 
 
 . 13-64 
 
 Milk sugar . 
 
 
 . 20-36 
 
 Ash . 
 
 
 . 2-77 
 
 100-00 
 
 Eoses, Milk of. Syn. Lac boss, L. Prep. 
 1. (English.) — a. Almonds (blanched), 1 oz.; 
 oil of almonds and white soft soap, of each 
 1 dr. ; rose water, 1 pint ; make an emulsion. 
 
 b. Prom liquor ofpotassa and oil of almonds, 
 of each 1 fl. oz. ; hot water, 2 fl. oz, ; agitate 
 together until mixed, then add of rose water 
 and distilled or filtered soft water, of each 
 ^ pint, and again agitate well. 
 
 c. As the last, but using half a tea-spoonful 
 of salt of tartar for the liquor of potassa. 
 
 d. (Redwood.) Blanched almonds, 8 oz. ; 
 rose water, 3 pints; make an emulsion, add 
 of white Windsor soap, white wax, and oil of 
 almonds, of each J oz. ; previously melted 
 together by ii gentle heat ; triturate until 
 
MILK FEVKR— MINERAL CHAMELEON 
 
 1071 
 
 united, and strain ; lastly, add a solution of 
 oil of bergnmut, i oz.; oil of lavender, 1 dr.; 
 and attar of roses, i dr. ; (dissolved in) recti- 
 fied spirit, 12 oz. 
 
 2. (Kbbnch.) — a. From rose water, 1 quart j 
 tinctures of benzoin and st;rax, of each 1 tt. 
 oz. ; spirit of rosea, i fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 1 fl. oz. ; mix. 
 
 b. (Augustin.) Tincture of benzoin, i fl. 
 oz. ; liquor of carbonate of potassa, 2i fl. dr. ; 
 rose water, i pint; agitate well together. As 
 a lotion in acne. 
 
 C-. (Cfianinni.) Tincture of benzoin, 1 dr. ; 
 tincture of balsam of Peru, 20 drops; rose 
 water, 1 pint ; as the last. 
 
 d. (Scliubartb.) Almond paste, 3 dr. ; rose 
 water, ^ pint ; tincture ot benzoin, § fl. oz. As 
 before. The addition to the last 3 of a little 
 rectified spirit is an improvement. 
 
 3. (Ukuhan.) From dilute solution of di- 
 acetate of lead (Goulard water), and spirit of 
 lavender, of eacli 1 fl. oz. ; rose water, 6 fl. oz. ; 
 soft water, 1 pint. 
 
 Obt. All the above are used as cosmetic 
 washes, and to remove scurf, pimples, and 
 eruptions, in slight cases. 
 
 Hilk, Sa'go. Si/n. Lac baoo, L. Prep. 
 (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Sago, 1 oz. ; cold water, 
 1 pint ; macerate half an hour, pour oflP the 
 water, add of milk, li pint, and boil slowly 
 until the sago is dissolved. Very nutritious ; 
 also in lieu of arrow-root milk. 
 
 Milk of Snlphnr. See Svlfhitb (Precipi- 
 tated). 
 
 Uilk, Thick. Mix one tnble-spoonf ul of flour 
 with a pint of milk, and boil for ten minutes, 
 stirring it well the whole time. It may be 
 flavoured either with a little salt, or sugar. 
 
 Uilk, Vanilla. Sj/n. Lao takili.^, L 
 Prep, 1. Essence of vanilla, 12 drops; lump 
 sugar, 1 oz. ; triturate, and add gradually, new 
 milk, 1 pint. 
 
 2. (Beral.) Vanilla sugar, i oz. ; milk, 16 oz. ; 
 dissolve. 
 
 MILK FEVER. S^n. Febdis laotea, L. 
 A febrile condition of the system thut some- 
 times occurs ut the time the milk begins to be 
 secreted alter parturition. It often assumes 
 a malignant character. See Puerpebal Fevek. 
 
 UUi'LEX. S^n. Milium, L. Several va- 
 rieties of grain arc known by this name. That 
 commonly referred to under the name is the 
 produce of Panicum miliaceum (' Indian 
 millet'). The husked seeds (milium munda- 
 TUm) are used to make gruel, and are ground 
 for flour. ' Turkish millet,' or ' Guinea corn,' 
 is produced by Sorgham vulgare ; and the 
 * German ' and ' Italian millet ' by species of 
 Setaria. In some parts of the world millet flour 
 ii used for bread, but it is chiefly cultivated 
 as food for domestic animals. 
 
 Letheby says millets are a little more 
 nutritious than rice. 
 
 In the subjoined table, is given the compo- 
 sition of three different samples of millet 
 uical, free from bran. 
 
 
 
 Pemcilla- 
 
 
 
 Pamcum 
 
 ria spicota 
 BL knid ot 
 
 Sorghum 
 tulgare. 
 
 
 miliaeeumj 
 
 much used 
 
 Dharra ot 
 
 
 coin moil 
 
 in India 
 
 the AJ^lia, 
 
 
 miilet. 
 
 under the 
 name of 
 Bajia. 
 
 Goar of 
 India. 
 
 
 
 
 11-95 
 
 Water . . . 
 
 12-22 
 
 11-8 
 
 
 Nitrogenous 
 
 
 
 8-64 
 
 substances . 
 
 9-27 
 
 10-13 
 
 3-82 
 
 Dextrin . . 
 
 913 
 
 
 1-46 
 
 Sugar . . . 
 
 180 
 
 
 3-90 
 
 Pat . . . . 
 
 7-43 
 
 '4-62 
 
 70-23' 
 
 Starch . . 
 
 59-04 
 
 71-75 
 
 
 Silicln . . . 
 
 0-11 
 
 
 
 MINCE MEAT. Prep. From stoned raisins, 
 currants, sugar, and suet, of each 2 lbs. ; sul- 
 tana raisins and boiled beef (lean and tender), 
 of each 1 lb. ; apples 4 lbs. ; juice of 2 lemons ; 
 the rind of 1 lemon, chopped very fine ; mixed 
 spice, 1 lb. ; candied citron and lemon peel, of 
 eiich 2. oz. ; brandy, a glassful or two ; the 
 whole chopped very fine. It may be varied 
 by adding other spice or flavouring, and by 
 the addition of eggs, or the substitution of 
 chopped fowl or veal for beef, according to the 
 state of the cuisinier. 
 
 MINCE PIES. Take 3 apples, 3 lemons, 1 
 lb. of raisins, J lb. of currants, 1 lb, of suet, i 
 lb. of raw beef, 2 lbs. of moist sugar, i lb. of 
 mixed candied peel, i of a rind of a fresh 
 orange, 1 teaspoonful of powdered mixed 
 spice, composed of equal parts of cloves, cin- 
 namon, and nutmeg, i pint of brandy, and 1 
 glass of port wine. Peel the apples and cut 
 out the cores very carefully, and then bake 
 the pieces until tliey are quite soft. The 
 raisins must be carefully stoned, and the cur- 
 rants well washed, dried, and picked. Chop 
 the suet very finely, as well as the raw meat 
 and lemon-peel. Mix all the ingredients 
 thoroughly together, add the brandy last of 
 all, and press the whole down into a stone jar, 
 and place u piece of paper soaked in brandy 
 on the top. Remove the paper ond stir up the 
 mixture thoroughly every three days, re- 
 placing the paper. If this is done the mince- 
 meat will keep a long time. To make the 
 pies, roll out some thin pufl^-paste, butter a 
 small round tin, and line it with a piece of 
 paste, then put in a generous quantity of the 
 mincemeat, cover it over with a similar piece 
 of puff paste, and bake it in a moderate oven. 
 Mince pies are none the worse for being 
 warmed up, but pray take care they are sent 
 to table hot. (Cassell.) 
 
 MINDEEE"RUS' SPIRIT. See Ammonia 
 (Acetate of), and Solution. 
 
 MINERAL CHAME'LEOW. Prep. From a 
 mixture of binoxide of manganese and potassa 
 and nitre, equal parts, heated to redness. It 
 « Witli husks. 
 
1072 
 
 MINEEALISERS— MIXTURE 
 
 must be preserved iu a well-corked bottle until 
 required for use. 
 
 Prop., S(c. When dissolved in water, its 
 solution, at first green, passes spontaneously 
 through all the coloured rays to the red, when, 
 if potassa be added, the colour retrogrades 
 until it reaches the original green. The 
 addition of oil of vitriol, or of chlorine, renders 
 the solution colourless. The addition of a 
 weak acid, or even boiling or agitating the 
 liquid, turns it from green to red. See Man- 
 ganic Acid. 
 
 MIN'ERALISEES. Substances which, by 
 association with metallic bodies, deprive them 
 of their usual properties, and impart to them 
 the character of ores. Their removal belongs 
 to metallurgy. The term ' mineealised' has 
 been applied to caoutchouc, gutta percha, bitu- 
 men, &c., which has been combined with 
 sulphur, silica, or metallic matter. 
 
 MIN'IM. Syre. Minimum, L. A measured 
 drop, of which 60 are equal to a fluid drachm. 
 The size of drops vary so greatly with different 
 liquids and are also so much influeticed by the 
 size and shape of the vessels from which they 
 are poured, that they afford no reliable mea- 
 sure of quantity for medicinal purposes. The 
 poured drop has, in some cases, only ^rd the 
 volume of the measured drop, or minim ; whilst, 
 in others, it is nearly 3 times as large. Accord- 
 ing to Mr Durande, " liquids which contain 
 a small proportion of water, afford a small 
 drop ; while, on the contrary, liquids con- 
 taining a large quantity of water furnish a 
 lai'ge drop." " Among liquids containing a 
 large proportion of water, those which are not 
 charged with remedial substances, give a 
 larger and heavier drop than the same liquids 
 when containing extraneous bodies in solu- 
 tion." In all cases in which the word ' drop ' 
 is mentioned in this work a minim is intended, 
 and the quantity should be determined by 
 means of a graduated minim measure, 
 
 MUT'lUM. See Red Pioments. 
 
 WINT. Si/n. Speaemint, Gkeen m. ; Men- 
 tha TiEiDis (Ph. L.), L. " The recent and 
 the dried flowering herb " of Mentha viridis. 
 It is aromatic and carminative, but its flavour 
 is less agreeable than that of peppermint. It 
 is employed in flatulence, colic, nausea, diar- 
 rhoea, &e. ; also to make sauce. 
 
 MIR'EOES. See Amalgam (Silvering), 
 Silvering, Speculum Metal, &c. 
 
 MITES. See Acaei. 
 
 MITH'KIDATE. Syn. Damooeaib's Con- 
 
 PECTION; MiTHEIDATIUM, CoNFEOTIO DAMO- 
 
 CEATis, L. " This composition originally con- 
 sisted of but few injiredients; viz. 20 leaves 
 of rue, 2 walnuts, 2 figs, and a little salt. Of 
 this we are informed that Mithridates took a 
 dose every morning to guard himself against 
 the efl'ects of poison. It was afterwards 
 altered, and the number of the ingredients 
 increased to sixty-one. In this more complex 
 form it contained opium, and was, in effect, 
 an aromatic opiate, of which the confection of 
 
 opium of the present day may be considered 
 as a simplilication. The * mithridate ' is still 
 prepared in ■ some shops, and is occasionally, 
 though very rarely, prescribed." (Med. Lex.) 
 " The formulse for CONIBCTION or eleoiuaet 
 OF CATECHU may be considered as the repre- 
 sentatives, in our modern Fbarmacopceias, of 
 the once celebrated recipes for CONPECTIO 
 Damockatis and Thkeiaca Anbeomachi." 
 (Redwood.) Mithridate was formerly con- 
 ceived to be good for nearly every disease, and 
 an antidote for every known poison. 
 
 MIX'TUEE. Syn. Mistuea, L. A com- 
 pound liquid medicine, taken in divided doses. 
 Mixtures are usually extemporaneous pre- 
 parations, and in prescribing them care should 
 be taken not to bring together substances that 
 decompose each other, nor to order heavy 
 powders, that speedily separate from the body 
 of the liquid by subsidence. Emulsions, 
 JULEPS, and MUCILAGES, are included in the 
 ' MiBTUBiG ' of the London Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 Mixtures are usually dispensed in flat octa- 
 gonal 6- or 8-oz. bottles, with long necks ; or 
 in regular * octagons ' with short necks, having 
 the doses marked on the glass, to which the 
 strength of the medicine is made to corre- 
 spond. 
 
 Our remarks respecting ' deaughts ' equally 
 apply here. By putting tlie active ingredients 
 of six draughts into a 6-oz. mixture bottle, 
 and filling it up with distilled water, a mixture 
 will be made of corresponding properties, of 
 which the dose will be 2 table-spoonfuls. 
 When the formula for the draughts includes a 
 decoction or infusion as the vehicle, instead of 
 water, four of them only must be taken, which 
 will then fill the 6-oz. bottle, and the proper 
 dose will be 3 table-spoonfuls, or a small wine- 
 glassful. 
 
 The following formulse embraces the whole 
 of the ' MiSTUEiE ' of the British Pharma- 
 copcela, as well as a few others in general use. 
 These will serve as examples for the like pre- 
 parations of medicinals which are not included 
 in the list. (See also Deaught, Emulsion, 
 Julep, Watee, &c.) 
 
 Mixture, Absor'hent. See Mixtuee, Ant- 
 acid. 
 
 Mixture, Aca'cia. See Mixtueb, Gum. 
 
 Mixture, Ace'tate of Ammo"nia. Syn. MiN- 
 
 DEEEEUS'S MIXTUEB; MlSTUKA AMMONIii 
 ACETATIS, L. Frep. From solution of acetate 
 of ammonia, IJ fl. oz. ; nitre, 40 gr. ; camphor 
 mixture, 6 fl. oz. ; rose syrup, i fl. oz. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, every third or fourth 
 hour, as a diaphoretic in inflammatory fevers, 
 &c. 
 
 Mixture of Acetic Acid. Syn. Mistuea 
 ACIDI ACETici. Prep. Distilled vinegar, 2 
 fl. dr.; syrup, 4 fl. dr.; water, 2 fl. oz. A 
 fourth part every three hours. For children 
 with scarlatina. 
 
 Mixture of Aconite. (Mr Fleming.) Syn. 
 Mistuea aconiti. Prep. Tincture of aconite, 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 1073 
 
 1 fl. dr.; carbonate of soda, 1} dr.; sulphate 
 of magnesia, 1} oz. ; water, 6 oz, A table- 
 ipoonful when the pain is urgent. In gas- 
 tralgia this should only be administered under 
 medical supervision or advice. 
 
 Mixture, Al'kaline. See Mixture, Antacid. 
 
 Uizture, Al'mond. Si/n. Emclsion o; al- 
 monds, Milk op a.; Mistcba amtgdalje 
 (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), Lao AMTGDALa;, L. 
 iVe;). 1. (Ph. L.) Confection of almonds, 
 ii oz. ; distilled water, 1 pint ; gradually add 
 the water to the confection while triturating, 
 until they are mixed ; then strain the liquid 
 through linen. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) From almond confection, 2 oz., 
 and water, 1 quart; as the last. Or, from 
 sweet almonds (blanched), lOdr. ; white sugar. 
 5 dr. J mucilige, i fl. oz. (or powdered gum, 
 3 dr.); made into an emulsion with wuter, 1 
 quart. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Sweet almonds (blanched), 5 
 dr. ; refined sugar, 2 dr. ; powdered gum, 1 
 dr. ; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. ; as the last. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Compound powder of almonds 
 (sweet), 1; water, 8; triturate and strain. 
 
 Obs. The last formula produces the article 
 usually employed in dispensing in the shops. 
 The addition of a little more sugar renders it 
 more pleasant ; and 2 or 3 bitter almonds, as 
 in the formula of the Ph. D. 1826, or 1 or 2 
 fl. dr. of rose or orange-flower water, may 
 occasionally be added, to diversify the flavour. 
 — Done, 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls, ad libitum; 
 as a demulcent and emollient in coughs and 
 colds, or as a vehicle for more active medicines. 
 
 Mixture of Ammonia, Muriate of. (Sir 6. 
 Lefevre.) Si/n. Mistuba ammonije mubia- 
 TI8. Prep. Muriate of ammonia, 60 gr. ; ex- 
 tract of liquorice, 3 dr. ; tartarised antimony, 
 
 2 gr. ; distilled water, 8 oz. A tablespoouf ul 
 every 2 hours in pleurisy, congestion of 
 mucous membranes, &c. 
 
 mixture, Ammoui'acum. 8gn. Emulsion of 
 AUuoNiAcujf, Mile of a. ; Mibtuba amuo- 
 NIAOI (B. P., Ph. L. k D.), Lac ammoniaci, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepared ammonia- 
 cum, 5dr. ; distilled water, 1 pint; rub the 
 ammoniacum with the wuter, gradually added, 
 until they are perfectly mixed. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Ammoniacum, \ oz. ; water, 
 8 fl. oz. ; as the last, but straining through 
 muslin. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Ammoniacum, i oz. ; rubbed 
 down with water, 8 oz., and strain. — Dose, 
 i to 1 gr. 
 
 Obt. The last formula produces the best 
 nnd most elfirtive mixture, owing to tTie use 
 of the raw instead of the strained drug. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, either alone or com- 
 bined with gquills or ipecacuanha; as an 
 expectorant and demulcent in chronic coughs, 
 humoral asthma, &c. . 
 
 Mixture, A'nodyne. Si/n. MiBTunA anodtna, 
 
 JuLBPCM CALMANS, L. Prep. 1. Prepared 
 
 chalk, 2 dr. ; syrup of poppies, 1 oz. ; fetid 
 
 spirit of ammonia, li dr. ; oils of dill and ani- 
 
 TOL. II. 
 
 seed, of each 3 drops ; water, 4i fl. oz. — Dose. 
 A teaspoonf ul 3 or 4 times a day ; in the diar- 
 rhoea and colic of infancy. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Syrup of opium, 2 dr. ; syrup 
 of orange flowers, 6 dr. ; lettuce water, 4 fl. 
 oz. To allay pain, induce sleep, &c. Dose, 1 
 table-spoonful. 
 
 3. (Vicnt.) Ammoniated alcohol, i fl. oz. ; 
 powdered opium, 1 dr. ; powdered camphor, i 
 dr.; proof spii it, li A. oz. ; digest, with agita- 
 tion, for 3 or 4 days, and filter. In toothache 
 arising from caries, and as a lotion to the 
 temples in headache. 
 
 Mixture, Antac'id. JSi/n. Absorbent hix- 
 TTTBE, Alkaline m.; Mistdba alkalina, 
 11. antacisa, L. Prep. 1. Liquor of potassa 
 and spirit of nutmeg, of each 2 fl. dr. ; tinc- 
 ture of rhubarb, 3 fl. dr. ; tincture of opium, 
 1 fl. dr. ; water, 5 fl. oz. In dvspepsia, heart- 
 burn, &c.. accompanied with flatulence. 
 
 2. Spirit of sul volatile and orange-flower 
 water, of e.ich 1 fl. oz. ; simple syrup, 1^ fl. oz j 
 water, 2i fi. oz. In acidity, &c., accompanied 
 with languor and low spirits. 
 
 3. Sesquicarbonateof ammonia, 2 dr.; syrup 
 of orange peel and tincture of gentian, of each 
 1 fl. oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. In dyspepsia, heart- 
 burn, &c., arising from excessive indulgence 
 in spirituous or fermented liquors. It also 
 possesses considerable stimulating properties, 
 and will partially remove the fit of drunken- 
 ness. 
 
 4. (Collier.) Prepared chalk, 2 dr.; tine 
 ture of ginger, 2 fl. dr.; compound tincture 
 of cardamoms, li fl. oz. ; pimento water, 6 fl. 
 oz. In diarrhoea accompanied with acidity. 
 
 5. (Collier.) Chalk mixture, 5 fl. oz. ; tinc- 
 tures of catechu and cinnamon, of each i fl. 
 oz. In chronic diarrhoea. 
 
 6. (Ryan.) Liquor of pota«sa, 2 fl. dr.; tinc- 
 ture of opium, 1 fl. dr.; calcined magnesia, 
 1 dr. ; oil of peppermint, 5 drops ; lime water , 
 8 fl. oz. In dyspepsia accompanied with 
 acidity, flatulence, and constipation. 
 
 Mixture,. Anticroup'al. Si/n. Mistuba sbne- 
 am, L. Prep. ( Jadelot.) Infusion of senega, 
 4 oz. ; syrup of ipecacuanha, 1 oz. ; oxymcl of 
 squills, 3 dr.; tartarised antimony, li gr.; 
 mix. By spoonfuls, in croup. 
 
 Mixture, Anti-eme'tic. Syn. Mistuba anti- 
 EMKTICA, L. Prep. 1. Creasote, 12 drops; 
 acetate of morphia, H gr-; camphor, 10 gr. 
 rectified spirit, i fl. oz.j syrup of orange peel, 
 li fl. oz. ; distilled vinegar, 4 fl. oz. In sea- 
 sickness, &c. — Dose, 1 table-spoonful on the 
 approach of vomiting, and repeated at inter- 
 vals of half an hour until the vomiting ceases. 
 
 2. (Dr. Barker.) Compound tincture of 
 camphor, 1 fl. dr. ; burnt brandy, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 sugar, i oz.; infusion of mint, 6 fl. <>z. — Dose, 
 i to 1 table-spoonful, every i hour, until the 
 vomiting ceases. 
 
 Mixture, Anti- epilep'tic. Si/n. Mistuea 
 anti-epilbptica, L. Prep. (M. Lemoine. ) 
 Liquor of ammonia, 12 drops ; syrup of orange 
 flowers, 1 oz. ; distilled water of linden flowei-s, 
 
 68 
 
1074 
 
 MIXTURE 
 
 2 oz. ; do. of cherry laurel, i oz. ; mix. Accord- 
 ing to M. Lemoine, this is a specific in epilepsy. 
 — Dose, 1 table-spoonful, or more. 
 
 Mixture, Antihyster'ic. Stftt,. Mistttba ak- 
 
 TIHYSTEEICA, h. ; POTION ANTIHTSTBEIQTJB, 
 Fr. Prep. (Dr Joaat.) Cyanide of potassium, 
 If gr. ; distilled lettuce water, 4^ fl. oz. ; syrup 
 of orange flowers, li fl. oz. — Dose, 1 or 2 tea- 
 spoonfuls every ten minutes, whiin the fit is 
 expected ; during the fit it may be given in 
 double doses. Dr Josat declares its efBcacy 
 to have been indisputably proved in upwards 
 of 55 cases. 
 
 2. (Magendie.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr. ; 
 lettuce water (distilled), 4 oz. j syrup of marsh- 
 mallow, 2 oz. Resembles the last. 
 
 3. (Dr Paris.) Assafcetida, 1 dr. j pepper- 
 mint water, 5 fl. oz. ; m-ike an emulsion, and 
 add of ammoniated tincture of valerian, 2 fl. 
 dr.; tincture of castor, 3 fl. dr.; sulphuric 
 ether, 14 fl. dr. — Dose, 1 table-spoonful, 3 or 
 4 times a day, or oftener. 
 
 4. (P. Cod.) Syrup of wormwood, 1 oz. ; 
 tincture of castor, i dr. ; valerian water and 
 orange-flower water, of each 2 oz. ; ether, 1 
 dr. As the last. 
 
 Mixture, Antimo"nlal. See Mixtube, Con- 
 
 TBA-STIMULAHT. 
 
 Mixture, AiitlpertuB'sic. S^n. Mistttba 
 
 ANTIPEBTUBBIKKS, L. Pr«jC. 1. COOHIKEAL 
 (powdered), 2 dr. ; carbonati of potassa, 1 dr. ; 
 boiling water, 8 fl. oz. j infustfor 1 hour, strain, 
 and add of lump sugar, IJ o«. 
 
 2. (Dr Bird.) Extract of hemlock, 12 gr. ; 
 alum, 25 gr. ; syrup of red poppies, 2 fl. dr.; 
 dill water, 3 fl. oz. 
 
 3. (Dr Reece.) Tincture of assafcetida, 1 
 fl. dr.; tincture of opium, 10 or 12 drops; 
 powdered ipecacuanha, 10 gr. ; water, 2fl. oz. 
 — Dose. A teaspoonful every 3 hours, in hoop- 
 ing cough, for a child 2 or 3 years old, and 
 other ages in proportion. 
 
 Mixture, Antisorofulous. S^n. Mistuea 
 ANiiacEOEnLOSA, L. Prep. Prom tincture of 
 bichloride of gold, 30 drops ; tincture of iodine, 
 40 drops ; tincture of gentian, 1 fl. dr. ; simple 
 syrup, 7 fl. dr. ; rose water, 5 fl. oz. — Dose. A 
 dessert- spoonful, 3 or 4 times daily, in a wine- 
 glassful of water ; observing to shake the 
 bottle before pouring out the liquid. Mr 
 Cooley states that he has seen repeated in- 
 stances of the excellent efi'ects of this medicine 
 in scrofula, sypl)ilis, and various glandular 
 diseases, even under all the disadvantages of 
 a salt-meat diet and confinement on ship- 
 board. 
 
 Mixture, Antlspasmod'ic. St/n. Mistttba 
 ANTISPASMODIOA, L. Prep. 1. Tincture of 
 castor, 6 fl. dr.; sulphuric ether and laudanum, 
 of each 1 fl. dr. ; syrup of saffron, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 cinnamon water, 4 fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Dr Collier.) Assafcetida and camphor 
 mixtures, of each 24 fl. oz. ; tincture of va- 
 lerian, 1 fl. oz. 
 
 3. (P. Cod.) Lime or linden-flower water 
 and orange-flower water, of each 2 oz. ; syrup 
 
 of orange flowers, 1 oz. ; ether, i dr. — Dose. 
 (Of each of the above) 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls. 
 Mixture, Ape"rieiit. Syn. Mistuba ape- 
 BIEKS, L. Prep. 1. (Abernethy.) Sulphate 
 of magnesia, 1 oz. ; mauna, ^ oz. ; infusion of 
 senna, IJ fl. oz. ; tincture of seuna, J fl. oz. ; 
 mint water, 2 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 mix. This is the true 'Abeenetht Black 
 Dbaught.' 
 
 2. (Dr Christison.) Sulphate of magnesia, 
 li oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add, of 
 tincture of senna, 1 fl. oz. j infusion of roses, 
 4 fl. oz. — Dose. A wine-glassful hourly, until 
 it begins to operate. 
 
 3. (Dr Collier.) Sulphate of iron, 20 gr.j 
 Epsom salts, 1 oz. ; pennyroyal water, 1 pint j 
 dissolve. — Dose. A wine-glassful twice a day, 
 in atonic amenorrhoea. 
 
 Mixture, Aromat'io. Si/n, Mistttba aeo- 
 MATICA, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Syrup of 
 clove gilliflowers, 1 oz. ; spirit of cinnamon, i 
 oz. ; confectionof hyacinth, 2 dr.; peppermint 
 water and orange-flower water, of each 2 oz. 
 
 2. (Guy's Hosp.) Aromatic confection (Ph. 
 L., in powder), 3 dr.; peppermint water, 9 
 fl. oz. Sometimes a little tincture of calumba 
 is added. 
 
 3. (St Barth. Hosp.) Aromatic confection, 
 2i dr. ; water, 5 fl. oz. ; pimento water, 3 fl. 
 oz, ; mix. The last two are excellent aromatic 
 absorbents in diarrhceaf heartburn, flatulence, 
 acidity, &c. — Dose, 1 or 2 table-spuonf uls every 
 2 or 3 hours, or as required. 
 
 Mixture, Aromatic Iron. Pale bark, in 
 powder, 4; calnmba, in powder, 2; cloves, 
 bruised, 1 ; iron wire, 2 ; compound tincture 
 of cardamoms, 12 ; tincture of orange peel, 2; 
 peppermint water, 50 ; macerate the first four 
 ingredients in the last one for three days, agi- 
 tating occasionally, filter, add the tinctures, 
 and make up to 50. Used as a tonic. — Dose, 
 
 1 to 2 oz. 
 
 Mixture, Arsen'ical. Si/n. Mistuea AESBifi- 
 CAIJS, L. Prep. From liquor of arsenite of 
 potassa — Ph. L., 2 fl. dr. ; compound tincture 
 of cardamoms, 4 fl. dr. j cinnamon water, 2 fl. 
 oz. ; pure water, 3 fl. oz. ; mix. — Dose. A small 
 table-spoonful, twice a day, after a full meal; 
 in agues, periodic headaches, lepra, psoriasis, 
 chronic rheumatism, &c. It should be exhi- 
 bited with caution, and its effects watched; 
 and after 5 or 6 days the dose should be 
 reduced to half the quantity. 
 
 Mixture, Astrin'gent. St/n. Mistttba 
 ASTBIKGEN3, L. Prep. 1. (Pradel,) Tannin, 
 12 gr. ; tincture of rhatany, 1 dr. ; simple 
 syrup, 7 dr. ; mucilage, 1 oz. ; camphor mix- 
 ture, 4 oz. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Extract of catechu^ 
 
 2 dr. (or tincture 1 oz.); cinnamon water, 
 8 oz. ; dissolve. — Dose, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, 
 after every liquid dejection, in diarrhoea and 
 dysentery. 
 
 Mixture, Atroph'ic. Syn. Mistttba atbo- 
 PHioA, L. ; Potion ateophique, Fr. Prep. 
 (Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 4 dr. ; let- 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 10?5 
 
 tnce water, 8 oz. ; peppermiat water, 2 dr. j 
 ■yrap of inarshmallow, 1 oz. — Dote, 1 table- 
 spouiiful, twice a day ; in hypertrophy (en- 
 largement) of the heart. Sometimes 1 to 2 
 dr. of tincture of foxglove is added to the 
 miztare. 
 
 Uixture, Balsainic. (P. Cod.) Syn. Mis- 
 tuba BAL8AMICA. Prep. BaUam copaiho, 2 
 oz.; rectified spirit, 2 oz. ; syrup of toiu, 2 
 oz. ; peppermint water, 4 oz. ; nitric ether, 2 
 dr. Mix the alcohol and ether, add the balsam, 
 then tlie syrup and water. 
 
 Miztnre, Bar'ley. Syn. Misicba bobdei, 
 L. See Decoction. 
 
 Miztare of Bismuth. (St Th. Hosp.) S,tfn. 
 MiSTURA BiSMUTiii. Prep. Subnitrate of bis- 
 muth, 10 gr. ; compound powder of truga- 
 canth, 5 gr. ; water, 1 oz. For 1 dose. 
 
 Mixture of Bisulphide of Carbon. (Clarus.) 
 Syn. MisTUHA bisuiphuukti oabbonis. 
 Prep, liisulphide of carbon, 20 minims; 
 sugar, 2 dr. ; milk, 6 oz. — Dole, i oz. 4 times 
 u day. 
 
 Miztnre of Boracic Acid. (Chaussier.) Si/n. 
 MiSTCBA ACIDI BOKACICI. Prep. Camphor 
 mixture, 4 oz. ; boraciu acid, 60 gr. ; s^ rup of 
 orange peel, 1 oz. 
 
 Miztnre of Burnt Hartshorn. See Decoc- 
 tion, White. 
 
 Miztnre, Brandy. Syn. Mixture of bpibit 
 OP Fbench wine, Ego flipJ; Mistuba spi- 
 EiTUs viNi Galhoi (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Brandy and cinnamon water of 
 each 4 &. oz. ; yolks of 2 eggs ; white sugar, 
 ) oz. ; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops; mix. A va- 
 luable stimulant and restorative in low fevers, 
 and in extreme exhaustion from liaemorrliages, 
 &c. ; but scarcely a fitting subject for the 
 labours of the College of Physicians, since 
 almost every cook and housewife could pro- 
 duce a better compound than the product of 
 the College Ibrmula. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Brandy, 4 gr. ; cinnamon water, 
 4 oz. ; the yolks of 2 eggs ; sugar, j oz. ; mix. 
 — Do»e, i to li oz., in prostration and last 
 stages of fever. 
 
 Mixture of Caffein. (Vanden-Corpnt.) Syn. 
 Mistuba caffkinje. Prep. Caffein, 7 gr. ; 
 distilled water, 3 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 2 
 drops ; syrup of orange-flower water, J oz. ; 
 mix. — Dose, 1 tablespoonful. 
 
 Mixture, Cam'phor. Syn. Camphoe julep, 
 Cakphob water j Mistuba. CAMPHona; 
 (Ph. L. & D.), E.MiLsio CAMPHOK* (Ph. E ) 
 MieiURAOAMPnOBATA, L. Prep. 1. (I'll. L.) 
 Camphor, i dr.; rectified spirit, 10 drops; 
 triturate together, graduHlly adding of water, 
 1 pint; and strain through linen. 
 
 2. (Pli. D.) Tincture of camphor, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 distillcil water, 3 pints; aifitate well together, 
 and after 24 hours filter through paper. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) See Emulsion. 
 
 Uses, S;c. Camphor julep is chiefly used as 
 a vehicle for other medicines. — Dose, J to 1 
 wine-gliissful. 
 
 4. (With MAONE.siA: Mistuba CAMPiiOBi: 
 
 CUM MAGNESIA— Ph. E.&D.,AQI7A CAMPHORS 
 
 — Ph. U. S.)— o. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 10 gr.. 
 carbonate of magnesia, 25 gr. ; triturate toge- 
 ther, then gradually add of water, 6 fl. oz., 
 still continuing the trituration. 
 
 b. (Ph.D.) Camphor, 12 gr.; carbonateof 
 magnesia, i dr. ; water, 6 fl. oz. ; as last. 
 
 c. (Ph. U. S.) Camphor, 2 dr.; rectified 
 spirit, 40 drops ; triturate, add of carbonate of 
 magnesia, 4 dr., and again triturate, adding, 
 gradually, of water, 32 fl. oz. Antacid, anti- 
 spasmodic, and anodyne. — Dose, 1 to 2 table- 
 spoonfuls. Used without straining. It is 
 stronger than the simple mixture. 
 
 d. Cabbonated camphob mixture. Syn. 
 Mistuba camphor cabbonica. Water 
 strongly charged with carbonic acid gas, agi- 
 tated with powdered camphor and strained. 
 
 Mixture, Carmin'ative. Syn. Mistuba cab- 
 MINATIVA, L. Prep. (Dr Paris.) Calcined 
 magnesia, i dr. ; peppermint water, 2i fl. dr. ; 
 compound tincture of lavender, i fl. dr. ; spirit 
 of caraway, 4 fl. dr. ; syrup of ginger, 2 fl. dr.; 
 mix. Antacid and carminative. For 1 or 2 
 doses. 
 
 Miztnre of Cassia. (Fr. Hosp.) Syn. Mis- 
 tuba CASSI.E, L. ; Eau de casse, F. Cassia 
 pulp, 2 oz.; hot water, IJ pint. May be taken 
 by the wineglus.q. Liixutive. 
 
 Mixture of Cassia, Antimoniated. (Foy.) 
 Syn. Mistuba OAssiiE antimoniata, Eau db 
 casse. Emitis^e. Prep. Pulp of cassia, 1 
 oz. ; boiling water, 1 J pint. Macerate, strain, 
 and add sulphate of magnesia, 1 oz. ; emetic 
 tartar, 3 gr. By cupfuls. In painters' colic. 
 
 Mixture, Cathar'tic. See Mixtubb, Ape- 
 eient, M. Senna, &c. 
 
 Mixture, Chalk. Syn. Cbetaceous mix- 
 ture; Mistcea CEET.E (B. P.), Mistuba 
 CHETA (Ph. h. E. & D.), M. ceetacea, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Prepiired chalk, \ oz. ; 
 sugar, 3 dr. ; mixture of aciicia (mucilage), 
 li fl. oz., trituriite together, then add of cin- 
 namon water, IS fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 10 dr. ; white 
 sugar, 5 dr. ; mucilage, 3 fl. oz. ; spirit of 
 cinnamon, 2 fl. oz. ; water, 1 quart; as the 
 last. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 2 dr.; syrup 
 and mucilaj^e, of each, i oz. ; cinnamon water, 
 7 fl. oz. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Prepared chalk, 1 ; gum Arabic, 
 in powder, 1 ; syrup, 2 ; cinnamon water, 30 ; 
 mix by trituration. — Dose, 1 to 2 gr., with 
 astringent tinctures and opium. 
 
 Obs. The above are antacid and absorbent. 
 — Dose, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, either alone or 
 combined with aromatic confection; in heart- 
 burn, and in diarrhoea after every liquid mo- 
 tion. In the latter affection, a little tincture 
 of catechu or laudiinum is often added; and 
 when there is vomiting or nausea, either pep- 
 permint or spearmint water is genei'ally sub- 
 stituted for the whole or a part of the simple 
 water ordered in the above forniulse. 
 
 Mixture of Chlorine. Syn. Mistuba chlo- 
 
1076 
 
 MIXTURE 
 
 BINII. Dr Watson prescribes 2 fl. dr. of the 
 solution to 1 pint of water. The dose of the 
 mixture is 4 fl. dr. every 3 hours, according to 
 age, in scarlatina. 
 
 Mixture of Chloroform. (Ph. U. S.) Syn. 
 MiBTUEA CHLOEoroEMl. Frep. Chloroform, 
 i 01. (by weight) ; camphor, 1 dr. ; yolk of 1 
 egg ; water, 6 oz. Rub the yolk first by itself, 
 then with the camphor, previously dissolved 
 iu the chloroform, and lastly, with the water 
 gradually added. 
 
 Mixture, Cincho'na. Syn. Babk mixture; 
 MisTUEA ciifoHONiE, L. Prep. (Copland.) 
 Confection ol rosea, J oz. ; boiling decoction of 
 bark, 1 fl. oz. ; triturate, iu 10 minutes strain, 
 and add diluted sulphuric acid, \\ fl. dr.; spirit 
 of nutmeg, 4 fl. dr. Febrifuge, tonic, and 
 stomachic. — Dose, 1 to 3 table-spoonfuls, 2 or 
 3 times a day. 
 
 Mixture of Citrate of Caffein. Syn. Mis- 
 TUEA caffeine; citeatis. Potion contee 
 uiOBAiNiE. Syrup of citrate of caffein, 1 fl. 
 oz. ; water (or any agreeable diluent), 5 oz. A 
 table-spoouful frequently. 
 
 Mixture, Col'chicum. Syn. Govt mixtuee ; 
 
 MlSTUEA ANTAETHEITIOA, M. OOtCHICI, L. 
 
 Prep. (Sir S. Scudamore.) Magnesia, IJ dr. ; 
 vinegar of colchicum and syrup of orange peel, 
 of each 4 fl. dr.; peppermint water, 3 fl. oz. 
 A table-spoonful every 3 or 4 hours during 
 the fit of gout. 
 Mixture, Contra-stim'nlaut. Syn. Mistuea 
 
 CONTEA-STIMULANS, JULEPtfH C, M. ANTI- 
 MONII P0TASSI0-TAETEATI3, L. Prep. (Laen- 
 nec.) Tartar emetic, 3 gr. ; infusion of orange 
 leaves, 8 fl. oz. ; syrup of do., 1 fl. oz. — Dose. 
 A wine-glassful, or more, every 2 hours ; in 
 inflammation of the lungs, hooping-cough, 
 &c. 
 
 Mixture of Copaiba. (Guy's Hosp.) Syn. 
 MiSTTTEA COPAIB.E. Prep. Balsam of copaiba, 
 3 dr. ; solution of carbonate of potash, 1^ dr. 
 Rub together and gradually add decoction of 
 barley, 8 oz. ; spirit of nitric ether, 3 dr. — 
 Dose, 1 oz. 3 times a day. See Mixtuees, 
 Balsamic. 
 
 Mixture, Cough. Syn. Mistuea bechica, 
 L. Prep. 1. Almond mixture, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 oxymel of squills, 1 fl. oz.; ipecacuanha wine 
 and syrup of tolu, of each i fl. oz. 
 
 2. Tincture of tolu, ^ fl. oz. ; paregoric 
 elixir and tincture of squills, of each 1 fl. oz. ; 
 syrup of poppies, 3 fl. oz. ; water, 3i fl. oz. 
 
 3. Mixture of ammoniacum, 4 fl. oz. ; syrup 
 of squills, 2 fl. oz. In the coughs of old 
 persons, 
 
 4. Antimonial wine, 3 fl. dr. j syrup of pop- 
 pies, Ij fl. oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz. In dry, husky 
 coughs.— Do«e (of each of the above), 1 table- 
 spoonful, 2 or 3 times a day, or oftener. 
 
 5. (Dr Monro.) Paregoric, i fl. oz. ; sul- 
 phuric ether and tincture of tolu, of each 4 oz 
 — Dose. A teaspoonful in water, night and 
 morning, or when the cough is troublesome. 
 
 6. (Dr Radcliff.) Syrup of poppies, syrup 
 
 of squills, and paregoric, equal parts. — Dose, 
 As the last. In all cases the bowels should be 
 kept gently moved by some mild aperient. 
 
 7. (Dr Wood's Brown Mixture.) Extract 
 of liquorice, 2 dr. ; powdered gum Arabic, 2 
 dr.; boiling water, 4 oz.; dissolve, and add 
 antimonial wine, 2 dr.; laudanum, 20 minims. 
 — Dose. A table-spoonlul occasionally. A popu- 
 lar American remedy. 
 
 Mixture, Cre'asote. Syn. Mistuea cbeasoti, 
 M. CBEAZOII (B. P., Ph. E.), I,. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. E.) Creasote and acetic acid, of each 16 
 drops; mix, then add of compound spirit of 
 juniper and syrup, of each 1 fl. oz. ; water, 
 14 fl. oz. J and agitate well together. — Dose, 
 i to 1 wine-glassful, in nausea and vomiting, 
 especially to prevent or relieve sea-sickness. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Creasote, 16 minims; glacial 
 acetic acid, 16 minims; spirit of juniper,^ dr.; 
 syrup, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 15 oz. ; mix. — 1 
 to 2 oz. 
 
 Mixture of Cnbebs. Syn. Mistuea cu- 
 BEB.S;. Powder of cubebs, 1 oz. ; sugar, 2 dr. ; 
 mucilage, 2 oz. ; cinnamon water, 6 oz. — 
 Dose, ^ oz. to 1 oz. 
 
 Mixture, Demul'cent. Syn. Mistuea de- 
 MULCEifs, L. See Almond Mixiuee, Gum 
 M., &c. 
 
 Mixture, Diaphoret'ic. Syn. Mistuea dia- 
 phoeetica, L. Prep. 1. Solution of acetate 
 of ammonia, 3 fl. oz. ; antimonial wine, 2 fl. dr.; 
 tincture of henbane, IJ fl. dr. ; camphor mix- 
 ture, 3 fl. oz. — Dose, 1 table-spoonful every 3 
 or 4 hours ; in fevers, &c. 
 
 2. To the last add of sweet spirit of nitre, J 
 fl. oz. As above. 
 
 Mixture for Diarrhoea. (Board of Health.) 
 Syn. Mistuea peg diaeehcea. Aromatic 
 powder, 3 dr. ; compound spirits of ammonia, 
 3 dr. ; tincture of catechu, 10 dr. ; compound 
 tincture of cardamoms, 6 dr.; tincture of 
 opium, 1 dr.; chalk mixture to make 20 oz. — 
 Dose. For an adult, 1 oz. ; for a child of 12 
 years of age, i oz. ; for 7 years, \ oz. j after 
 each liquid stool. 
 
 Mixture, Siarrhoe'a. See Mixtuee, Chale, 
 &c. 
 
 Mixture, Diuret'ic. Syn. Mistuea diu- 
 ebtica, L. Prep. 1. Nitrate of potassa, 2 
 dr. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 3 fl. dr.; syrup of 
 squills, IJ fl. oz.; peppermint water, 4 fl. oz. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Infusion of foxglove, 
 5i fl. oz. ; tincture of foxglove, J fl. dr. ; ace- 
 tate of potassa, 2 dr.; spirit of juniper, i fl. oz.; 
 tincture of opium, J fl. dr. In dropsy. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, every 2 or 3 hours. 
 The last must be used with caution. 
 
 Mixture, Effervescing. (P. Cod.) Syn. 
 Mistuea effeevescens ; Potion Gazeuss 
 HE RiTiEEE. Frep. Dissolve i dr. of bicar- 
 bonate of potash in 2 oz. of water, and add 4 
 dr. of syrup. Mix also J dr. of citric acid 
 with i oz. of syrup of citric acid and 2 oz. of 
 water. Mix an equal quantity of each, and 
 give it while effervescing. 
 
 Mixture of Elaterinm. (Dr Ferriar.) Syn. 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 1077 
 
 MiSTtTEA BLATEBII. Prej). Elaterium, 1 gr.; 
 spirit of nitric other, 2 fl. oz. ; tincture of 
 squills, i oz. ; oxjiuet of colcliicsm, i oz. ; 
 •ymp of buckthorn, 1 fl. oz. — Vote, 1 dr. 3 
 times B day in water. 
 
 Uiztare, Emet'ic. Syn. Mistubaemetica, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Copland.) Sulphate of zinc, 
 40 gr. ; ipecacuanha wine and tincture of Rer- 
 pentary, of each 4 fl. dr.; tincture of capsicum, 
 40 drops; oilof chamomile, 12 drops; pepper- 
 mint water, 4^ fl. oz. As an excitant emetic; 
 in cases of poisoning by narcotics, &c. 
 
 2. (Magendie.) Coloured emetine, 4 gr. (or 
 white emetine, 1 gr.) ; acetic acid, 8 drops ; 
 mix, and add of infusion of orange leaves or 
 lime flowers, 3) fl. oz.; syrup of marshmallowB, 
 1 fl. oz. 
 
 3. (A, T. Thomson.) Ipecacuanha, \ dr. ; 
 tartar emetic, 1 gr. ; tincture of squills, 1 fl. 
 dr. ; water, 6 fl. oz. Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoon- 
 fuls, followed by half the quantity every 10 or 
 15 minutes, until vomiting is produced ; at the 
 same time assisting the action of the medicine 
 by drinking copiously of warm water. 
 
 mixture, Emmen'agogDe. See Mixtube, 
 Steel, &c. 
 
 Mlztnre, Expec'torant. Syn. Mistuba bx- 
 PEOTOBANS, L. Prep. 1. (Collier.) Oxymel 
 uf squills and mucilage, of each 1 oz. ; syrup 
 of marshmallows, 2oz.; camphor julep, 8 fl. 
 oz. — Do»e, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 2 or 3 times 
 a day; in coughs, hoarseness, astlima, &c. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Almond mixture, 6 
 fl. (iz. ; ipecacuanha wine and tincture of 
 squills, of eacli 1 H. d» ; syrup of tolu, 6 H. dr. 
 — Doxe, 1 table-spoonful ; in humoral asthma, 
 catirrli, &c., when the cough is urgent. 
 
 Hixture, Feb'rifage. Syn. Mibtuba f£brI' 
 ruoA, L. See Acetate of Ammonia Mix- 
 
 TCBE, DiAPHOEETIO M., &C 
 
 Uiztare of Gentian. (Ph. B.) Syn. Mis- 
 tuba 0BNTIAII£. Prep. Macerate gentian 
 root, sliced, i oz. ; bitter orange peel, cut 
 suiall, and coriander fruit, bruised, of each 30 
 gr., in proof spirit, 2 fl. oz., for 2 hours. Add 
 distilled water, 8 fl. oz. ; macerate a</aiii for 2 
 hours, and strain through calico. — Dose, X oz. 
 
 Uixtnre, Gentian (Compound). Gentian, 
 bruised, 1^; bitter orange peel, bruised, }; 
 cardamom seeds, bruised, J j proof spirit, 20 : 
 macirate for forty-eight hours with 15 of the 
 spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a per- 
 colator, let it drain, and then pour on the 
 remaining spirit ; when it ceases to drop, wash 
 the marc with spirit to make up 20. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 drachms. 
 
 Hixture, Gregory's. See Powdebs. 
 
 Uixtore, Griffith's. (See Mixtube, Stkel. 
 
 Mixture, Gnai'acnm. Syn. Emulsion of 
 
 GUAIACUM, JlrLI op O. ; MiSTUBA OUAIACI 
 
 (B. p.), (Ph. L. & E.), Lao g., L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L.) Gum guaiacum, 3 dr.; white su?ar, 
 1 oz. ; ^nm acacia, 2 dr. (all in powder); 
 triturate together, and to these, whilst rubbing, 
 gradually add of cinnamon water, 1 pint. 
 2. (Ph. E.) Ouaiacum, 3 dr. ; sugar, J 
 
 oz. ; mucilage, i fl. oz. ; cinnamon water, 19i 
 fl. oz. ; as before. — Dose, 1 to 3 table-spoon- 
 fuls, 2 or 3 times a day ; in chronic rheuma- 
 tism, gout, Ac. 
 
 8. (B. P.) Guaiac resin, in powder, 2; 
 sngiir, 2 ; gum Arabic, in powder, 1 ; cinnamon 
 «ater, 80; triturate, adding the cinnamon 
 water gradually. — Dose, i to 2 oz. 
 
 Hixtore, Gum. Syn. Mucilaoe ; Mistuba 
 AOACia; (Ph. L.I, McciLAOO (Ph. E.), Muci- 
 LAQO ACACIAi; (Ph. D.), Mucilago Aeabici 
 GUMMi, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Gum acacia 
 (in powder), 13 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 
 pint ; rub the gum with the water, gradually 
 poured in, until solution is complete. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. ) Gum, 9 oz. ; cold water, 1 pint ; 
 macerate, with occasional stirring, until dis- 
 solved, then strain through linen or calico. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Gum (coarsely powdered), 4 oz. ; 
 water (cold), 6 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and strain 
 tfaiough flannel. 
 
 Uses, Jj-c. Mucilago of gum acacia is chiefly 
 employed to render oily and resinous sub- 
 stances niiscible with water. " Oils require 
 about f their weight ; balsams and spermaceti, 
 equal ports ; resins, 2 parts ; and musk, 5 times 
 its weight," for this purpose. (Montgomery.) 
 The Gum mixtube. Ph. E., will bo found 
 under ' EuuisiON.' 
 
 Uixtnre of Hemidesmns. (Mid. Hosp.) Syn. 
 Mistuba hemidbsmi. Prep. Bruised root of 
 hemidesmns, 10 oz. ; extract of liquorice, 10 
 gr. ; distilled water, 10 oz. Digest for 12 
 hours, heat the strained liquor to 180° F., aud 
 strain a!;ain. — Dose, i part 3 times a da\ . 
 
 Mixture of Hemlock, Compound. (Guy's 
 Hosp.) Syn. Mistuba conii composita. 
 Prep. Extriict of hemlock, 1 dr.; carbonate 
 of soda, 1^ dr. ; decoction of liquorice, 11 oz. ; 
 spirit of pimento, 6 dr. — Dose, 1 oz. to 2 oz. 
 Myrrh mixture is sometimes substituted for 
 decoction of liquorice. 
 
 Mixture of Horseradish, Compound. (Dr 
 Paris.) Syn. MisTUEA ABMOEACiJE com- 
 posita. Prep. Horeradish root, i oz. ; mus- 
 tard seed, i oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint. Mace- 
 rate lor an hour, and to 7 oz. of the strained 
 infusion add aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. 
 dr. ; spirit of pimento, ^ oz. In paralysis. 
 
 Mixture, Hydrocyan'ic. Syn. Mixtubb of 
 PEUssic acid ; Mistuba acidi htdhooianici, 
 L. Prep. From medicinal prussic acid, 15 
 drops ; simple sprnp (pure), 1 fl. oz. ; distilled 
 water, 5 fl. oz. ; — Dose, 1 table-spoonful, 2 or 
 3 times daily. Each dose contains li drop of 
 medicinal prussic acid. The bottle sliould be 
 shaken before pouring out the dose. Magen- 
 die's formulaa for this mixture are omitted, 
 because the acid which he orders is not kept 
 in the shops in England. 
 
 Mixtnre of Iodine with Sarsaparilla. (Ma- 
 gendie.) Syn. Mistuba iodinii cum Saeza. 
 Prep. Decoction of sarsaparilla, li pint ; 
 iodide of potassium, 1 dr. ; syrup of orange, 
 2 oz. 
 
 Mixture, I'ron. See Mixtube, Steel. 
 
1078 
 
 MIXTURK 
 
 Mixture, I'ron (Componud). See Mixtubb, 
 Steel. 
 
 Mixture, Marshmallow. Si/n. Mistttea 
 ALTH^^ (Ph. E.), L. Frep. (Ph. E.) Marsh- 
 mallow root (dried), 4 oz. ; stoned raisins, 2 oz. ; 
 water, 5 pints ; boil to 3 pints, strain through 
 linen, and after the sediment has subsided, 
 decant the clear portion. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) See Deooctioit. Demulcent. — 
 Dose. A few spoonfuls ad libitum, so as to 
 take 1 to 3 pints in the 24 hours j in strangury, 
 calculus, coushs, fevers, &c. 
 
 Mixture of Monesia. (Neligan.) 5y«. Mis- 
 tttea MOHESI^. JPrep. Extract of monesia, 2 
 scruples; water, 7ioz.; compound tincture of 
 cardamoms, i oz. 
 
 Mixture of Musk. (Ph. L.) iS^». Mistuea 
 MOSOHi. Frep. Musk, 3 dr.; triturate it with 
 white sugar, 3 dr. ; gum acacia, 3 dr. ; and gra- 
 dually add rose water, 1 pint. — Dose, 1 to 
 2 oz. 
 
 Mixture of Musk-seed. (Dr Reece.) %n. 
 Misttjka abelmoschi. Prep. Tincture of 
 musk-seeds, 1 oz. ; aromatic spirit of ammo- 
 nia, 3 fl. dr. ; compound spirit of lavender, 4 
 fl. dr.; camphor mixture, 6 oz. — Dose, i oz. 
 to 1 oz. 
 
 Mixture, Myrrh. Sj/a. Emulsion op Mteeh ; 
 MIST0BA mtebh^, L. Frep. (Copland.) 
 M.\ rrh, li dr. ; add to it gradually, triturating 
 aU the time, decoction of liquorice, 6 fl. oz., 
 and strain. — Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 
 twice or thrice a day, combined with carbonate 
 of soda, dilute hydrochloric acid, or paregoric ; 
 in debility, aud diseases of the digestive 
 organs. 
 
 Mixture, Narcot'ic. St/n. Mistttea ijae- 
 COTICA, M. PEBEIFUGA, L. Prep. 1. Tincture 
 of henbane, 2 fl. dr. ; solution of acetate of am- 
 monia, 3 fl. oz. ; water, 2| fl. oz. ; mix. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, to relieve pain, procure 
 sleep in fevers, &c. 
 
 2. (W. Cooley.) Laudanum, IJ fl. dr.; 
 syrup of poppies, sulphuric ether, and spirit of 
 cinnamon, of each 1 oz. ; tincture of henbane, 
 2i fl. dr. ; tincture of capsicum, 4 fl. dr. ; 
 water 2 fl. oz. — Dose, 1 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 
 at the commencement of the hot fit of ague. 
 
 Mixture. Oleo-balsam'ic. Si/n. Mistuea 
 OLEOBALSAMICA, L. Prep. (Hamh. Cod.) Oils 
 of cedrat, cinnamon, cloves, lavender, mace, and 
 marjoram, of each 20 drops j oil of rue, 10 
 drops ; balsam of Peru, i dr. ; rectified spirit, 
 10 oz. ; digest and filter. 
 
 Mixture of Oxalic Acid. (Nardo.) St/n. 
 MlSTUBA AOIDI oxALici. Frep. Oxalic acid, 
 8 gr. J mucilage, 3 oz. ; syrup, 1 oz. In in- 
 flammation of the fauces and digestive tube. 
 
 Mixture of yhosphorus. (Soubeiran.) Syn. 
 MiSTUBA PHOSPHOEICI. Frep, Phosphorated 
 oil, 2 dr. ; powdered gum acacia, 2 dr. ; pep- 
 permint water, 3 oz. ; syrup, 2 oz. Mix the 
 gum with 10 dr. of water, and thin with the 
 oil, and gradually add the others. Contains 1 
 gr. of phosphorus. — Dose, ^ fl. oz. 
 
 Mixture of Platinum Chloride. (Hoeffer.) 
 
 S^n. Mistuea platini chloeim. 
 Perchloride of platinum, li gr.; gnm juleps, 
 6 oz. 
 
 Mixture of Potassium Iodide. (Cazenave.) 
 Si/n. Mistuea potassii iodidi. Frep. Io- 
 dide of potassium, 2 dr. ; distilled water, 16 
 oz. ; syrup, 2 fl. oz. 2 or 3 table-spoonfuls per 
 diem. 
 
 Mixture, Pur'gative. S^/n. Mistuea ca- 
 thaetica, M. laxativa, M. pueoans. L. 
 Frep. 1. Prom any of the purging salts 
 (Epsom, Glauber, tasteless, &c.), 2 oz.; infusion 
 of senna, 5 fl. oz. ; syrup of orange peel, 1 fl. 
 oz.; tincture of ginger, ^ fl. oz. ; spirit of 
 pimento, 2 fl. di-. ; mix. — Dose, 1 to 3 table- 
 spoonfols, early in the morning; as an aperient 
 in stomach complaints, &c. 
 
 2. ( Dr Copland. ) Manna, 1^ oz. ; cream of 
 tartar, i oz. ; wliey, 1 quart. By wine-glass- 
 fuls, as an aperient drink, in fevers, &c. 
 
 3. (Corvisart.) Borotartrate of potassa 
 (soluble tartar), 1 oz. ; tartar emetic, 3 gr. ; 
 sugar, 2 oz. ; water, IJ pint ; dissolve. By 
 wine-glassfuls, until it begins to operate. This 
 has been called ' Napoleos's medicine,' from 
 its having been frequently taken by Na- 
 poleon I. See MiXTUBES op Scammont, 
 Senna, &c. 
 
 Mixture of Quinine and Coffee. Si/n. Mis- 
 tuea^ QITINia: ET CAFPEiE; CaFE QUININE. 
 Prepare 5 oz. of infusion from 4 dr. of ground 
 coffee by pevcolition, and add 24 gr. of neutral 
 sulphate of quinine and 4 dr. of sugar. — Dose. 
 A tablespoonful. The coffee conceals the 
 bitterness of the quinine. 
 
 Mixture of Quinine with Iron. Si/n. Mis- 
 tuea QUINI.E CUM peeeo. Sulphate of qui- 
 nine,. 1 gr. ; snlpliate of iron, 2 gr. ; dilute 
 sulphuric acid, 5 minims; water, 1 oz. For I 
 dose. 
 
 Mixture of Bhubarh with Magnesia. (St 
 Thorn. Hosp.) Si/n. Mistuea ehei cum 
 MAGNESIA. Prep. Rhubarb, 7i gr. ; carbo- 
 nate of magnesia, 15 gr. ; peppermint water, 
 IJ oz. For 1 dose. 
 
 Mixture, Saline. Syn. Mistttea salina, L. 
 See Dbaught and Lemonade. 
 
 Mixture, Scam'mony. Si/n. Soammontmilk; 
 Mistuea scammonii (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. E.) Resin of scammony, 7 gr.j un- 
 skimmed milk, 3 fl. oz. : gradually mix, tri- 
 turating all the time, so as to form an emul- 
 sion. Purgative. — Dose. One half. 
 
 2. (Planche's PuBGATiVE potion.) To the 
 last add of white sugar, i oz. ; cherry-laurel (or 
 bitter-almond) water, 4 or 5 drops. The above 
 are the most tasteless and pleasant purgatives 
 of an active character known. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Resin of scammony, 4 gr. ; fresh 
 milk, 2 oz. j triturate and form an emulsion. 
 — Dose. The quantity of the formula for an 
 adult, half for a child. 
 
 Mixture, Senega, with Ammonia. (St Th. H.) 
 Sy«. Mistuea seneg.s; cum ammonia. Prep. 
 Infusion of senega, 1 oz. ; carbonate of ammo- 
 nia, 4 gr. For 1 dose. 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 1079 
 
 Hiztnre, Sen'na (Compound). St/n. Blauk 
 
 DBAUQUT, ABKUXKTUl'gD., CATHAKTIO iMiX- 
 TDBK ; MiSTUBA BBMNjB COMPOSITA (B. P.), L. 
 Prep. 1. Infusion of Benna, | pint; tincture 
 of senna, IJ fl. oz. ; Epsom salts, 4 oz.; tar- 
 bonute of ainmouin, i dr. ; sugar, 3 ez. ; 
 agitate until tlie solids are dissolved. 
 
 2. SoniKi, 13 oz. ; boiling water, 2 quarts; 
 digest for 4 hours in a hot place, then press 
 out the liquor in a tincture press, and add, of 
 compound tincture of senna, J pint ; Epsom 
 suits, 1 lb. 
 
 3. Eiist India senna, 2 lbs. ; boiling water, 9 
 quarts ; tincture of senna und Epsom salts, of 
 eucli 3i lbs. ; as the last. 
 
 4. Senna, 8 lbs. ; boiling water, 9 galls. ; 
 Epsom suits, 16 lbs. J tincture of senna, IJ 
 giilU. i treacle and colouring, of each 1 quart. 
 
 5. (Guy's Hosp.) Senna and mint, of each 
 IJ oz. (say li oz.)i boiling water, 1 quart; 
 E)>M)in suits, 7toz. (say i lb.). 
 
 t>. (Redwood.) Infusion of senna, 18 oz. j 
 tincture of senna, 3 oz. ; sulphate of magnesia; 
 6 oz. ; extract of liquorice and spirit of sal vola- 
 tile, of each i oz. ; oil of cloves, 6 drops. 
 
 7. (B. P.) Infusion of senna, 14j sulphute 
 of magnesia, 4 ; extract of liquorice, i ; tinc- 
 ture of senna, 2i ; compound tincl are of car- 
 damoms, li : dissolve and mix, — Dose, 1 to 
 li oz. 
 
 Obs. As the above mixture contains very 
 littlu spirit, and from its great consumption 
 being made in large quantities at a tiuie, it 
 frequently spoils before the whole is sold 
 especially in hot weather. To avoid this. 
 It dr. of cloves, and 3 dr. of mustard seed, 
 both bruised, may be added to every gall, of 
 the strained liquor at the same time with the 
 salts, spirit, and colouring, after which it must 
 be shaken up repeatedly for a few days, and 
 then allowed to repose for a few days more 
 when it will become quite clear. It may be 
 filtered through a ilunnel bag, but there is 
 much loss and delay, owing to tlic consistence 
 of the liquid. It is purgative in doses of 1 
 to li fl. oz. 
 
 It is a singular cii-ouuietance, that although 
 an enormous quantity of this preparation is 
 consumed in these countries, there is no stand- 
 ard formula for it in the British Pharmaco- 
 poeias. !See MlXTtTBB, APEEIENT, &C. 
 
 Miztare, Steel. Sun. Mistuba tebbi 
 
 COMPOSITA (B. P.), MlSTtJEA CHALTBEATA, L. 
 Two compounds of this class are officinal : — 
 1. (GaiFFiTn's MixTUBE, Compound ikon 
 
 M. ; MiSTUEA FEBni, M. F. PEOTOXTDI, M. F. 
 
 coMPoaiTA — Ph. L. E. & D.) Prep. — a. (Ph. 
 L. i, E.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr. ; pow- 
 dered uiyrrh, 2 dr. j spirit of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 triturate together, and whilst rubbing, add 
 gradually, of sugar, 2 dr. ; rose water, 18 fl. 
 oz. ; mix well; then add of sulphute of 
 iron (powdered), 50 gr. ; and place it at 
 once in a bottle, which must be kept closely 
 cnrked. 
 i. (Ph. D.) Powdered my rrh and sugar, of 
 
 each 1 dr. ; carbonate of potassa, i dr. ; essence 
 of nutmeg, 1 fl. dr. ; rose water, 7 fl. oz. ; sul- 
 phate of iron, J dr. ; (dissolved in) rose water, 
 1 fl. oz. ; — Dote, 1 to 2 oz., 3 or 4 times a day, 
 as a mild aud genial chalybeate tonic and ati- 
 mulant; in anienorrhcea, chlorosis debility, 
 &c., when there is no determination of blood 
 to the head. 
 
 2. (Hebeboen's mixtceb, H.'s ink ; Atba- 
 
 MENTDM HeBEBDII ; MiSTUEA FEUKI ABOMA- 
 
 TICA— Ph. D.) Pule cinchona bark, 1 oz. ; 
 calumba root, 3 dr. (both in coarse powder ;) 
 cloves (bruised), 2 dr. ; iron filings, { oz. ; pep- 
 permint water, 16 fl oz. ; digest in a close 
 vessel for 3 days, agitating frequently, then 
 strain, and add of tincture of cardamoms 
 (comp.), 3 fl oz. ; tincture of orange peel, 3 fl. 
 dr. Biiter, stomachic, and aromatic. — Doae, 
 
 1 or 2 table-spoonfuls, or more, 3 or 4 times a 
 day. It is very slightly chalybeated. See also 
 
 JIlXTUKE. AeOMATIO IBON. 
 
 3. Sulphate of iron, 25 gr. ; carbonate of 
 potash, 30 gr.; myrrh, 60 gr. ; sujfiir, 60 
 gr. ; spirit of nutmegs, i dr.; rose water, 91 
 oz. Keduce the myrrh to powder, add tlie 
 carbonate of potash of sugar, and triturate 
 them wiih a small quantity of rose water so as 
 to form a thin paste, tlien gradually add more 
 rose water, and the spirit of nutmegs, con- 
 tinuing the trituration and further addition of 
 rose water until about eight fluid ounces of 
 milky liquid is formed, then add the sulphate 
 of iron previously dissolved in the remainder 
 of the rose water and cork the bottle imme- 
 diately. — Dose, 1 to 2 oz. as a stimulating 
 tonic. 
 
 Mixture of Sulphuric Acid. (Ph. G.) Si/n. 
 
 MiSTUEA ACIDI SULPHUBICI ; HaILEB'S 
 ELIXIE. Prep. To 3 oz. (by weight) of rec- 
 tified spirit add gradually 1 oz. (by weight) of 
 pure sulphuric acid. — Dose, 5 to 20 drops 
 diluted. 
 
 Mixture, Ton'ic. Si/n. Stbenothening mix- 
 tube ; MiSTUEA TONIOA, L. Prep. 1. In- 
 fusion of cascaitilla, 5 fl. oz. ; tincture of 
 orange peel, 7 fl. dr. ; aromatic sulphuric acid, 
 
 2 fl. dr. 
 
 2. (Collier.) Decoction of bark, 5i fl. oz. ; 
 tineture of do., 3 fl. dr. ; aromatic coofnctiou, 
 20 gr. ; aromatic spirit of ammonia, 1 fl. dr. 
 
 3. (Thomson ) Infusion of calumba, 5i 
 fl. oz. ; compound tincture of cinnamon and 
 syrup of orange peel, of each 2 fl. dr. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 table-spoonluls, 2 or 3 times a day ; in 
 debility of the digestive organs, loss of appe- 
 tite, to check nausea and vomiting, &c. 
 
 Mixture of Wine. (Guy's Hosp.) Si/n. 
 MiSTUBA VIM. Wliite wine, 6 fl. oz. ; yolks 
 of 2 eggs ; sugar, j oz. ; oil of cinnamon, 3 
 drops. — Dose, 1 oz. 
 
 Mixture, Worm. Sv». Mistuea anthkl- 
 MINTIOA, M. TEBMIFUGA, L. Prep. 1. (Col- 
 lier.) Sulphate of iron, 20 gr. ; infusion of 
 quassia, 8 fl. oz. — Dose. Two table-spoonfuls 
 every morning fasting. 
 
 2. (Copland.) Valerian, 2 dr. ; worm-seed. 
 
1080 
 
 MIXTURES 
 
 4 dr. ; boiling water, 8 fl. oz. ; macerate 1 
 hour, strain, and add of assafoetida, 1 dr., pre- 
 viously triturated with the yolk of one egg. 
 As the last. 
 
 3. (Richard.) Root of male fern, I oz. ; 
 water, 9 fl. oz. ; boil to 6 fl. oz., s'rain, and 
 add, of sulphuric ether, 1 dr. ; syrup of tansy, 
 1 fl. oz. In tapeworm ; a< above. 
 
 Mixture, Zinc. Si/n. Mistcea zinci, M. 
 z. SULPHATIS, [j. Prep. (Collier.) Sulphate 
 of zinc, 5 gr. ; sulphate of quinine, 10 gr. ; 
 compound infusion of roses, 2 fl. oz. Tonic. — 
 Hose. A teaspoonful 2 or 3 times a day, in a 
 glass of water. Said to be very efficacious in 
 the cure of coughs of a spasmodic character. 
 
 MIXTURES (Arithmeticof). The constantly 
 recurring necessity in business and chemical 
 manipulations of determining the value of 
 mixtures, and of producing articles and prepa- 
 rations of different strengths or prices to 
 those already in slock, has rendered a ready 
 means of making such calculations an indis- 
 pensable qualification in almost every depart- 
 ment of trade and industrial art. As we 
 address ourselves to the intelligent operative 
 and busy tradesman, as well as to those more 
 blessed by education and leisure, we feel we 
 are bestowing a boon on many of our readers 
 iu giving a short, but sufficient, outline of this 
 useful branch of commercial arithmetic, which 
 is most intimately connected with the objects 
 of the present work, 
 
 1. To determine the price of a mixture from 
 the value and quantity of each ingredient of 
 which it is composed. — Rule. Divide the 
 * gross value ' by the * gross saleable ' or ' useful 
 quantity)' the quotient is the value or cost 
 per gallou, pound, &c., as the ease may be. — 
 Example. Required, the value per gallon of a 
 hogshead of wine containing — 
 
 s. d. 
 
 30 gallons @ 10 6 
 
 20 „ „ 12 6 
 
 13 „ „ 14 6 
 
 63 
 
 Cost per gallon . 
 
 £ s. d. 
 . 15 15 
 . 12 10 
 .986 
 
 ) 37 13 6 
 
 . 11 llj 
 
 2. To determine the proportions of sub- 
 stances or articles of different values or 
 strengths which must be taken to prepare a 
 mixture of any other value or strengtii.- 
 RtflB. Arrange th6 ' prices ' or ' strengths of 
 the ingredients ' in a column, and link them 
 together in pairs ; each of those above the 
 required price being always connected with 
 another below it. Then set the difference 
 between the required price and these num- 
 bers, alternately against those they are linked 
 to ; when they will indiiate the quantities to 
 be taken, as in the following examijles: — a. 
 Required the proportions of tea at 3*., 4s., 6s., 
 and 7«., that must be taken to produce a mix- 
 ture 5*. the pound. Here — 
 
 . 1, or 1 lb. @ 3». 
 
 . 2, „ 2 „ „ 4». 
 
 . 2, „ 2 „ „ 6*. 
 
 . 1, „ 1 „ „ 7.. 
 
 h. (When the number of the ingredients or 
 prices is odd.) Required the proportions of 
 teas at 3s., 5s., and 6s., the pound, to sell at 
 4«. Here the odd number must be taken a 
 second time : — 
 
 [6 1 
 
 1 + 2, or 3 lbs. @ 3». 
 
 • If „ 1 „ „ 6*. 
 
 • 1. .. 1 ., » 6». 
 
 c. When the number of the ingredients is 
 not merely odd, but the prices are unequally 
 distributed either above or below the required 
 price.) A dealer having wines of the same 
 name at 7s., 9s., lis., 12»., and 14s., per gallon, 
 wishes to produce a mixture of them worth 
 10s. per gallon : — 
 
 f 7 — I . . 1 -I- 4, or 5 galls. @ 7s. 
 
 I 9—-, . . . 2, „ 2 „ „ 9s. 
 
 10-! 11— '. . ... 3, „ 3 „ „11«. 
 
 12 1 ... 1, „ 1 „ „12s. 
 
 14 ... 3, „ 3 „ „14s. 
 
 It will be seen that by varying the manner 
 of linking the numbers, different answers may 
 often be obtained to the same question. It 
 also often happens that the dealer or operator 
 desires to use a given quantity of one particu- 
 lar article, or to produce a certain quantity 
 only of the mixture instead of those indicated 
 by the above calculations. In these instances 
 he has simply to apply the common rule of 
 ' practice ' or the ' rule of three,' as the.partieu- 
 lar case may demand. 
 
 In the above manner the proportions of the 
 constituents of a compound may be determined 
 from their specific gravity, when no change of 
 volume has arisen from their admixture ; hut 
 when this is the case, as in alloys, alcoholic 
 mixtures, &c., it is either quite inapplicable or 
 the results obtained are mere approximations 
 to the truth. It may, however, be conveni- 
 ently employed for calculations connected with 
 the 'mixing' and 'reduction' of spirits and 
 other liquids, by substituting their per-centage 
 value in 'proof gallons' or other corresponding 
 denomination, for the prices in the above ex- 
 amples ; water, when introduced be reckoned, 
 =0. Thus: — A spirit merchant having two 
 puncheons of rum of the strengths of 17 and 
 21 0. p., wishes to know what proportions of 
 each and of water he must take to form a 
 spirit 10 u. up. The proof value of 100 gallons 
 of these spirits are respectively equal to 121, 
 117, 90, and (water). Therefore— 
 
 1 27 -I- 31, or 58 g. water. 
 
 117—1 . . 90, „ 90 „ rum @ 117 o. p. 
 121 1 . 90, „ 90 „ rum „ 121 „ 
 
 Suppose the dealer required to use different 
 proportions of the spirits referred to, instead 
 of equal measures, he has only to take such 
 aliquot parts of the quantities thus found 
 referring to the smaller proportion ; or such 
 
 90 
 
MOHAIR— MORDANT 
 
 1081 
 
 niiiltiples of those referring to tlie larger one, 
 as he wishes them to bear to each in the new 
 mixture. Numerous other applications of this 
 rule will occur to tlie ingenious reader. 
 
 Questions in ' alligation,' as the department 
 of arithmetic above referred to is called, are 
 very easily resolved by the ' method of inde- 
 terminate analysis,' even by persons but 
 slightly conversant with rudimentary algebra; 
 of which, indeed, they form a simple class of 
 problems, often admitting of an almost indtli- 
 nit'' number of solutions. 
 
 HO'BAIR. The hair of a goat indigenous 
 in Asia Minor. It is dyed and manufactured 
 by similar materials and in a similar manner 
 to wool. 
 
 UOIL. See Cideb. 
 
 MOIBEE METALLiaUE. [Fr.] A beau- 
 tiful crystalline appearance produced on the 
 surface of tin plate by acids. The tin plate 
 is submitted for a few seconds, whilst gently 
 heated, to the action of dilute aqua regia, by 
 which it acquires a variegated primrose ap- 
 pearance. It is afterwards washed in hot 
 water, dried, and lacquered. The degree of 
 heat and dilution of tlie acid modifies the 
 beauty and character of the surlacc. The 
 effect is also varied by employing dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, either alone or mixed with a 
 portion of nitric or hydrochloric acid ; or by 
 using a solution of citric acid or caustic po- 
 tussa. According to Herberger, the best metal 
 for the purpose is plate iron, which has been 
 coatfd by dipping it into a tin bath composed 
 of pure tin, 200 parts; copper, 3 parts; 
 arsenic, 1 part. The varnish should consist of 
 copal in highly rectified spirit. Moiree metal- 
 lique ie in much less demand now than for- 
 merly, 
 
 UO'LASSES. See Tbeaole. 
 
 MOLES. The small, suft excrescences and 
 discolorations of the skin which are popularly 
 known under this name may, when slight, be 
 removed by touching them every day witli a 
 little concentrated acetic acid, by means of a 
 hair pencil, observing due care to prevent the 
 application from spreading to the surrounding 
 parts. This dues not discolour the skin. The 
 application of lunar caustic is also very effec- 
 tive, but it turns the spot temporarily black. 
 In the puie mule there is always a consider- 
 able production of hair. Whon other means 
 fail, they may be easily and safely removed by 
 surgical means. The operation is trifling; 
 and when judiciously performed no trace of 
 such a proceeding i'f left behind. 
 
 MOLUCCA BALU. See Liqueur. 
 
 MOLYBDATE OP AMMONIUM. (NH^)2 
 
 MoOj. Sl/n. MOLYBDENIO ACID, PEROXIDE 
 OP MOLTBDENUM ; ACIDUM MOLTBDICtTlI, L. 
 Prep. Native sulphide of molybdenum, after 
 being well roasted, is reduced to fine powder, 
 digested with ammonia, and the mi.\ture fil- 
 tered, and the filtrate evaporated to dryness; 
 the residue, uiolybdate of ammonium, is then 
 
 dissolved in water, purified by crystallisation ; 
 and, lastly, decomposed by heat. 
 
 Prop., ^B. Small white scales, soluble in 
 670 parts of water ; the solution reddens lit- 
 mus paper ; dissolves in the alkalies, forming 
 alkaline molybdates, from which it is again 
 precipitated by strong acids. It is used in 
 the preparation of molybdenum blue, and in 
 calico-printing, but its scarcity precludes its 
 extensive employment in the aits. Molyb- 
 date of ammonium is the salt principally used 
 in dyeing. Silks and cottons pussed through 
 a solotiou of this salt, then through a bath 
 soured with hydrochloric acid, and, lastly 
 (without washing), through another of proto- 
 chloride of tin, are dyed of a rich and pernia- 
 U'nt blue colour. A solution of mnlybdnte of 
 ammonia in excess of nitric acid firms a valu- 
 able agent as a test for phosphates, with 
 which it gives a beautiful yell'jw precipitate 
 (phospho-molybdate of ammonia). See Phos- 
 phoric ACID.' 
 
 MOLYBDENUM. Mo. A very rare metal, 
 havmg a wJiite colour, discovered by Hielm 
 in 1782. 
 
 Prep. By exposing molylnlic acid, mixed 
 with charcoal and placed in a covered crucible, 
 to the strongest heat of a sinitli's forge. 
 
 Prop., <f c. It is brittle and very infusible ; 
 wlieii heated in contact with the air, it is 
 converted into molybdic anhydride, MoO,. 
 
 MOMOR'DICINE. See Elateuin. 
 
 MOMRAUGHAN FOR HARNESS, &c. A 
 correspondent of the * Field' newspaper gives 
 the following furmulao for momraughan. a 
 substance used in India for preserving saddles 
 and every description of leather. It is made as 
 follows: — 1 lb. white wax, 3 lb. mutton fat, 1 
 pint spirits of turpentine ; melt, and mix well 
 together while liquid. The saddle or leather 
 should be rubbed well with a lime in the sun, 
 then scrubbed with a brush with soap and 
 water ; when thoroughly dry, rnb it well with 
 the momraughan (letting it soak in) in the 
 sun. One tablespoonful will be enough for a 
 saddle. Another recipe is: — 1 pint neats- 
 foot oil, 2 oz. beeswax, 2 oz. spirits of turpen- 
 tine, other directions as above. This latter 
 mixture, with the addition of 1 oz. Burgundy 
 pitch, makes a very good waterproof couiposi- 
 tion for boots. 
 
 MONE'SIA. Syn, Monesia bark, Buran- 
 HBIM, B. ; Cortex monesi^, L. The bark 
 of Chryaophyllum Buranheim, a tree growing 
 in the Brazils. The rough, imported extract 
 of this drug also commonly passes under the 
 name of monbsia. It is astringent, and pos- 
 sesses no advantage over rhatany or catechu. 
 —Dose (of the ktter), 18 to 20 gr. 
 
 MONE'SIN. A peculiar acrid principle, 
 analogous to saponin, found in monesia bark, 
 to the extent of i'1%. 
 
 MONOBROMATED CAMPHOR. See Cau- 
 
 PHOR MONOBROMATED. 
 
 MONOMA'NIA. See Insanity. 
 MOR'DANT. Indyeing aud calico printing. 
 
1082 
 
 MOEDANT 
 
 any substance employed to fix the colonring 
 matter of dye-stuffs in the fibres of organic 
 bodies, and to give it brilliancy and perma- 
 nency. Tliis it effects either by serving as a 
 bond of union between the two, owing to its 
 attraction for each of them ; or it acts by 
 uniting with the colouring particles in the 
 minute pores of the fibres, and rendered them 
 insoluble in the alkaline, soapy, and other 
 liquids, to the action of which they will sub- 
 sequently be exposed. When an infusion of 
 some dye-stnff, as cochineal or madder, for 
 example, is mixed with alum or acetate of alu- 
 mina, and a little alkali, a precipitate imme- 
 diately forms, consisting of alumina in com- 
 hiuation with colouring matter, constituting a 
 LAKE. It is by a similar reaction occurring 
 within the fibres that the permanent dyeing of 
 the cloth is effected. Here the colouring mat- 
 ter of the dyeing materials not only passes 
 from the soluble to the iiisoluble form, but it 
 enters into chemical combination with other 
 substances, and in the new compounds it as- 
 Bumes greater brilliancy and permanency than 
 it previously possessed. Annotta and saillower 
 afford inst^iuces of the second mode of action 
 above referred to, by which substances operate 
 as mordants. The colouring matter of these 
 dye-stuffs is soluble in alkaline lyes, and into 
 a solution of this kind the cloth is dipped. It 
 has now received an extremely fugitive colour 
 only; but by passing it through acidulated 
 water the alkaline solvent is abstracted, and 
 the tinctorial matter is precipitated in an in- 
 soluble and minutely divided state within its 
 pores, and it becomes permanently dyed. A 
 similar reaction takes place in dyeing with the 
 ' indigo vat,' in which atmospheric oxygen 
 performs the part of a mordant. It is believed 
 that even in these cases the colouring prin- 
 ciple, during its transition froiu the liquid to 
 the solid form, enters into combination with 
 the fibres of the organic substance, and that, 
 in proportion to the affinity existing between 
 the two, is the integrity and excellence of the 
 dye. In wool and silk the affinity between 
 their filaments and the tinctorial particles of 
 the dye bath is, in general, so cousiderable, 
 that a permanent stain is very easily commu- 
 nicated to them ; but with cotton and flax, the 
 materials of which calico and linen goods are 
 made, the reverse is the case, and the inter- 
 vention of a third material, in the shape of a 
 mordant, is absolutely nece.-sary to dye them 
 of a permanent colour. 
 
 " Experience has pi-oved that, of all the 
 bases, those which sui:ceed best as mordants 
 are alumina, tin, and oxide of iron ; the first 
 two of which, being naturally white, are the 
 only ones which can be employed for preserv- 
 ing to the colour its original tint, at least 
 without much variation. But wlienever the 
 mordant itself is coloured, it will cause the dye 
 to take a compound colour quite different from 
 its own. If, as is usually said, the mordant 
 enters into a real chemical union with the stuff 
 
 to be dyed, the application of the mordant 
 should obviously be made in such circum- 
 stances as are known to be most favorable 
 CO the combination taking place ; and this is 
 the principle of every day's practice in the 
 dye-house. 
 
 "In order that a combination may result 
 between two bodies, they must not only be in 
 contact, but they must be reduced to their 
 ultimate molecules. The mordants to be united 
 with stuffs are, as we have seen, insoluble in 
 themselves, for which reason their particles 
 must be divided by solution in an appropriate 
 vehicle. Now, this solvent nr menstruum will 
 exert in its own favour an afiinity for the mor- 
 dant, which will prove to that extent an 
 obstacle to its attraction for the stufi'. Hence 
 we must select such solvents as have a weaker 
 affinity for the mordants than the mordants 
 have for the stuff's. Of all acids which can be 
 employed to dissolve alumina, fur example, 
 vinegar (acetic acid) is the one which will re- 
 tain it with the least energy, for which reason 
 the acetate of alumina is now generally sub- 
 stituted for alum, because the acetic acid gives 
 up the alumina with such readiness that mere 
 elevation of temperature is suificient to effect 
 the separation of these two substances. Be- 
 fore the substitution of the acetate, alum aloue 
 was employed ; but without knowing the true 
 reason, all the Pieuch dyers preferred the 
 alum of Rome, simply regarding it to be the 
 purest ; it is only within these few years that 
 they have understood the real grounds of this 
 preference. 
 
 " The two principal conditions, namely, ex- 
 treme tenuity of particles and liberty of ac- 
 tion, being found in a mordant, its operation 
 is certain. But as the combination to be 
 effected is merely the result of the play of 
 afiinity between the solvent and the stuff to 
 be dyed, a sort of partition must take place, 
 proportioned to the mass of the solvent, as 
 well as to its attractive force. Hence the stuff 
 will retain more of the mordant when its solu- 
 tion is more concentrated, that is, when the 
 base diffused through it is not so much pro- 
 tected by a large mass of menstruum ; a fact 
 applied to very valuable uses by the practical 
 man. On impregnating, in calico printing, 
 for example, different spots of the same web 
 with the same mordant in different degrees 
 of concentration, there is obtained in the dye- 
 bath a depth of colour upon these spots in- 
 tense in proportion to the strength of their 
 various mordants. Thus, with solution of 
 acetate of alumina in different grades of den- 
 sity, and with madder, every shade can be pro- 
 duced from the fullest red to the lightest pink, 
 and with acetate of iron and madder, every 
 shade from black to pale violet," (Ure.) 
 
 In the employment of mordants in the ordi- 
 nary processes of dyeing the goods are passed 
 through the solution for a period varying, 
 under different circumstances, according to 
 the object in view. The cloth is subsequently 
 
MORPHIA 
 
 1083 
 
 Bired, driict, and well rinsed, before immersing 
 it in the roloaring btitb. In oalico prittting 
 the inorilnnt ia applied piiTtially or topically 
 to the cloth by means of wooden blocks, or 
 some similar contrivance ; or certain parts of 
 the cloth are stopped ont by a suitable prepa- 
 ration, or ' resist,' by which means a pattern is 
 produced, as the colouring matter of the dye- 
 bath is removed from the other portions by 
 the wa'ihin^ or scouring to which it is sub- 
 sequently subjected. The substances used to 
 thicken the mordant by the calico printers, 
 to prevent them spreading;, are starch and 
 British gum. The first is prepared for nentral 
 solutions ; the last for acidulous ones. The 
 removal of the nndecomposed particles of the 
 mordant, so as to preserve the other portion 
 of the cloth from their action, is effected by 
 the process of BtTNOiNa (which lee). 
 
 The process of galling or bootijtg, com- 
 monly employed as a preparation of cotton 
 and linen for fast dyes, consists in working the 
 stnff foi' some time, at a good hand heat, in a 
 decoction of galls or an infusion of sumach. 
 In this case the nstrinjjent matter plays the 
 pnrt of a mordant. About 2} oz. of galls, or 
 6 oz. of sumach, and 3 or 4 pints of water, are 
 commonly tnken for every lb. of cotton. See 
 Calico pbikting, Djeing, and the respective 
 dye-stuffs and mordants. 
 
 Mordant. In gilding, any sticky matter 
 by which gold-leiif is made to adhere. Prep. 
 1. Water or beer, rendered adhesive by the 
 addition of a little gum, sugar, or honey, and 
 tinged with a little gamboge or carmine, to 
 mark the parts to which it is applied. Used 
 to attach gold leaf to paper, taffety , vellum, &c. 
 
 2. (Mixtion.) From asphaltum, 1 part ; 
 mastie, 4pai-ts; amber, 12 parts ; fused toge- 
 ther, and then mixed with hot boiled oil, 
 1 pint. Used for gilding wood, &c. See Gold 
 
 SIZE. 
 
 MORPHIA. CijHigNOa. Syn. Mobphinb 
 (Pb. D.), MoRPHiNA, MoBPfliUM, L. The 
 chief active principle of opium. Morphia was 
 discovered by Ludwig in 1688, but it was first 
 obtained pure, and its precise nature pointed 
 out by Sertuerner in 1804. It is peculiar to 
 the Piipaveraoea, or poppy family. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. D.) Turkey opium (cut into 
 thin slices), 1 lb., is macerated for 24 hours in 
 water, 1 quart, and the liquid portion de- 
 canted; the residuum is macerated for 12 
 hours with a second qunrt of water, and the 
 process is repeated with a third quart of water, 
 after which the insoluble portion is sub- 
 jected to strong pressure; the mixed liquids 
 are evaporated by water or steam heat to a 
 pint, and filtered through calico ; to the fil- 
 trate is added a solution formed of chloride of 
 calcium, 6 dr., dissolved in distilled v^'ater, 4 fl. 
 oz., and the liquid is further cva)iorated until 
 it is so far concentrated that nearly the whole 
 of it becomes solid on cooling; this is enve- 
 loped in a couple of folds of strong calico, and 
 subjected to potvcrf ul pres:iurc, the dark liquid 
 
 which exndes being preserved for subsequent 
 use ; the squeezed cake is next treated with 
 about i pint of boiling water, and the undis- 
 solved portion is washed on ii paper filter ; the 
 filtered solution is again evaporated, and the 
 solid portion thus obtained submitted to pres- 
 sure, as before; if the product is not quite 
 white, this process is repeated a third time ; 
 the squeezed cake is now dissolved in boiling 
 water, 6 fl. oz., and the solntion filtered through 
 animal charcoal (if necessary) ; U> the clear 
 solution is added ammonia, in slight excess ; 
 the crystalline precipitate which forms as the 
 liquid cools is collected on a paper filter, 
 washed with cold distilled water, and, la>tlv, 
 the filter is transferred to a porous brick, in 
 order that the morphia which it contains may 
 become dry. (From the liquids reserved from 
 the expressions more morphia may be obtoined 
 by dilution with water, precipitation with 
 ammonia, resolution in boiling water, and 
 treatment with a little animal charcoal, &o., as 
 before.) 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Hydrochlorate of mor- 
 phia, 1 oz., is dissolved in distilled water, 1 
 pint; and ammonia, 5 fl. dr. (or q. s.), pre- 
 viously diluted with water, 1 fl. oz., is added, 
 with agitation ; the precipitate is well washed 
 in distilled water, and dried by a gentle hent. 
 By a similar process morphia may be obtained 
 from its other salts. 
 
 3. (Merck.) A cold aqueous infusion of 
 opium is precipitated with carbonate ot sodium, 
 in excess; the precipitate washed, first with 
 cold water, and then with cold alcohol of sp. 
 gr. 85 ; the residuum is dissolved in weak 
 acetic acid, the solution filtered through animal 
 charcoal, and precipitated with ammonia ; the 
 precipitnte is again washed with cold water, 
 dissolved in alcohol, and crystallised. A good 
 process where spirit is cheap. 
 
 4. (.Mohr.) Opium, 4 parts, is made into a 
 strong infusion witli water, q. s. ; lime, 1 part, 
 reduced to a state of milk with water, is 
 then added; the mixture is next heated to 
 boiling, at once filtered through ]in<n, and 
 treated, whilst still hot, with ch oride of am- 
 monium, in fine powder, in slight excess (about 
 1 oz. to each lb. of opium) ; the morphia is 
 deposited as the liquid cools, and may be puri- 
 fied by a second solntion in lime and precipita- 
 tion by chloride of ammonium. This process 
 is remarkably simple, and in many points is 
 preferable to any other, either on the small or 
 large scale. 
 
 5. (Pure.') A filtered solution of opium in 
 tepid water is mixed with acetate of lead in 
 excess; the precipitate (meconate of lead) is 
 separated by a filter, and a stream of sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen is passed through the 
 nearly colourless filtrate; the latter is warmed, 
 to expel excess of tlie gas, once more filtered, 
 and then mixed with a slight excess of 
 ammonia, which throws down narcotiiie and 
 niorpliiii ; these are separated by boiling ether, 
 in H liich the former is soluble. 
 
1084 
 
 MOEPHIA 
 
 Frop. The morphia of commerce is a white 
 cry stalline powder ; but when crystallised from 
 alcohol, it forms brilliant prismatic crystals 
 of adamantine lustre, and the formula 
 CijHjjNOj.HjO. It exerts an alkaline reac- 
 tion on test paper ; imparts a perceptible bitter 
 taste to water ; requires 1160 parts of cold 
 water, and 94 parts of boiling water, for its 
 solution; insoluble in ether; dissolves in 90 
 parts of cold and about 30 parts of boiling 
 alcohol ; it>also dissolves in the fixed and vola- 
 tile oils, and in solutions of the alkalies; heated 
 in close vessels, it forms a yellow liquid, like 
 melted sulphur, which becomes white and 
 crystalline on cooling j heated in the air, it 
 melts, inflames like a resin, and leaves a small 
 quantity of charcoal behind. Witli the acids 
 it forms salts, which are mostly soluble and 
 crystallisable. IHiese may all be made by the 
 direct solution of the alkaloid in the dilute 
 acid. The only ones of importance are the 
 acetate, hydrochlorate, and sulphate. 
 
 I'ur, Commercial morphia and its prepara- 
 tions are often contaminated with codeine, 
 iiarcotine, and colouring matter. The pro- 
 portion of the first two may be estimated by 
 the loss of weight which the sample suffers 
 when digested in ether; or by dissolving out 
 the morphine by digestion in weak liquor of 
 potassa. Pure morphia " is scarcely soluble 
 in cold water, sparingly so in boiling water, and 
 readily so in alcohol. This solution is alkaline 
 to test paper, and by evaporation leaves crys- 
 tals, which are wholly dissipated by heat. It 
 is soluble in pure potassa." (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 
 Tests. 1. Potassium hydrate and ammonia 
 precipitate morphia from solution of its salts, 
 under the form of a white crystalline powder, 
 which is very soluble in excess of hydrate of 
 potassium, and, with somewhat more difficulty, 
 in excess of ammonia. The solution formed 
 by excess of the first is precipitated on the 
 addition of bicarbonate of potassium. The 
 precipitate in either case is soluble in n solu- 
 tion of chloride of ammonium, and in dilute 
 acetic acid, and is insoluble in ether. A care- 
 ful inspection of the precipitate through a lens 
 of small power shows it to consist of minute 
 acicular crystals ; and seen through a glass 
 which raagii ifies 100 times, these crystals pre- 
 sent the form of right rhombic prisms. — 2. 
 The carbonates of potassium and sodium pro- 
 duce the Slime precipitate as hydrate of potas- 
 sium, and which is insoluble in excess of the 
 precipitant. — 3. The bicarbonates of potassium 
 and siidium also give similar precipitates from 
 neutral solutions, insoluble in excess. In each 
 of the above eases stirring with a glass rod and 
 friction on the sides of the vessel promote the 
 separation of the precipitate. — 4. If to a mix- 
 ture of morphia and oil of vitriol a minute 
 fragment of bichromate of potassium be added, 
 oxide of chromium is set free, and a fine green 
 colour developed. — 5. A drop or two of solu- 
 tion of terchloride of gold added to a weak 
 solution of morphia gives a yellow precipitate. 
 
 which is mostly redissolved on agitating the 
 liquid, which then assumes various hues (green, 
 blue, violet, purple) on the addition of a drop 
 of liquor of potassa. — 6. A minute fragment of 
 terchloride of gold and of hydrate of potassium 
 very gently dropped into the liquid, occasion 
 purple clouds or streaks in dilute solutions, fol- 
 lowed by a precipitate, which is violet, purple, 
 or blue-black, according to the strength of the 
 liquid. 
 
 Another test, given by Siebold,' is the fol- 
 lowing: — "Heat the substance which is be- 
 lieved to be, or to contain, morphia, gently 
 with a few drops of sulphuric acid, add a very 
 small quantity of pure perchlorate of potas- 
 sium. The liquid immediately surrounding 
 the perchlorate will at once assume a deep, 
 brown colour, which will soon spread and ex- 
 tend over the greater part of the acid. Warm- 
 ing increases the delicacy of the test. O'OOOl 
 gramme of morphia can be distinctly recog- 
 nised in this way, and no other alkaloid is 
 acted upon in a similar way by the substances 
 named. It is indispensable, however, for the 
 success of the experiment that the perchlorate 
 of potassium be absolutely free from chlorate." 
 See Alkaloids. 
 
 The above are the most reliable precipitates 
 for morphia ; the first two may, indeed, be 
 regarded as characteristic, and the remainder 
 as almost so. The following are often referred 
 to by medical writers, but are less exclusive 
 and trustworthy : — Morphia and its salts are 
 — 7. Reddened by nitric acid, and form orange- 
 red solutions, darkened by ammonia in excess, 
 and ultimately turning yellow, with the pro- 
 duction of oxalic acid.— 8. They are turned 
 blue by ferric chloride, either at once or on 
 the addition of an alkali, and this colour is 
 destroyed by water and by alkalies, or acids 
 in excess. — 9. Iodic acid added to their splu- 
 tions turns them yellowish brown, by setting 
 iodine free, and the liquid forms a blue com- 
 pound with starch. 
 
 Uses. Morphia and its salts are exhibited 
 either in substance, made into pills, or in solu- 
 tion, generally the latter; or externally, in 
 fine powder, applied to the dermis denuded of 
 the cuticle. They are principally employed as 
 anodynes and hypnotics in cases in which 
 opium is inadmissible, and are justly regarded 
 as the most valuable medicines of their class. 
 " In cases wherein both opium and the mor- 
 phine salts are equally admissible, I prefer the 
 former, its effects being better known and 
 regulated ; moreover, opium is to be prefei-red 
 as a stimulant and sudorific, and for sup- 
 pressing excessive mucous discharges." (Pe- 
 reira.) — Dose. Of pure morphia, J^ to J gr. ; 
 of its salts, i to J gr. ; externally, i to li gr. 
 Morphine is chiefly used for the preparation of 
 the acetate, and some of Its other salts. 
 
 Good opium yields from lOg to 13^ of mor- 
 phia. See Opium. 
 
 I 'Year Book of Pliarmai:y,' 1873. 
 
MORPHIA 
 
 1085 
 
 Morphia, Ac'etate of 
 Si/n. MoBFHi^ ACETis (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Morphia, 6 dr. ; acetic 
 acid (Ph. L ), 3 fl. dr. ; distilled water, 4 fl. 
 o-i.; dissolve, gently evaporate, and crystallise. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Hydrochlorate of morphia, 1 
 part, is dissolved in warm water, 14> parts ; 
 xnd the solution, when cold, is precipitated 
 with ammonia, iu slight excess, the precipi- 
 tate is washed in cold wnter, and dissolved by 
 means uf acetic acid, in excess, in warm water, 
 12 p'.<rt8; from the solution crystals are ob- 
 tained as before. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Morphia (in fine powder), 1 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. ; mix, apply a gentle 
 heat, ond add of acetic acid (sp. gr. 1'044), 4^ 
 fl. dr. or q. s., until a neutral or sli);htly acid 
 solution is obtained ; ev.iporate this to tlie 
 consistence of a syrup by steam or water heat, 
 and .set aside the residuum for a few days 
 until it solidifies. 
 
 4. (Ph. L.) Similar to the Edinburgh pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Pur. "Soluble in water and in rectified 
 spirit" (loss so in the former than the latter); 
 "and when the spirit is distilled from the 
 solution, it yields crystals which arc totally 
 destroyed by heat." (Ph. L.) " 100 measures 
 of a solution of 10 gr. in i fl. oz. of water, and 
 6 minims of acetic acid, heated to 212° and de- 
 composed by a very slight excess of ammonia, 
 yield by Hgilation a precipitate which, in 21 
 hours, occupies l^i mousurcs of the liquid," 
 (Ph. E.) 
 
 Oba. The acetate of morphia of commerce 
 is usually in the form of a whitish powder, and 
 is prepared by the mere evaporation of the 
 solution to dryness by a gentle heat. During 
 the process a portion of the acetic acid is dis- 
 sipated, and hence this preparation is seldom 
 perfectly soluble in water, unless it has been 
 slightly acidulated with acetic acid. In the 
 Ph. L. 1851 this salt (iu crystals) is inolcuiod 
 in the materia mediea. See Moufuia (above). 
 
 Uorphia, Hydri'odate of. Ci,HigNOj,HI. 
 Syn. MOBPHliE HTDBYIODAS, L. Prep. (A. 
 T. Thomson.) Hydroclilorate of morphia, 2 
 parts ; iodide of potassium, 1 part ; dissolve 
 each separately in a little water, mix the solu- 
 tions, wash the precipitate in a little very cold 
 water, press it in bibulous paper, redissolve it 
 in hot water, and crystallise. 
 
 Uorphia, Hydriodate of, with Iodine. S>/n. 
 MobphIjB hydbiodas cnM iodinio; Botr- 
 
 CHABDAT'S lODUEE D'foDHTDEATE, &c.; MOR- 
 PHINE. Prep. Mix an acid solution of sul- 
 phate of morphia with an ioduretted solution 
 of iodide of potassium, keeping the liquid at 
 the temperature of 140° for an hour. 
 
 Pour off the liquid, wash the scales, and dry 
 them. — Dose, J gr. at bedtime. 
 
 Uorphia and Hydriodate of Zinc with Iodine. 
 (Bouchardat.) :!>i/ii. MoEPHi^ kt zinci 
 nrDBIOOAS CUM IODINIO. Prep. Boil 1 
 scruple of ioduretted hydriodate of morphia 
 
 with 2 fl. oz. of water and 10 scruples of zinc. 
 After some days' action filter the boilingliquid, 
 which deposits the salt. Make IJ ^r. into 8 
 pills, with powdered marshmallow root and 
 syrup. 
 
 Morphia, HydrocUo'rate of. C„H,9N0j,HI. 
 
 Stfn. MUEIATB OP MOKPHIA ; MoBPHI£ 
 HTDKOCHLOEAS (Ph. L. & Ph. B.), M0BPHI.E 
 
 MUEiAS (Ph. E., D., & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L. 1836.) Macerate sliced opium, 1 lb., 
 in water, 4 pints, for 30 hours; then bruise it, 
 digest it for 20 hours more, and press it; 
 macerate wliat remains a second and a third 
 time in water until exhau»tc>l, and as often 
 bruise and press it; mix the liquors, and 
 evaporate at 140° Fahr. to the consistence of 
 a syrup ; add of water, 3 pints, and after de- 
 fecation decant the clear portiim ; gradually 
 add to this liquid crystallised chloiide ol lead, 
 2 oz. (or q. s.), dissolved in boiling water, 4 
 pints, until it ceases to produce a precipitate; 
 decant the clear liquid, wash the residuum 
 with water, and evaporate the mixed liquids, 
 as before, that crystals may form ; press tlicse 
 in a cloth, then dissolve them in distilled 
 water, 1 pint, add freshly burnt animal chnr- 
 coal, 1^ oz., digest at 120°, and filter ; finally, 
 the charcoal lieing washed, cautiously evH}<0- 
 rate the mixed liquors, that pure crystnls i)f 
 hydroclilorate of morphia may form. To the 
 decanted liquor from which the crystals were 
 first separated, add of water, 1 pint, and drop 
 in liquor of ammonia, frequently shaking, 
 until all the morphine is precipitated; wash 
 this precipitate with cold distilled water, 
 saturate it with hydrochloric aciii, dij,'e.st with 
 animal charcoal, 2 oz. ; filter, wash tlie filtrate 
 as before, and evaporate the mixed liquors, 
 cautiously, as above, that pure crystals may be 
 obtained. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Opium, 20 oz., is exhausted 
 with water, 1 gall., in the quantity of a quart 
 at a time, and the mixed liquors are evaporated 
 to a pint; chloride of calcium, 1 oz., dissolved 
 ill water, 4 fl. oz., is added, and, alter aj^'itatiun, 
 the liquid is placed aside to settle; the clear 
 decanted liquid, and the washings of the sedi- 
 ment, are next evaporated, so that they may 
 solidify on cooling ; the cooled mass, after very 
 strong pi essure in a cloth, is redlss^olved in 
 warm water, a little powdered white marble 
 added, and the whole filtered ; the filtrate is 
 acidulated with hydrochloric acid, the solution 
 again concentrated for crystallisation, and the 
 crystals submitted to powerful pressure, as 
 before ; the process of solution, clarification, 
 with powdered marble and li\di'ichloric acid, 
 and crystallisation, is repeated until a enow- 
 white mass is obtained. This is the process of 
 Gregory and Eubertson, and is one of the 
 easiest and most productive on the huge scale. 
 To procure the salt quite white, 2 to 4 crys- 
 tallisations are required, according to the 
 power of the press employed. The Edinburgh 
 College recommends, on the small scale, the 
 solution, after two crystallisation-, to be deee- 
 
1086 
 
 MORPHIA 
 
 loured by means of nulmal charcoal; but, on 
 the large scale, to purify the salt by repeated 
 crystallisations alone. 
 
 3. (Ph. B.) Macerate opium, sliced, 1 lb., 
 for 24 hours with distilled water, 2 pints, and 
 decant. Macerate the residue for 12 hours 
 with distilled water, 2 pints, decant, and re- 
 peat the process with the same quantity of 
 water, subjecting the insoluble residue to 
 strong pressure. 
 
 Unite the liquors, evaporate on a water bath 
 to the bulk of 1 pint, and strain through 
 calico. Pour in now chloride of calcium, f 
 oz., previously dissolved in 4 fl. oz. of distilled 
 water, and evaporate until the solution is so 
 far concentrated that upon cooling it becomes 
 solid. Envelope the mass in a double fold of 
 strong calico, and subject it to powerful pres- 
 sure, preserving the dark fluid which exudes. 
 Triturate the squeezed cake with about i pint 
 of boiling dibtiUed water, and, the whole being 
 thrown upon a paper 6lter, wash the residue 
 well with boiling distilled water. The filtered 
 fluids having been evaporated as before, 
 cooled, and solidified, again subject the mass 
 to pressure, and if it be still much coloured, 
 repeat this process a third time, the expressed 
 liquids being always preserved. Dissolve the 
 pressed cake in 6 fl. oz. of boiling distilled 
 water, add purified animal charcoal, J oz., and 
 digest for 20 minutes ; filter ; wash the filter 
 and charcoal with boiling distilled water, and 
 to the solution thus obtained add solution of 
 ammonia in slight excess. Let the pure 
 crystalline morpliia which separates as the 
 liquid cools be collected on a paper filter, and 
 washed with cold distilled water until the 
 washings cease to give a precipitate with solu- 
 tion of nitrate of silver acidulated with nitric 
 acid. 
 
 From the dark liquids expressed in the 
 above process an additional product may be 
 obtained by diluting them with distilled water, 
 precipitating with solution of potash added 
 in considerable excess, filtering, and super- 
 saturating the filtrate with hydrochloric acid. 
 This acid liquid, digested with a little animal 
 charcoal, and again filtered, gives upon the 
 addition of ammonia a small quantity of pure 
 morphia. Diffuse the pure morphia obtained 
 as above through 2 oz. of boiling distilled 
 water placed in a porcelain capsule, kept hot, 
 and add, constantly stirring, dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid, 2 fl. oz., or q. s., proceeding with 
 caution, so that the morphia may be entirely 
 dissolved and a neutral solution obtained. Set 
 aside to cool and crystallise. Drain the crys- 
 tals and dry them on filtering paper. By 
 further evaporating the mother liquor, and 
 again cooling, additional crystals are obtained. 
 — Dose. From |th to \ gr. 
 
 4. (Mohr.) By dissolving the precipitate of 
 morphia (see MoEPHii, Frep. 4) in dilute 
 hydrochloric acid, and by crystallisation, as 
 before. 
 
 Fur., S[c. It "is completely soluble in rec- 
 
 tified spirit, and in water. What ie precipitated 
 from the aqueous solution by nitrate of silver 
 is not entirely dissolved, either by ammonia, 
 unless added in excess, or by hydrochloric or 
 nitric acid." (Ph. L.) "Snowy white; en- 
 tirely soluble; solution colourless; loss of 
 weight at 212° Fahr.not above 13^; 100 mea- 
 sures of a solution of 10 gr., in water, \ fl. oz., 
 heated to 212°, and deconipcised with agitation 
 by a faint excess of ammonia, yield a precipi- 
 tate which, in 2t hours, occupies 12i mea- 
 sures of the liquid." (Ph. E.) It takes 20 
 parts of cold and about its own weight of 
 boiling water to dissolve it. The hydrochlo- 
 rate of morphia of the shops is usually, like 
 the acetate, under the form of a white crys- 
 talline powder. 
 
 Ois. Of all the salts of morphia, this one 
 appears to he that most suitable for medical 
 purposes, from its free solubility, and from its 
 solution not being liable to spontaneous de- 
 composition, at least under ordinary circum- 
 stances. " The opium which yields the largest 
 quantity of precipitate by carbonate of sodium 
 yields muriate of morphia, not only in the 
 greatest proportion, but also with the fewest 
 crystallisations." (Ph. E.) Smyrna opium con- 
 tains the most morphine. 
 
 Morphia and Codei'a (Hydrochlorate of). 
 Syn. Geeqoey's salt ; Moephi.e et ooDEia; 
 
 HYDEOCHLOEAS, L. ; SeL BE GeEGOET, Fr. 
 
 This is commercial HYDEOCHIOEATE OP 
 MOKPHINE prepared according to Dr Gregory's 
 process. 
 
 Morphia Mec'onates of. (C,9H2oN03)2,C;H20;. 
 Frep. 1. (Neuteal meoonate op moe- 
 PHINE; MoEPHia; MECONAS, L.) By Saturat- 
 ing an aqueous solution of meconic acid with 
 morphia, and evaporating the solution by a 
 gentle heat, so that crystals may be obtained'. 
 
 (2.) BiMECONATE OP MOEPHINE ; MOEPHIffl 
 
 BiMECONAS, L.) Oi-HigNOjHCyHjOy. Meconic 
 acid, 11 parts; morphia, 14 parts; dissolve 
 each separately in hot water, q. s.; mix the 
 solutions, and either gently evaporate and crys- 
 tallise, or at once evaporate to dryness. 
 
 Obs. Morphia exists in opium under the 
 form of bimeconate, and hence this preparation 
 of that drug has been preferred by some prac- 
 titioners. A solution of this salt for medical 
 purposes may be directly prepared from 
 opium, by treating its solution in cold water 
 with a little animal charcoal, filtering, gently 
 evaporating to dryness, redissolving the resi- 
 duum, in cold water, filtering, and repeating 
 the treatment with animal charcoal. The 
 dose of the dry bimeconate is J gr., or more; 
 and of the meconate rather less, " A powder 
 is also sold, called ' bimeconate of morphia,' 
 which is of the same stretigth as powdered 
 opivim, and is given in similar doses. It is 
 obviously incorrect to apply this name to a 
 powder which consists principally of foreign 
 matter. It is to be hoped that physicians will 
 not prescribe this powder under the above 
 name, as such a practice might lead to fatal 
 
MORPHIOM ETBT— MORTAR 
 
 1087 
 
 retnlti, if the prescription ahould be prepared 
 with the substnnce which the name strictly 
 indicates." (Rsdwood.) 
 
 Morphia, Nitrate of. (A. T. Thomson.) Siin. 
 MoBFUUi NiiBAB. Add morphia in slight 
 excess to very dilute nitric acid, filter, concen- 
 trate by gentle evaporation, and set aside that 
 crystals may form. 
 
 Horphia, Phosphate of. 8iin. Mobphix 
 PHOSFiiAS. As the nitrate, substituting dilute 
 phosplioric by nitric acid. 
 
 Horphia, SaVphate of. Si/n. JUocfHiiB 
 SULPHAS, L. Prep. Saturate very dilute sul- 
 phuric acid with morphia, evaporate to one 
 half, add a little animal charcoal, continue the 
 evaporation for a short time longer at a gentle 
 heat, filter whilst hot, and abandon it to spon- 
 taneous evaporation. It is decomposed by 
 driving oS the water of crystallisation. Sul- 
 phate of morphia is included in the Fb. U. S. 
 According to Mugendie, this salt sometimes 
 agrees with patients who cannot bear the 
 acetate. 
 
 Horphia, Tartrate of. (A. T. Thomson.) 
 Syn. liIoEPHi* TAETBAS. Prep. Saturate 
 a solution of tartaric acid with morphia', con- 
 centrate by evaporation, and set aside thut 
 crystals niuy form. By using an excess of acid 
 an acid tartrate may be formed. 
 
 M0SFHI0a['£TIt7. A name given to the 
 process of determining the richness of opium 
 in morphia. See Opium. 
 
 MOBISON'S PILLS. See PAiEyi medi- 
 cines. 
 
 UOBSU'LI. An old name applied to 
 lozenges and mastlcatories. It is still retained 
 in some foreign Pharmacopoeias. 
 
 HOB'IAK is the well-known cement, made 
 of lime, sand, and water, employed to bind 
 bricks and stones together in the construction 
 of walls, buildings, &c. 
 
 In the composition of mortar stone lime is 
 preferred to that obtained from chalk, and 
 river eand to pit or roud sand. Sea sand is 
 unfitted for mortar until it has been well 
 soaked and wiished in fresh water. Sifted coal 
 ashes are frequently Bubstituted for the whole 
 or a part of the sand. 
 
 Hydraulic moetabs or cements are those 
 which, like Roman cement, are employed for 
 works which are either constantly submerged 
 or are frequently exposed to the action of 
 water. The poorer sorts of limestone are 
 chosen for this purpose, or those which contain 
 from 85 to 25^ of alumina, magnesia, and silica. 
 Such limestones, though caUined, do not slake 
 when moist'ned ; but if pulverised, they absorb 
 water without swelling up or heating, like I'at 
 lime, and afford a paste which hardens in a few 
 days under water, but in the air they never 
 acquire much solidity. 
 
 " The essential constituents of every good 
 hydraulic mortar are caustic lime and silica ; 
 
 and the hardening of this composition under 
 water consists mainly in a chemical cumbina- 
 tion of these two ingredients through the 
 agency of the water, producing a hydiated 
 silicate of lime. But such mortars niay contain 
 other ingredients besides lime, as, for example, 
 clay and magnesia, when Uuuule silicates of 
 great solidity ace formed ; on whii-h account 
 dolomite is a good ingredient in these mortars. 
 But the silica must be in a peculiar state lor 
 these purposes, namely, capal)le of affording a 
 gelatinous paste with acids ; and if not so 
 already, it must be brought into this condition , 
 by calcining it along with an alkali or an 
 alkaline earth, at a bright red heat, when it 
 will dissolve and gelatinise in acids. Quartzose 
 sand, however fine its powder may be, will 
 form no water mortar with lime ; but if the 
 powder be ignited with the lime, it then be- 
 comes fit for hydraulic cement. Ground felspar 
 or clay forms with slaked lime, no water 
 cement ; but when they are previously cal- 
 cined along with the lime, the mixture becomes 
 capable of hardening under water. 
 
 " All sorts of lime are made hydraulic, in 
 the humid way, by mixing the slaked lime with 
 solutions of common alum or sulphate of 
 alumina; but the best method consists in 
 employing a solution of the silicate of potash, 
 called liquor of Hints or solultle glass, to mix 
 in with, the slaked lime or lime and clay. An 
 hydruulic cement may aNo be made which will 
 serve for the manufacture of architectural 
 oruanientx, by making a paste of pulverised 
 chalk, witli a solution of thu silicate of potash. 
 The said liquor of flints likewise gives chalk 
 and plaster a stony hurdnes-, by merely soak- 
 ing them in it after they are cut or moulded 
 to a proper shape. On exposure to the air 
 they get progressively induratid. Superticial 
 hardness may be readily procured by washing 
 over the surface of chalk, cic, with liquor of 
 flints, by means of a brush. Tliis method 
 affords an easy and elegant method of giving a 
 stony crust to the plastered walls and ceilings 
 of apartments ; as also to statues and busts 
 cast in gypsum mixed with chalk." 
 
 Under Prof. Kuhlmau's patent, dated April, 
 1811, " instead of calcining the limestone with 
 clay and sand alone, as lias been hitherto com- 
 monly practised, this inventor introduces a 
 small quauti ty of soda, or, preferably, potash, 
 in the state of sulphate, carbonate, or muriate ; 
 salts susceptible of lorming silicates when the 
 earthy mixture is calcined. The alkaline salt, 
 equal in weight to about l-5th that of the 
 lime, is introduced in solution among the 
 earths." (Ure.) 
 
 The hardening of the common mortars and 
 cements is in a great measure due to the 
 gradual absorption of carbonic acid; but even 
 after a very great length of time this con- 
 version into carbonate is not complete. Good 
 mortar, under favorable circumstances, acquires 
 exticmo hardness by age. 
 
 Attempts have been made at various times 
 
1088 
 
 MORTIFICATION— MOULDS 
 
 to introduce the use of bituminous cements 
 into this country, and thus to restore both to 
 land and submarine architecture a valuable 
 material which has now lain neglected for a 
 period of fully thirty centuries; but, unfor- 
 tunately, owing to the interest of our great 
 building and engineering firms lying in another 
 direction, these attempts have been hitherto 
 unsuccessful. See Asphaltuh, Cemekt, 
 Lime, &c. 
 
 MORTIPICA'TION Sy». Gasgeenb; Giif- 
 GEEN A, MOBTIFICATION, L. Local death ; the 
 loss of vitality in one part of the animal body, 
 whilst the rest continues living. " The terms 
 gangrentj and mortification are often used sy- 
 nonymously; but gangrene properly signifies 
 the state which immediately precedes morti 
 fication, while the complete mortification, or 
 absolute deatli of a part, is called sphacelus. 
 A part which has passed into the state of 
 sphacelus is called a slough. 
 
 MOSAIC GOLD. See Bbasb, GoI;I>, &c. 
 
 MOS'SES. Syn. Musoi, L. Several vege- 
 tables of the natural orders Alga, Fungi, Li- 
 chenes, and Musci, commonly pass under this 
 name with the vulgar. Of these the following 
 are the principal: — 
 
 Boa MOSS [Sphagnum palustre). Very re- 
 tentive of moisture. Used to pack up plants 
 for exportation. 
 
 Ceylon moss {Oracilaria Candida). Very 
 nutritive ; made into a decoction or jelly, which 
 is highly esteemed as an article of diet for in- 
 valids and children, more especially for those 
 suffering: under affections of the mucous 
 membranes or phthisis. 
 
 Club moss {Lycopodiwm clavatum). See 
 Ltcopodium. 
 
 Coesican moss, C. woem m. {Oracilaria 
 Selmintkocorton), — Dose, ^ to 2 dr., in pow- 
 der, mixed up with sugar ; as a vermifuge. 
 
 Cttp MOSS, C. LICHEN ( Cladonia pyxidata). 
 Astringent and febrifuge. A cupful of the 
 decoction, taken warm, generally proves gently 
 emetic. Used in hooping-cough, &e. 
 
 FlH OLtTB MOSS (Lycvpodium Selugo). Vio- 
 lently emetic and purgative. It is also irri- 
 tant and narcotic. 
 
 Iceland moss (Cefrarialslandica). Highly 
 nutritious and easy of digestion. The decoc- 
 tion is a favourite alimentary substance in 
 affections of the lungs and digestive organs. 
 In Iceland, after the bitter has been removed 
 by soaking it in hot water, it is made into 
 jelly, or dried, ground to ilour, and made into 
 bread. 
 
 IeISH MOSS, Peael m., Caeeageen m. 
 (Chondrus crispus). Very nutritious. The 
 decoction or jelly is a useful and popular de- 
 mulcent and emollient in pulmonary affections, 
 dysentery, scrofula, rickets, &c. It is often 
 employed by cooks and confectioners instead 
 of isinglass, and by painters to make their 
 size. 
 
 Reindeek moss {Cladonia rangiferina). 
 Esculent, very nutritious. 
 
 MOTHER-OF- PEAEL. See Peaei. 
 
 MOTH'EK WATEE. See Cetstallisation. 
 
 MOULDS. Numerous materials and com- 
 positions are employed for the purpose of 
 taking moulds, among which are the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 1. (CoMPo'.) — a From spermaceti, stearine 
 or hard tallow, and white wax, equal parts, 
 melted together. For fine work, as medals, 
 small casts, &c. 
 
 h. From black resin, f lb. ; hard tallow, J lb. ; 
 beeswax, 6 oz. ; as the last. For coarse work, 
 as architectural ornaments, <&c. The above 
 are poured on the objects to be copied (pre- 
 viously oiled) whilst in the melted state. Ar- 
 ticles in plaster of Paris are first soaked in 
 water, observing that none of it remains on 
 the surface so as to interfere with the design. 
 
 2. (Elastic.) — a. Flexible or elastic moulds 
 may be made of gutta percha softened in boil- 
 ing water, and after being freed from moisture, 
 pressed strongly against the object to be copied 
 hy means of a screw press. A ring or support 
 should be employed to prevent undue lateral 
 spreading. 
 
 b. By the use of gelatin or glue, elastic 
 moulds are formed capable of reproducing, with 
 accuracy, and in a single piece, the most 
 elaborately sculptured objects, of exquisite 
 finish and delicacy. Casts from these are now 
 common in the streets. The credit of the 
 application of this substance to this purpose is 
 due to M. H. Vincent. The process of casting 
 consists in simply dissolving a certain quantity 
 of gelatin in hot water until it is reduced to 
 tile state of liquid paste, when it is run over 
 the object, previously oiled, intended to be 
 reproduced. A< it cools, the gelatin assumes 
 a consistency ofloring a considerable degree of 
 resistance, and is highly elastic, which latter 
 quality enables it to be easily detached from 
 the work on which it has been fitted. In the 
 hollow formed by the gelatin the finest plas- 
 ter, mixed to a thick cream with water, is next 
 run ; and when the plaster has acquired the 
 requisite hardness, the gelatin mould is de- 
 tached in the same manner as from the origi- 
 nal. From this apparently fragile mould as 
 many as six copies may be taken, all repro- 
 ducing the original with unerring fidelity. 
 
 3. (Metallic.) — a. From fusible metal.' 
 
 b. (Clich^e moulds.) From a fusible alloy 
 formed of bismuth, 8 parts; lead, 5 parts; tin, 
 4 parts ; antimony, 1 part ; repeatedly melted 
 together. The above are poured out in the 
 molted state on a plate or slab, and after being 
 stirred until in a pasty state, the object to be 
 copied is strongly pressed on the alloy at the 
 moment it begins to solidify. They are chiefly 
 used for medals and other like objects. 
 
 t. (Chameroy's Patent.) By melting together 
 one part of some easily fusible metal in a cru- 
 cible, and then mixing with it four parts of a 
 metal far less readily fusible, steeped in am- 
 monia and reduced to powder. Such a com- 
 ' See FusiBLK Allots. 
 
MOUTH COSMETICS— MUMPS 
 
 1089 
 
 ponnd ia atatcd to be of gront solidity, hard- 
 ness, facility of soldering, meltH at a low 
 temperature, and has great tractability in 
 iiiouMing; to any form; and in ciiHtijig tnkes 
 the ahnr|)ost impressions, »hi!st in iu nature 
 it is peculiarly unchangeable. Sue £L£Ciiio- 
 
 TTPE. 
 
 MOUTH COSMETICS. See Bbbath, Teeth, 
 LozKNOE, Paste, Powdeb, &c. 
 
 MOX'AS. Substances burnt apon the body, 
 for the purpose of acting as counter-irritants, 
 aud ulliiying deep-seated pains and inflamma- 
 tion. They have been used in gout, rheuma- 
 tism, &c. The small cone constituting the 
 moxa is placed upon a part, lighted, and 
 allowed to burn to its base. The Chin bse and 
 Japanese moxas are made of the downy por- 
 tion of the leaves of a species of wormwood 
 {Artemisia sinensis) ; but various other sub- 
 Ktnnces, lis the pitli of the sunflower, cotton, or 
 paper, soaked in a weak solution of nitrate, 
 chlorate, or chromate of potassium, answer as 
 well. Larrey's moxas consist of lycopodiura, 
 4oz. ; nitre, 2 oz. ; formed into small cones, 
 with alcohol, and dried for some diiys. Dr 
 Osborne used quicklime enclosed in a hoop of 
 card, and moistened with water. The actual 
 cautery is said to be preferable to any of 
 them. 
 
 MU'CILAGE. Syn. Mtjoilaoo, L. An 
 aqueous solution of gum, or other Jiki> sub- 
 stance, that gives a considerable consistency to 
 water. See Dkoootiok, Mixtuse, &c. 
 
 Mucilage, Acacia. (Ph. B.) Si/n. Muci- 
 LAOO ACACIA. Put gum acacia, in small 
 pieces, 4 oz., and distilled water, 6 oz., into a 
 covered earthen jar, and stir frequently until 
 the gum is dissolved. If necessary, strain 
 through muslin. 
 
 Mucilage, Fenugreek. Si/n. Muoilaqo 
 FENCOBEOI. Digest 1 oz. of fenugreek seed 
 with i pint of water for 12 hours, boil, and 
 str.iin with pressure. 
 
 Mucilage, Linseed. (P. Cod.) %».. Mc- 
 CILAOO LiNi. Linseed, 1 oz. ; "warm water, 
 6 o«. Digest for 6 hours, stirring now and 
 then, and strain. 
 
 Mucilage, Liquorice. Si/n. Mucilaoo 
 OLTCTBBHIZJE. From liquorice root, as uabeh- 
 HALLOW HlTCILAaE. 
 
 Mncilage, Marshmallow. (P. Cod.) St/n. 
 Mucilaoo althe*;. Marshmallow root, 1 oz. ; 
 boiling water, 6 oz. ; digest for 6 houi-s, and 
 strain. 
 
 Mucilage, Qnickeilver. Si/n. Mvcilaqo 
 mkbcubialis plenkii. Quicksilver, 1 dr.; 
 gum Arabic, 3 dr. ; syrup of poppies, 4 oz. 
 Mix. — Dose, i dr. 
 
 Mucilage, Sassafras. (Ph. U.S.) Sj/n. Mv- 
 cilaqo bassafbas. Infuse 2 dr. of pith of 
 sassafras in 16 oz. (old measure) of boiling 
 water for 3 hours, and strain. 
 
 Mncilage, Slippery-Elm Bark. (Ph. U. S.) 
 Syn. MpciLAOO ulmi. Slippery-elm bark, 
 sliced and bruised, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 16 oz. 
 Infuse for 2 hours. 
 TOL. II. 
 
 MncUage, SUrch. (Ph. B.) Same as 
 Decoction op .Stabch (Ph. L), which see. 
 
 Mncilage, Tra'gacanth. Sj/n. MrciLAGO 
 TiiAOACANTH« (B. P., Ph. E., and Ph. D 
 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Tragacaiith, 2 
 dr.; boiling water, 9 fl. oz. (8 fl. oz.— Ph. D.) ; 
 macerate for 24 hours, triturate, and press 
 through linen. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Tragocanth, in powder, 60 gr. ; 
 distilled water, 10 <.z. To the water contained 
 in a pint bottle add the tragacanth, agitate 
 bri^kly lor a few minutes, and again at shoit 
 interviils, until the tragacanth is perfectly 
 diffused, and has finally formed a mucilage. — 
 Dose, 1 oz. (Should be made as required. One 
 part of tragacanth gives more viscosity to 
 water than twenty-five parts of gum Arabic- 
 Squire.) Used in medicine as a demulcent, 
 and as an application to burns, &c., aud in 
 pharmacy in moking up pills, aud to suspend 
 heavy powders in liquids. 
 
 MITDAB'IN. Syn. Madabine. A peculiar 
 substance, possessing powerful emetic proper- 
 ties, extracted from the root bark of Calotropit 
 gigatitea, in which it exists to the extent of 
 llg. (Duncan.) It is soluble in water and 
 in alcohol, and its aqueous solution, unlike 
 that of most other substances, gelatinises by 
 heat, and becomes fluid again on cooling. 
 
 MUF'FJNS. Prep. Take of fine flour, i 
 peck; «arm milk-and-water,! quart; yeast, 
 a wine-glassful; salt, 2 oz. ; mix for 15 mi- 
 nutes, then further add of flour, i peck, make a 
 dough, let it rise 1 hour, roll it up, pull it into 
 pieces, make them into balls, put them in a 
 warm place, and when the whole dough is 
 made into balls, shape them into muffins, and 
 bake them on tins ; turn them when half done, 
 dip them into warm milk, and bake them to a 
 pale brown. 
 
 MUF'FLE. See Assaying. 
 
 MUL'BEBRY. Sgn. Mobum, L. Mulber- 
 ries (MOBA, MOBI BACCiE) are the fruit of 
 Moras nigra, or blai^k mulberry tree. They 
 are cooling and laxative ; but when eaten too 
 freely are apt to disorder the stomach and 
 bowels. Mulberry juice (jnori *«ecu») is offi- 
 cinal in the Ph. L. A syrup (SYECPUS MOBi) 
 is made of it. It is also, occasionally, made 
 into wine. 
 
 MUL'TUM. A mixture of extract of quassia 
 and liquorice, used by fraudulent brewers 
 instead of malt and hops. 
 
 MUM. A beverage prepared from wheat 
 malt, in a similar way to ordinary beer from 
 barley malt. A little oat and bean meal is 
 frequently added. It was formerly much 
 drunk in England ; but its use at the present 
 day is chiefly confined to Germany, and to 
 Brunswick more particularly. 
 
 MUMPS. Si/n. Parotitis, L. Inflamma- 
 tion of the parotid gland, which is situated 
 under the ear. There is little constitutional 
 derangement, but the cheeks become swollen 
 and painful, and there is some difficulty iu 
 opening the mouth, and in swallowing. The 
 
 69 
 
1090 
 
 MUREXID— MUSCULAR POWER 
 
 treatment consists in simply keeping the part 
 warm with flannel, and the use of warm 
 fomentations, at the same time that tlie 
 bowels are kept freely open with some mild 
 laxative. 
 
 The mumps are said to be contagious, as, 
 when the affection appears in a school, it 
 generally attacks every member of it. Low, 
 damp situations are those most favorable to 
 this affection. 
 
 MUREX'ID. CgNsHgOj. Syn. Pitepweate 
 
 OP AMMONIUM. 
 
 Prep. (Gregory.) Alloxan, 7 parts ; alloxan- 
 t.ii, 4 parts ; boiling water, 240 parts ; dissolve, 
 and add the solution to a cold and strong 
 solution of carbonate of ammonia, 80 parts; 
 crystals of murexid will separate as the liquid 
 cools. 
 
 Obs. Murexid can be obtained directly 
 from uric acid by the action of nitric acid and 
 subsequent treatment with ammonia. This 
 process is, however, very precarious, and often 
 fails altogether. 
 
 Prop., Sfe. It is only very slightly soluble 
 in cold water J freely soluble in solutions of 
 ammonia and the fixed alkalies ; the first, by 
 exposure to the air, becomes purple, and de- 
 posits brilliant crystals of murexid. These 
 compounds are the purpurates of Dr Prout. 
 It forms iridescent crystals, having a me- 
 tallic lustre, of a magnificent green colour 
 by reflected light, and an equally beautiful 
 reddish purple by transmitted light. It is 
 soluble in boiling water, only very slightly 
 soluble in cold water, and insoluble in alcohol 
 and ether. A few years ago murexid was 
 extensively used in dyeing ; it is now almost 
 superseded by rosaniline or magenta. An 
 analogous substance, formed as above, by 
 treating amalic acid with ammonia, is called 
 ' caffein-murexid.' 
 
 HU"EIATE. An old name for hydrochlo- 
 rate and chloride. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID. Syn. Hydeoohloeic 
 ACID, which see. 
 
 KUEIDE. The name originally given to 
 bromine by M. Balard. 
 
 MUU'EAIN. Syn. Blaok-le(J, Biack- 
 QUAETEE. A disease affecting neafc cattle, 
 more especially young animals, in the spring 
 and autumn. The common symptoms are 
 swelling and discoloration of one of the 
 hind quarters of the animal, with consequent 
 lameness and Inability to move; a peculiar 
 emphysema and intumescence of various parts 
 of the body, particularly over the region of the 
 spine, accompanied with all the common indi- 
 cations of putrid fever. In severe cases gan- 
 grene soon follows, and death frequently 
 ensues in from 12 to 24 hoars. 
 
 The rapid progress of this disease admits of 
 little being done in the way of care. Exten- 
 sive scarifications of the affected part, charcoal 
 'or hot yeast poultices, or fomentations, and 
 ■active purgatives, appear to constitute the 
 
 most useful treatment. The following drenches 
 have been recommended for this affection : — 
 
 1. (Blaine.) Sweet spirit of nitre, i fl. oz. ; 
 powdered cascarilla, 2 oz. ; solution of acetate 
 of ammonia, 4 fl. oz.; yeast, 8 fl. oz. ; given 
 every 3 or 4 hours. 
 
 2 (Clater.) Laudanum and sweet spirit of 
 nitre, of each i fl. oz. ; solution of chloride of 
 lime, i fl. oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 oz. ; warm 
 gruel, 1 pint. 
 
 The apparent incurability of this disease 
 renders it of the utmost importance to tlie 
 farmer to adopt preventive measures. These 
 should consist of the supply of wholesome 
 food and pure water, the adoption of extreme 
 cleanliness, and the free accessof pure air to 
 all the stalls, sheds, and other buildings in 
 which the cattle may be sheltered. As the dis- 
 ease is regarded as contagious by many persons, 
 it is prudent to separate, as speedily as possible, 
 the healthy animals from those affected. The 
 free use of sulphurous acid, chloride of lime, 
 &c., as disinfectants, is also advisable. 
 
 Otlier and more immediate preventives con- 
 sist of the occasional exhibition of a saline 
 aperient, and the introduction of a seton into 
 the dewlap. 
 
 MUSCULAR POWER. Pick and Wislicenus 
 proved, in 1865, that muscular power is to a 
 great extent produced by the oxidation of such 
 non-nitrogenous substance as fat. Frankland 
 has put the matter beyond dispute by a series 
 of experiments determining the amount of 
 potential eneigy locked up in muscle. Some 
 of the conclusions at which he has arrived 
 are extremely interesting. He considers that 
 a muscle is a machine for the conversion 
 of potential enerpy into mechanical force; 
 that the mechiinical force of the muscles 
 is derived chiefly, if not entirely, from the 
 oxidation of matters either contained in the 
 blood or deposited around the muscular fibres, 
 and not from the oxidation of the muscles 
 themselves ;_thnt in man the chief materials 
 used for the production of muscular power are 
 non-nitrogenous; but nitrogenous matters can 
 also be employed for the same purpose, and 
 hence the greatly increased evolution of nitro- 
 gen , under the influence of a flesh diet, even 
 with no increase of muscular exertion ; that 
 like every other part of the body, the muscles 
 are constantly being renewed, but this renewal 
 is scarcely perceptibly more rapid during great 
 muscular activity than during comparative 
 quiescence ; that after the supply of sufiicient 
 albuminoid matters in the food of man to pro- 
 vide for the necessary renewal of the tissues, 
 the best materials for the production both of 
 internal and external work are non-nitrogenous 
 matters, such as oil, fat, sugars, starch, and 
 gum ; that the non-nitrogenous matters of 
 food which find their way into the blood yield 
 up all their potential energy as actual energy; 
 the nitrogenous matters, on the other hand, 
 leave the body with a portion (fit least one 
 seventh) of their potential energy unexpended; 
 
MUSHROOMS 
 
 1091 
 
 and, lastly, that the tmDsformation of poten- 
 tial ouei'i^y into muscular power is necessarily 
 accompanied by the production of heat within 
 the body, even when the muscular power is 
 exerted externally. This ig doubtless the chief, 
 rinj probably the only, source of natural heat. 
 See KVKBOT, KXEECISE. 
 
 UUSH'KOOMS. Edible fungi. The species 
 commonly eaten in England are the Agaricua 
 eampeitrU, or common field or garden mush- 
 room, used to make ketchup, and eaten either 
 raw, stewed, or broiled ; — the Morchella etcu- 
 ienCa, or morel, used to flavour soups and gra- 
 vies ; — and the Tuber cibarium, or common 
 truflle, also used as a seasoning. 
 
 Several fungi, which to the inexperienced 
 closely resemble the common edible mushroom, 
 possess poisonous narcotic properties, and their 
 use has not unfrequently been productive of 
 Ferious, and, in some cases, even fatal results. 
 Unfortunately, no simple tests exist by which 
 the edible and poisonous varieties can be dis- 
 tinguished from each other. So strongly was 
 the late Professor L. C. Richards, the eminent 
 botanist, impressed with this feeling, that 
 though no one was better acquainted with tlie 
 distinctions of fungi than he was, yet he would 
 never eat any except such as had been raised 
 in (gardens, in mushroom beds. 
 
 "This difficulty of distinguishing edible f roin 
 poisonous and noxious fungi must not be ig- 
 nored. If only one out of a hundred, or for 
 the matter of that n thousand, species were 
 poisunnus or noxious, it would not be sound 
 advice to say thiit wo should eat all that come to 
 hand, and stand the chance of baneful ri suits. 
 Unfortunately It is the case that some of the 
 most poisonous fungi are the most common, 
 and there is scarcely a field, and perhaps not 
 a single wood, which does not abound with 
 varieties of Coprinus, the Agaricusfascicularis, 
 and the beautifully coloured Thussula emetica, 
 and several other very undesirable species. 
 Some writers, and among them, if wc remem- 
 ber i-ightly, the learned and enthusiastic my- 
 cologist, Dr Badham, deny the existence of 
 any poisonous fungi in our islands, and they 
 account for the effects which are often pro- 
 duced by eiitiug varieties different from our 
 common mushroom by stating that some peo- 
 ple, through idiosyncrasy of constitution, 
 are injuriously affected by all fungi; and iu 
 snppiTi of this statement they instance the 
 well-known fact that some people experience 
 the most unpleasant effects after eating the 
 common edible mushroom, which chemically 
 coutains noxious ingredients. We all know 
 that idiosyncrasy of constitution may account 
 for much and for very strange phenomenii; 
 for inst;ince, oysters are almost poison to some 
 persons, while roust beef will cause bystei ics 
 in otlier eases ; and to not a few certain odours, 
 barmU'Ss in themselves, are causes of serious 
 attiK'ks of illness; but the fact remains that 
 pci-sous who can e it with impunity and greatly 
 eiijny the comiiion mushroom are unpleasuutly 
 
 affected by other species of fungi. Not a 
 year passes hut deaths are recorded of persons 
 — sometimes of whole families — after eating 
 noxious fungi, though they had no idiosyn- 
 crasy of constitution ; and shortly prior to 
 the writing of this article a learned botanist 
 and enthusiastic mycologist, and a friend, in 
 experimenting on some specimens of fungi 
 sent to him, narrowly escaped death, while 
 another person who partook of the dish pre- 
 pared actually succumbed. A thousand and 
 one tests have been given iu writing from 
 time to time whereby our ordinary mushroom 
 is to be distinguished from species which 
 resemble it — and one species is to he dis- 
 tinguished from another; but we fear that 
 practically they are not to be depended upon. 
 Fungi differ in appearance according to the 
 localities in which they grow, and according 
 to their age. The common belief that the 
 edible species never change colour when cut 
 or bruised is untenable, for three varieties at 
 least are perfectly edible, and yet assume difEer- 
 ent tints when injured in any way. Tlie test 
 of taste, too, which is applied under the idea 
 that those with a pleasant savour and an in- 
 offensive smell are always wholesome, is falla- 
 cious, for a raw mushroom is quite a different 
 thing from the stewed or grilled one, and 
 often what has an acrid taste when raw be- 
 comes perfectly savoury when cooked; and, 
 vice versa, .a tasteless fungus may be poisonous, 
 but only develop its latent flavour when sub- 
 mitted to the cook. Dr Christison declares 
 that a sure test of poisonous fungus is an 
 astringent, styptic taste, and a disagreeable 
 pungent odour; but this, again, cannot always 
 be depended on. Nor, again, is the popular 
 idea that a mushroom » hicli will skin easily 
 is wholesome altogether based on fact. What, 
 then, is to be done to enlarge the held of our 
 mushroom gatherers and to bring about the 
 utilisation of food now suffered to run to 
 waste, or, in other words, how is a knowledge 
 of our fungi to be obtained ? The only an- 
 swer is that knowledge on this matter is to be 
 got, generally speaking, as knowledge on other 
 matters — partly from books, but more espe- 
 cially from oral instruction and demonstration. 
 Such eminent authorities as Dr Badham, the 
 Rev. JM. Berkeley, Mr Cooke, and Mr Worthing- 
 ton Smith may be consulted with profit, and 
 works such as that on ' Domestic Economy,' 
 in which coloured plates bring accurately be- 
 fore the eye the different species of our fungi. 
 And here we may mention that the plates pre- 
 pared by Mr \^'orthington Smith, which were 
 once at the South Kensington Museum, but now, 
 we believe, at Betlmal Green, have done much 
 to help the Londoner when in search for 
 mushrooms in the country to distinguish be- 
 tween the good and bad species of fungi. It 
 might be well that in our schools, where so 
 many practically useless branches of knowledge 
 are crammed into children both in town auci 
 couutry, practical lessons on fungi should bo 
 
1092 
 
 MUSHK00M8 
 
 given. Those, too, who wish to learn what is 
 to be learned on this subject should avail them- 
 selves of opportunities now often given at ex- 
 hibitions and botanical meetings. At Paris, 
 in 1876, there was an exhibition of edible and 
 poisonous fungi, in a fresli and dry state, toge- 
 ther with books and drawings; and a similar 
 exhibition took place in Aberdeen two years 
 before ; and, as most of our readers are pro- 
 bably aware, there exists a Fungus Club, or, 
 rather, a botanical society which makes fungi 
 a special study. This is the Woolhope Club, 
 which has its head quarters at Heref ord.and em- 
 braces in its scientific investigations all the dis- 
 trict between Shropshire and the Bristol Chan- 
 nel. Onedayineachautumnisdevotedto afun- 
 gushunt, and the numbers that are gathered by 
 this enthusiastic baud are something enormous. 
 The labours of the day are closed by a dinner, 
 at which the main dishes are composed of the 
 spoils of the chase, dressed in the most epicu- 
 rean fashion, and of other good things fla- 
 voured with the most appetising (fungus) 
 sauces. In the annuiil volume published of 
 the transactions of the club there is a descrip- 
 tion of the fungi of the district, and the best 
 modes of cooking them. It would be a great 
 gain to the public if at least that part dealing 
 with fungi were generally obtainable. 
 
 " Gastronomically the ordinary mushroom, 
 and a large number of our British fungi, are 
 most estimable, and ketchup produced from 
 them — not the ordinary ketchup ' of com- 
 merce,' which is often innocent of any fungi 
 whatever — is to the cultivated taste of the 
 gourmet the best of sauces. Many an epicurean 
 has been heard to aver that after that of an 
 oyster that of a, mushroom is the finest in the 
 whole world of gastronomy. Bacon, in his 
 ' Naturall Historic,' says of mushrooms, 'they 
 yield a delicious meat;' and to these com- 
 mendations it may be added that they can be 
 cooked in almost as many ways as the French 
 can cook eggs. Their alimentary value is also 
 great, for chemistry has revealed in them the 
 presence of the leading principles which exist 
 in the flesh of animals. Dr Letheby says that 
 ' the edible varieties are highly nutritious ;' 
 and that well-known dietist, the late Dr Ed- 
 ward Smith, who was very chary of commend- 
 ing anything, also has a good word for them. 
 "Our word 'mushroom' is evidently an adap- 
 tation of the French mousseron, which, of 
 course, is from mousse 'moss' (Latin, mus- 
 t'Ms) ; but the suggestion of the learned Sal- 
 masius, that the French gave this name to the 
 edible fungus 'because it grows only where 
 the grass is the shortest and there is little else 
 but moss,' strikes one as rather weak. The 
 mushroom, like the moss, is a cryptogamous 
 plant; but there is little connection in any 
 way between the two. Perhaps, then, we must 
 look to the Greek word muvos, though only 
 used by the grammarians, for the origin of the 
 French word and so of our own. This was 
 one of the terms which signified a ' sponge,' 
 
 and was probably applied to the 'fungi' be- 
 cause of their sponge-like growth. It is evi- 
 dent that some of our more exact botanists, 
 or etymologists who compounded the word for 
 them, consider the Greek word and not the 
 Latin as the origin of the mu in the English 
 word and the mou in the French, though, 
 according to analogy, the « should have been 
 changed into a t/, for the study of ' fungi ' 
 is termed by them mycology. It is hardly 
 necessary to add that the words ' fungology ' 
 and ' fungologist ' are hybrid compounds of 
 Greek and Latin, which are simply intolerable 
 to ears correct, as are many other words 
 similarly compounded, and recently introduced 
 into our language. The Jj^tin fungus is plainly 
 a weakened form of the Greek spongos, and 
 goes to show that the idea of a ' sponge' was 
 Irom the first associated with the fungi, and 
 that the Greek mucos must be taken as the 
 origin of the French mousseron and the Eng- 
 lish ' mushroom.' It is curious that tlie 
 Greek, Latin, and English ' fungous ' terms 
 have all been used in a sense reflecting on 
 some of our species. The Greek mucos repre- 
 sented a silly, stupid fellow, and the Plautus 
 couples the fungi — 'soft-pated' — with the 
 ' fools,' ' stolid ' and ' fatuous.' In like 
 manner in our own language. Bacon speaks of 
 certain persons as ' mushrooms and upstart 
 weeds ' because of their sudden growth from 
 a lowly origin. South, in one of his sermons, 
 reflects on "mushroom divines who startup of 
 a sudden," and whose success is ' not so good 
 as to recommend their practice.' Carrying 
 out the same analogy, the late Albert Smith, 
 if we recollect rightly, spoke of ' stuck-up 
 people ' as springing like mushrooms sud- 
 denly into notice, and, like them, from very 
 questionable soil. 
 
 " One word as to the connection between 
 fungi and what are called ' fairy rings ' in 
 our meadows. ITiese fairy rings unfortunately 
 lose all their poetry when it is known that 
 they are simply produced by the growth of 
 various kinds of fungi. The fungi start from a 
 centre, owing to some peculiarity of the soil and 
 decaying vegetable matter in it, and when they 
 have exhausted the spot on which they origi- 
 nally sprang up, they enlarge their borders, as 
 it were, and thus form circles, giving a darker 
 tinge to the herbage affected by them. These 
 rings increase in size annually, and thus they 
 vary considerably in circumference. This is a 
 prosaic but truthful explanation of the pheno- 
 menon which so often attracts the attention 
 of children and puzzles the heads of older 
 persons."' 
 
 In cases of poisoning by fungi, vomiting 
 should be immediately induced by an emetic 
 and tickling the fauces with the finger or a 
 feather ; after which a purgative clyster or a 
 strong cathartic should be administered, with 
 J to 1 fl. dr. of ether in a glassful of water or 
 weak brandy. As an antidote, a solution of 
 1 ' DaHy Telegraph.' 
 
MUSK— MUSTARD 
 
 1093 
 
 tanniD, \ dr., in wntcr, 1^ pint, or a decoction 
 iif i oz. of powdert'd gaUe,or of 1 oz. of pow- 
 dered cinchona baric, iu a lilco quantity of 
 water, has been strongly recominended by M. 
 Cliuiisitrel. 
 
 Alexis Soyer recommendetl the excellent 
 metliod of cooking uiushrooms by baking them 
 under a gluts or basin on toant, along with 
 scalded or clotted cream, or a little melted 
 butter, with one clove, and salt, pepper, &c., 
 to Incite. They take about i of nn hour in a 
 gentle oven or belbre the fire. When they are 
 taken up, do not remove the glass for a few 
 minutes, by which time the vapour will have 
 licH'ome condensed and gone into the bread ; 
 but when it is, the aroma, which is the essence 
 of the miisliroom,i8 so powerful as to pervade 
 the whnk' apartment. 
 
 MUSK. Si/n. MoscntTS (B. P., Ph. L., E., 
 & U.), L. " A secretion deposited in a fol- 
 liik' of the prepuce of Moxchut mosehiferus, 
 Linn." (Ph. L.), an animal inhabiting the 
 mountains of Eastern Asia. It is imported 
 from Bengal, China, and Russia ; and, latterly, 
 Irom the United States of America. That 
 known as ToNQUiN MUSK is the most esteemed 
 for its odour ; but that from Russia is the only 
 kind which rcjiclios us in perfect bags, or which 
 has not been tiiinpered with. Pod mdsk 
 (Mosciiue IN VEsicis) is the bag In its natural 
 htate, containing the musk. The average 
 weight of one of the pods is about 6 dr.; 
 that of the grain musk which it contains, 
 about 2i dr. 
 
 Pur, iic The musk of the shops is gene- 
 rally adulterated. Dried bullock's blood or 
 chocolate is commonly employed for this pur- 
 pose, along with a little bone-black. The 
 extent uf these additions varies from 25j to 
 75J of the gross weight of the mixture. The 
 blo' <l is dried by the heat of steam or a water 
 bath, then i-educed to coarse powder, and tri- 
 turated with the genuine mu-k in a mortiir 
 alonj; with a few drops of liquid of ammonia. 
 It is then either replaced in the empty pods, 
 or it is put into bottles, and sold as grain 
 musk. There are only three certain ways of 
 detecting this fraud, viz. — by the inferiority 
 of the odour, by an assay for the iron contained 
 in the blood, or — by the microscope. Genuine 
 uiusk often becomes nearly inodorous by keep- 
 ing, but recovers its smell on being exposed to 
 the vapour of ammonia, or by being moistened 
 with ammonia water. The perfumers some- 
 times expose it to the fetid ammoniacal effluvia 
 of privies for the same purpose. 
 
 Pure musk, by trituration or digestion with 
 boiling water, loses about 75j of its weight, 
 and the bailing solution, alter precipitation 
 with nitric acid, is nearly colourless. A solu- 
 tion of acetate of lead, and a cold decoction of 
 galls, also precipitate the solution ; but one of 
 corrosive sublimate does not disturb it. The 
 a«he» left after the incineration of pure musk 
 are neither red nor yellow, but grey, and 
 should not exceed 5 to 6^. The Chinese appear 
 
 to be the most skilful and successful adultera- 
 tors of musk. One of the best solvents for 
 musk is ether. 
 
 Uses, dj^e. Musk is chiefly employed for its 
 odour. As a medicine it is a powerful stimu- 
 lant and antispasmodic, and is a valnable 
 remedy in various diseases of a spasmodic or 
 hysterical character, or attended with low 
 fever. — Dose, 5 to 10 grains made into an 
 emulsion. 
 
 Unsk, Foctitions. St/n. Resiv of amber ; 
 
 RESINA STICCINI, MoSCHUS AttTinCIALIS, JI. 
 
 FACiTiTius, L. Prep. 1. Oil of amber, 1 fl. dr. ; 
 nitric acid, 3i fl. dr. ; digest in a cold tumbler, 
 and after 24 hours, wash in cold water the 
 orange-yellow re-inons matter which has 
 formed, and carefully dry it. 
 
 2. (Eisner.) From oil of amber, 1 part ; 
 fuming nitric acid, 8 parts ; as the last, but 
 employing artificial cold to prevent any por- 
 tion of the oil beinnf carbonised. 
 
 Obs. Resin of amber smells strongly of 
 musk, and is said to be antispasmodic and 
 nervine. A tincture (tinctitba besinJ! sfo- 
 CINI) is made by dissolving 1 dr. of it in rec- 
 tified spirit, 10 fl. dr., of which the dose is 1 
 fl. dr. ; in hooping-cough, low fevers, &c. 
 
 Dr Collier mentions an artificial musk, 
 prepared by digesting for 10 days nitric acid, 
 i oz., on fetid animal oil, obtained by distil- 
 lation, 1 oz. ; then adding of rectified spirit, 
 1 pint, and digesting the whole for a mouth. 
 
 MUSK SEED. Syn. Grains d'amdeette. 
 The seed of Abelmoschus moschattu, or musk 
 mallow. They arc chiefly used for their odour, 
 in perfumery, hair powder, coffee, &c. 
 
 MUS'SEL. See Shell-fish. 
 
 MUST. Syn. MusTrM, L. The expressed 
 juice of ripe grapes, before fermentation. 
 When boiled to 2 —3 dr. it is called caeekum ; 
 when boiled to i, it is called sapa. On fur- 
 ther concentration, it yields a species of 
 granular sugar (srape sugar.) 
 
 Must, Facti"tiou8. Syn. MtrsTUM fac- 
 TITICM, L. Prep. Dissolve cream of tartar, 
 J oz., in boiling water, 7 pints; when cold, 
 add of lump sugar, 2J lbs. ; raisins (chopped 
 small), i lb. ; digest for 3 or 4 hours, strain 
 through flannel as quickly as possible, and add 
 of lemon iuiee, i pint. 
 
 MUS'TARD. Si/n. SiNAPis, L. " The seed 
 of Sinapis nigra and 5. alba." (Ph. L.) 
 "Flour of the seeds of Sinapis nigra, gene, 
 rally mixed with those of Sinapis alba, and 
 deprived of fixed oil by expression." (Ph. E.) 
 " The flour of the seeds." (Ph. D.) " The 
 seeds of the Sinapis nigra and /S. alba re- 
 duced to powder and mixed." (B. P.) That 
 of the shops is very frequently adulterated 
 with wheat flour. When this is the case it 
 does not readily make a smooth paste with 
 water, but exhibits considerable toughness, 
 and somewhat of a stringy appearance, es- 
 pecially when little water and much heat is 
 employed. The common proportions taken 
 by some grocers are — dried common salt, 
 
1094 
 
 MUSTIK ESS— MYEOSPERMIN 
 
 wheat flour, aud superfine mustard, equal 
 parts; with turmeric, to colour, and cayenne, 
 q. s. to give it piquancy and fire. 
 
 Uses, Sfe. Pure flour of mustard is used in 
 medicine, to make stimulating poultices, pedi- 
 luvia, &c. As a condiment it is useful in 
 torpor and coldness of the digestive organs. 
 A few years since the use of mustard §eed, by 
 spoonfuls, ad libitum, was a common and 
 iashionahle remedy in torpor or atony of the 
 digestive organs. The practice was a revival 
 of that recommended by Dr CuUen; but it 
 has now again sunk into disuse. Sir John 
 Sinclair also approved of the use of mustard 
 seed in this way, especially for the preserva- 
 tion of the health of the aged. (' Lancet,' 
 Jan., 1834.) See Pottitices, &c. 
 
 ]llusta,rd for the Table. The common prac- 
 tice of preparing mustard for the table with 
 vinegar, or still more, with boiling water, ma- 
 terially checks the development of those pecu- 
 liar principles on which its pungency or 
 strength almost entirely depends. To econo- 
 mise this substance, we should use lukewarm 
 water only ; and when flavouring matter is to 
 be added to it, this is better deferred until 
 after the paste is made. The following forms 
 for * made mustard ' are much esteemed for 
 their flavour : — • 
 
 Prep. 1. Mustard (ground), SJ lbs. ; water, 
 q. a. to form a stiff paste ; in ^ hour add of 
 common salt (rubbed very fine), 1 lb. ; with 
 vinegar, grape juice, lemon juice, or white 
 wine, q. 8. to reduce it to a proper consistence. 
 
 2. To the last add a little soluble cayenne 
 pepper or essence of cayenne. 
 
 3. (Lenormand.) Best flour of mustard, 
 2 lbs. ; fresh parsley, chevril, celery, and tar- 
 ragon, of each i oz.; garlic, 1 clove; 12 salt 
 anchovies ; (all well chopped) ; grind well to- 
 gether, add of salt, 1 oz. ; grape juice or sugar 
 q. o. to sweeten ; with sufficient water to form 
 the mass into a thinnish paste by trituration 
 in a mortar. When put into pots, a red-hot 
 poker is to be thrust into each, and a little 
 \iuegai' afterwards poured upon the surface. 
 
 4. (MOUTAEDE A L'ESTEAGOIf.) From black 
 mustard seed (gently dried until friable, and 
 then finely powdered), 1 lb.; salt, 2 oz. ; tar- 
 ragon vinegar, q. s. to mix. In a similar way 
 the French prepare several other ' mustards,' 
 by employing vinegars flavoured with the- re- 
 spective substances, or walnut or mushroom 
 ketchup, or the liquors of the richer pickles. 
 
 5. (MotlTABDE 8UPEEBE.) Salt, 14 lb.; 
 
 scraped horseradish, 1 lb. ; garlic, 2 cloves ; 
 boiling vinegar, 2 galls. ; macerate in a covered 
 vessel for 24 hours, strain, and add of flour of 
 mustard, q. s. 
 
 6. (Patent.) Black ginger (broised), 12 lbs. ; 
 common salt, 18 lbs.; water, 15 galls.; boil, 
 strain, and add to each gallon flour of mus- 
 tard, 5 lbs. 
 
 Mustard Leaves (RigoUot's) are made 
 by spreading moistened mustard on paper, 
 and drying. 
 
 MUS'TINESS. See Malt iiquoes and 
 Wines. 
 
 MTJ'TAGE. The term applied to the ' match- 
 ing ' of grape must to arrest the progress of 
 fermentation. See AKTirBKMEHT, Matches, 
 &c, 
 
 MUT'TON. The flesh of sheep. That of the 
 first quality is "between four and five years 
 old ; but at present it is rarely got above 
 three, and often under two. The flesh ought 
 to be of a darkish, clear, red colour, the fat 
 firm and white, the meat short and tender 
 when pinched, and it ought not to be too fat." 
 The flesh of the ' Southdown wether ' is es- 
 teemed the finest flavoured. Mutton is one 
 of the most wholesome of the ' red meats,' 
 and in commercial importance is second only 
 to beef. See Meat. 
 
 MY'COSE. A peculiar variety of sugar, ex- 
 tracted by alcohol from ergot of rye. It crys- 
 tallises in colourless prisms, and is distin- 
 guished from cane sngar by not reducing the 
 acetate of copper, when boiled with a solution 
 of tliat salt. 
 
 MYLABEIS. Si/n. Mtlabeis oichoeii; 
 Chinese blisteeino pit. An insect found 
 on the flowers of the succory plant in India 
 and China. It is about an inch and a quarter 
 in length ; slieath-wings black, each present- 
 ing anteriorly two almost quadrate, brownish- 
 yellow spots; behind these two brownish- 
 yellow baijds, each of which equals about one 
 sixth of the length of the sheatb-wings. Its 
 vesicant properties are due to the presence of 
 cantharidin. 
 
 Its physiological actions are the same as 
 those erf cantharides, except that it is said not 
 to affect the kidneys when topically applied. 
 
 MYRICIK. The portion of beeswax which 
 is least soluble in alcohol, and saponified with 
 difficulty. 
 
 MYEISTIC ACID. HCjH^yOo. A monobasic 
 fatty acid, obtained by the saponification of 
 myristin. It melts at 120° Fahr. 
 
 MYEIS'TIN. C^jHgeOj. Si/n. SEEicran. 
 The white, solid poitiun of the expressed oil 
 of nutmegs, which is insoluble in cold alcohol. 
 See Mtkistic acid. 
 
 MYR0LE8. In French yJorwocy, solutions 
 of oleaginous or resinous substances in the 
 volatile oils. 
 
 MYRON'IC ACID. HCioHigNSjOjo. Bussy 
 has given this name to an inodorous, bitter, 
 non-crystallisable acid, obtained by bim from 
 black mustard, in which it exists as myronate 
 of potassium. It is soluble in water and 
 alcohol. 
 
 HYBOSIN. Si/n. Emttlsin oe black mits- 
 taed. a name given by Bussy to a peculiar 
 substance, soluble in «ater, and which pos- 
 sesses the power of converting myronie acid, 
 in the presence of water, into the volatile oil 
 of mustard seed. 
 
 MYROSPEKMIN. The name given by 
 Richter to the portion of the oil of balsam of 
 Peru, which is soluble in alcohol. 
 
MYKOXILIN— NAPHTHA 
 
 1095 
 
 UTBOX'IUN. The name given by Kichter 
 to the portion of tliu oil of balsam of Peru 
 which i« insolable in iitcohol. By oxygenation 
 it forms myroiilic acid. 
 
 UTRBH. Syn. Myeeha (B. P., Ph. L., E., 
 & D.), L. " Gum resin euided from the bark 
 of Baltamodendron myrrha." ( B. P., Pli. L.) 
 
 Pur. — 1. Triturate a small quantity of the 
 powder of the suspected myrrh with an equal 
 amount of chloride of ammonium, adding 
 water, gradually ; if the whole is readily dis- 
 solved, the myrrh is genuine ; otherwise it id 
 sophisticated with tome inferior substance, 
 (liighini.) — 2. When incinerated it should not 
 leave more than 3 J to 4§ of ashes. 
 
 Viet, iS(c. Myrrh is a stimulating aromatic 
 bitter and tonic, and is given in several dis- 
 eases accompanied by relaxation and debility ; 
 especially in excessive secretions from the 
 mucous membranes, and in disorders of the 
 digestive organs. Externally, as an ingredient 
 in dentifrices and rashes, in caries of the teeth, 
 spongy and ulcerated gums, &c. — Dose, 10 to 
 30 ;;r.,- either alone or combined with aloes 
 or chalybeutes. 
 
 NAILS (The) should be kept clean by the 
 daily use of the nail-brush and soap-and-watcr. 
 After wiping the hands, but whilst they are 
 still soft from the action of the water, the 
 skill, which is apt to grow over the nails, 
 should be gently loosened and pressed back, 
 which will not only preserve them neatly 
 rounded, but will prevent the skin cracking 
 around their roots (agnails, nail-springs), and 
 becomin>,' sore. The free ends or points of the 
 nails should be pared about once a week ; nnd 
 biting tliem should be particularly avoided, as 
 being nt once destructive to their beauty and 
 usefulness. "The (free) edge of the scarf- 
 skin should never be pared, the surface of 
 the nail never scraped, or the nails cleaned with 
 any instrument whatever saving the nail- 
 brush." (Eras. Wilson.) 
 
 The consequences of wearing a shoe that is 
 obviously too short for the foot are thus de- 
 scribed by the above authority : — " In this case 
 Natnre gives us warning, by means of her 
 agent, pain, that such a proceeding is contrary 
 to her laws. We stop our ears, and get accus- 
 tomed to the piiin, which, perhaps, is not 
 severe, and soon goes off; the shoes get a 
 scolding for their malice, and nc forget all 
 about it for a time. But does Nature check 
 her course to suit the convenience of thonght- 
 less men? No, no. In u short time we find 
 that the nail, intercepted in its forward 
 course, has become nnusually thick and hard, 
 and has spread out so much upon the sides, 
 that it is now growing into the flesh, and so 
 makes a case for the doctor. Or, perhaps, the 
 continuance of pressure may have intiamed 
 the sensitive skin at the root, and caused n sore 
 and painful place there. And instances are by 
 no means infrequent in which the power of 
 production of iho null at the ruot becomes 
 
 entirely abrogated, and then it grows in thick- 
 ness only." 
 
 When the nails are stained or discoloured, u 
 little lemon juice, or vinegar-and- water, is the 
 best application. Occasionally, a little pumice- 
 stone, in impalpable powder, or a little • putty 
 powder,' may be used along with water and a 
 piece of soft leather or flannel for the same pur- 
 pose. The frequent employment of these sub- 
 stances is, however, injurious to the healthy 
 growth of the nail. 
 
 NANKEEN'. The coloured cotton cloth 
 which beurs this name was originally brought 
 from Nankin, the ancient capital of China, 
 and was prepared from a native cotton, of a 
 brownish-yellow hue. It is now successfully 
 imitated in England, and at the present time 
 the English mannfacturera supply the Canton 
 market. In this country the colour is gene- 
 rally given to the cloth by successive baths of 
 sulphate of iron and orudc carbonate ot soda or 
 lime water. 
 
 NANKEEN DYE. The liquid sold iin.ler 
 this name in the shops is a solution of annott.i. 
 It is employed to dye white ciilicocs of a nan- 
 keen colour ; but chiefly to restore the colour 
 of faded nankeen clothing. 
 
 NAPH'THA. Sy». Mineral naphtha ; 
 Naphtha, L. A name given to the limpid 
 and purer varieties of peteolbum (which see), 
 or ROCK OIL, which exudes from the surface of 
 the earth in virions parts of the world. 
 
 Frop. Naphtha possesses a penetrating 
 odour and a yellow colour, but may be ren- 
 dered colourless by distillation ; it usuiilly 
 begins to boil at a temperature of about 180° 
 I'ahr., but, being a mixture of several different 
 hydrocarbons, it has no fixed boiling-point ; it 
 is very inflammnble ; it does not mix with 
 water, but imparts to that fluid its peculiar 
 taste and smell; mixes with alcohol and oils, 
 and dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, camplior, 
 iodine, most of the resins, wax, fats, and sper- 
 maceti ; and forms with caoutchouc a gela- 
 tinous varnish, which dries with very great 
 difficulty. 
 
 Fur. Mineral naphtha is very frequently 
 adulterated with oil of turpentine, a fraud 
 which may be detected by — 1. The addition 
 of some oil of vitriol, which will, in that cose, 
 thicken and darken it. — 2. Hydrochloric acid 
 gas passed through the liquid for an hour, will 
 occasion the formation of hydrochlorate of 
 camphine, either at once or after a few hours* 
 repose, even if only 5 J of oil of turpentine is 
 present. (Dr Bolley.) — 3. If a few grains of 
 iodide of potassium and a little water are' 
 rubbed with the suspected sample, the colour 
 of the water should continue unchanged ; the 
 presence of j^th part of oil turpentine will 
 cause it to assume a red or orange colour. 
 (Saladin.) 
 
 Uae». Naphtha is chiefly employed for the 
 purposes of illumination, as a solvent for india 
 rubber, and in the preparation of a very supe- 
 rior black pigment. It has been highly spoken 
 
1096 
 
 NAPHTHALIN— NARCOTINA 
 
 of as a remedy for cholera, by Dr Andreosky, a 
 Russian physician. See Pbteoieum, and below. 
 
 Naphtha, Coal-tar. St/n. Naphtha, Coal 
 N. A mixture of volatile hydrocarbons, ob- 
 tained by distilling coal-tar. It is one of the 
 first products which comes over, and flows 
 from the still as cr»de coal naphtha. To ob- 
 tain rectified coal naphtha, this crude liquid 
 is distilled, and the product agitated with 10§ 
 of concentrated sulphuric acid j when cold, 
 the mixture is treated with 5g of peroxide of 
 manganese, and the upper portion is submitted 
 to further distillation. The specific gravity 
 of this purified product is '850. It is exten- 
 sively used as a solvent of caoutchouc, and 
 other allied substances, also of resins for the 
 preparation of varnishes. By repeated puri- 
 fication and fractional distillation, benzol, the 
 chief and most important constituent of coal 
 naphtha, is obtained. See Benzol. 
 
 Naphtha, Wood. See Pyboxylic spirit. 
 
 NAPH'THALIN. CioHj. Si/n. Naph- 
 THALINB, Naphthalene. A white crysial- 
 lisable, odorous, volatile substance, obtained 
 from coal-tar. 
 
 Prep. The last portion of the volatile oily 
 product is collected separately, and allowed to 
 repose, when crude naphthalin separates in 
 the solid state. By pushing the distillation 
 until the residuum in the still kegins to char, 
 a further portion of dark-coloured napbtlialin 
 may be obtained. It is purified byresublima- 
 tion a seciiud, or even a third time. 
 
 Prop., tSfc. Soluble in alcohol and ether j 
 slightly soluble in boiling water; melts .at 
 176° iVhr.; boils at 412°; highly inflam- 
 mable, burning with a red and smoky flame; 
 with sulphuric acid, it unites to form sulpho- 
 naphthalic acid. By the action of nitric acid 
 upon naphthalin, numerous substances may 
 be formed, the most interesting being nitro- 
 naphthalin. Naphthalin has lately been ex- 
 tensively employed as a stimulating expecto- 
 rant. — Dose, 5 to 20 gr. ; or, preferably, J gr., 
 frequently. Externally, made into an oint- 
 ment, in dry tetters, psoriasis, &c. 30 gr. may 
 be mixed with 1 oz. of lard. 
 
 NA'PLES YEL'LOW. See Yellow pio- 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 NAR'CEIA. C23H20G5. Syn. Naboeina, 
 Nakoeia. a peculiar substance discovered by 
 Pelletier in opium. It is obtained from the 
 aqueous solution of opium, after it has been 
 freed from morphia, and narcotina, by am- 
 monia, by adding to it hydrate of lime, or pre- 
 ferably, baryta. On boiling the filtered solu- 
 tion to expel the ammonia, and evaporating 
 the liquid, crystals of narceine are gradually 
 deposited. It may be purified by solution in 
 hot alcohol and recrystallisation. 
 
 Prop., S;o. White, silky, acicular prisms ; 
 neutral; inodorous; bitter; pungent; soluble 
 in 375 parts of water at 60°, and in 330 parts 
 at 212 Fahr. ; insoluble in ether ; does not 
 neutralise the acids, and is destitute of bapic 
 properties. It is distinguished from morphia 
 
 by its easier fusibility (190°), and by forming 
 a blue liquid with the dilute mineral acids, 
 which on gradual dilution changes to violet 
 and rose red, and ultimately becomes colour- 
 less. It does not strike a blue colour with 
 ferric chloride, like morphia, but forms a 
 blue compound with iodine, which is decom- 
 posed by boiling water. It appears to be inert, 
 and has not been applied to any useful purpose. 
 
 NAR'COTICS. Syn. Stupepacientb ; Nab- 
 OOTICA, Stupeeacientia, L. Medicines which 
 produce drowsiness, sleep, and stupor. In 
 small doses, narcotics mostly act as stimulants, 
 but in larger ones they produce calmness of 
 mind, drowsiness, and torpor ; and in poisonous 
 doses, delirium, coma, and death. The general 
 objects in the administration of these agents 
 are the production of sleep and the alleviation 
 of pain. Their action is modified to a greater 
 degree by idiosyncrasy and habit than that of, 
 perhaps, any other class of medicines. Hence 
 the care necessary in their administration. 
 Alcohol, camphor, chloroform, chloral hydrate, 
 ether, foxglove, hemlock, henbane, morphia, 
 opium, and tobacco, are narcotics. 
 
 NAE'COTINA. C^^O^. Syn. Naeco- 
 tinb, L. ; Sel d'opiom, Matiebe de De- 
 BOSNB, Fr. A peculiar crystalline substance, 
 found by Derosne in opium, and on which its 
 stimulant property was at fu'»t supposed to 
 depend. 
 
 Prep. 1. From opium exhausted of soluble 
 matter by cold water, by treating it with water 
 acidulated with acetic or hydrochloric acid, 
 filtering, neutralising, with ammonia, and 
 dissolving the washed precipitate in boiling 
 alcohol ; the narcotine is deposited as the 
 liquid cools, and may be purified by solution in 
 ether. 
 
 2. By acting on opium, previously exhausted 
 by cold water, with ether. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. White, inodorous, fluted, or 
 striated prisms; neutral to test paper; in- 
 soluble in cold water ; sparingly soluble in 
 boiling water ; freely soluble in boiling alcohol 
 and in ether. It is only feebly basic. 
 
 Narcotine is distinguished from morphia by 
 its insipidity, solubility in ether, insolubility in 
 alkalies, giving an orange tint to nitric acid, 
 and a greasy stain to paper when heated on it 
 over a candle. Another test for narcotina, said 
 by Orfila to he characteristic, is to add to a 
 little of the suspected substance a drop or two 
 of oil of vitriol, and then to add a very small 
 fragment of nitrate of potassium ; the liquid 
 speedily acquires a deep blood-red colour if 
 narcotina is present. Morphia treated in the 
 same viay strikes a brown or olive-green colour. 
 
 Obs. The physiological action of narcotina 
 is differently stated by different authorities. 
 1 gr. of it, dissolved in olive oil, killed a dog 
 in 24i hours : but 24 gr. dissolved in acetic 
 acid were given with impunity. (Magendie.) 
 In the solid state it is inert; 120 gr. at a dose 
 scarcely produce any obvious effects. (Bally.) 
 Scruple doses have been given without injury. 
 
NATRIUII— NESSLERS TEST 
 
 1007 
 
 (Dr Roots.) It has been recently proposed 
 as R auhstitute for quinine in the cure of 
 iif^ucs. Fur this purpose the f>ul pliate or hvdro- 
 chioniti' is preferable. 200 cases of inter- 
 mittent and remittent fevers have lieen thus 
 successlully treated in India. (Dr O'Sliaugli- 
 nessy.) — Dote, 3 to 10 gr., as an antiperiodic 
 •edtttive, lie. 
 
 Turkey opium contains about 1§, and East 
 Indian opium about Z%, of narcotine. 
 
 NA'TRIUM. See Sodium. 
 
 MA'TEOW. Native carlionate of soda. 
 
 HAU'SEA. See SiCEMiiSS. 
 
 NAU'SEAKTS. Syn. Nauseantia, L. Sub- 
 stances wliich induce an inclination to vomit, 
 without efEecting it. See E.MET1CS. 
 
 NAVEL, Starting of. To remedy this, 
 take a slice of cork about the circumference of 
 a shilling, imd a little thicker; and having 
 covered the projecting navel with a small 
 cireular piece of clean, solt linen, place the 
 cork on the linen, strapping it into position by 
 means of cross strips of white sticking plaster 
 (simple leiid plaster) over which the usual 
 roller is to bo adjuBted. Be careful to have 
 the plaster of sufficient length, and to see that 
 it adheres tightly to the skin. 
 
 NEC'TAE. The fabled drink of the my- 
 thological deities. The name was formerly 
 given to wine dulcified with honey ; it is now 
 occiisionally applied to other sweet and plea- 
 siiut beverages of a stimulating chiiracter. 
 The following LIQVEUBB are so called ; — 
 
 Prep. 1. Chopped raisins, 2 lbs. ; loiif snpar, 
 4 lbs. ; boiling water, 2 galls. ; mix, and stir 
 frequently until cold, then add Z lemons, 
 sliced; proof spirit (brandy or rum), 3 pints; 
 miiceriite in a covered vessel for 6 or 7 days, 
 occasiouall.v shakiug, next strain with pressure, 
 and let the strained liquid stand in a cold 
 place for a' week to clear ; lastly, decant the 
 clear portion, and bottle it. 
 
 2. Red ratafia, 3 gall. ; oils cf cassia and 
 caraw.iy, of each 25 drops (dissolved in); 
 brandy, J pint ; orange wine, 1 gall. ; sliced 
 oranges, 6 in no.; lump sugar, 2 lbs. ; macerate 
 fur a week, decant and bottle. See AltBACE 
 (Factitious.) 
 
 N E'GUS. A well-known beverage, so named 
 after iti originator and patron. Colonel Negus. 
 It is made of either port or sherry wine, mixed 
 with about twice its bulk of hot water, sweet- 
 ened with lump sugar, and flavoured with a 
 little lemon juice and grated nutmeg, and a 
 small fragment only of the yellow peel of the 
 lemon. The addition of about 1 drop of essence 
 of ambergris, or 8 or 10 drops of essence of 
 vanilla, distributed between about a dozen 
 glas-:o8, improves it. 
 
 KEPEN'THB. A drink calculated to banish 
 the remembrance of grief. In the "Odvs-cy" 
 Homer describes Helen as administering it to 
 Telemachus. Nothing is known respecting 
 the composition of the ancient nepenthe. The 
 name is applied to a pnparatiou of opium by 
 many old writers, and is now employed by a 
 
 Bristol firm to designate a preparation re- 
 xemhling in all essential points Battley's 
 ' LIQCOB OPII BEDATIVU8.' 
 
 NER'VOUSNESS. The indescribable de- 
 rangement of health, and the complication of 
 disagreeable sensations which are popularly 
 described under thi< name, quite as much de- 
 serve the serious attention of buth patient and 
 physician as any otiier affection to which the 
 liuman frame is liable. Although, in itself, 
 not a definite disease, it is indicative of the 
 vital system being out of order, that its 
 energies are failing or overtasked, and that 
 tlie functions of some of its orgnns are lan- 
 g:uidly or imperfectly performed. This condi- 
 tion, if not removed, may gradually lead to the 
 development of actual disease, and imperil life 
 if the conditions whereon it is dependent be 
 not detected and subdued. 
 
 The <«a<me»<of nervousness consists mainly 
 in restoring the healthy action of the stomach 
 and bowels, and in the use of proper exercise, 
 especially in the open air. The stomach should 
 not be overloaded with indigestible food, and 
 the bowels should be occasionally relieved by 
 the use of some mild aperient. Jlental as 
 well as bodily relaxation should be sought, 
 and the pleasures without the vices of society 
 should be indulged in as discretion and incli- 
 nation may direct. Ahernethy's injunction to 
 a nervous and dyspeptic lady, " Dismiss your 
 servants, madam, and make your own beds,'* 
 should be recollected by all, and may be taken 
 as a pi'oof of the importance that eminent 
 surgeon attached to exercise; his advice to the 
 indolent and nervous dyspeptic should not be 
 forgotten. " Live on sixpence a day — and eurn 
 it." See ExEKCiSB, Flatulence, Hypocuon- 
 
 DEIASIB, HYBTEBIA, INDIGESTION, &C. 
 
 NESSLEES TEST for ammonia, &c. This, 
 the most delicate tesff foramraonia, wa^ devi-ed 
 by Nessler. It is prepared by saturating a so- 
 lution of iodide of potassium with the biniodide 
 of mercury, and then adding a weak solution 
 of hydrate of sodium. The addition of a few 
 drops of this solution, to one containing am- 
 monia, produces a yellowish tint when only a 
 trace of ammonia is present, but a dark brown 
 precipitate when the ammonia is present in 
 larger quantity. The composition of the pre- 
 cipitate may be represented thus: — NHgjI. 
 A modification of this test is applied to the 
 detection of wood spirit in common alcohol. 
 A dilute solution of the iodides in question 
 in pure alcohol is formed, in the proportion of 
 2 or 3 gr. of the salts to 100 c.c. of alcohol. 
 About 4 C.c. of the suspected alcohol are taken, 
 to which are added 2 or 3 drops of the test 
 solution, a few drops of alcoholic ammonia, 
 and, lastly, a little alcoholic potash j if wood 
 spirit be present, the solution will remain clear, 
 but if the alcohol be pure, the characteristic 
 reddish brown precipitate will appear. The 
 precipitate is soluble in acetone, which is 
 always present in wood spirit. 
 
 Professor Wanklyn gives the following 
 
1098 
 
 NESTS, EDIBLE— NEURALGIA 
 
 formulae for the preparation of the Nessler 
 test: — Mercuric chloride in powder, 35 
 grammes ; iodide of potassium, 90 grammes ; 
 water, 1| litres ; heat gently till dissolved (say 
 20 minutes) in a large basin. Then add of 
 stick caustic potash, 320 grammes, and 50 c.c. 
 of saturated solution of mercuric chloride. 
 The above will be ready for use in 2 hours, 
 and gives maximum colour in 3 minutes. 
 
 NESTS, EDIBLE . These dietetic curiosities, 
 which are esteemed as great gastronomic luxu- 
 lies by the Chinese, are formed by several 
 species of swallows frequetating the Indian 
 Seas. The so-called nests chiefly abound in 
 Java, Borneo, and the Celebes, being found 
 in the caverns both inland and on the sea- 
 shores of those islands. 
 
 They are not in reality birds' nests, but 
 merely supports, by which the bird is enabled 
 to sust.iin and also to attach, its nest to the 
 rock. The nests themselves consist of grass, 
 leaves, and seaweed ; the latter of which sub- 
 stances it was for a long time erroneously con- 
 siilered formed the esculent; whereas it is 
 the support which exclusively constitutes this 
 Eastern table luxury. 
 
 This, in great part, consists of a peculiar 
 mucus, of a gelatinous nature, which it has 
 been ascertHincd the bird secretes and dis- 
 charges from its mouth in large quantities. 
 The Chinese mostly' use it in the form of soup, 
 and believe it to be possessed of considerable 
 nutrient power. As many as 8,400,000 of 
 edible nests are said to be annually imported 
 into Canton. " The finest and whitest kind 
 sells for £5 or £6 the lb.; but it requires 
 about fifty nests to make up one pound. The 
 brackets or supports are moved three times, 
 the best being obtained in July and August."' 
 
 NET'TLE RASH. See Bash. 
 
 KEUKAL'GIA. Literally, pain in a nerve. 
 " Various parts of the body are liable to be 
 affected with excruciaiing pain, which is quite 
 independent of any inflammation of the part, 
 and which may often be traced in the course 
 of the nerves." These afl'ections constitute 
 neuralgia. One of the most distressing forms 
 of this disease is facial nedealgia or tic 
 BOFLonEEUx (neukalgia facialis), which, 
 when it assumes a marked intermittent cha- 
 racter, is popnliirly known as ' FACE AGUE.' 
 Sometimes it attai-ks the nerves of the female 
 breast; or those of the hand, feet, hip, or 
 loins, in whicli cases it is often confounded 
 with acute rheumatism of those parts, occur- 
 ring towards the inner extremity of the eye- 
 brow and extending over the forehead, it is 
 known as " Brow-ague." 
 
 The treatment, when neuralgia is sym- 
 ptomatic of any other afl'ection,must bedirected 
 to the primary disease. When it is idiopathic, 
 or an independent affection, powerful tonic 
 mediiines and powerful local counter-irritation 
 are generally found the most successful reme- 
 dies. Of tonics, carbonates of iron and bark 
 I Cliurch. 
 
 (both in very large doses) are .generally pre- 
 ferred ; the last more particularly when the 
 affection is of an intermittent kind. As a 
 counter-irritant, caustic ammonia has been 
 much relied on. When all other means fail, a 
 current of mild streaming electricity through 
 the part will often give immediate relief. Jn 
 the present day quinine in large doses is much 
 depended on, although the afl'ection should not 
 present the intermittent type. 
 
 Flain Advice to the Neuralgic hy a Family 
 Doctor,^ — Here, reader, are two facts, which are 
 patent to every thinking medical man: first, this 
 agonising complaint, called neuralgia; is very 
 much more common or prevalent in our day 
 than it was in the days of our forefathers; 
 and secondly, those among us who are most 
 apt to suffer from it are they who live in 
 luxury, or who live too fast, and neglect to 
 keep their bodies up to the proper health- 
 pitch. The poor, too, are often atllicted in the 
 same way, and those who are much confined in 
 workshops, and badly ventilated factories. 
 From this it is not difficult to perceive a lesson 
 may he learned. 
 
 Little need is there to describe the sym- 
 ptoms of neuralgia, whether it takes the form 
 of tic douloureux or faceache, hemicraiiia or 
 half headache (sometimes, but wrongly, cilled 
 suu-pain), or sciatica, in which the pain follows 
 the course of a nerve running down the back 
 of the leg, even at times as far as the toes. 
 The pain when fully established is of a terribly 
 acute kind, and indescribable burning and 
 shooting — torture, in fact. It generally comes 
 on without any warning at. all, in one sharp 
 twinge, which soon recurs and keeps on in- 
 creasing, till the poor patient is half distracted, 
 and his pale anxious face is beaded with per- 
 spiration. 
 
 Of the three kinds of neuralgia, the most 
 common by far is tic, or laceache. This pain 
 seems to * come out,* as 1 have heard patients 
 describe it, from a spot between the ear and 
 temple, and spread itself over one side of the 
 face, adown the jaws along one side of the 
 nose, and into the eye itself. The fits of pain 
 seem at times induced by the most trifling 
 causes, such as a sudden start, a loud, quick 
 sound, as the slamming of a door, or the 
 slightest draught of cold air, a mouthful of 
 hot tea or cold water. Sometimes the patient 
 will get ease if he keeps in bed, with the face 
 entirely buried in warm soft flannel, but con- 
 tact with the pillow will at once induce a 
 paroxysm. Sleep banishes the pain entirely 
 for the time, or perhaps altogether, if the 
 slumber has been natural, and not induced by 
 weakening, enervating narcotics. 
 
 Now let us see for a moment what are the 
 u^ual causes of neuralgia. If we know these, 
 it will assist us materially in laying down 
 rules for the general treatment of the com- 
 
 2 The article entitled '• Plniii Advine to the Neuralgic," 
 which appeared in 'CaBselTs I'aoiily Magaziue,' is so 
 I guud that we repriut 11. verbatim. 
 
NEURALGIA 
 
 1099 
 
 pinint. Ami here let me premise tliat some 
 cuses are incurHblc, because they depend upon 
 pressure by tumours of some kind Ht the root 
 of the utTve, miiybo a bit of booe growing 
 into it. For remember the nerves are ex- 
 tremely Kcnxitive if pressed upon directly. A 
 kinder-liearted man than Professor L — , of 
 Abertleeii, or * Saiidie ' as he was familiarly 
 ti-rmed, never lived; but he used to tell us 
 students, " Qeiitlemen, in cutting down upon 
 an artery, in one of the extremities, you will 
 often find the artery, the vein, and the corre- 
 sponding nerve lying in juxt:iposition. You 
 can easily tell the vein, but you may be puzzled 
 to know which is nerve and which artery ; 
 give one of them, then, a slight pinch with 
 the forceps— if it is the former, oh! won't the 
 patient holloa ! but if he doesn't holloa, go on, 
 tie awiiy." 
 
 And I have often seen this put in practice 
 with the very happiest results, so far as the 
 operator was conL-erned. I merely mention 
 tins to prove to you that pressure on the rout 
 of a nerve may cause an incurable form of 
 neuralgia. But do not think that I wish to 
 frighten yon ! I therefore hasten to tell the 
 perhaps nillicted reader, that these cases are 
 very riire indeed, and that the large majority 
 of those who suffer from the malady may be 
 cured for the time, and the disease even pre- 
 vented from returning, 
 
 I Slid that very often neuralgia gave no 
 warning, but came ou suddenly, but it more 
 often conies on gradually, and is preceded by 
 some derangement of the general healtli, sueh 
 as iiidig:e5tion. From this fact, again, tlie 
 wi-c may take a hint. 
 
 I do not say that strong men with robust 
 con.stitutions never take neuralgia, but all my 
 experience, and that I believe of nearly all 
 medical men, go to prove that it is more fre- 
 qnently an accompaniment of a weakened 
 Ir ime of body, with a nervous system below 
 par. This may have been occasioned by bodily 
 fatigue combined with want of sleep, anxiety 
 of mind, worry, &c., or from debility from 
 whatever cause. But I must not forget to 
 say that indigestion is a frequent cause, and 
 excess in eating and drinking combined with 
 late hours in hot rooms. Another hint, please, 
 reader. Foul air, especially living in mala- 
 rious districts, will also bring on neuralgia, 
 and in tliis case the attacks are generally of a 
 periodical kind. Tlie great majority, however, 
 iif the cases of neuralgia which come under 
 the notice of the practitioner, are caused by 
 decayed troth. And this fact gives us hint 
 number three. 
 
 Seiaiira cases are at times exceedingly 
 distressing. I shall jnst mention one, which 
 I cured not long since; and we may learn 
 something from it because the cure was so 
 simple. A gentleman, thirty-two years of age 
 he w as, spare but wiry ; from errors in diet, I 
 elicited, he had become troubled wilh indiges- 
 tion and heartburn, which lasted for months; 
 
 and, moreover, he had quite his own share of 
 that heart-eating canker, care. For the heart- 
 burn he was in the habit of swallowing large 
 quantities of the bicarbonate of soda. Now it 
 is well known that antacids, although tlioy 
 may palliate fits of indigestion, cannot cure 
 them ; and, moreover, the constant use of an 
 antacid like soda never fails to bring on a 
 state of debility and poverty of blood. In the 
 present case tlie pains in the limb were almost 
 constant, combined with stiffness of the 
 muscles, which necessitated the use of a staff 
 in walking. At about three or four o'clock 
 every morning there were paroxysms of the 
 most terrible agony, during which the patient 
 would leave his bed because, he said, " it 
 wasn't level," and, rolled in a rug, lie at full 
 length on the floor, bathed in pain-induced 
 perspiration. It was no wonder he was glad 
 to take that dangerous narcotic, hydrate of 
 chloral, to give him quiet nights. But this 
 only reduced his system more and more, and 
 gave the enemy a stronger hold thereon. 
 When I saw him he had been suffering thus 
 for two months, and was indeed in a pitiable 
 plight. But giving up both the chloral and 
 the soda, going for change of air, using some 
 simple tonic, and being careful in his diet, 
 worked wonders for him. The sciatica left 
 him in one week, and in six weeks he was well 
 and hearty. 
 
 One of the most distressing things in con- 
 nection with neuralgia is the length nf time 
 it sometimes lasts, and its habit of returning 
 periodically, without giving, perhaps, any 
 warning of its approach. The depression, ton, 
 of the nervous system which it effects is very 
 great; even the mind to some extent suffers; 
 the patient becomes timid i\nd irritable, while 
 at times even the muscles waste. The sufferer, 
 if the complaint continues long, seems posi- 
 tively to age under it. That he soon recnv ers 
 strength and spirits when the enemy has been 
 driven from his stronghold, is only a proof of 
 the recuperative power of nature in our 
 systems, so long as youth or middle age is on 
 our side. 
 
 Some ancient physician has said that no one 
 thinks of taking care of his health until death 
 stares him in the face. There is one excep- 
 tion, however : people very rarely die directly 
 from neuralgia, unless it be that dreadful form 
 of it called angina pectoris, or heart-cratnp ; 
 but so great is the pain and torture from tic 
 douloureux or sciatica, that suH'erers therefrom 
 are glad and willing to do anything that may 
 present some hopes of relief. 
 
 The patient, then, who wishes to recover 
 from this disease must first try to find out the 
 cause of it, in his or her particular ease. Is 
 the digestion good? are the teeth good? is 
 the health below par ? are the spirits buoyant 
 or the reverse? is the kind of life led that 
 which seems to conduce to health and lon- 
 gevity? — these are questions which he had 
 better put to himself and think well over 
 
1100 
 
 NEURALGIA 
 
 before commencing any treatment except tlie 
 simple means of local relief which I shall pre- 
 sently mention ; fori depend upon it, whatso- 
 ever tends to place the system below par opens 
 the door for the cruel foe's entrance. And the 
 converse is likewise true. 
 
 If you, then, suffer from tic douloureux, see, 
 first and foremost, that it does not arise from 
 caries of the teeth. Only a dentist can find 
 this out for you, for a tooth may he sound 
 enough to appearance, and yet decayed within. 
 Often the removal of one or two teeth will 
 effect, in an hour, the complete cure of a case 
 that lias been going on for months. 
 
 The treatment for neuralgia may be fitly 
 divided into the topical, or that which gives 
 relief at once, without reference to permanent 
 cure, and the constitutional, or that which 
 tends to remove the cause and prevent any re- 
 currence. I shall mention the former of these 
 first. Probably that which gives the greatest 
 relief is the subcutaneous injection of morphia; 
 but as this tiny but comforting operation can 
 only be performed by some one with skill, I 
 pass it by, and tell you of the great good that 
 may be done by twice a day smearing the 
 track of the nerve with the aconitine oint- 
 ment; only remember, it must not be applied 
 to an abraded surface. When it can be borne, 
 alternate douches of hot and cold water some- 
 times give relief", and rubbing or shampooing 
 the parts for some length of time may result 
 in good. 
 
 But if tlie pain is at its worst, and imme- 
 diate relief is needed, the inhalation of or 
 smelling at a vial of chloroform will act like 
 a charm. Take first a little good Scotch 
 whiskey, with from 20 to 40 drops of the 
 spirit of ether in it ; then have, not one sniff, 
 but two or tliree good sniffs at the vial of 
 chloroform. It will not make you insensible, 
 but it will scare away the pain. I often do 
 good by administering one large dose of qui- 
 nine. I am rather chary of advising you, 
 howevei', to try it, because ten or fifteen grains 
 of this invaluable medicine may work injury if 
 either head or heart is easily affected. 
 
 People often complain of what they call 
 rheumatism in the jaw, where probably the 
 whole of the teeth in one side, not one more 
 than another, are affected. Now the drug 
 called sal ammoniac (chloride of ammonium) 
 is almost a specific for this kind of faceaclie. 
 It strikes me I have recommended this before 
 — probibly in my paper on the teeth — how- 
 ever, it will bear repeating. The dose is half 
 a dram three or four times a day, but if it 
 doesn't do good after the fourth or fifth dose, 
 it may be stopped. It is well worth a trial, 
 and is s:ife. 
 
 Neuralgia and rheumatism are at times 
 mysteriously allied, and, did space permit, I 
 could tell you of some very strange cures 
 effected by the use of the dumb-bells — first, I 
 think, recommended by Dr Arnott. When 
 the pain comes on, the patient has recourse to 
 
 these; and whether it is the indomitable 
 power of will or the effect on the circulation 
 I know not — all I know is, it often scares the 
 tic away, and that is something. 
 
 Nothing probably gives more certain relief 
 in cases of sciatica than a small blister, not 
 bigger than a penny-piece, just over the spot 
 where the nerve seems to come out, i.e. where 
 the pain begins, and afterwards dusting not 
 more than half a grain of morphia on the raw 
 surface. And now for constitutional remeilies. 
 I will not allow any patient of mine to cuddle 
 and fondle himself and his neuralgia over the 
 fire or in bed one hour longer than is neces- 
 sary. The mind has a wonderful effect on 
 nervous ailments, and by letting it dwell on 
 them you assuredly increase them; besides, 
 the body is under par, exercise is needed, and 
 pure air and many things besides ; and there- 
 fore I prescribe activity, to begin with, not 
 senseless walk-taking, but healthy exercise- 
 with-a-purpose. 
 
 Medicine must not be neglected ; but I 
 assure you, unless you not only take plenty of 
 exercise, regulate your diet, and in some way 
 alter for the better your usual mode of life, it 
 will just be as well, if not better, to pour the 
 medicine down the nearest rat's hole. That 
 may be a, plain way of putting it, but it is 
 very true notwithstanding. Now, I think in 
 most eases an occasional mild purgative will 
 do good, for tonics should never be taken un- 
 less the bowels are regular ; and us the liver 
 is at times just a little to blame, a claret- 
 glassful of Friedrichshall water may be taken 
 twice a week with benefit. Your tonic, unless 
 there be great fulness of blood, had better be 
 an iron one, combined with quinine, which any 
 chemist will compound you. Tell him you 
 want the tincture of iron, and a little dilute 
 hydrochloric acid, in a quinine mixture. Pro- 
 bably he will say the citrate of iron and 
 quinine is better (it is m-ore easily com- 
 pounded), and then it will be for you to con- 
 sider whether you will be advised by him or 
 by your ' Family Doctor.' Here is a beautiful 
 wee mixture, which you can compound for 
 yourself, and the dose of which is a teaspoon- 
 ful in a little water 3 times a day : — Take 2 
 oz. of tincture of quinine, i oz. of tincture of 
 ginger, and the same quantity of pure glyce- 
 rin, and mix. The following is a capital tonic 
 to be taken after an attack of neuralgia and 
 oentinued some weeks : — Liquor arsenicalis 
 hydrochloric!, 100 drops ; quinine, 30 gr. ; 
 elixir of vitriol, 2 dr. ; ginger syrup, 3 oz. ; 
 mix. And the dose is a teaspoonful after every 
 meal in a drop of water. When mentioning 
 sal ammoniac, I ought to have said that io 
 those cases where good is done — and they are 
 very many — whenever the pain is gone, you 
 should reduce the dose to 10 or 15 gr. thrice 
 a day for a week. In some cases of sciatica, 
 where the subject is a gouty or rheumatic one, 
 good is done by a course of iodide of potassium 
 in combination with tonics. 
 
NEU riULISATION— NICKEL 
 
 A« for food, the more noarishing it is the 
 hotter — good meat, plenty of eggs and milk, 
 &c., Hnd perlmps a little brandy and ApoUi- 
 Durig watir. 
 
 Give up tea and coffee for a time, and use 
 cocoa; the leas oily kind is the best. My 
 advice for tlio prevention of the return of 
 neuralgia may be summed up in a few sub- 
 
 1101 
 
 stantives — air, exercise, refrnlnrity, temper- 
 ance, tonics, cocoa, and cod-liver oil. 
 
 NEUTEAUSA'TIOH. The admixtures of 
 an alkali or base with an acid in such propor- 
 tions that neither shall predominate. A neutral 
 compound neither turns red litmus paper blue, 
 nor blue litmus paper red. 
 
 NEUTRAIISIMS PEOPOETIONS, Table of. 
 
 Table of the Neutralising Proportions of some of the Acids and Alkaline Carbonates omit- 
 ting minute fractions. The best commercial preparations must be used. 
 
 Turtaiic 
 Acid. 
 
 Citric 
 Acid. 
 
 Lemon 
 Juice. 
 
 Cr. Cirb. 
 of Soda. 
 
 Bic.irb. of 
 Soda and 
 Carb. of 
 Potasb. 
 
 Bicarb, of 
 PoiaBJi. 
 
 Carbonate 
 of 
 
 Maguesia. 
 
 Sesquicar- 
 bonate or 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Bicarbon- 
 ate of 
 Aiumoiiia. 
 
 Gr». 
 
 Gra. 
 
 3 
 
 Gi». 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Gis. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Gra. 
 
 Grs. 
 
 10 
 
 9i 
 
 ^' 
 
 19 
 
 11 
 
 13i 
 
 fi* 
 
 8* 
 
 10* 
 
 103 
 
 10 
 
 2i 
 
 20J 
 
 12 
 
 14* 
 
 7 
 
 8* 
 
 llj 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 2* 
 
 25 
 
 14i 
 
 17* 
 
 8* 
 
 10 
 
 13* 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 3i 
 
 29 
 
 17 
 
 2(4 
 
 9* 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 1.-4 
 
 1'4 
 
 3S 
 
 30 
 
 17i 
 
 21 
 
 10 
 
 1-i 
 
 16* 
 
 1« 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 34.i 
 
 20 
 
 24* 
 
 11* 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 18i 
 
 4* 
 
 88^ 
 
 22* 
 
 27 
 
 12i 
 
 15* 
 
 21 
 
 205 
 
 19 
 
 H 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 27* 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 21* 
 
 26 
 
 24, 
 
 5J 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 16* 
 
 18* 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 BJ 
 
 52 
 
 30 
 
 86 
 
 17 
 
 21 
 
 28* 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 7 
 
 61 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 20* 
 
 25 
 
 33* 
 
 3(; 
 
 33i 
 
 7J 
 
 69 
 
 40 
 
 48* 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 44 
 
 lOi 
 
 90 
 
 52} 
 
 63 
 
 30 
 
 37 
 
 49* 
 
 52 
 
 48i 
 
 IH 
 
 100 
 
 58 
 
 70 
 
 33 
 
 41 
 
 55 
 
 62 
 
 58 
 
 18* 
 
 120 
 
 69 
 
 84 
 
 40 
 
 49 
 
 65* 
 
 73 
 
 68 
 
 15S 
 
 140 
 
 82 
 
 98 
 
 46* 
 
 57 
 
 77 
 
 75 
 
 70 
 
 16i 
 
 144 
 
 84 
 
 101 
 
 48* 
 
 59 
 
 79 
 
 90 
 
 8-1 
 
 19i 
 
 173 
 
 101 
 
 121 
 
 57* 
 
 71 
 
 94* 
 
 92 
 
 86 
 
 20 
 
 177 
 
 103 
 
 124 
 
 59 
 
 72 
 
 97 
 
 mo 
 
 93 
 
 21| 
 
 192 
 
 112 
 
 134 
 
 64 
 
 78 
 
 105* 
 
 10s 
 
 100 
 
 23i 
 
 206 
 
 120 
 
 145 
 
 69 
 
 84 
 
 113 
 
 1«0 
 
 168 
 
 39J 
 
 344 
 
 202 
 
 242 
 
 115 
 
 141 
 
 190 
 
 NEW BERLIN SANITARY IIQTIEUR— 
 Oesundheits-LiqueuT, nener Berliner (Apo- 
 theker Einil Trotz). An unpleasantly-tasting 
 bitter spicey schnapps, containing 18 per cent, 
 of sugar. Leaves an after-taste of aloes. 
 (Hager.) 
 
 NICK'EL. Ni. Syn. Nickblium, L. A 
 metal obtained from kupfernickel, a native 
 arsenide of nickel found in Westphalia ; also 
 from nickel spei.«.'i, an impure arsenio-sulphide 
 of nickel left after the manufacture of cobalt 
 bine from its ores. 
 
 Prep. The powdered ore is roasted first by 
 itself, and next with charcoal powder, until all 
 the arsenic is expelled, and a garlic odour 
 ceases to be evolved; the residuum is mixed 
 with sulphur 3 parts, and potassium hydrate, 
 1 part, and the compound is melted in a crucible 
 with a gentle heat ; the fused mass when cold, 
 is reduced to powder, edulcorated with water, 
 dissnl\ eil in sulphuric iicirt mixed with a little 
 nitric acid, and precipitated with potassium 
 carboniite; the precipitate (niekelous carbo- 
 nuto) is wuslied, dried, mixed with powdered 
 
 charcoal, and, lastly, reduced by the heat of a 
 powerful furnace. 
 
 When nickel predominates in the ore, after 
 the arsenic, iron, and copper have been sepa- 
 rated, ammonia is digested iu the mixed niek- 
 elous and cobaltous oxides, and the resulting 
 bine solution, after dilution with boiled pure 
 water, is treated with potassium hydrate until 
 the colour disappears, when the whole is put 
 into an air-tight vessel, and set it aside for 
 some time. The powder (niekelous hydrate) 
 which subsides, after edulcoracion, is luixed 
 with charcoal, and reduced by fusion in a 
 crucible containing some crown glass. 
 
 On the small scale, for chemical purposes, 
 pure nickel is best obtained by moderately 
 heating niekelous oxalate in a covered crucible 
 lined with charcoal. 
 
 Prop. White; hard; malleable; magnetic; 
 capable of receiving the lustre of silver; 
 sp. gr., when hammered, about 8'^<2 ; fusibility 
 between that of manganese and iron ; it is not 
 oxidised in the air; and is little attacked by 
 dilute acids unless wbeu nitric acid is present; 
 
H02 
 
 NICKEL 
 
 thia last acid disolvea it freely. With the 
 apids, &o., it forms numerous compounds, most 
 of which may be prepared by the direct solu- 
 tion of the carbouate. A specimen of the 
 metal reduced from tlie pure oxide in a current 
 of hydrogen was beautifully white and silvery ; 
 its sp. gr. was 8'575, and it was almost as soft 
 as copper. 
 
 Tests. The salts of nickel in the anhydrous 
 state are for the most part yellow ; when hy- 
 drated, green, — and furnish solutions possess- 
 ing a pale green colour. Solutions of its salts 
 exhibit the following reactions :— Alkaline hy- 
 drates give a pale apple-green precipitate, in- 
 soluble in excess, but soluble in a solution of 
 carbonate of ammonium, yielding a greenish- 
 blue liquid. Ammonia gives a similar precipi- 
 tate, soluble in excess, yielding a deep pur- 
 plish-blue solution. The presence of ammo- 
 nium salts or free acids interferes with this 
 reaction. Cyanide of potassium produces a 
 green precipitate, soluble in excess, forming an 
 amber-coloured liquid, which is reprecipitated 
 by hydrochloric acid. This List precipitate is 
 scarcely soluble in excess of the acid in the 
 cold, but readily so upon boiling the liquid. 
 Terrocyanide of potassium gives a greenish- 
 white precipitate. Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 occasions no change in solutions of nickel con- 
 taining free mineral acid; but in alkaline 
 solutions gives a black precipitate. Sulphide 
 of ammonium in neutral solutions gives a black 
 precipitate, soluble with diflBculty in hydro- 
 chloric acid ; but freely soluble in aqua regia. 
 
 Estim. Nickel may be tlirown down Irom 
 its ore in the form ot either carbonate or hy- 
 drate, and after ignititm may be weighed as 
 oxide, each grain of which is equal to J gr. of 
 pure nickel ; or, more accurateh , '7871 gr. 
 
 According to Rose, nickel may be separated 
 from cobalt as follows: — The mixed metals 
 are dissolved in considerable excess of hydro- 
 chloric acids, and the solution is diluted with 
 a very large quantity of water; a current of 
 chlorine is then passed through the liquor for 
 several hours, and the upper part of the flask 
 is left filled with the gas after the current has 
 ceased ; barium carbonate is next added, in 
 excess, the whole digested together, with fre- 
 quent agitation for 15 or 18 hours, and then 
 thrown on a filter. The filtrate yields pure 
 nickelous oxide by precipitation with hydrate of 
 potassium; whilst the residuum on the filter, 
 after being washed in water, dissolved in hot 
 liydrochloric acid, and the barium precipi- 
 tated with sulphuric acid, furnishes, with 
 hydrate of potassmm, a precipitate of cobal- 
 tous hydrate, free from nickel, which, when 
 washed and dried, is reduced in a platinum or 
 1 orcelain crucible by hydrogen gas. 
 
 Uses. Nickel is chiefly employed in the 
 manufuctnre of German silver. Some of its 
 salts have been recently introduced into medical 
 practice, and appear likely to prove most va- 
 luable additions to the materia medica. It 
 has also been recently usei.1 for deposition by 
 
 electrolysis on other metal?, forming a hard, 
 brilliant, non-tarnishing coating. 
 Nickelic Oxide. Ni^Og. Syn. Sesquioxide 
 
 OF NICKEIi, PbEOXIDE OF NICKEL. Prep. By 
 passing chlorine through water holding the 
 liydrate in suspension ; or by mixing a salt of 
 nickel with bleaching powder. An insoluble, 
 black powder, which is decomposed by heat. 
 
 Nick'elons Ace'tate. Ni(C2H302)3. Syn. 
 NiCKEMi ACETAS, L. Frep. By neutt'alis- 
 ing acetic acid with nickelous carbonate, and 
 gently concentrating by evaporation, so that 
 crystals may form. Small green crystals, 
 soluble in 6 parts of water. 
 
 Nickelous CarTjonate. NiCOa Syn. Nioke- 
 LII CABBONAS, L. Prep. This salt m«y be 
 obtained in the manner described above in 
 connection with the preparation of metallic 
 nickel, or by simply adding carbonate of sodium 
 to a i-olut-ion of nickelous chloride of sulphate, 
 but in this case some hvdrate is precipitated 
 along with it. The following is another 
 formula which produces a nearly pure carbon- 
 ate, but one which may still contain a little 
 cobalt, the entire separation of which is a 
 matter of extreme difficulty, and can best be 
 effected in the manner recommended by Rose, 
 described above : — 
 
 The mineral (crude spoils or kupfemickel) 
 is broken into small fragments, mixed with 
 from one fourth to one half its weight of 
 iron filings, and the whole dissolved in aqua 
 regia ; the solution is gently evaporated to 
 dryness, the residue treated with boiling water, 
 and the insoluble ferrous arseniate removed by 
 filtration; the liquid is next acidulated with 
 hydrochloric acid, treated with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, in excess, to precipitate the copper, 
 and, after filtration, is boiled with a little nitric 
 acid, to bring back the iron into ferric salts ; 
 to the cold and largely diluted liquid a solution 
 of bicarbonate of sodium is gradually added,and 
 the ferric oxide separated by filtration ; lastly, 
 the filtered solution is boiled with carbonate of 
 sodium in excess, and the pale green precipi- 
 tate of carbonate collected, washed, and dried. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. It is freely soluble in the acids, 
 and is chiefly employed to prepare the salts 
 and other compounds of nickel. 
 
 Nickelous Chlo"ride. NiClj. Syn. Niokelii 
 OHLOEIDUM, L. Prep. From nickelous car- 
 bonate and hydrochloric acid, as the acetate. 
 Small green crystals, of the formula NiCljiSAq., 
 which are rendered yellow and anhydrous by 
 heat, unless they contain cobalt, when the salt 
 retains a tint of green. 
 
 Double Chloeides. Nickelous chloride 
 unites with the chlorides of ammonium, potas- 
 sium, and sodium, to form pale green crystal- 
 Usable salts, which have been used for deposit- 
 ing nickel in iron, lead, copper, &c.- 
 
 Niokelons Hy'drate. Ni(H0)2. By preci- 
 pitating a soluble salt of nickel with caustic 
 potassa. Hydrated. An ash-gray powder, 
 freely soluble in acids, forming the ordinary 
 salts of nickel. 
 
NICKEL SILVER— NIGHTSHADE 
 
 1103 
 
 KickeloQB Oz'alate. NiCjO,. Syn. Nickelii 
 OXALAj, L. I'rep. By adiling a strong solution 
 ol' oxalic acid to ii like solutioii of iiickelous 
 Bulpbate, aud collecting the pale bluish-green 
 precipitate u-Uich lorius after a time. Used to 
 prepare both luftalllc nickel and its oxide. 
 
 Nickeloai Oxide. NiO. Sgn. Pbotoxicb of 
 NICKEL. Prep. 1. By heating the nitrate, 
 carbonate, or oxiilate, to redness in open vessels. 
 Anhydrous. 
 
 Vickelons Snlphate. NiSO^. Syn. SuL- 
 PHATK OF NICKEL Prep. Dissolve nickelous 
 rarbonate or oxide in dilute sulphuric acid, 
 evaporate down, and crystallise. Pale green 
 prismatic crystals, and of the formula NiSO,, 
 7Aq., or small pale green octahedrons, when 
 crystallised at a higher temperature, contain- 
 ing NiS04,6Aq. 
 
 Nickeloos and Potassium Sulphate. NiS04 
 KjSU^.liAq. Sffn. Double sulphatk op 
 NICKEL AND POTASSIUM. Frep. By crystal- 
 lising a mixture of nickelous and potassium 
 sulphates. Pale green crystals, readily soluble 
 in water. Sodium and ammonium sulphates 
 form similar compounds with nickelous sul- 
 pliate. 
 
 MICK'El SIL'VER. See Gebman silvee. 
 NICOTINE. CioHkNj. Syn. Nicotina.Ni- 
 COTIA, L. A volatile base, discovered by 
 Rfiman snil Posselt in tobacco. 
 
 I'rep. (Ortigosa.) Infuse tobacco leaves for 
 24p hours in water acidulated with sulphuric 
 acid, strain, evaporate to a syrup, add ^ of 
 its volume of a strung solution ol potassa, and 
 distil in an oil bath at 288°, occasionally add- 
 ing a little water to assist the process, and 
 prevent the too great concentration of the 
 solution of potassa in the retort ; next saturate 
 the distilled product with oxalic acid, evapo- 
 rate to dryness, digest in boiling absolute alco- 
 hol, evaporate the resulting tincture to a syrup, 
 aud decompose the oxalate of nicotine thus 
 obtained by adding potassa to it in a close 
 vessel, and agitate the mass with ether, re- 
 peating the process with more etiier until all 
 the nicotine is dissolved out; lastly, distil the 
 mixed ethereal solution in an oil hath. At 
 first ether comes over, then wal;er, aud, lastly, 
 nicotina, which, towards the end of the process, 
 assumes a yellowish tint. 
 
 2. (Schloesiug.) This chiefly differs from 
 the preceding by directing the concluding dis- 
 tillation to be conducted in a retort, by the 
 heat of an oil bath, at the temperature of 284° 
 Pahr., in a current of hydrogen, for 12 hours ; 
 after which, by raising the heat to 356° Pahr., 
 the nicotine distils over pure, drop by drop, 
 
 3. (Kirclnuann). A tin vessel provided 
 with two tubulures, is filled with tobacco, 
 which is previously damped with sodium car- 
 bonate. Une of the tubulures admits a glass 
 tube reaching nearly to the bottom of the 
 vessel ; the other is provided with u glass 
 tube' merely penetrating the cork. 
 
 The vessel is made air-tight, placed into a 
 bulling hot steam bath, aud a rapid stream of 
 
 carbonic acid gas passed through it. entering 
 the vessel by the longer and leaving it by the 
 shorter tube ; the luter dips into a mixture of 
 alcohol and dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 In this manner a large yield of perfectly 
 colourless nicotine is obtained. In order to 
 obtain the pure alkaloid, eau>tic biiryta is 
 added to the solution, the latter ev:iporttted to 
 ilryness, and the pure nicotine extracted with 
 ether. 
 
 To estimate nicotine, weigh out 15 gr. of 
 tobacco, digest for twenty-four hours with 
 alcohol of 85 per cent, acidified with 15 drops 
 of sulphuric acid, so as to make 150 cubic 
 centimetres. Evaporate 50 cubic centimttres 
 of the filtered liquid, and add iododydrargyrate 
 of potassium to the residue. Thp number of 
 cubic centimetres employed, multiplied by 
 0004O5 (0001 of the equivalent of nicotine), 
 gives the quantity of alkaloid contained in 5 
 grams of tobacco. (Linoffsky.) 
 
 Prop., Sec Nicotina is a colourless, volatile 
 liquid; highly acrid and pungeut; smelling 
 strongly of tobacco; boiling at 375° Kiihr. 
 (482° — Pereira) ; soluble in water, ether, al- 
 cohol, and oils; and combining with the acids, 
 forming salts, many of whichare crystallisnlilo. 
 It is a frightful poison; i of a drop will kill 
 a rabbit; a single drop will kill a large dog. 
 Nicotina is the substance which was employed 
 by the Count Bocarme for the purpose of pois- 
 oning his brother-in-law, Gustave B'ougnies, 
 the particulars of which were developed in the 
 celebrated trial, in Belgium, of that nobleman, 
 in 1851. Good Virginia and Kentucky to- 
 bacco, dried at 212° Pahi-., contain from 6g to 
 7J of nicotina; Havannah tobacco (cigars) less 
 than 2%. (Schloesing.) 
 
 NI&HT'MAEE. Syn. iNCUBrs, Ephialtes, 
 L. The common causes of nightmare are indi- 
 j,'estion and tlie use of narcotic and intoxicat- 
 iiif; substances. Its prevention consists in the 
 seleetiun of proper food, and in duly attend- 
 ing to the state uf the stomach and bo"eN. 
 Heavy and late suppers should be particularly 
 avoided, as well as all articles of diet that are 
 of difficult digestion, or apt to induce flatu- 
 lency. When it arises from strong drink, to- 
 bacco, or opium, these should be abandoned, oi 
 employed in smaller quantities. A teaspoonful 
 of aromatic spirits of ammonia, magnesia, or 
 bicarbonate of soda, taken in a glass of eold 
 water on going to bed, is a good and simple 
 preventive. In cases acconip:mied by resth s-- 
 ne>s, a few drops of laud. mum or tincture of 
 henbane may he added. An occasional ape- 
 rient is also excellent. See Chamomile. 
 
 NIGHT'SHADE (Deadly). .Syn. Beliadonna 
 (B. P , Ph. L. E. & D.). " Ttie leaf, fresh -.mi 
 dried (leaves and root — Ph. D.), of Alropa 
 belladonna, Linn." " The fresh leaves and 
 branches to which they are attached ; also the 
 leaves separate fi-om the branches, carefully 
 dried, of Atropa belladonna, gathered, when 
 the fruit has begun to form, from wild or cul- 
 tivated plants in Britain" (U. P.). "Oval, 
 
1104 
 
 NIGHTSHADE— NITRIC ACID 
 
 acnte, very perfect, glabrous, when bruised, 
 exhaling a disagreeable odour. Tlie lieib which 
 grows spontaneously in hedges and unculti- 
 vated places Is to be preferred to that which 
 is cultivated in gardens." (Ph. L.) 
 
 Belladonna is a powerful narcotic, and is used 
 as an anodyne, antispasmodic, and discutient, 
 in a variety of diseases, — neuralgia, arthritic 
 pains, migratory rheumatic pains, spasmodic 
 rigidity and strictures, angina pectoris, hoop- 
 ing-cough, fevers, phthisis, &c. ; also as a pro- 
 phylactic of scarlet fever, as a resolvent in 
 enlarged and indurated glands, to produce di- 
 latation of the pupil, &e., &c. — Dose. Of the 
 powder, commencing with 1 gr., gradually and 
 cautiously increased until dryness of the throat 
 or dilation of the pupil occurs, or the head is 
 afleqfed. See Atkopia. 
 
 MIGHTSHADE (Woody). Syn. Bitter- 
 sweet ; DuiiOAMAKA (B. p., Pli. L. E. & D.), 
 L. The "new shoots (caules) of Solanum 
 Dulcamara, Linn." " The dried young 
 branches of the Solanum Dulcamara (Bitter- 
 sweet) from indigenous plants which have shed 
 their leaves" (B. P.). " It is to be collected 
 in autumn, after the leaves have fallen." (Ph. 
 L.) Diaphoretic, diuretic, and (in Inrge doses) 
 narcotic. See Inpitsion ov DnLCAMAiiA. 
 HIO'EIUM. See Tantalum. 
 MIP'PLES (Sore). The most common form 
 of this affection is that termed " chapped nip- 
 ples*' by nurses. As a preventive measure, 
 the part may be moistened morning and even- 
 ing, tor some weeks before the period of lacta- 
 tion, with a little rum or brandy, which is 
 more eifective if slightly acidulated with a 
 few drops of dilute sulphuric acid. Some per- 
 sons employ tincture of tolu, or compound 
 tincture of benzoin (Friar's balsam) for this 
 purpose. 
 
 When chaps, cracks, or like sores, arising 
 from lactation, are once developed, one of the 
 safest and most effective remedies is tincture of 
 catechu, applied 3 or 4 times a day, by means 
 of a camel-hair pencil. 
 
 The celebrated nostrum of Liebert f or cracked 
 nipples, '* Cosm^Hqueitifaillibleetpromptcontre 
 ies gert^ures ou crevasses aux seins et autres/' 
 is a lotion formed of 10 gr. of nitrate of lead 
 dissolved in -4 fl. oz of rose water, and tinged 
 with a little cochineal. The parts are moist- 
 ened with the liquid, and are then covered 
 with fine leaden nipple-shields, two of which 
 are provided for the purpose. This is repeated 
 soon after each time the child leaves the breast ; 
 and the nipple is careluUy washed with a soft 
 sponge and lukewarm water, and gently dabbed 
 dry with a very soft towel, before the infant is 
 again applied to it. This remedy is very sue 
 ces»f ul, and has acquired great popularity and 
 patronage in Brussels, Paris, Prankfoi't, aud 
 other parts. It must be recollected, however, 
 that all applications of an active or poisonous 
 nature should be employed with the greatest 
 possible caution, as, unless unusual care is taken, 
 a portion of the remedy muy remain concealed 
 
 within the delicate pores of the skin, and be 
 sucked ofE by the infant, to the serious dis- 
 turbance of its health. 
 
 BITBAN'ILINE. This substance is obtained 
 by acting on nitrobenzol with a mixture of 
 fuming nitric acid and oil of vitriol ; Dinitro- 
 benzol is formed, which is dissolved in alcohol, 
 and the resulting solution subjected to the re- 
 ducing action of ammonia and sulphuretted hy- 
 drogen, as described under aniline. Nitrani- 
 line forms yellow, acicular crystals, little so- 
 luble in cold water, but freely soluble in alcohol 
 and ether. Its salts are crystallisable. 
 
 NI'TEATE. Si/n. Niteas, L. A salt of 
 nitric acid (e. g. Ag.NOj, nitrate of silverj. 
 The nitrates are very easily prepared by the 
 direct solution of the metal, or its oxide, or 
 carbonate, in nitric acid, which, in most cases, 
 should be previously diluted with water. By 
 evaporation, with the usual precautions, they 
 may be obtained either in the pulverulent or 
 crystalline form. 
 
 The nitrates are characterised by deflagrat- 
 ing when thrown on red-hot charcoal; also 
 by their aqueous solutions, after being mixed 
 with half their bulk of strong sulphuric acid 
 and thoroughly cooled, yielding a brown cloud 
 with a crystal or concentrated solution of 
 ferrous sulphate. See NiiElo acid, and the 
 respective metals. 
 
 NI'TKE. Nitrate of Potassa. See Po- 
 TASSIUJI. 
 
 NI'TRIC ACID. HNO3. St/n. Azotic 
 
 ACID; AOIDUM NITEIOCM (B. P., Ph. li., B., 
 
 & D.); Aquaeoetis. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E. and Ph. L. 1836.) Puri- 
 fied nitre (dried) and sulphuric acid, equal 
 parts ; mix in a glass retort, and distil with a 
 moderate heat, from a sand bath (or naked gas 
 flame — Ph. E.) into a cool receiver, as long as 
 the fused materials continue to evolve vapours. 
 " The pale yellow acid thus obtained may be 
 rendered nearly colourless (if desired) by 
 gently heating it in a retort." (Ph. E.) Sp. 
 gr. 1'500. In the present Ph. L. this acid 
 is included in the materia medica. (See 
 below.) 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) The nitrate of potassa is dis- 
 solved in water, the solution treated with a 
 little nitrate of silver, filtered, evaporated to 
 dryness, weighed, and then treated as above. 
 
 3. Nitrate of soda (cubic nitre, Chili 
 saltpetre) is introduced, in quantities varying 
 between 4 and 10 lbs., into a cylindrical iron 
 retort, which it will only half fill, and after the 
 lid is luted on and the connection made with 
 the condensers, an equivalent of oil of vitriol 
 is poured in through an aperture provided for 
 the purpose, and the charge is worked ofl' with 
 a gradually increased heat. The condensing 
 apparatus consists of a series of 5 or 6 salt- 
 glazed stoneware receivers, about ^th part 
 filled with cold water. The product of this 
 process is the strongest brown and filming 
 ' HiTKOtrs ACID ' of commerce (aquatoetis, 
 PDMINQ KITEIO ACID ; ACIDUM NITKOSnM 
 
NITRIC ACID 
 
 1105 
 
 iCiDCU KITBICUK TUMANs), and haa usually 
 the sp. frr. 1'46. It is rendered colourleeg by 
 ({cntly beating it in a glass retort, when it 
 forms COMM£UCIAL NIIUIC ACID (sp. gr. 1'37 
 to 1-4.) 
 
 •I. (PUBE MONOHTDEATED KITRIC ACID.) 
 By mixing the strongest commercial acid with 
 abnut an equal quantity of oil of vitriol ; re- 
 dlHlilling; collecting apart the first portinn 
 which comes over, and exposing it, in a vessel 
 slightly warmed and sheltered from the light, 
 to a current of dry air made to bubble through 
 it until the nitrous acid is completely re- 
 moved. 
 
 Prop. Pure liquid nitric acid is colourless, 
 highly corrosive, and possesses powerful acid 
 and oxygenising properties. The sp. gr. of 
 the strongest liquid acid (monohydrated 
 nitric acid) has the sp. gr. 1"517 at 60° Fahr. 
 " On boiling nitric acid of different degrees of 
 concentratioD at the ordinary atmospheric 
 pressure, a residue is left boiling at 249° Fahr., 
 and 29 in. barometer, having a sp. gr. 1'414 
 at 60° Fahr." (Pownes.) Acidof less density 
 than 1''114 parts with water, and gradually be- 
 comes stronger by boiling; but acid of less sp. 
 gr. than 1'414 is weakened by exposure to heat. 
 When exposed to intense cold, liquid nitric 
 acid freezes. It is rapidly decomposed, with 
 loss of oxygen, by contact with most organic 
 and many metallic and non-metallic bodies. 
 In many cases these reactions occur with con- 
 siderable violence, and the production of light 
 and heat. 
 
 Pit)'. The nitric acid of commerce is gene- 
 rally contaminated by liydrochloric acid, ni- 
 trous acid, sulphuric acid, or chlorine, or by 
 their soda or potassa salts, and, occasionally, 
 iodine, togither with an excess of water. The 
 liist is readily detected by the sp. gr., and the 
 others by llie appropriate tests. " Colourless. 
 Contains 70f of HNO3. Sp. gr. 142. yO gr. 
 by weight, mixed with \ oz. of distilled water, 
 require for neutralisation 1000 grain measures 
 of the volumetric solution of soda. Evaporated, 
 it leaves no residue. Diluted with six volumes 
 of distilled water, it gives no precipitate with 
 chloride of barium or nitrate of silver — indi- 
 cating absence of sulphuric and hydrochloric 
 Bcids." (B. P.) 5 measures of acid, sp. gr. 
 1'5, mixed with 2 of water, condensed into 6^ 
 measures, and makes the sp. gr. 142. " Free 
 from colour. Sp. gr. 142. Exposed to the 
 air, it emits very acrid vapours. Totally volati- 
 lised by heat. Diluted with 3 times its volume 
 of water, it givi'S no precipitate with either 
 nitrate of silver or chloride of barium. 100 gr. 
 of this acid (sp. gr. 1'42) are saturated by 161 
 gr. of crystallised carbonate of soda." ( Ph. L.) 
 The Ph. E. states the density of commercial 
 nitric acid is 1-38(1 to 1-390. " If diluted 
 with distilled water it precipitates but slightly, 
 or not at nil, with solution of nitrate of baryta 
 or nitrate of silver." The best ' double aqua- 
 fortis ' of the shops (aquafortis duplex) has 
 usually the sp. gr. 1'3G; and the single aqua- 
 TOL. II. 
 
 fortis (aquafortis simplex), the sp. gr. 122 ; 
 but both are commonly sold at much lower 
 strengths. 
 
 Te»t». — 1, It stains the skin yellow, — 2. 
 When mixed with a little hydrochloric acid or 
 chloride of ammonium, it acquires the power 
 of dissolving gold leaf. — 3. Morphia, brucia, 
 and strychnia, give it ii red colour, which is 
 heightened by ammonia in excess —4. When 
 placed in a tube, and a solution of protosul- 
 phate of iron is cautiously added, a dark colour 
 is developed at the line of junction, which is 
 distinctly visible when only y^.i^gth p:irt of 
 nitric acid is present. This test may be often 
 conveniently modified by dropping iuto the 
 liquid a crystal of protosulphate of iron; the 
 fluid immediately surroundin.; this crystal 
 then acquires a dark brown colour, which dis- 
 appears upon simple agitation of the tluid.or by 
 heating it. — 5. When mixed with a weak solu- 
 tion of sulphate of indigo, and he:ited. the 
 colour of the latter is destroyed. — 6. When 
 saturated with carbonate of pi'tas>iuin or 
 sodium, and evaporated to dryness, the resi- 
 duum deflagrates when thrown on burninijf 
 coals. — 7. When the mixture of a nitrate witii 
 cyanide of potassium, in powder, is heated on 
 a piece of platinum, a vivid dutlagralir>u fol- 
 lows, attended with distinct i^'uition and 
 detonation. (Frosenius.) It is stated that 
 sulphate of aniliue is tin extremely delicnte 
 test for nitric aeid. The foUnviing is the 
 method of its application : — About a cubic 
 centimetre of pure concentrated sulphuric 
 acid (sp. gr. 1'84) is placed in a watch gli.-s; 
 half a cubic centimetre of a solution of sul- 
 phate of aniline (formed by adding ten drops 
 of commercial aniline to 50 ce. of diluted 
 sulphuric acid in the proportion of 1 to 6) is 
 poured on, drop by drop; a ^l.iss tube is 
 moistened with the liquid to be tested, and 
 moved circularly in the watch-glass. By blowing 
 on the mixture during the circular agitation, 
 when a trace of nitric acid is present, circular 
 striiB are developed of a very intense red 
 colour, tinting the liquid rose. With more 
 than a trace of nitric acid the colour becomes 
 carmine, passing to a brownish red. This 
 process serves to detect the presence of nitric 
 acid in the sulphuric acid of commerce. It 
 will also reveal the presence of nitrates in 
 water.' — 8. Take a quantity of dipheuylamine, 
 about the size of a mustard seed, put it iuto a 
 test-tube, and pour a little sulphuric acid 
 over it, then add a drop or two of water, >o 
 as to increase the temperature snfiiciently to 
 effect the solution of the diphenylamine, iind 
 the test is ready for use. Now add very 
 gently the solution to be tested, and if only a 
 trace of nitric or nitrous acid be present, a 
 beautiful and very permanent blue colouration 
 is produced at the junction of the two liquids, 
 but if there be any quantity of the nitrogen 
 compound, the colour becomes almost black. 
 This reaction is so delicate and certain that, in 
 • Fluirmaceutical Year Book.* 
 
 70 
 
1106 
 
 NITRIC ACID 
 
 the case of a solution of nitric acid containing 
 about 1 pai-t B. P. acid in 10,000 of water, 
 tile reactioa is most distinct; one part of 
 nitrite of potassium in 80,000 of water gives 
 also almost unmistakable evidence of the 
 presence of the nitrogen acid. 
 
 The following process for the quantitative 
 estimation of nitric acid is by Fischer:' — 
 Indigotin prepared by reduction of indigo by 
 means of grape sugar, alcohol, and caustic 
 soda, oxidation in the air, and solution in 
 sulphuric acid, may be kept unchanged for 
 years. Five c.c. of such a solution, diluted 
 with water and mixed with 30 c.c. of pure 
 sulphuric acid, is titrated by adding a standard 
 nitric acid Folution until the blue colour gives 
 place to a light green; the indigo solution is 
 then diluted, so thiit 1 c.c. shall be equal to 
 0'0025 milligrammeequivalents of nitric acid,or 
 02525 millij.'r«mme of potassium nitrate. If 
 a water is being examined it is run into 4 c.c. 
 of the titraled indigo solution, mixed with 
 20 c.c. of sulphuric acid, until the blue colour 
 changes to light green. Ten, divided by the 
 number of c.c. of water u.*ed, expresses the 
 milligramme equivalents of nitric acid per 
 litre; thus, if 4 c.c. of water are used, there 
 are 2-5 millisramme equivalents of nitric acid, 
 equal to 2525 milligrammes of potassium 
 nitrate per litre. If a preliminary test with 
 bruoine has shown that the water contains 
 very little nitric acid, 2 c.c. only of the indigo 
 solution must be used, or sometimes as little 
 as 1 c.c. If more than 8 c.c. of water is 
 required to destroy the blue colour, 100 c.c. 
 must be evaporated down to the volume of 
 8 c.c. and then titrated. The volume of sul- 
 phuric acid must be at least double the sum 
 of the volumes of indigo and water; the 
 temperature must not sink under 110°. 
 
 The nitrates may all be tested as above by 
 first adding a small quantity of pure sulphuric 
 acid, which will liberate the nitric acid of the 
 salt. 
 
 Estim. — The strength of nitric acid may be 
 roughly estimated by its sp. gr. ; but more 
 accurately by ascertaining the amount of car- 
 bonate of sodium, or other salt of known com- 
 position, which is required to neutralise it. 
 To rentier this assay trustworthy, it must be, in 
 all cases, also tested to detect the presence of 
 impurities. See Acidimetet. 
 
 Ani., Sec. See AOIDS. 
 
 Uses. Nitric acid is employed in assaying, in 
 dyeing, iu etching on copper, in the preparation 
 of gun-cotton, oxalic and sulphuric acids, &c. 
 In medicine it is used as a caustic to corns 
 and warts ; and in doses of 1 to 10 drops, in a 
 tumbler of water, in liver complaints, fevers, 
 dyspepsia, syphilis, to remove the effects of 
 mercury, or as a substitute for that drug, &c. 
 Externally, it is employed in the form of baths, 
 lotions, and ointment. • Dr Collier states that 
 a strong lotion of nitric acid is almost a specific 
 
 1 Hinal., 'Polyt. Journ.,' cc\iii, 423 — 437; ' Journ 
 Chem. Sue.,' ^ud series, xiii, 4bl. 
 
 in lepra, and several other kindred skin 
 diseases. 
 
 Concluding Itemarks. — The common source 
 of nitric acid is nitrate of potassium, but it may 
 also be obtained from other nitrates by a 
 similar process. Nitrate of sodium is fre- 
 quently used instead of nitrate of potassium, 
 and is more convenient in some respects, as 
 the residuum is more easily dissolved out of 
 the retort or cylinder. The residuum of the 
 common process with nitre ('sal enixum') is 
 chiefly employed as a fiux by the glass-houses, 
 and as a source of potash in the manufacture 
 of alum. 
 
 By proper management nitre yields more 
 than I of its weight of pure nitric acid, sp. gr. 
 1'500 ; and nitrate of soda, its own weight of 
 acid, sp. gr. 1"4. 
 
 By the patent process of M. Mallet, dried 
 nitrate of soda is decomposed by dried or 
 monohydrated boracic acid, by heating the two 
 together. ' The products are liquid nitric acid, 
 which distils over, and biborate of soda (borax), 
 which remains in the retort. 
 
 The crude coloured nitric acid of commerce 
 (aquafortis) was originally prepared by dis- 
 tilling a mixture of nitre and copperas, and is 
 still sometimes obtained in this way. 
 
 The nitric acid of commerce may be freed 
 from the impurities alluded to above by one or 
 other of the following methods : — 
 
 1. By the addition of a little nitrate of silver, 
 as long as it produces any cloudiness, and, 
 after repose, decanting the clear acid, and 
 rectifying it at a heat under 212°. To ensure 
 a perfectly colourless product, a small portion 
 of pure black oxide of manganese should be put 
 into the retort. (Murray.) 
 
 2. By agitating the acid with a little red 
 oxide of lead, and then rectif ving it, as before. 
 
 3. By adding \% of bichromate of potassa to 
 the acid before rectifying it. This answers 
 well for acid not stronger than sp. gr. 
 1-48. 
 
 4. By rectification at a gentle heat, rejecting 
 the first portion that comes over, receiving 
 the middle portion as genuine acid, and leaving 
 a residuum in the retort. (Ure.) 
 
 According to Apjohn and others, the strongest 
 liquid nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-520, is a mono- 
 hydrate; that of the sp. gr. 1-500, a sesqui- 
 hydrate; that of 1'486, a binhydrate; and 
 that of 1-244, a quadrihydrate; or containing 
 I'espectively 1, ij, 2, and 4 atoms of water. 
 (See heloio.) 
 
 Nitric Acid, Anhy'drons. N2O5, Syn. 
 NiTBic ANHTDEIDE. This interesting substance 
 was first obtained in a separate lorm by M. 
 Deville, in 1849. 
 
 Prep. (M. Deville.) Nitrate of silver is 
 dried by exposure to a current of dry carbonic 
 acid at a temperature of 356° Fahr., and the 
 tube containing it is then immersed in a water 
 bath heated to 203° Fahr. ; pure dry chlorine 
 gas is next passed through the apparatus, and, 
 as soon as the reaction commences, the tem- 
 
NITRIC ANHYDRIDE-NITROGEN 
 
 1107 
 
 pcretnre is rcilviced to 154° or even 136°, but 
 not lowiT; the production of cnBtals^ in the 
 nceiver, which must be co<iled by a powerful 
 freezing mixture, soon commences; lastly, the 
 liquid portion of the product is removed by a 
 current of dry earbonic-acid gas. 
 
 Prop., Sfo. Colourless prismatic crystals, 
 which melt at 8(i° Fahr., bnil at about 115°, 
 and at 122° begin to sufCer decomposition ; 
 added to water, much heat is generated ; it 
 rapidly attacks organic bodies, even caoutchouc; 
 sometinies it explndos spontaneously. The 
 process for its pre par.itionis tedious and difficult. 
 
 Nitric Acid, Dilute. Acidum: niibicum di- 
 LUTOM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42), 3 fl. oz. ; 
 distilled water, 17 fl. oz,; mix. Sp. gr. 10S2. 
 " 1 fl. oz. is saturated by 15 1 pr. of the crys- 
 tals of carbonate of soda." It contains about 
 VZ'i of pure anhydrous acid. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Nitric acid (1-500), 1 fl. oz.; 
 distilled water, 9 fl. oz. Or, commercial nitric 
 acid (1-390), 1 fl. oz. 5i dr. ; water, 9J fl. oz. 
 Sp. gr. 1-077. It contains ll-16g of pure dry 
 nitric acid. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Nitric acid (1-500), 4 fl. oz.; 
 water, UO fl. oz. Contains about 9-7S of pure 
 acid. Tlie above are used for convenience in 
 dispensing.— i)o»e, 15 drops to i fl. dr., or 
 more. The above must not be confoimded 
 with the acidum nitrioum dilutura, Ph. D. 
 1826, which had the sp. gr. 1-280, nor with 
 the following : — 
 
 4. (Henry's.) Sp. gr. 1-143 ; equal in satu- 
 rating power to hydrochloric acid sp. gr. 1-074, 
 and sulphuric acid 1'135. Used in assaying. 
 
 .1. (». P.) Nitric acid, 6; distilled water 
 sufficient to nmkc the mi.vtnre when cooled to 
 60° Fahr., measure 31. Contains 15 per cent, 
 of anhydrous nitric acid. Test, Sp. gr. 1-101. 
 Six fluid drachms (361'3 grains) by weight re- 
 quire for neutralisation 1000 grain measures of 
 the volumetric solution of soda, and, therefore, 
 contain exactly one equivalent in grains of 
 anhydrous acid, namely, 54 gr. — Use. Tonic, 
 astringent, lithnnlytic. — Dose,\Oto 30 minims. 
 
 Nitric Acid, Fuming. Syn. Niteous aoidJ ; 
 Acidum nitbicum i'umans, L. The red 
 fuming nitrous or nitric acid of commerce is 
 simply nitric acid loaded with nitric peroxide 
 (whioii see). That of the Ph. Bor. is distilled 
 from nitre, 2 parts; oil of vitriol, 1 part. 
 
 NI'TRIC ANHY'DRIDE. See Niibio acid, 
 
 ANirTDBOUS. 
 
 NI'TRIC OXIDE. See NiTROOEN, Oxides or. 
 
 NI'TEITE. A salt of nitrous acid; e.g. 
 KN()«. nitrite of potassium. 
 
 NITRO-BEN'ZOL. C.,H,N0j. Prep. By 
 treating benzol with strong fuming nitric acid, 
 with heat ; after the violenco of the reaction is 
 over, the liquid is diluted with water, and the 
 heavy oily fluid which separates is ccUected, 
 washed, and dried. 
 
 Prop., i\c. Yellowish, very sweet; smells 
 of bitter almonds; insniulilu in Wiiter; little 
 all'ected by rengent-; boils at 41.5' Fahr.; sp. 
 
 gr. 1-209. Heated with an alcoholic solution 
 of caustic potassa, and the mixture submitted 
 to distillation, it yields a red, oily liquid, from 
 which large red ci^stals of azobenzol sepa- 
 rate. These are nearly insoluble in water, 
 freely soluble in alcohol and ether, melt at 
 149° Fahr., and boil at 553-4° Fahr. BiNi- 
 TEOBBNZOL is made by dissolving benzol in 
 a mixture of equal volumes of the strongest 
 nitric and sulphuric acids, and boilinii- the 
 liquid for a few minutes; the crystals 
 (dinitrobenzol) which form as it cools are 
 insoluble in water, but are ireely soluble in 
 alcohol. Nitro-benzol is extensively used as 
 a substitute for the essential oilof bitter 
 almonds, in perfumery. It is very poisonous, 
 a quality, which Letheby asserts, it acquires 
 owing to its conversion in the animal economy 
 into aniline. M. Ferrand states that the 
 presence of nitro-benzol in essence of bitter 
 almonds may be detected as follows : — Heat to 
 ebullition, in a test tube, three or four c.c. of 
 a 20 per cent, alcoholic solution of jintjish, 
 together with ton drops of the suspectel 
 essence. If nitro-benzol be present, the mix- 
 ture takes a red colour ; if the essence of bitter 
 almonds be pure, it becomes a pale straw 
 colour. 
 
 NI'TROGEN. N. .Syn. AzOTE; NlTBOOB- 
 NIUM, AzoTUM, L. A gaseous elementary sub- 
 stance, discovered by Rutherford, in 1722, and 
 found to be a constituent of the atmosphere 
 by Lavoisier, 1753. It is found both in the 
 organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature ; it 
 forms about J, or 78g of the bulk of the 
 atmosphere, enters largely into the composi- 
 tion of most animal substances, and is a con- 
 stituent of gluten, the alkaloids, arid other 
 vegetable principles. 
 
 Prep. 1. A small piece of pliosphorus is 
 placed in a ciipsule floating on the surface of 
 the water of the pneumatic tronu-h, and after 
 settini; it on fire a gas *ir bell-jar is inverteil 
 over it ; as soon as the combustion is over, 
 and the fumes of phosphoric anhydride have 
 subsided, the residual gas is washed liy agita- 
 tion with recently boiled distilled water, o^- 
 with a solution of pure potassa. It may be 
 dried by either letting it stand over fused 
 eliloride of calcium, or, what is better, by 
 passing it through concentrated oil of vitriol. 
 
 2. A porcelain tube is filled with copper 
 turnings, or, preferably, with spontry copper 
 (obtained by reducing the oxide witli hydro- 
 gen), and is then heated to redness, a stream 
 of dry atmospheric air being at the same time 
 directed through it. By repealing the process 
 with the s.ime air, and finally pa-sln;; it 
 over fragments of pumice moistened with 
 strong solution of potassa to absrtrb carbonic 
 anhydride, the product i^ rendered quite 
 pure. 
 
 3. Chlorine gas is pa.ssed into a solution of 
 pure ammonia, care being taken to employ a 
 considerable excess of the latter; the evolved 
 LCas, after being dried, is pure nitrogen. There 
 
1108 
 
 NITROGEN 
 
 is some danger of producing the explosive 
 compound, chloride of nitrogen, with this 
 process. 
 
 4. (Corenwinder.) From solution of nitrate 
 of potassium, 1 volume ; concentrated solution 
 of chloride of ammonium, 3 vols. ; gently 
 heated together in a flask, and the evolved 
 gas passed through sulphuric acid. Pnre. 
 
 5. By boiling a solution of nitrite of am- 
 monium, or, which amounts to the same thing, 
 a mixture of one measure of a solution of 
 nitrite of potassium and three measures of a 
 solution of chloride of ammonium. Both so- 
 lutions must he concentrated. This is the 
 easiest method of preparing nitrogen and of 
 obtaining the gas in a pure state. 
 
 Note. — The nitrite of potassium to be em- 
 ployed in this process is best prepared by 
 passing nitrous anhydride, evolved from starch 
 and nitric acid, into a solution of potassa (sp. 
 gr. 1'38) till it imparts an acid reaction to test- 
 paper, and then neutralising by the addition 
 of potassa. 
 
 6. From lean flesh digested in nitric acid, at 
 a gentle heat. 
 
 J?rop., &\C. Pure nitrogen is a, colourless, 
 odourless, tasteless gas, neither conibustil)le 
 nor capable of supporting combustion or re 
 spiration. It is neutral to test-paper, does 
 not affect lime water, and is only slightly 
 absorbed by pure water. Its sp. gr. is -9713. 
 It is recognised by its purely negative qualities. 
 
 Nitrogen, Chlo"ride of. NClj. Si/n. Nitko 
 
 GEN TEICHIOEIDB, TebOHLOEIDE OP HITEO- 
 GEN. This compound was discovered by 
 Dulong in 1811, but its nature was first 
 accurately determined by Sir H. Davy. 
 
 Prep. (Liebig.) Dissolve chloride of ammo- 
 nium, 1 oz., in hot water, 12 or 14 oz., and 
 as soon as the temperature has fallen to 90° 
 Fahr., invert a wide-mouthed glass bottle full 
 of chlorine over it. The gas is gradually ab- 
 sorbed, the solution acquires a yellowish colour, 
 and in the course of 15 to 20 minutes yellow, 
 oil-like globules of chloride of nitrogen form 
 upon the surface of the liquid, and ultimately 
 sink to the bottom. The globules, as they 
 descend, should be received in a small leaden 
 saucer, placed under the mouth of the bottle 
 lor the purpose. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Cliloride of nitrogen should 
 consequently be only prepared in very small 
 quantities at a time. Both its discoverer and 
 Sir H,. Davy met with severe injuries while ex- 
 perimenting on it. Its sp. gr. isl"653; it vo- 
 latilises at 160° Fahr., and between 200° and 
 212° fulminates violently. Contact with com- 
 bustible bodies at ordinary temperatures im- 
 mediately causes detonation. The explosive 
 power of this compound seems to exceed that 
 of every known substance, not even excepting 
 fulminatiny silver: A minute globule, no 
 larger than a grain of mustard seed, placed 
 on a platina spoon, and touched with a piece 
 of phosphorus stuck on the point of a pen- 
 knife, immediately explodes, and shivers the 
 
 blade into fragments, at the same time 
 that the vessel that contains it is broken to 
 pieces. Olive oil, naphtha, and oil of turpen- 
 tine, have a similar effect. See Niteoqen, 
 Iodide or {helow). 
 
 Nitrogen, I'odide of. Nij. Syn. Niteogen 
 TEI-IODIDE, Teeiodidb OP NiTEOOEjf. A dark 
 brown or black insoluble powder, which is 
 most safely and conveniently prepared by 
 saturating alcohol (sp. gr. -852) with iodine, 
 adding a large quantity of the strongest pure 
 solution of ammonia, and agitating the mix- 
 ture; water must now be added, when iodide 
 of nitrogen will be precipitated, and must be 
 carefully washed with cold distilled water. 
 The filter containing the precipitate should be 
 spread out on a sheet of glass and torn into, 
 small pieces while the iodide is still moist. 
 The precipitate should be simply exposed to 
 air only. 
 
 Prop., S^c. It detonates violently as soon as 
 it becomes dry, by the slightest pressure or 
 friction, even that of a feather, and often 
 spontaneously ; but this explosion is scarcely 
 so powerful as that of the chloride of nitrogen. 
 It also explodes whilst moist, though less rea- 
 dily. It should only be prepared in very small 
 quantities at a time. Kecent researches in- 
 duce the belief that both the above compounds 
 contain hydrogen. 
 
 Nitrogen, Cx'ides of. Nitrogen forms 5 dis- 
 tinct compounds with oxygen. 
 
 1. Nitrous ox'ide. Syn. Peotoxide op hi- 
 
 TEOGEN; LATTGHING GAS; NiTEOGENII PEO- 
 
 TOXYDUM, L. Prep, From fused nitrate of 
 ammonium, introduced into a glass retort, or a 
 flask furnished with a bent tube, and then ex- 
 posed, over a spirit-lamp, or charcoal-chauffer, 
 to a temperature of about 389° Fahr. ; the 
 evolved gas may be collected in bladders, gas- 
 bags, a gasometer, or in the pneumatic trough 
 over warm water. The gas may be purified 
 by pouring it through three wash-hottles, 
 one containing water, one a solution of 
 sulphate of iron, and the other a solution of 
 potassa. 
 
 Prop., <^c. Colourless ; possesses an agree- 
 able odour, and a sweetish taste ; at 32°, under 
 a pressure of 30 atmospheres, it is liquid ; this, 
 when exposed under the receiver of a powerful 
 air-pump, changes into a snow-like solid ; at 
 — 180° Fahr., it is » transparent, colourless, 
 crystalline body ; it supports combustion, and 
 is absorbed by cold water. Sp. gr. 1"520. Its 
 most remarkable property is its action on the 
 system when inspired. A few deep inspira- 
 tions are usually succeeded by a pleasing state 
 of excitement, and a strong propensity to 
 laughter and muscular exertion, which soon 
 subside, without being followed by languor or 
 depression. Its effects, however, vary with 
 different constitutions. From 4 to 12 quarts 
 may be breathed with safety. It produces 
 temporary insensibility to pain, like chloro- 
 form or ether ; but its use is dangerous when 
 affections of the heart, lungs, or brain are 
 
NITRO-GLYCERIN 
 
 1109 
 
 proont. This pas is iiow successfally and 
 extenaively employed as an aiiiEsthetic in 
 dentnl sorgery. 
 
 Ob: No particular caution is required in 
 preparing tlie almve compound, except tlie usp 
 of too much heat. The temperature should 
 be so arninged as to keep the melted mass in 
 a state of gicntle ebullition, and should not be 
 allowed, under any circumstances, to exceed 
 about 600° Fahr. Should white fumes appear 
 within the retort after the evolution of 
 the gas has commenced, the heat should 
 bo at once lowered, as, when heated to 
 about 600°, nitrate of avnmonia explodes with 
 violence. 
 
 Nitrous oxide may also be made in the i^ame 
 way, from crystallised nitrate of ammonia, or 
 by exposing nitric oxide for some days over 
 iron filings moistened with water, but, without 
 great care, the product is not always fit for re- 
 spiration. When pure, it is colourless, has an 
 agreeable odour, and docs not afEcct solution 
 of nitriite of silver. See AifaiSTHETicB. 
 
 2. Nitric oxide. NO. St/n. Detitoxide of 
 NiTitooEN, Nitrous oas, Binoxidb of nitro- 
 gen; NiTEOGENII BINOXTDUM, L. Prep. By 
 piinring nitric acid, sp. pr. 1'2, on metallic 
 copper, in the form of turnings, clippings, or 
 wire. Krtervesccnce ensues, and nitric oxide 
 is evolved, and may bo collected over water or 
 mercury in the pneumatic trough. The resi- 
 dual liquid yields crystals of nitrate of copper 
 on evaporation. 
 
 Prop., ^e. A colourless, tasteless, inodorous, 
 irrespirable, and incombustible gas. In con- 
 tact with free oxygen, it produces dense orange 
 or red vapours of nitric peroxide (NOj), which 
 are freely absorbed by water. Nitric oxide is 
 absiirbed by a solution of ferrous sulphate, 
 which it turns of a deep brown or nearly black 
 C'llour, which is removed by boiling. Sp. gr. 
 1039. 
 
 Nitrons Anhydride. KjOg. Syn. Nitrogen 
 THioxiDE, Anhydrous nitrous acid. The 
 easiest method of obtaming this compound 
 consists in heating 1 part of powdered starch 
 with 8 parts of nitric acid of sp. gr. 1'25, and 
 passing the evolved gases, first through a dry- 
 ing tube two feet long containing fused chlo- 
 ride of ealeium, and then into a dry and empty 
 (J-tul e cooled to 20° Fahr. by surrounding it 
 with a mixture of pounded ice and crystallised 
 
 chloride of calcium. Nitrous anhydride thus 
 produced is a blue liquid which emits red 
 fumes, and which on admixture with water at 
 ordinary temperatures is decomposed, produc- 
 ing nitric acid and nitric oxide. If nitrous 
 anhydride be mixed with water at tempera- 
 tures below 0° Fahr. the two combine, and 
 a blue solntion is formed which (probably) 
 contains nitrous acid (HNO2). See Xiieous 
 ACID. 
 
 Hitrogen Fentozide. XjO,. Syn. Nitric 
 Pentoxide, Nitric anhydeide, Anhydrous 
 nitric acid. See Nrritic Acid CAnuy- 
 
 DKors). 
 
 Nitrogen Peroxide. NO.,. Syn. Nitric 
 peroxide. Peroxide of nitrogen. Nitrogen 
 
 TBTROXIDE, HypONITRIO ANHYDRIDE. This 
 compound forms the chief constituent of the 
 red fumes which develop on mixing nitric 
 oxide with air or oxygen. It is most readily 
 prepareil by heating thoroughly dried nitrate 
 of lead in a retort, and conducting the evolved 
 gases intoa IJ-tubesurrounded with a freezing 
 mixture of ice and salt for the purpose of con- 
 densing the nitric peroxide. If the U'tuljc 
 be perfectly dry, and the cold inten-e, the 
 nitric peroxide obtained assumes the form of 
 transparent crystals, but the presence of the 
 slightest trace of moisture prevents their for- 
 mation and produces iusteail a colourless liquid 
 which, as the temperature rises, acquires a 
 yellow and ultimately a red colour. Nitric 
 peroxide dissolves in nitric acid and turns it of 
 a yellow or red hue. The so-called ' nitrous 
 acid ' or * fuming nitric acid * of commerce owes 
 its deep red colour to the presence of this 
 compound. At very low temperatures water 
 converts nitric peroxide into nitric and nitrous 
 acids; at ordinary temperatures it transforms 
 it into nitric acid, nitrous acid, and nitiie 
 oxide. 
 
 HITRO-GLYCERXN. Syn. Glonoin, Ni- 
 trate OF Glyceryi, Triniteite, Nitro- 
 LEUM, Fulminating oil, Tri-nitrogly'- 
 CEEIN. This dangerously explosive compound, 
 from tlie use of which in mining, quarrying, 
 and such like operations so many fatal acci- 
 dents have occurred, is glycerin in which 3 
 atoms of hydrogen have been replaced by 3 
 molecules of nitroxyl (NOj), as illustrated by 
 the following formulae : 
 
 Glycerin. 
 
 CjH 
 
 ^5 In. 
 
 + 3 
 
 go.}o)-3»;}o. 
 
 Nitro-glyceriii. 
 
 + 3 
 
 (S}") 
 
 It was discovered in 1817 by Dr. Sobrero, a 
 pufiil of Pelouze. ^ 
 
 Kopp prepares uitro glycerin by mixing 3 
 parts of sulphuric acid, of sp. gr. of 1767, 
 with 1 part of fuming nitric acid. 2800 
 grammes of the mixed acids are added to 350 
 grammes of glycerin, great care being neces- 
 sary to avoid "any elevation of temperature, 
 which would lead to a violent reaction, resulting 
 
 in the conversion of the glycerin into oxalic 
 acid. 
 
 After standing 5 or 10 minutes, the mixture 
 is poured into four or six times its bulk of 
 very cold water to which a rotatory motion 
 has been imparted. The nitro-glycerin falls 
 to the bottom of the vessel as an oily-Iookiug 
 liquid, which is washed by decantation. 
 The manufacture of nitro-glycerin is attended 
 
1110 
 
 NITRO- HYDROCHLORIC ACID 
 
 with considerable danger, since very slight 
 friction or pressure is sufficient to determine 
 its explosion. Hence many methods have been 
 suggested for guarding against accidents from 
 it during st'rasie. One of these consists in 
 mixing it with finely powdered glass. 
 
 Wurtz advises the nitro-glycerin to he mixed 
 with solntions of nitrate of liine, zinc, or mag- 
 nesia, the solutions to have a sp. gr. equal to 
 the nitio-glycerin. By this means a harmless 
 emulsion would be formed, and the nitro- 
 glycerin would be recoverable wlit^n required 
 for use by simply adding water. Nobel's plan 
 consists in dissolving it in wood spirit. 
 
 Prop. Nitro-glycerin is a fluid of a yellow 
 or brownish colour, having a sp. gr. of 1'6. 
 It dissolves in alcohol, ether, and wood naphtha, 
 from all of which it may be recovered by the 
 addition of water. Dissolved in either of these 
 solutions it becomes converted into a crystal- 
 line mass when exposed to a low temperature. 
 If subjected to a blow it explodes with feai-f ul 
 violence, a single drop placed upon paper, 
 and struck upon an anvil, giving rise to a 
 report that is almost deafening. Neither a 
 spark nor the application of a lighted body is 
 said to cause its ignition, which takes place 
 with difficulty even if it be applied to a thin 
 layer of the substance. 100 parts of nitro- 
 glycerin yield on combustion : 
 
 parts. 
 
 Water . 
 
 . 20 
 
 Carbonic acid • 
 
 . 58 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 . 3-5 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 . 18-5 
 
 1000 > 
 
 As the specific gravity of nitro-glycerin 
 is 1-6, one part by bulk will yield by coujbus- 
 tion : — 
 
 Aqueous vapour 
 
 , 554 volumes 
 
 Carbonic acid . 
 
 . 469 
 
 Oxygen . 
 
 . 39 
 
 Nitrogen . 
 
 . 236 „ 
 
 12981 „ 
 
 Other experimenters affirm that, instead of 
 free oxygen, nitrous oxide is one of the pro- 
 ducts of the combustion of nitro-glycerin. 
 According to Nobel the heat liberated when 
 nitro-glycerin is exploded, causes the expansion 
 of the gases to be eight times their original 
 bulk ; therefore, one volume of the substance 
 will yield 10,384 volumes of gas, whilst one 
 part by bulk of gunpowder only yields 800 
 volumes of gas. If these data be correct the 
 explosive force of nitro-glycerin is thirteen 
 times greater than that of powder, bulk for 
 bulk, and eight times greater weight for 
 weight. 
 
 Bottger has devised a process for the pre- 
 paration of nitro-glycerin, which being, as he 
 affirms, entirely free from danger, adapts it 
 for lecture experiments : — A few grains of pure 
 ' Wagner. 
 
 glycerin, free from water, is poured into a 
 test-tube, which is surrounded by a freezing 
 mixture, and containing a mixture of one 
 volume of the most concentrated nitric acid 
 (1'52 sp. gr.), and two volumes of the strongest 
 sulphuric acid (1'83 sp. gr.). Then, as quickly 
 as possible, the whole is poured into a larger 
 quantity of cold water. The nitro-glycerin, 
 which has formed like oil drops, sinks rapidly 
 to the bottom, being specifically the heavier 
 liquid. It is then washed several times by 
 decantation with fresh water, and, lastly, with 
 a weak solution of soda. 
 
 Remove the water with a few pieces of 
 fused chloride of calcium. Then the nitro- 
 glycerin is in such purity that it may, with- 
 out danger, be kept any length of time fur 
 lecture experiments. 
 
 iriTRO-HYDEOCHXiO'EIC ACID. Syn. Nt- 
 
 TEO-MUEIATIO ACID; AQTJA EEGIA, AOIDTJM 
 NITEO-HYDEOOHLOEICtIM (B. P.), A HITKO- 
 
 MUEIATICUM, L. ; Eau eeq-ale, Fr. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Nitric acid, 3 ; hydrochloric acid, 
 4; water, 25. Mix the acids twenty-four hours 
 before adding the water. (This precaution is 
 necessary to allow of the development of the 
 chlorine, and the chloronitrous and chloronitric 
 gases which result from the mutual decompo- 
 sition of the two acids, and upon which the 
 therapeutic activity of the agent depends). 
 Colourless. Keep the mixture in a cool and 
 dark place. 
 
 2. (Ph. D. 1826). Nitric acid, 1 part ; hy- 
 drochloric acid, 2 parts (both by measure); 
 mix in a refrigerated bottle, and keep the mix- 
 ture in a cold and dark place. Used to dissolve 
 gold and platinum ; and in medicine, in liver 
 complaints, syphilis, the exanthemata, &c., 
 either externally, in doses of 5 to 15 drops 
 in water, or • externally, as a foot- or knee- 
 bath. It is also occasionally employed as a 
 caustic. 
 
 3. (Aqua eegia with sai ammoniac.) 
 Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1'2), 16 fl. oz. ; sal ammo- 
 niac, 4 oz. ; dissolve. Occasionally used by 
 djers; does not keep well. 
 
 4. (Dykes' AQnAFOETis.) Colourless nitric 
 acid (sp. gr. 1'17), 10 lbs.; hydrochloric 
 acid (sp. gr. 119), 1 lb.; mix. Used by 
 dyers. 
 
 HITEO-PEUS'SIDES. A series of salts dis- 
 covered by Dr Playfair, and obtained by the 
 action of nitric acid ^on the ferrocyanides and 
 ferridcyanides. The most important of these 
 salts is the nitroprusside of sodium (NAj (NO) 
 FeCyj . 2Aq.). Prep. Dissolve 2 parts of pow- 
 dered ferrocyanide of sodium in 5 parts of 
 common nitric acid, previously diluted with its 
 own volume of water. When the evolution 
 of gas has ceased, digest the solution on a water 
 bath until it no longer yields a blue but slate- 
 coloured precipitate with ferrous sulphate. 
 Cool the liquid, filter, neutralise the filtrate 
 with carbonate of sodium, and again filter. 
 This filtrate, on evaporation, yields crystals 
 consisting of a mixture of uitro-prusside of 
 
NITUOUS ACID— NOMENCLATURE 
 
 1111 
 
 sodium and nitrate of potaBBinm ; the former, 
 which may bo recognisod by their rhombic 
 abape and their fine ruling colour, ahould be 
 picked out and preserved.— Vie. As a test for 
 soluble sulphides, with which nitro-prusside of 
 sodium strikes a beautiful violet tint. Accord- 
 ing to Playfair this is the moat delicate teat 
 for alkaline sulphides. 
 
 NI'TROUS ACID. HNO^ See NiTEOUS 
 Anhydbide, under Nitbogkn, Oxides op. 
 
 NITEOUS OXIDE. Sec NiTHoaBlT, Oxides 
 
 OP. 
 
 NODE, Syn. NoDUS, L. A hard tumour pro- 
 ceeding from a bone, and caused by the swell- 
 ing of its external membrane. The bones of 
 the leg, forehead, and forearm, are those most 
 commonly attacked. Nodes are generally ac- 
 companied with considerable pain, and often 
 with caries and loss of vitality. 
 
 NOLI ME TANGERE. See Lupus. 
 
 NOMENCLAIUBE (Chemical). The f>d- 
 lowing information will doubtless prove useful 
 to many of our readers, as serving to explain 
 terms which are necessarily of frequent occur- 
 rence in this work : 
 
 AoiDS.^o. When a substance produces only 
 one acid compound, the name of tliis acid is 
 formed by adding the termination -10 to tliat 
 of the radical, or to the leading or character- 
 istic portion of it; as sulphuric acid, an acid 
 of sulplmr. This is Latinised by changing 
 -10 into -louM ; as, acidum, sulphuncvM. — 
 b. When u b.jdy forms two aiid compounds 
 containing oxygen, the name of the one con- 
 taining the sinnller proportion of that substance 
 ends in -ous j as nitrova aciil, which con 
 tains 1 atom of nitrogen and 2 of oxygen ; 
 nt'^rio acid, containing 1 atom of nitrogen and 
 3 of oxygen. In this case the Latin name 
 ends in -OSUM ; as, acidum ' miirosUM. — o. 
 When a substance forms more than two acids 
 with oxygen, the Greek preposition HTPO- 
 (below or under) is prefixed to the name of 
 the acid in -ous or -ic next above it ; as, HY- 
 FOcA^orous acid. — d. When a new acid com- 
 pound of a substance is discovered, containing 
 more oxygen than another acid of the same 
 substances already known, the name of which 
 ends in -ic, the prefix peb- or htpeb- is 
 added ; as, pfiBio^ie acid. This may be illus- 
 trated by the oxygen acids of chlorine : — 
 
 Ilypoclilorous acid tacidum hiipocktoronim) 11CI0 
 Clilorous „ ( „ cluoroaiim) . . HClOg 
 
 Cliloric „ ( „ ehtoricvm) . . HClOj 
 
 FCduinc} .- ( .. P-*'--"»). HCIO. 
 
 Oxides. The names ofthese have, in general, 
 reference to the number of atoms of oxygen 
 which they contain. When a metal forms 
 only one ba^ic compound with oxygen, this 
 compound is simply called the oxide of such 
 base ; but as most substances form more than 
 one compound with oxjgen, certain prefixes 
 are introduced to express the proportions. In 
 such cases it is generally found th.it one out of 
 the nambcr bos a strongly marked basic cha- 
 
 racter, and contains 1 atom of each of its 
 constituents. This is called the oxido, prot- 
 oxide,or monoxide, and forma the .si:indardto 
 which those both above and below it are 
 preferred. Thus, supposing M to be the metal, 
 we may have: — 
 
 Suboiide or dioxide ^luhorydum diunidnm) . MjO 
 Oxide, protoxide, or iiioiiuxide (oxy^um pro- 
 
 t(txydutn) .... , , MO 
 
 iiciqiuoxide H'squiozydum) .... >IJJ, 
 Binojide, dioxide, or deutoiide (hmox)dtm 
 
 deutoxydum) MO2 
 
 Teroude or (rioxide {liroii/diim, trilozudiim . MU, 
 
 ^ That couttuii- 
 
 ?mxiie (perozuium) . . 3 i"!! tl'' '"r*"' 
 
 '^ ' ' 1 prormrtion ot 
 
 (.oxygen. 
 
 Salts. — a. Acids having name-* ending in 
 •10 give rise to salts whose mimes end in ate; 
 thus nilrlO acid yields niVrATES, 0. g. nitrate 
 of silver. -ATE is Latinised by -as, e. g. nitrate 
 of silver becomes argen ti nitrAS. 
 
 b. Acids po-^^essin;^ names ending in -ous 
 form salts having names ending in -itk ; thus 
 ««ZpA«r0US acid produces sulphiTSS, e. g. sul- 
 phite of sod ittm. -iTEis Ijatinised by -isj e.g. 
 sulphite of sodium becomes sulphis. 
 
 c. The preceding names are jiresnmerl to 
 refer to neutral compounds. In acirf ^iilts the 
 prefixes noticed above are added to express 
 the preponderance of the aeid radical over the 
 metal. KHSO4 is called acid sulphate of 
 potassium, ■aisulphate of potassium, or Bi- 
 sulphate of potash, the neutral sulphate bein^ 
 KjSO^. 
 
 d. in basic salts, or those in whieh the metal 
 is in excess of the acid radical, the prefixes 
 •SUD and -DI are employed j e.g, the formula of 
 neutral acetiite of lead is PbAg. This salt, 
 when boiled with oxide of lead (a Ims-e), fui"- 
 nishes [PbAjPbO] and [PbA22Pb0]. Tli.y 
 are both, therefore, ftcwic acetates; and to dia- 
 tiiiguish one from the other the former is called 
 macetate und the latter lUlacetate of lead ; 
 -di referring to the presence of two atoms if 
 lead and -tri to three. 
 
 Formerly the salts of the metals of the alka- 
 lies and alkaline earths received names which 
 indicated the existence in them of the oxides 
 of such metals. Thus, the terms carbonate of 
 soda, nitrate of potash, carbonate of lime, 
 sulphate of magnesia, names by which these 
 fluids are still designated by some chemists 
 are now substituted by the more systematic 
 and less speculative n;i >es of carbonate of 
 sodium, nitrate of potassium, carbonate of 
 calcium, and sulphate of magnesium. An- 
 other, and in the opinion of the editor, a still 
 better-system of nomenclature is that in whieh 
 the metallic or basic radiciil is mentioned first ; 
 e,g. calcium sulphate instead of sulphate of 
 calcium, ammonium chloride for chloride of 
 ammonium. When the same radicals form 
 more than one series of salts, each series is 
 disi;inguished by appending the terminations 
 -IC and -ous to that part of the name which 
 refer to the basic radical; e. g. mercuro\ss 
 chloride (HgCl), mercuric chloride (HgClj) ; 
 
1112 
 
 NORFOLK FLUID— NOTICES 
 
 ferrovs sulphate (FeSOi),ferrl0 sulphate (Fe^ 
 
 (S0,)3). 
 
 IsoN-METALLio BODIES, &c. The names of 
 the compounds formed by the union of the 
 non-metallic elements.nud certain other bodies, 
 with the metals and with each other, either 
 terminate in -IDE, Latinised by -idum, or in 
 -URET, Latinised by -ubetum ; as, ar*e»iDE 
 or orseMJUKET ((waeniDUM, arsenivusxTJu), 
 bromlD'E, caj'ilDE or carSUKET, chlorlD'E, eyan- 
 IDE, fluoriTi^, /ii/drmE, iodlDS, sulphlDE or 
 sulphXJRET, &c. The first of these termina- 
 tions now prevails among English scientific 
 cliemists. Tlie prefixes already noticed are 
 also employed here. 
 
 Metals, The names of the metals (those 
 of tljeni, at least, tliat have been given during 
 the present century) end in -IUM or (less fre- 
 quentlj') in -UM ; as potassioiif sodiVM, pla- 
 tinvu. The Latin names of several of the 
 non-metallic elementary bodies also end iu 
 -IUM; as, iodinivsij nitrogenlVTA^ &c. 
 
 Alkaloids. The names of the organic 
 bases which resemble the alkalies in their 
 properties end either in -lA, -NA, or -INE ; as, 
 morphjAf quiNA, strychnl'SE. These termina- 
 tions are now limited, as much as possible, to 
 sub-tances exhibiting basic properties, but were 
 formerly very loosely applied. 
 
 Many chemists reject the first two termina- 
 tions, and apply -INK to every substance of 
 this class; as, morphlJSB, quiniSE, anilllSE, 
 &c. 
 
 Othee oeoanic substances. The names 
 of organic radicles generally terminate in 
 -YL ; as, ethYI; methYL, hemOYJi, &c. ; they 
 mostly contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 Compounds corresponding to the electro-nega- 
 tive elements have the termination -ogen, as 
 cganoaETH, amidoess. Neutral compounds ot 
 carbon and hydrogen, mostly liquid, have the 
 termination -OL, or -OLE ; as, benzOTj, pffrojjE. 
 Other neutral substances, generally solid, have 
 the termination -llil ; iis,parafflN,naphthallll. 
 Compounds resemblingammonia, and generally 
 considered as 'substitution compounds* of that 
 body, terminate in -amine ; as, ethylAMlSE, 
 propyltxiTSE. 
 
 The Latin genitive or pos-essive of the above 
 compounds iu — 
 
 -as is -atis 
 -is „ -itis 
 
 -icum 
 
 M 
 
 -ICl 
 
 -osum 
 
 ^^ 
 
 -osi 
 
 -idum 
 
 J, 
 
 -idi 
 
 -etnm 
 
 » 
 
 -eti 
 
 -inm 
 
 tt 
 
 -ii 
 
 -um 
 
 « 
 
 -i 
 
 -ia "I 
 -a t 
 -naj 
 
 ^x. Acetas (acetate), acetatis of acetate ; 
 arsenis, arsenitis ; citricum, citrici ; arse- 
 niosum, arseniosi ; iodidum, iodidi ; sulphu- 
 retnni, sulphnretij sodium, sodii; platinum, 
 platini; morphia, morphiae; quina, quinsej 
 
 narcotina, iiarcotinae. The genitives of com- 
 mon names vary with the termination. Most 
 of those ending in -a make se, and most of 
 those in -us and -um make -i ; but there are 
 many exceptions, among which cornu (a horn) 
 and spiritus (spirit) which are unaltered in 
 the genitive singular, may be mentioned as 
 examples. 
 
 HOilFOLK FLUID. Frep. Take of linseed 
 oil, 3 pints; black resin, \ lb.; yellow wax, 
 12 oz. ; melt, and add, of neat's-foot oil, 1 
 quart ; oil of turpentine, 1 pint. Used to pre- 
 serve and soften leather. 
 
 NOS'IUM. An unexamined metal, the oxide 
 of which, according to Svanberg, exists in 
 certain varieties of zircon. 
 
 NOS'TRUMS. See Patent Medicines, &c. 
 
 NOTICES. The following sections of the 
 Public Health Act refer to serving and de- 
 livery of notices under that Statute : 
 
 (S. 266.) Notices, orders, and other such 
 documents under the Public Health Act may 
 be in writing or print, or partly in writing and 
 partly in print ; and if the same require au- 
 thentication by the local authority, the signa- 
 ture thereof by the clerk to tlie local authority 
 or their surveyor or inspector of nuisances 
 shall be sufiicieut authentication. 
 
 (S. 267.) Notices, orders, or any other docu- 
 ments required or authorised to be served 
 under the said Act may be served by deliver- 
 ing the same to or at the residence of the 
 person to whom they are respectively ad- 
 dressed, or where addressed to the owner or 
 occupier of premises, by delivering the same 
 or a true copy thereof to some person on the 
 premises, or if there is no person on the pre- 
 mises who can be so served, by fixing the same 
 on some conspicuous part of the premises ; 
 they may also be served by post by a prepaid 
 letter, and if served by post shall be deemed 
 to have been served at the time when tlie 
 letter containing the same would have been 
 delivered in the ordinary course of post, and 
 in proving such service it shall be sufficient to 
 prove that the notice, order, or other docu- 
 ment was properly addressed and put into the 
 post. 
 
 Any notice required to be given to the 
 owner or occupier of any premises may be 
 addressed by the description of the ' owner' or 
 'occupier' of the premises (naming them) in 
 respect of which the notice is given, without 
 further name or description. 
 
 Enforcing the Drainage of Souses, 
 (S. 23.) Notice is to be given to the owner 
 or occupier, but in case of the failure of either 
 to comply, and the authority having to do the 
 work, the expenses fall on the owner. 
 
 Insufficient Privy Accommodation. 
 (SS. 36 and 37.) The same procedure as 
 under the above section. 
 
 The Cleansing and Whitewashing of Mouses. 
 (S. 46.) Notice to the owner or occupier. — 
 
NOVARGENT— NUISANCE 
 
 1113 
 
 The person on whom the rotice is eerved is 
 liable to a penttlty if it is not complied with. 
 
 TAa Removal of Manure or Filth, ^o., in an 
 Urban District. 
 (S. 49.) Notice to he served on the person 
 to whom the manure belongs, or to the occu- 
 pier of the preinisea whereon it exists. If the 
 urban authority have to remove it themselves, 
 the expense of removal falls upon the owner 
 of the nmnure, &c., or the occupier of the pre- 
 mises, or where tliere ia no occupier, the owner 
 of the pi'cmisee. 
 
 In the case of Nuisances, 
 (S. 94) Notice is to be served upon the 
 pernon causing or permitting the nuisance to 
 remain, or, if he cannot be founil, on the 
 owner or occupier of the premises on which 
 the nuisance arises ; but if the nuisance arises 
 from tlie want or defective construction of any 
 structural convenience, or where there is no 
 occupier, notice ia to be served on the owner. 
 
 In the ease of Souses, Sfe., requiring Dis- 
 infection. 
 
 (8. 120.) Notice is to be given to the owner 
 or occupier, and in case of non-compliancp, the 
 person on whom the notice is served is liable 
 to penalties, and the expenses of the authority 
 doing the necessary works falls upon tliat 
 l>ersou (with certain exceptions, in case of 
 poverty). 
 
 NOVAE'GENT. Fref. Prom recently pre- 
 cipitated chloride of silver by dissolving it in 
 a solution of either hyposulphite of sodium or 
 of cyanide of potassium. Used chiefly to restore 
 old plated goods. The liquid is rubhiil over 
 the metal to be coated with a little prepared 
 chalk, and the part is afterwards polished off 
 with a piece of soft leather. A powder re- 
 cently sold un<ler the same name is fornied by 
 mixing the preceding article with chalk, and 
 drying the mass. It is made into a paste with 
 a little water, spirit of wine, or gin, before 
 applying it. 
 
 MOVAUR'UM. From a solution of neutral 
 trichloride of gold, as the last. 
 
 NOYAU. Si/n. Ceeme db Noyau. This 
 is a pleasant nutty-tasted liqueur; but from 
 the large proportion of prussic acid whicli it 
 contains, a small quantity only should be taken 
 at a time. 
 
 Prep. 1. Bitter almonds (bruised), 3 oz. ; 
 spirit (22 u. p.), 1 quart; sugar, 1 lb.; (dis- 
 solved in) water, f pint ; macerate for 10 days, 
 frequently shaking the vessel ; then allow it 
 to ri'pose for a few days, and decant the clear 
 portion. 
 
 2. As the last, but substituting apricot or 
 peach kernels (with the shells, bruised), for the 
 almonds. 
 
 3. To either of the above, add of coriander 
 seed and ginger, of each, bruised, 1 dr.; mace 
 and cinnamon, of each i dr. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) To plain cordial, at 54 to 
 60 u. p., contiiniiig 3 lbs. of sugar pir gallon, 
 
 add, gradually, essence of bitter almonds, q. a 
 to flavour. 
 
 5. ^Cbeme db kotau de Maetinique.) 
 Loaf sugar, 21 lbs.; water, 2^ galls.; dissolve, 
 add, of proof spirit, 5 galls. ; orange-flower 
 water, 8 pints; bitter almonds (bruised), 1 lb.; 
 essence of lemons, 2 dr. ; as above. See Ll- 
 QUEUES. 
 
 NUISANCE. The following are the chief 
 clauses of the Public Health Act respecting 
 nuisances : 
 
 Definition of Nuisances. 
 
 1. Any premises in such a state as to be a 
 nuisance or injurious to health. 
 
 2. Any pool, ditch, gutter, water-course, 
 privy, urinal, cesspool, drain, or ashpit, so foul 
 as to be a nuisance or injurious to health. 
 
 3. Any animal so kept as to he a nuisance 
 or injurious to health. 
 
 4. Any accumulation or deposit which is a 
 nuisance or injurious to health. 
 
 5. Any house, or part of ■■ house, so over- 
 crowded as to be dangerous or iujurious to the 
 health of the inmates, whether or not members 
 of the same family. 
 
 6. Any factory, workshop, or workplace 
 (not already under the operation of any 
 general Act for the regulation of factories or 
 bakehouses) not kept in a cleanly state, or not 
 ventilated in such a manner as to render harm- 
 less as far as practicable any gases, vapours, 
 dust, or other impurities generated in the 
 course of the work carried on therein that are 
 a nuisance or injurious to health, or so over- 
 crowed while work is carried on as to be dan- 
 gerous and injurious to the health of those 
 employed therein. 
 
 7. Any fireplace or furnace which does not, 
 as far as practicable, consume the smoke 
 arising from the combustible used in such 
 firepliice or furnace, and is used for working 
 engines by steam, or in any mill, factory, dye- 
 house, brewery, bakehouse, or gaswork, or in 
 any manufacturing or trade process whatso- 
 ever; and — 
 
 Any chimney (not being the chimney of a 
 private dwelling-house) sending forth black 
 smoke in such quantity as to be a nuisance; 
 
 .Shall be deemed to be nuisances liable to be 
 dealt with summarily under the Public Health 
 Act: Provided — 
 
 First. That a penalty shall not bi. imposed 
 on any person in respect of any accumulation 
 or deposit necessary for the effectual carrying 
 on any business or manufacture, if it be proved 
 to the satisfaction of the court that the accu- 
 mulation or deposit has not been kept longer 
 than is necessary for the purposes of the busi- 
 ness or manufacture, and that the best avail- 
 able means have been taken for preventing 
 injury thereby to the public health. 
 
 Secondly. That where a person is sum- 
 moned before any court in respect of a nui- 
 sance arising from a fireplace or fnrnace which 
 does not consume the smoke arising from the 
 combustible used in snch fireplace or furnace, 
 
1114 
 
 NURSING 
 
 the court may hold that no nuisance is created 
 wltliiu the meaning of this Act, and dismiss 
 the complaint, if it is satisfied that such fire- 
 place or furnace is constructed in such a 
 manner as to consume as far as practicable, 
 having regard to the nature of the manufac- 
 ture or trade, all smoke arising therefrom, and 
 that such fireplace or furnace has been care- 
 fully attended to by the person having the 
 charge thereof. (P. H., s. 91.) 
 
 The Act also defines and specifies : — 1. The 
 duty and powers of a local authority to inspect 
 a district with the view to an abatement of 
 any nuisance. 2. The process of information 
 to be pursued in representing a nuisance to 
 any local authority. 3. Procedure on failing 
 to comply with notice. 4. The power of the 
 court to make an order dealing with such 
 nuisance. 5. The penalty for neglecting to 
 obey such order. 6. The power of complaint 
 by private individuals. 7. The power of the 
 police to proceed in certain cases. 8. The 
 cost and expense of executing the provisions 
 relating to nuisances. 9. The power of sale 
 of manure, &c. 10. The supervision of nuis- 
 ances caused by drains, privies, &c. 11. The 
 proceedings to be taken in certain cases against 
 nuisances in ships, &c. 
 
 NUR'SING. Milk is the natural food of the 
 mammalia during the earlier period of their 
 existence. It contains all that is necessary 
 for the nourishment of their bodies, and on it 
 they thrive and grow. Its secretion only ac- 
 tively commences at the time when it is re- 
 quired for the sustenance of the off'spring, and 
 i t either materially lessens in quantity, or wholly 
 disappears, as soon as the necessity of its ex- 
 istence has passed away, and the little being 
 who depended on it has acquired suffieieut age 
 and strength to exist on cruder aliment. The 
 nursing mother, when in a state of perfect 
 health, and properly supplied with a sufli- 
 ciency, without excess, of nutritious food, 
 elaborates this secretion in the fittest condi- 
 tion to ensure the health and vigour of her 
 offspring. Her bosom is the fountain whence 
 flows the beauty and stamina of the future 
 adult, and whilst giving strength and life 
 to another, she increases and prolongs her 
 own. 
 
 The milk of woman varies with the food, 
 health, age, &o., of the nurse. That produced 
 from a mixed animal and vegetable diet, nei- 
 ther acesces nor coagulates spontaneously, like 
 cows' milk; and when gently evaporated in 
 an open vessel, "the last drop continues thin, 
 sweet, and bland." Acids and rennet, how- 
 ever, coagulate it readily, and so does the gas- 
 tric juice of the infant, as shown by the con- 
 dition in which it is often ejected by the 
 latter. The milk of a woman who lives wholly 
 on vegetable food acesces and coagulates with 
 equal readiness and in a precisely similar man- 
 ner to cows' milk. The quality of the milk 
 also varies with the progress of the digestion. 
 Within the first hour or two after a meal it 
 
 is thin and serous, and then gradually im- 
 proves in richness and flavour, until at about 
 the fourth or fifth hour it possesses these 
 qualities in the highest degree. This, then, 
 is the period at which the infant should be 
 applied to the breast, which, according to the 
 present habits of society, would be during the 
 hour immediately preceding each meal, except 
 the breakfast. After about the fifth or sixth 
 hour the milk gradually loses its peculiar 
 colour and odour, until towards the tenth or 
 twelfth hour after eating food it becomes 
 yellowish, bitter, and often nauseous ; and in 
 this condition is frequently refused by the in- 
 fant. This points out the impropriety of a 
 nurse fasting longer than 4 to 5 hours, except 
 during the night, when the period may be ex- 
 tended to 7 or 8 hours, but never longer. The 
 time after accouchement is another matter that 
 influences the character of human milk in re- 
 spect of its wholesomeness for the infant. 
 The milk secreted soon after delivery is very 
 thin and serous, but in the course of a few 
 days it becomes thicker, richer, and more nu- 
 tritious; and a gradual change in the same 
 direction proceeds during the usual period of 
 suckling. When the mother suckles her own 
 infant, or the "age of the milk," as the 
 nurses say, corresponds to that of the child, 
 all goes on well ; but when the former much 
 exceeds the latter, the reverse is the case. 
 Thus, it is found that an infant is incapable 
 of completely digesting the milk of a nurse 
 whose own child is much older than itself; 
 and that an infant of a few weeks old will 
 often starve on the milk intended by nature 
 for one several times its age. It is, therefore, 
 necessary, in selecting a wet-nurse, to be 
 certain that her condition, in this respect, 
 closely corresponds to that of the mother of 
 the infant, or that it does not differ, on this 
 point, more than 3 or 4 weeks. In respect of 
 the use of high-flavoured or improper food 
 and beverages, medicine, &c., it appears that 
 all these substances immediately affect the 
 milk, and impart to it more or less of their 
 peculiar flavour and properties; and, except 
 with remedies administered under medical 
 advice, in nearly all cases prove injurious to 
 the infant. The diet of a nurse should be 
 nutritious and succulent, and its healthy di- 
 gestion should be promoted by exercise and 
 pure air. Strong liquors, more especially 
 spirits, act like slow poisons on the infant, and 
 their habitual use by a nurse should, therefore, 
 be considered as a positive disqualification for 
 the duties of her office. The care of the mo- 
 ther or wet-nnrse should be particularly di- 
 rected to the maintenance of her own health 
 and equanimity, by which both the health and 
 good temper of the infant will be, as far as 
 passible, ensured. A grieving, iriitable, or 
 angry mother forces her bad qualities on her 
 offspring, in the shape of fits, convulsions, or 
 hopeless marasmus. See Injahot, Milk, 
 Intants, Food roE, &o. 
 
NUTMEG— NUTRITION 
 
 1115 
 
 irUfMEO. Si/n. Mtbistica KuciEna, Nn- 
 
 CI8TA, NdX M09CHAIA, N. MTBISTICA, N. 
 ABOUATicA, Mybistica (B. P., Pb. L.), L. 
 " The shelled aeed of Myrittica ojfflcinalii 
 (Linn. J ,)/. motchata — Thnnberg), or nutmeg- 
 trpe." It is chiefly used as a spice and condi- 
 ment, but it ia aUo esteemed as an aromatic 
 in flatulency and diarrhoea. — Dose. Half a tea- 
 spoonCul, or more, grated. The distilled and 
 pxprosaod oils (oLEUM MYEisiiOiE) are also 
 officinal. 
 
 Ol the different varieties of natmegs met 
 with in commerce, those known as Penang 
 are the most vxlnuble. Next to these rank 
 the Dutch or Butavian kind, and after these 
 the Singapore nutmegs. In the Datch or 
 Bataviau variety the exterior is composed of 
 n number of white furrows, with brown pro- 
 jections, which aspect is caused by their 
 having been dusted over with lime previous to 
 their exportation. Besides the above, there is 
 also a very inferior description, known as the 
 long or wild nutmeg, which are met with 
 either in the shell, out of the shell, or in the 
 shell with the mace attached. 
 
 Nutmpgs are subject to the ravages of a 
 worm which would seem to devour or destroy 
 their aromatic principle, since when attacked 
 by this parasite they luse both their odour and 
 taste. 
 
 In 100 parts sound nutmegs contiiin — 
 
 \'olatile oil . . . . 6-0 
 
 Ijii|nid fat .... 7'6 
 
 y.jliil fat .... 24.-0 
 
 Acid 0-8 
 
 ytiirch 2-.1 
 
 Oum 1-2 
 
 Ligneous fibre , . , 54'0 
 
 Loss ..... 4 
 
 100-0 
 (BONASTfE.) 
 
 »UTEI"TION. The phenomena of life are 
 accompanied by the constant and unceasing 
 waste of the materials of which the animal 
 body is composed. Every act of volition, 
 every exertion of muscular power, every func- 
 tional action of the organism, whether percep- 
 tible or imperceptible and involuntary, every 
 play of chemical affinity and decomposition, 
 even thought itself, occasions the disorganisa- 
 tion and destruction, as living matter, of a 
 portion of ourselves. But the process of re- 
 spiration, and the various important changes 
 with which it is connected, tends, more than 
 all the other vital functions, to waste the sub- 
 stance of tlie body, the temperature of which 
 it is its special office to support. This loss, 
 this change, which commences with life and 
 terminates only with death, is compensated 
 tor by the constant renewal of the whole 
 frame by the deposition and assimilation, or 
 organisation, of matter from the blood, which 
 thus becomes gradually thinner and impover- 
 idheil, unless, in its turn, it receives a corre- 
 
 sponding snpply of its vital elements. This 
 it does from the food, which, by the functions 
 of digestion, is converted into a ' chyle,' and 
 after being taken up by the ' lacteals,' passes 
 into the blood, of which it then becomes a 
 part, and after being animalised and rendered 
 similar to the being it is destined to nourish, 
 by the peculiar action of the vital affinities, it 
 attaches itself to those organs or tissues, the 
 loss of which it is intended to supply. This 
 constitutes nutrition. 
 
 The food of animals, or, rather, the nutritious 
 portion of that food on which wo live, is 
 wholly organic matter, and is either directly 
 or indirectly produced by the powers of vege- 
 tation from the inorganic world. The plant 
 elaborates food for the hcrbivora, and these, 
 in their tnrn, serve as food for the flesh- 
 eating animals. In both cases the leading 
 alimentary principles are the same; the differ- 
 ence is in their proportions. Flesh is identical 
 in composition with blood, and with the body 
 of the animal that blood is destined to nourish. 
 It abounds in albumen, casein, and fibrin. The 
 vegetable substances used as food also contain 
 nitrogenised principles of a precisely similar 
 character and chemical constitutiou to those 
 found in flesh, and which we are, therefore, 
 bound to believe are absolutely the same. The 
 gluten of wheat, when purified from gliadin, 
 presents all the characteristics of pure fibrin. 
 The albumen extracted from vegetable juices, 
 when coagulated by heat, cannot be distin- 
 guished from the boiled white of egg in a 
 divided condition. The legumen or vegetable 
 casein of almonds, peas, beans, and many of 
 the oily seeds, bears the most striking resem- 
 blance to the casein of milk. These facts 
 clearly show that the leading nitrogenised 
 principles of animal bodies pre-exist in vege- 
 tables, and that the substances employed as 
 food must have the same, or nearly the same, 
 chemical composition as the body itself. The 
 striking contrast of animal and vegetable food, 
 as far as this point is concerned, is more 
 apparent than real. The actual difference 
 between the two is to be found in the existence 
 of a large quantity of non-nitrogenised matter 
 (sugnr, starch, &c.) in the Inst, which is not 
 contained in the otlier — mutter- which abounds 
 in carbon, and which, by its combustion in the 
 system, serves to support the animal heat at a 
 less sacrifice of the organic fabric. In the 
 flesh-eating animal the waste of the organic 
 tissues is very rapid, and the tax upon the 
 vital energies proportionate; for the tempera- 
 ture of its body is kept up, for the most p:irt, 
 by the burning of the nitrogenised^ matter of 
 which these tissues are composed. 
 
 The process of digestion is that by which 
 the available portions of the food are reduced 
 to a form adapted for absorption by the ves- 
 sels by which it is introduced into the s.\stem. 
 In the flesh-eatinsr animal this process is ex- 
 tremely simple, and consists in the mere com- 
 minution of the food by the teeth, and it- 
 
1116 
 
 NUX VOMICA 
 
 reduction to the liquid state in the stomach, 
 after which, from the nature of its composi- 
 tion, it is nearly all taken up, and at once 
 conveyed into the blood. In the herbivora, 
 however, the process of digestion is much 
 more complicated, and occupies a longer 
 period. Besides the ordinary principles of 
 flesh, their food contains starch, sugar, gum, 
 &c., mixed with much inert vegetable fibre 
 and other useless substances, from which it 
 must be separated. The first of these supply 
 materials for the waste and growth of the 
 body, the second meet the requirements of 
 respiration, and the last pass unaltered through 
 the alimentary canal. 
 
 The nature of the digestive process is not 
 cleai'ly established. The principal objects 
 effected appear to be the conversion of starch, 
 coagulated albumen, fibrin, casein, &c., into a 
 liquid form. It is known that the saliva con- 
 tains a peculiar principle (ptyalin) resembling 
 diastase, capable of transmuting starch into 
 sugar, and that when a little starch is held 
 in the mouth for a short time this change 
 actually occurs. It is also known that tlie 
 gastric juice contains a peculiar organic prin- 
 ciple named ' pepsin,' and that this substance, 
 in conjunction with dilute hydrocliloric aciii, 
 which is likewise present in the stomach, pos- 
 sesses the property of dissolving the albu- 
 minous principles of food. (See Pepsin.) 
 These changes occur whenever these con- 
 ditions are established out of the body, and 
 hence it is inferred that the process of diges- 
 tion is effected by similar means. Of this, 
 however, there is no direct evidence. 
 
 The use of food, as already noticed, is two- 
 fold. It supplies the materials of nutrition 
 to balance the waste of the tissues continuiilly 
 taking place in the body, and it conveys into 
 the system those elements which, by their 
 chemical combinations, produce heat. To 
 effect this purpose in the most beneficial 
 manner, the food should not only be sufficient 
 in quantity, but the proportions of its nitro- 
 genised and carbonaceous principles should 
 bear such relations to each other as to amply 
 meet the demands of the system for each, 
 without the existence, however, of an undue 
 excess of either. 
 
 When the muscular movements of a healthy 
 animal are restrained, a genial temperature 
 kept up, and an ample supply of food con- 
 taining much amylaceous or oily matter given, 
 an accumulation of fat in the system rapidly 
 takes place ; this is well seen in the case of 
 stall-fed cattle. On the other hand, when 
 food is deficient, and much exercise is taken, 
 emaciation results. These effects are ascribed 
 to differences in the activity of the respi- 
 ratory function. In the first instance, the 
 heat-food is supplied faster than it is con- 
 sumed, and hence accumulates in the form of 
 fat; in the second, the conditions are re- 
 versed, and the creature is kept in a state of 
 leanness by its rapid consumption. The fat 
 
 of an animal appears to be the provision of 
 nature for the maintenance of life during a 
 certain period under circumstances of priva- 
 tion. Hence it is that a lean animal suffers 
 more from cold than a, fat one, and is also 
 sooner starved. 
 
 " The origin of fat in the animal body has 
 recently been made the subject of much ani- 
 mated discussion ; on the one hand, it was 
 contended that satisfactory evidence exists 
 of the conversion of starch and saccharine 
 substances into fat, by separation of carbon 
 and oxygen, the change somewhat resembling 
 that of the vinous fermentation ; it was argued, 
 on the other side, that oily or fatty matter is 
 invariably present in the food supplied to the 
 domestic animals, and that this fat is merely 
 absorbed and deposited in the body in a 
 slightly modified state. The question has now 
 been decided in favour of the first of these 
 views, which was enunciated by Professor 
 Liebig, by the very chemist who formerly 
 advocated the second opinion. By a sei-ies of 
 very beautiful experiments, MM. Dumas and 
 Milne-Edwards proved that bees exclusively 
 feeding upon sugar were still capable of pro- 
 ducing wax, which was pointed out as a 
 veritable fact." 
 
 Professor Liebig divided the principles 
 found in food into two classes : — plastic 
 elements of nutrition, or flesh-and-blood-mak- 
 ing principles ; and elements of respiration, 
 or those which, by their decomposition or com- 
 bustion in the system, generate heat. They 
 are as follows : — 
 
 Elements of Nutrition. 
 
 Elements of Respiration 
 
 (Plastic or NitrogenouB.) 
 
 (Heat-producing.) 
 
 Animal flesh 
 
 Fat 
 
 Bloud 
 
 Si arch 
 
 Vegetable albumen. 
 
 Gum 
 
 „ casein 
 
 Cane Bugar 
 
 * „ fibrin 
 
 Grape „ 
 
 
 Milk „ 
 
 
 Pectin „ 
 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 This division is in the main warranted by 
 fact, but, no doubt, the nitrogenous elements 
 of food produce heat as well as the non-nitro- 
 genous. 
 
 NUX VOMICA. Syn. KoocHiA NUT, Poi- 
 son N., Vomit n. ; Nitoes vomica;, Nui 
 VOMICA (B. P., Ph., L., E., & D.), L. " The 
 seed of Strychnos Nux vomica, Linn." (Ph. 
 L.), imported from the East Indies (B. P.). 
 Tills drug is chiefly known as a violent ex- 
 citant of the cerebro-spinal system. In small 
 doses, frequently repeated, it is tonic, diure- 
 tic, and, occasionally, laxative ; in slightly 
 larger ones, it is emetic ; and, in l.irge doses, 
 it is an energetic and fearful poison. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 gr. ; in paralysis, nervous affections, 
 impotence, chronic dysentery, chronic diar- 
 rhcea, &c. Its frequent use is said to render 
 the system proof against the poison of ser- 
 pents. See SxETCHNiNB, its active principle. 
 
OAK— OAT 
 
 1117 
 
 OAK. The British oak is the Quercu» Sobur 
 of Liimicus, of which there are two varieties, 
 Q, peduncala and Q. testijlara. The wood of 
 the oak is mnru durable than that of any other 
 tree, and " for nt oni'e supporting a weight, 
 resisting a Ktrain, and not splintering by a 
 cannon shot, it is superior to every other 
 kind." It, nevertheless, " warps and twists 
 much in drying ; and, in seasoning, shrinks 
 about l-32nd of its width." Foreign oak is 
 less durable, but more brittle and workable. 
 The bark (oak BABK ; QDEBCOs COBTEI, 
 QCBRCC8 — B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.) is used as an 
 astringent and febrifuge, in doses of 30 to 120 
 gr., frequently ; an astringent decoction is 
 also made of it, but its chief employment is 
 in tanning leather. The peculiar appearance 
 of old oak or ' wainscoting ' is given to the 
 new wood by exposing it, whilst very slightly 
 damp, to tlie fumes of ammonia. 
 
 OAT. Syn. AVBITA, L. The common cul- 
 tivated oat is the Avena saliva (Linn ), a 
 graminaceous plant, of which there are several 
 varieties, as the Avena lativa alba, or white 
 oat ; A. s. nigra, or black oat ; the potato oat, 
 &B. Otlier species arc also cultivated, as 
 Avena nuda (Linn.), pilcorn, or naked oat; 
 
 A. itrigota, or Spanish oat, &c. The seed 
 
 (OATa ; CABT0PSIDE9, 8KMINA AVEN^ CBUDa) 
 form the common horse-corn of this country, 
 but in the northern parts of the country it is 
 extensively used a^ fi>od for man. The husked 
 grain constitutes OBOATS, and its meal oat- 
 meal. The latter does not form a dough with 
 water, as wheaten meal or flour does. 
 
 Oats consist of from 24g to 28a of husk, and 
 743 to 7s5 of grain. According to M. Payen, 
 they contain of starch,60'59g ; azotised matter, 
 14'39g ; saccharine and gummy matter, 9-25 g ; 
 fatty matter, 5-50g; cellulose, 7'60g; silica and 
 saline matter, 3-25g. The husks contain be- 
 tween 6 and 7g of saline matter. (Prof. 
 Norton.) The ash amounts to 2'18g, and 
 consists of potassa and soda, 26'18g; lime, 
 5"95J; magnesia, 9'95g; oxide of iron, -401; 
 phosphoHcaiid,43'843; sulphuric acid, 10'455j 
 chlorine, •2G|j; silica, 2-67s; alumiua, 'Oeg. 
 (Johnston.) 
 
 The yield of oats is from 20 bushels per 
 acre in poor soils, up to 60, 70, and even 80 
 bushels per acre in rich soils. The weight per 
 bushel varies from 35 to 45 lbs., and the pro- 
 duct in meal is about one half the weight of 
 the oats- 
 
 White oat— Long, sect., Slid and Srd coats not scparaljU. ». Compouuil grains x 100; h. One do. x 600. 
 
 A larpe proportion of the onts given to 
 horses passes off undigested. It has hence 
 been proposed to prevent this loss, by either 
 coarsely bruising them in a mill, or by pour- 
 ing boiling water over them, and allowing 
 
 them to macerate till cold, when tlicy arc to 
 be given to the horses without straining off 
 the water. It is stated on good authority 
 that oats thus tre:ited nill not only fatten 
 quicker, but go twice as far as without pre- 
 
1118 
 
 OATMEAL— OBSTRUCTION OF LOCAL AUTHORITY 
 
 paration. Oat bruisers are now manufactured 
 by most agricultural implement maljers. 
 
 Under the microscope the oat is seen to con- 
 sist of two or three envelopes j the outer being 
 composed of longitudinal cells ; the second ob- 
 liquely transverse and not very clearly seen ; 
 in this, the cells are wanting in part or pass 
 into the cells of the third coat; the third en- 
 velope consists of a layer, usually single, of 
 cells, like whe^it. Before the envelopes are 
 searched for the husks must be removed. The 
 starch-cells are small, many sided, and cohere 
 into round composite bodies, which are very 
 characteristic, and which, by pressure, may be 
 divided into separate grains. A high power 
 is necessary for the examination of these latter. 
 The starch of the oat does not polarise light. 
 
 OAT'MEAL. S^n. Aven J3 faeina, F. ex 
 
 SEMINIBUS ATEN« (Ph. D.), L. 
 
 Oatmeal is the grain of the oat deprived of 
 the skin, kiln-dried, and afterwards ground. 
 It is rega;rded as one of the most nutritious of 
 our cereals, being rich in nitrogenous matter, 
 fit, starch, and sugar. According to Letheby 
 it contains in 100 parts : — 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 
 . 12-6 
 
 Carbo-hydrates 
 
 . 63-8 
 
 Fatty matter 
 
 . 5-6 
 
 Saline matter 
 
 . 30 
 
 Water .... 
 
 . 15-0 
 
 100-0 
 
 Kreusler has shown that the nitrogenous 
 principle of oatmeal contains gluten-casein, a 
 substance very similar to the legumin of peas 
 and bi'ans. Letheby points out that, although 
 it contains more nutrient material than wheat, 
 its liigher price renders it less economical as 
 an article of diet. Oatmeal forms the staple of 
 the food of the farm labourer both in Scotland 
 and in England, being consumed more largely 
 by the Scotch than the English peasant. 
 Scotch oatmeal is superior to English in nutri- 
 tive value. Oatmeal, when mixed with water, 
 does not possess sufficient tenacity to enable it 
 to be made into bread. It can, however, be 
 baked into excellent cakes, which, when made 
 in Yorkshire, are leavened, and when in Scot- 
 land, unleavened. 
 
 The qualities of indigestibility and a ten- 
 dency to produce irritability of the bowels and 
 skin, have been ascribed to oatmeal; before it 
 was so prepared as to effectually remove from 
 it the husk and hairs by efiBcient screening, it 
 was in Scotland a frequent source of intestinal 
 concretion. These concretions, the nature ol' 
 which Wiis unravelled by Dr WoUaston, con- 
 sisted principally of phosphate of lime mixed 
 with the hairs and husks of the oat. 
 
 Of thirty samples of oatmeal examined by 
 the * Lancet Sanitary Commissioner,' no fewer 
 than sixteen samples, or more than one half, 
 were adulterated. The substance generally 
 used for this purpose is barley meal, which is 
 
 only half the price of oatmeal. Husks of 
 barley, wheat, and of the oat itself, are also fre- 
 quently used. Rice and maize are also some- 
 times added. That supplied to the army, navy, 
 and the workhouses, was very commonly adul- 
 terated with whiting, plaster of Paris, or 
 ground bones. The mineral sophisticant may 
 be detected by the excess of ash, which should 
 not exceed 2'36 per cent. These frauds are 
 readily detected by the microscope. 
 
 Orits or Oroats are the decorticated grain 
 of the oat, which when bruised or crushed 
 constitute Embden groats. Flummery (known 
 in Scotland as sowans) is made by steeping the 
 husks of the grain in water, until they be- 
 come slightly sour, the strained liquid being 
 boiled down to the consistence of gruel. Oat- 
 meal soon becomes sour and rancid. It should 
 be purchased at such shops as have a quick 
 sale for it. See Aoaki, Stibabout. 
 
 OBE"SITY. Si/n. Obesitas, Poltsaeca, 
 L. Unhealthy or troublesome fatness or cor- 
 pulency. Sometimes the secretion of fat, and 
 its accumulation in the adipose membrane, is 
 almost as rapid as that of water in anasarca; 
 on which account some of the old writers have 
 called obesity a dropsy of fat. Persons in 
 easy circumstances, of indolent habits, who 
 live freely, and who are of a cheerful and con- 
 tented deposition, are those most liable to 
 obesity. The treatment consists in the very 
 gradual reduction of the diet, until it falls 
 rather below the average quantity required 
 by a healthy adult ; the very gradual disuse 
 of fermented liquors, more especially beer; 
 the gradual abridgment of the time devoteJ 
 to repose, until it does not exceed 5 or 6 
 hours ; the employment of several hours daily 
 in exercise in the open air, at first moderate, 
 but increased day by day in energy, until it 
 becomes laborious; and, lastly, arousing the 
 mind from a state of lethargy to one of active 
 or even harassing employment. 
 
 In some cases the accumulation of fat has 
 been enormous. Bright, of Maldon, weighed 
 728 lbs.; Daniel Lambert, of Leicester,739 lbs. ; 
 a girl,4 years old, noticed in the ' Phil. Trans.,' 
 1813, weighed 256 lbs. 
 
 Persons affected with obesity are generally 
 short-lived. 
 
 OBSTEUCTION OF LOCAL ATTTHORITY. 
 Various penalties are mentioned in different 
 sections of the Public Health Act for the of- 
 fence of obstructing oflBcers, &c., representing 
 the local authority, in carrying out the Act. 
 The following section, which we select, deals 
 with the subject generally : — 
 
 Sec. 306. "Any person who wilfully ob- 
 structs any member of the local authority, or 
 any person duly employed in the execution 
 of this Act, or who destroys, pulls down, 
 injures, or defaces any board on which any 
 bye-law, notice, or other matter is in- 
 scribed, shall, if the same was put up by au- 
 thority of the Local Government Board or of 
 
OCHRES— OILS 
 
 1119 
 
 tlio local nuthority, be liable for every such 
 ullt'iioe to a penalty not ezceediiiu; £5. 
 
 '• Where the occupier of any preminea pre- 
 veiiU tlie owner thereof from obeying or 
 carrjing into effect any of the provisions of 
 thin Act, any justice, to whom application is 
 made in this behalf, shall by order in writing 
 require such occupier to permit the execution 
 of any works required to be executed, provided 
 that the same appear to such justice to be ne- 
 cessary for the purpose of obeying or carrying 
 into effect the provisions of this Act; and if 
 within 24 hours after the making of the order 
 sucli occupier Calls to comply therewith, he shall 
 he liable to a penalty not exceeding £5 for every 
 day during the continuance of such non- 
 compliance. 
 
 " If the occupier of any premises, when re- 
 quested by or on behalf of the local authority 
 to state the name of the owner of the pre- 
 mises occupied by him, refuses or wilfully 
 omits to disclose, or wilfully niistates the same, 
 he sbiill (unless ho shows cause to the satisfac- 
 tion of the court for his refusal) be liable to a 
 penalty not exceeding £5." 
 
 O'CHRES. These are native earthy com- 
 pounds of clay, coloured with oxide of iron, 
 with frequently a little chalk, or magnesia 
 The differences in the colour arise partly from 
 the quantity of iron present, and partly from 
 the state of oxidation in which the iron is 
 lound. Several varieties are known in com- 
 merce — Bkown oohbe, French o., Oxfoed 
 o., Red o., Roman o., Yellow o. All these, 
 with the exception of the Krst and fourth, 
 have a yellow colour. Aemenian bole, 
 Indian bed, Venetian e., and Spanish 
 BHOWN, are also ochres. 
 
 All the ochres are darkened by calcination. 
 The yellow ochres acquire a red or reddish- 
 brown colour by this treatment. The pigment 
 called Might red' is thus prepared from 
 yellow ochre. 
 ODONTAL'GIA. See Toothache. 
 O'DORAMENTS. Si/n. Odoeamenta, L. 
 Substances employed in medicine on account 
 of their odour. They differ from disinfectants, 
 in only disguising, but not destroying, noxious 
 vapours, &c. Ammonia, steono tinegae, 
 and PASTILLES, furnish the most familiar 
 examples of this class of substances. See 
 Disinfectants, Perfumes, &c. 
 
 O'DOUE. The emanation of an odoriferous 
 or scent-giving body. See Pbefcmes. 
 
 (ENAN'THIC ETHER. See Etpee ((Enan- 
 thic). 
 
 OFFICIHAL. Sytt. Officinalis, L. A 
 term applied to substances or medicines ordered 
 in the Pharmacopoeia. 
 
 OIL. Sj/ii. Oleum, L.; Huile, Fr. This 
 name is given to numerous liquid or semi-liquid 
 substances, expressed or drawn from animal or 
 vegetable bodies; to various products of the 
 distillation of bituminous minerals ; and to 
 several unctuous mixtures in perfumery and 
 pharmacy. To facilitate reference, we have 
 
 grouped the principal substances generally 
 called ' oils ' into classes, under the following 
 heads:— Oils (Drying); OiL8(EnipyreumJtic) ; 
 Oils (Fixed) ; Oils (Medicated) ; Oils (Mine- 
 ral); Oils (Mixed); Oils (Perfumed); Oils 
 (Volatile). See these articles also below .— 
 
 Oil, Cansol'idated. 5yi>. Campticon, Fac- 
 titious caoutchouc. a substance havini; 
 most of the properties of India rubber, pre- 
 pared by oxidising boiled linseed oil, or any 
 other oil that hardens on exposure to the at- 
 mosphere. To obtain the solid oil, plates of 
 glass are dipped into Unseed oil, the films 
 are then allowed to dry, and the process is 
 repeated again and again until the plates are 
 coated with many layers of perfectly oxidised 
 oil. Instead of plates of glass, extensive sur- 
 faces of prepared cloth arc employed when the 
 manufacture is carried out on a large senle. 
 The solid oil, having been scraped or petli d 
 off the surfaces, is worked with a small pro- 
 portion of shell-lac, by means of a mixing 
 machine with hot rollers, until a material 
 singularly like caoutchouc is produced. The 
 consolidated oil can be rolled on to fabrics, so 
 as to form a waterproof cloth, having the 
 finish and flexibility of ruhhir-clotli. liy the 
 action of heat the consolidated oil may be 
 converted into a hard substance resembling 
 vulcanite and ebonite. Its useful applications 
 appear to be very numerous, but its manufac- 
 ture has not as yet made much progress. 
 
 0IL-6AS. A mixture of several pa'seous 
 hydrocarbons, obtained by passing common 
 whale fat, resin, the heavy petroleum or sh de 
 oil, or the tarry re-idues left after the distil- 
 lation of these two latter substanees, or other 
 cheap animal oil, through red-hot tulio<, or by 
 allowing it to fall in drops on red-hot .stones 
 or bricks arranged in an iron retort, or other 
 suitable apparatus. The i^as has great illu- 
 minating power, requires no purification, and 
 is quite free from the ammoniacal and sulphur 
 compounds which vitiate coal-gas. The sp. gr. 
 of oil-gas varies with the heat employed in its 
 production. It averages from 0-76 to 90, but 
 it may rise as high as 11. 
 
 The composition of coal gas, as given by 
 Payen, is as follows: — 
 
 
 Oil Gas. 
 
 Gas from 
 Petroleum 
 residuea. 
 
 Olefiant gas and homo- 
 
 logues 
 Marsh gas . 
 Hydn.gen . 
 Ciirbouie oxide 
 Nitrogen 
 
 22-5 
 
 50 3 
 
 / / 
 
 15'5 
 4-0 
 
 17-4 
 
 58-3 
 24-3 
 
 OILS (Drying). All the fixed oils have an 
 attraction more or less powerful for oxyiren, 
 and, by exposure to the air, they citlier become 
 
1120 
 
 OILS 
 
 bard and reeinous, or they only thicken slightly, 
 and become sour and rancid. Those which 
 exhibit the first property in a marked degree, 
 as the oils of linseed, poppy, rape, and walnut, 
 are called ' drying oils,' and are used as 
 vehicles for colours in painting. The others 
 are frequently termed ' glutinous' or ' non- 
 drying oils.' 
 
 The resinifying or drying property of oils is 
 greatly increased by boiling them, either alone 
 or along with some litharge, sugar of lead, or 
 white vitriol, when the product forms the 
 ' boiled oil ' or 'drying oil ' (oleum desic- 
 cativum) of commerce. The efficacy of the 
 process, according to Liebig, depends on the 
 elimination of substances which impede the 
 oxidation of the oil. The following'formulse 
 are adopted for this purpose : — 
 
 1. Linseed oil, 1 gall.; powdered litharge, 
 I lb.; simmer, with frequent stirring, until a 
 pellicle begins to form ; remove the scum, and 
 when it has become cold and has settled 
 decant the clear portion. Dark coloured; 
 used by house-painters. 
 
 2. Linseed oil and water, of each 1 quart ; 
 white vitriol, in powder, 2 oz. ; boil to dry- 
 ness. Paler than the last. 
 
 3. Pale linseed or nut oil, 1 pint ; litharge 
 or dry sulphate of lead, in fine powder, 2 oz. ; 
 mix, agitate frequently for 10 days, then set 
 the bottle in the sun or a warm place to settle, 
 and decant the clear portion. Very pale. 
 
 4. Linseed oil, 100 galls. ; calcined white 
 vitriol (' sulphate of ziuc'), in fine powder, 
 7 lbs. ; mix in a clean copper boiler, heat the 
 whole to 285" Fahr., and keep it at that tem- 
 perature, with constant stirring, for at least 
 oue hour ; then allow it to cool, in 24 hours 
 decant the clear portion, and in 3 or 4 weeks 
 more rack it for use. Used for varnishes. 
 
 5. (Liebig.) Sugar of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved 
 in rain water, ^ gall.; litharge, in fine powder, 
 1 lb., is then added, and the mixture is gently 
 simmered until only a whitish sediment re- 
 mains; levigated litharge, 1 lb., is next diffused 
 through linseed oil, 2J galls., and the mixture 
 is gradually added to the lead solution, pre- 
 viously diluted with an equal bulk of water ; 
 the whole is now stirred together for some 
 hours, with heat, and is, lastly, left to clenr 
 itself by exposure in a warm place. The lead 
 solution which subsides fiom the oil may be 
 used again for the same purpose, by dissolving 
 in it another lb. of litharge, as before. 
 
 6. (Wilks.) lutolinseedoil, 236 galls., pour 
 oil of vitriol, 6 or 7 lbs., and stir the two to- 
 gether for 3 hours ; then add a mixture of 
 fuller's earth, 6 lbs., and hot lime, 14 lbs., and 
 again stir for 3 hours ; next put the whole into 
 a copper, with an equnl quantity of water, and 
 boil for about 3 hours , lastly, withdraw the 
 fire, and when the whole is cold, draw off the 
 water, run the oil into any suitable vessel, and 
 let it stand for a few weeks before using 
 it. Patent. 
 
 7. ('Allg. Polytech. Zeitung.') Binoxide of 
 
 manganese (in coarse powder, but not dusty), 
 1 part; nut or linseed oil, 10 parts; mix, and 
 keep the whole gently heated and frequently 
 stirred for 24 to 36 hours, or until the oil 
 begins to turn reddish. Recommended for 
 zinc paint, hut is equally adapted (or other 
 purposes for which boiled oil is employed. 
 
 Obs. There is often a difficulty in obtaining 
 the oils ' bright' after boiling or heating them 
 with the lead solutions ; the best way, on the 
 small scale, is either to filter them through 
 coarse woollen filtering paper, or to expose the 
 bottle for some time to the sun or in a warm 
 place. On the large scale, the finer oils of this 
 kind are often filtered through Canton-flannel 
 bags. The litharge and sulphate of lead used 
 in the above processes may be again rendered 
 available for the same purpose, by washing 
 them in hot water, to remove adiiering mu- 
 cilage. 
 
 OILS (Empyrenmat'ic.) Sj/n. Olea empt- 
 EEFMATICA, L. The * empyreumatic oils' of 
 the old pharmaceutical writers we're oily fluids 
 obtained by the dry distillation of various 
 substances, animal, vegetable, and mineral. 
 But few of them are in use at the present 
 day, though formulae are given for them in 
 some of the foreign pharmacopceias. Two or 
 three have useful applications in the arts, and 
 it is therefore necessary that we should briefly 
 describe their preparation. When the ingre- 
 dients are of a liquid or pasty nature, or 
 become so when heated, they are usually mixed 
 with about twice their weight of sand, pow- 
 dered glass, or other like substance, to divide 
 them, and thus expose them more effectually 
 to the action of^ the fire. Care must also be 
 taken to provide a well-cooled receiver, which 
 must be furnished with a tube to carry off 
 the non-condensable gases liberated at the 
 same time as the oil. The products of the 
 first distillation are generally purified by recti- 
 fication, either alone or along with water. 
 In general, they require to be preserved from 
 the light and air. 
 
 The following are the principal substances 
 belonging to this class : — 
 
 Oil of Al'oes. Si/n. Aloetic oil ; Olettsi 
 ALOETicuM, L. 1. From Socotrine or hepatic 
 aloes distilled along with sand. 
 
 2. (Batavian — Cadet de Gassicourt.) Olive 
 oil, 1 lb. ; hepatic aloes and myrrh, of each in 
 powder, 2 t'Z. ; olibanum, ^ oz. ; distil in a 
 sand bath, from a stoneware retort. Used as 
 an external vermifuge for children ; a portion 
 is rubbed 2 or 3 times a day over the umbi- 
 lical regions. 
 
 Oil of Am'ber. Sj/n. Oleum sticcini, L. 
 From coarse pieces of amber, distilled in an 
 iron retort, either alone or reduced to powder 
 and mixed with sand. The oil is separated 
 from the fetid liquor and succinic acid which 
 passes over, and rectified along with about 6 
 times its volume of water, by a gentle heat. 
 It then forms 'eectified oil of ambeii' 
 
 (OLEUM SUCOINI — Ph. L. 1836, O. S. BECTI- 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 1121 
 
 FICiTUM— Ph. D. 182(3. O. 8. PUEISSIMiril — 
 Ph. E. 1841). Prod. 20?. 
 
 Prof., S[c. It has a pale yellow colour, n 
 stroni;, ungmtcful odour, and a hot, acrid 
 !»it«; hcitt nnd nir blacken and thicken it; 
 it boiU at IBS' Fahr. Sp. gr. -758 at 75° 
 Fnbr. It is antispasmodic, rubefacient, and 
 stimulant. — Dose, 5 to 12 drops, made into an 
 emuUioii with mucilnge; in hysteria, epilepsy, 
 and convulsive aflections. Externally, as a 
 friction, either alone or combined with lauda- 
 num or sweet oil, in rheumatism, tic doulou- 
 reux, hooping-cough, &c. 
 
 Oil of Amber, Ozydated {Artificial Musk). 
 Put into a cup 1 dr. of oil of amber, and add 
 to it, drop by drop, SJ fl. dr. of strong nitric 
 acid ; let it stand for 36 hours, then separate 
 and wash the rusi nous matter. Antispasmodic 
 and nerviuo. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. For children, 
 i gr. to 1 gr. 
 
 Oil, An'imal. 1. (Empyreumatic or Fetiil j 
 Oil OB nAiiTsHOBN, Dippel's o. ; Olkum 
 
 ANIMALB EMPyEEOKATIOUM, 0. COENC OEBVl, 
 (J. DlPPELii, L.) Chietiy obtained as a 
 ht'condttry product in the manufacture of bone- 
 black. Fetid and dark coloured. Used 
 chiefly tn make lampblack. 
 
 2. (Kllicroill; RECTIFIED OIL OP HAHTS- 
 
 iioiiN ; Oleum animale juTnEiiiUM, O. counu 
 
 CEBTI BEOTIFICAIUM, LoCO OLEI ANIMALIS 
 DiPPELii, L.) — a. A finer kind of animal, oil, 
 made by %\on \y distilling oil of hartshorn, and 
 collecting only the first portion that comes 
 over. Pale and limpid. Exposure to light 
 discolours it. 
 
 b. (Ph. Bor.) Fetid animal oil distilled in 
 a sand bath, and the product rectified with 
 four times its volume of water. White, limpid, 
 fragrant. Light discolours it. 
 
 Prof. The refined product is said to be 
 antispasmodic, anodyne, and diaphoretic. — 
 Dose, 5 to 30 drops, in water j in large doses 
 it acts as an irritant poison. 
 
 Oil of Birch. Syn. Oleum betul^, L. 
 From the inner bark of the birch, by heating it 
 in an earthen pot with a hole in the bottom, 
 to allow the oil to flow through into another 
 jar sunk in the ground nnd luted to it. Thick, 
 balsamic, fragrant. Used chiefly to dress 
 russia leather. 
 
 Oil of Box-wood. Sijn. Oleum buxi, 0. B. 
 KMPYBEUMATicuM (I'll. L. 1746), L. From 
 box-wood sawdust. Reputed resolvent; ano- 
 dyne, antispasmodic, and diaphoretic. — Dose, 
 5 to 20 drops ; in convulsions, epilepsy, gonor- 
 rhoea, &c. Externally, in toothache, &e. 
 
 Oil of Bricks. Syn. Oleum lateritium 
 (Ph. L. 1746), L. Prom olive oil, mixed with 
 brickdust, and distilled ; or, from hot bricks 
 stfcpi'd in olive oil, then broken to pieces, and 
 distilled. 
 
 Oil of Bricks (Factitious). Syn. Oleum 
 
 LATSBITIUM PACTITIUM, L. From linseed oil, 
 
 1 lb. ; oil of turpentine, \ lb. ; oil of bones or 
 
 of hartshorn and Burbadoes tar, of each 1 oz. ; 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 simply stirred well together. This is generally 
 sub'itituted for the preceding in the shops. 
 
 Oil of Cade. Syn. Oleum cadisum, L. ; 
 HuiLE DB CADE, Fr. From the Junipenu 
 oxyeedrua or Languedoc juniper. Used as oil 
 of tar, which is commonly sold for it. 
 
 Oil of Coal. Syn. Coal oil. From the 
 gas-works. See Naphtha. 
 
 Oil of Ona'iacum. Syn. Oleum ouaiaci, 
 O. G. KMPYBEUMATICUM, L. From guaiacum 
 shavings or raspings. Reputed balsamic, pec- 
 toral, and resolvent. 
 
 Oil of Hartsliorn. Bone oil and rectified 
 bone oil are commonly sold for it, but are 
 inferior to it. See Oil, Animal (above). 
 
 Oil, Paper. Syn. Rao oil, Pyeothonidj! ; 
 Oleum chabtje, L. On the small scale, by 
 burning paper on u cold tin plate, and col- 
 lecting the oil ; ou the large scale, by the 
 destructive distillation of paper or lini'u rags. 
 In baldness, toothache, ear-ache, &c. 
 
 Oil, Far'affin. See Oils, Minkbal. 
 
 Oil, Petro"leum. See Oils, Mineeai, Pe- 
 
 TBOLEUM. 
 
 Oil, Sag. See Oil, Papeb, above. 
 
 Oil, Sock. See Naphtha, Oils, Minebal, 
 Peteoleum. 
 
 Oil, Shale. See Oils, Minebal. 
 
 Oil of Soot. Syn. Oleum fdlioinis (Ph. 
 L. 1746), L. From wood-soot. Fetid ; re- 
 puted antispasmodic and nervine. 
 
 Oil of Tar. Syn. Spieit of t. ; Oleum 
 PINI, 0. p. eubeum, O. tmos, 0. PICIS li- 
 QUID.S, L. By simple distillation from wood- 
 tar. Reddish and strong scented. By one 
 or more rectifications it becomes colourltss 
 and limpid. It soon gets thick. Used in 
 ringworm and several other skin diseases, 
 made into an ointment with lard. It is poi- 
 sonous if swallowed in larfjc doses. 
 
 Oil of Tobac'co (Empyreumatic). Syn. 
 Oleum tabaoi empteeumaticum (Ph. U. S.), 
 L. From tobacco, in coarse powder, gradually 
 heated in a green-glass retort to dull redness, 
 and kept at that temperature as long as auy 
 oil passes over ; the oily portion is then sepa- 
 rated from the water in the receiver, and kept 
 for use. Highly narcotic and poisonous. 
 
 Oil of Wax. Syn. Oleum ceiue, L. From 
 beeswax and sand distilled together; the 
 product is rectified once or olteiier. Reputed 
 diuretic. — Dose, 3 to 6 drops. 
 
 OILS (Fixed). Syn. Fat oils. Unctuous 
 o. ; Olea rixA, 0. expeessa, L. ; HuiLES 
 geasses, Fr. The fixed oils are compounds of 
 carbon, hydrogen, aud oxygen (oxyhydro-car- 
 bons), obtained from the organic kingdom, 
 and characterised by their insipidity, unctu- 
 o.^ity, insolubility in water, and being lighter 
 than that fluid. Olive oil, which is obtained 
 from the vegetable kingdom, and spermaceti 
 oil, which is obtained from the animal king- 
 dom, may be taken as types of the rest. 
 
 The fixed oils are chiefiy found in the fruit 
 and seeds of plants, and in thin membranous 
 cells, forming what is called the adipose tissue, 
 
 71 
 
1122 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 
 
 in the bodies of animals. According to their 
 consistence, they may be classed into ' OILS,' 
 ' BUTTEES,' and • TALLOWS.' 
 
 Prop., Sfo. Among the best-known proper- 
 ties of the fixed oils are — the permanent stain 
 they give to paper, which they render trans- 
 lucid; their non-TOlatility at the ordinary 
 temperature of the atmosphere, or at that of 
 boiling water, or, indeed, at any temperature 
 insufficient for their decomposition j their con- 
 stantly floating on the surface of water when 
 added to it ; and, lastly, their inability to mix 
 with that fluid. Some of them, as palm oil 
 and cocoa-nut oil, are solid at ordinary tem- 
 peratures; but the majority are fluid, unless 
 they have been considerably cooled, when they 
 separate into two portions — the one solid, 
 consisting chiefly of stearin, or some analogous 
 substance, and the other liquid, consisting 
 chiefly of oleiu or elain. Nearly all of them, 
 when exposed to the air,absorb oxygen rapidly, 
 and either gradually harden or become rancid 
 and nauseous. Prom the first are selected the 
 ' drying oil ' used by painters ; the last are 
 used as food, in cookery, and for machinery, 
 lamps, &c. The whole of these oils, when 
 heated to their boiling points (500° to 600° 
 Fahr.), sufier decomposition, yielding various 
 hydrocarbons; and when suddenly exposed to 
 a red heat, tliey furnish a gaseous product 
 (oil-gas), which was formerly employed for 
 illumination. It is owing to this property of 
 oil and liquid fats that candles and lamps give 
 their light. The wick is a gas-producing 
 apparatus in miniature. With the caustic 
 alkalies and water the fixed oils unite to form 
 soap. When some of these oils are absorbed 
 by porous bodies, and thus expose a vastly in- 
 creased surface to the air, they absorb oxygen 
 with such rapidity as to generate a consider- 
 able degree of heat. Paper, tow, cotton, wool, 
 straw, shavings, &c., slightly embued with 
 oil, and left in a heap, freely exposed to the 
 air or sun, often spontaneously inflame. In 
 this way many extensive fires have arisen. 
 The above is more particularly the case with 
 linseed, rape, nut, and olive oil. The first, 
 made into a paste with manganese, rapidly 
 becomes hot, and ultimately inflames spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 The specific gravities of the fixed oils range 
 between -865 and -970, water being 1-000. 
 
 Prep. The fixed oils, except where other- 
 wise directed, are obtained from the bruised 
 or ground fruit or seed, by means of powerful 
 pressure, in screw or hydraulic presses, and 
 are then either allowed to clarify themselves 
 by subsidence or are flltered. Both methods 
 are frequently applied to the same oil. In 
 some cases the impurities, are removed by 
 ebullition with water, and subsequent sepa- 
 ration of the pure oil. Heat is frequently 
 employed to increase the liquidity of the oil, 
 and thus lessen the difficulty of its expulsion 
 from the mass. With this object the bruised 
 mass, placed in bags, is commonly exposed to 
 
 the heat of steam, and then pressed between 
 heated plates of metal. This is always neces- 
 sary with the ' butyraceous oils.' 
 
 Another method is by bailing the bruised 
 seed in water, and skimming ofE the oil as it 
 rises to the surface. This is the plan adopted 
 for castor oil in the West Indies. 
 
 In a few cases, for medicinal purposes, the 
 bruised mass is mixed with i its weight, or an 
 equal weight, of alcohol or ether, and after 24 
 hours' digestion the whole is submitted to • 
 pressure, and the alcohol or ether removed by 
 distillation at a gentle heat. The first men- 
 struum is commonly employed for croton oil 
 on the Continent; the second, for that of 
 ergot of rye. 
 
 Pwrif. Several methods are adopted for 
 refining or purifying the fixed oils, among 
 which are the following : — 
 
 1. The oil is violently agitated along with 
 li to 2§of concentrated sulphuric acid, when 
 it assumes a greenish colour, and, after about 
 a fortnight's repose, deposits much colouring 
 matter, becomes paler, and burns with greater 
 brilliancy, particularly if well washed with 
 steam or hot water,and clarified by subsequent 
 repose or by filtration. This answers well 
 for most of the recently expressed vegetable 
 oils. It also greatly improves most of the 
 fish oils. 
 
 2. A modification of the last method is 
 to well MUX the acid with the oil, then to 
 blow steniii through the mixture for some 
 time, and afterwards to otherwise proceed as 
 before. 
 
 3. Fish oil (whale, seal, &c.) is purified 
 by— 
 
 a. Violently agitating it with boiling water 
 or steam, by placing it in a deep vessel with 
 perforated bottom, through which high pres- 
 sure steam is forced for some time ; it is after- 
 wards clarified by repose, and filtered through 
 coarse charcoal. 
 
 i. The oil is violently agitated with a boil- 
 ing hot and strong solution of oak bark, to 
 remove albumen and gelatin, and next with 
 high-pressure steam and hot water; it is, 
 lastly, dried and filtered. I 
 
 c. The oil, gently heated, is stirred for 
 some time with about 1 § of good chloride of 
 lime, previously made into a milk by tritura- 
 tion with water ; about 1 J ^ of oil of vitriol, 
 diluted with 20 times its weight of water, is 
 then added, and the agitation renewed and 
 maintained for at least 2 hours ; it is, lastly, 
 well washed with steam or hot water. 
 
 d. Mr Davidson treats the oil first with a 
 strong solution of tan, next with water 'and 
 chloride of lime, then with dilute sulphuric 
 acid, and lastly, with hot water. 
 
 c. Mr Dunn's method, which is very effec- 
 tive, and admirable ouaccount of its simplicity, 
 is to heat the oil by steam to from 180° to 
 200° Fahr., and then to force a current of air 
 of corresponding temperature through it, 
 under a flue or chimney, until it is sufliciently 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 birached and deodorised ; it is, lastly, either 
 at once llltcrod i>r is previoasly washed with 
 •team or hot wuter. 
 
 /. Another method, formerly very generally 
 adopted iind still in use, is to violently agitate 
 the oil for some time with very strong brine, 
 or with a mixed solution of blue vitriol and 
 common salt, and then either to allow it to 
 clarify by repose or to filter it through freshly 
 burnt charcoal. 
 
 4. AlUOND, CA8T0B. LINSEED, NUT, OLtVE, 
 RIPE, and some other vegetable oils, are 
 readily bleached by either of the following 
 processes : — 
 
 a. KipoBure in glass bottles to the sun's 
 rays, on the leads or roofs of houses, or in 
 any other suitable position, open to the south- 
 east and south. This is the method employed 
 by druggists and oilmen to whiten tlieir castor 
 iirid linseed oils. 14 to 21 days' exposure to 
 tlie sun in clear weather during summer is 
 usually sufficient for castor oil when contained 
 in )i to 4-qiiart pale green glass bottles (pre- 
 (erably the former), and covered with white 
 gallipots inverted over tliem. The oil is fil- 
 tered before exposing it to the light, as, if 
 only in a slight degree opaque, it does not 
 bleach well. Almond and olive oil are, when 
 thus treated, apt to acquire a slight sulphur- 
 ous smell ; but this may be removed by fil- 
 tration through a little animal charcoal, 
 or, still better, by washing the oil with hot 
 water. 
 
 A. Another method employed to decolour 
 these oils is to heat them in a wooden, tinned, 
 or WL'll-glazed earthen vessel along with some 
 dry 'filtering powder ' (1 to 2 lbs. per gall.), 
 with agitation for some tims, and lastly, to 
 filter them in the usual manner throu,'h an 
 oil-bag. In this way the West-end perfumers 
 prepare their ' white almond oil ' (oleum 
 AMYODALa; AiBUM), and their ' white olive 
 oil' (oLECM OLIV.E ALBUM). Formerly, freshly 
 burnt animal charcoal was used for this 
 purpose, and is still so employed by some 
 houses. 
 
 5. Mr Bancroft refines OILS FOE MACni- 
 NBBT AND LITBSIOATINO PURPOSES i,'euerally, 
 by asritatint; them with a lye of caustic soda 
 of the sp. gr. 1'2. A sufficient quantity is 
 known to have been added when, after re- 
 pose, a portion begins to settle down clear at 
 the bottom. About 4 g to 8 J is commonly 
 required for lard oil and olive oil. After 
 21 hours' repose the clear supernatant oil is 
 decanted frum the soapy sediment, and fil- 
 tered. 
 
 6. Not only the oils above referred to, but 
 all other oils and fats, may be rendered per- 
 fectly coluurless by the use of a little chromic 
 acid ; or, what is the same, by a mixture of a 
 solution of bichromate of potassa and sufli- 
 cieiit sulphuric, hydrochloric, or nitric acid, 
 to seiie on pII the alkali, ami thus liberate the 
 chromic aeid. 
 
 7. Palm oil and Cocoa-hut oiw are gcue- 
 
 1123 
 
 rally refined and bleached by either chromic 
 acid or chlorine, or by heat : — 
 
 a. The 'butyraceousoil ' is liquefied by beat 
 in a wooden vessel, and 7g to 9^ of good chlo- 
 ride of lime, previously made into a smooth 
 cream with water, is added, and the whole 
 assiduously stirred until the ingredients appear 
 united ; the mixture is then allowed to cool, 
 and is next cut up into small lumps, which are 
 exposed to a free current of air for 2, 3, or 
 even 4 weeks ; these are melted in a wooden 
 vessel heated by high-pressure steam circulat- 
 ing through leaden pipes, or in a cast-iron 
 boiler lined with lead, and an equal weight of 
 oil of vitriol (diluted with about 20 times its 
 weight of water) is poured in, and the whole 
 gently boiled until the oil is discoloured and 
 runs clear ; the fire is then moderated, and the 
 whole allowed to settle ; lastly, the fire is 
 removed, and the oil is left to cool very 
 slowly. 
 
 b. The process with chromic acid has been 
 already noticed, but is more fully explained 
 below. 
 
 c. The oil, heated to the temperature of 
 about 250° Fahr., is exposed to the action of 
 hish-pres-iure steam, which is continuously 
 ' blown ' through it for 10 or 12 hoiixs, or 
 even longer, 'fhe process is greatly facili- 
 tated by the introduction of some chromic 
 acid. 
 
 S. Mr Watt's inethods of purifying fats 
 and oils are very effective, more especially for 
 those intended f >r lllumiiiatiou. Tiicy are as 
 follows: — 
 
 a. (For FISH oils.) Each ton is boiled for 
 i an hour with caustic soda, i lb., previously 
 made into a weak lye with water ; or steam 
 is blown through the mixture for a like period; 
 oil of vitriol, i lb., diluted with 6 times its 
 weight of water, is next added, the whole 
 again boiled for 15 minutes, and allowed to 
 settle for an hour ur longer, when the clear 
 oil is run off from the water and sediment 
 into the bleaching tubs; here solution of bi- 
 chromate of potash, 4 lbs., in oil of vitriol, 2 lbs., 
 previously diluted with water, q. s., together 
 with a little nitric acid and some oxalic acid, 
 are added, and after thorough admixture of 
 the whole, by blowing steam through it, strong 
 nitric acid, 1 lb., diluted with water, 1 quart, 
 is poured in, and the boiling continued for i 
 an hour longer ; a small quantity of naphtha 
 or rectified spirit of turpentine is then mixed 
 in, and the oil is, finally, well washed with hot 
 water, and left to settle. 
 
 b. (For PALM OIL.) The oil is melted by 
 the heat of ste im, and, after it has settled and 
 cooled down to about 130° Fahr., is carefully 
 decanted from the water and sediment into 
 the steaming tubs ; here a mixture of a satu- 
 rated solution of bichromate of potash, 25 lbs., 
 and oil of vitriol, 8 or 9 lbs., is added, and after 
 thorough admixture, hydrochloric acid, 50 lbs., 
 is poured in ; the whole is then constantly 
 stirred until it acquires a uniform greenish 
 
1124 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 
 
 colour, or is sufficiently decoloured, a little 
 more of the bleaching materials being added 
 if the latter is not the case, after which it is 
 allowed to repose for half an hour to settle ; 
 it is next run into a wooden vat, where it is 
 washed, &c., as before. 
 
 c. (For TEOEXABLE OILS.) These are treated 
 with a solution of chromic acid, or with a 
 solution of bichromate of potassa, or some 
 mineral acid, as noticed at No. 6. For colza, 
 
 MNSBED, MUSTAKD, NUT, and BAPE Olt, a 
 
 little hydrochloric acid is added; but for 
 
 ALMOND, CASTOB, OLITE OIL, and POPPY OIL, 
 
 no such addition (at least in excess) is re- 
 quired. 
 
 9. Bancid oils and pats are recovered by 
 boiling them for about 15 minutes with a little 
 water aud calcined magnesia ; or, by filtering 
 tliem through freshly burnt charcoal. 
 
 In reference to the above processes, it may 
 be useful to remark, that chlorine, the com- 
 mon bleacher and deodoriser of other sub- 
 stances, cannot be well employed directly in 
 tlje purification of oils, as certain chemical re- 
 actions occur when these substances are brought 
 together, which increiise the colour instead of 
 removing it, and are often otherwise injurious. 
 The same remaiks apply to the use of the 
 * chlorides,' which frequently fails in unskilful 
 hands, and is, indeed, of questionable utility, 
 except, perhaps, in the case of palm oil. Even 
 charcoal exerts little of its usual energy on 
 the oils, and whilst it removes or lessens their 
 offensive odour, sometimes increases their co- 
 lour. The addition of 1§ or 2g of very pure 
 and recently rectified naphtha or oil of tur- 
 pentine (camphine) to lamp oil is a real im- 
 provement, since it increases its combustibility 
 and its illuminative power. 
 
 Oils pok medical pdkposes, as castoh oil, 
 COD-LIVBB OIL, &c., must not be subjected to 
 any process beyond mere clarification by sub- 
 sidence, filtration through Canton flannel or 
 porous paper, or, at the utmost, washing with 
 warm water, as otherwise their active and 
 valuable properties, if not wholly removed, 
 will be considerably lessened. See FlLlBA- 
 TION. 
 
 Furity. The fixed oils vary greatly in their 
 value, aud hence the constant inducement 
 which leads the unprincipled dealer to adulte- 
 rate the more expensive ones with those of a 
 similar character, but of an inferior kind of 
 grade. Various methods are adopted to de- 
 tect these frauds, among which the following 
 are the most valuable of those capable of 
 general application. Others referring to indi- 
 vidual oils will be found under the respective 
 heads. 
 
 1. (From the odour.) The method of ap- 
 plying this test is to heat a few drops of the 
 oil under examination in a small porcelain, 
 platinum, or silver spoon or capsule (a watch- 
 glass answers well), and to carefully compare 
 the odour evolved with that arising from a 
 known pure sample of the same kind and 
 
 quality of the oil similarly treated. The odour 
 of the two, when each is pure, is precisely 
 alike, and immediately suggests the plant or 
 animal from which it has been obtained. 
 The presence of linseed, kut, bape, seal, 
 TEAIN, or WHALE OIL, is thus readily detected, 
 and the imperfections of the sample, even if 
 pure, rendered much more perceptible. 
 
 2. (From the density.) — a. According to 
 M. Penot, every oil supposed to come from the 
 same plant, or the same animal, has its own 
 particular density, which, at the same tempe- 
 rature, never deviates more than a few thou- 
 sandths. To apply this test, the relative den- 
 sity or specific gravity of the sample must be 
 determined. This may be done by means of a 
 thousand-grain bottle or an ordinary 'aeeo- 
 METEB ;' or, more conveniently, by an ' elaio- 
 meteb' or ' OLEOMETEE,' constructed and gra- 
 duated for the purpose. ' Tiseher's elaiome- 
 teb' or 'OIL-BALANCE' is much employed on 
 the Continent for this purpose, and is a very 
 useful instrument. On the large scale, the 
 weight of an accurately measured imperial 
 gallon of the oil may be taken. 
 
 i. M. Lauret, an eminent Pari-iau chemist, 
 a short time since observed that the variations 
 of the density of an oil from adulteration are 
 rendered much more apparent when it is ex- 
 amined in a heated state. To render this dis- 
 covery practically available, he plunges an 
 ' elaiometer,' graduated for the given tempera- 
 ture, into a small tin cylinder nearly filled with 
 the oil, and then places this in a vessel contain- 
 ing boiling water j as soon as the whole has 
 acquired a uniform temperature, he observes 
 the point on the scale of the instrument at 
 which it fioats. This point for — 
 
 Colza oil is . . . . 0° 
 
 Fish oil 83° 
 
 Poppy oil ... . 124° 
 
 Hemp-seed oil , ... 136° 
 
 Linseed oil . . . . 210° 
 
 u. By employing a specific gravity bottle or 
 
 small glass globe, fitted with a stopper in which 
 
 is hermetically fixed a capillary tube of atiout 
 
 8 or 9 inches in length, we may apply the 
 
 above principle of M. Lauret with the greatest 
 
 accuracy. This little apparatus is filled with 
 
 the oil, and then immersed in boiling water for 
 
 a sufliclent length of time for it to acquire that 
 
 temperature; it is then removed and weighed. 
 
 The smallest adulteration is, it is said, in this 
 
 way immediately detected. 
 
 When the density of the given sample has 
 been taken, and the name of the oil used to 
 adulterate it is known, the quantity of the 
 latterpresentmaybe approximately determined 
 from the specific gravities by the common 
 method of alligation.* 
 
 3. (Sulphuric-acid test.) — a. Heidenreich 
 was the first person who gave a useful and 
 general application to the reactions which occur 
 when oil of vitriol is mixed with the fatty oils. 
 As soon as these substances are placed toge- 
 
 ' See MiXTUBGs, Antliiuetic of. 
 
ther, very interne chemical action cominenoes, 
 tlie temperature of the mixture rises, and the 
 inaM becomes coloured. These changes are 
 sufficiently varied in the case of the different 
 oils to lurnish us with the means of identifying 
 many of them, and of determining their pu- 
 rity. Tlie method of M. Ueldenrelch is to lay 
 a plate of white glass over a sheet of white 
 paper ; on the glass he places 10 or 15 drups 
 of oil, and then adds to it a small drop of con- 
 centrated sulphuric acid (' oil of vitriol'). The 
 appearances which follow dilfer with the cha- 
 racter of the fatty oil examined, and whether 
 the acid is allowed to act on the oil unilis- 
 turhed (without stirring) or the two are stirred 
 together with a glass rod. In many cases, as 
 with tallow oil, a peculiar odour as well as a 
 change of colour is developed, Rnd a farther 
 means of detection supplied. M. Heideureich 
 bus minutely described these reactions, which, 
 for the most part, closely resemble those given 
 in the table, p. 1129. It is necessary, however, 
 in order to ensure great accuracy, to compare 
 the effect of the reagent on the sample with 
 those which it produces on pure oil of the same 
 kind and character under precisely similar 
 circumstances. 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 1125 
 
 b. M. Penot, who has followed up the re- 
 searches of M. Hoidenreich with considerable 
 success, recommends the employment of 20 
 drops of oil, instead of only 10 or 15 ; and the 
 use of a small capsule of white porcelain, in- 
 stead of a plate of glass, fie also employs a 
 saturated solution of bichromate of potash in 
 sulphuric acid, which be uses in the same pro- 
 portion as before ; but in this case the oil and 
 the reagent are always stirred together. 
 
 The observations of M. Penot have been 
 repeated in many cases by Mr Cooley, and the 
 results, with additions, and rearranged, are 
 given in the table, p. 1129. 
 
 " By perusing this tnble," writes M. Penot, 
 " it will be observed that the same oil does not, 
 under all circumstances, yield precisely similar 
 results with the same reagent. This depends 
 on the place of growth, the age, and the man- 
 ner of pressing. If, however, any oil be ex- 
 amined comparatively with a perfectly pure 
 one, the proof of adulteration may be ren- 
 dered, if not certain, at least probable, by 
 noting the difference. Thus I obtained, by 
 adding 1 part of either whale- train, or linseed 
 oil, or oleic acid, or 10 parts of rapeseed oil, 
 the following results: — 
 
 Naur of Oil, 
 
 Rkaoknts. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Solution of Qichruiiiuteor 
 Potaali. 
 
 Not stirred. 
 
 Stirred. 
 
 Stirr<d. 
 
 Riipe oil with whale-triiin 
 Rupe oil with linseud oil 
 
 Rape oil with olein or 
 oleic acid 
 
 More red ground thnn with 
 
 rnpe oil 
 No perceptible difference 
 
 from, the rnpe oil 
 
 No pcrcentihle dilTereuce 
 from tile rape oil 
 
 Brownish-olive coloured 
 Olive coloured 
 
 Greenish brown 
 
 SidhII rrddisli lumps on a 1 
 
 grey ground. 
 Small and more numerous 
 
 red lumpB on a vury dark- 
 
 ({reen {iromid. 
 Small brownisii lumps on kii 
 
 olive-coloured ground. 
 
 " The adulteration being ascertained as far 
 as is possible, the oil is then tested by endea- 
 vouring to discover the adulterating oil, either 
 by reagents or by its odour when gently heated, 
 us before described. This having been found 
 out, small quantities of the suspected oil are 
 added to a perfectly pure oil of the kind under 
 examination. Every mixture is then tested 
 by the rengents, until precisely similar results 
 are obtained as those yielded by the oil under 
 examination. Thus, tlie proportions of the 
 two mixed oils will be discovered by approxi- 
 mation." (il. Penot.) A simpler method of 
 lindini; the proportions of the so mixed oils is 
 ri'ftrred to above. 
 
 4. (From increase of temperature.) M. 
 Manmen£ proposed the increase of tempera- 
 ture arising from the admixture of mono- 
 hydrated sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol, sp. gr. 
 1846) with the fatty oils as a test of their 
 purity, but a sufficient number of observa- 
 tions have not yet been made to furnish data 
 for a general application of this method. Ac- 
 cording to MU. Faisst and Knau'S, who have 
 
 re-examined the subject, the following are the 
 results when 15 grammes of oil are mixed 
 with 5 grammes of the acid : 
 
 Mite of Temperature, 
 Almond oil .... 72-5° 
 
 Olive ...... 680° 
 
 Poppy „ . . . . 1270° 
 
 Rape or colza oil . . . 1000° 
 Linseed oil (with Nordhausen 
 
 or fuming acid only) . . 133'0° 
 The above method is less liable to error 
 when a buyer quantity of the substances are 
 thrown together. 
 
 5. The presence of nsH OIL in the vege- 
 table oils may be readily detected by passing a 
 stream of chlorine through them; the pure 
 vegetable oils are not materially altered, but 
 a mixture of the two turns dark brown or 
 black. 
 
 6. Mr Coleman states that the presence of 
 mineral oils in animal or vegetable oils can be 
 easily detected by two characteristic tests — 
 (1) the fluorescent properties they impart to 
 all anim.il or vegetable oils. (2) The 
 
1126 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 
 
 strongly marked aromatic burning flavour 
 they communicate to mixtures containing 
 them. The first-mentioned property is 
 brought out by smearing a metallic sur- 
 face, such as tin plate or steel, with the oil, 
 and then viewing it at different angles in the 
 open air or sunlight. Mr Coleman suggests 
 that, in examining a dark-coloured oil, it may 
 first be necessary to refine the sample by suc- 
 cessive treatments with concentrated sulphuric 
 acid and weak aoda solution or lime water, so 
 small a quantity as 2i per cent, may then be 
 detected by the bluish colour noticed on view- 
 ing the oil at certain angles and by tasting it. 
 
 The absence of resin oil must also be proved. 
 Nitric acid is said to be a good test, as the 
 colour developed is much greater than in pure 
 oils. Sometimes it may be detected by the 
 smell. The presence of 10 per cent, of resin 
 or mineral oil in non-drying oils delays their 
 solidification with the nitrate of mercury 
 teat.' 
 
 7. Miss Kate Crane^ states that the cohesion 
 figures of oils may be usefully employed as 
 tests of the identity and purity of the oils. 
 She says, " A number of experiments on this 
 subject have led her to the conclusion that a 
 little patient practice will teach the eye of the 
 observer in a short time to detect the charac- 
 teristic differences of the figures. To make 
 these perfect it is necessary to observe the time 
 in forming, for at different periods some varie- 
 ties form figures very like ; but with this 
 precaution each is entirely characteristic. 
 
 " It is essential that the dish used, &c., be 
 perfectly clean, so that when filled with water 
 no dust or lint floats upon the surface, as this 
 materially interferes with the perfect forma- 
 tion of the figure. 
 
 " A single drop is let fall from a burette or 
 glass rod held steadily above the water, upon 
 the centre of the surface. The experiments 
 made with fixed oils are as follows : — Foppy- 
 seed oil spreads instantly to a large figure, 
 retaining an entire outline, and for a few 
 seconds the surface is unbroken, except the 
 bare intimation of a beaded edge. 
 
 " In a few moments little holes appear round 
 the edge, and soon the whole surface is broken 
 in like manner; these increase in size very 
 slowly. In fifteen minutes the edge begins to 
 open, forming indentations, which gradually 
 work their way across the figure. As they 
 increase in length these begin to curve, and in 
 three quarters of an hour have doubled them- 
 selves two or three times. 
 
 " Cod-liver oil spreads in a large film ; a 
 little way from the edge a row of small holes 
 appears, and in a minute or two the surface is 
 covered with them; these gradually enlarge, 
 assuming irregular shapes, soon separated by 
 branching lines. 
 
 "Codliver oil with lard oil spreads very like 
 the former, but in a few moments the edge 
 
 * • Journal of Applied Chemistry,' Dec., 1874, 
 ^ ' American Journal of Pharmacy,' iv, 406. 
 
 opens, and the film separates partly across ; 
 in a moment one of the prqecting points begins 
 to curve itself towards the centre, bending 
 more and more until it forms a coil; mean- 
 while a few holes have appeared, which spread 
 irregularly, throwing out projecting points. 
 
 " Castor oil spreads instantly, the edge 
 remaining entire; openings appear qnickly in 
 thirty seconds, and increase gradually, but un- 
 evenly, those nearer the edge being larger, and 
 lengthening out irregularly as they spread. 
 The figure lasts some time. 
 
 " Castor with a little lard oil makes a 
 smaller figure, and not nearly so much broken ; 
 in five minutes the holes open into each other, 
 and the figure breaks up from the edge. 
 
 " A mixture of castor and poppy-seed oils 
 spreads to form a lacework border, but smooths 
 out to an entire edge soon, and within a few 
 seconds openings appear. The figure, in size 
 and general appearance, is more like castor oil 
 alone, but the holes spread less uniformly in a 
 given time, a few being larger, but the greater 
 portion much smaller. In fifteen minutes 
 there is a general tendency to break up. 
 
 " Castor with a little croton oil throws out 
 a spray, which in a few moments unites into a 
 thin film. The spray, as it spreads, draws out 
 the inner portion into radiate points, which 
 open into a beautiful network, the centre 
 cohering closely, 
 
 " Croton oil throws out, in spreading, a fine 
 spray in advance of the more closely cohering 
 portion, which follows quickly. The outer 
 edge breaks up unevenly into little indenta- 
 tions, the border of the inside portion being 
 quite broken, but gradually becomes nearly 
 entire. The surface, too, has openings, which 
 increase quite rapidly in size, the outer ones 
 being much the larger. In the final breaking 
 up, before the holes open one into another, the 
 outlines are beautifully fringed. 
 
 8. " Spontaneous combustion eusues when a 
 handful of cotton waste is embued with oil 
 and placed in an air bath at 130° to 200° P. 
 Boiled linseed oil required IJ hour ; raw lin- 
 seed oil, 4 hours ; lard oil, 4 hours ; refined 
 rape about 9 hours."^ 
 
 Mr Gellatly found that an admixture of 20 
 per cent, of mineral oil retarded combustion, 
 and 50 per cent, prevented it completely. 
 
 M. Burstyn,'' believing that the value of a 
 fatty oil as a lubricant depends on the amount 
 of acid it contains, has invented a method for 
 volumetrically determining the acidity. The 
 process is as follows : — A tall cylindrical 
 vessel, provided with a ground-glass stopper, 
 and having two marks on it to indicate respec- 
 tively 100 cubic centimetres, and 200 cubic 
 centimetres, is filled to the first mark with the 
 oil to be tested, and to the second mark with 
 88 to 90 per cent, alcohol. The cylinder is 
 then closed and well shaken. Equal quanti- 
 
 8 J. J. Coleman, ' Journal of Applied Clieraistry,' Dec, 
 1874. 
 * Ure's ' Dictionary of Arts,' &c. 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 1127 
 
 ties other tlian 100 cubic ccntiinitree can be 
 employed without any other clmiige in the 
 process. After standiu); two or three hours 
 the oil settles, mid the clear alcohol, which 
 contains in solution the free acids and a little 
 of the oil, rises to the top perfectly clear; 25 
 cubic centimetres of the clear alcohol is taken 
 from the top by means of a pipette. A few 
 drops of alcohol extract of turmeric is added, 
 and the itcid determined by means of a standard 
 solution of potnsh, as in acetoraetry. The 
 change from yellow to brownish red takes place 
 with great sharpness when neutralisation is 
 reached. 
 
 The number of cubic centim&tres of potash 
 employed, multiplied by four, ^ives the quan- 
 tity of normal solution requisite to neutralise 
 the free acid in 100 cubic centimetres of oil. 
 As it is not an individual acid, but a variable 
 mixture of acids, it is not possible to calculate 
 the percentage of acids present. These num- 
 bers, however, may be taken as degrees of 
 acidity. For instance, an oil of 3° of 
 acidity Is one which contains eninigh free 
 iicid to neutralise 3 cubic cenlimutrcs of normal 
 alkali. 
 
 If we assume that oleic acid predominates, 
 which in most cases is the fact, 1° of acidity 
 correspond to 028 per cent, by weight of oleic 
 acid. The olive oil of commerce has an acidity 
 r;inging from 0'4° to 12^. The first passes as 
 very tine, and is called free from acid or salad 
 oil, while the latter is known by smell and 
 taste as very rancid. Oil that has di" to 6° of 
 acidity has been found to answer very well as 
 a lubricator. 
 
 What relation there exists between the 
 degree of acidity and any injurious elfect upon 
 metals is shown by the following experiments : 
 — Four shallow vessels of sheet brass, having 
 a surface of 40 square centimetres each, at the 
 bottmn, were filled to the depth of 2 milli- 
 metres, with oils of different acidity, and ex- 
 posed to the air at the ordinary temperature. 
 The vessels were soon more or less covered 
 with green fatty salts, and the oil too acquired 
 a green colour. Oil and vessel No. 1 were the 
 only ones in which no change could be per- 
 ceived. At the end of 3 days the vessels were 
 cleaned with ether and weighed. The fol- 
 lowing table shows the amounts of action : 
 
 Vessel No. 1, filled with oil of 0-8° lost 003 gr 
 ,. No. 2, „ 4-6° „ 0-22 „ ■ 
 
 ., N". 3, „ 7 8' „ 0-36 „ 
 
 „ No. 4, „ 8-8° „ -04 „ 
 
 The quantity of metal destroyed, in equal 
 times and nnder equal conditions, increases 
 with the acidity of the oil. 
 
 The table on page 1128, by Mr Bottome, 
 describes the most striking physical properties 
 of some of the priucip.il fixed oils. 
 
 •»• The following are the principal fixed 
 oils met with in commerce, or which are objects 
 of interest or utility : 
 
 Oil of Al'mondi. Sj/n. Oleum amyodalx 
 
 (B. P., Ph. L.), O. AMTODAtABUM (Ph. D.), 
 
 0. AMYGDALi coMMUiris (Ph. E.), L. " The 
 oil expressed from the kernels." (Ph. L.) 
 " Bruise the fresh almonds in a stone mortar, 
 then put them into a hempen sack, and ex- 
 press the oil, without heat." (Ph. E.) The 
 oil of almonds B. P. and of commerce is ob- 
 tained from either the bitter or sweet almond, 
 but chiefly from the first, on account of their 
 less value, and the marc being euiployed in 
 the manufacture of essential oil. 
 
 Prop., <Sfc. Oil of almonds is black, demul- 
 cent, emollient, and nutritious ; possesses a 
 purely oleaginous taste, and is one of the most 
 agreeable of the fixed oil<; when taken in 
 quantity it is mildly Inx.itive; it is little 
 affected by cold, and congeals with difficulty ; 
 is soluble in 35 parts of cold and 6 parts of 
 boiling alcohol ; ether dissolves it freely. Sp. 
 gr. '915 to -QIS. Av. prod. Swcut almonds, 
 460 ; bitter a., 41^ 
 
 Pur. It is extensively adulterated with 
 poppy, nut, and ticl oil, and not unlrc- 
 quently with n-fined rape or colza oil. (.See 
 above,) 
 
 Oil of Bay. 1. (Expbessed o. of b.; Oleitm 
 LAUBi, O. LAUBINCM, L.) By expression from 
 either fresh or dried bayberries, as castor oil. 
 Limpid; insipid. 
 
 2. (By decoction; BoTTEit ov B. ; Oleum 
 LAUEI NOBILIB, O. L. TEBUM, L.) From the 
 berries, by boiling them in water, and skim- 
 ming oft' the oil. Green, buttery ; chiefly 
 imported from Italy. Used by the vulgar in 
 bruises, sprains, rheumatism, deafness, &c. 
 Prod. 208. 
 
 Oil of Beech. Si/n. Oleum pagi, L. From 
 the nuts of Fagus stflvatica (Linn.) or beech 
 mast. Clear; keeps well; when washed with 
 hot water, it is used for salads, and burnt in 
 lumps. Sp. gr. 0225. Prod. Ifig. 
 
 Oil of Belladon'na. Syn. Oleum bella- 
 donna SKMINUM, 0. B. BACC.E, L. From the 
 seeds or berries ot Atropa belladonna or deadly 
 nightshade. Yellow; insipid. Used f"r lamps 
 in Swabia and Wurtemberp , and as an appli- 
 cation to bruises. The marc is poisonous. It 
 freezes at 34° Fahr. Sp. gr. -9250. 
 
 Oil of Ben. Syn. Oil of bkhen ; Oleum 
 BALATINUM. From the seeds of Moringa 
 pterygosperma (ben nuts). Scentless, colour- 
 less ; keeps long without growing rank ; by 
 standing, it separates into two parts, one of 
 which freezes with difficulty, and is hence much 
 used in perfumery. 
 
 Oil of Benne Seed. See Oil op Gingellt. 
 
 Oil of Brazil-nuts. Syn. Oleum bebihol- 
 letia. From the kernels of the fruit of 
 Bertholletia exceUa, or Brazil-nuts. An oil 
 of a bright amber colour, congealing at 24° 
 Fahr. Sp. gr. '917. It has been used as a 
 substitute for olive oil in plasters and 
 ointments. 
 
 Oil of Caca'o. Syn. Butteb op c. ; Oleum 
 
 CACAO CONCRETUM, BUTTBUM CACAO, L. From 
 the seeds of Theobroma Cacao, or chocolate 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 3 bij si tJ) fi 6b M 60 si si'^ '^•$'■5' SP 
 
 >^ 
 
 5 .5 5 B .9 ='.S .5'.9 .S "^ .S ^ * -S "^ 
 
 ■e>|'|'"& ^■E''E'|'|''&-| |"i -i &" ti 6i sil 60 si' 
 
 a e B e B cs a a a c .SJ e .2 .2 s ■?>■ 
 ooooo- 
 
 Iz; |2i ;zi ^ IZi 
 
 >">>.£ ■?>■>. a 
 
 Sio^ 
 
 .5 ^ 
 
 . . S.5 
 
 60 bDji OB 
 
 a B^ ». 
 
 5 § § § § 5 S S S -C S -S •= 5 ST C C-n !? C 5 p r 5 "C 
 
 
 .§=■5 5, 
 tJ ^ c* s 
 
 W0SN00t"'mi-IinOCCia>Q0>Oe0C0M0500'*t>"«"M 
 rHrHiHr-t-*^rHiHrHi-t iHrHr-HrHrHtH rH *^*' 
 
 00 CO « o 
 00 tr- "^ CO 
 
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 eg 
 
 9 = 
 
 Iziiz; 
 
 
 
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 s 
 
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 p< 
 
 
 
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 s C S P fl 
 
 9 S a 6 
 
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 03 >■ 
 
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 r-( iH lMiHi-lr-li-liHi-li-(i-l(MrH<N CQ,(Mi-l 
 
 I I M I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I M l| I I 
 
 m 
 
 a S » 5-:;: 
 
 a I B^ 
 
 li5 00 00 -* 00 
 
 OOOOOSCin. K(S(MNCOI>OCO(M«^"^»niHCD„«^ 
 CDCO-^-*(MtMCClfl-^COiO-*Tj(»ncOCO>#m-<# 
 
 OO-? rH t^ 
 CO "^ CD ^ 
 
 
 ^Q0CD0i(MC0OCDOI>e5i0iHQ<MC0(?lO(MCDC0O 
 i-HrHi-tfHrH^i— li— ir-ip-l(M5»1iM(M(M(?lC<J^l(N(MCOCO 
 
 6666666006600606660666 
 
 O 00 O rH 
 
 Tf ira CD fH 
 CO CO cc :o 
 o O) 03 
 
 53 
 
 HO 
 
 i 
 
 g a> e^ 
 
 P 12 
 
 
 
 rt .S 
 
 O J3 
 
 V 
 
 0) o • rt • » « S • 
 cSCQOoatCOFQPLiiJlllCLioSoaWOtB 
 
 s CD a 
 
 '►5^1 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 1129 
 
 Tablb giving the reactions of various OTLS with siTtPHtrsio acid and with a saturated solution 
 of BIOHitOMATB OP POTASH in sulphuric ocid. Re-arranged from M. Penot's table, 
 with additions, by Mr Cooley. 
 
 *fi* The result indicated is obtained in each case hy the action of one drop of the BBAOEKT 
 
 on twenty drops of OIL. 
 
 Nauk or Oil. 
 
 Almond oil . 
 
 Castor oil . . . 
 
 Cod-liver oil {fine tample 
 of pale oil) 
 
 Hemp-seed oil 
 
 Linseed oil {from the 
 Upper Rkine) 
 
 n {from Paris) 
 
 „ ( EngUsk) . 
 
 Liver-train oil . 
 MudiB-BUtiva oil 
 
 Black-mustftrd oil . 
 XeatVfuotoil 
 
 Nut oil {recent) 
 
 I, {oHs year old ) . 
 
 „ (still older) 
 Olein, ok'ic ucid, Inrd, or 
 tallow oil . 
 
 Olive oil . . . . 
 „ {another sample) 
 » {from fermented 
 olives) 
 Poppy oil {recent cold 
 drawn) 
 „ {recent, ex- 
 
 pressed witli 
 sliglit Ileal) . 
 „ {one year old, 
 
 expressed with Asat) 
 
 Rape or colza oil (trade) . 
 
 M {recent) . 
 
 „ (one year old) 
 
 „ (oHi year old, 
 
 rough hoi-pressed) 
 
 Wbale-train oil 
 
 Ekagkrts. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Not stirred. 
 
 Gffenflnch yellov, with 
 
 oruDge spots 
 Ycltow, K'ith slight spots 
 
 Deep purple in the centre, 
 rapidly turning bruwn, 
 whilst viuli^t or purple 
 clouds or streaks sprcHd 
 out tovs-ards the circum- 
 ference, the colour of 
 which remains unaltered 
 for some minutes after 
 the central portion has 
 turned nearly black 
 
 Small bruwn lumps or clots 
 ou a yellow ground 
 
 Dark reddish brown 
 
 Eeddisli brown, less dark 
 
 coloured 
 Chestn.it brown 
 
 Dark red 
 
 Sliglitly reddish brown un- 
 derneath a thin greyish 
 film 
 
 Bliiisli green 
 
 Yellow alight spots 
 
 Yellowish brown 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Orange yellow 
 
 Reddish spots, witli red- 
 dish circlua 
 Yellow 
 Ortmge yellow 
 
 Orange yellow 
 
 Yellow spots 
 
 Greenish-yellow spots 
 Greenish spots 
 
 Yellowish -brown streaks 
 surrounded by a bluish- 
 green ring 
 
 Green 
 
 Green 
 Qreen 
 
 Small reddish Inmps on 
 a brownish grouud 
 
 Stirred, 
 
 Dirty green 
 
 Little reaction 
 
 Deep purple, passing into 
 purple brown, reddish 
 brown, and gradually 
 deepeuing to au in- 
 tense brown, approach- 
 ing btack 
 
 Greenish brown 
 
 Brown small lamps on a 
 grey ground 
 
 Brown clots on a greea 
 ground 
 
 BroH-n clots on a greenish- 
 grey ground 
 
 Dark rtd. 
 
 Olive grtien 
 
 Olive ercen 
 Dirty orown 
 
 Clotted, dark brown 
 
 Dirty bruwn, less dark 
 
 Coloured 
 Dirty brown 
 
 Reddish brown 
 
 Dirty brown. 
 Bruwuiflh grey 
 
 Brownish grey 
 
 Olive brown 
 
 Olive brown, turning more 
 
 on the ((reen 
 Olive green 
 
 « 
 Brownish, turning on the 
 
 olive green 
 
 Bluish green 
 Bluish green 
 Olive green 
 
 Resembles wine leeg 
 
 .SHturated Solution of 
 
 Bichromate of Polaasa 
 
 in Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Stirred. 
 
 Tellowish, small lumps. 
 
 Slightly green 
 
 Reddish - brown clntg, 
 ctmntiint; to a clear 
 bright greeu. 
 
 Smnll yellow lumps or 
 clots on a green grouud. 
 
 Brown smHll lumps on 
 an almost colourless 
 ground. 
 
 Brown small lumps on a 
 green ground. 
 
 Brown lumps ou a green- 
 ish-grey ground. 
 
 Dark red. 
 
 Light l)rown small lumps 
 on au olive-cnloured 
 ground. 
 
 Olive brown. 
 
 Blown spots ou a brown- 
 ish ground. 
 
 Small brown lumps or 
 clots. 
 
 Small brown lumps. 
 
 Small brownish lumps. 
 
 Bright chestnut colour. 
 
 Olive brown. 
 Brown. 
 
 Small yellnw lumps on a 
 white grouud. 
 
 Small yellow lumps on a 
 greeiiisli-grey ground. 
 
 Sm^ll yellow lumps on a 
 green ground. 
 
 Yellow small lumps on a 
 green ground. 
 
 Yellow small lumps on a 
 green ground. 
 
 Yellow lumps on a brighter 
 grcon ground. 
 
 Sin;i 1 yt-lt.iw lumps, more 
 numeious, on an ohve- 
 green ground. 
 
 Small, briiht, chestnut- 
 coloured lumps on a 
 brown ground. 
 
1130 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 
 
 nuts, gently heated over the fire, and then de- 
 corticated, and pressed between hot iron plates. 
 Sp. gr. -892. 
 
 Oil, Cas'tor. St/n. EiciNi oleum (B. P.), 
 Oleitm castoeei, 0. kicini (Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 L. " The oil prepared by heat, or by pres- 
 sure, from the seed" of " Micinis communis, 
 Linn." (Ph. L.), the Palma Christi, or Mexican 
 oil-bush. 
 
 The best oiistor oil (ooLD-DBAWN oastoe 
 OIL ; olbum: bicini sine i&ne) is prepared by 
 pressing the shelled and crushed fruit (seed) in 
 hemp bags, in an hydraulic press, and heating 
 the oil thus obtained along with water in well 
 tinned vessels, until the water boils and the 
 albumen and gum separate as a scum ; this is 
 carefully removed, and the oil as soon as it has 
 become cold is filtered through Canton flannel, 
 and put into canisters. The commoner kinds 
 are prepared by gently heating the crushed 
 seeds, and pressing them whilst hot. Another 
 method, sometimes adopted, is to put the 
 crushed seed into loose bags, to boil these in 
 water, and to skim off the floating oil. 
 
 Prop. It is the most viscid of all the fixed 
 oils; when pure it mixes in all proportions 
 with alcohol and ether, and also dissolves, to a 
 certain extent, in rectified spirit, but a portion 
 of the oil separates on standing. Camphor 
 and benzoic acid increase its solubility in 
 spirit. By long exposure to the air it be- 
 comes rancid, thick, and is ultimately trans- 
 formed into a transparent yellow mass ; light 
 liastens tliese changes. Exposed to cold, a 
 solid, white crystalline fat separates from the 
 liquid portion, and when cooled to 0° it con- 
 geals into a yellow transparent mass, which 
 does not again liquefy until the temperature 
 rises to about 18° Fahr. Sp. gr. -9611 to 
 •9612, at 60°; -9690, at 55° (Saussure) ; 
 •9575, at 77° (Saussure). Frod. 38g to 40§ 
 (62a-Ure). 
 
 Pur. Castor oil is sometimes adulterated 
 with rape oil or with lard oil, a fraud which 
 may be detected by its diminished density ; 
 and, when the added oil exceeds 33§, by its 
 insolubility in its own weight of alcohol of 
 •820. In many cases crotou oil is added to 
 increase the purgative quality of the mixture. 
 A compound of this kind is vended in gela- 
 tine capsules under the name of * concen- 
 trated CASTOa OIL,' the use of which is fraught 
 with danger. " I have heard of several 
 cases in which very violent a^d dangerous 
 effects were produced by these capsules." 
 (Pereira.) The best is imported from the 
 East Indies in tin canisters. The oil obtained 
 from the seeds of Uiciims viridis (WiUd.), or 
 lamp-oil seeds, is often mixed with or sold for 
 castor oil. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Castor oil is an exceedingly useful 
 mild purgative, particularly when abdominal 
 irritation should be avoided, as in inflamma- 
 tions of the stomach and bowels, pregnancy, 
 surgical operations, &e. — Dose, 2 fl. dr. to 1 
 fl. oz. 
 
 Oil, Cocoa-nut. Si/n. Coooa-nft BtriTEoj 
 Oleum cooois nuoifbe«, L. By expression 
 from the kernels of the cocoa nut, or fruit of 
 the Cocos Muoifera, 
 
 Oil, Cod-liver. Si/n. MoBEHUa: oleum (B. 
 P.), Cod-pish oil; Oleum jecoeis aselli, 
 0. aADi, 0. a. MOBBHua;, Oleum mobbhu^e 
 (Ph. L.), L. "The oil extracted from the 
 fresh liver of the Gadus morrhua by a steam 
 heat or water bath not exceeding 180° Fahr. 
 Yellow," " The oil prepared from the liver of 
 &adus morrhua, Linn." (Ph. L.^ 
 
 The common cod-liver oil of commerce drains 
 from the livers of the cod-fish when freely ex- 
 posed to the sun, and just beginning to putrefy. 
 It is dark coloured, strong, and nauseous, and 
 is now chiefly employed in this country by 
 the curriers, for dressing leather. It is the 
 'OLEUM JECOEIS ASELLI PUSOOM ' of Conti- 
 nental writers. Formerly, the less fetid 
 varieties of this crude oil, after the impurities 
 were removed, either by subsidence or filtra- 
 tion, constituted the only cod-liver oil used 
 in medicine. As its employment as a remedy 
 increased, its revolting flavour, and its great 
 tendency to permanently disorder the stomach 
 and bowels, was found, however, to be a serious 
 obstacle to its general use. It was observed 
 that the oil as it exists in the liver of the cod 
 is bland and nearly colourless, and has only 
 a slight fishy, but not a disagreeable flavour. 
 The attention of persons interested was there- 
 fore immediately directed to the subject, and 
 improved methods of obtaining the oil were 
 suggested, and ere long adopted on the large 
 scale. 
 
 The methods of preparing cod-liver oil are 
 noticed in another part of this work, but we 
 think it advisable to add to these a description 
 of the plan adopted by Messrs Charles Pox 
 and Co., of Newfoundland, Scarborough, and 
 London, the well-known manufacturers and 
 importers of cod-liver oil : — 
 
 " The Newfoundland fisheries are entirely 
 carried on in small boats, principally by the 
 hand-line system, and quite close to the shore. 
 The boats go out early in the morning, and 
 return about four o'clock in the afternoon. 
 The fish, on landing, are handed over to a 
 ' fish-room keeper,' whose duty it is to split 
 and open the fish, and to deposit the livers 
 in small tubs holding 17 or 18 gallons each. 
 The tubs are soon afterwards collected from 
 the different * fish-rooms,' and conveyed to the 
 manufactory. The livers are here thrown into 
 tubs filled with clean cold water, and, after 
 being well washed and jerked over, are placed 
 on galvanised iron-wire sieves to drain. They 
 are next put into covered steam-jacket-pans, 
 and submitted to a gentle heat for about 
 three quarters of an hour, after which the 
 steam is turned off, cold air again admitted, 
 and the whole allowed to repose for a short 
 time, during which the livers subside, and the 
 oil separates and floats on the top. The oil is 
 then skimmed off into tin vessels, and passed 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 1131 
 
 through flannel strninera into tubs, where it is 
 l«ft to subside for abnnt 21 hours. From these 
 the purer upper portion of oil is run into a very 
 deep, firnlvanized-iron cistern, and again left 
 to clarify itself by defecation for a few days. 
 It is now further refined by carefully passing 
 it through clean and very stout mole-skin 
 filters, under pressure. The transparent fil- 
 tered oil is received in a clean, galvanised- 
 iron cistern containing a pump, from which 
 the casks are filled for exportation. The 
 latter, before being filled, are carefully 
 seasiined and cleaned, to prevent their im- 
 parting cither flavour or colour to the pure 
 oil." 
 
 The suppriority of the oil prepared as above 
 consists essentially in every part of the process 
 of extraction being performed whilst the livers 
 are fresh, and in no chemical means being 
 adopted to give the oil a factitious appearance. 
 Its natural pale colour is thus preserved from 
 contamination, and its medicinal virtues main- 
 tained intact. 
 
 Much of the light brown oil of commerce is 
 obtained from Oadui callarius (tlie dorse), O. 
 carbonariut (the coal-fish), and &. pollaohiua 
 the pollack). 
 
 Fur., ^0. "The finest oil," remarks Dr 
 Pereira, " is that which is most devoid of 
 colour, odour, and flavour. The oil, as con- 
 t;iined in the cells of the fresh liver, is nearly 
 colourless, and the brownish colour possessed 
 by ordinary cod-liver oil is due to colouring 
 mutters derived from the decomposition (putre- 
 fying) of hepatic tissues and fluids, or from the 
 action of the air on the oil (age). Chemical 
 analysis lends no support to the opinion, at one 
 time entertained, that the brown oil was supe- 
 rior, as a therapeutic agent, to the pale oil. 
 Chemistry has not discovered any substance in 
 the brown oil that would confer on it superior 
 activity as a medicine. On the other hand, 
 the disgusting odour and flavour and nau- 
 seating qualities of the brown oil preclude its 
 repeated use. Moreover, there is reason to 
 suspect that, if patients could conquer their 
 aversion to it, its free use, like that of other 
 rancid and empyreumatio fats, would disturb 
 the digestive functions, and be attended with 
 injurious effects." ' 
 
 Among the tests of purity, that generally 
 relied on is known as the ' sulphuric acid 
 test.' See Oils (Fixed) : Furity. 
 
 Douse on and other fish oix, sold as 
 'lIOnT-DROWN COD-LITEB OIL,' exhibit with 
 this test much lighter reactions, which closely 
 resemble those of livek-tbain and whale- 
 TBIIN OIL. 
 
 To detect the presence of combined iodine, 
 upon which, by some, the therapeutic value of 
 cod-liver oil is thought to depend, the sample 
 is saponified by trituration with a little caustic 
 potassa 11 nd hot water, the result! n? soap cau- 
 tiously incinerated, the ashes digested with 
 water, Hnd the whole thrown on a filter. The 
 ■ 'Klem. Mat. Med.,' &c., Srd edit., iii, S339. 
 
 usual tests for iodine may be then applied to 
 the filtered liquid. 
 
 The presence of iodine artificially added is 
 best detected by agitating the oil with a little 
 rectified spirit, and then testing this last for 
 iodine. Or, s little solution of starch and » 
 few drops of sulphuric or nitric acid may be 
 at once added to the oil, when a blue colour 
 will be developed if iodine, or an iodide, has 
 been mixed with the sample. 
 
 The sp. pr. of the pale oil is -9230 to -9238; 
 of the light-brown oil, •9240 to -9245 ; of the 
 dark-brown oil, 9290 to -9315. The density 
 is, however,apt to vary a little with the quantity 
 of moisture present. 
 
 Uset, ^c. Cod-liver oil is a most valuable 
 medicine in a great variety of diseases, more 
 especially in glandular indurations and en- 
 largements, scrofula, phthisis, rheumatism, 
 gout, certain cutaneous diseases, amenorrha^a, 
 chlorosis, caries, rickets, &c. To be of service, 
 however, its use must be continued lor several 
 weeks, and the oil must be recent. — Dose, 1 
 to 2 table-spoonfuls, 3 or 4 times daily, or 
 oftener. 
 
 Oil, Col'za. From the seeds of Brastica cam- 
 peatru, var. oleifera, or colza de printempt, n 
 variety of Sratsica campestria (Linn.). It may 
 be regiirilcd as a superior sort of rajie oil. 
 Burns well in lamps, especially after being 
 refined. Sp. gr. -9136. Frod. 393. The 
 term ' colza oil ' is commonly applied to ordi- 
 nary refined rape. 
 
 Oil, Cotton. seed. Syn. OLEtru gossipii 
 SEMINUM, L. From the seeds of Oossypium 
 Barbadense. Drying. 
 
 Oil, Croton. Sifn. Cbotonis oleum (B.P.), 
 Oleum ceotonis (Ph. E.), 0. tiglii (Ph. L.), 
 L. Prom the shelled seeds of Croton tiglium 
 or Molucca grains. Imported chiefly from the 
 East Indies. It is one of the most powerful 
 cathartics known, and acts when either swal- 
 lowed or merely placed in the mouth. Exter- 
 nally, it is a rubefacient and counter-irritant, 
 often causing a crop of painful pustules, like 
 tartar emetic. — Voae, 1 to 2 drops, on sugar ; 
 in apoplexy, &c. It is poisonous in larger 
 doses. Sp. gr. -947 to -gSS- Frod. Un- 
 ahelled seeds, 22% to 25? ; shelled do., 32g 
 to 35&. 
 
 Pure croton oil is soluble in an equal volume 
 of alcoliol of •796, but in 2 or 3 days about 
 96§ of the oil separates. In France the marc 
 is exhausted with alcohol, and the oil thus 
 obtained is added to that previously obtained 
 from the same seeds by expression. The East 
 Indian oil (oleum cbotonis exoticum) is 
 usually of a pale yellow; that pressed in 
 England (o. ceotonis Anqlioanum) is much 
 darker. 
 
 Oil of Cu'cnmber Syn. Oleum cucuebit^, 
 L. From the seeds of Cucurbita pepo or 
 squash, and the C melopepo or pumpkin. 
 Pale; used in lamps; and, sometimes, as a 
 soothing application to piles. Sp. gr. '9231. 
 Frod. 24g. 
 
1132 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 
 
 Oil of Eggs. Si/n. OiEiTM ovi, 0. o. vitelli, 
 0. OVOEUM, L. From the yolks of eggs, 
 gently heated until they coagulate and the 
 moisture has evaporated, and then pressed or 
 broken up, digested in boiling rectiKed spirit, 
 the tincture filtered whilst hot, and the spirit 
 distilled off. Bland j emollient. The common 
 plan is to fry the yolks hard ; but the oil is 
 then darker coloured and stronger. The P. 
 Cod. orders them to be exhausted with ether, 
 by displacement. Formerly commonly used 
 to 'kill ' quicksilver, and still held in great 
 esteem in some parts of England for sore nip- 
 ples and excoriations. Prod. 10 to 12 eggs 
 yield 1 oz. See Mixed oils. 
 
 Oil of Garden Cress. Si/n. Oleum lepidii 
 SATivi, L. From the seed. Drying. Sp. gr. 
 •9240. JProd. 54§. 
 
 Oil of Gar'den Spurge. Syn. Oleum la- 
 THYRIS, O. ECPH0EBI2E L., L. From the 
 seeds of Euphorbia lathyris or garden spurge. 
 Cathartic. — Dose, 3 to 8 drops. Sp. gr. -9281. 
 Prod. 30g to 410. Croton oil mixed with 6 
 times its weight of nut or rape oil is usually 
 sold for it. 
 
 Oil of Gingel'ly. Syn. Oil oe Sesamum, 
 Benhb oil, Tebl o., Tel o. ; Oleum sesami, 
 L. From the seeds of Sesamum orientate 
 (Willd.), or gingelly. Pale ; bland. Used in 
 salads, paints, &c. ; also to adulterate oil of 
 almonds. Prod. 46g. 
 
 Oil, Gourd. See Oil op Cucumbee. 
 
 Oil of Ground Nuts. From the nuts of 
 Araehis hypogeea. Glutinous. 
 
 Oil of Gurgun. See Balsam, Guegun. 
 
 Oil of Hemp. Si/n. Oleum cannabis, L. 
 Prom the seed of Cannabis sativa (Linn.), or 
 common hemp. Mawkish. Sometimes used 
 tor frying, but chiefly for paints, soaps, &o. 
 Freely soluble in boiling alcohol ; does not 
 thicken until cooled to 5° Fahr. Sp. gr. 
 •9276. Prod. 182 to 24i. 
 
 Oil of Jatro'pha. Syn. Oil op wilb castoe 
 SEEDS; Oleum JATEOPHiE, L. From the 
 seeds of Jairopha purgans. Somewhat re- 
 sembles CEOTON OIL. Used for lamps in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 Oil, Kundah. Syn. Tallicoonah o. ; Oleum 
 TOULOUCOUNjs, L. From the fruit of Carapa 
 Touloucouna. Rancid, nauseous, vermifuge, 
 rubefacient, emetic, and purgative. Chiefly 
 used in lamps. 
 
 Oil, lard. Syn. Tallow o., Ceude olein, 
 C. OLEIC acid ; OlEUM ADiPis, L. By sepa- 
 rating the olein of lard from the stearin by 
 means of boiling alcohol. Only applicable 
 where spirit is cheap. The product is, how- 
 ever, excellent. The crude oleic acid, or lard 
 oil of commerce, is chiefly obtained as a secon- 
 dary product in the manufacture of stearin. 
 It is purified by agitation with sulphuric acid, 
 and subsequently by steaming it, or washing it 
 with hot water. Burns well in lamps, if the 
 wick-tube is kept cool. Sp. gr. ^9003. 
 
 Oil, Linseed. Syn. Oleum lini (B. P., Ph. 
 
 L., E. & D.), L. 1. (COLD-DEAWN LINSEED OIL; 
 
 Oleum lini sine isne.) From the seed of 
 Linum usitalisaimum (Linn.), or common flax, 
 bruised or crushed, and then ground and ex- 
 pressed without heat. Pale, insipid, viscous ; 
 does not keep so well as the next. Prod. 17ij 
 to 20g. 
 
 2. As the last, but employing a steam heat 
 of about 200° Fahr. Amber coloured ; less 
 viscous than the last; congeals at 2°; soluble 
 in 5 parts of boiling and 40 parts of cold 
 alcohol. Both are drying and cathartic. — 
 Dose, 1 to 2 oz. J in piles, &c. Chiefly used in 
 paints, varnishes, &c. Sp. gr. '9347. Prod. 
 22g to 27g. 
 
 3. (Boiled linseed oil.) See Oils (Dry- 
 ing)- 
 
 Oil of Mace (Expressed). See Oil op Nut- 
 meg (Expressed). 
 Oil of Male Fern. See Exieact of Male 
 
 PEEN. 
 
 Oil of Mustard. Syn. Oleum sinapis, L. 
 1. (Oil of white mustaed.) Prom Sinapis 
 alba, or white mustard, but chiefly from 
 Sinapis arvensis, S. chinensis, S. dichotoma, 
 S. glauca, S. ramosa, and S. tori. Sweet. 
 Used for the table. Sp. gr. -9142 (-2160— 
 Ure). Prod. 36s. 
 
 2. (Oil of Black mustard; Oleum sina- 
 pis nigei, L.) From the ' hulls' of black- 
 mustard seed. Viscid, stimulant. Used in 
 rheumatism, Sp. gr. '9168 to 9170. See Oils 
 (Volatile). 
 
 3. (Oil op White mustaed ; Oleum ea- 
 PHANi, L.) From the seed of Saphanns ra- 
 phanistrum (Linn.), or jointed charlock or wild 
 mustard. Prod. 30g. 
 
 Oil, Neat's-foot. Syn. Nkeye oil, Thot- 
 TEE o. ; Oleum bubulum, 0. neevinum, 
 Axungia pedum tauei, L. From neat's-feet 
 and tripe, by boiling them in water, and skim- 
 ming ofE the oil. Does not thicken by age. 
 Used to soften leather, to clean fire-arms, and 
 for other purposes. 
 
 Oil, But. Syn. Hazel-nut o. ; Oleum 
 NUCis, 0. coeyli, L. From the kernels of 
 Corylus Avellana (Linn.), or hazel-nut tree. 
 Pale, mild tasted, drying ; superior to linseed 
 oil for paints and varnishes. It is commonly 
 sold for oil of almonds and oil of ben, and is 
 extensively employed to adulterate both. 
 Walnut oil is also frequently sold ibr nut oil. 
 Sp. gr. •9260. Prod. 63g (Ure). 
 
 Oil of Nut'meg (Expressed). Syn. Ex- 
 
 PEESSBD OIL OF MACE, BuTTEE OP M. ; 
 
 Oleum myeistic^ (conceetum) (Ph. L.), 
 
 MYEISTICiE ADEPS (Ph. E.), M. BUIYEUM, 0. 
 MYEIBTICiE EXPEESSUM (B. P.), 0. MOSCHATiE. 
 O. NDOIST*;, L. " The concrete oil expressed 
 from the seed of Myristioa officinalis," Linn. 
 (Ph. L.), or common nutmeg. The nutmegs 
 are beaten to a paste, enclosed in a bag^ ex- 
 posed to the vapour of hot water, and then 
 pressed between heated iron plates. Orange 
 colimred, fragrant, spicy ; butyraceous, or 
 solid. It is a mixture of the fixed and volatile 
 oils of the nutmeg. When discoloured and 
 
OILS (FIXED) 
 
 1133 
 
 burdened by age, it i» called 'Bahda soap* 
 (Oc. MACis IN UA88J8). When puri>, it is 
 soluble in 4 parts of boiling alcohol and in 2 
 parU of ether. It has been used in rhea- 
 matism and paUy, but is now chiefly employed 
 for its odour and aromatic qualities. From 
 tlie East Indies. Prod. 17-g to 20J. 
 
 Oil, Ol'ive. Syn. Salad oil, Sweet o. ; 
 Ouy« OLEUM (H. P.), Oleum olivaeum, 0. 
 OLiviE (Ph. L., E., & I).), L. The " oil ex- 
 pressed from the fruit " of " Olea europcea, 
 Linn." (Ph. L.), or common olive. Five dif- 
 ferent methods are employed to obtain the oil, 
 from the fruit : 
 
 1. (VlEOIN OIL ; O. O. TIBOINEITM L.) ; 
 
 Hnim viEEGB, Fr.) From olives, carefully 
 garbled, cither spontaneously or only by slight 
 pressure, in the cold. That yielded by the 
 pericarp of the Iruit is the flnest. 
 
 2. (Ordinary 'JINE OIL.') This is obtained 
 by either ijresfing the olives, previously 
 crushed and mixed with boiling water, or liy 
 pressing, at a gentle heat, the olives from 
 which the virgin oil has been obtained. The 
 above processes furnish the liner salad oils of 
 commerce. The cake which is lelt is called 
 ' GEIGNON.' 
 
 3. (Second quality.) By allowing the 
 bruised fruit to ferment before pressing it. 
 Yellow ; dnrlter than the preceding ; but mild 
 and sweet tasted. Much used for the table. 
 
 4. (' GOEOON.') IJy fermentin)? and boiling 
 the pressed cake or marc in water, and slum- 
 ming off the oil. Inferior. 
 
 5. (Oil ot the infeenal bbgionb ; OiErw 
 omphacinum) is a very inferior quality of oil, 
 which is skimmed off the surface of the waier 
 in the reeervoii'S into which the waste water 
 which has been used in the above operations 
 is received, and allowed to settle. The In-t 
 two are chiefly used for lamps, and in so.ip- 
 making, &c. 
 
 Of tiie principal varieties of olive oil known 
 in commerce, and distinguished by the place 
 of their production, ■ PnovENOE oil' is the 
 most esteemed j ' Floeence oil' and ' Lucca 
 oil' are also of very fine quality; 'Genoa 
 oil' comes next, and then ' Gallipoli oil,' 
 which Ibrnis the mass of what is used in Enp:- 
 landi 'Sicily oil,' which has a slightly re- 
 sinous flavour, is very inferior; and ' Spanish 
 oil' is the worst imported. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Olive oil is a nearlv inodorous, 
 pale greenish-yellow, unctuous fluid, with a 
 purely oleaginous taste, peculiarly grateful to 
 the palate of those who relish oil. It does not 
 suffer active decomposition at a heat not ex- 
 ceeding I'OU' Fahr.j and when cooled to 36° it 
 congeah into a granular solid mass. It is very 
 siigbtly soluble in alcohol, but its solubility is 
 increased by admixture with castor oil. It is 
 soluble in IJ part of ether. When pure it 
 has little tendency to become rancid. Sp. gr. 
 ■9170 to -giTS; 0192, at 53^° (Saussure) ; 
 ■9176, at 59' (Heidenreich) j and ^9109, at 77° 
 F.ihr. (Saussure). Prod. 32?, of which 21g is 
 
 furnished by the pericarp, and the remainder, 
 which is inferior, by the seed and woody 
 matter of the fruit. 
 
 Pur. Olive oil, with the exception of that 
 of almonds, being the most costly of the ordi- 
 nary flxed oils of commerce, is, consequently, 
 the one most subject to adulteration. Nut, 
 poppy, rape, and lard oil, are those most 
 commonly used for this purpose. Refined 
 tallow olein, including that obtained from the 
 'knackers' yards' of Paris, is said to have 
 been used in the same way. The addition of 
 any other oil to olive oil renders it far less 
 agreeable to the palate, and, by increasing its 
 tendency to rancidity, much more likely to 
 offend and derange the stomach and bowels of 
 those who consume it. Parties who indulge 
 themselves in the use of this luxury would, 
 therefore, do well to ascertain that what they 
 purchase is pure. When pure, and also fresh, 
 olive oil is most wholesome as an article of 
 food or as a condiment. 
 
 The detection of the sophistication of salad 
 oil is a matter of no great difficulty, The 
 palate of the connoisseur will readily perceive 
 the slightest variation in the quality of his 
 favourite condiment. Other methods, however, 
 of a more accurate and certain description, and 
 of more general application, are adopted. 
 Amongst these, in addition to those mentioned 
 above, are the following : — 
 
 a. When pure olive oil is shaken in a phial, 
 only half filled, the ' bead ' or bubbles rapidly 
 disappear ; but if the sample has been mi.xed 
 with poppy or other oil, the bubbles continue 
 longer before they burst. 
 
 b. Olive oil congeals at 36° Fahr., and is 
 completely solidified when a small bottle con- 
 taining it is surrounded by ice, or a freezing 
 mixture ; but when mixed with poppy oil, it 
 remains partly liquid, even when the latter 
 forms only l-4th of the mass; if more than 
 l-3rd of poppy oil is present, it does not so- 
 lidify at all, unless cooled much belov. the 
 freezing point of wateix 
 
 c. (Ph. E.) When olive oU is "carefully 
 mixed with -f'^tb part of its volume ol a solu- 
 tion of 4 oz. of mercury in 8 fl. oz. 6 dr. of 
 nitric acid (sp. gr. I'SOO), it becomes in 3 Or 
 4 hours like a firm fat, without any separation 
 of liquid oil." 
 
 d. M. Pontet recommends the mercurial 
 solution to be made by dissolving 6 parts of 
 mercury in 7i parts of nitric acid (sp. gr. 
 1^35), without heat ; of this solution he adds 
 1 part to every 48 parts of the oil, and well 
 shakes the mixture every 30 minutes, until it 
 begins to solidify. This it does after about 7 
 hours in summer and 4 or 5 hours in winter, 
 and when the oil is pure it will have fbimed, 
 in 2:1 hours, a mass so hard that some little 
 force must be employed to thrust a glass rod 
 into it. The other edible oils do not furnish 
 a hard mass with nitrate of mercury. The 
 solidity of the mass is exactly in proportion 
 to the quantity of foreign oil preseut. When 
 
1134 
 
 OILS (FIXED) 
 
 the sophistication is equal to l-8th of the 
 whole, a distinct liquid layer separates ; 
 when the mixture contains half its volume of 
 an inferior oil, one half only of the mixture 
 becomes solid, and the other half continues 
 liquid. A temperature of about 90° Fahr. is 
 the best to cause the oil and coagulum to 
 separate perfectly from each other. When 
 the oil has been adulterated with animal 
 oil, the mixture solidifies in about five hours ; 
 but in this case 'the coagulum consists of 
 the animal oil, whilst the oliv^ oil floats on 
 the surface, and may be decanted for further 
 examination. This coagulum, on being heated, 
 exhales the well-known odour of rancid fat or 
 melted tallow. 
 
 B. Dr Ramon Cordina Langlies states that 
 the best reagent for the examination of olive 
 oil is that of Hauchecorne. 
 
 This reagent is composed of three parts of 
 pnre nitric acid at 40° with one part of distilled 
 water. The following is Dr Langlies' process 
 for proving that olive oil does not contain 
 seed oil, and more especially cotton oil : — 
 
 He mixes three grammes of the oil to be 
 tested with one gramme of the reagent in a 
 test lube, or a small stoppered flask, and heats 
 the liquid in a water bath. If the oil is pure 
 the jnixture becomes clearer, and takes a 
 yellow colour, like purified oil ; if it is 
 adulterated with seed oil, it acquires the same 
 transparency as the pure oil, but becomes red. 
 With 5 per cent, of seed oil the reddish 
 colouring is characteristic j with 10 per cent, 
 it is decided. The reaction does not require 
 more than from 15 to 20 minutes. 
 
 The colouring of the oils lasts for three 
 days. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. The dietetical uses of olive oil 
 are well known. In Spain and Italy it is com- 
 monly employed as a substitute for butter. 
 It is highly nutritious, but is digested with 
 difiiculty by some persons, and hence should 
 be avoided by the dyspeptic. Like almond 
 oil, it is occasionally employed as a laxative 
 and vermifuge, and is, perhaps, one of the 
 mildest known, \npharmacy it is extensively 
 employed in the preparation of cerates, lini- 
 ments, ointments, and plasters.— jDose. For 
 an adulf, i to 1 wine-glassful as a mild 
 aperient; for an infant, J to 1 teaspoonful, 
 mixed up with an equal quantity of honey, 
 syrup of roses, or syrup of violets. The white 
 fibrous sediment which forms in the recently 
 expressed oil is the ' amueoa' of Pliny, and 
 was formerly highly esteemed in medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Oil, Olive, Droppings. Syn. Swbet-oii d. 
 The ' foots' or ' deposits,' and the ' drippings' 
 of the casks, cisterns, and utensils. Used for 
 machinery, making soap, &c. 
 
 Oil, Olive (Oxygenated). Syn. Oleum oiiva) 
 OTTOENATUM (Ph. Batav.), L. Olive oil, 16 
 oz., is placed in a receiver surrounded with ice 
 or very cold water, and chlorine is slowly 
 transmitted through it for several days, or until 
 
 it becomes thick and viscid, after which it is 
 well washed with warm warm. 
 
 Oil, Palm. St/n. Palm butter; Oleum 
 VAiMM, L. From the fruit ofElais Guineensis, 
 and JS. melanocooca, the Guinea oil palms. 
 Orange or red coloured ; butyraceous or solid ; 
 smells of violets; unchanged by alkalies; 
 bleached by sunlight, age, exposure, chlorine, 
 chromic acid, and oil of vitriol ; melts at 117i° 
 Fahr. Sp. gr. '968. Demulcent. Used to 
 colour and scent ointments, pomades, &c. ; 
 but chiefly to make soap and candles. From 
 Africa. 
 
 Oil, Pi"ney. Syn. Pinet tallow, P. dam- 
 MAB, P. EESIN. Prom Valeria Indica (L\nn.), 
 or paenoe tree. Resinous flavoured, fragrant ; 
 made into candles. Sp. gr. -926. 
 
 Oil, Pop'py. Syn. Oleum papatbeis, L. ; 
 Oliete, Huile blanche, Fr. From the seeds 
 of Papaver somniferum (Linn.), or white poppy. 
 Sweet ; pale ; dries and keeps well. Used for 
 salads, paints, and soaps ; also (extensively) to 
 adulterate almond oil, for the inferior qualities 
 of which it is frequently sold. It does not 
 freeze until cooled to 0° Fahr. Sp. gr. -9243 
 to -9245. Prod. 48g to 54^. 
 
 Oil of Pumpkin. Syn. Oleum cucuebit*;. 
 Expressed from the seeds of the pumpkin ; a 
 soothing application to piles. 
 
 Oil, Rape. Syn. Colza oil, Beown o. ; 
 Oleum eap^, L. From the seed of Braanica 
 napus (Linn.; cole or rape), and from Brassiea 
 campestris (Linn. ; wild navew or rape). Glu- 
 tinous ; buttery at 25° Fahr. Dries slowly ; 
 makes soft soaps and good ointments, but 
 bad plasters ; smokes much in burning, un- 
 less well refined. Sp. gr. -9135 to -9136 
 Prod. 32iJ. 
 
 Oil, Repined or pale eapb (Oleum eap^ 
 EEFINUM, Ol. e. album) is prepared from 
 crude rape oil, by agitating it with about 2§ of 
 oil of vitriol, previously diluted with about 
 twice its weight of water, and, after 10 or 12 
 days' repose, decanting the clear oil, and fil- 
 tering it through Canton flannel or felt. The 
 quality is improved by washing it with hot 
 water or steam before filtration. Used for 
 lamps, blacking, and machinery; also exten- 
 sively employed to adulterate both almond and 
 olive oil. It forms the common * sweet oil' 
 of the oilmen and druggists. Sp. gr, -9136 to 
 •9140. 
 
 Oil, Seal. Syn. Oleum PHOoa;, L. From 
 the hood seal, and harp seal, and other species 
 of PhocidcB. Pale seal oil is that which 
 drains fi-om the blubber before putrefaction 
 commences, and forms about 60g of the whole 
 quantity of oil obtained. It is very clear, free 
 from smell, and, when recently prepared, not 
 unpleasant in its taste. Repined seal oil is 
 the last, washed and filtered. Ranks close 
 after sperm oil. Beown or dark seal oil is 
 that which subsequently drains from the 
 putrid mass. It is very strong-scented and 
 nauseous, and smokes in burning. Both are 
 used for lamps and dressing leather. A full- 
 
OILS (MEDICATED 
 
 1185 
 
 );rown seal yields 8 to 12 galls, of oil ; a small 
 oDo, 4 to 6 ^kIIs. 
 
 Oil of Ses'amnm. Sgn. Oil of Ginoellt 
 {abort). 
 
 OU, Shark-Uver. Tlie lightest of the fixed 
 oils. Sp. gr. -865 to '867. 
 
 Oil, Skate. 8gn. Olevu bal£, L. From 
 the livers of Raia batit (Linn.), or common 
 skate, as cod-liver oil ; also from Raia rhino- 
 batu; »r whitn skate, and Raia clavala, or 
 thornbnck. Often sold and mixed with cod- 
 liver oil. 
 
 Oil, Spermace'ti. Syn. Sfebu oil; Oleum 
 CETAOBI, L. From the 'head matter' of 
 JPhyeter macroeephalu», or spermaceti wliale ; 
 u species once common in all the principal 
 Kom, but now chiefly confined to the Southern 
 Ocean. It is very limpid, smells little, and 
 burns well; and has lon^ heen reputed the 
 best oil for lamps and machinery, as it does not 
 thicken by agi! or friction. It is frequently 
 adulterated with refined seal oil. Sp. gr. 
 ■875. 
 
 Oil, Sun'flower. Syn. Olepm nELiAirrnr, 
 L. From the seeds of Helianthua annuua and 
 H. perennls. Clear, pale yellow, tasteless ; 
 thickens at 60° Fahr. Used lor salads and 
 lamps. Sp. gr. -9261. Prod. 15J. 
 
 Oil, Teel. See Oil, Ginoellt. 
 
 Oil, Tobao'co-seed. S/in. Oleum tabaci(bx- 
 PBE38UH), L. From the seeds of NiooUana 
 tabaoum (Liiin.), or true tobacco plant. Pale; 
 dries well ; equal to nut oil. Its production 
 liaa recently been carried on with consiilerable 
 succi'ss iu some parts of Kussia. Sp. gr. 
 •9232. 
 
 Oil of Touloucou'na. See Oil, Kundah. 
 
 Oil, Train. See Oil, Whale. 
 
 Oil, Wal'nut. Syn. Oleum juglandis, 0. 
 KUCI9 J., L. Prom the kernels of the nuts of 
 Juglant regia (Linn. ), or cunimon walnut tree. 
 Soon gets rank ; dries well. Used in paints, 
 and ocoasioually in plasters. When 'cold 
 drawn' and washed it is sometimes eaten with 
 ealaJ. Sp. gr. -9260 to 9202. Prod. 48g to 
 529. 
 
 Oil of Wax. Syn. Uutteb op wax; 
 Oleum ceb£, L. From beeswax, by quick 
 distillation in a close vessel. Butyraceous. Hv 
 rectification along with quicklime it yields a 
 liquid oil. 
 
 Oil, Whale. Syn. Tkain oil, Whale-tbain 
 0.; Olkim DAL.kmji, O. Oeti, L. From the 
 blubber of the £altena mysiicetus (Linn.), or 
 the common or Qreeuland whale, by heat. 
 Coarse; stinking. Southeun whale oil is 
 the best. Used for lainp^, machinery, &c. Sp. 
 gr. '9231. Prod, per fish, about 1^ ton for 
 each foot of bone. 
 
 Oil of Wheat. Syn. Oleum tbitioi, L. 
 From bruised Colne wheat, with heat. In 
 chilblains, ringworm, and several other skin 
 diseases. 
 
 Oil of Wine-stones. Syn. Geape-stone oil ; 
 Oleum vitis vinifekj; lapidum, L. From 
 the secdi of grapes, separated Irom the marc. 
 
 Pale yellow, bland, emollient. Used for salads 
 and lamps. Sp. gr. -9202. Prod. 14& to 
 18g. 
 
 •«• The numbers given above, under • pro- 
 ducts,' unless when otherwise stated, refer to 
 the respective fruits, kernels, nuts, seeds, &c., 
 deprived of their husks, pods, shells, and every 
 other portion destitute of oil. 
 
 OILS (Medicated). Syn. Olea cocta, O. 
 INPUSA, O. MEDIOATA, L. These are prepared 
 by infusion or decoction. The bruised ingre- 
 dients are either simply digested in 2 to 4 
 times their weight of olive oil for some days, 
 or they are gently boiled in it until they be- 
 come dry and crisp, great care being taken 
 that the heat towards the end of the process 
 is not greater than that of boiling water. As 
 soon as the process is complete, the oil is al- 
 lowed to drain from the ingredients, which 
 are then (if necessary) submitted to the action 
 of the press. The product is commonly run 
 through flannel or a hair sieve whilst still 
 warm, after which it is allowed to repose for a 
 week or ten days, when the clear portion is 
 decanted from the dregs. The green or recent 
 plants are usually employed for this purpose, 
 but, in many cases, the dried plants, riduoed 
 to powder, and digested for 6 or 8 hours in the 
 oil, at the heat of hot water, witli frequent 
 agitation, yield a much more valuable product. 
 They are nearly all employed as external appli- 
 cations only. 
 
 *»* The following are the most important 
 preparations of this class : — 
 
 Oil of Adder's Tongue. Syn. Oleum ophio 
 OLOSSI, L. From the herb, as oil of bella- 
 donna. A popular vulnerary. 
 
 Oil of Ants. Syn. Oleum fobmioabum. 
 Digest 4 oz. of ants in 16 o/,. (by weight) of 
 olive oil with a gentle heat, and strain. 
 
 Oil of Bal'sam Apple. Syn. Oleum balsa- 
 MIN^. Prep. Balsam apple (deprived of 
 seeds), 1 oz. ; oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; digest 
 and strain. 
 
 Oil of Belladon'na. Syn. Oleum bella- 
 dokNjE (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the fresh 
 leaves, bruised, 1 part; olive oil, 4 parts; di- 
 i;ested together at a gentle heat until the mois- 
 tuie is evaporated; the oil is then strained off 
 with pressure, and filtered. 
 
 Oil of Cantha'rides. Syn. Oleum cantha- 
 Bims, 0. CAKTHABIDIBUS, L. Prep. (P. Cod. 
 1839). From Spanish Hies (powdered), I part ; 
 olive oil, 8 parts; as Oil of Belladonna. Sti- 
 mulant and rubefacient. Used as a dressing 
 to indolent sores, blisters, &c. ; and in dropsy, 
 rheumatism, gout, &c.. Oil of the oil-beetle 
 (Meloe prosearabaus — Linn.) is prepared in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 Oil of Cap'sicnm. Syn. Oleum capsici, L. 
 Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) From powdered capsi- 
 cum or Cayenne pepper, 4 oz., olive oil, 1 pint ; 
 digested together for 6 hours, with heat, and 
 strained. Stimulant; rubefacient in colic, 
 cholera, &c. 
 
 Oil of Cham'omile. Syn. Oleum asthe- 
 
1136 
 
 OILS (MEDICATED) 
 
 MiBis, Oi. CHAMa;MEi.i, L. From the dried 
 flowers (rubbed to pieces), 1 part, olive oil, 
 8 parts; digested together, with heat, for 
 6 hours. Stimulant, emollient, and vermi- 
 fuge. 
 
 Oil of Col'ocyntli. Syn. Olehm: coioctn- 
 THiEis, L. From the pulp, as Oil op Ohamo- 
 MIIE. Diuretic. In dropsy, neuralgia, rheu- 
 matism, worms, &o. 
 
 Oil of Earth'worms. Syn. Oleum: iitiibei- 
 COKUM. (E. Ph. 1744.) Washed earthworms, 
 i lb. ; olive oil, li pint ; white wine, J pint. 
 Boil gently till the wine is consumed, and 
 press and strain. 
 
 Oil of Elder-flowers. Syn. White oil oe 
 BLDEB; Oleum sambuci album, O. bambu- 
 CINUM (P. Cod.), L. Prep. From the flowers, 
 as Oil op Chamomile. Emollient and discus- 
 sive. 
 
 Oil of Elder-leaves. Syn. Green oil, Gbeen 
 OIL OF elder. Oil oe Swallows; Oleum 
 
 VIEIDE, 0. SAMEUOI VIBIDE, L. Frep. 1. 
 Green elder leaves, 1 lb. ; olive oil, 1 quart ; 
 boil gently until the leaves are crisp, press 
 out the oil, and again heat it till it turns 
 green. 
 
 2. As before, but by maceration, at a heat 
 under 212° Pahr. More odorous than the last. 
 
 3. Elder leaves, 1 cwt. ; linseed oil, 3 cwt. ; 
 as No. 1. 
 
 Obs. The last form is the one usually em- 
 ployed on the large scale. It is generally 
 coloured with verdigis, J lb. to the cwt., just 
 before putting It into the casks, and whilst still 
 warm ; as, without great skill and a very large 
 quantity of leaves, the deep. green colour so 
 much admired by the ignorant cannot be 
 given to it. The oil is got from the leaves 
 by allowing them to drain in the pan or 
 boiler (with a cock at the bottom), kept well 
 heated. Emollient; in great repute among 
 the vulgar as a liniment, in a variety of affec- 
 tions. 
 
 Oil of Pen'ugreek. Syn. Oleum tcbnu- 
 GB.ffiCI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the seeds, 
 as Oil op Canthaeides or of chamomile. 
 Emollient and resolvent. 
 
 Oil of rox'glove. Syn. Oleum dioitalis, 
 L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the fresh leaves, 
 as Oil op Belladonna. Used as an applica- 
 tion to chronic ulcers and indurations, painful 
 swellings, &o. As usually met with, it is 
 nearly inert. 
 
 Oil of Garden Ifight'shade. Syn. Oleum 
 SOLANI, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leaves, 
 as Oil op Belladonna. Anodyne and discus- 
 sive. 
 
 Oil of Garlic. Syn. Oleum allii inpusum, 
 L. Prom garlic, as Oil op Belladonna. Used 
 as a liniment in deafness, diarrhoea, infantile 
 convulsions, palsy, rheumatism, &c. 
 
 Oil, Green. Syn. Oleum tieidi, L. From 
 bay leaves, origanum, rue, sea wormwood, and 
 elder leaves, of each 2i oz. ; olive oil, 1 quart; 
 as Oil op Elder. Detergent, stimulant, and 
 
 resolvent. Green oil of elder is now usually 
 sold for it. 
 
 Oil of Hem'lock. Syn. Oleum cokit, L. 
 Prep. (P. Cod.) As Oil op Belladonna. 
 Anodyne and emollient; in painful ulcers, 
 glandular tumours, &c. 
 
 Oil of Hen'bane. Syn. Oleum hyosctami, 
 L. Prep. (P. Cod.) As Oil op Belladonna. 
 Used as the last, in various painful local affec- 
 tions. 
 
 Oil lodizeo, Marshall's. Syn. Oleum ioda- 
 TUM. Frep. Oil of almonds, 15 parts ; iodine, 
 1 part. Triturate and digest till dissolved. 
 
 Oil of Ju"niper (by Infusion). Syn. Oleum 
 JUNIPEBI INPUSUM, L, From the crushed 
 berries, as Oil op Belladonna. Diuretic and 
 vulnerary ; in frictions, &c. 
 
 Oil of lil'iea. Syn. Oleum lilioeum, L. 
 From white lilies, 1 lb.; olive oil, 3 lbs. ; as Oil 
 op Belladonna. Emollient; used to soften 
 and ripen tumours, indurations, &c. 
 
 Oil of Mel'ilot. Syn. Oleum meliloti, L. 
 As the last, avoiding much heat. Emollient 
 and resolvent. 
 
 Oil of Mu'cilages. Syn. Oleum muoila- 
 ginum, O. cum muoilaoihieus, L. Frep. 
 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) Marshmallow root, J lb. ; 
 linseed and fenugreek seed, of each, bruised, 
 3 oz.; water, 1 quart; boil 1 hour, -add of 
 olive oil, 2 quarts, and boil until the water is 
 consumed. 
 
 2. Fenugreek seeds, 8 oz. ; linseed oil, 1 
 quart; infuse a week, and strain. Once a 
 highly popular emollient application in various 
 local affections. 
 
 Oil of Mn'dar. Syn. Oleum mudaeis, L. 
 From mudar bark (in coarse powder), 1 dr. ; 
 warm olive oil, \ pint ; digest 24 hours and 
 strain. Used as an application to cutaneous 
 ulcers, the bites of venomous animals, &c., 
 and as a friction in worms. 
 
 Oil of 0"pinm. Syn, Anodyne oil. Opiated 
 o. ; Oleum opiatum, L. Prep. Prom opium 
 (in powder), 1 dr.; olive oil, 2i fl. oz. ; digest 
 at a gentle heat, with frequent agitation, for 
 5 or 6 hours. The powder should be rubbed 
 in a mortar with a few drops of the oil before 
 adding the remainder. As a local anodyne. 
 The above is the only reliable formula for this 
 preparation. Others are extant, but whilst 
 the products of several are much stronger, 
 those from others have only l-5thor l-6th the 
 strength. 
 
 Oils, Ozonised. (Dr Thompson.) Syn. Oleo 
 OZONAIA. Prep. Pass oxygen gas into the oil 
 (cocoa nut, sunflower, cod-liver oil, &c.) until 
 it will dissolve no more. Then expose for a 
 considerable time in the direct rays of the 
 sun. Used in phthisis. 
 
 Oil of Pel'litory. Syn. Oli:um pteethbi, 
 L. Prom bruised pellitory root, as oil op 
 BELLADONNA. Used as the last. 
 
 Oil of Black Pep'per (by Infusion). Syn. 
 Oleum pipeeis inpusum, L. From black 
 pepper, in coarse powder, as Oil op Capsicum. 
 Stimulant and rubefacient ; in frictions. 
 
OILS (MINERAL) 
 
 1137 
 
 Oil of FoUon Oak. Si/n. Olsttu buois 
 TOXIOODE.VDBI, L. Kroiii the leaves, as oil 
 or BELLLDOKNA. Externally ; in paralysis. 
 
 Oil of Bha'barb. Sya. Olkum bhei, L. 
 From rhubarb (in powder), 1 part ; oil of al- 
 monds, 8 parts ; digested together in a gentle 
 heat for 4 hours, and strained, with expression. 
 As an application to indolent ulcers, and as a 
 friction over the abdomen in diarrhoea, Gjii^IIsIi 
 cholera, &c., or as n laxative when the stomach 
 will not hear medicine. 
 
 Oil of Ro"8eB. Syn. Oleum bos.e, 0. bosa- 
 
 CEUM, 0. a. INFOaUM, 0. nOSATUM, L. Frep. 
 Kiom the fresh petals, pulled to pieces, 
 crushed, and digested for 2 or 3 days in the 
 sun, or a warm »itaatian, in 4 times their 
 weight of olive oil, and then pressed ; the 
 process being repeated with fresh roses. Ph. 
 E. 1744 and Jr". Cod. are nearly similar. 
 Almond, ben, or olive oil, coluured with 
 ALKANET, and scented with attar of roses, is 
 now almost universally sold tor it. Used for 
 the hair. 
 
 Oil of Ene. Syn. Olecm eut^ (iNrtJsnM), 
 L. Prep. (P. Ciid.) From fresh rue, bruised, 
 as Oil of chamomile. Reputed antispasmo- 
 dic, emnienagogue, stimulant, and vermifuge. 
 In frietiiin'*. 
 
 Oil of St John's Wort. Syn. Oleom hy- 
 
 PEUICI (Pil. L. 1746), 0. H. SIMPLEX, Bal- 
 SAMUM u., L. From the flowers, 1 part j 
 olive oil, 6 parts ; digested together until the 
 oil is well coloured. Antispasmodic, stimulant, 
 and resolvent. A mixture of equal parts of 
 RAPB oil and qbeen eldeb oil is usually sold 
 for it. 
 
 Oil of Scam'mony. Syn. Olettm scam- 
 MONii, 0. rouoANS, L. Frep. (Van Mons.) 
 From scinnmony (in powder), 1 dr. ; hot oil of 
 almonds, 3 fl. oz. ; triturate together until cold, 
 and the next day decant the clear portion. — 
 Vosa, i to 1 table-spoonful. 
 
 Oil of Stramo"nium. Syn. Olevm sira- 
 MONir, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the leaves 
 of thorn apple or sli-amonium, as oil op bel- 
 ladonna. Anodyne and dircussivc ; as an 
 application to painful tumours, joints, &c. 
 
 Oil of lobac'co (by Infusion). Syn. Oleum 
 TABAor, O. T. INPDSUM, L. From fresh to- 
 bacco leaves (bruised), like oil op chamo- 
 mile. As an application in ringworm, irri- 
 table ulcers, pediculi, &c. ; and as a friition in 
 itch, neuralgia, painlul indurations, &c. It 
 must be used with extreme caution, as it is 
 poisonous. 
 
 Oil of Tooth'wort. Syn. Olkum sqcamaei.*;, 
 L. From the herb of Lathrtsa squamaria 
 (Linn.), as Oil op St John's wobt. Astrin- 
 t.'ent and vulnerary. This must not be con- 
 tounded with another preparation sometimes 
 called ' Oil op toothwokt ' (Oleum plum- 
 BAOINIS £cB0F^^:),and which has been occa- 
 siounlly used in itch, as the latter is acrid and 
 apt to cause much irritation. 
 
 Oil of Worm'wood. Syn. Olbum absinth ii, 
 VOL. II. 
 
 L. Prom the fresh herb, ns oil, OF liiies. 
 The P. Cod. and Ph. Wuriom. order only 
 part of the herb to 8 parts of oil. Applied to 
 the abdomen in dyspepsia, diarrhcea, heart- 
 burn, worms, kc. It is seldom u^ed in tins 
 country. 
 
 OILS (mineral). ,^». Hydbocabbon oils. 
 An important class of liquids, con8i.'<tiug solely 
 of carbon and hydrogen — the elements nf ordi- 
 nary coal-gas, uml obtained by the distillation 
 of coal, lignite, petroleu n, and other bitumi- 
 nous substances. For the purposes of illumi- 
 nation, many of these oils are in most respects 
 superior M the fixed or fat oils containing 
 oxygen. They give a whiter and more bril- 
 liant light, and are produced at a much lower 
 cost. Tue lamps in which they are burnt, 
 when properly constructed, are less liable to 
 get out of order than those adapted for the 
 combustion of fat oils, and require less atten- 
 tion when in use. The experiments of Dr 
 Fraukland on the relative value uf the ordi- 
 nary illuminiitiu^ agents' prove that t'le 
 mineriil oils are cheaper than all other portable 
 illuminating agents in common use, and tlmt 
 the.v give, while burning, the largest amount 
 of light with the least development of heat, 
 and the smallest production of carbonic acid. 
 With the oils adapted for burning in lamps 
 other oils are produced. Some are very vola- 
 tile and highly inflammable, ami the s.itety of 
 the burning oils depends on their proper ex- 
 traction. The-c volatile liquids, when iso- 
 lated, are nseil in the arts as substitutes for 
 spirits of turpentine, as solvents for various 
 substances, and to iucre^ise the illuminating 
 power of coal-gas. Others are of a greai-y 
 nature, and are too heavy to be conveniently 
 used in lamps. These, however, are well 
 adapted for lubricating fine machinery, and 
 are extensively employed instead of sperm oil 
 by the cotton manufacturers of Lancashire. 
 When the more volatile ingredients are sepa- 
 rated from the burning oils, the latter are 
 perfectly safe. Most of the mineral burning 
 oils now in use are, we believe, free from 
 danger in this respect. (See Testa, below.) 
 
 Mist. For many years the manufacture of 
 burning oils by the distillation of bituminous 
 schists has been extensively carried out on the 
 Continent, but the discovery which formed 
 the foundation of the modern manufacture 
 was made nearly thirty years ago by our 
 countryman, Mr James Young. This gentle- 
 man took the lease of u spring of petroleum 
 in 1847, and after numerous experiments suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining two useful oils from the 
 crude liquid; t'le one being adapted for lu- 
 bricating machinery, and the other for burn- 
 ing in lamps. The almost total cessation of 
 the flow of petroleum terminated the business 
 after two years' working, and led Mr Young 
 to institute a series of experiments to try if 
 petroleum could be produced artificially by 
 the de&tructive distillation of coal. The&e 
 ^ See article Illluination. 
 
 72 
 
1138 
 
 OILS (MINEKAL) 
 
 experiments resulted in the discovery of an 
 oil which Mr Young named ' Paraffin oil,' 
 as it had many of the chemical properties of 
 the solid body of paraffin, discovered twenty 
 years before by Reicheubach in beech-wood 
 tar. Youug's patent (dated Oct. 7, 1850) 
 involved the slower distillation of coals, at a 
 lower temperature than had hitherto been em- 
 ployed for the purpose, and this novelty in 
 practice was followed by the novel result of 
 a copious production of liquid hydrocarbons. 
 The gas or canncl coals were found to yield 
 the liquids in largest quantities, that variety 
 known as Boghead coal or To^'bane Hill' 
 mineral being specially adapted for the 
 
 patented process. (See Paeaffin oil, below.) 
 Soon after Young's discovery native petro- 
 leum was brought from Rangoon, and puri- 
 fied by distillation, so as to produce oils very 
 similar to the coal products. During the last 
 few years, however, rich sources of petroleum 
 have been discovered in North America, and 
 from whence are imported the greater part 
 of the vast quantities of petroleum oil (both 
 for burning and lubricating purposes), to- 
 gether with the paraffin spirit, or naphtha, 
 which are consumed in this country. 
 
 In the following table are given the quan- 
 tities of these substances sent into England 
 and Scotland during the year 1875 : — 
 
 
 Rc^fined burning Oil. 
 
 Lubrica Ling Oil. 
 
 Residuum. 
 
 Petroleum Spirit. 
 
 London 
 
 Liverpool . 
 
 Hull . 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Clyde and Leith 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 169,763 
 
 95,853 
 
 20,226 
 
 3(j,889 
 
 4,233 
 
 Cases. 
 3,250 
 2,830 
 
 8 
 1,392 
 
 4 
 
 Barls. k, Casks. 
 2,511 
 300 
 
 535 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1,000 
 
 29,358 
 
 9,387 
 
 Cases. 
 
 Barrels. 
 53,173 
 30,913 
 
 17,203 
 
 Total . 
 
 326,963 
 
 7,484 
 
 3,346 
 
 39,745 
 
 
 101,289 
 
 This amounts to about 17 millions of gal- 
 lons. In 1874 it exceeded 20 millions of gal- 
 lons, but the stock in baud at the end of 1874 
 was about 5 millions of gallons, and the end 
 of 1875 was only Ij million. The riifference 
 was toainly due to overtrading in 1874, which 
 brought refined petroleum to thfe lowest price 
 yet known in England, viz. 7id. per gallon in 
 December, 1874, and checked its subsequent 
 importation.'* 
 
 Tests, Precautions. The Sanitary Com- 
 mission of the * Lancet * took as the limit of 
 safety an oil that gave otF inflammable vapour 
 when heated to 130° Fahr., and this has been 
 generally accepted by dealers. If an oil gives 
 off inflammable vapours before being heated 
 up to 130°, it is considered unsafe for domestic 
 use. 
 
 1. The plan for testing this, recommended 
 in the ' Lancet,' is to heat a poi-tion of the 
 suspected oil in a gallipot placed in boiling 
 water, ascertaining by a thermometer sus- 
 pended in the oil the temperature at which it 
 will take fire on the surface when a lighted 
 wax vesta is applied to it. This is a trouble- 
 some and dangerous process, and has little 
 practical value. 
 
 2. A rough-and-ready method of testing 
 the inflammability of a sample is to pour a 
 little out on a dry flat board, and try whether 
 it can be ignited readily by a lighted paper. 
 If it catches fire like turpentine or brandy, 
 the oil is dangerous. 
 
 3. The following plan, proposed by Mr 
 ' This species of coal is now exhausted. — Ed. 
 
 * W. Matthieu Williams. 
 
 Tegetmeier, requires no scientific knowledge 
 and no apparatus but what is to be found in 
 every hous^e, while it is sufficiently accurate 
 for all practical purposes : — 
 
 " Take an earthenware dish, holding about 
 half a pint (a breakfast cup will do), fill the 
 cup full from a kettle of boiling water, pour 
 this into an earthenware quart jug, then fill 
 the same cup again with boiling water from 
 the kettle, and pour it also into the quart jug, 
 then fill the cup with cold water, put it into 
 the jug, shake the jug to mix the hot and cold 
 water, then pour the tepid water from the 
 jug into the cup till the cup is half full, then 
 pour about a table-spoonful of the oil to be 
 tested on the tepid water in the cup, take the 
 oil-can with the oil out of the room, then 
 touch the surface of the oil in the cup with a 
 lighted splinter of wood, or a match without 
 sulphur. If the match causes a flash of flame 
 to appear on the surface of the oil, the oil is 
 below the standard of safety, and should not 
 be used; if no flame appears, the oil is up to 
 the standard. We may mention that in this 
 trial no time should he lost after pouring the 
 boiling water from the kettle, as tlie water 
 may get too cold, but the whole may be gone 
 through in from two to three minutes. It is 
 well to have a saucer at hand, and if the oil 
 should be a had oil, and ignite with the match, 
 place the saucer on the mouth of the cup, and 
 the flame is extinguished. This trial should be 
 done by daylight, and at a distance from a fire, 
 and the directions must be followed exactly in 
 the order as given above." 
 
OILS (MINERAL) 
 
 1130 
 
 4. Provided that the oiU to bo examined 
 have been produced by careful fractional dis- 
 tillation, tlieir relative volatility, as indicated 
 b; their speciHc gravity, shows to a groat 
 extent the facility with which they ignite. The 
 lightest oils are more volatile and mure easily 
 inflaini'd than those which are heavier. Oils 
 much under '800 inflame directly a lighted 
 match is thrown into them, whereas oils at 
 about '815 to '823 (if unmixed products) can- 
 not be set on fire in this manner. The specific 
 gravity test cannot, however, be depended on 
 to determine the inflaming point of any com- 
 mercial oil. A heavy oil, badly rectified, may 
 contain a proportion of very volatile vapour, 
 aiid have a low Inflaming point j whereas a 
 much lighter oil may be peifectly safe, from 
 its having the more volatile portions carefully 
 removed. 
 
 5. (Van der Weyde.) The oil to be tested 
 is placed in a graduated tube closed at one 
 end; the open end is then closed with the 
 finger, and is then placed mouth downwards in 
 a vessel of water that is heated from 43° — 44° 
 C. The vapour from the portion volatilised 
 at this temperature then collects in the upper 
 part of this tube, and expels a corresponding 
 quantity of oil. See PETKOLEm. 
 
 In Qre><t Britain petroleum is defined by 
 Act of Pnrliaraent as being any oil which gives 
 off an inflammable vapour at a temperature 
 less than 100° F. 
 
 To prevent accidents with parafiin or petro- 
 leum lamps, the fullowiug precautions ought 
 to be observed ; — 
 
 The lamps should be filled and trimmed by 
 daylight. 
 
 They should never be overfilled; the oil 
 should not be allowed to come into contact 
 with the mitiil work of the burner. 
 
 Any portion of oil spilled on the outride of 
 the lamp sliould he carefully wiped !i«ay. 
 
 Wiien not in use the wick should be turned 
 down into the wick-holder. 
 
 •(,* The principal products noticed belmv 
 rank high among the numerous varieties of 
 mineral oil now in the miirket, but there are 
 doubtless many others equally good and sufe. 
 Their properties are described in accordance 
 witli the results obtained by Mr \V. B. Tetfet- 
 meier, who has devoted much time to the 
 examination of tlie mineral oils : — 
 
 Oil, Al'bertite. From • .\lbertite,' a lustrous 
 black mineral found in New Brunswick. A 
 sample was shown in the Colonial Department 
 of the International Exhibition of 1862, but 
 the oil has not yet appeared in the Engl sh 
 market. 
 
 Prop. Odour very slieht; illuminatinfr 
 power high ; boiling point 338' Falir., or 120" 
 above that if water. 
 
 Oil, American. See Pbtboiettm oil. (below). 
 
 Oil, Apyroec'tic. Si/n. No.v-explosiveoil. 
 A bnrnint; oil, introduc'd liy F. Tall, of Hull, 
 and prepared, we believe, I'rom Ameriean 
 pttroleuiu. 
 
 Prop, Slightly coloured ; perfectly limpid ; 
 odour slight, but not perceivable during *:om- 
 bustion. The most remarkable property of 
 this oil is that, in spite of its limpidity, tlie 
 point at which it gives off inflammable vapour 
 is 180° Fahr., or 80° above the requirements 
 of the Petroleum Act. 
 
 Oil, Bel'montiue. From Can<;oon tar, or 
 Burmese petroleum, by distillation ; super- 
 heated steam being employed as the heating 
 agent. 
 
 Prop. Colourless ; odour not unpleasant ; 
 sp. gr. '847 ; but although so heavy, the oil is 
 altogether free from viscosity, and will rise 
 rapidly in a comparatively long wick; in- 
 flaming point 134° F.ihr. ; bunn with an ex- 
 ceedingly white light, and possesses a very 
 high illuminating power. 
 
 Oba. The distillation of the Rangoon tar 
 is carried on by Price's Patent Candle Com- 
 pany under a patent. Besides the above lamp 
 oil, several be:iutiful and usefnl products are 
 obtained. At first there comes over « very 
 volatile liquiil, termed Sukbwood oil, used as 
 a determent for reiooviiv^ grease from falnics, 
 cleaning gloves, &c. ; then comes the Bel- 
 MomiNE on, already noticed; then two lu- 
 bricating oils, the one light and the other 
 heavy; and, last of all, when the temper- 
 ature is considerably elevated, the beautiful 
 white, translucent solid known as Bklmon- 
 TINE, distils over. This last is a kind of 
 parafliu, auJ is used for making ornamental 
 candles. 
 
 Oil, Caz'eline. An evcellent burninc; oil, 
 probably prepared from Americau petroleum, 
 introduced by Cahsell, tiiuith, and Co., of 
 London. 
 
 Prop. Bright, limpid, with scarcely a trace 
 of colour; odour very slight, and quite free 
 Irom any objectionable clianietir; sp.gr. '805; 
 lowest point of ignition 1-1 1- Fahr. ; burns 
 with a pure white light, free from smoke and 
 smell. 
 
 Oil, Col'zarine. A heavy hydrocarbon oil, 
 adapted for burning in lamps constructed 
 from the old ' Jlodcrators' and ' Carcels,' for- 
 iiierlv so much used lor the fat oils. 
 
 Prop. Limpid; quite inodorous; of a pale 
 amber colour; sp. izr. about 838; temperature 
 at which the vapour can be permanently ig- 
 nited, 250' Falir. Te-ted in the altered mo- 
 derator, it gives an intense white lifjht, with- 
 out smoke or smell. Compareil with vegetable 
 colza o 1, its illumination' power is in the pro- 
 portion of 3 to 2. 
 
 Obs. This oil i' manufactured by Cassell, 
 Smith, and Co., under Martin's patent for the 
 modification of mineral oils, to fit them for 
 burning in lamps where 'cilza' and other 
 vegetable and animal oils have been u-'ually 
 ennsumed. Similar oils are prepared hy other 
 firms. 
 
 Oil, Machin'ery. Si/n. LrEHiCATixr. oil, 
 Shafting c. Spindle o. The b. avier irydro- 
 earbon oils oht liu^J in distilling coal, shale. 
 
1140 
 
 OILS (MINERAL) 
 
 and petroleani, have almost superseded the 
 fat oils for lubricating: purposes. Tliey have 
 DO chemical action on the ordinary metals, and 
 are not affected by cold. The liglitest of these 
 comparatively heavy oils are used for spindles, 
 or other kinds of rapid machinery ; the 
 heaviest for tlie bearing parts of heavy ma- 
 chinery ; and those of an intermediate cha- 
 racter for such things as printing-presses, 
 agricultural steam-engines, &c. In America 
 and on the Continent this oil is also used for 
 making gas. The firm of Whitmore and 
 Craddock is favorably known for the manu- 
 facture and purification of these machinery 
 oils. See Oil, Belmontine {above), and Oil, 
 Pahapfin (below). 
 
 Oil, Paraffin. Syn. Pakapfine on. This 
 n;ime was given by Mr Young to the oil pro- 
 duced by the distillation of cannel coal. Bog- 
 head coal, &c., at a temperature considerably 
 lower than that employed in the manufacture 
 of illuuiiniiting gas. The following is a brief 
 outline of Mr Young's process ; — 
 
 Manuf. (Young's patent.) Boghead coal, 
 broken into small fragments, is introduied 
 into perpendicular tubes or retorts about 
 tlevfn feet in height, by conical hoppers at 
 their upp^^r extremities. Four of these tubes 
 constitute a set, being built into one furnace, 
 and charged by a single workman. They pass 
 completely through the furnace, and are 
 closed below by dipping into shallow pools of 
 ivater, while the openings into the hoppers 
 ab:)ve mwy be shut by spherical valves. The 
 coal in each tube is gradually heated as it 
 descends to that part which passes through 
 the furnace, and when it reaches the bottom 
 of the tube it has parted with its volatile 
 constituents, and is raked away as refuse, the 
 coal from above descending as it is removed. 
 Thus, the action of these perpenilicular retorts 
 is continuous, and the distillation goes on 
 uninterruptedly both day and night. The 
 vapours produ<:ed are conducted by iron tubes 
 to the main condensers, which consist of a 
 series of syphon pipes freely exposed to the 
 air. The quantity of inoondensible gas formed 
 is inconsiderable ; and it is this result, so dif- 
 ferent from that obtained in the ordinary gas- 
 works, that marks the great value of Young's 
 process. The crude oil, a dark-coloured, 
 thick liquid, is then distilled to dryness in 
 large iron cylindrical stills, and is thus freed 
 from the excess of carbon which is left behind 
 as coke. The oil, after distillation, is further 
 purified by being acted upon by strong sul 
 phuric acid (oil of vitriol), which chars the 
 principal impurities, aud causes them to sub- 
 side in the form of a dense black, heavy acid 
 tar. To separate the remaining impurities, 
 and that portion of the sulphuric acid which 
 remains in the oil, it is next subjected to the 
 action of caustic soda. As thus purified, the 
 paraffin oil contains four distinct commercial 
 products. To effect their separation, the pri)- 
 cess of fractional distillation is first employed. 
 
 The first elevation of temperature drives over 
 the lighter and more volatile portions, which, 
 when purified by a subsequent distillation, 
 yields the fluid known as 'parafiin naphtha,' 
 ' petroleum spiiit,' ' benzoline.' This product 
 is used as a substitute for ' turps.' as a solvent 
 for India rubber for cleaning gloves, and for 
 burning in those naphtha lamps so much em- 
 ployed by costermongers, and workmen in 
 railway tunnels and similar situations. On 
 the perfect separation of this naphtha the 
 safety of the burning oil depends. "This burn- 
 ing oil, the 'paraffin oil' of commerce, comes 
 over at a much higher temperature than the 
 naphtha. It is a perfectly safe lamp oil, aud 
 has a greater illuminating value than any 
 other oil in the market. Its properties are 
 noticed below. The third product in point of 
 volatility is a comparatively heavy liquid 
 (machinery oil), largely used for lubricating 
 purposes in tlie Lancashire factories. From 
 this oil, and others which come over at a very 
 high temperature, the fourth commercial pro- 
 duct is separated by the action of artificial 
 cold. This last product is the beautiful trans- 
 lucent solid, parafiin, now much used as a 
 candle material.' (See Oil, Paeaffin, Pe- 
 
 TEOLEUM.) 
 
 In the preparation of paraffin oil, from 
 native petroleum, the oil is obtained by direct 
 distillation from the petroleum, and subse- 
 quently separated from the more or less vola- 
 tile hydrocarbons (the parafiin naphtha, the 
 lubricating oils and the solid paraffin) that are 
 associated with it by fractional distillation as 
 in Young's process; whereas, when procured 
 from bituminous minerals, it is derived from 
 the iar or cruue oil, which has to be previously 
 extracted from the bituminous matters by 
 destructive distillation. There are various 
 methods for obtaining this tar or crude oil, 
 which, although difpering in detail, are in 
 general principles very similar to that de- 
 scribed in Young's patent. Tims, whilst in 
 many works closed horizontal retorts are 
 employed, in other establishments vertical 
 ones, to the bottoms of which are attached 
 receptacles for the receipt of the exhausted 
 coal or other material as it falls from the 
 retort, the same as in Young's apparatus, are 
 extensively adopted. Wlien horizontal retorts 
 are employed they are marie of cast iron, and 
 vary in length from 8 to 10 feet, being from 
 28 to 34' inches wide and from 9 to 14 inches 
 deep. The charge is introduced by an opening 
 in the end of the retort, by which aperture 
 the exhausted residue is removed when neces- 
 sary. This aperture is closed by a tightly 
 fitting cast iron cover while the distillation is 
 going on. At the other end of the retort is a 
 pipe for carrying off' the products of distilla- 
 tion. This communicates with a larger pipe, 
 aud this latter with the condensing apparatus. 
 
 1 For a detailed accoimt of Hie iiroceeses carried on 
 at ttie Batliira'e worlts, see Mr Tegetmeier's paper in 
 ' Eaglaad's "Woi-kshopB.' — Gioombridge aud Sons. 
 
OILS (MINER A I,) 
 
 IMI 
 
 A number of these retorts arc «ct together In 
 a row, with a furnace nt one cnil, and flues 
 extending beneath the retorts, while the upper 
 part* of the retorts arc covered with brick- 
 work, to prevent the oil vaponrs from being 
 decoinpo<tMl by the heat of the waste furnace 
 ga» passing to the chimney through the flues 
 above the retorts. 
 
 Thegaseous products of the distillntion of the 
 tar, leaving tlie retort by the exit tube already 
 described, are cooled by being made to pass 
 through a number of iron pipes exposed to the 
 air, or surrounded by water, and thus becom- 
 ing condensed pass into a reservoir in the 
 form of the oil, which forms the materi.il from 
 whicli the various hydrocarbons are sepiirated 
 by fractional distillation. Accompiinying the 
 oil vapours are certain uncondensable gases ; 
 these escape through a properly contrived 
 outlet which is made in tlie condensing pipes; 
 in some works these escaping gases are utilised 
 as fuel, and in others for purposes of illumi- 
 nation. 
 
 In other works superheated steam is driven 
 into the retorts during the process of distilla- 
 tion ; but although this has the effect of 
 sweeping the oil vopour more quickly out of 
 the retort iuto the condenser, it is questioniible 
 whether this advantage covers the cxtia cost 
 of the production of the steam.' 
 
 In many parts of Germiiny the extraction 
 of the crude oil or tar from liitumiuous sub- 
 stances is effected in ovens. In these ovens 
 the bituminous body is thrown upon a layer of 
 burning fuel which covers the bottom of the 
 oven, the result being that the bituminous 
 matter is resolved into gaseous bodies which 
 are lost, and tar which flows downwards to- 
 ward the burning fuel, which being covered 
 with a layer of clay is prevented from enter- 
 ing into violent combustion. Tliis method, 
 however, is only had recourse to on a small 
 scale, since it is found thnt in most cases the 
 tar obtained by menus of it is not of a kind 
 suited for yielding paraffin and piuaffin oils. 
 
 The preparation of the tar or crude oil from 
 fossil fuel, of the cliarncter already specified, 
 constitutes oue of the most delicate :ind diffi- 
 cult branches in the manufacture of paraffin 
 oils, and piirnffin, &c. The chief sources of 
 failure to be avoided are the overheating of 
 the oil vapour, and its consequent decomposi- 
 tion (varying in amount) into useless gaseous 
 products; ami its inefficient condensation. 
 
 It has been shown by Vohl tliat even when 
 the construction of the retorts is not of the 
 best, an avera;;e yield of tar may be obtained 
 by the proper condeusalion of the vapours. 
 " The complete condensation of the vapours of 
 the tar is one of the most difficult problems 
 the mineral oil and paraffin manufacturer has 
 to deal with, while the means u?^uully adopled 
 for condensation, such as large condensing 
 surfaces, injection of cold water, and the like, 
 have proved ineffectual. It has often been 
 ' r.iruc'il ' Indagtiinl Clieniistry.' I'.iii.cJ by D( Fuul. 
 
 attempted to condense the vapours of tar in 
 the same manner as those of nlcoliol, but there 
 exist essential differences betwi en the distilla- 
 tion of fluids and dry distillation. In the 
 former case the vapours soon expel all the air 
 completely from the still and from the con- 
 denser, and provided, therefore, that, in refer- 
 ence to the size of the still and bulk of the 
 boiling liquid, the Latter be large and cool 
 enough, every part of the vapour must come 
 into contact with the condensing sur:aces. In 
 the process of dry distillation thepro(e>s is 
 entirely difl'ereiit, because with the vapours, 
 say of tar, permanent gases are always gene- 
 rated. On coming into contact with the con- 
 densing surfaces a portion of the vapours is 
 liquefied, leaving a layer of gas as a coatin<r, 
 as it were, on the condensing surface. The 
 gas being a bad conductor of heat prevents to 
 such an extent the further action of the cou- 
 dcTising apparatus, that a large proportion of 
 the vapours aie carried (pn, and may be alto- 
 gether lost. A suflieieut condensation of the 
 vapours of tar cm be obtained only by brio^;- 
 ing all the particles of matter wliich are car- 
 ried off from the retorts into contact with the 
 condensing surface, which need neither be 
 very large iior exceedingly cold, because the 
 latent hint of the vapours of tar is small, and 
 consequently a moderately low tcmperatuie 
 will be sufficient to condense those vapours to 
 the liquid state. The mixture of gases and 
 vapours maybe compared to un emulsion sueh 
 as milk, and as the particles ol butter mav he 
 separated from milk by churninsr, so the si pa- 
 ration of the vapours of tar from the gases 
 can be greatly assisted by the use of exhausters 
 acting in the manner of blowing fans. It is 
 of the utmost importance in condensing the 
 vapours of tar that the molecuies ot the 
 vapours be kept in continuous motion, and 
 thus made to touch the sides of the condenser. 
 The condenser should not be constructed so 
 that the vapours and cases can flow uninter- 
 ruptedly in one and the same direction."' 
 
 An important condition for the safe and 
 quiet distillation of the tar or crude oil when 
 obtained is that it should be free from water. 
 Unless tlie removal of the water is effectually 
 accomplisled, during its distillation, the tar 
 may boil over, and coming into contact with 
 the fire under the still may give rise to an 
 alarming conflagration. The dehydration of 
 the tar is effected in an apparatus constructed 
 for the purpose, consisting of an iron tank 
 placed within a larger tank, a space of about 
 two inches intervening between the two tanks 
 is filled with water, which is heated to, and 
 kept at a temperature of between 60° and 
 80° C, for 10 hours, by the end of which time 
 the aramoniacal water having separated irom 
 the lighter tar is drawn off by a stop-cock 
 plaied at the bottom of the tank, whilst the 
 fcir is decanted throush a valve at the top. 
 In America the distillation of the natural 
 • E.W«guer. 
 
1142 
 
 OILS (MINERAL) 
 
 petroleum oils is carried out iu cylindrical 
 stills capable of holding as much as 1600 
 gallons each. Tlie retorts employed in the 
 distillation of the tar or crude oils obtained 
 from shale and other bituminous compounds 
 are often constructed of large cast-iron 
 flanged pans, each capable of containing from 
 14 to 3 tons of the oil, " and forming the 
 body of the retort. The pan is set in brick- 
 work with flues running round the upper 
 portion, and beneath it is a perforated dome 
 of brickwork, through which the flame and 
 hot giis from the furnace pass up round the 
 bottom of the pan before entering the flues by 
 which the upper portion of the pan is heated. 
 To the flange of the pan is fitted a flanged 
 cover having on one side a discharge pipe 
 through which the vapour is pas-ed to the 
 worm of the condenser. In the centre of the 
 cover is a manhole. The oil condensed in the 
 worm is discharged through a pipe into a 
 receiver, and the uucondeusable gas escapes 
 through an ascending pipe."' 
 
 The pi ocesses to which the crude oil or tar 
 and the natural petroleum are next submitted 
 differ only in the degree of treatment with 
 certain agents to which these produ(!ts are 
 subjected when, after similar methods of frac- 
 tional distillation, they have been isolated from 
 each other. The benzoline and paraffin oils 
 (both for burning and lubricating purposes) 
 separately yielded by the natural oils seldom 
 require purification, or if so in a minor degree 
 only, whilst the same bodies as obtained from 
 the crude shale oil or tar must be submitted 
 to various processes of depuration before they 
 are fit for the market. Thus, the crude petro- 
 leum or burning oil derived from tar is cha- 
 racterised by a more or less dark colour and 
 disagreeable smell — properties which are partly 
 due to the presence of carbolic acid and its 
 homolognes. By agitating the paraffin oil with 
 a solution of caustic soda these objectionable 
 substances are removed. 
 
 The oil, being next separated from the 
 alkali by subsidence, and any remains of the 
 soda being removed from it by washing with 
 water, is next mixed with an aqueous solution 
 of sulphuric acid in the proportion of 5 per 
 cent, of acid of sp. gr. 1'70. The acid removes 
 from the oil certain basic substances derived 
 from the tar, which, like the carbolic acid, give 
 to it a bad odour and a dark colour. In this 
 0]ieration thorough admixture of the acid with 
 the oil is important, and this is generally 
 affected by mixing the two in vessels furnished 
 with puddles. After a time, and when the 
 mixture has separated into two layers, the 
 upper one or the paraffin oil is drawn ofl' 
 from the lower or acid one, and well washed 
 with water ; in some instances lime water is 
 used for the washing, in others the water is 
 impregnated with caustic alkali. With some 
 samples of crude paraffin oil the above opera- 
 tions have to be repeated two or three times, 
 ' Palen. 
 
 and even redistilled before the oil becomes 
 sufficiently pure and colourless for sale. When 
 redistilled, the last portions which come over 
 are often found to yield some solid paraffin in 
 addition to that furnished by the first frac- 
 tional distillation. The ' paraffin,' ' naphtha,' 
 ' petroleum,' ' spirit,' or ' benzoline' (by all 
 of which names it is known), which forms the 
 more volatile portion of the tar, and which is 
 the first to pass over from the retort, is sub- 
 jected to the same treatment as that used for 
 burning oil ; as for the denser lubricating oil, 
 which passes over after the burning portion, 
 this being freed from any of the latter, is set 
 aside iu a cool place, in order that any solid 
 paraffin it contains may crystallise out, and be 
 separated from it. 
 
 The waste carbolate of soda resulting from 
 the treatment of the oil with the caustic 
 alkali, being decomposed by sulphuric acid, the 
 liberated carbolic acid is utilised either as a 
 disinfectant, or for saturating railway sleepers j 
 and sometimes as a source of certain tar 
 colours ; or it may be used in the manufacture 
 of gas, the soda which remains in thecoke being 
 extracted by lixiviation. The waste sulphuric 
 acid combined with the ammoniacal liquors 
 that always accompany the first stages of the 
 distillation of the tar is made into sulphate of 
 ammonia. 
 
 Prof. The paraffin oil of commerce is of 
 a very pile amber colour; is bright, perfectly 
 transparent, and remarkably limpid. Its 
 sp. gr. is -823. Its point of temporary igni- 
 tion is 150° Falir., that of permanent ignition 
 being a few degrees higher. Its odour is very 
 slight. Its rate of combustion is slow, as may 
 be inferred from the absence of the lighter 
 oils, as indicated by its high sp. gr. and in- 
 fiaming point. At the same time its limpidity 
 proves the absence of the heavier oils, and 
 accounts for its rising through u long wick 
 with freedom, and burning without charring 
 the cotton. 
 
 Oil, Petroleum. Syn. Kerosene oil.. Re- 
 pined PETHOLEUM, PaBAFFIN OIL. Most of 
 the burning oils now in the market are derived 
 from American petroleuin. That obtained 
 from natural petroleum is now manufactured 
 solely in America. The native petroleums 
 vary greatly iu properties, and numerous 
 methods of refining are employed by the 
 manufacturers. The Canadian petroleuin 
 contains sulphuretted hydrogen, which imparts 
 to it a very dis;igreeable smell, and is difficult 
 of removal. Some make use of both acids 
 and alkalies, others employ alkalies alone, aud 
 steam is applied at various degrees of heat. 
 Some of the oils produced are of excellent 
 quality, but others are inferior, and do not 
 ascend the wick in sufficient quantity to afford 
 a constant light. None of the native petro- 
 leums contain carbolic acid and other im- 
 purities which exist in the oils distilled from 
 coals and shales; hence their purification is 
 simple and comparatively cheap. " The oil pre- 
 
OILS (MIXED) 
 
 1143 
 
 pared from petroltum isalmoiitcolourless; ithas 
 a apccitic! gravity of about -810, and when of 
 good quality only a Bli);lit and rather aromatic 
 odour." (Payen.) See Petbolbfm, and 
 abom. 
 
 Oil, Shale. As we have stated, prodncts 
 analogous to those derived from cannel coal 
 are obtained by the destructive distillation of 
 bituminous shales and schists, and lignites or 
 brown couU. On the Continent the prodnc- 
 tion of shale oils has of late years declined 
 considerably, owing to their unsuccessful 
 competition, in point of price, with the 
 American petroleum oils. The oil obtained 
 from bituminous shale or from coal is gene- 
 rally of higher specific gravity than that 
 procured from petroleum ; it is deeper in colour, 
 and not so pleasant in smell. 
 
 OILS (Mixed). Syn. Coufound oils ; Olea 
 C0MP08ITA, Olba MtXTA, L. Under these 
 names are commonly inclnde,d various mixtures 
 of oils and other substances that possess iin 
 unctuous appearance. When not otherwise 
 stated, they nre prepared by simply agitating 
 the ingredients together, and, ufttr a sufficient 
 time, decanting the clear portion, winch, in 
 some cases, is then iiltered. A few of them 
 only possess any importance. Some of them 
 are highly esteemed as remedies among the 
 vulgar, and the use of others is confiued to 
 veterinary medicine. 
 
 The following include the principal mixed 
 oils of the shops, to which the names of a few 
 other compounds, which are frequently called 
 'oils' by the ignorant, are added, for the pur- 
 pose of facilitating a reference to them : — 
 
 Oil of Turpentine, Sulphurated. Syn. 
 Oleum tbeebinthin*: sulphubatum. Frep. 
 Sulphurated linseed oil, 1 part; oil of turpen- 
 tine, 3 parts. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine (for aeou«tio use). Syn, 
 OlKUM TKKEBINTHINa; ACOtJSTICUM. (Mr 
 Munle.) Oil of almonds, 4 drams; oil of 
 turpentine, 40 minims. 
 
 Oil, Acou'stio. Syn. Eab oii; Oleum 
 
 ACOUSTICCM, 0. TBEEBINTHIN^ ACOUSTICUM, 
 L. Prep. Prom oil of turpentine, 1 part; 
 oil of almonds, 6 parts ; mix. In atonic deaf- 
 ness, accompanied with induration of the wax. 
 1 or 2 drops are poured into the ear, or on a 
 piece of cotton wool, which is then gently 
 placed in it. 
 
 Oil, Black. Syn. Oleum nigbum, L. Prep. 
 1. Oil of turpentine, 1 pint; rape oil, 3 pints; 
 oil of vitriol, ^ lb. ; agitate well together with 
 c^ire; then add of Barbadoes tar, 3 oz. ; again 
 agitate well, and iu 10 days decant the clear 
 portion. Linseed oil is preferred lor the above 
 by many persons. 
 
 2. (Percivall.) Sweet oil, 1 pint; oil of tur- 
 pentine, 2 .oz. ; mix, add gradually of oil of 
 vitriol ; IJ oz.; again mix, and leiive the bottle 
 open until the next day. Detersive, stimulant. 
 Used bv farriers for mange, &c. 
 
 Oil, British. Syn. Common oil of petre ; 
 Oleum Bbitahnicum, O. petb^s tulgake. 
 
 L. Prep. From oil of turpentine, 1 quart j 
 Barbadoes tar, 1 lb. ; oils of rosemary and 
 origanum, of each 1 oz. Stimulant. Fcr- 
 ^merly reputed to possess the most astonishing 
 virtues. 
 
 Oil, Camphora'ted. Liniment of camphor. 
 
 Oil, Car'ron. Liniment i.f lime. 
 
 Oil, Chahert's. Syn. Chabebt's emptbku- 
 
 MATIC OIL; OlBUM ChABEBTI, 0. COSTBA 
 
 TJJNiAM Chabeeti, L. Oil of turpentine, 3 
 parts ; Dippel's animal oil, 1 part ; mix, and 
 distil 3 pints. It must be preserved from the 
 air and light. Used in tapeworm. — Dote, 1 
 to 2 teaspoonfuls, in water, night and morn- 
 ing, until 5 or 6 fl. oz., or more, have been 
 taken ; u cathartic being given every third 
 day. 
 
 Oil, Exeter. Syn. Oleum Exokstbense 
 (Gray.) Green oil, 16 lbs.; euphorbium, 
 mustard seed, castor, pellitory, of each 1 oz. ; 
 digest and strain. The original form is more 
 complex. The following is also used: — Rape oil, 
 1^ pint; green oil, i pint; oils of wormwood, 
 rosemary, and origanum, of eiuh half a dram. 
 
 Oil, Fur'nitnre. Syn. Madooant oil. Oil 
 STAIN. Prep. 1. From refined linseed oil, 1 
 pint; alkanet root, i oz. ; digested together 
 in a warm place until the former is suffi- 
 ciently coloured, when it is poured off and 
 strained. 
 
 2. Pale boiled oil, 1 pint ; beeswax, i lb. ; 
 melted together, and coloured as before. Gives 
 a superior polish, which becomes very tough 
 by age. 
 
 3. Linseed or boiled oil, 1 pint ; Venice tur- 
 pentine (pure), 6 oz. ; as before. The above 
 are used for mahogany and other dark-coloured 
 wood^. 
 
 4. Linseed oil, 8 oz. ; vinegar, 4 oz. ; oil of 
 turpentine, mucilage, rectified spirit, of each 
 J oz. ; butter of antimony, i oz. ; hydrochloric 
 acid, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 5. Linseed oil, 16 oz. ; black resin. 4 oz. ; 
 vinegar, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 3 oz. ; butter of 
 antimony, 1 oz. ; spirit of salts, 2 oz. ; melt the 
 resin, add the oil, take it oif the fire, and stir 
 in the vinegar; let it boil for a few minutes, 
 stirring it ; when cool put it into a bottle, and 
 add the other ingredients, shaking all to- 
 gether. The last two are specially used for 
 reviving French polish. 
 
 6. (P«le.) — a. As the preceding, omitting 
 the alkanet. 
 
 b. From nut oil, \ pint ; beeswax (finest), 
 
 3 oz. ; melted together. 
 
 c. To the last add of copal varnish, 3 or 
 
 4 oz. 
 
 The last three are employed for pale woods. 
 They are all applied by means of a rag, and 
 are 'polished ort' with a ' woollen rubber' or 
 ' furniture brush.' A little strong vinepar, or 
 a few drops of hydrochloric acid, are sometimes 
 added. See Polish. 
 
 Oil, Hair. See Oil (Perfumed). 
 
 Oil and Hartshorn. Liniment of ammonia. 
 
 Oil, I'ron. Syn. Oleum feebi, 0. mabiis. 
 
1144 
 
 OILS (MIXED) 
 
 L. The old name for the liquid formed when 
 perchloride of iron is allowed to deliquesce 
 by free exposure to the air. It is excessively 
 caustic and corrosive. 
 
 Oil, lime. See Calcium (Chloride). 
 
 Oil, Macas'sar. See Oils (Perfumed). 
 
 Oil, Mar'row. P/-«jO. I'rom clarified beef 
 marrow, 1 part; oil of almonds, 3 parts; 
 melted together, and strained through muslin. 
 It is usually scented with ambergris, cassia, or 
 mace, and slightly tinged with palm oil or 
 aunotta. Used for the hair. 
 
 Oils, Marshall's. Prep. From linseed oil 
 and rape oil, of each 1 lb. ; green oil and oil of 
 turpentine, of each \ lb. ; oil of origanum, 
 J fl. oz. ; oil of vitriol, i oz. ; well shaken to- 
 gether. 
 
 Oils, Mixed. Si/n. Oleum mixtum com- 
 mune, L. Prep, from linseed oil and green 
 oil, of each 1 lb. ; oil of turpentine, 4 lb. ; 
 Barbadoes tar and balsam of sulphur, of each 
 
 2 oz. J oils of splice and origanum, of each 
 1 oz. Stimulant and rubefacient. Used by 
 f.irriers for sprains, &c. See Oils, Stameoed's 
 (below). 
 
 Oils, Newmarket. Prep. From oils of lin- 
 seed, turpentine, and St John's wort, of each 
 
 3 lbs ; oil of vitriol, IJ oz. ; well shaken to- 
 gether, and the clear portion decanted in a 
 few days, A iavourite remedy for sprains in 
 horses. 
 
 Oils, Nine. Si/n. Old mixed oils ; Oleum 
 EX OMNIBUS, L. Prep. From train oil, 1 
 gall. ; oil of turpentine, 1 quart; oil of amber 
 and oil of brielfs, of each 5 oz. ; oil of spike 
 and oil of origanum, of each 2 oz. ; Barbadoes 
 tiir, 2J lbs. ; oil of vitriol, 2 oz. ; camphorated 
 spirit, \ pint, mixed together as the last. A 
 favourite remedy with provincial farriers. 
 
 Oil of Petre. See Oil, Beitibh (above). 
 
 Oil, Phos'phorated. Si/n. Oleum phospho- 
 RATUM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Bor.) Phosphorus 
 (ilried and sliced small), 6 gr. ; oil of almonds, 
 1 oz. ; mix, place the pliial in hot water, 
 aj^itate for some time, and, when cold, decant 
 tlie clear oil from the undissolved phosphorus. 
 
 2. (IMagendie.) Phosphorus (sliced), J dr. ; 
 almond oil, 1 oz. ; macerate in the dark, with 
 frequent agitation, for 14 days, then, after 
 repose, decant the clear portion, and aromatise 
 it with a little essence of bergamotte. 
 
 3. (B. Pli.) Prep. Take of phosphorus 
 and oil of almonds, of each q. s. Heat the 
 oil in a porcelain dish to 300° F., and keep it 
 at tills temperature for about 15 minutes, 
 then let it cool and filter it through paper. 
 Put 4 fluid ounces of this oil into a stoppered 
 bottle capable of holding four and a half 
 fluid ounces; then add to it 12 grains of 
 phosphorus. Immerse the bottle in hot water 
 until the oil has acquired the temperature of 
 180° F., removing the stopper two or three 
 times to allow the escape of expanded air, 
 then shake the oil and phosphorus together, 
 until the latter is entirely dissolved. — Dose, 
 5 to 10 minims. 
 
 Obs. A fl. oz. of oil dissolves rather less 
 than 5 gr. of pure phosphorus. The large 
 excess ordered in the second foripula must be 
 merely for the purpose of increasing the extent 
 of surface acted on. It is, however, with the 
 other precautions given, quite unnecessary. 
 The products of both formulae have the same 
 strength. — Dose, 5 to 10 or 12 drops, in milk, 
 barley water, or gruel, or made into an emul- 
 sion; in chronic rheumatism, gout, &o., and 
 as a powerful, diffusible stimulant in various 
 diseases with debility and general prostration 
 of the vital powers, &c. Externally, as a 
 friction. It is chiefly to the presence of phos- 
 phorus thiit cod-liver owes its wonderful 
 remedial power in these aft'ections. 
 
 Oil, ftuit'ter. Prep. 1. Red precipitate, 2 
 dr. ; aquafortis, 1 oz. ; dissolve, add of olive 
 oil, oil of turpentine, and rectified spirit, of 
 each 2 oz. ; and agitate well and frequently 
 for 3 or 4 hours. 
 
 2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury (Ph. L.), 
 1 part ! nut oil, 3 parts ; melt together, and 
 stir until the mixture is cold. Used by farriers 
 for quitters, &o. 
 
 Oils, Eadley's. From Barbadoes tar, i lb. ; 
 linseed oil and oil of turpentine, of each i pint; 
 gently warmed, and shaken together. 
 
 Oil, Shav'ing. See Essence of soap. 
 
 Oil, Sheldrake's. Prep. From pale boiled 
 nut 6.1 and cop:il varnish, equal parts, melted 
 together by the heat of hot water, and, when 
 perfectly mixed, placed aside in a bottle for a 
 week to settle, after which the clear portion is 
 decanted. Used by artists to grind their colours 
 in to brighten them. 
 
 Oil of Spike. 1. (Faeeieb's). From oil of 
 turpentine, 1 quart; Barbadoes tar, 1^ oz. ; 
 alkanet root, i oz. ; digested together for a 
 week. Used as a stimulating liniment by 
 farriers. 
 
 2. (Painter's.)— a. From rectified oil of 
 turpentine, 3 pints ; oil of lavender, 1 pint ; 
 mix. 
 
 6. Oil of turpentine(warm), 5 parts ; lavender 
 oil bottoms (genuine), 3 parts ; agitate well 
 together, and in a fortnight decant the clear 
 away. Used by artists and enamellers. 
 
 Oils, Stamford's. S,yn. Lobs Stamford's 
 mixed oils. Prep. Dissolve cimphor, 1 oz , 
 in rectified spirit of wine, 4 pint ; add oil of 
 origanum, 2 oz. ; oil of turpentine, i pint; 
 green elder oil, 2 lbs.; and agitate until mixed. 
 The rectified spirit is now generally omitted, 
 the camplior being dissolved in the green oil 
 by aid of heat before adding the other ingre- 
 dients. Stimulant. Used by farriers. 
 
 Oil, Snrphnrated. Syn. IBalsam op sul- 
 phuk; Oleum bulphoeatum, Balsamum 
 suLPHUEis, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1746.) 
 Flowers of sulphur, 1 part ; olive oil, 4 parts ; 
 boil together in a vessel lightly covered, until 
 they assume the consistence of a thick balsam. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1824.) Olive oil, 16 fl. oz.; heat 
 it in a sand bath, and gradually add of washed 
 sulphur, 2 oz. ; stirring until they combine. 
 
OILS (IN PERFUMERY) 
 
 1145 
 
 Prop,, Bfe. Bu1«am of sulpbar ia a dark, 
 rcddiati-bi'own, viscid fluid, having an ex- 
 tremely disagreeable and penetrating odour, 
 and a ^troni;, nauseous taste. The local action 
 of b.tlsaiu uf sulphur is that of an acrid and irri- 
 tant; its remote effect^ those of a stimulant, 
 expectorant, and diaphoretic. Externally, it 
 is occasionally used as an application to foul 
 ulcers; and was formerly commonly employed 
 internally in chronic pulmonary affections, in 
 dones of 20 to 50 drops. It is now seldom 
 given internally except in veterinary practice. 
 
 Oils, Three. Si/n. Oleum de tbidus (Van 
 Mons), L. Oils of brick, lavender, and tur- 
 pentine, equal parts. As a stimulant liniment. 
 
 Oil of Vit'riol. Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Oils, Ward's. St/n. Waed's white oris. 
 From powdered camphor, rape oil, oil of tur- 
 pentine, rectified spirit, and liquor of potassa, 
 equal parts, agitated toi;ether for some time, 
 and again before use. Beef brine was formerly 
 used instead of liquor of potassa. 
 
 Oil, Watchmaker's. Prepared by placing a 
 clean strip or coil of lead in a small white- 
 gl:iss bottle Hlled with pure almond or olive oil, 
 and exposing it to the aun's rays at a window 
 for some time till a curdy matter ceases to bo 
 deposited, and the oil has become quite limpid 
 aud colourless. Used for flue work ; does not 
 become thick by age. 
 
 Oil, Wedell's. Syn. BEZOAn oil ; Oleum 
 BEZOABDIOUM, L. From nut oil, i pint ; cam- 
 phor, I oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, and, 
 when cold, udil of essence of bergamot, 1 dr., 
 and let it stand over u little alkanet root until 
 sufficiently coloured. 
 
 Oils, White. Syn. White Eao-oiLS. Prep. 
 1. Yulks of eggs, 4 in number; oil of tur- 
 pentine, 1 pint; mix, add of liquor of ammonia, 
 3 A, oz. ; oil of origanum, ^ oz. ; soaper's lye, 
 ipint; water, J pint; agitate well, aud strain 
 through a eoarse hair sieve. 
 
 2. Rape oil, j pint ; liquor of ammonia and 
 oil of turpentine, of each 3 oz. ; agitate until 
 they form a milk. 
 
 3. (Redwood.) Whites and yolks of 2 eggs ; 
 oil of turpentine, li oz.; triturate togetlier, 
 add of Goulard's extract, ^ oz ; mix, next add 
 of distilled vinegar, IJ pint, and, lastly, of 
 rectified spirit, 1^ fl. oz. Stimulant aud deter- 
 gent. U^ed by farriers. 
 
 Oil, Worm (Canine). Syn. Oleum vermi- 
 PBOUM CANINUM. Prep. From oil of tur- 
 pentine and castor oil, equal parts ; tinged 
 yellow with a little palm oil or annotta. — 
 Doae. For a middle-sized dog, i oz., repeated 
 in 2 or 3 hours if it does not operate. 
 
 OILS (in Perfumery). Syn. Scented oils ; 
 Olea fixa odoeata, L. The oils which 
 usnally form the basis of these articles are 
 those uf almonds, ben, or olives ; but others 
 are occasionally used. The methods adopted 
 for their preparation vary with the nature of 
 the substances whose fragrance it is intended 
 to convey to the oil. The Continental per- 
 fumers employ three different processes for 
 
 this purpose, which tliey technically distinguish 
 by terms indicative of their nature. These 
 are as under : — 
 
 1. A sufficient qu.intity of the essential oil 
 of the plant, or of the concentrated essence of 
 the substance, if it does not furnish au oil, is 
 added to the fixed oil which it is desired to 
 perfume, until the latter becomes agreeably 
 fragrant ; the whole is then allowed to repose 
 for a few days, and, if any sediment falls 
 (which should not be the case when the ingre- 
 dients are pure), the clear portion is decanted 
 into another bottle. When alcoholic essences 
 are thus employed, the fixed oil should be 
 gently warmed, and the admixture made in a 
 strong bottle, so as to permit of it being corked 
 and well agitated with safety; and iu this 
 case the agitation should be prolonged until 
 the whole has become quite cold. In this 
 way all the ordinary aromatlsed and per- 
 fnmed oils of the English druggists and per- 
 fumers, as those of bergamotte, cassia, cloves, 
 lavender, lemon, mille-fleurs, neroli, nutmeg, 
 oranges, roses, &c., are made, but those of a 
 few of the more delicate flowers, and of 
 certain other substances, can only be prepared 
 of the first quality by One or other of the pro- 
 cesses described below. 
 
 In general, 1 to li dr. of the pure essential 
 oil, or 3 to 4 fl. dr. of the alcoholic essences, 
 are found sufficient to render 1 pint of oil 
 iifireeahly fragrant, i dr. of pure attar of 
 roses is, however, enough for this purpose, 
 owing to the very powerful character of its 
 perfume ; but even a less quantity than this is 
 commonly employed, on account of its costli- 
 ness, the deficiency being made up by a mix- 
 ture of the oils of rhodium, rosemary, and 
 bergamotte. Most of the oils of this class are 
 intended for hair cosmetics. 
 
 2. (By iNFUSloif.) Dry substances, after 
 being I'educed to powder, or sliced very small 
 — flowers or petals, after being carefully 
 selected, and picked from the stems and other 
 scentless portions — and soft or unctuous mat- 
 ters, as ambergris, civet, or musk, after being 
 rubbed to a paste with a little nil, either with 
 or without the addition of about twice their 
 weight of clean sand or powdered glass, to 
 facilitate the reduction, are digested in the 
 fixed oil for about 1 hour, at a gentle heat 
 obtained by means of a water bath, continiial 
 stirring being employed all the time ; the mix- 
 ture is then removed from the beat, covered 
 up, and left to settle until the next day, when 
 the clear portion is decanted into clean bottles. 
 When flowers are employed, the tree oil is 
 drained off, and the remainder obtained by 
 the action of a press. The pioce-s is then 
 repeated with fresh flowers, 5 or 6 times, or 
 even oftener, until the oil is sufficient iy per- 
 fumed. For ambergris, musk, or civet, the 
 digestion is generally continued for 15 to 20 
 days, during which time the vessel is either 
 freely exposed to the sunshine, or kept iu an 
 equally warm situation. 
 
1146 
 
 OILS (IN PERFUMEBY) 
 
 The first quality of tlie oils of ambergris, 
 balsam of Peru, benzoin, cassia, cinnamon, 
 civet, orange flowers, orris, roses, styrax, and 
 vanilla, are made by infusion. 
 
 3. (By THE PtoWEKS.) — a. Upon an iron 
 frame a piece of white, spongy, cotton cloth is 
 stretched, and then moistened with almond or 
 olive oil, usually the latter ; on the cloth is 
 placed a thin layer of the fresh-plucked 
 flowel's; another frame is similarly treated, 
 and in this way a pile of them is made, In 
 24 or 30 hours the flowers are replaced by 
 fresh ones, and this is repeated every day or 
 every other day, until 7 or 8 different lots of 
 flowers have been consumed, or the oil is suffi- 
 ciently loaded with their odour. The oil is 
 then obtained from the cotton cloth by power- 
 ful pressure, and is placed aside in bottles to 
 settle, ready to be decanted into others for 
 sale. Sometimes thin layers of cotton wool, 
 slightly moistened with oil, are employed in- 
 stead of cotton cloth. 
 
 The oils of honeysuckle, jasmin, or jessa- 
 mine, jonquil, may-blo>som, myrtle-blossom, 
 narcissus, tuberose, violet, and, in general, of 
 all the more delicate flowers, are prepared in 
 the above manner. 
 
 h. The native perfumers of India prepare 
 their scented oils of bela, chumbul, jasmin, 
 &c., in the following manner : — A layer of 
 the scented flowers, about 4 inches thick and 
 2 feet square, is formed on the ground ; over 
 this is jilnced a layer of moistened tel or sesa- 
 raum seeds, 2 inches thick, and on this ano- 
 ther 4-inch layer of flowers. Over the whole 
 a sheet is thrown, which is kept pressed down 
 by weights attached round the edges. The 
 flowers are replaced with fresh ones after the 
 lapse of 24 hours, and the process is repeated 
 a third and even a fourth time, when a very 
 highly scented oil is desired. The swollen 
 sesamum seeds, rendered fragrant by contact 
 with the flowers, are then submitted to the 
 action of the press, by which their bland oil 
 is obtained strongly impregnated with the 
 aroma of the flowers. The expressed oil is 
 then set aside in dubbers (bottles made of un- 
 tanned hides) to settle. We have employed 
 poppy seed in this country, in a similar manner, 
 with great success. 
 
 c. The flowers are crushed in a mortar or 
 mill, with one half their weight of blanched 
 sweet almonds, and the next day the mass is 
 gently heated and submitted to the action of 
 a powerful press; the liquid thus obtained is 
 allowed to repose for a week, when the upper 
 portion of oil is decanted and filtered. This 
 plan is occasionally adopted in this country 
 for the oils of roses and of a few other flowers. 
 (See below.) 
 
 The solution of a few grains of benzoic 
 acid, or of gum benzoin (preferably the first), 
 in any of the above oils, will materially retard 
 the accession of rancidity, if it does not prevent 
 it altogether. 
 
 The oils of the last two classes (2 and 3) 
 
 are chiefly used to impart their respective 
 odours to the simple oils, pomades, &o.; and in 
 the manufacture of scented spirits or esprits. 
 The following formulsa are given as examples 
 of both classes of preparations : — 
 
 Oil of Am'bergris. From ambergris, 2 dr. ; 
 oil, 1 pint ; by infusion. 
 
 Oil of Ben'zoin. From gum benzoin, 7 dr. ; 
 oil, 1 pint ; by infusion. 
 
 Oils for the Hair. Si/n. Httiles antiques, 
 Fr. These are numerous. All those scented 
 with the simple perfumes are prepared in the 
 way explained under' class 1 {above). The 
 selection depends entirely upon the judgment 
 of the operator or the fancy of the purchaser. 
 In general, a mixture of two or three per- 
 fumes is preferred in these countries to the 
 pure fragrance of any single flower, and a 
 grossness of taste is exhibited in these matters 
 which surprises our Continental neighbours, 
 and the inhabitants of Italy more particularly. 
 Some of these oils are coloured. A red tinge 
 is given to them by allowing the oil to stand 
 for a few hours over a little alkanet root (2 dr. 
 to the pint) before scenting it. The applica- 
 tion of a gentle heat facilitates the process. 
 Yellow and orange are given by a little an- 
 notta or palm oil ; and green, by steeping a 
 little green parsley or lavender in them for a 
 few days ; or by dissolving 2 or 3 dr. of gum 
 guaiacum in each pint by the aid of heat, 
 and, when cold, decanting the clear portion. 
 Huile antique au jasmin, Huile antique a 
 la fleurs d'oranges, Huile antique a la rose, 
 Huile antique a la tuberose, Huile antique a 
 la violette, &o., are simple oils flavoured with 
 the respective perfumes or their preparations. 
 — Huile antique rouge a la rose is the ordinary 
 oil of roses coloured with alkanet root. — Huile 
 antique verte is simple oil coloured green, as 
 above, and scented. — Huile antique aux mille- 
 fleurs is so scented with several perfumes that 
 none predominate. A mixture of bergamotte, 
 lemons, lavender, neroli, pimento, and amber- 
 gris or musk, is commonly employed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 Oil, Macas'sar. S^n. Huiie de macassae. 
 Prep. 1. (Rowland's.) Oil of ben or almonds 
 (reddened by alkanet root), 1 pint ; oils of 
 rosemary and origanum (white), of each 1 dr. ; 
 oil of nutmeg and attar of roses, of each 15 
 drops; neroli, 6 drops; essence of musk, 3 or 
 4 drops. 
 
 2. (De Naquet.) Oil of ben, 1 quart ; nut 
 oil, 1 pint ; rectified spirit, ^ pint ; essence of 
 bergamotte, 3^ dr. ; tincture of musk and 
 esprit de Portugal, of each 2 dr. ; attar of roses, 
 ^ dr. ; alkanet root, q. s. to colour. 
 
 Oil, Mar'row (Perfumed). 1. Simple marrow 
 oil, scented at will. 
 
 2. (FiuiDE DE Java.) Marrow oil, coloured 
 with a little palm oil and scented. 
 
 3. (Huile comooene.) Marrow oil, 4 oz. ; 
 spirit of rosemary, IJ oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 12 
 drops. 
 
 4. (Huile philocomb d'Aubbh.) Cold- 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1147 
 
 drawn not oil and marrow oil, eqnal parts ; 
 •rent at will, q. b. 
 
 5. (H01LE DB FH^Nrx.) ClariRcd beef mar- 
 row, iurd, pale nut oil, and expressed oil of 
 in:)c<',of each 4 oz. ; melt together liy the heat 
 ofhot water, strain through linen into a warm 
 stone mortar, add, of oils of cloves, lavender, 
 mint, rosemiiry, sage, and thyme, of each i 
 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 oz., in whiuh has been 
 dissolved by a gentle heat balsam of tolu, 4 dr. ; 
 camphor, 1 dr. ; triturate until the whole ia 
 cold, and then put tt into bottles. All the 
 obove are used to make the hair grow, and to 
 prevent it falling off. 
 
 Oil of Musk. Prom grain musk, 1 dr. ; am- 
 bergris, i ilr. J oil of lavender, 20 drops ; oil, 
 1 pint, by infusion. A second quality is made 
 by working the same ingredients, after the oil 
 is poured from them, with | pint of fresh oil. 
 This also applies to Oil of Ambebobib and 
 
 HCILE BOYALB. 
 
 Oil of Musk and Am'bergrlB. S^n. Hcile 
 liOTALE. From ambergris, 2 dr. ; grain musk, 
 i dr. ; oils of cassia, lavender, ncroti, and niit- 
 inog, of each lU drops ; oil, 1 pint ; by infusion. 
 (See above.) 
 
 Oil of Sty'rax. From liquid styraT (pure), 
 6 dr. ; oil of nutmeg, 10 drops; ambergris, 
 6 gr. ; oil, 1 pint; by infusion. 
 
 Oil of Vaniria. Si/n. Huile A L\ vanillh. 
 Kiom purest olive or almond oil, li pint j va- 
 nilla (finest, in powder), 2 ot.; oilofberga- 
 motte, 1 dr. ; attar of ruses (finest), 16 drops j 
 by infusion. 
 
 OILS (Volatile).' Sj/a. Or,EA destillata, 
 Olea dibtillata, Olea essentialia, Olea 
 
 VOLATILIA, L. ; HUILES VOLATILES, Fr. The 
 volatile oils are an extensive and important 
 class of bodies, derived from the vegetable 
 kingdom, and ibund in almost every part of 
 tlie majority of the plants which produce 
 tlioin, except tlic cotyledons of the seeds, 
 in which, in general, the fixed oils are exclu- 
 sively stored up. Their presence confers upon 
 flowers, leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, bark, and 
 woods their peculiar and characteristic odours; 
 but among these they are not equally distri- 
 buted in the same individual, and are often 
 altogether absent from some of them. To 
 them we are indebted for our most delightful 
 perfumes, and our choicest spices and aro- 
 niatics. Some of them are found to possess 
 valuable medicinal properties, and others are 
 invested with the highest possible interest on 
 account of their peculiar chemical constitution, 
 and the reactions which occur when they are 
 brought into oontait with other bodies. 
 
 The volatile oils are often called ' essences,' 
 and the same loose and unmeaning terra is also 
 commonly applied to their alcoholic solutions. 
 
 ^ Although eisential oili are*volati!e oils, volatile oils 
 nre not slirays fft-t-nttal ones as tlie term is understood. 
 This is the case with the petroleum Hnd parutnii oils <il>- 
 taiaed l>y tlie distillation of native petroleum anil hitu- 
 miuous bottles. To describe the two as syuoitjuious is 
 therefore incorrect. — £0. 
 
 Prop. The volatile or essential oils are usu- 
 ally more limpid and less unctuous than the 
 fixed oils ; but some of them are butyraceous 
 or crystalline. Nearly all of them consist of 
 two or more oils, diflering in their sp. gr. and 
 boiling points, one of which is generally 
 liquid, the other, in some cases, crystalline. 
 All of them, when perfectly pure, are colour- 
 less, though before rectification nearly the 
 whole of them have a pale yellow tint," and 
 some. of them are brown, blue, or green. 
 Their odour is that of the plants which yield 
 them, and is usually powerJFul ; their taste is 
 pungent and burning. They mix in all pr 1- 
 portions with the fixed oils, dissolve frceli in 
 both alcohol and ether, and are sparingly »"- 
 Inble in water, forming 'perfumed 'or 'me- 
 dicated waters.' Their boiling point usually 
 rangi-s between 310° and 325° Fahr., and is 
 always considerably higher than that of 
 water. They resist saponification, and (px- 
 eepting oil of cloves) do not combine with 
 the salifiable bases. Their density fiuctuatcs 
 a little on either side of water. The lightest 
 oil is that of citrons (sp. gr. "847), and the 
 heaviest that of sassafras (sp. gr. 1'096). When 
 coided sufficiently, they all solidify. The 
 common temperature of the atmosphere is 
 sufiicient for this with some of them, as the 
 oils of roses and aniseed; whilst others re- 
 quire to be cooled below the freezing point of 
 water before they assume the solid form. In 
 this state they appear to consist of a crystal- 
 line or semi-crystalline substance (stearopten, 
 stearessence), and .1 fiuid portion (eleopfcen, 
 oleiessence). The two may be separated by 
 pressing the concrete oil between the folds of 
 bibulous paper, in the cold. By exposure to 
 the air the volatile oils rapidly absorb oxygen, 
 and become partially converted into resin. 
 This is the cause of the deposit that usually 
 forms in them (especially in the expressed 
 oil of orange) when kept in an ill-corked 
 vessel. The solid crystalline matter which 
 sopirates from them when kept in closed 
 vessels is stearoptene. 
 
 Class. Chemically considered, the essential 
 oils may be divided into three grtat cliisses: — 
 
 1. Oils composed of carbon and hydrogen 
 only (binary volatile oils, carbo-bydrogens, 
 hydro-carbons, terebenea, eamphenea), of which 
 oil of turpentine may be regarded as the type. 
 I'liese are characterised by bein?, as a class, 
 less soluble in rectified spirit and in water 
 than the other essential oils. The oils of 
 bergamot, capivi, cubebs, elemi, hops, juniper, 
 lemons, oratige peel, pepper, the grass oil of 
 India, the laurel oil of Guiana, and some 
 others, belong to this class. 
 
 2. Oils containing carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen (oxygenated oils), including most of 
 those used in medicine and perfumery. These, 
 as a class, are more soluble in rectified spirit 
 and ill water than those containing carbon 
 and hydrogen only. To this class belong the 
 oils of almonds, aniseed, cassia, cedar-wood. 
 
1148 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 cinnamon, cumin, jasmin, lavender, meadow - 
 sweet {Spiraea ulmaria), orange flowers, penny- 
 royal, peppermint, spearmint, rosemary, rose- 
 petals, valerian, winter green (Oauliheria\ 
 procumbens), and others too numerous to men- 
 tion, A few of these oxygenated oilx contain 
 nitrogen. 
 
 3. Oils containing sulphur (sulphuretted 
 oils). These are characterised by their ex- 
 treme pungency, suffocating odour, vesicating 
 power, property of blacking silver, and, being 
 decomposed by contact with most other me- 
 tallic bodies. The oils of assafoetida, blacli 
 mustard seed, garlic, horseradish, and onions, 
 are of this kind. Some sulphuretted oils eon- 
 tain nitrogen. 
 
 Prep. Tile volatile oils are generally pro- 
 cured by distilling the odoriferous substances 
 along with water; but in a few instances they 
 are obtained by expression, and still more 
 rarely by the action of alcohol. 
 
 According to the common method of pro- 
 ceeding, substances wliich part freely with 
 their oil are put into the still along with 
 about an equal weight of water, and are at 
 once submitted to distillation. Those sub- 
 stances which give out their oil with difficulty 
 are first soaked for 24 hours, or longer, in 
 about twice their weight of water, to each 
 gallon of which 1 lb. of common salt has been 
 added, in order to raise its boiling point. The 
 distillation is conducted as quickly as possible, 
 and, when one half the water has come over, 
 it is returned into the still, and this cohoba- 
 tion is repeated, when necessarv, until the ilis- 
 tilled water ceuses to be mixed with oil. The 
 heat of steam or a salt-water bath should be 
 preferably employed. When a naked fire is 
 used, the still should be deep and narrow, by 
 which means the bottom will be better pro- 
 tected by the gradually decreasing quantity of 
 water towards tlie end of the process, and 
 empyreuma prevented. When the distilled 
 water is to be repeatedly cohobated on the in- 
 gredients, a convenient and economical plan is 
 to so arrange the apparatus that, after the 
 water has separated from the oil in the re- 
 ceiver, it shall flow back again into the still. 
 An ordinary worm-tub, or other like condens- 
 ing apparatus, may be employed; bnt in the 
 case of those oils which readilv solidifv, the 
 temperature of the water in the condenser 
 must not tall below about 55° Fahr. 
 
 The mixed vapours which pass over condense 
 and fall as a n.iiky-looking liquid into the re- 
 ceiver. This separates after a time into two 
 portions, one of which is a solution of a part 
 of the newly eliminated oil in water, and the 
 other is the oil itself. The latter either occu- 
 pies the upper or the low er portion of the re- 
 ceiver, according as its specific gravity is less 
 or greater than that of distilled water. The 
 separation of the oil and water is i fftcted by 
 allowing the mixed liquids to diop into a 
 'Florentine receiver' (see engr^ when the oil 
 is the lighter of the two, by which means the 
 
 latter accumulates at a, and the water flows 
 over by the spout i. 
 
 Lt^mJi Ct. 
 
 The same receiver may be employed for 
 oils heavier than water, by reversing, the ar- 
 rangement ; but a glass ' separator' (see engr.') 
 is, in general, found more convenient. In this 
 case the oil accumulates at the bottom of the 
 vessel, and njay be dijawn off by the stop-cock 
 provided for the purpose. 
 
 The essential oils of lemons and orangi s 
 of commerce, and of some other fruits, are 
 chiefly obtained by submitting the yellow 
 rind to powerful pressure; but in tliis way 
 they are not so white, nor do they keep so 
 well, as when distilled, although in the case 
 of the fruits referred to the oils are more 
 fragrant than when prepared by any other 
 method. 
 
 The London College excluded the usual 
 directions for the preparation of the essential 
 oils from their Pharmacopoeia of 1851, on the 
 ground that these substances are seldom pre- 
 pared by the druggist or apothecary, or at all 
 on the small scale. 
 
 " The fruit of anise, caraway, and juniper, 
 the flowers of chamomile, lavender, and elder, 
 the berries of allspice, the tops of rosemary, 
 and the entire recent plants of the other herbs, 
 are to be employed." " Put any one of these 
 into an alembic, then pour in as much water 
 as will cover.it, and distil the oil into a large 
 vessel, kept cool." (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 
 The Edinburgh College directs — " As much 
 water only is to be employed as will prevent 
 empyreuma during the distillation. The dis- 
 tillation may be immediately commenced after 
 a proper maceration, and the oil afterwards 
 separated from the water," in the manner 
 already noticed. 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1149 
 
 " It in hIot necessary to observe, in preparinp; 
 these oils, its well iia the distilled waters, that 
 the qu;ility of the substances, their texture, 
 the seitson nf the year, and similar circum- 
 stances, must occasion so many differences, 
 that it is scarcely possible to give any certain 
 and general rules which shall strictly apply 
 to every example. Many things, therifore, 
 must be regulated by the judgment of the 
 operator." 
 
 The Dublin College directs the vegetable 
 substances to bo macerated in the still with 
 about 5 times their weight of water, for 24 
 hours, when one half of the water is to be 
 drawn over. The oil having been separated 
 from this in the usual manner, it is to bo re- 
 turned to the still, and the same quantity 
 drawn over, as be I ore, from which the oil must 
 again he separated. 
 
 Chevallier gives the fallowing rules for the 
 distiUatiou of essential oils : — 
 
 1. Operate upon as large quantities as pos- 
 sible, ill order to obtain a greater product, and 
 one of finer quality. 
 
 2. Cinnluct the distillation rapidly. 
 
 3. Divide the substances minutely, in order 
 to facilitate the extrit^ation of the oil. 
 
 4. Employ only sufficient water to prevent 
 tlie matter operated on from burning, and 
 the proiliu't from being coutaminated with 
 euipjii'uma. 
 
 5. For substances whose oil is heavier than 
 water, saturate or nearly saturate the water in 
 the still with common salt, to raise the boiling 
 |>olnt, and thus to enable the vapour to carry 
 over more oil. 
 
 6. Employ, when possible, water which has 
 been already distilled from off the same sub- 
 stances, and lias thus become saturated with 
 oil. 
 
 7. For oils naturally fluid, keep the water 
 in the refrigerator cool ; but lor those oils 
 which easily become solid, pi-eserve it at 80° 
 to aO" Fahr. (?) 
 
 To the above may he added — 
 
 8. Collect the oil as soon as possible after 
 it separates from the water with which it 
 passes over, and in its subsequent treatment 
 keep it, as much as passible, from free contact 
 with the air. 
 
 Dr Ure remarks, " The narrower and taller 
 the alembic is, within certain limits, the 
 greater will be the proportion of oil, relative 
 to that of the aromatic water, from like pro- 
 portions of aqueous and vegetable matter em- 
 ployed." " Some place the plants in baskets, 
 and suspend these immediately over the bot- 
 tom of the still, under the water, or above 
 its surface in tho steam ; but the best mode, 
 in my opinion, is to stuff an upright cvlindcr 
 full of the plants and drive down through 
 them steam of any desired force, its tension 
 and its temperature being further regulated 
 by the size of the outlet-orifice leading to the 
 condenser. The cylinder should be made of 
 strong copper, tinned inside, and encased in 
 
 the worst conducting species of wood, such as 
 soft deal or sycamore." 
 
 The newly distilled oils may be separated 
 from adhering water, which frequently ren- 
 ders them partially opaque or ' cloudy,' by 
 repose in a temperature between 60° and 70° 
 Fahr., and subsequent decantation ; bat to ren- 
 der them quite dry (anhydrous), it is necessary 
 to let them stand over some fragments of fused 
 chloride of calcium. This is not, however, 
 required with tho commercial oils. 
 
 The rectification of the volatile oils is com- 
 monly performed without water, by the careful 
 application of a heat just sufficient to make 
 them flow over pretty rapidly, so that they 
 may he kept heated for as »liort a time as 
 possible. One half, or at most two thirds only, 
 is drawn off, that left in the retort being 
 usually mixed with raw oil intended to be 
 sold in that state. This method often leads 
 to much loss and disappointment, and we have 
 known more than one rather dangerous explo- 
 sion result from its use. A better plan is to 
 rectify the oil from strong brine, and then 
 to separate any adherine water, either by 
 repose or chloride of calcium. 
 
 Pres. Volatile oils should be preserved in 
 well closed and nearly full bottles, in the 
 shade, and should be opened as seldom as 
 possible. By age tliey darken, lose much of 
 their odour, increase in density, and become 
 thick and clammy. It is then neces-ary to 
 distil them, by which the undecom)iosed por- 
 tion is separated from the resin. Agitation 
 along with animal charcoal will restore tlieir 
 clearness and original colour, but nothing 
 more. 
 
 Pur., Tests. The essential or volatile oils of 
 commerce are very frequently adulterated with 
 the tatty oils, resins, spermaceti, or alcohol, 
 or with other essential oils of a cheaper kind 
 or lower grade. The presence of the first 
 three of these may be readily detected by 
 placing a drop of the suspected oil on a piece 
 of white paper, and exposing it for a short 
 time to heat. If the oil is pure, it will en- 
 tirely evaporate ; but if adulterated with one 
 of these substances, a greasy or translucent 
 stain will be left on the paper. Tliese sub- 
 stances also remain undissolved when the oil 
 is agitated with thrice its volume of rectified 
 spirit. 
 
 The presence of alcohol may be detected by 
 agitating the oil with a few small pieces of 
 dried chloride of calcium. These remain un- 
 altered in a pure essential oil, but dissolve in 
 one containing alcohol, and the resultmg 
 solution separates, forming a distinct stratum 
 at the bottom of the vessel, \^'hen only a 
 very little alcohol is present, the pieces 
 merely change their form, and cxhiliit the 
 action of the solvent on their ansrles or 
 edges, which become more or less obtuse or 
 rounded. 
 
 Another test for alcohol in the essential oils 
 is the milkiness occasioned by agitating them 
 
IISO 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 with n little water, as well as the loss of 
 volume of the oil when it separates after 
 repose for a short time. 
 
 A more delicate test of alcohol in the essen- 
 tial oils than either of the preceding is potas- 
 sium, as employed by M. Beral : — 12 drops of 
 the oil are placed on a perfectly dry watch- 
 gla-fs, and a piece of potassium, about tlie size 
 of an ordinary pin's head, set in the middle of 
 it. If the small fragment of metal retains its 
 integrity for 12 or 15 minutes, no alcohol is 
 present ; hut if it disappears after the lapse of 
 5 minutes, the oil contains at least 4§ of 
 alcohol ; and if it disappears in less than 1 
 minute, it contains not less than 25§ of 
 alcohol. 
 
 Boettger states that anhydrous glycerin 
 possesses the property of dissolving in al- 
 cohol, without mixing with the volatile oils. 
 The mode of applying the glycerin is as 
 follows : — The oil to be examined is well 
 shaken in a graduated tube, with its own 
 volume of glycerin (sp. gr. 1"25). Upon 
 being allowed to settle, the mixture separates 
 into two layers. The denser glycerin sepa- 
 rates rapidly, and if the essence has been 
 mixed with alcohol, this is dissolved in the 
 glycerin, the augmentation in the volume of 
 glycerin showing the proportion of alcohol 
 Jlre^ent. 
 
 This species of adulteration is very common, 
 as it is a general practice of the druggists to 
 add a little of the strongest rectified spirit to 
 their oils, to render them transparent, espe- 
 cially in cold weather. Oil of cassia is nearly 
 always treated in this way. 
 
 The admixture of an inferior essential oil 
 with one more costly may be best detected by 
 pouring a drop or two on a piece of porous 
 paper or cloth, and shaking it in the air, when, 
 if occasionally smelled, the difference of the 
 odour at the beginning and the end of the 
 evaporation will show the adulteration, espe- 
 cially if the added substance is turpentine. 
 The presence of tlie latter may also be de- 
 tected by agitating the oil with rectified 
 spirit, when it will remain undissolved. 
 
 The following method, which may also be 
 used as a test lor the presence of turpentine, 
 is based upon its power of dissolving fats : — 
 Take about 50 gr. of oil of poppy in a 
 graduated glass tube, and add an equal quan- 
 tity of the sample of essential oil. Shake 
 the mixture up thoroughly and then allow it 
 to stand ; if the essential oil be pure, the 
 mixture becomes milky, and does not clear 
 until after several days have passed, whereas 
 it will remain transparent if even so little as 
 5 per cent, of essence of turpentine be present. 
 
 The purity of essential oils may likewise, 
 in many cases, be determined by taking their 
 sp. gr. ; or, with still greater accuracy and 
 convenience, by measuring their index of re- 
 fraction, as suggested by Dr Wollaston. A 
 single drop of oil is sufficient for the applica- 
 tion of the last method. 
 
 The adulteration of a heavy oil with a light 
 one, or the reverse, may be detected by agi- 
 tating the suspected oil with water, when, in 
 most cases, the two will separate and form 
 distinct strata. 
 
 Miss Crane believes that the cohesion 
 figures aSbrded by the volatile oils, like those 
 of the fixed ones, will be found useful indica- 
 tions of their purity. The application of her 
 method is precisely similar to that followed 
 in her examination of the fixed oils as already 
 described. She finds that — 
 
 Oil of Turpentine, by itself, spreads in- 
 stantly to the whole size of the plate (a com- 
 mon soup plate), and almost immediately the 
 edge begins to break into irregular shapes, 
 when a rapid motion takes place over the 
 surface of the film, and there seems to be a 
 contest between the cohesion of the oil par- 
 ticles and the adhesioVi between them and the 
 water. The oil makes repeated efforts to 
 gather itself closer together, when the water 
 inst.^ntly reacts, giving a wavy appearance 
 to the whole figure. 
 
 The play of colours at this point is beauti- 
 ful, and serves to bring out the lines more 
 perfectly. In a few seconds innumerable 
 little holes appear over the surface, which 
 soon are separated only by threaded lines, and 
 the figure is like the most exquisitely fine 
 lace. 
 
 Oil of Cinnamon forms a figure not more 
 than half the size of tlie last-named. In a 
 few seconds small portions are detached, and 
 shortly separate into distinct drop:«, four or 
 five larger, and a number of smaller ones, 
 scattered about. With mixtures in different 
 proportions of oil of turpentine, the figures 
 formed differently, taking more of the char- 
 acterislics of the adulterant as it predomi- 
 nated. 
 
 Oil of l^utmeg forms a large figure instantlv, 
 the edgeshowing a beaded line. Itgathers itself 
 together and spreads again, very like oil of tur- 
 pentine, but the surface presents more the 
 appearance of watei-ed silk. Within sixty 
 seconds some holes appear, and in eighty more 
 the surface is covered with them ; these scarcely 
 spread to more than a sixteenth of an inch in 
 diameter, but from the fir»t each is bordered 
 with a dotted edge. The figure lasts some 
 time without changing materially, except the 
 openings lengthen out into an olilong shape, 
 remaining entirely distinct. The play of 
 colours is very fine. With the addition of 
 one third of the oil of turpentine, the first 
 spreading is little different, but openings 
 appear in liall' the time, and the dotted border 
 does not come as soon ; in about four minutes 
 the figure is most characteristically marked, 
 and soon breaks up entirely, this being the 
 distinctive difference between the pure oil and 
 the mixture. 
 
 Oil of Peppermint spreads instantly to a 
 large figure, and in ten or fifteen seconds 
 openings appear, which increase rapidly in 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 llSl 
 
 eize. At flnt they look Bomewliat like the 
 iRitnamcd, bat are not nearly so numerous, 
 nnJ tlie border soon ig more like tiny drops. 
 In one and a hall' or two minutes they begin 
 to run together, and the figure breaks up. 
 
 With the addition of turpeittiTte oil the 
 6gure forms more slowly, and the breaking 
 up is less rapid, but in five minutes the out- 
 line* only remain. 
 
 Oil of Bergamot spreads instantly ; in thirty 
 seconds tiny openings appear, not very abun- 
 diint, and increase in size slowly ; in five 
 minutes they arc not larger tlian oil of nut- 
 meg wl one and a half minute. At first they 
 have a dotted border, but as they increase in 
 size this changes to a scalloped film, which 
 spreads, until, in eight or ten minutes, they 
 are joined together over the whole surface. 
 This, with the turpentine oil, gives a watered 
 surface in spreading, much more marked, and 
 with a fine play of colours. 
 
 {7»e«, S(o. The volatile oils are chiefly used 
 by perfumers and rectifiers, and in medicine. 
 Some of the cheaper kinds are largely era- 
 ployed IIS vehicles for colours, iind in the 
 manufacture of varnishes. The dose of the 
 aromatic and carminative oils is from 1 to 10 
 drops, on sugar, or dissolved in a little weak 
 spirit. This iloes not apply to oil of bitter 
 iilinonds, the dose of which is i to ^ a drop. 
 
 •»• The following list includes short notices 
 of nearly all the volatile oils which have been 
 examined, as well ns of some other substances 
 ol a similar chniiicter, which commonly pass 
 under the name. 
 
 Oil of Allia'ria. From the roots of Alliaria 
 ojjficinalie, or snuce-iiloue. Identical with the 
 oil of black mustard. 
 
 Oil of All'spice. See Oil of Pimento. 
 
 Oil of Al'monds. See Oil of Bitieb al- 
 monds. 
 
 Oil of American Arbor Tita. Sgn. Huile 
 CEDEE BLAKO, Fr. From the fresh tops of 
 Thuja occidentalism or Aiiktu'iiii arbor-vitffl 
 tii'e. Yellow ; fratrraut j stimulant. Used in 
 frictions for rheumatism. I'l-od. IJ to 2J 
 (nearly). 
 
 Oil of Angel'ica. From the dried root of 
 Angelica Archangelica. Prod. 25§ (fully). 
 
 Oil of An'iseed. Sgn. Oleoii anisi (Ph. L., 
 E., & I).), O. ES3ENTIALE ANISI, L. From the 
 fruit (si'i'iis) of Pimpinella anistim, or anise. 
 Nearly colourless. It is very frequently adul- 
 terated with one or other of the cheaper oils, 
 in which case spermaceti or camphor is addtd 
 to it, to make it * eaiuiy.' 
 
 Prop., Sjc. When pure it congeals into a 
 solid crystalline mass on being cooled to 50° 
 Fahr., and does not melt again until heated 
 to about 63°. Treated with iodine, it quickly 
 congeals into a solid hard mass, with a per- 
 ceptible iniTease of temperature, and the 
 development of ornnge-coloured and grey 
 fumes. Sulphuric acid, with heat, turns it of 
 a rich purple-red colour, and the compound 
 soon afterwards becomes inspissated aud hard 
 
 (resiniOed). In alcohol of -806 it is soluble 
 in all proportions, but rectified spirit (-838) 
 dissolves only 42* of this oil. Sp. gr. (recent) 
 ■9768 ; (one year old) -9853 to -9855 ; (old) 
 •9856 to -9900. The foreign oil ia generally 
 the heaviest. 
 
 Oil of aniseed is carminative and pectoral ; 
 and both itself and preparations have long 
 been in favour with the masses in coughs, 
 colds, &c. In preparing it care must be taken 
 that the temperature of the water in the re- 
 ceiver and refrigerator does not fall lower 
 than about 68° Fahr. Prod. (From the dried 
 fruit of commerce) avoir. 2g (nearly). See 
 Oil op Staeanise. 
 
 Oil, Ap'ple. See Amyl (Valerianate of), and 
 Essence op Apple. 
 
 Oil of Ar'nica. Syn. Oleum aenice, 0. A. 
 EADICITM, L. From the roots of Arnica mon- 
 tana. Yellowish brown. Spgr. -910. Prod. 
 16 lbs. yielded 1 oz. of oil. The oil from ihe 
 flowers of arnica is blue. 
 
 Oil of Asarabac'cB. Sgn. Oleum asabi, 0. 
 ASABi LIQUIDUM, L. From the roots of Ana- 
 rum Europaum. Yellow; glutinous. Two 
 butyraceous oils pass over at the same 
 time. 
 
 Oil of AssafiBt.'ida. Syn. Olkum A8«- 
 P(ETiDA, L. From the gum resin. Contains 
 sulphur. Very fetid and volatile. 
 
 Oil of Balm. Syn. Oleum melissjj, L. 
 From the herb {Melissa officinalis). Pnle yel- 
 low ; f riigrant. Sp. gr. -970 to '975. Prod. 
 100 lbs. of the fresh floweriii;^ herb yielding 
 i oz. of oil (M. Riiybaud). A mixture nf oil 
 of lemons iind rubcmary is commuuly sold for 
 it. 
 
 Oil of Balsam of Pern. See Cinnameine. 
 
 Oil of Ber'gamol. Syn. Beuoamot, Es- 
 sence OP B. ; Oleum beboamii, O. beeoa- 
 M01\s:, L. By expression from the yellow 
 portion of the rind of the fruit of Citrus 
 Bergamia, or bergumot oruiige. Pale greenish 
 yellow; highly fragrant. It is obtained purer 
 by distilhitiun, but its perfume is theu slightly 
 less delicate. Sp. gr. •875 to 885. Prod. 
 The rind of 100 bergumot omiigcs yielded 
 by distillation nearly 3 oz. of oil. (AI. Ray- 
 baud.) 
 
 Oil of bergamot is frequently adulterated 
 with rectified spirit, or with tlie oils oflcmons, 
 oranges, or turpentine. The presence ot these 
 substances may be detected in the manner 
 explained under Oils (Volatile), I'urily and 
 Tests (an<e'), us well as by the altered density 
 of the oil. Pure bergamot oil is mnch more 
 soluble in rectified spirit than either of the 
 others, and is further distinguished from them 
 by its free solubility in solution of potassa, 
 forming a clear solution. 
 
 Oil of Bit'ter Almonds. Syn. Essence op 
 B. A. ; Oleum amygdale amab.i:, 0. a. es- 
 BENTIale, L. From the ground i ake of bitter 
 almonds from which the fixed oil lias been ex- 
 pressed. The common plan is to soak the cake 
 (crumbled to fragments) for about 2-t heurs in 
 
1152 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 twice its weight of water, to which ^rd or ith 
 of its weight of common salt has been added, 
 and then to submit the whole to distillation, 
 allowing the first hnlfof the water that passes 
 over to deposit its oil, and to run back again 
 into the still. Pale golden yellow; colourless 
 when rectified ; tastes and smells strongly 
 nutty, like peach-kernels. It consists of 85^ 
 to 90g of hydride of benzoyl and 8g to 12% of 
 hydrocyanic acid, with a variable quantity of 
 benzoic acid and benzoin. The density varies 
 a little with the age of the oil, and the tem- 
 perature and rapidity with which it has been 
 distilled. Sp. gr. (recent) 1"0525 ; (trade crude 
 oil) 1-079 (G. Wippel); (old) 1-081 (1-0836— 
 Pereiva). " Essential oil of almonds, free from 
 adulteration, sbould have a sp. gr. at most of 
 1-052." (Ure.) According to Prof. Redwood, 
 the density may vary from 1-0524 to 1-0822. 
 The light oil contains the most hydride of 
 benzoyl, and the heavy oil the most benzoin. 
 Frod. From less than -2 to -5g. 
 
 Fur. This oil is generally adulterated with 
 cheaper oils, and in nearly every case with 
 alcohol. When it is pure — Mixed with oil of 
 vitriol, it strikes a clear crimson-red colour, 
 without visible decomposition, — Mixed with 
 an alcoholic solution of potassa, crystals are 
 eliminated. — lodinedissolvesonly partially and 
 slowly in it, without further visible results. 
 — Chromate of potsissa does not affect it. — 
 Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42) causes no immediate 
 reaction, and in the course of 3 or 4 days 
 crystals of benzoic acid begin to appear; but 
 if only 8§ or 10^ of alcohol or rectified spirit 
 is present, a violent effervescence speedily com- 
 mences, and nitrous fumes are evolved. By 
 using nitric acid, sp. gr. 1-5, the smallest 
 quantity of alcohol may be detected. 
 
 Obs. This oil does not pre-exist in the 
 almond, but is formed by the action of water 
 on a peculiar cystallisable substance, called 
 amygdalin. It is essentially the hydride of 
 benzoyl, but it always contains a portion of 
 hydrocyanic or prussic acid, to which it owes 
 its very poisonous properties. It is occa- 
 sionally employed as a substitute for hydro- 
 cyanic acid in medicine ; but its principal con- 
 sumption is as a flavouring ingredient and a 
 perfume by cooks, confectioners, liquoristes, 
 and perfumers. For this purpose it is dis- 
 solved in rectified spirits. See Essence. — 
 Dose, i to 1 drop. 
 
 An oil closely resembling that from bitter 
 almonds is obtained by distillation from the 
 leaves of the peach and cherry-laurel, the bark 
 of the plum-treee, the bruised kernels of cher- 
 ries, plums, and peaches, the pips of apples, 
 and from several other vegetable substances 
 that possess a nutty odour and flavour. 
 
 A NON-POISONOUS OIL 01 AlMONDS has been 
 introduced. This is simply the ordinary oil of 
 commerce freed from hydrocyanic at-id, and is 
 intended to be substituted for the crude, poi- 
 sonous oil for domestic purposes. Unfortu- 
 nately, the purified essence does not keep well, 
 
 and is often converted after a few months into 
 little else than a solution of benzoic acid, 
 almost devoid of the usual odour and flavour 
 of the bitter almond. " No wonder, then, 
 under such circumstances, that the public pre- 
 ferred the preparations they had been accus- 
 tomed to, which were not so liable to change." 
 (Eedwood.) The following methods have been 
 adopted for this purpose : — 
 
 1. (Liebig.) Agitate the crude distilled 
 oil with red oxide of mercury, in slight excess, 
 and after a few days' contact, rectify the oil 
 from a little fresh oxide of mercury. The 
 product is quite pure, when the process is pro- 
 perly managed. The cyanide of mercury 
 thus formed may be either employed as such, 
 or reconverted into mercury and hydrocyanic 
 acid. 
 
 2. (Miickay.) Commercial oil of almonds, 
 1 lb. ; fresh-.-laked lime, q. s. to form a milk- 
 like liquid ; afterwards add, of solution of 
 potassa, 1 J lb. ; water, 8 pints ; agitate occa- 
 sionally for 48 hours, then distil over the oil, 
 and rectify it from a fresh mixture of lime and 
 potassa. 
 
 3. (Redwood.) The oil is mixed with an 
 equal quantity of water, and the mixture is 
 digested in a water bath with red oxide of 
 mercury, and small quantities of fresh-slaked 
 lime and protochloiide of iron, with as little 
 access of air as possible; as soon as df compo- 
 sition of the acid has taken place, the whole is 
 introduced into a copper retort, and submitted 
 to distillation. The product is perfectly free 
 from hydrocyanic acid. The first process is, 
 however, the simplest, cheapest, and best. 
 
 The sp. gr. of this non-poisonous oil is I'OSl. 
 (G. Whippell.) That of pure colourless hy- 
 dride of benzoyl is 1-013 ; it boils at 356° 
 Fahr., is soluble in 35 parts of water, and in 
 all proportions in alcohol and ether. Exposed 
 to the air, it greedily absorbs oxygen, and be- 
 comes converted into a mass of crystallised 
 benzoic acid. The purified oil of almonds does 
 the same, only less rapidly. 
 
 Oil of Almonds (Facti"tious). Sgn. Essenob 
 OT MIEBANE, NiTEOBENZOL. The preparation 
 of this article on the small scale is explained 
 under Niteobenzol. It is now extensively 
 prepared as a substitute for the oil of almonds 
 obtained by distillation. The following is 
 Mansfield's process : — The apparatus consists 
 of a large glass worm, the upper end of which 
 is divided into two branches, gradually dilat- 
 ing so as to form two funnel-shaped tubes. 
 Into one of these concentrated nitric acid is 
 poured, and into the other benzol, which need 
 not, for this purpose, be chemically pure. These 
 bodies meet at the point of junction of the two 
 tubes, and the rate of their flow is regulated 
 by any appropriate means. Chemical reaction 
 instantly takes place, and the new compound 
 is cooled by its passage through the worm, 
 which is refrigerated for the purpose. It has 
 then only to be washed with water or a very 
 weak solutinn of carbonate of soda for the pro- 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1153 
 
 cell to be complete. The product has the 
 •p. gr. 1-21 Kj, boils at 415° Fahr., Lhs an in- 
 tensely sweet taste, and iin odour closely re- 
 sembling, but not nctnally identical with, that 
 of oil of bitter almonds. Unlike genuine oil 
 of aliuondi or hydride of benzoyl, it is inso- 
 luble in water, and does not distil without 
 sull'criii^ partial decomposition. It is chicflj- 
 used to Kceiit soaps, and to adulterate the 
 genuine oil. The benzol for this purpose i» 
 obtained from coal-tar. See Benzol and 
 
 NiTBODKNZOL. 
 
 Oil of Boxwood. (Ph. L. 1746.) Syn. 
 OlKDM BDXr BMPYttECMATICUM. Distilled 
 from fragments of boxwood in a retort, with 
 a sand bath gradually increased in heat. Ano- 
 dyne, antispiiuuiodic, and diaphoretic. — Doae, 
 10 to 20 drops. (Jourdan says 4 to 5 drops 
 in gonorrhoea.) It relieves toothache. 
 
 Oil, Brandy. Soe OxL op Oeape. 
 
 Oil of Bu'chu. iSy». OiiEuir babo9M.e, 0. 
 DiosM^, L. From the leaves of Diosma ore- 
 nata. Yellow ; lighter than water ; smells uf 
 thejeaves. 
 
 Oil of Coj'epnt. Sy». Cajeppti oil, Kta- 
 
 POOTIK O. ; CAJKrUTI OLEUM (B. P.), OlEUM 
 OAJAPITTI (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. From the dried 
 leaves of the Melaleuca Cajeputi (^Melaleuca 
 minor, U. P.). Colourless, when pure (that of 
 commerce is usually green); odorous; aro- 
 matic; tusto hot and penetral ini:;. Its odour 
 has been compared to a mixture of those of 
 CHm|ihor and c»rdamani8. It boils at 343° 
 Fiihr. Sp. gr. •i)25 to 927. VVhen rectified, 
 about itlis of the quantity passes over colour- 
 li'>H, and has the density '897 ; the remaining 
 pnrtion is green, and has the density '920 to 
 '925. Its (irecn colour is derived from chlo- 
 ri'le of copper, the presence of which may be 
 recognised by the red precipitate occasioned 
 by agitating the oil with a solution of terro- 
 ryanide of potassium. (Guibourt.) From the 
 Kiist IndieH. 
 
 Pure oil of cajeput is slightly soluble in 
 water; intirely and freely soluble in alcohol; 
 dissolves iodine ; and when dropped on water, 
 rapidly diffuses itself over the surface, and 
 soon completely evaporates. A spurious kind 
 (factitious OIL OP cajeput), made of oil of 
 rosenmry, flavoured with camphor and the oils 
 of peppermint and cardamoms, and coloured 
 with verdigris, is occasionally met with iu the 
 shops. 
 
 Oil of cajeput is a powerful antispasmodic 
 and diffusible stimulant. — Dose, 3 to 6 drops, 
 on sugar ; in cholera, colic, epilepsy, hysteria, 
 rheumatism, spasms, toothache, &c. 
 
 Oil of Camphor. Si/n. Liqitid oamphoe ; 
 Oleum camphob^, 0. c. volatile, L. Ob- 
 tained from incisions in the wood of the cam- 
 phor tree of Borneo and Sumatra {Diyobala- 
 nopi aromatica), in which it exists in cavities 
 in the trunk ; also by distillation from the 
 branches of the Com;;Aoroo/^cinarum, or laurel 
 camphor tree. Colciurless when rectified. Sp. 
 gr. -910. Prod. CO lbs. of the crude brown 
 \(iL. n. 
 
 oil yields 40 lbs. of pure white oil and 20 lbs. 
 of camphor. It rapidly oxidises in the air. 
 Used tfl scent soap. See Camphoe (Liquid). 
 
 Oil of Car'away. ;^n. Oleum cahui (B.P. 
 Ph. L. E. & D.), 0. c. ESSE.NTiALE, L. From 
 the fruit of Carum Carui (caraway seeds). 
 Nearly colourless ; aromatic ; carminative. 
 Sp.gr. -940; (old) '946 to '950. Prod. Av. 
 55 (nearly). It is frequently adulterated with 
 oil of cumin. Added to purgative medicines 
 to prevent griping. 
 
 Oil of Car'damoms. Sj^n. Oleum cabsa- 
 MOMi, 0. c. E83E1ITIALE, L. From the seed of 
 Eleltaria cardamomum, or true cardamom. 
 Colourless ; fragrant ; carminative. Sp. gr. 
 ■943. Prod. 55 (nearly). The capsules ('lesser 
 cardamoms') yield only about Ig of oil. (M. 
 Raybaud.) 
 
 Oil of Caecarilla. Syn. Oleum cascaeil- 
 LS. L. From the bark of Crolon elevteria 
 (Swartz.), or cascarilla tree. Very fragrant. 
 Prod. '4'„' to 'T^",. 
 
 Oil of Cas'sia. Syn. Oil op China cinna- 
 mon ; Oleum cassia (Ph. E.), L. From cas- 
 sia buds, or from cassia bark. Golden yellow ; 
 aromatic ; fragrant. It is generally adul- 
 terated with rectified spirit. Nitric acid con- 
 verts the pure oil into a crystalline mass. 
 Sp. gr. 1-071 to 1'073; (old) 1078 to 1'090 
 Prod. Prom the buds of I5 (barely); from 
 the bark of commerce, •To". It is frequently 
 sold for oil of cinnamon. 
 
 Oil ot Cehadil'la. Syn. Oil op sabadilla ; 
 Oleum oebadilljx:, L. A green butyraceous 
 matter, obtained from Asagraa ojfficinalia. 
 
 Oil of Ce'dar-wood. From the wood of a 
 species of Cedrua. It consists of two hydro- 
 carbons. One, a volatile liquid (cedrene), and 
 the other a solid, crystalline compound con- 
 taining oxygen. Prod. '2% to 25^. 
 
 Oil of Ce'drat. %». Essence of cedea; 
 Oleum cedei, 0. citei pinum, L. From th« 
 exterior yellow rind of the fruit of Cilruii 
 luedica (Kisso), or citrons, either by expression 
 or distillation, as oil of bergamot. The first 
 portion of oil that comes over is colourless; 
 the latter portion greenish. Very fragrant. 
 Sp. gr. '847. Prod. 100 citrons yield nearly 
 1 fl. oz. of pale, and \ fl. oz. of green oil. See 
 Oil op Citeon (below). 
 
 Oil of Cel'ery Seed. Syn. Oleum apii. L. 
 From the fruit (seed) of Apium graveolens. 
 Diuretic; stimulant. Prod. |g to 1§ (nearly). 
 
 Oil of Cham'omile. Syn. Oil op Roman 
 chamomile; Oleum anthemieis (Ph. L. E. 
 
 & D.), O. CBAMiEMELI, O. C. PLOBUM, 0. 
 
 ksskntiale ex plobibus c, L. From the 
 flowers of Anthemis nobilis. In the Ph. L., 
 English oil of chamomile (anthemidis oleum 
 Anglicum) is ordered. Blue; turns yellow 
 and brown by exposure and age ; odour cha- 
 racteristic. Sp. gr., English (from the 
 flowers), -9083 ; foreign, '9289. Prod. Fresh 
 flowers, •!% (barely) ; recently dried (finest 
 commercial), 5f ; av. of 6 dried samples, ■25g 
 (nearly). If much water is employed, even 
 
1154 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 the above small quantities of oil will not be 
 obtained. 
 
 Oil of chamomile is reputed antispasmodic, 
 tonic, and stomachic. 1 to 3 drops on a lump 
 of sugar, taken just before retiring to rest, is 
 an excellent preventive of nightmare, and will 
 frequently induce quiet sleep where more 
 active substances have failed. Unfortunately, 
 the oil of the shops is generally either adul- 
 terated or old, and commonly both, in which 
 
 I ase the oil acts as an irritant. A common 
 plan is to mix it « ith old oil of lemons, a fraud 
 wliieh may be detected by the lessened density 
 of the oil, and by its diminished solubility in 
 rectified spirit. 
 
 Oil of Cher'ry-laurel. Syn. Oletjm laueo- 
 CEEASi, L. From the leaves of Cerasus Lauro- 
 cerasus, or common laurel. Closely resembles 
 oil of almonds, but is said to be weaker. Like 
 that substance, it is powerfully poisonous. 
 Frod. 100 lbs. fresh leaves (undeveloped, June), 
 1013 oz. ; do. (half grown, June), 7'2 oz. ; 
 do. (full-grown, 8 weeks on tree, July), 
 4"96 oz. J do. (do., 3 months on tree, Sept.), 
 7'04 oz. ; do. (15 months on tree), 2-24. 
 (Christison.) 
 
 Oil of Caier'vil. Syn. OrEUM ohseophtlli. 
 L. From the bruised fresh herb, macerated 
 for 2 or 3 days in salt and water, and then 
 distilled. 
 
 Oil of Cincho'na. Syn. Oleum ciNcnoN.s;, 
 L. From cinchona bark. Butyraceous; 
 smells of the bark. 20 lbs. yield only 2 gr. 
 (Tronimsdorff.) The odour of hark is imitated 
 by a solution of turmeric in potash, and by 
 chloride of iron. 
 
 OilofCin'namon. Syn. Htdeibe ofcinna- 
 MTl ; Oleum oinnamomi (B. P., Ph. L. E. & 
 D.), 0. c. VEEI, L. From the bark of Cinna- 
 momum zeylanicum, macerated for several days 
 in salt and water, and then distilled. Yellowish 
 or red ; very aromatic ; both odour and taste 
 resemble that of the bark. Sp.gr. 1-035. Prod. 
 
 II lbs. yielded 1 oz. ; 100 lbs. yielded 1-56 oz. 
 (M. Raybaud.) 
 
 Fur. Oil of cinnamon, owing to its hijrh 
 piice, and the consequent premium for its 
 adulteration, can scarcely be obtained pure 
 from the sliops of this country. Oil of cassia 
 and highly rectified spirit are the substances 
 usually employed for this purpose. The in- 
 creased sp. gr. resulting from the first, and the 
 diminished sp. gr. from the second, afford 
 ready means of detecting these frauds. The 
 presence of oil of cassia may also be detected 
 by an experienced person by the odour, which 
 differs a little from that of pure oil of cin- 
 namon. Oil of cassia is less limpid than oil 
 of cinnamon, and it stands a greater degree 
 of cold withontbecoming turbid or congealing. 
 " Wine-yellow, when recent; cherry-red, when 
 old ; odour purely cinnamonic ; nitric acid 
 converts it nearly into a uniform crystalline 
 mass." (Ph. E.) During this reaction the 
 odour of bitter almonds is perceptible. Both 
 oil of cassia and oil of cinnamon are thus con- 
 
 verted into a brown balsam ; with oil of cassia, 
 however, a brisk decomposition occurs sooner, 
 and at a slighter beat. It also forms a crys- 
 talline compound with ammonia. These re- 
 actions, unfortunately, are not characteristic. 
 " The most distinguishing characteristic of the 
 cinnamon oils is, perhaps, their relation to the 
 alcoholic solution of caustic potash. Both 
 dissolve in it readily and clear, with a reddish, 
 yellowish-brown colour; after some time, how- 
 ever, the solution becomes very turbid, and a 
 rather lieavy undissolved oil precipitates, when 
 the solution gradually becomes clear again, 
 (Ure.) The palest oil is considered the best. 
 
 Obs. Oil of cinnamon is chiefly imported 
 from Ceylon, where it is distilled from bark 
 that is unfit for exportation. The dark 
 coloured oil is usually rectified, when two pale 
 oils are obtained, one lighter, and the other 
 heavier, than water ; but 10^ of oil is lost by 
 the process. The oil distilled from the root 
 of the tree (o. cinnamomi eadicis) is much 
 weaker than that from the bark. The oil from 
 the leaves (o. c, folioeum), also imported from 
 Ceylon, smells of cloves, but has a less density 
 than oil of cloves. 
 
 Oil of cinnamon consists essentially of hy- 
 dride of cinuamyl, but, unless when very 
 recently prepared, it also contains a variable 
 proportion of cinnamic acid formed by the 
 oxidation of the hydride. 
 
 Oil of Cit'ron. Syn. Essence or citbon; 
 Oleum citei, L. From the lees of citron 
 juice; or, fjom the peels, as oil of lemons or 
 bergamot. The last generally goes by the 
 nameof oil ofcedrat. Both are fragrant. (See 
 above.) 
 
 Oil of Citron-flowers. Syn. Oleum citei 
 PLOEUM, L. Amber-coloured ; highly frag- 
 rant. Frod. 60 lbs. yield 1 oz. 
 
 Oil of Cloves. Syn. Essence oj cloves ; 
 Oleum caeyophtiloeum, 0. caetophtlli 
 (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), 0. Euqeni^ c. (Ph. 
 D. 1826), L. From the unexpanded flowers 
 (cloves) of the Caryophylus aromaficus, or 
 Molucca clove-tree, soaked for some time in 
 salt and water, and then submitted to distilla- 
 tion ; the distilled water, after having depo- 
 sited its oil, being returned 3 or 4 times 
 into the still, and again 'worked off' from 
 the same materials. Nearly colourless, when 
 recent, gradually becoming pale yellow, 
 and ultimately light brown, by age; highly 
 aromatic, with the characteristic odour and 
 flavour of cloves. It is the least volatile 
 of all the essential oils. Sp. gr. 1-055 to 
 1-061 (1-034 to 1-061, B. P.). Frod. 16J to 
 223. 
 
 Fur. Oil of cloves is frequently adulterated 
 with inferior essential oils, especially with 
 those of pimento, pinks, and clove-gillyflowers, 
 and, occasionally, with castor oil.— 1. Pure oil 
 of cloves forms a butyraceous coagulum when 
 shaken with pure liquor of ammonia, which 
 crystallises after fusicin by a gentle heat. — 2. 
 Treated with an alcoholic solution of potassa, 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1156 
 
 it entirely congeals into a crystHlliiie mass, 
 with totul loss uf its characteristic odour. — 
 3. Shaken with an equal volume of strong 
 caustic suda lye, it forms, on repose a mass 
 ol delicate lamellar crystals. — 4. Solution of 
 chromate of potassa converts it into brown 
 flakes, whilst the salt loses its yellow colour. 
 — 5. Chlorine turns it first green, and then 
 brown and resinous. — 6. Nitric ucid turns it 
 red, and a reddish-brown solid mass is formed ; 
 with heat, it converts it into oxalic acid. — 7- 
 It dissolves freely in sulphuric acid (oil of 
 vitriol), yielding a trunsparent, deep redilish- 
 browii solution, without any visible decompo- 
 sition. — 8. Mixed, gradually, with about jid 
 of its weight of oil of vitriol, an acid liquor 
 is formed, together with a resin of a rich 
 purple colour, which, after being washed, is 
 hard and brittle, and forms a red tincture 
 with rectiHed spirit, which is precipitated 
 of a blood-red colour by water. — 9. It dis- 
 solves iodine freely, without any marked 
 reaction. — 10. It dissolves santaline freely. — 
 11. Mix one drop of the oil with a small trace 
 of solution uf aiiiliae by means of a glass rod, 
 and then shuke with 5 or 6 c.c. of distilled 
 water. By the addition of a few dropi of 
 sodium hypochlorite to the mixture the charac- 
 teristic blue coloration due to phenol will be 
 developed in a few minutes, if the adulterant 
 bo present; whereas with the pure uil nothing 
 but the purplish-violet colour of aniline will 
 be perceived. Stirring or shaking must be 
 avoided after the addition of the hypoohloriie. 
 The presence of 1 per cent, of phenol can thus 
 be demonstrated in one drop of the oil. 
 
 Oh». Clove oil contains a heavy oil, sp. gr. 
 1"079 (cnryophyllic acid), and a light oil, sp. 
 gr. '918 (clove hydrocarbon) ; by rectification, 
 much of the light oil is lost, and the product 
 becomes denser. (1'361 — Bonastre.) 
 
 Oil, Cog'nac. See Oil, Gbape (beloto). 
 
 Oil of Copai'ba. Sj/n. Oil of capiti; 
 Olbum C0PAIB« (B. P., Ph., L. & E.), L. 1. 
 (Ph. E.) Balsam of capivl, 1 or,.; water, IJ 
 pint ; distil, returning the water into the still, 
 until oil ceases to pass over. 
 
 2. (Wholesiilf.) From the crnde oil wliich 
 separates during the iiiaiiufaetiire of * specific 
 solution of copaiba' and 'soluble Ciipivi,' 
 by distillation along with a little salt and 
 water. 
 
 Pur., ij-c. Colourless when pure ; that of 
 commerce has frequently a greenish tinge, 
 derived from the copper utensils ; odour, not 
 di-ugreeiiblo when recent. Sp. gr. '876 to 
 ■878. Prod. 5liU to 55 ;|. When adulterated 
 with oil of turpentine, its solubility in rectified 
 spirit is t;rcatly diminished, and the solution 
 is turbid. — Duse, 10 to 15 drops, in sugar; 
 in the usual cases in which copaib.i is ordered. 
 20 til (10 minims, three times a day (B. P.). 
 
 Oil of Corian'der. Sj/n. Oleum cohiandri, 
 L. From the fruit (seeds) of Coriandrum 
 salivum. Yelhnvisli ; aromatic; c:iriniuative. 
 Prod. (Dried truit) 5i to eg. 
 
 Oil, Com. The name given by Mulder to a 
 peculiar fatty compound found in the fusel oil 
 of the distilleries of Holland. It has a very 
 powerful odour, resembling that of some of the 
 umbelliferous plants, and is unaffected by 
 caustic potassa. 8.;e Oil, Fusel (page 772). 
 
 Oil of Cn'bebs. Si/n. Olbum cubebabau, 
 0. cuBEBs: (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. From 
 the fruit of Cubeba officinalis, or cubebs, 
 coarsely ground. Aromatic, hot, and bitter 
 tasted ; odour, that of the fruit ; faintly green, 
 colourless when pure. Sp. gr. 129. Prod. 
 9g to llg. 
 
 Pur., iSfo. When pure, iodine has little 
 action on this oil, and immediately gives it a 
 violet colour, without any very marked relic- 
 tion ; nitric acid turns it opaque, and the 
 mixture changes to a pale red when heated ; 
 sulphuric acid turns it of a crimson red. When 
 adulterated with oil of turpentine, both its vis- 
 cidity, solubility in rectified spirit, and its 
 density, are lessened; when mixed with castor 
 oil it leaves a greasy stain on paper.— i)o«, 
 10 to 15 drops, in the usual cases in which 
 cubehs iu sub'taiue is given. 5 to 20 minims 
 (B. P.), suspeuded in water by mucilage and 
 sugiir. 
 
 Oil of Cumin. Si/a. Oleum cUMiifi, O. 
 0Y5IINI, L. From the fresh fruit (seed) of 
 Cuminum Ci/minum, or cumin. Pale yellow; 
 stnelh and tastes strongly of the seeds. Sp. gr. 
 ■975. Prod. 2i3 to 3g. 
 
 Ohs, Oil of cumin is a mixture of two oils 
 differing iu volatility, and which m^iy be sepa- 
 rated by careful distillation. The more vola- 
 tile one has been named cymol ; the other, 
 cuminol. 
 
 Oil of Sill. Syti. Oleum anethi (Ph. L. & 
 E), L. From the bruised fruit (seed) of 
 Ani/teum graveolens. Pale yellow ; odour, 
 that of the fruit; taste, hot and pungent; 
 carminative. Sp. gr. -188 to -8^2. Prod, li 
 (nearly). 
 
 Oil of El'der. Sj/n. Attar op elder flow- 
 ers; Oleu.m sAmbuoi, L. From elder Hnw- 
 ers {Sambucus nigra). Butyraceous; odour 
 not very marked. 
 
 OilofEl'emi. Syn. Oleum elemi, L. From 
 the resin. Isomeric with oil of turpentine. 
 
 Oil of Er'ROt. Si/n. Ethereal o. of e. ; 
 Oleum erootjj, O. e. iETHEREiM, 0. sEOALia 
 COKNUTI, L. Prepared by evaporating the 
 ethereal tincture at a very gentle heat, and, 
 prel'eralily, allowing the last portion of the 
 ether to escape by spontaneous evaporation. 
 Brownish-yellow; lighter than water ; soluble 
 in ether and solution of potass i; only partly 
 soluble iu alcohol. It appears to be a mixture 
 of volatile and fi.wd oil, with some resinous 
 matter.— Dow, 10 to 20 drops, in hiemor- 
 rhages; 10 or 12 drops every 3 or 4 hours, in 
 diarrhoea ; 20 to 50 drops, as a parturifacient, 
 &c. Externally, in rheumatism, toothache, 
 U. 
 
 Obs. The above is the oil of erjiot now 
 employed in medicine. It must not be con- 
 
1156 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 founded with other preparations occasionally 
 called by the same name, but which differ 
 from it in character. Among the latter are the 
 following : 
 
 a. A fixed oil obtained by distilling ofE the 
 spirit from the alcoholic tincture. It has the 
 odour of rancid fish oil, and the distilled spirit 
 has also a putrid odour. 
 
 b. A fixed oil, obtained from coarsely pow- 
 dered ergot by strong pressure between iron 
 plates, at a heat of about 212° Fahr. It is 
 fluid, coloured, smells strongly of the drug, 
 but is nearly destitute of its leading qualities. 
 Both the preceding contain some volatile oil 
 and resinous matter. 
 
 c. An cmpyreumatio oil obtained by dis- 
 tilling ergot per se. It is light brown, viscid, 
 acrid, and nauseous. 
 
 d. A volatile oil obtained by digesting pow- 
 dered ergot ill solution of potassa at 125° Fahr., 
 diluting the saponaceous mass thus formed 
 with one half to an equal weight of water, 
 neutralising the alkali with dilute sulphuric 
 acid, and then submitting the whole to dis- 
 tillation in a chloride of sodium or oil bath. 
 It is white, adhesive, butyraceous, and taste- 
 less. It appears a product, rather tlian a simple 
 educt. 
 
 B. This is the ethereal oil, first described, in 
 its purest form. It is colourless, translucent, 
 oily, and acrid-tasted, with the odour of ergot ; 
 it lias a high boiling-point, at which it suffers 
 partial decomposition, but may be volatilised 
 at a lower temperature, like the other oils. 
 By long exposure to heat, it thickens and 
 partly solidifies; licjht and air darken it; it is 
 lighter than water, very slightly soluble in 
 water, but sufficienily so to impart to it its 
 peculiar odour; it is soluble in pure alcohol, 
 in ether, the volatile and fixed oils, alkaline 
 lyes, liquor of ammonia, creasote, and naphtha. 
 The dilute mineral acids clear it but do not 
 produce any marked reaction. 
 
 Oil, Ethe"real. See Oil op Wine (below). 
 
 Oil of Eucalyptus. Syn. Oleum eucalypti 
 QLOBULi. See Eucalyptus. 
 
 Oil of Fen'nel. Sj/n. Oleum tceniculi 
 
 (Ph. L.), 0. F. OEPIOINALIS (Ph. E. & D.), O. 
 p. DULCis, L. From the fruit or seed of 
 Fceniculum dtilce, or sweet fennel (Ph. L.), 
 Colourless ; odour that of the plant ; tastes 
 hot and sweetish ; congeals at 50° Fahr. ; 
 carminative and stomachic. It consists of two 
 oils; the one solid and identical with that of 
 oil of aniseed. When treated with nitric acid, 
 it affords benzoin, Sp. gr. '997. Prod. Dried 
 fruit (of commerce), 3§to3'5g. The flowering 
 herb yields 'SSg of a similar oil. 
 
 Obs. The oil of fennel of the shops is the 
 product of the fruit of Fceniculum vulgare, or 
 common, wild, or bitter fennel. It closely 
 resemble that of sweet fennel, but is scarcely 
 so agreeable either in taste or smell. It is 
 chiefly used to scent soaps. 
 
 Oil of Firwood. Syn. Oleum piki syltes- 
 
 TEIS. An essential oil, distilled from the 
 leaves of Pinus sylvestris. 
 
 Oil of Fleabane. (Ph. U. S.) Syn. Oleum 
 EEi&EEONTis CANADENSIS. An essential oil, 
 distilled from Canada erigeron. — Dose, 5 
 minims in haemorrhage. 
 
 Oil, Fu'sel. Noticed at page 772. 
 Oil of GaVbanum. Syn. Oleum oalbani 
 (Ph. Bor.), L. From galbanum, 2 lb. ; water, 
 16 fl. oz.; distilled together. Yellow; re- 
 sembles oil of asafoetida, but milder. 
 
 Oil of Gar'Iic. Syn. Sulphide of allyl. 
 From the bruised bulbs or ' cloves ' of Allium 
 sativum, or garlic. It possesses the peculiar 
 odour, taste, and other properties of the bulbs, 
 in a highly exalted degree. 
 
 Obs. When a mixture of oil of black mustard 
 and sulphide of potassium is exposed in a 
 sealed glass tube to a temperature above that 
 of 212° Fahr., sulphocyanide of potassium and 
 garlic oil are formed. On the other hand, 
 when the compound of garlic oil and chloride 
 of mercury (formed by adding to an alcoholic 
 solution of the oil a like solution of the chol- 
 ride) is gently heated with sulpho-cyanide of 
 potassium, mustard oil, with all its characteris- 
 tic properties, is called into existence. 
 
 Oil of Gaulthe"ria. See Oil op Paeteidge 
 beeey (below). 
 
 Oil of Gen'tian. Syn. Oleum gentians, L. 
 From the root. Butyraceous ; smells strongly 
 of gentian. 3 cwt. yield 1 dr. (barely). 
 
 Oil of Gera"nium. Syn. Oil op gingee 
 geass, O. op spikenaed. The oil of com- 
 merce which passes under this name and which 
 was formerly imported from the East Indies, 
 was not obtained from any species of Gera- 
 nium or Frlargonium, but probably from a 
 species of Andropogon. Of recent years, how- 
 ever, genuine geranium oil, obtained from the 
 rose geranium (Felargonium roseum) has been 
 and continues to be met with in our markets. 
 This essential oil is manufactured in immense 
 quantities, at La Trappe de Staonelli not far 
 from the Bay of Sidi Ferruch, in Algiers, 
 where about forty acres of the plant are in 
 cultivation. "Three harvests are gathered 
 every year, and each yields from 170 to 200 
 kilograms of oil, or equal to 500 to 600 
 kilograms per annum. The value of this 
 product never falls below forty francs the 
 kilogram, the average gross value being there- 
 fore from 20,000 to 25,000 francs or at least 
 £20 per acre. Seven distillatory apparatus 
 are employed in this manufactory."* A flner 
 oil is yielded by the rose geranium, when 
 grown in France, but it is much dearer. It is 
 often employed to adulterate otto of roses. 
 See Oil, Geass (below). 
 
 Oil of Gin'ger. Syn. Oleum zingibeeis, 
 L. From the dried root (rhizome) of Zingiber 
 officinale, or ginger of commerce. Bluish- 
 green ; possesses a less agreeable odour than 
 
 ' " Tlie Pinis Exliibition," 
 Si-d series. No. 433. 
 
 'Pharmaceutical Journal,' 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1157 
 
 th^it of good u'lnger, without any pungency. 
 Prod, fiol 1^ (M. Unybaud). 
 
 OU of Qoosefoot. (Ph. U. S.) iSy». OLErsi 
 CHKNorouii. Di-tilled from the seeds of 
 Chenopodiwn anlhelminticum. — Do»e. From 
 4 to 8 drops, with treacle or imlk, for 3 nights 
 in succession, for cliildren. For adult, i dr. 
 Vi-rraifuge. 
 
 OU of Qrain-spirit. Si/n. Gb*in on. Two 
 distinct substances are found in spirit distilled 
 fiom fermented grain ; one of which is buty- 
 raeeous and highly ofEonsive (corn oil of Mul- 
 der — ?), the other liquid (crude fusel oil). 
 'I'he relative proportions of these substances to 
 each other, and to the spirits which they con- 
 taminate, vary with the mat erials and the man- 
 agement of the )iroce8s. The ' Grain oil ' of 
 the London rectifiers consl-ts chiefly of fusel 
 or potato oil, mixed with alcohol and water, 
 and with small and variable proportions of 
 solid etliyl and amyl-conipounds of certain 
 (kitty acids (oenantbic and niargaric). The 
 latter arc said to be similar to the butyraceous 
 matter In fore referred to, as well us the solid fat 
 of the whisky distilleries conducted on the old 
 plan. According to Mr. llowney, the fusel oil 
 of the Scotch di^tilleries contains capric acid. 
 Sic Oil op Cohn (above), and Fusel oil. 
 
 Oil, Orape. S,(/n. Bbandt oil, Cognao o. 
 This is cst^entialiy the sulphate of amvl. It is 
 prepared by dissolving the fusel oil of marc- 
 brandy in strong rectified spirit, and then 
 adding concentrated sulphuric acid ; alcohol 
 and c\ccs8 of acid is removed by washing' the 
 newly formed compound with water. Dis- 
 solved in rcc ified 8|iii'it, it forms ' BUANiiY 
 ESSENCE,' which is used to impart the Cognac 
 flavour to plain spirit. See Sulphate op 
 Amtl and Amtl-etheb, also Uil of Mabo- 
 BliANDY (below). 
 
 OU, Grass. Several of the grasses (Grami- 
 nace<e) yield fragnint volatile oils. See Oil 
 OP Geranium, Geasb oil (of Namur), Oil of 
 Lemon-obass, Oil op Spbing geabs, &c. 
 
 Oil, Orass (of Namur). <S\/». India obass 
 Oil. From Andropogon Calamtis aromativus 
 (llnvle), sujip'isi'd to have been the "sweet 
 care" and "rich aromuiic reed from a far 
 countrj' " of Scripture; formerly supposed to 
 he olitained from Andropogon Iwarancusa. 
 Siimulant and highly fragrant See Oil of 
 Spikknahd. 
 
 OU of Hops. %n."OLBUMluPULi, L. From 
 commercial hops, by distillation along with 
 water. It may also he collected during the 
 brewing of beer, Odorons; acrid; narcotic; 
 soluble in water; becomes resimms by expo- 
 sure and age. Sp. gr. •Q\0. Chiefly used to 
 increase the aroma and flavour of old or da- 
 uinged hops. 
 
 Oil of Horse-mint. Sgn. Oleum monardje 
 (Ph. U. S,), L. From the fresh herb of Mo- 
 niirda punctata, a plant indigenous in the 
 U. S. of America. Dark amber-coloured; 
 Iriprant ; pungent; carminative; rubefacient; 
 and vesicant. 
 
 Oil of Horse-rad'ish. Sgn. Oleum abho- 
 EAOI.E, L. From the fresh roots of CocAfearia 
 arrimoracia (Linn.), or common horse-radish. 
 Pale yellow ; heavier than water; acrid; vesi- 
 cant ; identical with that from black mustard. 
 Prod. •h% (nearly). 
 
 Oil of Hyssop. Sitn. Oleuh htssopi, L. 
 From the flowering herb of Hgtsopus officinalis. 
 Aromatic ; stimulant. Prod. •25g to '335. 
 
 Oil of Jargonelle Pear. See Amyl (Ace- 
 tate). 
 
 Oil of Jas'min. Syn. Oil of jessamine ; 
 Oleum jasmini, 0. j.' volatile, L. From the 
 flowers of Jasminum grandiflorum and J. Fra- 
 grans, carefully picked, by placinsr them in al- 
 ternate layers with cotton wadding imbued 
 with olive oil, in any suitable vessel, and re- 
 newing the flowers till the fixed oil becomes 
 strongly odorous, and then distilling the wad- 
 ding along with a little water. The volatile 
 oilsof hyacinths, jonquil, tnbornse, violets, and 
 most of the more deliciite flowers, are obtained 
 in the same way. Used in perfumery. From 
 the East Indies. 
 
 Oil of Jn'niper. Sgn. .Funipebi oleum (B. 
 P.), Olbum junipeei (Ph. L. E. & ».), O. 4. 
 
 BACOIB J., O. K6SENTIALE k. B. J., L. From 
 either the wood, tops, or Ijerries, preferably the 
 lust. The berries should be chosen fully grown, 
 bnt stdl slif;htly green, and should be hrui-ed 
 before being placed in thcstill. In the Pli. L., 
 Knglish oil of juniper (o. junipehi Anoli- 
 cum) is ordered. Colourless, or very pale 
 greenish-yellow; odour and taste, sweet and 
 terehiuthinate ; rather viscid ; soluble in recti- 
 fied spirit i rendered opaque and resinous by 
 exposiire and age. It is reputed carminative 
 and diaphoretic, and possesses powerful 
 diuretic properties, Sp. gr. '911 (English, 
 •8688 ; lorei-ju, 6834— Brunde). Prod. Green 
 berries, -25;^ ; ripe do. (one year old), J to 1} 
 (fully). 
 
 Pur. It is frequently adulterated with oil of 
 turpentine, a fraud readily discovered by the 
 lessened density, viscidity, and solubility, in 
 rectified spirit, of the oil. 
 
 Obs. Oil of juniper consists of two oils — one, 
 white and most volatile, sp.gr. -8393; the 
 other, dark-coloured and less volatile, sp. gr. 
 ■878-t; together with some nsin left in the 
 retort. 
 
 Oil, Krumholz. Sgn. Oleum templinum, 
 L. From Hungarian balsam, a terebinthinate 
 exudation from the Pinus pumilio, or mountain 
 pine of Southern Europe. iVagrant; golden 
 yellow; tastes oily, acidulous, and resinous. 
 
 OU of Lau'rel. Syn. Oil of sweet bat ; 
 Oleum iauki volatile, 0. l. essentiale 
 L. From cither the berries or leaves of Laurwi 
 Hobilis (Linn.), or sweet bay-tree. Paleyelliw, 
 clear, odorous, aromatic, stiihulant, and nar- 
 cotic. Sp. gr. -SVl. Prod. From the leaves, 
 i to la (fully). 
 
 Oil of Lavender. St/n. Essence op l. ; La- 
 TANDUL.I: oleum (B. P.), Oleum Lavandula 
 (Ph. L.), O L. VEE^ (Ph. E. & D.), 0. L 
 
1168 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 BPIOJE, 0. I. ESSBNTIAIB, 0. L. PLOETTM, L. 
 The oil (OLBtTM liiVANDULa! AN&HCtTM) 
 
 distilled from tiie flowers of ' Lavandula vera' 
 (Ph. L.). Very pale lemon-yellow j highly 
 fragrant ; taste, warm and not disagreeable ; 
 carminative, antispasmodic, and stimulant. 
 Sp. gr. -877 to -905. According to Brande, 
 the sp. gr. of the oil obtained from the flowers 
 only is -8960 ; that from the whole plant, -9206. 
 The lightest is esteemed the best. Prod. 
 Flowera, 1^ to 2 § (nearly). The whole of 
 tlie flowering herb is commonly distilled. 
 According to Raybaud, the herb, after flower- 
 ing (Sept.), yields the most oil. 
 
 Fur. Alcohol is the substance commonly 
 used to adulterate this oil ; but, occasionally, 
 oil of bergamot is used for the same purpose. 
 If the density is below '87, there is reason to 
 suspect adulteration. When pure — 1. Sul- 
 phuric acid turns it reddish-brown, and the 
 reaction is accompanied by strong in^spissa- 
 tion. — 2. It fulminates quickly and violently 
 with iodine, and the thick syrupy residue pos- 
 sesses a pungent, acid, balsamic odour. The 
 oils of the other labiate plants fulminate much 
 less powerfully with iodine. The presence of 
 alcohol weakens, but does not destroy, the 
 action of this test, unless it is added in an 
 equal volume, when only a lively effervescence 
 and a disengagement of orange-coloured 
 vapours are produced by the iodine, without 
 fulmination. — 3. Santaline is nearly insoluble 
 in pure oil of lavender, and exerts no marked 
 action on it, but is freely soluble in oil of 
 1 ivender adulterated with alcohol or rectified 
 spirit. 
 
 Obs. English oil of lavender possesses the 
 purest fragrance ; and of this, the variety 
 known as " Mitchamoil of latendee," from 
 the place of its preparation, is esteemed the 
 best. The foreign oil of lavender is inferior. 
 This last is improved by rectification. See 
 Oil of Spike. 
 
 Oil of Lem'cns. Syn. Essence of i,. ; 
 Oleum limonis (B. P.), Oleum limonis, 
 O. LIMONDM (Ph. L. E. & D.). From 
 the yellow portion of the rind, grated, placed 
 in hair bags, and exposed to powerful pres- 
 sure ; also by distillation, but the product 
 is then less agreeably fragrant and sweet, bub 
 keeps better. Nearly colourless ; odour that 
 of the fruit. Sp. gr. -8752 to -8785. 
 Expressed oil, -8517, distilled do., 845, at 72° 
 Fahr. (Ure.) Prod. 100 lemons yield, by 
 expression. If to 2 oz. (nearly) ; by distillation 
 li to n. 
 
 Pur. Commonly adulterated withoil of tur- 
 pentine, and occasionally with nut or poppy 
 oil. These may be detected in the manner 
 already explained. When pure, it is soluble 
 in all proportions in absolute alcohol, but rec- 
 tified spirit only dissolves 16g of it. it also 
 boils at 148° Fahr., whereas oil of turpentine 
 boils at 312°, and mixtures of the two at in- 
 termediate temperatures, depending on the 
 proportions. 
 
 Oil of lem'on Grass, Syn. Essence or i. g. 
 Indian geass-oil, Oil of tebbbna. Pro- 
 bably from Andropogon citratum, the Indian 
 lemon-grass. Pale yellow ; powerfully fra- 
 grant. CiTEONBLlE OIL is also the product 
 of this or of an allied species of Andropogon. 
 
 Oil of lemon Thyme. Si/n. Oleum seb- 
 PTLLI, L. ; HuiLE DE TAIN, Fr. From the 
 fresh flowering herb of Thymus serpyllum, 
 the lemon or wild thyme of our hills and 
 pastures. Very fragrant. Used to scent soaps 
 &c. Sp. gr. -867. Prod. 100 lbs. yield 2* 
 to 5i oz. of oil. When pure, it is scarcely 
 affected by iodine, but solution of chromate of 
 potassa acts on it with energy. 
 
 Oil of Let'tuce. Syn. Oleum LAOTUoa: ti- 
 BOS/B, L. From Laciusa virosa (Linn.), or 
 strong-scented wild lettuce. Closely resembles 
 the odorous matter of ojiium. 
 
 Oil of Limes. Syn. Oleum -lim-ettm, L. 
 From the rind of the fruit of Citrus Umetta, 
 or lime, as oil of lemons, which it somewhat 
 resembles. Prod. 100 limes yield 2^ to 2\ oz. 
 of oil. 
 
 Oil of LoVage. Syn. Oleum levistici, L. 
 From the leaves of fruit of Levisticum offici- 
 nale, Lovage. Pale yellow, aromatic, carmi- 
 native. Prod. Fresh herb, •!% to "ISJ^. 
 
 Oil of Mace. Syn. Oleum macidis, 0. M. 
 ESSENTIALE, O. M. STILLATITIUM, L. Prom the 
 arillus of Myristica o^c^wa^ (commercial mace) 
 Nearly colourless ; fragrant ; lighter than 
 water; closely resembles oil of nutmeg. Sp. 
 gr. -945. Prod. 4i to 9g. 
 
 Oil of Marc-lirandy. Syn. Fusel oh op 
 M.-B., 0. of oeape spieit. Obtained after 
 the spirit (marc-brandy) has passed over 
 during the distillation of the fermented resi- 
 duum of expressed grapes. Limpid; odorous; 
 acrid; offensive; soon turns yellow in the air; 
 soluble in 1000 parts of water, and in all pro- 
 portions in rectified spirit ; 6 or 7 drops will 
 spoil a hogshead of brandy. According to M. 
 Balard, this oil is a mixture of potato oil and 
 oenanthic ether. 
 
 Oil of Mar'joram. Syn. On op sweet m. ; 
 Oleum mabjoeanje, O. oeigani m. (Ph. E.), 
 L. Prom the fresh flowering herb of Origanum 
 marjorana, or sweet or knotted marjoram. 
 Pale yellow; odorous; tonic; stimulant. Sp. 
 gr. -925 (-gdO— Baurae). Prod. -33 to -35^. 
 See Oil of Origanum. 
 
 Oil of Mea'dow sweet. - Syn. Oleum SPi- 
 Ti.MM ULMAEI.S), L. From the flowers or flow- 
 ering tops of Spiraea ulmaria (Linn.), or com- 
 mon meadow-sweet. This oil is a native hy- 
 dride of salicyl. It is yellow, sweet-scented, 
 and slightly soluble in water, which then 
 strikes a deep violet colour with the persalts 
 of iron. It boils at 385° Fahr. Sp. gr. 1-172. 
 (See helow.) 
 
 Oil of Mea'dow-sweet (Facti"tioTis). This 
 is prepared as follows : — Salicin, 1 part, is dis- 
 solved in distilled water, 10 parts, and being 
 placed in a glass retort, bichromate of potassa 
 (in powder), 1 part, is added, followed by oil 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1159 
 
 of vitriol, 2i parts, previously diluted with 4 
 times its weight of water; a gentle heat is 
 next applied to the retort, and after the first 
 effervescence resulting from tlie mutual reac- 
 tion of the ingredients is over, the heat is in- 
 creased, and the mixture is distilled for the oil 
 in the usual manner. The product is abso- 
 lutely identical with the natural oil of meadow- 
 sweet. (See above.) 
 
 Oil of Mil'foil. ^». Olbtjm millefolii, 
 L. From the 6owers of Achilltsa millefolium 
 (Linn.), or yarrow. Blue. Sp. gr. "852. 
 Prod. 14 lbs. of the dried flowers yield 3 dr. 
 of oil. 
 
 Oils, Mixed (Essential). Si/n. Olka mixta 
 ES3ENTIALIA. From the oils of bergamot 
 and lemons, of each 1 oz.; oils of lavender and 
 pimento, of each i oz. Used to scent ' sal 
 voliitile drops,' smelling.bottles, &c. 
 
 Oil of Mns'tard (Volatile). Sgn. Sulpho- 
 
 CYANIDE OP ALLYL; OlEUM BINAPIS MlaEiE, 
 
 O. B. essentiale, L. From the seeds of 
 Sinapia nigra (Linn.), or black mustard, as oil 
 of bitter almonds. Nearly colourless ; in- 
 tensely acrid, pungent, rubefacient, and vesi- 
 cant i slightly soluble in water ; boils at 289° 
 Fahr. It contains sulphur, Sp. gr. 1'035 to 
 1-038; 1-015, at G8° Fahr. Frod. Av. 'V,'^ 
 (fully). 
 
 Obe. This oil, like that of bitter almonds, 
 does not pre-exist in the seed, but is the re- 
 sult of the action of myrouic acid on a pecu- 
 liar substance, myrosin, in the presence of 
 water. Oil of bliiuk mustard has been used as 
 a stimulant or counter-irritaut in palsy, &c. ; 
 and the distilled water, or a Solution of the oil 
 in water, is said to be an excellent and cleanly 
 remedy for the itch. 
 
 Oil of Myrrh. Syn. Oi.eum MTERnjE, 0. M. 
 essentiale, L. Colourless ; thin ; heavier 
 than water ; stimulant j smells strongly of 
 the drug. 
 
 Oil of Myr'tle (Volatile). Si/n. Essence of 
 M. ; Oleum mtet^ essentiaie, L. From 
 the flowers and leaves of Myrtua communia. 
 100 lbs. of the fresh leaves yield 2J to 5 oz. 
 
 Oil of Namnr Grass. See Oil of Gbass 
 (Namch). 
 
 Oil of Narcis'sus. Syn. Essence of jon- 
 quil; Oleum narcissi, L. As oil of jas- 
 mine. Delightfully odorous. 
 
 Oil of Neroli. See Oil of Ohanoe 
 
 FLOWEHS. 
 
 Oil of Nnt'meg (Volatile). Syn. Oleum jit- 
 
 BIBTIC* (B. P., Ph. E.), O. M. M0SCUAT.E 
 
 (Ph. D.), L. From the officinal nutmee: or 
 kernel of the fruit of Myristica moachata. 
 Nearly colourless; odour and flavour that of 
 the fruit, but more powerful. Uy agitation 
 with Whter, it is separated into two oils — one 
 lighter, the other heavier, than water; the last 
 i» butyraceous. Sp. gr. -948. Prod. 4i to 7|;. 
 It is reputed to make the hair grow, and to 
 prevent baldness. 
 Oil of On'ions. From the bulbs of Allium 
 
 cepa, or common onion. Contains sulphur, 
 and smells strongly of the herb. 
 Oil of Or'ange. Syn. Essence of o. ; Olfcm 
 
 AUEiNTII, O. AUHANTIOBUM, 0. A. COETICIS, 
 L. From the yellow portion of the rind ot 
 either the Seville or sweet orange, preferably 
 of the last ; as oil of bergamot or lemons. 
 Closely resembles oil of lemons, but is more 
 agreeably fragrant. The expressed oil is very 
 apt to become opnque,and deposit a stearopten, 
 especially in cold weather, unless well kept 
 from the" air. Sp. gr. -875. Prod. 100 fruit- 
 yield 4 to 5 oz. (See below.) 
 
 Oil of Orange Berries. Syn. Oleum au- 
 EANTII BACCiE, L. From the small nnripe 
 huit of the orange-tree. Does not keep will. 
 (See below.) 
 
 Oil of Orange Flowers. Syn. Neroli, Oil 
 OP N., Essence op n. ; Olkhm napHjB, 0. 
 
 AURANTII FLOEUM, AUBANTII OLEUM (Ph. E. 
 
 and D.), L. From the flowers of either the 
 bitter (Si-ville) or sweet orange (CiVriw vulgaria 
 or C. aurantium), by distillation with water. 
 That from the fruit is said to be preferred, 
 but there does not appear any actual differ- 
 ence between the two. Very fluid; ligliter 
 than water, in whieh it is slightly soluble; 
 it is delii^htfully aromatic and fragrant, but 
 the odour differs slightly from that of the 
 flowers. Prod. 100 lbs. of flowers gathered in 
 May or December yield 3 to 6 oz. of oil; 6 cwr. 
 of the fresh flov\ers yield 1 lb. of oil. 
 
 Pur. Neroli is commonly adulterated with 
 alcohol or essence de petit grain, and gene- 
 rally with both of them. The presence of the 
 first is easily determined (see above) : that of 
 tlie second (-an only be discovered b}- compar- 
 ing the odour evolved during the evaporation 
 of a drop of the suspected oil, placed on a 
 piece of white paper, with a like drop of pure 
 neroli similarly treated. (See above anil 
 below.) 
 
 Oil of Orange-leaf. Syn. Oleum aurantii 
 FOLii.L.; Essence DE peut oii MN, Fr. From 
 the leaves of either tlie bitter or sweet orange : 
 that from the first beiiiLr preferred. Delight- 
 fully fragrant. Kstensivcly used to adulte- 
 rate oil of neroli, and is itself commonly 
 sophisticated with both alcohol and oil of 
 orange-lierries. (See above.) 
 
 Oil of Orig'anum. Syn. Oleum oeioani, 
 0. o. ESSENTIALS, L. From the flowering 
 herb of Origanum vulgare, or common or 
 winter marjoram. Pale yellow colour; fra- 
 grant; acrid, pungent, and rubefacient. Sp. 
 gr. -927 ( 940— Baume). Prod. -5i' to -73;;. 
 Tlie dark-coloured oil of origanum of the 
 shops is obtained from Thymua vulgare. The 
 oil of origanum (Ph. E.) is oil of Origanum 
 marjorana. See Oils of Maejobam, Thyme, 
 and Lemon thyme. 
 
 Oil of Or'ris. Syn. Essencb of violet ; 
 Oleum ibidis, L. From the dried rhizomes 
 of Iris Florentina, or Florentine orris-root. 
 Fragrant. Sold for oil and essence of violets. 
 
 Oil of Par'sley. Syn. Oleum peteoselini, 
 
1160 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 L. From the fresh herb or dried fruit (seed) 
 of Apium petroselinum^ or garden parsley. 
 Yellowish; smells strongly of the plant. It 
 consists of two oils, separable by agitation 
 with water, one of which is concrete, and 
 melts at 80° Fahr. ; the other, liquid. Prod. 
 Herb, -BO to \% (nearly). 
 Oil of Par'tridge-berry. Syn. On of win- 
 
 TEE-QEEEN, MeTHTLO-SALTCIMC ETHEE, SA- 
 LICYLATE OF OXIDE OP MBTHTL; OlBTTM GAUI,- 
 THBBia; (Ph. U. S.), L. From the leaves or 
 the whole plant of Oaultheria procumbens, a 
 herb common in North America, and other- 
 wise known by the names — Box-berry, che- 
 quer-berry, partridge-berry, mountain tea, 
 winter-green, &c. Pale yellow, growing brown 
 by exposure and ag:e; aromatic; sweet; highly 
 pungent; when diluted, agreeably fragiant; 
 mixed with a dilute solution of potassa. It 
 solidifies to a crystalline mass (salicylate of 
 methyl and potassa), from which the oil may 
 be again separated by the addition of an acid. 
 It is the heaviest of all the essential oils. Sp. 
 gr. 1'173. Boils at 412°, and, when purified, 
 at 435° Fahr. 
 
 Oil of partridge-berry, dissolved in rectified 
 spirit, is in common use in the United States 
 o' America as an antispasmodic, carminative, 
 diuretic, emmenagogue, and stimulant ; chiefly 
 as an adjunct to mixtures, &c. ; and also with 
 the view of increasino; the flow of milli during 
 lactation. It is likewise extensively used in 
 perfumery, and is an object of great interest 
 to the organic chemist, on account of its pecu- 
 liar constitution and reaction. 
 
 Oil of Partridge-berry (Factftions). See 
 Salicylic acid. 
 
 Oil, Pearl. See Amyle (Acetate of), and 
 Essence of Jargonelle pkab. 
 
 Oil of Pennyroy'al. Syn. Oleum puiegii 
 (Ph. L.), 0. MENTHJE p. (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), 
 0. p. ESSENTIALE, L. From the flowering 
 herb of Mentha Fule^gium^ or the common 
 pennyroyal of our gardens. Pale yellow, 
 jjrowing reddish yellow by age and exposure; 
 antispasmodic, carminative, and emmenagogue. 
 Boils at 395° Fahr. Sp. gr. -925 to -931. Prod. 
 f to 1%. (See below.) 
 
 Oil of Pennyroyal (American). Syn. Oleum 
 HEDEOM^ (Pli. U. S.), L. From Hedeomapule- 
 gioides, as the last. Light yellow ; closely 
 resembles oil of pennyroyal, for which it passes 
 in the U. S. Sp. gr. -945 to -948. 
 
 Oil of Pepper. Syn. Oil oe black p. ; 
 Oleum pipeeis, 0. P. nigei, L. From bruised 
 black pepper {Piper nigrum). Colourless, 
 turning yellow ; odorous ; pungent ; not so 
 hot as the spice. Sp. gr. -9932. Prod. l-25g 
 to l'5g. White pepper (of commerce), Ig 
 (barely). 
 
 Oil of Pep'permint. Syn. Oleum menthje 
 PIPBEITJE (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 0. essen- 
 tial* M. PIPEEITIDIS, L. From the fresh 
 flowering herb of Mentha piperita, or garden 
 peppermint. Nearly colourless, or at most a 
 very pale greenish yellow; powerfully odorous; 
 
 tastes pungent, at the same time imparting a 
 sensation of coldness to the tongue and palate. 
 Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr. "902 to -905. 
 Prod. Fresh flowering herb, ■25g to ■4§; 
 dried do., \% to l'25g (fully). In a warm dry 
 season, 5 lbs. of the fresh flowering herb yield 1 
 oz. of oil; in a wet and unfavorable one, 11 lb. 
 yield barely the same quality. 
 
 Pur. The oil of commerce usually contains 
 fully a third part of rectified spirit, and is also 
 frequently adulterated with the oils of rose- 
 mary, spearmint, and turpentine. When pure 
 — 1. It is soluble in its own weight of rectified 
 spirit. — 2. Mixed with l-4th its volume of nitric 
 acid, a rich purple-red colour is developed. — 3. 
 Chromnte of potash, in solution, turns it of a 
 deep reddish-brown colour, and converts it 
 into a soft coagnlum, which asisumes a flaky 
 form when divided with a glass rod, whilst the 
 solution of the salt loses its yellow colour or 
 becomes greenish yellow. — 4. With iodine it 
 forms a homogeneous mass,without fulmination. 
 If it explodes with iodine, it contains turpen- 
 tine. The yellowish, resinous oil, sold under the 
 name of ' American ' or ' crude oil of pepper- 
 mint,' consists chiefly of oil of turpentine, and 
 on evaporation leaves a residuum of pine resin. 
 
 Obs. English oil of peppermint is the best, a 
 fact clearly shown by its price in the market 
 being so greatly above that of the imported 
 oil. The oil distilled at Mitcham, in Surrey 
 (Mitcham oil of peppermint), is the most 
 esteemed. It has usually a very pale greenish 
 colour, which is often imitated by steeping a 
 leaf or two of green mint or parsley in the oil. 
 Old dark-coloured oils are commonly bleached 
 by exposure to the light, to the destruction of 
 a portion of their other properties. 
 
 According to a recent and valuable report 
 upon those articles in the Paris Exhibition of 
 1878, more particularly interesting to the 
 pharmacist, the chemical manufacturer, the 
 perfumer, &c., which lately appeared in the 
 ' Pharmaceutical Journal,' the above statement 
 is open to question. Of late years it seems 
 that a considerable industry has sprung up at 
 Arzin in the Department dn Nord, in France, 
 where large quantities of libiate plants are 
 cultivated, and subsequently submitted to dis- 
 tillation. 
 
 An acre of land generally yields every year 
 from 3 to 4 tons of the peppermint plant ; and 
 from 500 parts of this, one part of essential 
 oil is usually obtained, which it is alleged by 
 M. Hanart,the distiller of the oil in question, 
 after being carefully bottled and kept for some 
 years, successfully rivals the English oil both 
 in quality and price. 
 
 Of hite years an essential oil of peppermint 
 manufactured by Messrs Holchkiss, of New 
 5rork,has lately come into considerable demand. 
 
 This, which is said to be a very pure article, 
 differs from the other peppermint oils in be- 
 coming thick when first mixed with spirit of 
 wine. Alter a short time, however, the mix- 
 ture clears and becomes perfectly bright. 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1161 
 
 Oil of peppermint is stimulant, antispag- 
 modic, and carminative, and has always been a 
 favourite remedy in flntulence, nausea, vomit- 
 inir, loss of appetite, cramp of the stomach, 
 colir, gripini; pains, diarrboeii, the early stage 
 of cholera, &c. — 2>ow, 1 to 3 drops, on sngar. 
 
 Oil of Petro'leum. See Naphtha, Oils 
 (Mineral), PsTBOLErM, &c. 
 
 Oil of Flm'eiito. Si/n. Oil op allspice ; 
 Oleum pimkntj! (B. P., Ph. L., E , & D.), L. 
 From the bruised fruit of Eugenia pimento, 
 atUpiee, or Jamaica pepper. Pale yellow, 
 growing reddish brown by age; odour, a cotn- 
 bination of cloves and cassia ; taste pungent. 
 Sp. gr. 1-021. Prod. ^ to 8g. 
 
 Obf. Oil of pimento contains two oils similar 
 to those found in clove oil. When pure, nitric 
 acid turns it red, with active efFervescence 
 and the assumption of a rusty brown colour. 
 It combines with the salifiable bases in a 
 nearly similar manner to oil of cloves. It is 
 much u<ed in perfumery, especially in hair 
 cosmetics. 
 
 Oil of Pim'pernel. Siin. Oleum pimpinells, 
 L. From the root of Sanffuisorlia officinalis, or 
 pimpernel. Blue; carminative 
 
 Oil, Fine-ap'ple. Tliis artificial essential oil 
 diites its commercial imporcance from the 
 Oreat Kxliibition of 1851. It is essentially 
 butyric ether, and may be regarded as simply 
 the crude form of that substance. On the 
 liirge scale it is prepared by saponifying butter 
 or crude butyric acid with a strong lye of 
 caustic potassa, and dissolving the resniting 
 soap in tlie smallest possible quantity of hot 
 alcohol; to the solution is added a mixture of 
 ak'oliol and oil of vitriol in excess, and the 
 whole iii then submitted to distillation as long 
 as the product has an aromatic fruity odnur ; 
 the product is rectified from dried chloride of 
 calcium and a little litharge. Dissolved in 
 rectified spirit it is much used as a rtavouring 
 substance by confectioners iin<l liqiioristes. See 
 Ktueb (Uutyric) and Essence op Pine- 
 apple, Ac. 
 
 Oil of Pota'to Spirit. Sec Pfsel oil. 
 
 Oil of Ravensa'ra. Syn. Oleum eaven- 
 SAR^, L. Fi'om the roots of Ravensara aro- 
 matica. Chiefly used to adultera,le oil of cloves, 
 which it somewhat resembles. 
 
 Oil of Kho'dium. Syn. Oleum ehodti, L. 
 Said to be derived from the wood of a species t f 
 ShoJoriza. Very fluid and limpid ; pale yel- 
 low ; soon darkens by age and exposure i tastes 
 bitter and aromatic j has a modified odour of 
 roses. Ciiiefly used as a substitute for otto of 
 roses in cheap perfumery, and to adulterate it. 
 Oil of sandal-wood is frequently sold for it. 
 Prod. l!j to 16g. Soe Oil of Roses {below). 
 
 Oil of Eo"se8. Syn. Ot.ectm Bosa;, L. Prep. 
 1. From tho petals of Rosa semperoirens 
 (I-iiin.), or the musk rose, as oil of cloves, 
 observing to keep the water in the worm-tub 
 at 85 F.ilir., and afterwards subjecting the 
 water ia the rcci.ivcr to refrigeration. Re- 
 
 sembles otto of roses, of which it is merely a 
 variety. Prod. ^'^ to -f, of 1%. 
 
 2. (Attak op boses. Otto op e ; Oleum 
 ROaf — Ph. E.) From the petals of Sosacenti- 
 folia and Ro»a sempervirent (damask and musk 
 rose), principally the first, by saturating the 
 water, by returning it repeatedly on fresh 
 flowers, and then exposing it to a low tempe- 
 rature. In the East Indies it is obtained by 
 stratifying gingelly seeds in alternate layers 
 with rose petals, for some days, and repeating 
 the arrangement with fresh roses till the seeds 
 are saturated, when the oil is expressed and 
 distilled along with water. In the neighbour- 
 hood of Mecca the rose leaves are macerated 
 in salt-and-water for 2 or 3 days, and then 
 distilled, the water being received in separate 
 receivers at different parts ot the process. 
 I'he water is afterwards exposed in porous 
 earthenware vessels, tied over with linen, in 
 trendies dug in the earth, and over which 
 moistened straw is thrown, when in a short 
 time the otto separates and flouts on the 
 surface. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Colourless, or nearly bo; odour 
 intense, penetrating, and diffusive, and in a 
 concentrated state tar from pleasant, but when 
 dilute very agreeable ; taste, bland and sweet- 
 ish ; when pure, it congeals at 80°, and does 
 not remelt until heated to fully 85^ Fahr. ; 
 1000 parts of alcohol of -806 dissolve only 7 
 parts of otto at 57° Fahr., and only 33 parts 
 at 72°. Sp. gr. -832 at aO°, to water I'OOO at 
 60° Fahr. Prod. 100 lbs. of roses yield 2 to 
 3 dr. 
 
 Fur, Otto of roses is frequently adulterated 
 with the oils of rhodium, sandal-wood, and 
 geranium, and with camphor; and occasionally 
 with spermaceti, to give the spurious com- 
 pound the usual crystalline appearance. The 
 following are reliable tests: — 1. Pure otto has 
 a bland, sweet taste j if it is bitter, it contains 
 oil of rhodium or sandal-wood; if it is pun- 
 gent, or ' bites,' the palate, it contains either 
 oil of geranium or camphor, and probably 
 both ; if it imparts an unctuous sensation, it 
 contains spermaceti — 2. Exposed for some 
 hours to the fumes of a small quantity of 
 iodide under a bell-glass in the cold, pure otto 
 remains white, and continues so when exposed 
 to the air; an adulterated sample, on the con- 
 trary, becomes yellow or brown, and after- 
 wards, on exposure to the air, continues to 
 darken in colciur, until it becomes of a deep 
 brown, or even perfectly black, according to 
 tho quantity of foreign oil present. A single 
 drop may be thus tested. — 3. (Guibourt.) One 
 or two drops of the suspected oil are put into 
 a watch-glass ; the same number of drops of 
 concentriited sulphuric acid are added, and 
 the two fluids are mixed with a glass rod. All 
 the oils are rendered more or less brown by 
 this proceeding ; but, otto of roses retains the 
 purity of its odour — oil of geranium acquires a 
 strong and disagreeable odour, which is per- 
 fectly characteristic — the odour of the oil of 
 
1162 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 rhodium is increased, and becomes somewhat 
 unctuous, and, in general, it acquires an odour 
 distinctly like that of cubebs. 
 
 Oil of Rose'mary. Syn. Eosmaeini olbtjm 
 (B. P.), Oleum anthos, 0. eoeismabini, 0. 
 
 EOSMAEINI (Ph. L. E. & D.), O. EOEISMAEim 
 ESSENTIALJE, L. From the flowering tops of 
 Rosmarinus o^cinalis. In the Ph. L. English 
 oil of rosemary (o. EOSEMAEINI, Anblicum) is 
 ordered, as it is superior to that from abroad. 
 Colourless ; strongly fragrant, but scarcely 
 agreeable unless compounded; carminative and 
 stimulant. Boils at 365° Fahr. Sp. gr. -910 ; 
 recent, -897; rectified, -8887. Prod, i to 1§ 
 (nearly). 
 
 Fur., Sfc. It is frequently adulterated with 
 oil of turpentine. When pure it dissolves in 
 all proportions in spirit of "SSO. By age it 
 deposits a crystalline stearoptene, and acquires 
 a terebinthinate odour. It is chiefly used as a 
 stimulant in liniments, hair oil, pomatums, 
 &c. 
 
 Oil of Rose'wort. Si/n. Oil op eose-eoot ; 
 Oleum ehodiol^, L. From the roots of 
 Mhodiola rosea. Yellowish j odour resembles 
 that of oil of rhodium, for which it is often 
 sold, as well as tlie distilled water for rose 
 water. IJ lb. yields about 1 dr. 
 
 Oil of Hue. Syn. 'Rvtm oleum (B. P.), 
 Oleum eutjs (Ph. L. & E.), L. The " oil 
 distilled from the fresh herb ot Ruta grave- 
 olens" (B. P.), or common rue. Pale yellow, 
 turning brown by age, and depositing a brown- 
 ish, resinous sediment ; congeals at about 40^ 
 Fahr. ; acrid, bitter ; odour that of the plant ; 
 stimulant, antispasmodic, and emmenagojiue. 
 Sp. gr. -909 to -911. Prod. J to \% (nearly). 
 According to Raybaud, the recent dried seeds 
 yield fully four times as much oil as the flower- 
 ing herb. 
 
 Pur. Nearly always adulterated. When 
 pure — 1. It forms a clear solution with rec- 
 tified spirit. — 2. It does not form a camphor 
 with gaseous hydrochloric acid. — -3. Iodine 
 dissolves in it slowly, without any apparent 
 reaction, beyond a darkening and a slight in- 
 crease of viscidity. — 4. It is unaffected by a 
 solution of chromate of potassa. — 5. Nitric 
 acid very slowly changes it into a greenish- 
 yellow liquid balsam. — 6. If it forms a reddish- 
 brown solution with liquor of potassa and a 
 still darker one with oil of vitriol, or if it ful- 
 minates with iodine, it is adulterated with the 
 oil of some labiate plant'. — 7. It is more soluble 
 in both rectified spirit and water than any of 
 the oils used to adulterate it. 
 
 Oil of Saffron. Syn. Oleum ceooi, L. 
 From the pistils of Crocus sativus (saffron). 
 Yellow ; heavier than water ; acrid, pungent, 
 and narcotic ; decomposed by exposure to light 
 and age, with the formation of a white solid 
 matter, which is ligliter than water. 
 
 Oil of Sage. St/n. Oleum SALVia;, L. From 
 the herbaceous portion of Salvia officinalis, or 
 common sage. 
 Oil of San'dal-wood. S^n. Oleum santali. 
 
 O. s. ALBi, L. From the wood of Santahim 
 album, or sandal-tree, and preferably from that 
 of Malabar. It has an odour somewhat re- 
 sembling that of oil of rhodium, for which it 
 is commonly used ; also used to adulterate 
 otto of roses. Prod. 9 lbs. yield 1 oz. ; 100 lbs. 
 yield 5 oz. (Raybaud). 
 
 Oil of Sarsaparil'Ia. Syn. Oleum saezj;, 
 L. From the root bark, distilled along with 
 salt-and-water. Acrid; odour and flavour same 
 as the root. 
 
 Oil of Sas'safras. Syn. Volatile oil op s. ; 
 Oleum sassapeas (Ph. B.), O. lauei s., 0. 
 s. OPFICINALIS, L. From bruised sassafras 
 cliips, the sliced root of Sassafras officinale, as 
 oil of cloves. Pale yellow; highly odorous; 
 hot, pungent, rubefacient, and stimulant; re- 
 puted alterative, sudorific, and diuretic, and, 
 as such, occasionally given in rheumatism, cu- 
 taneous affections, &c. Sp. gr. 1-094 to 1-096. 
 Prod, li to 2fi (fully). 
 
 Pur., ^0. — 1. If the density is lower than 
 1-094, it is adulterated. — 2. Nitric acid acts 
 on this oil, at first slowly, merely turning it of 
 an orange-red, but afterwards with violence, 
 and a reddish-brown resin is formed. — 3. Mixed 
 witli about one half its weight of sulphuric 
 acid, a green colour is at first developed, which, 
 by heat, is changed to a blood red. A large 
 quantity of sulphuric acid acts at once vio- 
 lently, white fumes are given off, and mere 
 charcoal is left. — 4. With iodine it forms a 
 permanently clear solution, or at least one that 
 remains so for some time. — 5. By agitation 
 with water, it separates into two oils — one 
 lighter, the other heavier, than that fluid. 
 
 Oil of Sav'ine. Syn. Oleum Sabine (B. P.), 
 Oleum junipeei sabin^, O. sabin.» (Ph. E. 
 & D.), L. From the fresh tops or leaves of 
 Juniperus sahina, or common savin. Pale 
 yellow ; limpid ; acrid, pungent, and stimu- 
 lant. It possesses the general properties of 
 the plant in a highly exalted degree. Sp. gr. 
 -915. Prod. Fresh herb, l-2o§ to l-5g ; dried 
 do. (recent), 2ig to 3§. JDose, 2 to 6 drops; as 
 an anthelmintic, diaphoretic, aind emmena- 
 gogue. Its use must be carefully avoided 
 during pregnancy or disease of the abdominal 
 viscera. 
 
 Pur., Sfc. It is less frequently adulterated 
 than the other volatile oils. Its high sp, gr. 
 and i'ree solubility in rectified spirit offer the 
 means of detecting the presence of either oil 
 of turpentine or alcohol, the substances occa- 
 sionally added to it. A mixture of equal parts 
 of oil of savin and oil of vitriol, by distillation 
 from milk of lime, furnishes an oil apparently 
 identical with oil of thyme. (Winekler.) 
 
 Oil of Sen'na. Syn. Oleum sehnje vola- 
 tile, L. Possesses the nauseous odour and 
 flavour of the leaves, and, as well as the dis- 
 tilled water, is purgative. 
 
 Oil of Spear'mint. Syn. English oil op 
 SPEAEMiNT (B. P.), Oil op mint, Oil op 
 GEEEN M. ; Mentha; tieidis oleum (B. P.) ; 
 Oleum MBNTHa; vieidis (Ph. L., E., &D.), 
 
OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 1163 
 
 0. U. SATirS, O. ESBBNTIALE HBIfTnjE S., L. 
 From tlia fresh flowering herb of Mentha 
 viridu (Linn.) or gnrden or spearmint. Pale 
 yellow ; reddened by age ; odour iind general 
 properties resemble those of oil of peppermint, 
 but it is leas grateful. It boils at 320° Fahr. 
 Sp. gr. -915 (-039 1, Brnmle). Prod. -2% to -ZSg. 
 Its common adulterants are alcohol and oil of 
 turpentine. 
 
 Oil of Spike (True). Syn. FosEtox on of 
 LiTENDEB; Oleum spic;e, O. s. tekum, 0. 
 
 STJiCUADIS, O. lAVANDUL^ 8., L. : HUILE 
 d'aspic, Fr. Cliii'fly from Lavandula ipica 
 and L. alcechaa, or French and Alpine laven- 
 ders. It riill'ers from English oil of lavender 
 by its darker green colour and inferior odour. 
 From France. Used by artists to mix their 
 colours in, and to make varnishes. Oil of tur- 
 pentine scented with lavender is commonly 
 sold for it. Prod. Prom L. apica (fresh), j to 
 1J» ; L. liachaa (dried), J to Ig (fully). 
 
 Oil of Spike'nard. Hyn. Oleum nabdi, L. 
 The precious oil mentioned under this name 
 in Scripture is supposed to have been derived 
 from Andropogon Iwaravusa, The commer- 
 cial oil of geranium (see above) is also called 
 by this name. 
 
 Oil of Spring Grass. iS[y». Oleum anthox- 
 ANTUI ODOBAII, L. From Anthoxanthum odo- 
 ratum, or sweet-scented vernal p-rass. It is 
 this oil that gives the very ayreuable odour to 
 new hay. 
 
 Oil of Star- an 'ise. Si/n. Badian oil ; Oleitm 
 Bauiani, 0. ANisi STELLATI, L. From the 
 capsules of Illicium anitatum, or Rtnr.anise. It 
 continues liquid at 35i° Fahr. This, and its 
 weaker reaction with iodine, diaiinguish it 
 from the preceding compound, which it is 
 commonly used to adulterate. Prod. 2" 
 (full.v). 
 
 Oil of Sweet Fen'nel. See Oil of Fennel. 
 
 Oil of Sweet Flag. St/n. Oleum acoei, 0. 
 A. AHOMATIOA, L. From the rhizomes or 
 roots of Acorns oalamtts (I^inn.). or sweet flag. 
 Yellow ; agreeably fragrant. Used to scent 
 BUuli', aromatic vinegar, &c. Prod. Fresh 
 rhizomes, i to IJ; dried (recent), 1 to l-25°. 
 
 Oil of Tan'sy. Syn. Oleum takacbti, L. 
 From the flowering herb of Tanaceium vul- 
 gare (Linn.), or tansy. Pale greenish yellow ; 
 very odorous ; bitter; aromatic. Sp. gr. '046 
 to '950. Prod. Fresh, -258 to h% ; dried (re- 
 cent), i to IS (fully). 
 
 Oil of Thyme. Syn. Oleum thtmi ; Oil 
 OF OHIOANUM ; Oleum oeigani (of the shops). 
 From the flowering herb of Thymus vulgaris 
 (Linn.), or garden thyme. Nearly colourless ; 
 the imparted oil has a reddish colour, which it 
 loses by rectification j very fragrant; acrid; 
 hot tasted, stimulant, and rubefacient ; boils 
 at 35+° Fahr. Sp. gr. -867 to -iS/O. Prod. 
 •5J to -TSJ. 
 
 Ob: I'liis is the dark-coloured ' oil of obi- 
 OASCM ' of the shops. It is frequently adul- 
 tentted with oil of turpentine. It is occa- 
 sionally used in toothache and in stimulating 
 
 liniments; but its chief consumption is in 
 perfumery, more particularly for hair oils, 
 pomatums, and hair-washes, as it is reputed to 
 make the hair grow and to prevent baldness. 
 
 Oil of Tobac'co (Volatile). From the leaves 
 of Nicoiiana tabacum (Linn.), or the tobacco 
 plant. Concrete. 
 
 Oil of Turpentine. Syn. Spibit op t , 
 Essence of t., Tubpb, Camphene, Cam- 
 
 PHINE ; TeBEBINTHINJE OLEUM (B. P.), SPI- 
 BITUS TEEEBINTHIN^, ESSENTIA T., OlEUM 
 TEBBBINTHINiE (Ph. L.&D.), 0. T. PUBIPICA- 
 TUM (Ph. E), L. The oil of turpentine of 
 commerce is obtained by distilling strained 
 American turpentine along with water. The 
 residuum in the still is 'rosin' or 'rosin.' 
 The product in oil varies from llj to 10^. 
 The colleges order it to be rcctilied before 
 being employed for medicinal purposes. This 
 is effected by redistilling it along with 3 or 
 4 times its volume of water, observing not to 
 draw over quite the whole, 'i'lie portion re- 
 maining in the retort (balsam of turpentine) 
 is viscid and resinous. A better plan is to 
 well agitate it with an equal measure of 
 solution of potassa or milk of lime before recti- 
 fying it. 'This is the plan adopted for the 
 camphine used for lamp^. By agitating crude 
 oil of turpentine with about 5-f, of sulphuric 
 acid, diluted with twice its wei|;ht of wiiler, 
 and after repose and decnntation rectifying it 
 from 5 or 6 times its volume of the strongest 
 lime water, a very pure and nearly scentless 
 oil may be obtained. Dr Nimmo recommends 
 oil of turpentine to be purified by agitation 
 with Jth part of rectified spirit, after repose to 
 decant the spirit, and to repeat the proiess 3 
 or 4 times. The product retains, however, 
 fully ^tli part of spirit iu solution, and hence 
 this method is objectionable, except for medi- 
 cinal purposes, for which, according to Dr 
 Garrod, it is better than the oil purified by 
 rectification. The sweet spirits of turpentine 
 
 (SPIEITUS TEEEBINTHIN^ DULCIS), vended of 
 
 late years in the shops, is simply the common 
 oil which has been agitated with, and rectified 
 from, somewhat dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Prop. Pure oil of turpentine is colourless ; 
 limpid ; very mobile ; neutral to test-paper ; 
 has an odour neither powerful nor disagreeable 
 when recently prepared, but becoming so by 
 exposure to the air ; dissolves ^th part of 
 alcohol of '830; is soluble in 6 parts of ether 
 and in 7i parts of rectified spirit ; hot strong 
 alcohol dissolves it freely, but the greater part 
 separates in globules as the liquid cools. Oil 
 of vitriol chars it, and strong nitric acid 
 attacks it violently, even with flame. It con- 
 geals at 14°, and boils at 312° Fahr. Sp. gr. 
 ■867 ; that of the oil of the sliops varies from 
 •t*72 to "878. It possesses a very high refrac- 
 tive power. At 72° it absorbs 163 times its 
 volume of hydrochloric-acid gas (if kept cool), 
 and in 24 hours from 26§ to 47g of crystals 
 (Kind's camphob) separate. These hove a 
 caniphoraceous odour, and, after being washed 
 
1164 
 
 OILS (VOLATILE) 
 
 with water, and sabllmed along with some 
 dry chalk, lime, or chai'coal, assume the form 
 of a white, translucent, flexible, crystalline 
 mass, which is volatile, soluble in alcohol, and 
 possesses a considerable resemblance to cam- 
 phor. A nearly similar substance is produced 
 by the action of oxygon gas on oil of turpen- 
 tine. 
 
 Uses, Sfo. Oil of turpentine is extensively 
 used in the manufacture of varnishes and 
 paints. Under the name of 'ciimphine' it is 
 occasionally employed for burning in lamps. 
 For the List purpose it must be newly rectified 
 and preserved from the air. By exposure it 
 rapidly absorbs oxygen, resin is formed, its 
 density increases, and it gives a dull fuliginous 
 flame. In medicine it is employed as a dia- 
 phoretic, stimulant, vermifuge, &c. — Ztoae, 6 
 to 30 or 40 drops ; in rheumatism, hemicrania, 
 &c., 1 fl. dr. every four hours, in combination 
 with bark or capsicum ; in tapeworm, 3 fl. dr. 
 to 1 fl. 07.., either alone or combined with a 
 little sjrup of orange peel, every 8 hours, 
 until the worm is expelled. The common 
 symptoms of large doses of this oil are dizziness 
 and a species of temporary intoxication, and 
 occasionally nausea and sickness, which sub- 
 side aft«r two or three alvine evacuations, 
 leaving no other effect, when the oil is pure, 
 than a certain degree of languor for a few 
 hours. In tapeworm a little castor-oil may 
 be advantageously combined with the second 
 and subsequent doses. Oil of turpentine im- 
 parts a violent odour to the urine. To prevent 
 loss by evaporation and resinification, this oil 
 should be kept in tin cans or glass bottles 
 For store vessels, closely covered tin cisterns 
 are the best. To prevent accidents it is 
 proper to caution the operator of the extremely 
 penetrating and inflammable nature of the 
 vapour of this oil, even in the cold. During 
 the process of its distillation, without the 
 greatest precautions are taken, an explosion is 
 alinost inevitable. 
 
 Oil of Vale"rlan. Syn. Oleum VAtEEiANiE 
 (Ph. Bor.), L. From the root of Valeriana 
 q^e/Kaii* (Linn.), or wild valerian. Yellowish; 
 viscid ; lighter than water j smells strongly ot 
 the plaint. By exposure to the air it is partly 
 converted into valerianic acid, and more readily 
 so under tlie influence of an alkali. In its 
 usual form it consists of valerol, a neutral oily 
 body ; borneene, a volatile liquid hydrocarbon ; 
 and valerianic acid. It is powerfully anti- 
 spasmodic, emmenagogue, tonic, and stimulant, 
 and, in large doses, narcotic. — Dose, 2 to 6 
 drops; in epilepsy, hysteria, hemicrania, hypo- 
 chondriasis, low fevers, &c. Frod. lig to 2g 
 (nearly). 
 
 Oil of Ver'bena. Syn. Oleum verbena, L. 
 From the fresh flowering herb of Verbena odo- 
 rata. Prod. 2| to 5g. The ' oil op tee- 
 BBNA'of the siiops is imported Irom India, 
 and is obtained from Andropogon eitraium. 
 See Oil of Lemon gbabs. 
 
 Oil of Wine. Syn. Heavy oil oe wine. 
 
 Etheebal oil, Oilt etheeeal liquoe. Sul- 
 phate OF BTHEB AND ETHEEOLE ; OlEUM 
 
 a;THEKEUM (Ph. L.), Oleum vini, Liquoe 
 ^THEEKUS oleosus, L. This is an artificial 
 production which, for convenience, may be 
 included under this head. 
 
 1. (Ph. L.) Kectified spirit, 2 pints, and 
 sulphuric acid, 36 fl. oz., are cautiously mixed 
 together in a glass retort, and submitted to 
 distillation until a black froth appears, when 
 the retort is immediately removed from the 
 fire (sand heat) ; the lighter, supernatant, 
 liquor is next separated from the fluid in the 
 receiver, and exposed to the air for 24 hours ; 
 it is then agitated with a mixture of solution 
 of potassa and water, of each 1 fl. oz., or q. s., 
 and, when, sufiiciently washed, is, lastly, sepa- 
 rated from the aqueous liqnid from which it 
 has subsided. The lormula of the Ph. L. 1836 
 is nearly similar. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Kectified spirit and oil of vitriol 
 (commercial), of each I4 pint; as the last, 
 employing a Liebig's condenser, and a capsule 
 for the exposure to the air; the oil is then 
 transferred to a moistened paper filter, and 
 washed with a little cold water, to remove any 
 adhering acid. 
 
 3. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the resldnum in the 
 retort after the process of preparing ether, dis- 
 tilled to one half, by a moderate heat, and the 
 oil treated as before. 
 
 4. From rectified spirit (sp. gr.-833), 2 parts; 
 oil of vitriol, 5 parts ; mix and distil, as before ; 
 Wash the product with distilled water, and free 
 it from adhering water and nndecomposed 
 alcohol by exposure in the vacuum of an air- 
 pump, between two open capsules, thfe one con- 
 taining fragments of solid potassa, and the 
 other concentrated sulphuric acid. Pnre. 
 
 5. By distilling a mixture of ether and 
 oil of vitriol, and treating the product as 
 befor;-. 
 
 6. By the destructive distillation of drysul- 
 phovinate of calcium ; the product is freed 
 from alcohol, &c., by washing it. This process 
 yields the largest product. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. An oily liquid, nearly colourless, 
 neutral, with an aromatic taste, and an odour 
 resembling that of oil of peppermint. It is 
 insoluble in water, but frfeely soluble in both 
 alcohol and ether; boiling water converts it 
 intosulphovinicacid,and a volatile liquid called 
 light or sweet oil of wine ; with an alkaline so- 
 lution, this effect is produced with even greater 
 facility. Sp. gr. 1-05 (Hennel &Ph. L.) ; ri3 
 (SeruUas). Boils at 540° Fahr. "Dropped 
 into water, it sinks, the form of the globule 
 being preserved." (Ph. L.) Prod. 1"25 to 
 lh%; 33 lbs. of rectified spirit, and 64 lbs. of 
 oil of vitriol, yield 17 oz. of this oil (Hennel). 
 
 Uses. Oil of wine is reputed anodyne, but 
 is only used in the preparation of other com- 
 pounds. See SriEiT op Ethee (Compound), 
 &c. 
 
 Oil of Wine (Light). Syn. Sweet oil of 
 Wine. See Ethbein, Etueeole, and above. 
 
OILY EMULSION— OINTMENT 
 
 1165 
 
 Oil, Wood (of India). From the Chloroxylon 
 Swietenia (Oe Cand.), the tree which jields the 
 ■atin-wood of the cabinet-makers. Another 
 wood oil (OObjun balsam) ib obtained by in- 
 ciaion from various species of Dipterocarpus. 
 This balsam jii-lds about SSg of a volatile oil 
 by distillutioii, which in its general properties 
 closely resembles OIL OP copaiba. (O'Shaugh- 
 ues-ey.) 
 
 Oil of Worm'seed. Syn. Olewm chenopodii 
 (Ph. U. S.), L. From the seeds of Chenopo- 
 dium anlhelmintlcum, or Jerusalem oak (Ame- 
 rican wormseed). Light yellow, or greenish ; 
 powerfully anthelmintic. Sp. gr. '908. — Dote. 
 For an adult, 25 to 30 drops, in i-ugar, honey, 
 or milk, night and morning, for 3 or 4 days, 
 followed by a good dose of castor oil, or some 
 other suitable purgative. 
 
 Oil of Worm'wood. Syn. Oikum ABaiNxnii, 
 L. From the herbaceous portion of Artemi- 
 sia absinthium, or common wormwood j green 
 or brownish-green ; odorous ; acrid ; bitter ; 
 stomachic. Sp. gr. -9703 (Brisson); '9720 
 (Pereira); •9728 (Brandc). Prod. Fresh herb 
 (picked), i to J g, diy herb (a year old), i % 
 (fully) J do. (recent), J to \% (fully). 
 
 Pur. ' That of the shops is nearly always 
 either adulterated or partly spoiled by ago; 
 hence the discrepancies in the densities given 
 f(ir this oil by different authorities. A speci- 
 men of this oil distilled by Mr Cnoley from the 
 green plant hud the sp. gr. -9712; but after 
 being kept for 12 months, it had increased to 
 •9718. Nitric acid of 1^25 colours the pure oil 
 first green, then blue, and, lastly, brown. The 
 positivi' character of these reactions is in diri'ct 
 proportion to the purity and frcshucss of the 
 sample. 
 
 OILY EMUL'SIOH. See Linctus (Emol- 
 lient). 
 
 OILY ETHE"BEAL LIft'UOR. See Oil op 
 Wine {above). 
 
 OIMT'MENT. Syn. Unguentum, L. Any 
 soft, fatty substance applied to the skin by 
 inunction. I'ho term is now commonly re- 
 stricted to those which are employed in me- 
 dicine. 
 
 Ointments (unguenta) differ from 'cerates' 
 chii'ily in their consistence, and in wa.\ not 
 being a constant or essential constituent; and 
 thej are made and used in a nearly similar milli- 
 ner to that class of preparations. Their proper 
 degi-ee of solidity is that of good butter, at the 
 ordinary temperature of tlie atmosphere. When 
 the active ingredients are pulverulent sub- 
 stances, nothing can be more suituble to form 
 the body of tlje ointment than good fresh lard, 
 free from s^iU; but when they are fluid or semi- 
 fluid, prepared suet, or a mixture of suet and 
 lard, will be necessary to give a due consistence 
 to the compound. In some instances wax is 
 ordered tor this purpose. Another excellent ' ve- 
 hicle' for the more active ingredientsis a simple 
 ointment, formed by melting together 1 part of 
 pure white wax with about. 4 \y.\rU of olive oil. 
 The use of the last exeludes the possibility of 
 
 the irritation Boroetimes occasioned by the 
 accession of rancidity, when inferior lard is 
 employed. In a few cases butter is employed 
 to (orm the body of the ointment. 
 
 Some ointments are made from recent vege- 
 table substances by infusion or coction, in the 
 manner adopted for medicated oils. See Oils, 
 Medicated. 
 
 The precautions to be used in the choice of 
 lard are noticed in the article devoted to this 
 substance. Lard is included in the Materia 
 Medica of the London College. In the last Ph. 
 D. lard for medicinal use (adeps suillus pb^- 
 PAEATUS — Ph. D.) is ordered to be prepared by 
 melting it in twice its weight of boiling water, 
 stirring it constantly for some time, then set- 
 ting the mixture aside to cool ; and, lastly, 
 separating the fat when it has solidified. 
 
 Ointments are best preserved by keeping 
 them in salt-glazed earthen or stoneware jars, 
 covered with tin foil, in a cool situation. 
 
 The accession of rancidity in ointments and 
 other unctuous preparations may be greatly 
 retarded, if not wholly prevented, bypreviously 
 dissolving in the fat about 2^ of gum-benzoin, 
 in fine powder, or rather less quantity of hen- 
 zoic acid by the aid of heat. Tliis addition 
 renders the ointment peculiarly soothing to 
 irritable or highly sensitive skins. Poplar buds 
 act in a similar manner. 
 
 *,* The forniuliB for all the more useful and 
 generally employed ointments are given below. 
 Those not included in the list may be prepared 
 of the proper strength for all ordinary purposes, 
 by combining about 12 to 15 times the medium 
 (lose of the particular medicinal with 1 oz. of 
 lard or simple ointment. For substances which 
 possess little activity, i to 1 dr. per oz., or even 
 more, may be taken. See Ceeate, Fat, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Ac'etate of Lead. Syn. UhOtJEN- 
 TiTsi plumbi acetatis (B. p.. Ph. E.& D), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Acetate of lead, in flue pow- 
 der, 1 oz. ; simple ointment, 20 oz.j mix them 
 thoroughly (by trituration). 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 1 lb. ; 
 melt by a gentle heat, then add, gradually, of 
 acetiite of lead, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and 
 stir the mixture until it concretes. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Acetate of lead, in tine powder, 
 12 gr. ; benzoated lard, 1 oz. ; mix. 
 
 Obs, A useful, coolinfr, astringent, and desic- 
 cative ointment. For the formula of Ph. L., 
 see Ceeate. 
 
 Ointment, Ace'tic. See Ointment, Vine- 
 
 OAE. 
 
 Ointment of Ac'onlte. Syn. XTnquentum 
 aconiti, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Turnbull.) Al- 
 coholic extract of aconite, 1 part ; lard, 2 
 parts ; carefully triturated together. In neu- 
 ralgia, &c. 
 
 2. (Ammoniated j Unguentum aconiti 
 AMMONIATUM — Turnbull.) Ammoniated ex- 
 tract of aconite, 1 part; lard, 3 parts, lu 
 neuralgia, paralvsis, old rheumatic affections, 
 &c. The use of the above preparations of 
 aconite requires the greatest caution. They 
 
1166 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 are intended as substitutes for ointment op 
 AOONITINB, a- still more dangerous prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 Ointment of Acon'itine. 8i/n. UNauENTtm 
 AOONITINB, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Garrod.) Pure 
 aconitine, 1 gr. j lard, 1 dr. ; mix by careful 
 trituration. 
 
 2. ( Dr Turnbull.) Aconitine, 2 gr. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 6 or 7 drops; triturate together, 
 then add of lard, 1 dr., and mix well. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Aconitia (aconitine), 8 gr. j rec- 
 tified spirit, i dr.; dissolve and add lard, 1 oz. ; 
 mix. 
 
 Vse, Sfa. As a topical benumber in neuralgic 
 affections, rheumatic pains, &e. Its application 
 generally occasions considerable tingling, and 
 sometimes redness of the part to which it is 
 applied, followed by temporary loss of sensa- 
 tion in the skin and the cessation of the pain. 
 For slight cases Dr Paris formerly employed 
 only 1 gr. to the oz. Owing to the intensely 
 poisonous nature of aconitine, this ointment 
 must be both prepared and used with great 
 caution, and must never be applied to an 
 abraded surface. It is seldom employed, owing 
 to its extreme costliness. See Aoonitia, and 
 above. 
 
 Ointment, Ague. See Ointment, Anti- 
 
 PEEIODIO. 
 
 Ointment, Albinolo's. See Patent medi- 
 cines. 
 
 Ointment, Alialine. Sj/n. UNOUENinM al- 
 KALINTIM, L. Frep. 1. (Biett.) Carbonate 
 of soda, 2 dr. ; fresh-slaked lime, 1 dr. ; pow- 
 dered opium, 2 gr. ; lard, 2 oz. ; mix by tritu- 
 ration. In prurigo, ringworm, and some other 
 cutaneous affections. 
 
 2. (Cazenave.) Carbonate of potassa, 1 dr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. In psoriasis, lepra, and scorbutic 
 eruptions. 
 
 3. (Devergie.) — a. From carbonate (not ses- 
 quicarbonate) of soda, 10 to 15 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 In lichen. 
 
 b. From carbonate of soda, 20 to 30 gr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. In ichthyosis, lepra, psoriasis, and 
 some other scaly skin diseases. 
 
 c. From carbonate of soda, ^ to 1 dr. ; lard, 
 1 oz. In porrigo favosa, especially when occur- 
 ring in adults. 
 
 4. (Soubeiran.) Carbonate of soda, 1 to 2 
 dr.; wine of opium, 1 fl. dr.; lard, 1 oz. In 
 any of the above afEectioi>s, when there is much 
 pain or irritation. 
 
 Obs. Carbonate of potassa is thought to be 
 preferable to carbonate of soda, when the above 
 affections occur in scorbutic habits. A little 
 camphor is also occasionally added. 
 
 Ointment of Aloes. See Ointment ice 
 
 WOBMS. 
 
 Ointment of Aloes, Compound. See Oint- 
 ment TOR WOEMS. 
 
 Ointment of Al'um. S,i/n. Unguentum aif- 
 MlNis, L. Frep. 1. Alum, in very fine pow- 
 der, 1 dr. ; lard, IJ oz. In piles. 
 
 2. To the last add of powdered opium, 7 gr. 
 
 In piles, when there is much pain. See OllfT- 
 
 MENT, BaNTEE'S. 
 
 Ointment, Ammoni'acal. Si/n. UNOUENTtTM 
 
 AMMONIACALE, U. AMMONIA:, L. ; LiPAEOLE 
 
 d'ammoniaque, Pommade de Gondeet, Fr. 
 Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Suet and lard, of each 
 1 oz. ; melt in a strong wide-mouthed bottle, 
 add of liquor of ammonia (sp. gr. '923), 2 oz., 
 at once close the bottle, and agitate it until its 
 contents concrete. As little beat as possible 
 should be employed, to prevent unnecessary 
 loss of ammonia. 
 
 2. (Gondret.) Lard, 3 parts; suet, 2 parts; 
 almond oil, 1 part; strong solution of ammonia, 
 6 parts; mix, as before. Rubefacient, vesicant, 
 and counter-irritant. Smeared over the skin 
 and covered so as to prevent evaporation, it 
 raises a blister in 5 or 6 minutes. Its general 
 effects and uses are similar to those of com- 
 pound liniment of ammonia. 
 
 Ointment of Car'bonate of Ammo"nia. Si/n. 
 
 UNaUENTUM AMMONIA CABBONATIS, U. A. 
 
 SESCjniCABBONATls, L. Prep, From carbo- 
 nate of ammonia, 1 dr. ; lard, 9 dr. An ex- 
 cellent application to painful joints, indolent 
 tumours, scrofulous sores, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Ammo'niated Mercury. St/n. 
 Unouentum htdeae&tei ammoniati (B. P.). 
 Ammoniated mercury, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 
 1 oz. ; mix. See next preparation. 
 
 Ointment of Ammo"nio-chloride of Hercnty. 
 St/n. White peecipitate ointment; Un- 
 guentum htdeaegyei ammonio-chloeidi 
 (Ph. L.), U. H. pbeoipitati albi, U. pee- 
 oip. A. (Ph. E.), U. H. submueiatis ammo- 
 niati (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 2 dr. ; lard, 3 
 oz. ; triturate together. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) As the last, but employing 
 heat. 
 
 Uses, ^-c. Alterative ; detergent ; stimu- 
 lant. In itch, scald-head, and various other 
 skin diseases; in inflammation of the eyes; 
 as an application to scrofulous and cancerous 
 tumours ; to destroy vermin on the body, &c. 
 It " may be safely used" (in small quantities) 
 " on infants." (A. T. Thomson.) 
 
 Ointment, An"glo-Saxon. Prep. Heat olive 
 oil, 1 pint, and beeswax, \ lb., until the mix- 
 ture acquires a reddisii-brown colour; then 
 add red lead (levigated), \ lb., and continue 
 the heat, with constant stirring ; when the 
 union appears complete, add of amber and 
 burnt alum, of each, in fine powder, \ oz. ; 
 lastly, when considerably cooled, add of pow- 
 dered camphor, 8 dr. As a dressing to foul 
 ulcers. 
 
 Ointment, Au'odyne. See Ointment oe 
 Opium, Hemlock, &c. 
 
 Ointment of An'thracoka'li. Syn. Pomade 
 DE anthbaookali, Pr. Prep. (Dr Polya.) 
 Anthracokali, in very fine powder, 1 part; lard, 
 30 parts. See Antheaookali. 
 
 Ointment, Antiherpet'io. Syn. Unguentum 
 ANTiHEBPETicuM, L. Prep. \. (Alibert.) Eed 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1167 
 
 SDlphide of raercnry, 3 dr. ; powdered cam- 
 phor, 1 dr. ; lurd, 3 oz. 
 
 2. (Chevullier.) ' Sabsnlphnte of mercury' 
 (Turpiitb mineral), 2 dr.; chloride of lime, 3 
 dr. ; Rlmoiid oil, 6 dr. ; lard, 2 oz. In herpes 
 or tetters. 
 
 Ointment, Antimo'nial. See Ointment op 
 
 POTASSIO TABTUATB OF ANTIMONY. 
 
 Ointment, Antiperiod'ic. Si/n. Aoxte oint- 
 ment ; Unohentum antipbbiodicdm, U. 
 PEBBIFUOUM. L. Prep. 1. Disulphate of 
 quinine, It dr. j sacchnrine carbonate of iron, 
 1 dr.; oil of cajeput, 30 drops ; fresh butter, 
 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Antonini.) Sulphate of quinine, 1 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit and sulphuric acid, of each q. s. ; 
 lard, I oz. 
 
 Uaes, Sfc. About \ oz. of either of the 
 above to be rubbed on the vertebral regions 
 once every li or 3 hours for 3 or 4 days, in 
 intermittent fevers, more especially in those 
 accompanied by vomiting; or, into the epi- 
 gastrium, in cholera, diairhoea, or dysentery. 
 
 Ointment of Araroba. See Asaboba. 
 
 Ointment, Aromat'ic. Syn. Balsamitm 
 btomachalb Wackebi, Ungubntum aeo- 
 maticcm, L. Prep. (Ph. Austr. 1836.) 
 Simple ointment, 2i lbs. ; yellow wax and oil 
 of laurel, of each 3 oz. ; melt together, and, 
 when considerably cooled, add of oils of juniper, 
 mint, lavender, and rosemary, of each 2 dr. 
 Anodyne, balsamic, and stimulant. 
 
 Ointment, Arsen'ical. Syn. Ointment op 
 
 WHITE ARSENIC ; UnGUENTUM AUSENICALE, 
 U. AllSENIcr, U. ACIDI AnSENIOSI, L. Prep. 
 1. Arsenious acid (levigated), 3 gr. ; lard or 
 simple ointment, 1 oz. In lepni, psoriasis, 
 malignant whitlows, &c. 
 
 2. (Hosp. P.) Levigated white arsenic, 15 
 to 20 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for can- 
 cerous SOI'CS. 
 
 2. (Soubeiran.) White arsenic, 1 dr. ; lard, 
 and spermaceti ointment, of each 6 dr. In 
 malignant, cancer. The above must be care- 
 fully prepared, and used with great caution. 
 See Cebate. 
 
 Ointment of ArBe"niate of I'ron. Sy». Un- 
 gcentum pebei aeseniatis, L. Prep. 1 
 (Carmiehuel.) Arseniate of iron, \ dr. ; phos- 
 phate of iron, 2 dr. ; spermaceti ointment, 
 6 dr. 
 
 2. (Dr Percira.) Arseniate of iron, \ dr. ; 
 lard, li oz. In oincer. 
 
 Ointment of Arseniate of Soda. Syn. Un- 
 ouentum 80D.E aeseniatis. Prep. Ar.-(.niate 
 of soda, 1 dr. ; lard, 2 oz. Mix. 
 
 Ointment, Astrin'gent. Syn. Ungitentum 
 asthinoens, L. Prep. Triturate powdered 
 catechu. It dr., with boiling water, 2 fl. dr., 
 add, gradually,of>perm«cetiointment (melted), 
 li oz.. and cnntiiiue the trituration until the 
 mass coniTites. An excellent dressing for ill- 
 disposed sores and ulcers, especially during 
 hot weather. See the several LEAt> oint- 
 ments. Ointment op Galls, cfec. 
 
 Ointment of Atro"pia. Sya. Ungdenxcjm 
 
 ATBOPI.E (B. P.), L. Prep. 1. Atropia, li gr; 
 simple ointment, 1 dr.; mix by careful tritu- 
 ration. 
 
 2. (Dr Brookes.) Atropia, 5 gr. ; lard, 
 8 dr. ; otto of roses, 1 drop. In neuralgia, 
 rheumatic pains, &c , when the affection is not 
 deeply seated. 
 
 8. (B. P.) Atropia, 8 gr.; rectified spirit, 
 i dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve the atropia in the 
 spirit and mix with the lard. 
 
 Ointment, Bailey's See Ointment, Itch. 
 
 Ointment of Bal'sam of Pern. Syn. Uno0- 
 
 ENTtlM BAL8AMI PeEUTIANI, L. Prep. 1. 
 Lard or spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. ; balsam of 
 Peru, 1 dr. ; melt together by the heat of boil- 
 ing water, stir for & or 6 minutes, allow it to 
 settle, and pour ofi' the clear portion. In chaps 
 and abrasions. 
 
 2. (Compound; UNO B. P. COMPOSITUM — 
 Copland.) Lard, 1 oz. ; white wax, i oz. ; 
 balsam of Peru, 1 dr. ; melt as before, and 
 when nearly cold, add of oil of lavender, 10 
 or 12 drops. As the last, and. to restore the 
 hair. 
 
 Ointment, Banyer's. Syn Compound alum 
 
 OINTMENT; UnGUENTUM ALCMIHIS COMPO- 
 8ITUM, U. CAL0MELAN08, U. HaNYKRI, L. 
 Prep. From burnt alum and calomel, of each 
 It oz. ; carbonate of lead, or litharge (levi- 
 pated), 2 oz. ; Venice turpentine, t lb. ; lard, 
 2 lbs. ; carefully triturated together. In milk- 
 scald, porrigo, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Bark. See Ointment of Cin- 
 chona. 
 
 Ointment, Basil'icon. Syn. Basilicon, 
 Yellow B.; Ungubntum basilicum; U. b. 
 platdm, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 174G.) Olive oil, 
 16 fl. oz.; yellow wax, yellow resin, and Bur- 
 gundy pitcli, of each 1 lb. ; melt, remove the 
 vessel from the fire, and stir in of common tur- 
 pentine, 3 oz. This form is still oceusionally 
 employed in some shops, but is {^emrally super- 
 seded by the resin cerate and resin oint- 
 ment of the Pharmacopoeias. A nearly similar 
 preparation under the name of ' basilion oiut- 
 ment,' is contained in the Ph. Bor. 1817. (See 
 Je?OM>.) 
 
 Ointment, Basilicon (Black). See Ointment 
 op Pitch. 
 
 Ointment, Basilicon (Ween). Syn. Ungcbn- 
 TUir BASILICUM TIKIDE, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 
 1746). Prepared verdigris, 1 oz. ; yellow basi- 
 licon, 8 oz. ; olive oil, 3 fl. oz. Detergent. 
 Used to keep down funijou-^ iriuwtlis, to dross 
 syphilitic ulcers, &c. 8tu Cerate and Oint- 
 ment OP Veedigeis. 
 
 Ointment, Bateman's. See Ointment, Itch. 
 
 Ointment of Bay-leaves, t-ee Ointment, 
 Laubel. 
 
 Ointment of Belladon'na. Syn. Ungubntum 
 BELLADONN.E (B. P., Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph. 
 L.) Extract of belladonna (deadly nightshade), 
 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix by tvitiuation. 
 
 2. (Soubeiran.) Frosli belladonna leaves 
 (bruised), 1 part ; lard, 2 parts ; simmer toge- 
 ther until the leaves become cri-p, and, alter- 
 
1163 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 digestion, for a short time longer, drain with 
 pressure. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Extract of belladonna, 1; 
 rubbed with a few drops of water and mix with 
 lard, 5^. 
 
 Uses, Sfo. As a local anodyne, in painful 
 and indolent tumours, nervous irritations, &o. 
 Also as an application to tlie neck of the uterus 
 in cases of rigidity, (Chaussier.) 
 
 4. (Compound; Unghjentum belladonna 
 COMPOSITUM, L. — a. (W. Cooley.) Compound 
 iodine ointment, 7 dr. ; extract of belladonna, 
 1 dr. Powerfully discutient. A most excel- 
 lent application to all glandular tumours and 
 indurations, buboes, &c., which it is desirable 
 to disperse instead of mature, more espe- 
 cially where there is much priin. It is parti- 
 cularly suitable to cases occurringon shipboard, 
 and when its application (at least twice a day) 
 is accompanied with the internal use of the 
 mixture of iodine and gold (See Antisceopu- 
 I.O0S mixtuee), this treatment has seldom 
 failed, even when the parties were dieted chiefly 
 on salt food. 
 
 h. (Debreyne.) Extract of belladonna and 
 lard, of each 3 dr. ; powdered opium, i dr. 
 As an external anodyne and benuuiber, more 
 especially in neuralgia, painful cancerous tu- 
 mours, &c. A small piece is to be applied to 
 the part, and the friction continued for 6 or 
 8 minutes. The above preparations are use- 
 less unless the extract employed is receut, and 
 of good quality. 
 
 Ointment of Benzoin. (Ph. U. S.) Syn. 
 Ointment of benzoin. Frep. Tincture of 
 benzoin, 2 oz. j lard, 16 oz. ; melt the lard 
 over a water bath and add the tincture, stir- 
 ring constantly, and when the spirit has 
 evaporated, remove from the water bath, and 
 stir whilst cooling. 
 
 Ointment of Bismuth. Syn. Unottentum 
 BiSMUTHi, L. Frep. 1. Nitrate of bismuth 
 (' white bismuth '), 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 
 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Fuller.) Nitrate of bismuth, 1 dr. ; sper- 
 maceti ointment, 19 dr. In itch, and some 
 chronic cutaneous diseases. 
 
 Ointment, Blist'ering. See Ointment op 
 Canthaeides, and Vesicants. 
 
 Ointment, Blue, lliis is the vulgar name in 
 England of mercurial ointment. On tlie Con- 
 tinent, an ointment made of smalts and Gou- 
 lard water is commonly so called. 
 
 Ointment of Bo"rax. Syn. Unottentum 
 BOEAOIS, L. Prep. From borax (in very fine 
 powder), 1 dr. ; pimple ointment or lard, 7 dr. 
 In excoriations, chaps, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Bromide of Potas'sium. Sfyn. 
 Unguentom potassii BEOMim, U. potassjj; 
 HYDKOBEOMATis, L. jPrep. (Magendie ) Bro- 
 mide of potassium, J dr. ; lard, 1 oz. llesol- 
 vent; in bronchocele, scrofula, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Bro'mine. Syn. Unguentum 
 BEOMINII, 0. B. COMPOSITUM, L. Frep (Ma- 
 g'cndie.) Bromide of potassium, 20 gr. ; bro- 
 
 mine, 6 to 12 drops; lard, 1 oz. As the last, 
 but more active. 
 
 Ointment, Brown. Syn. Fkench pooe-mah's 
 PEiEND; Unguentum puscum, U. Htdbab- 
 GTBi, F., L. iVep. (P. Cod.) Nitric oxide of 
 mercury (levigated). \ dr.; resin ointment, 
 1 oz. In ophthalmia (cautiously), after the 
 inflammatory stage is over ; as an application 
 to sore legs, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Cad'minm. Syn. Unguentum 
 CADMii, U. c. sulphatis, L Frep. (Radius.) 
 Sulphate of cadmium, 1 to 2 gr. ; pure lard, 
 1 dr. ; carefully triturated together. In species 
 on the cornea. 
 
 Ointment of Cadmium, Iodide of. (B. Ph.) 
 Syn. Unguentum cadmii iodibi. Frep. 
 Mix thoroughly iodide of cadmium in fine 
 powder, 62 gr., with simple ointment, 1 oz. 
 
 Ointment of Caffeine. Syn. Unguentum 
 CAFEEiNiE. Frep. Citrate of caffeine, 8 gr. ; 
 lard, 10 oz. Mix. 
 
 Ointment of Cala'mine. Syn. Unguentum 
 calamine:, U. lapis caiaminaeis, U. zihci 
 CAEB0NATI3 IMPUBI, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) 
 Prepared calamine, 1 lb. ; ointment of yellow 
 wax, 5 lbs. Desiccative and healing. This is 
 the old Dublin form for Turner's cerate. 
 
 Ointment of Cal'omel, Syn. Unguentum 
 
 HYDEAKGYEI SUBCHLOEIDI (B. P.), UNGUEN- 
 TUM CALOMELANOS, U.HTDBAEGYBI CHLOEIDI, 
 
 L. Prep. 1. From calomel, 1 dr. ; lard, or 
 simple ointment, 1 oz. 
 
 Ohs. " Were I required to name a local 
 agent pre-eminently useful in skin diseases 
 generally, I should fix on this. It is well de- 
 serving a place in the Pharmacopceia." (Pe- 
 reira.) Dr Underwood uses elder-flower oint- 
 ment as the vehicle. 
 
 2. (Compound ; UNGUENTUM CALOMELANOS 
 COMPOSITUM — Dr A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, 
 1 dr. ; tar ointment, 4 dr. ; spermaceti oint- 
 ment, 1 oz. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Calomel, 1 ; prepared lard, 5^ ; 
 mix. In lepra. 
 
 Ointment of Cam'phor. Syn. Unguentum 
 CAMPHOB^, L, Frep. 1. Camphor, 1 to 2 
 dr.; lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve by a gentle heat 
 and stir until the mass is nearly cold. Stimu- 
 lant and anodyne ; in prurigo, psoriasis, &c. 
 
 2. (Compound.) From powdered opium, 
 \ dr. ; powdered camphor, Ij dr. ; lard, li oz. ; 
 mix by trituration. As an anodyne friction 
 in rheumatic pains, swelled ioints, colic, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Canthar'ides. Syn. Unguen- 
 tum CANTHiEIDIS (B. P., Ph. L., D., & U. S.), 
 U. LTTTiE, L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Caritharides 
 (in very fine powder), 3 oz. ; distilled water, 
 12 fl. oz. ; mix, boil to one half, to the strained 
 liquid add of resin cerate, 1 lb., and evaporate 
 to a proper consistence. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Liniment of Spanish flies, 8 fl. 
 oz. ; white wax, 3 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; 
 melt together with a gentle heat, and stir 
 until it concretes. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) — a. Unguentum inpusui can- 
 IHABIDIS — Ph. E.) Powdered cautharidcs 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1169 
 
 1 ox.; boiling water, ^ pint; infuse one niglit 
 (12 honra), straia with (.'xpression, add of lard 
 
 2 oz., and boil until the water h expelled ; 
 then add beeswax and re»in, of each 1 07.., 
 and wlien these are liquefied, remove the 
 veaael from the lire, and further add of Venice 
 turpentine, 2 oz. 
 
 i. (UNOPK.NTUM rCLVBBIS OAHTHAEIDIS— 
 Ph. E.) Resin ointment, 7 oz. ; mult, add of 
 rantbarides (in fine powder), 1 oz., and stir 
 until the whole is nearly cold. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in fine powder, 1 ; 
 olive oil, 6 ; yellow wax, 1 ; digest the cantha- 
 rides in the oil for 12 hours, and for i hour 
 at 212° ; strain, add the melted wax, and stir 
 till cold. 
 
 Obt. The above preparations are frequently 
 csUed ' blister ointment' or ' epispastic oint- 
 ment.' They are used to keep blisters open 
 after they have been produced by stronger 
 compounds. The first three compounds are 
 regarded as milder than the last (3, b), whicli 
 contains the flies in substance. The P. Cod. 
 contains an ointment (uNO. epibfasticum 
 TLATDu) which is weaker than the above, 
 prepared by digesting the bruised flies in lard, 
 for 8 hours, over a warm bath ; about ^th part 
 of wax is next added to the strained I'at, which 
 is then coloured with turmeric, and scented 
 with oil of lemon. See Cebatb, Pouuase, 
 Vesicants, and below. 
 
 Ointment of Cautharides, Extract of. (M. 
 Cap.) St/H. Unqdentcm OtJM extkaoto oan- 
 THABIDI8. Prep. Alcoholic extract of can- 
 tharides, 8 gr. ; oil of roses, 1 dr. ; beef mar- 
 row, 2 oz. ; oil of lemon, 40 minims. To 
 promote the p;rowth of the hair. 
 
 Ointment of Cantharides with Mercnry. 
 Syn. Omocbntum oanthaeidis cum hydbah- 
 OYBO. Prep. Lard, 65 parts ; Spanish flies, 
 29 parts ; strong mercurial ointment, 6 
 parts. Mix. Used in Normandy to indolent 
 tumours. 
 
 Ointment of Canthar'idine. Syn. Unguen- 
 TUM CANTHAHiDiNa:, L. Prep. (Soubtiran.) 
 Cantharidine, 1 gr. ; white wax, 1 dr, ; lard, 
 7 dr. ; mix thoroughly. (See above.) 
 
 Ointment of Cap'sioum. Sy». Unguektum 
 0AP8ICI, L. Prep. (Dr TurnbuU.) Tincture 
 of capsicum (pure), q. s. ; gently evaporate it 
 until it begins to gelutinise, then mix the ex- 
 tr.ict with twice its weight of lard. As n 
 powerful stimulant and rubefacient. When 
 very freely used, it vesicates. 
 
 Ointment of Car'bonate of Am"monia. See 
 Ointment, Ammoniacal. 
 
 Ointment of Carbolic Acid. (Ph.U. S.) Syn, 
 Unouk.vtcm acidi CABBOLici. Prep. Car- 
 bolic acid, fiO gr. ; simple ointment, 480 gr. 
 
 Ointment of Carlianate of Lead. Si/n. White 
 
 LBAD OmTUEXT; UnGUEHTUM PLUMBI OAE- 
 
 noNATiB (P. B., Ph. E. & D.), U. cektjss^, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Carbonate of lead, 1 oz.; 
 simple ointment, 5 oz. ; mix thoroughly. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Carbonate of lead, 3 oz. ; oint- 
 ment of white wax, 1 lb.; mix with heat. 
 Vol. II. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Carbonate of lead, in fine powder, 
 1 ; simple ointment, 7. Mix. 
 
 4. UnoUENTUM PLUMBI CAMPnOEATUM — 
 (E., 1744). Add to the lust 2 scruples of cam- 
 phor ground with a little oil. 
 
 Use», cj-c. Cooling ; desiccative. Useful to 
 promote the healing of excoriated parts and 
 "light ulcerations. The camphorated white 
 ointment of old pharmacy (Ung. album cam- 
 PHOBATUM— Ph. L. 1744) was made by add- 
 ing 40 gr. of camphor to the first of the 
 above. 
 
 Ointment of Cat'echn. Syn. Unouehttjm 
 CATECHU, L. Prep. From alum, 1 oz. ; ca- 
 techu, 3 oz. ; (both in very fine powder ;) added 
 to olive oil, i pint, and yellow resin, 4 oz., pre- 
 viously melted together. Used to dress ulcers 
 in hot climates, where the ordin«ry I'at oint- 
 ments are objectionable J also in this country 
 during hot weather. See Ointment, Asteik- 
 
 GENT. 
 
 Ointment of Chalk. Syn. Unouehtuu 
 CEETfi. Prep. Prepared chalk, 1 oz. ; lard, 
 4 oz. Mix. 
 
 Ointment of Chamomile. (M. Bazin.) Syn. 
 Ukguentum anthemidis. Prep. Freshly 
 powdered chamomile flowers, olive oil, and 
 lard, in equal quantities. For the cure of 
 itch. 
 
 Ointment of Char'coal, Syn. Unguentum 
 0AEBONI8, L. Prep. 1. Resin ointment, 10 
 dr. ; recently burnt charcoal (levigated), 3 dr. 
 As a dressing to foul ulcers, especially those of 
 the legs. 
 
 2. (Caspar.) Lime tree charcoal and dried 
 carbonate of soda, of each 2 dr, ; rose oint- 
 ment, 1 oz., or q. s. In scald-head. 
 
 3. (Radius.) Animal charcoal (recent), 1 
 part ; mallow ointment, 2 parts. As a friction 
 in glandular enlargements and indurations, as 
 a dressing to fetid ulcers, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Cher'ry-Laurel. Syn. Ukguen- 
 tum LAUEO-CEEASi, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.)' 
 Essential oil of cherry-laurel, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 To alleviate the pain in cancer, neuralgia, and 
 other local affections. 
 
 Ointment, Chil'blain. Syn. Unquentum ad 
 PEENIONES, L. Prep. 1. From made mus- 
 tard (very thick), 2 parts ; almond oil and gly- 
 cerine, of each 1 part; triturated together. 
 To be applied night and morning. 
 
 2. (Cuttereau.) Acetate of lead, camphor, 
 and cherry-laurel water, of each 1 dr. j tar, 
 11 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 
 3. (Devergie.) Creasote and Goulard's ex- 
 tract, of each 12 drops; extract of opium, 
 li S'' '< Isrd, 1 oz. Twice or thrice daily. 
 
 4. (Giacomini.) Sugar of lead, 2 dr.; 
 cherry-laurel water (distilled), 2 fl. dr. ; lard, 
 1 oz. 
 
 5. (Linna!us.) Balsam of Peru, 1 dr. ; 
 hydrochloric acid, 2 dr. ; spermaceti ointment, 
 2^ nz. 
 
 Obs. For Swediaur's, Vance's, and Wahler's 
 ointments, see article Chilblain. 
 
 Ointment of Chloral Hydrate. (Dowault.) 
 
 74 
 
1170 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 Sl/n. UKaUENTUM CHLOEALIS HTDBAS. Prep. 
 Chloral hydrate, 2 parts; lard, 20 parts. 
 Stimulant ; stronger if required as a rube- 
 facient. 
 
 Ointment of CUo "ride of Carcium. Si/n. Un- 
 
 GtTENTUM OALOII CHLOEIDI, U. CAIOIS MUEI- 
 
 ATist, L. Frep. (Sundelin.) Chloride of 
 calcium (dry), 1 dr. ; strong vinegar, 40 gr. ; 
 foxglove (recent, in fine powder), 2 dr. ; lard, 
 1 oz. In bronchocele, scrofulous tumours, &c. 
 Ointment of Chloride of Lead. St/m. Un- 
 
 GUENTUMPLUMBICHLOEIBI, L. JPrep. (TuSOn). 
 
 Chloride of lead, 1 part; simple cerate, 8 
 parts ; carefully triturated together. In pain- 
 ful cancerous ulcerations and neuralgic tu- 
 mours. See Lead (Chloride). 
 
 Ointment of Chloride of Lime. See Oikt- 
 
 MKNT OF HyPOOHLOBITE OP LiME. 
 
 Ointment of Chloride of Mercury. See Oint- 
 ments OF Calomel and Coeeosite subli- 
 mate. 
 
 Ointment of Chlo"rine. 8gn. Unguentum 
 Chloeikii, L. Prep. (Augnstin.) Chlorine 
 water, 1 part ; lard, 8 parts; well triturated 
 together. In itch, lepra, ringworm, fetid 
 ulcers, &e. 
 
 Ointment of Chlor-i'odide of Mercury. /Syra. 
 Unguentum hydbaegyei chloeiodidi, L. 
 Prep. (M. Eecamier.) Chloriodide (iodo- 
 chloride) of mercury, 3 gr. ; lard, 5 dr. Re- 
 commended as a powerful discutient or resol- 
 vent. See Ointment op Iodo-chloeide op 
 Meecuet. 
 
 Ointment of Chlo"roform Syn. Unguentum 
 chloeofoemi, L. Prep. (M. Louis.) Chloro- 
 form, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. In neu- 
 ralgia and rheumatic pains, &c. It must be 
 kept in a stoppered, wide-mouthed phial. 
 
 Ointment of Cin'ohona. Si/n. Ointment of 
 BAEK ; Unguentum cinchoNjE, L. Prep. 
 (Biett.) Red cinchona bark (in very fine 
 powder) and almond oil, of each 1 part; beef 
 'marrow (prepared), 3 parts. In the variety of 
 scald-head termed porrigo decalvans. A little 
 oil of mace or tar is a useful addition. 
 
 Ointment, Cit'rine. See Ointment of Ni- 
 TEATE of Meecuet. 
 
 Ointment of Cobalt, Oxide of. (Amst. Ph.) 
 %n. Unguentum oxidi cobalti. Frep. 
 Simple cerate, 16 oz. ; liquid subacetate of 
 lead, 4 oz. ; powdered smalt, 4 oz. 
 
 Ointment of Coc'culus In'dicus. S^ti. Un- 
 guentum OOCOULI (Ph. E.), L. Prep, (Ph. 
 E.) Kernels of Cocculus indicus, 1 part ; beat 
 them to a smooth paste in a mortar, first 
 alone, and next with a little lard ; then fur- 
 ther add of lard, q. s., so that it may be equal 
 to 5 times the weight of the kernels. Used to 
 destroy pediculi, and in scald-head, &c. 
 
 Ointmentof Cod-liver Oil. Syn. Uisouentum 
 
 OLEI IIOEEHU^, U. O. JECOEIS ASELLI, L. 
 
 Prep. Cod-liver oil (pale and recent), 7 parts ; 
 white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 part ; 
 melted together. In ophthalmia and opacity 
 of the cornea, either alone or combined with a 
 little citrine ointment; as a friction or dress- 
 
 ing for scrofulous indurations and sores; in 
 rheumatism, stiif joints, and in several skin 
 diseases. It often succeeds in porrigo or scald- 
 head when all other remedies have failed. 
 Scented with oil of nutmeg and balsam of 
 Peru, it forms an excellent pomade for 
 strengthening and restoring the hair. 
 
 Ointment of Col'ocynth. Syn. Unguentum 
 COIOCYNTHIDIS, L. Prep. (Chrestien.) Co- 
 locynth pulp (in very fine powder), 1 part ; 
 lard, 8 parts. Used in frictions on the abdo- 
 men as a hydragogue purgative, in mania, 
 dropsy, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Corrosive SuVlimate. Syn. 
 Ointment of ohloeide of meecuet; Un- 
 guentum HTDEAEGTEI OHLOBIDI, L. Prep. 
 1. From corrosive sublimate, 2 to 5 gr. ; rub it 
 to powder in a glass ot wedgwood-ware mor- 
 tar ; add of rectified spirit, 6 or 7 drops, or 
 q. s. ; again triturate; lastly add, gradually, 
 of spermaceti ointment (reduced to a cream- 
 like state by heat), 1 oz., and continue the 
 trituration until tlie whole concretes. Used 
 as a stimulant, detergent, and discutient ap- 
 plication in various local affections ; in lepra, 
 porrigo, acne, &c., and as a dressing to syphi- 
 litic and some other ulcers. 
 
 2. (Ph. Chirur.) Corrosive sublimate, 10 
 gr. ; yolk of 1 egg ; lard, 1 oz. As a 
 dressing. 
 
 3. (PoMMADE DE ClEiLlo — P. Cod.) Cor- 
 rosive sublimate, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. Caustic ; 
 must not be contounded with the preceding. 
 
 Ointment, Cosmet'ic. Syn. Unguentum oos- 
 
 METICUM, L. ; POMMADE DE LA JEUNESSE, Fr. 
 
 Frep. (Quincey.) Spermaceti, 3 dr. (better, 
 44 dr.) ; oil of almonds, 2 oz. ; melt together, 
 and, when cooled a little, stir in of nitrate of 
 bismuth (' white bismuth'), 1 dr. ; and, lastly, 
 of oil of rhodium, 6 drops. In itch and some 
 other cutaneous eruptions ; but chiefly as a 
 pomade for the hair. Its frequent use is said 
 to turn the latter black. 
 
 Ointment of Cre'aaote. Syn. Unguentum 
 CEEASOTi (B. P., Ph. L. E. D. & U. S.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Creasote, i fl. dr. ; lard, 
 1 oz. ; trituriite together. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Lard, 3 oz.; melt it by a gentle 
 heat ; add of creasote, 1 dr., and stir the mix- 
 ture until it is nearly cold. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.). Creasote, 1 fl. dr. ; ointment of 
 white wax, 7 dr. ; as the last. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Creasote, 1 ; simple ointment, 8. 
 Mix. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. In several skin diseases, especially 
 ringworm ; as a friction in tie-douloureux ; a 
 dressing for scalds and burns ; an application 
 to chilblains, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Cro'ton Oil. Syn. Unguentum 
 CEOTONis, L. Frep. 1. Croton oil, 15 to 30 
 drops ; lard (softened by heat), 1 oz. ; mix well. 
 This is the usual and most useful strength to 
 prepare the ointment. Rubefacient and 
 counter-irritant; in rheumatism and various 
 other diseases. When rubbed repeatedly on 
 the skin, it produces redness and a pustular 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1171 
 
 eraption. It also often affects the bowels by 
 abiwrplion. The only aUvautuge it possesses 
 over other preparations of tlie class is the 
 rapidity of its action. 
 
 2. (BoBEPACiKNT POMADE — Caventou.) 
 White wax. 1 part; lard, 6 parts; melt toge- 
 ther, and, wliun quite cold, mince it small, add 
 of croton oil, 2 pnrts, and mix by tiituration. 
 Stronger than the last. 
 " Ointment of Cy'amde of Mer'cury. St/n. 
 
 UKOnKNTUM nTDllABOYEI CTANIDI, L. Prep. 
 1. (Cazenave.) Cyanide of mercury, 8 gr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. ; carefully triturated together. 
 
 2. (Percira.) Cyanide of mercury, 10 to 
 12 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing for scrofu- 
 lous and syphilitic ulcers, &c. ; as an applica- 
 tion in psoriasis, moist tetters, and some other 
 skiu diseases, &c. liiett orders the addition 
 of a few drops of essence of lemon. 
 
 Ointment of Cyanide of Fotas'slom. Si/n. 
 
 UnqUBNTDM P0TAB8II CTANIDI, L. Prep. 
 (Cazenave.) Cyanide of potassium, 12 gr. ; 
 oil of almonds, 2 dr. ; triturate, add of cold 
 cream (dry), 2 oz., and mix by careful tritura- 
 tion. As an anodyne in neuralgia, rheuma- 
 tism, swelled joints, &c. ; also as a friction 
 over the' spine in hysteria, and over the epi- 
 gastrium in gastrodynia, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Delphin'ine. St/n. ITnoventitm 
 DELi'niNIiB, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Uel- 
 phinine or delphinia, 10 to 80 gr. ; olive oil, 
 
 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix as the last. Used as a 
 friction in rheumatism, and the other cases in 
 which veratrino is employed. 
 
 Ointment, Depil'atory. Si/n. Unouentcm 
 DEPiLAToniUM, L. See UEriiATOisr (Caze- 
 nave's). 
 
 Ointment, Deslc'cative. Si/n. Detino oint- 
 ML.VT; Unouentusi desiccativdm, U. ex- 
 siccANS, L. See the Ointmbnis of Cala- 
 mine, Lead, Zino, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Deter'gent. Si/n. Unguentfji 
 
 DKTEBOENS, L. The OINTMENTS OF NITRATE 
 OP MEKCDBT, NITEIC OXIDE OF MEECUEY.TAK, 
 
 TEBui&Eis, &c., when not too strong, come 
 under this head. 
 
 Ointment, Diges'tive. Si/n. Unouentum di- 
 oSsTivuM, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) \enice 
 turpentine, 2 oz. ; yolks of 2 ejins ; mix, aud 
 add of oil of St John's wort, J oz. 
 
 -. (Digestif anim^ — P. Cod.) As the 
 lash, with an equal weight of liquid styrax. 
 
 3. (Digestif meecubiel — P. Cod.) As 
 No. 1, with an equal weight of mercurial oint- 
 ment. 
 
 4. (Uno. d. vibidb— Dr Kirkland.) Bees- 
 wax, gum cicmi, and yellow resin, of each 1 oz. ; 
 green oil, 6oz. j melt them toi;eiher, and, when 
 considerably cooled, add of oil of turpentine 
 
 2 dr. 
 
 Ointment, Edinburgh. Two compounds are 
 knmvn under this name : — 1. (BiiOWN.) From 
 hhick basilicoii, 6 parts ; milk of sulphur, 2 
 parts ; Pal ammoniac, 1 part. 
 
 i. (WuiTE.) From white hellebore, 3 oz.; 
 
 sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; lard, 1 lb. Both are used 
 in itch. 
 
 Ointment of Eggs. Syn. Unouentum 
 OVOEUM, L. Prep. 1. Yolk of 1 egg ; honey 
 and fresh linseed oil, of each 1 oz. ; balsam of 
 Peru, i dr. ; mix well. 
 
 2. (Soubeiran.) Beeswax, 4 dr. ; oil of 
 almonds, IJ oz. ; yolk of 1 egg. As an emol- 
 lient and soothing dressing to excoriations, 
 irritable ulcers, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Egyp'tian. Prep. (Giordano.) 
 Burnt alum, 1 part; verdigris, 10 parts; strong 
 vinegar, 14 parts ; purified honey (thick), 32 
 parts ; mix by heat and agitation. As a deter- 
 gent application to foul ulcers. It is a modifi- 
 cation of the ' UNOUENTUM iEOYPTIACUM ' of 
 old pharniaey. 
 
 Ointment of Elder-flowers. Si/n. White 
 
 ELDEEOINTMENT j UnoUBNTUM SAMBUCI FLO- 
 BUM, U. SAMBUOi (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. 
 L.) Elder flowers and lard, of each 1 lb. ; boil 
 them together until the flowers become crisp, 
 then strain, with pressure, through a linen 
 cloth. The same precautions must be observed 
 as are necessary in the preparation of the medi- 
 cated oils, by infusion. Emollient; less white 
 and odorous than the following : — 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) Take of lard (hard, white, 
 and sweet), 25 lbs. ; prepared mutton suet, 6 
 lbs.; melt them in a well-tinned copper or 
 earthen vessel,addofelderflower water 3 galls., 
 agitate briskly for about i nn hour, and set it 
 aside; the next day gently pour off the water, 
 remelt the ointment, and add of benzoic acid, 
 5 dr. ; otto of roses, 20 drops ; oil of bergamot 
 and oil of rosemary, of each 1 dr.; again agi- 
 tate well, let it settle for 10 minutes, and then 
 pour off the clear portion into pots for sale. 
 Very ap^recahle, and keeps well. 
 
 Obs. The last formula is the one now 
 generally adopted by the large wholesale 
 houses. 
 
 Ointment of Elder-leaf. <SV/«. Eldee oint- 
 ment, (iitEEN E. o. ; Unouentum tieide, U. 
 
 SAMDUCI TIEIDE, U. SAMBUCI (Ph. D. 1.S2G), 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D. 1826.) Fiesli elder 
 leaves (bruised), 3 Ihs, ; suet, 4 lbs. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; 
 boil together, as above. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) Good fresh lard, 1 cwt. ; 
 fresh elder leave-»,r>61bs. ; boil till crisp, strain 
 off the oil, put it over a slow tire, add hard 
 prepared mutton suet, 14 lbs., and gently stir 
 it until it acquires a bright green colour. 
 
 Obs. The above ointment is reputed to 
 be emollient and cooling, and has always been 
 a great favourite with the common people. 
 Both elder-flower and elder-leaf ointment arc, 
 however, unnecessary preparations. *' They 
 are ve^ti^es of the redundant practice of 
 foi'mer times." (A.T.Thomson.) The above 
 formuljE are those now almost exclusively em- 
 ployed in trade. The ointment should be 
 allowed to cool very slowly, and after its tem- 
 perature has fallen a little, and ic begins to 
 thicken, it should not be stirred, in order that 
 it may ' grain' Hell, as a granular appearance 
 
1172 
 
 OLNTMENT 
 
 is much admired. It is a common practice 
 to add powdered verdigris to deepen the 
 colour, but then the ointment does not keep 
 well. This dangerous fraud may be detected 
 in the manner noticed under Ceeate, Savinb. 
 
 Ointment of Elecampane. St/n. UisaxjETSTVM 
 Inttii^. Prep. Fresh elecampane root (boiled 
 till soft and pulped), 1^ oz. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 Ointment of El'emi. Si/n. Balsam ov ab- 
 
 O^USt, UNaUENTUM BtEMI (B. P., Ph. L. & U.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Elemi, 3 oz. ; suet, 6 
 oz. ; melt them together, remove the vessel 
 from the fire, and stir in of common turpentine, 
 2i oz. ; olive oil, J fl. oz. ; lastly, strain the 
 whole through a linen cloth. 
 
 2. (Ph.D.) Resin of elemi, 4 oz. ; ointment 
 of white wax, 1 lb ; melt them together, strain 
 through flannel, and stir the mixture constantly 
 until it concretes. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Elemi, 1 ; simple ointment, 4 ; 
 melt and strain. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Stimulant and digestive. It is 
 frequently employed to keep open issues and 
 setons, and as a dressing for old and ill-con- 
 ditioned sores. The ' uhg. elemi cum rnnv- 
 iiihe' of St George's Hospital is made by 
 ailding 1 dr. of finely powdered verdigris to 
 every 6 oz. of the ointment. 
 
 Ointment of Emetina. (Dr Tarnbull.) Syn. 
 Unottentttm emetikje. Prep. Emetine, 15 
 gr. ; rectified spirit, q. s.; lard, J oz. (Jsedas 
 a rubefacient. 
 
 Ointment Escharot'ic. Syti. Vsavssivis. 
 ESCHAEOTICUM, L. Prep. 1. (Sir B. Brodie.) 
 Corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. ; nitric oxide of 
 mercury, sulphate of copper, and verdigris, of 
 each 2 dr. (all in very fine powder) ; lard, 
 q. s. See Ointment, and Cebate, Ae- 
 
 SENICAL. 
 
 Ointment of Euphorbinm. (Dr Neligan.) 
 Syn. Unouentum euphoeeii. Prep. Pow- 
 dered euphorbinm, 25 to 30 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; 
 mix. To keep up a discharge from issues. 
 
 Ointment of Glycerin.' 8yn. Unouentum 
 &LTCEEINI. Prep. Glycerin, 4 fl. oz. ; oil of 
 almonds, 8 fl. oz. ; wax and spermaceti, of each 
 \ oz. 
 
 Ointment, Eye. Syn. ErE salve ; Unguen- 
 tum ophthalmioum, L, Prep. 1, (Dr Col- 
 lier.) Buint alum, i dr.; powdered opium, 
 20 gr, ; olive oil, 1 fl. dr.; spermaceti ointment, 
 2 dr. In inflammation of the eyelids, purulent 
 ophthalmia, &c. 
 
 2, (W. Cooley.) Chloride of barium, 6 gr. ; 
 calomel, 10 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz, ; otto 
 of roses, 1 or 2 drops. In scrofulous oph- 
 thalmia, 
 
 3, (Dessanlt.) Nitric oxide of mercury, 
 carbonate of zinc, acetate of lead, and dried 
 alum, of each 1 dr, ; corrosive sublimate, 10 
 gr, ; rose ointment, 1 oz. In chronic oph- 
 thalmia, profuse discharges, &c. ; in general, 
 diluted. 
 
 4, (Dupuytren,) Red oxide of mercury, 10 
 gr, ; sulphate of zinc, 20 gr, ; lard, 2 oz. For 
 
 chronic inflammation of the eyelids, chronic 
 ulcers, &c. 
 
 5. (Fricke). Nitrate of silver, 10 gr. ; zinc 
 ointment, 2 dr, ; balsam of Peru, i dr. In 
 ulceration of the cornea, and in acute, purulent, 
 and chronic ophthalmia, &c,, employing great 
 caution in its use. 
 
 6. (Guthrie.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 dr. ; 
 solution of diacetate of lead, 15 drops; nitrate 
 of silver, 2 to 10 gr. As the last, and in cases 
 wherein a direct caustic action is desired. 
 The stronger ointment often occasions intense 
 pain. 
 
 7. (Hufeland.) Black oxide of mercury, 
 2 gr. ; spermaceti cerate and walnut oil, of 
 each 1 dr. In chronic affections of the eyes 
 or eyelids, particularly in those of a syphilitic 
 character, 
 
 8. (Janin.) Ammonio-chloride of mercury, 
 1 dr. ; tutty and bole, of each 2 dr, ; lard, 1 
 oz. In debility of the conjunctiva, in chronic 
 inflammation with excessive secretion, &c. 
 
 9. (Marsiiall.) See Ceeate (Marshall's). 
 
 10. (Parker.) Iodine, 1 gr. ; iodide of po- 
 tassium, 5 gr. ; simple ointment, 3 dr. In 
 scrofulous ophthalmia, thickening of the con- 
 junctiva, opacity of the cornea, &c, 
 
 11. (Pellier.) Nitric oxide of mercury and 
 carbonate of zinc, of each IJ dr, ; tutty, | dr. ; 
 red sulphuret of mercury, 20 gr. ; lard, 2 oz. ; 
 balsam of Peru, 15 drops. In specks in the 
 eye arising from small ulcers which have healed 
 up; in excessive defluxions, &e, 
 
 12. (Ratier.) Liquor of diacetate of lead, J 
 dr. ; wine of opium, 1 dr. ; lard, 5 dr. In exco- 
 riations, and the variety of chronic ophthalmia 
 popularly termed ' blear eye.' 
 
 13. (Regent). Acetate of lead and red pre- 
 cipitate, of each 1 dr. ; camphor, 6 gr. ; 
 washed fresh butter, 2i oz. As the last, and 
 in chronic ulcerations. 
 
 14. (Singleton's GOLDEN OINTMENT.) Ac- 
 cording to Dr Paris, this compound consists of 
 lard medicated with orpiment (native yellow 
 sulphuret of arsenic). There appears, however, 
 to be some mistake in this, as that sold us 
 under the name had nearly the same composi- 
 tion as the ointment or niteio oxide ov 
 MEECUET of the Pharmacopoeia. It did not 
 contain even a trace of either arsenic or sul- 
 phur. The action of this nostrum, and the 
 reputation which it has acquired, fully justify 
 this conclnsion. 
 
 15. (Smellome.) From verdigris (levigated), 
 Jdr. ; olive oil, 1 fl. dr. ; triturate together; 
 add of yellow basilicon, 1 oz, and again tri- 
 turate until it begins to concrete. A popular 
 nostrum, sometimes useful In chronic inflam- 
 mation and ulcerations of the eyelids, &c., 
 especially in those of a scrofulous character. 
 
 16. (Spielmann.) Acetate of lead, 20 gr. ; 
 spermaceti cerate, 5 dr. ; compound tincture 
 of benzoin, 40 gr. Cooling ; desiccative. In 
 inflamed eyelids, excoriations, &c. 
 
 17. (St Yve.) Fresh butter (washed), 1 oz. ; 
 white wax, 1 dr, ; camphor, 15 gr, ; melt by a 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1173 
 
 gentle Vient, and, when cooled a little, add of 
 red precipkiito (levigated), i dr. ; oxide of zinc, 
 20 gr. In clironic inflammation of the coats 
 of the eyo, or of the eyelids, specks on tlie 
 cornea, &c. 
 
 IH. (Thomson.) Levigated oxide of zinc, 1 
 dr. ; lird, 9 dr. ; wine of opium, 20 drops. In 
 chronic ophthalmia depending on want of 
 tone in the vessels and integuments of the 
 eye. 
 
 19. (Velpean.) Precipitated sesquioxide of 
 iron (recent, but dry), i dr. ; lard, 5 dr.; oil 
 of almonds, 1 fl. dr. ; balsam of Peru, 1-5 drops. 
 As the 1:1st, especially in 'blear eye.' 
 
 20. (Ware.) Wine of opium, I fl. dr. ; simple 
 ointment, 3 dr. In oplithaluiia, after the in- 
 flammatory symptoms have subsided, and the 
 vessels remain red and turgid. 
 
 Obi. The ingredients entering into the 
 composition of all the above ointments must be 
 rc'tuced to the state of impalpable powder 
 before mixing them ; and the incorporation 
 should he made by long trituration in a wedg- 
 wood-vviire mortar, or, preferably, for those 
 that coiit:iIn substances that are very gritty, 
 by levi},'ation on a porphyry slab, with a muller. 
 The most serious consequences, even blindness, 
 huvi' resulLi'd from tlie neglect of these pre- 
 cautions. They slioiild all be employed in ex- 
 ceedingly small quantities at a time, and they 
 should be very carefully applied by means of 
 a camel-hair pencil or a feather; and, in ^cne 
 ral, not until acute inflammation luis subsided. 
 The stronger ont's, in most eases, re(|uire dilu- 
 tion with 1(11 equal weight to twice their weight 
 of lard or simple ointment, and should only he 
 used of their full strength under proper medi- 
 cal ailvice. Various other formultc for oph- 
 thalmic OINTMENTS will be found under the 
 nauii'H of their leading ingredients. 
 
 Ointment of Fig'wort. See Ointment of 
 
 SCHOPK0LAKIA. 
 
 Ointment of Fox'glove. Syn. Unquentum 
 DIGITALIS, L. Prep. 1. From fresh foxglove 
 as ointment of hemlock — Ph. L. As an ap- 
 plication to chronic ulcers, glandular swellings, 
 Itc. 
 
 2. (Rademacher.) Extract of foxglove, 2 
 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. In croup; spread on lint, and 
 applied as a plaster to tlie throat. 
 
 Ointment of Fu'ligokali. See Fttliqokali. 
 
 Ointment of Galls. iS^n. Unquentum 
 OALL.K (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph, D.). 
 li. ill-nuts (in very fine powder), 1 dr.; oint- 
 ment of white wax, 7 dr. ; rub them together 
 until a uniform mixture is obtained. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Galls, in very fine powder, 80 gr. ; 
 benzouted lard,l oz. Mix. An excellent appli- 
 cation to piles, either alone or mixed with 
 an equal quantity of zinc ointment ; also highly 
 useful in ringworm of the scalp. 
 
 Ointment of Glalls and Opium. Unquentum 
 OALLji ecu opio (B. P.); Unquentum 
 
 OALLA OPIATUM, U. GAhLM 00MPO9ITUM 
 
 — Ph. L., U. OALLiB ET opii,— (Ph. 'E.)—Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Gall-nuts (very finely powdered). 
 
 6 dr.; powdered opium, IJ dr.; lard, 6 oz. ; 
 rub them toirether. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Galls, 2 dr.; opium, 1 dr.; 
 lard, 1 oz. ; as the last. 
 
 8. (B. P.) Ointment of galls, 1 oz. ; opinm 
 (in powder), 32 gr. Mix. 
 
 Use», ifc. A most valuable astringent and 
 anodyne in blind piles, slight cases of pro- 
 lapsus ani, &c. Some practitioners add 1 dr. 
 of camphor. The ointment of the Ph. E. is 
 much the strongest. 
 
 Ointment of Galls with Mobphia. Un- 
 
 GULNTUM OALL2E ET MOttPHI «— (Dr Paris.) 
 MorphiH, 2 gr. ; olive oil (hot), 2 fl. dr. ; 
 triturate, add of zinc ointment (Ph. L.), 1 oz. ; 
 powdered galls, 1 dr.; and mix thoroughly. 
 In piles. The quantity of galls should be 
 doubled. 
 
 Ointment of Galls with Camphor. Syn. 
 Unquentum gall^ cum oamproba. Prep. 
 Galls, 2 dr. ; camphor, \ dr. ; lard, 1 oz. Mix 
 them. 
 
 Ointment of Garlic. Syn. Unquentum 
 ALLII, L. Prep. 1. Fresh garlic (bruised), 2 
 parts; lard, 3 parts; simmer together for \ 
 an hour, and then strain with expression. 
 Rubbed on the abdomen in chronic diarrhoea 
 anil colic, and over the chest and spine in 
 hooping-cough. 
 
 2. (Beasley.) Fresh garlic and lard, equal 
 parts; beaten together. Applied to the teet. 
 in hooping-cousrh. 
 
 Ointment, Giacomlni's. See Ointment, 
 Chilblain. 
 
 Ointment of Gold. Syn. Unquentum auki, 
 L.; Pommaoed'ob, Fr. Prep. 1. (Legrand.) 
 Gold (in powder^, 12 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a 
 dressing for syphilitic ulcers; and as a friction 
 in glandular indurations, &c. ; also endcrm;- 
 cally. 
 
 2. (Magendie.) Amalgam of gold, 1 dr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. For endermic use, chiefly. When 
 the surface becomes dry, the ointment of ter- 
 chloride of gold is to be substituted as a dress- 
 ing. In rheumatic pains, neuralgia, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Gold'en. See Ointment, Eye, 
 Citkine 0., &c. 
 
 Ointment, Gondret's. See Ointment, 
 Ammoniacal. 
 
 Ointment, Goulard's. Syn. Unquentum 
 GOULAEDI, U. litkabqyei acetatib, L. Prep. 
 (Ph. Chirur.) Goulard's extract, 1 dr.; simple 
 ointment, 2 oz. See Cerate (Lead). 
 
 Ointment, Green. See Ointment, Elder. 
 
 Ointment of Guarana. Syn. Unquentum 
 OUABAK.E. Prep. One part of extract of 
 guarana to eight parts of lard. 
 
 Ointment of Hellebore. Syn. Ointment of 
 white hellebore; Unquentum veeatri, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) White heUebore 
 (in very fine powder), 2 oz. ; lard, 8 oz. ; oil 
 of lemons, 20 drops. In itch, lepra, ringworm, 
 &c. ; and to destroy insects in the hair of 
 children. It should be used with caution, 
 and, preferably, diluted with an equal weight 
 of lard. 
 
1174 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 2. (Compound ; Ungubntum vebatri com- 
 POSITUM.)— a. (liuyer.) White hell shore, 1 
 oz. ; sal ammoniac, i oz. ; lard, 8 oz. Used as 
 the last. 
 
 b. See SxTLPHUE ointment (Compound) — 
 Ph. L. 
 
 Ointment of Hemlock. Syn. Unqfentum 
 00NH.(Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Fresh 
 hemlock leaves and lard, of each 1 lb.; boil 
 them together (very gently) until the leaves 
 become crisp, then strain through linen, with 
 pressure. See Oils (Medicated). 
 
 2. Extract of hemlock, 1 dr.; lard, 9 dr.; 
 triturate together. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. As a local anodyne in neuralgic 
 and rheumatic pains, glandular enlargements, 
 painful piles, &c. ; and as a dressing to painful 
 and irritable ulcers, cancerous sores, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Hen'bane. Syn. UNOtrENTUM 
 HTOSOXAMI, L. Prep. 1. Fresh henbane 
 leaves, 1 lb.; lard, 2 lbs.; boil until nearly 
 crisp. 
 
 2. (Taddei.) Extract of henbane, 1 dr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. Anodyne; in painful piles, sores, 
 &c., as the last. 
 
 Ointment, Holloway's. See Patent medi- 
 cines. 
 
 Ointment of Hops. Syn. T7NauENTUM ltt- 
 PtlLI, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Hops (com- 
 mercial), 2 oz. ; lard, 10 oz. ; as extract of 
 hemlock, Pli. L. In painful piles and can- 
 cerous sores. 
 
 Ointment of Hydri'odate of Ammo"nia. 
 
 Sya. UNOtTENTUM AMMONiaS SYDEIODATia, L. 
 Prep. From hydriodate of ammonia (iodide of 
 ammonium), ^ dr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. 
 Used chiefly as an application to scrofulous 
 tumour and ulcers, in irritable subjects. 
 Ointment of Hydrochlo"ric Acid. Syn. Un- 
 
 GUEKT0M AOIDI HTDEOOHLORICI, L. Prep. 
 
 (Dr Corrigan.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 dr.; 
 simple ointment, 1 oz. As a dressing for scald- 
 head, after the scabs have been removed by 
 emollient liniments or poultices. 
 
 Ointment of Hypoclilo"rite of Lime. Syn. 
 Ointment of chlobide of limb ; UNauEN- 
 
 TCM CALOIS HTPOOHLOEITIS, U. C. CHLOBI- 
 
 NATiE, L. Prep. 1. From chlorinated lime 
 (chloride of lime), X dr.; lard, 1 oz. ; carefully 
 triturated together. In scrofulous swellings, 
 goitre, chilblains, indolent glandular tumours, 
 &c. 
 
 2. Chlorinated lime, 1 dr. ; powdered fox- 
 glove, 2 dr. ; simple ointment, 2 oz. As an 
 application to fetid and malignant ulcers, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Hypoclilo"rite of Snl'phur. 
 Syn. Unucentum sulphueis htpoohlobitis, 
 L. Prep. (Dr Copland.) Hypochlorite of 
 sulphur, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. It is 
 generally scented with oil of almonds. Used 
 in psoriasis iuveterata, and some other skin 
 
 Ointment of I'odide of Ar'senic. Syn. Un- 
 GCENTUM AESENICI lODIDI, L. Prep. (Biett.) 
 Iodide of arsenic, 2 to 3 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; 
 carefully triturated together. In lepra, psoriasis. 
 
 &e, ; and in corroding tubercular diseases. It 
 should be used with caution, and not more 
 than i dr, applied at once. 
 
 Ointment of Iodide of Ba"rinm. Syn. Un- 
 GUENTUM BABII IODIDE, L. Prep. (Magen- 
 die.) Iodide of barium, 3 to 4 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 As a friction to scrofulous swellings and indura- 
 tions. The usual proportions are now 5 gr. to 
 the pz. 
 
 Ointment of Iodide of Iron, (Pierquin.) 
 Syn. Unguentum feeei iodidi. Prep. Iodide 
 of iron, 1 dr.; lard, 1 oz. Mix them. 
 
 Ointment of Iodide of lead. Syn. Un- 
 
 GUENTtTM PLUMBI IODIDI (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of lead, 1 oz. ; 
 lard, 8 oz. ; rub them together. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Iodide of lead (in fine powder), 
 1 dr. ; ointment of white wax, 7 dr. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Iodide of lead, in fine powder, 62 
 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. Mix. An excellent 
 application to scrofulous tumours and swelled 
 glands, especially when accompanied with 
 pain. 
 
 Ointment of Green Iodide of Mer'cnry, Prep. 
 1. (Ointment of subiodide of mbeouet, 
 0. OF pbotiodidb of m.* ; Unguentcm 
 HTDEAEGrEI lODIDI — Ph. L.) o. (Ph. L.) 
 White wax, 2 oz ; lard, 6 oz. ; melt them 
 together, add of iodide (green iodide) of mer- 
 cury, 1 oz., and rub them well together. 
 
 2. (Magendie.) Green iodide of mercury, 
 23 gr. ; lard, li oz. 
 
 Vses, S(c. In tuberculnr skin diseases, as 
 a friction in scrofulous swellings and indolent 
 granular tumours, jind as a dressing for ill- 
 conditioned ulcers, ' especially those of a 
 scrofulous charactsi'. 
 
 Ointment of Red Iodide of Mercury. Un- 
 
 GITENTUM HTDEAEGTEI iodidi ET7BBI, B. P., 
 O. OF BINIODIDE OF M.* ; UnGUENTUM HT- 
 
 deabgybi biniodidi,* U, h. iodidi eubei— 
 (Ph. D.)— 1. (Ph.D.) Red iodide of mercury, 
 
 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr.; mix by 
 careful trituration. 
 
 2. (Soubeiran.) Red iodide of mercury, 20 
 gr. ; lard, 1^ oz. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Rediodideofmercury (in very fine 
 powder), 16 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 Uses, <^o. Similar to those of the preceding, 
 but it is much more stimulant, and is regarded 
 as better adapted for obstinate syphilitic sores. 
 Largely diluted with lard or almond oil, it is 
 applied to the eyes in like cases. 
 
 Ointment of Iodide of Potas'sium. Syn. Un- 
 guentum potassii iodidi (B. p.. Ph. L. & D.). 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium, 
 
 2 dr., dissolved in boiling distilled water, 2 fl. 
 dr.; lard (softened by heat), 2 oz. ; triturate 
 together until united. 
 
 2. (Ph.D.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr.; dis- 
 tilled water, 5 fl. dr.; ointment of white wax, 
 7 dr. ; as before. 
 
 3. (Magendie.) Iodide of potassium, 1 dr. ; 
 lard, 12 dr. 
 
 4. (Le Gros.) Iodide, 1^ dr.; lard, 1 oz. 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1175 
 
 fi. (11. P.) Todide of potnasiuin, 64 gr. ; 
 carbonate of potnsh, 4 gr. ; distilled water, 1 
 dr. ; prepared lard, 1 oz. ; dissolve the carbonate 
 and the iodide in the water, and mix thorough!; 
 with the lard. 
 
 Utes, Jj-e. As a friction in scrofula, bron- 
 chocele, glandular enlargements, indurations, 
 &c.; as a dressing to scrofulous ulcers, as an 
 application in scrofulous ophthalmia, and in 
 most of the other applications in which the 
 eniploymiut of iodine is indicated. The last 
 formula has been successfully employed by 
 M. Le Qros in itch. 
 
 Ob», The strength of this ointment, as 
 prescribed by different parties varies greatly, 
 the proportions of the iodide ranging from 
 9*1 to -^ of the whole, to adapt it to particular 
 eases. When other ingredients are added, the 
 iodide must be used in a perfectly dry state, 
 and in fine powder, instead of being dissolved 
 in water. This is particuliirly necessary when 
 it is to be mixed with morcurial ointment. 
 
 Ointment of Iodide of Sulphnr. St/n. Un- 
 
 OUBNTCM BULPurillS lODlDI (B. P., Ph. L., 
 L. I'rep. 1. (Ph. L.) Iodide of sulphur (in 
 fine powder), 4 dr.; lard, 1 oz.; mix by tritu- 
 ration. 
 
 2. (Cazenave.) Iodide of sulphur, 12 to 15 
 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 
 3. (B. P.) lodideofsulphur. l;lard, 16. Mix. 
 Usrs, cfc. As a local stimulimt and altera- 
 
 tivi' in the chronic forms of lepra, lupus, por- 
 rigo, psoriasis, itch, &c. ; also a remedy for 
 acne punctata. A few drops of oil of cloves or 
 nutmeg are commonly added. 
 
 Ointment of Iodide of Zinc. S^n. Unoiten- 
 TUM ZINCI lODiiJi, L. Prep. 1. From iodide 
 of zinc, 12 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. In 
 scrofulous excoriations, and in the chronic oph- 
 thalmia of scrofulous subjects, arising from a 
 ruliixwl stiitc of the tissues and vessels. 
 
 2. (Dr Ure.) Iodide of zinc, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 
 oz. As a friction to glandular tumours and in- 
 durations, and as a dressing to flabby and 
 obstinate scrofulous ulcers. 
 
 Ointment of I'odiae. S^n, Ungttenttjm 
 lODi (B. P.), Unoubntum iodinii (Ph. U. S.J. 
 Prep. 1.— (B. P.) Iodine, 32 gr. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 32 gr. ; proof spirit, 1 dr. ; rub 
 togttlier and add prepared lard, 2 oz. See 
 OiNiMBNT OP Iodine (Compound). 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Iodine, 20 gr.j rectified 
 spirit, 20 drops; rub them together, then add 
 of lard, 1 oz. 
 
 Ointment of Iodine (Compound). Si/n. 
 Ointment op iobuebtted iodide op potas- 
 8idh; unonentum potassi lodidi i0dt7ke- 
 
 TUM, U. IODINII COMPOSITUM — Ph. Ij. & D., 
 U. IODINII— Ph. E.— o. (Ph. L.) Iodine of 
 potassium (in very fine powder), 1 dr. ; lard, 2 
 oz. ; mix, then add of iodine, i dr., dissolved 
 in rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr., and mix all together. 
 Sue Ointment op Iodine (B. P.) 
 
 i. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 1 dr.; iodide of potas- 
 sium, 2 dr. ; rub them together, then gradually 
 add of lard, 4 oz. 
 
 c. (Ph. D.) Pure iodine, i dr. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 1 dr. ; rub them well togi tlnr in a 
 glass or porcelain mortar, then (;rariully add 
 of ointment of white wax, 1 ti dr., and con- 
 tinue the trituration until a uniform ointment 
 is obtained. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. The compound ointment is an 
 excellent frieticjn in goitre, and in enlarged 
 or indurated glund^i or tumours, more especially 
 those of a scrofulous character ; iu the quan- 
 tity of i to 1 dr., night and morninir. It may 
 be advantageously combined with extract of 
 belladonna in the incipient bubo of scrofulous 
 subjects, and in the early stages of cancer ; 
 and, with an equal weight of mercurial oint- 
 ment, as u friction in cases of enluigcd liver 
 and spleen, and ovarian drojisy. The ximple 
 ointment of the Ph. U. S. is generally regarded 
 as weaker and less efficacious than the com- 
 pound. 
 
 Ointment of Iodo-chlo"ride of Mercury. Syn. 
 
 UnGDENTUM HTDKAKOYRI IODO BICHLOHIDI*, 
 
 Ij. I'rep. From iodochloride of .Mercury, 
 16 gr. ; simple ointment, 1 oz. Discutient ; 
 probably one of the most powerful known in 
 syphilitic cases complicated with scrofula. 
 See Ointment of Chlokiodide of Mbb- 
 
 CUET. 
 
 Ointment of Iodoform (Dr Glover). 5y». 
 UxoUENTUM lODOPOBMi. Prep. Iodoform 
 1 to 1 dram, ."imple cerate 8 drams. Mix. 
 
 Ointment, lodo-hydrar'gyrate of Fotassa. 
 Si/n. Ungdkntum potasse iodo-utdeakgt- 
 KATI8, L. JPrep. 1. (Lamothe.) lodo-hydrar- 
 gyrate of potassa, 20 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Puche.) Red iodide of mercury and 
 iodide of potassium, of each 8 gr. ; lard, 
 
 1 oz. As a powerful stimulant discutient; in 
 tumours, inflammatory sore throat, &c. 
 
 Ointment, lodonarcot'ic. Syn. Unquen- 
 TUM lODO-NAECOTICUM, L. Frep. (Purvis.) 
 Iodine, 20 gr. ; iodide of potassium, 2 dr. ; 
 oil of tobacco (by infusion), H dr.; lard, 3 
 dr. To relax rigid muscles. 
 
 Ointment of IpecacuanTia. Si/n. Uugpen- 
 TUM iPECACDANHa;, L. Frep. (l)r. Turnbull.) 
 Ipecacuanha (iu fine powder), 2 dr. ; olive oil, 
 
 2 fl. dr. ; lard or simple ointment, 4 dr. 
 Counter-irritant ; when frequently employed 
 as a friction, it occasions an eruption, but one 
 of a milder character than that from either 
 croton oil or tartar emetic. 
 
 Ointment, Is'sne. Si/n. iNOUFNTrM ad- 
 PONTICULOS, L. Frep. (Golding Bird.) Oint- 
 ment of cantharides (Ph. L.), li oz. ; tartar 
 emetic (in impalpaple powder), 8 gr. ; sperma- 
 ceti ointment, 2oz. As a stimulating applica- 
 tion to issues, to promote the discharge. See 
 Elbmi ointmest, Cebate, Plastee, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Itch. Syn. Uhguentum anti- 
 PSOEicrM, L. Several excellent formulae fur 
 itch ointments will be found under the names 
 of their leading ingredients. The following 
 are additional ones, including some nos- 
 trums : — 
 
 1. (Bailey.) From alum, nitre, and sulphate 
 
1176 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 of zinc, of each, in very fine powder, IJ oz. j 
 vermilion, i oz. ; mix, add gradually of sweet 
 oil, i pint ; triturate together until perfectly 
 mixed, then further add of lard (softened by 
 heat), 1 lb., with oils or aniseed, lavender, and 
 origanum, q. ». to perfume. 
 
 2. (Bateman.) Carbonate of potassa, ^ oz. ; 
 rose water, 1 fl. oz. ; red sulpliuret of mer- 
 cury, 1 dr. ; oil of bergamot, i fl. dr. ; sub- 
 limed sulphur, and hog's lard, of each 11 oz. ; 
 mix them. (Bateman, ' Cutaneous Diseases.') 
 The nostrum vended under the name is made 
 as follows : — Carbonate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
 vermilion, 3 dr. ; sulphur, 1 lb. ; lard, IJ 
 lb. ; rose water, 3 fl. oz. ; oil of bergamot, 
 Udr. 
 
 3. (French Hosp.) Chloride of lime, 1 dr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr. ; sweet oil, -^ fl. oz. ; 
 common salt and sulphur, of each 1 oz.; sofb 
 soap, 2 oz. ; oil of lemon, 20 drops. Cheap, 
 effectual, and jnotfensive. 
 
 4. (De la Harpe.) Sulphur, 2 oz. ; pow- 
 dered white hellebore, i oz. ; sulphate of zinc, 
 ^ do. ; soft soap, 4 oz. ; lard, 8 oz. 
 
 5. (Jackson.) From palm oil, flowers of sul- 
 phur, and white hellebore of each 1 part; 
 lard, 2 parts. 
 
 6. (Nugent.) From white lead, 2 oz. ; orris 
 root, 1 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, in very fine 
 powder, i oz. ; palm oil, 4 oz. ; lard, li lb. 
 
 7. (Ph. E., 1744.) Elecampane root and 
 sharp-pointed doclc {Bumex acatus — Linn.), of 
 each bruised, 3 oz. ; water, 1 quart ; vinegar, 
 f pint ; boil to one half, add of water-cress, 
 10 oz. ; lard, 4 lb. ; boil to dryness, and stain 
 with expression ; to the strained liquid add of 
 beeswax and oil of bays, of each 4 oz. ; and 
 stir the mixture until nearly cold. 
 
 8. (Un&. a. comp.— Ph. E. 1744.) To 
 each lb. of the last add of strong meicurial 
 ointment, 2 oz. 
 
 9. (Robertson.) Soft soap, 1 oz. ; rum, 1 
 table-spoonful; chloride of lime (dry and 
 good), k oz. ; mix, and add of lard, 2 oz. 
 
 10. (Swediaur.) Stavesaere (in powder), 
 1 oz.; lard, 3 oz. ; digest with heat for 3 
 hours, and then strain. The formula of the 
 Ph. Bruns. is nearly similar. Very useful in 
 itch ; also to destroy pediculi. 
 
 11. (Thomson.) Chloride of lime and com- 
 mon salt, of each, in fine powder, 1 dr. ; soft 
 soap, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr. ; mix, add 
 of lard, 1 oz. ; and, lastly, of strong vinegar, 
 3 fl. dr. Very cleanly and effective ; but 
 should not be made in quantity, as it does not 
 keep well. 
 
 12. (Vogt.) Chloride of lime (dry), 2 dr ; 
 burnt alum, 3 dr. ; lard, 9 dr. To be mixed 
 with an equal quantity of soft soap at the time 
 of fusing it. 
 
 Oba. The products of the preceding for- 
 muliB are used by well rubbing them into the 
 part affected, night and morning, as long as 
 necessary, the number of applications required 
 depending greatly on the manner in which this 
 is done. 
 
 Ointment of I'vy. Syn. TJir&UBifTTrM hb- 
 DBEiE, L. Prep, From the leaves of common 
 ivy, by infusion, as ointment of henbane. 
 Used as an application to soft corns, in itch, 
 and as a dressing to indolent ulcers and 
 issnes. 
 
 Ointment of Jatropha (Physic-nut). The 
 milky juice of the English Physic nut {Ja- 
 tropha eurcas) mixed with half its weight of 
 lard. In piles. 
 
 Ointment of Juniper. St/n. Dkchjemtuji 
 JUNIPEBI. Prep. Juniper leaves, 1 part, 
 resin ointment, 6parts; boil gently and strain. 
 
 Ointment of Ju"mper-tar. Si/n. Unocen- 
 
 TUM OLEI PTEOLIONI JUNIPEBI, U. CADINUM, 
 L. Prep, (Eras. Wilson.) Lard and suet, of 
 each 6 parts; beeswax, 4 parts; liquefy by 
 heat, and add of pyroligneous oil of juniper 
 ('huile de cade') 16 parts ; with a few drops of 
 any fragrant essential oil, to conceal the 
 smell. In ringworm, and as a stimulant 
 ointment in some other skin diseases. 
 
 Ointment, Eirkland's. See Lead ointhest 
 (Compound). 
 
 Ointment of Lahdanum. (Qnincy.) Si)«. 
 UNOtTEifTiTM CEiNiscuM. Prep. Labdanum, 
 6 dr. ; bears' grease, 2 oz. ; powdered southern- 
 wood, 3 dr. ; oil of mace, ] dr. ; balsam of 
 Peru, 2 dr. 
 
 Ointment of lard. St/n. Unottentttm adi- 
 pis, L. Prep, (Ph. L. 1788.) Prepared lard, 
 2 lbs. ; melt, add of rose water, 3 fl. oz ; beat 
 the two well together, then set the vessel aside, 
 and when the wliole is cold, separate the con- 
 gealed fat. A simple emollient. See OlHl- 
 MENT, Eldeb. 
 
 Ointment of Lau'rel. Syn. Lattehiie oikt- 
 
 MENT; UKaUBNTUM lAUEINUM, XT. lAUEI 
 
 NOBIMS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Lusit.) Suet 
 (softened by heat), 8 oz. ; laurel oil (expressed 
 oil of bay), 1 lb. ; oil of turpentine, IJ oz. 
 This is the ' nervine balsam ' and ' nervine 
 ointment ' of the shops in the Peninsula, and 
 in some other parts of Southern Europe. The 
 Ph. Bat. 1805 added i oz. of rectified oil of 
 amber. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Fresh bay leaves and berries 
 (bruised), of each 1 lb. ; lai d, 2 lbs. ; as hem- 
 lock ointment — Ph. L. Highly esteemed on 
 the Continent as a stimulating friction, in 
 bruises, strains, slifl' joints, &c. ; and in deaf- 
 ness. 
 
 3. (Trade.) From fresh bay leaves, 2 lbs. ; 
 bay berries, 1 lb. ; neat's-foot oil, 5 pints ; 
 boil as last; to the strained oil add, of lard 
 suet, 3 lbs., true oil of bay, J lb., and allow it 
 to cool very slowly, in order that it may 
 'grain' well. Sold for laurel ointment and 
 common oil of bay. 
 
 Ointment of Lavender (Baume). Syn. 
 Oleum Lavandula. Prep. Lard, 2^ lbs. ; 
 lavender flowers, 10 lbs.; white wax, 3 oz. 
 Melt the lard, digest with 2 lbs. of the flowers 
 for two hours, and strain; repeat this with 
 fresh flowers till all are used ; melt the oint- 
 ment and leave it at rest to cool ; separate the 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1177 
 
 tnoisturc and dregs, and melt the (nntment 
 with the wnx. 
 
 Ointment of Lead. 5y». (UjrotrENTCM 
 FtiruBi, U. tiTHABOTEI — P. Cod.) Prep. 1. 
 Litharge, 3 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 4 oz.; olive 
 oil, 9 oz. ; mix with heat, and stir until they 
 combine. Camphor, morphia, and opium are 
 common additions to lead ointment, when an 
 anodyne effect is desirable. 
 
 2. (Compound ; Neutbal ointment, His- 
 oin's o.. Kibifands' o.; Unouentum nbti- 
 tbalb, u. plumbi compositum — ph. l.) 
 Lead plaster, 2 lbs. ; olive oil, 18 fl. oz. ; mix 
 by a gentle heat, and add of jprepared chalk, 
 6 oz. ; lastly, add of dilute acetic acid, 6 fl. oz., 
 and stir well until the mass hss cooled. As 
 a dressing in indolent nlcers, " but its utility 
 is doubtful." (Dr Garrod.) 
 
 Ob». It will bo observed that the College 
 has already modified the old formula of this 
 ointment. The vinegar is now the last ingre- 
 dient added to the mass. " Gradually add the 
 clialk, separately mixed with the vinegur, the 
 effervesctiice being finished, and stir," &c. 
 (Ph. L. 1836.) 8l'(! Acetate op Lead, Cab- 
 
 BONATE OP L., CmOBIDS OP L., lODIDE OP 
 
 L. ; Eye, Godlabd's, Lb Moet's, and other 
 ointments contulning lead. 
 
 Ointment, Le Mort's. Carbonate of lead, 
 corrosive sublimate, lithsrge, and Venice tur- 
 pentine, of each 1 oz. ; alum, \ oz. ; lard, \ lb. ; 
 vermilion, q. s. to colour. 
 
 Ointment of Ln'puline. Syn. Unguentcm 
 HTPUlJNiE, L. Frep. (Soubeiran.) I.upu- 
 line, 1 part; lard, 3 parts; digest by the heat 
 of a water bath for 5 or 6 hours, and strain. 
 As an anodyne dressing to cancerous niceis, 
 and as a friction to swollen and painful joints. 
 
 Ointment of Lycopo'dinm. Syn. Unouen- 
 tum LTCOPODII, L. Prep, Lycopodium, 1 
 dr. ; balsam of Peru, \ dr. ; simple ointment, 
 1 oz. In chaps aud excoriations. 
 
 Ointment of Mace. Syn. Unouentum ma- 
 CI0I8, L. Pref. From nmce (beaten to a paste) 
 and jiiilm oil, of each 1 lb. j purifitd beef 
 marrow, 3 Ihs. ; gently melted together, and 
 strained. Emollieiit and stimulant; chiefly 
 used as a pomade for the hair. Sold for 
 ' common oil of miice.' 
 
 Ointment of Marshmariow. Syn. Un- 
 ouentum aitbje;e, DiAiTHisa;, L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L. 1746.) Oil of mucilages, 2 lbs. ; bees- 
 wax, i lb. ; yellow resin, S oz. ; melt them 
 together, then aild of Venice turpentine, i oz. ; 
 and stir the mixture until it concretes. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From palm oil, i lb. ; yel- 
 low re>in, \\ lb.; beeswax, 2^ lbs.; pule lin- 
 seed oil, 9 lbs. (sny 1 gall.) ; melt together and 
 stir until it is nearly cold. 
 
 Use%, ifc. Emollient and stimulant ; seldom 
 used in regulnr practice, but in great repute 
 umouff^t the common people. Linseed oil is 
 now almost universally substituted for the oil 
 of murilnges. 
 
 Ointment of Uaster-wOTt. Syn. Pommade 
 
 ANTI-CANCtluasE BB MiLIUS ; UnOUENTUM 
 
 iMPEEiTOHia;, L. Prep. (Beasley.) Pow- 
 dered master-wort {Imperatoria Ostruthium), 
 1} oz. ; tincture of muster-wort, 1 oz. ; lard, 
 2oz. 
 
 Ointment of Katlco (Mr Young). Syn. 
 Unouentum matico. Prep. Powdered 
 matico, 3 drams ; opium, 3 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. 
 
 Ointment, Merca"rial. Syn. (.Strung meb- 
 
 CUEIAL ointment, BlUE O., NEAPOLITAN 
 
 o.; Unouentum htdbaeotei — B. P., Ph. L. 
 
 E. & D., U. H. FOETIUS, U. CiEEULEUM.) 
 Prep. 1. (B. p.) Mercury, 16; prepared lard, 
 16; prepared suet, 1; rub together until me- 
 tallic globules cease to be visible. See slso 
 Ointment, Meecueiai (Compound). 
 
 2. (Ph. L. & E.) Mercury, 1 lb.; lard. 
 Hi oz. ; suet, i oz. j rub the mercury with 
 the suet and a little of the lard, until globules 
 are no longer visible ; then add the remaining 
 lard, and triturate altogether. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Pure mercury and lard, of 
 each 1 lb. ; as before. 
 
 Pur., ifC. The ' stronger mercurial oint- 
 ment' of the shops is usually mude with a 
 less quantity of mercury than tlmt ordered 
 by the Colleges, and the colour is brought up 
 with finely ground blue black or wood char- 
 coal. This fraud may be detected by Its Infe- 
 rior sp. gr., and by a portion being left undis- 
 solved when a little of the ointment Is treated 
 first with ether or oil of turpentine, to remove 
 the fat, and then with dilute nitric acid, to 
 remove the mercury. When made according 
 to the instructions of the Ph., its sp. gr. is 
 not less than 1-781 at 60° Fahr. It " is not 
 well prepared so long as metallic globules may 
 be seen in it with a magnifier of 4 powers." 
 (I'h. E.) When rubbed on a piece of bright 
 copper or gold, it should immediately give it a 
 coating of metallic mercury, and a silvery 
 appearance. 
 
 The Vng. hyd. fort, of the wholesale 
 houses is generally made of mercury, 12 lbs., 
 suet, li lb., and lard, 16J lbs. It thus con- 
 tains only \ instead of \ its weight of mer- 
 cury. That of the same bouses labelled 'Ung. 
 hyd. partes aquales ' is prepared with mercury, 
 12 lbs. ; suet, li lb.; lard, 134 lbs. 
 
 Uses. This ointment is chiefly used to intro- 
 duce mercury into the system when the sto- 
 mach is too irritable to bear it ; in syphilis, 
 hepatic affections, hydrocephalus, &c. For 
 this purpose, i to 1 dr. is commonly rubbed 
 into the inside of oneof the thighs until every 
 particle of the ointment disappears. This 
 operation is repeated night and morning until 
 the desired effect is produced, and should be, 
 if possible, performed by the patient himself. 
 During its administration the patient should 
 avoid exposure to cold, and the use of fer- 
 mented or acidulous liquors, and his diet should 
 consist chiefly of toast, broth, gruel, milk-and- 
 water, and other inoffensive matters. This 
 ointment has been employed to prevent the 
 ' pitting' in smallpox ; and, diluted with 3 or 
 4 times its weight of lard, in several skin dis- 
 
1178 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 eases, as a dressing for ulcers, to destroy 
 pediculi, &c. Camphor is often added to this 
 ointment to increase its activity. With the 
 addition of a little extract of belladonna, or 
 hydrochlorate of ammonia, it forms an excel- 
 lent anodyne and resolvent friction in painful 
 syphilitic tumours and glandular enlarge- 
 ments. 
 
 Obs. The preparation of mercurial ointment 
 according to the common plan is a process of 
 much labour and difficulty, and usually occu- 
 pies several days. The instructions in the 
 Pharmacopoeias are very meagre and unsatis- 
 factory, and, so far as details go, are seldom 
 precisely carried out. Employers grumble, 
 and operatives become impatient, when they 
 find the most assiduous trituration apparently 
 fails to hasten the extinction of the globules. 
 To facilitate matters, various tricks are re- 
 sorted to, and various contraband additions 
 are often clandestinely made. Among the 
 articles referred to, sulphur and turpentine are 
 those which have been longest known, 9nd, 
 perhaps, most frequently employed for the 
 purpose ; but the first spoils the colour, and 
 the other the consistence, of the ointment ; 
 whilst botli impart to it more or less of their 
 peculiar and respective odours. On the Con- 
 tinent, oil of eggs was formerly very generally 
 used for the purpose, and is even now occa- 
 sionally so employed. Nearly half a century 
 ago Mr W. Cooley clearly showed that the 
 difficulty might be satisfactorily overcome by 
 simply triturating the quicksilver with -j to i 
 of its weight of old mercurial ointment, before 
 adding the lard ; and that the effective power 
 of this substance was in direct proportion to 
 its age, or the length of time it had been ex- 
 posed to the air. His plan was to employ the 
 ' bottom' and ' scraping' of the store pots for 
 the pnrpose. At a later period (1814-15) Mr 
 Higginbotto'ti, of Northampton, repeated this 
 recommendation, and at length the plan has 
 been imported into the Pharmacopoeia Borus- 
 sica. About twenty years since, *' we re- 
 opened an investigation of the subject, which 
 extended over several months, during which 
 we satisfied ourselves of the accuracy of the 
 assertion of M. Roux, that the mercury in 
 mercurial ointment exists entirely, or nearly 
 so, in the metallic state, and not in the form 
 of oxide, as was generally assumed. We suc- 
 ceeded in preparing an excellent sample of 
 mercurial ointment by agitating washed suet 
 and qui(^ksilver together in vacuo. The quan- 
 tity of oxide present at any time in this oint- 
 ment is variable and accidental, and is largest 
 in that which has, been long prepared ; but in 
 no case is it sufficient to materially discolour 
 the fat after the metallic mercury is separated 
 from it. We were led to conclude that the 
 property alluded to, possessed by old ointment, 
 depends solely on the peculiar degree of con. 
 sistence or viscidity of the fat present in it, 
 and on the loss of much of the thoroughly 
 greasy, 'anti-attritive' character, possessed by 
 
 the latter in a receut state. In practically 
 working out this idea we obtained pure fats 
 (MAQ-HEIIO ADEPS; SBVUM PBiEPABAIUM), 
 which, without any addition, were capable of 
 reducing, in a few minutes, 8, 16, 32, and even 
 48 times their weight of mercury. We also 
 found that the formula of the Pharmacopoeia 
 might be adopted, and that a perfect ointment 
 might be readily obtained by skilful manage- 
 ment in from half an hour to an hour, even 
 without these resources. All that was necessary 
 was to employ a very gentle degree of heat by 
 either performing the operation in a warm 
 apartment or by allowing the mortar to re- 
 main filled with warm water for a short time 
 before using it. Suet or lard, reduced either 
 by gentle warmth or by the addition of a little 
 almond oil to the consistence of a thick cream, 
 so that it will hang to the pestle without run- 
 ning from it, will readily extinguish 7 or 8 
 times its weight of running mercury by simple 
 trituration. The exact temperature must, 
 however, be hit upon, or the operation fails. 
 This fact was afterwards noticed in the ' Ann. 
 de Chim.,' and some other journals." (A. J. 
 Cooley.) 
 
 M. Pomonti has proposed a method of pre- 
 paring strong mercurial ointment, which, 
 modified to suit the English operator, is as 
 follows : — Fresh lard, 8 parts ; solution of nitre 
 (see below), 1 part; mix by trituration, add 
 of mercury, 32 parts, and again triturate. The 
 globules disappear after a few turns of the 
 pestle, but reappear in a few minutes, and 
 then again disappear to return no more. 
 When this happens, the trituration is to be 
 continued for a few minutes longer, when lard, 
 24 parts, is to be rubbed in, and the ointment 
 at once put into pots. It is said that the 
 globules are so completely extinguished as to 
 escape detection, even when the ointment is 
 examined by a microscope of low power. 
 The Solution. — Nitre, 100 gr. ; water, 1 fl. 
 oz. ; dissolve. This quantity is sufficient for a 
 kilogramme of mercury. 
 
 M. Lahens strongly recommends for the 
 rapid preparation of mercurial ointment the 
 application of oil of almonds in the following 
 proportions : — Mercury, 1000 parts j oil of 
 almonds, 20 parts ; lard, 980 parts. The 
 mercury is first triturated with the oil for 
 about fifteen minutes, after which its globules 
 are said to be no longer discernible by the 
 naked eye; 200 parts of the melted lard are 
 now added, and the trituration continued to 
 the complete extinction of the metal, which 
 is generally accomplished within an hour. The 
 ointment is then mixed with the remainder 
 of the lard. See Ointment op Oxide op 
 Mebcukt. 
 Ointment, Mercurial (Milder). Mildeb blub 
 
 OINTMENT, TeOOPEE'S O., UNOTION; UhSTTEN- 
 XUM HTDBAEGTBI MITIUS, U. CJEBTTLEUM 
 MiTius. Prep. 1. Stronger mercurial oint- 
 ment, 1 lb. ; lard, 2 lbs. 
 
 Dose, S(e. In the itch and several other 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1179 
 
 cutaneous diteanes, as a dressing to syphilitic 
 ulcers, to dctroy pcdiculi on the body, &c. 
 Each drnchm contains 10 gr. of mercury. That 
 of theshops generally contains considerably less. 
 
 2. (With 80APJ Unocentum hydbaeqtei 
 BAPOMACEtTM ; Savon mbecueikl). — o. (Dra- 
 per.) Mercurial ointment (softened by a gentle 
 heat), 1 oz. ; hydrate of potassa, 1 dr., dissolved 
 in water, J fl. oz. ; triturate them together 
 until the mass solidiRes. 
 
 4. (Swedinur.) Milder mercurial ointment, 8 
 parts ; soft soap, 2 parts ; camphor, 1 part. In 
 periostitis, engorgements of the testicles, soft 
 corns, 4 c. See Ointmbkt op Niteate op 
 Mebocry, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Mercurial (Compotuid), B. P. Mer- 
 curial ointment, 6; yellow wax, 3; olive oil, 
 3; camphor, 1). Melt the wax and oil, and 
 when the mixture is nearly cold, add the cam- 
 phor in powder and the mercurial ointment, 
 and mix. 
 
 Ointment, Mercurial, with Hydrochlorate of 
 Ammonia. Dupuytren. Syn. Unoukntdm 
 
 IIYDIIAEGYEI CUM AMMONIA; MUEIATE. Prep. 
 Stronger mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; hydro- 
 chlorate of ammoni!!, 1 dr. 
 Ointment, Mercnrial, with Soda. (F. H.) 
 
 Sj/n. UnGUENTDM nYDEAEOYEI CUM SODA, 
 
 Savon MKncuHiEL. Prep. Mercurial ointment, 
 3^ oz. ; solution of soda, 3 oz. ; triturate until 
 they combine. 
 Ointment of Mercury, Oleate of. (U. C. 
 
 Hosp.) til/n. LlNIMENTDM HYDEAUOYHI 
 OLEATIS, UnOPENTITM BYDKABGYRI OLBATIS. 
 (10 per cent.) Prep. Yellow peroxide of 
 mercury, 1 dr. ; pure oleic acid, 10 dr. To the 
 oleic acid kept u^;itated in a mortar, sprinkle 
 in tlie peroxide gradually, and triturate fre- 
 quently during 24 hours, until the peroxide is 
 dissolved, and a gelatinous solution is formed, 
 20 per cent, as above, using double the quan- 
 tity of yellow oxide. To be applied with a 
 brush, or spread lightly over the part with the 
 linger. In persistent inflammation of the 
 joints. Professor Marshall adds to 3j of the 
 above preparation, 1 gr. of morphia — the pure 
 alkaloid — not one of its salts, which are inso- 
 luble in oleic acid. 
 
 In the preparation of ointment of oleate of 
 mercury it is of the utmost importance that 
 the mercurii' oxide should be thoroughly dry, 
 and filrtlicr that it should be sifted in small 
 portions at a time upon the surface of the oleic 
 acid, each fresh portion being well incorporated 
 before another is added. Solution should be 
 promoted by frequent stirring, at ordinary 
 temperatures, since experience has shown that 
 all heating is positively injurious.' 
 
 Ointment of Hercnry, Yellow Oxide of. 
 (U. S. Ph.) Syn. Unquentum hydearoyei, 
 OxYDi FLAvr. Prep. Yellow oxide of mer- 
 cury, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 420 gr. 
 
 Ointment of Uete'reon. Syn. UNQUENTtTM 
 MEZEBKi, L. Prep. 1. (Hamb. Cod.) Alco- 
 holic extract of mezereon, 2 dr. ; dissolve in 
 ' C. Rice. 
 
 rectified spirit, q. s. ; add it to white wax, 1 oz. ; 
 lard, 8 oz., and mix by a gentle heat. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Mezereon (dried root-bark), 
 4 oz. ; moisten it with rectified spirit, bruise it 
 well, and digest it for 12 hours, at the heat of 
 boiling water, in lard, 14^ oz. ; then strain 
 with pressure, and allow it to cool slowly ; 
 lastly, separate it from the dregs, remelt it, 
 and add of white wax, \\ oz. Used as a stimu- 
 lating application to blistered surfaces and in- 
 dolent ulcers. 
 
 3. (P. Cod.) Eihereal extract of mezereon, 
 176 gr. ; lard, 9 oz. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 1 oz. ; dissolve the extract in the 
 alcohol, add the lard and wax, heat moderately, 
 stir until the spirit is driven olf, strain and 
 stir till cold. 
 
 Ointment of Monesia. Syn. UsorENTUn 
 MONESI^. Prep. Oil of almonds, 4 parts ; 
 white wax, 2 parts ; extract of monesia, 1 part ; 
 water, 1 part. 
 
 Ointment of Mustard. <S^». UNorEKTrsi 
 8INAPI8, L, Prep. 1. Flour of mustard, \ oz ; 
 water, 1 H. oz. ; mix, and add, of re.-in cerate, 
 2 oz ; oil of tui'pentine, 4oz. IJubefacient and 
 stimulant. As a friction in rheumatism, &c. 
 
 2. (Fr:ink.) Flour of mustard, 3 oz. ; oil of 
 almonds, i fl. oz.; lemon juice, q. s. In suu- 
 burn, freckles, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Kaph'thalin. Syn. Unottek- 
 TUM NAPHTHALiKi, L. Prep. (Emery.) 
 Nnphthalin, J dr. ; lard, 71 dr. In dry tetters, 
 lepra, psoriasis, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Neapolitan. See Ointmekt, 
 Mercurial. 
 
 Ointment, Nervine. Syn. Balsamtim nke- 
 yiNUM, UNorENTUM N., L. ; Baume nerval, 
 Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Expressed oil of mace 
 and ox marrow, of each 4 oz. ; melt by a gentle 
 heat, and add, of oil of rosemary, 2 dr. ; oil of 
 cloves, 1 dr. ; camphor, 1 dr. ; balsam of tolu, 
 2 dr. ; (the last two dissolved in) rectified 
 spirit, 4 dr. In rheumatism, &c. A somewhat 
 similar preparation was included in the I'h. E. 
 1744. 
 
 Ointment, Narcotic and Balsamic (0. Ph.). 
 Syn. Unouentom sabcotico-dalbamhum 
 HELLMrNDI. Prep. Acetate of lead, 10 
 drams; extract of hemlock, 30 drams; wax 
 ointment, 33 oz. ; balsam of Peru, 30 drums; 
 wine of opium, 5 drams. 
 
 Ointment, Nen'tral. See Ointmekt of 
 Lead (Compound). 
 
 Ointment of Ni'trate of Mercury. Syn. 
 Citrine ointment. Yellow c. Mercurial 
 
 balsam ; UXOUENTUM HYDRARQYRI NITRATI3 
 (B. P., Ph. L. Sl D.), U. h. n., or U. cithikum 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Pli. L.) Mercury, 2 oz.; 
 nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-42), 4 fl. oz.; dissolve 
 and mix the solution, whilst still hot, with lard, 
 1 lb., and olive oil, 8 fl. oz., melted together. 
 (For llie milder ointment, see below.) 
 
 2. (Hh. E.) Mercury, 4 oz. J nitric acid (sp. 
 gr. 1-600), 8 fl. oz. 6 fi.dr. ; dissolve by a gentle 
 heat, add the liquid to lard, 15 oz. ; olive oil, 
 32 fl. oz.; melted together, and whilst the 
 
1180 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 whole are still hot, and mix them thoroughly. 
 " If the mixture does not froth np, increase tlie 
 heat a little until this talses place. Keep the 
 ointment in earthenware vessels, or glass 
 vessels, secluded from the air." This admirable 
 formula is a modification of that originally 
 introduced into Pliarmacy by the late Dr 
 Duncan, of Edinburgh. (For the milder oint- 
 ment, see below.) 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Mercury 1 oz. ; nitric acid, 
 (1-500), 1 fl. oz. ; (diluted with) water, J fl. oz.; 
 dissolve by a gentle heat, and add the liquid 
 to lard, 4 oz. ; olive oil, 8 fl. oz. ; melted toge- 
 ther, and still hot ; next " let the temperature 
 of the mixture be raised so as to cause effer- 
 vescence, and then, withdrawing the heat, stir 
 the mixture with a porcelain spoon until it 
 concretes on cooling." 
 
 4. (P. Cod.) Mercury, 3 parts; nitric acid 
 (1-321), 6 parts; lard and oil, of each 24 
 parts ; as above. 
 
 5. (Ph. U. S.) Mercury, 1 oz.; nitric acid 
 (1-42), 14 fl. oz. ; lard, 3 oz. ; fresh neat's-foot 
 oil, 9 fl. oz. ; mix the mercurial solution with 
 the melted fat and oil at 200° Pahr. 
 
 6. (B. P.) Mercury, 4; nitric acid, 12; 
 prepared lard, 15 ; olive oil, 32 ; dissolve the 
 mercury in the nitric acid with the aid of a 
 gentle heat ; melt the lard in the oil by a steam 
 or water bath in a porcelain vessel capable of 
 holding six times the quantity, and while the 
 mixture is hot add the solution of mercury, 
 also hot, and mix them together thoroughly. 
 If the mixture does not froth up, incrense the 
 heat till this occurs. (The heat required for 
 this is from 170° to 180° Fahr.) 
 
 Dses, 4-c. Detergent and stimulant. In 
 ringworm, herpes, itch, porrigo, psoriasis, and 
 some other chronic sliin diseases; in various 
 chronic affections of the eyes, especially chronic 
 inflammation and ulceration of the eyelids, 
 ' blear eye,' ifcc. It " may almost be regarded as 
 specific in p9orophthalinia,in the purulent oph- 
 thalmia of infants producing ectropinm (ever- 
 sion of the eyelids), and in ulcerations of the 
 tarsi (edges of the eyelids)." (A. T. Thomson.) 
 As a dressing to old ulcers, more especially 
 those of a syphilitic character, it is superior to 
 all the other ointments containing mercury ; 
 in sore legs, assisted l)y the internal use of the 
 pill of soap with opium (pil saponis cxtm 
 OPio), it often acts like a charm when all other 
 modes of treatment have failed. For most of 
 these purposes it should be diluted with from 
 twice to seven times its weight of some simple 
 fatty matter. One of the principal reasons 
 why this ointment is in less general use than 
 its merits deserve, is the very inferior quality 
 of that vended in the shops under the name, 
 arising from almost every druggist preparing 
 some mess of liis own, instead of adhering to 
 the College formula;. 
 
 Obs. Ointmentiif nitrate of mercury, faith- 
 fully prepared according to the instructions in 
 the Pharmacopoeia, possesses a rich golden- 
 yellow colour, and a buttery consistence, and 
 
 beeps well. Unfortunately, clumsy and care- 
 less operators, who regard the Pharmacopoeia 
 as a foolish book, which it is quite unnecessary 
 to look into, often fail in their attempts to 
 produce an article of good quality. The diffi- 
 culty is immediately surmounted by employing 
 pure ingredients, in the proportions ordered, 
 and mixing them at the proper temperature. 
 The acid should be of the full strength, or, 
 if somewhat weaker than that directed, an 
 equivalent quantity should be employed. A 
 slight excess of acid is not injurious, rather 
 the contrary; but a deficiency of acid, in all 
 cases, more or less damages the quality of the 
 product. If, on stirring the mercurial solu- 
 tion with the melted lard and oil, the mixture 
 does not froth up, the heat should be increased 
 a little, as, unless a violent frothing and reac- 
 tion take place, the ointment will not turn out 
 of good quality, and will rapidly harden and 
 lose its colour. The most favorable tempe- 
 rature for the union of the ingredients is from 
 185° to 200° Fahr., and in no ease should it 
 exceed 212°; whilst below 180° Fahr., the 
 reactions are feeble and imperfect. 
 
 Stoneware or glass vessels must alone be 
 employed in the preparation of this ointment, 
 and the stirrers or spatulas should be either 
 of glass or white deal. The best plan is to 
 keep the whole exclusively for the purpose, 
 and when out of nse to preserve them from 
 dust and dirt. (See below.) 
 
 Ointment of Ni'trate of Mercury. (Milder.) 
 
 %«. MiLDEE CITEINE OIKTMENT; UNftUEN- 
 TUM HYDEARGTBI NITEATIB MITHJB (Ph. L.), 
 U. H. N. M., or U. CITEINUM M. (Ph. E.), L. 
 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Ointment of nitrate of mer- 
 cury, 1 oz.; lard, 7 oz. ; rub them together. 
 " This ointment is to be used recently pre- 
 pared." 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) As the stronger ointment. Ph. E., 
 but using a triple proportion of oil and lard. 
 Uses, <^c. See the steongee ointment 
 (aJo®e). 
 
 Ointment of Ni'trate of Sil'ver. Si/n. Un- 
 
 GUENTITM AKGENTI HITEATIS, L. Frep. 1. 
 
 (M. Jobert.) Nitrate of silver, 2, 4, or 6 parts; 
 lard, 20 parts. These ointments are respec- 
 tively numbered 1, 2, and 3, and are used in 
 wliite-swelling. 
 
 2. (Macdonald.) Nitrate of silver, l' part ; 
 lard, 7 to 8 parts. To smear bougies, in 
 gonorrhoeii, &c. 
 
 3. (Mackenzie.) Nitrate of silver, 5 gr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. In purulent and chronic ophthal- 
 mia, nlcers on the cornea, &c. 
 
 4. (Velpeau.) Nitrate of silver, 1 gr. ; lard, 
 1 dr. In acute ophthalmia, &c. The above 
 compounds require to be used with caution. 
 
 Ointment of Hi'tric Acid. Si/n. Oxtgen- 
 
 IBBD FATt; UNGUENTDM OXTGENATDM, U. A. 
 NITEICI, L. ; POMMADE d'Alyon, Fr. Frep. 
 (Pli. D. 1826.) Olive oil, 1 lb. ; lard, 4 oz. ; 
 melt them together, add, gradually, of nitric 
 acid (sp. gr. 1-500), 5i 9. dr., and stir the 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1181 
 
 mixture constantly willi a glass rod until it 
 coucrctes. 
 
 Utei, S(c. In itch, porrigo, and some other 
 chronic skin diseasex; and as a dressing for 
 syphilitic and herpetic ulcprs, old sores, &c. 
 It is frequently employed as a suhstitutc for 
 the ointment of nitrate of mercury, which it 
 somewhat resembles in appearance; but it is 
 less active and useful. 
 
 Ointment of W i'tric Ox'ide of Mer'cnry. 8yn. 
 Ointment of bed oxide op mubccet (B. P.), 
 Ued pheoipitate ointment ; Unouentum 
 iitdbarotbi nithico-oxtdi (ph. l.), u. h. 
 
 OXTDI (Ph. E.), U. H. O. BTTBEI (B. P., Ph. D.), 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) White wax, 2 oz. ; lard, 
 6 oz. ; mix, by heat, add of nitric oxide of 
 mercury, in very fine powder, 1 oz., and rub 
 them together. 
 
 H. (Ph. E.) Nitric oxide of mercury, 1 oz. ; 
 lard, 8 oz. ; mix by trituration. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Red oxide of mercury (nitric 
 oxide), 1 dr. j ointment of white wax, 7 dr. ; 
 as the last. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Red oxide of mercury, in very 
 fine powdfr, 62 gr. ; yellow wax, i oz. ; oil of 
 almonds, 'i oz. ; melt the wax, add the oil, and 
 mix. 
 
 Utet, S(c. An excellent stimulant application 
 to indolint and foul sores, ulcers, &c. ; and, 
 » hen diluted, ns an eye ointment in chronic 
 inllammation and ulceration of the eyes and 
 eyelids, and especially in psorophthalmia ; 
 also in specks on the cornea, and the other 
 iilfcctions noticed under Ointment op Ni- 
 TiiATE OF Meboubt. It forms the basis of 
 numerous quack medicines. See also Oint- 
 ment OF Oxide op Meecuey {belom). 
 
 Ointment, Ohstet'ric. Syn. UNOUENTtTM ob- 
 
 BTETUICUM, L. ; PoMMADE OBSTETEIOAIE, Fr. 
 Prep. 1. (Chaussier.) Extract of belladonna, 
 
 1 dr. ; water, 2 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. To promote 
 the dilatation of the os uteri. 
 
 2. (PoMMADE POUE LE TOUCHEE.) From 
 yellow wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz. j 
 olive oil, 16 oz. ; melt them togethei-, strain, 
 add of solution of caustic soda, 1 11, oz., and 
 stir until the whole is nearly cold. 
 
 Ointment of O'pium. Si/n. Unottentum 
 OPiATtTM, U. OPH (Ph. l!), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 20 gr. ; Inrd, 1 oz. ; 
 mix by trituration. As a simple anodyne 
 friction or dressing. 
 
 2. (Augustin.) Opium, 2 dr. ; ox-gall, 2 oz. ; 
 digest 2 days, strain, and add, of melted lard, 
 
 2 oz. J oil of bergamot, 10 drops. 
 
 3. (Brenv.) Opium, 1 dr. ; gastric juice of a 
 cnlf, \ oz. ; dige!>t 21 hours, and add of melted 
 lard, 1 oz. 
 
 Ointment of Oxide of Lead. See Ointment, 
 Lea«. 
 
 Ointment of Oxide of ]IIan"ganese. Syn. 
 Unocentum masoanesii oxtdi, U. m. bin- 
 OXIDI, L. Prep. 1. Black oxide of manga- 
 nese (levigated), 1 dr. j lard, 1 oz. j mix by 
 patient trituration. As a friction in scrofu- 
 
 lous swellings and indurations; and in itch, 
 scald-head, chilblains, &c. 
 
 2. (W. Cooley.) Binoxide of manganese, 
 1 dr. ; sulphur, 2 dr. ; lard, 9 dr. ; cajeput oil, 
 16 drops. As the last; also as a friction in 
 rheumatism, swelled joints, &c., and in porrigo, 
 and some other skin diseases. 
 
 Ointment of Oxide of Mer'cnry. Under this 
 name the two ointments noticed below are 
 often confounded, owing to the different 
 opinions held respecting the atomic weight of 
 mercury : — 
 
 1. Ointment of Grey Oxide of Mer'cury. 
 Syn. Ointment op suboxide of mkecitet, 
 0. op peotoxide op M.t ; XJnouentum hy- 
 dbaeqybi oxtdi, U. h. stjboxydi, U. h. o. 
 oiNEBKr, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1817.) Grey 
 oxide of mercury, 1 oz. ; lard, 3 oz. ; triturate 
 together. Formerly proposed as a substitute 
 fdr mercurial ointment, but in practice it has 
 been found useless as a friction, owing to the 
 unctuous matter only being absorbed, whilst 
 the oxide is left on the surface. This objection 
 does not apply to the following prepara- 
 tions : — 
 
 2. (Donovan.) Grey oxide of mercury, 20 
 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; mix, and expose them to the 
 temperature of 320° Fahr. for 2 hours, con- 
 stantly stirring. Grey coloured. It may also 
 bo made from the nitric- or red-oxide in the 
 same way, by keeping the ointment heated 
 to about 300° for some hours. Cleaner and 
 stronger than Ung. hyd. fort. — Ph. L. 
 
 3. (Tyson.) Black oxide of mercury (pre- 
 pared by decomposing precipitated calomel 
 with liquors of potassa and ammonia), 2 oz. ; 
 lard, 1 lb.; triturate together. Inferior in 
 activity to the last. It closely resembles in 
 appearance a fine sample of mercurial oint- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Ointment of Red Oxide of Mercury. Syn. 
 
 UnGUENTUM HYDEABOYBI BINOXIDlf, U. H. 
 OXYDI BUBKI, L. Prep. (Cazenave.) Red 
 oxide of mercury, 30 gr. ; camphor, 5 gr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. Closely resembles ointment of 
 nitric oxide of mercury, over which it, per- 
 haps, possesses some advantage from the oxide 
 being in a more minutely divided state. 
 
 Ointment of Oxide of Sil'ver. Unouentum 
 ABOENTl OXYDI, L. Prep. (Serre.) Oxide of 
 silver, 16 to 20 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a dressing 
 for scrofulous and syphilitic sores, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Oxide of Zinc. Syn. Zinc oint- 
 ment; NIHIL ALBUM OINTMENT+ ; UxaUEN- 
 
 tum zinci (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), U. oxtdi 
 ZINCI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of zinc, 
 
 1 oz. ; lard, 6 oz. ; mix them together. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Oxide of zinc, 1 oz. ; simple 
 liniment (Ph. E.), 6 oz. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Ointment of white wax, 12 oz. ; 
 melt it by a gentle heat, add of oxide of zinc, 
 
 2 oz. ; and stir constantly until the mixture 
 concretes. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Oxide of zinc, in very fine pow- 
 der, 1 ; bf nzoated lard, 5i ; mix. 
 
1182 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Astringent, desiecative, and stimu- 
 lant; in excoriationSf biirns, various skin dis- 
 eases attended by profuse discharges, in chronic 
 inUammation of the eyes depending on relaxa- 
 tion of the vessels, in sore nipples, indolent 
 sores, ringworm of the scalp; &e. It is an 
 excellent and very useful preparation. See 
 OiNTMBNT, Ttjttt (beloie). 
 
 Ointment of Pep per. Syn. UxsuENTUM 
 PiPEBis NiaEl, L. Prep. 1. Black pepper 
 (bruised), 1 oz. ; lard, 2 oz. ; suet, 1 oz. ; di- 
 gest together in a covered vessel, bythe heat 
 of a water bath, for six hours, then strain, with 
 pressure, add of expressed oil of mace, 2 dr., 
 and stir until the mixture concretes. In piles, 
 itch, as a friction in rheumatism, &c. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. 1826.) Black pepper (in fine 
 powder), 4 oz. ; lard, 1 lb. ; mix. In scald- 
 head, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Phosphor'ic Acid. Si/n. Uir- 
 
 GUENTUM AOIDI PHOSPHOEICI, L. JPrep. 
 
 (Soubeiran.) Phosphoric acid, 1 dr.; lard 
 (softened by he:it), 1 oz ; triturate carefully 
 togetlier. As a friction in caries, osseous 
 tumours, &c. 
 Ointment of Phos'phorus. S^n. UiratrEif- 
 
 TUM PH08PH0KI,U. PHOSPHOKATUM, L. Frep. 
 
 (P. Cod.) Phospliorus, 1 dr. ; lard, 6 oz. 3 dr. ; 
 uielt together (iu a wide-mouthed bottle) by 
 the heat of a water bath, remove the vessel 
 from the heat, and shake it briskly until the 
 ointment concretes. As a friction in gout, 
 chronic rheumatism, and several skin dis- 
 eases. 
 
 Ointment of Picrotox'in. Si/n. Unguentum 
 PiCEOTOXiKji:, L. Frep. (Jajer.) Picro- 
 toxin, 10 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. In ringworm o( 
 the scalp, and to destroy pediculi. It should 
 be used with care. 
 
 Ointment for Piles. Si/n. Unguentum h^- 
 
 MOKEHOIDAIE, U. ANTI-n.EMOEEnOIDALE, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. Burnt alum and oxide of zinc, of 
 each i dr. ; lard, 7 dr. 
 
 2. (Bories.) Acetate of lead, 15 gr. ; 
 freshly burnt cork, i oz. ; washed h esh butter, 
 2oz. ; triturate well together. 
 
 3. (W. Coolcy.) Morphia, 8 gr. ; melted 
 spermaceti ointment, .1 oz. ; triturate together 
 until solution is complete, then add, of galls 
 (in impalpable powder), IJ dr., essential oil of 
 almonds (genuine crude), 12 to 15 drops, and 
 stir until the mass concretes. In painlul piles, 
 prolapsus, &c. It is not only very effective, 
 but does not soil the linen so much as most 
 other ointments. 
 
 4. (Dr Gedding.) Carbonate of lead, 4 dr. ; 
 sulphate of morphia, 15 gr. ; stramonium 
 ointment, 1 oz. ; olive oil, q. s. When there 
 is much pain and inflammation. 
 
 5. (Sir H. Halford.) Ointment of nitrate 
 of mercury and oil of almonds, equal parts, 
 triturated together. 
 
 6. (Mazziui.) Nitrate of morphia, 15 gr. ; 
 citrine ointment, 1 dr.; fresh butter, 1 oz. 
 As the last. 
 
 7. (Vallez.) Extract of elder leave«, I dr. ; 
 
 burnt alum, 16 gr.; poplar ointment, 1 oz. 
 For other formulae, see the respective names 
 of their leading ingredients. 
 
 8. (Ware.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; simple ointment, 
 
 1 oz.; dissolve by beat, add of powdered galls, 
 
 2 dr.; mix well, further add of tincture of 
 opium, 2 fl. dr., and stir until the whole is 
 cold. In flabby mucous and painful piles. 
 
 9. (Zanin.) Spermaceti ointment, 1 oz. ; 
 powdered galls, 1 dr. j powdered opium, 18 
 gr. ; solution of diacetate of lead, 1 fl. dr. 
 When there is both pain and inflammation, 
 
 10. (From New Kemedies.) Yellow wax, 8 
 parts; resin, 4 parts; lard, 12 parts; oil of 
 sassafras, 2 parts. Melt the wax, resin, and 
 lard, remove from the fire, add the oil of 
 sassafras, and stir until the mass is solid. 
 This is said to be a most excellent application 
 for painful or itching piles. 
 
 Ointment of Pitch. Si/n. Black basilicon, 
 Ointment of black pitch ; Ung. picis (B.P., 
 Ph. L.),U. PiciSNiGB^, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Black pitch, resin, and beeswax, of each 
 11 oz.; olive oil, 1 pint; melt together, strain 
 through a linen cloth (and stir until the mass 
 concretes). 
 
 2. (B. P.) Tar, 5; yellow wax, 2; melt 
 together, and stir till cold. 
 
 Uses, iSfc. Stimulant and detergent; very 
 useful in indolent ulcerations, scald-head, and 
 various foul eruptions. In itch and psoriasis, 
 and other scaly skin diseases, a little sulphur is 
 commonly added to it. 
 
 Ointment of Plat'innm. Sm. Ungubntum: 
 PLATINI, L. Peep. (Hcefer.) Bichloride of pla- 
 tinum, 15 gr.; extract of belladonna, i dr.; lard, 
 1 oz. As a dressing for painful indolent ulcers. 
 
 Ointment of Plumbago. Syn. Ointment 
 
 OP GKAPHITE; UkGUENTTTM GBAPHITIS, U. 
 
 PLUjiBAGiNis, L. Prep. From pure plumbago 
 ('bl.ick-lead'), IJ dr.; lard, 1 oz. As a 
 dressing to ulcers, and in certain skin diseases. 
 
 Ointment, Plunket's. Prep. (Original for- 
 mula.) Crowsfoot, 1 h.andful; dog's fennel, 3 
 sprigs; pound well, add of flowers of sulphur 
 and white arsenic, of each 3 thimblefuls ; beat 
 them well together, form the mass into bo- 
 luses, and dry them in the sun. For use, pow- 
 der them ; and mix the powder with yolk of 
 egg, spread a little on a small piece of pig's 
 bladder (size of half a crown), and apply it to 
 the sore, where it must remain until it falls off 
 by itself. Poisonous; in cancer; with great 
 caution. 
 
 Ointment, Poma'tum. See Ointment, Labd. 
 
 Ointment of Pop'lar Buds. Si/n. Unguen- 
 TUM POPULEUM, L. Prep. 1. Fresh poplar 
 buds (bruised), 1 part; lard, 4 parts; boil 
 until crisp, and strain. It never gets rancid. 
 Emollient and stimulant. 
 
 2. (Compound— P. Cod.) Poplar bud*, 12 
 oz. ; fresh leaves of belladonna, common night- 
 j^hade (Solanum nigrum), henbane, and poppies, 
 of each 8 oz. ; lard, 4i lbs.; as the last. 
 Emollient, stimulant, and anodyne. 
 
 Ointment of Potas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony. 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1183 
 
 Si/n. Antimonial ointment, Tabtae emetic 
 
 O. ; UnoUEKTDM ANTIMONII TAKTABATI (U.P.), 
 UnOUENTCM ANTIMONII POTA9SIO-TABTATEI8 
 (Hi. I-.). U- A- TAETAEIZATI (Ph. D.), U. 
 ANTIMONIALE (Pll. E.), U. TA8TAEI EMETICI, 
 li. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Potasaic tar- 
 trate of antimony, rubbed to a very fine 
 powder, 1 oz. i lard, 4 oz. ; mix by trituration. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Tartar emetic, in very fine 
 piiwder, 1 dr.; ointment of white wax, 7 dr. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Tartrated antimony (in fine pow- 
 der), I ; simple ointment, 4. Mix. 
 
 L'se», Jj^c. Counter-irritant; in phthisis, 
 chronic rheumatism, certain liver atlections, 
 and uther deep-seated pains and diseases. A 
 portion about the size of a nut is rubbed on 
 the skin night and morning, until a crop of 
 pustules is produced. The part should be 
 well rubbed with a coarse towel, so as to be 
 reddened, before applying the ointment. 
 The product of the Dublin formula is of 
 only half the strength of those of the other 
 Colleges. 
 
 Obs. liuforo adding the tartar emetic to the 
 lard it should be reduced to the state of an 
 impalpable powder. The precipitated salt is 
 the best for this purpose. As the pustules 
 formed by this ointment permanently mark 
 the skin, it should only be applied to th< sc 
 parts qf the person which are covered by the 
 dress. 
 
 Ointment, Fur'gatlTe. See Ointment of 
 COLOCVNTII, WoHM 0., &c. 
 
 Ointment of Quinine'. Spi. UNonENTUM 
 
 QUlNIiE, U. QUINIjE SULPHATIS, h. Frep. 1. 
 Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; lard, 3 dr. lu the 
 agues of children. 
 
 2. (Boasley eaAntonini.) Sulphate of qui- 
 nine, 1 dr.; alcohol (rectified spirit), 2 dr.; 
 sulphuric iicid, 10 drops; dissolve, and mix it 
 with lard, i oz. In malignant intermittents ; 
 2 to 4 dr. at a time, rubbed into the groin or 
 axilla. 
 
 Ointment of Eed Sul'phuret of Mer'cury. 
 jSyn. Unqukntum nYDRAKayRi BisuLpnn- 
 
 USTI, U. H. BULPHOEETI EUDBI, L. frep. 1. 
 
 (Alibert.) lied sulphuret of mercury, 1 dr.; 
 camphor, 20 \zr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. In 
 herpes, applied twice a day. 
 
 2. (Collier.) Uisulphuret of mercury, li dr.; 
 sal ammoniac, t dr.; liird, 1 oz. ; rose water, 
 1 fl. dr. In several skin diseases, to diminish 
 the itchins:, destroy pediculi, <Scc. 
 
 3. (Iludius.) As the last, with 1 oz. more 
 lard. 
 
 Ointment of Bes'in. S^n. Yellow basili- 
 Ci)N; Unouentum besin.k (Ph. D.), U. ee- 
 SIKOSOM (Ph. E.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. D.) 
 Yellow wax, ^ lb.; vellow resin, in coarse pow- 
 der, i lb.; prepared lard, 1 lb.; melt them 
 together by a ;;untle heat, strain the mixture, 
 whilst hut, through ilanuel, and stir it con- 
 st. mtly until it concretes. 
 
 -. (Ph. E.) Beeswax, 2 oz.; resin, 5 oz. ; 
 lard, 8 oz. 
 
 Obi. A u.seful stimulant dressing to foul 
 
 and indolent nlcers. For the corresponding 
 
 preparation of the Ph. L., see Cekate, Resin. 
 
 Ointment, Besol'vent. See Ointment, 
 
 DlSCtTTIENT. 
 
 Ointment of Bhatany (Trousseau). St/n. 
 Unoubntum EHATTINI.E. Prep. E.vtract of 
 rhatany, IJ dr. ; cacao butter, 5 dr. Mix. 
 
 Ointment, Bing'worm. Ungukktum con- 
 TBA-TINEAM, L. Prep. 1. Carbonate of soda, 1 
 part ; fresh-slaked lime, 4 parts ; lard, 120 parts. 
 
 2. Ointment of nitrate of mercury, 1 dr.; 
 tar ointment and lard, of each ^ oz. 
 
 3. (Henke.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. dr.; 
 juniper-tar ointment, i oz.; marshmallow do., 
 
 1 oz. 
 
 4. (Pereira.) Tar, 3 dr. ; lard, 1 i oz. ; melt 
 them together, and stir in of acetic acid (Ph. 
 L.), 2 fl. dr. 
 
 6. (Thompson.) Carbonate of soda and sul- 
 phuret of potassium, of each 1 dr. ; creasotu, i 
 dr.; lard, 1^ oz. 
 
 Obs. The hair must be cut off close, and the 
 part washed clean before each application. For 
 other forms, see above. 
 
 Ointment of Bose. Si/n. Rose pommadh. 
 Rose lip-s.\lve; Unguentum eos.i:, U. 
 BOSATCM.L. Prep. 1. (P. Cud.) Washed lard 
 (melted), and roses (centif.), of each 2 lbs.; 
 mix, and in 2 days remelt the mass, and press 
 out the fat ; to this last add of fresh roses, 2 lbs., 
 and repeat the process ; lastly, colour it with 
 alkanet root if required red. 
 
 2. (Uno. AqvM Eoa.K — Ph. U. S.) This is 
 spermaceti ointment melted and beaten up 
 with about irds of its wci;;lit of rose water 
 until they conceal. Both the above are simple 
 emollients. The last is an officinal 'cold 
 cream.* 
 
 Ointment of Eosemary (Compound). (Ph. G.) 
 Si/n. Unocentum eosmaeini compositcm. 
 Prep. Lard, 16 oz. ; suet, 8 oz. ; yellow wax, 
 
 2 oz, ; oil of mace, 2 oz. ; liquefy in a vapour 
 bath, and when nearly cold, add oil of rose- 
 mary and oil of juniper, of each 1 oz., by 
 weight. 
 
 Ointment of Bne (Span. Hosp.) Si/n. Un- 
 GUENTDM EFT^. Prep. Fresh rue, 2 oz. ; 
 wormwood, 2 oz. ; nitre, 2 oz ; lard, 16 oz. ; 
 boil till the moisture is expelled. 
 
 Ointment, Bust's. Prep. Cabined alnm, IJ 
 dr.; camphor,. J dr. ; powdered opium, 20 gr. 
 halsam of Peru, 1 dr. ; lead ointment, 5 dr. ; 
 triturate together. In chilblains, frostbites, 
 fro-teil limbs, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Sahadil'line. .Svh. Unguentum 
 SABADILLIN.E, L. Prep. (Dr Turnbull.) Sa- 
 badilline, 15 to 20 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. Intended 
 as a substitute for ointment of verdtrine. 
 
 Ointment of Sav'ine. Sifn. Unguentum 
 
 SABINJE (B. P.. Ph. L. & D.), CeEATUM SABIN.E, 
 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L.) White wax, 3 oz.; lard, 
 1 lb. ; melt them together, mix in of fresh 
 saviue (bruised), ilb., and press through a linen 
 cloth. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Savine tops, dried and in fine 
 powder, 1 dr. ; ointment ot white wax, 7 dr.; 
 
1181 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 mix by trituration. For tlie formula of the 
 Pli. E., the uses, &c., see Ceeate. 
 
 Ointment of Scropliula"ria. Syn. Unguen- 
 TITM BCEOPHULABIiE, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 
 1826.) Green leaves of knotted rooted figwort 
 and lard, of each 2 lbs.; prepared suet, 1 
 lb. ; boil till crisp, and strain with pressure. In 
 ringworm, ' burnt holes ' (pemphigus gan- 
 grenosua of children), impetigo, and some other 
 cutaneous diseases ; also as an application to 
 piles, painful swellings, &c. In the second it is 
 said to be almost specific. 
 
 Ointment, Simple. Syn. Ointment op white 
 WAX, Simple dbessing; Unguentum sim- 
 PIEX (B. P., Ph. E.), U. CEEa) alb;e (Ph. D.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Olive oil, 5i fl. oz. j 
 white wax, 2 oz. ; melted together, and stirred 
 whilst cooling. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Prepared lard, 4 lbs.; white 
 wax, 1 lb. ; as the lust. 
 
 3. (B. P.) White wax, 2; prepared lard, 
 3 ; almond oil, 8 ; melt together, and stir till 
 it becomes solid, 
 
 Ois. The above are mild emollients, useful 
 in healthy ulcers, excoriations, &c. ; but chiefly 
 as forming the basis for other ointments. The 
 corresponding preparation of the Ph. L. is 
 spermaceti ointment. See below, also Oint- 
 ment, Laed, &c. 
 
 Ointment, Singleton's. See Ointments, 
 Eye. 
 
 Ointment, Smallpox. Sgn. Unottentum 
 ECTEOTIOTTM, L. Prep. 1. Mercurial oint- 
 ment, 11 02.; beeswax and black pitch, of each 
 i bz. ; expressed oil of mace, 2 dr.; mixed 
 together by a very gentle heat. 
 
 2. (Briquet.) Mercurial ointment, 4 parts ; 
 powdered starch, 1 part. 
 
 3. (Tourriere.) lodideof potassium (dry and 
 in fine powder), 1 part; expressed oil of mace, 
 2 parts; black resin, 4 parts; mercurial oint- 
 ment, 8 parts. Used to prevent the ' pitting 
 of the pustules.' See Smallpox. 
 
 Ointment, Smellome's. See Ointments, 
 Eye. 
 
 Ointment of Soap. 1. See Ceeate. 
 
 2. (Camphorated ; Uhguentum baponis 
 CAMPBOEATum — Hamb. Cod.) White soap 
 (scraped), 1 lb. ; water, i lb. ; dissolve by heat ; 
 add of olive oil, 5 oz. ; and when the mixture 
 has partly cooled, further add of camphor, 1 
 oz., previously dissolved by heat in olive oil, 1 
 oz. ; lastly, stir until the mass concretes. As 
 an anodyne and stimulating friction in various 
 local afiections, as chaps, chilblains, rheuma- 
 tism, &c. 
 
 Ointment of So'dioChlo"ride of Gold. Syn. 
 Unguenttim axjei sodio-ohloeibi, L. ; Pom- 
 made DE MUEIATK n'OE BT BE SOUDE, Fr. 
 Prep. (Magendie.) Sodio-chlorideofgold, 10 
 gr. ; lard, 4 dr. In scrofulous and syphilitic 
 swellings, indurations, ulcers, &c. 
 
 Ointment of Spermace'ti. Syn. Emollient 
 DBESSING, Simple ointment. White o. ; 
 Unguentum cetacei (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), U. 
 speematis ceti, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 
 Spermaceti, 5 oz. ; white wax, 14 dr. j olive 
 oil, 1 pint, or q. s. ; melt them together by a 
 gentle heat, and stir the mixture until cold. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) White wax, J lb. ; spermaceti, 
 
 1 lb.; prepared lard, 3 lbs. ; as the last. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Spermaceti, 5 ; white wax, 2 ; 
 almond oil, 20, or a sufficiency ; stir constantly, 
 until it cools. 
 
 Uiies, Sfc. As an emollient and healing appli- 
 cation or dressing to abrasions, excoriations, 
 blistered surfaces, healthy ulcers, chilblains, 
 chaps, &c. In trade, the Dublin formula, 
 with double the amount of lard, is commonly 
 employed. See Ointment, Laed, Simple o., 
 Sac. 
 
 Ointment of Squills. Si)n. Unguentum 
 sciLLiE, L. Prep. 1. (Brera.) Squills (in 
 very fine powder), 1 dr.; mercurial ointment, 
 
 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Hufeland.) Squills, 1 oz. ; liquor of 
 potassia, 2 fl. oz. ; reduce to a mucilage by 
 boiling, then add of lard, 2 oz., orq. s. As a 
 resolvent friction to indolent tumours and 
 indurations. 
 
 Ointment of Stavesa'cre. Syn. Unguentum 
 STAPHiSAOEijE, L. Prep. (Swediaur.) Pow- 
 dered stavesacre, 1 oz. ; lard, 3 oz, ; melt to- 
 gether, digest 3 or 4 hours, and strain. A 
 very cleanly remedy for itch, and to destroy 
 pediculi on the person. A similar ointment 
 is much used by farriers. 
 
 Ointment of Stramo"nium, Syn. Unguen- 
 tum STEAMONii, L. Prep. 1. Fresh thorn- 
 apple leaves, 1 part ; lard, 4 parts ; as ointment 
 of hemlock. 
 
 2. (Pereira.) Powdered leaves, 1 oz, ; lard, 
 4 oz. ; mix by trituration. 
 
 3. (Ph. U.S.) Extract of stramonium, 1 dr.; 
 lard, 1 oz. ; as the last. 
 
 Uses, ^c. To dress irritable ulcers, and as 
 an application to painful piles. 
 
 Ointment of Strych'nine. Syn. Unguentum 
 STETCHNi^, L. Prep. 1. (Bouchardat.) 
 Strychnine, 16 gr. ; lard, 1 oz. ; cartf uUy tri- 
 turated together. 
 
 2. (Wendt.) Nitrate of strychnine, 6 dr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. ; as last. Both are used as a fric- 
 tion in paralysed parts, &c. From the ex- 
 tremely poisonous character of strychnine it 
 should be used with caution. 
 
 Ointment of Snbac'etate of Cop'per. See 
 Ointment of Veedioeis. 
 
 Ointment of Snbacetate of Lead (Compound). 
 Syn. Unguentum plumbi subacetatis com- 
 POSITUM (B. p.). Prep. Solution of subace- 
 tiite of lead, 6; camphor^; white wax, 8 ; 
 almond oil, 20 ; melt the wax with 16 of the 
 oil on a steam or water bath; remove the 
 vessel, and as soon as the mixture begins to 
 thicken, gradually add the solution of sub- 
 acetate of lead, and stir the mixture constantly 
 until it cools; then add the camphor, dissolve 
 in the rest of the oil. and mix thoroughly. 
 
 Ointment of Subchloride of Mercury. See 
 Ointment oe Calomel. 
 
 Ointment of Subsul'phate of Mercnryf. Syn. 
 
OINTMENT 
 
 1185 
 
 I'xorKNTCM BTDBASOTBI BUBSULrHATrS, L. 
 Prtp. 1. (Alibert.) Turpeth mineral, j dr. ; 
 lard, 1 nz. 
 
 2. (Bictt.) Turpeth mineral, 1 dr.; sul- 
 phur, 2 dr. ; lard, 2 oz. ; oil of lemons, 15 
 dropa. in herpes, porrigo, and the scaly dis- 
 eases. 
 
 Ointmeat of Sulphate of I'ron. Syn. Un- 
 
 ODESTUM FBKKI BULPHATI8, L. Pr«p. (Vel- 
 
 peuu.) Sulphate of iron, 1^ dr. ; simple oint- 
 ment, 1 oz. In erj'sipelas. 
 Ointment of Sulphate of IIan"ganese. Byn. 
 
 UkODENTUH MAKaANESI SITLFBATIB, L. Frep. 
 
 From sulphate of manganese, 1 fl. dr. j lard or 
 simple ointment, 1 oz. Alterative and discu- 
 tient ; in similar cases to those in which meb- 
 CUKIAL OINTMENT is employed. 
 
 Ointment of Sulphate of Zinc. 8yn. Uk- 
 OUKNTDM ziNci scLPUATis, L. Prep. (Scarpa.) 
 Sulphate of zinc (in very fine powder), 1 dr. ; 
 lard, 1 oz. In some chronic skin diseases 
 attended with a lax state of the tissues, and 
 as a dressing to scrofulous tumours nfter they 
 have separated and the abscess has been dis- 
 charged. 
 
 Ointment of Sulphur. Syn. UNOtTEHiUM 
 8ULPHUBIS (B. p., Ph. L., E., & D.) Frep. 1. 
 (I'h. L.) Sulphur, i lb.; lard, 1 lb. In the 
 Ph. L. 1836 oil of bergamot, 40 drops, were 
 added. (See 5, Compound.) 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Sulphur, 1 oz. ; lard, 4 oz. 
 
 8. ^Pb. D.) Suli.hur, 1 lb. ; lard, 4 lbs. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Sublimed sulphur, 1 ; benzoated 
 lard, 4; mix. 
 
 IJaea, Sfo, In itch, scald-head, &c., in the 
 first of which it is specific. It should be well 
 rubbed in every night until the disease is cured; 
 " but not more tliiin one fourth part of the 
 body should be covered with it at a time." (A. 
 T. Thomson.) 
 
 5. (Compound; Itch ointment; Unguen- 
 
 TCM SniPHtTBIB OOMPOSITUM — Ph. L.) — a. 
 (Pli. L.) Nitrate of potassa (powdered), 40 
 gr. ; white hellebore (powdered), lOdr. ; sul- 
 phur and soft sonp, of each 4oz.; lard, 1 lb.; 
 rub them together, 
 
 4. (P. Cod.) Alum and sal ammoniac, of 
 each, ^ oz. ; sulphur, 8 oz. ; lard, 16 oz. 
 
 Uses, Sfo. In itch, as the simple ointment 
 (1, 2, and 3.) They are more efficacious, but, 
 owing to the presence of white hellebore, the 
 Ph. L. preparation is apt to cause irritation 
 in persons with delicate skins. See Oint- 
 ubni, Itoh. 
 
 Ointment of Sulphnret of Mercury. See 
 Ointment oj Red Sulphceet op Mbboubt. 
 
 Ointment of Sulphurated Potash. Syn. Un- 
 oiKNTUM pOTASBa; sciPHUBATE (B. P.) Sul- 
 phurated potash, 30 gr. J triturate, and add 
 prepared lard, 1 oz. ; mix. See also next pre- 
 paration. 
 
 Ointment of Snlphuret of Fotas'sinm. Syn. 
 
 rxOrENTUM P0TAS3I SULPHUIIETI, L. Pre/). 
 
 1. Snlphuret of potassium (dry and in fine pow- 
 der), I dr. ; lard, 9 dr. AUbert adds 1 dr. of 
 carboniite of soda. 
 
 2. Snlphuret of potassium, 2^ dr. ; lard and 
 soft soap, of each 1 oz. j olive oil, \ oz. In 
 several chronic skin diseases, as itch, psoriasis, 
 ringworm, lepra, eczema, ic. 
 
 Ointment of Snlphuret of So'dinm. Syn. 
 
 UnQUENTUM BODII BCLPHUEETI, L. Prep. 
 (Swediaur.) Snlphuret of sodium, 3 dr. ; laid, 
 1 i oz. In itch, for which it is very cleanly and 
 effective. The last two ointments are most 
 powerful when recently prepared. 
 
 Ointment of Sulphuric Ac'id. Syn. L'k- 
 quentum acidi sclpuubici, L, Frep. 1. 
 (Dr Duncan.) Sulphuric acid, 1 dr.; lard, 
 2oz, 
 
 2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Sulphuric acid.l dr.; 
 lard, 1 oz. ; mix. 
 
 Uses, S(c. Black, fetid; in itch. It is now 
 seldom used. With oil of turpentine ii. bus 
 been used as a stimulating liniment in rheu- 
 matism. Anointment made of 1^ dr. of dilute 
 sulphuric »cid to 1 oz. of lard is a good appli- 
 cation in prurigo. 
 
 Ointment, Sulta'na. Spermaceti and white 
 wax, of each \ oz. ; oil of almonds and butter 
 of cacao, of each i lb. ; melt together, add of 
 balsam of Peru, 1 dr., stir constantly for a few 
 minutes, and after it has settled pour off the 
 clear portion ; to this add of orange-flower 
 water, 2 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly 
 until it concretes. A very agreeable species of 
 cold cream. 
 
 Ointment of Tan'nate of Lead. Syn. Uir- 
 QUENTUM PLUMBI TANNATIS, L. Frep. 1. Tan- 
 nate of lead, 1^ dr. ; powdered camphor, 20 
 gr. ; spermaceti ointment, 7 dr. In inflamed 
 piles, &c. 
 
 2. (Sundelln.) Decoction of oak bark, 6 fi. 
 oz. ; solution of diacetate of lead, IJ oz. ; mix, 
 collect and drain the precipitate, and mix it, 
 whilst still moist, with lard, 1 oz. ; camphor, 
 10 gr. In bedsores. 
 
 Ointment of Tan'nin. Syn. Unottentum 
 TANMNi, U. ACIDI TANNici, L. Frep. (Rich- 
 ard.) Tannin, 2 dr. ; water, 2 fl. dr.; tritu- 
 rate them together, then iidd of Isrd, 1} oz. 
 Astringent and hajmostatic. In piles, pro- 
 lapsus, &c. It is a very cleanly and efi'ective 
 application. 
 
 Ointment of Tar. Syn. Ungubnium picib 
 LlQUlDiE (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. 
 L.) Tar and suet, of each 1 lb. j melt them 
 together, and press the mixture through a linen 
 cloth. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Tar, 5 oz. ; beeswax, 2 oz.; 
 melt together, and stir the mixture briskly 
 unil it concretes. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Tar, i pint ; yellow wax, 4 oz. ; 
 as the last. 
 
 Uses, ^0. As a detergent application in 
 ringworm, scald-head, scabby eruptions, foul 
 ulcers, &c. It should he, in general, at first 
 diluted with half of its weight of lard or oil. 
 See also Ointment oe Pitch. 
 
 Ointment of Tartar Emet'ic. See Ointment 
 op Potassio-taetbate op Antimont. 
 
 Ointment of Tin, Chloride (Nanche). Syn. 
 
 75 
 
1186 
 
 OINTMENT 
 
 Ungfentitm stanni OHiOKiDi. JPrep. Pcr- 
 cliloride of tin, li grain ; laid, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 Ointment of Tin, Oxide (Bate). Syn. Un- 
 GTTENTUM STANNI oxiDi. Oxide of tin 
 rubbed with oil of St John's wort was formerly 
 applied for the cure of blindness; with Loca- 
 lecte's balsam and honey, for the cure of 
 indolent ulcers. 
 
 Ointment of Tobac'co. Si/n. Ungtjentttm 
 TABAOi, L. Prep. 1. (Chippendale.) Extract 
 of tobacco, 1 dr. ; lard, 1 oz. As a friction in 
 neuralgia. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Fresh tobacco leaves, 1 oz. ; 
 lard, 12 oz. ; as ointment of hemloclc. As 
 an anodyne application in irritable ulcers, 
 ringworm, prurigo, and some other skin 
 diseases. 
 
 Ointment, Tripharm'ic. Sgn. Ointment op 
 THESE THiNaa ; Unuuentum teiphabmacum, 
 L. Prep. From lead plaster, 4 oz. ; olive oil, 
 2 fl. 02. ; distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz. ; melt to- 
 gether, and stir until they combine, and a 
 proper consistence is obtained. Cooling and 
 desiccative; formerly greatly esteemed as a 
 dressing. 
 
 Ointment, Trooper's. See Ointment, Mee- 
 
 CUEIAL. 
 
 Ointment of Turpentine. St/n. UNauENTtrM 
 TBKBBINTHIN^ (B. P.) Prep. 1. (Guy's 
 Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; oil of turpentine, 1 
 to 2 fl. dr. ; dissolve, and add of resin of cerate, 
 1 oz. As a stimulant and anodyne friction in 
 nephritic and rheumatic pains, engorgements, 
 &c. 
 
 2. (Ph. Austr.) Turpentine, 2 lbs. ; simple 
 ointment, 1 lb. ; mix by a gentle heat. As a 
 stimulant dressing. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Oil of turpentine, 16; camphor, 
 1 ; soft soap, 2 ; dissolve the camphor in the 
 turpentine, add the soap, and rub till 
 thoroughly mixed. 
 
 Ointment of TuVty. Sj/a. Unguenttjm 
 
 ZlNOl OXTDI IMPITKI, U. TUTIiE, L. Prep. 
 
 From prepared tutty, 1 part ; simple ointment, 
 5 parts ; mix by trituration. Formerly in 
 great repute in ophthalmic practice, more par- 
 ticularly in inflammation, &c., of the eyelids. 
 See Ointment of Oxide oe Zinc. 
 Ointment of Vera'trine. Si/n. Unottentum 
 
 TBBAIEIJE (B. P.) ; POMMADE DE VEEATEINE ; 
 
 Fr. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) Veratrine, 4 gr. ; 
 lai'd, 1 oz. ; mixed by careful trituration. 
 
 2. (Pereira.) Veratrine, 30 gr. ; lard, 
 1 oz. 
 
 3. CTurnbuU.) Veratrine, 10 to 20 gr.; 
 olive oil, 1 dr. ; triturate, and add of sperma- 
 ceti ointment, 1 oz. 
 
 4. Veratria, 8 gr. ; prepared lard, 1 oz. ; 
 olive oil, i dr. ; rub the veratria and the oil 
 together, then mix thoroughly with the 
 lard. 
 
 Uses, Sfc, As a friction in neuralgia, neu- 
 ralgic rheumatism, gout, dropsy, &c. A piece 
 about the size of a hazel nut is to be rubbed for 
 10 or 15 minutes over the seat of pain, twice 
 a day. It must not be applied where the skin 
 
 is unsound, nor to a large sarface at a time, 
 and the greatest caution must be used, on 
 account of the extremely poisonous character 
 of veratrine. 
 
 Ointment of Ver'dlgris. Syn. Ointment oj 
 
 STTBACBTATB OF COPPBE; UnGUENTUM 2EEU- 
 GINIS (Ph. E.), U. CUPEI SBBAOETATIS (Ph. 
 D.). L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Resinous oint- 
 ment, 15 oz. ; melt by a gentle heat, sprinkle 
 into It of verdigris (in very fine powder), 
 1 oz., and stir the mixture briskly until it 
 concretes. 
 
 2. (Pii. D.) Prepared snbacetate of copper, 
 i dr.; ointment of white wax, 7i dr.; mix by 
 trituration. 
 
 Uses, S(c. Detergent and escharotic ; as an 
 occasional dressing to foul and flabby ulcers, 
 to keep down fungous flesh, and, diluted with 
 oil or lard, in scrofulous ulceration and Inflam- 
 mation of the eyelids. 
 
 Ointment of Vln'egar. Syn. Acetic oint- 
 ment ; Unquentitm aoeti, U. acidi acetici, 
 L. Prep. 1. (DrCheston.) Olive oil, 1 lb. ; 
 white wax, 4 oz. ; melt them together by a 
 gentle heat, add of strong vinegar, 2 fl. oz., and 
 stir until the mixture concretes. As a cooling 
 astringent dressing, and as an application in 
 chronic ophthalmia. 
 
 2. (W. Cooley.) Acetate of morphia, 6 gr.; 
 acetic acid (Ph. L.) and water, of each IJ fl. 
 dr. ; dissolve, add the solution to simple oint- 
 ment (melted), 1^ oz., and stir the mixture 
 briskly until nearly cold. In chronic ophthal- 
 mia, painf al inflamed piles, &c. ; also to remove 
 freckles, and to allay itching and Irritation in 
 several skin diseases. 
 
 Ointment of Walnut Leaves (Negrier). Syn. 
 Ungubntum juglandis. Prep. Extract of 
 walnut leaves, 3 drams ; lard, 4 drams ; oil of 
 bergamot, 1 drop. Mix. 
 
 Ointment, White. Both speemaceti oint- 
 ment and ointment of caebonate of lead 
 were formerly so called, but the name Is now 
 obsolete. The camphorated white oint- 
 ment of the Ph. L. of 1746 (ung. album cam- 
 phoeatum) was spermaceti ointment to which 
 a little camphor had been added. 
 
 Ointment of White Precipitate. Syn. Oint- 
 ment of AMMONIATED MEECUET J Unquentitm 
 HYDEAEGTKI AMMONIATI. (B. P.) AmmO- 
 
 niated mercury, 62 gr.; simple ointment, 1 oz. 
 Mix. See Ointment of Ammonio-chloeidb 
 OF Meecuet. 
 
 Ointment of White Wax. See Ointment, 
 Simple. 
 
 Ointment of Wolfsbane. See Ointment of 
 Aconite. 
 
 Ointment of Wood Soot. Syn. UNorEN- 
 tum ecliginis. Prep. Wood soot and lard, 
 of each equal parts. Mix. 
 
 Ointment of Wood Soot (Compound). Syn. 
 
 UnquENTUM FtTLIGINIS COMPOSITUM. Acetio 
 extract of wood soot, 4 dr.; dried salt, 10 dr. ; 
 lard, 14 oz. For ringworm. 
 Ointment for Worms. Syn. trNQUEUTUM 
 
 ANIHBLMINTIOUM, U. VEEMIFDGTTM, L. Prep. 
 
OINTMENTS— OLEIC ACID 
 
 1187 
 
 1. (Bo«rhnave.) Aloes and ox-gall, of each 
 1 purt ; niHrBhmallow ointmeDt, 8 parts. 
 
 2. (Fr. Hoiip.) Aloes and oil of tansy, of 
 each 1 part; dried ox-giall, 2 parts (both in 
 fine powder) j lard, 8 parts. 
 
 3. (Ph. Uat.) Aloes, 1 dr.; dried ox-gall 
 and petrolcnin, of each 1^ dr.; lard, 1) oz. 
 
 4. (Soubeiruii.) Powderrd aloes, 2 dr. ; lard, 
 1 oz. 
 
 Utet, Ifo. The above nre purgative and ver- 
 miluge, applied as frictions to the abdomen. 
 Tlicy arc chiefly employed for children and 
 delicate females. See Ointment, Colootnth. 
 
 Ointment of Tel'low Wax. %a. UsorEN- 
 TUM OEB.B flavjB, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) 
 Beeswax, lib.; lard, 4 lbs. ; melt them to- 
 gether. A mild emollient dressing. Some 
 parties regard it as more 'healing' than the 
 
 OINTMRNT OP WHITE WAX. 
 
 Ointment of Zinc. 1. See OINTJIB^T of 
 
 OXIDB OF ZlKO. 
 
 2. (Compound); Unottentum zinci com- 
 POBITUM, L.)—a. (Hufeland.) Oxide of zinc 
 and lycopodiuni,of each 1 dr.; simple ointment, 
 1 oz. In excoriations and simple ulcerations, 
 especially thoae of the eyelids, nipples, &c, 
 
 4. (Thomson.) Oxide of zinc, i dr. ; pow- 
 dered opium, 6 pr. ; lard, 1 oz. As the last, 
 when there is much pain. 
 
 Ointment of Zinc, Cyanide (Cunier). iS^n. 
 Unodentum zinoi ctanidi. Prep. Cyanide 
 of zinc, 12 grains; lard, 6 drums; butter of 
 cacao, 6 drams. Mix. 
 
 OINTMENTS (Flower of). St/n. Flos Un- 
 OUENTOBUM, L. Prep. From resin, thus, wax, 
 ond suet, of each i lb.; olibauum and Venice 
 turpeniiue, of ouch 2^ oz. ; myrrh, 1 oz. ; 
 wiiio, jt pint; boil them together, and, lastly, 
 add of lamphor, 2 dr. Suppurative ; warinini;. 
 
 O'LEPIANT GAS. CjH^. Si/n. Ethylene, 
 Heavy OAnBONmTED hydbogen, Heavy 
 
 OAKB0EKTTKD H., ElAYL, ETHENE. A Bub- 
 
 Btunio dlncovercd by some associated Dutch 
 chemists, in 1795, and composed of carbon 
 anil hydroffcu in the proportions expressed by 
 CjHj or C4H4. 
 
 Prrp. 1. A mixture of alcohol (rectified 
 spirit), 1 part, and oil of vitriol, 6 parts, is 
 heated In n retort until it blackens, and sul- 
 phurous acid begins 10 be evolved ; the product 
 is then passed first through a wnsh-bottle con- 
 taining a solution of caustic potassa or milk of 
 liuio, ond next through a bottle containing 
 conoentnited sulphuric acid, the last being 
 furnislied with a tube dipping into the water 
 of the pneumatic trough. 
 
 2. The vapiiur of boiling alcohol is passed 
 into a mixture of oil of vitriol diluted with 
 rather less than one half its weight of water, 
 and so heated as to be In a state of tranquil 
 ebullition (320° to 330° I'ahr.); the gaseous 
 product is chiefly olcfiant gas, and the viipour 
 of water, from which it uiay be separated as 
 above. Ni sulphurous acid is formed, nor 
 does the aiid blicken as in the last process. 
 
 Prop., ^0. Colourless ; nentnil ; nearly 
 
 odourless ; nearly insoluble in water ; alcohol, 
 ether, and the volatile and fixed oils, absorb a 
 portion of it; burns with a brilliant white 
 flame ; at a full red heat it suffers decompo- 
 sition, with deposit of carbon and liberation of 
 light carburettcd hydrogen gas ; mixed with 
 twice its volume of chlorine and inflamed, 
 hydrochloric acid is formed, and the carbon of 
 the gas is precipitated in the form of dense 
 black soot; if the mixture (best in equal 
 volumes), instead of being kindled, be left 
 standing over water, it soon condenses into a 
 heavy oily liquid (chloride of defiant gas, 
 Dutch liquid). Sp.gr. "981; 100 cubic inches 
 weigh 3067 gr. 
 
 defiant Gas, Bromide of. Syn. Bbomtdi 
 OF ETHYLENE. Prom bromine and olefiant gas 
 as Dutch liquid. A colourless liquid, with an 
 ethereal odour, boiling at 265°, and solidifyin;; 
 at 0° Fahr. Sp. gr. 216. 
 
 Olefiant Gas, Chlo"ride of. St/n. Dutch 
 LIQUID, Chlomde OF ETHYLENE. This Sub- 
 stance, referred to above, may be easily pre- 
 pared in any quantity by the following pro- 
 cess : — Chlorine and olefiant gas (the latter a 
 little in excess) are conveyed by separate tubes 
 (passing thriiugh the same cork) Into a glass 
 globe, having a narrow I'unnel-shnped neck at 
 its lower part, dipping into a small bottle des- 
 tined to receive the product of their mutual 
 reaction : the newly formed liquid trickles 
 down the sides of the globe into the receiver, 
 and when a suflicient quantity is collected, it 
 is purified by agitating it first with water, and 
 then with sulphuric acid,and, lastly, submitting 
 it to distillation. 
 
 Prop , (fc. Colourless ; sweet-tasted ; agree- 
 alily friigrant, the odour approacldng that of 
 oil of caraway; slightly soluble in water; 
 freely so in alcohol and ether ; it sinks in 
 water; boils at 180° Fahr.; burns with a 
 smoky greenish flame ; is unjiffected by oil of 
 vitriol; but decomposed by solution of caustic 
 potassa. It combines with chloiine, forming 
 new compounds. Ste Chloeides of Caebon 
 (page 403). 
 
 OLEIC ACID. HCisHjjOj. Si/n. Elaic acid. 
 One of ttie fatty acids discovered by Chevreul, 
 and produced by saponifying oils, and then 
 separating the base from the resulting soap by 
 means of a dilute acid. It now forms an im- 
 portant secondary product in the manufacture 
 of stearic acid. Pei fictly pure oleic acid may 
 be obtained as follows : — 
 
 1. By saponifying olein, as just noticed. 
 
 2. Pure almond or olive-oil soap is decom- 
 posed by a dilute acid, and the resulting oily 
 acid is digested in a water bath with half, its 
 weight of litharge (in very fine powder) for 
 some hours, constantly slirring; the mixture 
 is then agitated with twice its volume of ether 
 in a close vessel, and in 24 hoars the clear 
 ethereal solution is decanted, and decon posed 
 with dilute hydroeliloric acid; the oleic acid 
 separates, and the ether mixed with it is ex- 
 pelled by evaporation. To render it colour- 
 
1188 
 
 OLEIN— OLEOMETER 
 
 less, the acid is again saponified with caustic 
 soda, and the soap thus retained is repeatedly 
 dissolved in a solution of soda, and as often 
 separated by adding common salt ; this soap is, 
 lastly, decomposed by dilute hydrochloric acid, 
 as before. 
 
 3. (H, N. Fraser, pharmacist.) Oil of 
 cotton seeds (' winter oil'), deprived of most of 
 its stearin by chilling and pressure, is first 
 saponified with potassa, using a slight excess 
 of the base. The soap is then treated with 
 tartaric acid, or any other acid which will 
 make a soluble salt with potassa, until the base 
 is completely neutralised ; the residue is washed 
 until a mass is left about the consistence and 
 colour of cerate, free from any of the saltj 
 this is heated for several hours with nearly its 
 weight of litharge, and three or four times its 
 bulk of water; the resulting compound is 
 shaken up while yet warm with ether, and 
 allowed to stand until all the soluble matter 
 separates. 
 
 This separates the stearate, and leaves a 
 nearly pure oleate of lead. The clear liquor 
 is decanted and briskly shaken with dilute 
 muriatic acid for a few minutes to precipitate 
 all the chloride of lead, the lighter liquid 
 washed to remove traces of muriatic acid and 
 filtered ; the filtrate heated slowly in a water 
 bath, and the ether distilled until the residue 
 ceases to have an ethereal odour. The pro- 
 duct is about 50 per cent, of the bulk of 
 the oil. 
 
 Crude oleic acid may be purified as follows : 
 — Expose it repeatedly to a temperature of 
 i\bout 45° F., and express the liquid portion. 
 With this mix an equal bulk of solution of 
 sulphurous acid, place the mixture in the light, 
 and shake it frequently until no more colour is 
 discharged. After separation the oleic acid is 
 to be washed repeatedly with cold distilled 
 water, and put into bottles, which should be 
 kept filled up and in a cool place. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. A colourless oily acid, insoluble 
 in water, soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil ; 
 with the bases it forms salts called oleates. 
 The best kind of oleic acid is known as " pale 
 cloth oil." 
 
 O'LEIN. CjyHioiOs. Syn. Elain; Huile 
 AESOLTJE, Fr. The liquid portion of the 
 fixed oils and fats. By saponification it yields 
 oleic acid. 
 
 Prep. 1. Olive oil or almond oil is digested 
 for 24 hours with a quantity of caustic soda 
 lye, only suflicient to saponify one half of the 
 oil, and the undecomposed oily portion (olein) is 
 then separated from the alkaline solution and 
 newly formed stearine soap, 
 
 2. The saponified mixture of oil and alkali 
 (see No. 1) is digested with proof spirit until 
 all the soap is dissolved oiit, and the olein 
 separates and floats on the surface j the latter, 
 after repose, is decanted. 
 
 3. Almond or olive oil is agitated in a stout 
 bottle with 7 or 8 times its weight of strong 
 alcohol (sp. gr. -TBS), at nearly the boiling 
 
 point, until the whole is dissolved ; the solution 
 is next allowed to cool, after which the clear 
 upper stratum is decanted from the stearin 
 which has been deposited, and, after filtration, 
 the spirit is removed by distillation at a gentle 
 heat ; by exposure at a very low temperature 
 it deposits any remaining stearin, and then 
 becomes pure. 
 
 Prop., ^c. The products of the last two 
 formulae have only a very slight yellow colonr, 
 but may be rendered quite limpid and colour- 
 less by digestion for 24 hours with a little 
 pure, freshly burnt animal charcoal, and sub- 
 sequent filtration. In this state the olein is 
 perfectly neutral to test paper, does not in 
 the slightest degree afiect metallic bodies im- 
 mersed in it, and does not thicken by exposure 
 to the greatest cold, Olein is used by watch- 
 makers for their fine work. Some years ago 
 the product of the last formula was sold, by a 
 certain metropolitan house, as * watchmakers' 
 oil,' at Is. 6d. a drachm. Commercial olein 
 is generally lard oil. The refined oleic acid of 
 the stearin works also commonly passes under 
 the name. Olein burns well in lamps; but 
 oleic acid does not do so unless when well 
 refined, and when the wick-tube is so formed 
 as to remain cool. See Lasd oil and Oleic 
 
 ACID. 
 
 OliEOM'ETEE, Syn. Elaiometeb, Elso- 
 METEE, OiL-BALANOE. A delicate areometer 
 or hydrometer, so weighted and graduated as 
 to adapt itself to the densities of the leading 
 fixed oils. As the differences of the specific 
 gravities of these substances are inconsiderable, 
 to render it more susceptible the bulb of the 
 instrument is proportionately large, and the 
 tube or stem very narrow. The scale of the 
 oleometer in general use (Gobby's) is divided 
 into 50 degrees, and it floats at or zero in 
 pure poppy oil, at 38 or 38J in pure almond 
 oil, and at 50 in pure olive oil. The standard 
 temperature of the instruments made in this 
 country is now 60° ; those made on the Con- 
 tinent, 54"5° Pahr. The oil must therefore be 
 brought to this normal temperature before 
 testing it, by plunging the glass cylinder con- 
 taining it into either hot or cold water, as the 
 case may be ; or a correction of the observed 
 density must be made. The last is done by 
 deducting 2 from the indication of the instru- 
 ment for each degree of the thermometer above 
 the normal temperature of the instrument, and 
 adding 2 for every degree below it. Thus: 
 suppose the temperature of the oil at the time 
 of the experiment is 60° Fahr, and the oleo- 
 meter indicates 61°; then — 
 
 60'0° Actual temperature. 
 
 54'5 Normal temperature. 
 
 5'5 Difference. 
 
 Indicatiouof the oleometer . . 61'0 
 The difference 5'5 X 2 = , . 110 
 
 Real density , . . . 500 
 
OLEO-PHOSPHORIC ACID— OMELET 
 
 1189 
 
 Supposo the temporatare obBerved at the 
 time of the experiment is 52°, and the oleo- 
 meter indicates 45° ; then — 
 
 B4'B Normal temperature. 
 520 Actual temperature. 
 
 2'5 Difference, 
 
 Indication of the olcometei' . , 45"0 
 The difference 2'5 x 2 = . . 5-0 
 
 Real density .... 500 
 
 The oil is, therefcire, presumed to be pure. 
 See HiDHOMKTEB, Oils (Kixed), and Specific 
 
 GEAVITY. 
 
 (yLEO-PHOSPHOEIC ACID. An acid com- 
 pound found by Fremy in the brain and 
 nervous matter. 
 
 OLEO-EES'INS. The natural compounds of 
 resin and essential oil forming the vegetable 
 balsams and turpentines. Copaiba, Canada 
 balsam, and Venice turpentine are examples. 
 Certain extracts prepared with ether, as the 
 fluid extracts of cubebs and pepper in the 
 Ph. U. S., may be regarded as oleo-resins. 
 See EXTBAOT. 
 
 OLEO-SAC'CHAEUM. Si/n. Eljeosacoha- 
 EPM. Sugitr aromatised or medicated by 
 being rubbed up with an essential oil. The 
 oleosaechara of aniseed, caraway, cinnamon, 
 peppermint, pennyroyal, and the other like 
 essential oils, are made by rubbing 15 to 20 
 drops of the respective oils with white sugar, 
 1 oz.— The Ph. Grieea 1837 prescribes 1 part 
 of oil to 20 parts of sugar. — The Ph. Austr. 
 1836 and Ph. Bor. order the same proper 
 tions, or 3 drops of oil to tlie dr., and 24 drops 
 to the 02., of powdered sugar. When in- 
 tended for making extemporaneous distilled 
 waters, 1 dr. of magnesia is a common addi- 
 tion. The oleosaechara of citrons, lemons, 
 oranges, &c., are made from the peels, as fol- 
 lows: — After cleaning off any specks in the 
 outer rind of the fruit, rub a large piece of 
 loaf sugar on it until the yellow rind is com- 
 plf'tely removed. Those parts of the sugar 
 which are impregnated with the essence are, 
 from time to time, to be out away with a knife, 
 and put into an earthen pot. The whole being 
 thus token off, the sugared essence (oleosac- 
 charum) is to he closely pressed down in the 
 pot, tied over with bladder, and preserved in a 
 cool place for use. 
 
 OLIB'ANUM. Sy». Oliban, Indian oli- 
 BANUM, Fbankinobnse. A gum resin ob- 
 tained from Boeweliia thurifera or serrata. It 
 is stimulant, astringent, and diaphoretic. It 
 is burnt as incense in the temples of India and 
 in Roman Catholic churches. African or 
 Araliian olil-unum is produced by Sosteellia 
 floriivnda. (Royle.) This substance must 
 not he confounded with the resin noticed at 
 page 761. 
 
 Olibannm. This gum resin is yielded by two 
 varieties of the plant known as Boncellia — one 
 the S. Jhribunda, being a native of Africa, 
 the other, the S. terrata, growing in Asia. 
 Olibanura occurs in the form of fragments, 
 which are sometimes pale yellow, and at 
 others of a reddish colour ; these fragments 
 have a splintery fracture, a mealy surface, a 
 faintly balsiimic odour and a bitter taste. " It 
 consists of about 4 or 5 per cent, of a volatile 
 oil, 56 per cent, of a resinous acid, 30 to 36 
 per cent, of gum, and 6 per cent of bas^orin."' 
 Incense, of which olibanum forms one of the 
 ingredients, owes much of its pleasant bal- 
 samic odour when burning to its presence. It 
 is also used in pharmacy. 
 
 OLIVE. Si/n. Olea, Oliva, L. The Olea 
 EuroptBa (Linn.), a native of the South of 
 Europe. The unripe fruit is preserved in 
 brine (Spanish olives, Feench olives) ; the 
 ripe fruit furnishes olive oil; ttie bark is 
 bitter, astringent, and febrifuge, and has been 
 used as a substitute for cinchona bark ; it 
 yields a gum-like substance (olive oum), 
 which was formerly reported vulnerary, and 
 contains olivine. The olive tree has in all 
 ages been held in peculiar estimation as the 
 bounteous gilt of Heaven to man. Some 
 authors have styled it " a mine on earth." It 
 is remarkable tor yielding a fixed oil (rum the 
 Ijericarp instead of from the seed. 
 
 OLLIVIEE'S BISCUITS. See Patent me- 
 dicines. 
 
 OLIVINE. Syn. Chbtsolite. A crystal- 
 lised double silicate of magnesia and iron, 
 found in basaltic and volcanic rocks, and very 
 frequently in masses of meteoric iron. It is 
 sometimes yellow in colour, but mostly green. 
 
 Olivine. Dr Landercr. Hyn, Olivina. Prep. 
 Treatoliveleaveswithacidulated water, concen- 
 trate, precipitate with aiiinionia, re-dissolve 
 the washed precipitate in a diluted acid, purify 
 with animal charcoal, filter, and reprecipitate 
 with ammonia. 
 
 OM'ELET. Syn. Omelette, Fr. A variety 
 of pancake or fritter made of eggs and other 
 Ingredients. Omelets may contain bacon, ham, 
 herbs, fish, shell-fish, cold meat, cold game, 
 fruit, or anything else at hand at the pleasure 
 of the cook. ' Spirit omelets ' are made by 
 pouring a little brandy, rum, or whisky over 
 them on serving them up, and setting it on 
 fire for a moment just before placing the dish 
 on the table. " Where is the man or woman 
 cook but says they know how to make an ome- 
 lette, and that to perfection p But this is 
 rarely the case. It is related of Sarah, the 
 Duchess of Marlborough, that no one could 
 cook a ' fraise,' as it was then called, for the 
 great duke but herself. The great point is, if 
 in an iron pan, it should be very clean and free 
 from damp which sometimes comes out of the 
 iron when placed on the tire. The best plan 
 is to put it on the fire, with a little fat, and 
 let it get quite hot, or until the fat burns ; 
 1 Fiiyeu. 
 
1190 
 
 ONGUENT— PPH THALM lA 
 
 remove it, and wipe it clean with a dry cloth, 
 and then you will be able to make the omelette 
 to perfection." (Soyer.) 
 
 The following formula for a plain omelet is 
 by the above culinary authority: — "Break four 
 eggs into a basin, add'^ teaspoonful of salt, 
 and i do. of pepper, and beat them up well 
 with a fork ; put into the frying-pan IJ oz. of 
 butter, lard, or oil, place it on the fire, and, 
 when hot, pour in the eggs, and keep on mixing 
 them quickly with a spoon until they are deli- 
 cately set ; then let them slip to the edge of 
 the pan, laying hold by the handle, and raising 
 it slantways, which will give an elongated 
 form to the omelette ; turn in the edges, let 
 it rest a moment to set, turn it over on to a 
 dish, and serve." " It ought to be of a rich- 
 yellow colour, done to a nicety, and as light 
 and delicate as possible." " 2 table-spoontuls 
 of milk and 1 oz. of the crura of bread, cut into 
 thin slices, may be added." 
 
 Mixed and PANCT omelets are made by 
 simply dropping the ingredients, cut into dice 
 or fragments, into the above. Anchoty, 
 OTBTEE, and SHRIMP OMELETS are generally 
 prepared by placing a few spoonfuls of the 
 respective sauces in the centre of each when 
 nearly dressed, 
 
 OKGUENT (de la Mere). A stimulant and 
 digestive ointment, very popular in French 
 pharmacy, 
 
 Prep. (P. Cod.) Black pitch, 1 part; 
 butter, lard, litharge, suet and yellow wax, 
 4 parts ; olive oil, 8 parts. 
 
 ON'IOir. Sy». Cepa, L. The bulb of Allium 
 cepa. The onion is diuretic, expectorant 
 rubefacient, and stimulant. The juice, made 
 into a syrup with sugar (syeiipus cep^), has 
 been given in chronic catarrh, diarrhaja, croup, 
 dropsy, and calculus. Roasted and split open, 
 onions have been applied as poultices to suppu- 
 rating tumours, and applied to the pubes to 
 relieve suppression of urine in children. Ac- 
 cording to Dr CuUen, " onions are acrid and 
 stimulating, and possess little nutrient power. 
 In bilious constitutions they generally produce 
 flatulence, thirst, headache, and febrile symp- 
 toms ; but where the temperament is phleg- 
 matic they are of infinite service, by stimu- 
 lating the system, and promoting the excre- 
 tions, particularly expectoration and urine." 
 They also possess antiscorbutic and soporific 
 properties. 
 
 Onions, To Chop. " Few persons know how 
 to chop onions properly. In the first place all 
 the dry skin must be removed, then a, thin 
 slice off the top and bottom, or they will be 
 bitter, then cut them into thin slices, dividing 
 the onion, and cut crossways to form dice. If 
 a very slight flavour is required and the onion 
 is strong, like in the North of England, for it 
 must be remembered that the further north 
 you go the stronger the flavour of the root, 
 and if French receipt books are exactly copied, 
 it is no wonder complaints are made of the 
 preponderance of the flavour of the onion ; 
 
 in which case, when chopped, put them in the 
 corner of a napkin or cloth, wash them in 
 water, squeeze them dry, then put them back 
 on the board, and chop finer, or sometimes 
 only rubbing the pan or the meat with the 
 onion is quite sufiicient." (Soyer.) 
 
 O'NYX. A sub-species of quartz often 
 wrought into small ornamental articles. 
 Among jewellers, any stone exhibiting layers 
 of two or more colours, strongly contrasted, 
 is called an ' onyx.' A regularly and richly 
 banded agate of this class is much prized for 
 cameos. The Sardonyx of the ancients is a 
 variety of onyx. It is so called from Sard or 
 Sarda, a rich dark-red variety of carnelian, 
 stripes of which in the stone alternate with 
 white stripes. See Geu s. 
 
 O'FAL. A mineral allied to agate and 
 chalcedony, but distinguished by its peculiar 
 resinous lustre. The variety most admired as 
 a gem is the precious or noble opal, which is 
 remarkable for its beautiful play of colours. 
 The finest opals come from Hungary, and 
 although usually very small, will, if of good 
 quality, realise as much as £5 each. Their 
 value increases iu a much greater ratio than 
 their increase in size. They are also found in 
 Saxony and in North America. The largest 
 known specimen of an opal is that iu the 
 Imperial Cabinet at Vienna, the dimensions of 
 which are five inches by two and a half. Gira- 
 sol, Cacholong, Byalite, and MenilUe are 
 varieties of opal. See Gems and Pastes. 
 
 O'OLITE. A variety of limestone composed 
 of a number of collections of small round par- 
 ticles, bound together by a calcareous cement. 
 The resemblance the mass is supposed to hear 
 to the roe of a fish has caused oolite to be 
 called roestone. When the grains are of larger 
 dimensions it is called peastone. The little 
 spherical bodies of which the stone is composed 
 are mostly formed of concentric layers of car- 
 bonate of lime arranged round a grain of sand ; 
 a fragment of shell or some other nucleus. 
 
 The building stones of Caen, Portland, and 
 Bath are all oolitic limestones. When first 
 quarried they are mostly soft, a circumstance 
 which admits of their being easily sawn and 
 carved. They harden by exposure to the air. 
 
 In geology the terra " oolite " has a wider 
 signification, and is applied to an important 
 division of the middle secondary rocks of 
 England, underlying the chalk formation and 
 rich in the interesting fossil remains. 
 
 OPHTHAL'MIA. Syn. Ophthalmitis, L. 
 Inflammation of the eye. In ordinary cases 
 this disease is confined to the external mem- 
 brane of the globe of the eye or to the eyelids ; 
 but it occasionally attacks the scleroticiv, 
 cornea, choroid coat, and retina. 
 
 The common causes of ordinary or conjunc- 
 tival ophthalmia are the sudden exposure of 
 the organ to a cold easterly wind, to dust, 
 gritty particles, or to any external irritation or 
 injury. 
 
 The symptoms are, in part, those common 
 
OPHTHALMIA 
 
 1191 
 
 to local iufliimniation. Tlio eyo or eyelids 
 become more or less bloodshot, swollen, and 
 tender, and a seuaatioa resembling tli:it in- 
 duced by the presence of particles of sand 
 or some gritty substance, accompanied by much 
 heat anil a pricking pain, is almost constantly 
 experienced. The secretion becomes yellow- 
 ish and glutinous, and during the night fre- 
 quently glues, as it were, the lids together. 
 Sometimes only one eye is attacked, but after 
 two <ir three days the disease extends to the 
 other. 
 
 Tlie treatment of mild cases of conjunctival 
 ophthalmia is extremely simple, lu general, 
 it may be relieved by fomentations of warm 
 water or decoction of poppy-heads and the 
 use of aperient medicines, to which leeches and 
 cupping may often be added with advant:ige. 
 
 " To apply a lotion to the eyes," writes Dr 
 Gardner, " the best way is to nse a large 
 camel's- hair pencil or brush. Fill it with the 
 lotion, draw down the lower lid, and apply the 
 brush ; the fluid will now come out of it into 
 the eye. 
 
 " In order to get it well within the upper 
 lid, move the latter up and down, and the 
 whole HurTace will be wetted. Tliis is im- 
 portant, because the usual way of applying 
 lotions to the inside of the eye is very ineffi- 
 ciLMit, if not entirely useless. The brush 
 should be washed in warm water alter using 
 it." ' 
 
 In cases where the inflammation is very 
 severe, the pain very acute, or the vision in the 
 eliglitcst degree impaired, as well as in those 
 accompanied by a discharge of matter or pus, 
 no tiiuc should be lost in seekiug t.he services 
 of the oculist. 
 
 Animals. — All animals are liable to attacks 
 of catarrhal or common ophthalmia, which 
 may originate from various causes, such as 
 exposure to cold, influenza, or the presence of 
 foreign substances, such as bits of chaff, the 
 husks of oat, small seeds, &c. 
 
 In horses, in addition to the above, it may 
 he caused by a blow from the whip. In ani- 
 mals affected by it the eye becomes watery and 
 half closed, the membrane looks thickened, 
 and the eye is frequently bloodshot. If due to 
 the presence of any foreign body this must be 
 removed, either by means of the fingers, a 
 handkerchief, or a camel'e-hair brush, or, if 
 necessary, by the forceps. 
 
 The treatment consists in bathing the eyes 
 with tepid milk and water, after which an 
 alam or zinc lotion may ba applied. A mild 
 physic ball should also be administered. 
 
 Ophthalmia, Parnleiit. This dreadful dis- 
 ease, which, like the above, is a form of inflam- 
 mation of the mucous membrane of the eye, 
 dilfers from ordiuory ophthalmia in being 
 accompanied with a discbarge of pus, too 
 frequently terminating in total and irrecover- 
 able blindtiess of one or both eyes, and in being 
 very coniaginus. 
 
 ' 'Hoajchold Mediciue.' Smith. Elder, & Co. 
 
 Purulent ophthalmia is very prevalent in 
 India, Persia, and Egypt, and from the circum- 
 stance that large numbers of our troops were 
 afFected with it on their return from the cam- 
 paign in Egypt, in the beginning of the pre- 
 sent century, before which time itwas unknown 
 in England, it acquired the name of " Egyp- 
 tian ophthalmia." 
 
 Although of late years its ravages amongst 
 the soldiers of our own as well :is of other 
 European nations have considerably abated, 
 the disease is still more or less prevalent in the 
 British, French, Prussian, Austrian, Bavarian, 
 Italian, Spanish, Belgian, Swedish, and Kussian 
 armies. Purulent ophthalmia is also by no 
 means uncommon amongst the non-military 
 population, such as the poorer classes and 
 their children, and the children in work- 
 houses, asylums, and pauper schools. Sr 
 Parkes says it has evidently been propa- 
 gated amongst the civil inhabitants by the 
 soldiery. 
 
 The following narrative of an outbreak of 
 purulent ophthalmia that occurred on board a 
 vessel freighted with slaves for the West 
 Indies forcibly illustrates the character and 
 infectious nature of this disease. 
 
 In the year 1819 the " Lu Roideur," a French 
 vessel, sailed with a cargo of 160 negroes from 
 Bonny, on the coast of Africa, to Guadalnupe. 
 The " Le Roideur's" crew consisted of 22 
 men, so that the number of human beings 
 on board, including officers, was 182. No epi- 
 demic had been observed amongst tiie natives 
 from whom the slaves had been taken, and 
 further, at the time of sailing the crew were 
 in perfect health, and the slavis were said to 
 be free from disease of any kind. 
 
 The wretched Africans were closely packed 
 in the hold of the vessel, the air of which, as 
 may be imagined, soon became frightfully 
 foul ; and after about the thirtieth or fortieth 
 day, the drinking water running scarce, their 
 daily allowance was reduced from 8 oz. to half 
 a wineglassful. Then it was that opiithalmia 
 first showed itself amongst the wretched occu- 
 pants of the hold, the lids of their eyes be- 
 coming red and inflamed. The surgeon of the 
 vessel advised that they should breathe in suc- 
 cession the purer air of the deck. But tliis 
 course had to be relinquished, since it was 
 found that many of the negroes on leaving the 
 hold jumped over the side of the vessel, and 
 purposely drowned themselves. The disease, 
 which was of a most virulent kind, spread 
 rapidly amongst the negroes, and from these 
 to the crew. 
 
 A notable fact demonstrating the propaga- 
 tion of purulent ophthalmia by material par- 
 ticles was the circumstance that the first 
 amongst the crew who was seized was a sailor 
 who guarded the hatch communicating with 
 the hold. The day after another of the crew 
 was attacked, and in three days after this the 
 disease had assailed the captain, and almost 
 the whole of the crew. The disease continued 
 
1192 
 
 OPHTHALMIA 
 
 to spread daily, until at last there remained 
 one only of the whole crew unaffected and with 
 sight intact, and to him was deputed the im- 
 portant task ot'steering the vessel. Great fear 
 was manifested lest he too might eventually be 
 overtaken with the total or partial blindness 
 that had come to the remainder of the crew. 
 
 The " Le Roideur" reached Guadaloupe ou 
 the 21st of June, when it was found that 
 thirty more of the negroes had entirely lost 
 their sight (thirty-six of whom had been 
 thrown into the sea, since they were unsale- 
 able), twelve had lost the sight of an eye, and 
 fourteen were more or less blind. 
 
 Of the crew, twelve including the surgeon 
 were entirely blind, five were blind of one eye, 
 and four partially so. 
 
 Three days after the arrival of the vessel in 
 port the steerer of the vessel was seized with 
 the disease.' 
 
 About thirty years ago a curious discovery 
 in connection with purulent ophthalmia was 
 made by Dr Loffler, a Prussian army surgeon. 
 Many of the soldiers of his regiment being dis- 
 abled by this disease, he submitted the eyes of 
 hII the men to a rigorous daily inspection, and 
 he discovered in the lining membrane of the 
 eyelids of some of them certain small granular 
 bodies resembling boiled sago grains. Fur- 
 thermore he noticed that, although those sol- 
 diers whose eyelids presented this peculiarity 
 showed then no indications of the disease, they 
 were subsequently invariably attacked by it; 
 whilst those from whose eyelids tlie sago grains 
 were absent as invariably escaped. 
 
 Subsequent investigators, amongst whom 
 may be mentioned Drs Welch and Marston, 
 have confirmed the accuracy of Dr Loflfler's 
 observations and the soundness of his conclu- 
 sions — that the occurrence of the sago grains 
 is always an antecedent condition to an attack 
 of purulent ophthalmia. 
 
 As to the nature of the little granular 
 bodies known to pathologists as ' sago 
 grains,' it seems to be generally admitted 
 that they are follicles situated directly beneath 
 the epithelium, which, in a healthy condition 
 of the lining membrane, are not apparent, but 
 which become swollen and enlarged when the 
 membrane itself is in an unhealthy and irri- 
 table condition. In this respect they resemble 
 the enlarged glands met with in scrofulous and 
 weakly children. 
 
 "In a, regiment the proneness to the de- 
 velopment of sago grains is found to decrease 
 as life advances; that is, to be much greater 
 in young soldiers than in old ones, and by a 
 parity of reasoning it is assumed to be greater 
 in a community of children than in a com- 
 munity of adults. In any individual, and 
 therefore in any community, the sago grains 
 may disappear without producing mischief ; 
 but, as a matter of fact, sources of irritation to 
 the eyes abound in the world, and when these 
 sources of irritation act upon eyelids in which 
 > BIytlie. 
 
 sago grains are already present, they often 
 excite the contagious form of ophthalmia."' 
 
 The diffusion into the atmosphere of the 
 purulent discharge accompanying this form of 
 ophthalmia is undoubtedly the means by 
 which the disease is spread. 
 
 Hence it is that if one ey^be affected the 
 other may be saved from an attack by being 
 hermetically sealed up — a method of preven- 
 tion sometimes adopted by the ophthalmic 
 surgeon. 
 
 Mr Brudenell Carter says " that the secre- 
 tion passes along the tear-passages into the 
 nostrils, and is driven out with the expired air 
 at every breath j besides the chances of direct 
 contact that must exist when a child with oph- 
 thaluiia is perpetually sending into the atmo- 
 sphere what I may describe as a spray of 
 contagious particles.'* 
 
 Medical opinion is in some measure divided 
 as to the origin of this disease ; for whilst there 
 are authorities who believe that its propaga- 
 tion is due to contagion assisted by insanitary 
 environments, there are others who incline to 
 the supposition that these latter conditions 
 alone are sufScient to produce it. Whether 
 this is so or not there can be no question that 
 impure air, overcrowding, filth, and deficient 
 water supply, which implies insufficient ablu- 
 tion, serve to intensify and perpetuate it. 
 
 So strongly and confidently impressed are 
 Messrs Welch and Marston of the connection 
 between unhealthy surroundings and preva- 
 lent ophthalmia, that they regard the two as 
 cause and effect, and state their belief " that 
 the presence or absence of ' sago grains' affords 
 a delicate test of the sanitary state of a school, 
 a regiment, or any similar community." 
 
 Ample and painful confirmation of these 
 views is afforded by the prevalence of the 
 disease amongst the children, more particu- 
 larly those who live in very poor and crowded 
 districts. The pitiable, blear-eyed little crea- 
 tures that one meets with in these localities 
 are very frequently the victims of purulent 
 ophthalmia, and as such bear unfailing testi- 
 mony to the insalubrity and squalor of the 
 homes in which they dwell. 
 
 Stromeyer states that he has met with the 
 ' sago grains' in the eyelids of many domestic 
 animals, more particularly pigs, the granules 
 being always in proportion to the more or less 
 dirty condition in which the animals were 
 kept. 
 
 The ahove statements plainly indicate the 
 means by which the disease is to be combated. 
 Of these, thorough ventilation and pure air 
 are the most important. Stromeyer records 
 how, by simply ventilating some barracks, he 
 reduced to an amazing extent a number of 
 cases of the disease, which had broken out in 
 the Hanoverian army. Possibly this result 
 was due to the removal, by the current of air 
 from the apartment of the dried particles of 
 contagious matter. 
 
 » Biudenell Carter. 
 
OPIATES— OPIUM 
 
 1193 
 
 Ablution, which, carefully performed, is, in 
 addition to ventilBtion, an important curative 
 agent, may, through the neglect of certain 
 precauliona, assiat to spread the disease. 
 
 This it will assuredly do if the basins em- 
 ployed by the patients for washing their eyes 
 are not thoroughly cleansed and disinfected 
 after bi'ing used. Furthermore, the towels may 
 be made to spread the infection, unless they 
 tu<> are thrown into some disinfecting solution 
 nittT usi-, and unless a separate towel i< appro- 
 pi iattii to each patient. The danger of rein- 
 oculation may ensue if each towel is not 
 changed sufficiently often. The bed-clothes 
 of the alfeclcd persons, as well as the pillow- 
 cases, shoiiUI he frequently renewed, the latter 
 every day, since they collect and disseminate 
 the discharges falling on them from the 
 patient. 
 
 Mcdiciil authorities also strongly recom- 
 mend the isolation of the patient, and then 
 c<m8eqnL'nt separation from healthy persons as 
 soon as ever the disease shows itself in a regi- 
 ment, a school, or amongst anybody of persons 
 congregated together ; a daily inspection of the 
 eyes of each is recommended, so that whenever 
 tlio " sBgi) grains" develop themselves, the 
 individuHls so attacked may be removed, and 
 placed under proper treatment. 
 
 The after effects of the various forms of 
 contagious ophthalmia are thickening and 
 distortinn of the eyelids, more or less serious 
 defect of vision, and not unfrequently total 
 blindness. 
 
 During the course of the disease relapses 
 from the most trifling causes frequently occur, 
 and Warmolow states that a person who has 
 once been affected with it is not safe agsinst 
 a recurrence, and should be assiduously 
 watched. 
 
 Ophthalmia, Infantile, Furnlent. This 
 disease very frequently attacks infants of 3 
 or 4 dsys old. It is distinguished by redness 
 of the edges of the eyes, the lids of which 
 are often glued together. Upon looking into 
 the eye the lining membrane is seen to be 
 swollen and red. Infantile purulent oph- 
 thalmia, although yielding much more readily 
 to proper treatment than that which attacks 
 adults, makes rapid progress if neglected, and 
 may jeopardise the sight of the babe ; hence 
 the great importance of calling in efficient 
 medical aid as soon as ever it makes its 
 appearance. 
 
 Ophthalmia, Stramons, or Scrofalous. This 
 form of ophthalmia is generally met with 
 in children of scrofulous habit of from 
 4 to 10 or 11 years of age. Its most dis- 
 tinctive characteristic is the inability of the 
 sufferer to bear the light, the effect of which 
 is that the eyes are kept spasmodically partially 
 closed. If the eyes are examined, a slight 
 fulness of the vessels usually stopping at the 
 edge of the cornea is observable, and about 
 the line dividing the cornea and sclerotic coat 
 small opaque pimples or pustules are visible. 
 
 This variety of ophthalmia, being the outcome 
 of a constitutional taint, is frequently very 
 obstinate, and yields with difficulty to medical 
 treatment, besides being very liable to reap- 
 pear. It is not unfrequently accompanied 
 with a troublesome cutaneous affection known 
 as Crueta lactea, which occurs on the cheeks, 
 and arises from the irritation caused by the 
 flow down the cheeks of the acrid lachrymal 
 secretion. The usual treatment consists in 
 improving the general health and strength of 
 the patient by means of tonics, such as quinine, 
 quinine and iron, cod-liver oil, or syrup of 
 iodide of iron. The diet should be nutritious 
 and easy of digestion, and there should be no 
 stint of fresh air. 
 
 C'PIATES. Sgn. OpiATi, L. Preparations 
 containing opium. The word is often applied 
 in a general sense to anodynes and soporifics. 
 In French pharmacy the n:ime is commonly 
 used synonymously with confections, as in the 
 following preparations : — 
 
 Anti-dtsknteeio opiate —Quarin. Puri- 
 fied opium, 4 gr. ; ipecacuanha, ^ dr.; tor- 
 mentilla, 1 dr. ; syrup of whortleberries and 
 conserve of red roses, of each 6 dr. — Dose. A 
 teaspoonful every hour. 
 
 Anti-hystbeical opiate — Trousseau and 
 Reveil. Powdered indigo, 1 oz. ; white honey, 
 
 3 oz. — Dose, 1 tablespoonful daily, gradually 
 increased until the whole is taken in a day. 
 In hysteria, epilepsy, and nervous affections of 
 an epileptic character. 
 
 Balsamic opiate — Trousseau and Reveil. 
 Oleo-rosin (balsam) of copaiba, 1 oz. ; cubebs 
 (in powder), 3 oz. ; potassio-tartrate of iron, 
 2J dr.; syrup of quince, q. s. In gleet. — 
 Dose, 3 boluses the size of a nut, thrice 
 daily. 
 
 Chabodal opiate — Ratier. Willow char- 
 coal (recent), 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 dr. ; 
 powdered white sugar, 2 oz. ; rose water, q.s. 
 to form an electuary. In diarrhcea and in- 
 cipient cholera, in dysentery wiih fetid stools, 
 aud in gastralgia, flatulence, &c. By substi- 
 tuting calcined magnesia for chalk it becomes 
 an excellent remedy for habitual constipa- 
 tion. 
 
 CuBEB opiate — Deyeaux. Powdered cubebs, 
 
 4 dr. ; powdered camphor, 1 dr. ; mix, and 
 divide it into 18 powders. — Dose. One, 3 or 4 
 times daily, in gleet, paiulul and scalding 
 micturition, &c. 
 
 CPIUm. Si/n. Opium (B. P., Ph. L., E., & 
 D.), L. The juice inspissated by spontaneous 
 evaporation, obtained by incision from the 
 unripe capsules of the Papaver somniferunt, 
 grown in Asia Minor. 
 
 Mist. — -" It is uncertain at what period 
 opium was first known and introduced into 
 medicine. Hippocrates recommends the me- 
 iionion or poppy juice, in a disease of the 
 uterus ; and ijioscorides, on the authority of 
 Erasistratus, tells us that Diagoras (uho was 
 contemporary, it is supposed, with Hippo- 
 crates) condemned the use of opium. These 
 
1194 
 
 OPIUM 
 
 are, X believe, the most ancient Greek autho- 
 rities who speal; of this substance ; and it is 
 impossible, I think, to arrive at any acenrate 
 conclusion from their remarks whether opium 
 had, or had not, been known long before their 
 time, though Alston infers, from the little use 
 made of it by Hippocrates, as well as from 
 Diagoras condemning its use in diseases of the 
 eyes, that its virtues were not known long 
 before him. Dioscorides and Pliny mention 
 that the expressed juice of the heads and leaves 
 is termed meconium^ and that it is much 
 weaker than opium. Theodore Zwinger, 
 Sprengel, and others have supposed that the 
 nepenthes of Homer was opium. It would 
 appear that opium was not much employed 
 until the time of the Arabs, except in the form 
 of the confections known as Theriaca, Mith- 
 ridatiea, &o. The word opium is derived from 
 otos, the Juice."' 
 
 Var. — 1. Egtptiak j in roundish flattened 
 lumps ; inferior to Turkish opium. — 2. Ekg- 
 tiBH; often equal to the best Smyrna. — 3. 
 Peek oh; resembles the last. — 4. Geeman; 
 similar to English opium. — 5. Indian j — a. 
 Benaees; in large balls;— 6. Malwa ; in 
 roundish fliittened cakes, of 9 or 10 oz. in 
 weight each ; — c. Patna, in balls or square 
 cakes ; inferior to Turkey opium. — 6. Le. 
 VANT; same as Smyrna opium. — 7. Pee- 
 SIAN; in rolls or sticks, 6 x ^ inch ; inferior; 
 resembles hepatic aloes in appearance. — 8. 
 Smybna ; in irregular, rounded, flattened 
 pieces, varying in weight from 2 or 3 lbs. to 
 only as many oz. It ibrms the best variety of 
 Turkey opium, and is particularly rich in mor- 
 phia. It is the only one adapted for the 
 manufacture of the salts of morphia, as it 
 contains on the average from 7 to 9^ of that 
 alkaloid, and usually yields about 12 to 125^ 
 of hydrochlorate of morphia, which is more 
 than can be obtained from any other variety 
 of opium.' — 9. Ttjekey; of which two varie- 
 ties are known in commerce, viz. Constan- 
 tinople opium and Levant or Smyrna opium, 
 noticed above. Constantinople opium is gene- 
 rally in small, flattened, roundish cakes, 2 to 
 2i inches in diameter, and covered with poppy 
 leaves. It is more mucilaginous and less es- 
 teemed than Smyrna opium, from which it 
 may be distinguished by the last being always 
 covered with the reddish capsules of a species 
 of Rumex. 
 
 The following account of the method of 
 opium collection, adopted in Asia Minor, is 
 extracted from a paper in the ' Pharmaceutical 
 Journal,' contributed by Messrs Maltass and 
 Wilkin.' About the end of May the plants 
 arrive at maturity, and the flowers expand. A 
 few days after the petals have tailen the 
 capsule is ready for incision. 
 
 1 Pereira. 
 
 * 01 five kinds of Smyrna opium examined by Merk 
 the worst were found to yield 3 to 4 per cent, of morphia' 
 and tlie best from 13 lo 13 5 per cent. 
 
 8 First series, 14lh volume. I 
 
 This operation is performed in the afternoon 
 of the day and in the following manner : — A 
 transverse incision is made with a knife in the 
 lower part of the capsule, the incision being 
 carried round until it arrives nearly at the 
 part where it commenced; sometimes it is con- 
 tinued spirally to half way down its starting 
 point. The greatest nicety is required to avoid 
 cutting too deep, and penetrating the interior 
 coating of the capsule, as this would cause 
 the exuding milky juice to flow into the 
 inside. 
 
 The following morning those engaged in 
 collecting the opium lay a large poppy leaf on 
 the palm of the left hand, and having a knife 
 ill the right hand, they scrape the opium which 
 has exuded from the incision in each capsule, 
 and then transfer it from the knife to the leaf, 
 until a mass of sufiicient size has been formed, 
 when a second poppy leaf is placed over the 
 top of the mass. If the dew has been heavy 
 during the night the yield is greater, but the 
 opium is dark in colour; if, on the contrary, 
 there has been no dew, the yield is less, but 
 the opium is of a lighter colour. A high wind 
 is prejudicial, as the dust raised from the pul- 
 verised soil adheres to the exudation, and can- 
 not be separated. The poppy capsules are cut 
 hut once, but as each plant will from one stem 
 produce several branches, and each branch 
 produce a flower, it is usual to pass over the 
 field a second or a third time, to cut such cap- 
 sules as were not ready at the first cutting. 
 After the opium is collected it is dried in the 
 shade. 
 
 The proceeds arising from the s.ale of the 
 opiuin crop in British India form a consider- 
 able item in the revenues of our Eastern 
 Empire ; hence the poppy as the source of this 
 valuHble export, almost the whole of which 
 goes to China, is very extensively cultivated 
 in India. 
 
 In the year ending March 31st, 1872, 
 93,364 chests, valued at £13,365,228, were 
 exported from British India. Of this quan- 
 tity 49,455 chests were from Bengal, and 
 Bombay 43,S09. They were distributed 
 thus ; — 
 
 To China .... 85.470 chests. 
 
 „ the Straits Settlements . 7,845 „ 
 „ Ceylon, Java, Mauritius, 
 
 and Bourbon ... 38 „ 
 
 „ the United Kingdom . 4 „ 
 
 „ other countries . . 7 „ 
 
 93,364 
 
 The net revenue to the Indian Government 
 from this source in the year 1871-72 was 
 Je7,657,213.'' 
 
 A large track of country in Bengal, some 
 600 miles in length and 200 in breadth, 
 watered by the Ganges, embraces the chief 
 opium district of India. A comparatively 
 
 * riiickiger and Hanburjr. 
 
OPIUM 
 
 1)95 
 
 mnall quantity of opiam ia obtained from tlie 
 mountain pnrts of the North of India. This 
 latter ia yielded by the Papaver aomnifervm, 
 whilHt that from the plains is the produce of 
 the Papaeer officinale. 
 
 In India the plant is reared in a rich and 
 well-mannrcd soil, and thrives bfst in mild 
 moist localities. It requires careful weeding 
 and thinning whilst growing, and when 
 necessary the ground is irrigiited. As in 
 Asia Minor, when the time comes for m»king 
 incisions in the capsules for the purpose of 
 collecting the exuding juice, this latter is 
 ahvays founil to be less in quantity if it be 
 rainy weather. In India the poppy begins to 
 (lower at tlie end of January, or the com- 
 mencement of February and about three or 
 four weeks after its effervescence the capsule, 
 which is about as large as a hen's egg, is in a 
 condition to be tapped. This operation is 
 alwiiys performed at early morn, before sun- 
 rise, by means of a little iron instrument 
 notclied at the smaller end like a saw. 
 
 The treatment to which the milky exuda- 
 tion, which subsequently hardens into opium, 
 is subjected differs only in details from that 
 followed in Asia Minor, and in being more cure- 
 fully and elaborately carried out. For instance, 
 it is first allowed to atand for some time in a 
 shallow brass dish tilted on one side, by which 
 means there drains away a thin watery fluid, 
 the presence of which seriously impairs the 
 quality of the opiuln. After this it is dried 
 equably by three or four weeks' exposure to the 
 air, and in this condition is packed in earthen 
 jars and taken by the native cultivators to the 
 factory. Here, after being tested and weighed, 
 it is thrown into immense vats, which contuin 
 the accumulated produce of whole districts; 
 and when the several samples have been 
 kneaded together it ia removed, and formed 
 into balls or cakes. The soft opium is made 
 into balls by being pressed into brass cup- 
 shaped moulds, lined throughout with petals 
 of the poppy, which are made to adhere to 
 each iither as well as to the ball of opium by 
 means of an adhesive fluid obtained from an 
 inferior kind of opium ; other petals are then 
 by the same means stuck on to the upper 
 part of the ball so that the whole of this is 
 covered with a thin layer of them. The balls 
 are next removed to the drying-room of the 
 factory, where they are arranged in tiers on 
 lattice-work shelves. During the procesT of 
 drying they are carefully watched and exa- 
 mined by boys, to keep them from the ravages 
 of insects. When sufliciently desiccated the 
 cakes of opium are packed in casks, and are 
 ready for the n\arket. 
 
 The yield of morphia from East Indian 
 opium is usually very small, a circumstance 
 wliich Messrs Fluckiger and Hanbury con- 
 ceived to be partly due to the climiite and 
 partly tn the defective method of cultivation. 
 
 He believed that the period, three or tour 
 weeks, during which the juice was allowed to 
 
 remain in the wet state was much too long, 
 and exercised a destructive influence on its 
 constituents. 
 
 Opium from England, France, and Germany 
 is occasionally met with, but never in consider- 
 able quantity. The cultivation of the opium 
 POPPJ) however, in these three countries is 
 chiefly carried on for the sake of the capsules 
 which are largely employed iu medicine; 
 and the oil extracted from the seed, which ia 
 highly valued and extensively employed by 
 artists. 
 
 Pur. The opium of commerce is not unfre- 
 qnently adulterated with extract of poppies, 
 extract of lettuce, lactucarium, mucilage of 
 gum tragacanth, dried leaves, starch, water, 
 clay, sand, gravel, and other substances, in 
 order to increase its weight. This fraud is 
 readily detected by inspection, by chemical 
 analysis, and the microscope ; and indirectly, 
 with the greatest certainty, by a simple assay 
 of the sample for its morphia (morphiometry). 
 This may be effected by one or other of the 
 following methods : — 
 
 1. (Couerbe.) Opium, 4 parts, and quick- 
 lime, 1 part, made into a milk stith water, 
 q. »., are boiled together, and the solution 
 tittered whilst hot; the filtrate is then satu- 
 rated with dilute hydrochloric acid and the mor- 
 phia precipitated by the addition of ammonia, 
 any excess of the latter being expelled by 
 heat; the precipitate is then collected, dried, 
 and weighed. If 100 gr. have been ope- 
 rated on, the given weight will represent 
 (nearly) the per-ccntage richness of the sample 
 in morphia. 
 
 2. (GuilUermond.) 100 gr. of opium are tri- 
 turated for some time iu a mortar along with 
 4 times its weight of rectified spirit, and the 
 tincture strained through linen, with expres- 
 sion, into a wide-mouthed bottle; the marc is 
 triturated a second time with about 3 times 
 its weight of alcohol, and the tincture strained 
 into the bottle as before; to the mixed tinc- 
 ture is added a fl. dr. of liquor of ammonia, 
 and the whole is agitated for a short time. In 
 abQut 12 hours the morphia spontaneously 
 separates, accompanied with some narcotina 
 and meconate of ammonium ; the morphia 
 covering the interior of tlie vessel with large, 
 coloured, and gritty crystals, feeling like sand, 
 and the narcotina crystallising in very light, 
 small, white, and pearly nee<llcs. These crys- 
 tals are washed with water, cither through a 
 paper filter or linen, to free them from the 
 meconate of ammonia which they contain ; 
 after which the narcotina is separated irom 
 the morphia by decantation in water, which 
 removes the narcotina, which is the lighter of 
 the two. According to M. Mialhe, however, 
 the morphia ia more effectually removed by 
 washing the crystals with 1 to IJ fl. dr. of 
 ether, by triturating the two together, when 
 the morphia is left in an insoluble state, and 
 mav then be dried and weighed. 
 
 3. (B. Ph.) Take of opium, 100 gr., 
 
1196 
 
 OPIUM 
 
 slaked lime, 100 gr., distilled water, 4 oz. 
 Break down the opium and steep it in an 
 ounce of the water for 24 hours, stiiriiig the 
 mixture frequently. Transfer it to a dis- 
 placement apparatus, and pour on the remainder 
 of the water in successive portions, so as to 
 exhaust the opium by percolation. To the 
 infusion thus obtained, placed in a flask, add 
 the lime, boil for ten minutes, place the un- 
 dissolved matter on a filter, and wash it with 
 an ounce of boiling water. Acidulate the 
 filtered fluid slightly witli hydrochloric acid, 
 evaporate it to the bulk of i an ounce, and let 
 it cool. Neutralise it cautiously with solution 
 of ammonia, carefully avoiding an excess ; 
 remove by filtration the brown matter which 
 separates, wash it with an ounce of hot water, 
 mix the washings with the filtrate, concentrate 
 the whole to the bulk of J an ounce, and add 
 now solution of ammonia in slight excess. 
 After 24 hours collect the precipitated 
 morphia on a weighed filter, wash it with cold 
 water, and dry it at 212°. It ought to weigh 
 at least from 6 to 8 grains. 
 
 4. (Cleaver.) Commenting on the above 
 method of opium assay, Mr Cleaver ' remarks : 
 — " This process, if properly and carefully 
 carried out, is one of the best, as, by the use 
 of lime, the resin and meconate of calcium, 
 also meconic acid, are removed from solution. 
 The objections to it are — 
 
 " a. That the large quantity of water used, 
 and the subsequent evaporation, cause loss of 
 morphia. 
 
 " b. That no account is taken of the loss of 
 morpliia by non-precipitation. 
 
 " The modifications I would introduce are as 
 follows : — 
 
 " a. The opium should be first treated with 
 bisulphide of carbon or benzine. 
 
 " b. The dried residue should then be mixed 
 with its own weight of lime and two or three 
 times its bulk of some inert powder, such as 
 pumice or glass. It is then to be percolated 
 with water, the first part of the percolate 
 being returned as fast as it runs through. By 
 this means much less water will be required to 
 exhaust the opium than would otherwise be 
 the case. 
 
 " After the opium has been exhausted, which 
 will be known by the liquid dropping through 
 devoid of taste, the solution should be exactly 
 neutralised with dilute sulphuric acid and 
 filtered and the precipitate washed. The 
 clear solution is then to be evaporated over a 
 water bath until its bulk is about i an ounce, 
 and again filtered if requisite, then ammonia 
 is to be added in slight excess, and the liquid 
 allowed to stand for 24 hours. 
 
 " The precipitate can then be collected, 
 washed with ether and dried, and to the 
 amount formed must be added the amount 
 corresponding to the quantity of water used 
 iu precipitating and washing. 
 
 » ' Fharmaceatical Year Book,' 1876. 
 
 " The morphia obtained by this process is of 
 a dull white colour, crystalline, perfectly 
 soluble in alcohol, acids, and alkalies." 
 
 5. (Prollius.) This is a very simple process, 
 and is said to give very exact results. It is as 
 follows : — The opium is exhausted with 9 or 10 
 times its weight of spirit of 34 per cent, 
 strength. Of the resulting tincture, 100 parts 
 are well shaken with 5 parts of ether and 2 
 parts of solution of ammonia in a stoppered 
 bottle, and then allowed to stand from 12 to 
 24 hours. The liquids separate slowly, and 
 retain, partly in the ether, partly in the 
 alcoholic liquid, the colouring matter, narco- 
 tine, and other crystallisable constituents of 
 opium ; while the morphia separates in 
 crystals between the two layers, and finally 
 sinks to the bottom. The fluid portion is 
 decanted, the crystals are washed with 
 diluted alcohol, dried and weighed. 
 
 6.' (Teschemacher.) In employing the 
 following method the use of alcohol to extract 
 the morphia is avoided, and meconic acid is 
 separated at an early stage, which prevents 
 the formation of a basic meconate on precipi- 
 tation of the morphia. Two special reagents 
 are required for this process j the one prepared 
 by mixing 1 part of ammonia, sp. gr. 0*880, 
 with 20 parts of methylated alcohol, and 
 digesting in this mixture a large excess of 
 morphine; this, when filtered, is termed 
 " morphiated spirit ;" the other, morphiated 
 water, is water saturated with excess of 
 morphine, and contains 0-04 per cent, of this 
 alkaloid. 1000 gr. of opium are macerated 
 for 12 to 24 hours in about 4000 grains of cold 
 distilled water, together with 300 gr. of 
 lead acetate, stirring the mixture from time to 
 time. This separates the meuonic acid as 
 lead meconate, whilst the morphia is dissolved 
 in the acetic acid set free. 
 
 After this maceration the opium may be 
 readily ground in a mortar to a paste, and so 
 much moie cold distilled water added, raising 
 the pestle and mortar with successive portions 
 of it as to HU with the mixture a measure = 
 20,250 grains of distilled water; experience 
 has shown that the space occupied by the in- 
 soluble matters measures from 200 to 300 
 gr., so that the limit of possible error, by 
 averaging and allowing 250 gr. for the in- 
 soluble portion, amounts to 0"05g in opium 
 containing 10$ of morphia. The mixture is 
 to be filtered and 15,000 measured gr. = 
 750 grains of opium, of the clear solution, are 
 to be evaporated to an extract on a water bath, 
 and this residue to be drenched with 3090 
 gr. of boiling alcohol or methylated spirit, 
 and the whole digested, with frequent stirring, 
 for about 10 minutes. 
 
 This separates the gum, &e., of the opium 
 which is insoluble in alcohol, and so far frees 
 the solution of morphia from impurity. 
 
 At this stage of the process it is well to get 
 rid of the excess of lead-salts, and to accomplish 
 * ' Chemical News,' xxxv, 47. 
 
OPIUM 
 
 1197 
 
 this, Butpliurie acid is preferable to 8nl- 
 phuretted hydrogen. So much diluted sul- 
 phuric acid OS ma; be equal to 30 gr. of oil 
 of vitriol will almost always be sufScient for 
 this purpose, any excess of acid being con- 
 verted ioto snlphate of ammonia by the sub- 
 sequent addition of so much solution of 
 ammonia as shall be equivalent to the 80 gr. 
 of oil of vitriol, thus forming a salt but slightly 
 soluble in the alcoholic solution. This mixture 
 may now be transferred to a beaker and al- 
 lowed to settle for 12 hours, after which it is 
 to be filtered, and the filter and insoluble 
 residue thoroughly washed with alcohol or 
 methylated spirits. This alcoholic filtrate is 
 then distilled, or evaporated on a water bath, 
 to about 1000 gr. ; and mixed, while still 
 hot, with 400 gr. of solution of ammonia, 
 sp. gr. 880, stirring rapidly and continuoualy 
 for at least 20 minutes, whilst the beaker or 
 evaporating dish should be cooled as rapidly 
 as possible by immersion in an external vessel 
 filled with cold water. The rapid and con- 
 tinuous stirring is most important, as the 
 precipitation of the whole of the morphia in 
 fine powder is thereby effected, instead of the 
 granular or m,umillated condition so frequently 
 met with, and it thus permits of the easy and 
 thorough separation of all the narcotine which 
 may be mixed with the morphine. When the 
 cooling of the mixture and precipitation of 
 the morphia is thus attained, transn-r it 
 quickly and completely to a filter of sufBcient 
 capncity to hold the whole, and when the 
 liquid portion has passed through, wash the 
 remainder of the precipitated morphia ad- 
 hering to the dish or beaker on to the filter, 
 using for this purpose the morphiated spirit 
 already described, and continuing the washing 
 of the precipitate until it is completely freed 
 from the mother-liquor. To do this effectually 
 requires some little care: thus the morphia 
 on the filter must be kept in a spongy con- 
 dition and never allowed to cohere, which is 
 easily effected by pouring the morphiated 
 spirit round the edges of the filter, so as not 
 to disturb the precipitate, which must not be 
 permitted to drain or solidify until this 
 washing is completed. 
 
 The precipitate is now to be washed from off 
 the filter-paper with the morphiated water 
 previously described, and digested therein 
 for a few minutes, which removes some more 
 colouring matter, together with any salts 
 soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, 
 which may have adhered to the precipitated 
 morphia j then once more collect the precipi- 
 tate on a filter, washing it with morphiated 
 spirit, after this once with ether, and finally 
 thrice, or more with benzine; this completely 
 frees it from narcotina, which is very soluble 
 in benzine; morphia, on the contrary, being 
 insoluble in this liquid. It now remains to 
 drain and dry at u low temperature, say 100° 
 F., the resulting pure and white morpliia, 
 the weight of which will indicate the amount 
 
 of this alkaloid present in 750 gr. of the 
 opium under examination. 
 
 7. (Ph. E.) Macerate 100 gr. of opium for 
 24 hours in 2 fl. oz. of water, filter, and 
 strongly squeeze the residue ; then precipitate 
 the infusion with carbonate of sodium, ^ oz., 
 dissolved in cold water, 2 fl. oz. ; gently heat 
 the precipitate until it shrinks and fuses, 
 then cool and weigh it. It should weigh at 
 least 10 gr., and, when powdered, be entirely 
 soluble in a solution of oxalic acid. See also 
 Watts ' ' Die. of Chemistry,' article Opium. 
 
 TeHi. These depend chiefly on the chemical 
 and physical characters of morphia and me- 
 conic acid, the tests for which have been 
 already noticed. In operating upon the con- 
 tents of the stomach, or upon solid organs, in 
 cases of suspected poisoning, the best method 
 of proceeding is that already described under 
 
 AXEALOID. 
 
 Another method is to boil the substances 
 in water slightly acidulated with acetic acid, 
 next to evaporate the solution to the consist- 
 ence of a thick syrup, and then to treat it 
 twice with boiling rectified spirit ; the tincture 
 thus obtained is to be filtered when cold, and 
 again evaporated to the consistence of a syrup ; 
 it is now re-dissolved in distilled water, the 
 filtrate treated with solution of suhacetate of 
 lead, and the precipitate of meconate of lead, 
 separated by filtration, and carefully preserved. 
 A current of sulphuretted hydrogen is then 
 passed through the solution to precipitate ex- 
 cess of lead, and after again filtering it the 
 liquid is evaporated, at first in a water bath, 
 and afterwards under the receiver of an air- 
 pump. The shapeless mass of crystals thus 
 obtained present all the characters of mor- 
 phia, if the substance examined contained 
 opium. In the meantime the precipitate of 
 meconate of lead is to be boiled with water 
 acidulated with sulphuric acid, and the inso- 
 luble sulphate of lead separated by filtration ; 
 the filtered liquid, by evaporation, furnishes 
 meconic acid, either under the form of crys- 
 tals or an amorphous powder, the solution of 
 which precipitates ferric salts of a deep blood- 
 red. 
 
 The following are additional tests to those 
 already noticed : — 
 
 1. From the peculiar odour of opium, often 
 perceptible when the drug has beeil taken 
 only in very small quantities. 
 
 2. A solution containing crude opium is 
 turned of a deep red colour, or if coloured, it 
 is turned of a reddish brown, and is darkened 
 by tincture of ferric chloride. 
 
 3. (Hare.) A portion of the suspected liquid 
 is poured into a beaker glass, and a few drops 
 of solution of acetate of lead are added to it ; 
 the whole is stirred frequently for 10 or 12 
 hours, and then allowed to settle, after which 
 the supernatant liquid is decanted ; 20 or 30 
 drops each of dilute sulphuric acid and solu- 
 tion of ferric sulphate are next poured on the 
 precipitate (meconate of lead), when a deep 
 
1198 
 
 OPIUM 
 
 and beautiful red colour will be developed if 
 the original liquid contained opium. 
 
 4. (Dr Eieget.) The suspected substance is 
 mixed with some potassa, and is then agitated 
 with ether ; a strip of white unsized paper is 
 next several times moistened with the solu- 
 tion, and when dry it is re-moistened with 
 hydrochloric acid, and exposed to the steam of 
 hot water. The paper assumes a red colour, 
 more or less deep, if opium is present. 
 
 JJses, Sfc. Opium is one of the most valuable 
 substances employed in medicine. In small 
 doses it acts as a powerful and diffusible stimu- 
 lant, in somewhat larger ones it is narcotic, 
 and in excessive doses it proves an active nar- 
 cotic poison. It is also anodyne, antispas- 
 modic, diaphoretic, soporific, and sedative, its 
 peculiar action being greatly modified by the 
 dose and the condition of the patient. Its 
 action as a stimulant is followed by sedative 
 effects, which are, in general, much more 
 marked than could be expected from the 
 degree of previous excitement it induces. It 
 is employed to fulfil a variety of indications — 
 to procure sleep, to lull pain, allay irritation, 
 check morbid discbarges, alleviate cough and 
 spasm, &c. &c. It also, when judiciously ad- 
 ministered, renders the body less susceptible 
 of external impressions, as those of cold, con- 
 tagion, &c. ; but it is injurious when the pulse 
 is high, the heat of the body above the natural 
 standard, and the skin dry, or when there is a 
 disposition to local inflammation or congestion. 
 When applied externally, in the form of fric- 
 tions, liniments, ointments, &c., it is absorbed, 
 and produces similar effects to those produced 
 by swallowing it, but in this way it requires 
 to be used in Inrger quantities. — Dose. As a 
 stimulant, i gr., every 2 or 3 hours ; as an 
 anodyne and antispasmodic, ^ to 1 gr. ; as a 
 soporific, i to 2 gr. ; in violent spasms, neu- 
 ralgia, acute rheumatism, &c., 2 to 4 gr., 
 increased in delirium tremens, hydrophobia, 
 mania, tetanus, &c., to several times that 
 quantity, according to circumstances. 
 
 The use of opium as a stimulant and intoxi- 
 cant is common among the nations of the 
 East. The Turks chew it, and the Chinese 
 smoke a watery extract of it, under the name 
 of ' chundoo,' the preparation of which from 
 the crude article constitutes a special business. 
 Messrs Fliickiger and Hanbury, in their 'Phar- 
 macograpliia,' published in 1874, say this par- 
 ticular business is not confined to the celestials, 
 since, in 1870, a British firm at Amoy opened 
 an establishment for preparing chundoo for 
 the consumption of the Chinese in California 
 and Australia. 
 
 The qualities most valued by the Chinese 
 in opium are its fulness and peculiarity of 
 aroma, and its degree of solubility. The 
 amount of morphine it contains is a secondary 
 consideration. 
 
 The practice of opium smoking yearly in- 
 creases in Cliina. It appears to be openly 
 foUoived, and no odium attaches to it, provided 
 
 it is not carried so far as to intoxicate or 
 incapacitate the smoker. 
 
 In the larger cities and towns adjacent to 
 Amoythe proportion of opium smokers, accord- 
 ing to Mr Hughes, Commissioner of Customs 
 at Amoy, is estimated at from 15 to 20 per 
 cent, of the adult population. 
 
 In the country districts 5 to 10 per cent, of 
 the population are believed to be opium 
 smokers. 
 
 In many of the Western States of America 
 the practice has become so notoriously common 
 that in 1872 the legislature of Kentucky 
 passed a bill by which any person who, through 
 the excessive use of opium, is incapacitated 
 from managing himself or his affairs, may, 
 upon the afiidavit of two citizens, be confined 
 in an asylum, and subjected to the same re- 
 straint as lunatics or habitual drunkards.' 
 
 Of late years opium-eating and laudanum - 
 taking have, unfortunately, been greatly on 
 the increase in this country, and the employ- 
 ment of this drug as o soporific for infants 
 and young children has become so general 
 amongst the poor and dissipated as to call for 
 the interference of the legislature. 
 
 Of the 250,000 lbs. of opium which, as 
 shown by the recent returns made by the Cus- 
 tom House, are imported into this country, it 
 has been computed that not more than a 
 third of this quantity is used for medicinal 
 purposes. 
 
 According to Dr Chevers the practices 
 of opium-eating and opium-smoking are very 
 common among the natives of India. The 
 same authority also states that in that country 
 a large number of female infants are pur- 
 posely poisoned by it, by introducing the drug 
 into the child's mouth, and in various other 
 ways. 
 
 The first effect of opium as a stimulant is 
 to excite the mental powers and to elevate 
 those faculties proper to man ; but its habi- 
 tual use impairs the digestive organs, induces 
 constipation, and gradually lessens the energy 
 of both the mind and body. In excessive 
 quantities it destroys the memory, induces 
 fatuity and a state of wretchedness and misery, 
 which after a few years is mostly cut short by 
 a premature death. In this respect the effects 
 of the excessive use of opium closely resemble 
 those of fermented liqnors. 
 
 Opium is somewhat uncertain in its action ; 
 some persons being able, sometimes from idio- 
 syncrasy, but more frequently from previous 
 indulgence in it, to take a much larger dose 
 than others. The smallest quantity which is 
 said to have proved fatal with an adult is 4 
 grains of the crude opium. In contrast with 
 this may be quoted the statement of Dr 
 Garrod, of a young man who not only swal- 
 lowed 60 gr. of Smyrnaopium night and morn- 
 ing, hut very frequently, in addition to this, 1 
 oz. to li oz. of laudanum during the day. 
 
 Dr Chapman also cites the case of a patient 
 1 Blvtlie. 
 
OPIUM 
 
 1199 
 
 to whom a winegloaa of laadannm had to 
 be administered several times in 24 hours. 
 
 Pais. — Sj/mptomt. Headache; drowsiness; 
 stupor; frigdtful reveries; vertigo; con- 
 tracted pupil (generally) ; scanty urine ; pru- 
 ritus or dry itching of tlie skin, often accom- 
 panied by a papular eruption j thirst ; dryness 
 of mouth and throat; weak and low pulse; 
 vomiting ; respiration, generally, natural. 
 Sometimes the drowsiness or sleep is calm and 
 peaceful. — Ant., l(c. Vomiting must be In- 
 dnced as soon as possible, by means of a strong 
 emetic and tickling the fauces. If this does 
 not succeed, the stomacli-pnmp should be 
 applied. The emetic may consist of a ^ dr. of 
 sulphate of zinc dissolved in 4 pint of warm 
 water, of which one third should be taken at 
 once, and the remainder at the rate of a wine- 
 glassful every 5 or 10 minutes, until vomiting 
 commences. When there is much drowsiness 
 or stupor, 1 or 2 fl. dr. of tincture of capsicum 
 will be found a useful addition; or one of the 
 formuliD for emetic draughts given at page 
 588 (especially No. 7) may be taken instead. 
 Infusion of galls, cinchona, or oak-bark, should 
 bo freely administered before the emetic, and 
 water soured with vinegar and lemon-juice, 
 alter the stomach has been well cleared oat. 
 To rouse the system, spirit-and-water or strong 
 coH'ee may be (,'iven. To keep the sufferer 
 awake, rough friction should be applied to 
 the skin, an upright posture preserved, and 
 walking exercise enlbrced, if necessary. When 
 this is iueffec tual, cold water may be dashed 
 over the cliest, head, and spine, or mild shocks 
 of electricity may be had recourse to. To 
 allow the sufferer to sleep is to abandon him to 
 destruction. Bleeding may be subsequently 
 necessary in plethoric habits, or in threatened 
 congestion. The costiveness that accompanies 
 convalescence may be best met by aromatic 
 aperients; and the general tone of the habit 
 resti)red by stimulating tonics and the shower 
 bath. The smallest fatal dose of opium in the 
 
 case of an adult within onr recollection wa 
 i\ gr. Children are much more Busceptibie 
 of the action of opium than of other medi- 
 cines, and hence the dose of it for them must 
 be diminished considerably below that indi- 
 cated by the common method of calculation 
 depending on the age. bee Doses, &c. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. Opium is a very com- 
 plicated substance, and contains a number of 
 alkaloids and other proximate vegetable prin- 
 ciples, besides a certain portion of saline mat- 
 ter. The substances already detected in it 
 are caoutchouc, codein, fatty matter, ligniu, 
 meconic acid, mecooia, morphia, narceia, 
 narcotia, odorous matter, opiania, papaveria, 
 pseudomorphia (?), porphyroxin, resin, saline 
 matter, &c. It is doubtful, however, whether 
 some of these substances are not generated from 
 other principles existing in opium during the 
 processes adopted to obtain them. 
 
 According to Mulder, 100 parts of ordinary 
 Smyrna opium contain — 
 
 Morphia . 
 
 . 10-842 
 
 Codeia 
 
 •678 
 
 Narcotia . 
 
 . 6'808 
 
 Narceia 
 
 . 0-662 
 
 Meconia 
 
 -804 
 
 Meconic acid 
 
 . 5154 
 
 Besin 
 
 . 3-582 
 
 Gummy matter . 
 
 . 2G-24.2 
 
 Mucus 
 
 . 19-086 
 
 Patty matter 
 
 . 2-166 
 
 Caoutchouc 
 
 . 6-012 
 
 Water 
 
 . 9-816 
 
 Matter undeterminec 
 
 and 
 
 loss 
 
 . 2-118 
 
 100- 
 The sp. gr. of Smyrna opium is 1-336. 
 
 The following chart, showing the natural 
 alkaloids of opium and n few of their artificial 
 derivatives, is taken from the ' Pliarmaco- 
 graphia' of Messrs Fliickiger and Hanbury : — 
 
 Discovered by 
 WObler, 1844 . 
 
 Hesse, 1871 
 
 Miitthiesen and 
 Wright, 1869 
 
 Wright, 1871 . 
 Sortiirner,18l6. 
 
 PellolierandThi- 
 boumdry, 1835 
 
 COTAENINB . . . . 
 
 Formed by oxidising narcotine, soluble in water. 
 
 1. Hydrocotarnine 
 Crystallisable, alkaline, volatile at 100°. 
 
 Apormokphinb 
 From morphine by hydrochloric acid, colourless, 
 amorphous, turning green by exposure to air, 
 emetic. 
 
 Desoxtmobphinb 
 
 ,...%. Uorphine . , . . 
 Crystallisable, alkaline, levogvre. 
 
 3. Fseudomorphise 
 
 Crystallises with HjO, dues not unite even with 
 
 acetic acid. 
 
 c. 
 
 H. 
 
 N. 
 
 0. 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 
 4 
 
1200 
 
 OPIUM 
 
 
 
 
 
 Biscovered by 
 
 
 C. 
 
 H. 
 
 N. 
 
 0. 
 
 Mntthiesen and 
 Burnside,1871 
 
 . Afocodeinb , . 
 Prom codeine by chloride of zinc; amorphous, 
 emetic. 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Wright, 1871 . 
 
 Desoxtcodeihb 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 
 2 
 
 Kobiquet, 1832 . 
 
 4. Codeine .... 
 Crystallisahle, alkaline, soluble in water. 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 
 3 
 
 Matthiesen and 
 
 Foster, 1868 
 Tliiboumery,1835 
 
 NOENAECOTINB 
 
 . 5. Thebaine .... 
 Crystallisahle, alkaline, isomeric with buxine. 
 
 19 
 19 
 
 17 
 21 
 
 
 7 
 3 
 
 Hesse, 1870 . 
 
 . Thebbninb .... 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 
 3 
 
 Hesse, 1870 . 
 
 . Thebaecine .... 
 From Thebaine or Thebenine by hydrochloric acid. 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 
 3 
 
 Hesse, 1871 
 
 . 6. Protoplne .... 
 Crystallisahle, alkaline. 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 
 5 
 
 Matthiesen and 
 
 Foster, 1868 
 Hesse, 1871 
 
 . MBTHTLNOBNAEOOIUrB . 
 
 . DBTTTBBOCIirB .... 
 Not yet isolated. 
 
 20 
 20 
 
 19 
 21 
 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 Hesse, 1870 
 
 . 7. Landanine .... 
 An alkaloid, which, as well as its salts, forms large 
 crystals j turns orange by hydrochloric acid. 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 
 4 
 
 Hesse, 1870 , 
 
 8. Codamine .... 
 Crystallisahle, alkaline, can be sublimed; becomes 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 
 4 
 
 Merck, 1848 . 
 
 . 9. Papaverine .... 
 Crystallisahle, also its hydrochlorate j sulphate in 
 sulphuric acid precipitated by water. 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 
 4 
 
 Hesse, 1865 . 
 
 . 10. Ehoeadine .... 
 Crystallisahle, not distinctly alkaline, can be sub- 
 limed J occurs also in Papaver Bhaeas. 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 
 6 
 
 Hesse, 1865 . 
 
 Ehceagenine .... 
 Prom rhoeadine , crystallisahle, alkaline. 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 
 6 
 
 Armstrong, 1871 
 
 . Dimethtlnoknaecotinb . 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 
 7 
 
 Hesse, 1870 . 
 
 . 11. Meconidine .... 
 Amorphous, alkaline, melts at 58°, not stable, the 
 salts also easily altered. 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 
 4 
 
 T. and H. Smith, 
 1864 
 
 . 13. Cryptopiue .... 
 Crystallisahle, alkaline, salts tend to gelatinise, 
 hydrochlorate crystallises in tufts. 
 
 21 
 
 23 
 
 
 5 
 
 Hesse, 1871 
 
 . . 13. Laadanosine . . 
 Crystallisahle, alkaline. 
 
 21 
 
 27 
 
 
 4 
 
 Derosne, 1803 . 
 
 . 14. Narcotine .... 
 Crystallisable, not alkaline, salts not stable. 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 
 7 
 
 Hesse, 1870 . 
 
 . 15. lanthopine .... 
 Microscopic crystals, not alkaline, sparingly soluble 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 
 4 
 
 Pelletler, 1832 . 
 
 . 16. Narceine .... 
 Crystallisable (as a hydrate), readily soluble in boil- 
 ing water, or in alkalies, levogyre. 
 
 23 
 
 29 
 
 
 9 
 
OPODELDOC— ORANGEADE 
 
 1201 
 
 •,• Tlie following preparations, once famous, 
 arc now nearly obsolete in this country. Those 
 that are made with cold water or by fermen- 
 tation are supposuil to be milder than crude 
 opium, and in this respect to be similar to 
 
 ' BLACE BBOP.' 
 
 Opiam, HombeTg's. Opium exhausted by 
 repeated coction in 10 or 12 times its weight 
 of water, and the mixed liquors evaporated to 
 one third, and kept boiling for 2 or 3 days, 
 adding water from time to time, then strain- 
 ing and evaporating to a pilular consistence. 
 Bauh^'b fubifibd opicm is similar. 
 
 OpiQm,Laancelotte'B. Opium, 1 lb. ; quince 
 juice, 1 gall. ; pure potassa, 1 oz, ; sug.^r, 4 oz.; 
 ferment for some time, evaporate to a syrup, 
 digest in recti&ed spirit, filter, and evaporate 
 the tincture. 
 Opium, Let'tnce. Lactucarinm. 
 (^ium, Newmann's. Infusion of opium, 
 strained, mixed with a little sugar, and fer- 
 mented for some months in a warm place ; 
 and, lastly, strained and evaporated to an 
 extract, or preserved in the liquid form. 
 
 Opium, Powell's. Opium, exhausted by coc- 
 tion with water, the residuum treated with 
 spirit of wine, and the mixed tincture und de- 
 coction evaporated to an extract. 
 
 Oplnm, Pa"rifled. -S^». Opiitm puripioa- 
 TUM, L. The purified opium of old pharmacy 
 is now represented by the aqueous extract of 
 the Pharmacopoeias. (See page 703.) For- 
 merly, picked opium, beaten to a pilular con- 
 sistence, with the addition of a little water or 
 proof spirit, was called ' soft puuified opium' 
 (opium pubipioatdm mollb) j and picked 
 opium, dried in a water bath until brittle 
 enough for powdering, was called * haed pdbi- 
 FiKD opium' (o. p. ddbum). Cobnbtte's and 
 Jossk'b pubified opium are similar to the 
 extract of Ph. L. 
 
 Opium, Qnercetan's. Vinegar of opium eva- 
 porated to an extract. 
 
 Opium, Strained. S^n. Extbaotum tee- 
 BAicuM, Opium colatum. Opium pubifioa- 
 TUM, L. Opium dissolved or softened in an 
 equal weight of water, passed through can- 
 vas, and evaporated to the consistence of an 
 extract. It is now superseded by the aqueous 
 extract. 
 
 Opium, Tor'refied. Si/n. Roasted opium ; 
 Opium toebefaotum, L. Opium, dried, cut 
 into thin slices, and roasted on an iron plate, 
 at a low heat, af long as it emits vapours, care 
 being taken not to burn it. 
 OPODEL'DOC. 1. See Liniment of Soap. 
 2. (Steeb's opodeldoc.) This, which differs 
 from common opodeldoc chiefly in containing 
 more soap, is prepared as follows :— 
 
 a. White Castile soap (cut very small), 2 lbs. ; 
 camphor, 5 oz. ; oil of ro-semary, 1 oz. ; oil 
 of origanum, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 giill. ; 
 mix, and digest in a strong battle (closely 
 corked), by the heat of a water bath, until 
 ,#olution is complete; when the liquid has 
 considerably cooled, add of liquor of ammonia, 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 11 oz., and immediately put it into wide- 
 monthed bottles (Steer's), cork them close, 
 and tie them over with bladder. Very fine, 
 solid and transparent when cold. 
 
 6. Soap, 4 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. ; oil of rose- 
 mary and origanum, of each 1 dr. ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 pint; liquor of ammonia, H fl. oz. Mix. 
 c. (Phil. Coll. of Phar.) White soap, 28 
 oz. ; camphor, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 6^ pints ; 
 dissolve, suffer the impurities to subside, add 
 of liquor of ammonia, 4 fl. oz. ; oils ol' rosemary 
 and horsemint, of each 1 fl. oz. ; und pour it 
 into phials, as before. 
 
 OPOFOKAX. A resinous substance obtained 
 from the roots of the Opoponax chironium. It 
 occurs in lumps of a reddish-yellow or brown 
 colour, and has a waxy fracture. It has a 
 powerful odour, which somewhat resembles 
 garlic, and a bitter taste. 
 
 Opoponax is only partially soluble in alcohol. 
 According to Payen it consists of a little 
 volatile oil, a resin that melts it at 100° C, 
 gum, inorganic and organic salts, and me- 
 chanical admixtures. It is used in French 
 pharmacy ; and was held in great esteem by 
 Hippocrates, Tbeophrastus, and Dioscorides, 
 all of whom employed it therapeutically. 
 
 ORANGE. Sun. Aubantium, L. The com- 
 mon SWEET OEANGE is the fruit of CHrua 
 Aurantitim. The Seville or bitteb obanoe is 
 produced by Citrus vulgarU or Bigaradia. 
 
 Oranges are probably about the most whole- 
 some and useful of u\\ the subacid fruits. 
 Their juice differs from that of lemons chiefly 
 in containing le-s citric acid and more sugar. 
 In their general properties the two are nearly 
 similar. 
 
 Factitious oeanoe juice is made by dis- 
 solvinj: citric acid, 1 oz., and carbonate of 
 potassa, 1 dr., in water, 1 quart, and digesting 
 the s ihition on the peel of half an orange 
 until sufficiently flavoured ; Narbonne honey or 
 white sugar is then added to impart the neces- 
 sary sweetness. Instead of orange peel, 5 or 
 6 drops of oil of orange peel, with \ fl. oz. of 
 tincture of orange peel, may be used. 
 
 OeANOE peel (cOETJiX AUBANTIl) is an 
 agreeable, stomachic, bitter tonic, especially 
 useful as an adjunct to more active medicines. 
 That ordered to be used in medicine is the ex- 
 terior (yellow) rind of the Citrus Bigaradia, 
 or bitter orange, dried in the months of Feb- 
 ruary, March, or April. See Candying, Infu- 
 sion, Issue peas, Oil3 (volatile), &c. 
 
 ORANGEADE'. Syn. Oeange sheebet. 
 1. Juice of 4 oranges, thin peel of 1 orange, 
 lump sugar, 4 oz. j boiling water, 3 pints. 
 
 2. Juice and peel of 1 large orange, citric 
 acid, 15 gr. ; sugar, 3 oz. ; boiling water, 1 
 quart. 
 
 Orangeade, Effervescing or Aerated. 1. Mix 
 1 lb. ot syrup of orange peel, a gallon of water, 
 and 1 oz. of citric acid, and charge it strongly 
 with carbonic acid gas with a machine. 
 
 2. Syrup of orange juice, | fl. oz. ; aerated 
 water, \ pint. 
 
 76 
 
1202 
 
 ORANGE CHROME— ORES 
 
 3. Simple syrup, i fl. oz. j tincture of orange 
 peel, J dr. ; citric acid, 1 scruple ; fill the 
 bottle with »erated water. 
 
 4. Put into a soda-water bottle i oz. to 
 
 1 oz. of syrup of orange peel, 30 gr. of bicar- 
 bonate of potash, 8 oz. of water, and, lastly, 
 40 gr. of citric acid, in crystals, and cork 
 immediately. 
 
 5. Put into each bottle 2 or 3 dr. of sugar, 
 
 2 drops of oil of orange peel, 30 gr. of bi- 
 carbonate of potash, or 25 gr. of bicarbonate 
 of soda water to fill the bottle, and 40 gr. 
 of citric acid, as before. 
 
 OR'ANGE CHROME. Prep. 1. From a 
 solution of cbromate of potash and diacetate of 
 lead, as chrome yellow. 
 
 2. Prom chrome yellow or chromate of lead, 
 by acting on it with a weak alkaline lye, until 
 sufficiently darkened. Used as a pigment. 
 
 ORANGE DYES. These are produced from 
 mixtures of red and yellow dyes in various 
 jiroportions ; or by passing the cloth, pre- 
 viously dyed yellow, through a weak red bath. 
 1. A very good fugitive orange may be given 
 with annotta, by passing the goods through a 
 solution made with equal parts of annotta and 
 pearlash, or, still better, through a bath made 
 of 1 part of annotta, dissolved in a lye of 1 part 
 each of lime and pearlash and 2 parts of soda. 
 The shade may be reddened by passing the 
 dyed goods through water acidulated with 
 vinegar, lemon j nice, or citric acid, or through 
 a solution of alum. The goods are sometimes 
 passed through a weak alum mordant before 
 immersion in the dye bath. 
 
 2. (For Cotton.) For 40 lbs. 2| lbs. an- 
 notta, 24 lbs. of bark, 3 quarts of chloride of 
 tin. Boil the annotta, put off the boil, enter 
 and wince until it has a good body. Then 
 wring out, wash well, wring again, and shake 
 out. Next, in a clean boiler, boil the bark in a 
 bag for a quarter of an hour, add the chloride 
 of tin, and enter, wince at the spring till the 
 required shade is got. 
 
 3. (For Silk.) For 10 yards. Annotta, If 
 oz.; bark, 1^ oz. ; chloride of tin, 1^ oz, Give 
 a good body of annotta at 212° Fahr. ; wash 
 in one water, then top with the bark and 
 chloride of tin. 
 
 4. (For Wool.) For 50 lbs. Boil 10 lbs. 
 of bark and IJ lbs. of cochineal ; add 2 lbs. of 
 tartar, 2i quarts of yellow spirits. Enter at 
 200° Fahr. ; boil 30 minutes. See Annotta, 
 Dyeino, &c. 
 
 ORANGE RED. S^yn. Sandix. From white 
 lead, by calcination, in a nearly similar man- 
 ner to that by which red lead is prepared from 
 the protoxide. Brighter than red lead. Used 
 wholly as a pigment. 
 
 OR'ANGERY. The gallery, building, or en- 
 closure in a garden, in which orange trees are 
 preserved or cultivated, to shield them from 
 the effects of the external winter, or to assist 
 their growth by artificial heat. 
 
 OR'CHARD. See Cidee. 
 
 ■OR'CEIN. C7H7NO2. Syn. Lichen lake. 
 
 A brownish-red powder, obtained by dissolving 
 orcin in ammonia, exposing the solution to the 
 air, and then precipitating with dilute acetic 
 acid. It is nearly insoluble iu water, but dis- 
 solves freely in solutions of ammonia and the 
 fixed alkalies, with the production of a rich 
 purple or violet colour. It probably consti- 
 tutes the leading tinctorial ingredient in AS- 
 CHIL, CUDBBAB, and LITMUS. (See below.) 
 
 OR'CHIL. See Archil. 
 
 OR'CIN. C.H3O2. The general product of 
 the decomposition of the acids obtained from 
 the tinctorial lichens under the influence of 
 heat or the alkaline earths. 
 
 Prep. 1. The powdered lichen is treated 
 with boiling alcohol, the tincture filtered whilst 
 hot, and again after it has become cold ; the 
 alcohol is then removed by distillation, and 
 the remainder evaporated to the consistence of 
 a syrup ; this is redissolved in water, and the 
 solution is again filtered and evaporated to a 
 syrup; it is then set aside some days in a cool 
 place, and the crystals of orcin which form are 
 collected, and dried by pressure in bibulous 
 paper. Impure. 
 
 2. Leeanoric or orsenillic acid (impure will 
 do) is boiled in baryta water, and the excess of 
 baryta is precipitated by carbonic acid ; the 
 filtered liquid is then evaporated to a small 
 bulk, and set aside to crystallise, as before. 
 
 Prop.y S(c. Large, square, prismatic crys- 
 tals; slightly yellowish; intensely sweet ; very 
 soluble in both water and alcohol ; melt to a 
 syrupy liquid, and then distil unchanged. Al- 
 kalies decompose it ; when exposed to the air, 
 it gradually reddens. (See ahove^ 
 
 OREIDE. A variety of brass, in appearance 
 veiy much like gold. The following, accord- 
 ing to MM. Meurier and Valient, its inventors, 
 is the composition of this alloy : — Copper, 100 
 parts ; zinc, 17 parts j magnesia, 6 parts ; 
 sal ammoniac, 3'6 parts; quicksilver, 1-80 
 parts ; tartar of commerce, 9 parts. The 
 copper being first melted, the other ingredients 
 are added by small portions at a time, the 
 whole being kept in fusion for about half an 
 hour, and during which time they are kept 
 skimmed. The oreide has a fine grain, is mal- 
 leable, is capable of being brilliantly polished, 
 and has its lustre restored by the use of acidu- 
 lated water. 
 
 OR'ELLIN. A yellow colouring matter con- 
 tained together with bixin in^annotta. It is 
 soluble in water and in alcohol, slightly soluble 
 in ether, and dyes alumed goods yellow. Also 
 the name sometimes given to purified annotta. 
 The commercial annotta is dissolved in an 
 alkaline solution, either caustic or carbonated, 
 and then precipitated by an acid. See Annotta. 
 
 ORES. The mineral bodies from which 
 metals are obtained. The processes adopted 
 for this purpose constitute operative metal- 
 lurgy ; those by which their value is deter- 
 mined, mineral ABSAYINa. 
 
 A very small proportion only of the metals 
 are met with in nature in the free or elemen- 
 
ORES 
 
 1203 
 
 tary condition, by far the greater number 
 found being united with some non'metallic 
 element or elements, in definite atomic pro- 
 portions, and as such forming trne chemical 
 compounds, in wliich in almost every instance 
 the physical and chemical properties of the 
 metal are obliterated. In these bodies, which, 
 when they are used as sources of the metals 
 commonly employed by man, are called OBSa, 
 the metal is mostly combined with oxygen or 
 sulphur, sometimes with carbonic acid, and 
 less frequently with chlorine, and other nega- 
 tive elements. Thus we have the native com- 
 binations of iron and oxygen constituting the 
 minerals known as haematite iron ore (FcjOj), 
 bog iron ore (PejOs.SHjO), and magnetic iron 
 ore (Fcj03,FeO), of tin and oxygen in tin 
 stone (SiiOj), and of copper and oxygen 
 known as red copper ore (CujO). Of the 
 principal ores into which sulphur enters lis a 
 chemical ingiediout, we may mention native 
 sulphide of antimony (Sb2S3) ; tlie two native 
 sulphides of arsenic, realgar (AsjS.) and orpi- 
 meiit (A'jS,); galonii, or nativn sulphide of 
 lead (PbS), blende, or native sulphide of zinc 
 (ZnS), and cinnabar, or native sulphide of 
 mercury (HgS). Besides the ttl)Ove, there are 
 also certain double native sulphides, such as 
 tlie double sulphide of iron and copper, known 
 us Peacock "ore, and having tlie composi- 
 tion FejSjiSCujS; iron and copper pyrites 
 (PojSs.CujS) ; and red silver ore (SbjSj.S AgS). 
 
 In the state of carbonate, ores occur — 
 as mabichite native carbonate of copper 
 (CuCOj.Cu(HO)o), as calamine, or native car- 
 Ibonato of zinc (ZnCOg), and as spathose iron 
 ore, or native carbonate of iron (FeCO,). 
 Horn silvei' and horn lead, the (brmer having 
 the composition AgCI, and the latter PbCOg + 
 PhClj are iUustratiana of ores containing 
 chlorine. 
 
 The process of obtaining the metal from 
 the ore of course varies with the nature and 
 character of the latter. Before, however, this 
 operation can bo undertaken, the ore itself is 
 subjected to certain mechanical operations, in 
 order to remove the gangue or the adher- 
 ing eartliy, rocky, stony, and other matters 
 with which it is always move or less mixed 
 up. The amount of attention which is given 
 111 this preparatory treatment of the ores 
 greatly depends upon their value ; those, for 
 iustance, of copper and lead iiv commanding a 
 higher market price than those of zinc and 
 iron being submitted to commensurate treat- 
 ment. This process of freeiiif; tlie ores from 
 the gangue, which is termed dressing, is gene- 
 rally conducted as follows, mostly near the 
 pit entrance of the mine whence the ores 
 have been extracted. 
 
 If the material brought up to the pit's 
 mouth is a lead or a copper ore, it innstly con- 
 tains a number of lumps, which are Cdiisidered 
 sufficiently pure for the smelting oven, and 
 these lire set aside without being dressed. 
 Generally, however, the ore is first broken by 
 
 hammers into pieces about as large as a 
 walnut, and the best pieces are then selected 
 for smelting. 
 
 The remaining or inferior prions are then 
 crushed under the large and horizontal cylin- 
 ders of a grinding mill, to which they are 
 supplied by hoppers. After being ground the 
 ore is separated by being made to pass through 
 coarse sieves, the coarser portions being set 
 aside for the stampers, whilst the finer ones 
 are subjected to the operation of jigging. 
 This consists in a workman separating the 
 contents of the sieve under water by impart- 
 ing to them such a movement that the bits of 
 ore (particularly if they are of a friable nature 
 like galena) become broken, and thus pass 
 through the meshes of the sieve to the bottom 
 of the water, whilst the less friable and spe- 
 cifically Ifghter matter, mostly consisting of 
 gangue, remains behind on the sieve. This 
 residue, being mixed with the coarser portions 
 resulting from the first sifting, and which 
 have not been subjected to the jifrsing pro- 
 cess, is transferred to the stanipin<^ mill, 
 whilst those portions of ore found at the 
 bottom of the well are reserved for smeltiuR. 
 If the ore be one containing tin, it does not 
 undergo the above processes, but passes at 
 once to the stamping apparatus. 
 
 This stamping apparatus consists of five or 
 six large wooden beams, each weighing; ^th of 
 a ton. Each beam is covered at the l)ottom 
 with iron, and is made to rise and fall in suc- 
 ccHsion by means of projections from a hori- 
 zontal axle, made to revolve either by water 
 or steam power. Behind the stampers is an 
 inclined board, upon which are plueed the 
 residue and coarser portions of the ore already 
 described, and when the stampers are in 
 motion the ore slides down the inclined plane 
 under them, and thus gets eruslied. When it 
 is thought the ore has been suflieiently 
 crushed, it is, by means cf a current of water 
 running throngh the mill, carried away 
 through a grating in front of the mill into a 
 channel in whieh there are two pits, with the 
 result that the more valuable imd heavier por- 
 tion of the ore becomes deposited in the first 
 pit, whilst the inferior portiori is carried on, 
 and falls into the second one. 
 
 The crushed ore has, however, to undergo 
 other operations before it is considered suffi- 
 ciently pure for the furnace. That part (the 
 purer portion, called the crop by the Cornish 
 miner) which has deposited in the first pit 
 after removal therefrom, is subjected to a 
 series of further washings, the different appa- 
 ratus by which these are effected being 
 known in Cornish language as a huddle and 
 a kieve. 
 
 " The crop is first subjected to washing in 
 the huddle ; this is a wooden trough about 8 
 feet long, 3 wide, and 2 deep, fixed in the 
 ground with one end somewhat elevated. At 
 the upper end a small stream of water enters, 
 and is reduced to a uniform thin sheet by 
 
1204 
 
 ORES 
 
 means of a distributing board, on which a 
 number of small pieces of wood are fastened 
 to break the stream. The ore to he washed is 
 placed in small quantities at a time on a 
 board just below the distributing board, and 
 somewhat more inclined than the body of the 
 huddle, and as the ore is spread out into a 
 thin layer the water carries it forward. 
 
 " The richer portions subside near the head 
 of the trough, and the light ores are carried 
 further down. ' The heads ' are then tossed 
 into the kieve, a covered wooden tub, which is 
 filled with water and ore added by a workman, 
 who keeps the contents of the kieve in con- 
 tinual agitation by turning an agitator, the 
 handle of which projects through the lid of 
 the tub. When the vessel is nearly full the 
 agitation is stopped; the kieve is struck 
 sharply upon the side several timfe, and its 
 contents are allowed to subside; the upper 
 half of the sediment is again passed through 
 the huddle. Various modifications of the 
 washing process are resorted to, but they are 
 all the same in principle." ' 
 
 The water which has been used in washing 
 the ore on the huddle, as well as that in the 
 kieve, contains in addition to the debris of 
 the gangue more or less of small pieces of the 
 ore itself. Hence this water is not allowed 
 to escape, but conveyed into a narrow channel 
 cut at the end of the huddle, where it deposits 
 the solid materials. These being then re- 
 moved undergo a second washing on an in- 
 clined stage, a process by which anv remaining 
 mineral is recovered, followed in Cornwall. 
 
 The above is the method of dressing the 
 ores of lead and tin, and, with some modifica- 
 tions, those of copper. 
 
 Some metals, as, for example, certain iron 
 and zinc ores, previous to being dressed, 
 require a preliminary exposure for some time 
 to the atmosphere. This operation, which is 
 called ' weathering,' has the effect of aiding 
 the subsequent removal by water of certain 
 materials of a clayey, slatey, or marly nature, 
 which sometimes adhere very tenaciously to 
 the ores in question. 
 
 Again, in some cases weathering is had 
 recourse to for obtaining a metallic compound 
 in a soluble form. It is by this means that 
 iron pyrites if exposed to the air after a time 
 becomes converted into a sulphate of the 
 metal. 
 
 Large quantities of commercial sulphate of 
 iron or green vitriol are manufactured from 
 this natural sulphate after it has been dis- 
 solved by the rain, and then crystallised. 
 Sometimes the ores after dressing, and pre- 
 vious to roasting or smelting, are subjected to 
 a process of calcination without access of air, 
 with the object of depriving them of water, 
 carbonic acid and bituminous matters, and 
 also of rendering the ore softer and in a 
 favorable condition to be acted upon by the 
 subsequent metallurgic operations. 
 1 Miller. 
 
 The ores having been by these various pro- 
 cesses sufficiently freed from extraneous 
 matters, are next, according to their composi- 
 tion, either submitted to the operations of 
 roasting or smelting, and in many cases to 
 both. 
 
 Soasting, This operation is mostly carried 
 out in a reverbatory furnace. The result of 
 the process upon the ores containing sulphur, 
 which are those chiefly subjected to it, varies 
 with the nature of the ore. Thus, when the 
 sulphides of antimony, arsenic, or zinc are 
 roasted, the sulphur escapes as sulphurous 
 anhydride with the formation of the volatile 
 oxides of arsenic, antimony, or zinc, which 
 sublime, and are afterwards collected and 
 purified with cinnabar or native sulphide of 
 mercury. 
 
 Sulphurous anhydride is evolved with the 
 vapours of metallic mercury, these being at 
 the same time condensed by cooling. When 
 copper pyrites (the double sulphide of copper 
 and iron) is placed in the reverbatory furnace, 
 the copper and iron become converted into 
 oxides. 
 
 When galena or lead sulphide is exposed 
 to the roasting process, lead oxide and sul- 
 phate, with the copious escape of sulphurous 
 acid, are at first formed. The oxide and sul- 
 phate become eventually decom{)osed, leaving 
 behind metallic lead, with a small portion of 
 a subsulphide of the metal. In most cases, 
 however, the effect of roasting on an ore is to 
 convert it into an oxide. 
 
 Clay ironstone, which is that from which 
 the greater part of the iron is manufactured 
 in Great Britain, and that known as the black 
 band of the Scotch coal fields, are impure car- 
 bonates of iron, and these when roasted yield 
 ferric oxide. The roasting in the case of these 
 minerals is sometimes effected in kilns, but 
 more frequently in the open air ; in the latter 
 case by the firing of stacks composed of alter- 
 nate layers of the ore and of small coal. 
 Calamine or native carbonate of zinc is con- 
 verted into oxide sometimes by being roasted 
 in kilns, hut more frequently in a reverbatory 
 furnace. 
 
 Smelting. Except in those cases in which 
 the ore is directly reduced from the state of a 
 sulphide to that of a metal, it is, as has been 
 shown, converted into an oxide. If, therefore, 
 it be required to procure the metal per se, some 
 method must he adopted for the removal of 
 the oxygen from its oxide. 
 
 This process, which is called smelting, and 
 is applied to most metallic oxides, whether of 
 natural or artificial origin, consists in heating 
 the oxide with a substance which has a stronger 
 attraction for oxygen than the metal has. 
 Such bodies are coal, coke, or charcoal, which 
 when raised to very high temperatures in 
 contact with certain metallic oxides, rob them 
 of their oxygen, and thus reduce them to the 
 state of metals, carbonic oxide or carbonic 
 anhydride being at the same time formed and 
 
ORES 
 
 1205 
 
 carried off. A mechanical impediment, how- 
 ever, to the reducing action of the fuel npon 
 the ore exists in the rocliy, earthy, and other 
 impurities mostly present in large quantities, 
 even alter the dressing, which envelop the 
 mineral, and afford it a protective covering. 
 To remove these it is not only necessary that 
 I'omo snhstance should be added which has the 
 power of combining with them, but of one 
 which is capable of forming a compound which 
 shall become fusible by the heat of the fur- 
 nace, BO that the molten metal as it sinks 
 through it by reason of its greater specific 
 gravity, and falls to the bottom of the fur- 
 nace, shall be protected in doing so from con- 
 tiict with the air. Many substances, varying 
 
 with the nature of the gangue accompanying 
 them, are thus employed as fluxes, such as 
 limestone, fluor spar, gypsum, heavy spar, &e., 
 and they act by combining with the silicious 
 compounds contained in the gangue attached 
 to the ore, and forming a fusible silicate known 
 as slag, which is from time to time run off by 
 an aperture at the side of the furnace. Con- 
 siderable knowledge and experience are re- 
 quired in the selection of suitable fluxes. 
 
 The smelting furnaces in which the deoxi- 
 dation of iron is accomplished are of consider- 
 able size. The following description of one, 
 together with the engraving, are from Pro- 
 fessor Bloxam's able work, ' Chemistry : Inor- 
 ganic and Organic' 
 
 "Great care is necessary in first lighting 
 the blast furnace, lest the new masonry should 
 be cracked by too sudden a rise of tempera- 
 ture, and when once lighted, the furnace is 
 kept in constant work for years, until in want 
 ol repair. 
 
 " When the Are has been lighted the fur- 
 nace is filled up with coke, and as soon as this 
 has burnt down to some distance below the 
 chimney, a layer of the mixture of calcined 
 ore with the requisite quantity of limestone is 
 thrown upiin it; over this there is placed 
 another layer of coke, then a second layer of 
 
 the mixture of ore and flux, and so on in alter- 
 nate layers, until the furnace has been fille<l 
 up ; when the layers sink down fresh quanti- 
 ties of fuel, ore, and flax are added, so that 
 the furnace is kept constantly full. 
 
 " As the air passes from the tuyeres pipes 
 into the bottom of the furnace, it parts with 
 its oxygen to the carbon of the fuel, which it 
 converts into carbonic acid, the latter passing 
 the red-hot fuel as it ascends in the furnace is 
 converted into carbonic oxide by combining 
 with an additional quantity of carbon. It is 
 this carbonic oxide which reduces the calcined 
 
1206 
 
 OEES 
 
 ore to the metallic state when it comes in con- 
 tact with it at a red heat, in the upper part 
 of the furnace, for carbonic oxide removes the 
 oxygen at a high temperature from the oxides 
 of iron, and becomes carbonic acid, the iron 
 being left in the metallic state. 
 
 " But the iron so reduced remains dissemi- 
 nated through the mass of ore until it has 
 jjassed down to a part of the furnace which is 
 more strongly heated, where the iron enters 
 into comhinatiou with a small proportion of 
 carbon to form cast-iron, which fuses or runs 
 down into the crucible or cavity for its recep- 
 tion at the bottom of the furnace. 
 
 "At the same time the clay contained in 
 the ore is acted upon by the lime of the flux, 
 producing a double silicate of alumina and 
 lime, which also falls in the liquid state into 
 the crucible, where it forms a layer of slag 
 above the heavier metal. This slag, which has 
 five or six times the bulk of the iron, is 
 allowed to accumulate in the crucible and to 
 run over its edge down the incline upon which 
 the blast furnace is built; but when a suffi- 
 fient quantity of cast iron is collected at the 
 bottom of the crucible, it is run out through 
 a hole provided for the purpose, either into 
 channels made in a bed of sand, or into iron 
 moulds, where it is cast into rough semi- 
 cylindrical masses, called pigs, where cast-iron 
 is also spoken of as pig-iron. 
 
 "The temperature of the furnace is, of 
 course, highest in the immediate neighbour- 
 hood of the tuyeres; the reduction of the 
 iron to the metaUic state appears to commence 
 at about two thirds of the way down the fur- 
 nace, the volatile matters of the ore, fuel, and 
 flux being driven off before this point is 
 reached. 
 
 " Some idea may be formed of the immense 
 scale upon which the smelting of iron ores is 
 carried out, when it is stated that each fur- 
 nace consumes in the course of 24 hours about 
 50 tons of coal, 30 tons of ore, 6 tons of lime- 
 stone, and 100 tons of air. 
 
 " The cast-iron is run off from the crucible 
 once or twice in 12 hours, in quantities of 5 
 or 6 tons at a time. The average yield of 
 calcined clay-iron stone is 35§ of iron. 
 
 "The gases escaping from the cliimney of 
 the blast furnace are highly inflammable, for 
 they contain, beside the nitrogen of the air 
 blown into the furnace, a considerable quan- 
 tity of carbonic oxide and some hydrogen, 
 together with the carbonic acid formed by the 
 action of the carbonic oxide upon the ore. 
 Since the carbonic oxide and hydrogen confer 
 considerable heating power upon these gases, 
 they are employed in some iron- works for 
 heating steam-boilers, or for calcining the 
 ore, or for raising the temperature of the 
 blast. 
 
 "The composition of the gas issuing from 
 a hot blast furnace (fed with uncoked coal) 
 may be judged of from the following 
 table : — 
 
 " Oasfrom Blast Furnace, 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 . 55'35 vols 
 
 Carbonic oxide 
 
 . 25-97 „ 
 
 Hydrogen . 
 
 . 6-73 „ 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 . 7-77 „ 
 
 Marsh gas . . 
 
 . 375 „ 
 
 Olefiant gas . 
 
 . 0-43 „ 
 
 100-00 „ 
 
 " The carbonic oxide of course renders these 
 gases highly poisonous, and fatal accidents 
 occasionally happen from this cause. Although 
 the bulk of the nitrogen present in the air 
 escapes unchanged from the furnace, it is not 
 improbable that a portion of it contributes to 
 the formation of the cyanide of potassium 
 which is produced in the lower part of the 
 furnace, the potassium being furnished by the 
 ashes of the fuel." See METAtiUEaT. 
 
 Assay. Three general methods are adopted 
 for this purpose : — 
 
 1. (Mechanical.) This consists in pulveris- 
 ing the ore by any convenient method, and 
 expertly washing a given weight of it (say 1000 
 gr.) in a wooden bowl or capsule with water, 
 so as to remove the oartby gangues from the 
 denser and valuable metallic matter in such a 
 way that none of the latter may be lost. This 
 is the common plan adopted with auriferous 
 sands, the ores of tin after they have passed 
 the stamping-mill, galena, grey antimony, &c., 
 and may either be employed as an independent 
 process or merely as preparatory to more exact 
 investigations. When galena is thus tested, 
 the product is a nearly pure sulphide of lead, 
 of which every grain is equivalent to '8666 of 
 metallic lead, the rest being sulphur. The 
 results with grey antimony ore are still more 
 direct, since the product is only melted into 
 pigs before being sent to market. In this 
 state it contains 73 J (nearly) of metallic 
 antimony. 
 
 2. (Humid.) Assays in the ' humid way ' 
 are true chemical analyses, and are described 
 under the head 'Estim' attached to most of 
 the more important minerals noticed in this 
 work. This plan offers greater facilities and 
 gives more accui-ate results than either of the 
 other methods. 
 
 3. (Dkt.) Of the methods of assay in the 
 ' dry way ' the following are the most accurate, 
 generally useful, and easily applied : — 
 
 a. (Dr Abiche.) The mineral is reduced to 
 powder, and mixed with 5 or 6 times its weight 
 of carbonate of barium, also in powder ; this 
 mixture is fused at a white heat in a platinum 
 crucible, and the resulting slag, after being 
 powdered, is exhausted with hydrochloric acid. 
 This process answers well with both stony and 
 metallic minerals, the most refractory of which 
 give way nnder this treatment. 
 
 d. (Liebig.) Into a crucible containing com- 
 mercial cyanide of potassium, a weighed quan- 
 tity of the ore, in the state of fine powder, is 
 sprinkled, when the metallic oxides and snl- 
 
ORGANIC BASES-ORGANIC SUBSTANCES 
 
 1207 
 
 phidos which it contain!) are nlinost imme- 
 diately reduced to the metallic stute, and may 
 be suparnti'd from the scoria by edulcoration 
 with water. With the oxides and sulphides 
 of antimniiy and tin this redaction occurs at a 
 dull red lie.it ; with the compounds of copper 
 it ocfiir< with the disengagement of light 
 and heat; but an ore of iron requires to 
 be mixed witli ii little carbonate of potassium 
 or of sodium before throwing it into the fused 
 cyanide, mid to be then submitted to a full 
 rid heat for a short time, before it is reduced 
 to the rcgulinc state. In this case any man- 
 ganese present in the ore of iron is left under 
 the form of protoxide. A mixture of about 
 equal parts of dry carbonate of sodium and 
 cyanide of potassium answers better for the 
 crucible than the cyanide alone. See Alloys. 
 METALLFnGY,&C.; also PbBOY'S METALITJEGY. 
 OKGAN'IC BA'SES. These interesting bodies 
 may be divided into two classes : the first com- 
 prising those which occur ready formed in 
 nature (alkaloids) ; and the second those pro- 
 duced by artificial processes in the laboratory 
 (abtificial alkaloids, artificial oroanio 
 babes). They all contain the element nitho- 
 OBN. The natural bases have already been de- 
 scribed under alkaloid. Hitherto they have 
 none of tliera been produced by artiHcinI 
 means (which see). The bases of nrtificial 
 origin arc mostly volatile, and their constitu- 
 tion is unich simpler than that of the native 
 bases. Of the vast number which have been 
 formed the following are, perhaps, the most 
 interesting : — Ethylamine, methylamine, 
 
 AMYLiMINE, ANILIIfE, NAPHTHYLAMINE, CHI- 
 NOLINE, and PICOLINE. These and other 
 bodies of the class are noticed under their 
 respective heads. 
 
 By Bcrzelius the natural organic bases 
 (owing to the invariable presence in them of 
 hydroL'cn and nitrogen) were regarded as 
 compound ammonias, or combinators of am- 
 monia with a variety of neutral principles. 
 
 He conceived the greater part of these 
 neutral bodies were incapable of isolation, and 
 further more that the closest union existed 
 between them and the ammonia. Thus it was 
 his opinion that qninine CjoHijNOj, 8H0 
 (halving the modern formula) was u compound 
 of the gnrnp CjuHgOa with oxide of ammonium 
 and water of crystallisation thus (C20HJO3H4 
 NO)jHO. He believed the organic base owed 
 its basicity to tha ammonia; Berzelius' 
 opinion carried weight at the time, from the 
 circumstance that certain neutral substances 
 when directly combined with ammonia were 
 capable of forininjr a number of artificial bases 
 very similar in qualities and also in composition 
 to the natural ones, or those obtained from 
 living plants. Thus, the artificial base 
 thioiinnemine having the formula C4HjNS is 
 produced by the combination of oil of mustard 
 and ammonia ; and another base may be 
 artificially obtained from the union of oil 
 of bitter almonds with ammonia. | 
 
 Lifbig, who was one of the first chemists 
 to dispute the correctness of Berzelius' hy- 
 pothesis, by showing that the natural organic 
 bases never gave any indication of the presence 
 in them of ready formed ammonia, replaced 
 it by the suggestion that they might be bodies 
 into the composition of which amidogen (HjN) 
 entered, and that these, instead of being com- 
 pounds of ammonia and an organic group, 
 might be derivatives trom ammonia ; or am- 
 monia in which an atom of hydrogen had been 
 displaced by an equivalent organic radicle. 
 
 The labours of subsequent chemists, notably 
 those of Messrs W'urtz and Hofman, have de- 
 veloped Liebig's theory, and have proved the 
 analogy in structural arrangement between 
 ammonia and the greater number of organic 
 bases; whiUt they have further shown, init 
 only in one, as supposed by Liebig, but for 
 all three of the hydrogen atoms in ammonia, 
 may be substituted certain compound radicles. 
 
 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. We have re- 
 served a notice of the method of estimating 
 the quantity of carbon, hydrogen, oxvgen, and 
 nitrogen, in organic compounds, until now, 
 in order to present them to the reader in a 
 more useful and connected form. The opera- 
 tion essentially consists, in respect of the 
 first three, in causing the complete combustion 
 of a known quantity of the substance under 
 examination, in such a manner that the car- 
 bonic acid and water thus produced shall 
 be collected, and their quantity determined. 
 From these the proportions of their»element8 
 are easily calculated. The cstiination of the 
 quantity of nitrogen (as is also the case with 
 chlorine, phosphorus, sulphur, &c.) requires a 
 separate operation. The two great classes of 
 organic bodies (azotised and non-azolised) are 
 readily distinguished from each other by 
 heating a small portion with some solid hydrate 
 of potassium, in a test tube. If nitrogen is 
 present, it is converted into ammonia, which 
 may be rei^ognised by its characteristic odour 
 and its alkaline reaction. 
 
 1. Estimation of the CARBON, HYDROGEN, 
 and OXYGEN. — o. The method of Prof. Liebig, 
 now almost exclusively adapted for this pur- 
 pose, is as follows : — The substance under ex- 
 amination, reduced to powder, is rendered as 
 dry as possible, either by the heat of a water 
 bathorby exposure over concentrated sulphuric 
 acid, in vacuo ; 5 or 6 gr. of it ore then weighed 
 in a narrow open test tube, 2 or 3 inches long, 
 and to ensure accuracy this tube and any little 
 adhering matter is attain weighed after its 
 contents have been removed — the difference 
 between the two weights being regarded as 
 the true quantity of the substance employed 
 in the experiment. A * combustion tube,' of 
 hard white Bohemian glass ('4 to "5 inchi 
 diam. ; 14 to 18 inches long), is next taken, 
 and about 2-3rds filled with black oxide of 
 copper, prepared by the ignition of the nitrate, 
 and which has been just re-heated to expel 
 hygrometric moisture. Nearly the whole of 
 
1208 
 
 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES 
 
 this oxide, whilst still warm, is then gradually 
 poured from the tube and triturated with 
 the organic sample in a dry and warm mortar, 
 after which the mixture is transferred lo the 
 combustion tube, and the mortar being rinsed 
 out with a little fresh oxide, which is added 
 to the rest, the tube is, lastly, nearly filled 
 with some warm oxide fresh from the crucible. 
 The contents of the tube are next arranged 
 in a proper position by a few gentle blows, so 
 as to leave a small passage for the evolved 
 gases from the one end of the tube to the 
 other. (See engr.) 
 
 \ 
 
 The ' combustion tube ' with its ' charge ' is 
 next placed in a 'furnace' or 'chauffer 'of 
 thin sheet iron (see figure heloto). Its open 
 end is then connected with a ' drying tube ' 
 
 filled with fragments of fused chloride of 
 calcium, and carefully weighed. 
 
 This tube is, in its turn, con- 
 nected with a small glass 
 (' Liebig's potash bulbs') 
 containing solution of pure 
 potassa of sp. gr. 1'27, also 
 carefully weighed. The 
 junction with the first is 
 made by means of a per- 
 forated cork ; that with the 
 second by means of a small tube of 
 
 India 
 
 rubber tied with sillf, the whole being made 
 quite air-tight. The apparatus is then tested 
 by sucking a few bubbles through the liquid 
 with the dry lips, when, if the level of the 
 solution of potassa in the two legs continues 
 unequal for some minutes, the joints are 
 regarded as perfect. The whole arrangement 
 
 being complete (see en^r.), burning (iharcoal 
 is now placed in the furnace around the front 
 part of the combustion tube, and when this has 
 become red- hot the screen is slowly moved 
 back, and more burning charcoal is added, 
 until the furthest extremity of the tube has 
 been exposed to its action. (Gas, burned in 
 furnaces specially contrived for the purpose, is 
 now usually employed instead of charcoal.) 
 The firing is so rej^nlated that the gas enters 
 the potassa apparatus in bubbles easily counted, 
 without any violence or inconvenience, and it 
 is kept up as long as gas is extricated. As 
 
 Gr. 
 
 soon as the apparatus is complete, and the 
 slightest retrograde action is observed, the 
 charcoal is removed from the combustion tube, 
 and the extreme point of this last is broken 
 off. A little air is then sucked through the 
 apparatus in order to seize on any remaining 
 carbonic-acid gas and moisture. The potash 
 apparatus and the chloride of calcium tube 
 are, lastly, detached, and again accurately 
 weighed. The increase in the weight of the 
 first gives the weight of the carbonic acid 
 formed during the combustion; that of the 
 second the weight of the water. 
 
 Gr. 
 
 1 gr. of Carbonic acid = 027273 of Carbon + 0-72727 of Oxygen, 
 1 „ Water = 9-11112 „ Hydrogen + 0-88888 
 
 less 
 
 0-38385 
 
 equal to 1-61615 
 
 The numbers equivalent to any given number 
 of grains, found as above, are converted into 
 the proportions per cent, by simply dividing 
 them by the weight of the organic substance 
 which has been employed in the experiment, 
 and moving the decimal point of the result 
 two figures to the right. 
 
 b. In applying the preceding method to 
 volatile liquids, it is necessary to enclose them 
 in a small bulb with a narrow neck, instead of 
 mixing them directly with the protoxide of 
 copper. The bulb with its contents is intro- 
 duced into the combustion tube, and after some 
 6 or 8 inches of the protoxide is heated to red- 
 
 nes«, a hot coal is applied near where the bulb 
 is situated, so that the liquid which it contains 
 may be slowly volatilised and passed through 
 the heated mass in the state of vapour, and be 
 thus completely burned. For further informa- 
 tion, consult Fresenius' ' Chemical Analysis.' 
 
 2. Estimation of the niteooen — a. Several 
 methods are employed for this purpose, but 
 the only one of general application, and adapted 
 to the non-scientific operator, is that of MM. 
 Varrentrap and Will, described under GuAKO, 
 To ensure correct results, the caustic soda 
 must be pure, and the lime of good quality 
 and well burnt. The last, having been properly 
 
OR-MOLU— ORTHOCLASE 
 
 1209 
 
 •lalced with a little water, holding the former 
 in solution, tlic mixture ia thoroughly dried in 
 au iron vessel, and then heated to full redness 
 in an earthen crucible. The ignited mass is 
 rubbed to powder in a warm dry mortar, and 
 either used at once or carefully preserved Irom 
 the air. The best quantity of the organic 
 substance to operate on is, in this case, about 
 10 gr., which must be dried, and accurately 
 weighed with the usual precautions. Bodies 
 very ricli in either nitrogen or hydrogen are 
 best mixed with about an equal welghtof pure 
 sugar hetVire triturating them with the soda- 
 lime. MM. Varrentrap and Will weigh the 
 nitrogen under the form of double chloride ot 
 plaiinuin and ammonium, dried at 212° Fahr. 
 This salt contains 6-272J of nitrogen. 
 
 4. M. P^ligot has modified the preceding 
 plan by conducting the gaseous matter extri. 
 cated durin;; tlie operation into a three-bulb 
 tuba charged with a standard solution of sul- 
 phuric aiid. This ho subsequently pours into 
 a beaker-glass, and after tinging it with a 
 single drop of tincture of litmus, he tests it 
 with either a standard aqueous solution ol soda 
 or one of lime in sweetened water, atter the 
 common method of alkalimetry. The diH'er- 
 once between the saturating power ol the acid 
 in its normal condition and alter its exposure 
 iu tlie conilonser indicates the amount of am- 
 monia formed, (ijee (jUANO.) Each grain of 
 ammonia contains -82353 gr. of nitrogen. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. The successful appli- 
 cation of the above processes requijes consid- 
 erable care and some aptitude in manipulating, 
 lis well as the employment of a very delicate 
 lial.'iiice for determining the weights. A 
 greater error in the weighings than the ^^ gr. 
 cannot be tolerated when exact results are de- 
 sired. The method of MM, Varrentrap and 
 Will for the determination of nitrogen answers 
 admirably for all organic compounds contain- 
 ing it, except those in which it exists under tlie 
 form of hvponitrous, nitrous, and nitric acids ; 
 for which, however, it is not required. When 
 extreme accuracy is aimed at, the atmospheric 
 air in the apparatus, and that absorbed during 
 the preliminary operations by the substances 
 employed, must be expelled before the appli- 
 cation of bent to the combustion tube, (tjee 
 Watkb, Analysis of.) 
 
 OE-MOLU'. [Fr.] This name ia given to 
 gold-colxured brass or bronze, so finished off as 
 to have the appoHrance of gold, or of being 
 gilt ; but it is ulten applied in a more general 
 sense. The French more particularly excel 
 in working in or-molu, and the products of 
 this branch of their industry hold an important 
 position in tlie art manufactures of France. 
 
 Til give or-molu its richest appearance, "it 
 is not unl'requently brightened up after 'dip- 
 ping' (that is, cleaning in acid) by means of a 
 scratch-brush (a brush made of very fine brass 
 wire), the action of which helps to produce a very 
 brilliant gold-like surface. It is protected from 
 tarnish hy the application of lacquer." (Ure.) 
 
 Ure says or-molu contains more copper and 
 less zinc than ordinary brass, and that al- 
 though, in many of its applications, the colour 
 is heightened by means of a gold lacqner, in 
 some cases the true colour of the alloy is best 
 preserved after it has been properly developed 
 by means of dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 OBUSKIKK MEDICINE. A nostrum sup- 
 posed to prevent hydrophobia, so named after 
 the residence of its inventor, Mr Hill, of 
 Ormskirk. It is said to have consisted of the 
 ingredients named below, but nothing certain 
 is known on the subject, as the inventor died 
 without revealing its secret: — Chalk, \ oz.; 
 Armenian bole, 3 dr. ; elecampane root, 1 dr. ; 
 alum, 10 gr. ; oil of aniseed, 5 or 6 drops; 
 all in fine powder. For a dose, to be taken for 
 6 successive mornings, in a glass of weak milk 
 and water. 
 
 OE'PIMENT. Native yellow sulphide of 
 arsenic. The finest samples used by artists 
 (golden orpiment) come from Persia. See 
 AE8ENIC (Tersulphuret). 
 
 OB'BIS. Syn. OEnig boot, Fiobentine b. ; 
 Radix IBIDIB, L. The dried rhizome of Irit 
 Florentina, pallida, and Oermanica. Sialo- 
 gogue, irritant, subacrid, and errhine. Chiefly 
 employed to impart a violet odour to oils, tooth 
 powder, snufFs, spirits, &c. ; aud when cut into 
 peas to keep open issues. 
 
 ORSE'DEW. Dutch leaf-gold. 
 
 ORSEl'LIC ACID. Two compounds pass 
 under this name — alpha-oesellio acid and 
 BKTA-OEaBLLio ACID. They closely resemble 
 eacli other, and are obtained in a similar 
 manner; the first from the South American 
 variety of Rocella tinctorial the last from that 
 grown at the Cape. 
 
 ORSELLIN'IC ACID. <^». Lecanobio 
 ACID. A compound formed along with picro- 
 erythrine, by boiling crytliric acid for some 
 time with water. It is also formed by boil- 
 ing alpha-orsellic acid with water. In both 
 case.<, if the ebullition is too long continued, 
 the new acid is wholly or in part converted 
 into orcin. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Crystallisable ; bitter-tasted ; 
 soluble in water ; its aqueous solution, by ex- 
 posure to the air, assumes a beautiful purple 
 colour. 
 
 ORTHOCLASE. Syn. Potassium feispab. 
 This material, which is a double silicate of 
 potassium and aluminium, enters into the com- 
 position of many rocks, and is a common in- 
 gredient in granite. It has the following 
 composition : — Silica, 64'8 parts ; alumina, 18'4 
 parts ; and potash, 168 parts. Part of the 
 potassium is frequently replaced by small 
 quantities of calcium, magnesium, and 
 sodium. 
 
 Orthoclase is used for glazing the finest 
 varieties of porcelain, a very Intense heat being 
 necessary to effect its fusion in the porcelain 
 furnace. By the Chinese potters it is called 
 petuntze. " The name ' orthoclase' is generally 
 restricted to the subtranslucent varieties, there 
 
1210 
 
 OETHOPiEDIA— OSMIUM 
 
 being many subvarietiee (founded on varia- 
 tions of lustre, colour, and other differences), 
 of which the following are some of the prin- 
 cipal, viz. adularia, a transparent or trans- 
 lucent felspar, met with in granitic rocks 
 (frequently in large crystals) ; moonstone ; 
 sunstone ; Murchisonite, erythrite ; glassy fel- 
 spar or lanadine, a transparent variety found 
 in volcanic rocks, containing 4 per cent, of 
 soda or upwards."' 
 
 OSIHOFJE'DIA. In surgery, the straight- 
 ening, correcting, or curing deformities of 
 children. See Suegeet. 
 
 OSIER. The osier, which is a species of wil- 
 low {sallx), and is largely used in the construc- 
 tion of baskets and other wickerwork, is ex- 
 tensively cultivated at Nottingham and on the 
 level lands of Cambridgeshire and Hunting- 
 donshire, as well as on the banks of the Thames, 
 Severn, and other rivers. The small islands 
 in these rivers, when planted with osiers, are 
 known as osier holts. But large as isthe supply 
 of shoots afforded by the English osier beds, it 
 is insufficient for home consumption ; hence 
 great quantities of ozier rods are imported 
 into this country from Holland, Belgium, and 
 France. There are a great variety of oziers, 
 and it is found that those which have been 
 the most highly cultivated yield the toughest 
 and finest wood, and those best adapted for 
 the superior kinds of basket work. The 
 branches of the wilder and less domesticated 
 kind, which are more liable to break, are used 
 for making hoops and coarse baskets. This 
 last variety, which is known as the Common 
 OSIER (Salix viminalis)f grows on the alluvial 
 grounds of Britain, and in other ijuropean 
 countries, and is often planted on the banks 
 of rivers to prevent their being washed 
 away. 
 
 T'le following are the principal varieties of 
 oaier indigenous to this country, and which 
 yield the most valuable wood: — 1. The fine 
 BASKET OSIEE (Salix Forbyand). 2. The 
 Gbeen-leaved osieb, or oenaed {Salix 
 rubra], 3. The Spanish eod {^Saliac trian- 
 dra). 4. The Goiden osiee, or Golden 
 WILLOW {Salix vitellina). 
 
 The osier requires plenty of water, and 
 hence it thrives best in those localities and 
 low grounds which are washed by . a river. 
 The soil best adapted for it is a rich but not 
 clayey one. In planting an osier bed an im- 
 portant condition is that the trees should be 
 placed sufficiently closely together, since it is 
 found that, with too much space, the shoots 
 do not develop into long and slender branches, 
 which are so much souglit after. The shoots 
 are cut once a year, at any time between the 
 fall of the leaf and the rising of the sap in 
 spring. After being cut they are divided 
 into those destined for brown, and those for 
 white baskets. In the latter case tlie rods 
 have to be peeled, but as this operation cannot 
 be performed at ouce, and the rimous of the 
 1 Ure. 
 
 bark would be difficult were they allowed to 
 dry, the shoots are placed upright and sus- 
 tained in that position in wide shallow trenches 
 in about four inches of water, where they are 
 kept until they begin to bud and blossom in 
 the spring, which they do as if they were 
 attached to the parent plant. The peeling is 
 easily done by passing them through an in- 
 strument known as a break. If the spring 
 has been a cold one, they have, previous to 
 peeling, to be laid for some time under a layer 
 of litter. 
 
 When they have been peeled they are 
 stacked, preparatory to being sold. With the 
 rods intended for brown baskets, no peeling 
 is of course necessary. They are therefore 
 carefully stacked in some place protected from 
 the rain, and diligently watched to see that no 
 heat is set up in them, as is sometimes the 
 case with freshly stacked hay, and which, if 
 not stacked, would cause the rods to rot and 
 render them useless. 
 
 In England, besides the native produce, 
 5000 tons of osiers are annually imported, 
 valued at about £40,000. Of late years the 
 Australian colonists have turned their atten- 
 tion to the cultivation of the osier, in the 
 hopes of supplying the demand for it in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 OS'MAZOME. The substance on which the 
 peculiar odour and flavour of boiled meat and 
 broth were formerly supposed to depend. 
 
 Prep. From lean meat, minced, and digested 
 in cold water, with occa.sional pressure; the 
 filtered infusion is gently evaporated nearly to 
 dryness, and then treated with alcohol; the 
 alcoholic tincture is, lastly, evaporated. The 
 product has a brownish-yellow colour, is soluble 
 in water, and its aqueous solution is precipi- 
 tated by infusion of galls and the mineral 
 astringent salts. 
 
 OS'MIUM. Os. A rare metal found associated 
 with the ores of platinum by M. Tennant, 
 in 1803. 
 
 These ores mostly consist of a mixture of 
 platinum, palladium, rhodium, osmium, ruthe- 
 nium and iridium. When they are treated 
 with aqua regia, the insoluble residue which 
 remains, chiefly consists of an alloy and os- 
 mium, iridium, ruthenium and rhodium. To 
 separate the osmium from the other metals, 
 Fremy takes advantage of its easy oxidability, 
 and of the volatility of its tetroxide. 
 
 In the first part of this process (which is a 
 great improvement upon the methods pre- 
 viously followed) the above residue or alloy is 
 heated to redness in a platinum or porcelain 
 tube. In that part of the tube which projects 
 from the furnace, some fragments of porcelain 
 are placed, and the tube is connected with a 
 series of glass flasks, in which the tetroxide 
 of osmium is condensed as it distils over, any 
 tetroxide that may have escaped condensation 
 is retained by a solution of caustic potash, 
 placed in the last flask of the series. This last 
 flask is connected with an aspirator, by means 
 
OS TEOCOL L A- 0^'E^f S 
 
 1211 
 
 of wliicb a cnrrent of air ia drawn through 
 the apparatus. 
 
 Betore being allowed to enter the heated 
 tabe the air ia dried by being made to pass 
 througli tub°s filled with pumice-stone, mois- 
 tt'ued with sulphuric acid. During the opera- 
 tion the osmium and ruthenium become oxi- 
 dised, the tetroxide of osmium condenses in 
 needles in the flasks, and mechanically carries 
 forward the deoxide of ruthenium, which is 
 deponited upon the pieces of porcelain. 
 
 There are several processes for obtaining 
 osmium in the metallic condition. We give 
 I wo of the most simple of these. 1. By treat- 
 ing the volatile tetroxide of osmium obtained 
 by Fremy's method, as above described, with 
 hydrochloric acid and metallic mercury in a 
 closed vessel at 140° C. 
 
 The nincurous oxide which is first formed 
 at the expense of the oxygen contained in the 
 tetroxide of osmium is decomposed by the 
 hydrochloric acid, and calomel is produced, 
 together with metallic osmium, 
 
 Tlie water and excess of acid are removed by 
 eviiporation to dryness, and on heating the 
 residue in a small porcelain retort, the excess 
 of mercury and calomel is drawn oft, pure 
 o-iraium being left behind in the form of a 
 fine powder. 
 
 2. Dpville and Debray procure it in the 
 mctallio form by passing the tetroxide of os- 
 mium, in a current of nitrogen, over carbon 
 which has been obtained by passing the vapour 
 of benzine through a porcelain tube nt a high 
 temperature. The metal procured by this pro- 
 cess is of a fine blue colour, with a tinge of grey. 
 
 The specilic gravity of osmium in the pul- 
 veroleftt form is about 10; but after having 
 been heated to the fusing point of rhodium 
 in the oxyhydrogen jet, it acquires a density 
 of 21'4, and in tlie crystalline state it has 
 a sp. gr. of 22'477. Osmium appears to be 
 the least fusible of all the metals. 
 
 There are five known oxides of osmium : 
 
 1. Osmium protoxide. (OsO). The anhy- 
 drous protoxide is of a greyish-black colour. 
 It is insoluble in ai:ids. Its bluish-black hy- 
 drate, which dissolves in hydrochloric acid, 
 forms a solution of osmium dichloride of a 
 deep indigo blue colour. The solution absorbs 
 oxygen readily, and becomes converted into 
 the tetrachloride (OBCI4). 
 
 2. Osmium sesqaioxide. (Os^Oj.) This has 
 never been isolated. Its salts, which are un- 
 crystiillisable, are of a rose-red colour. 
 
 3. Osmium dioxide. (OsO^.) This is black. 
 
 4. Osmium trioxide. (OsOj.) This pos- 
 sesses feebly acid properties. It has never 
 been obtained in a separate form ; with potas- 
 sium it forms a crystalline, sparingly soluble 
 compound, having the composition KjOsO^, 
 2U,0, a dipotassic osniite. 
 
 5. Osmiam tetroxide. Syn. Osuic Acis 
 (OSO4). This oxide may be obtained by 
 operating, according to Fremy's process, on 
 the ores of platinum, as already described. 
 
 It is also formed when metallic osmium is 
 heated with potassic nitrate, or roasted in air. 
 Itcrystallises in colourless, transparent, flexible 
 needles, which fuse easily, and (Ussolve readily 
 in water. Its aqueous solution, however, does 
 not redden litmus. Tetroxide of osmium is 
 converted into vapour at about 100°C. The 
 fumes are excessively irritating and dele- 
 terious, and have an odour somewhat like 
 that of chlorine. This oxide unites with al- 
 kalies, but not with acids. It is given off as 
 tetroxide when the alkaline solution which 
 contains it is boiled. If applied to the skin, this 
 oxide becomes partially reduced, and imparts 
 a permanent black colour to the skin, due to the 
 deposition of metallic osmium. With tincture 
 of galls its solutions give a distinctive blue 
 precipitate. 
 
 There are four chlorides of osmium, the best 
 kno»n of which ore the dichloride and the 
 tetrachloride. 
 
 1. Osmiam dichloride. (OsCl...). S)/n. O3- 
 5II0DS DiCHLOBiDB, Osmium peotochlohidk. 
 This is green, and sublimes in green needles. 
 It mny be obtoined by heating metallic os- 
 mium in a current of dry chlorine gas. It forms 
 double salts, which are of a green colour. 
 
 2. Osmium tetrachloride. (OsCI^). Si/n. 
 
 OSMIC TETEACHLOKIDE, OsMIUM BICHLOH- 
 
 IDE. This may be procured in the same 
 manner as the dichloride, using, however, an 
 excess of chlorine. It occurs as a red, crys- 
 talline, fusible, deliquescent powder. It is 
 more volatile than the dichloride. Both 
 the dry chloride and the tetriichloride of 
 osmium are dissolved by water, which decom- 
 poses them into tetroxide of osmium, hydro- 
 chloric acid and the mefcil. 
 
 OSTEOCOL'LA. A roiigb sort of glue or 
 gelatin obtained from bones by digestion in 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, to remove their earthy 
 matter, and afterwards acting on the residuum 
 with water at a high temperature, until it is 
 wliolly dissolved. 
 
 OTAL'GIA. Pain in the ear. See Eakache. 
 
 O'THYL. In chemistry, a radicle having the 
 formula CjII,0, assumed by Professor Wil- 
 lianisoti to exist in acetic acid. 
 
 OT'TO OF ROSES. Sie Oils (Volatile). 
 
 OVALBU MEN. White of cjrg ; to distin- 
 guish it from seralbumen, or the albumen of 
 the serum of the blood. 
 
 O'VEHS. A very ingenions and useful im- 
 provement in the apparatus for baking was 
 introduced some years ago by Mr Sclater, of 
 Carlisle. It consists in causing the articles to 
 be baked to traverse a heated earthenware 
 tube. This tube forms the oven. It is of con- 
 siderable length, and the biscuits or other 
 articles are slowly traversed through it, from 
 end to end, at such a rate as will allow of the 
 baking being completed during the pussaL'C. 
 The biscuits are carried on trays, set on tra- 
 velling chains; or the travs are made into an 
 endless web or chain. The oven is thus en- 
 tirely self-acting, and the articles demand no 
 
1212 
 
 OWNER— OXALIC ACID 
 
 attention whatever from the attendants, whilst 
 the system comhines superior economy with 
 the best results. A ' pyrometer,' or heat indi- 
 cator, is attached externally, so that the at- 
 tendant can regulate the heat with great 
 facility. The object of these improvements is 
 to reduce the cost of baking, and to improve 
 the appearance of the baked articles. The 
 apparatus is applicable as well to the baking of 
 articles of clay or earthenware as to bread or 
 biscuits. 
 
 Of the ovens now in common use by the 
 bakers, that known as the 'hot-water oven' is 
 perhaps the best ; not merely in reference to 
 economy, but also with reference to its supe- 
 rior cleanliness, and the ease with which the 
 articles operated on may be turned out of that 
 delicate yellowish-brown tint for which the 
 bread of the Viennese and Parisian bakers is 
 so celebrated. See Bakino, Bebad, &c. 
 
 OWNER. For the purposes of the Public 
 Health Act this term is thus defined : — 
 "'Owner' means the person for the time 
 being receiving the rack-rent of the lands or 
 premises in connection with which the word is 
 used, whether on his own account, or as agent 
 or trustee for any other person, or who would 
 so receive the same if such lands or premises 
 were let at a rack-rent." 
 
 OX. The Bo> Taurus (Linn.), one of the 
 rumiuantia. In its more limited sense the 
 word is restricted to the emasculated animal. 
 The flesh, milk, skin, horns, bones, and blood of 
 this animal are all serviceable to man. Gold- 
 beater's skin is prepared from the peritoneal 
 membrane of its caecum. Its blond, fat, horns, 
 and excrement were among the simples of the 
 Ph. L. 1618. See Beef, Gall, Milk, and 
 helow. 
 
 Ox-Gall. Syn. Ox-bile; Fel bovinbm, 
 F. BOVis, F. TAUBi, L. Crude ox-gall 
 is noticed at page 774. Refined ox-gall 
 {Fel bovinuin puri/icatum) is prepared as 
 under : — 
 
 1. Fresh ox-gall is allowed to repose for 12 
 or 15 hours, after which the clear portion is 
 decanted, and evaporated to the consistence of 
 a thick syrup by the heat of a water bath ; it 
 is then spread thinly on a dish, and exposed in 
 a warm situation near the fire, or to a current 
 of dry air, until nearly dry; it is, lastly, put 
 into wide-mouthed bottles or pots, and care- 
 fully tied over with bladder. In this state it 
 will keep for years in a cool situation. For 
 use a little is dissolved in water. 
 
 2. Fresh gall, 1 pint ; boil, skim, add pow- 
 dered alum, 1 oz. ; boil again till the alum 
 is dissolved, and when sufficiently cool pour it 
 into a bottle, and loosely cork it down. In a 
 similar manner boil and skim another pint of 
 gall, add to it 1 oz. of common salt, and again 
 boil, cool, and bottle it, as above. In three 
 months decant the clear from both bottles, 
 and mix them in equal quantities; the clear 
 portion must then be separated from the 
 coagulum by subsidence or filtration. 
 
 Uses, S(c. Both the above are employed by 
 artists to fix chalk and pencil drawings before 
 tinting them, and to remove the greasiness 
 Irom ivory, tracing paper, &e. The first is 
 also used in medicine, 
 
 OX'AIiATE. Syn. Oxalas, L. A salt of 
 oxalic acid. The soluble oxalates are easily 
 formed by directly neutralising a solution of 
 oxalic acid with a metallic hydrate, carbonatn, 
 or oxide ; and the insoluble oxalates, by double 
 decomposition. See Oxalic acid and the 
 respective bases. 
 
 OXAL'IC ACID. HnCA- 'S'yffl. Acidum 
 oxalioum, L. This substance was discovered 
 by Bergman in 1776. It occurs both in the 
 mineral and organic kingdoms, and is pro- 
 duced artificially by the action of nitric acid 
 on sugar, starch, woody fibre, &c. It abounds 
 in wood-sorrel, in which it exists in combina- 
 tion with a little potassa. With the exception 
 of gum and sugar of milk all starchy and sac- 
 charine substances yield oxalic acid when 
 trented with nitric acid at a somewhat elevated 
 temperature. 
 
 Prep. 1. From sugar : — 
 
 a. Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1'42), 5 parts, diluted 
 with water, 10 parts, is poured on sugar, 1 part, 
 and the mixture is digested at a gentle heat as 
 long as gaseous products are evolved; the liquid 
 is then concentrated by evaporation until it 
 deposits crystals on cooling ; the crystals, after 
 being drained and freed from superfiuous mois- 
 ture, are redissolved in the smallest possible 
 quantity of boiling water, and the solution is 
 set aside to crystallise. The residuary 'mother- 
 water' is treated with a little fresh nitric acid 
 (say IJ part) at a gentle heat, after wliich it is 
 evaporated, as before, for a second Cl'op of 
 crystals. This process is repeated until the 
 solution is exhausted. The brownish-coloured 
 crystals thus obtained are allowed to effloresce 
 by exposure to dry air, and are then redis- 
 solved and recrystallised. By repeating this 
 treatment they yield pure colourless oxalic 
 acid at the third crystallisation. 
 
 b. (Schlesinger.) Sugar (dried at 257° 
 Fahr,), 4 parts, and nitric acid (sp. gr. 1'38), 
 33 parts, are digested together, as before, and 
 as soon as the evolution of gas ceases the 
 liquid is boiled down to oue sixth of its original 
 volume, and set aside to crystallise. The 
 whole process may be completed in about 2 
 hours, and iu 1 vessel, and yields of beauti- 
 fully crystallised oxalic acid, at the first crys- 
 tallisation, a quantity equal to 56 to 6O5 of 
 the weight of the sugar employed. 
 
 c. (Ure.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4), 4 parts, 
 and sugar 1 part, are digested together by 
 the heat of a water bath, and as soon as gas 
 ceases to be extricated the vessel is removed 
 from the heat, and set aside to cool and crys- 
 tallise. The use of a little sulphuric acid 
 along with the nitric acid contributes to in- 
 crease the product. 
 
 2. From POTATO- or IiEXTEI>f-snGAB : — 
 (Nyren.) From the washed pulp of potatoes. 
 
OXALIC ACID 
 
 1213 
 
 boileil for -ioiue hours with water, q. s., in a 
 leaden ves.L-l, with about 23 of oil of vitriol, 
 until the focula of the pulp is converted into 
 •accbarine matter, shown by the liquid being 
 no longer turned blue by iodine ; the whole 
 is then filtered through horse-hair bags or 
 Rtrainers, and the filtrate is evaporated until 
 itx density is tueh that a gallon of it weighs 
 14 to \4ii lbs.; in this state it is converted 
 into oxalic acid by treatment with nitric acid 
 in the way already described. A similar pro- 
 cess was patented some years ago by Messrs 
 Davy, Macmurdo, and Co. 
 
 3. From sawdust : — 
 
 (Roberts, Dale, & Co. Patent.) This pro- 
 cess is the one now usually employed for the 
 manufacture of oxalic acid on tlie large scale. 
 It is based on Gay-Lussac's discovery, that 
 wood and similar substances are converted 
 into oxalic acid by fusion with caustic alkali. 
 The practical details of the process are thus 
 given by Dr Murray Thomson, of Edinburgh : 
 — (1^ Hydrate of sodium and hydrate of po- 
 tassium, mixed in the proportion of 2 equiva- 
 lents of the former to 1 equivalent of the latter, 
 are dissolved, and solution evaporated until of 
 specific gravity 135 ; sawdust is now stirred 
 in until a thick paste results. (2) This paste 
 is then heated on iron plates, during which it 
 is constantly stirred ; water is first given off ; 
 tlie mass then swells ; infliimmable gases, hy- 
 drogen and ciirburetted hydrogen, are evolved, 
 along with a peculiar aromatic odour. When 
 the temperature has been maintained at 400'' 
 lor one or two hours, this stage of the process 
 is complete ; the mass has now a dark colour, 
 and contains only 1 to 4 per cent, of oxalic 
 acid, and about 5 per cent, of formic acid. 
 The bulk, therefore, of the mass at this stage 
 consists of a substance whose nature is not yet 
 known, but which is intermediate between the 
 cellulnse and oxalic acid. (3) The next stage 
 consists in a simple extension of the last, in 
 which the muss is heated till quite dry, care 
 being taken that no charring takes place. It 
 now contains the maximum quantity of oxalic 
 acid, 28 to 30 per cent. (4.) This oxalic acid 
 now exists as oxalate of potassium and sodium 
 in the grey powder resulting from stage 3. 
 This powder is now washed on a filter with 
 solution of carbonate of sodium, which seems 
 to have the singular and unexpected power of 
 decomposing the oxalate of potassium and 
 converting it into oxalate of sodium. At all 
 events, it is quite true that all traces of po- 
 tassa are washed out with the solution of car- 
 bonate of sodium. The only explanation that 
 occurs to account for this unusual decompo- 
 sition is that oxalate of sodium is a more in- 
 soluble salt than oxalate of potassivim, and 
 therefore may be formed by preference. (5) 
 This oxalate of sodium is now decomposed by 
 boiling milk of lime. Oxalate of calcium falls 
 as a precipitiite, and soda remains in solution. 
 This soda is boiled down, and again made use 
 of with fresh sawdust. This recovery of alkali 
 
 is also practised with thepotassinm salt which 
 filters through in the last stage. (6) The ox- 
 alate of calcium is now decomposed in leaden 
 vessels with sulphuric acid. Sulphate of cal- 
 cium is precipitated, and oxalic acid is in solu- 
 tion, which is now evaporated, and the acid 
 separates in crystals, which now need only to 
 be recrystallised to make them quite pure, and 
 fit the acid for all the purposes for which it is 
 employed. Prod. By this ingenious process 
 2 lbs. of sawdust are made to yield 1 lb. of 
 oxalic acid. 
 
 Prop., S^c. Colourless, transparent, pris- 
 matic crystals, possessing a powerful sour 
 taste and acid reaction ; these efflDresce in 
 warm dry air, with loss of 28g (2 eq.) of water, 
 and then form a white powder, which may be 
 sublimed in part, without decomposition ; the 
 crystals are soluble in 8 parts of water (9 
 parts, "and form a solution ofsp. gr. 1'045," 
 — Ure) at 60° Fahr., in their own weight or 
 less of boiling water, and in about 4 parts of 
 alcohol ; with the acids, it forms saltis called 
 oxalates. 
 
 Testa. — 1. Solution of chloride of barium 
 ociMsions a white precipitate in neutral solu- 
 tions of oxalic acid (oxalates), which is soluble 
 in both nitric and hydrochloric acid. — 2. So- 
 lution of nitrate of silver, under like circum- 
 stances, gives a white precipitate, which is 
 soluble in nitric acid, and in ammonia, and 
 which, when heated to redness, yields pure 
 silver. — 3. Lime water and solutions of all 
 the soluble salts of calcium produce white pre- 
 cipitates, even in highly dilute solutions of 
 oxalic acid or of the oxalates, which is freely 
 soluble in both nitric and hydrochloric acid, 
 but is nearly insoluble in either acetic or 
 oxalic acid, and is converted into carbonate 
 of calcium upon ignition. — 4. Oxalic acid (or 
 an oxalate), when heated, in the dry state, 
 with oil of vitriol in excess, is converted into 
 carbonate anhydride and carbonic oxide; the 
 former produces a white precipitate with lime 
 water, and the latter, when kindled, burns 
 with a faint blue flame. Of the above tests, 
 solution of sulphate of calcium (vide No. 3) 
 is the most delicate and characteristic. — 5. It 
 is distinguished from Epsom salt by its acid 
 reaction, its solubility in rectified spirit, its 
 complete dissipation by heat, and by emitting 
 a slight crackling noise during its solution in 
 water. See Maokbsia (Sulphate). 
 
 Uses, Pais., S(c. Oxalic acid is chiefly used 
 in the arts of calico printing and bleaching; 
 to remove ink-spots and iron moulds from 
 linen, and to clean boot-tops. It is extremely 
 poisonous. The treatment, in cases of its 
 having been swallowed, is to promote vomit- 
 ing, and to administer chalk, whiting, or mag- 
 nesia, mixed up with water, in considerable 
 quantities. The use of the alkalies or their 
 carbonates must be avoided, as the compounds 
 which these form with oxalic acid are nearly 
 as poisonous as the acid itself. The remain- 
 ing treatment is noticed under Acids. In 
 
1214 
 
 OXALURIA— OXYCHLORIDE 
 
 poisoning by oxalic acid the nervous system is 
 almost always affected, and the patients expe- 
 rience numbness, formication of .the extremi- 
 ties, and sometimes convulsions, so that the 
 symptoms somewhat approach those produced 
 by strychnia, from which it is distinguished 
 by its corrosive action on the tissues, and its 
 effect upon the heart and circulatory system. 
 
 Concluding MemarJcs. The manufacture of 
 oxalic acid is an important one. The process 
 of Roberts, Dale, and Co. has so much cheap- 
 ened the price of oxalic acid, that in 1851 it 
 sold for 16d. per lb., and in 1864 it only 
 cost from 8d. to 9d. per lb. More than half 
 the amount of oxalic acid used all over the 
 world is now made from sawdust. In manu- 
 facturing the acid from sugar, on tlie large 
 scale, the first part of the process is either 
 conducted in salt-glazed stoneware pipkins of 
 the capacity of 3 to 5 quarts each (which are 
 about two thirds filled and set in a water 
 batli), or in wooden troughs lined with lead, 
 and heated by means of a coil of steam-pipe. 
 On the small scale, a glass retort or capsule is 
 commonly employed. The most appropriate 
 temperature appears to be about 125° Fahr. 
 and the best evidence of the satisfactory pro- 
 gress of the decomposition is the free but not 
 violent evolution of gas, without the appear- 
 ance of dense red fumes, or, at all events, any 
 marked quantity of them. When these are 
 disengaged with violence and rapidity, a 
 greater quantity of the newly formed acid 
 suffers decomposition, and flies off in a gaseous 
 form. Thesp. gr. of the nitric acid commonly 
 used on the large scale ranges from 1'22 to 
 1'27 equivalent quantities being taken. The 
 evaporation is preferably conducted by the 
 heat of steam. The evolved nitrous vapours 
 are usually allowed to escape, but this loss 
 may he in part avoided by conveying them 
 into a chamber filled with cold damp air, and 
 containing a little water, when they will 
 absorb oxygen, and be recondensed into fum- 
 inar nitric acid. Various modifications of this 
 plan have been patented. That of Messrs 
 McDougall and Rawson, which is one of the 
 simplest and best, consists in passing the 
 mixed nitrous fumes through a series of ves- 
 sels containing water, and connected together 
 by tubes, so that the fumes which collect at 
 the top of one vessel are conveyed to nearly 
 the bottom of the next one, and then, bubbling 
 up through the water, mix with the air, a 
 supply of which is provided for the purpose. 
 The nitrous fumes are thus brought alternately 
 into contact with air and water, and by the 
 time they reach the last vessel are reconverted 
 into nitric acid. Another plan is to pass the 
 mixed nitrous vapours through a vessel stuffed 
 with some porous substance, as pumice-stone 
 or pounded gl.iss, conjointly with a supply of 
 steam from a boiler and a supply of ox^ gen 
 by a blowing machine. 
 
 The product obtained by skilful Tuanipu- 
 lation are — from good dry sugar, 128J| ; from 
 
 good treacle, lO^g. — " One cwt. of good treacle 
 will yield about 116 lbs. of marketable oxalic 
 acid, and the same weight of good brown sugar 
 may be calculated to produce about 140 lbs. of 
 acid." " As a general rule, 5 cwt. of saltpetre, 
 or an equivalent of nitrate of soda, with 2i 
 cwt. of sulphuric acid, will generate suffi- 
 cient nitric acid to decompose 1 cwt. of good 
 sugar, and yield, as above, 140 lbs. of fair 
 marketable oxalic acid, free from superfluous 
 moisture." (Ure.) On the small scale, 5 parts 
 of sugar yield nearly 6 parts of crystallised 
 acid. 
 
 Chemically pure oxalic acid is best prepared 
 by precipitating a solution of binoxalKte of 
 potassium with a solution of acetate of lead, 
 washing the precipitate with water, decom- 
 posing it, whilst still moist, with dilute sul- 
 phuric acid or sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
 gently evaporating the filtrate so that crystals 
 may form as it cools. 
 
 OXALUBIA. Also known as the oxalic-acid 
 diathesis ; is an abnormal condition of the 
 system, marked by the presence in the urine of 
 crystals of oxalate of lime. The crystals 
 occur as minute transparent octahedra, and 
 sometimes iu the form of dumb bells. They 
 can be easily recognised under a microscope 
 with a power of from 200 to 250 diameters, 
 when they present a very beautiful appearance. 
 They differ from phosphatic deposits in being 
 insoluble iu acetic acid. Their presence is 
 mostly indicated by the appearance in the 
 urine of a cloud of mucus, which forms alter 
 the urine has stood some little time. 
 
 Oxaluria most generally affects persons of 
 dyspeptic and sedentary habits and of nervous 
 temperament ; those suffering from skin 
 affections and neuralgia are also 'occasionally 
 attacked by it. In ordinary cases the treat- 
 ment consists in the administration of the 
 nitro-hydrochloric acid, in infusion of gentian 
 two or three times a day, or of a course of 
 quinine and iron, aided by plenty of exercise 
 in the open air, care being taken to avoid 
 fatigue. If it can be borne the shower hath 
 should also be had recourse to. Rhubarb tarts 
 and tomatos, which contain oxalic acid, must 
 be excluded from the diet ; so also should 
 aerated water and too much sugar. 
 
 If after a short time the oxalates should not 
 disappear from the urine under this treatment, 
 the patient should seek proper medical advice ; 
 since the persistent presence of this deposit 
 is of very serious significance, as indicating 
 the existence in the bladder of that dangerous 
 form of urinary concretion known as 'mul- 
 berry calculus.' 
 
 OXIDA'TION. St/n. Oxtdation. The 
 combination of bodies with oxygen, forming 
 oxides,; the operation or process adopted to 
 induce or facilitate such conversion. 
 
 OX'IDE. Sy». Oxtb; Oxtdum, L. A 
 compound formed by the uuion of oxygen 
 with another body. 
 I OXYCHLCRIDE. Syn. Oxiohlomde; 
 
OXYCRATE-OXYGEN 
 
 1216 
 
 OXTCHIOBIDUM, L. A term often loosely 
 applied to compounds of an oxide und chloride, 
 whether in definite or variable proportions. 
 See Antimokt (Oxychloride), &c. 
 
 OXYCRATE. St/n. Oxyobatcm, L. The 
 old name of a mixture of vinegar and water, 
 dulcified with honey. 
 
 OXYCRO'CEUU. See Plastebs. 
 
 OXYGEN. O. Sgn. Oxtoen oas, Db- 
 
 FIILOOISTIOATED AIBf, EUPyBEAL A., VlTAL 
 A.t i OxTGENinM, L. An elementary body 
 discovered by Sclieele and Priestly in 1774. 
 It is remiirltRble that, although this substance 
 forms a large proportion of our atmosphere 
 (nearly one fourth), and confers upon it the 
 power of supporting respiration and combus- 
 tion, and also constitutes the principal portion 
 or the water of our rivers and seas (eight 
 ninths), and enters largely into the compo- 
 sition of the majority of the various minernl 
 bodies that form the bulk of our globe, its 
 existence should have remnined unsuspected, 
 or atleust undetermined, until a comparatively 
 recent date. Oxygon is an essential con- 
 stituent of all living organisms. It is 
 absorbed by animals during respiration, and 
 evolved in a free state by growing vegetables 
 when exposed to sunlight. The oxygen gas 
 of the atmosphere is mechanically mixed, not 
 chemically combined, with tlie nitrogen. 
 
 I'rep, 1. From red oxide of mercury, 
 heated over a spirit lamp or a few pieces of 
 ignited charcoal. The operation is usually 
 performed in a small green-glnss retort, or in 
 a short tube of hard Bohemian ghiss, closed 
 with n perforated cork furnished with a piece 
 of bent glass tube of small bore, to couvey 
 the liberated gas to the vessel arranged to 
 receive it. Pure. 1 oz. yields about 100 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 2. From chlorate of potassium, as the lost. 
 Pure. 100 gr. yield nearly 100 cubic inches 
 (Brande ; 115— Ure). This is the plan adopted 
 in the P. Cod. The decomposition occurs with 
 both the above subatances at a heat below that 
 of redness. 
 
 3. From a mixture of chlorate of potassium 
 (in coarse powder), 3 parts ; powdered biuox- 
 ide of manganese, 1 part; both by volume. 
 Pure. 100 gr. of the mixture yield about 
 110 cubic inches as oxygen. This method, 
 which has received the approval of Faraday, 
 is exceedingly convenient. The gus is evolved 
 with a rapidity which is entirely at the com- 
 msnd of tlie operator by simply increasing or 
 lessening the heat. The residuum in the 
 iitort may be kept for another operation, if 
 not exhausted ; or it may be at once washed 
 out with 11 liltle warm water, and the man- 
 ganese, which is uninjured by the process, 
 reserved for future use. Red lead, black oxide 
 of cuppef, red oxide of iron, and several other 
 Bubstanres, answers nearly as well as binuxide 
 of manganese. 
 
 4. From n mixture of bichromate of potas- 
 sium, 3 parts; oil of vitriol, 4 parts; gently 
 
 heated, as before. Yields pure oxygen very 
 freely, and with a rapidity entirely at the will 
 of the operator. (Balmain.) 
 
 6. From binoxide of manganese and oil of 
 vitriol, equal parts ; as the last. 44 gr. nf 
 pure binoxide of manganese yield 8 gr., or 24 
 cubic inches, of oxygen ; 1 oz. yields 88 gr., 
 or 256 cubic inches. (Liebig.) 
 
 6. (On the large scale.) — a. From nitre ex- 
 posed to a dull red heat in an iron retort, or 
 gun-barrel. 1 lb. yields about 1200 cnbic 
 inches of gas, contaminated, more or less, with 
 nitrogen. (Ure.) 
 
 b. From binoxide of manganese, as the 
 last. 1 oz. of the pure binoxide yields 44 
 gr., or 128 cubic inches, of oxygen (Liebig); 
 1 lb. of good commercial binoxide yields from 
 1500 to 1600 cubic inches, or from 5 to 6 
 galls. 
 
 c. M. Boussingault has reinvestigated a 
 process, long known, although not usefully 
 applied, by which pure oxygen gas may be 
 obtained from the atmosphere at a trifling 
 cost, so as to enable it to be collected in 
 unlimited quantities and preserved in gas- 
 ometers, like coal-gas, for application in the 
 arts, manufactures, and sanitation. This 
 process depends upon a peculiar property 
 possessed by the earth baryta, of absorbing 
 atmospheric oxygen at one temperature and 
 evolving it at another; or rather, the ready 
 conversion of hydrate of barium into peroxide 
 of barium by a current of atmospheric air at 
 a dull red heat, and the decomposition of this 
 peroxide, by steam, at a lower temperature, 
 even at 212^ Fuhr., with reproduction of 
 hydrate of barium, the process being in reality 
 a continuous one. The baryta is mixed with 
 a portion of hydrate of calcium or of magne- 
 sium, and the mixture being placed in an 
 appropriate earthen tube heated to dull red- 
 ness, is oxidised by passing a current of dry 
 atmospheric air over it. As soon as the oxida- 
 tion is complete, the tube is conuccted with 
 the gas-holder, and a jet of steam allowed to 
 act upon it; this reconverts the peroxide of 
 bcirium into hydrate of barium, the excess of 
 oxygen being given off and collected in the 
 gas-holder. The baryta is then again oxidised 
 by a fresh current of air and deoxidised by 
 steam, and the whole process is repeated as 
 frequently as required. Oue ton of baryta, 
 thus treated, is capable of yielding 2500 cubic 
 feet of pure oxygen every 24 hours; and this, 
 as it does not waste or lose its properties, at 
 tlie mere cost of the fuel and labour required 
 in the process. 
 
 d. Prom ferrate of potassium, prepared on 
 the large scale. When exposed to moisture or 
 thrown into water, pure oxygen is evolved. 
 This method has been successfully adopted to 
 maintain the air of diving-bells, and of other 
 confined spaces, in a state fit for respiration. 
 
 c. The decomposition of sulphuric acid has 
 been recommended by JIM. Devilleand Debrfiy 
 as a means whereby large quantities of oxygeu 
 
1216 
 
 OXYGEN 
 
 gaa may be obtained at a low price. Into a 
 tabulated retort are put fragments of fire 
 brick, and upon these, when raised to a full 
 red heat, sulphuric acid is made to fall drop by 
 drop, by passing through an iron tube, which 
 passes through and is luted to the tubulure. 
 The tube reaches to the bottom of the retort, 
 and the acid is poured into it through a bent 
 funnel. The sulphuric acid becomes decom- 
 posed into sulphurous anhydride, oxygen, and 
 water. The volatilised products are sent 
 through a spiral condenser, by which the water 
 and any undeoomposed acid become liquefied ; 
 whilst the sulphurous acid is removed by sub- 
 sequent washing with water, and oxygen is 
 collected in the usual manner. 
 
 f.' A process for obtaining oxygen on a large 
 scale, and which has been made tlie subject of 
 a patent in this country, has been devised by 
 MM. Marechal and Tessie du Mothay. It 
 consists in heating in a current of steam the 
 manganatos, permanganates, chromates and 
 ferrates of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and 
 regenerating the residue by passing air over it 
 at a red heat, 
 
 g. Mallet procures oxygen in large quanti- 
 ties as follows : — He puts into retorts revolv- 
 ing on horizontal axes, a mixture of cuprous 
 chloride, and kaolin or sand. He moistens 
 this with water, heats it to 100° C, and passes 
 air through the retorts for some hours. His 
 oxygen he obtains from heating the resulting 
 cupric oxychloride to about 400° C. ; the aqua 
 residual cuprous chloride becomes converted 
 into oxychloride on cooling 100 kilograms of 
 cuprous chloride, after conversion into oxy- 
 chloride, about 3 cubic metres of oxygen, 
 
 7. Oxygen oas at the oedinaet tem- 
 PEBATCKE. Boettger states that when a 
 mixture is made of equal weights of the per- 
 oxides of lead and barium, and dilute HNOg of 
 a strength of 9° Beaume is poured thereon, a 
 current of pure O, free from ozone and 
 autozone, is given off abundantly. This mix- 
 ture of the two peroxides may be kept dry in 
 a stoppered bottle for any length of time. 
 Boettger also prepares pure oxygen, free from 
 ozone, by submitting permanganate of potas- 
 sium to a gentle heat. 
 
 8. Fleitman' has found that when chloride 
 of lime in solution is heated with a small 
 quantity of freshly prepared peroxide of 
 cobalt, it is completely resolved into chloride 
 of calcium and oxygen. A concentrated solu- 
 tion consisting of 35 per cent, of chloride of 
 lime, which must be previously filtered to pre- 
 vent frotliing, yields when heated with t^th 
 to i per cent, of peroxide of cobalt, a volume 
 of oxygen from 25 to 30 times as great as that 
 of the liquid, and always rather more than 
 the calculated quantity, probably in conse- 
 quence of the absorption of oxygen from the 
 air. The remaining peroxide may always be 
 employed again. A like result follows if, in- 
 stead of the peroxide, an ordinary salt of 
 
 » Walts. 
 
 cobalt in small quantity be used. Fleitman 
 seeks to explain the reaction on the supposition 
 that there are several peroxides of cobalt, and 
 that the effects produced depend upon the 
 alternate formation and partial reduction of a 
 higher oxide ; or on the formation of a cobaltic 
 and a percobaltic hypochlorite, which is subse- 
 quently decomposed into cobaltous chloride 
 and oxygen. 
 
 Prop. Oxygen gas is colourless, tasteless, 
 inodorous, and incombustible; the sp. gr. is 
 1057 (Dumas; 1-1026— Berzelius & Dulong; 
 1111— Thomson); 100 cubic inches at 60° 
 Fahr., and 36 inches of the barometer, weigh 
 34-29 gr. (Dumas; 34-109 gr.— Berz. ; 34-6 
 gr. — Brande; 33"85 gr. — Ure). Its density 
 to that of atmospheric air is, therefore, as 
 about 11 to 10. It is a powerful supporter of 
 combustion, and its presence is essential to 
 the existence of both animal and vegetable life. 
 It forms 21§ (20-81J) by volume, and 23fl by 
 weight, of the atmosphere. (M. Dumas.) 
 Water dissolves about 5 per cent, by volume 
 of oxygen, and by pressure a much larger 
 quantity, forming oxygenated water (AQUA 
 oxTaENii). Oxygen has recently been liquified. 
 
 Tests. 1. It is distinguished from other 
 gases by yielding nothing but pure water 
 when mixed with twice its volume of hydrogen 
 and exploded, or when a jet of hydrogen is 
 burnt in it. — 2. A recently extinguished taper, 
 with the wick still red hot, instantly inflames 
 when plunged into this gas. — 3. A small spiral 
 piece of iron wire ignited at the point, and 
 suddenly plunged into a jar of oxygen, burns 
 with great brilliancy and rapidity. Charcoal 
 does the same. 
 
 Estim. The estimation of the quantity of 
 oxygen in an organic compound has already 
 been described. For determining the quan- 
 tity present in atmospheric air, and other 
 like gaseous mixtures, Dobereiner has pro- 
 posed the use of pyrogallic acid. The air under 
 examination (freed from moisture) is measured 
 intoan accurately graduated tubeover mercury, 
 capable of holding about 30 cubic centimetres, 
 and which it should frds fill. A solution 
 formed of 1 part of dry hydrate of potassium 
 and 2 parts of water, and in volume about ^^tb 
 that of the air, is next introduced by means of 
 a pipette with a curved point, and is gently 
 agitated therewith in the gas for a short time ; 
 the decrease of volume gives the proportion of 
 carbonic anhydride present. A solution of py- 
 rogallic acid (1 gramme in 5 or 6 centimetres 
 of water), equal in volume to one half that of 
 the solution of potassa already used, is then 
 introduced by means of another pipette, and 
 the mixed liquids are cautiously shaken to- 
 gether over the inner surface of the tube. 
 When absorption ceases (which it does in a few 
 minutes), the quantity of residual gas (nitro- 
 gen) is read off from the graduations ; the dif- 
 ference in volume before and after the intro- 
 duction of the pyrogallic acid indicates the 
 proportion of oxygen. This is a mere modifica- 
 
OXYGKNAIION-OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE 
 
 1217 
 
 tion of Priif. Liebijf's method. 1 grarame of 
 n rngallic acid in combinHtion with hydrate of 
 potiissium is cn|iiible of abBorbing about 189 
 cubic cciitimStrea of oxygen. (Dobereiner.) 
 OiIkt nicthndt employi'd for the analysis of 
 air, depending on the increase or loss of weight 
 wlien the iiir is passed over finely divided 
 copper heated to redness, the loss of volume 
 when the air is exploded in a eudiometer with 
 half its bulk of hydrogen, or when a stick of 
 phosphorus is left in it for some hours, are well 
 known, and described at length in every ele- 
 mentary woi-k on chemical analysis. The last 
 nietliod, although less accurate than the others, 
 has the advantage of extreme simplicity. 
 
 D*e». Oxygen lias been employed to in- 
 crease the illuminative and heating power of 
 lamps, and to render vitiated air respirable, 
 &c. ; aud when largely diluted with atmo- 
 spheric air, or condensed in water, as a reme- 
 dial agent in asphyxia arising from the 
 inhalation of carbonic acid aud carbonic 
 oxide. 
 
 Dr Ringer says that if oxygen be admin- 
 istered at a gaseous bath for an honr or two at 
 a time, and the bath repeated six or eight 
 times a day, it is of groat service in senile 
 gan)2;reno. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. Oxygen gas may be 
 coUectcil in the usual way, either over water, 
 mercury, or in bags; or, on the large scale, 
 in gasometers. The purity of the products of 
 the several processes given above depends on 
 the substances from which the gas is obtained 
 being themxelvos pure. For particular experi- 
 ments the Hrst portion of gas should be allowed 
 to escape, or be received apart, as with this, as 
 with the otiii'r gases, it is contaminated with 
 the atmospheric air of the apparatus. Tlie 
 gas procured from manganese or nitre may 
 be purified by pussiiig it through milk of lime 
 or a solution of caustic potash ; it will still, 
 liowcver, retain some traces of nitrogen. M. 
 Limousin' has devised an apparatus fir the 
 preparation of oxygen by tlip attendants of 
 hospitals, which obviates the risk of bursting of 
 the retorts, attending its preparation by the 
 old method. The appar-itus consists of two 
 cast-inin hemispheres, whose edges, which are 
 well polished and about two centimetres thick, 
 can be fitted hermetically upon each other, 
 and fastened by three screws. The mixture of 
 chlorate of potash and peroxide of manganese 
 is placed in the lower hemisphere, which rests 
 upon a tripod ; the upper hemisphere, from 
 w hich projects an iron tube, is now screwed on, 
 and the iron tube connected with india-rubber 
 and glass tubing with a Wolfs wash-bottle, 
 from which the gas after being washed passes 
 through a second class tube, and is thus ready 
 for use. It may he conducted into an airtight 
 bag, in which it will keep for several weeks. 
 Such a bag when supplied with a tube and 
 stop-cock will aHbrd a ready means for inha- 
 lations. Oxysen in a condensed or compressed 
 ' ■ Pliurm. Ceiitrallwllc,' xiv, S18. 
 VOL, II. 
 
 state is prepared by Mr Orchard, High Street, 
 Kensington. See Oboanic substasces, 
 OzoNK, Gases, Lkjubfaciion of, Ac. 
 
 OXYGENA'TIOlf . Syn. The act or process 
 of combining with oxygen. Formerly it w.is 
 of more general npplication than the word 
 'oxidation,' with which it has been regarded 
 as synonymous. ' Oxygenation ' is, however, 
 at the present day practically obsolete. 
 
 OXYGENI'SBD LARD. Syn. Oxygenated 
 
 AXUNGE; AXUNGIA OXTQENATA, L. Prep. 
 (Ph. Bat. 1805.) From prepared lard, 16 
 parts, melted over a slow fire, and then mixed 
 with nitric acid, 1 part ; the combination 
 being promoted by constant stirring with a 
 glass rod, until it ceases to allect litmus paper. 
 It should be extremely white, and should be 
 kept in the dark. See Ointment op Nitbio 
 acid. 
 
 OXYHYDROGEN BLOWPIPE. See Blow- 
 pipe. Ueville and Debray (' Ann. Ch. Pliys.' 
 [3], Ivi, 385) employ the oxyhydrogen blow- 
 pipe in the following manner for effecting the 
 fusion of platinum and the refractory metals 
 which accompany it. The apparatus con- 
 sists of the blowpipe C (see below), a furnace 
 ABD, and a crucible ORI. The blowpipe 
 is composed of a copper tube about half an 
 inch in diameter, terminating below in a 
 slightly conical platinum jet about li inch 
 long. Within this tube, which is supplied 
 with hydrogen or coal-gas through the stop- 
 cock H, is a second copper tube & for supply- 
 '"? oxygen, terminated also by a platinum 
 nozzle with an aperture of about a twelfth of 
 an iuch in di.iineter. 
 
 
 77 
 
1218 
 
 OXYMEL 
 
 The furnace ABD consists of three pieces 
 of well-burnt Hine of slightly hydraulic quality, 
 which may be turned at a lathe with ease. The 
 cylinder A is about 2^ inches thick, and is 
 perforated by a slightly conical hole into which 
 the blowpipe fits accurately, passing about 
 half-way through the thickness of the mass. 
 A second somewhat deeper cylinder of lime, B, 
 is hollowed into a chamber wide enough to 
 admit the crucible, and leave an interval of 
 not more than a sixth of an inch clear around 
 it. KK are four apertures for the escape of 
 the products of combustion. 
 
 Tlie outer crucible US is also made of lime, 
 but it contains a smaller crucible / of gas 
 coke, provided with a cover of the same 
 material; and in this the substance to be 
 used is placed, the crucible resting on the 
 lime support JD'. The conical cover (? is made 
 of lime, and its apex should be placed exactly 
 under the blowpipe jet, at a distance from it of 
 % to li inch. 
 
 The different pieces of the furnace must be 
 bound round with iron wire to support them 
 when they crack. The oxygen is admitted 
 under a pressure of a column of 16 inches of 
 water. The temperature is gradually raised 
 to the maximum, and in about eight minutes 
 from this time the operaffion is complete. 
 
 By employing a jet of mixed coal-gas and 
 oxygen (-£Q, see engr.) in a furnace of lime. 
 
 Deville and Debray succeeded, at an expense 
 of about 43 cubic feet of oxygen, in melting 
 and refining, in 42 minutes, 254 lbs. avoirdu- 
 pois of platinum, and casting it into an ingot 
 in a mould of gas coke j and much larger 
 masses have since been melted by this method. 
 Lime is so bad a conductor of heat that if a 
 cup of lime not more than 0'8 inch thick be 
 filled with melted platinum the exterior 
 scarcely rises beyond 300° Fahr. (Miller's 
 ' Elements of Chemistry,' 3rd. cd., pt. ii, p. 
 825.) 
 
 OX'YMEI. Syn. Oxtmbl, L. An acidu- 
 lous syrup made of honey and vinegar. There 
 are only two oxymels in the last Ph. L. The 
 ingredients in an oxymel should be of such a 
 leJiaracter, and in such proportions, as to pro- 
 duce a mixture of the proper consistence 
 without evaporation. 
 
 Oxymel of Col'chicum. Syn. Oxymel col- 
 
 CHiCI COEMI, OXTMEL COICHICI, L. Frep. 
 XFh. D. 1826.) Fresh corms (roots) of mea- 
 
 dow saffron, 1 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 1 pint 
 (wine measure); macerate for 2 days, press 
 out the liquor, filter, add of clarified honey, 
 2 lbs., and boil down the mixture to the con- 
 sistence of a syrup, frequently stirring. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 dr., twice or thrice a day ; in gout, 
 rheumatism, dropsy, &c. 
 
 Oxymel of Garlic. Syn. Oxymel alii, L. 
 Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Sliced garlic, li oz. ; 
 caraway seed and sweet fennel seed, of each 2 
 dr.; bjiling vinegar, 8 fl. oz. ; infuse, strain, 
 and add of clarified honey, 10 oz. In hooping- 
 cough, chronic diarrhoea, rheumatism, &c. 
 
 Oxymel of Narcissus. Van Mons. Syn. 
 Oxymel Naeoissi. Prep. Vinegar of Nar- 
 cissus (made with 1 part of fresh flowers of 
 daffodil to 8 of vinegar), 1 part ; honey, 4 parts. 
 Dissolve. — Dose. A teaspoonf ul. In hooping- 
 cough and spasmodic asthma. 
 
 Oxymel, Pec'toral. Syn. Oxymel pecto- 
 
 EALE, O. INULiE OOMPOSITUM, L. Prep. (Ph. 
 
 Br.) Elecampane, 1 oz. ; orris root, J oz. ; 
 water, li pint ; boil to i pint, strain, add of 
 honey, 16 oz. ; ammoniacum, 1 oz. ; (dissolved 
 in) vinegar, 3 fl. oz. ; lastly, boil to an oxymel. 
 — Dose, 1 spoonful, occasionally; in coughs, 
 humid asthma, &c. 
 
 Oxymel, Sim'ple. Syn. Vineoae syeup, 
 AoETATED honey; Oxymel (Ph. L. & D.), 
 Oxymel simplex, Mel acetatum, L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Acetic acid (sp. gr. 1-048) 7 fl. 
 oz. ; distilled water, 8 fl. oz. ; mix, and add 
 them to honey, 5 lbs., previously made hot. 
 This contains only one half the acid ordered 
 in the Plj. L. 1836. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Clarified honey, 1 lb. ; acetic 
 acid (sp. gr. 1"044), 3 oz. ; as before. Stronger 
 than the last. 
 
 3. (PI). L. 1836.) Honey, 10 lbs. ; acetic 
 acid (1-048), li pint ; as before. This con- 
 tains too much vinegar. (See No. 1.) 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) From honey (thick and 
 good), 12 lbs. ; melt it by a gentle heat, add 
 of distilled vinegar (of fully 5J), 2 quarts, and 
 strain the mixture through flannel. No evapo- 
 ration is required. 
 
 Uses, S[c. Demulcent and refrigerant. — 
 Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr., either gradually sucked from 
 the spoon or dissolved through some simple 
 liquid. Dissolved in water, it forms a useful 
 and pleasant cooling drink or gargle in fevers, 
 sore throats, hoarseness, &c. ; but in some indi'- 
 viduals it occasions griping. It is commonly 
 used as an adjunct, in mixtures, &c. 
 
 Oxymel of Squills. Syn. Honey op Squills ; 
 Oxymel Soill«(B. P.), Mel Soill^ (Ph. L.), 
 0. Soilliticfm (L.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mix 
 and evaporate on a water bath vinegar of 
 squills, 1 pint, and clarified honey, 2 lbs., till 
 the product when cold has a specific eravity 
 of 1-32. ^ ' 
 
 2. Vineg:ar of squills, 2i pints ; gently 
 evaporate it to 12 fl. oz., and add of honey 
 (previously made hot), 5 lbs. 
 
 3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Strained honey, 3 lbs. ; 
 vinegar of squills, li pint; boil to a projur 
 
OXYBRHODYNE— OYSTER 
 
 1219 
 
 consistence. The formula of the Pli. D. 1826 
 wa> aiinilur. 
 
 fiw, S(c. Expectorant, and in large doses 
 n«us(«nt. — Dote, J to fl. 2 dr.; in clironic 
 coDgliB, hoarseness, humeral asthma, &c. 
 
 Ozymel of Ver'digris. See Liniment of 
 VEKDiaiiia. 
 
 OXYR'RHODYNE. Syn. Oxybhhodinon. 
 An old compound formed of 1 part of vinegar 
 of ro>c< and 2 parts of oil of roses. 
 
 OXYSAC'CHAKUM. A syrup acidulated 
 with vinegar. See STHrp. 
 
 OXYSDL'FHIDE. A name given to certain 
 compounds or mixtures of metallic oxides and 
 sulphides. See Antimony, Oxtbulfhide, 
 &c. 
 
 OYS'TER. Syn. OsTBEA, L. This well- 
 known shell-flsli is the Ostrea eduUs (Linn.) 
 
 " The oyster is a genus of lamellibniniliiiti' 
 molluscs of the section with a single adductor 
 muscle. The shell consists of two unequal and 
 somewhat irregularly-shaped valves of lami- 
 nated and closely foliated structure, and the 
 hinge is without tooth or ridge, the valves being 
 held together by a ligament lodged in a little 
 cavity in each. The animal is in its organisa- 
 tion among the lowest and simplest of lamelli- 
 branchiate molluscs. It has no foot, and, 
 except when very young, no power of loco- 
 motii>u, or organ of any kind adapted to that 
 purpose. Its food consists of animalcules, 
 and also of minute vegetable particles, brought 
 to it by the water, a continual current of 
 which is directed towards the mouth by the 
 action of the gills. The gills are seen in four 
 rows wlieu the valves of the shell are sepa- 
 rated, a little witliiu the fringed edge of the 
 mantle. In the most central part is the 
 addiiitor musole i and between the adductor 
 musele and the liver is the heart, which may be 
 recognised by the brown colour of its auricle. 
 The month — for, as in the other lamelli- 
 brancliiiitii, there is no bead — is situated 
 beneath a kind of hood formed by the union of 
 the two edges of the mantle near the hinse. 
 It is jawless and toothless. Tlie ovaries are 
 very larso during the season of reproduction, 
 whieli extends over certain months when 
 oysters are out of season for the table. Oysters 
 are hermaphrodite"' 
 
 The fecundity of the oyster is amazing. 
 Lceuwenhoek estimated that an oyster, when 
 full of spawn, contained frcim 3000 to 4000 of 
 its ofFsiiring, and it has also been computed 
 that one oyster alone produces nearly a million 
 and a quarter of eggs. The eggs are hatched 
 and the youni; produced within the shell and 
 mantle of tiie parent, where they continue 
 floating If swimming about in the vicinity of 
 the pills in a creamy-looking kind of mucus 
 or fluid until expelled. Their expulsion is 
 preceded by a change of appearance in the 
 fluid to a brownish or muddy colour ; a cir- 
 iinustunce thnt may possibly indicate an 
 Cli.inibprs' ' Eiicyclopttdia.* 
 
 aUcration of composition in the liquid un- 
 favorable to the infant oisU-r, and thus lead 
 to its departure. Their departure or ex- 
 pulsion from all the parent molluscs of the 
 oyster-bank or bed takes place at the same 
 time. 
 
 When they leave the parent shell the yonng 
 oysters, which in this condition are called 
 tpat, are not more than ^^^ih of an inch in 
 length; and two millions ot theiri when > losely 
 packed do not occupy a space of more thiin a 
 cubic inch. Thus cast adrift tliey are carried 
 away by currents, their multitudinous numbers 
 being considerably diminished by their falling 
 a prey to numerous fish, as well as from their 
 frequent inability to find a suitable resting- 
 place. This obtained, the young oyster or 
 spat attaches itself to it, and makes it the 
 permanent home on which it eats, grows, and 
 breeds, and, debarred of locomotion, passes its 
 existencennless, of course, removed by external 
 causes. Pending its obtaining a suitable 
 locality the young oyster is provided with a 
 powerful swimming apparatus which, it has 
 been surmised, becomes absorbed or otherwibc 
 disappears when its function is renchred un- 
 necessary by the stationary life of the oyster 
 after it has secured a habitat. 
 
 The objects to which it attaches itself are 
 numerous. The Ostrea parasitica, a species 
 of oyster found in warm climates, fixes itself 
 to the roots and branches o£ trees growing 
 within rciich of and washed by the tide. 
 Again, in some of the southern stites of North 
 America, lar(;e oyster-beds, which are some- 
 times of such ni!i;^nirude as to form buttresses 
 iiirninst the force of the tides and winds, 
 originate from the habit of young nvsters 
 iittaehing tliemselves to the shells of old ones. 
 Similarly the banks of some of the rivers of 
 Georgia, which run up some few miles inland 
 from the sea, are composed of ni.issi's of living 
 oysters attached to each other. These banks, 
 which are so massive as to make a channel for 
 the river, are kuown as racoon banks, because 
 this animal is one amongst oth'Ts which 
 Irequents them for the sake of devourins the 
 oysters. . . . In some of the French yarcj, 
 or artificial oyster-beds, the y uns; oysters 
 attach themselves to large unglazed tiles, or 
 to fafjgots or other solid hoilies which are 
 placed in suitable situntions for the purpose; 
 in the English artificial beds hurdles are fre- 
 quently employed, upon which the spat 
 become deposited. It appears tlio young 
 oysters select dark objects, such as slate or 
 hiack stones, in preference to bodies of a 
 lighter colour to fix themselves to, and that 
 they choose, where practicable, the inner side 
 of the object, or that portion of it away from 
 the light. After a time the yonu!,' oys crs are 
 removed from the breeding beds, placed in the 
 fatteniiig beds, from whence th-^y are removed 
 when they have attained a sufficient mzc, and 
 sent upon the market. In England oysters 
 are not regarded as tit to be eaten until they 
 
1220 
 
 OrSTER 
 
 are at least three years old ; whereas in France 
 they are served up to table about a year earlier. 
 The chief enemy of the young oyster is a 
 species of whelk, known in France as the 
 higourneaUi dog whelk, or piercer. These 
 creatures, which are found in immense quan- 
 tities in the celebrated oyster-beds at Arca- 
 chon, near Bordeaux, cause great destruction 
 amongst the bivalves. Part of their anatomy 
 consists of a boring apparatus, with which 
 tliey pierce the s-hell of the oyster; whatever 
 of the dead oyster is left by the whelk is 
 devoured by the crabs, which creep into the 
 aperture in the shell made by the former. 
 
 We have already alluded to the abundance 
 of oysters in parts of Georgia, where, we may 
 add, they are not only confined to the alluvial 
 shores of the rivers, hut are also found in 
 large numbers amongjt the long grass of the 
 adjoining low lauds. 
 
 In these districts it is by no means an un- 
 common practice for the inhabitants to impro- 
 vise a meal by picking up a bunch of oysters 
 and roasting them over a fire kindled on the 
 spot. In many of these localities the oysters 
 occur in quantities so immense that a vessel of 
 100 tons might be loaded within three times 
 her own length.l 
 
 There are also many other parts of America 
 in which the yield of the oyster-beds is 
 enormous. In the State of Maryland 6000 
 persons are said to be employed dredging, and 
 nearly 11,000,000 bushels of oysters were 
 taken in 1870-71. 
 
 In Baltimore as many as 10,000 persons are 
 emplojed in tinniug this bivalve. Comparing 
 the plenteousness of the oyster in America 
 with its great scarcity of late years in our 
 country, and the consequent much lower price 
 of the foreign bivalve, we should be prepared 
 to le.arn that considerable supplies of oysters, 
 both alive and preserved in tius, come to us 
 from America. The bulk of those consumed 
 in Britain are a small variety, and come i'rom 
 Maryland and Virginia. 
 
 In 1872, owing to the diminished yield of the 
 English oyster-beds, an attempt was made to 
 introduce the American oyster into British 
 waters; and we believe the dep6t for this 
 purpose still exists at Cleesethorpes, at the 
 mouth of the Humber, where operations in 
 this branch of oyster culture are being carried 
 on by the Conway Company. If, however, the 
 opinion of an eminent pisciculturist be correct, 
 viz. that the American oyster will not breed in 
 our waters, we should conceive the experiment 
 will be abandoned, since nothing will be gained 
 by relaying them, that cannot be attained by 
 simply importing them and sending them to 
 the market, since it is asserted they are kept 
 alive out of water for a month. 
 
 A few years back a Select Committee ap- 
 pointed by Parliament to inquire into the 
 causes of the scarcity of oysters issued in 1876 
 a repor-t in which, endorsing the opinion of 
 ' Cliambera* 'EncyclopBedia.' 
 
 previous authorities on oyster culture, they 
 attributed the diminished yield of our oyster- 
 beds to continual over-dredging for them in 
 open waters, without allowing sufScient 
 ' close time.' The Committee found that, in 
 France, where the stringent observances of 
 the 'close season' was enforced, the supply 
 of oysters had increased concurrently. The 
 Committee, therefore, recommended the estab- 
 lishment ' of a general close time,' extending 
 from May 1st to September 1st, subject to 
 certain exceptions under the supervision of 
 the Board of Trade; the levying of penalties 
 for buying or selling oysters for consumption 
 during the ' close season ' being also recom- 
 mended. The Committee further recom- 
 mended that no oysters should be sold from 
 the deep-sea fisheries under 2i or 3 inches in 
 diameter. Commenting upon the above report, 
 ' Nature ' very sensibly remarks : — " What is 
 really wanted for the protection of the oyster 
 is the assurance that these animals shall not 
 be sold before they have a chance of repro- 
 ducing their kind. Since the introduction of 
 the railway system, the demand for oysters in 
 distant places has become so great and the 
 price has risen so high, that oyster culturists 
 are tempted to send immature animals to 
 market, and it is this fact, more than any 
 failure of spat, that is leading to the scarcity. 
 There are not, in consequence of the unceasing 
 demand and consequent high price, so many 
 full-grown oysters left to spat as there ought 
 to be ; hence the scarcity. Any Act of Par- 
 liament that decrees two oysters to grow 
 where only one grew before will be greedily 
 welcomed both by oyster cultnrists and by the 
 public, and we hope that the issue of the 
 present Eeport will lead to some effective 
 measures being taken for the preservation of 
 this delicious creature ere it be too late." 
 Previous to 1846 the wholesale price of best 
 English natives was £2 2s. a bushel; since 
 then the price has risen rapidly to j64 4s. in 
 1865, in 18ti6 to £5, and in 1869 it had 
 advanced to £8 ; that is, they had risen nearly 
 300 per cent, in 8 years, which is equivalent to 
 an advance of from ^d. to 2d. each. At the 
 present time they are, we believe, sold at from 
 3s. to 3s. 6d. a dozen by the retail dealer. 
 
 Oysters are nutritious and easy of digestion 
 when fresh, but are apt to prove laxative to 
 those unaccustomed to their use. It is generally 
 believed that they are in season each month 
 of the year the name of which contains the 
 letter R. Whitstable in Kent, and Colchester 
 and other places in Essex, are the great 
 nurseries or feeding-grounds for supplying 
 the metropolis, and, indeed, the whole of 
 England, with the most esteemed variety 
 (natites) of this shell-fish. The shells (test^ 
 PBEPAKAT^, T. OSTEEAUI^) were formerly used 
 in medicine as an absorbent. 
 
 Of the various species of oysters, that which 
 holds the foremost place in the estimation of 
 the gourmet is the 'English native;' now. 
 
OZOKEUIT— OZONE 
 
 1221 
 
 aliu! owinfif to the unwiae rapacity of the 
 eollcctiir, nenrly dredged out of existence. 
 
 The native ha» a liistoric reputation too, 
 eincc it appears it was eagerly sought after by 
 the old Romans, and n-as a frequent dish at 
 their tables. The enthusiasm of the celebrated 
 Dr Kitchener for this particular oyster was 
 very intense. He is very pariicular in directing 
 its shell to be opened with the greatest care 
 so that it may be eaten alive and " tickled to 
 death by the teeth'' 
 
 The green oyster of Ostend is also prized by 
 epicures ; it acquires its colour from its food, 
 which consists chiefly of green monads and 
 confervffi. Some of the American oysters are 
 excellent in flavour, and are said to be without 
 tile copper taste occasionally to be met with in 
 English oysters. They smack a little of the 
 mussel. 
 
 Piiyen gives the following as the composition 
 of the oyster: — 
 
 Mpan of two 
 AnHlyseB. 
 
 Nitrogenous matter . . 14'010 
 
 Fattv matter .... 1'515 
 
 Saline matter .... 2695 
 
 Non-nitrogenous matter and loss 1'395 
 
 Water 80-385 
 
 100-00 
 
 See Shell fish, Sauces, &c. 
 
 Oyster, Scalloped. Pat them with crums 
 of breud, pepper, salt, nutmeg, and » bit of 
 butter, into scallop shells or saucers, and bake 
 them before the lire in a Dutch oven. 
 
 Oysters, Fried (to (rarnish boiled flsh). Make 
 a batter of flour, milk and eggs, add a little 
 seasoning to it ; dip the oysters into it, and 
 fry them a fine yellow brown. A little nutmeg 
 should he put into the seasoning, and a few 
 crumbs of lireud into the flour. 
 
 Oysters, Stewed. Open them, and separate 
 the liquor from them, then free them from 
 grit by washing, strain the liquor, and add it 
 to the oysters with a small piece of mace and 
 lemou pe'el, and a few white peppercorns. 
 Simmer very gently, and add some cream and 
 a little flour and butter. Let them be scrvcil 
 with sippeto. 
 
 Oysters, To Feed. Put them into water, 
 unil wash them with a birch broom till quite 
 clean. Then place them bottom downwards 
 in on earthonwiire pan; sprinkle them with 
 Hour, oatmeal, and salt, and then cover with 
 water. Repeat this treatment every day, 
 taking care to make the water pretty salt. 
 
 OZOKERIT. Syn. Fossil wax, Mineeal 
 WAX. This substance, which has within the 
 last few years been utilised as a source of 
 paruflin and the mineral hydrocarbon oils, is 
 fomid in various localities in the tertiary 
 Btrato, mostly occurring in, or in close proxi- 
 mity to, the coal measures. But although 
 extensive deposits of it are to be met with in 
 Oallicia and on the slopes of the Carpathian 
 
 mountains, it is by no menus an abundant 
 body. In the Austrian empire there are many 
 large manufactories for its conversion into 
 paraffin and the mineral oils. In our country 
 there is we believe only one, that of Messrs 
 Field. Ozokerit is usually met with as a 
 brown and compact substance, occasionally 
 yellow; however, it is sometimes black. It 
 melts at a temperature varying from 60° to 
 80° C. 
 
 Nbpt-gil i^ a substance very similar to 
 ozokerit, and is formed on the island of SwStoi- 
 Ostrow in the Caspian Sta. According; to 
 Rossmassler, neft-gil is treated in the follow- 
 ing maimer : — 15 cwt. of the crude material 
 is put into iron stills provided with a leaden 
 worm, and submitted to fractional distilla- 
 tion, yielding 68 per cent, of distillate, con- 
 sisting of 8 per cent, of oil, and 60 per 
 cent, of crude paraffin. The oil thus ob- 
 tained is yellow, opalescent, possesses an 
 ethereal odour, and a sp. gr. of 0-75 tn 081. 
 Each distillation yields a quantity of a 
 light oil boiling below 100° C, which is used 
 for the puipnsc of purifying the paraffin. 
 The crude parafliu obtained by the first distil- 
 lation is tolerably pure, has a yellow colour, 
 and can at once be treated by the hydraulic 
 press and centrifugal machine ; the oil from 
 these operations is again submitted to frac- 
 tional distillation in order to obtain more 
 paraffin. The pressed paraffin is melted an<l 
 treated at 170° to 180° C. with sulphuric acid, 
 which is next neutralised by means of lime, 
 and the paraflin again rapidly distilled, then 
 ag-ain submittted to strong pressure, and the 
 material obtained treated with 25 per cent, of 
 the lifflit oil; then again melted, again pressed, 
 and finally treated with steam tor the purpose 
 of eliminating the last trace of e-sential oil. 
 The material obtained by this treatment is 
 a perfectly pure, colourless material, free from 
 smell, transparent, and so hard as to exhibit 
 in large blocks almost a metallic sound. The 
 fusing point is 63° C. 
 
 OZONE (Greek, ojw, I smell) is a peculiar 
 variety of ox\gen, characterised by its greater 
 weight, its peculiar chlorous smell, its intensely 
 active oxidising powers, and, finally, by the 
 ease with which it passes into common oxygen. 
 The history of ozone may be summed up as fol- 
 lows : — In 1785 Van M.arum observed the pro- 
 duction of a peculiar smell when electric sptirks 
 were passed through oxygen. This smell, which 
 every one who has worked with an electric 
 machine must have noticed. Van Marum re- 
 garded as the " smell of electricity," thinking 
 that electricity was a substance. In 1810 
 Schonbein, of Basle, proved the existence of a 
 definite substance, to which he lissigned the 
 name of ozone, and discovered several modes of 
 producing it, a delicate test for it, and several 
 of its most striking properties. He subse- 
 quently added many new facts, but to the time 
 of his death he never held a correct theory in 
 regard to its nature. Later researches by 
 
1222 
 
 OZONE 
 
 Marignac and Dedalline, Becquerel and Fremy, 
 Andrews and Tait, Soret, Drodie, and otliers, 
 have established the true nature of this remark- 
 able body. It is now generally admitted that 
 it only differs from common oxygen in contain- 
 ing three atoms of oxygen in each molecule 
 instead of two. In fact, as the formula lor 
 oxygen is Oj, that of ozone is O3. It follows 
 that ozone is half as heavy again as oxygen, 
 and it has accordingly been demonstrated that 
 its specific gravity is 24 (H = 1), that of oxygen 
 being 16. All the known reactions of ozone 
 are easily explained in accordance with this 
 view. 
 
 Ozone may be generated in several ways. 
 1. By the action of electricity on oxygen or 
 air, sparks are far lessefficacious than the silent 
 or ' sluw ' discliarge ; but the best apparatus 
 is the induction-tube of Siemens. This con- 
 sists of two tubes, one inside the other. The 
 inner side of the inner and the outer side of 
 the outer tube are coated with tinfoil, and 
 these coatings are connected with the termi- 
 nals of a powerful induction-coil. Dry air or 
 oxygen streams between the tubes and passes 
 out, strongly charged with ozone. 
 
 2. M. Boillot has proposed a modification of 
 Siemens' apparatus, which consists of two 
 glass tubes, one fitting within the other, and 
 each coated externally with powdered coke 
 made to adhere by means of gelatin. The 
 coatings of the two tubes are connected with 
 the poles of an induction coil, and a stream of 
 oxygen is made to pass between the tubes, and 
 becomes thus exposed to the infiuenoe of the 
 silent discharge, as in Siemens' contrivance. 
 
 3. Hozeau has invented an apparatus which 
 he calls an 'ozoniser,* by means of which 
 ozone is produced in considerable quantities. 
 In an ordinary straight gas-delivery tube is 
 placed a wire of copper, lead, or, better, 
 platinum, 4 to 6 decimetres long, with one of 
 its extremities passing through the side of the 
 upper portion of the tube. On the exterior of 
 the tube is coiled a similar wire over the path 
 of the preceding. When the two are placed in 
 communication with a Ruhmkorff's coil, giving 
 a 2 or 3 centimetre spark, a slow stream of 
 oxygen pHssing through the tube will be 
 strongly charged with ozone. By this appa- 
 ratus Hozeau has prepared oxygfen containing 
 60 to 120 (once 188) milligrams of ozone per 
 litre. Electrolysis of water furnished only 3 
 to 5 milligrams, barium peroxide and sulphuric 
 acid 10 milligrams per litre.^ 
 
 4. During certain processes of oxidation a 
 pieceof phosphorus, half covered with water in a 
 bottle of air, absorbs a portion of the oxygen, 
 while another portion becomes partially ozo- 
 nised. 
 
 5. By plunging a clean glass rod heated to 
 about 260° 0. into a jar containing a few drops 
 
 f ether. 
 
 6. By mixing very gradually 3 parts of 
 
 * 'Comptes Rendus'C Watt's Diclionary,' second sup- 
 plement), Ixx, 1286. 
 
 strong sulphuric acid and 2 of permanganate 
 of potash. 
 
 7. It has been shown that ozone is formed 
 in small quantity during the burning of hydro- 
 gen at a jet, and in several analogous reac- 
 tions. 
 
 8. During the liberation of oxygen at low 
 temperatures, when barium dioxide ismoistened 
 with sulphuric acid, the odour of ozone is at 
 once apparent, and the evolution proceeds for 
 a considerable time. 
 
 9. In the electrolysis of water the oxvgeu 
 evolved consists partly of ozone, especially if 
 the poles are small. 
 
 10. Linder has suggested an easy method for 
 the production of ozone for hygienic purposes, 
 which is as follows :— Make a mixture of 
 manganese peroxide, potassium permanganate, 
 and oxalic acid. Two spoonfuls of this 
 powder, if placed on a dish and gradually 
 mixed with water, will generate ozone suf- 
 ficient for a room of medium size; more water 
 is added in small portions from time to time as 
 the evolution ceases; the powder may be kept 
 in a bottle ready for use. 
 
 Ozone has never been isolated. By the use 
 of Siemens' apparatus, oxygen containing, as 
 a maximum, twenty volumes per cent, of ozone 
 may be obtained. This represents a contrac- 
 tion of about 1-llth during formation. But it 
 is at present impossible to separate the one 
 from the other. Ozone is entirely converted 
 into oxygen by a temperature of 270° C. The 
 conversion is effected more slowly at lower 
 temperatures. Silver, iron, copper, when 
 moistened, aj-e oxidised on the surface imme- 
 diately at ordinary temperatures by ozone. 
 
 Silver even becomes converted into a per- 
 oxide, although it will not combine with 
 ordinary oxygen, either when moist or dry. 
 Little or no absorption of ozone takes place 
 when the metals are perfectly dry, except with 
 dry mercury and dry iodine, both of which 
 remove it immediately . It was conclusively 
 shown by Andrews and Tait that little or no 
 contraction followed the absorption of ozone 
 by these or any other agents. Hence, as sug- 
 gested by these observers, it seems probable 
 that the ozone is resolved into a quautity of 
 ordinary oxygen equal in bulk to itself, which 
 is liberated at the moment when another 
 portion of its oxygen enters into combination 
 with the metal or the iodine. 
 
 Ozonised air becomes deozonised when 
 passed over cold manganese dioxide, silver 
 dioxide, or lead dioxide. When ozone is 
 mixed with peroxide of hydrogen, water and 
 oxygen are formed. In these cases the ozone 
 is converted into ordinary oxygen, and the 
 peroxides into monoxides. 
 
 Antozone, which Sehonbein surmised to he 
 oxygen in an oppositely electrified condition to 
 ozone, has been shown with great probability 
 by Van Babo to be peroxide of hydrogen. 
 
 From the ease with which it gives up its 
 third atom of oxygen, ozone has been pro- 
 
OZONE 
 
 1223 
 
 posud when mixed with nir, as a means of 
 dfcolorigiug mux, stearin, and other organic 
 sulistances which cannot be subjected to the 
 fumes of Butfihurons acid or clilorine, or at 
 any rate only partially so. Ozone does not 
 appear, however, to have been much, if at all 
 adopted, lor bleaching the above products, 
 which are still, we believe, mostly whiteued by 
 the old method of exposure to the air. 
 
 Jicing oue of the most energetic oxidising 
 agents known, it is not surprising that the 
 claims of ozone as a disinfectant should have 
 found many supporters. One of its strongest 
 advocates for this purpose is Dr Cornelius Fox, 
 whosiiyn, — "Ozone should be diffused throui;h 
 fever-wiirds, sick rooms, the crowded localities 
 of the poor, or wherever the active power of 
 the air is reduced and poisons are generated. 
 Its employment Is especially demanded in our 
 hospitals, situated as they mostly are in 
 densely populated districts, where the atmo- 
 sphere is almost always polluted by rebreathed 
 air.decomposini,' substan< es and their products, 
 and where no mere ventilation can be fully 
 effective. If practicable, it would be highly 
 advantiigeous to direct ktreiim.s of sea-air, or 
 air artiticially ozonised into the fever and 
 cholera nesis of our towns. Ozone may be 
 easily disseminated through public buildings, 
 theatres, and other confined atmospheres, 
 where numliers of people are accustomed to 
 assemble in order to maintain the purity of the 
 air." 
 
 Another ardent believer in the hygienic 
 value ol' ozone is Linder, who is also a strong 
 advocatefor its medical application, and recom- 
 mends it both in the form of ozonised air and 
 water in tuberculosis, rheumatism, asthma, 
 and many other diseases. Linder, it is said, 
 has set up an ozone manufactory, and vends 
 ozone inhalations by the cubic foot. 
 
 To the contention of those who asseit that 
 it is impossible to convoy such an unstable 
 body as ozone into the blood without the ozone 
 beconiiu:r decomposed into ovdinui y oxygen, 
 this instability is denied upon the authority of 
 Lchone and Hozeau, who state that it is less 
 liable to change than is generally sui)posed, 
 for they found, after working with it, that its 
 peculiar odour remained on their bauds and 
 pirmeuts for sometime. These views, largely 
 sliHred by many others, as to the beneficial 
 effects of ozone have, however, not been 
 allowed to pass unchallenged. M. P. Tlienard 
 considered it important that both the public 
 and medical men should be apprised of 
 the erroneous character of the opinions 
 ffcnerally entertained respecting the action of 
 ozone on the organism. Ozone, he says, so far 
 ficim exerting a beneficial effect, is one of the 
 most energetic of poisons; and the serious 
 accident* which have occurred in his own 
 laboratory do not leave the slightest room for 
 doubt in the matter. 
 
 Writing to the ' Covnptes Rendus,'' M. P. 
 ' Lxxxii, p. 18J7. 
 
 Th^nard narrates the case of a gninea-pig, in 
 which the beats of the pulse, normally liS 
 per minute, fell to j^th after the exposure of 
 the animal for a quarter of an hour to an 
 atmosphere charged with ozone. He states 
 that under the influence of ozone, even when 
 very largely diluted, the blood- corpuscles 
 rapidly cohere and change their form. Other 
 instances are recorded in which the blood, 
 contrary to anticipation, has been found in 
 the venous condition. 
 
 Drs Dewar and M'Kendrick found that 
 ozone acted as a very powerful irritant upon 
 the mucous membranes. Further, an experi- 
 ment was made by placing some small birds in 
 a mixture of oxygen and ozone, containing 10 
 per cent, of the latter. In two minutes the 
 birds were dead. 
 
 Ozone is frequently present in the atmo- 
 sphere, formed by electricity and perhaps by 
 other means. Payen states that it does not 
 amount to more than jTtiWs"' ^y weight, 
 and f u^ flpth by volume of atmospheric air. 
 Other observers state that it varies in amount, 
 accordni); to height, locality, timper.iture, 
 electricity, &c. Dr Buchanan says it is more 
 abundant *' on the sea-coast than inland, in the 
 west than in the east of Great Britain, in 
 elevated than in low situations, with south- 
 west than with north-east winds, in the country 
 than in towns, and on the windward than on 
 the leeward side of towns." According to the 
 Scottish Meteorological Society, ozone is most 
 prevalent in the atmosphere from February to 
 June, when the average amount is 0, and lasts 
 from July to January, when the average is 5'7. 
 The maximum 6'2 is reached in May, and the 
 minimum 5*3 in November. 
 
 These results are said to be in accordance 
 with the conclusions ari-ived at by Dr Berigny 
 and M, Hozeau. 
 
 Although there appears no ground for 
 doubting that artificially prepared ozone, by 
 reason of its actively disinfectant properties, 
 may prove a valuable auxiliary in checking 
 the spread of certain diseases; it seems far 
 from satisfactorily established that the same 
 quality is possessed by the ozone in the atmo- 
 sphere, or on the contrary, as has been asserted, 
 that certain ailments are caused by it. During 
 an outbreak of influenza at Berlin, SchOn- 
 bein states that the air contained a large 
 quiintity of ozone; a circumstance confirmed 
 by Dr Pietra-Santa during the prevalence in 
 another locality of the same epidemic, which it 
 was imagined might be caused by the irritating 
 effect of the ozone on the organs of respiration. 
 Billard, Wolf, Boeckil, and Strambis all state 
 that, during the prevalence of cholera at; 
 Strasbourg, Berlin, and Milan ozone was- 
 absent from the atmosphere, and tliat the- 
 decliue of the malady was marked by its re- 
 appearance. Uhle ascribes the accumulation 
 of malaria at night to the non-formation of 
 ozone by solar heat. 
 
 The above facta have, however, been dis- 
 
1224 
 
 OZONOMETER— PADDING 
 
 puted by some observ£rs, whilst others have 
 refused to regard them as anything more than 
 coincidences, and have indeed cited evidence 
 of a totally opposite character ; thus Qrellois 
 has stated that he found more ozone in a 
 marsh than elsewhere. 
 
 Mr Kingzett has shown the incorrectness of 
 Sohonbein's statement that, when oil of tur- 
 pentine and other essential oils are oxidised by 
 exposure to the air, ozone is formed. Schon- 
 bein was misled because from the oxidised oil 
 and the air in its vicinity he obtained the 
 ozone reaction with potassium iodide. 
 
 Mr Kingzett has demonstrated that the 
 compound can be neither ozone nor hydrogen 
 dioxide, because it is destroyed at the boiling 
 point of oil of turpentine, viz. 160°, at whicli 
 temperature ozone and hydrogen dioxide are 
 permanent; besides which it resists to a 
 certain extent the action of sodium thiosul- 
 pliate, and its solution in water retains its 
 nroperties after long - continued boiling. 
 Mr Kingzett believes the active properties of 
 the oxidised turpentine oil are due to the 
 formation of monohydrated terpene oxide 
 (C,„H,60,H,0). 
 
 One of the most delicate tests for ozone is 
 potassium iodide, either alone or mixed with 
 starch. A brown colour in the former case, a 
 blue in the latter, indicates the liberation of 
 iodine. In the ozometer, strips of paper satu- 
 rated with starch and potassium iodide are 
 exposed to the action of a definite volume of 
 air in a dark chamber. The comparative 
 quantities of ozone in different samples of air 
 arejudgedofhy the intensity of the colour com- 
 pared with a fixed scale on which 1 is the 
 lightest and 10 generally the darkest shade. 
 
 See OZONOMETEB. 
 
 Ozone acts as a reducing agent in certain 
 curious cases. Thus, hydrogen peroxide and 
 ozone reduce one another, water and oxygen 
 being the sole products; and some substances, 
 such as platinum black and manganese per- 
 oxide, convert it into oxygen without suffering 
 change themselves, being probably oxidised 
 and reduced alternately. 
 
 OZONOM'ETEE. This name has been given 
 to paper prepared with a mixed solution of 
 starch and iodide of potassium. It is white, 
 but is turned blue by ozonised air when ex- 
 posed to it in a slightly moistened stiite. 
 
 The following are the proportions given by 
 Schonbein for the preparation of the paper ; — 
 1 part of pure iodide of potassium, 10 parts 
 of starch and 200 of water. Lowe gives 1 
 part of iodide to 5 of starch; Moffatt, 1 to 2^. 
 Tile best arrowroot must be used for the starch. 
 It must be dissolved in warm water and fil- 
 tered, so that a clear solution is obtained. 
 
 The iodide is dissolved in auotlier portion of 
 water, and gradually added. The paper, cut in 
 slips and previously soaked in distilled water, 
 is placed in the mixed iodide and starch for 
 several hours; and lastly, slowly dried in a 
 cool dark place, the slips being hung horizon- 
 
 tally. Schbnbein's papers require moistening 
 with water after exposure before the trial is 
 taken. 
 
 Payen's ozonometer, which is an improve- 
 ment on the above, is made of red litmus paper 
 with half its surface impregnated with a 1^ 
 solution of potassium iodide. The portion of 
 the paper becomes blue by contact with air 
 containing ozone, iu consequence of oxidation 
 and the formation of potash. The unimpreg- 
 nated portion of the paper undergoes no chaAge 
 unless the air contains ammoniacal vapours, 
 and then the paper becomes blue over its entire 
 surface. 
 
 M. Davy states that he has obtained very 
 satisfactory results iu the estimation of ozone 
 in the atmosphere, by employing a mixture of 
 iodide of potassium andarsenite of potassium. 
 
 The value oC the ozonometer as an indicator 
 of atmospheric ozone must be looked upon as 
 uncertain, when it is borne in mind that there 
 are other bodies besides ozone frequently pre- 
 sent in the air, such as nitrous acid, chlorine, 
 &c., which give similar reactions with the 
 above reagents. 
 
 PACK'FONG. Syn. Pakfono, Chinese 
 WHITE COPPEE. An alloy formed by fusing 
 together, iu a covered crucible, arsenic, 2 parts, 
 and copper clippings, 4i to 5 parts, arranged 
 in alternate layers, and covered with a capping 
 of common salt. The product contains about 
 10^ of arsenic. 
 
 Prop., S(c. White, slightly ductile, and per- 
 manent at ordinary temperatures ; at a tempe- 
 rature below that of redness it suffers de- 
 composition, with the extrication of fumes of 
 arsenious acid. Formerly much used for the 
 scales of thermometers and other instruments, 
 dial plates, candlesticks, &c. It is now almost 
 superseded by the alloy of nickel and copper 
 called German silver, to whicli the name is 
 also applied by some recent writers. 
 
 PACK'ING. As there is considerable art in 
 packing brittle hollow-ware, as glass, china, 
 &c., in such a way that it will stand exposure 
 to the jolting, blows, and agitation of land 
 carriage, it is better, when it is of much value, 
 or iu quantity, to employ a person qualified 
 for the job. A man accustomed to packing 
 such articles may be readily procured at any 
 glassworks or china w.irehouse for a trifling 
 consideration. When this cannot be done, it 
 must be recollected that the great secret of 
 safe packing consists in the articles being 
 carefully preserved from undue pressure or 
 contact with each other, yet so firmly arranged, 
 and so surrounded with some material as hay, 
 straw, sawdust, &c., that they cannot be shaken 
 into such a condition by the ordinary contin- 
 gencies of transport. Loose packing must 
 always be avoided. 
 
 PAD'DING. Among calico printers this 
 term is applied to the opei-ation of impreg- 
 nating the pores of their cloth with a mordant. 
 It is now almost exclusively performed by 
 
PAINTKR'S CUEAM-PAmXlNG 
 
 1225 
 
 mean* of a (imjOc piece of machinery (padding 
 niachint), which easentially consist! of— n 
 ' lari;e reel,' around which the unprepared 
 cloth is wound — a ' gaide roller,' over which it 
 passes to Binoutli and adjust it before entering 
 the liquor — a copper cylinder, or ' dip-roller,' 
 nearly at tlie bottom of the ' mordant-trough,' 
 under which it ii carried from tl)e guide- 
 rollt-r — a lialf-round polished ' stretched-bar," 
 to give it equal tension — a pair of 'padded 
 cylindi'rs,' to remove superfluous moisture — 
 unci, lastly, a ' reel' to receive the mordanted 
 (' pailded ') cloth. The dejrree of tension is 
 regulated by a weight suspended on a lever, 
 and motion is given to the whole by an end- 
 less band from the driving shaft. This ma- 
 chine is also applicable to many of the opera- 
 tions of dyeing, bleaching, and starching tex- 
 tile fabrics. 
 
 PAIMT'EK'S CREAM. Prep. Take of pale 
 nut >>il,6oz,- niHstic, 1 oz, ; dissolve, add of 
 suiriir of lead, i oz., previously ground in the 
 least possible quiintity of oil; then further 
 add of water, q. s., gradually, until it acquires 
 the consistcnue of cream, working it well all 
 the time. Used by painters to cover their work 
 when they are obliged to leave it for some time. 
 It may le washed off with a sponge and water. 
 
 PAINTING. The art or employment of 
 laying on colour. In the fine arts, the pro- 
 duction of a picture or a resemblance in colours 
 on a flat surface. The artistic and me- 
 chanical consideration of this subject does not 
 come witliiu the province of our vohnne ; but 
 notices of the leading materials employed by 
 both artists and house painters are given uuder 
 tlieris|PLMtiv(' names. Seethe various pigments, 
 CoLODiis, Oils, Vaunishes, &c., and below. 
 
 Painting, Distem'per. A method of painting 
 generally iidupted by the ancients. Water 
 was tlie priuci|)al medium, but various gela- 
 tinous and albuminous 'binders ' were added 
 to fix the pigments. Of these the most im- 
 portant were glue, size, and white of egg. Ii\ 
 modern distemper, as executed by the painters 
 of theatrical scenery, panoramas, &e., spirit 
 of turpentine l< liii-fiely employed as a medium. 
 
 Fainting, Elydor'ic. A method of painting 
 invented hyM. Vincent, ol .Montpelicr, bavin;; 
 for its object to (unibine the I'rcsb appenraiiee 
 and finish of water colours witli the melloH'- 
 mss of oil paiiiiing. The liquid oiuploycd as 
 a veh cle for the pigments is un emulsion 
 formed of oil and \v;itorby the intervention of 
 cerUiiu ]ioition of gum or mucilage. 
 
 Fainting, Enam'el. In this variety of paint- 
 ing, viiiili.iblc colours arc laid on thin plates of 
 nietaU, and fused into it. The outline is first 
 burnt in, iiltcr which the parts arc filled up 
 jjradnally, with repeated fusions at an enamel- 
 lei's lump, to the most niinutefinishing touches. 
 " rile euumel painter has to work, not with 
 actual colours, but with mixtures which he 
 only knows from experience will produce cer- 
 tiiii colours after the operation of the fire." 
 ^.Vikin.) 
 
 Painting, Encaua'tic. This method is very 
 ancient, but is now seldom practised. Ac- 
 cording to Pliny, the colours were made up 
 into crayons with wax, and the subject being 
 traced on the ground with a metal point, they 
 were melted on the picture as they were used. 
 A coating of melted wax was then evenly 
 spread over all, and when it had become quite 
 cold was finally polished. 
 
 The art of encaustic painting, after lying 
 dormant for ab'mt 15 centuries, was revived 
 by Count Caylus, in 1753. In its new form, 
 the wood or canvas to be painted on is first 
 well rubbed over with wax, and then held 
 before the fire, so that the wax may penetr.ite 
 and fill up all the interstices, and form a per- 
 fectly even surface. The coloured pigments 
 are next mixed with the powder noticed below, 
 which is then rubbed smooth with some thick 
 gum water, and applied with brushes in the 
 same manner as ordinary water colours. When 
 the painting is finished, and quile dry, it is 
 brushed over with pure white wax in a melted 
 state, the surface being equalised by the skilful 
 application of heat ; it is, lastly, polished oif, 
 as before. 
 
 The powder. — To white wax, melted in an 
 earthen pipkin,add, in small portions at a time, 
 an equal weight of powdered mastic, stirring 
 continuously until the whole is incorporated ; 
 then pour it into cold water, and afterwards 
 reduce it to powder in a wedgwood-ware 
 mortar. A small quantity only of this powder 
 is used with light colours; but more is re- 
 quired with the darker ones, until, on approach- 
 ing black, the two may bo mixed in almost 
 equal proportions. 
 
 Fainting, Fres'co. This method of painting 
 was known to the ancient E^r.vptians, and was 
 commonly practised by the Greeksand Romans. 
 It is confined to the decoration of the walls of 
 buildings, and is executed by incorporating the 
 colours with the still moist pla-ster, or gesso. 
 The pigments employed are entirely mineral 
 or vitreous. As it is extremely difficult to 
 alter the work after the colours are once 
 absorbed, or after the ground has hardened, 
 the whole must be carefully designed before 
 commencing the picture, and no more com- 
 menced at once than can be executed during 
 the day. 
 
 Of all the varieties of painting, fresco is 
 " undoubtedly the most virile, most sure, most 
 resolute, andmost durable" (Vasari), and the 
 one most adapted for the purposes of historical 
 painting in its grandest and most exalted 
 forms. In comparison with it, it has been said 
 that even oil painting is " employment fit only 
 for women and children.'' (Michael Angelo.) 
 
 Painting, Glass. See Staiked glass. 
 
 Fainting, Oil. This well known and much 
 practised method of painting takes its name 
 from the vehicle employed for the colours. 
 The last may be any of those of a permanent 
 character, and whose natural tint is not altered 
 by admixture with oil. Linseed, nut, and 
 
1226 
 
 PAINTINGS 
 
 poppy oil, are those which are principally em- 
 ployed. The first requires the addition of 
 'driers,' and hence is generally used under the 
 form of ' boiled oil.' Spirit of turpentine is 
 commonly used to thin down the prepared 
 colours, and the finished picture is frequently 
 covered with a coat of varnish. 
 
 Painting, Por'celain. See Pottbet, Stained 
 GLASS, &c. 
 
 Painting, Vel'vet. Any of the ordinary non- 
 corrosive pigments or liquid colours, thickened 
 with a little gum, may be employed in this 
 art ; preference being, however, given to those 
 that possess the greatest brilliancy, and which 
 dry without spreading. See Stains, &c. 
 
 Painting, Water- colour. In its strictest and 
 modern sense, ' water-colour painting' means 
 the painting on paper with colours diluted 
 with water. The English school of water- 
 colour painting has produced works which 
 bear comparison with the great masterpieces 
 in oil, and even surpass them in the delicacy 
 of atmospheric effects. The old practice of 
 making the entire drawing in light and shade 
 by washes of Indian ink or neutral tints, and 
 then adding the various local colours in trans- 
 parent washes, has given place to the more 
 healthy system of painting every object in its 
 appropriate local colour at the outset. 
 
 PAINTINGS. Many valuable paintings suf- 
 fer premature decay from the attacks of a 
 microscopic insect, a species of acarus or 
 mite. The best method of preventing this 
 variety of decay, is to add a little creasote 
 (dissolved in brandy or vinegar), or a few 
 grains each of corrosive sublimate and sal am- 
 moniac (dissolved in a little water), to the paste 
 and glue used to line the picture, as well as 
 to add a few drops of pure creasote or of an 
 alcoholic or ethereal solution of corrosive sub- 
 limate to the varnish, when any is to be applied. 
 If the destruction alluded to has already com- 
 menced, the painting should be at once care- 
 fully cleaned and re-lined, observing to employ 
 one or other of the remedies just mentioned. 
 
 The most apropriate and only safe situation 
 in which to keep paintings, is where there is a 
 pure and moderately dry atmosphere. To pro- 
 tect pictures from the effects of damp, it has been 
 suggested to dip the canvas into a solution of 
 silicate of potash, and afterwards dried, previous 
 toits being used. Impureairaboundsin carbonic 
 acid and sulpliuretted hydrogen. It is the pre- 
 sence of the last in the air that blackens the 
 ' lights,' and causes most of the ' middle tints' 
 and 'shades' to fade ; and it is exposure to damp 
 that produces mouldiness and decay of the 
 canvas. For this reason valuable paintings 
 should not be kept in churches, nor suspended 
 against heavy walls of masonry, especially in 
 badly ventilated buildings. Excess of light, 
 particularly the direct rays of the sun, also 
 acts injuriously on paintings, since it bleaches 
 some colours and darkens others. 
 
 The blackened lights of old pictures may be 
 instantly restored to their original hue by 
 
 touching them with peroxide of hydrogen, di- 
 luted with 6 or 8 times its weight of pure 
 water. The part must be afterwards washed 
 with a clean sponge and water. The most 
 astonishing results have been produced in this 
 way. See Peroxide of Hydkooen. 
 
 Pettenkofer observing the colours of many 
 of the oil paintings in the Munich galleries 
 apparently fading, discovered that the dim 
 and grey appearance they then presented, was 
 not really due to any decay of colour, but to 
 a discontinuity of the molecules of the vehicle, 
 and the resinous substances mixed with the 
 pigments ; the effect of which was to break up 
 and lessen the mass of transparent colour and 
 to diminish its intensity. This separation from 
 each other, of the alternate particles, he con- 
 ceived was owing to the shrinking and con- 
 traction they underwent after long years of 
 exposure to a moist atmosphere. To remedy 
 it Pettenkofer subjected the aft'ected picture 
 to two simple processes, which he is said to 
 have found absolutely successful. The first, 
 which he terms the 'regeneration' process, 
 consists in enclosing the picture in a flat box, 
 where it is exposed to the vapours of alcohol, 
 part of which being absorbed by the resinous 
 molecules,restore them to their original volume. 
 Hence it follows thatthe gaps between the mole- 
 cules being thus filled up, there is presented to 
 the eye a continuous mass of transparent co- 
 lour, as when the picture was freshly painted. 
 
 In the previous operation the resinous con- 
 stituents only of the picture have been acted 
 upou and restored to their normal condition. 
 The hardened molecules of the oil which have 
 been employed as a vehicle have likewise dimi- 
 nished in bulk, from the same causes, and in 
 so doing have contributed to the lessening of 
 the brightness of the picture. In cases where 
 it is found the increased volume of resinous 
 particles has failed to fill up the intervals be- 
 tween the shrunken oil molecules, Pettenkofer 
 subjects the picture to a further process. In this, 
 which he terms ' nourishing it,' the picture is 
 simply rubbed over with balsam of copaiba. 
 
 Oil, which was formerly employed for this 
 purpose, is very strongly condemned by Pet- 
 tenkofer. 
 
 Oil paintings, as probably most of our 
 readers are aware, are mostly executed either on 
 wood (' panel') orcanvas,now principally on the 
 latter. Both these substances have to undergo 
 a preliminary operation known as 'priming;' 
 the priming being, in short, the ground on 
 which the paint is placed. This priming may 
 consist either of a number of layers com- 
 posed of a mixture of chalk or plaster, with 
 paste or glue, or else of a series of coats of 
 oil colour. When a canvas or panel is pre- 
 pared with the former, it is called ' distemper 
 priming;' when with the latter, 'oil priming.' 
 The distemper is the more quickly prepared, but 
 is open to the objection of being easily broken, 
 and of tt liability to absorb moisture, by which 
 it becomes liable to separate from the canvas. 
 
PAINTINGS 
 
 1227 
 
 If the priming be of oil colour it is desirable 
 that tlift chief pi^mt'Ut used in making it 
 •hould be white lead, and that if any other 
 colours are added, ihcy should hu in cnnipani- 
 tively small quantitiod. Dr R. Liebreich ci tes 
 an example in which a departure from this 
 precaution, persevered in from the middle of 
 tlie 16th to that of the 17th century, by a 
 celebrated school of Italian painters (the 
 liologua), has resulted In the destruction in 
 their works of all the glazing uf the picture, 
 " »ii that those colours only ciui be recog- 
 nised which either contain white, or are glazed 
 on white." Furthermore, that the dark priming 
 u>'ed by these artists bus caused the dark 
 parts of their pictures to become still darker. 
 
 This priming which was of a reddi»h-brown 
 colour, WHS composed of a mixture of bole Ar- 
 menian and umber ; and it is conjectured it 
 was empldved with the object of modifying or 
 softening tno violent contrasts of light and dark 
 colours, and thus of easily securing effective 
 chiaro»'uro, and of aiding rapid execution. 
 
 The Dutch and Flemish painters mostly em 
 ployed a liglit coloured priming; sometimes it 
 was of n light oak colour. Vandyke is said 
 to have used grey grounds for his pictures, 
 and in some few instances dull red ones ; and 
 since his pictures are free from tlie objection- 
 able qualities met with in the works of the Bo 
 logna artists, it has been surmised that in this 
 method of working, he had recourse to impasto 
 colouring. 
 
 In tlie selection of wood, which is subse- 
 quently to be used for thepicture, considerable 
 judgment and experience are required, that 
 from the toughest and soundest oaks, nut trees, 
 or cedir, being sought after. The cutting it 
 into boards, and seasoning it, are al-o points 
 exacting a ^jreat amount of time and care. 
 
 The backs of pictures, if made of wood, in 
 addition to their liability to attacks from in- 
 sects, not unfrequently warp, or fissures form 
 in them, or they may become hopelessly rotten. 
 
 When the picture warps, it should be moist- 
 ened with water at the back, on which it 
 should be lain for 24 hours, at the end of 
 which time, or sometimes less, it becomes per- 
 fectly straight. Fissures may be filled up by 
 pieces of wood cut to the required size. Small 
 pieces of rotten wood, if not too near the paint- 
 ing, may be cut out and the gaps tilled up with 
 wedge-shaped pieces of wood. Where the loss 
 is insi^ruificant it may be stopped up with 
 cement. When the panel is very rotten and 
 decayed, it may be necessary to remove the 
 picture from it altojiether, and to place it ei ther 
 on a new panel, or upon what Dr Liebreich 
 regards as better still, a piece of canvas. 
 
 This is by no means so formidable and as- 
 tonishing an operation as it may at first sight 
 appear; in short, as will be directly shown, the 
 picture may, if necessary, he freed from its 
 primins even, wiihout any difficulty. 
 
 Hacquui, of Pari", was one of the first to 
 remove an oil painting from its base, and to 
 
 place it upon a new one. He did this with 
 one of Raphael's Madonnas, in the gallery of 
 the Louvre; and the same treatment has since 
 been extended to the ' Resurrection of Laza- 
 rus,' by Sebastian del Piombo, one of the pic- 
 tures in our National Gallery. This process is 
 generally accomplished as follows: — 
 
 " First of all the surface of the picture is 
 pasted over with gauze and paper ; after that 
 the wood is made straight by moistening, or, 
 it necessary, by making incisions with the 
 saw, into which cuneiform pieces of wood are 
 driven. By means of a tenon-saw the panel 
 is to be sawn into little squares, whicli must be 
 removed by a chisel, and in this way the 
 thickness of the wood is reduced to half 
 an inch ; it is then planed until it becomes no 
 thicker than paper, and the rest is removed by 
 means of a knife and with the fingers. 
 
 " The painting being thus severed Irom its 
 basis, it can be fixed on canvas if the priminu' 
 is sufficiently preserved. In the opposite cjse 
 a mixture made of chalk and glue, or some- 
 thing of the kind, must be put on first, andvery 
 evenly smoothed after being dry. This done 
 the new canvas has to be fixed upon it by means 
 of a mixture of glue, varnish, and turpentine, 
 and the substance of tlie picture pressed 
 tightly and evenly against it by nuans of 
 warm irons."' 
 
 Defects in the priming of an oil painting, 
 when they are confined to a slight separation 
 of the priming of a canvas, may be remedied 
 by pouring into the gap caused by the seve- 
 rance a little solution of size, and then pressing 
 the separated surfaces gently together. Sli;;ht 
 cracks must be filled up with fresh priming. 
 
 Fur paintings in which the whole of the 
 priming seems insecure, or has extensively 
 separated from the canvas, it is recommended 
 to remove them entirely from the old basis and 
 to transfer them to new panels or canvas. 
 
 The property of unchangeableness, or indis- 
 position to fade, as exemplified in the retention 
 of its freshness of colour by a picture, is one 
 which, it is asserted, is very much more gene- 
 rnllv met with in the pictures nf the Italian,^ 
 and Dutch painters of the 15th, 16th, and 17th 
 centuries, than in those of the French and 
 English schools of the last hundred years. 
 Opinions have been advanced in expl.inatinn 
 of this circumstance. One is, that the older 
 masters used pigments and vehicles of much 
 greater purity and freedom from adulteration 
 than the latter generations of painters; 
 another, that they worked by a method and 
 prepared their colours by n process unknown 
 since their time, in fact, that they were pos- 
 sessed of a technical secret, which, as they 
 never divulged it, has died with them ; a 
 third, that tliey had choice of many colours 
 unknown in the present day. 
 
 One of the later and most valuable contri- 
 
 ' Lielireich. 
 
 2 From tlie Italidn school must be exfiepted that of 
 Boloj^ua. 
 
1228 
 
 PAINTINGS 
 
 butions to onr knowledge of tbcse points 
 has been made by Dr R. Liebreich, io his 
 lecture " On the Deterioration of Oil 
 Paintings," delivered at the Royal Institution, 
 March 1st, 187S, which also embraces the 
 practical deductions to be drawn from the 
 results of his investigations. The plan adopted 
 by Dr Liebreich for unravelling the so-CHlled 
 secret by which the old masters so generally 
 contrived to secure permanencyfor their colours 
 was ingenious and logical; it consisted in dis- 
 secting the structure and chemically analysing 
 the pigments, vehicles, &c., of the pictures of 
 the pupils of the great masters, for "fortunately 
 they painted with the same material and by 
 the same methods as the masters, and thou- 
 sands of pictures by the pupils, well preserved 
 and in different stages of decay, may be easily 
 secured." 
 
 The third explanation previously given as a 
 reason for the superior durability of the colour- 
 ing of the old over the later oil paintings is 
 thus disposed of by hira. He says : — 
 
 " We meet very often with the idea that the 
 old masters had been in posssesion of colours, 
 that is, pigments, the knowledge of which has 
 been lost, and that this accounts principally 
 for the ditferencc between the oil paintings of 
 the 15th and 16th centuries, on the one hand, 
 and that of tlie IStli and 19th on the other. 
 But tliis is a great mistalse. We know per- 
 fectly well the pigments used by the old mas- 
 ters ; we possess the same and a considerable 
 number of new ones, good as well as bad, in 
 addition." 
 
 He adds, " In using the expression of good 
 and bad, I am thinking principally of their 
 durability. From this point of view the pig- 
 ments can be placed under tliree headings : — 
 
 "1. Those that are durable in themselves and 
 also agree well with the other pigments with 
 which they have to be mixed. 
 
 "2. Such as when sufficiently isolated remain 
 unaltered, but when in contact with certain 
 other pigments change colour, or alter the 
 others, or produce a reciprocal modification. 
 
 '• 3. Those which are so little durable that, 
 even wlien isolated from other pigments, the 
 mere contact of the vehicle, the air, or the 
 light, makes the-r in time fade, darken, or 
 disappear altogether. 
 
 " The old masters used without reserve only 
 those hfiloiiging to the first of these three 
 categories. For those belonging to Ihe second 
 they imposed on themselves certain limits and 
 precautions. Those belonging to the third 
 they did not use at all. 
 
 " That some of the modern masters have not 
 followed these principles is not owing to a 
 lost secret, but to the fact they disregarded 
 those well known principles, and even con- 
 sciously acted against them. In Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds' "inry, tor instance, we read that in 
 order to produce certain tints of flesh, he inixed 
 orpivnent, carmine lake,and blue black together. 
 
 "Now, orpiraent is one of the colours of the 
 
 second category, carmine lake one of the third. 
 That is to say, orpiment, as long as it remains 
 isolated, keeps its brilliant yellow or reddish 
 orange colour; but when mixed with white 
 lead it decomposes, because it cansis,ts of sul- 
 phur and arsenic, and it moreover blackens 
 the white lead, because the sulphur combines 
 with it. Carmine lake, even if left isolated, 
 does not stand as an oil colour, and, therelore, 
 has been superseded by madder lake. 
 
 Unfortunately some of the most brilliant 
 colours are perishable to such a degree that 
 they ought never to be used ; yet it seems to 
 me that just in one branch of art, in which of 
 late remarkable progress has been made, I 
 mean landscape painting, the artists, in order 
 to obtain certain effects of colour not easy to 
 be realised, do not always resist tlie temptation 
 to maice use of a number of pigments, the 
 non-durability of which is proved beyond 
 doubt." 
 
 Another point which Dr Liebreich regards 
 as of much more importance even than the 
 selection and treatmentof their pigments, and 
 in which he savs the old masters exercised 
 great discretion, was the more sparing use of 
 the vehicles and liquids they mixed with their 
 colours. 
 
 He points out that there are certain pig- 
 ments which when mixed with the oil impede 
 its drying, whilst others there are which has- 
 ten it. " Supposing now," he says, "we should 
 add to each of the different pigments the 
 same quantity of oil, the drying of it would 
 progress at different rates. But in reality this 
 difference is very greatly increased by the 
 fact that the different pigments require very 
 different quantities of oil, in order to be ground 
 to the consistency requisite for painting." 
 
 Fettenkofer quotes the following figures 
 given to him by one of the colour mauulac- 
 turers : — 
 
 100 jiarta (weight) White lead require 12 pans of oil. 
 
 „ „ Zinc white „ H „ 
 
 „ „ tJreeu chrome „ 16 „ 
 
 „ „ Clirotfie yellow „ 19 „ 
 
 „ „ Vermilion „ 25 „ 
 
 „ „ Lislitred „ 31 „ 
 
 „ „ Madder lake „ G2 „ 
 
 „ „ Yellow oclire „ 66 „ 
 
 „ u Light ochre „ 73 „ 
 
 „ „ C.iniel's brown „ 75 „ 
 
 „ ., Brown inaagauese „ 87 „ 
 
 „ „ Terre verte „ 1011 „ 
 
 „ „ Pariaian hlue „ 106 „ 
 
 „ „ Burnt terre verte „ 112 „ 
 
 „ Berlin hlue „ 113 
 
 „ 1, Ivory black „ 112 „ 
 
 „ „ Cobalt „ li]5 „ 
 
 „ „ I'lorentine brown „ 150 „ 
 
 „ „ Burnt terra sKnna „ 181 „ 
 
 „ ,, B^w terra sienna „ 140 „ 
 
 According to this table, a hundred parts ot 
 the quick drying white lead are ground with 
 twelve parts of oil, and on the other hand, 
 slow-drying ivory black requires one hundred 
 and twelve parts of oil. 
 
 It is very important that artists should have 
 an exact knowledge of these matters. But it 
 
PAINTINGS 
 
 1229 
 
 ■eems to me tbat they nre inaufflciently known 
 to most of thom. All, of course, know per- 
 fectly how difforent the drying quality of 
 ditferent colours is. But that these diflerent 
 colours introduie into the picture so different 
 a quiiiitity of the oil, nud how large the 
 quantity is in the colours they buy, and, fur- 
 tlier, that the oil as well as the mediums or 
 siccatives they add to dry the colours are gra- 
 dually transformed iato a caoutchouc-like 
 opaque substance, which envelopes and darkens 
 the pigments, and, moreover, tliat the oil 
 undergoes, not in tlie beginning, but much 
 later ou, when it is already completely dry, 
 changes of volume, and so impairs the contin- 
 uity of the picture — all this is not sufficiently 
 known. Otherwise, the custom of painting 
 with the ordinary oil colours, to be bought at 
 any colonrman's, would not liave been going 
 on for neiirly a hundred yearB, in spite of h11 
 the clearly shown evil results — results due 
 chiefly to the principal enemy of oil paintiug, 
 that is to sny, the oil. 
 
 A close optical examination and accurate 
 study of the pictures of the French and En- 
 glish masters of the last hundred years have 
 revealed to Dr Liebreich their principal defects, 
 which he says are : — 
 
 1. Darkening of the opaqne bright colours. 
 
 2. Fudingof the transparent brilliant colours. 
 
 3. Darkening, and above all, cracking of 
 the transparent dark colours. He states that 
 these cracks ore so characteristic and distinc- 
 live of the pictures of this period that they 
 might be used as a test as to whether or not 
 a picture really belonged to this school, or 
 was only a copy. 
 
 This peculiar cracking in the paint is, ac- 
 cording to Dr Liebreich, particuliirly observ- 
 able in GuericKUlt's ' Wreck of the Medusa ' 
 in the Louvre, and also in Ingres' ' Portriiit 
 of Chernbini ;' and as the same defect is not 
 to be seen in the works of the Dutch and 
 Italian artists, the very rational inference to 
 bo drawn is that the methods followed by 
 these >eliools wi>re sounder than those adopteil 
 by their £up:lish and French successors. Dr 
 Liebreich believes the cracks were owing to 
 the practice of painting over one colour with 
 another before the first was perfectly dry. 
 
 " The study of the alterations," says Dr 
 Liebriiili " already fully developed within the 
 last hundred years only, and their comparison 
 with the works of the old masters would sug- 
 gest the foUowing rules for the process of 
 painting : — 
 
 " 1. That the oil should in all colours be re- 
 duced to a minimum, and under no form 
 should more of it than absolutely necessary be 
 introduced into a picture. 
 
 " 2. All transparent colours which dry very 
 slowly should be ground, not with oil at all, 
 but with a resinous vehicle. 
 
 " 3. No colour should be put on any part of 
 a picture which is not yet perfectly dry, and 
 above all, never a quick -drying colour upon a 
 
 slowly-drying one which is not yet perfectly 
 dry. 
 
 4. White and other qnick-drying opaqne 
 colours may be put on thickly. On the con- 
 trary, transparent and slowly-drying colours 
 should always be put on in thin layers. If 
 the effect of a thick layer of these latter is 
 required, it must be produced by laying one 
 thin layer over another, taking care to have 
 one completely dry before the next is laid 
 on. If transparent colours are mixed with 
 sufficient quantity of white lead they may be 
 treated like opaque ones." 
 
 Dr Liebreich concludes his interesting lec- 
 ture with some judicious advioe on the sub- 
 ject of picture cleaning, and points out that, 
 since ditferent pictures require to be differ- 
 ently operated upon, all nnlversal agents and 
 methods suggested for the purpose are open 
 to suspicion and should be discarded. 
 
 For pictures the varnish of which has be- 
 come cracked or dim he recommends Petten- 
 koter's treatment with alcoholiscd vapour, 
 already described. For those in which the 
 varnish may have become dark yellow, brown, 
 or dirty, he advises its removal altogether, 
 being very careful to specify the conditions 
 under which this should be accomplished, ami 
 the risk the picture may run of being spoiled 
 if entrusted to an unintelligent and ignorant 
 manufacturer. " If a picture," he says, "is 
 thronghout painted in oil, if its substance has 
 remained sound and even, and it has been 
 varnished with an easily soluble mastich or 
 lummar varnish, there will be neither difficulty 
 nor danger in removing the varnish. This 
 can, in such a case, be done either by a dry 
 process, that is by rubbing the surface with 
 the tips of the fingers and thus reducing the 
 varnish by degrees toa fine dust, or by dissolving 
 the varnish by application of liquids which, 
 when brought only for a short time into con- 
 tact with ttie oil painting, will not endanger 
 it. We have, however, sien that the w orks of 
 the old masters are not painted witti oil colours 
 like those used by modern painters, but, on 
 the contrary, that certain pigments, and espe- 
 cially the transparent colours used for glazing, 
 were ground only with resinous substances. 
 These latter have in the course of time been 
 so thoroughly united with the layer of var- 
 nish spread over the surface of the picture 
 that there no longer exists any decided limit 
 between the picture and the varnish. It is in 
 such pictures that a great amount of exi)e- 
 rieuce and knowledge of the process used for the 
 picture, as well as precaution, are required, in 
 order to take away from the varnish as much 
 only as is indispensable, and without inter 
 fering with the picture itself. 
 
 " Numberless works of art have been irrepa- 
 rably injured by restorers, who, in their eager- 
 ness to remove dirt and varnish, attacked the 
 painting itself. They then destroyed just 
 that last finishing touch of the painting 
 without which it is no longer a masterpiece." 
 
1280 
 
 PAINTS— PALLADIUM 
 
 "The cleaner is, tlien, reminded that if the 
 removal from the pictures of their varnish, 
 when this is known to consist of a spirituous 
 solution of the gums inastich or dammar, re- 
 quires the amount of discretion and judgment 
 before specified, still greater care and pru- 
 dence are necessary when dealing with pictures 
 whose surfaces have been covered witli oil, oil 
 varnish, or oleo-resinous varnish. All these 
 substances, which in time more or less obscure 
 the picture, form on its face a darlc and 
 opaque film, and this frequently requires for 
 its removal the application of some agent, 
 which, in dissolving the layer of varnish, is 
 very liable at the same time to dissolve the 
 substance of the picture also." 
 
 As a recent instance of the injurious effects 
 of injudicious picture cleaning, Ur. Liebreich 
 mentions the case of a valuable picture in the 
 Pitti Palace, at Florence, the 'St John of 
 Andrea del Sarto.' The softness of the out- 
 line of the face of the figure, which he remem- 
 bers previous to its attempted restoration, 
 had been entirely destroyed, which disastrous 
 result Dr Liebreich conceived had been caused 
 by the entire removal of the glazing. 
 
 A new method for cleaning pictures is de- 
 scribed by E. Von Bibra in the ' Journal fiir 
 Praktische Cbemie.' A very indistinct oil- 
 painting was freed from dust with a feather, 
 waslied with a sponge and water, and then 
 covered for eight minutes with a layer of 
 shaving soap. The soap was then washed off 
 with a brush and then left to dry. It was 
 next thoroughly cleaned with linen cloth 
 soaked in uitro-benzol. The picture was now 
 distinct, hut the colours dull. Finally, it was 
 treated with olive oil, and a coating of quick- 
 dryius varnish laid on. (Academy, May 6th, 
 1878.)' 
 
 FAINTS. In trade, this term is commonly 
 applied to pigments ground with oil to a thick 
 paste, ready to be ' thinned down' with oil or 
 turpentine to a consistence adapted for appli- 
 cation witli a brush. 
 
 Paints are prepared on tho small scale by 
 grinding the dry pigments with the oil by 
 means of a stone-and-muller ; on the hirge 
 scale tliey are ground in a colour mill. There 
 are several pigments, as King's yellow, 
 Scheele's green, verdigris, white lead, &o., 
 which from their poisonous character cannot 
 be safely ground by hand, except in very small 
 quantities at a time, and then only by the 
 exercise of extreme caution. 
 
 In mixing or thinning down paints for use 
 it may be useful to mention that — for out- 
 door work, boiled oil is principally or wholly 
 employe-d, unless it he for the decorative parts 
 of houses, when a portion of turpentine and 
 pale liii.^eed oil is often added. — For in-door 
 work, linseed oil, turpentine, and a little 
 
 * In givinff insertion to tlie above, we do not venture 
 to give an opinion as to its value or the reverse. We 
 would recotunietiil it to be read side by side with Dr 
 Liebreicli's advice on picture cleaning, given aljove.— Ed. 
 
 ' driers,' are generally used in tho same way. 
 The smaller the proportion of oil employed for 
 the purpose, the lees will be the gloss, and the 
 greater the ultimate hardness of the coating. 
 For 'flatted white,' &e, the colour being 
 ground in oil, requires scarcely any further 
 addition of that article, as the object Is to 
 have it ' dead' or dull. The best driers are 
 ground litharge, and ground sugar of lead; 
 the first for dark and middle tints, and the 
 last for light ones. 
 
 To preserve mixed paints in pots from 'skin- 
 ning over' or drying up, they should be kept 
 constantly covered with water; or, what is 
 better, with a thin film of linseed oil. 
 
 Brushes, when out of use, may be preserved 
 in a similar manner to mixed paints. When 
 dirty, or required for a paint of another colour, 
 they may be cleaned with a little oil of tur- 
 pentine, which may be either preserved for 
 the same purpose another time, or may be 
 allowed to deposit its colour, and then used 
 to thin down paints as usual. In no case, 
 however, should it be thrown back into the 
 cistern or pan with the pure ' turps.' 
 
 Paints, Flex'ible. Prep. Take of good yellow 
 soap (cut into slices), 2i lbs. ; boiling water, 1 J 
 gall.; dissolve, and grind the solution whilst 
 hot with good oil paint, li cwt. Used to 
 paint canvas. 
 
 Paints, Vitrifi'ahle. See Enamel, Glaze, 
 Stained Glass, &c. 
 
 FALLA'DIUM. Pd. A rare metal discovered 
 by Dr WoUaston in the ore of platinum, in 1803. 
 
 Prep. 1. A solution of the ore of platinum 
 in aqua regia, from which most of the metal 
 has been precipitated by chloride of ammo- 
 nium, is neutralised by carbonate of sodium, 
 and then treated with a solution of cyanide of 
 mercury; the white insoluble precipitate 
 (cyanide of palladium) is next washed, dried, 
 and heated to redness; the residuum of the 
 ignition (spongy palladium) is then submitted 
 to a gradually increased pressure, and welding 
 at a white heat, so as to form a button, in a 
 similar manner to that adopted with platinum. 
 Prod. Columbian ore of platinum, 1^ ; Uralian 
 do., -252 to -ysg. 
 
 2. The native alloy of gold and palladium 
 (from the Brazils) is submitted to the opera- 
 tions of quartation and parting, the nitric acid 
 employed being of the density of 1-3 ; the 
 silver is next precipitated from the solution 
 by means of a solution of common salt or di- 
 lute hydrochloric acid, and the decanted super- 
 natant liquid, after evaporation to one half, 
 is neutralised with ammonia, and concentrated 
 so that crystals may form ; these (chloride of 
 palladium and ammonium) are cautiously 
 washed in a little very cold water, dried, 
 mixed with borax, and exposed in a crucible 
 to the strongest heat of a powerful blast fur- 
 nace, when a solid button of pure palladium 
 is fiirmed. 
 
 Prop., S[e. Palladium closely resembles pla- 
 tinum in appearance, fusibility, malleability, 
 
PAL5IITIC ACID— PANCREAS 
 
 1231 
 
 nnd ductility ; bat it is leu dense, and has a 
 rather mure silvery colour than that metal ; it 
 is freely soluble in aqua ref;ia, and is slowly 
 attacked by nitric acid, but tlie other acids 
 exert little or no uction on it ; heated to red- 
 ness in the air, a very superScial blue or purple 
 film of oxide forms on the surface, which is 
 again reduced at a white heat. It melts at 
 156°— WiMlgwood. Sp. ^r. 11-3 to 12-1 (11-8 
 — \V xillaston; 12 14 — Vauquelin). It readily 
 unites with cupper, silver, and some other 
 metals, by fusion, 
 
 Tetlt. 1, The neutral solutions of palla- 
 dium are precipitated in the metallic state by 
 ferrous sulphate, dark brown by sulphuretted 
 hydroiien, olive by ferrocyanide of potassium, 
 and yellowish white by cyanide of mercury. — 
 2. A drop of tincture of iodine placed on the 
 surface of metallic palladium, and then evapo- 
 rated by the heat of a spirit lamp, leaves a 
 black spot. By the last two teets palladium is 
 readily distinguished from platinum. 
 
 Uaei. It has been employed to form the 
 scales of mathematical and astronomical in- 
 struments, nnd is used in dentistry. Its alloy 
 with silver is a very valuable white metal. 
 It is also used for making the smaller divisions 
 of grain and gramme weights. Palladium is not 
 tarnished by sulphuretted hydrogen. An alloy 
 of 1 part of palladium and 100 parts of steel is 
 well adapted for cutting instruments which re- 
 quire to be perfectly smooth on the edge. 
 
 PALMITIC ACID. HC,fH,fi,. Prepared 
 from palinitin {»ee next article), by saponifii'a- 
 tion, as stearic acid is prepared friim stearin. It 
 forms pearly scales, and melts at 140° Fahr., 
 like mariiuric acid, which it closely resembles. 
 PAL'MITIN. Sgn. Tbipaxmitin. CjHs 
 (C|8H3iOj)s. The solid portion of palm oil, 
 puriKed by crystallisation from hot ether. 
 White; soluble in ether and slightly so in hot 
 alcohol; melts at 118° Pahr.; by saponitication 
 it is converted into palmitic acid. (See above.) 
 PALPITA'TION. %«. Palpus, Palpitatio 
 coBDia, L. A violent and irregular beating 
 or action of the heart, either temporary or 
 occasional. When it does not arise from sud- 
 den or violent agitation or distress of mind, it 
 may be regarded as a symptom of a disturb- 
 ance of the nervous functions by disease, in 
 which case attention should be directed to the 
 removal uf the primary affection. 
 PAL'Sy. See Paralysis. 
 PANACE'A. A term formerly applied to 
 th se I emedies which were supposed to be 
 capable of curing all diseases, and still applied 
 to some quack medicines. 
 
 FANA'DA. See Bbead jellt (under 
 Jklly). 
 
 PAH'ART PEXMEHTA'TIOIT. The vim)U8 
 fermentation as developed in the dough of 
 bread. 
 
 PAN'CAKES. These are essentially fried 
 batter, variously enriched and flavoured, ac- 
 cording to the tiste of the cook. Wluii they 
 contain Irnit, fish, meat, or poultry, or are 
 
 highly seasoned or ornamented, they are com- 
 monly called FBITTKKS. 
 
 Prep. (M. Soyer.) Break 2 to 4 eggs into a 
 basin, add 4 small table-spoonfuls of flour, 2 
 teaspoonfuls of sugar, and a little salt; beat 
 the whole well together, adding, by degrees, 
 i pint of milk, or a little more or less, depend- 
 ing on the size of the eggs and the quality of 
 the flour, so as to form a rather thick batter ; 
 next add a little ginger, cinnamon, or any other 
 flavour at will; lastly, pnt them into the pan, 
 and when set, and one side brownish, lay hold 
 of the trying-pan at the extremity of the han- 
 dle, give it a sudden but slight jerk upwards, 
 and the cake will turn over on the other side ; 
 when this is brown, dish up with sifted sugar, 
 and serve with lemon. See Feitteks. 
 
 PAKCREAS. This gland, popularly known 
 as the sweet-bread, secretes a colourlci^s and 
 slightly viscid fluid, which p"S^esse.s the pro- 
 perties of — 1. Converting starch into sugar; 
 2. Of emulsifying fats and oils. And since it 
 is necessary that the starchy and the fatty 
 ingredients of the food should undergo this 
 preparatory cliange before they are in a con- 
 dition to become assimilated by the animal 
 economy, itwill be seen that^ancrea^ta (as the 
 secretion from the pancreas is called) performs 
 an important function in bodily nutrition. 
 
 With a knowledge of these facts before 
 them, it is not surpri>ing that the employ- 
 ment of pancreatin in disease should have 
 been recommended by therapeutists. Dr 
 Harley, we believe, first brought this remedy 
 tu the notice of medical men in 1S5S, since 
 which time its principal advocate has been 
 Dr Horace Dobell, whose method of pre- 
 paring an emulsion from it, as well as for 
 procuring the pancreatin pure and simple, 
 are given below. 
 
 Bernard, correctly divining that the pan- 
 creatic fluid was concerned in the process of 
 digestion, conceived that it aided the assimila- 
 tion of the fatty and oily portions of the food, 
 by saponifying them. Subsequent physiolo- 
 gists have, however, shown, " that the action 
 of the pancreatic secretion is evidently to break 
 up the large granules, crystals, and globules 
 of oil and fat into myriads of minute particles 
 of from TiAns"* '° Huiiiith of an inch in dia- 
 meter. In this way the fat is emulsified and 
 converted into a milky liquid, which mixes 
 freely with water, and passes through the 
 tissues of the intestines into the lacteals."' 
 
 Pancreatin has an alkaline reaction, and 
 putrefies very quickly. It seems to contain a 
 nitrogenous organic principle, resembling 
 ptyalin or diastase in properties. It is coagu- 
 lated both by heat and nitric acid', and is one 
 of the few secretions in which albumen is 
 present in a soluble condition. 
 
 Even when rendered acid, pancreatin does 
 
 not lose its power of emu!>ifying fatty bodies. 
 
 At the moment of food being introduced into 
 
 the stomach the pancreas gives out this secre- 
 
 ^ Letheby. 
 
1232 
 
 PANCEEATIN— PAPEE 
 
 tiou, which is not very abondnnt at first, 
 but gradually continues to increase for about 
 four hours, when it as gradually diminishes for 
 .three hours more, and then ceases altogether. 
 
 £idder and Schmidt give the following as the 
 composition of the pancreatic fluid or pancrea- 
 tin: — 
 
 Water .... 
 
 900-76 
 
 Organic matter (pancreatin) 
 
 90-38 
 
 Chloride of sodium . 
 
 7'36 
 
 Free soda .... 
 
 0-32 
 
 Phosphate of soda 
 
 0-45 
 
 Sulphate of soda 
 
 0-10 
 
 Sulphate of potassa . 
 
 0-02 
 
 r Lime 
 
 0-54 
 
 Combinations •< Mnguesia . 
 
 005 
 
 L Oxide of iron 
 
 002 
 
 1000-00 
 
 PANCREATIN. S^n. Panceeatinum. 
 1. (Pereira.) Cut the fresh pancreas of the 
 pig, freed from fat and all foreign matters, 
 into small pieces, and digest with ether. If 
 the ether be afterwards distilled off from the 
 filtered liquid, the pancreatin will be left as 
 an oily product. 
 
 2. (Griffith.) It is obtained from the pan- 
 creas of recently killed animals by treating 
 the colourless, viscous juice with alcohol, and 
 drying the precipitate in vacuo. Pancreatin 
 is given for stimulating the digestion of fatty 
 compounds. 
 
 The ordinary dose is 10 grains, taken in a 
 glass of wine or water after a meal. 
 
 Dr Dohell's " Crude Pancreatic Emulsion" 
 is prepared as follows : — After freeing from 
 fat and all foreign matters the pancreas of 
 a freshly-killed pig, 2i lbs. of purified pancreas 
 are bruised in a marble mortar, and to it are 
 added 2i lbs. of lard ; these are well beaten 
 together, and then to the mixture 3 lbs. of 
 water are added, very gradually, so as to ensure 
 tile perfect absorption of the latter. 
 
 The pancreatised (at is prepared by shaking 
 up one part of the ' crude emulsion ' with 
 three parts of ether, allowing the mixture to 
 stand, drawing off the ethereal solution, and 
 carefully distilling off the ether. The pan- 
 creatised fat remains. Dr Dobell says that 
 pancreatised fat, unlike the crude fat, has no 
 tendency to putrefy. His ' purified pancreatic 
 emulsion ' is made by mixing very carefully 
 together 5 parts of pancreatised fat, 7i parts 
 of distilled water, and 2^ parts of rectified 
 spirit, and flavouring with oil of cloves. 
 
 (3.) SaCCHAEATED PiUOEEATIir.) Mr 
 
 Mattison' adopts the following process for the 
 preparation of this substance : — The pancreas 
 is dissected and macerated in water acidu- 
 lated with hydrochloric acid for about forty- 
 eight hours, then separated, and the acidulated 
 solution of pancreas passed through a pulp 
 filter until it is perfectly clear. To this clear 
 1 ' Aniericiin Journal of Pharmacy.* 
 
 solution is then added a saturated solution of 
 chloride of sodium, and allowed to stand until 
 the pancreatin is separated. This is carefully 
 skimmed off and placed upon a muslin filter, 
 and allowed to drain, after which it should be 
 washed with a less concentrated solution of 
 sodium chloride, and then put under the press. 
 When all the salt solution has been removed, 
 and the mass is nearly dry, it is rubbed with a 
 quantity of sugar of milk, and dried thoroughly 
 without heat, after which it is diluted until ten 
 grains emulsify two drachms of cod-liver oil. 
 
 PANIFICA'TION. The changes which occur 
 in fljur-dough under the influence of the fer- 
 mentative process and heat, by which it is 
 converted into bread. 
 
 PAPA'VEKINE. Syn. Papaveeina. An 
 alkaloid discovered by Merck in opium. It 
 crystallises in needles; is insoluble in water; 
 is slightly soluble in cold alcohol and in ether; 
 and forms crystallisable salts with the acids 
 which possess little solubility. The hydro- 
 chlorate, one of the most characteristic of 
 these compounds, crystallises in beautiful 
 colourless prisms, which possess a high re- 
 fractive power, and are only very slightly 
 soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid. Fluckiger 
 states that papaverine is much less active 
 than thebaine, that it is not soporific either 
 with men or animals, that it does not aiTest 
 diarrhoea, and is but slightly analgesic. 
 
 PALAMOND. Chocolate 1 oz.; rice flour, 
 4 02. ; potato arrowroot, 4 oz. ; red sanders, in 
 fine powder, 1 dr. Mix. (In the above, by 
 chocolate is meant the cacao beans roasted and 
 pulverised without addition. Indian arrow- 
 root, or Tous les mois, may be substituted for 
 the potato arrowroot.) 
 
 PAPEE. Sj/n. Chabta, Paptetis, L. ; 
 Papiee, Pr. The limits of this work preclude 
 the introduction of a description of the manu- 
 facture of this well-known and most useful 
 article, which is now almost exclusively made 
 by machinery of an elaborate and most inge- 
 nious description. We must, therefore, con- 
 tent ourselves with a short notice of a few of 
 the preparations of the manufactured article. 
 (See below.) 
 
 Good white paper should be perfectly devoid 
 of odour, and when burnt it should leave a 
 mere nominal amount of ash ; digested in hot 
 water, the liquid should be neutral to test 
 paper, and not affected by sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen or the alkaline sulphurets, or by tincture 
 of iodine. Coloured papers should not contain 
 any deleterious matter. 
 
 Paper, Antirheumatic. S^». Chaeta AJf- 
 TiEHEUMATiCA. (M. Berg.) Euphorbium 
 30 parts; cantharides, 15 parts; alcohol, 150 
 parts. Digest eight days, filter, and add 
 resin, 60 parts; and turpentine, 50 parts. 
 Thin paper is to be brushed over two or three 
 times with this varnish. 
 
 Paper, Atropine. %». Chabta ateopi^;. 
 Paper is impregnated by steeping in solution 
 of sulphate of atropia in such a manner that a 
 
PAPEB 
 
 1233 
 
 piece |th of nn inch square shall cnntnin 
 f Igth iif a grain of the salt j a square of -j'^th 
 of uu inch the yj^jj*'' °^ " R™'"- Tliis square 
 inserted between the eyelid will dilate the 
 pupil. 
 
 Paper, Atropine, Gelatinised. Tablets of 
 gelatin are impregnated with sulphate of 
 alropia. us above. 
 
 Paper, Anti- asthmatic. (P. Codex). Si/n. 
 Chaktafcmiveea, L. Cabtonanti-asthma- 
 TIQ0E, I'r. Unsized grey filtering paper; 12 oz.; 
 nitre, 6 oz, ; belladonna, stramonium, digitalis, 
 lobelia inflata, phellandriuni, all in powder, i 
 "z. of each; myrrh and olibanum, in powder, 
 1 oz. tufili. Tear the paper in pieces and 
 soak it in water till quite soft; drain off the 
 trriiiter piirt of the water, and beat it into a 
 paste; iniorpnrate with it the powders pre- 
 viously mixud. Then put into tinned iron 
 moulds, and dry by a stove. 
 
 Paper, Blistering. See Vestoants. 
 
 Paper, Cloth. This is prepared by cnverii^g 
 gMuze, calicn, canvas, &c., with a surface of 
 pupor pulp in a ' Poudrinier manbine,' and then 
 finishing the compound sheet in a nearly 
 similar manner to that adopted for ordinary 
 paper. 
 
 Paper, Col'oured. For those papers which 
 are merely coloured on one side tlie pigments, 
 ground up with gum water or size, or the 
 stains thickened with a little of the same, are 
 applied witli a brush, after which the sheets 
 are suypeuded on a line to dry. 
 
 For paper coloured tliroughout its substance 
 the tinctorial matter is usually mixed with the 
 pulp in the process of manufacture; or the 
 nianuf;u'tured paper is dipped into a bath of 
 tlie colouring substance, and then hung up to 
 dry. 
 
 Paper, Cop'ying. i¥«p. Make a stiff oint- 
 ment with butter or lard and black lead or 
 lamp black, and smear it thinly and evenly 
 over soft w ritiug paper by means of a piece of 
 lliinncl; the next day wipe off the superfluous 
 jioi tion with a piece of soft rag. 
 
 f/'vf, \c. Placed on wliite paper and writ- 
 ten on with a style or solid pen, a copy of the 
 writing is left on the former. By lepeating 
 the arrangement, 2, 3, or more copies of a 
 letter may be obtained at onee. This paper, 
 set up in a case, forms the ordinary ' manifold 
 writer' of the stationers. The copying or 
 transfer paper used for obtaining fac-siiiiiles of 
 letters written with 'copying-ink' is merely a 
 superior quality of bank-post paper. 
 
 Paper, Em'ery. See Emebt. 
 
 Paper, Glass. Prep. From powdered glass, 
 as emery paper. Used to polish wood, ic. 
 See Glass (Powdered). 
 
 Paper, Gout. 5y». Charta anti-aethei- 
 tica. Ij, ; Papier FAYAEr, Fr. Prep. 1. Eu- 
 pliorbiuni, 1 part; cantharides, 2 parts (both 
 in powder); rectified spirit, 8 parts; ether, 3 
 parts; di^'est in a stoppered bottle, with fre- 
 quent agitation, for a week; to the strained 
 tincture add ul Venice turpentine, 1 part; 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 lastly, dip thin white paper into it, and dry the 
 sheets in tlie air. 
 
 2. (Molir.) Euphorhium, 1 dr. ; cantharides, 
 4 dr. ; rectified spirit (strongest), 5 oz. ; make 
 a tincture, to which add of Venice turpentine. 
 It oz., previonsly liquefied with resin; 2 oz. ; 
 and spread the mixture, whilst warm, very 
 thinly on paper. Used as a counter-irritant in 
 gout, rheumatism, &c. 
 
 Paper, Hydrograph'ic. An absurd name 
 given to paper which may be written on with 
 simple water or with some colourless liquid 
 having the appearance of water. 
 
 Prep. 1. A mixture ofnnt-galls, 4 parts, and 
 calcined sulphate of iron, 1 part (both perfectly 
 dry and reduced to very fine powder), is rubbed 
 overthe surface of the paper), and is tiien forced 
 into its pores by powerful pressure, alter wliinh 
 the loose portion is brushed olf. Writes black 
 with a pen dipped in water. 
 
 2. From persulphate of iron and ferroey- 
 anide of potassium, as the last. Writes blue 
 with water. 
 
 3. As the last, but using sulphate of copper 
 instead of sulphate of iron. Writes reddish 
 brown with water. 
 
 4. The paper is wetted with a colourless 
 solution of ferroeyanide of potassium, and after 
 beini; dried is written on with a colourless solu- 
 tion of persulphate of iron. Writes blue. 
 
 Ohs. 'I'be above applications, we need scarcely 
 say, are more amnsing than useful. Se 
 Sympathetic ink. 
 
 Paper, Incombus'tihle. See Incombustibib 
 
 FABRICS. 
 
 Paper, Irides'cent. Prep. ( Beasley.) Sal 
 aiiinioniae and sulphate of indigo, of each 1 
 part; sulphate of iron, 5 parts; nut-galls, 8 
 parts; gum Arabic, ^th part; boil them in 
 water, and expose the paper washed with the 
 liquid to (the fumes of) ammonia. 
 
 Paper, Issue. Syn. Chabta ad ponti- 
 OTTLOS, L. Prep. (Soubeiran.) Elemi, sperma- 
 ceti, and Venice turpentine, of each 1 part; 
 white wax, 2 parts ; melt them together by a 
 gentle beat, and spread the mixture on paper. 
 Used to keep issues open. 
 
 Paper, Li thograph'ic. Prep. 1. Starch, 607,. ; 
 gum Arabic, 2 oz. ; alum, 1 oz. ; miike a strong 
 solution of each separately, in hot water, mix, 
 strain through gauze, and apply it whilst still 
 warm to one side of leaves of paper, witli a 
 clean painting-brush or sponge ; a second and 
 a third coat must be given as the preceding 
 one becomes dry; the paper must be, lastly, 
 pressed, to make it smooth. 
 
 2. Give the paper 3 coats of thin size, 1 coat 
 of good white starch, and 1 coat of a solution of 
 gamboge in water; the whole to be applied cold, 
 with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to 
 dry before the other is applied. The solutions 
 should be freshly made. 
 
 TJse, S;c. Lithographic paper is written on 
 with lithographic ink. The writing is trans- 
 ferred by simply moistening the back of the 
 paper, placing it evenly on the stone, and then 
 
 78 
 
1234 
 
 PAPER 
 
 applying pressure a reversed copy is ob- 
 tained, which, when printed from, yields cor- 
 rected copies resembling the original writing 
 or drawing. In this way the necessity of 
 executing the writing or drawing in a re- 
 versed direction is obviated. See LiiHO- 
 SEiPHr, Ink, &o. 
 
 Paper, Paste. Boil white paper in water 
 for five hours ; then pour ofE the water, and 
 pound the pulp in a mortar ; pass it through 
 a sieve and mix with some gum water or 
 isinglass glue. It is used in modelling by 
 artists and architects. 
 
 Paper, Oiled. Prep. Brush sheets of paper 
 over with 'boiled oil,' and suspend them on a 
 line till dry. Waterproof. Extensively em- 
 ployed as a cheap substitute for bladder and 
 gut skin to tie over pots and jars, and to wrap 
 up paste blacking, ground white lead, &c. 
 
 Paper Parch'ment. %». PAPrHiN, Veoe- 
 TABLE PARCHMENT. Frep. 1. (Poumarfede 
 and Figuier.) Dip white unsized paper for 
 half a minute in strong sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 
 I'8i2, and afterwards in water containing a 
 little ammonia. 
 
 2. (W. E. Gaine, Patent 1857.) Plunge 
 unsized paper for a few seconds into sulphuric 
 acid diluted with half to a quarter its bulk of 
 water (this solution being of the same tem- 
 perature as the air), and afterwards wash with 
 weak ammonia. This process, now extensively 
 worked by Messrs De la Rue and Co., pro- 
 duces a much better material than does that of 
 Poumarede and Pignier. , 
 
 Prop. A tough substance, resembling animal 
 parchment, and applicable to the same pur- 
 poses. It is largely used for covering pots of 
 pickles and preserves, and by the chemist for 
 the intervening membrane in experiments in 
 diffusion. See Dialtser, Dialysis, &c. 
 
 Paper, Protective. Various attempts have 
 from time to time been made to prepare paper 
 which might make the fraudulent alteration 
 of cheques and other documents difficult or 
 impossible. These attempts have taken two 
 different directions, which may be briefly 
 desci'ibed. 
 
 The first and best known method consists 
 in printing, in some delicate and easily de- 
 stroyed colour, a complicated pattern on the 
 face of the paper. Any reagent which will 
 remove the writing will, of course, destroy the 
 pattern below, and so render the alteiation 
 evident. The cheques used by Messrs Coutts 
 and Co. are fine examples of this kind of pro- 
 tection, the whole of the paper being printed 
 over with the name of the firm in characters 
 so delicate, that they can scarcely be read 
 without the assistance of a lens. 
 
 The obvious objection to this method is, 
 that it is possible for a skilful forger to re- 
 place the printed design before the completion 
 of the alteration. 
 
 The otlier method consists in the introduc- 
 tion into the paper during its manufacture of 
 «ome substance or mixture of substances which 
 
 shall strike a characteristic colour when 
 chemical agents are applied to the ink. 
 
 One of the earliest attempts of this kind 
 was that of Stephenson, who introduced ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium into the pulp. When 
 any acid was applied to the writing, Prussian 
 blue was formed with the aid of the iron of 
 the ink. In another process iodide of potas- 
 sium and starch were introduced into the 
 paper, the application of chlorine then pro- 
 ducing a blue stain (iodide of starch), while in 
 a third (Robson's) the pulp was stained with 
 the ingredients of common writing ink. 
 
 None of these methods gave, however, any 
 very efiicient protection against fraud, for in 
 each case it was tolerably easy to restore the 
 paper to its original condition. But another 
 process which followed npon the others has 
 proved more successful, and, when properly 
 applied, gives a paper which is practically 
 secure. This process was patented by Barclay," 
 and consists in the introduction into the pulp 
 of ferrocyanide of manganese. When any 
 acid is applied to the writing on this paper 
 the blue stain of Prussian blue appears. This 
 can, it is true, be removed by alkalies, but in 
 that ease the manganese is precipitated as 
 the brown peroxide, an effect also produced 
 by bleaching powder. This brown stain can 
 be removed by sulphurous acid, but in that 
 case Prussian blue appears simultaneously, so 
 that the forger has merely a choice between a 
 brown and a blue stain. 
 
 When such paper is printed with a delicate 
 design in some fugitive ink (common writing 
 ink would be best), the greatest attainable 
 safety is obtained. 
 
 Ferrocyanide of manganese is easily formed 
 by adding to the pulp pure crystallised chlo- 
 ride of manganese, and rather more than an 
 equal weight of ferrocyanide of potassium, 
 both in solution. (Heaton.) 
 
 Paper, Ba"zor. Smooth unsized paper, one 
 of the surfaces of which, whilst in a slightly 
 damp state, has been rubbed over with a mix- 
 ture of calcined peroxide of iron and emery, 
 both in impalpable powder. It is cut up into 
 pieces (about 5x3 inches), and sold in packets. 
 Used to wipe the razor on, which thus does 
 not require stropping. 
 
 Paper, Razor-strop. From emery and quartz 
 (both in impalpable powder), and paper pulp 
 (estimated in the dry state), equal parts, made 
 into sheets of the thickness of drawing paper, 
 by the ordinary process. For use, a piece is 
 pasted on the strop and moistened with a little 
 oil. 
 
 Paper, Ee'siu. Syn. Poor-man's piaster; 
 Chabta kesinosa, L. Prep. 1. Beeswax, 
 1 oz. ; tar and resin, of each, 3 oz. ; melted 
 together and spread on paper. 
 
 2. (Ph. Bor.) Paper thinly spread over 
 with black pitch. Calefacient, stimulant, and 
 counter irritant; in rheumatism, chest affec- 
 tions, &c. 
 
PAPER 
 
 1235 
 
 Paper, Shen'matiam. See Pafbbs, Gout, 
 and Uesin. 
 
 Paper, Safe'ty. Syn. Papibb'db bubbt^, 
 Fr. White paper pulp mixed with an equal 
 quantity of pulp tinged with any stain ea>ily 
 iiffected by chlorine, acids, alkulies, &c., and 
 made into sheets as usual. 
 
 Paper, Test. Syn. Chaeta exploeatoma, 
 L. Under this head may be conveniently in- 
 cluded all the varieties of prepared paper em- 
 ployed in testing. For this purpose sheets of 
 unsized paper or of good ordinary writing paper 
 (preferably the first), are uniformly wetted 
 with a solution of the suit, or with a cold in- 
 fusion or decoction of the tinctorial substance 
 in distilled water, and are then hungup to dry 
 in a current of pure air ; they are, lastly, cut 
 into pieces of a convenient size, and preserved 
 in closed bottles or jars. For use, a small strip 
 of the prepiired paper is either dipped into 
 or muistencd with the liquid under examina- 
 tion, or it is moistened with distilled water 
 and then exposed to the fumes. A single 
 drop, or even less, of any liquid may be thus 
 tested. 
 
 The following nre the principal test papers 
 and their applications : — 
 
 1'apku, Huazil-wood. Prom the decoction. 
 Alkalies turn it purple or violet; strong acids, 
 red. 
 
 Papee, BtrcKTHOEif. From the juice of the 
 berries. Keddened by acids. 
 
 Papke, CiiBBaT-JCiOE. As the lust. 
 
 Papke, Daiilia, Gkobgina p. From an 
 infusion of the petals of the violet dahlia 
 {Oeorgina purpurea), Alkulies turn it gre<'n ; 
 acids red ; strong caustic alkalies turn it 
 jellow. Very deliciite. 
 
 Paphe, Eloehueeet. From the juice of the 
 berries. As the last. 
 
 Papeb, Indioo. From a solution of indigo. 
 Dei oloured liy chlorine. 
 
 Papke, Iodine op PoTASsiust. «. From 
 the solution in distilled water. Turned blue 
 by an acidulated solution of starch. 
 
 4. From a mixture of a solution of iodide of 
 potassium iiiid starch paste. Turned blue by 
 chlorine, ozone, and the mineral acids, and by 
 air containing them. 
 
 Papeh, Lkad. From a solution of either 
 acetate or diaeot.ito of lead. Sulphuretted 
 hydrogen and hydrosnlphuret of ammuuia turn 
 it black. 
 
 Papee, LiTjrrs. In general, this is pre- 
 pared from infusion of litmus, without any pre- 
 caution, but the following plan may be adopted 
 when a superior test paper is desired; — 
 
 ». (Blue.) Triturate cumniereial litmus,! oz., 
 in a wedgivoi Ill-ware mortar, with boilingwater, 
 3 or -t 11. oz. ; put the mixture into a fiask, 
 and add more boiling water until the liquid 
 measures fully J pint; agitate the mixture 
 frequently until it is cold, tlien filter it, and 
 divide the filtrate into two equal portions; stir 
 one of these wii h a glass rod previously dipped 
 into very dilute sulphuric acid, and repeat the 
 
 operation until the litmus infusion begins to 
 look very slightly red, then add the other half 
 of the filtrate, and the two being mixed to- 
 gether, dip strips of unsized paper into the 
 liquid, in the usual manner, and dry them. 
 Acids turn it red ; alkalies blue. The neutral 
 salts of most of the heavy metals also redden 
 this, as well as the other blue test papers that 
 are affected by acids. 
 
 b, ( Red.) The treatment of the whole quan- 
 tity of the infusion (see ahove) with the rod 
 dipped in dilute sulphuric acid is repeated until 
 the fluid begins to look distinctly red, when the 
 paper is dipped into it as before. The alkalies 
 and alkaline earths, and their sulphides, re- 
 store its blue colour ; the alkaline carbonates 
 and the soluble borates also possess the same 
 property. Very sensitive. An extemporaneous 
 red litmns paper may be prepared by holding 
 a strip of the blue variety over a pot or jar 
 into which 2 or 3 drops of hydrochloric acid 
 have been thrown. 
 
 Papbb, Mallow. From an infusion of the 
 purple flowers of the common mallow. Affected 
 like ' dahlia paper.' 
 
 Papee, Manganesb. From a solution of 
 sulphate uf manganese. Ozonised air blackens 
 it. 
 
 Papee, Rhubabb. From a strong infusion 
 of the powdered root. Alkulies turn it brown ; 
 but boracic acid and its salts do not affect it. 
 Very sensitive. 
 
 Papee, Rose. From the petals of the red 
 rose, as'thelast. Alkalies turn it bright green. 
 I)r A. .S. Taylor recommends the infusion to 
 he very sligiitly acidulated with an acid before 
 dipping the paper into it. More sensitive than 
 turmeric paper. 
 
 Papku, Staech. From a cold decoction of 
 starch. Free iodine turns it blue. 
 
 Papee, Sulphate op Ieon. From a solution 
 of ferrous sulphate. As a test for hydrocyanic 
 acid and the soluble cyanides. 
 
 Papek, TURMEKIC. From decoction of tur- 
 meric (2 oz. to the pint). It is turned brown 
 by alkalies, and by boracic acid and the soluble 
 borates. It is not quite so susceptible as some 
 other tests, but the change of colour is very 
 marked and characteristic. 
 
 Paper, Tra"cing. Prep. Open a qnire of 
 smooth unsized white paper, and place it flat 
 upon a table, then apply, with a clean * sash 
 tool,' to the upper surtace of the first sheet, a 
 coat of varnish made of equal parts of Canada 
 balsam and oil of turpentine, and hang the pre- 
 pared sheet across the line to dry ; repeat the 
 operation on fnsh sheets until the proper 
 quantity is finished. If not sufficiently trans- 
 parent, a second coat of varnish may be 
 applied as soon as the first has become quite 
 dry. 
 
 2. Rub the paper with a mixture of equal 
 parts of nut oil and oil of turpentine, and dry 
 it immediately by rubbing it with wheaten 
 flour; then hang it on a line for 2-i hours to 
 dry. 
 
1236 
 
 PAPER HANGINGS— PAPINS DIGESTER 
 
 Obs. Both the above are used to copy draw- 
 ings, writing, &c. If washed over with ox- 
 gall and dried, they may be written on with 
 ink or water colours. The first is the whitest 
 and clearest, but the second is the toughest 
 and most flexible. The paper prepared from 
 the refuse of the flax-mills, and of which bank- 
 notes are made, is also called ' tracing paper,' 
 and sometimes 'vegetable paper.' This re- 
 quires no preparation ; but though very flexible, 
 it has little strength. 
 
 Paper, Var'nished. Before proceeding to 
 varnish paper, card-work, pasteboard, &c.,itis 
 necessary to give it 2 or 3 coats of size, to pre- 
 vent the absorption of the varnish, and any 
 injury to the colour or design. The size may 
 be made by dissolving a little isinglass in 
 boiling watei', or by boiling some clean parch- 
 ment cuttings until they form a clear solution. 
 This, after being strained through a piece of 
 clean muslin, or, for very nice purposes, clari- 
 fied with a little white of egg, is applied by 
 means of a small clean brush called by painters 
 a sash tool. A light, delicate touch must be 
 adopted, especially for the first coat, lest the 
 ink or colours be started, or smothered. When 
 the prepared surface is perfectly dry, it may 
 be varnished in the usual manner. See Maps, 
 Vaenish, &c. 
 
 Paper, 'Wa"fer. See Waibes. 
 
 Paper, Waxed. Frep. Place cartridge paper, 
 or strong writing paper, on a hot iron plate, 
 and rub it well with a lump of beeswax. 
 Used to form extemporaneous steam or gas 
 pipes, to cover the joints of vessels, and to tie 
 over pots, &c. 
 
 PAPER HANGINGS. Theornamental paper 
 used to cover the walls of rooms, &c. Under 
 the old system, the paper, after being sized 
 and prepared with a ground colour, had the 
 pattern produced on it by the common process 
 of ' stencilling,' a separate plate being em- 
 ployed for each colour that formed the pat- 
 tern. To this succeeded the use of wooden 
 blocks, the surface of which bearing the design 
 in relief, and being covered with colour, was 
 applied by simple hand pressure on the paper, 
 in a precisely similar manner to that adopted 
 in the block-printing of calicoes. The cylinder 
 calico-printing machine has now been suc- 
 cessfully applied to the manufacture of paper 
 bantlings. 
 
 The colours employed for paper hangings 
 are — 
 
 Blacks. — Frankfort, ivory, and blue black. 
 
 Blues. Prussian blue, verditer, and facti- 
 tious ultramarine. 
 
 Beowks. Umber (raw and burnt), and 
 mixtures. 
 
 Geays. Prussian blue and blue black, with 
 Spanish white. 
 
 Gebeits. Brunswick green, Scheele's g , 
 Schweinfurt g., and green verditer; also mix- 
 tures of blues and yellows. 
 
 Keds. Decoctions of Brazil wood (chiefly), 
 
 brightened with alum or solution of tin ; the 
 red ochres ; and, sometimes, red lake. 
 
 Violets. -Decoction of logwood and alum; 
 also blues tempered with bright red. 
 
 YELL0V7S. Chrome yellow, decoction of 
 French berries or of weld, terra di sienna, and 
 the ochres. 
 
 Whites. White lead, sulphate of baryta, 
 plaster of Paris, and whiting, and mixtures of 
 them. 
 
 The vehicle employed to give adhesiveness 
 and body to the colours is a solution of gelatin 
 or glue, sufficiently strong to gelatinise on 
 cooling. 
 
 The satiny lustre observable in some paper 
 hangings (SATIN PAPEES) is produced by dust- 
 ing finely powdered French chalk over the sur- 
 face, and rubbing it strongly with a brush or 
 burnisher. The ground for this purpose is 
 prepared with plaster. 
 
 Flock and velvet papbbs are produced by 
 covering the surface of the pattern with a 
 mordant formed with boiled oil thickened with 
 white lead or ochre, and then sprinkling 
 powdered woollen flocks on it. These are pre- 
 viously dyed, and ground to the required fine- 
 ness in a mill. 
 
 PAPIER-HACHE. Pulped paper moulded 
 into forms. It possesses great strength and 
 lightness. It may be rendered partially wa- 
 terproof by the addition of sulphate of iron, 
 quicklime, and glue or white of egg to the 
 pulp ; and incombustible by the addition of 
 borax and phosphate of soda. The papier- 
 mdche tea-trays, waiters, snuff-boxes, &c., are 
 prepared by pasting or glueing sheets of paper 
 together, and then submitting them to powerful 
 pressure, by which the composition acquires 
 the hardness of board when dry. Such articles 
 are afterwards japanned, and are then perfectly 
 waterproof. 
 
 The refuse of the cotton and flax mills, and 
 numerous other substances of a like character, 
 are now worked up as papier-mache, and the 
 manufactured articles formed of them are 
 indistinguishable from those prepared directly 
 from paper. 
 
 PAPIN'S DIGESTER is a strong, closed, iron 
 vessel, in which water can be heated above 
 212° F., thereby acquiring a temperature that 
 adds considerably to its solvent powers. This 
 apparatus is put to many useful applications 
 in the arts, of which one is the speedy extrac- 
 tion of gelatin from the earthy matter of 
 bones. The bones may be boiled for hours at 
 212° without any such effect being produced. 
 The high temperature aiqiiired by the water 
 is effected by the confinement of the steam, 
 the internal pressure of which can be regu- 
 lated by means of a safety valve attncbed to 
 the vessel. By this arrangement the water 
 may be kept at any uniform temperature above 
 212° at pleasure. Professor Junichen' recom- 
 mends the use of the digester for the purpose 
 of boiling meat and other food. It appears 
 ' * Chemiciil News.' 
 
PAPYRIN— PARALYSIS 
 
 1237 
 
 from the nnthor'g experiments that the time 
 for ciokiiig viirioiH iirticles of daily consuiap- 
 tioii is much shorter when efEeeted under 
 strong pri-ssure, while a great saving of fuel 
 is also iffooii'il. 
 
 PAPY'RIN. See Papbb (Parchment). 
 PAR'ACHUTE. In aerostation, an instru- 
 ment or apparatus having for its object to 
 rutard thf descent of heavy bodies through 
 the air. The only form of parachute which 
 h:is been hitherto adopted with success is that 
 of the common umbrella when extended. The 
 m:iteriiil-i of which the apparatus is miide arc 
 canvas and cord, both light but strong, and 
 careluUy put together. The car to contain 
 the adventurer resembles that of the balloon, 
 only smaller. 
 
 It is estimated that a circular parachute, to 
 descend in safety with an adult, weighing, 
 with the apparatus, 225 lbs., must have a dia- 
 meter of at least 30 feet. Its terminal velo- 
 city would then he at the rate of 12 to 13 feet 
 per second, or about f<| miles per hour; and 
 the shock experienced on contact with the earth 
 would be equal to that which the aeronaut 
 would receive if he dropped (reely from a height 
 about 2i feet. 
 
 Scvcial descents from balloons, after they 
 have acquired a gnat elevation, have been 
 effected without accident by means of para- 
 chutes. Unfortunately, however, any want of 
 iutegrity in the machine, or any accident which 
 may happen to it after its detachment from the 
 balloon, is irreparable and fatal. 
 
 PARACYAH'OQEN. The brown solid miitter 
 left in the retort when cyanide of mercury is 
 decomposed by heat. It is isomeric with cya 
 nogen. 
 
 PARAFFIN. Si/n. Tau-oil steaein. This 
 remarkable hydrocabon is one of the several 
 substances discovered by Reichcubach in wood- 
 tar. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Prom WOOD-TAB. Reichenbach.) 
 Distil beech-tar to dryness, rectify the oily 
 portion of the product which is heavier than 
 water until a thick matter begins to rise, then 
 change the receiver, and moderately urge the 
 heat lis long as :inything passes over; next 
 digest tlie product in the second receiver, in an 
 eqii.il nieiiBiire of alcohol of SSS, gradually add 
 (i or 7 parts more of alcohol, and expose the 
 whole to a low temperature j crystals of 
 pnriiflin will gradually fall down, which, after 
 being washed in cold alcohol, must be dis- 
 solved in boiling alcohol, when crystals of 
 pure paraffin will be deposited as the solution 
 cools. 
 
 2. (From COAIi — James Young, Patent 
 1850.) The details of this process for obtain- 
 ing piiruffin and its cniffeners by the slow dis- 
 tilhition of coal (preferably ' Boghead') are 
 given in our article on pabaffin oil. The 
 solid paraffin is separated from the last pro- 
 ducts, or 'heavy oils,' by artificial cold; it is 
 then melted and run into moulds. 
 
 8. (From Kanqoon petboieum — Patent.) 
 
 In this proccs', which is worked by Price's 
 Candle Company, superheated steam is em- 
 ployed as the he;itlng agent. The paraffin, or 
 ' BELMOKTINB,' as it is called, is the last pro- 
 duct which distils over. 
 
 4. (From peat.) The various processes 
 which have been suc;i:ested for obtaining 
 paraffin from peat, turf, &c., are similar in 
 principle to Young's. The great point is to 
 conduct the distillation at as low a temperature 
 as possible. 
 
 Prop. A wiiite, hard, translucent body, 
 melting at 110'-' Fahr. and upwards, according 
 to its source, and burning with a briirht white 
 flame. It has great stability — sulphuric acid, 
 chlorine, and nitric acid iielow 212' exerting 
 no action upon it. Dr Anderson states tliat 
 its composition and properties vary with the 
 source from which it is derived. \V'ith respect 
 to the melting point, this variation is very 
 remarkable. Thus, Young's paraffin, from licig- 
 head coal, melts, acconliug to the observations 
 of Dr Anderson, at 11 1", nliile tliat from Ran- 
 goon petroleum (' belmontine') melts at 140', 
 and that from turf at lit)'. 
 
 Use». Paraffin is now largely used for making 
 candles, for wiiich purpose it is specially 
 adapted, being a most elegant substance, and 
 surpassing all other candle materials, even 
 spermaceti, in illuminating power. Its pro- 
 perty of n.it being acted upon by acids or 
 alkalies renders it suitable lor stoppers for 
 vessels holding chemical liquids; also for elec- 
 trotype moulds. It is not acted upon by 
 ozone, so that it has been employed with great 
 advantages in experiments on this body for 
 rendering air-tight the joints formed by the 
 union of glass tubes. As it contains no 
 oxygen, it might be employed to protect 
 .oxydisable metals like sodium and potassium 
 from contact with the air. One use of pa- 
 raffin candle-ends will commend them to the 
 ladies of the household — a small piece of 
 paraffin added to starch will be found to 
 give a gloss and brilliancy of surface to the 
 starched linen that can be obtained by no 
 other additi' n. 
 
 PARAFFIN OIIi. See OiM. 
 
 PARAL'YSIS. iSyn. Palsy. A loss or con- 
 siderable diminution of power of voluntary 
 motion, or functional action, of any part of the 
 body. In its most usual form one side only of 
 the body is affected. It not uncommonly 
 seizes the lower extremities, or all parts below 
 the pelvis; sometimes the arms only; and 
 occasionally a part, as one side of the face, one 
 eyelid, the tungue, or the muscles of degluti- 
 tion. In these cases the speech frequently 
 becomes indistinct and incoherent, and the 
 memory and judgment impaired, whilst the 
 distorted features assume a more or les^ 
 revolting aspect. 
 
 The causes of paralysis are various. It may 
 be occasioned by pressure on particular parts 
 of the brain, the spinal marrow, or the nerves ; 
 by poisons, the long-continued use of sedatives. 
 
1238 
 
 PARANAPHTHALIN— PA RASITES 
 
 local injuries, tlie sudden suppression of pro- 
 fuse and habitual evacuations, and by what- 
 ever tends to greatly relax or enervate the 
 system. It may also be a consequence of an 
 attack of apoplexy, or it may be symptomatic 
 of other diseases, as scrofula, syphilis, and 
 worms. When it is of a distinctly local cha- 
 racter it may arise from'cxcessive use or undue 
 employment of the part or organ. That of 
 old age is, probably, a mere consequence of the 
 failing nervous energy of the system being 
 unequally distributed. 
 
 Palsy usually comes on with a sudden and 
 immediate loss of the motion and sensibility ot 
 the parts; but in a few instances it is pre- 
 ceded by a numbness, coldness, and paleness ; 
 and sometimes by slight convulsive twitches. 
 If the disease affects the extremities, and has 
 been of long duration, it not only produces a 
 loss of motion and sensibility, but likewise a 
 considerable flaccidity and wasting away of the 
 muscles of the parts affected. 
 
 When palsy attacks any vital part, such as 
 the brain, heart, or lungs, it soon terminates 
 in death. 
 
 The treatment of paralysis depends upon a 
 careful consideration of its cause. The first 
 object should be, as far as possible, to remove 
 any compressing force, and to gradually arouse 
 the torpid portion of the nervous system. In 
 general, more or less depletion will be found 
 beneficial, together with rather active purga- 
 tion, and nervous stimulants, as ammonia, 
 musk, &c. Blisters to the head and neck are 
 also appropriate. With the debilitated and 
 aged, venesection must be avoided. Stimulant 
 and rubefacient frictions and liniments, tlie 
 vapour bath, and other like remedies, also fre- 
 quently iirove useful. In local attacks of the 
 disease, as the loss of use of one of the hands, 
 arms, legs, &c., no agent has proved so gene- 
 rally successful as voltaic electricity. For this 
 purpose the current sliould be in one direction 
 only, and continued uninterruptedly for some 
 time daily. When the direction of the cur- 
 rent is alternate, with slight shocks, as in the 
 common coil machine, this agent is of doubt- 
 ful utility, except for occasional use. In all 
 cases medical aid should be sought as early as 
 possible. 
 
 PAEANAPH'THALIN. Si/n. Anthbacen. 
 See Anthbacen. 
 
 PAEAPEC'TIN. See Peotiw. 
 
 PAE'ASITES. The parasitical animals that 
 infest the human body are referred to under 
 the heads Acaei and Pediculi. 
 
 Parasites, Human. The following is a list 
 of the principal parasites infesting man. It 
 is extracted from the ' Dictionary of Hygiene,' 
 of W.\nter Blyth, who states that he has 
 arranged it, with some slight alterations, from 
 a table in Dr Aitken's ' Science and Practice 
 of Medicine.' The two first divisions include 
 animal parasites, the third vegetable ones. 
 No. 1, or Entozoa, are animal parasites found 
 
 inside the human body; No. 2, those found 
 outside; No. 3, consisting of vegetable para- 
 sites, comprises Mntophyta and Epiphytal the 
 former existing in the interior, and the latter 
 on the exterior of the human body. Some of 
 the principal parasites have already been 
 described and figured in these pages. 
 
 I. Entozoa. 
 Acephalocystis endogena, liver. 
 „ multifida, brain. 
 
 Anchylostomum, sen Sclerostoma dnodenale, 
 
 intestines. 
 Anthomia canicularis, intestines. 
 Ascaris alata „ 
 
 „ lumbricoides „ 
 
 „ mystax „ 
 
 Bilbarzia seu Distoma hsimatobia,, portal a tid 
 
 venous system. 
 Bothriocephalus cordatus, intestines. 
 
 „ latus „ 
 
 Cysticercus cellulosse. seu telae cellulosse (C. of 
 
 Tenia solium), muscles. 
 Cysticercus of TseniiB marginata (C. tenui- 
 
 collis), intestines. 
 Dactylius aculeatus, urinary bladder. 
 Diplosoma crenatus. 
 
 Distoma seu Distomum crassum, duodenum. 
 „ hepaticum seu Pasciola hepatica, gall- 
 bladder. 
 „ heterophryes, intestines. 
 „ lanceolatum, hepatic duet 
 „ oculi humani seu ophthalmobium, 
 capsule of crystalline. 
 Dltrachycerus rudus, intestines. 
 Echinococcns hominis (hydatid of Tsenia echi- 
 
 nococcus), livery spleen^ and omentum. 
 Filaria bronchialis seu trachealis, bronchial 
 glands. 
 seu dracunculus medinensis, sJcin and 
 areolar tissue, 
 „ sanguinis hominis, blood. 
 „ oculi seu lentis, eye. 
 Hexathrydium pinguicola, ovary. 
 
 „ venarum, venous system, 
 
 Monostoma lentis, crystalline. 
 Qilstrus hominis, intestines. 
 
 Oxyuris vermicularis, „ 
 Fentastroma coustrictum, intestines and liver. 
 
 „ deuticulatum, intestines. 
 
 Polystroma pingnicola, ovary. 
 
 „ sanguioola seu verarum, venous 
 system. 
 Spiroptera hominis, urinary bladder. 
 Strongylns seu Eustrongylus brouchialus,i»-o»- 
 chial tubes. 
 „ seu Eustrongylus gigas (Acarus 
 renalis), kidney and intestines. 
 Taenia acanthotrias, intestines, 
 „ elliptica, „ 
 
 „ flavopuncta, 
 „ lophosoma, „ 
 
 „ mediocanellata, „ 
 „ nana, intestines and liver. 
 „ solium, intestines. 
 Tetrastoma renale, kidney. 
 
PARATAKTARIC ACID-PASTE 
 
 1239 
 
 Trichina spiralia, mutelet. 
 Tricocepbulus dlspar, inlestinet. 
 
 II. Eeiozoa. 
 Demodox sou Acarua f'olliculorum, aehaceous 
 
 nibtlanee of cutaneous follicles. 
 Pediculus capitaa (head louse). 
 
 „ corporis seu vestimenti (body lonse). 
 
 I, pnlpebrarum (brow louse). 
 
 n pubis, Phthirius inguinalis (crab- 
 
 louso). 
 I, tubescctiutn, phihiriasis (lousy dis- 
 ease). 
 Pulex penetrans (chigoS), skin, cellular tissue. 
 Sarcoptos seu Acarus scabiei (itch insect), 
 icabiet, 
 
 III. Entophyta and Epiphyta. 
 
 Achorion Lebertii (Tricophyton tonsurans), 
 
 Tmea tonsurans. 
 
 „ Sch5iiluinii, Tinea favosa, 
 
 Chionyphe Carteri (fungus of Mycetoma), deep 
 
 tissues, bones of hands and feet. 
 Leptothrix buccalis (alga of the month). 
 Microsporon Audouini, Tinea deoa/vans. 
 „ Furfur, Tinea versicolor. 
 
 „ mentagrophytea, follicles of hair 
 
 in sycosis or meniagra. 
 Oldium albicans (thrush fungus), mouth, 
 
 mucous, and cutaneous surfaces, 
 Puccinia favi, Tinea favosa. 
 Sarcina vontriculi, stomach, 
 Torula cerevisim (Cryptoeoccus cerevisiee, yeast 
 
 plant), stomach, bladder, Sfc. 
 Tricophyton sporuloi'des. Tinea polornia. 
 PAEATAKTAE'IC ACID. See Kacemio 
 
 AOID. 
 
 PARCH'MENT. See Vkllcm, and Papee 
 (Parchment). 
 
 PAECHMENT PAPER. See Papkb. 
 
 PAEEQOR'IC. See Tinctuke of Camphob 
 (Compound). 
 
 Paregoric Scotcli. See Tincture op Opium 
 (Ammoniated). 
 
 PAREI'EA BRA'VA. See Velvet leaf. 
 
 PARE. A Hume applied to the salmon until 
 near the end of its second year, when it loses 
 its dark lateral bars by the superaddition of a 
 silvery pigment. It was formerly regarded as 
 a distinct species. 
 
 PARS'IET. Syn. Petrosblinum, L. This 
 well-known herb is the Apium petroselinmn. 
 The root is diuretic; the fruit (seed) car- 
 minative; the leaves are a pleasant stimu- 
 lating salad and condiment, and iire much 
 used to flavour broth and soup. " The fruit 
 is u deadly poison to parrots." (Lind. ex 
 Burnett.) 
 
 PARSNIP. The root of Pastinacea sativa. 
 
 The parsnip is native to England and Ire- 
 land, but does not grow in Scotland. It is 
 likewise met with in many parts of Europe and 
 in nortliern Asiii. In the wild state the root is 
 somewhat acrid, and injurious effects have been 
 known to have followed its use as a food. 
 
 By cultivation, however, it loses both its 
 acridity and dangerous properties, and 
 forms a table vegetable, not in universal 
 favour. 
 
 In the Channel Islands parsnips constitute 
 the winter food of cows; and these animals 
 when fed upon them are said to yield butter 
 of a better quality than can be obtained 
 from them when partaking of any other 
 fodder. 
 
 The flesh of cattle fed on the parnsip is also 
 highly commended. In the North of Ireland 
 the juice of the root, mixed with hops and 
 .veast, is made into a fermented liquor. . Par- 
 snip wiuc is an agreeable alcoholic beverage. 
 
 Composition of 
 
 the 
 
 Parsnip. 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 
 
 . 11 
 
 Starch . 
 
 
 . 96 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 . 5-8 
 
 Fat 
 
 
 . 0-5 
 
 Suits . 
 
 
 . 10 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 . 820 
 
 1000 
 
 PASTE. Syn. Pasta, L. ; Pate, Fr. This 
 word is very loosely applied to substances and 
 preparations differing so widely from each 
 other, that it would be scarcely possible to class 
 them together. We shall, therefore, refer the 
 reader to the individual articles. The pastes 
 (pA.te8) of French pharmacy are eonipound 
 medicines of the consistence of hard dough, 
 and which do not stick to the fingers. They 
 are formed of sugar and fjum, dis-olvod in 
 water or in some medicated liquid. They are 
 evaporated so as to unite these principles by 
 degrees, and give them the pliancy and the 
 firniness of paste. They are employed inter- 
 nally in doses more or less variable in a similar 
 manner to lozenges. " IMtes, properly so 
 called, are divided into transparent, or such as 
 are made without agitation, like jujubes of 
 brown liquorice ; and opaque, or such as are 
 made with agitation, like the ]iutes of mar»h- 
 mallow, lichen, &c." (Trousseau and Revcil.) 
 Si'C Pastes (Artificial Gems), Pastby, and 
 beloto. 
 
 Paste, Adhesive. Let 4 parts, by weight, 
 of glue solten in 15 parts of cold water 
 for fifteen hours, after which the mixture 
 must be moderately heated until it becomes 
 quite clear. To this mixture 65 parts of boil- 
 ing water are to be added without stirring. In 
 another vessel 30 parts of starch paste are 
 stirred up with 20 parts of cold water, so that 
 a thin milky fluid is obtained without lumps.. 
 Into this the boiling glue solution is poured,, 
 with constant stirring, and the whole is kept 
 at the boiling temperature. When cooled the 
 10 drops of carbolic acid are to be added to 
 the paste. This paste possesses great adhesive 
 power, and may be used for leather, paper, or 
 cardboard with great success. It must be pre- 
 served in closed bottles to prevent evaporation 
 
1240 
 
 PASTE 
 
 of the water, and will, In this way, keep good 
 for years. (' Dingler's Journal.') 
 
 Paste, Al'mond. Syn. Pasta amtgdalina, 
 P. amygdalaeum;, P. eeoia, L. ; Pate bot- 
 AlE, Fr. Prep. 1. (MoiST.) — a. Take of 
 blanched Valentia almonds, 4 oz. ; reduce them 
 to a very smooth paste by patient pounding 
 in a clean mortar, adding, towards the 
 last, a little rose water, with some eau de 
 Cologne, or 3 or 4 drops of otto of roses 
 or ncroli, or an equivalent quantity of any 
 other perfume, according to the fancy of the 
 artiste. 
 
 h. \ram hitter and sweet almonds (blanched), 
 equal parts ; rose water, q. s. It requires no 
 other perfume. 
 
 c. To either of the preceding add of sper- 
 maceti, i oz. The white of an egg, or J oz. of 
 white soap, Is added by some makers. With 
 about i dr. of powdered camphor to each oz. 
 of the above it forms tlie * camphorated almond 
 puste' of the shops. 
 
 d. Take fine Narbonne honey and white 
 bitter paste (see helow), of each 1 lb. ; beat 
 tliem to a smooth paste, then add, in alternate 
 portions, of oil of almonds, 2 lbs. ; yolks of 5 
 eggs ; and reduce the whole to a perfectly 
 homogeneous pasty mass. Much esteemed. 
 It is commonly sold under the name of 
 * honey paste,' * pdte royale,' &c. In a similar 
 manner are made nosegay, orange, rose, 
 vanilla, and other like pastes having almonds 
 for a basis, by merely adding the respective 
 perfumes. 
 
 2. (PtTLVBEULENT.) — a. (Gray.) Prepared 
 from the cake of bitter almonds from which the 
 oil has been thoroughly expressed by drying, 
 grindinsT, and sifting it. 
 
 b. (Bitter white.) As the last, but the 
 almonds are blanched before being pressed. 
 
 C-. (Sweet white.) As the last, but using 
 sweet almonds. 
 
 Obs. All the above are used as cosmetics, to 
 soften and whiten the skin, prevent chaps, 
 abiasious, chilblains, &c. The honey paste, 
 and the sweet and bitter white pastes, are 
 those most esteemed. (See below.) 
 
 faste, Almond. (In confectionery.) Frep. 
 1. Take of Valentia almonds, 31bs. ; bitter do., 
 i lb. ; blanch them, and reduce them to a very 
 smooth paste by pounding, then put them into 
 a clean copper pan along with white sugar and 
 good gum Arabic, of each 1 lb. (the last pre- 
 viously dissolved in about a pint of water;) 
 apply a gentle heat, and stir until the whole 
 is mixed and has acquired a proper con- 
 sistence, then pour it out on a smooth, oiled, 
 marble slab, and when cold cut it into 
 squares. 
 
 2. As the last, but when the mixture has 
 acquired the consistence of thick honey, set- 
 ting it aside to cool ; when nearly cold, the 
 whites of 6 eggs are to be added, and heat 
 being again gradually applied, the whole is to 
 be stirred until it acquires the proper consist- 
 ence, as before. 
 
 3. Blanched sweet almonds and white sugar, 
 of each 1 lb. j blanched bitter almonds and 
 powdered gum, of each 3 oz. ; beat them, in 
 the cold, to a, perfectly smooth paste, with 
 orange-flower water or rose water, q. s., so 
 that it may be sufficiently stiff not to stick 
 to the fingers, and then cut the mass into 
 squares, as before. The above aie eaten as 
 confections. 
 
 Paste, Ancho'vy. Prep. Remove the larger 
 bones from the fish, and then pound them to 
 a smooth p»ste in a marble mortar, adding a 
 little bay-salt and cayenne pepper at will; 
 next rub the pulp through a fine hair sieve, 
 and about 3-4ths fill the pots with it; lastly, 
 cover the surface of each to the depth of about 
 J inch with good butter in a melted state. It 
 should be kept in a cool situation. Other 
 fish pastes, as those of bloaters, lobsters, 
 shrimps, caviare, &c., are made in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 Paste, Araen'ical. See Caustics, Patent 
 
 MEDICINES, and POWDEES. 
 
 Paste, Baudry's. See Paste, Pectobal 
 {beloio). 
 
 Paste, Bird. See Gbeman paste. 
 
 Paste, Black Currant. As black currant 
 lozenges, but simply cutting the mass into dice 
 or square. 
 
 Paste, Car'rageen. Prep. From Irish moss, 
 as the lichen paste of the P. Cod. (see below). 
 
 Paste, Chinese'. Prep. From bullock's blood, 
 10 lbs., reduced to dryness by a gentle heat, 
 then powdered, and mixed with quicklime, also 
 in fine powder, 1 lb. It is used as a cement, 
 made into a paste with water, and at once 
 applied. 
 
 Paste of Chlo"ride of Zinc. See Caustics. 
 
 Paste of Dates. fiy». Pasta dacttlifee.e, 
 P. dacttloeum, L. ; Pates i>e dattes, Fr. 
 From dates (stoned), as jujube paste. Pec- 
 toral, and slightly astringent. Paste of guin 
 Senegal is usually sold for it. 
 
 Paste, De Handel's. Prep. From opium, J 
 dr. ; camphor, 1 dr. (both in powder) ; ex- 
 tracts of belladonna and henbane, of each 1 dr.; 
 oil of cajeput and tincture of cantharides, of 
 each 10 or 12 drops; distilled water of opium 
 (or of lettuce), q. s. In toothache. 
 
 Paste, Depii'atory. Syn. Pasta epilatoeia, 
 Ii. Several preparations of this character are 
 noticed at pages 552 — 3. 1. A mixture of 
 slacked lime, 2 parts, and water, 3 parts, satu- 
 rated with sulphuretted hydrogen, is said to 
 be so powerful, that " a layer a line in thick- 
 ness denudes the scalp in three minutes." 
 (Beasley.) 
 
 2. (Payan.) Powdered sulphate of copper 
 made into a soft paste with yolk of egg. 
 
 Paste of Figs. Syn. Pasta caeicabum, P. 
 PICAEIA, L. Prep. 1. From fig.i, as jujube paste. 
 
 2. (Soubeiran.) Pulp of figs, 1 part; press it 
 through a sieve, mix it with powdered sugar, 
 4 parts, concentrated by a gentle heiit (if 
 necessary), roll the mass out, and cut it into 
 squares or lozenges. 
 
PASTE 
 
 1241 
 
 Paste, Flonr. Sgn. Collb sb Tkus, Fr. 
 From wheiiten flour. I'aper-hangerg, shoe- 
 makers, &e., usually add to the flour ^ to 1 
 of its weight of finely powdered resin. It is 
 then t^oinetimcs Ciilltd 'hard paste.' The 
 addition of n few drops of creasote or oil of 
 clovt's, or a little powered caraplior, colocynth, 
 or corrosive sublimate (especially the first two 
 and the last), will prevent insects from attack- 
 ini: it, and preserve it in covered vessels for 
 years. Sliiiiild it get too hard, it may be soft- 
 ened with water. See Cbmbnis. 
 
 Paste, Fruit. Prep. 1. To each pint of the 
 strained juiie add of gum Arabic, 1 oz., gently 
 cv.iporate to the consistence of a syrup, and 
 add an equal weight of bruised white sugar; 
 as soon as the whole is united, pour it out on 
 an oiled slab, and, when cold enough, cut it 
 into pieces. 
 
 2. Citric acid, f oz. ; gum Arabic, 6 oz. ; 
 white sugar, } lb. ; water, q. s. ; dissolve, and 
 flavour witli any of the fruit essences. It may 
 be coloured with any of the stains used for 
 confectionery or liqueurs. 
 
 3. As fruit lozenges. 
 
 Paste, Far'niture. See Polish. 
 
 Paste, Glove. See Ganteine. 
 
 Paste of Gum Arabic. St/n. Pasta qummi, 
 L. ; Pate db qommk, P. de a. Aeauique, Fr. 
 Prep. 1. As marsh-mallow paste, omitting 
 the mallow roots. 
 
 2. Gum Arabic (picked), 1 lb. j water, 1 
 pint ; dissolve, add of white 8\igar, 1 lb. j eva- 
 porate by a gentle heat to a very thick syrup, 
 then add the whites of 3 eggs, previously beaten 
 up with oninge-flowcr water, 1 fl. oz., and 
 strained through muslin, and continue the 
 heat with constant stirring, until of a proper 
 consisteuce on being cooled. The hist two are 
 coniniouly sold for marsh-mallow paste (pate 
 de guimauve). 
 
 3. (Transparent.) From gum Arabic (picked), 
 1 lb. ; cold water, 1 pint j white sugar, li lb. ; 
 proceed as the last, adding orange-flowerwater 
 1 fl. oz., towards the end. Often sold under 
 the name of ' white jujubes.' 
 
 Paste of Gum Senegal. Si/n Pate de 
 OOMME 8ENE0AL, Fr. As jujube paste, with- 
 out the fruit. 
 
 Paste, Hon'ey. See Paste, Almond. 
 
 Paste, Jn'jnbe. Si/n. Jujcbes, Jujube lo- 
 zenges ; Pasta jujube, L. ; Pate de ju- 
 jubes, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Jujubes (the 
 fruit), 1 lb.; water, 4 lbs.; boil i hour, strain 
 with expression, settle, decant tlie char por- 
 tion, and clarify it with white of egg; add a 
 strained solationof gum Arabic, 6 lbs., in water, 
 8 lbs., and to theSuixture add of white sugar, 
 5 Ills. ; gently evaporate, at first constantly 
 stirring, and afterwards without stirring, to 
 the consistence of a soft extract, then add of 
 orange-flowerwater, 6 fl. oz., and place the pan 
 in a ve-sel of boiling water. In 12 hours care- 
 fully remove the scum, pour the matter into 
 sliglitly oiled tin moulds, and finish the evapo- 
 
 ration (hardening) in a stove heated to 104°, 
 Fahr. It is commonly coloured with beet-root, 
 cochineal, or s.iffron. Expectorant; in cough', 
 &c. Paste of gum Arabic is usually sold 
 for it. 
 
 Paste, Li'clien. Si/n. Pasta lichexis, L. ; 
 Path de lichen, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Ice- 
 land moss, 1 lb.; water, q. s. ; heat them to 
 nearly the boiling-point, strain wi:h pressure, 
 reject the liquor, and boil the moss in fresh 
 water, q. s., for 1 hour; strain, press, add of 
 gum Arabic, 5 lbs. ; while sugar, 4 lbs., and 
 evaporate to a proper consistence, as above. 
 Pectoral. With the addition of i gr. of ex- 
 tract of opium to each oz„ it forms the opiated 
 lichen paste. (P. Cod.) 
 
 Paste, Liquorice. Syn. Ltquobice jrjuBES ; 
 Pasta gltcieehiz^, L. ; Pate de eeolisse, 
 P. DE B. noire, Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Re- 
 fined juice and white sugar, of each 1 lb.; gum 
 Arabic, 2 lbs.; water, 3 quarts; dissolve, strain, 
 evaporate considerably, and, of finely pow- 
 dered orris root, i oz. ; oil of aniseed or 
 essence of cedrat, a few drops, and pour the 
 paste upon an oiled slab, or into moulds, as 
 before. 
 
 2. (Brown; PAsTA G. FUSCA ; Pate de b. 
 BEUNE.) Rpftned juice, 4 oz.; white sugar, 2 
 lbs. ; gum Arabic, 3 lbs. ; water, 4 pints; pro- 
 ceed as last. 
 
 3. (Opiated ; Pate de k. ophce.— P 
 Cod.) To the last add of extract of opium, 
 15 gr. 
 
 4. (White; Pate de EioLissE blanche.) 
 As No. 2, substituting the powder of the de- 
 corticated root for the extract. All the above 
 are pectoral ; the second is also sliiihtly ano- 
 dyne. They are useful in tickling coughs, 
 hoarseness, &c. 
 
 Paste, London. Syn. Pasta londinensis. 
 Equal parts of caustic soda and unslaked 
 lime. Reduce to a fine powder in a warm 
 mortar, and mix intimately. Keep it in well 
 closed bottles, and when required for use take 
 as much as is sufficient, and make it into a 
 paste with water. 
 
 Paste, Marsh-mallow. Si/"- Pastaalth.es, 
 L. ; Pate de guimauve, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod. 
 1816.) Decorticated marsh-mallow root 
 (French), 4 oz. ; water, i gall. ; macerate for 
 12 hours, strain, add white sujar and gum 
 Arabic, of each 2i lbs.; dissolve, strain, eva- 
 porate without boiling to the thickness of 
 honey, constantly stirring, and add, gradually, 
 the whites of 12 eggs, well beaten with orange- 
 flower water, 4 fl. oz., and strained ; continue 
 the evaporation and constant stirring uutil 
 the mass is so firm as not to adhere to the 
 fingers, then proceed as before. 
 
 Obs. It should be very white, light, and 
 spongy. In the P. Codex of 1839 the marsh- 
 mallowroot is omitted.and the name is changed 
 to that of ' pate de gomme,' a compound 
 long sold for it in the shops. Both are 
 agreeable pectorals. See Paste op Gum 
 Ababic. 
 
1242 
 
 PASTE 
 
 Paste, Odontal'gio. Syn. Pasta odoktai.- 
 GIOA, L. Frep. 1. Pellitory (in powder), 
 
 1 dr.; hydrochlorate of morphia, 3 gr. ; tri- 
 turate ; add, of honey, 2 dr. ; and oil of cloves, 
 
 6 drops. 
 
 2. Powdered mastic, pellitory, and white 
 sugar, of each 1 dr. ; chloroform, q. s. to form 
 a paste. It must he kept in a stoppered bottle. 
 See Toothache, and below. 
 
 Paste, Or'ange. Prep. From orange flowers, 
 
 2 lbs. ; bitter and sweet al monds, of each 
 blanched, 2i lbs. ; beaten to a perfectly smooth 
 paste. An agreeable cosmetic. See Paste, 
 Almond. 
 
 Paste, Or'geat. Frep. Prom blanched Jordan 
 almonds, 1 lb. ; blanched bitter a. and white 
 sugar and honey, of each i lb. ; beaten to a 
 paste, with orange-flower water, q. s. (or neroli, 
 a few drops), and put into pots. As a cos- 
 metic or to make orgeat milk. For use, rub 
 1 oz. with i pint of water, and strain through 
 muslin. 
 
 Paste, Pec'toral. Syn. Pasta pectoealis, 
 Ii. Prep. 1. (Pate peotobalb db Batidet.) 
 Take of gum Arabic and white sugar of each 
 
 7 lbs.; water, q. s. ; dissolve, add of extract 
 of liquorice, 3 oz. ; evaporate, add of extract 
 of lettuce, 2 dr. ; balsam of tolu, li oz. ; 
 orange-flower water, 4i fl. oz. ; white of 4 
 eggs ; oil of citrons, 5 or 6 drops. 
 
 2. (Pate pectoeale balsamiqub de Reg- 
 nauit.) Pi'om the flowers of coltsfoot, 
 cudweed, marrow, and red poppy, of each, 
 1 oz. ; water, 1 quart; boil, strain; add, of 
 gum Arabic, 30 oz. ; white sugar, 20 oz. ; 
 dissolve, concentrate, add of tincture of tolu, 
 
 3 fl. dr., and pour the mixture on an oiled 
 slab. 
 
 3. (AnISATED coltsfoot PASTE; PatE DE 
 TussiLAGE A l'anis.) From a strong decoc- 
 tion of coltsfoot flowers, 1 quart ; Spanish 
 juice, ^ lb.; dissolve, strain, evaporate as 
 before, and towards the end add of oil of 
 aniseed, 1 dr. All the above are uselul in 
 hoarseness, coughs, &c. 
 
 Paste, Pho'sphor. See Eats. 
 Paste, Pol'ishing. Frep. 1. (For copper 
 and brass.) See Brass Paste. 
 
 2. For iron and steel). From emery (in 
 fine powder) and lard, equal parts. 
 
 3. (For pewter.) Prom powdered Bath 
 brick, 2 parts ; soft soap, 1 part ; water, q. s. 
 to make a paste. Used with a little water, 
 and afterwards well rinsed off. 
 
 4. (For furniture.) See Polish. 
 
 Paste, Ea"zor. Frep. 1. From jeweller's 
 rouge, plumbago, and suet, equal parts, melted 
 together and stirred until cold. 
 
 2. Prom prepared putty powder (levigated 
 oxide of tin), 3 parts; lard, 2 parts; crocus 
 martis, 1 part ; triturated together. 
 
 3. Prepared putty powder, 1 oz. ; powdered 
 oxalic acid, ^ oz. ; powdered gum, 20 gi-s. ; 
 make a stifl' paste with water, q. s., and 
 evenly and thinly spread it over the strop, the 
 other side of which should be covered with 
 
 any of the common greasy mixtures. With 
 very little friction this paste gives a fine edge 
 to the razor, and its action is still further in- 
 creased by slightly moistening it, or even 
 breathing on it. Immediately after its use, 
 the razor should receive a few turns on the 
 other side of the strop. 
 
 4. Diamond dust, jeweller's rouge, and 
 plumbago, of each 1 part; suet, 2 parts. 
 Powdered quartz is generally substituted for 
 diamond dust, but is much less effective. 
 
 5. (Mechi's.) Emery (reduced to an im- 
 palpable powder), 4 parts ; deer suet, 1 part ; 
 well mixed together. 
 
 6. (Pradier's.) From powdered Turkey 
 stone, 4 oz. ; jeweller's rouge and prepared 
 putty powder, of each 1 oz. ; hard snet, 2 oz. 
 
 Obs. The above (generally made up into 
 square cakes) are rubbed over the razor strop, 
 and the surface being smoothed ofF with the 
 flat part of a knife or a phial bottle, the 
 strop is set aside for a few hours to harden 
 before being used. 
 
 Paste, Eegnault's. See Paste, Peotoeai. 
 
 Paste, Ilubefa"cient. Syn. Pasta eubepa- 
 ciens, L. Prep. (Clarus.) Prom acetate of 
 lead, 1 oz. ; bisulpbate of potassa, 3 oz. ; 
 water, q. s. It acts powerfully and quickly 
 on the skin. 
 
 Paste, Bust's. Frep. From powdered opium 
 and extract of henbane, of each 10 gr. ; 
 powdered pellitory and extract of belladonna, 
 of each 20 gr. ; oil of cloves, 10 drops. In 
 toothache. 
 
 Paste, Sha"Ting. Frep. 1. Naples soap 
 (genuine), 4 oz.; powdered Castile soap, 2 
 oz. ; honey, 1 oz. ; essence of ambergris and 
 oils of cassia and nutmegs, of each 5 or 6 
 drops. 
 
 2. White wax, spermaceti, and almond oil, 
 of each i oz. ; melt, and, whilst warm, beat 
 in 2 squares of Windor soap previously re- 
 duced to a paste with a little rose water. 
 
 3. White soft soap, 4 oz. ; spermaceti and 
 salad oil, of each J oz. ; melt them together, 
 and stir until nearly cold. It may be scented 
 at will. When properly prepared, these pastes 
 produce a good lather with either hot or cold 
 water, which does not dry on the face. The 
 proper method of using them is to smear a 
 minute quantity over the beard, and then to 
 apply the wetted shaving-brush, and not to 
 pour water on them, as is the common prac- 
 tice. 
 
 Paste, Styptic, of Gntta Fercha. Syn. 
 Pasta GnTT.s) peechje bttptica. (Mr 
 Beardsley.) Gutta percha, 1 oz. ; Stockholm 
 tar, li or 2 oz. ; creosote, 1 dr.; shellac, 1 
 oz., or q. s. to render it sufficiently bard. To 
 be boiled together with constant stirring, till 
 it forms a homogeneous mass. 
 
 For alveolar haemorrhage, and as a stopping 
 for teeth in toothache. To be softened by 
 moulding with the fingers. 
 
 Paste, Swediaur. See Chilblain. 
 
 Paste, Tooth. Syn. Pasta bentifexoia, 
 
PASTES 
 
 1243 
 
 Elbctttibium dentipbicttm, L. Various 
 preparations are known under this name. 
 They consist, for the most part, of the ordi- 
 nary substances used as dentifrices, reduced 
 to the state of a very fine powder, and mixed 
 with sufiioient honey, sugar, or capillaire, to 
 give them the required consistence. Honey 
 of roses is often used for this purpose, with 
 some agreeable perfume at will, A little 
 eau de Cologne or rectified spirit is a useful 
 addition. The following are a few examples: — 
 
 1. (CaKBOM pasts j OpIAT CAEBONKjrS.) 
 The cliippiiigs of Turkey stone, cylinder char- 
 coal, and prepared chalk, of each 2 oz. ; co- 
 chineal and cloves, of each 1 dr. ; honey, 5 
 oz. ; eau de Coloi^uc, q. s. It should not be 
 put into the pots until the next day, and 
 should be afterwards well preserved from the 
 air. Much prized by smokers, and by per- 
 sons troubled with a fetid breath from rotten 
 teeth. 
 
 2. (COBAL PASTK; OpIAT DENTIFBIOEEOITOB.) 
 From prepared coral, 8 oz. : cuttle-fish bone, 
 4 oz. ; mustic, 2 oz. ; cochineal, i oz. ; honey, 
 i lb. ; essence of ambergris, 1 11. dr. ; oil of 
 cloves, i fl. dr., dissolved in rectified spirit, 
 1 11. oz. As the last. Cleanse the teeth ra- 
 pidly. 
 
 3. (Dyon'a Chabooal paste.) From ohlo- 
 rnte of pota»sa, 1 dr.; mint water, 1 fi. oz. ; 
 triturate until dissolved, then add, of pow- 
 dered cliarcoul, 2 oz. ; honey, 1 oz. 
 
 4. (Maoio paste.) From white murblc dust 
 4 nz. ; pumice stone (in impalpable powder), 
 3 oz. ; rose pink, 1 oz, ; honey, i lb. ; otto of 
 roses, 15 drops, llapidly whitens the teeth, 
 but it should not be used too freely, nor too 
 fri'quently. 
 
 5. (P. Cod.) Prepared coral, 4 oz. ; bitar- 
 trnte of potasss, 2 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and 
 cochineal, of each 1 oz. ; alum, J dr. ; Nar- 
 honne honey, 10 oz. ; with essential oil, q. s. 
 to aromatise the mixture. 
 
 6. (Pelletier's OcOHTlNE.) This is stated 
 to be a mixture of pulverised sepia-bone, 
 butter of cacao, and honey, with essential oil 
 
 7. (Rose PASTE.) Coral paste scented with 
 roses, or the following : — Cuttle-fish bone, 
 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 2 oz. ; cochineal, ^ dr.; 
 honey of roses, 3 oz. ; otto of roses, 6 drops. 
 
 8. (SoiATBLB PASTE, Saline dbntifbioe.) 
 Fiom bitiirtrate of potassa or sulpliate of po- 
 tossa (in fine powder), 3 oz. ; honey of roses, 
 2oz. 
 
 9. (Spanish ijentifhice, Castiiian tooth 
 CBEam.) From Cnstile soap (in fine powder) 
 and cuttle-fi»h bone, of each 2 oz. ; honey of 
 roses, 5 ' iz. An excellent preparation. It is 
 superior to all the other pastes for removing 
 tiirtiir unil animalcnlee from the teeth. 
 
 10. (Vanilla PASTE.) From red cinchona 
 bark, 2 dr. ; vanilla, 1 dr. ; cloves, i dr. 
 (the last two reduced to powder by tritura- 
 tion with^ ; white sugar, 1 oz. j cuttle-fish bone 
 and marble dust, of each t oz. ; syrup of 
 salTron, q. s. 
 
 11. (Violet paste.) From prepared chalk 
 and cuttle-fish bone of each 3 oz. ; powdered 
 white sugar, 2 oz. ; orris root 1 oz. ; smalts, i 
 oz. ; syrup of violets, q. s. to mix. 
 
 12. (Winckler's UossATE dentipbice.) 
 From cuttle-fish bone, 1 part ; conserve of 
 roses (Ph. L.), 3 parts; white otto of roses, 
 2 drops to the oz. 
 
 13. Chalk, 8 oz. ; myrrh and rhatany roof, 
 of each 2 oz. ; orris root, 1 oz. ; honey of 
 ruses, q. s. to mix. In foul and spongy gums. 
 
 Paste, Tooth'aclie. See Paste, Ubontalola. 
 
 Paste, Tor'mentil. Si/n. Pasta toumen- 
 TILL£, L. Frep, (Morin.) Powdered tor- 
 mentil root made into a paste with white of 
 egg. In whitlow; applied on linen. Mixed 
 with an equal weight of simple syrup, it has 
 also been recommended in dysentery and 
 diarrhcsa. 
 
 Paste, Vienna. See Caustic potassa with 
 
 LiUE. 
 
 Paste, Vohler'B. Trep. From dragon's blood, 
 Idr. ; powdered opium, 2 dr.; powdered gums 
 of mastic and sandarach, of each 4 dr. ; oil of 
 rosemary, 20 di'ops ; tincture of opium, q. s. 
 to form a paste. In tootliache. 
 
 Paste, Ward's. See Confection op Peppee. 
 
 PASTES. Syn. Aetificial gems, Facti- 
 
 Tiors G. ; PlEBEES PE^CIEUSKS AUTIFICI- 
 ELLE3, Fr. Vitreous compounds made in imi- 
 tation of the gems and precious stones. The 
 substances which enter into their composition, 
 and the principles on which their successful 
 production depends, have been already briefly 
 noticed. The present article will, therefore, 
 be confined to giving the reader a few original 
 formulEB, together with several others care- 
 fully selected from the most reliable English 
 and Continental authorities. Like enamels 
 the artificial gems have for their basis a very 
 fusible, highly transparent and brilliant, dense 
 glass, which is known under the name of 
 ' frit,' ' paste,' 'strass,' 'flux,' 'fondant,' or 
 ' Mayence base,' and which in its state of 
 greatest excellence constitutes the 'artificial 
 diamond.' For convenience, this will be no- 
 ticed here under its last synonym. (See below, 
 also Ure's ' Dictionary of Arts,' &o.) 
 
 Amethyst. 1. Paste or strass, 500 gr. ; 
 oxide of manganese, 3 gr. ; oxide of cobalt, 
 ■2i gr. 
 
 2. (Douault-Wi^land.) Strass, 4608 gr.; 
 oxide of manganese, 36 gr.; oxideof cobalt,2gr. 
 
 3. (Lan<;on.) Strass, 9216 gr. ; oxide of 
 mangauase, 15 to 24 gr.; oxide of cobalt, 
 Igr. 
 
 Aqua narina. From strass, 4800 gr. j 
 glass of antimony, 30 gr. ; oxide of cobalt, 
 IJ gr. See Bebxl, of which this is merely a 
 variety. 
 
 Aventnrine. 1. From strass, 500 cr. ; scales 
 of iron, 100 gr. ; black oxide of copper, 50 
 gr. ; fuse until the black oxide "f copper is 
 reduced to the reguline form, then allow the 
 mass to cool very slowly, so that the minute 
 
12i4, 
 
 PASTES 
 
 crystals of metal may be equally diffused 
 throuKli it. Has a rich golden iridescence. 
 
 2. As the last, hut submitting oxide of 
 chromium for the protoxide of copper. Ap- 
 pears brown, filled with countless gold 
 spangles; or, when mixed with more paste, 
 of a greenish grej', filled with green spangles. 
 
 Beryl. (Douault-Wieland.) Strass, 3456 
 gr. ; glass of antimony, 24 gr. j oxide of 
 cobalt, IJ gr. See Aqtta Maeina. 
 
 Carbuncle. See Gaenbt. 
 
 Chrysolite. From strass 7000 gr. ; pure 
 calcined sesquioxide of iron ('trocus martis'), 
 65 gr. 
 
 Cornelian. 1. (Red.) From strass, 7000 gr. ; 
 glass of antimony; 3500 gr. ; calcined peroxide 
 of iron, 875 gr. ; binoxide of manganese, 75 gr. 
 
 2. (White.) Prom strass, 7200 gr. ; cal- 
 cined bones, 250 gr. ; washed yellow ochre, 
 65 gr. 
 
 Diamond. 1. From rock crystal (purest), 
 1600 gr. ; boiax, 560 gr. ; carbonate of lead 
 (pure), 3200 gr. ; oxide of manganese, i to 
 1 gr. ; powder each separately, mix them to- 
 gether, fuse the mixture in a clean crucible, 
 pour the melted mass into water, separate any 
 reduced lead, and again powder and remelt 
 the mass. 
 
 2. Pure silica, 150 gr. ; pure litharge, 250 
 gr. ; borax and nitre, of each 50 gr. ; arse- 
 uious acid, 21 gr. 
 
 3. (Douault-Wieland.) — o. From rock crystal, 
 4056 gr. ; minium, 6300 gr. ; potash, 2154 gr. ; 
 borax, 276 gr. ; arsenic, 12 gr. 
 
 b. From rock crystal, 3600 gr. ; ceruse of 
 Clichy (pure carbonate of lead), 8508 gr. ; 
 potash, 1260 gr. ; borax, 360 gr. 
 
 4. (Fontanier.) Pure silica, 8 oz. ; salt of 
 tartar, 24 oz. ; mix, bake, cool, treat the fused 
 mixture with dilute nitric acid until efferves- 
 cence ceases, and afterwards with water as long 
 as the washings affect litmus paper; next dry 
 the powder, add to it of pure carbonate of lead, 
 12 oz ,aud to every 12 oz. of the mixture add 
 of borax, 1 oz. ; triturate in a porcelain mor- 
 tar, melt in a clean crucible, and pour the 
 fused ma-s into cold water ; dry, powder, and 
 repeat the process a second and a third time in 
 a clean crucible, observing to separate any 
 revived lead. To the third frit add of nitre, 
 5 dr., and again melt. The product is per- 
 fectly limpid and extremely brilliant. 
 
 5. (Laii(;on.) Litharge, 100 gr.; pure silica, 
 75 gr. ; white tartar or potash, 10 gr. 
 
 6. (Loysel.) Pure silica, 100 parts; red 
 oxide of lead (minium), 150 parts; calcined 
 potasli, 30 to 35 parts; calcined borax, 10 
 parts; arsenious acid, 1 part. This produces 
 a paste which lias great brilliancy and re- 
 fractive and dispersive powers, and also a 
 similar specific gravity to the oriental dia- 
 mond. It fuses at a moderate heat, and ac- 
 quires the greatest brilliancy when remelted, 
 and kept for 2 or 3 days in a fused state, in 
 order to expel the superabundant alkali, and 
 perfect the refining (' Polytcch. Journ.'). The 
 
 products of the above formulie are not only 
 employed to imitate the diamond, but they 
 also form the basis of the other factitious gems. 
 (See above.) 
 
 7. (Yellow DIAMOND.) Strass, 500 gr. ; 
 glass of antimony, 10 gr. 
 
 Eagle Marine. From strass, 3840 gr. ; 
 copper stain, 72 gr. ; pure zafBre, 1 gr. 
 
 Emerald. 1. From strass, 7000 gr. ; car- 
 bonate of copper, 65 gr. ; glass of autiraon^, 
 7gr. 
 
 2. Paste, 960 gr. ; glass of antimony, 42 
 gr. ; oxide of cobalt, 3i gr. 
 
 3. (Douault-Wieland ) Paste, 4608 gr. ; 
 green oxide of copper, 42 gr. j oxide of chrome, 
 2gr. 
 
 4. (Lancjon.) Paste, 9612 gr. ; acetate of 
 copper, 72 gr. ; peroxide of iron, li gr. 
 
 Garnet. 1. Paste or strass, 1200 gr.; glass 
 of antimony, 580 gr. ; purple of cassius and 
 binoxide of manganese, of each 3 gr. 
 
 2. (Douault-Wieland.) Paste, 513 gr. ; glass 
 of antimony, 256 gr. ; purple of cassius aud 
 oxide of manganese, of each 2 gr. 
 
 3. (ViNEQAK GABNET.) From paste, 7000 
 gr. ; glass of antimony, 3460 gr. ; calcined 
 peroxide of iron, 56 gr. 
 
 Lapis Lazuli. From paste, 7000 gr. ; cal- 
 cined horn or bones, 570 gr. ; oxides of cobalt 
 and manganese, of each 24 gr. The golden 
 veins are produced by painting them on the 
 pieces with a mixture of gold powder, borax, 
 and gum water, and then gently heating them 
 until the borax fiuxes. 
 
 Opal. 1. From strass, 960 gr. ; calcined 
 bones, 48 gr. 
 
 2. (Fontanier.) Paste, 1 oz. ; horn silver, 
 10 jir. ; calcined magnetic ore, 2 gr. ; absorbent 
 earth (calcined bones), 26 gr. 
 
 Kuby. 1. Paste, 45 parts; binoxide of man- 
 ganese, 1 part. 
 
 2. Paste, 1 lb. ; purple of cassius, 3 dr. 
 
 3. (Douault-Wieland.) — a. From paste, 2880 
 parts ; oxide of manganese, 72 parts. 
 
 b. Topaz-paste that has turned out opaque, 
 1 part; strass, 8 parts; fuse them together for 
 30 hours, cool, and again fuse it in small pieces 
 before the blowpipe. Very fine. 
 
 4. (Fontanier.) Strass, 16 oz. ; precipitate 
 of cassius, peroxide of iron, golden sulphide of 
 antimony, aud manganese calcined with niti-e, 
 of each 168 gr. ; rock crystal, 2 oz., or more. 
 
 5. Paste and glass of antimony, of each 8 
 oz. ; rock crystal, 1 oz. ; purple of cassius, li 
 dr. Turns on the orange. 
 
 Sapphire. 1. From strass, 3600 gr. j oxide 
 of cobalt, 50 gr. ; oxide of manganese, 11 gr. 
 
 2. (Douault-Wieland.) Paste, 4608 gr.; 
 oxide of cobalt, 68 gr.; fuse in a little Hessian 
 crucible for 30 hours. 
 
 3. (Fontanier.) Paste, 8 oz. ; oxide of cobalt, 
 49 gr. 
 
 Topaz. 1. From strass, 1050 gr. ; glass of 
 antimony, 44 gr. ; purple of cassius, 1 gr. 
 
 2. (Douault-Wieland.) Paste, 3456 gr. j 
 calcined peroxide of iron, 36 gr. 
 
PASTELS— PASTIL 
 
 1245 
 
 Torqaoise. From blue paste, 20 to 24 parts ; 
 calcined bones, 1 part. 
 
 Concluding remark*. It in absolutely neces- 
 sary for the successful application of the pre- 
 ceding; foi-mulffl that the substances employed 
 should be perfectly free from impurities, more 
 particularly those of a mineral kind. The 
 iiilinrge, oxide of lead, and carbonate of lead, 
 above all thinj^s, must be entirely free from 
 oxide of tin, as the smallest particle of that 
 substnuce may impart a ' mlllsiness' to the 
 paste. All the ingredients must be separately 
 reduced to powder, and, after being mixed, 
 sifted through lawn. The fusion must be care- 
 fully conducted and continuous, and the melted 
 miiBs should be allowed to cool very slowly, 
 after liaviiig been left in the fire from 24 to 30 
 hours, at the least. Hessian crucibles are pre- 
 ferred for this purpose, and the heat of an 
 ordinary pottery or porcelain kiln is sufficient 
 in most casis ; but a small wiud-fnrnace, de- 
 voted exclusively to the purpose, is, in general, 
 more convenient. It is found that the more 
 tranquil, continuous, and uniform the fusion, 
 the denser and clearer is the paste, and the 
 greater its refractive power and beauty. 
 
 All the coloured vitreous compounds noticed 
 under Glass may be worked up as ornamental 
 stones, iu the same way as those just referred 
 to. 
 
 The following method of obtaining artifi- 
 cial rubies and emeralds, first pointed out 
 by BoSttg-cr, is exceedingly simple and inex- 
 pensive, and deserves the serious attention of 
 those interested in this ingenious art : — Re- 
 cently precipitated and well-washed hydrate of 
 alnmiuuni is nioisteued with a few drops of 
 neutral ehroniate of potassium, and kneaded 
 so that the mass assumes a tinge scircely pir- 
 ceptihle ; it is then rolled up into small sticks, 
 about the thiekness of a filnger, and slowly 
 dried, taking the precaution to fill the fissuns 
 (if any) that form during desiccation with 
 fresh hydrate of aluminum. When perfectly 
 dry, and alter having been submitted to a 
 gentle hiaf, one end of these sticks is brought 
 into the termination of the fiame of an oxy- 
 hydrogen blowpipe, until a portion of the mass 
 is fused into a small globule. After the lapse 
 of a few minutes, several minute balls form, 
 liaving a diumeter of some millimetres, and of 
 such intense hardness that quartz, glass, topaz 
 and granite, may be easily and perceptibly 
 scratched with them. These, when cut and 
 polished, appear, however, slightly opaque, 
 Uy employing nitrate of nickel in lieu of cliro- 
 niate of potassium, green-coloured globules, 
 closely resembling the emerald, are obtained. 
 
 By the substitution of oxide of chromium 
 for chromate of potassmm, Mr Cooley pro- 
 duced factitious gems of considerable hard- 
 ness and beauty, though sliglitly opaque iu 
 some portion of the mass. The addition of a 
 very little silica prevented, in a great measure, 
 this tendency to opacity. 
 
 It may bo observed that the beauty of 
 
 pastes of factitious gems, and especially the 
 brilliancy of mock diamonds, is greatly de- 
 pending upon the cutting, setting up, aud 
 the skilful arrangement of the f'ul or tinsel 
 behind them. See Enambl, Foils, Gems, 
 Glass, &c. 
 
 PAS'IELS. [Fr.] Coloured crayons. 
 
 PAS'TIL. Syn. Pastille; Pastu.lus, Pas- 
 TlLLUM, L. A lozenge or confection. The 
 pastilles (PASTILLI) of French pharmacy, are 
 merely ' confectionery drops' aromatised or 
 medicated. The name is also given to mix- 
 tures or odorous substances made up into 
 small cones aud burnt as ineeuse. (See 
 belom). 
 
 PastUs, Ezplo'sive. Fumigating pastilles, 
 containing a little gunpowder. U-ed to pro- 
 duce diversion, but they often prove far from 
 harmless. 
 
 Pastils, Fumiga'ting. Syn. Abomatio pas- 
 tilles, Incensk P.J Pastilli fdmasies, P. 
 ODOBATI, L. Prep. 1. Benzoin, 4 oz. ; cas- 
 carilla, i oz, ; nitre and gum Arabic, of each 
 3 dr, ; myrrh, 1 dr. ; oils of nutniig and 
 cloves, of each 25 drops ; charcoal, 7 oz. ; 
 all in tine powder; beat them to a smooth 
 ductile mass with cold water, q. ». ; form it 
 into small cones with a tripod b ise, and dry 
 them in the air. 
 
 2. (Henry and Guibourt.) Powdered gum 
 benzoin, 16 parts; balsam of tolu and pow- 
 dered sandal wood, of each 4 parts ; a light 
 charcoal (Linden), 48 parts ; powdered tnga- 
 canth and true labdanum, of each 1 part; 
 powdered nitre and gum Arabic, of each 2 
 parts ; cinnamon water, 12 parts ; as above. 
 
 3. (P. Cod.) Benzoin, 2 oz. ; balsau) of 
 tolu and yellow snndal wood, of each 1. dr.; 
 nitre, 2 dr. ; labdanum, 1 dr. ; charcoal, 
 6 oz. ; mix with a solution of gum traga- 
 canth, and divide the ni.jss into pastilles, as 
 before. 
 
 4. (Pastilles a la elette D'OBiNas.) For 
 powdered roses in the next (brniula substitute 
 pure orange powder, and for the essence of 
 roses use pure neroli. 
 
 5. (Pastilles A la eose.) Gum benzoin, 
 olit>anum (in tears) and styrax (in tears), of 
 each 12 oz. ; nitre, 9 oz. ; charcoal, 4 lbs. ; 
 powder of pale roses, 1 lb. ; essence of roses, 
 1 oz. ; mix with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth, dis- 
 solved in rose water, 1 quart. 
 
 6. (Pastilles k la Vanillb.) Gum ben- 
 zoin, styrax, and olibanum (as last), of eai h 
 12 oz. ; nitre, 10 oz. ; cloves, 8 oz. ; powdered 
 vanilla, 1 lb. ; charcoal, 4J lbs. ; oil of cloves, 
 J oz. ; essence of vanilla, 7 or 8 11. oz. ; as 
 before. 
 
 Obs. The products of the above formula 
 are all of excellent quality. They may be 
 varied to please the fancy of the artiste, by 
 the addition or substitution of other perfumes 
 or aromatics. Cheaper pastilles may be made 
 by simply increasing the quantity of the char- 
 coal and saltpetre. The whole of the ingre- 
 dients should be reduced to line powder bctorc 
 
1246 
 
 PASTRY 
 
 mixing them. The use of musk and civet, so 
 often ordered in pastilles, should be avoided, 
 as they yield a disagreeable odour when 
 burned. The addition of a little camphor 
 renders them more suitable for a sick chamber. 
 The simplest and most convenient way of 
 forming the mass into cones is by pressing it 
 into a mould of lead or porcelain. 
 
 Pastilles are burned either to diffuse a plea- 
 sant odour, or to cover a disagreeable one. For 
 this purpose they are kindled at the apex 
 and set on an inverted saucer or a penny 
 piece to burn. Persons who use them fre- 
 quently employ a small china or porcelain toy 
 (' pastile house') sold for the purpose. 
 
 Pastils, Mouth. Si/». Bbeath pill, Ca- 
 
 CHOU LOZENOEB ; PaSXILLI COSMETICI, L. ; 
 
 ^Cachoc abomatise, C. aeomatique, C. de 
 BoLoaNA, Gbains de oaohotj, Fr. Prep. 1. 
 Soft extract of liquorice, 3 oz. ; gum catechu 
 and white sugar, of each 1 oz. ; gum traga- 
 canth (powdered), J oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; 
 oil of cassia, i dr. ; essence of ambergris and 
 oil of nutmeg, of each 12 drops ; make a 
 firm mass with rose or orange-flower water, 
 q. s., and divide it into one-grain pills ; when 
 ttiese are dry, cover them with gold or silver 
 leaf. 
 
 2. Solazzi juice (dried by a gentle heat and 
 powdered), 4 oz. ; lump sugar, 3 oz. ; pow- 
 dered catechu, 2 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 1 
 oz. J oil of cloves, 2 fl, dr.; oil of cassia, 
 1 fl. dr. ; white of egg or rose water, q. o. to 
 form a piU-mjtss ; as before. 
 
 3. Powderptl catechu, 1 oz.; Salazzi juice, 
 4 oz. ; lump su^'ar, 12 oz. ; oils of cloves, cassia, 
 and peppermint, of each 1 fl. dr.; mucilage of 
 tragacanth, q. s. to mix; as before. 
 
 4. Extract of liquorice (soft), 2 oz. ; white 
 sugar, 3 oz. ; powdered tragacanth and casca- 
 rilla (or orris root), of each J oz. ; oil of cloves, 
 i fl. dr. ; oil of cassia, 12 drops, water, q. o. ; 
 as before. 
 
 5. (Chevallier.) Powdered cofi'ee, chocolate 
 and sup;ar, of each 1^ oz. ; powdered vanilla, 
 and freshly burnt charcoal, of each 1 oz. ; 
 mucilage of tragacanth, q. s. 
 
 6. CliloriJe of lime (dry and good), 1 dr. ; 
 white 8Ui:;ar, 3 oz. ; powdered tragacanth, 
 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 30 drops ; rose water, q. s. 
 To disinfect tlie breath. 
 
 Ois. Almost every maker employs his own 
 forms for these articles. The objects to he 
 aimed at are the possession of rather power- 
 ful and persistent odour, and a toughness to 
 prevent their too rapid solution in the mouth. 
 The original Italian formula included liquorice, 
 mastic, cascarilla, charcoal orris root, oil of 
 peppermint, and the tincturesol' ambergris and 
 musk, hut is now seldom employed in this 
 country. The flavour of peppermint does not, 
 indeed, appear to be approved of by English 
 smokers. Sometimes, instead of being made 
 perfectly spherical, they are flattened a little. 
 
 Cachou X l' Ambke Geis, Cachou A la 
 Canelle, Cachou a la Flbub d'Oeange, 
 
 Cachou Mttsque, Cachou A xa Rose, Ca- 
 chou A LA Vanille, Cachou A la Violette, 
 &c., are merely flavoured and scented respec- 
 tively with the essences or oils of ambergris, 
 cinnamon, neroli, musk, rose vanilla, violets, 
 &c. See Breath, Cachou Abomatise, Lo- 
 zenoes, Pills, &c. 
 
 PA"STEY. Articles of food made of ' paste' 
 or dough, or of which ' paste' forms a principal 
 and characteristic ingredient. The word is 
 popularly restricted to those which contain 
 puff paste, or such as form the staple pro- 
 duction of the modern pastrycook ; but it is, 
 in reality, of much more general signification. 
 
 Several varieties of paste are prepared for 
 different purposes, of which the following are 
 the principal : — 
 
 Pupp Paste. The production of a first 
 class puflf paste is commonly regarded as a 
 matter of considerable difficulty, but by the 
 exercise of the proper precautions it is, on the 
 contrary, an extremely simple affair. This 
 paste, before being placed in the oven, consists 
 of alternate laminae of butter or fat and ordi- 
 nary flour dough, tjje latter being, of course, 
 _the thicker of the two. During the process 
 of baking, the elastic vapour disengaged, being 
 in part restrained from flying off by the but- 
 tered surfaces of the dough, diffuses itself 
 between these laminse, and causes the mass to 
 swell up, and to form an assemblage of thin 
 membranes or flakes, each of which is more 
 or less separated from the other. Individually, 
 these flukes resemble those of an ordinary rich 
 unleavened dough when baked ; but, collec- 
 tively, they form a very light crust, possessing 
 an extremely inviting appearance and an 
 agreeable flavour. 
 
 The precautions above referred to are — the 
 use of perfectly dry flour, and its conversion 
 into dough with a light hand, avoiding un- 
 necessarily working it, — the use of butter free 
 from water or buttermilk, and which has been 
 reduced to precisely the same degree of plas- 
 ticity as the dough between which it is to he 
 rolled, — conducting the operation in a cool 
 apartment, and, after the second or third 
 folding of the dough, exposing it to a rather 
 low temperature before proceeding further 
 with the process ; and, lastly, — -baking the 
 paste in a moderately smart but not too hot 
 an oven. The following are examples : — 
 
 1. (Rich.) Take of flour, 1 lb. ; butter, J 
 lb. ; cold spring water, q. s. ; make a mode- 
 rately soft flexible dough, then roll in (as 
 described above) of dry fresh butter, i lb. 
 
 2. (Ordinary.) Take of flour, 1 lb. ; cold 
 water, q. s ; make a dough, and roll in, as 
 before, of butter, 6 oz. 
 
 3. (Rundell.) Take i peck of flour, rub 
 into it 1 lb. of butter, and make a ' light paste' 
 with cold water, just stiff enough to work 
 well) next lay it out about as thick as a 
 crown-piece; put a layer of butter all over it, 
 sprinkle on a little flour, double it up, and roll 
 it out again; by repeating this «ith fresh 
 
PATENT MEDICINES 
 
 1247 
 
 Inyers of butter three or four times, or of tener, 
 a very liglit paste will be formed. Bake it in 
 a moderately quick oven. 
 
 4. (Soyer.) Put 1 lb. of flour upon your 
 paatry slab, make a hole in the centre, into 
 which put a tenspoonful of salt, mix it with 
 cold water into a softish flexibfe pa»te with 
 the ri^ht hand, dry it off a little with flour 
 until you have well cleared the paste from the 
 ■lab, but do not work it more than yon can 
 possibly help ; let it remain for 2 or 3 minutes 
 upon the slab, then take 1 lb. of fresh butter 
 from which you have squeezed all the butter- 
 milk in u cloth, and brought to the same con- 
 sistency as the paste, upon which phice it ; 
 press it out flat with the hand, then fold over 
 the edges of the past so as to hide the butter, 
 and reduce it with the rolling-pin to the thick- 
 ness of about i an inch, when it will be about 
 two feet in length ; fold over one third, over 
 which again pass the rolling-pin ; then fold 
 over the otlier third, thus forming a square; 
 place it with the ends top and bottom before 
 you, shaking a little flour both under and 
 over, and repeat the rolls and turns twice 
 iigiiin as before ; flour a ' baking-sheet,' upon 
 which lay it, on ice, if handy, or otherwise, in 
 some cool place, for about half an hour ; then 
 roll it twice more, turning it as before, and 
 again place it upon ice or in the cold for i of au 
 liour; next give it two more rolls, making 
 seven in all, and it is ready for use. " You 
 must continually add enough flour while rolling 
 to prevent your paste sticking to the slab." 
 
 Half-i>i'fp Pastb. As the preceding, using 
 only one half the quantity of butter, and giv- 
 ing the paste only 3 or 4 folds. 
 
 Shobt Paste, Suoet Cebst. — 1. Flour 
 (dry and warm), 1 lb.; sugar, 3 oz. ; butter, 
 i lb. ; 2 eggs ; water, i pint; make a light 
 dough. If one half of • Jones's patent flour 
 be used, no eggs will be required. 
 
 2. (Soyer.) Put on the ' paste slab ' or ■ pie 
 board ' 1 lb. of flour, 2 oz. of pounded sugar, 
 6 oz. of butter, I egg, 4 teaspoonf ul of s-ilt, and 
 i pint of water; mix the sugar and water 
 well together, adil them with the water by 
 degrees to the flour, and form u paste, but 
 firmer than puft" paste. 
 
 PiB Paste. That commonly used is ' short 
 paste,' varied at will ; hut at good table* the 
 upper crust of the pie is generally made of 
 *pnir paste,' and the remainder of ' short 
 paste.' 
 
 Podding Paste. This for baked puddings 
 may resemble the last. For boiled puddings 
 (or indeed lor any), the paste may be either 
 ordinary 'short paste,' or one made with 2 to 
 6 oz. of butter or lard, or 3 to 8 oz. of chopped 
 beef suet, to each lb. of flour, with or without 
 an egg, and a litile sugar, according to the 
 means of the parties. The first is most appro- 
 priate fur those containing fresh Iruit, and 
 that with suet for meat puddings, and those 
 containing diied fruit, as grocers curnmts, 
 plums, &c. Jlilk or milk-and-water is often 
 
 used instead of simple water to make the 
 dough. Ginger, spices, savory herbs, &c, are 
 common additions to the crusts of puddings. 
 Where economy is an object, and especially 
 among the lower classes, kitchen fat is fre- 
 quently substituted for suet, and lard for 
 butter. When ' Jones's patent flour' is em- 
 ployed, an excellent plain pudding paste may 
 be made by simply mixing it up with very 
 cold water, and immediately putting it into 
 the water, which should be boiling, and kept 
 in that state until the pudding is dressed. 
 
 PA'TENT MED'ICIHES. Syn. Mbdioa- 
 MENTA abcana, L. The majority of the pre- 
 parations noticed undei this bead are the 
 nostrums popularly termed ' quack medicines,' 
 and which are sold with a Government stamp 
 attached to them. A few other secret or 
 proprietary remedies are also, for convenience, 
 included in the list. An alphabetical arrange- 
 ment, based on the names of the reputed 
 inventors or proprietors of the articles, has 
 been adopted, as being the one best suited for 
 easy reference. The composition of a number 
 of them is given from careful personal inspec- 
 tion and analysis (by Mr Cooley), and that of 
 the remainder on the authority of Gray, Grif- 
 fith, Paris, Redwood, the members of the 
 Philadelphia College of pharmaiy, and other 
 respectable writers. A variety of articles, not 
 included in the following list, is noticed along 
 with other preparations for the class to which 
 they belong, or imder the names of their pro- 
 prietors. See Balsam, Cekate, Drops, Eb- 
 
 BE.NCE, TiNCTUEE, OINTMENT. PlI,L9, &C. 
 
 Ahernethy's Fills. See Abeenbthy jMbdi- 
 
 OINES. 
 
 Albinolo's Ointment. See Holi.owat'8 
 Ointment (below). 
 
 All Ahmed's Treasures of the Desert. There 
 are three preparations included under this 
 name : — 
 
 a. (Antiseptic Malagma.) From lead 
 plaster, 3 parts ; gum, thus and sahid oil, of 
 each 2 parts; beeswax, Ipart; melted to- 
 gether by a gentle heat, and spread upon 
 calico. 
 
 b. (Pectohai, Antiphthisis, or Cough 
 Pills.) From myrrh, 8i lbs.; squills and 
 ipecacuanha, of each 1 lb. (all in powder) ; 
 white soft soap, 10 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 1^ oz ; 
 treacle, q. s. to form a pill mass. 
 
 e. (Sphairopbptic or Antibilious Pitts.) 
 From aloes, 28 lbs. ; colocynth pulp, 12 lbs.; 
 rhubarb, 71bs. ; myrrh andscammony, of each 
 3 J lbs. ; ipecacuanha, 3 lbs. ; cardamom seeds, 
 2 lbs. (all in powder) ; soft soap, 9 lbs. ; oil 
 of juniper, 7 fl.oz.; treacle, q. a. This, as well 
 as the last, is divided into 3i gr. pills, which 
 are then covered with tin foil or silver leaf. 
 An eNcellent aperient pill, no doubt, and one 
 likely to prove useful in all those ca^es in 
 which the administration of a mild diaphoretic 
 and stomachic purge is indicated. Unlike 
 many of the advertised nostrums of the day, 
 theie is nothing in their compo-ition that cm 
 
1248 
 
 PATENT MEDICINES 
 
 by any possibility, prove injurious ; but beyond 
 this they are destitute of virtue. 
 
 Anderson's Scot's Pills. See PiLia. 
 
 Atkinson's Infant Preservative. From car- 
 bonate of magnesia, 6 dr. ; white sugar, 2 oz. ; 
 oil of aniseed, 20 drops j spirit of sal volatile, 
 2i dr. ; laudanum, 1 dr, ; syrup of saffron, 1 
 02.; caraway water to make up 1 pint. 
 
 Balm of Kackasiri. Hee Balsam. 
 
 Balsam of Life. St/n. Baume de tib, Fr. 
 Several compound medicines of this name are 
 noticed on page 261. The following are well- 
 known nostrums : — 
 
 1. (Hoffman's) — a. Of the oils of cinnamon, 
 cloves, lemon, lavender, and nutmegs, and bal- 
 sam of Peru, of each 2 dr. ; essence of amber- 
 gris, oil of amber, and oil of rue, of each 1 dr. ; 
 cochineal, 12 gr. ; strongest rectified spirit, 3i 
 pints ; mix. 
 
 b. (Ph. Dan. 1840.) Oils of cinnamon, cloves, 
 lavender, and nutmegs, of each 20 gr. ; puri- 
 fied oil of amber, 10 drops ; balsam of Peru, 
 30 gr. ; rectified spirit (tinged with alkanet 
 root), 10 oz. 
 
 2. (Gabius's.) Kearly similar to Hofl'- 
 mann's. 
 
 3. (Turlington's.) Benzoin and liquid sty- 
 rax, of each 12 oz. ; balsam of tolu and ex- 
 tract of liquorice, of each 4 oz. ; balsam of 
 Peru, 2 oz. ; aloes, myrrh, and angelica root, 
 of each 1 oz. ; highly rectified spirit of wine, 
 7 pints ; digest, with frequent agitation for 
 10 day.i, and filter. Externally, the above are 
 rubefacient and corroborant; internally, sti- 
 mulant, cordial, and pectoral. 
 
 Betton's British Oil. From oil of turpentine, 
 1 pint ; Bavbadoes tar, 4 lb. ; oil of rosemary, 
 1 fl. oz. 
 
 Blake's Green-mountain Ointment. We are. 
 told that the active ingredient in this com- 
 pound is Arnica woM^awa, with a basis of soap 
 cerate. It is very useful as an external appli- 
 cations in several affections. The chief ob- 
 jection to its use is that it is a secret prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 Blake's Toothache Essence. From alum, in 
 fine powder, 1 dr. ; sweet spirit of nitre, 5 dr. 
 
 Boerhaave's Odontalgic Essence. From 
 opium, 4 dr. ; oil of cloves, 5 dr. ; powdered 
 camphor, 5 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1^ fi. oz. 
 
 Bouchardat's Tasteless Aperient. From 
 phosphate of soda, | oz., placed in a soda-water 
 bottle, which is then filled up with carbonated 
 water, at the bottling machine. For a dose. 
 
 Brand's Tooth Tincture. From pellitory of 
 Spain (bruised), 1 oz. ; camphor, f oz. ; opium, 
 \ oz. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; digested for 10 days 
 in rectified spirit, i pint. 
 
 Brodnm's Nervous Cordial. Frep. 1. "Ori- 
 ginally it consisted simply of an infusion of 
 gentian root in English gin, coloured and fla- 
 voured with a little red lavender (compound 
 spirit of lavender.). After a time the doctor 
 added a little hark to the nostrum, and subse- 
 quently made other additions." (' Anat. of 
 Quackery.') 
 
 2. (Paris.) Tinctures of gentian, calumbai 
 cardamoms, and cinchona, compound spirits of 
 lavender, and steel wine, of each equal parts. 
 " It is tonic, stomachic, and stimulant ; but, 
 beyond these, possesses no curative properties." 
 (' Anat. of Quackery.') 
 
 CtaloTodyue. This nostrum, which was first 
 introduced as "a combination of perchloric 
 acid with a new alkaloid," has become a popu- 
 lar anodyne and sedative. Several prepara- 
 tions are sold under this name, and the claims 
 of the rival makers have occasioned some 
 expensive lawsuits. The name was undoubt- 
 edly invented by Dr J. Collis Browne, but 
 Mr Freeman, pharmaceutical chemist, claims 
 to be the inventor of the preparation. Whether 
 Browne's and Freeman's ' chlorodynes ' are 
 essentially the same, we are not able to deter- 
 mine, but we know that there is not the 
 slightest foundation for the statements made 
 by each manufacturer respecting the new 
 vegetiible principle contained in his medicine. 
 Chlorodyne, in every one of its forms, is simply 
 a mixture of certain well-known materials, 
 some of which are rather dangerous ingre- 
 dients for a popular nostrum. According to 
 the analysis of Dr Odgen, Browne's chloro- 
 dyne is composed as follows : — 
 
 Chloroform, 6 dr.; chloric ether, 1 dr.; 
 tincture of capsicum, J dr. ; oil of peppermint, 
 2 drops; hydrochlorate of morphine, 8 gr. ; 
 Scheele's hydrocyanic acid, 12 drops ; per- 
 chloric acid, 20 drops; tincture of Indian 
 hemp, 1 dr.; treacle, 1 dr. ' Towle's chloro- 
 dyne ' is prepared according to this formula, 
 the ingredients being named on the label. 
 
 Clarke's Conglutinum. See Conglxttinum. 
 
 Cochrane's Congh Bemedy. Acidulated syrup 
 of poppies. 
 
 Corn Nostrums. See Corn. 
 
 Cottereau's Odontalgic Essence. A nearly 
 saturated ethereal solution of camphor, mixed 
 with about -r-jth of its volume of strong liquor 
 of ammonia. 
 
 Curtis's Anti- venereal Lotion. A mixture 
 of Beaufoy's solution of chloride of lime, 2 fl. 
 oz., with cold soft water, 8 fl. oz. For use, 1 to 
 2 table-spoonfuls are put into a wine-glassful 
 of water. 
 
 Dalby's Carminative. 1. (Dr Paris.) Car- 
 bonate of magnesia, 40 gr. ; tincture of castor 
 and compound tincture of cardamoms, of each 
 30 drops ; tincture of assafoetida, and spirit of 
 pennyroyal, of each 15 drops ; laudanum, 
 5 drops ; oil of aniseed, 3 drops ; oil of nut- 
 meg, 2 drops; oil of peppermint, 1 drop; 
 peppermint water, 2 fl. oz. — Dose, J to 1 tea- 
 spoouful. The bottle should be well shakea 
 before pouring it out. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) Carbonate of magnesia, 
 1 oz. ; tincture of castor, 5 fl. dr. ; tincture of 
 assafoetida, 3 fl. dr. ; oils of aniseed and penny- 
 royal, of each J fl. dr. ; oil of nntmeg, 15 
 drops ; syrup of poppies, 7 oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 34 fl. oz. ; peppermint water, i pint ; as 
 before. 
 
PATENT MEDICINES 
 
 1249 
 
 Davidson's Cancer Kerned;. A mixture of 
 arsenions acid and hemlock, both in powder. 
 (Dr Paris.) 
 
 Baria's Calorific. The 'liquid' is com- 
 mercial acetic acid (sp. gfr. 1048), diluted with 
 about an equal volume of water, and coloured 
 with burnt sugar or spirit colouring. The 
 * BUIELD ' consists of a piece of red flannel 
 backed with oil sldn, to prevent evaporation. 
 A few drops of calorific are sprinkled on 
 the flannel, which is then bound over the 
 ftlTertiid part. The heat of the body gradually 
 volatilises the acetic acid, and the escape of 
 the vapour being prevented by the oil skin, a 
 strongly counter-irritant action is set up. 
 
 Derbyshire's Embrocation. From opium and 
 mottled sonp, of each a oz. ; extract of henbane, 
 2 dr. J and mace, 4 dr. j boiled for 30 minutes, 
 in water, 3 pints ; to the cold liquor, rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart, and liquor of ammonia, 1 fl. oz., 
 are added, and, after repose, the clear portion 
 is decanted. A preventive of sea-sickness. 
 
 Deshler's Cerate. Yellow basilicon. 
 
 Duncan's Oout ffledicine. See Gout. 
 
 Dutch Agne Remedy. A mixture formed of 
 Peruvian bark and cream of tartar, of each 
 
 1 oz. ; cloves, J dr. ; reduced to fine powder. 
 — Dose, li dr., every 3 hours. (Dr Paris.) 
 
 Godfrey's Cordial, 1. (Original formula.) 
 Opium (sliced), i oz. j sassafras chips 1 oz. ; 
 English brandy, 1 quart ; macerate for 4 or 5 
 days, then add, of water, 1 quart, treucle, 
 3i lbs., and simmer the whole gently for a 
 few minutes j the next day decant the clear 
 portion. 
 
 2. (Dr Paris.) Aniseed, caraways, and eori- 
 nndcrs, of oach, bruised, 1 oz. ; sassafi'as chips, 
 9 oz. ; water, 6 pints ; simmer gently until 
 reduced to 4 pints, then add of treacle, 6 lbs.; 
 and when nearly cold, further add of tincture 
 tt opium, 3 fl oz. 
 
 3. (Phil. Coll. of Phar.) Carbonate of potnssa, 
 21 oz. ; water, 26 pints (old wine measure) ; 
 dissolve, add of sugar-house molasses (treacle), 
 16 pints (o. w. m.) ; simmer the mixture, re- 
 move the scum, and when it has considerably 
 cooled, add of tincture of opium, 24 fl. oz. ; 
 oil of sassafras, J fl. oz. ; (dissolved in) recti- 
 fied spirit, 1 quart (o. w. m.) It contains 
 about 16 drops of laudanum ( = l^gr. of 
 opium) in each fl. oz. 
 
 The following forms are also current in the 
 wholesale trade : — 
 
 4. Prom molasses, 16 lbs.; distilled water, 
 2} galls.; oil of sassafras, 1 fl. oz.; (dissolved 
 in) rectified spirit, i gull.; bruised ginger, 
 J oz. ; cloves, i oz. ; laudanum, 8 fl. oz. ; 
 macerate for 14 days, and strain through 
 flannel. 
 
 5. Sassafras chips, lib. ; ginger (bruised), 
 4 ox. ; water, 3 galls. ; simmer until reduced to 
 
 2 gulls. ; tnen add of treacle, 16 lbs. ; rectified 
 spirit, 7 lbs. ; laudanum, 1 pint. 
 
 6. Opium, J oz.; treacle, 7 lbs.; boiling 
 water, 1 gall.; dissolve, and add, of rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart ; oil of sassafrass, i dr. ; cloves 
 
 TOL. II. 
 
 and mustard seed, of each J oz. ; coriander 
 and caraway seeds, of each 1 dr. ; digest for a 
 week. 
 
 7. Caraways, corianders, and aniseed, of each 
 1 lb. ; water, 6 galls. ; disti I 5 galls., and add, of 
 treacle, 23 lbs. ; laudanum, 1 quart ; and oil of 
 sassafras, 1 fl. oz., previously dissolved in recti- 
 fied spirit, 1 gall. 
 
 Ob». This preparation is anodyne and nar- 
 cot'c, and, amongst the lower classes, is com- 
 monly given to children troubled with ^ind 
 or colic. Its frequent and excessive use has 
 sent many infants prematnrely to the grave. 
 Gray says, " It is chiefly used to prevent the 
 crying of children in pain or starving." The 
 dose is i teaspoonful and upwards, according 
 to the age and susceptibility of the child. 
 
 Grave's Gout Preventive. A tincture pre- 
 pared by steeping, for a week, dried orange 
 peel and hiera picra, of each 1 oz., and rhu- 
 barb, i oz., in brandy, 1 pint. 
 
 Grinrod's Remedy for Spasms. From ace- 
 tate of morphia, 1 gr. ; spirit of sal volatile and 
 sulphuric ether, of each 1 fl. oz. ; camphor 
 julep, 4 11. oz. ; for a mixture. It should be 
 kept closely corked, in a cool place, and should 
 be well shaken before use. — Dose. A tea- 
 spoonful in a glass of cold water or wine, 
 lis required. It is ■■ really valuable prepa- 
 ration. 
 
 Herrendschwand's Specific. A mixture of 
 giimboge, 10 gr., with carbonate of potassa, 
 20 gr. (Dr Paris.) 
 
 Holloway's Ointment. The original formula 
 of Albinolo's ointment, of which this pre- 
 tends to be a reproduction, contained the 
 " graisses der serpent et de vip&re," and other 
 pharmaceutical curiosities. The principal in- 
 gredients, however, in the Hollovtay's oint- 
 ment of the present day are very homely 
 substances. In the case of Silleu v. HoUoway, 
 tried at the Court of Common Pleas in Jan\iary, 
 1863, the plaintifE's counsel asserted that, on 
 the ointment being received by the agent in 
 Paris, it was submitted to the authorised 
 government chemists to be analysed, in accord- 
 ance with the laws of France prohibiting the 
 sale of secret remedies, and was found by them 
 to contain butter, lard, Venice turpentine, white 
 wax, yellow wax, and nothing else. In a 
 letter to the 'Times' Mr Holloway stated 
 that the French analysis was incorrect, for 
 three of the ingredients named were not in the 
 ointment, while there were other components 
 which the analysts had not discovered. The 
 formula adopted by those who prepare an imi- 
 tation ointment on the large scale, and wbiih 
 closely resembles, if it be not actually identical 
 with, "that employed by Mr Holloway, is as 
 follows : — Fresh butter (free from water), Jib.; 
 beeswax (good), 4 oz.; yellow resin, 3 oz. ; 
 melt them together, add of vinegar of eantha- 
 rides, 1 fl. oz., and simmer the whole, with 
 constant agitation, for 10 or 12 minutes, or 
 until the moisture is nearly evaporated ; then 
 add of Canada balsam, 1 oz. j expressed oil of 
 
 79 
 
1350 
 
 PATENT MEDICINES 
 
 mace, i dr. ; balsam of Peru or liquid styrax, 
 10 or 12 drops ; again stir well, allow the 
 mixture to settle, and wheu it is about half 
 cold (not before) pour it into the pots, pre- 
 viously slightly warmed, and allow it to cool 
 very slowly. The label will do the rest. No 
 two samples of Holloway's ointment are pre- 
 cisely of the same colour or consistence. 
 
 Holloway's Fills. From aloes, 4 parts; jalap, 
 ginger, and myrrh, of each 2 parts ; made into 
 a mass with mucilage, and divided into 2-grain 
 pills, of which about 4 dozen are put into each 
 Is. IJd. box. 
 
 Jackson's Bathing Spirit. A species of soap 
 liniment, made of soft soap, 1 lb. ; camphor, 
 6 oz. ; oils of rosemary and thyme, of each f fl. 
 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall. 
 
 Kaye's Infant's Preservative. A preparation 
 partaking of the joint properties of Atkinson's 
 nostrum and Godfrey's cordial, but more pow- 
 erful than either, as indicated by the doses 
 in which it is directed to be given during 
 early infancy, viz. " two, three, or more 
 drops." 
 
 Keating's Cough Lozenges. These are said 
 to be composed of — Lactucarium, 2 dr. ; ipe- 
 cacuanha, 1 dr.; squills,! dr.; extract of liquo- 
 rice, 2 oz. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; made into a mass with 
 mucilage of tragacantb, and divided into 20-gr. 
 lozenges. 
 
 King's Sarsaparilla Pills. Prom the com- 
 pound extract. "Instead of two pills being 
 equivalent to 4 fl. oz. of the concentrated decoc- 
 tion or essence of sarsaparilla, as asserted, it 
 takes about 32 of them to represent the given 
 quantity, and about 4 of them to be equal in 
 strength to the common decoction of the Phar- 
 macopoeia." " Instead of one 2s. 9d. box of 
 these pills being equal to a pint of the costly 
 concentrated fluid preparation, it would take 
 nearlylj lb. of them for that purpose." ('Med. 
 Circ.,' ii, 493.) 
 
 Kitchener's Peristaltic Persuaders. See 
 Pills. 
 
 Lambert's Asthmatic Balsam. The active 
 ingredients in this compound are said to be 
 squills and aqueous extract of opium. 
 
 Lemaznrier's Odontalgic Essence. From ace- 
 tate of morphia, 1 gr. ; dissolved in cherry- 
 laurel water, 1 oz. For use, a teaspoonful is 
 added to half a wine-glassful of warm water, 
 and the mouth well rinsed out with the mix- 
 ture. 
 
 Leroy's Purgative. — a. (No. 1.) Vegetable 
 turbith, 6 dr. ; scammony, li oz. ; jalap, 6 oz. ; 
 brandy, 10 pints ; digest for 24 hours, and add 
 a syrup made of senna, 6 oz. ; water, 14 pint ; 
 sugar, 32 oz. 
 
 b. (No. 2.) As the last, only one third 
 stronger, 
 
 c. (No. 3.) Twice as strong as No. 1. 
 Lewis's Electnarium. A liquid nostrum,'said 
 
 to bo alterative and to contain a small quantity 
 •of both antimony and mercury. 
 
 Lewis's Balsamic Ointment. This prepara- 
 tion, which is declared by its proprietor to 
 
 be " utterly unsurpassable," for the most part 
 resemble Holloway's ointment. ('Med. Circ.,' 
 ii, 493.) 
 
 Lewis's Silver Cream. This nostrum is said 
 to depend for its efficacy on white precipitate 
 and a salt of lead. 
 
 Locoek's Pulmonic Lozenges. See Wafbes. 
 
 Mahomed's Paste. See Eleotuaet. 
 
 Mardant's Norton's Drops. A mixture of 
 the tinctures of gentian and ginger, holding in 
 •solution a little bichloride of mercury, and 
 coloured with cochineal. 
 
 Marriott's Dry Vomit. A mixture of equal 
 parts of tartar emetic and sulphate of copper. 
 
 Marsden's Drops. A coloured solution of 
 corrosive sublimate. (Dr Paris.) 
 
 Matthien's Vermifuge. — a. (To destroy the 
 worms.) Tin filings, 1 oz. ; male fern root, 6 dr. ; 
 worm seed, 4 dr. ; resinous extract of jalap and 
 sulphate of potassa, of each 1 dr. ; honey, q. s. 
 to form an electuary. — Dose. A teaspoonful, 
 repeated every third or fourth hour for 2 or 3 
 days, when the following is to be substituted, 
 and continued until the bowels are well 
 acted on. 
 
 6. (To expel the worms.) Jalap and sul- 
 phate of potassa, of each 40 gr. ; scammony, 
 20 gr. ; gamboge, 10 gr. ; honey, q. o. as 
 before. 
 
 McKinsey's Golden Cerate. This appears to 
 resemble Poor Man's Friend. 
 
 McKinsey's Katapotia. This notorious nos- 
 trum is compounded of aloes, 5 oz. ; soap, 
 1^ oz. (both in powder) ; beaten up with syrup 
 of saffron and a little essential oil, and divided 
 into pills varying in weight from 2 to 2^ gr. 
 each. (' Med. Circ.,' iv, 86). 
 
 McKinsey's Medicinal Powder. Sy». Rev. 
 T. Smith's m.p. From dried lavender flowers 
 and rosemary tops, of each 2i oz. ; asarabacca, 
 1 oz. ; reduced to powder, and further dis- 
 guised with a little perfume. A very small 
 quantity of subsulphate of mercury is also most 
 probably added. Two or three pinches of this 
 powder, taken 3 or 4 times a day as snufE, is 
 said by the proprietor to be sufficient to cure 
 almost every known disease. See Asaba- 
 
 BACCA. 
 
 Morison's Aperient Powder. A mixture of 
 cream of tartar and lump sugar, in nearly 
 equal proportions, with sufficient powdered 
 cassia to give it an aromatic flavour. See 
 Pills. 
 
 Morison's Adhesive Paste. See Plaster. 
 
 OUivier's Biscuits. Take of the white of 2 
 eggs; water, f pint; beat them together, 
 strain the mixture, and add to it a solution 
 of bichloride of mercury, 76 gr. ; collect the 
 precipitate, wash, dry, powder, and carefully 
 weigh it; next add to it such a quantity of 
 flour, &c., that each 2-dr. biscnit may contain 
 exactly f gr. 
 
 Papier Fayard, See Papee (Gout). 
 
 Pate Arseuicale. A powder composed of 
 arsenious acid, 8 gr.; dragon's blood, 22 gr.; 
 cinnabar, 70 gr. It is to be made into a paste 
 
PATENT MEDICINES 
 
 1251 
 
 with the saliva at the time of applying it. A 
 favourite remedy in caacer on the Continent. 
 (Dr ParU). 
 
 Ferry's Balm of Syriacnm. From Engiiah 
 gin, 1 pint; moist sugar, } lb.; (dissolved iu) 
 water, 4 oz. j mix, and add of paregDric (Tinct. 
 Camph. Co.— Ph. L. 1836), 1 oz j tinctjire of 
 tolu, ) oz. ; tincture of cantbarides, q. s. ; to- 
 getlier with a few drops each of the oils of 
 aniseed and spearmint; agitate well together, 
 and the next day filter, or decant the clear 
 portion. 
 
 Ferry's Preventive IiOtion. This is said to 
 be a soluticjn of sal alembroth, 2 dr., in water, 
 
 1 pint. For use, it is diluted with 4 or 5 times 
 its bulls of water. 
 
 Fieste's Toothache Essence. From liquor of 
 ammonia, 2 parts; laudanum, 1 part. It is 
 applied on lint. 
 
 Pilules Angiliqnes. Si/n, Oeainb de bant£. 
 Take of aloes and juice of roses, of each 4 oz. ; 
 juices of borage and chicory, of each 2 oz. ; 
 beat them together, and when they are re- 
 duced to the consistence of a soft plll-masx, 
 add of powdered rhubarb, 2 dr., powdered 
 agBric,l dr., and divide the mixture intoli-gr. 
 pills. A goodpurgative. — Dose, 4 to 12. 
 
 Poor Man's Friend (French). See OiKi- 
 MENT (Brown). 
 
 Poor Man's Friend (Dr Roberts'). This 
 consists chiefly of ointment of nitric-oxide of 
 mercury. 
 
 Fringle's Remedy for Typhus. (Dr Paris.) 
 Palo cinchona (bruised), i oz. ; water, 12 H. oz.; 
 boil them together for 10 minutes, adding, 
 towards the end,Virginiiinsualie-root (bruised), 
 
 2 dr. ; macerate for an hour iu a covered 
 vessel, and to the stiained liquid add of dilute 
 sulphuric acid, 2 9. dr., and when the mixture 
 is cold, further add of spirit of cinnamon, 1 
 fl. oz. The dose is 2 table-spoonfuls every six 
 hours. 
 
 Reynolds' Gout Specific. Wine of colchi- 
 cum disguised by some unimportant additions. 
 
 Eighiui's Odontalgic Drops. A solution of 
 creasiite in an equal weight of tlie strongest 
 rectified spirit, coloured with cochineal, and 
 diBgui^:ed by the addition of a few drops of oil 
 of peppermint. 
 
 Rnsplni's Styptic. A strong solution of 
 Kallic acid in spirit of roses. Dr A. T. 
 Thomson says that it also contains sul^ hate of 
 zinc. 
 
 Rust's Toothache Paste. See Paste. 
 
 Scott's Drops. Syn. Tinctukb op Soot. 
 From wood-suot, 2 nz. ; assafcetida, 1 oz. ; 
 brandy or proof spirit, 1 pint. — Dose, 1 to 2 
 tabl«-8poonfuls; iu hysteria, &c. 
 
 Smith's Powder. See McKinsey's Powder. 
 
 Solomon's Auti-impetigines. A solution of 
 bichloride of mercury disguised by the addition 
 of a little flavouring and tiuetorial matter. 
 ('Med. Circ'ii, 69, 70). 
 
 Standert's Red Mixture. Tsbe of carbonate 
 of magnesia, 1 oz. ; powdered Turkey rhubarb, 
 i oz. ; tincture of rhubarb, 3 ti. oz. ; tincture of 
 
 opinm, 2 fl. dr. ; oils of aniseed and peppermint 
 of each \ dr. ; (dissolved in) gin or proof spirit, 
 5 fl. oz. ; agitate tlie whole together, then fur- 
 ther add of soft water, li pint. In colic and 
 diarrhoea. — Dose. A wine-glassful. The spirit 
 is frequently omitted, but then the mixture 
 soon spoils. 
 
 Standert's Stomachic Candy. Take of lump 
 sugar, 1 lb. ; water, 3 fl. oz. ; dissolve by heat ; 
 add cardamom seeds, ginger, and rhubarb, of 
 each 1 oz. ; and when the mixture is com- 
 plete, pour it out on an oiled slab or into 
 moulds. 
 
 Storey's Worm Cakes. Take of calomel and 
 cinnabar, of each 24 gr. ; powdered jalap, 72 
 gr. ; ginger, 1 dr.; white suijar, Ij oz.; syrup, 
 q. 8. ; mix and divide into a dozen cakes. Re- 
 semble 'Cliing's lozenges' in their action. 
 (See page 1007). 
 
 Struve's Lotion. See Lotion, Hooping- 
 cough. 
 
 Succession Powder. A mixture of powdered 
 quartz and diamond dust, chiefly the first. 
 Used as an escliarotic. 
 
 Tasteless Ague Drops. A solution of arse- 
 nite of potassa. It is the common ague medi- 
 cine in the fen counties of England. 
 
 Turlington's Balsam. See Balsam: op Life 
 (above). 
 
 Talangln's Solution of Solvent Mineral. From 
 arseuious acid, ^ dr., di>solved iu hydrochloric 
 ncid, W dr., and the solution diluted with dis- 
 tilled water, IJ pint. Iu ague, &c. It has 
 rather less than half the strength Of the solu- 
 tion of arsenite of potassn, Ph. L. 
 
 Vance's Cream. See CniLBLAix. 
 
 Wahler's Ointment. See CaiLBtAnf. 
 
 Ward's Purging Powder. A mixture of jalap 
 and cream of tartar, equal parts, coloured with 
 a little red bole. — 2)o«e. A teaspoonful, or 
 more, in broth or beer, twice or thrice daily ; 
 in dropsy. 
 
 Webster's Diet Drink. A sweetened decoc- 
 tion of betony, dulcamara, <;uaiacum wood, 
 liquorice root, sarsaparilla, sassafras, thyme, 
 and turmeric. 
 
 Wilson's Gout Tincture. This is said to be 
 wine of colchicum. 
 
 Wright's Pearl Ointment. Take of white 
 precipitate, 8 oz. ; Goulard's extract, 1 pint ; 
 rub them to a cream, and add the mixture to 
 white wax, 7 lbs., and olive oil, 10 lbs., pre- 
 viously melted together by a gentle heat ; 
 lastly, stir the whole until it is nearly cold. 
 (' Pharm. Jnurn.') 
 
 Young's Aperient Drink. From carbonate 
 of soda, 2i dr.; bitartrate of potassa, 3 dr, 
 (both in cr \ stals) ; throw them into a soda- 
 water bottle containing cold water, 8 fl. oz., and 
 immediately cork it down securely, and keep it 
 inverted, in a cool place, until required for 
 use. 
 
 Zanhetti's Bohemian Restorative Tincture. 
 From crushed raisins, | lb.; hay saffron, 2 
 oz. ; aqueous extract of opium, 3 dr. ; pow- 
 dered cochineal, 3 dr. ; capillaire and orange- 
 
1252 
 
 PAULLINIA— PEARL 
 
 flower water, of each i pint ; proof spirit, 3 
 pints ; digested together for a week, and then 
 strained, with expression. 
 
 PAULLIN'IA. See Guahana. 
 
 PAYAH'IZIlfG. The name given to Mr 
 Payne's process for preserving and mineralising 
 wood. See Dbt-bot. 
 
 PEACH. St/n. Peesicum, L. The fruit of 
 Ami/ffdalus Persica. Two varieties are known 
 in our gardens — CLiNasTOHE peach and 
 TKEESTONB PEACH, terms which explain them- 
 selves. Tiie fruit is wholesome; but the 
 flowers and kernels contain prussic acid, and 
 are poisonous. 
 
 The peach, the original habitats of which 
 were Persia and the North of India, is now 
 very generally grown in the South of Europe, 
 in many parts of the East, and very largely in 
 the more temperate portions of North and 
 South America; more particularly in Penn- 
 sylvania, New Jersey, and Maryland, where 
 there are extensive orchards of peach trees. 
 This fruit is also extensively cultivated by the 
 Mormon community at Utah. The fruit of 
 the Nectakine, which is a variety of the 
 peacli, differs from that of the latter in having 
 a smooth skin. When stewed, the fruit of 
 the peach is said to be useful in habitual 
 constipation. 
 
 Dr Fresenius has analysed this fruit, and 
 found its composition to be: — 
 
 Soluble mattei — 
 
 Large Butch. 
 
 Sugar 1-580 
 
 Free acid (reduced to equivalent 
 
 in malic acid) . . . 0612 
 
 Albuminous substances . . 0463 "I 
 
 Fectous substances . . . 6°313 J 
 
 Ash 0-422 
 
 Insoluble matter — 
 
 Seeds 4-629 
 
 Skins \ 
 
 Pectose J 
 
 [Ash from soluble matter included 
 
 in weights givenj . . . 0-042] 
 
 Water 84-990 
 
 100-000 
 
 )-991 
 
 It will he seen from the above that the 
 
 peach contains a very small amount of sugar. 
 
 PEACH'WOOD. The produce of a species 
 
 of Casalpinia, now extensively used in calico- 
 
 priiitin». 
 
 PEAE. Syn. Pyetts, L. The fruit of 
 Pyrus communis (Linn.), one of the rosacese. 
 Its general qualities resemble those of the 
 apple. 
 
 Composition op the Peae. 
 Soluble matter — 
 
 Sugar 7-000 
 
 Free acid (reduced to equiva- 
 lent in malic acid) . . 0-074 
 Albuminous substances . 0-260 
 Pectous substances, &c. . 3-281 
 Ash 0-285 
 
 Insoluble matter — 
 
 Seeds 0'390"l 
 
 Skins 3-420 J 
 
 PectKJse .... 1-340 
 [Ash from insoluble matter 
 
 included in weights given] 0-050] 
 Water 83-950 
 
 lOO-OOO 
 (Feesenius.) 
 PEARL. Syn. Maeoabita, Maeoaeiifm, 
 Pbeia, Ukio, L. The most beautiful and 
 costly pearls are obtained exclusively from the 
 pearl oyster {Meleagrina margaritifera) of the 
 Indian Seas. The principal fisheries are on 
 the coast of Ceylon, and at Olmutz, in the 
 Persian Gulf. An inferior description of pearl 
 is procured from n fresh-water shell-fish ( Tlnio 
 ma/rgaritifera) in the neighbourhood of Omagh, 
 county of Tyrone. A similar quality is also 
 procured from the river Ythan, Aberdeenshire, 
 It is probable that pearls from this source col- 
 lected by the ancient Britons may have given 
 rise to the statement by Tacitus, in his 'Life of 
 Agricola,' of pearls " not very orient, but pale 
 and wan," being among the indigenous pro- 
 ducts of Great Britain. 
 
 Pearls are composed of membrane and 
 carbonate of calcium ; or, in other words, of 
 substances similar to bladder and chalk, in 
 alternate layers. 
 
 The cause of the production of pearls is 
 highly curious and interesting. When any 
 foreign body gains a, permanent lodgment 
 within the shells of any of the moUusca which 
 are lined with pearly matter, or nacre, the 
 pearly secretion of the animal, instead of being 
 spread in layers on the inside of its habita- 
 tion, is accumulated around the offending 
 particles in concentric films of extreme 
 tenuity, and more or less spherical, farming a 
 pearl. 
 
 Pearls were formerly used in medicine as 
 absorbents or antacids ; and among the an- 
 cients they were occasionally taken, dissolved 
 in acid, both as a remedy and for the purpose 
 of displaying the careless opulence and luxury 
 of their possessors. A perfect pearl, large, 
 truly spherical, highly iridescent, and reflecting 
 and decomposing the rays of light witli vivacity, 
 claims to rank with the most costly of the 
 gems, and in some parts of the East is, with 
 justice, more highly prized than even the 
 diamond. In Europe, however, the present 
 estimation of their value is somewhat different, 
 " A handsome necklace of Ceylon pearls, 
 smaller than a large pea, costs from £170 to 
 £300; hut one of pearls about the size of 
 peppercorns may be had for £15. The pearls 
 in the former sell at a guinea each, and those 
 in the latter at about Is. 6d." (Milburn.) 
 Seed pearls are of little value, however beau- 
 tiful. 
 
 Pearl, Artificial. These are hollow spheres 
 or beads of glass, perforated with two holes 
 at opposite sides to permit of their being strung 
 
PEARLA8H-PEAS 
 
 1253 
 
 into necklaces. A amall portion of epsence 
 d'orient is introduced into cacli, by suction, 
 and i« then aiirenJ over the inner surface o( 
 the glass. When this has become dry and 
 hard, the globe is filled up with white wax, 
 spermaceti, or gum Arabic. Tlie glass of which 
 the beads are formed is slightly bluish and 
 opalescent, aud very thin. The latest improve- 
 ment consists in removing the glassy appear- 
 ance of the surface of the prepared bead by 
 exposure to the fumes of hydrofluoric acid, 
 highly diluted. 
 
 Pearl, mother of. Si/n. UNiotftrM concha;, 
 L. ; Nacbe db feble, Fr. This is the in- 
 ternal or nacreous layer of those shells which 
 produce the pearls for ornamenting the per- 
 son ; hence the term ' mother of pearl ' is by 
 no means inappropriate. It is also derived 
 from several other species known in trade as 
 ear-shells, green siiail-sbclls, Bombay-shells, 
 
 The brilliant hues of mother of pearl do 
 not depend so much upon the nature of the 
 substance iie on its structure. Its surface is 
 covered by minute corrugations or furrows, 
 which give a chromatic appearance to the 
 reflected light. Sir David Brewster was the 
 first to show that this substance is capable of 
 imparting its iridescent appearance to fusible 
 metal or flue black wax. 
 
 Mother of pearl is cut and wrought with 
 nearly similar tools to those used lor ivory, 
 but its treatment, owing to its more fragile 
 nature and delicate structure, requires con- 
 siderably greater care. It is polished with 
 eolcothar or putty powder. 
 
 The numerous applications of mother of 
 pearl, for buttons and knile-handles, boxes, 
 inlaying work, Ac, are well known. 
 
 PEAEl'ASH. This is prepared by calcining 
 crude potashes on a reverbcratory hearth, 
 dissolving the calcined mass in water, and, 
 alter repose, decanting the clear solution, and 
 evaporating it to dryness in flat iron pans, the 
 product being constantly stirred towards the 
 end to reduce it to a semi-granular state. 
 Although purer, its richness in absolute alkali 
 is less than that of the potashes from which it 
 is prepared, being only from 47§ to 51§. This 
 exists almost entirely under the form of car- 
 bonate. The commercial value of this sub- 
 stance is determined by the ordinary processes 
 of ALKAIIMBTKT. 
 
 FEASL BARLET. See Bablet. 
 
 PEASL FLAVOUB. See Esbenos. 
 
 PEAKL WHITE. This is a subchloride of 
 bismuth ; hut the name is now commonly 
 applied to trisuitrate of bismuth, which is sold 
 for it. 
 
 FEASLS (SoBe). Syn. Robe beads. The 
 petals of red roses beaten in an iron mortar 
 for some hours, until they form a smooth, 
 black paste, then rolled into beads and dried. 
 Hard ; very fragrant ; take a fine polish. 
 
 Pearls, to Polish. Take very finely pulverised 
 rutten i,t'<ue, and make it into a thick paste 
 
 by adding olive oil ; then add sulphuric acid, 
 a sufficient quantity to make into a tliin 
 paste. 
 
 This is to be applied on a velvet cork, mb 
 qnirkly, and as soon as the pearl takes the. 
 polish wash it. This mixture when properly 
 applied will give to pearl a brilliant polish. 
 
 PEAS. iSyn. Garden peas, Motoe p. ; 
 Pisa, L. The seed of Pisum saticum (Linn.). 
 Poggiale found in 100 parts of common green 
 peas, dried and shelled, 57 of starch, 21'7 of a 
 nitrogenous substance (legumin), 1'9 of fatty 
 matter, 3-2 of cellulose, 28 of ash, and 127 of 
 water. In the fresh state (qbeen peas) they 
 are nutritive, and, with the pods which contain 
 them, are highly serviceable in scurvy. The 
 last have been used for making beer. The 
 dried seeds are still more nutritious, but are 
 heavy and flatulent unless well cooked. For 
 kitchen use ' split peas ' should be chosen, 
 and after having washed them in a little clean 
 soft water, and allowed them to drain, they 
 should be left to soak in cold soft water for at 
 least 12 hours before applying heat to them, 
 and should then be dressed in the same u ater 
 in which they have been soaked, and be only 
 gently simmered until they are reduced to a 
 pulp. Additions of meat, vegetables, &c , 
 should not be made until they have nearly 
 arrived at this condition. '.Whole pbas' 
 require soaking for at least 18 or 20 hours. 
 
 A substitute for green peas in winter may be 
 obtained by placing the dried seed on a flat 
 dish, sprinkling them with water, and keeping 
 them in a warm situation. In a few davs 
 germination commences, and, after it has pro- 
 ceeded sufficiently far, the whole is dressed in 
 the usual manner. An easier and simpler plan 
 is to preserve the green peas, when they are 
 in season, by the common method adopted for 
 gooseberries and other like fruit. 
 
 Pea flonr is sometimes used to adulterate 
 ordinary flour. It is never added to this latter 
 to a greater extent than 4 per cent.. 
 
 us, ] 
 
1254 
 
 PEBBLE— PEMPHIGUS 
 
 this quantity be exceeded, it makes the bread 
 heavy and dark. 
 
 It is also used as a sophlsticant for other 
 substances, particularly for butter. 
 
 Peas, la'sue. Syn. Pisa pro ponticttiis, 
 L. Orange berries, or the small unripe fruit 
 of the orange tree, dried, and smoothed in a 
 lathe. See lasoE. 
 
 PEB'BLE. The trade name for tlie trans- 
 parent colourless variety of rock crystal or 
 quartz used for the lenses of spectacles instead 
 of glass, over which, from its extreme hard- 
 ness, it has the advantage of being little <<pt 
 to be scratched. 
 
 PEC'TIC ACID. The name given by Bra- 
 connot to an acid which is found very gene-, 
 rally diffused throughout the vegetable king- 
 dom. 
 
 Prep. From carrot roots, from which the 
 juice has been pressed out, by boiling them 
 with ^V*^ P'"'t of their weight of carbonnte 
 of potassium, and about 6 times their weight 
 of water, until the liquid becomes gelatinous 
 when neutralised with an acid. A peetate of 
 potassium is formed, from which the acid may 
 be obtained by neutialising the alkali with a 
 stronger acid, or by carefully adding a solution 
 of chloride of calcium as long as a gelatinous 
 precipitate (peetate of calcium) falls, and, 
 after washing this with water, decoaiposing 
 it with dilute hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. A colourless jelly, having an 
 acid reaction ; scarcely soluble in cold water, 
 more so in hot water; and precipitated by 
 acids, alkalies, alcohol, salts, and even sugar. 
 Its compounds with the bases are called pec- 
 tates. By long boiling with solution of caustic 
 alkali it is converted into metapectic acid, 
 which does not gelatinise. (See below.') 
 
 PEC'TIH. Syn. Vegetable jelly. Ob- 
 tained by adding alcohol to the juice of ripe 
 currants or other fruit, until a gelatinous pre- 
 cipitate forms, which must be drained, washed 
 with a little weak alcohol, and dried. 
 
 Prop., t^c. In the moist state it forms a 
 neutral, tsisteless, soluble, transparent jelly; 
 when dried, a translucent mass, closely resem- 
 bling isinglass ; boiled with water, or with 
 dilute acids, it is converted Into parapectin 
 and metapectin ; in the presence of alkalies, 
 these, as well as pectin, are changed into pectic 
 acid, and by continuing the ebullition for 
 some time longer, into metapectic acid, which 
 is not gelatinous. See Pectio ACID. 
 
 PECTORAL BALSAM. The same as Bal- 
 sam OF Honey, which see. The reference to 
 ' Pectoral balsam, which occurs at the end 
 of the article ' Balsam of Honey,' conveys the 
 impression that it is a different medicme. This 
 is an error. 
 
 PECTORALS. Under this head are popu- 
 larly included all the various remedies em- 
 ployed in breath or chest diseases. 
 
 PEDIC'ULI. See Louse. 
 
 PEL'LICLE. See Cbystallisation. 
 
 PEL'LITOEY. Syn. Pellitoey of Spain ; 
 
 (Pellitoey boot ; Pykethei EADIX, B.P.); 
 Pyeetheum (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root of 
 Anacyclus Pyrethram. It is a powerful to- 
 pical excitant. It is chiefly employed as a 
 masticatory in headache, toothache, palsy of 
 the tongue, and facial neuralgia and rheuma- 
 tism ; and made into a tincture with rectified 
 spirit, it is a common remedy among dentists 
 for the toothache. Internally, it has been 
 given as a gastric stimulant, and in inter- 
 mittents, &o. Half to 1 dr. may be chewed at 
 a time. 
 
 PiL'TEY. The name applied to fur skins 
 in the state in which they are received from 
 the hunters. To prepare them as furs, the 
 inside of them is generally first 'tawed' by the 
 application of a solution of alum. They are 
 next well dusted over and rubbed with hot 
 plaster of Paris or whiting, and are, lastly, 
 thoroughly dried and brushed clean. When 
 it is desired to change or modify their colour, 
 the grease being removed by lime water or a 
 weak soda lye, they are stretched out on a table 
 or board, and the ordinary liquid mordants 
 and dyes are applied to them hot by means of 
 a painter's brush. 
 
 The furs oCthe rabbit and hare are rendered 
 fit for the purposes of the felt and liat manu- 
 facturers by a process called by the French 
 ' secretage.' This consists in thoroughly moist- 
 ening the hair with a solution of quicksilver, 
 1 part, in aquafortis, 16 parts, diluted with 
 half to an equal bulk of water. This is ap- 
 plied with a brush, and the moistened skins 
 being laid together, face to face, are dried 
 as rapidly as possible in a stove room. See 
 
 F0ES. 
 
 PEMPHIGUS. A disease of the skin, in 
 which large vesicles or blisters filled with a 
 serous fluid, develop themselves. In the miid 
 form of the disorder the blisters vary in size 
 from a pea to a chestnut. They chiefly attack 
 the extremities, and break after three or four 
 days, when they then give rise to a thin scab, 
 which soon heals and disappears without caus- 
 ing any bodily derangement. 
 
 In the acute form, however, there is a consi- 
 derable constitutional disturbance, which shows 
 itself in the shape of more or less fever and 
 inflammation ; the blisters too are larger, and 
 the scabs very irritable and obstinate. Chil- 
 dren during teething, or owing to Injudicious 
 diet, are frequently subject to this kind of 
 pemphigus. There is also a chronic variety of 
 the disease, which varies but slightly from the 
 acute form, except that it continues longer. 
 Old people are those who principally suffer 
 from this chronic pemphigus. 
 
 A mild attack seldom calls for any treatment; 
 the best course to pursue in the case of an 
 acute one is to administer some saline aperient, 
 to adopt a moderately low diet, and to pro- 
 tect the exposed parts caused by the break- 
 ing of the blister by applying to them some 
 simple dressing, such as spermaceti oint- 
 ment. 
 
PENALTIES 
 
 1255 
 
 When the case becomes chronic it will be 
 advisable to consult the medical practitlooer. 
 
 PENALTIES. The following sections of the 
 Public Health Act of 1875 refer to various 
 olfencia for which penalties may be inflicted 
 under the stiitute : — 
 
 BuiLDiNa or re-erecting a house in nn 
 urban district without proper drains, &c., 
 jCSO (s. 25). For building or re-erecting a 
 house in any district without proper sanitary 
 ' conveniences (privies, &c.), £20, or less 
 («. 35). 
 
 Unauthorised building over sewers or under 
 streets in an urban district, £5 penalty, and 
 40s. per duy during continuance of offence 
 (s. 26). 
 
 Burial. For obstructing a justice's order 
 with regard to the burial of a person wiio has 
 died from an infectious disease, &c., £5, or 
 less (s. 1 12). 
 
 Bye-laws. Penalties may be imposed by 
 local authorities for the contravention of bye- 
 laws ; such penalties are not to exceed £5, and 
 for continuing offences further penalties of 
 sums not exceeding 40s. a day (s. 183). 
 Penalty for injury or defacement of any 
 board, iScc., on which a notice or bye-law of 
 liny autliority is inscribed by the authority of 
 the Government Local Board, or of the local 
 authority, £5, or less (s. 306), 
 
 CuLLABS, Unauthorised occupation of, 20s. 
 per day (s. 73). 
 
 Cleansing and WniTEWAsniNa, &c., 
 Failure to comply with notice to cleanse and 
 whitewash a house, 10s. per day (s. 46). 
 
 Contracts. All contracts are to specify 
 some pecuniary penalty (s. 174). Officers or 
 servants bcini; concerned or interested in 
 contracts, accepting fees, are liable to a 
 penalty of £50, recoverable with full costs of 
 suit. 
 
 Disinfection. Failure to comply with 
 notice to disinfect and cleanse articles and yre- 
 mises, not less than Is. and not more than 10s. 
 per day. Expenses of local authority doins; 
 tlie work may also be recovered (s. 120). 
 Pailuic to disinfect public conveyances after 
 conveying infected persons, £5, or less (s. 127). 
 For letting iufectedhouses without proper dis- 
 infection, £20, or less (s. 128). 
 
 Drains, &o. Unauthorised connection of a 
 drain with a sewer, £20, or less (s. 21). For 
 neglecting to comply with notice for the con- 
 struction of privies, &c., for factories, £20, or 
 less, and 40s. per day. For uon-compliance 
 with notice for the construction of drains, 
 privies, &c., 10s. per day (s. 41). 
 
 Epidsuic Diseases. For violation or ob- 
 struction of the regulations of the Local Go- 
 vernment Board with regard to epidemic dis- 
 eases, £■'). or less (s. 140). 
 
 ExFoscBE of infected persons or things, £5, 
 or lens (s. 126). 
 
 Houses ob Rooms. Making false state- 
 ments with regard to infectious diseases for 
 the purpose of letting, £20, or leas, or impri- 
 
 sonment for one month with or without hard 
 labour (s. 129). 
 
 LoDoiNG-HousES. Receiving lodgers in 
 unregistered houses, failure to make a report, 
 fiiilure to give notice of infections diseases, 
 £5, or les-i, and 40s. per day during contin- 
 uance of offence. Refusal or neglect to affix 
 or renew notice of regulation in common 
 lodging-houses, £5, or less, and 10s. a day 
 during continuance of oflence after conviction 
 (s. 79). For neglecting the limtwashing and 
 cleansing of lodging-houses according to the 
 Act 40s., or less (s. 82). 
 
 Manure. Failure to comply with a notice 
 of urban authority to periodically remove 
 manure, &c., 20s. a day (s. 50). 
 
 Mbat. For exposing for sale or having in 
 possession unsound meat and uilur articles of 
 food specified in the Act, £20, ..r Ics*. for each 
 carcase or piece of meat, or fish, &c., or three 
 months imprisonment with or without the 
 option of u Kne (s. 117). For obstruetion of 
 officer inspecting the food, £5, or less (s. 118). 
 
 JIortgaqe op Rate. Refusal of custodian 
 of ri'f;i-.ter to permit inspection, €00, or less. 
 Neglect 01' refusal of clerk to register transfer 
 of mortgage, £20, or less. 
 
 Nuisance. The court miiy impose a penalty 
 of £5, or less, with regard to nuisances gene- 
 rally (s. 98). For want of diligence in carry- 
 ing out the order to abate nuisunee, 10s. per 
 day ; for contravention of order, if wilful, 208. 
 per day during such contrary iietion, besides 
 the expenses of the local authority in abating 
 the nuisance (s. 98). 
 
 For nuisance of pigs, pigsties, and the con- 
 tents of cesspools, &c., overflowing, JOs., or 
 less, and 5s. per day during continuance of 
 offences (s. 47). 
 
 Obstruction. For wilful obstruction of 
 member of. or person authorised by local 
 authority, £5, or less (s. 306). 
 
 Obstruction of owner by occupier in carry- 
 ing out any of the provisions of the Act, £5 
 per day, commencing twenty-four hours after 
 uon-compliance with the justice's order (s. 
 306). 
 
 Offices. Certain offices are not to be held 
 by the same person. Penalty for oflence, £100, 
 recoverable with full costs of suit (s. 192). 
 
 Okdeb of Justices. Refusal to obey order 
 for admission of local authority, jCo, or less 
 (s. 103). 
 
 Rates. Refusal of officers in custody of 
 rate-books, valuation lists lor the relief of the 
 poor, &c., to permit inspection, £5, or less (s. 
 212). 
 
 Refusal of person to permit inspection of 
 rate, £5, or less (s. 219). 
 
 Scatekoino. Obstruction of the contrac- 
 tor or local authority in scavenging the streets 
 or in removal of refuse, £5, or less (s. 42). 
 Neglect of local authority to scavenge after 
 undertaking to do so, 5s. per day (s. 43). 
 
 Streets. Wilful unauthorised displace- 
 ment or injury of pavement stones, injury to 
 
1256 
 
 PENCILS— PENTASTOMATA 
 
 fences, &o., of streets vested in urban authority, 
 £5, or less, and a further penalty of 5s. or less 
 for every square foot of pavement injured, &o. 
 Compensation may also be awarded by the 
 court for injury to trees (s. 149). 
 
 For building or bringing forward buildings 
 beyond the general liue of the houses in the 
 street in an urban district, 4iOs. per day after 
 written notice (s. 156). 
 
 Tbade, Offensive. Unauthorisedestablish- 
 ment of in an urban district, £50, and 40s. per 
 day during continuance of offence (s. 112). 
 Nuisance arising from offensive trade is pun- 
 ishable by penalty — for first offence not less 
 than 40s., and not exceeding £5 ; for second 
 or any subsequent ofience, double the amount 
 of the last penalty which has been imposed, 
 but in no case to exceed £200 (s. 114). 
 
 Water. Pollution of by gas, £280; and 
 when offence is continued at the end of 
 twenty-four hours' notice, £20 per day (s. 68). 
 
 For injuring water-meters, 40s., or less, and 
 the damage sustained may also be recovered 
 (s. 60). 
 
 WoEKS. For wilful damage of works or 
 property belonging to a local authority, in 
 cases where no other penalty is provided, £5, 
 or less (s. 307). 
 
 *■))* All penalties, forfeitures, costs, and ex- 
 penses, directed to be recovered in a summary 
 manner, or not otherwise provided for, may be 
 prosecuted and recovered under the " Sum- 
 mary Jurisdiction Acts" before a court of 
 summary jurisdiction (P. H. S. 251) ; but 
 proceedings for the recovery of penalties are 
 only to be taken by the person aggrieved, or 
 by the local authority of the district, except 
 the consent in writing of the Attorney-General 
 be obtained. But this restriction does nc^t 
 apply to the proceedings of a local authority 
 with regard to nuisances, offensive trades, 
 houses, &c., without their district, in cases in 
 which tlie local authority are authorised to 
 take proceedings with respect to any act or 
 default (s. 253). 
 
 Unless otherwise provided for the penalty 
 is thus applied : One half goes to the informer, 
 and the remainder to the local authority of the 
 district in which the offence was committed ; 
 but if the local authority be the informer, they 
 are entitled to the whole of the penalty 
 recovered. 
 
 All penalties and sums recovered by a local 
 authority are paid to the treasurer, and carried 
 to the account of the fund applicable to the 
 general purposes of the Public Health Act. 
 
 (The justices or court have power to reduce 
 penalties imposed by 6 Geo. IV, c. 78. P. H. 
 Part III.) 
 
 FEN'CILS. This name is applied to the 
 small brushes made of camel's hair used by 
 artists, as well as to the plumbago crayons 
 familiarly known as black-lead pencils. The 
 last are prepared by one or other of the fol- 
 lowing methods : — 
 
 1. The blocks of plumbago are exposed to a 
 
 bright-red heat in a closely covered crucible, 
 and are afterwards sawn into minute sticks, 
 and mounted in cases of cedar or satin wood. 
 
 2. The plumbago, in powder, is calcined as 
 before, and then mixed with an equal, or any 
 other desired proportion of pure washed clay, 
 also in powder, after which the mixture is 
 reduced to a plastic state with water, and 
 pressed into grooves cut on the face of a smooth 
 board, or into well-greased wooden moulds, in 
 which state it is left to dry. When dry, the ' 
 pieces are tempered to any degree of hardness 
 by exposing them, surrounded by sand or pow- 
 dered charcoal, in a closely covered crucible 
 to various degrees of heat. The crucible is not 
 opened until the whole has become cold, when 
 tlie prepared ' slips' are removed and mounted 
 as before. This method was invented by M. 
 CoDtd in 1795. 
 
 3. The dough or paste, prepared as last, is 
 reduced to the required form by forcing it 
 through a perforated plate (in a similar man- 
 ner to that adopted for coloured crayons), or 
 into minute metallic cylinders, from which it 
 may be readily shaken after it has become 
 partially dry. 
 
 Obs. The leads for some varieties of draw- 
 ing-pencils are immersed for a minute in very 
 hot melted wax or suet before mounting them. 
 To the composition for others a little lamp- 
 black is added, to increase and vary the degree 
 of blackness. The pencils for asses' skin books 
 and prepared paper are tipped with ' fusible 
 metal.' Numerous improvements in pencil 
 cases and pencil mounts have been patented of 
 late years by Stevens and others. 
 
 PENNYEOY'AL. Syn. Phlegium (Ph. L. 
 & E.), Mentha p. (Ph. D), L. "The recent 
 and dried flowering herb of Mentha fulegmm, 
 Linn." (Ph. L.) Pennteotal tea is a 
 popular emmenagogue, expectorant, and dia- 
 phoretic, and is in common use in asthma, 
 bronchitis, hooping-cough, hysteria, suppres- 
 sions, &c. Water, essence, oil, and spirit of 
 pennyroyal are officinal. They are now chiefly 
 used as mere adjuncts or vehicles. 
 
 PENTASTOMATA. There are two varieties 
 of this entozoon — -the Pentasioma denticu- 
 latum, which Leuckart has shown to be the 
 larvsB of the Pentastoma tesnoides, and the 
 Pentastoma constrictum. The P. denticula- 
 turn infests the human liver and small intes- 
 tines. The P. constrictum does not appear to 
 be known in this country. The latter appears 
 to have caused death by setting up perito- 
 nitis. According to Dr Aitken these parasites 
 are provided with two pairs of hooks or claws, 
 placed on each side of a pit or mouth, on a 
 flattened head. He says : ** These claws appear 
 to be implanted in socket-like hollows or de- 
 pressions, surrounded by much loose integu- 
 ment. These socket-like hullows appear to be 
 elevated on the summit of the mass of tissues 
 which lies underneath the folds of integuments 
 surrounding the base of the hooks. These 
 parts are regarded as the feet of the parasite, 
 
PEPPER 
 
 1257 
 
 and the hooka are the fore clawa. The pit or 
 mouth is of an oval shape, the long axis of the 
 oval Ijring in the direction of the length of the 
 worm. 
 
 "The less or outer margin of the pit is 
 marked by a well-de6ned, thin line. There 
 are no spinPB nor hooka on the integument of 
 the elongated body." 
 
 PEPPER (Black). Syn. Peppeb; Pipee, 
 B.P. ; NroRi DicoiE, Pipeb niqbum (Ph. L., 
 K., & D.). L. " The immature fruit (berry) of 
 Piper nigrum, Linn., or the black pepper vine." 
 (Ph. L.) 
 
 Pur. The ground black pepper of the ahops 
 18 uuiversttlly adulterated ; in fact, the public 
 taste and judgment are ao vitiated that the 
 pure apioe is unsaleable, A most respectable 
 London firm, on commencing business, sup- 
 plied their customera with unadulterated 
 ground pepper, but in 3 cases out of every 4 
 it was returned on their hands and objected 
 to, on account of its dark colour and rich pun- 
 gency, which had induced the belief that it 
 was sophiaticated. The bouse alluded to waa 
 
 therefore compelled by the customers to supply 
 them with an inferior, but milder and paler, 
 article. The substances employed to lower 
 black pepper are known in the trade as — 
 ' P. D.,' • H. P. D.,' and ' W. P. D.'— abbre- 
 viations of pepper dust, hot p. d., white p. d. 
 The first is composed of the faded ^leaves of 
 autumn, dried and powdered; the second, the 
 ground husks (hulls) of blick mustard, oli- 
 tained from the mustard mills ; and the third 
 is common rice, finely powdered. Equal parts 
 of black peppercorns, H. P. D , and W. P. D., 
 form the very best ground pepper eold. The 
 ordinary pepper of the shops does not contain 
 more than -^th to ^th of genuine pepper, or 2 
 to 2i oz. in the lb. Very recently, ground 
 oil-cake or linseed meal has been chiefly em- 
 ployed as the adulterant, instead of the old 
 ' P. D.' 
 
 Dr Parkcs' says : " The microscopic charac- 
 tera of pepper are rather complicated. There 
 is a husk composed of four or fi ve layers of 
 cells and a central part. The cortex has ex- 
 ternally elongrited cells, placed vertically, and 
 
 provided with a central cavity, from which 
 lines radiate towards the circumference; then 
 come Bome strata of angular cells, which, to- 
 wards the interior, are larger and filled with 
 
 oil. The third layer is composed of woody 
 
 fibre and spiral cells. The fourth layer ia 
 
 made up of large cells, which towards the 
 
 1 'Practical Hygiene.* 
 
1258 
 
 PEPPER 
 
 interior become smaller and of « deep red 
 colour ; they contaiu most of the essential oil 
 of the pepper. The central part of the berry 
 is composed of large angular cells, about twice 
 as long as broad. Steeped in water, some of 
 these cells become yellow; others remain 
 colourless. It has been supposed that these 
 yellow cells contain piperine, as they give the 
 same reaction as piperine does ; namely, the 
 tint is deepened by alcohol and nitric acid, 
 and sulphuxic acid applied to a dry section 
 causes a reddish hue." (Hassal.) 
 
 Uses, iSfc. Black pepper is a powerful stimu- 
 lant, carminative, and rubefacient. Its use 
 in moderation, as a condiment, is peculiarly 
 serviceable to persons who are of cold habit, 
 or who suffer from weak digestion ; but in 
 inflammatory habits, and in affections of the 
 raucous membranes, it is generally highly in- 
 jurious. As a medicine it is often serviceable 
 in nausea, vomiting, chronic diarrhoea, and 
 agues. In North America a common remedy 
 for the last is i oz. of ground pepper stirred 
 up with a glassful of warm beer ; or a like 
 quantity made into a tincture by steeping it 
 in 5 or 6 times its weight of gin, rum, or 
 whisky, for a few days. 
 
 Prepared hlUck pepper is made by steeping 
 the berries for 3 days in 3 times their weight 
 of vinegar, and then drying and grinding 
 them. It is milder than common pepper. See 
 
 CONPECTIONS, PiPEEINE, &C. 
 
 Pepper, Cayenne. St/n. Bibd peppee, Chili 
 p., Guinea p., Indian p.. Red p. ; Pipee 
 CAPSioi, P. CAYENNE, L. This is prepared 
 from chillies, or the pods of Capsicum frutes- 
 cens, or from Capsicum haccatum, or bird 
 pepper, but generally from the first, on account 
 of its greater pungency and acrimony; and, 
 occasionally, from Capsicum annuum or medi- 
 cinal capsicum. 
 
 Prep. 1. From the dried pods (powdered), 
 1 lb.; and wheaten bread or captain's biscuits 
 (heated until they are perfectly dry and 
 brittle, and begin to acquire a yellow colour 
 throughout, and then powdered), 7 lbs. ; mixed 
 and ground together. Colouring matter and 
 common salt are frequently added, but are 
 unnecessary. 
 
 2. As the last, but making the mixture 
 into a dough with water, then forming it 
 into small cakes, drying these as rapidly as 
 possible at a gentle heat, and then grinding 
 them. 
 
 3. (Loudon.) The ripe pods, dried in the 
 sun, are stratified with wheaten flour in a dish 
 or tray, and exposed in a stove-room or a half- 
 cold oven until they are quite dry ; they are 
 then removed from the flour, and ground to 
 fine powder ; to every oz. of this powder 1 lb. 
 (say 15 oz.) of wheaten flour (including that 
 already used) are added, and the mixture is 
 made into a dough with a little tepid water 
 and a teaspoonful of yeast ; after fermenta- 
 tion is well set up, the dough is cut into small 
 pieces, and baked in a slow oven until it is 
 
 perfectly hard and brittle ; it is then beaten 
 or ground to powder, and forms ' cayenne 
 pepper.' 
 
 Pure cayenne pepper, when burnt, leaves a 
 scarcely perceptible quantity of white ash; 
 a red- coloured ash indicates the presence of 
 red ochre, brick-dust, Armenian bole, or other 
 earthy colouring matter. If red lead is pre- 
 sent, it will be left behind under the form of 
 a dark-coloured powder, or a small metallic 
 globule. 
 
 Fur. The ' cayenne pepper ' of the shops is 
 often a, spurious article, made by grinding a 
 mixture of any of the reddish woods or saw- 
 dust with enough red pods or chillies to ren- 
 der the mixture sufSciently acrid and pungent. 
 Common salt, colcothar, red bole, brick-dust, 
 vermilion, and even red lead, are also common 
 additions. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. The capsicums resemble the pep- 
 pers, except in their greater energy and their 
 pungency being unmodified by the presence 
 of essential oil. As u condiment, under the 
 form of cayenne pepper, and in all diseases 
 in which the employment of a powerful stimu- 
 lant or rubefacient is indicated, their uses are 
 well known. In medicine the fruit of Capsi' 
 cum annuum (Linn. — Ph. E. & D. ; C fasti- 
 giatum, Blume — B. P., Ph. L.), or annual cap- 
 sicum is ordered (Capsicum — Ph. L., E., & D.). 
 The London College directs the fruit to be 
 that of 'Guinea,' less than one inch long, 
 oblong, cylindrical, and straight. See Essence 
 OP Cayenne. 
 
 Pepper, Prepared Cayenne, is the residuum 
 of cayenne — vinegar, essence, or tincture, dried 
 and ground (see helotv). 
 
 Pepper (Soluble) Cayenne. Syn. Cetstai- 
 LISED SOLXTBIE CAYENNE. Prep. 1. Capsi- 
 cum pods (recent, ground in a pepper mill), 
 1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 2\ pints ; proceed by 
 percolation so as to obtain 2^ pints ; from this 
 distil one half of the spirit by the heat of a 
 water bath ; to the residuum add of fine dry 
 salt, 5 lbs. ; mix them well together, and dry 
 the mixture at a very gentle heat, frequently 
 stirring; lastly rub it through a sieve, and 
 put it into warm dry bottles. It is usually 
 coloured with a little vermilion or rouge (ses- 
 quioxide of iron), but it possesses an agreeable 
 colour without it, 
 
 2. Essence of cayenne (No. 1, page 652), 
 6 pints; distil off 3 pints, add to the residual 
 liquor of dry salt 12 lbs. ; mix well, dry by 
 a gentle heat, and otherwise proceed as 
 before. 
 
 3. Capsicums (ground), 3 lbs. ; red sanders 
 or Brazil wood (sliced or rasped), 10 oz. j 
 rectified spirit, 1 gall. ; macerate for 14 days, 
 then express the tincture, filter, distil off 
 one half, add of dry salt, 15 lbs., and proceed 
 as before. 
 
 4. As the first formula, with the addition of 
 a strong decoction of saffron, q. ». It gives a 
 beautiful colour to soups, &c. 
 
 Ohs. The above formulte are those actually 
 
PEPPER- PODS— PEPSIN 
 
 1259 
 
 employed by the houaes most celebrated for 
 tlicir ' soluble cayenne.' The products are of 
 the very finest quiiUty, and are perfectly 
 wholesome. We speak from an extensive ex- 
 perience in the manufacture. The spirit dis- 
 tilled from the esseuce forms a most suitiible 
 menstruum for making fresh essence or tinc- 
 ture of cayenne. 
 
 Pepper, Cn'beb. See Cvbebs. 
 
 Pepper, Jamai'ca. See Pimento. 
 
 Pepper, Kit'chen. See Spioe. 
 
 Pepper, Long. Syn. Pifebis lonoi fbvotus, 
 PiPEK LONonM (Ph. L. & E.), L. "The im- 
 mature fruit (dried female spikes) of Piper 
 lonffum, Linn." (Ph. L.), or long-pepper vine. 
 The spikes are about 1^ inch in length, with 
 an indenti'd surface, and are of a dark-grey 
 colour. In its general properties it resembles 
 black pepper, but it is less aromatic, though 
 equally pungent. Elephant pepper is merely 
 a larger variety of this species. (Gray.) The 
 root and stems, sliced and dried, form the 
 ' pippula moola' of the Eust Indies. (Box- 
 burgh.) 
 
 Pepper, Red. See Cayenne. 
 
 Pepper, White. Si/n. Pipes albcm, L. 
 This is made by either soaking ordinary black 
 pepper in a solution of common salt, until the 
 outside skins are soft, and then rubbing them 
 off in the hands, or by merely rubbing off the 
 skins of the over-ripe berries thai fall from 
 the vines. Au inferior quality is made by 
 bleaching bluck pepper with chlorine. 
 
 Obs. The use of white pepper instead of 
 black is an instance of the sacrifices made to 
 please the eye. Pure white pepper has only 
 about l-4th of the strength of pure black 
 pepper, whilst it is nearly destitute of the fine 
 aroma of the latter. It also contains a mere 
 trace of piperina or piperine, one of the most 
 vnluiible constituents of black pepper. 
 
 FEF'PERPODS. Capsicums. See Cayenne 
 
 PEPPEE. 
 
 PEPPER'MINT. Sf/n. Mentha pipbbita 
 (Ph. h., E., & D.), L. " The recent and dried 
 flowering herb of Mentha piperita" (Ph. L.), 
 or garden peppermint. The flavour and ortoni- 
 of tliis herb are well known. It is the most 
 pleasant and powerful of all the mints. Pep-- 
 permint water and the essential oil have long 
 been employed in nausea, griping, flatulent 
 cillo, hysteric, diarrhcea, &c. ; but in regular 
 practice chiefly to cover the taste of nauseous 
 medicines, or as an adjunct or vehicle for more 
 active remedies. See Oils (Volatile), Watees, 
 ibc. 
 
 PEP'SIN. iSya. Gastebaob, Chymosin. 
 A peculiar principle found in the gastric juice, 
 and which, in conjunotion with hydrochloric 
 acid, also prosent in the stomach, confers upon 
 it the poiver of digesting certain portions 
 of the f0'>d, and of diijsolving, as Tnson 
 has shown, calomel and other mineral 
 Bub<.tance9. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Henle, ' Med. Times A Gaz..' Feb- 
 ruary lOlh, 1872, p. 152.) "The raucous 
 
 membrane of a perfectly fresh pig's stomach 
 is carefully dissected from the muscular coat, 
 and placed on a flat board. It is then lightly 
 cleansed with a sponge and a little water, and 
 much of the mucus, remains of food, &c. care- 
 fully removed. ' With the back of a knife, or 
 with an ivory paper-knife, the surface is 
 scraped very hard, in order that the glands 
 may be squeezed and their contents pressed 
 out. The viscid mucus thus obt-jined contains 
 the pure gastric juice with much- epithelium 
 from the glands and surface of the mucous 
 membrane. It is to be spread out upon » 
 piece of glass, so as to form u very thin layer, 
 which is to be dried at a temperature of 100° 
 over hot water, or in vacuo over sulphuric 
 acid. Care must be taken that the tempera- 
 ture does not rise much above 100 F°., because 
 the action of the solvent would be completely 
 destroyed. When dry the mucus is scraped 
 from the glass, powdered in a mortar, and 
 transferred to a well-stoppered bottle. With 
 this powder a good digestive fluid m.iy be 
 made as follows : 
 
 Of the powder .... 5 grains. 
 Strong hydrochloric acid . 18 drops. 
 
 Water 6 ounces. 
 
 Macerate it at a temperature of 100° for au 
 hour. The mixture may be filtered easily, and 
 forms a perfectly clear solution very convenient 
 for experiment. 
 
 " If the powder is to be taken as a medicine, 
 from two to five grains may be given for a 
 dose, a little diluted hydrochloric acid in water 
 being taken at the same time. The pepsin 
 powder may be mixed with the salt at a meal. 
 It is devoid of smell, and has only a slightly 
 salt taste. It undergoes no change if kept 
 perfectly dry, aud contains the active principle 
 of the gastric juice almost unaltered. 
 
 "The method of preparing this pepsin was 
 communicated to Mr liuUuck, of the Hrm of 
 Messrs Bullock and Company, 8, Hanover 
 Street, Hanover Square, who at cuce adopted 
 it for the preparation of medicinal pepsin, and 
 soon improved upon it in some particulars. 
 The dose is from 2 to 4 or 5 grains. — Test, fths 
 of a grain of this pepsin, with 10 drops dilute 
 hydrochloric acid and an ounce of distilled 
 water, dissolve 100 grains of hard-boiled white 
 of egg in from twelve to twenty-four hours. 
 In the body probably twice this quantity of 
 white of egg or even more would be dissolved 
 in a comparatively short space of time. The 
 digestive powder prepared from the pig's 
 stomach retains its activity for any length of 
 time if kept dry. I had some which had been 
 kept in n bottle for upwards of five years, and 
 still retained its active power unimpaired. 
 The solution made with this pepsin and hydro- 
 chloric acid was nearly tasteless and inodorous. 
 One pig's stomach, which costs sixpence, will 
 yield about 45 grains of the powder prepared 
 as above described 
 
 " Gradually the usefulness of this prepara- 
 tion of pepsin of the pig was found out, and it 
 
1260 
 
 PERCENTAGE— PEECOLATION 
 
 had to be prepared in increasing quantities. 
 I should be afraid to say how many pigs' 
 stomachs have been used of late years during 
 the winter season. 
 
 " In 1857 Dr. Pavy carefully examined the 
 pepsin prepared and sold by many different 
 firms, and found that this dried mucus of the 
 pig's ptomach was the most active of them all 
 (' Medical Times and Gazette,' 1857, vol. i, p. 
 336). In 1870 Professor Tuson instituted a 
 still more careful comparative examination, 
 and with a similar result (' Lancet,' August 
 13th, 1870) ; for he found that this prepara- 
 tion was twenty-jive times stronger than some 
 others that he obtained for examination." 
 
 2. (Scheffer, ' Pharm. Journ.,' March 23rd, 
 1872, p. 761.) " Of the well-cleaned fresh hog 
 stomach the mucous membrane is dissected off, 
 chopped finely and macerated in water acidu- 
 lated with muriatic acid for several days, 
 during which time the mass is frequently well 
 stirred. The resulting liquid, after being 
 strained, is, if not clear, set aside for at least 
 twenty-four hours in order to allow the mucus 
 to settle. To the clarified liquid the same 
 hulk of a saturated solution of sodium chloride 
 is added, and the whole thoroughly mixed. 
 After several hours the pepsin, which, by the 
 addition of chloride of sodium, has separated 
 from its solution, is found floating on the 
 surface, from whence it Is removed with a 
 spoon and put upon cotton cloth to drain ; 
 finally it is submitted to strong pressure, to 
 free it as much as possible from the salt solu- 
 tion. 
 
 " The pepsin, when taken from the press and 
 allowed to become air-dry, is a very tough 
 substance, andpi'esents, according to thickness, 
 a different appearance, resembling in thin 
 sheets parchment paper, and in tljick layers 
 sole leather ; its colour varies from a dim straw 
 yellow to a brownish yellow. Besides a little 
 mucus, it contains small quantities of phos- 
 phate of lime and chloride of sodium, which, 
 however, do not interfere with its digestive 
 properties, as they are found also in normal 
 gastric juice. 
 
 " In order to get a purer article I redissolve 
 the pepsin, as obtained after expression, in 
 acidulated water, filter the solution through 
 paper and precipitate again with a solution of 
 sodium chloride ; the precipitate, after drain- 
 ing and prefsing, is now free of phosphate of 
 lime and mucus, but still contains salt. In 
 the freshly precipitated state the pepsin is 
 very readily soluble in water, and cannot 
 therefore be freed from adhering salt by 
 washing. 
 
 " By allowing the pressed sheet of pepsin to 
 get perfectly air-dry — whereby it becomes 
 coated with a white film and small crystals of 
 chloride of sodium — and by immersing it then 
 in pure water for a short time, the greater 
 part of sodium chloride can be extracted, but 
 it has to be done very rapidly, as the pepsin 
 swells up considerably and loses its tenacity. 
 
 By operating in this matter I have obtained 
 a pepsin which dissolves in acidulated water 
 to quite a clear colourless liquid, but as it still 
 contains traces of salt, I prefer to call it 
 purified pepsin." 
 
 3. (B. Ph.) A preparation of the mucous 
 lining of a fresh and healthy stomach of the 
 pig, sheep, or calf. The stomach of one of 
 these animals, recently killed, having been cut 
 open and laid on a board with the inner 
 surface upwards, any adhering portions of 
 food, dirt, and other impurity, are to be re- 
 moved and the exposed surlace slightly washed 
 with cold water ; the cleansed mucous mem- 
 brane is then to be scraped with a blunt knife 
 or other suitable instrument, and the viscid 
 parts thus obtained is to be immediately 
 spread over the surface of glass or glazed 
 earthenware, and quickly dried at a tempera- 
 ture not exceeding 100° F. the dried residue 
 is to be reduced to powder, and preserved in a 
 stoppered bottle. — Dose, 2 to 5 grains. 
 
 Pepsin, Saccharated. To work it into 
 saccharated pepsin ('American Journal of 
 Pharmacy,' January, 1871) the damp pepsin, 
 as it is taken from the press, is triturated with 
 a weighed quantity of sugar of milk to a fine 
 powder, which, when it has become air-dry, is 
 weighed again, the quantity of milk sugar 
 subtracted, and so the amount of pepsin 
 found. The strength of this dry pepsin is 
 now ascertained by finding how much coagu- 
 lated albumen it will dissolve at a temperature 
 of 100° F. in five or six hours, and after this 
 sufiicient milk sugar is added to result in a 
 preparation of which ten grains will dissolve 
 one hundred and twenty grains of coagulated 
 albumen, and this preparation I have called 
 saccharated pepsin. 
 
 Pepsin with Starch. Pepsin mixed with 
 starch is the medicinal Pepsine of M. 
 Boudault ; the Poudre nutrimentive of M. 
 Corvisart. 
 
 PEUCENTAGE. Literally, "by the hun- 
 dred." In commerce the term is applied to an 
 allowance duty or commission on a hundred. 
 (Webster.) 
 
 PEECHLC'EATE, Syn. Pebohloeas, L. 
 A salt of perchloric acid. 
 
 The perchlorates are distingnished from the 
 chlorates by their great stability, and by not 
 turning yellow when treated with hydro- 
 chloric acid. Like the chlorates, they give 
 off oxygen when heated to redness. They 
 may be prepared by directly neutralising a 
 solution of the acid with a, solution of the 
 base. See Potassium (Perchlorate of), and 
 Chloeine. 
 
 PEECHIC'EIC ACID. See Chloeine. 
 
 PERCOLA'TION %». Method op dis- 
 placement. A method of extracting the 
 soluble portion of any substance in a divided 
 state, by causing the menstruum to filter or 
 strain through it. The 'sparging' of the 
 Scotch brewers is an example of the applica- 
 tion of this principle on the large scale. In 
 
PERCOLATION 
 
 1261 
 
 fiarmacy, the ' method of displacement ' is 
 frequently adopteil for the preparation of 
 tiucturea, infusions, &c., and is, in some re- 
 spects, superior to digestion or maceration. 
 " The solid materials, usually in coarse or mo- 
 derately fine powder, are moistened with a 
 sufficiency of the solvent to form a thick pulp. 
 In twelve hours, or frequently without delay, 
 the muss is put into a cylinder of glass, porce- 
 lain, or tinned iron, open at both ends, but 
 obstructed at the lower end by a piece of calico 
 or linen, tied lightly over it as a filter ; and 
 the pulp being backed by pressure, ranging 
 as to degri'B with different articles, the re- 
 mainder of the solvent is poured into the upper 
 portion of the cylinder, and allowed gradually 
 to percolate. In order to obtain the portion 
 of the fiuid which is absorbed by the residuum, 
 an additioijal quantity of the solvent is poured 
 into the cylinder, until the tincture which has 
 passed through equals in amount the spirit 
 originally prescribed. The spirit employed 
 for this purpose is then recovered, for the most 
 part, by pouring over the residuum as much 
 water as there is spirit retained in it, which 
 may be easily known by an obvious calcu- 
 lation in each case. The method of percolation 
 is now preferred by all who have made suffi- 
 cirut trial of it to apply it correctly." (Ph. E.) 
 The first portion of liquid obtained by the 
 method of displacement is always in a state 
 ol' high concentration. In general it is a 
 simple solution of the soluble ingredients of 
 the crude drug in the fluid employed. But 
 sometimes the solvent, if compound, is resolved 
 into its component parts, and the fluid which 
 passes through at any given time is only one 
 of these, holding the soluble parts of the drug 
 in solution. Thus if diluted alcohol be poured 
 over powder of myrrh, in the cylinder of the 
 percolator, the fluid which first drops into the 
 receiver is a solution of an oily consistence, 
 chiefly composed of resin and volatile oil, dis- 
 solved in alcohol. In like manner, when the 
 powder of gall-nuts is treated in the same way 
 by hydrated sulphuric ether, two layers of fluid 
 are obtained, one of which is a highly concen- 
 trated solution of tannin in the water of the 
 ether, and tlie other a weak solution of the 
 same principle in pure ether. In all cases, 
 therefore, in which it is not otherwise directed 
 it is absolutely necessary to agitate the several 
 portions of the liquid obtained by percolation 
 together, in order to ensure a product of uni- 
 form strength or activity. 
 
 Several forms of displacement apparatus 
 are employed by different operators. A simple 
 and useful one is that figured in the margin. 
 It has also the advantage of being inex- 
 pensive, and may be made by any worker in tin 
 plate. 
 
 In operating on some substances it is found 
 advantageous to hasten the process by pressure. 
 This may be effected by any of the methods 
 adopted for that purpose, and already de- 
 scribed under Filteation. An ingenious little 
 
 apparatus, which is well adapted for small 
 quantities, is shown in the engr. By pouring 
 
 0. Percolator. 
 
 i. SUnd. 
 
 e. Receiver. 
 
 d, Meiistruom. 
 
 c. Substance operated on. 
 
 /. Calico strainer. 
 
 mercury or water through (tf), into the bottle 
 (c), the air in the latter sutlers compression, 
 and acts in a corresponding manner on the 
 percolating liquor in (o). The whole of the 
 joints must be made air-tight. 
 
 a. Percolator. 
 
 b. Tube connecting it 
 with — 
 
 c. A double-necked buttle 
 containintc — 
 
 d. Mercury. 
 e Fi-eding-tube. 
 /. Receiver. 
 g. Stop-cock to regulate 
 
 or arrest tlie pressure of 
 air on the contents of the 
 c>liu(Jer (a). 
 
 The method of displacement, although ap- 
 parently simple, requires for its successful 
 application no inconsiderable amount of ex- 
 perience and skill in manipulation. Tlie 
 principal points to be attended to are — the 
 reduction of the substance to the proper state 
 of comminution (neither too coarse nor too 
 fine), — the due regulation of the period of 
 maceration according to the hardness, density, 
 and texture of the substance; and, more 
 important still, — the proper packing of the 
 ingredients in the cylinder. On the correct 
 performance of the last the success of the 
 process mainly depends. Sume substances re- 
 quire considerable pressure to be used, whilst 
 others, when even lightly packed, scarcely 
 permit the fluid to pass through them. When 
 the material is too loosely packed, the men- 
 struum passes through quickly, but without 
 exerting its proper solvent action ; when too 
 great pressure is employed, percolation either 
 progresses very slowly or not at all. . On the 
 whole, the firmness of the packing should be 
 inversely as the solvent and softening power 
 of the menstruum upon the solids exposed to 
 its action; hut to this rule there are many 
 exceptions, and each substance may be said 
 to require special treatment. An excellent 
 plan, applicable to all substances, and espe- 
 cially to those of a glutinous or mucilaginous 
 nature, is to mix the powder with an equal 
 hulk of well-washed siliceous sand before 
 
1262 
 
 PERCUSSION— PERIODIC ACID 
 
 rubbing it up witb the menstruum. In re- 
 ference to the coarseness of the powder it 
 must be observed that substances which 
 readily become soft and pappy wlien wetted 
 by the menstruum, should not be used so fine 
 as those that are more woody and fibrous, and 
 not of a glutinous or resinous nature. 
 
 The ' method of displacement ' has the ad- 
 vantage of expedition, economy, and yielding 
 products possessing considerable uniformity of 
 strength ; but the difficulties attending its 
 application by the inexperienced are serious 
 obstacles to its general adoption in the labora- 
 tory. It answers admirably for the prepara- 
 tion of all tinctures that are not of a resinous 
 nature, and for most infusions of a woody 
 and fibrous substances, as roots, woods, barks, 
 leaves, seeds, insects, &c., and particularly when 
 cold or tepid water is taken as the solvent. 
 It is also especially adapted for the prepara- 
 tion of concentrated infusions and essences, 
 as they may thus be obtained of any required 
 strength without loss, or requiring concentra- 
 tion by heat, which is so destructive to their 
 virtues. 
 
 " When (ordinary) tinctures are made in 
 large quantities, displacement is never likely 
 to supersede maceration, on account of any 
 practical advantages it may possess. If the 
 prescribed directions be duly attended to, the 
 process of maceration is unexceptioniible. 
 The process is moi'e simple than the other ; 
 the mode uf operating is more uniform, it is, 
 in fact, always the same ; it requires less of 
 skill and dexterity in conducting it; it re- 
 quires less constant attention during its pro- 
 gress which, in operating on large quantities 
 is a consideration ; and, finally, the apparatus 
 required is less complicated. When, however, 
 only small quantities of tincture are made at 
 a time, and kept in stock, the adoption of 
 the process of displacement will often be 
 found convenient and advantageous. It offers 
 the means of making a tincture in two or 
 three hours, which, by the other process, 
 would require as many weeks." (Mohr and 
 Redwood.) 
 
 Another useful application of the method of 
 displacement is to the manufacture of extracts 
 on the large scale. Here it is superior to any 
 other plan. By the simple and inexpensive 
 forms of apparatus in block-tin, stoneware, or 
 glass, which have recently been designed for 
 the purpose, not merely a first-class product is 
 ensured, but a great saving in fuel and labour 
 is at the same time effected. The reader is 
 referred to the lust edition of the 'United 
 States Pharmacopoeia,' and to papers by Messrs 
 Sanndersand Schweitzer in the 'Pharmaceuti- 
 cal Year Book for 1873,' and by Mr Camp- 
 bell in the same publication for 1874, for 
 additional information in the subject of " Per- 
 colation." See BitEwiua, Extract, Tihctuee, 
 &c. 
 
 PEECUS'SION. Syn. Peeoussio, L. In 
 medicine, the act of striking any part of 
 
 the body with the fingers, or any instrument, 
 to ascertain its condition. 
 
 F££CUS'SION CAPS. The composition em- 
 ployed to prime these articles is noticed under 
 
 PULMINATIHG MEEOUET. 
 
 PEK'FECT LOVE. See Liqttettb (Parfait 
 amour). 
 
 PEB'FUME. A substance that emits or 
 casts off volatile particles which, when dififnsed 
 through the atmosphere, agreeably affect the 
 organs of smelling. The term is also applied 
 to the volatile eflliuvia so perceived. The 
 principal source of perfumes is the Vegetable 
 Kingdom. Its flowers, bceds, woods, and 
 barks furnish a' rich variety, (rom which the 
 most fastidious connoisseur may select his 
 favourite bouquet. A few perfumes, as musk, 
 ambergris, and civet, are derived from the 
 Animal Kingdom ; but none of these evolve 
 an aroma comparable in freshness to that of 
 the rose, or in delicacy to that of the orange- 
 blossom, or even the unpretending jasmine. 
 The Inorganic Kingdom yields not a single 
 perfume, so called; nor has the science of 
 chemistry yet been able to produce a single 
 odoriferous compound from matter absolutely 
 inorganic. 
 
 PEKi'U"]IIEET. Peifumes in general; also 
 the art of perfuming them. In its commercial 
 application, this word embraces not merely 
 pel fumes, but also cosmetics, and other articles 
 of a closely allied character employed at the 
 toilet, the manufacture and sale of which 
 constitute the trade of the modern perfumer. 
 Formulae for the preparation of all the more 
 valuable perfumes, as well as of others met 
 with in trade, both simple and compound, will 
 be found under the heads Cosmetics, Dbpi- 
 lATOEY, Essence, Haie dyes. Oils, Pastes, 
 Pastils, Pomade, Spieit, Watees, &c., to 
 whicli we refer the reader. 
 Perfumes, Ace'tic. See ViNEaAB. 
 Perfumes, Ammo"niated. These may be 
 prepared by simply adding a sufficient quan- 
 tity of ammonia to the liquid perfumes. 
 When the articles are to be distilled, a cheaper 
 plan is to add about 5 dr. of sal ammoniac 
 and 8 dr. of carbonate of potassa to each 
 pint of the article just before distillation. 
 Ammoniated Cologne water is now a fashion- 
 able substance for spirit of sal volatile. 
 
 PERIODIC ACID. Syn. Hydeio peeiodatb. 
 (H.IO4).) 1. By passing a current of chloiine 
 gas tlirougii a solution of sodic iodate, contain- 
 ing caustic soda, in the proportion of 3 atoms 
 of tlie latter to one atom of sodic iodate. The 
 hydrated basic sodic periodate, which crystal- 
 lises out, is dissolved in diluted nitric acid, 
 and precipitated by the addition of argentic 
 Titrate; a normal argentic periodate crystal- 
 lises as the liquid cools, and tliis salt being 
 treated with water, is decomposed into a 
 basic argentic periodate, which is insoluble, 
 and periodic acid, which is dissolved. By 
 evaporating the solution, the periodic acid 
 may be obtained in deliquescent, oblique. 
 
PERISTALTIC PERSUADERS— PETROLEUM 
 
 1263 
 
 rhombic prisinn, which are somewhat soluble 
 in alcohol mid in ether. 
 
 2. From perclilorie acid by the action of 
 iodine. See Iodine. 
 
 PEEISTAL'TIC PERSUADERS. See PiLts 
 (Kitchener's). 
 
 PER'MANENT WHITE. See Bamum (Sul- 
 phate) and WUITE FIGMENTS. 
 
 PEENAMBU'CO WOOD. Syn. Peach wood. 
 The wood of Cceialpinia echinata. It consti- 
 tutes the paler variety of Brazil wood used by 
 the dyers. 
 
 PE&'BT. 8i/n. PrBAOEUM, L. A fermented 
 liquor prepared from pears in the same way as 
 cider is from, apples. The red rough-tasted 
 sorts are principally used for this purpose. 
 Tile best perry contains about 9% of absolute 
 alcohol ; ordinary perry from 5 to 7g. 
 
 Perry is a very pleasant-tasted and whole- 
 some liquor. Wiieu bottled ' champagne 
 fashion,' we have seen it frequently passed 
 off for champagne without the fraud being 
 suspected. 
 
 PER'SIAir BER'RIES. See Fbsnch beb- 
 
 BIBS. 
 
 PERSPIRA'TION. The liquid or vapour 
 secreted by the ramifications of the cuticular 
 arteries over the surface of the body. The 
 perspiratory apparatus consists of a gland 
 deeply seated in the corium, cominumcating 
 by means of tubules (pores) with the surface 
 of the scarf-skin. 
 
 The uses of the perspiratory functions 
 appear to be to preserve the suppleness and 
 sensiliility of the skin, to maintain the tem- 
 perature of the body at a uniform standard, 
 and to remove from the system a number of 
 coonpounds noxious to animal life. The per- 
 spiration " is a fluid whose regularity and 
 continuance of exlialation are not merely con- 
 ducive, but absolutely necessary, to health ; 
 without such regularity the animal tempera- 
 ture would run riot, and substances of an 
 injurious quality would be allowed to per- 
 meate the finest and most delicate of the 
 tissues of the body." (Eras. Wilson.) " From 
 the constriction or constipation of the cuta- 
 neous pores by the ambient air, especially 
 when the body, beforehand put into a heat, 
 is suddenly exposed thereunto, the serous par- 
 ticles which used to fiy off continually in 
 vapour, being now pent in, excite an intense 
 and feverish etfervescence; till, finding some 
 other passage, either by the kidneys or by the 
 glandules of the nose and windpipe, they are 
 discharged by way of a catarrh ; or, missing 
 this separation, still keep up the ebuUitiou, 
 very often to the hazard of life, by suH'ocat- 
 ing the vital fiame. And this is the natural 
 consequence of obstructed insensible perspira- 
 tion, which, in the vulgar phrase, is the same 
 with what they mean by catcliing cold, and 
 of which, give me leave to remark, that as 
 fevers make two thirds of diseases infesting 
 mankind, according to the computation of the 
 
 judicious Sydenham, so two thirds of fevers 
 very probably may take their rise from per- 
 spiration hindered." (Daniel Turner.) Sup- 
 pressed perspiration is also one of the com- 
 monest causes of diarrhoea. 
 
 PERU'VIAN BALSAM. See Bamam op 
 Pbec. 
 
 PERU'VIAN BARK. See Cinchona. 
 
 PES'SARY. %n. Pessitm, Pessabium, L. 
 An instrument made of caoutchouc, gutta 
 percha, box-wood, or ivory, inserted into the 
 vagina to support the mouth and neck of 
 the uterus. They are variously formed, to 
 meet the prejudices of the party or the 
 necessities of the case. The cup, conical, 
 pjlobe, and ring pessaries (pessi) are those best 
 known. 
 
 Medicated pessaries are prepared by adding 
 the active ingredients to a hard cerate, and 
 pressing the mixture into the desired form. 
 Astringents (various), belladonna, acetate of 
 lead, mercury, &c., have been thus applied by 
 Dr Simpson and others. 
 
 The different formula are piven below: — 
 
 Pessary, Alum. St/n. Pessits alfminis. 
 Alum, catechu, wax, of each 1 dr. ; lard, 
 5J dr. 
 
 Pessary, Belladonna. Sgn. Pessits sella 
 DONNiB. Extr.ict of belladonna, 10 gr. ; wax, 
 22i gr. ; lanl, lidr. ; in each pessary. 
 
 Pessary, Mercurial. Syn. Pesscs htdbab- 
 GTBi. Strong mercurial ointment, i dr. ; 
 wax, i dr.; lard, 1 dr. Mix. 
 
 Pessary, Lead. Si/n. Pessus phtmbi. Ace- 
 tate of lead, 7i gr. ; white wax, 22J gr. j lard, 
 lidr. 
 
 Pessary, Iodide of Lead. St/n. Pessus 
 PLUMBI lODiDi. Iodide of lead, 5 gr. ; wax, 
 25 gr. ; lard, li dr. 
 
 Pessary, Tannin. Syn. Prssrs tannini. 
 Tannin, 10 gr.; wax, 25 pr. ; lard, IJ dr. 
 
 Pessary, Zinc. iyn. Pessus zinoi. Oxide 
 of zinc, 15 gr. ; while wax, 22i gr. ; lard, 
 lidr. 
 
 PEST'ILENCE. See Plagpe. 
 
 PESTILEN'TIAL DISEASES. All those 
 diseases wliieh are epidemic and malignant 
 and assume the character of a plague. See 
 CnoLKEA, &c. 
 
 PET0N6'. Same as packfong. 
 
 PET'ROLENE. The pure liquid portion of 
 mineral tar. It has a pale yellow colour, a 
 penetrating odour, and a high boiling point; 
 is lighter than water, and is isomeric with the 
 oils of turpentine and lemons. In its general 
 proportions it resembles rectified mineral 
 naphtha. 
 
 PETRCLEUM. Syn. Rock oil. Liquid 
 BITUMEK, Oil of petbe; Oleum peteje. 
 Bitumen liquidum, L. Petroleum is an 
 oil found oozing from the ground or ob- 
 tained on sinking wells in the soil. To a li- 
 mited extent it is met with in most countries 
 of Europe and in the West India islands, but 
 occurs in abundance in Pennsylvania and 
 other parts of the United States and in 
 
1264 
 
 PEWTEE— PHARMACY ACT 
 
 Canada. It varies in colour from slight yellow 
 to brownish black, in consistence from a thin 
 mobile liquid to a fluid as thick as treacle, in 
 specific gravity from 800 to 1100 (water being 
 1000) and is either clear and transparent or 
 turbid and opaque. Petroleum is essentially a 
 volatile oil, and when submitted to distillation 
 yields gases homologous with light carburetted 
 hydrogen of marsh-gas (Ronalds obtained 
 three), liquids of similar constitution (Pelouze 
 and Cahours isolated twelve), and solid pa- 
 raffin-like bodies. Commercially petroleum 
 is distilled so as to yield petroleum-spirit or 
 mineral naphtha used as a substitute for tur- 
 pentine and for burning in sponge-lamps and 
 costermongers' barrow-lamps ; petroleum oil 
 used all over the world as mineral lamp oil for 
 illuminating purposes; and a heavy oil em- 
 ployed for lubricating machinery. The value 
 of a sample of rock-oil is determined by thus 
 distilling a weighed quantity in a small glass 
 retort and weighing the products. The petro- 
 leum or middle product must be of such a 
 character as to have a specific gravity not 
 higher than 810 or 820 and to contidn so little 
 petroleum spirit that it only evolves inflam- 
 mable vapour when heated to 100° Fahr. in the 
 manner prescribed in the Petroleum Act, 1871 
 (see beloio). Any petroleum product or mineral 
 oil which will not stand this test, and which is 
 kept in larger bottles than one pint, and in 
 larger total quantity than three gallons, cannot 
 be stored or sold except by licence of the 
 local authorities. 
 
 Directions for Testing Petroleum to ascertain 
 the temperature at which it gives off in- 
 flammable vapour. 
 
 The vessel which is to hold the oil shall be of 
 thin sheet iron; it shall be two inches deep 
 and two inches wide at the opening, tapering 
 slightly towards the bottom; it shall have a 
 flat rim, with a raised edge one quarter of an 
 inch round the top ; it shall be supported by 
 this rim in a tin vessel four inches and a half 
 deep and four and a half inches in diameter; 
 it shall also have a thin wire stretched across 
 the opening, which wire shall be so fixed to 
 the edge of the vessel that it shall be a quarter 
 of an inch above the surface of the flat rim. 
 The thermometer to be used shall have a 
 round bulb about half an inch in diameter, 
 and is to be graduated upon the scale of Fah- 
 renheit, every ten degrees occupying not less 
 than half an inch upon the scale. 
 
 The inner vessel shall be filled with the 
 petroleum to be tested, but care must be taken 
 that the liquid does not cover the flat rim. 
 The outer vessel shall be filled with cold, or 
 nearly cold water ; a small flame sliall be 
 applied to the bottom of the outer vessel, and 
 the thermometer shall be inserted into the oil 
 so that the bulb shall be immersed about one 
 and a half inches beneath the surface. A 
 screen of pasteboard or wood shall be placed 
 round the apparatus, and shall be of such di- 
 
 mensions as to surround it about two thirds 
 and to reach several inches above the level of 
 the vessels. 
 
 When heat has been applied to the water 
 until the thermometer has risen to about 90° 
 Pahr.,a very small flame shall be quickly passed 
 across the surface of the oil on a level with 
 the wire. If no pale blue flicker or flash is 
 produced, the application of the flame is to be 
 repeated for every rise of two or three degrees 
 in the thermometer. When the flashing- 
 point has been noted, the test shall be repeated 
 with a fresh sample of the oil, using cold, or 
 nearly cold water as before ; withdrawing the 
 source of heat from the outer vessel when the 
 temperature approaches that noted in the first 
 experiment, and applying the flame test at 
 every rise of two degrees in the thermometer. 
 See Naphtha, Oils (Mineral), &e. 
 
 PEW'TEK. This is an alloy of tin and lead, 
 or of tin with antimony and copper. The 
 first only is properly called pewter. Three 
 varieties are known in trade : — 
 
 Frep. 1. (Plate pewteb.) From tin, 
 79g; antimony, 7^; bismuth and copper, of 
 each 2§ ; fused together. Used to make plates, 
 teapots, &c. Takes a fine polish. 
 
 2. (Triple pewtee.) From tin, 79§; anti- 
 mon, 15% ; lead, 6j ; as the last. Used for 
 minor articles, syringes, toys, &c. 
 
 3. (Let pewteb.) From tin, 80g; lead, 
 20§. Used for measures, inkstands, &c. 
 
 Ois. According to the report of the French 
 commission, pewter containing more than 18 
 parts of lead to 82 parts of tin is unsafe for 
 measures for wine, and similar liquors and, in- 
 deed, for any other utensils exposed to contact 
 with our food or beverages. The legal sp. gr. 
 of pewter in France is 7'764; if it be greater, 
 it contains an excess of lead, and is liable to 
 prove poisonous. The proportions of these 
 metals may be approximately determined from 
 the sp. gr. ; but correctly only by an assay 
 for the purpose. See Beass, Gebmak siltee. 
 Lead, and Tin. 
 
 PHAEAOH'S SERPENTS. 1. The chemical 
 toy sold under this name consists of the 
 powder of sulphocyanide of mercury made up 
 in a capsule of tin foil in a conical mass of 
 about an inch in height. 
 
 Ignited at the apex an ash is protruded, 
 long and serpentine in shape. The fumes 
 evolved are very poisonous. 
 
 2. (Noir-POISONOUS.) Bichromate of potas- 
 sium, 2 parts; nitrate of potassa, 1 part; and 
 white sugar, 3 parts. Pulverise each of the 
 ingredients separately, and then mix them 
 thoroughly. Make small paper cones of the 
 desired size, and press the mixture into them. 
 They will then be ready for use, but must be 
 kept from light and moisture. 
 
 PHARMACY 'ACT. The following are the 
 principal clanse.s of the Pharmacy Act of 1860 
 (31 and 32 Victoria, cap. cxxi). We have 
 separated and placed last, those provisions of 
 the Act which relate to the sale of poisons : — 
 
PHARMACY ACT 
 
 1265 
 
 Wlieroas it is expedient for the safety of 
 the public that persons keeping open eliop fur 
 the retailing, iliapeusing, or compouniling of 
 poiaonn, niid persons known as chemists and 
 draggists should possess a competent practical 
 kni>wled£re of their business, and to that end, 
 that Irom and after the day herein named all 
 persons not already en;:aged in such business 
 should, before commencing such business, be 
 duly examined as to their practical knowledge, 
 and that a n'gi^tt'r should be kept as herein 
 provided, and also that the Act passed in the 
 i5th and 16th years of the reign of her pre- 
 sent Majesty, intituled ' An Act for Regulating 
 the Qualification of Pharmaceutical Chemists,' 
 hereinafter described as the Pharmacy Act, 
 should be amended: Be it enacted, by the 
 Queen's most excellent Majesty, by and «ith 
 the advice mid consent of the Lords Spiritual 
 and Temporal and Commons in this present 
 Parliament assembled, and by authority of the 
 same, as follows : — 
 
 From and after the Slst day of December, 
 1868, it shall be unlawful lor any person to 
 sell or keep open shop lor retailing, dispensing, 
 or compounding poisons, or to assume or u^e 
 the title ' Chemist and Druggist,' or chemist 
 or druggist, iir pharmacist, or dispensing 
 chemist, or druggist, in any part of Great 
 Britain, unless such person shall be a pliarma- 
 ceuticul chemist, or a chemist and druggist, 
 within the meaning of this Act, and be re- 
 gistered under this Act, and conform to such 
 regulations as to the keeping, dispensing, and 
 selling of such poisons as may from time to 
 time be prescribed by the Pharmneeutical 
 Society with the consent of the Privy Council 
 (Clause 1). 
 
 Oliemists and drui-'gists within the meaning 
 of this Act shall consist of all persons who at 
 any time before the passing of this Act have 
 carried on in Great Britain the business of a 
 chemist and druggist in tlie keeping of open 
 shop for the compounding of the preser-ptions 
 of duly qualified medical practitioners, also of 
 all assistants and assneiates, who liefore the 
 pissing of the Act shall have been duly regis- 
 tered under or according to the provisions of 
 the Pharmacy Act, and also of all such per- 
 sons as may be duly registered under this Act 
 (Clause 3). 
 
 AH such persons as shall from time to time 
 have been appointed to conduct examinations 
 under the Pliarmacy Act shall be, and are 
 hereby declared to be, examiners for the pur* 
 poses of this Act, and are hereby empowered 
 and required to examine all such persons as 
 shall tender themselves lor examination under 
 the provisions of this Act,' and every person 
 who shall have been examined by such exa- 
 miners, and shall have obt:iiued from them a 
 certificate of competent skill, and knowledge, 
 and qualification, shall be entitled to be regis- 
 tered as a chemist and druggist under this 
 Act, and the examination aforesaid shall be 
 ' Sue abuve. 
 TOL. II. 
 
 such as is provided under the Phnrmney Act 
 for the purposes of a qualification to be veijis- 
 tered as assistant under that Act, or as the 
 same may be varied from time to time by any 
 bye-law to be made in accordance with the 
 Pharmacy Act as amended by this Act, pro- 
 vided that no person shall conduct any exami- 
 nation for the purposes of this Act until his 
 appointment has been approved by the Privy 
 Council (Clause 6). 
 
 No name shall be entered in the register, 
 except of persons authorised by this Act to be 
 registered, nor unless the registrar be satisfied 
 by the proper evidence that the person claim- 
 ing is entitled to be registered ; and any ap- 
 peal from the decision of the regi-trar may be 
 decided by the council of the Pliarmaceutical 
 Society ; and any entry which shall be proved 
 to the satisfaction of such council to have been 
 fraudulently or incorrectly made niiiy be erased 
 from or amended in the register, Ity order in 
 writing of such council (Clause l\i). 
 
 " The registrar shall, in the month of 
 January in every year, cause to be printed, 
 published, and sold, a correct registei- of the 
 names of :ill pharmaceutical chemi>t«, and a 
 correct register of all persons rcunstered as 
 chemists and druggists, and in such retzisters, 
 respectively the names shall be in alphabetical 
 order, according to the surnames, with the 
 respective residences, in the tnrm set forth in 
 schedule (B) to this Act, or to the like effect, 
 of all persons appearing on the register of 
 pharmaceutical chemists, and on the register 
 of chemists and druggists, on the 81st day 
 of December last preceding, and such printed 
 registers shall be called ' The Registers of 
 Pharmaceutical Chemists and Chemists and 
 Druggists,' and a printed copy of such regis- 
 ters for the time being, purporting to be 80 
 printed and published as afores.nd, or any 
 certificate under the hand of the saiil registrar, 
 and countersigned b^ the president or two 
 members of the council of the Pharmaceutical 
 Society, shall be evidence in all courts and 
 before all justices of the peace and others, that 
 the persons therein specified are rei.'i>tei"ed 
 according to the provisions of the Pharmacy 
 Act or of this Act, as the case may be, and 
 the absence of the name of any person from 
 such printed register shall be evidence, until 
 the contrary shall be made to appear, that such 
 person is not registered according to the pro- 
 visions of the Pharmacy Act or of this Act 
 (Clause 13). 
 
 Prom and after the 81st day of December, 
 1868, any person who shall sell or keep an openi 
 shop for the retailing, dispensing, or com- 
 pounding poisons, or who shall take, use, or 
 exhibit the name or title of chemist and 
 druggist, or chemist or druggist, not being a 
 duly registered pharmaceutical chemist, or 
 chemist and druggist, or who sliall take, use, 
 or exhibit the name or title pharmaceutical 
 chemist, pharmaceutist, or pharmacist, not 
 being a pharaiaceutical chemist, or shall fail 
 
 80 
 
1266 
 
 PHARMACY ACT 
 
 to conform with any regulation as to the keep- 
 ing or selling of poisons, made in pursuance 
 of this Act, or who shall compound any medi- 
 cines of the British Pharmacopoeia, except 
 according to the formularies of the said Phar- 
 macopceia, shall for every such offence be liable 
 to pay a penalty or sum of £5, and the 
 same may be sued for, recovered, and dealt 
 with in the manner provided by the Pharmacy 
 Act for the recovery of penalties under that 
 Act ; but nothing in this Act contained shall 
 prevent any person from being liable to any 
 other penalty, damages, or punishment to 
 which he would have been subject if this Act 
 had not been passed (Clause 15). 
 
 Clauses of the Pharmacy Act relating to the 
 sale of Poisons. 
 It shall be unlawful to sell any poison 
 either by wholesale or retail, unless the box, 
 bottle, vessel, wrapper, or cover in which such 
 poison is contained be distinctly labelled with 
 the name of the article and the word poison, 
 and with the name and address of the seller ot 
 tlie poison ; and it shall be unlawful to sell any 
 poison of those which are in the first part 
 of schedule (A.) to this Act, or may hereafter 
 be added thereto under section II of this Act, 
 to any person unknown to the seller, unless 
 introduced by some person known to the seller ; 
 and on every sale of any such article the seller 
 shall, before delivery, make or cause to be 
 made an etitry in a book to be kept for that 
 purpose, stating, in the form set forth in 
 schedule (F) to this Act, the date of the sale, 
 the name and address of the purchaser, the 
 name and quantity of the article sold, and the 
 purpose for which it is stated by the purchaser 
 to be required, to which entry the signature of 
 the purchaser and of the person, if any, who 
 introduced him, shall be affixed; and any person 
 selling poison otherwise than is herein pro- 
 vided, shall, upon a summary conviction before 
 two justices of the peacejn England or the 
 sheriff in Scotland, be liable to a penalty not 
 exceeding £5 for the first offence, and to a 
 penalty not exceeflinij £10 for the second or 
 any subsequent offence ; and for the purposes 
 ot this section the person on whose behalf any 
 sale is made by any apprentice or servant shall 
 be deemed to be the seller, but the provisions 
 of this section, which are solely applicable to 
 poisons in the first part of the schedule (A) to 
 this Act, or which require that the label siiall 
 contain the name and address of the seller, 
 shall not apply to articles to be exported from 
 Great Britain by wholesale dealers, nor to sales 
 by wholesale to retail dealers In the ordinary 
 course of wholesale dealing, nor shall any of 
 the provisions of this section apply to any 
 medicine supplied by a legally qualified apothe- 
 cary to his patient, nor apply to any article 
 when forming part of the ingredients of any 
 medicine dispensed by a person registered under 
 this Act, provided such medicine be labelled in 
 the manner aforesaid with the name audaddress 
 
 of the seller, and the insredients thereof be 
 entered, with the name of the person to whom 
 it is sold or delivered, in a book to be kept by 
 the seller for that purpose, and nothing in this 
 Act contained shall repeal or affect any of the 
 provisions of an Act of the Session holden in 
 the fourteenth and fifteenth years in the reign 
 of her present Majesty, intituled ' An Act to 
 regulate the Sale of Arsenic' (Clause 17). 
 SCHEDUIE (A). 
 Part 1. 
 
 Arsenic and its preparations. 
 
 Prussic acid. 
 
 Cyanide of potassium and all metallic 
 cyanides. 
 
 ' Strychnine and all poisonous vegetable alka- 
 loids and their salts. 
 
 Aconite and its preparations. 
 
 Emetic tartar. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Cantharides. 
 
 Savin and its oil. 
 
 Ergot of rye and its preparations. 
 
 Part 2. 
 
 Oxalic acid. 
 
 Chloroform. 
 
 Belladonna and its preparations. 
 
 Essential oil of almonds, unless deprived 
 of its prussic acid. 
 
 Opium and all preparations of opium or of 
 poppies. 
 
 By virtue and in exercise of the powers 
 vested in the council of the Pharmaceutical 
 Society of Great Britain, the said council do 
 hereby resolve and declare that each of the 
 following articles, viz. — 
 
 Preparations of prussic acid. 
 
 Preparations of cyanide of potassium and 
 of all metallic cyanides. 
 
 Preparations of strychnine, 
 
 Preparations of atropine. 
 
 Preparations of corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Preparations of morphine. 
 
 Red oxide of mercury (commonly known as 
 red precipitate of mercury), 
 
 Ammoniated mercury (commonly known as 
 white precipitate of mercury). 
 
 Every compound containing any poison 
 within the meaning of ' The Pharmacy Act, 
 1868,' when prepared or sold for the destruc- 
 tion of vermin. 
 
 The tincture and all vesicating liquid pre- 
 parations of cantharides, 
 — ought to be deemed a poison within the 
 meaning of the ' Pharmacy Act, 1868 j' and 
 also that of the same each of the following 
 articles, viz. — 
 
 Preparations of prussic acid. 
 
 Preparations of cyanide of potassium and of 
 all metallic cyanides. 
 
 Preparations of strychnine. 
 
 Preparations of atropine, 
 — ought to bo deemed a poison in the first part 
 of the schedule (A) to the said 'Pharmacy 
 Act, 1868.' 
 
PHENOL— PHLORIDZIN 
 
 1267 
 
 And notice is hereby also given, tliat the 
 mid Society have Buhiuitt'd the gnid resoluti'm | 
 lor the approval of the Lords of Her Majesty's ] 
 Council, and that such approval has been given. [ 
 By order, I 
 
 Elias Bkkubidoe, 
 Seorelaty and Segutrar of the Pharmaceutical 
 Society of Qreat Britain. 
 
 And whereas the council of the Pharmn- 
 cetitical Soriety of Qreat Britain did, on the 
 17th day of November, 1877, resolve and de- 
 clare in the virords following : — 
 
 " That by virtue and in exercise of the 
 powers vested in the council of the Pharma- 
 ceutical Society of Great Britain, the said 
 council does hereby resolve and declare that 
 Chloral Hydrate and its preparatwnt ought 
 to be deemed poi'ons within the meaning of 
 the ' Pharmacy Act, 1868,' and ought to be 
 deemed poisons in the second part of the 
 schedule (A) of the said ' Pharmacy Act, 
 1868.' " 
 
 And whereas the said Society have submitted 
 the said resolution for the approval of the 
 Privy Council, and the Lords of the Privy 
 Council are of opinion that the said resolution 
 should be approved. 
 
 Now, therelbre, their Lordships are hereby 
 pleased to signily their approval of the said 
 resolution. C. L. Pjiel. 
 
 Tardieu states that of late years the cri- 
 minal administration of phosphorus has in- 
 creased consideralily in France. For example, 
 from 1851 to 1872, in 793 cases of poisoning, 
 287 or 36'2 per cent, were due to arsenic, and 
 267 or 31'1 per cent, to phosphorus ; whilst in 
 the years 1872 and 1874, in 141 criminal poi- 
 sonings by arsenic and phosphorus, only 
 74 were due to arsenic. Tlie explanation of 
 these facts may reasonably be ascribed to the 
 much greater facility with which phosphorus, 
 in the form of matches or vermin pastes, can 
 be procured than arsenic. 
 
 PHE'NOL. CsHjO. See Carbolic acid. 
 
 PHEHYL. CjHs. The hypothetical com- 
 pound radical of the phenyl-series. Carbolic 
 acid is said to be its hydrate. 
 
 PHENYL'AMIHE. C.HsHjN. Aniline is 
 sometimes so named on account of its relation 
 to the phenyl series. 
 
 PHIALS. The ordinary green moulded 
 phials used by the pharmaceutist are made of a 
 glass obtained from common river sand and 
 soapboilers' waste. In the manufacture of 
 the gla-s for the white phials purer materials 
 (and these as free from iron and alumina as 
 possible) are used. Decolourising agents are 
 also employed. The following is given as the 
 composition of a white glass for apothecaries' 
 phials in 'Cliemistry i Theoretical, Practical, 
 and Analytical :" 
 
 Mackenzie and Co. 
 
 100 lbs. white sand. 
 30 — 26 „ potash, impure. 
 17 „ lime. 
 110—120 „ ashes. 
 
 •25 — '5 lbs. binoxide of manganese- 
 cullet. 
 
 Fhials, Bologna. Small flasks or phials of 
 unannealed glass, which fly to pieces when 
 their surface is scratched by a hard body. 
 Thus, if a small piece of flint be dropped into 
 theu] they are shivered; whereas if a ballet 
 be used they remain uninjured. 
 
 FHILO'NIUU. The ancient name of an 
 aromatic opiate, reputed to possess many vir- 
 tues invented by Philo. See Confection of 
 Opidm. 
 
 PHILOS'OPHEE'S STONE. Syn. Lapis 
 PBIL080PHOB0M, L. A Wonderful substance, 
 the discovery of which formed tlie day dreams 
 of the alchemists. It was supposed to be ca- 
 pable of converting all the baser metals into 
 (;ol(l, and of curing all diseases. Some of the 
 alchemists appear to have laboured under the 
 delusion that they had actually discovered it. 
 The last of these enthusiasts was the talented 
 and unfortunate Dr Price, of Guildford. Speak- 
 ing of the age of alchemy, Liebig says : — " The 
 idea of the transmutability of metals stood in 
 the most perfect harmony with all the observa- 
 tions and all the knowledge of that age, and 
 in contradiction to none of these. In the first 
 stage of the development of science, the alche- 
 mists could not possibly have any other notions 
 of the nature of metals than those which they 
 actually held. . . . We tiear it said that 
 the idea of the philosopher's stone was an 
 error; but all our views have been developed 
 from errors, and that which to day we regard 
 as truth in chemistry may, perhaps, before 
 to-morrow, he regarded as a fallacy." 
 
 PHILOSOPHIC CANDLE. An inflamed jet 
 of hydrogen gas. 
 
 PHILOSOPHIC WOOL. Flowers of zinc. 
 
 PHIL'TKE. Syn. FHiLTBaM, L. A charm 
 or potion to excite love. The ancients had 
 great faith in such remedies. Nothing certain 
 is now known respecting their composition; 
 but there is sufficient evidence that recourse 
 was frequently had to them by the ancients, 
 and that " their operation was so violent that 
 many persons lost their lives and their reason 
 by their means." The Thessalian philtres 
 were those most celebrated. (Juv., vi, 610, 
 &c.) At the present day the administration 
 of preparations of the kind is interdicted by 
 law. 
 
 PHLOEE'TIN. CisHkOj. A cry stall! sable, 
 sweet substance, formed along with grape 
 sugar, when phloridzin is acted on by dilute 
 acids. 
 
 PHLORID'ZIN. Cj,Hj40,„. Syn. Phlo- 
 EiziNB ; Phloeidzisum, L. Prep. By acting 
 on the fresh root-bark of the apple, pear, or 
 plum tree, with boiling rectified spirit; the 
 spirit is distilled off, and the phloridzin 
 
1268 
 
 PHOCENIC ACID— PHONOGRAPH 
 
 crystallises out of the residual liquor as it 
 cools. 
 
 Prop,, S(o. Pine, colourless, silky needles, 
 freely soluble in rectified spirit and in hot 
 water, but requiring 1000 parts of cold water 
 for its solution; its taste is bitter and astrin- 
 gent. When its solution is boiled with a 
 little dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric 
 acid, it is changed into grape sugar and 
 phloretin. 
 
 Phloridzin hears a great likeness to salicin. 
 It is said to be a powerful febrifuge. — Dose, 
 3 to 15 gr. 
 
 PHOCE'NIC ACID. See DBLPHrsio acid. 
 
 PHffiNIC'IlfE. See Indioo pueple. 
 
 PHONO'GRAPH. Some years back Prof. 
 Paber, of Vienna, constructed and exliibited 
 in the chief cities of Europe ' a talking ma- 
 chine,' which was able to articulate simple 
 words and sentences with considerable dis- 
 tinctness. The complex mechanism by which 
 this WHS effected was contrived upon the 
 principles of the human organs of speech, as 
 the machine possessed an india-rubber tongue 
 and lips, and an artificial larynx, made out of 
 a thin vibrating tube of ivory. Paber's auto- 
 maton, although of much greater scientific 
 interest than the automatic flute and flageolet 
 players of Vancanson, the trumpeter of Droz, 
 and similar exhibitions of curious workman- 
 ship, was, like these, only a mechanical curi- 
 osity, without any promise of a useful applica- 
 tion. 
 
 Entirely distinct from Paber's machine, not 
 only structurally and in the method by which 
 it produces its effects, but also in the end 
 
 designed for it by its inventor being an essen- 
 tially practical one, is the ' speaking machine 
 or phonograph ' of Mr Edison. 
 
 The first impression that will occnr to those 
 who having heard Mr Edison's instrument 
 speak have subsequently made themselves 
 acquainted with its construction, will probably 
 be one of surprise that an effect so apparently 
 startling as that which it has been able to 
 produce should be accomplished by means so 
 simple. 
 
 B is a brass cylinder, through whose centre 
 passes a metal shaft, the arms of which rest on 
 upright supports, one of which is shown in the 
 engraving. The arm of the shaft, obscured 
 from view, corresponding in length with the 
 partof it which is visible, is screw-turned,and it 
 works in anutboredoutofthesupport. Attached 
 to the screw-end of the shaft or axle is a crank 
 c, by turning which a double movement, viz. 
 a rotatory and a horizontal one, may be 
 simultaneously imparted to the cylinder. 
 Round the surface of the cylinder is cut 
 a spiral groove corresponding in dimensions 
 with the threads of the screw part of the 
 shaft. Covering the whole of the cylinder is 
 a sheet of tin-foil, which is secured to its edges 
 by means of shell-lac varnish. In front of the 
 cylinder, resting on a proper support, is a 
 mouth-piece. A, at the bottom of which (the 
 end nearest the cylinder) is a very thin plate 
 or diaphragm of metal, and to this diaphragm 
 is attached a round steel point, which when 
 not in use does not touch the foil. Previously 
 to using the apparatus' this steel point has to 
 be accurately adjusted opposite to that part 
 of the foil lying over the spiral groove. If 
 
PHONOQUAPH 
 
 1269 
 
 now the lips be applied to the month-piece, 
 and any sentence be spoken, the crank being 
 at the same time turned, the vibrations im- 
 parted to the metal plate by the voice will 
 cause the steel point to come into contact with 
 that part of the foil overlying the groove in 
 the cylinder, and to mnlie on the foil a number 
 of indentations, as it revolves, and is carried 
 forward laterally before the mouth-piece. 
 Furthermore these indentations will be found 
 to vary in depth and sectional outline accord- 
 ing to the nature of the vibrations which have 
 produced them ; and as experiment proves, are 
 the specific and infallible caligrapby of those 
 vibrations. 
 
 " It might be said that at this point the 
 machine has already become u complete phono- 
 graph or sound writer, but it yet remains to 
 translate the remarks made. Now, there is no 
 doubt that by practice and the aid of a mag- 
 nifier it W(mld be poasiljle to read phonetically 
 Mr Edison's record of dots and dashes,' but 
 he saves us that trouble by literally milking it 
 read itself. The distinction is the same, as if. 
 Instead of peruBing a hook ourselves, we drop 
 it into a machine, set the latter in motion, and 
 behold ! the voice of the author is heard re- 
 peating his own composition. The reading 
 mechanism is nothini,' but another diaphragm, 
 held in the tube u, on the opposite side of the 
 machine, iiud a point of metal, which is held 
 against the tin-foil on the cylinder by a delicate 
 ipriiig. 
 
 " It makes no difference as to the vibrations 
 produced, whether a niiil moves over a file or 
 a file moves over a miil, and in tlie present in- 
 stance it is the foil or indented foil-strip which 
 moves, and the metal point is caused to vibnite 
 as it is afi'ected by the passage of the indenta- 
 tions. The vibrations, however, of this point 
 nmst be precisely the same as those of the 
 other points which made the indentations, and 
 these vibrations transmitted to a second 
 membrane, must cause the latter to vibrate 
 similar to the first membrane, and the rosiilL 
 is a synthesis of the sounds, which in the 
 beginning we saw, »s it were, analysed. "^ 
 
 In some of the later instruments, that 
 section of the apparatus, shown at s is dis- 
 pensuil with, and the reproduction of the spoken 
 words or sentences is effected by bringing the 
 cUinder back to its original starting point, 
 opposite to the little steel projection attached 
 to the metal disc nt the end of the mouth- 
 piece A. The steel point is then brought by 
 means of a screw into contact with the foil, 
 
 > According to llie ' Pi»lytcclinic Review,' Mr Edison 
 doi-9 noi Hppeur to liave yei solved the probleni of re)i(lin^ 
 the |ili'>noi£rHpli record by sight. He stHtes ttiat ;dt1iou^u 
 B npcnfic form exisls fur eacit artiniliiied simnd. the chief 
 dillli uliics arise Irom the vurvin^ indenluliuns or marlis 
 caused l>y the s<nie sound. Anion^sl the crrcumstuiices 
 fiivwe rise to tlieae results are; the same sound uttered 
 liy dineroiit people, the niiiimer in whicli it is spoken, the 
 dist ince of the mouth from the instninK-nt. the force with 
 which it IS spoken, or the speed witli which the bairei is 
 rolHlcd 
 
 * 'Scientific American/ December, lb77. 
 
 and as the cylinder moves onward in its 
 former track, the metal point retraces the 
 indentations on the foil from beginning to end, 
 in doing which it communicates the vibra- 
 tions it thus receives to the metal diaphragm 
 in precisely the same manner, and with the 
 same results as were shown with D. For the 
 diaphragm, more particularly when employed 
 as a resonator or reproducer of the words 
 which have been spoken into the mouth-piece, 
 other substances than metal have been tried, 
 with, it is said, more satisfactory results. One 
 of these is paper, the sounds given off by which 
 are stated to be more distinct than those 
 from iron. 
 
 Dr Clarence Holt, of Boston, in a communi- 
 cation to Mr W. H. Preece, writes that he has 
 ** constructed a diaphragm upon the prin- 
 ciple of the membrane of the human drum 
 of tlic ear, to be used as a reproducing disc." 
 Dr Holt continues " that his object was to era- 
 ploy a membrane which from its structure and 
 shape would reproduce the lighter over tones 
 representing the quality of the voice, and at the 
 same time cut oflf the sharper exaggerated 
 over-tones embossed as such by the metal disc 
 upon the tinfoil. He says the results of bis 
 experiments with such a menibrnue weu> 
 very j^ratifying, and that the material of which 
 it may be made should be either stout felted 
 paper (to be varnished on the outer surface 
 when used for speaking) or drum head 
 moistened and pressed into a concave form 
 before using."' 
 
 The crank (shown in the figure) by which 
 the cylinder is turned is very frequently sup- 
 planted liy an apparatus consisting of weights 
 and wlicc Is, or else by clockwork, wliereby the 
 cylinder is put in motion. The advantage 
 of the working of these arrangements over 
 that of the crank arc, that instead of an 
 inequality a regularity of movement of the 
 cylinder is ensured, and it is thus made to ad- 
 vance nt the same rate whilst the words are 
 being reproduced as when they are being 
 spoken. 
 
 One of the efl'ects of this uniformity of the 
 rotatiiin of the cylinder under its two modes 
 of action is to reproduce the exact pitch or 
 tone of the voice of the speaker, although 
 a departure from it would in no way affect the 
 delivery of the exact words. 
 
 Accordingly, therefore, to the difference in 
 the rate of movement of the cylinder during 
 the reception and reproduction of speech, 
 will he the divergence in tone between the 
 original and the reproduced voice. If the 
 cyliniler were moved more quickly in redeliver- 
 ing the words the result would be that they 
 would be in a higher, and, in the opposite 
 case, in a lower key. ProbaWv, as one writer 
 has suggested, the "curious effect might be pro- 
 duced of a child's voice being converted into 
 a man's deep base, or vice versa. 
 
 lu view of the results of previous scientific 
 1 Puhhshcd in ' Mature.' rebruary 4th, 1878. 
 
1270 
 
 PHOSGENE GAS— PHOSPHORUS 
 
 discoveries, we should not be justified in re- 
 fusing to admit the possibility, at any rate, of 
 the realisation of some of the applications 
 to which its inventor believes the phonograph 
 will, in the course of time, be put. 
 
 It must be admitted tljat these predictions 
 as to iti ultiiiiiiie capabilities are sufficiently 
 wondrous. They are that — the phonograph 
 will be able to record and reproduce at a future 
 time any air sung to it, so that the vocal 
 triumphs of some of our most accomplished 
 singers may be preserved and resung after 
 tlieir death; that by its means may also be 
 conserved and respoken, likewise after 
 de<itb, a speech delivered by « great states- 
 man or orator ; that a dying testator by 
 breathing into it his last wishes may have 
 these securely registered, to be expressed after 
 his demise, if need be, in a court of justice ; 
 and that the contents of a book or novel may 
 be read to us in the very accents of its author, 
 long after he has passed away. 
 
 Although we have no testimony that any- 
 thing like an approach to the above results has 
 been obtained by this instrument, such state- 
 ments as we po-scss of its action are not; a little 
 surprising. 
 
 " Mr Thomas Edison," says the ' Scientific 
 American,* describing this contrivance, 
 "recently came into our oflice, placed a little 
 machine on our desk, turned a crank, and 
 the machine inquired as to our health, asked 
 how we liked the phonograph, informed us 
 tliat it was well, and bid us a cordial good 
 night. These remarks were not only perfectly 
 audible to ourselves, but to a dozen or more 
 persons gathered round.'* 
 
 At a meeting of the Physical Society of 
 London, held on the 2nd of March, 1878, when 
 the phonograph was exhibited, the sounds it 
 gave out are said to have been remarkably 
 distinct ; and when " God Save the Queen " 
 was sung as a duet through a double mouth- 
 piece, tile two voices could be clearly dis- 
 tinguished on the air being reproduced. 
 
 The writer was at the Royal institution in 
 Albemarle Street a short time previous to the 
 above date, and although sitting in the top 
 gallery, beard it emit very distinctly the line 
 " Come into the garden, Maud," spoken by 
 Professor Tyndall in compliment to the 
 Laureate, who was present, as well as various 
 other vocal reproductions. Tlie secondary 
 sound, however, was less powerful than the 
 original one. The difference between the 
 two is aptly described by a writer in ' Nature,* 
 as causing a feeling like that of looking upon 
 a worn print and an early wood engraving. 
 
 "The main utility of the phonograph,** says 
 Mr Edison, " being for the purpose of letter- 
 writing, and other forms of dictation, the 
 design is made, with a view to its utility for 
 that purpose. 
 
 " The general principles of construction are 
 a flat plate or disc, with spiral groove on the 
 lace, operated by clockwork underneath the 
 
 plate ; the grooves are cut very closely to- 
 gether, so as to give a great total length to 
 each inch of surface — a close calculation 
 gives as the capacity of each sheet of foil, 
 upon which tiie record is had, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of 40,000 words. The sheets being 
 but 10 inches square, the cost is so trifling 
 that but 100 words might be put upon a single 
 sheet economically, 
 
 " The practical application of this form of 
 phonograph for communications is very simple. 
 A sheet of foil is placed in the phonograph, 
 the clockwork set in motion, and the matter 
 dictated in the mouth-piece, without other 
 effort than when dictating to a stenographer. 
 It is then removed, placed in a suitable form 
 of envelope, and sent through the ordinary 
 channels to the correspondent for whom de- 
 signed. He, placing it upon his phonograph, 
 starts his clockwork, and lislem to what his 
 correspondeut has to say. Inasmuch as it gives 
 the tone of voice of his correspondent it is 
 identified. As it may be filed away as other 
 letters and at any subsequent time reproduced, 
 it is a perfect record. As two sheets of foil 
 have been indented with the same facility as 
 a single sheet, * the writer * may thus keep a 
 duplicate of his communication. 
 
 " I'he phonograph letters may he dictated 
 at home or in the ofSce of a friend, the pre- 
 sence of a stenographer not being required. The 
 dictation may be as rapid as the thoughts can 
 be formed, or the lips utter them. The re- 
 cipient may listen to his letters being read at 
 the rate of 150 to 200 words per minute, 
 and at the same time busy himself about other 
 matters. Interjections,, explanations, em- 
 phasis, exclamations, &c., may be thrown into 
 such letters ad libitum. 
 
 " The advantages of such an innovation upon 
 the present slow, tedious, and costly methods 
 are too numerous, and too readily suggest 
 themselves, to warrant their enumeration; 
 while there are no disadvantages which will 
 not disappear coincident with the general 
 introduction of the new method.'*' 
 
 PHOS'GENE GAS. See Chloeocaebohic 
 
 ACID. 
 
 PHOS'PHATB. Syn. Phosphas, L. A salt 
 of phosphoric acid. See Phosphoeio acid 
 and the respective metals. 
 
 PHOS'PHIDE. See Phosphueet. 
 
 PHOS'PHITE. Si/n. Phosphis, L. A salt 
 of phosphorous acid. See Phosphoeous acid. 
 
 PHOS'PHOEUS. P. 
 
 JPrep. This is now only conducted on the 
 large scale:— Bone-ash (in powder), 12 parts, 
 and water 24 parts, are stirred together in a 
 large tub until the mixture is reduced to a 
 perfectly smooth ' pap ; * oil of vitriol, 8 parts, 
 is then added in a slender stream, active stir- 
 ring being employed during the whole time, 
 and afterwards until the combination appears 
 complete; the next day the mass is thinned 
 > ' Morth American Review,' May, 1878. 
 
PHOSPHORUS 
 
 1271 
 
 with cold wntiT, nnd, if convenient, hentcl in 
 a Icmlen pan or boiler until it baa entirely 
 lost iti granular elmracter; it ia now trans- 
 ferred to one or a series of tall casks (accord- 
 ing to tbe extent of the batch), :ind further 
 diluted with a large quantity of water; after 
 repose, the elear liquid is decanted, the sedi- 
 ment washed with water, and the ' washings ' 
 and 'decanted liquor' evaporateil in a leaden 
 or copper boiler until the white calcareous 
 deposit (gypsum) becomes considerable ; tlie 
 whole is then allowrd to cool, the clear por- 
 tion deciinted, and the sediment thoroughly 
 drained on a filter; the liquid thus obtainid 
 is evaporated in an iron pot to the consistence 
 of a thick syrup (say 4 parts), when dry char- 
 coal (in powder), 1 part, is added, and the 
 desiccation continued until the bottom of the 
 pot becomes nearly red hot, after which it is 
 covered over and allowed to cool; the dry 
 mixture, when cold, is put into one or more 
 earthen retorts well covered with 'luting' and 
 properly dried, and beat is applied (sideways 
 rather thnn at the bottom) by means of a 
 good air-furnace ; after a short time the beak 
 of the retort is connected -with a copper tube, 
 the other end of which is made to dip about 
 one fourth of an inch beneath the surface of 
 some lukewarm wiiter placed in a trough or 
 wide-mouthed bottle. 
 
 The distilled product is gurified by squeezing 
 it through chamois leather under warm water, 
 and is then moulded for sale by melting it 
 under water heated to about 145° Fahr., and 
 sucking it up to any desired height in slightly 
 tapering, but perfectly straight, glass tubes, 
 [ireviously warmed and wetted. The bottom 
 of the tube being now closed with the finger, 
 it is withdrawn, and transferred to a pan of 
 cold water to congeal the phosphorus, which 
 will then commonly fall out, or may be easily 
 expelled by pressure with a piece of wire. 
 
 Prop. S[c, Phosphorus in its normal con- 
 dition is a pale yellow, semi-transparent, and 
 highly combustible solid ; soft and flexible at 
 common temperatures ; it becomes wnxy at 
 about 75° Fiihr. ; melts at about 111°, and boils 
 at 550° Fahr. ; it takes fire in the air at 165°, 
 and oxidates at all temperatures above 32°. 
 Exposed to the air below 60°, its surfiice is 
 slowly converted into phosphorus acid. It is 
 apparently insoluble in water, but it conveys 
 its peculiar flavour and odour to that fluid 
 when agitated with it j it is slightly soluble 
 in ether, naphtha, and the fixed and volatile 
 oils, and more freely so in bisulphide of carbon. 
 It unites with oxygen, f ormingoxides, and with 
 oxygen and hydrogen, forming acids, and with 
 the metals, forming phosphides. 
 
 Phosphorus is remarkable for assuming se- 
 veral allotrophic forms. In one of these 
 lorms (amorphous phospho]^u»),j^ai)ropertie8 
 are so altered that they miglit^Hiose of a 
 distinct element. , ^j" 
 
 tJsea. The principal consusiption of phos- 
 phorus is in the manuiactureof Inciter matches. 
 
 When swallowed, it acts as a powerful corro- 
 sive poi-on ; but small do<es of its ethereal and 
 oily solutions are occasion. lily administered in 
 cases of chronic debility, extreme prestation 
 of the nervous powers, impocency, &c. Its 
 action is that of a powerful diffusible stimu- 
 lant and diuretic ; it is also aphrudi-iac. Its 
 use requires great caution, and the effects 
 must be narrowly watched. The treatment of 
 poisoning by pliospborus consists of the ad 
 ministration of d powerful emeiic and the 
 copious use of mncilaginons drinKs. The 
 French prictitioners recommend oil of tur- 
 pentine as the most effective antidote. They 
 administer about a teaspoonful of the turpen- 
 tine every four hours. 
 
 Concluding RemarJcs. From the great in- 
 flammability of phosphorus it can only be saf.ly 
 preserved under water. In commerce, it is 
 alwavs packed in tin cylinders filled with 
 water, and soldered up air-tight. The leading 
 points to be observed to ensure success in this 
 manufacture are chiefly connected with the 
 filing. The heat of the furnace should be 
 most slowly raised at first, but afterwards 
 equably maintained in a state of bright igni- 
 tion. After 3 ir 4 hours of steady firing, car- 
 bonic and sulphurous anhydride are evolved 
 in considerable abundance, pro\ ided the mate- 
 terials had not been well dried in the iron pot ; 
 then sulphuretted hydrogen makes its appear- 
 ance, and next phosphuretted hydntgen, which 
 last should continne during the whole of the 
 distillation. The firing should be regulated 
 by the escape of this remarkable gas, which 
 ought to be at the rate of about two bubbles 
 per second. If the dischari;e comes to be in- 
 tercepteil, it is to be ascribed either to the 
 temperature being two low, or to the retort 
 gettini; crai'kcd ; and if, upon raising tbe heat 
 sufficiently, no bubbles appear, it is a proof 
 that the apparatus has become defective, and 
 that it is needless to continue the operation. 
 We may infer that the process approaches its 
 conclusion by the increasing slowness with 
 which the gas is disengaged under a powerful 
 heat; and when it ceases to comeovcr we may 
 cease firing, taking care to prevent reflux of 
 water into the retort (and consequent explo- 
 sion), from condensation of its gaseons con- 
 tents, by admitting air into it through a re- 
 curved glass tube, or through the tube of the 
 copper adapter. The usual period of the 
 operation, upon the great scale, is from 21 to 
 30 hours. 
 
 Fhosphoms, Amor'phons. Syn. Red phos- 
 PHOHua, Allotbopic PHOSPHORUS; Paos- 
 PHOBUS PDSCUS, p. EUBKB. L. This is phos- 
 phorus in that peculiar condition to which 
 Berzelius has applied the term " allotropic." 
 The honour of its discovery is due to Dr 
 ShrOtter, of Vienna. 
 
 Prep. The ordinary phosphorus of commerce, 
 rendered as dry as possible, is jilaced in a 
 shallow vessel of hard and well-annealed 
 Bobemian glass, fitted with a salety tube just 
 
1272 
 
 PHOSPHORUS 
 
 dipping beneath the surface of a little hot 
 water contained in an adjacent vessel; heat is 
 then applied by means of a metallic bath (a 
 mixture of lead and tin), tlie temperature of 
 which is gradually raised until it ranges be- 
 tween 464 and 482° Fahr., and bubbles of gas 
 escape from the end of the safety tube and 
 catch fire as they come in contact with the air ; 
 this temperature is maintained until the amor- 
 phous condition is produced, the length of the 
 exposure being regulated by a miniature opera- 
 tion with tubes conducted in the same bath j 
 as soon as this point is reached, the apparatus 
 is allowed to cool, and the amorphous phos- 
 phorus, which still contains some unconverted 
 phosphorus, detached from the glass ; it is then 
 reduced to powder by careful trituration under 
 water, drained on a calico filter, and, whilst 
 still moist, spread thinly on shallow trays of 
 iron or lead ; in this state it is exposed, with 
 frequent stirring, to heat in a chloride of cal- 
 cium bath, at first gentle, and then gradually 
 increased to its highestlimit, and the heat con- 
 tinued until no more luminous vapour escapes; 
 the residuum on the trays is then cooled, washed 
 with water until this last ceases to affect test 
 paper, and is, lastly, drained and dried. To 
 render it absolutely free from unaltered phos- 
 phorus, it may be washed with bisulphide of 
 carbon. 
 
 On the small scale, common phosphorus may 
 be converted into amorplious phosphorus by 
 simply exposing it for 50 or 60 hours to a 
 temperature of about 473° Fahr,, in any suit- 
 able vessel from which the air is kept excluded 
 by a stream of carbonic acid, or any other gas 
 which is unable to act chemically on the phos- 
 phorus. 
 
 By keeping common phosphorus fused at a 
 high temperature, under the above conditions, 
 for fully 8 days, compact masses of amorphous 
 phosphorus may be obtained. 
 
 Frop., S^c. A reddish brown, infusible, in- 
 odorous, solid substance, which is reconverted 
 into ordinary phosphorus by simply exposing 
 it to a heat a little above 500° Fahr. Il is un- 
 altered by atmospheric air; is insoluble in bi- 
 sulphide of carbon, alcohol, ether, or naphtha ; 
 is non-luminous in the dark below about 390° 
 Fahr. j and does not take fire at a lower tem- 
 perature than that necessary for its reconver- 
 sion into the common or crystalline form. The 
 sp. gr. ranges between 2'089 to 2'017, accord- 
 ing to the method of preparing it. Its pro- 
 perties render it an admirable substitute for 
 the common phosphorus in the composition 
 for tipping matches, both as regards security 
 from spontaneous ignition and the health of 
 the manufacturers, who when exposed to the 
 fumes of ordinary phosphorus, were very liable 
 to be attacked with caries of the lower jaw. 
 
 Phosphorus, Trichloride of. PClg. Syn. 
 Phobphosus teeohlokide, Phosphokus 
 CHLOBIDE. By gently heating phosphorus, in 
 excess, in dry chlorine gas; or by passing the 
 vapour of phosphorus through a stratum of 
 
 powdered mercuric chloride, strongly heated 
 in a glass tube. It is limpid, colourless, highly 
 fetid, fumes in the air, and is slowly resolved 
 by water into phosphorus acid and hydro- 
 chloric acid. Sp. gr. 1'45. 
 Phosphoras, Pentachloride of. PClj. Sya. 
 
 PhOSPHOBIC CHLpKIDE, PeBCHLOEIDE OF 
 
 Phosphoeus. 
 
 Frep. By the spontaneous combustion of 
 phosphorus in an excess of dry chlorine ; or 
 by passing a stream of dry chlorine into the 
 liquid terchloride. By the first method it is 
 obtained as a white crystalline sublimate ; by 
 the second, as a solid crystalline mass. It is 
 volatile ; water resolves it in phosphoric acid 
 and hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Phosphoras, Oxychloride of. PCUO. Syn. 
 Phosphobio oxtohloeide, Phosphobio 
 monoxtchloeide. 
 
 Frep. By heating pentachloride of phos- 
 phorus with a quantity of vrater insufficient 
 to convert it into phosphoric acid. It is a 
 colourless, fuming liquid, having the sp. gr, 
 1-7. 
 
 Phosphorus, Hydride of. PH3. Syn. Phos- 
 
 PHOEETTED HYDEO&BN, PhOSPHTJEETTED 
 HTBBOOEN. 
 
 Frep. 1. Phosphorus acid is gently heated 
 in a retort, and the first portion of the gas 
 coUecte i. 
 
 2. From phosphorus (in small lumps) boiled 
 in a solution of hydrate of potassium or milk 
 of lime, contained in a small retort, as before. 
 Take a very small thin retort, capable of hold- 
 ing not more than 1 oz. or 1^ oz. of water ; 
 place in this 3 or 4 fragments of the sticks of 
 fused hydrate of potassium, each being about 
 i inch in length ; add as much water as will 
 barely cover them, and then drop in a small 
 fragment of phosphorus, about the size of a 
 horse-bean; apply a very gentle heat with the 
 small flame of a spirit lamp, agitating the 
 retort continually. A pale lambent flame will 
 first appear in the interior, and when tliis 
 reaches the orifice, and burns in the open air, 
 the retort should be placed on the stand with 
 its beak about an inch under water. Care 
 must be taken not to withdraw the flame of 
 the lamp. When the hubbies of the gas rise 
 to the surface they spontaneously inflame. 
 
 3. From phosphide of calcium and dilute 
 hydrochloric acid, as above; or simply from 
 the phosphide thrown into the water. 
 
 Obs. The gas obtained by methods 2 and 3 
 is contaminated with the vapour of a liquid 
 phosphide of hydrogen, PHj, which gives to it 
 the property of spontaneous inflammability. 
 
 Frop., Sfc. Colourless ; very fetid ; slightly 
 soluble in water ; burns with a white flame ; 
 decomposed by light, heat, and strong acids; 
 as commonly prepared, inflames on contact 
 with air, at ordinary temperatures, but when 
 pure, only at the heat of boiling water. Sp. 
 gr. 1-24. It is rendered quite dry by standing 
 over fused chloride of calcium. 
 
 Phosphorus, Suboxide of. P4O. (Odling.) A 
 
PHOSPHORUS 
 
 1273 
 
 roddisli-brown powder, formod when a stream 
 of oxygen i* forced upon phosphorus, melted 
 beneath the unrfiico of hot water. To purify 
 it from phosphoric acid and free phosphorus, 
 it is washed on a filter with water, then dried 
 by bibulous paper, and finally digested with 
 bisulphide of carbon.. 
 
 Hypophosphorons Acid. HsPO,. By cau- 
 tiously decomposing a solution of hypophos- 
 phite of barium with sulphuric acid, filtering 
 from the precipitate (sulphate of baryta), and 
 evaporating. Dissolve hypophosphite of cal- 
 cium, 480 gr. in distilled water, 6 i1. oz. ; 
 dissolve crystallised oxalic acid, 350 Rr., in 
 another portion of distilled water, 3 fl. oz. ; 
 mix the solutions and filter the mixture 
 through white filtering paper. Add distilled 
 water carefully to the filtrate till it measures 
 10 tl. oz., and evaporate this to 8i fl. oz. The 
 solution thus prepared contains about lOJ of 
 tcrhydrated hypophosphorous acid. 
 
 Prop. A viscid, uncrystallisable liquid 
 having a strongly acid reaction. It is a power- 
 ful drying agent, and forms salts called hypo- 
 phosphites. 
 
 Ammoniam, Hypophospliite of. (NH4)3P03. 
 Prep. DixBolve hypophosphite of calcium, 6 
 oz., in water, 4 pints; and dissolve translucent 
 sesquicarbonatc of ammonium, 7'23 oz. (bnrely 
 71), in water, 2 pints; mix the solutions; 
 filter, washing out the solution retained by 
 the carbonate of lime with water, q, s. ; eva- 
 porate the filtrate to dryness with great care ; 
 dissolve it in alcohol, q. s. ; filter, evaporate, 
 and crystallise. Very soluble in both alcohol 
 and water. 
 
 Barium, Hyperphosphite of. Ba3(P04)j. 
 
 Prep. Boil phosphorus in a solution of 
 hydrate of barium (baryta water) till all the 
 phosphorus disappears and the vapours have 
 no longer a s'lrlic odour. Filter, evaporate, 
 and set aside to crystallise. 
 
 Calcium, Hypophosphite of. Ca3(P0o)2. 
 
 Prep. Slack recently burnt liuie, 4 lb>., 
 with water, 1 gall., and mix it with water, 4 
 galls., just brmiiilit to the boiling temperature 
 in a deep open boiler, stirring until a uniform 
 milk of lime is formed ; then add phosphorus, 
 1 lb., and keep up the boiling constantly, add- 
 ing hot water from time to time, so as to pre- 
 serve the nicasnre as nearly as may be until 
 all the plidspliorus is oxidised and combined, 
 and the strong odour of the gas has disap- 
 peared; then filter the solution through muslin, 
 wa-li out that portion retained by the calca- 
 reous residue with water, and evaporate the 
 filtrate til! reduced to 6 pints ; re-filter, to 
 remove a portion of carbonate of calcium re- 
 sulting from the action of the air upon the 
 solution; evaporate again until a pellicle forms, 
 and set aside to ervstallise — or continue the 
 heat with const.mt stirring until the salt gran- 
 ulates. 
 
 Obi. As spontaneously inflammable phos- 
 phnretted hydrogen is given off during the 
 boiling, the process must be conducted under 
 
 a hood, with a strong draught or in the open 
 air. Smaller proportions than those given 
 may be used. 
 
 Prop. Hypophosphite of calcium is a white 
 salt, with pearly lustre, crystallising In flat- 
 tened prisms; soluble in 6 parts of cold water, 
 and slightly soluble in dilute alcohol. It is 
 the most important of these compounds, and 
 when introduced into the stomach it is sup- 
 posed to be converted into phosphate of cal- 
 cium. It has been termed 'chemical food.' 
 By decomposition it readily furnishes the 
 other hypophosphites. 
 
 Ferric Hyperphosphite of. FePOj. Prep. 
 By precipitating a solution of hypophosphite 
 of sodium or ammonium, with solution of 
 ferric sulphate, washing the gelatinous pre- 
 cipitate with care (it being somewhat soluble); 
 and, finally, drying it into an amorphous white 
 powder. This is freely soluble in hydrochloric 
 and bypopbosphoroiis acids. 
 
 FotasBinm, Hypophosplute of K,POj. Prep. 
 Prom hypophosphite of calcium, 6 oz.,\di8- 
 solved ill water, 4 pints ; and granulated car- 
 bonate of potassium, 5J oz., dissolved in water, 
 i pint. Mix, filter, and wash the precipitate 
 till the filtrat« measures 5 pints. Evaporate 
 till a pellieie forms, then stir constantly, con- 
 tinuing the heat till the salt granulates. A 
 white, opaque, deliquescent body, very soluble 
 in water and alcohol. 
 
 dninine, Hypophosphite of Dissolve sul- 
 phate of quinine, 1 oz., in water, by the aid of 
 diluted sulphuric aeid ; precipitate the alka- 
 loid with ammonia; wash the precipitated 
 quinine and digest it in hypophosphorous acid 
 with heat (the quinine being in exees^); after 
 filtering the solution, allow it to evaporate 
 spontaneously till the required salt crystal- 
 lises. It forms elegant tufts of soft, feathery 
 crystals, which are soluble in 60 parts of 
 water. 
 
 Sodium, Hypophosphite of. Xa3P0.2. Prep. 
 From hvpophosphite of calcium, 6 oz., dis- 
 solved iu water, 4 pints; and crystallised ear- 
 bonate of sodium, 10 oz., dissolved in water, 
 1^ pint. Proceed as in making hypophosphite 
 of potassium, but allowing 6 pints as the mea- 
 sure of the filtrate. If required in crystals, 
 the granulated salt may be dissolved iu alco- 
 hol sp. gr. -835, evaporated till syrnpy, and 
 set by in a warm place. Crystallises in rec- 
 tangular tables, with a pearly lustre; is very 
 S'lluble in water and ordinary alcohol, and 
 deliquesces when exposed to the air. 
 
 Phosphorus, Trioxide of. P2O3. Sj/n. 
 Phosphorous anhydkide ; Anhtdkous 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACir. 
 
 Prep. By burning pbospborns in a limited 
 supply of ail"- White flaky powder, with an 
 odour of garlic, and rapidly absorbing water 
 to form phosphorous acid. 
 
 Phosphorous Acid. H3PO3. Si/n- Htdea- 
 TKD PHOSPHOBOtrs ACID. Pure phosphorus is 
 volatilised through a layer of powdered mer- 
 curic chloride, containid in a glass tube; 
 
1274 
 
 PHOSPHORUS 
 
 terchloride of phosphorus comes over, which, 
 on being mixed with water, is resolved into 
 hydrochloric acid and phosphorous acid; by 
 evaporating the mixed liquid to the consis- 
 tence of a syrup, the first is expelled, and 
 the residuum forms a crystalline mass of 
 hydrated phosphorous acid on cooling. 
 
 Prop., if-c. It is a powerful deoxidising 
 agent. Heated in a closed vessel, it is resolved 
 into hydrated phosphoric acid and pure phos- 
 phuretted hydrogen gas. With the bases it 
 forms salts, called phosphites, which possess 
 little practical importance. 
 
 Phosphorous Feutoxide Acid. PjOj. Si/n. 
 AnHTDEOUB PHOSPHOBIC ACID; Phospho- 
 EIC ANHTrEIDE ; PhOSPHOEIO OXIDE. By 
 
 the vivid combustion of phosphorus in a 
 stream of dry atmospheric air, or under a bell- 
 jar, copiously supplied with dry air. The 
 product is pure anhydrous phosphoric acid 
 under the form of snow-like flakes. It must 
 be immediately collected and put into a warm, 
 dry, well-stoppered bottle. In this state it 
 exhibits an intense attraction for water, and 
 when thrown into it combines with explosive 
 violence ; exposed to moist air for only a few 
 seconds, it deliquesces to a syrupy-looking 
 liqnid. 
 
 Phosphoric Acid. There are three distinct 
 acids usually grouped ouder this head, namely, 
 Metaphosphokic acid, HPO3; Pybophos- 
 PHOBic acid, H4P4O7; and Obihophosphobic 
 
 ACID, H3PO4. 
 
 Metaphosphorio Acid. HPO3. Syn. Mono- 
 basic PHOSPHOEIO ACID; GlACIAl PHOSPHO- 
 EIO ACID. 
 
 Prep. Bones (calcined to whiteness and 
 powdered), 3 parts, are digested for several 
 days in oil of vitriol, 2 parts, previously di- 
 luted with water, 6 parts, the mixture being 
 frequently stirred during the time; a large 
 quantity of water is next added, the whole 
 thrown in a strainer, and the residuiil matter 
 washed with some hot water; the mixed 
 liquors are then precipitated with a solution 
 of carbonate of ammonium, in sligltt excess, 
 filtered from the insoluble, finally ignited in 
 a platinum crucible. 
 
 By acting upon the anhydride with cold 
 water. 
 
 When phosphoric acid is added to a strong 
 solution of phosphate of zirconium, and the 
 mixture, after concentration, is exposed to a 
 low temperature, prismatic crystals are de- 
 posited. These, after being strongly heated 
 to expel their basic water, are pure metaphos- 
 phate of sodium. Prom the solution of this 
 salt in cold water, a solution of pure meta 
 phosphoric acid may. he obtained, as above, 
 by means of nitrate or acetate of lead and 
 sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 
 Ohs. This acid precipitates the salts of 
 silver white, and is distinguished from the 
 other modifications . of phosphoric acid by the 
 property which its solution possesses of coagu- 
 lating albumen. 
 
 Pyrophosphoric Acid. H4P2O7. %m. Di- 
 basic PH03PH0EIC ACID. By Strongly heating 
 common or phosphate of sodium. The water 
 of crystallisation only is at first expelled, and 
 the salt becomes anhydrous; but as the tem- 
 perature reaches that of redness the salt loses 
 water and is decomposed, By solution of the 
 altered salt in water, crystals of pyrophos- 
 phate of sodium maybe obtained. A solution 
 of this last compound, treated with nitrate of 
 lead, and the resulting precipitate, suspended 
 iu cold water, and decomposed by sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, yields a solution of pure pyrophos- 
 phoric acid. 
 
 Obs. Heat resolves this into a solution of 
 the ordinary acid. Pyrophosphoric acid pre- 
 cipitates the salts of silver of a white colour. 
 The salts of this acid are called pyrophos- 
 phates. 
 
 Orthophosphoric Acid. H3PO4. Syn. Tei. 
 
 HTDBIC PHOSPHATE, TEIBASIO PHOSPHOBIC 
 
 ACID. Ordinary nitric acid is heated in a 
 tubulated retort connected with a receiver, 
 and small fragments of phosphorus are 
 dropped into it, singly and at intervals; 
 as soon as the oxygenation of the phos- 
 phorus is complete, the heat is increased, 
 the undecomposed acid distilled off, and the 
 residuum evaporated to the consistence of a 
 s\ rup. In this state it forms the phosphoric 
 acid of the shops. Commercial phosphate of 
 sodium is dissolved in water and the solution 
 precipitated with another of acetate of lead ; 
 an abundant white precipitate (phosphate of 
 lead) falls ; this is collected on a filter, well 
 washed, and, whilst still moist, is suspended 
 in distilled water, and sulphuretted hydrogen 
 gas passed into it, in excess; a black insoluble 
 precipitate forms, while pure tribasic phos- 
 phoric acid remains in solution, and is easily 
 deprived of the residual sulphuretted hydrogen 
 by a gentle heat. By concentration in vacuo 
 over sulphuric acid, it may be obtained in thin 
 crystalline plates. 
 
 The solution of this acid may he boiled 
 without change, but when concentrated and 
 heated to about 400° Fahr. it is converted 
 into pyrophosphoric acid, and at a red heat 
 into metaphosphoric acid. Its salts are the 
 ordinary phosphates, or orthophosphates, and 
 they give a yellow precipitate with nitrate of 
 silver. 
 
 Tests. The following reactions characterise 
 the ordinary or other phosphates : — 1. Chlo- 
 ride of barium produces in aqueous solutions 
 of the neutral and basic phosphates a white 
 precipitate, which is insoluble in either hydro- 
 chloric or nitric acid, and with difficulty so- 
 luble in a solution of chloride of ammonium. 
 — 2. Solution of sulphate of calcium produces 
 in neutral and alkaline solutions of the phos- 
 phates a white precipitate, freely soluble in 
 acids, even the acetic— -3. Sulphate of magne- 
 sium produces in solutions of the phosphates, 
 to which some chloride of ammonium and free 
 ammonia has been added, a white, crystalline. 
 
PHOSPHORUS 
 
 1275 
 
 and quickly subsiding precipitate of the pbos- 
 phnte of ammuninm and miigneBium, which 
 is iasolublu in n solution of either ammonia 
 or chloride of ammonium, but readily soluble 
 ill acids, even the acetic— 4. Nitrate of silver, 
 with neutral and basic alkaline phosphates, 
 gives a light yellow precipitate. If the fluid 
 in which the precipitate ia suspended con- 
 tained a basic phosphate, it doi's not affect 
 ti^st paper; il' it contained a neutral phos- 
 phate, the reaction will be acid. If the phos- 
 phate examined has been heated to redness 
 before solution, it then, as a melaphosphate, 
 gives a white precipitate with nitrate of silver. 
 —5. Hydrochloric acid is added to the solu- 
 tion to acid reaction, and afterwards 1 or 2 
 drops of a concentrated solution of ferric 
 chloride ; a solution of acetate of potassium 
 is next added in excess, when a flocculeiit, 
 geUtinouii, white precipitate will be formed if 
 phosphoric acid or any phosphate was present 
 in any form or combination in the original 
 liquor. This test is highly characteristic, and 
 of general applicability. 
 
 Obi. The insoluble phosphates must be first 
 treated with diluted hydrochloric or sulphuric 
 acid, and the resulting solution filtered and 
 neutralised with an alkali, before applying 
 the reagents. When the substance uniler ex- 
 amination consists of a very small quantity of 
 phosphoric acid or phosphate, with a large 
 quantity of sesquioxide of iron, it should be 
 fused with some carbonate of sodium, the 
 residuum of the ignition exhausted with 
 water, and the tests applied to the filtered 
 solution. Arsenious acid, if present, should 
 bo removed by sulphuretted hydrogen before 
 applying the tests. When phosphate of alu- 
 minum, the solution in hydrochloric acid is 
 neutralised with carbonate of sodium i car- 
 bonate of barium is next added in excess, 
 followed by the addition of hydrate potas- 
 sium, also in excess, after which the whole is 
 boiled. An insoluble phosphate of barium is 
 formed, which may be decomposed by sul- 
 phuric acid, as before. See Molybdaie of 
 Ammonium. 
 
 Estim. Pure solutions of phosphoric acid 
 roily bo tested by the common methods of 
 acidlmetry. When in a state of combination, 
 it may be separated and weighed in either of 
 the forms noticed under GtlANO. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. This acid is the common form, 
 and is the compound alluded to when 'phos- 
 phoric acid' is spoken of. It is extensively 
 employed by the bleacher, dyer, calicn-printer, 
 and enameller. Unlike sulphuric acid and the 
 other strong acids, it does not coagulate al- 
 bumen nor injure vegetable fibre, and is not 
 decomposed by contact with organic matter. 
 In combination with olumina and a large 
 boracic acid, it is suid to be capable of pro- 
 ducing a glaze for earthenware of extreme 
 lieauty and durability, and perfectly innocuous. 
 It is also used in medicine. 
 
 PUOSPUOBIO ACID, UILnTBD. (B. Ph.) Put 
 
 6 fl. oz. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1'42), diluted 
 with 8 oz. of distilled water, into a tubulated 
 retort connected with a Liebig's condenser, 
 and having added 413 gr. of phosphorus, 
 apply a very gentle heat until 5 fl. oz. of 
 liquid have distilled over. Return this to the 
 retort, and renew and continue the distilla- 
 tion until the phosphorus has entirely dis- 
 solved. 
 
 Tr.insfer the contents of the retort to a 
 porcelain capsule and evaporate the liquid 
 until it is reduced to 4 fl. oz. Transfer to a 
 platinum vessel and evaporate to about 2 fl. 
 oz., and until orange vapours cease to form. 
 Mix when cool in such an amount of distilled 
 water that tiie volume shall become one pint. 
 (It contains 10 per cent, by weight of anhy- 
 drous acid. Sp. gr. 1'08.) — Dose, 10 to 30 
 minims properly diluted. 
 
 PHOSPHOEUS, BALDWIN'S. Recently 
 fused nitrate of calcium. For this purpose it 
 must be broken into fragments whilst still 
 warm, and at once placed in dry and well- 
 stopped phials. After exposure for some time 
 to the direct rays of the sun it emits sufileient 
 light in the dark to render visible the figures 
 on the dial-plate of a watch. 
 
 PHOSPHOEUS, BOLOGNIAN. Syn. Keb- 
 
 CHEB's PH08PH0BCS, BOLOONIAN BTONB. This 
 substance was accidentally discovered by a 
 shoemaker of Bologna, and excited much 
 inteie-t about the middle of the 17th century. 
 The following is said to have been the formula 
 employed by the Logani family, who were 
 particularly successful in its preparation, and 
 acquired wealth by its sale to the curious 
 throughout Europe. 
 
 Prep. Reduce recently calcined native sul- 
 phate of barium to powder, make it into a 
 paste with mucilage of gum tragaoanth, and 
 roll the mass into pieces about i inch thick 
 and 1 to 2 inches long; dry these slowly by a 
 moderate heat, and then expose them to it;iii- 
 tiou in a wind furnace, by placing them loosely 
 among the charcoal ; lastly, allow them to 
 cool slowly, and at once place the pieces in 
 well-stopped phials. Liko the preioilii;^ sub- 
 stance, it phosphoresces in the dark after 
 exposure to the sun's ra\8. 
 
 PHOSPHOEUS, CANTON'S. Prep. From 
 calcined oyster shells, 3 parts; flowers of 
 sulphur, 1 part; placed in alternate layers in 
 a covered crucible, and exposed to a strong 
 heat for about an hour. It is preserved and 
 used like the above. 
 
 PHOSPHOEUS, HOMBERG'S. Recently 
 ignited chloride of calcium. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS BOTTLES. Prep. 1. Phos- 
 phorus, 12 gr.; olive oil, i oz. ; mix in on oz. 
 phial, and place the latter, loosely corked, in a 
 basin of hot water ; as soon as the phosphorus 
 is melted, remove the phial, cork it securely, 
 and agitate it until neai-ly cold. On being 
 uncorked it emits sufficient light in the dark 
 to see the time by a watch, and will retain 
 this property for some years if not too frc- 
 
1276 
 
 PHOSPHORUS— PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 quently emplnyed. These are frequently called 
 'luminous phials.' 
 
 2. (Bbiqitets PHOSPHOEiQtTES.) — a. From 
 phosphorus, 3 parts ; white wax, 1 part ; cau- 
 tiously melted together by the heat of hot 
 water J as the mixture begins to cool, the 
 bottles are turned round, so that it may adhere 
 to the sides. 
 
 b. (Bendix.) Cork (rasped small, and dry) 
 and yellow wax, of each 1 part ; phosphorus, 
 4 parts ; petroleum, 8 parts ; mixed, by fusion, 
 as the last. 
 
 Used as instantaneous-light bottles. A 
 sulphur match rubbed against the composition 
 immediately inflames on exposure to the air. 
 They should be only unstoppered at the instant 
 of introducing the match, and should be 
 handled with caution. 
 
 PHOSPHOKUS MATCHES. See Matches, 
 and above. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS PASTE. Syn. Anti-akse- 
 
 NIOAL EAT-POISON, PhOSPHOB-PASTE. Prep. 
 1. Phosphorus, 1 oz. ; warm water, 1 pint ; 
 place them in a bottle, cork it, and agitate 
 them well together, until the phosphorus is 
 reduced to a minute state of division, adding 
 towards the end moist sugar, i lb. ; next add 
 of lard (meltud by a gentle heat), 1 lb., and 
 repeat the agitation until the whole is nearly 
 cold; when cold, form it into a stiff dough 
 with oatmeal or barley meal, and make this 
 into small balls or cakes ; lastly, dry these in 
 the air, without artificial heat. 
 
 2. (Simon.) Phosphorus, 8 parts; water 
 (lukewarm), 180 parts ; mix in a mortar, and 
 add of rye meal, 180 parts; when cold, fur- 
 ther add of butter or lard, 180 parts ; sugar, 
 125 parts ; and mix the whole thoroughly to- 
 gether. This is the formula authorised by an 
 ordonnance of the Prussian Government, dated 
 April 27th, 1843. 
 
 Ohs. Rats, mice, &c., eat the above compo- 
 sition with avidity, alter which they soon die. 
 It is said that the best method of using it 
 is to place small pieces of it in and about the 
 holes, with some water in a shallow vessel for 
 them to drink. It has the advantage of re- 
 taining its efficacy for many years, and is less 
 dangerous to human beings than compositions 
 containing arsenic, whilst it is even more effec- 
 tive for the purpose for which it is temployed. 
 Some persons recommend the addition of a 
 little oil of rhodium or oil of aniseed. See 
 Eats, cScc. 
 
 PHOS'PHURET. Syn. Phosphide; Phos- 
 phxtketum:, Phosphidum, L. A compound 
 of phosphorus with a metal or other basic 
 radical. See the respective Metals, &c. 
 
 PHOSPHURETTED HY'DEOGEN. Syn. 
 PhOSPHOBETIED HYDBOaBN. See HXDEO- 
 GBN. 
 
 PHOSPHATIC DIATHESIS. Syn. White 
 GBAVEL. A morbid condition of the system, 
 characterised by the deposition in the urine of 
 certain salts of phosphoric acid or phosphates. 
 In this affection the urine, contrary to its 
 
 normal condition, is always alkaline, and the 
 nature of the phosphatic deposit is influenced 
 by the source of the alkalinity. If, as most 
 frequently happens, this is owing to the pre- 
 sence of carbonate of ammonia (formed by the 
 decomposition of the urea by the bladder 
 mucous), the deposit will be found to consist 
 of the triple phosphate, or phosphate of mag- 
 nesia and ammonia, almost always associated 
 with a small quantity of amorphous phosphate 
 of lime. Under these circumstances the urine 
 is pale in colour, and upon standing soon de- 
 composes, in doing which it gives off a strong 
 ammoniacal odour. Phosphatic diathesis is a 
 frequent accompaniment of spinal aflcctious 
 and of chronic inflammation of the mucous 
 lining of the bladder. 
 
 In mild attacks the best treatment consists 
 in living rather generously, and in the admin- 
 istration of vegetable tonics combined with 
 proper doses of the mineral acids. 
 
 PHOTOG'EAPHY. Syn. HEHoaEAPHT. 
 The art of producing images on prepared sur- 
 faces by means of the actinic or chemical rays 
 of the sun's light. The principal photographic 
 processes now in use are the positive-, negative-, 
 and dry-collodion processes, in each of which 
 a thin film or skin of iodised collodion forms 
 the sensitive surface, a plate of glass being 
 generally used as the foundation of the film. 
 In a positive picture the 'lights' are silvery 
 white by reflected light, and the ' shades ' 
 are produced by a ' backing ' of black varnish 
 or velvet, showing through the glass plate. 
 In a negative picture the 'lights' are of a 
 dirty yellow or brown by reflection, and being 
 formed by opaque deposits, appear dense black 
 by transmitted light. Xegatives are used in 
 the various paper-printing processes ; they are 
 placed upon prepared paper and exposed to 
 direct light, which darkens those parts of the 
 paper not protected by the opaque 'lights,' 
 and thus produces positive prints with natural 
 lights and shades. In this way the portrait 
 ' cartes de visite' and other paper photographs 
 are formed. 
 
 Of late years there have been devised a 
 great variety of new photographic processes, 
 some of which are given below, together with 
 modern formulae for the principal solutions, 
 &c., in general request by the photographer. 
 
 The Daguerreotype process, discovered by 
 M. Dagutrre in 1839, has been entirely super- 
 seded by the easier, healthier, and less expen- 
 sive collodion processes described further on. 
 It consists in submitting n plate of silver or 
 silvered copper to the vapour of iodine and 
 bromine irt the dark. A sensitive film of 
 iodide and bromide of silver is thus formed on 
 the plate, which is immediately exposed to 
 the image of an object in the camera obscura. 
 The latent image impressed on the plate is 
 brought out or developed by exposing the 
 plate to the action of the vapour of mercury. 
 
 It is to be noted that in all English photo- 
 graphic formuliE the solid and fluid measures 
 
PHOTOQEAPHY 
 
 1277 
 
 of apotliccnrieg weight are used ; but in buy- 
 ing or selling chemical articles, the avoirdu- 
 pois weight is employed. 
 
 yUrate of Silver Bath (for Posifites). Ee- 
 cr\'.t:illi8ed nitrate of silver, 5 dr., dissolved in 
 lU oz. of distilled water. Filter the solution 
 until it is quite clear, then add 3 drops of 
 nitric aciil and 10 drops of collodion. Shake 
 well together and filter. Blue litmus paper 
 ahoald slightly redden in this bath ; should it 
 turn very red, add a little ammonia, or oxide 
 of silver ; should it not redden at all, add a 
 little acid carefully drop by drop. It is pre- 
 ferable to have a slight excess of acid. 
 
 Developing Solution (for Positives). Pro- 
 to>ulphate of iron, 2 dr., dissolved in 8 oz. of 
 distilled water ; add 2} dr. of glacial acetic 
 acid, 2i dr. of alcohol, and 5 minims of nitric 
 acid. Filter, and pour into a well-stoppered 
 bottle ; do not expose to the air. 
 
 Fixing Solution (for Positives). 50 gr. of 
 cyanide of potassium dissolved in 5 oz. of dis- 
 tilled water ; that is to say, for every fluid 
 oimce of solution required, mix 10 gr. of cya- 
 nide of potassium in 1 oz, of distilled water. 
 Filter and keep in a well-stoppered bottle, and 
 label " Poison." 
 
 Positive Paper. Plain paper requires pre- 
 paring or salting before it is ready ibr use, or 
 it may be purchased already salted. 
 
 Procure some sheets of plain Saxe paper, 
 and immerse them for five minutes (removing 
 air-bubbles) in the following solution : — 
 
 Chloride of ammonium , . 100 gr. 
 
 Chloride of barium . . . 100 fir. 
 
 Citrate of soda ... 20 ^r. 
 
 Water 20 oz. 
 
 Hang the sheets up to dry. For portraits 
 and most other uses the paper is albuminised 
 on one side. When photographs are printed 
 to be afterwards coloured, unalbuminised paper 
 is used. 
 
 Albuminieed Paper. There are several 
 well-known papers sold; Sive's, which is a 
 French paper, has a high glaze and fine sur- 
 face ; the Sajce, which is more uniform in its 
 tcxtnre, is made in Germany. Another maker 
 is Touigood. Positive paper is albuminised by 
 placing it in u mixture composed of white of 
 eggs and i-alt. To the white of each moderate- 
 sized egg use 15 gr. of common salt reduced 
 to a fine powder ; whisk until the albumen is 
 all white froth. Leave this froth in a glazed 
 earthen pan for about 12 hours, by which time 
 most of it has settled into clear albumen ; pour 
 the clear portion into a flat porcelain tray. 
 This tray should be somewhat larger than the 
 sheets of pupcr to be albuminised. Lift the 
 paper up by the ends and lay it corefuUy on 
 the albumen, keeping the side marked as 
 " inferior" uppermost and dry. 
 
 Tl]> piiper should be slightly damp before it 
 is thus treated, as it then takes the albumen 
 more regularly, and is not so liable to air- 
 bubbles. Tlie paper must be lifted at each 
 end, and should any air-bubbles appear, brush 
 
 them off with a card or small brush, replacing 
 the paper in the bath. Wherever the albumen 
 does not come into actual contact with the 
 paper, a white mark will appear in the print. 
 Eemove the paper from the bath and place it 
 to dry on a cardboard frame, or suspend it at 
 the corners by clips. Paper glazed with pure 
 albumen acquires too brilliant a glaze for 
 portraits; the albumen may be diluted with 
 from a i to i its bulk of water. It should be 
 kept in tin or zinc cases. 
 
 Plain Paper. Albuminised paper may bo 
 used as plain paper if, instead of sensitising 
 the glazed side, the plain side is placed in the 
 seusitising solution. 
 
 Nitrate of Silver Bath (for Negatives). 
 Eecrystallised nitrate of silver, i oz. ; distilled 
 water, 7 oz. ; collodion, 7 drops. .Shake well 
 together until the crystals have dissolved, then 
 filter. 
 
 The purity of the negative bath is a matter 
 of great importance, hence the necessity of 
 employing the very best nitrate of silver, and 
 also of excluding all foreign matters of every 
 kind. When the bath gets out of order, it 
 should be diluted with au equal bulk of dis- 
 tilled water, and exposed to the sun for a feiv 
 days, in a white glass bottle, then filtered, and 
 sufiicient nitrate of silver added to restore the 
 strength to 35 grains an ounce, as indicated 
 by the argentometer. 
 
 The Argentometer. This instrument is for 
 ascertaining the strength of the nitrate of 
 silver solution, which becomes weakened to a 
 certain extent, after the immersion of every 
 plate. 
 
 Developing Solution (for Negatives). Proto- 
 sulphate of iron, 75 gr. ; glacial acetic acid, 
 2 dr.; alcohol, 2 dr.; distilled water, 5 oz. 
 Dissolve the crystals in the water, then add 
 the acid and alcohol, and filter. In hot 
 weather a little more acetic acid may be added, 
 and if it does not flow rcadilv, the alcohol may 
 be increased. 
 
 Intensifying Solution, No. I (Negatives). 
 Pyrogallic ncid, 10 gr.; citric acid, 10 gr. ; dis- 
 tilled water, 5 oz. Wlien it becomes brown it 
 is useless. No. 2. Eecrystallised nitrate of 
 silver, 40 gr. ; distilled water, 1 oz. ; dissolve 
 and filter. This latter will keep for any length 
 of time in the dark. 
 
 Another Intensifiiing Bath (Negatives). A 
 saturated solution of bichloride of mercury in 
 water. Place the uej:ative plate in a bath 
 of the solution, remove when the film assumes 
 a milky-white appearance, wash, and then 
 plunge into a solution of 1 oz. of liquid 
 ammonia to 10 oz. of water. Eemove the 
 plate, wash, and place to dry. This mode of 
 intensifying may be regulated by leaving the 
 plate in the bichloride of mercury a shorter 
 time, when it will require a weaker ammonia 
 bath than that above given. 
 
 Fixing Solution (for Negatives). Hyposul- 
 phite of soda, 5 oz. ; distilled water, 5 oz. ; 
 dissolve and filter. 
 
1278 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 Sensitising Solution {for Paper). Nitrate of 
 Bilver, 5 dr. ; distilled water, 5 oz. j nitric acid, 
 2 drops ; kaolin, 1 oz. Dissolve the nitrate of 
 silver in the water, and then add the acid and 
 kaolin ; the kaolin will not dissolve, its use 
 being to prevent the solution becoming dis- 
 coloured alter using. This solution will not 
 require filtering ; it must be allowed to become 
 quite clear, and when required for use must 
 be carefully decanted. This solution should be 
 occasionally tested with the argentometer, and 
 sufficient nitrate of silver added to restore it 
 to its original strength. 
 
 Another Negative Collodion. Ether, i oz. ; 
 gun-cotton, 7 gr. ; bromide of cadmium, i gr. ; 
 bromide of ammonium, li gr. ; iodide of cal- 
 cium, 1 gr. ; iodide of potassium, 1 gr. ; iodide 
 of ammonium, 1 gr. For intensifying, flood 
 with chloride of gold, 1 gr. ; water, 15 oz. ; 
 then wash, and flood with pyrogiillic acid, 2 
 gr. ; water, 3 oz. 
 
 Toning Batlis. 1. Chloride of gold, 4 gr. ; 
 acetate of s-oda, i oz. ; distilled water, 10 oz. ; 
 dissolve and filter. 2. To produce black to 
 bright sepia tones, according to length of 
 immersion. T^ke carbonate of soda sufficient 
 to cover a threepenny piece, dissolve it in a 
 teaspoonful of cold water in a cup, add 2 gr. 
 of chloride of gold, theu add 3 oz. of boiling 
 water; use in 15 minutes. This will suit Hart's 
 albuiniuised paper. 
 
 Fixing Solution {for Paper Prints). Hypo- 
 sulphite <if soda, 8 oz.; distilled water, 1 pint. 
 This solution must only be used once. 
 
 Stopping-out Negatives. Small, round, 
 transparent spots are frequently found on glass 
 negatives, which, if not stopped, occasion 
 corresponding black spots on the print. Lay 
 the plate on a slab of glass, having either 
 direct or reflected light shining up through it. 
 Then cover the spots witli a mixture composed 
 of 10 parts of ivory black, 2 parts of satu- 
 rated solution of gum Arabic, 2 parts of white 
 honey, 1 part of sugar-candy ; well mix and 
 apply with a fine camel-hair brusli. Should 
 the spots on the negative be black or opaque, 
 white spots will be formed on the print; these 
 are easily tinted with a little water colour, to 
 match tlie other portions of the print; it is 
 seldom necessary, therefore, to alter the nega- 
 tive on this account. 
 
 Ferrotypes. In these, instead of a glass 
 plate being used to receive the picture, as in a 
 positive glass photograph, a thin plate of black 
 varnished iron is employed. Of course no 
 black backing is required ; with this exception 
 the photograph is produced in every particular 
 by the same means and in the same manner as 
 the glass positive is. 
 
 To Clean Glass Plates. (Mr Hughes.) 
 The description of glass known as " flatti d 
 crown" is well suited for positives, but before 
 using it requires careful cleaning. The sharp 
 edges should be first removed with a " corun- 
 dum" file, or by drawing the sharp edge of one 
 
 piece over the sharp edge of another; then 
 place the glass on a clean flat surface, or put 
 it in " a plate-cleaning holder," and pour a 
 few drops of the plate-cleaning solution in the 
 middle. Eub it carefully over every part with 
 a bit of clean soft rag ; turn the glass over, 
 and do the other side the same. Then polish 
 each side with a clean clotlr, and finish with a 
 soft chamois leather kept expressly for this 
 purpose. Now breathe on the glass, and if 
 the breath deposits evenly the plate is clean. 
 If the plate, however, shows patches and 
 marks, it must be recleaned. Let the edges 
 be carefully wiped, and the plate is ready for 
 use. 
 
 The following preparation makes a good 
 plate-cleaning solution for glasses that require 
 mechanical friction to make them clean : — 
 Ordinary water, 5 oz. ; alcohol, 5 oz. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 15 gr. ; iodine, 3 gr. When dis- 
 solved, add tripoli, prepared chalk, whiting, or 
 rotten-stone, in sufficient quantity to make a 
 creamy paste. 
 
 This thin pasty solution is to be rubbed on 
 the plates on both surfaces and polished off as 
 already described. This amount of cleaning 
 will generally be sufficient for new glasses, but 
 when they have been used they require more 
 labour. 
 
 They must then be well washed under the 
 tap, to get rid of all collodion and chemicals, 
 and be wiped on cloths kept expressly for the 
 purpose. Should the plates have been var- 
 nished they must be soaked for some hours in 
 a saturated solution of washing soda till the 
 varnish and film come freely off. The glasses 
 must then be immersed for a few minutes in a 
 solution composed of common nitric acid, 2 
 oz., water, 10 oz., and be well washed and 
 treated as already described. It is a good plan 
 when working to have a dish of water at hand, 
 and to place the spoilt pictures in it at once 
 while tbey are wet, and at the end of the day 
 to wash the glasses and put them away clean. 
 By thus not allowing the films to dry on the 
 glasses they are much easier cleaned, and 
 fewer failures will arise from dirty glasses. 
 
 Collodion is a good material for cleaning 
 glasses when they are not very dirty. Pour a 
 lew drops on the glass and well rub it with 
 a clean cloth, and you will entirely remove all 
 grease ; a hint may thus be taken how to use 
 up waste collodion. 
 
 Various Solutions used in the Dry Process, 
 These are employed in cases where bromo- 
 iodised collodion and the nitrate bath are 
 used. 
 
 In all processes in which the bromo-iodised 
 collodion is employed 2 grains of bromide 
 of cadmium should be added to each ounce of 
 the collodion. 
 
 Mr Bartholomew advises diluted alcohol to 
 be poured over the plate previous to develop- 
 ing. 
 
 Acid Pyro Developer, This developer is 
 formed as fallows : 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 1279 
 
 PjrodaUio acid . . • 1 gr. 
 Glauiol acetic ucid . . 30 tninime. 
 Water ■ . . . 1 oi. 
 The plate, after being wetted with dilute 
 alcoliol iintl washed, has this solution flowed 
 over it, to which has been added 2 or 3 drops 
 of a lO-grain nitrate of silver solution. 
 
 Plain I'gro Developer. The strength of 
 this may vary from 1 to 5 gr. in an ounce of 
 water. Two grains may be taken as a medium. 
 The dry plate being flooded with alcohol and 
 water, and washed so as to well wet the film, 
 this solution is floated over it. 
 
 Alkaline Pt/ro Developer, 
 
 No. 1. — Pyrogalllc acid . . 96 gr. 
 
 Absolute alcohol . . 1 oz. 
 
 No. 2. — Cnrbonate of ammonia , 96 gr. 
 
 Water . . . . 1 oz. 
 
 No. 3. — Bromide of potassium . 10 gr. 
 
 Water . . . . 1 oz. 
 
 At the time of using, make up the following 
 solution : 
 
 Water . . . . 1 oz. 
 Solution No. 1 , . 10 minims. 
 
 Solution No. 3 . . 6 „ 
 
 Four this over the wetted plate, allow it to 
 remain on a few seconds only, and then ponr 
 back into the developing cup, and add to it 
 5 minims of solution No. 2, and apply 
 again. 
 
 Tie Collodio- Albumen Dry Process. (Mr 
 Mudd.) In this process the ordinary bromo- 
 iodlsed collodion is employed. The plate being 
 sensitised is washed well first with distilled, 
 then with common water, and placed in 
 a dish half filled with solution of iodide of 
 potassium (3 gr. to the oz.), and allowed to 
 remain while the next plate is being prepared. 
 It is then removed from the solution and well 
 washed with cleau water, after which the 
 following solution is poured over its surface .• 
 
 Distilled water. > . 2i oz. 
 
 White of eggs . . . 10 oz. 
 
 Iodide of potassium . . 50 gr. 
 
 Bromide of ammonium . 10 gr. 
 
 Strongest solution of am- 
 monia .... 120 minims. 
 Introduce these materials with some pieces 
 of broken glass into a bottle capable of holding 
 twice the quantity, and agitate till the whole 
 forms a Iroth, and then, when settled, it is 
 ready. A piece of camphor placed in the 
 solution will help to preserve it. It must be 
 filtered before using. After the plate has been 
 coated with the above it is finished by drying 
 before the fire. 
 
 In this pi-ocess all the above operations 
 mav be performed in ordinary white light. To 
 nnider the plate sensitive, heat it as hot as the 
 hiind will bear, and when cool immerse it again 
 in the following aceto-nitrate of silver bath 
 for one minute, using only a yellow light, then 
 wash thoroughly in clean water, and dry in 
 the dark. 
 
 Nitrate of silver . . ,30 gr. 
 Distilled water . . . 1 oz. 
 Olacial acetic acid . . i dram. 
 The development may be commenced by 
 either plain or alkaline pyro ; Mr M odd gives 
 the preference to the plain, and intensifying 
 after with acid silver. 
 
 Dr Rtlet's Modified Collodio-albumen Dry 
 Process. In this method the plate has to be 
 sensitised as usual, and washed thoroughlv. 
 When the plate has been well drained, and 
 while still wet, it is coated with the following 
 solution : 
 
 Albumen . . . . 1 oz. 
 
 Water 2 oz. 
 
 Ammonia . . . .30 minims. 
 Tlie solution is beaten to a froth, allowed to 
 cettle, and filtered before usin^'. Pour suffi- 
 cient over the plate to cover it, letting it flow 
 backwards and forwards so as to "oak into the 
 film. Pour the albuminous solution away and 
 thoroughly wash the plate, the last rinsing 
 being with distilled water. Let the plate dry ; 
 when perfectly dry, moisten the plate with 
 distilled water, and pour over the following 
 solution : 
 
 Gallic acid . . . . 2 pr. 
 
 Water 1 oz. 
 
 Filter the solution before using. Pour it on 
 and oH' the plate to well permiate the film, 
 then set the plite up to drain, and dry without 
 washing off the gallic acid solution. When 
 the surface is dry finish by the heat of a dull 
 fire. 
 
 Bromide of Silver, Wet Process. To every 
 ounce of good collodion 'add 8 t;r. of bromide 
 of cadmium. The nitrate bath must be 
 made 80 gr. to the oz., and slightly acidu- 
 lated with nitric acid. The plate must remain 
 in the bath the full time it recjuires to form 
 a dense opaque film. When the plate is 
 ready (it must not be removed from the bath 
 until the film is much denser than in the 
 ordinary wet process) it must be washed 
 thoroughly to remove all silver. It must then 
 have poured over it a 3-grain solution of gela- 
 till made slightly alkaline with carbonate of 
 soda, or diluted albumen (albumen, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 4 oz., well beaten together). When the 
 plate is in this condition it may be exposed 
 wet, or it may be allowed to dry. Prior to 
 development it must be well washed, and the 
 alkaline method must always be adopted. If 
 the plates are used dry, a preliminary coating 
 of dilute albumen is necessary, but if used wet, 
 this is not necessary. 
 
 Bromide of Silver, Emuhion Process. By 
 this method the nitrate bath is not necessary, 
 as the sensitive material is contained in the 
 collodion. The purchase of the material 
 ready-made for working this proce.«s is recom- 
 mended in preference to its direct manu- 
 facture, as its preparation demands the use 
 of considerable technical skill, together with 
 the employment of a gun cotton not usually 
 
1280 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 attainable. Mr Hughes says the 'Liverpool 
 Dry Plate Company' supply an excellent 
 emulsion. It is only necessary to pour the 
 emulsion on to a plate and to allow it to dry, 
 when the plate is ready for use. The develop- 
 ment is by the alkaline process. 
 
 Qelatino-hromide of Silver, Emulsion Pro- 
 cess. In this process the use both of the 
 nitrate bath and of collodion are abolished. 
 
 The material employed is very troublesome 
 to prepare, and oti this account, as well as 
 because of the risk of failure attending the 
 use of home-made articles, it is far preferable 
 it should be purchased. It may he obtained 
 under the name of ' Kennett's Sensitised 
 Pellicle.' 
 
 This pellicle consists of shreds of dry gela- 
 tin containing the sensitive salts. 
 
 Fresh directions accompany each packet of 
 the " Sensitised Pellicle." 
 
 2%e Honey Process. Let the plate be cleaned, 
 coated, and sensitised in the usual manner ; 
 then place it in » bath of distilled water, 
 washing it more or less, as it may be required 
 to be kept for a longer or shorter time. Pour 
 on the plate a solution made of equal parts of 
 honey and distilled water in the same manner 
 as when using collodion ; throw away the first 
 portion, and repeat the operation, letting the 
 solution soak in for one or two minutes ; pour 
 back the honey solution into its bottle ; drain 
 the plate on blotting paper, and keep it in the 
 dark free from dust. The time required for 
 exposure of the plate is about double as long 
 as in the ordinary wet process. 
 
 The plate should be soaked in distilled water 
 previous to being developed, in order to soften 
 or remove the film of honey j the older the 
 plate the longer it will require to be soaked, 
 afterwards dip the plate in the silver bath, 
 and develop in the usual manner. 
 
 The Carbon Process. In this process, the 
 Adoption . of which is daily increasing, the 
 material employed consists of a layer of gela- 
 tin containing carbon, or some other permanent 
 pigment, spread on paper. 
 
 In this condition the paper is not sensitive 
 to light, but if it be treated with a solution 
 of bichromate of potash, dried in the dark, 
 and afterwards exposed to sunlight under a 
 negative, those portions of the paper which 
 have been acted upon by the light will 
 become insoluble, whilst those parts that have 
 been prote<:ted from it will be soluble. When, 
 therefore, after sufficient exposure, the pre- 
 pared paper is removed from the negative, a 
 picture the reverse of the negative will have 
 been formed, in which the pigmented gelatin 
 alone remain, and performs the part of the 
 reduced silver in the ordinary photograph. 
 
 If the film, after exposure to light under 
 a negative, is soaked in warm water, all the 
 parts which have been protected from the 
 action of the light can be dissolved, and a 
 relief is formed which, when dry, is sufficiently 
 hard to transmit its shape to lead, from 
 
 the mould or plate thus obtained a com- 
 paratively large number of impressions can be 
 taken, either with coloured gelatin or with 
 fatty colours, the well-known Woodbury-type 
 being the most successful of the several pro- 
 cesses b.ised on the fact. 
 
 Photographic Varnlsli. See Vaekishes. 
 
 Miscellaneous eeoipes ; 
 
 To Clean Glass Plates. (Mr Mayall.) Shake 
 up together alcohol, 30 parts; strong liquid 
 ammonia, 10 ; water, 40 ; and fine tripoli, 30 
 parts. The plates are to be rubbed hard and 
 evenly with balls of cotton wool dipped in this 
 mixture. Eub again, when dry, with a clean 
 ball of cotton ; lastly, dust the back and edges 
 with a clean hog-hair brush. 
 
 To Clean off Collodion Pictures. This 
 may be done, whether they have been varnished 
 or not, by means of a tuft of cotton wool 
 dipped in wood spirit. 
 
 To Colour Photographic Prints. This may 
 be done variously in water and oils. A simple 
 way is to rub in slowly with a small camel-hair 
 brush a minute piece of dry colour laid upon 
 the part, as of flesh tint for the face, &c. 
 When properly distributed, the paper may be 
 breathed upon, and the tint will not easily be 
 rubbed off. Or it may be carefully coated 
 with gelatin. 
 
 M. Minotto has described a plan of colouring 
 on the back of the paper. The picture, being 
 held up to the light, is first faintly outlined, 
 on the reverse side ; colours are then laid on, 
 of water or oil, as preferred, on this side. 
 When dry the paper is rendered transparent 
 by a varnish, and the colours will then appear 
 through it with all the delicacy and effect of a 
 miniature on ivory. Good strong writing 
 paper is best for this purpose ; the colours 
 must he vivid; and the varnish may consist of 
 Canada balsam dissolved in turpentine, or a 
 mastic vai-nish may be used, or turpentine and 
 wax, or oil. 
 
 To Semove Stains from the Hands. The 
 powerfully poisonous character of cyanide of 
 potassium renders its employment for the above 
 purposeanoperationattended with considerable 
 danger. Iodide of potassium and iodine may 
 both be subotituted, but the first is expensive, 
 and the second requires considerable nicety in 
 its applicatiim, lest a coloured stain be left on 
 the skin. Instead of the above substances, M. 
 Fortin recommends to wash the hands with a 
 concentrated solution of either sulphate or 
 chloride of zinc, to which some acid is added 
 at the same time. He advises the deepest 
 and blackest stains being touched with metallic 
 zinc, whereby the reduction of the oxide oi 
 silver or that of the gallate of iron is pro- 
 moted, and all metallic stains adhering to 
 or penetrating into the skin removed. Since 
 most of the salts of zinc are colourless, and 
 soluble in water, the hands soon become quite 
 clean. They should then be washed, first with 
 pure water, and next with soap and water. 
 The reader desirous of further inloruiation 
 
PHOTOGRAPHY 
 
 1281 
 
 on the Biibjert of photography cannot do better 
 than consult Mr Ernest Sjmn'a valuable 
 manual, cnlitliil • Workshop Uiceipts,' and 
 Mr Huu'hes' ' Principle* and Practireof Photo- 
 graphy,' to both of which we are largely in- 
 debted. Captain Abney's work on ' Photo- 
 graphy, cannot be too highly ci mmcnded. See 
 COLLODIOW, PhoTOOEAPHIO. 
 
 Fhotograpliio Waste Products, Kecovery of. 
 We extract the following from the ' Ame- 
 rican Chemi-t' for February, 1876. The 
 contributor, Mr. 0. A. Pitkin, A. B., states 
 t.liiit the nictliods given have been collected 
 from the ' Philadelphia Photogrnipher,' the 
 ' British Photographic Journal,' Hardwick's 
 ' Photograph Chemistry,' &c., &c. ; also that 
 they iuclude siiggestious by Professor Hill. 
 
 1. Nitrate bath, a, recovered ; j8, reno- 
 vated. 
 
 2. Hyposulphite bath. 
 
 3. Ueduclion of silver chloride, oxide, or 
 sulphide. 
 
 4. Qold waste, a, recovered ; /3, separated 
 fi'om silver. 
 
 ■J- Paper waste and washings from positive 
 prints. 
 
 6. Cynnide solution, 
 
 7. Developer. 
 
 I. Nitrate Bath, a, Recovered. 
 
 1. Add solution of caustic potash or lime, 
 as long as there is a brown precipitate. 
 Allow to settle, pour off liquid, and collect 
 silver oxide lor reduction; vide III, below. 
 
 2. For I lb. of silver, add 1 oz. sulphuric 
 acid and ^ Ih zinc, and allow to stand two 
 days. Precipitate as chloride, wash eight or 
 ten times by decnntation, aud dissolve 
 gradually in nitric acid. 
 
 NoTKS. — Test complete wnsliin? by hydro- 
 chloric acid. Wash with water till zinc 
 nitrate is removed. If zinc clings to silver 
 wash with hydrochloric arid. 
 
 3. Suspend slieet of copper in bath for two 
 or three days. 
 
 4. Acidify as nitric acid, precipitate as 
 silver chloride by sodium chloride or hydro- 
 chloric aciil, and reduce ns vide HI, below. 
 
 5. Immerse in bath two strips of copper 
 attaehed to the poles of n Daniell's or Smee's 
 cell. Silver deposited on the copper as in 3, 
 above, 
 
 6. Add sodium bicarbonate or sodium hy- 
 drate. Reduce as 8 below, or if pure 
 eiiniii;h, dissolve precipitate at once in nitric 
 acid. 
 
 7. Concentrate bath, make alkidiue by 
 sodinm cnrhomite, and add aqueous solution of 
 oxalic acid neutralised with sodium carbonate. 
 Filter, dry, aud fuse with equal weight ot 
 sodium biearbonnte. 
 
 8. De|io«it, either with or without battery,on 
 iron. (Iron can be obtained purer than zinc 
 or copper, and possesses the additional ad- 
 vantage that the iron Sidts, as iodides, &c., are 
 
 rot. n 
 
 all quite soluble). Fuse with potassium 
 nitrate and sodinm carbonate. 
 
 /3. Benovated. 
 
 1. Dilute with three volumes of distilled 
 water, expose to sunlight, filter, add sodium 
 carbonate till slightly turbid. Expose to 
 sunlight six honrs more, filter, add sodium car, 
 bonate till silver all thrown down. Wash, 
 precipitate by decantation, and dissolve in 
 nitric acid. Filter again, make up to 35 
 grammes; neutrali.»e, expose to sun a week, 
 and bath is ready for use. 
 
 2. Neutralise with ammonia till just alka- 
 line; boil till black; let cool, filter, acidify 
 with pure nitric acid, aud eviiporate to crys- 
 tallisation, then fuse. When cool, add dis- 
 tilled water, shake and let stand exposed to 
 light. Filter and add drained crystals. 
 Dissolve and make solution aeid witli pure 
 nitric acid. Expose again to sunlight, (ilter, 
 and bath is ready for u»c. 
 
 3. Add potassium permangnnatc, expose to 
 sunlight, filter, acidify, put in clean bottles 
 four-fifths full, cork, and freeze in a tray ; 
 thaw gradually till ball of ice one-eighth size 
 of bottle remains. This contains impurities 
 to be reduced as III, below. Use rest lor uew 
 bath at once. 
 
 II. Hyposulphite Bath. 
 
 1. Precipitate as silver sulphide by potas- 
 sium sulphide. Reduce as III, below, or dis- 
 solve in nitric iicid. 
 
 2. Precipitate by hydrosulphurio acid, and 
 reduce ns III. 
 
 3. Decompose hyposulphite by waste nitro- 
 sulphuric acid from manuiaciure of gun- 
 cotton for collodion. Have silver sulphide 
 and sulphur, with sodium nitrate and sul- 
 phate iti solution. Suspend zinc in solution, 
 then boil two or three hours; wash on filter, 
 dry, fuse with borax and sodium carbonate. 
 
 4. Suspend sheet copper in bath. 
 
 5. Add hydrochloric acid, which sets free 
 sulphur aud precipitates .-ilver chloride. 
 Oxidise sulphur by aqua regia, and reduce 
 silver chloride as in III. 
 
 6. Add sodium hypochlorite to the alkaline 
 solution. Wash, precipitate, and fuse with 
 mixed carbonates. This gives sodium bisul- 
 phate and chloride as by-products, no sulphur, 
 no fumes. 
 
 III. Reduction of Silver Chloride, Oxide^ or 
 Sulphide. 
 
 1. Mix with one third weight of colophony. 
 Heat moderately in crucible till greenish-blue 
 flame ceases, then suddenly increase heat, 
 aud obtain a button of metal. 
 
 2. Melt with alkaline carbonates enough to 
 cover surface from air ; then mix with 75 
 per cent, of chalk and 4 per cent, of charcoal, 
 aud heat. 
 
 3. Ignite with nitre on red-hot pl.iDe care- 
 fully, and in small quantities to avoid explo- 
 
 81 
 
1282 
 
 PHOTOMETRY 
 
 sion, run down to button with borax aud 
 sodic carbonate. 
 
 4. If chloride, reduce to oxide by boiling 
 with strong potash, then reduce by glucose; 
 or boil the cliloride with glucoae and sodium 
 carbonate. 
 
 5. Add silver chloride dissolved in ammonia 
 -to a boiling solution of one part glucose and 
 
 three parts sodium carbonate in 40 per cent, 
 of water, keeping up the boiling all the time. 
 
 6. Add to silver chloride sodium hydrate in 
 solution and grape sugar, and expose to sun- 
 light in open dish with occasional stirring, 
 lleduce to dark brown oxide of silver, soluble 
 in nitric acid, 
 
 7. Mix with five times weight of sodium 
 carbonate. Fill hessian crucible half full, 
 and sprinkle sodium chloride over the top. 
 Heat slowly in anthracite fire. After half an 
 hour increase heat till crucible is white-hot. 
 When complete fusion has taken place, allow 
 to cool, and break out button of silver. 
 
 8. Fuse with two parts mixed carbonates 
 (sodium and potassium). 
 
 9. Add pure zinc and dilute sulphuric acid, 
 and let stand two days. Wash silver off 
 with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, to 
 remove all ziuc ; finally fuse to a button. 
 
 10. Mix with \ialf weight dry sodium carbo- 
 nate and one-fourth weight of clean dry sand, 
 and ignite. 
 
 IV. Oold Waste, a, Recovered. 
 
 1. Make just acid with hydrochloric acid, 
 add solution containing 2 oz. pyrogallic acid, 
 shake, let stand 24 hours: filter. Dissolve in 
 aqua regia, and product after evaporation 
 will be found better for toning than that 
 precipitated by iron. 
 
 2. Acidify toning bath, and add sulphate of 
 iron (2 grammes to 1 gramme chloride of gold.) 
 
 /3. Separated from Silver. 
 
 1. Treat button obtained by fusing waste 
 from hypo-toning and fitting baths with dilute 
 nitric acid. Wash insoluble part with am- 
 monia to remove silver chloride, if present, 
 and dissolve in aqua regia. 
 
 2. Digest 20 grammes in flask with 1 fl. dr. 
 hydrochloric acid, 15 m.m. of nitric acid, and 
 2 dr. of water. After quarter of an hour 
 boil, add 2 oz. water; filter. Silver chloride 
 with organic matter, &c. left undissolved. 
 Reduced as HI, above. 
 
 3. Add excess of pure potassium hydrate, 
 and then bull in flask with excess of solid 
 oxalic acid. 
 
 V. Paper Waste. 
 
 1. Soak paper in strong solution of salt- 
 petre, and burn. 
 
 3. Treat with nitric acid, precipitate with 
 sodium chloride or potassium hydrate, then 
 put with III, above, for reduction. 
 
 WasMngs from Positive Prints. 
 Precipitate by sodium chloride, potassium 
 
 hydrate, or on copper plates, &c., as above, 
 and reduce, as in III. 
 
 VI. Cyanide Solution. 
 
 1. Dilute with water, precipitate by (1) 
 potassium sulphide, (2) sodium chloride, and 
 reduce as 3. 
 
 2. Decant bath into iron kettle, warm, add 
 ferrous sulphate slowly till slight precipitate 
 of oxide. Make alkaline, and add solntion of 
 grape sugar till brownish-yellow colour. 
 Allow to settle, syphon oflT liquid. Wash 
 sediment on filter, and ignite to recover 
 silver. 
 
 Note. — Ferrous sulphate forms ferro- 
 cyanide, therefore no free alkaline cyanide 
 should be present. 
 
 VII. Developer, 
 
 1. Vide II. (3, 4, 5, 6), with hypo bath; (1) 
 and (2) not applicable, for sulphide of iron 
 would be formed. 
 
 2. Reduced by its own iron (if ferrous 
 sulphate). 
 
 PHOTOM'ETET. The art of determining 
 the relative intensities of different lights. 
 Various methods have beenadopted,atdiff'erent 
 times, for this purpose, among which, how- 
 ever, a few only are sufficiently simple for 
 general application. The principle adopted 
 by Bouguer and Lambert depends on the fact 
 that, though the eye cannot judge correctly of 
 the proportional force of different lights, it 
 can generally distinguish with great precisian 
 when two similar surfaces or objects presented 
 together are equally illuminated, or when the 
 sh.adows of an opaque object produced by 
 different lights are equally dark. Now, as 
 light travels in straight lines, and is equally 
 diffused, it is evident that its intensity will 
 progressively lessen as the distance of its 
 source increases. This diminution is found to 
 be in the duplicate ratio of the distance. To 
 apply this principle to candles, lamps, gas- 
 lights, &c., we have only to arrange two of 
 them so that the lighter shadow resulting from 
 both shall be of equal intensity, after which we 
 must caref'illy measure the distance of each 
 of them from the surface on which the light 
 or shadow falls. The squares of these dis- 
 tances give their relative intensity. In general, 
 some known light, as that from a wax candle 
 (4 to the lb.), is taken as the slandard of cocu- 
 parison. 
 
 Dr Ritchie's ' photometer ' consists of a 
 rectangular box, about 2 inches square, open 
 at both ends, and blackened inside to absorb 
 extraneous light. In this, inclined at angles 
 of 45° to its axis, are placed two precisely 
 similar rectangular plates of plain silvered 
 glass, and fastened so as to meet at the top, 
 in the middle of a narrow slit about an inch 
 long and the eighth of an inch broad, and 
 which is covered with a strip of tissue or oiled 
 paper. In employing this instrument, the 
 " lights must be placed at such a distance from 
 
PHTHISIC— PHTHISIS 
 
 1283 
 
 each other, and from the instrument between 
 them, thHt the light from each iiball fall on 
 the reflector next it, and be reflected to the 
 corresponding portion of the oiled paper. The 
 photometer is tlicn to be moved nearer to the 
 one or the other, until the two portions of the 
 oiled paper corresponding to the two mirrors 
 are equally illuminated, of which the eye can 
 judge with considerable accuracy." 
 
 In Prof Wheatstone's 'pnoTOMETBB' the 
 relative intensity of the two lights is deter- 
 mined by the relative lirijihtness of the oppo- 
 site sides ofa revolving silvered ball illuminated 
 by them. 
 
 In the method of photometry usually, but 
 erroneously, ascribed to Count Rumford, the 
 sliadows of an opaque object formed by differ- 
 ent lights, and allowed to fall on a white wall 
 or paper screen, are contriisted. A wire 
 about -/jtlis of an inch thick, and about a foot 
 in length, with the one end bent so as to form 
 a handle, is commonly used to form the 
 shadows. The method of proceeding is similar 
 to that first above noticed. 
 
 It is generally supposed that the equality of 
 two shadows can be appreciated with greiitei- 
 certainty than that of two lights. 
 
 PHTHISIC. A popular name for difficnlty 
 of breathm-^, from its supposed reseniblauce 
 to phthisis. See BRONcniTis, and below. 
 
 PHTHISIS. (A wasting away.) This is 
 the formidable disease ordinarily or popularly 
 known as " consumption," although, strictly 
 speakinjj, there are points of ditroreiicu between 
 consumption and phthisis, as well as between 
 these and another variety of the malady known 
 as tuberculosis. The statistics which follow, 
 however, apply to all those diseases of the 
 lungs accompanied by wasting, and as such 
 include the mortality from plitliisis, tubercu- 
 losis, and consumption. 
 
 Ill the Registrar-General's returns for many 
 years past, under the' heads ' phthisis,' or 
 ' tubercular disease," have been included 
 chronic bronchitis, emphysema, fibroid changes 
 
 of the lungs and kindred aSections. ' It 
 is, however, probable that the figures re- 
 presenting the niortolity are fairly accurate, 
 as the errors are to a certain extent compen- 
 sating; and, indeed, tubercles are often found 
 even in the diseases above mentioned.' 
 
 The following table, taken from the Regis- 
 trar-General's retnrns for 1848—75, shows 
 the annual number of deaths in England from 
 phthisis, during a period of 28 years : — 
 
 1848 . 
 
 . 51,663 
 
 1862. 
 
 . 60,962 
 
 1849. 
 
 . 50,299 
 
 1863. 
 
 . 51,072 
 
 1850. 
 
 . 46,618 
 
 1864. 
 
 . 53,046 
 
 1851 . 
 
 . 49,166 
 
 1865. 
 
 . 53,734 
 
 1852 . 
 
 . 50,594 
 
 1866. 
 
 . 65,714 
 
 1853 . 
 
 ■ 54,918 
 
 1867. 
 
 . 65.042 
 
 1854. 
 
 . 51,284 
 
 1868 . 
 
 . 51,423 
 
 1855 . 
 
 . 52,290 
 
 1869. 
 
 . 52,270 
 
 1856. 
 
 . 48,950 
 
 1870. 
 
 . 54,231 
 
 1857 . 
 
 . 50,106 
 
 1871. 
 
 . 5:i,;i7(: 
 
 1858. 
 
 . 50.142 
 
 1872 . 
 
 . ^^..-isy 
 
 1859. 
 
 . 50,149 
 
 1873. 
 
 . 51,355 
 
 1860. 
 
 . 51,024 
 
 1874 . 
 
 . 4;i,:i7'.l 
 
 1861 . 
 
 . 51,930 
 
 1875. 
 
 . 52,'ji;j 
 
 Dr Farr in his letter to the Resistrar-Oene- 
 ral on the causes of death in England in 187.T, 
 writes, " Phthisis is a most faial di>ea8e, al- 
 though it has declined within the last twenty- 
 five years." 
 
 According to the same authority, the mean 
 rate of mortality from this disease was 2 81 1 
 per 1000 in the five years from 1850 to 1854. 
 and 2L'8;5 in the live years from 1870 to 1874 
 
 One of the most prominent facts revealed 
 even by a cursory study of the statistics cm 
 phthisis, is the large share which the breath- 
 ing ot impure or tainted air has in the origin 
 and dissemination of the disease. 
 
 Hence it follows that thickly populated and 
 overcrowded localities suffer nmfh more from 
 its raviin^es than those which are less densely 
 inhabited. This is exemplified in the follow- 
 ing table : — 
 
 
 
 Proxiniitv 
 
 
 Avernge 
 
 Inuuul Mortuliiy to 100,000 living. 
 
 
 
 
 or iioinicas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Pensity of 
 Fursuus 
 
 ton 
 Sq, Mile. 
 
 ot Person 
 to Persou. 
 
 Flilliiais. 
 
 Other diseuBes of the Respiratory 
 Organs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 YUTOS. 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 25 to 35 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 25 to 35 
 
 35 to 45 
 
 Healthy dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tricts . . 
 
 135 
 
 163 
 
 336 
 
 398 
 
 330 
 
 34 
 
 45 
 
 67 
 
 London . . 
 
 19,470 
 
 14 
 
 264 
 
 395 
 
 493 
 
 45 
 
 69 
 
 148 
 
 Lancashire . 
 
 1,008 
 
 60 
 
 419 
 
 475 
 
 484 
 
 46 
 
 86 
 
 195 
 
 England and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wales . . 
 
 808 
 
 108 
 
 362 
 
 438 
 
 407 
 
 38 
 
 61 
 
 113 
 
 In the very badly ventilated Leopoldstadt, in 
 Vienna, 378 prisonersout of 4280 died between 
 the years 1834 to 1847, or at the rate of 86 
 
 per 1000 ; and out of these as many as 220, 
 or 51-4 per 1000, died from phthisis. Con- 
 1 Dr Wynler Blyth. 
 
1284 
 
 PHTHISIS 
 
 trasting with this the rate of mortality from 
 the same disease in the well-ventilated House 
 of Correction in the same city, we learn that 
 out of 3037 thei'e died in five years (from 
 1850—1854) 43, or 14 per 1000, and of these 
 24, or only 79 per 1000, died from the same 
 disease. 
 
 The great prevalence of phthisis that used 
 to prevail, not only in our army, but in the 
 principal European ones, has been clearly 
 shown to have been referable to the overcrowd- 
 ing and defective ventilation of the barracks. 
 And this applied equally to the barracks of 
 military stations possessing such mild and 
 genial climates as Gibraltar, Malta, Ionia, 
 Jamaica, Trinidad, Bermuda, &c.' 
 
 The sanitary Commissioners appointed some 
 years back to inquire into the prevalence of 
 consumption amongst our soldiers, came to the 
 conclusion that the foul atmosphere of the 
 barracks was the cause of it. The correctness 
 of our decision has been corroborated by tlie 
 
 greatly diminished number of deaths which 
 have followed the improved ventilation in our 
 barracks, recommended by the Commissioners. 
 At the present time, owing to those hygienic 
 improvements, the mortality from phthisis is 
 not more than half what it was in our army 
 prior to 1867. The same satisfactory results 
 have been obtained by the introduction into 
 the French barracks of similar sanitary im- 
 provements. 
 
 Animals are affected in precisely the same 
 manner as human beings. Thus, it Is that 
 phthisis attacks monkeys when shut up in 
 badly ventilated buildings, and cows confined 
 in close sheds. 
 
 After these statements we shall be prepared 
 to find that indoor trades and occupations 
 swell the hills of mortality from phthisis 
 much more than those carried on in the open 
 air. That this is the case is shown by the 
 following table : — 
 
 Deaths from Phthisis at Victoi 
 
 ia VarTc Hospil 
 
 al, showing the 
 
 influence of Occupation. 
 
 Cmse of Death. 
 
 Ages undee 
 
 Totals. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Not 
 staled. 
 
 
 20. 
 
 25. 
 
 30. 
 
 35. 
 
 40. 
 
 45. 
 
 50. 
 
 55. 
 
 60. 
 
 65. 
 
 
 Female lives 
 
 45 
 
 41 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 143 
 
 Indoor occupation 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 150 
 
 Malps/^'^'*'^ occupation 
 ^^'"^n Outdoor „ 
 
 The same reduced to a 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 96 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 i 
 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 83 
 
 57 
 
 43 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 434 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per centage. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Female lives 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 Indoor occupation . 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 ,, , ' Mixed occupation 
 ^"l^n Outdoor „ 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 l-J, 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 100 
 
 9 
 86 
 
 21 
 
 87 
 
 21 
 76 
 
 13 
 51 
 
 12 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 22 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 400 
 
 The influence of occupation in developing 
 phthisis is forcibly illustrated in the following 
 table : — 
 
 The above figures may he supplemented by 
 the others, which show the difference between 
 the deaths from phthisis and other lung dis- 
 eases occurring amongst the agricultural and 
 the manufacturing populations, and are ano- 
 ther illustration of the nature of the toiler's 
 occupation upon his liability to consumption. 
 Thus, for every 100 deaths by phthisis and 
 other lung diseases that take place amongst 
 the men in various agricultural districts of 
 England between the ages of fifteen to fifty- 
 five, there are in Coventry 163 deaths; in 
 ' DrParkes. 
 
 Blackburn and Skipton, 167; in Congleton 
 and Bradford, 168 ; in Leek, 182 ; in Maccles- 
 fitld, 184; in Bolton, 190; in Nottingham, 
 192; in Rochdale, 193; in Derby, 198; in 
 Salford and Ashton-underLyne, 203; in 
 Leeds, 218; in Preston, 220; and in Man- 
 chester, 263.2 
 
 As bearing directly upon the above portion 
 of our subject, we may quote the sixth report 
 of the medical officer of the Privy Council, 
 who therein states — " In proportion as the 
 people of a district are attracted to any collec- 
 tive indoor occupation, in such proportion, other 
 things being equal, the district death-rate by 
 lung diseases will be increased." 
 
 ' Quoted by Dr Wynter Blyth. 
 
PHTHISIS 
 
 1285 
 
 Dulrict. 
 
 Nature oi priocipal Induitry in the Dijtrict. 
 
 Suttli-rate by Fhlliisis and 
 other Lung Diseases at 
 between 15 and ih years 
 ot age, per lUd.UOO of 
 each class referred to. 
 
 Berkhampstend . 
 liL'ii;luiin Huzziird 
 Newport Pugiicll 
 Towci'ttter . , , , 
 
 Yeovil . . . .1 
 
 1 
 
 Leek 
 
 Coiigleton .... 
 
 Macclesfield 
 
 Standard Northern District 
 
 "I Extensive female employment in f 
 J straw-plaiting \ 
 l Extensive female employment in f 
 lace-making \ 
 ("Extensive female (with some"] 
 ■j males) employment in glove- 
 l making J 
 1 Extensive employment (more F 
 V, female than male) in silk- 
 J work 
 Agriculture .... 
 
 Male. 
 219 
 319 
 301 
 
 •SM 
 
 280 
 
 437 
 
 5fi6 
 693 
 631 
 
 Temale. 
 578 
 531 
 615 
 577 
 
 409 
 
 85« 
 7^0 
 
 80O 1 
 333 ! 
 
 1 
 
 The much larger numher of cases of lung 
 disease amongst those who pursue indoor call- 
 ings than amongst others whose occupations 
 are carried on out of doors, arises principally 
 from the defective ventilation of the work- 
 shops or rooms in which the labour is carried on. 
 
 When indoor occupations are practised in 
 large and efficiently ventilated apartments, or 
 existence is passed in healthy houses, as in the 
 dwellings of the rich and upper classes, who 
 have also tho additional advantages of good 
 food and warm clothing, the liability to 
 phthisis becomes immensely diminished, 
 
 Tho much greater immunity from the dis- 
 
 ease which the richer enjoy over the poorer 
 classes has been carefully pointed out by Dr 
 Guy, who, writing on this subject in the 
 ' Journal of the Statistical Society,' says — 
 " The ratio of deaths from consumption fol- 
 lows the same order as the average age at 
 death, being lowest where the average age is 
 highest, and the reverse. Thus the average 
 age at death of the class of gentlemen is 68 61, 
 and the ratio of deaths from consumption 1 to 
 260 ; while in the class of artisans the average 
 age is 4806, and the proportion from consump- 
 tion is 1 to 2-29. 
 
 " Again, the class of gentry presents a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 DcaUis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 Under 
 
 Under 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 -" 
 
 Condition. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 30. 
 
 40. 
 
 1: 
 
 Ratio. 
 
 a 
 .2 
 
 S 
 
 
 20. 
 
 SO. 
 
 40. 
 
 60. 
 
 60. 1 
 
 i 
 
 70. 
 
 80. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■s. 
 
 (5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 •3 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Gentlemen, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &c. . . 
 
 10-84 
 
 18-67 
 
 27-11 
 
 19-27, 15-06, 
 
 6-03 
 
 3-01 
 
 29-51 
 
 56-62 
 
 39 
 
 1 to 5-00 
 
 166 
 
 835 
 
 Tradesmen 
 
 8-lfi 
 
 24-34 
 
 26-98 
 
 20-111 12-70 
 
 6-35 
 
 1-06 
 
 3280 
 
 69-78 
 
 38 
 
 1 „ 2-60 
 
 189 
 
 491 
 
 Artisans . 
 
 7-:;5 23-69 
 
 26-24 
 
 22-79 13-34 
 
 6-20 
 
 0-43 30-94 
 
 1 
 
 57-18 
 
 384 
 
 1 „ 2-29 
 
 2318 
 
 6308 
 
 smaller proportional number of deaths under 
 thirty and forty than either of the other 
 classes. It is also worthy of observation that 
 the pcr-centage proportion of deaths from 
 consumption under thirty and forty is higher 
 in the class of tradesmen than in that of the 
 artisan and labourer, although the ratio of 
 cases of consumption is greater in the latter 
 class. This is doubtless accounted for by the 
 fact already established, that the strong exer- 
 tion which a considerable portion of the la- 
 bonring class employed within doors use in 
 their occupations, and the large number em- 
 
 ployed out of doors, has the effect of retarding 
 the effect of pulmonary consumption. The 
 tradesman, it will be seen, occupies the inter- 
 mediate place between the indoor and outdoor 
 labourer — between the artisan using little ex- 
 ertion and the aitisan using much exertion. 
 . . . . Another point attracts attention, viz. the 
 great proportion of deaths from consumption 
 occurring in the class of gentry from fifteen 
 to twenty years of age. Does not this show 
 that the liability to the disease is greater in 
 this class than in the two others, and does it 
 not tend to strengthen the position that the 
 
1286 
 
 PHTHISIS 
 
 excess of the deaths from consumption in the 
 other classes is due to the unfavorable circum- 
 stances in which they are placed ? 
 
 " The ratio of deaths from consumption in 
 the class of gentry, low as it is, would have 
 been still lower if the medical men, who are 
 included in it, were omitted. The number of 
 cases of pulmonary consumption occurring in 
 members of that profession is very remark- 
 able, and it is a subject of regret with the 
 author that they were not made a separate 
 class." 
 
 Much less clearly and satisfactorily esta- 
 blished is the question as to whether consump- 
 tion is or is not contagious. The instances 
 which have occurred of its extensive and rapid 
 spread in overcrowded barracks, prisons, men- 
 ot-war, merchant vessels, large workshops, &c., 
 not unreasonably seem to lend weight to the 
 opinion that the germs of the disease might 
 have been conveyed by the atmosphere charged 
 with them from an unhealthy to ii healthy 
 subject, on whom they might develop the 
 malady. 
 
 " But," as Dr Blyth writes, " it must be 
 remembered that, in all crowded localities, 
 there is direct vitiation of air, and it is difficult 
 to say whether tiie foul air or actual contagion 
 have most to do with the propagation of the 
 malady." He adds " that consumption, under 
 ordinary conditions, is certainly not conta- 
 gious; but, under special insanitary influences, 
 certain forms of consumption may be conta- 
 gious, althougii it is still a matter not proven." 
 Dr Guy bases his objection to the doctrine of 
 the generally contagious nature of consump- 
 tion upon the fact of the small fluctuations 
 in the annual number of deaths caused by it. 
 
 The lowest rate of mortality for phtliisis 
 for a million of inhabitants in London was, he 
 states, for any one of the fifteen years from 
 1840 to 1854 inclu-ive, 2645, and the fluctua- 
 tion was very slight. The figures in three 
 consecutive years were— 1849, 2777; 1850, 
 2645 ; 1851, 2970. " If, then," Dr Guy s«js, 
 " any one were to assert that this disease is 
 contagious, which is tantamount to saying that 
 it may be epidemic, the figures I have quoted 
 would in themselves furnish an answer in the 
 negative. They are suggestive of a domestic 
 disease, influenced, as is bronchitis, by the 
 seasons and the weather." 
 
 The statistics before quoted as to the corre- 
 lation between the prevalence of consumption 
 and unhciilthy surroundings, lead to the belief, 
 that before this connection between the two 
 was so well defined, cases of phthisis were 
 often erroneously referred to hereditary taint, 
 when tliey may simply have arisen from the 
 patient having been environed with the same 
 unfavorable hygienic conditions as his parents ; 
 these unfavorable conditions, including not only 
 polluted air, but bad food, deficient apparel, 
 and want of exercise. Hence it is that most 
 of the later patiiologigts, without denying the 
 existence of the transmitted form of tlie dis- 
 
 ease, believe the hereditary influence has been 
 greatly over estimated. 
 
 " As regards the origin of tubercle," writes 
 Dr Douglas Powell, " opinions are extremely 
 various, and indeed irreconcileable; but the 
 tendency of modern research — the experiments 
 of inoculation in animals, and the very 
 powerful advocacy of Prof. Niemeyer, ia 
 certainly to show that tubercles is much more 
 commonly a secondary disease than has until 
 lately been suspected — that people are, in fact, 
 only exceptionally, if ever, born to die of 
 tuberculosis. 
 
 '*A due appreciation of this doctrine, so diffe- 
 rent from that even now accepted by many, is 
 of almost national importance in giving en- 
 couragement to those hygienic and other mea- 
 sures of prevention, the neglect of which has 
 too often been sanctioned by a foregone con- 
 clusion. 
 
 " It would I tliink be extremely injudicious 
 to deny hereditary predisposition to tubercles 
 altogether. Moreover, when we come to the 
 question of hereditary predisposition to the 
 forms of consumption which originate in ca- 
 tarrhal pneumonia, it is freely admitted that 
 the oifspriirg of consumptive parents have a 
 tendency to this form of pulmonary phthisis, 
 that the scrofulous have a like tendency (Nie- 
 meyer), and that scrof ulosis is sometimes here- 
 ditary." 
 
 As allied to this portion of the question may 
 be mentioned the opinion of some pathologist, 
 that phthisis may be either caused or pro- 
 moted by habitual drunkenness; and that a 
 drunkard may transmit it to his off'spring. 
 
 The proneness to consumption is greatly 
 modified by sex and age, the influences of 
 which upon the disease are very defined and 
 unmistaltable. Thus, women are more liable 
 to its attacks than men, and young and mid- 
 dle aged persons of botii sexes than old ones. 
 
 "In Edinburgh the ratio of deaths from 
 phtliisis was found to decline from '285 at 
 twenty years to -052 above sixty years ; at 
 Nottingham, from •416 to '017 in the same 
 period of time; at Chester, from -245 to -054; 
 at Carlisle, from '290 to '097 ; and in Paris, 
 according to Louis, from -325 to -042 ; while 
 the general average decline was from "285, or 
 28-5 per cent., at twenty to thirty, to -078, 
 or -780 per cent., above 60."' 
 
 Amongst other conditions unfavorable to 
 the consumptive patient, in addition to the 
 breathing of a polluted atmosphere, may 
 be named insufficiency of nourishing food 
 and apparel, variable weather, and a damp soil. 
 This latter is particularly inimical to plithi- 
 sical sufferers. Indeed so closely is dampness 
 of soil associated with the spread of phthi- 
 sis, that the disease has been conclusively 
 showu to have diminished in localities in pro- 
 portion as these have been properly drained. 
 Dr Andrews, of Chicago, says that consump- 
 tion is most prevalent near the sea, and 
 1 Blyth. 
 
PHYLLOXERA VASTATRIX 
 
 1287 
 
 tliat it diminishea iu proportion to the distance 
 of the inland locality from the ocean. A 
 dump atmosphere also provokes the disease. 
 
 Phthisis seems to be a malady peculiar 
 to temperate climates. As to the influence 
 of the season upon the disease, Dr Haviland 
 says, "In England we learn from the statis- 
 tical returns that the spring is the most fatal 
 to consumptive patients, whether male or fe- 
 male, but with regard to the other seasons 
 there is considerable variability. For instance, 
 suppose we take the seasons of 1838 in the 
 order of their fatalityto males, they would stand 
 thus — spring, 1187; winter, 1048; summer, 
 968 ; autumn, 904. Tu females — spring, 972 ; 
 summer, 937; winter, 896; autumn, 825. 
 Then again, although the spring invariably 
 takes the lead, the other seasons change places 
 with each other from year to year; and what 
 is remarkable, this inconsistency docs not seem 
 to be dependent upon the temperature, as we 
 shall presently see. In the returns for 1853, 
 the following statistics in deaths from con- 
 sumption appear: — Winter, 1872 ; spring, 1971; 
 summer, 1745 ; autumn, 1914. The order of 
 fatality in the years above quoted would there- 
 fore be : — 
 
 l8SS.—MaUt. 
 
 1. Spring. 2. Winter. 8. Summer, 4. Autumn. 
 WiH—Ftmalet. 
 
 1. Sprmf(. 2. SummtT. 8. Winter. 4. Autumu. 
 IMO—Tolal. 
 
 1. Spring. 2. Wiiiicr. S. Sumniur. 4. Autumu. 
 Ih:a.— Total. 
 
 1. Spring. 2. Autumn. 8. Winter. 4. Summer. 
 
 " So far, therefore, as seasons are concerned, 
 the above table proves that spring, i.e. April, 
 May, June, ia the most inimical quarter to 
 phtliisical patients, and probably Autumu — 
 October, November, December, the least so. 
 In London at h a»t, if not throughout Eng- 
 land generally, the spring is undoubtedly the 
 most olmoxious to consumptive cases; and 
 this statement is in accordance with the expe- 
 rience of those physioiaiis wlio have opportu- 
 nities of seeing the rise, progress, and cud of 
 many hundreds of phthisical patients during 
 the year. Dr Richard Quain observes that the 
 cold easterly wind of spring completes the 
 work, winch the winter had left undone."' 
 
 That greater or less destruction of the lungs, 
 which is cliiiruotenslic of pulmonary phthisis, 
 originates iu the presence in them of a dis- 
 eased (iroM til, consisting of very minute masses 
 or grains, which are sometimes grey, and at 
 others \ellnw or clicosilike in appearance. 
 
 These little bodies are either diffused uni- 
 formly through the substance of the Inngs, or 
 are collected toj;ether in them in larger or 
 smaller masses. In the latter case, each little 
 mass generally sets up iu the surrounding tis-ue 
 of the limgs, inflaiiimalxon and suppuration, 
 wh^cb, although only prqcessis by which nature 
 endeavours ti expel the alien siiKstunce from 
 the Iniig, may, by constant repetition, cause 
 the destruction of the greater part of the res- 
 pinitiiry organs. 
 
 * 'ClimHte, Weatlitr, and Diseuse,' by Dr Iliivilund. 
 
 PHYILOXEEA VASTATRIX. In 1866 M. 
 Delorme, of Aries, in the South of Prance, whs 
 the first to suggest that a peculiar disease 
 which had manifested itself the previous year 
 amongst the vines growing in the plateau of 
 Pujaut on the west bank of the river Rhone, 
 in the Department of the Card, was of a new 
 and speciQc character. 
 
 Shortly afterwards a commission appointed 
 by the Herault Agricultural Society visited 
 Qne of the infested localities, and one of its 
 members, M. Planchon, confirmed JI.Dclorme's 
 conjectures, by discovering the catise of the 
 vine malady. This he conclusively showed 
 was due to the presence of a peculiar and 
 hitherto unknown description of Aphit, be- 
 longing to the genus Phglloxera, which, as 
 illustrative of its devastating qualities, be 
 named P. vus/atrix. 
 
 A full-grown Phylloxera va.ttnirix does not 
 exceed more than the 33rd or 40th of an inch 
 in length. Examined under a microscope, in 
 addition to short pointed legs, it is seen to be 
 furnished with a proboscis nearly half as long 
 OS its body. Upon examination this proboscis 
 seems to be composed of three tongues, of 
 whi<^h the centre one is the longest, and these 
 are united at their base into a kind of flat, 
 sharp-pointed blade, which is the boring or 
 puncturing apparatus, by the aid of which the 
 insect pierces into the roots, from which it 
 sucks the juices that constitutes its food. 
 About half the proboscis or sucker is inserted 
 into the bark of the root, and the creature 
 can not only attach itself to the root by means 
 of it, but can also turn on it, as on a pivot, 
 when engaged in the depredations. 
 
 Mnle Pliylloxera; dot in circle showing natural size. 
 
 These are continued from April to October, 
 by which month the insect has lost the yellow 
 colour that ili-tin<ruishes it in the summer 
 months, and assumed a copper brown shade. 
 
 Knim Ociober to April the Phylloxera 
 hyberuate, or r.ither, such of them do as have 
 laid no cg<rs during the period of their active 
 existence, for tlie egg-laying females die, and 
 youn;; phylloxerip ouly are preserved during 
 the winter months. 
 
1288 
 
 PHVLLOXERA VASTATEIX 
 
 Witli the return of April tbey awake from 
 theii' winter sleep, and recommence their 
 devastating career. They then increase 
 rapidly in size and begin to layunimpregnated 
 eg^g, for there are at that time no males. 
 " These bring forth females which in their 
 turn develop and lay unimpregnated eggs, and 
 the virginal reproduction continues f6r five or 
 six generations, the development increasing in 
 rapidity with the heat, but the prolificacy or 
 the number of the eggs decreases, 
 
 " In July some of the individuals show little 
 wing.pads at the sides, and begin to issue 
 from the ground and acquire wings. These 
 winged individuals become very numerous in 
 August, and continue to appear in diminishing 
 
 numbers thereafter till the leaves have all 
 fallen. They are all females and carry in 
 their abdomen from three to eight eggs of two 
 sizes, the larger ones about tot*'^' "* ^" ''"'''' 
 long and half as wide ; the smaller |th as 
 long. These eggs are also unimpregnated and 
 are laid by preference on the under side of the 
 more tender leaves, attached by one end, amid 
 the natural down. They increase somewhat 
 in size, and give birth in about ten days to the 
 true sexual individuals, the larger producing 
 females, the smaller, males. 
 
 " Anomalous as it may seem these creatures 
 are born perfect, though without mouth, and 
 with no other than the reproductive function. 
 
 "A most remarkable fact, discovered by 
 
 Trus female Phylloxera; «, ventral view, showing ohsolete mouth and solitatyegg, occupying nearly the entire liody; 
 b, dorsal view ; c, tarsus ; d, contracted anal joints after the egg is laid ; dot in circle showing natural size. 
 
 Babiani, is that some of the females never 
 acquire wings, but always remain on the 
 roots, also produce the few different sized eggs 
 from which these true, mouthless males and 
 females hatch. The sexes pair soon after 
 hatching, and the female is delivered on the 
 3rd or 4th day of a solitary egg, and then 
 perislies. This egg is never laid on the leaf, 
 but always on the wood, either under the bark, 
 or in sheltered situations above ground, or on 
 the roots underground. The young hatching 
 from it is the normal agamous mother, which, 
 with increased vigour and fertility, lays a large 
 number of eggs, and recommences the virginal 
 reproduction and the cycle of the species' 
 curious life. The impregnated eggs laid early 
 in the season doubtless hatch the same year, 
 though some of the later deposited ones may 
 pass the winter before hatching."' 
 
 The parts of the vine attacked by the 
 Phylloxera are the rootlets, which in a diseased 
 plant, may be seen more or less covered with 
 what appears to the naked eye, a yellowish 
 powder, but upon a microscopic examination 
 reveals itself as a mixture of phylloxerse of 
 different sizes, and of their eggs. 
 
 During August and September, the phyllox- 
 eras invest the rootlets in countless numbers, 
 1 Eiley. 
 
 and are so abundant as to entirely obscure the 
 colour of the roots, and to cause them to 
 appear yellow from the enormous number of 
 their minute organisms. 
 
 The effect of the attacks of the parasite upon 
 the rootlets is to give rise in it to the formation 
 of a number of little tumefactions or enlarge- 
 ments. These in course of time decay, and their 
 destruction results in the death of the plant. 
 
 Exposure to air and sunlight acts fatally to 
 the Phylloxera, shrivelling and drying it up. 
 Hence its instinct of self-preservation, no 
 less than its search after its food, leatis it to 
 bury itself beneath the surface of the soil. 
 But, as the insect does not possess an organ- 
 isation that fits it for burrowing, the character 
 of the soil has a great deal to do in affording 
 facilities or the reverse favorable to its 
 existence. 
 
 If the soil be of such a nature, that it splits 
 easily into fissures or cracks, which better lead 
 to or serve to expose the vine roots, it will of 
 course afford a muqh more easy means of 
 access to the parasite than if it be compact ot 
 close. 
 
 Hence it is that clayey and chalk soils, from 
 their liability to split up on the surface, afford 
 much more congenial habitats for the Phyllox- 
 era than sandy ones, which, being dry and 
 
I'HVLLOXEUA VASTATRIX 
 
 1289 
 
 closely-knit, affonl a mucli more impenetra- 
 ble barrier to the entrance of the insect, or 
 to its snbterriineun movements. 
 
 These statements are borne out by the fact 
 d 
 
 that where the disease has shown itself it has 
 been found to vary in extent and intensity iu 
 proportion as the soil of the vineyard is more 
 or less fllayey ; and many instances are known 
 
 , heflltliy root ; i, root on " IiicJi the lice nre working, showing the knots and swellings ^\\\\^ 
 c, rtiot (Icsei'teil by tlicm, nii which the rootlets have l)c;.'un to iletny ; t/, t/, d, lice on i 
 size; f, female piil>a, dorsal view; /, winged female, dorsal view, greatly enlarged. 
 
 d by their punctures; 
 le largtr routs, natural 
 
 in which patches of a vineyard have continued 
 unaffected amidst the surrounding devasta- 
 tion, owing to the absence in those particular 
 parts of the soil, of tlie argillaceous element. 
 A forcible illustration of this malijiu iu- 
 iiuencc of clay in the soil is afforded by tlie 
 following analyses of two specimens of ertrth 
 taken from the same vineyard. The specimen 
 marked " healthy " w:is from a small plot of 
 ground in which the vineswere perfectly sound; 
 that distinguished as " unhcaltl-.y" formed 
 by far the greater portion of tlie soil of the 
 vineyard, the plants i;rowiug in which were all 
 suffering from the ravages of the parasite : — 
 
 
 Henllhy. 
 
 Unhealthy 
 
 Water 
 
 . 2-25 . 
 
 . 3-20 
 
 Nitrogen .... 
 
 . 0-11 . 
 
 . 0-12 
 
 Sulphate of calcium 
 
 002 . 
 
 . 042 
 
 Chloriile of sodium 
 
 1-15 . 
 
 . 018 
 
 Carbonate nf calcium 
 
 49-00 . 
 
 . 42-00 
 
 .■siliceous sand . 
 
 23-50 . 
 
 . 10 20 
 
 Chiy 
 
 17-75 . 
 
 . 37-50 
 
 Organic substances ' 
 and error of analysis. 
 
 5-62 . 
 
 . 6-38 
 
 lOU-00 
 
 10000 
 
 From the locality already inclicoted, where 
 it Imd first developed Itself in 1805, the vine 
 disease *;rnduHlly extended until, in the ycur 
 1873, it was ravaginf;r the viney!»ul•^ of the 
 Card, V:nu-In«e, Tsere, Heranlt, I)r6me, 
 Boiiches du Khone, Ardeehe, Hiis.-^e-J-Alpes, 
 Var, the Gironde, and tlie Charentes, since 
 which time it has gradually continued to spreiid 
 into the adj;icent districts. 
 
 " We may train a inore precise idea than 
 can be afforded by a mere observation of the 
 pfeoirruphical extension of the disease, of tlie 
 di'^astrous nature of the ravajjes of the 
 Phylloxera, by the examination of some of the 
 statistics of the crape-cnip in sncccs.sive years, 
 in some of the departments attacked. Thus, 
 in the Department of Vauclnse, where the 
 disease showed itself in 186H, there were in 
 1866, according to the results obtained by the 
 departmental commission institutedat Avignon 
 to observe on the new vine-disease, 6000 
 hectares absolutely dead or dying, and a much 
 larger number alrendy attacked, which have 
 since succumbed to tlie parasite. Out of the 
 30,000 hectares of viney;irds comprised in tlii« 
 department, 25,000, or five sixths of the tota.1 
 
1290 
 
 PHYSIC BALLS— PICKLE 
 
 area, have been destroyed. In the Gavd, 
 where the vine flourishes better than in the 
 above-mentioned department, the rava£es of 
 the disease are yet most terrible ; for in 1871, in 
 the Arrondissement ot Uzes, but one half of the 
 average crop was produced, and in the Arron- 
 dissement of Nismes a tenth part of the crop 
 was destroyed. These proportions, moreover, 
 have increased since that year. 
 
 " If we examine the mischief done in the less 
 extended areas of the communes, we shall 
 obtain a still clearer idea of the rapid spread 
 of the disease ; — 
 
 " CosmTTNE or Gbavbson. 
 
 6-67 mean 
 
 crop 
 
 10,000 hectoli 
 
 1868 „ 
 
 
 8,500 
 
 1869 
 
 
 2,200 
 
 1870 
 
 
 400 
 
 1871 
 
 
 205 
 
 1872 
 
 
 100 
 
 1873 
 
 
 50 
 
 tres. 
 
 " In the Commune of Maillanne the crop in 
 1868 was only 40 per cent, of the average of 
 the three preceding years, while in 1869 it 
 was only 10 per cent. In the Commune of 
 Eyragues the crop in 1868 was about 33 per 
 per cent, of the average of the three preceding 
 years, and in 1869 there was a further falling 
 off of about 10 per cent. In 1870 the crop in 
 the three above-named communes was almost 
 entirely destroyed. From instances such as 
 these, faiily selected from many others equally 
 tragic in their stern figures, we may form some 
 idea of the magnitude of the disaster. In- 
 deed, it is difficult to see, so rapid is the ex- 
 tension of the disease, how, unless some potent 
 and effective remedy can be soon applied, any 
 vine-bearing district in France can escape the 
 visitation of the Piiylloxera."' 
 
 The French Government, fully alive to the 
 peril threatening the staple product of their 
 country, shortly alter the appearance of the 
 Phylloxera in the vineyards of France, offered 
 through their Minister of Commerce and Agri- 
 culture a reward of 300,000 francs for the 
 discovery of a means of nrresting and stopping 
 its ravages ; and in 1871 the Academy of 
 Sciences, at Paris appointed a commission, 
 presided over by the celebrated chemist M. 
 Dumas, to investigate the biology, habits, &c., 
 of the parasite, together with the nature of 
 the injuries it inflicted upon the vine, the area 
 of its depredations, &c. From amongst the 
 members of this commission three gentlemen 
 were chosen to visit the infected districts, so 
 as to be afforded an opportunity of studying 
 the Phylloxera at its destructive work, and 
 its environments of soil, situation, tempera- 
 ture, &c. 
 
 The delegates selected by the Commission 
 were MM, Balbiani, Cornu, and Duflaux, re- 
 spectively amongst the most distingu'shed 
 living representatives of zoology, botany, and 
 chemistry in France, and the results of their 
 ' 'Sature.'TOl. I. 
 
 labours was the issue, some few years back, of 
 a most exhaustive and valnable report to the 
 Academy of Sciences on the subject of the 
 Phylloxera. 
 
 Tlie vines of other countries besides those 
 of Prance have also suffered from the attacks of 
 the Phylloxera. Thus it has made its appear- 
 ance in the vineyards of Algiers, Italy, Ger- 
 many, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Australia, 
 and North America, on all of which it has been 
 productive of more or less serious injury to 
 the vintage. 
 
 Amongst the numberless remedies that have 
 been suggested and tried, with varying but by 
 no means uniform or satisfactory results, for 
 the destruction of the Phylloxera, may be men- 
 tioned sulphur, the sulphites, tobacco, caustic 
 soda, and potash, bisulphide of carbon, coal- 
 tar, soft soap, lime, the immersion of the vine 
 in sulpho-carbonate of potassium, and the 
 application around the roots of sand. 
 
 A certain amount of success, it has been 
 said, has attended the employment of the 
 sulpho-carbonate of potassium and sand. 
 
 An American botanist, Mr Riley, recom- 
 mends the importation into French vineyards 
 of the American vines, which he suggests 
 should be employed as stocks on which to 
 graft the French ones. 
 
 The American plant being of a hardy nature, 
 he believes its incorporation with the more 
 susceptible French ones, would give rise to a 
 vine sufficiently vigorous to resist, or at any 
 rate not to be injured by the ravages of the 
 parasite. 
 
 PHYSIC BALLS. See Veteeinaet medi- 
 cines. 
 
 PHYSOSIIGMATIS FABA. See Caiabab 
 
 BEAN. 
 
 PrCA. Depraved appetite. 
 
 PIC'AMAK. One ot the peculiar principles 
 discovered by Reichenbach in beech-tar, and 
 described by him as a viscid, colourless, oily 
 liquid, only feebly odorous, but intensely 
 bitter; insoluble in water; freely soluble in 
 alcohol, ether, and oils; boiling point 520° 
 Fahr. ; sp. gr. I'OaS. See Kbbasote. 
 
 PICCALIL'LI. See Pickles. 
 
 PICK'LE. The liquor in which subst'tnces 
 used as food are preserved. That for flesh is 
 commonly brine ; that for vegetables, vinegar ; 
 both of which are commonly flavoured with 
 spices, &c. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Foe meat.)— o. From bay salt, 
 3 lbs. ; saltpetre, 2^ oz. ; moist sugar, 1 lb. ; 
 allspice and black pepper, of each (bruised) 
 
 1 oz. ; water, 9 pints ; simmer them together 
 in a clean covered iron or enamelled vessel for 
 7 or 8 minutes ; when the whole has cooled, 
 remove the scum, and pour it over the articles 
 to be preserved. Used for hams, tongues, beef, 
 &c., to which it imparts a fine red colour and 
 a superior flavour. 
 
 i. From bay salt and common salt, of each 
 
 2 lbs.; moist sugar, 1 lb. ; saltpetre, J lb. ; all- 
 spice (bruised), -joz. ; water, 1 gall.; as belore. 
 
PICKLES 
 
 1201 
 
 Used chiefly for iwrk and hania. Common Rait 
 may be substituted for bay salt, but it is less 
 )>nwerfully antiseptic, and the fluvoiir is less 
 gmteful. 
 
 2. (For TE0ETABLB8.) — a. Strong distilled 
 vinegar, to eacli quart of which li oz. of good 
 salt has been added. 
 
 h. Gnod distilled vinegar, 4 pints; common 
 fftlt, 2i oz. ; black pepper, \ oz. j unbleached 
 Jamaica K>nger, 2^ oz. (the laat two bruised, 
 but not dusty) ; mace (shredded), \ oz. ; sim- 
 mer in an enamelled iron or stoneware vessel, 
 as above, and strain through flannel. Some- 
 times a little capsicum is added. Used either 
 hot or cold, according to the vegetable it is 
 intended to preserve. 
 
 Fickle, Lemon. See Sacces. 
 
 PICKLES. These well-known articles are 
 easily prepared of the finest quality. The 
 vetretiibles and fruit, selected of the proper 
 quality and at the proper season, after being 
 well cleansed witii cold spring water, are 
 steeped for some time in strong brine; they 
 are then drained and dried, and transferred to 
 bottles or .jars J the sjiiec (if any) is then 
 uHdeil, the bottles filled up with hot, stronjr, 
 pioklinK vinegar, and at once securely corked 
 down and tied over with bladder. As soon as 
 the bottles are cold the corks are dipped into 
 melted wax, the more surely to preserve them 
 air-tight. Good wood or distilled vinegar is 
 commonly used for this purpose ; but tlie best 
 malt or white wine vinegar of the strength 
 known as No. 22 or 24 is exclusively employed 
 for the finer pickles whieh are not spiced. In 
 those for early use the ' steep' may be made in 
 hot or boiling brine, by which the product 
 will lie ready for the tible in a much shorter 
 period ; but wiih substances of a succulent 
 and fliibl)y nature, as cabbage, cauliflower, 
 some fruit, &e., or in which crispness is es- 
 teemed a murk of excellence, this is inadmis- 
 sible. To such articles the vinegar should also 
 be added cold, or, at furthest, should be only 
 slightly warmed. As a general rule, the softer 
 and more deliente articles do not require so 
 long soaking in brine as the harderand coarser 
 kinds; and tliey may be often advantageously 
 pickled by simply pouring very strong pickling 
 vinegar over them "ilhout applying heat. It 
 must also be observed that beetroot, and other 
 like substances which are sliced, as well as cer- 
 tain ilelieate fruits, must not be steeped at all. 
 Tiie spice is commonly added whole to the bot- 
 tles ; but a more economical plan is to steep it 
 (bruised) for some time, or to simmer it in the 
 vinegar before u-ing the latter, as in the forms 
 given under Pickle {above). 
 
 The spices and flavouring ingredients em- 
 ployed lor pickles are— allspice, black and 
 white pepper, capsicums or red pods, cloves, 
 garlic, ginger, horseradish, lemon peel, mace, 
 mustard, shallots, and turmeric. These are 
 chosen with reference to the particular variety 
 of the pickle, or the taste of the con- 
 sumer. 
 
 A good SPICED VINEOAB for pickles gene- 
 rally is the following: — Bruise in a mortar 
 2 oz. of black pepper, 1 oz. of ginger, \ oz. of 
 allspice, and 1 oz. of salt. If a hotter pickle 
 is desired, add i dr. of cayenne, or a few cap- 
 sicums. For walnuts, add also 1 oz. of shal- 
 lots. Put these into a stone jar, with a quart 
 of vinegar, and cover them with a bladder 
 wetted with the pickle, and over this place a 
 piece of leather. Set the jar on a trivet near 
 the fire for 3 days, shaking it 3 times a day, 
 then pour it on the walnuts or other vegetables. 
 For walnuts it is used hot, but for cabbage, 
 &c., cold. To save time it is usual to simmer 
 the vinegar gently with the spices; which is 
 best done in an enamelled saucepan. 
 
 In the preparation of pickles it is highly 
 necessary to avoid the use of metallic vessels, 
 lis both vinegar and brine rapidly corrode 
 brass, copper, lead, ic, and thus become 
 poisonous. These liquids may bo best heated 
 or boiled in a stoneware jar by the heat 
 of a water bath or a stove. Common 
 glazed earthenware should be avoided, either 
 for making or keeping the pickles in, as the 
 glazing usually contains lead. Pickles should 
 also be kept from the air as much as possible, 
 and should only be touched with wooden or 
 bone spoons. They are also belter prepared in 
 small jars, or bottles, than in large ones, as the 
 more frequent opening of the latter exposes 
 them toil much. Copper or verdiffris is fre- 
 quently added to pickles to imp.irt a green 
 col lur, or the vinegar is boiled in a copper 
 vessel until sufficiently 'greened' before pour- 
 ing it on the vegetables. This poisonous ad- 
 dition may be readily detected by any of tlie 
 tests mentioned under Coppeb. If a green 
 colour be desired, it may be imparted to the 
 vinegar.and ultimately to the pickles, by steep- 
 ing vine leaves, or the leaves of parsley or 
 spinach, in it. A teaspoonful of olive oil may 
 be advantageously added to each bottle to keep 
 the pickles white, and to promote their pre- 
 servation. 
 
 *,* The following list includes the leading 
 pickles of the shops, and some others : — 
 
 Barberries. Fiom the ripe fruit, without 
 heat. 
 
 Beans. From the young green pods of the 
 scarlet bean, and the French or kidney bean, 
 with beat. 
 
 Beetroot. From the sliced root, without 
 steeping in brine, and with cold spiced vinegar. 
 When wanted for immediate use the vinegar 
 may be used boiling hot. 
 
 Broccoli. As CAULiFLOWEita. 
 
 Cabbage. This, either red or white, ia cut 
 into thin slices, and steeped in strong brine or 
 sprinkled with common salt, and allowed to lie 
 for 1 or 2 days ; after which it is drained for 
 10 or 12 hours in a warm room, and then put 
 into jars or bottles, with or without a little 
 mace and white peppercorn^, and at once 
 covered with cold, strong, white vinegar. — 
 Another plan is to steep tiie sliced rabbige in 
 
1292 
 
 PICKLES 
 
 alum water for 10 or 12 hours, and, after 
 draining and drying it, to pour the vinegar 
 upon it as before. The product of the last 
 formula eats very fresh and crisp, but takes 
 longer to mature than that of the other. 
 Some persons add a little salt with the vinegar ; 
 and others mix slices of red beet with the 
 cabbage. 
 
 Capsicums. As geekkii^s. 
 
 Cauliflowers. As CiftBAGE (nearly). Or, 
 they may be steeped in hot brine for 1 or 2 
 hours before pouring the vinegar over them. 
 
 Cherries. From the scarcely ripe fruit, bot- 
 tled, and covered with strong and colourless 
 pickling vinegar. 
 
 Codlins. As beans. 
 
 Cucumbers. As eHEEEiNS. 
 
 Elderflowers. From the clusters, just before 
 they open, as BSD cabbaoe. A beautiful 
 pickle. 
 
 English Samhoo. From the young shoots of 
 elder, denuded of the outer skin, pickled in 
 brine for 12 or 14 hours ; then bottled with a 
 little white pepper, ginger, mace, and allspice, 
 and pickled with boiling vinegar. Excellent 
 with boiled mutton. 
 
 Eschalots. With boiling spiced vinegar, or 
 spices added to each bottle. 
 
 French Beans. Sck above. 
 
 Garlic. As esohaiots. 
 
 Gherkins. From smnll cucumbers (not too 
 young), steeped for a week in very strongbrine; 
 this last is then poured off, heated to the boil- 
 ing point, and again poured on the fruit ; the 
 next day the gherkins are drained on a sieve, 
 wiped dry, put into bottles or jars with some 
 spice (ginger, pepper, or cayenne), and at once 
 covered with strong pickling vinegar, boiling 
 hot. Several other pickles may be prepared in 
 the same way. 
 
 Gooseberries. From the green fruit, as either 
 
 OABBAQE or CAULIFLOWEKS, 
 
 Indian Mango. From green peaches. (See 
 helow.) 
 
 Indian Pickle. Syn. Piccalilli. This is a 
 mixed pickle which is characterised by being 
 highly flavoured with curry-powder, or tur- 
 meric, mustiird, and garlic. The following 
 form is commonly used : — Take 1 hard white 
 cahbnge (sliced), 2 cauliflowers (pulled to 
 pieces), some French beans, 1 stick of horse- 
 radish (sliced), ahont 2 dozen small white 
 onions, and 1 dozen gherkins ; cover them with 
 boiling brine ; the next day drain the whole 
 on a sieve, put into a jar, and add, of curry- 
 powder or turmeric, 2 oz. ; garlic, ginger, and 
 mustard seed, of each 1 oz. ; capsicums, i oz. ; 
 fill up the vessel with hot pickling vinegar, 
 bung it up close, and let it stand for a month, 
 with occasional agitation. See Mixed pickles 
 (ieloio). 
 
 Lemons. From the fruit, slit half way down 
 into quarters, and cored, put into a dish, and 
 sprinkled with a little salt; in about a week 
 the whole is placed in jars or bottles with a 
 
 little turmeric and capsicums, and covered with 
 hot vinegar. 
 
 Limes. As the last. 
 
 Mangoes. As lemons, adding mustard seed 
 and a little garlic, with spices at will. Eng- 
 lish MANGOES are made from cucumbers or 
 small melons, split and deprived of their seeds. 
 
 Melons. As lemons (nearly). 
 
 Mixed Pickles. From white cabbage, canli- 
 fiowers, French beans, cucumbers, onions, or 
 any other of the ordinary pickling vegetables, 
 at will (except red cabbage or walnuts) 
 treated as geeb£INS ; with raw ginger, cap- 
 sicum, mustard seed, and long pepper, for spice, 
 added to each bottle. A little coarsely bruised 
 turmeric improves both the colour and 
 flavour. 
 
 Mushrooms. From the small button mush- 
 rooms, cleansed with cold spring water, and 
 gently wiped dry with a towel, then placed in 
 bottles, with a blade or two of mace, and 
 covered with the strongest white pickling 
 vinegar, boiling hot. 
 
 Myrobalans. The yellow myrohalan pre- 
 served in strong brine. Gently aperient. 
 
 D^asturtlnms. From the unripe or scarcely 
 ripe fruit, simply covered with cold strong 
 vinegar ; or, as cabbage or gherkins. 
 
 Onions. From the small button or filbert 
 onion, deprived of the outer coloured skin, 
 and either at once put into bottles and 
 covered with strong white pickling vinegar, 
 or previously steeped for a day or two in 
 strong brine or alum water. When required 
 for early use, the vinegar should be poured on 
 boiling hot. 
 
 Peaches. From the scarcely ripe fruit, as 
 
 GHEBEINS. 
 
 Peas. As beans or cahliploweeS. 
 
 Piccalilli. See Indian pickle. 
 
 Sadish Pods. As beans or gherkins. 
 
 Samphire. From the perennial samphire 
 (JBrythmuTn maritimwm), covered with strong 
 vinegar, to each pint of which J oz. of salt has 
 been added, and poured on boiling hot. Said to 
 excite the appetite. 
 
 Tomatoes. From the common tomato or 
 love apple, as gherkins. 
 
 Walnuts. From the young fruit of Juglans 
 regia, or common walnut : — 1. Steep them in 
 strong brine for a week, then bottle them, add 
 spice, and pour on the vinegar boiling hot. 
 
 2. On each pint of the nuts, spread on a 
 dish, sprinkle 1 oz. of common salt ; expose 
 them to the sun or a full light for 10 or 12 
 days, frequently basting them with their own 
 liquor; lastly, bottle them, and pour on the 
 vinegar, boiling hot. ■ 
 
 3. (Dr Kitchener.) Gently simmer the 
 fruit in brine, then expose it on a cloth for a 
 day or two, or until it turns black ; next put 
 it into bottles or jars, pour hot spiced vinegar 
 over it, and cork down immediately. In this 
 way the pickle becomes sniTiciently mature for 
 the table in half the time required for that 
 piepared by the common metliod. Dr Kit- 
 
PICOLINE— PIES 
 
 1293 
 
 chener aliio recommends this parboiling pro- 
 ci'»8 for sevi'ral other pickles. Some persons 
 pierce the fruit with an awl or stocking-needle, 
 in several places, in order to induce early ma- 
 turation. The spices uisually employed are 
 mustiird seed, allspice, and ginger, with a little 
 uiace and garlic. 
 
 FIC'OXiINE. An oily substance, discovered 
 by l)r Anderson, associated with aniline, 
 chinoline, and some other volatile bases, in 
 certain varieties of coal-tar naphtha. 
 
 PICRIC ACID. }iCfU,(tiO,)fi. Si/n. 
 C'abbazotio agio, Niteophenisic acid, Tki- 
 NITUOPUENISIC ACID. A peculiar compound 
 formed by the action of strong nitric acid on 
 indigo, alues, wool, and several other sub- 
 stances. 
 
 I'rep. 1. Add, cautiously and gradually, 1 
 part of powdered indigo to 10 or 12 parts of 
 hot nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1-43; when the 
 reaction has moderated and the scum has 
 fallen, add »n adililioual quantity of nitric acid, 
 and boil the whole until red fumes are no 
 lunger evolved ; redissolve the crystals of im- 
 pure picric acid deposited in boiling distilled 
 water, iind remove any oily matter Ibund float- 
 ing on the surface of the solution by means of 
 bibulous piiper ; a second time redissulve in 
 boiling water the crystals which form ns the 
 liquid cools, saturate the new solution witli 
 carbonate of potassa, and set it aside to crys- 
 tallise ; the crystals of picrate of potassium 
 tliua obtained must be purified by several re- 
 solutions and re-crystallisations, and next 
 decomposed by nitric acid; the crystals depo- 
 sited as the liquid cools yield pure picric acid 
 by again dissolving them in boiling water, and 
 ru-i'i-ystHllis>itii)n. 
 
 2. Disxilve the yellow resin of Xanihorrhoea 
 haalilia (Botany Bay Gum) iu a snfficiencv of 
 strong nitric acid. Kcd vapours are evolved, 
 accompanied by violent frothing, and u deep 
 red solutinn is produced, which turns yellow 
 after boiling. Evaporate this solution over a 
 water bath. A yellow crystalline mass is de- 
 posited, which consists of picric acid with small 
 quantities of oxalic and uitrobenzoic acids. The 
 picric acid is purified by neutralising the yel- 
 low mass with potassa, and crystallising t» ice 
 out of water. The pure picrate of pota.ssium 
 thus obtained is decomposed by hydrochloric 
 acid, and the liberated picric acid is puritied 
 by two crystallisations. This process, devised 
 by Sleiihouse, is one of the best, and yields a 
 quantity of the acid amounting to 5U|; of the 
 resin cm|do^ed. 
 
 Prop., tfc. Brilliant yellow scales, scarcely 
 soluble in cold water, but very soluble in boil- 
 ing water, and in alcohol and ether; fusible; 
 volatile ; taste insupportably bitter, and very 
 permanent. It forms salts with the bases 
 (picrate-;, carbazolates), mostly possessing a 
 yellow colour, and exploding when heated. 
 The picrate of lead has been proposed as a f ul- 
 mlnat ng powder for percussion caps. The 
 picrate of potassium has been given with 
 
 advantage in intermittent fevers. A solution 
 of picric acid in alcohol is an excellent test for 
 potassa, if there be not too much water pre- 
 sent, as it throws down a yellow crystalline 
 precipitate with that alkali, but forms a very 
 soluble salt with soda. Most of the picrates 
 may be made by the dirci t solution of the car- 
 bonate, hydrate, or oxide of the metal, in a 
 solution of the acid in hot water. The picrate 
 of silver forms beautiful starry groups of 
 acicular crystals, having the colour and lustre 
 of gold. 
 
 The principal use of crude picric acid is for 
 dyeing yellow. It is said to be lorgely em- 
 ployed for the adulteration of beer. It is, 
 however, highly poisonous. According to Prol. 
 Rapp, it acts deleteriously both when swal- 
 lowed and applied to the unsound skin. Five 
 grains seriously affected a lai ge dug, and killed 
 it within twenty-four hours. It induces vomit- 
 ing, feebleness, and geneial loss of nervous 
 tone. The tissues of animals poisoned by it 
 (even the white of the eyi) were tinged of a 
 yellow colour. See 1'ohteu, &c. 
 
 PICROTOX'IN. C.jHuOj. Syn. PiCEO- 
 
 TOXINE.PlCTBOTOXIA, PiCKOTOXINA. A [.oisou- 
 
 0U8 principle discovered by Boullay in the 
 fruit of Anamirta paniculuiat or Cocculus 
 indicus. 
 
 Prep. 1. Precipitate a decoction of Coc- 
 cuius indicus nitha solution of acetate of lead, 
 gently evaporate to dryness, redissolve the 
 residuum in alcohol of '817. and crystallise by 
 evaporation; repeat the solution and crystal- 
 lisation a second and a third time. Any adher- 
 ing colour may be reniovcd by agitating it 
 with a very little water ; or by animal charcoal, 
 in the usual manner. 
 
 2. (Kane.) Alcoholic extract of Coeculus 
 indicus is exhausted with the smallest possible 
 quantity of water, and the mixed liquors fil- 
 tered ; to the filtrate hydrochloric acid is added, 
 and the whole set aside to crystallise. The 
 product may be purified a-' before. 
 
 trap., S(c. It forms small, colourless, stel- 
 lated needles ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and 
 acetic acid, and feebly so in water; boiling 
 water dissolves it freely ; taste of solutions in- 
 expressibly bitter ; reaction neutral. It does 
 not combine with acids, as formerly asserted, 
 but it forms feeble couibinations with some of 
 the bases. It is a powerful intoxicant and 
 narcotico-acrid poison. It acts powerfully on 
 the spinal cord and nervous system generally, 
 occasioning an increase of the animal tempe- 
 rature, and peculiar movements, similar to 
 those described by Flourens as resulting from 
 sections of the cerebellum. It is frequently 
 present in malt liquors, owing to their com- 
 mon adulteration with Coeculus indicus. 
 
 PICTURES, OIL. To clean. See Paiktikgs, 
 Oil. 
 
 PIERRE DIVrSTE. Syn. CcPKrM alu- 
 MINATUM. See Lapis ditixus. 
 
 PIES. Alexis Soyer gives the following 
 instructions for making pies : — 
 
1294 
 
 PIG-PILES 
 
 To make - pie to perfection, — when your 
 paste (half -puff or short) is carefully made, and 
 your dish or form properly full, throw a little 
 flour on your paste-boai-d, take about ai lb. of 
 your paste, which roll with your hand until 
 (say) an inch in circumferenee ; then moisten 
 the rim of your pie-dish, and iix the paste 
 equally on it with your thumb. When you 
 have rolled your paste for the covering, or 
 upper crust, of an equal thickness throughout, 
 and in proportion to the contents of your pie 
 (5 inch is about the average), fold the cover in 
 two, lay it over one half of your pie, and turn 
 tlie other half over the remaining part ; next 
 press it slightly with your thumb round the 
 rim, cut neatly the rim of the paste, form 
 rather a tiiiclc edge, and mark this with a 
 knife about every quarter of an inch apart j 
 observing to hold your knife in a slanting 
 direction, which gives it a neat appearance ; 
 lastly, make two small holes on the top, and 
 egg-over the whole witli a paste-brush, or else 
 use a little milk or water. Auy small portion 
 of paste remaining may be shaped to fanci- 
 ful designs, and placed as ornaments on the 
 top. 
 
 " For meat pies, observe that, if your paste 
 is either too thick or too thin, the covering 
 too narrow or too short, and requires pulling 
 one way or the other, to make it fit, your pie 
 is sure to be imperfect, the covering no longer 
 protecting the contents. It is the same with 
 fruit ; and if the paste happens to be rather 
 rich, it pulls the rim of the pie to the dish, 
 soddens the paste, makes it heavy, and, there- 
 fore, indigestible as well as unpalatable." 
 
 Meat pies require the addition of either 
 cayenne, or black pepper, or allspice ; and 
 fruit pies, of enough sugar to sweeten, with 
 mace, ginger, cloves, or lemon peel, according 
 to taste and the substance operated on. See 
 Pastry, &c. 
 
 PIG. The pig or hog (Szis scrofa—hmn.), 
 one of the common pachydermata, is now do- 
 ' mesticated in all the temperate climates of the 
 world. Its flesh constitutes pork, bacon, ham, 
 &c. ; its fat (lard) is officinal in the Pharma- 
 copoeias. Tlie skin, bristles, and even the 
 blood and Intestines of tliis animal, are either 
 eaten as food or turned to some useful purpose 
 in the arts. See Poek, Leather, &c. 
 
 PIG'MENTS. These are noticed under the 
 respective colours. 
 
 PIG-STYE. In order tliat a pig-stye may 
 not become a nuisance and a danger to health 
 it is essential that the liquid excrement of the 
 pig should be carried oft: by means of an effec- 
 tive and well-covered drain, and that the 
 solid matters should he frequently removed. 
 
 Should it come to the knowledge of the 
 sanitary inspector of the district that a pig- 
 stye is deficient in this particular, the inspec- 
 tor has power to cora))el the owner of the stye 
 to construct proper drainage. 
 
 Urban authorities have full powers in the 
 matter of pig-styes, since under section 26 of 
 
 the Public Health Act it is enacted "that the 
 owner of any swine or pig-stye kept in a 
 dwelling-house, or so as to be a nuisance to 
 any person, is liable to a penalty of 40s. or 
 less, and to a further penalty (if the offence is 
 continued) of 5». a day. The authority can 
 also, if they choose, abate the nuisance them- 
 selves, and recover the expenses of such action 
 from the occupier of the premises in a sum- 
 mary manner. 
 
 A rnral authority has power to deal with 
 the matter under provision 3, section 91, of 
 the Public Health Act, which defines as a 
 nuisance "any animal so kept as to be a 
 nuisance or injurious to health." 
 
 PIKE. The &0X lucius (Linn.), a fresh- 
 water fish. It is remarkable for its voracity, 
 but is highly esteemed by epicures. Various 
 parts of it were formerly used in medicine. 
 The flit (OLEITM 10011 piscib) was one of the 
 simples of the Ph. L. of 1618, and was es- 
 teemed as a friction in catarrhs. It is even 
 now used in some parts of Europe to disperse 
 opacities of the cornea. 
 
 PIL'CHAED. The Clupea pilchardus, a fish 
 closely resembling the common herring, than 
 which, however, it is smaller, but thicker and 
 rounder and more oily. It abounds on the 
 coasts of Devon and Cornwall, where it is 
 not only consumed as food, but pressed for its 
 oil. 
 
 PILES. Si/n. Hemoeehotds; H^moe- 
 EHoiDES, L. A painful disease occasioned by 
 the morbid dilatations of the veins at the 
 lower part of the rectum and surrounding the 
 anus. 
 
 Piles are principally occasioned by costive- 
 ness and cold ; and, occasionally, by the use of 
 acrid food. They have been distinguished 
 into — BLIND PILES, or a varicose state of the 
 veins without bleeding, — mucous piles, when 
 the tumours are excoriated, and mucus or pus 
 Is discharged, — PLEEDiifo piles, when accom- 
 panied with loss of blood, and — excees- 
 CENTiAii piles, when there are loose fleshy 
 excrescences about the verge of the anus and 
 within the rectum. 
 
 The treatment of piles consists in the admi- 
 nistration of mild aperients, as castor oil, or an 
 electuary of sulphur and cream of tartar. 
 When there is much inSammation or bleeding, 
 cold and astringent lotions, as those of sulphate 
 of zinc or alum, should be applied ; and when 
 the pain is considerable, fomentations of de- 
 coction of poppy heads may be used with 
 advantage. To arrest the bleeding, ice is also 
 frequently applied, but continued pressure is 
 more certain. When the tumours are large 
 and flaccid, the compound ointment of galls is 
 an excellent application; and if there is a 
 tendency to inflammation, a little liquor of 
 diacetate of lead may be added In confirmed 
 piles the internal use of copaiba, or, still 
 better, of the confection of black pepper, 
 should be persevered in for some time, together 
 with local applications. In severe cases the 
 
PILL COCHU— PILLS 
 
 1293 
 
 protruded tumoiirs are removed by surj^eons, 
 by the knife or ligature. See Ointments, 
 E1.KCTUARIK8, &e. 
 
 PILL COCUIA. See Compound Coi-oorNxn 
 Pills (below). 
 
 PILL EUFI. See Pills of Aloes with 
 Mtiikii (below). 
 
 PILLS. Sgn. PiLCLs; (Ph. E. & D.), PiLCLA 
 (Ph. L ), L.; Pilules, Sacchaboles soLiDES, 
 Fr. Pills are little balls, of a eemi-solid con- 
 sistcnci', composed of various medicinal sub- 
 stances, and intended to be taken whole. The 
 facility with which they are made and admi- 
 nistered, their comparatively little taste, their 
 )iowi'r of preserving their properties for a con- 
 siderable length of time, and, lastly, their 
 portability and inexpensiveness, have long 
 rendered them the most frequently employed 
 and the most popular form of medicine. 
 
 Tlie rapid and skilful preparation «t pills, 
 from all the numerous substances of which they 
 are composed, is j'lstly considered to demand 
 the highest qualifications in the practical dis 
 ]iciisiT. The medicinals employed must be 
 nuide into a consistent and moderately firm 
 ma«s, BuiBciently plastic to be rolled or 
 moulded into atiy shape, without adhering to 
 the fingers, knife, or slab, and yit sufficiently 
 solid to retain the globular form when divided 
 into pills. A few substances, ns certain ex- 
 tnut", &('., are already in this condition ; but 
 the otluTs require the use of an excipient to 
 give tliim tlio requisite bulk or consistence. 
 As a general rule, all the constituents of a pill 
 which can be pulverised should be reduced to 
 fine powiler before mixing them with the soft 
 ingredients which enter into its composition j 
 and these last, or the excipient, should next be 
 gradually added, and the mixture triturated 
 and beaten until the whole forms a perfectly 
 homogeneous muss. It is then ready to be 
 divided into pills. This is effected by rolling 
 it on a slab, with a pill or bolus knife, into 
 small pipes or cylinders, then dividing these 
 into pieces of the requisite weight; and, lastly, 
 rolling them between the thumb and fiuger to 
 give them a globular form. A little powdered 
 liquorice-root or starch is commonly employed 
 to prevent the pills adhering to the fingers, or 
 to each other, after they are made. Magnesia, 
 so frequently used for this purpose, is unsuited 
 for pills containing mecallic suits or the alka- 
 loids, or other remedies, which are exhibited 
 in very small doses. 
 
 Instead of forming the mass into pills by 
 hand, in the manner just referred to, a con- 
 venient and simple instrument, called a * pill- 
 machine," is now generally used by the drug- 
 gists for the purpose. This consists of two 
 pieces. The first (see fig. 1) is divided into 
 tliree compartments: — c is a vacant space to 
 re<eivi' the divided mass, which is to be rolled 
 into pills: — 4 is a grooved brass plate, which 
 assists in dividing the mass into pills; and 
 a is a box for containing the powder for 
 covering the pills, and to receive them as they 
 
 are formed. The second (see fig. 2) consists of 
 a brass plate (a), grooved to match the plate 
 
 Fio. 1. 
 
 Fio. 
 
 b in fig. 1, and bounded at both ends by mov- 
 able projecting plates (4i), containing each 
 two wheels under the \n\'^i; of the plate (i); 
 and a wooden back (c), with two handles 
 (dd), to which this plate is aflixed. In u-ing 
 this machine, the pill- mass is rolled into a 
 cylindrical form on the front part of it, by 
 means of fig. 2 inverted; the small roll is then 
 laid on the cutting part of the instrument 
 (1, b), and divided by passing fig. 2 over it, 
 the little wheels enabling the latter to run 
 easily on the brass plate which forms the 
 margin of the bed of the machine. The pills, 
 thus formed, are then drawn forward on to the 
 smooth bed on which the mass was first rolled, 
 and receiving a finishing turn or two with the 
 smooth side of the 'cutter,' by which they 
 lire rendered more nearly spherical. Tliay 
 are, lastly, thrown over into 1, c, ready to be 
 transferred to the pillbox. 
 
 The nature of the excipient should be 
 suited to that of the active ingredients in 
 pills, as well as in all other forms of medi- 
 cine. Furthcrmcire, it should be of such a 
 nature " that," to quote Dr Redwood, "it will 
 modify as little as possible the action of the 
 pills, either by causing them to become hard, 
 or in any other way, and will not unnecessarily 
 or inconveniently increase their size." Soft 
 extracts, and other substances of a like cha- 
 racter, may be rendered more consistent by the 
 addition of any simple powder, as that of liquo- 
 rice or sugar. Vegetable powders are generally 
 beaten up with syrup or treacle, and heavy 
 powders with conserve of roses or extract of 
 liquorice. Castile soap(made of olive oiland soda) 
 and medicinal soft soap (made of olive oil and 
 potash) are commonly employed for fatty and 
 resinous matters, as we. I as for many others 
 which are not decomposed by alkalies. When 
 the chief ingredient of the mass is resin, 
 rectified spirit is frequently used to soften it, 
 either with or without the addition of soap to 
 increase its solubility in the stomach. For 
 many substances no excipient is required. 
 Thus, most of the gum-resins and stiff extracts 
 
1296 
 
 PILLS 
 
 may be at once made into pills, or, at all 
 events, after being eliglitly softened by heat. 
 Mucilage, formerly so much used in the prepa- 
 ration of pills, is now only employed for those 
 which are to be talien within a day or two after 
 being made; as pills containing it become so 
 hard and insoluble when kept for some time 
 as to resist the action of the stomach, and fre- 
 quently to pass through the bowels without 
 even losing their form. Glycerin, as well as a 
 mixture of glycerin and tragacanth made into 
 a paste of proper consistence, are also employed 
 as pill-exoipients. 
 
 The use of glycerin as a pill-excipient has 
 been advocated on account of its generally 
 neutral properties, and also because its sub- 
 stitution for syrup, the conserves of roses, 
 treacle, and such like substances, results in 
 the production of a pill of smaller bulk. It 
 seems to be suited for pills containing chemical 
 substances, such as quinine, tannic acid, &c. 
 It is said, however, to possess the disadvantage 
 of making the pills moist on their surfaces. 
 To obviate as much as possible this iocon- 
 venience, and to provide an absorbent for the 
 superfluous moisture, Mr Martendale, an ex- 
 perienced pharmacist, recommends the em- 
 ployment of a mixture of glycerin and flour, 
 of which he writes as follows : — " By stirring 
 constantly and Ijeating together until a tem- 
 perature of about 240° P. is reached, 5 parts 
 of glycerin by weight, and 1 part of flour, a 
 firm adhesive paste is formed, which I shall 
 call glycerin mass. As an excipient for 
 vegetable powder it answers well, and for 
 other substances on which it can exert a par- 
 tially solvent action it is eminently useful. 
 Among these are such salts as valerianate of 
 zinc, 4 gr., which with 1 of the glycerin mass 
 forms a good pill. 
 
 Quinine, 3 parts, with 1 of the glycerin 
 mass, P. B. strength, works well. Compouud 
 powder of ipecacuanha, 5 gr., with f gr. of 
 the mass, makes a good pill. Oxide of zinc, 
 too, 4 gr. with 1, makes a good mass. 
 
 But for most mineral and insoluble powders 
 it ia too moist, and will not form wiih them a 
 firm mass ; some additional absorbent is neces- 
 sary, and for this purpose I found nothing 
 better than flour; equal parts of the glycerin 
 mass and flour form a tolerably firm, solid, 
 adhesive paste, somewhat resembling dough, 
 but it is not so elastic; this I call bread mass. 
 It possesses great capacity for the absorption 
 of insoluble powders, such, for example, as 
 calomel (3 gr. with IJ gr. of this mass makes 
 a good pill), nitrate and carbonate of bismuth, 
 arsenic, &C. Of reduced iron, 3 parts with 2 
 of it, form a good mass, in which the iron is 
 not liable to oxidation. Carbolic acid, too, of 
 which it is a good solvent, is readily made 
 into a pill with the bread mass, a litfle addi- 
 tional flour being necessary for this substance. 
 Then again, substances which are given in 
 minute dnses, as the salts of morphia, resin of 
 podophyllum, and other active principles to 
 
 partially dilute their action, or where an ex- 
 cipient is needed to partially increase the bulk 
 of the pill, it is well adapted for use. And 
 among the oflScial pill masses an equal quan- 
 tity of it can with great advantage be used to 
 supplant confection of roses in all these, with 
 the exception of pilula aloes cum ferro, for 
 which the glycerin masses is needed, and 
 pilula ferri carhonatis. This, too, requires 
 the glycerin mass, with which it mixes well, 
 hut after a time the pills have a tendency to 
 become moist. Mercurial pill I have not tried 
 with it. The same quantity of this bread 
 mass will replace the treacle in pilula scillee 
 composita. £qual parts of it and powdered 
 soap, in place of powdered soap alone (if this 
 might be permitted), form a much better mass 
 than the oflicial one of pilula saponis com- 
 posita. 
 
 This pill mass, made strictly according to 
 the Pharmacopoeia, soon becomes set into a 
 condition resembling a piece of soap, in which 
 state much beating is necessary to make it 
 again plastic. 
 
 Of the glycerin mass to be added to the 
 Pharmacopoeia quantities of — 
 
 Pil. cambogiae comp. (vice syrup), 1 oz., 
 makes a good n^ass. 
 
 Pil. colocynth comp. (vice water), 3 dr., 
 makes a good mass, and does not get so ha' d. 
 
 Hil. hydrarg. subchlor. comp. (vice castor 
 oil), 1^ oz., makes a good mass, but becomes 
 slightly moist. 
 
 Pil. ipecac, cum scilla (vice treacle), 1 oz., 
 makes a good mass, which does not crumble. 
 
 Pil. rhei comp. (vice 4 oz. of treacle), 2 oz., 
 makes a good mass, and keeps tolerably 
 plastic. 
 
 Among the other oflicial pill masses which 
 I have not tried with these excipients are 
 pilula colocynthidis et hyoscyamic and pilula 
 conii composita. These I find do not gene- 
 rally require any excipient, and pilula ferri 
 iodidi, the starch contained in the flour, with 
 that would not form an elegant preparation. 
 
 Nitrate of silver is generally recommended 
 in works on materia medica to be made into a 
 pill with bread crumb, but this contains 
 common salt, with which it is incompatible. 
 I recommend the following formula, which is 
 a modification of the bread mass : — 
 
 Jb Nitrate of silver 
 Distilled water 
 
 Dissolve, and add — 
 Glycerin mass 
 Flour 
 
 6gr. 
 
 6 minims. 
 
 . 12 gr. 
 . 24 gr. 
 
 Mix to for n a mass which may be divided 
 into 2 gr. pills, each containing i gr. of 
 nitrate of silver. The mass rolls out well. 
 Keep them from exposure to the air and 
 light. 
 
 For Perchloride of Mercury Pills : — 
 
 p. Perchloride of mercury . 6 gr. 
 
 Distilled water . , 48 minims. 
 
PILLS 
 
 1297 
 
 Hent in a test-tube till dissolved, and add 
 to it — 
 
 Glycerin mass . . 48 gr. 
 Flour . . . . 96 „ 
 
 Mix well, and divide into 96 2-gr. pills, 
 each of which will contain a sixteenth of a 
 grain of perchloride of mercury. 
 
 Substances likK nitrate of silver and per- 
 chloride of mercury may form different com- 
 binations with the albuminoid principles con- 
 tained in the flour, but in such state they will 
 jirobably be quite as readily assimilated, and 
 have o similar medicinal action, as physiolo- 
 giats affirm th:it most metallic substances 
 enter into the blood as albuminates. I have 
 had some fenr lest the gluten coutained in 
 the flour might flavour some decomposition 
 similar to fermentation, but such, from nearly 
 two years' use of them, I have never yet seen 
 tuke place ; the glycerin seems to check any- 
 thing of the kind. 
 
 The crude gluten obtained in the moist 
 condition from flour I find is nearly entirely 
 soluble in glycerin, the solution does not 
 appear to undergo any change when kept. 
 
 A mixture of glycerin and trngacanth is 
 often used, aud produces very similar results 
 to those I have obtained from the glycerin 
 muss. I have not had much experience with 
 such a mi \ til re, but I find it makes a more 
 elastic paste, which is often a disadvantage, as 
 it causes the pills to have a certain amount of 
 springiness, and renders them difficult to form 
 perfectly globular. 
 
 For dried sulphate of iron, of which a large 
 quantity is sometimes ordered in a pill, I find 
 syrup the best cxcipient. By this means 5 
 grains of this con be thus made into a pill.^ 
 
 It may be further remarked, that no deli- 
 quescent salt should enter into the composi- 
 tion of pills not intended for immediate use; 
 and that when efflorescent salts are so employed 
 they should be first freed from their water of 
 crystallisation. 
 
 When the mixed ingredients are made into 
 R n>ass (pill-mass), which it is not intended at 
 once to divide into pills, it should be preserved 
 in a piece of bladder or gut-skin placed in a 
 covered stoneware or earthenware pot. In 
 this state it may be occasionally moistened 
 with u little weak spirit to prevent its getting 
 hard. 
 
 The weight (size) of pills varies from i gr. 
 to 6 gr. If heavier than this, they are called 
 ' boluses.' Formerly, as a general rule, they 
 were made of 5 gr. each; but pills of this 
 weight are, in general, so large that some 
 persons find a difficulty in swallowing them. 
 Another disadvantage of large pills is the 
 trouble of nicely apportioning the dose, — one 
 pill bein^, perhaps, too small a quantity, and 
 two pills the reverse. Hence, 2 to 3-gr. pills 
 are now the favourite size with both pill-takers 
 and dispensers, notwithstanding that 5-gr. 
 
 ' ' Pharmaceutical Year Book.' 
 
 TOI,. II. 
 
 pills are still ordered in one of the authorised 
 Pharmacopoeias. 
 
 Pills are occasiomilly coated with gold, silver, 
 and other substances, to render them more 
 agreeable to the eye, or to prevent the taste of 
 nauseous ingredients affecting the palate 
 during deglutition. They are gilded and sil- 
 vered by placing them, in the moist state, on 
 a leaf or two of the metal in a small iiallipot, 
 and covering them in a similar manner with 
 another leaf of metal ; over the mouth of the 
 gallipot is laid a piece of smooth writing paper, 
 and on this the palm of the hand ; a sudden 
 and rapid circular motion i< then given to the 
 whole. If the pills are not sufficiently moist 
 or sticky, they should be rendered so by rolling 
 them between the fingers very slightly moist- 
 ened with mucilage, before proceeding to 
 silver them. Another method is to shake 
 them in a similar manner with a little gold or 
 silver dust. 
 
 llr Haselden recommends a varnish com- 
 posed es follows : — Kesin ' of tolu, 3 parts ; 
 rectified spirit, 6 parts; methylated ether, 2 
 parts. Well shake until all that will is dis- 
 solved. Use the clear solution. MrHasleden 
 says iodide of iron pills are well preserved by 
 this coating, and also granules of secale 
 cornutum. 
 
 When pills are to be covered with gelatin, 
 each pill, being stuck on the point of a very 
 thin wire four or five inches in length, is dipped 
 into a solution of gelatin, so as to coat it com- 
 pletely, and the wire is then inserted into a 
 pin-cushion, or a vessel containing fine sand, 
 and left until the gelatin is firm, which oceurs 
 in about a quarter of an hour; the pins may 
 then be easily removed by simjily warming 
 them, by placing the centre of each wire for a 
 second or two in the flame of a spirit lamp or 
 candle. 'Sugar-coated pills' are prepared 
 in nearly the same way, but substituting hot 
 and highly concentrated svrup, to which a little 
 gelatin has been added, for a simple solution 
 of gelatin. 
 
 The following details for coating pills with 
 sugar are taken from the ' Chemist and 
 Druggist :'■•—" The pills are first varnished 
 with the following liquids — 
 
 Ether . . .100 parts, 
 
 lials. tolu . . . 10 „ 
 Colophonium , . 1 „ 
 
 Absolute alcohol . , 10 „ 
 By first rolling them in a mortar with this 
 ethereal solution, and then transferring to a 
 sheet of writing paper with the sides bent 
 upwards, shaking being continued till they 
 are perfectly dry. Then to a small' quantity 
 of the saccharated albumen (see next recipe) 
 add a few drops of water, at the same time 
 beating for a short while, so that a thick 
 paste will be formed. Into this mass the 
 pills are stirred, and when moistened on all 
 
 » TMs is the substance wliich ia left in the preparation 
 of Bvrnp of tolu. 
 > Dec. 15th, 1871. 
 
 82 
 
1298 
 
 PILLS 
 
 sides, quickly poured into a wooden pill-box, 
 which has been previously filled about one 
 third with the finest powdered sugar obtain- 
 able, and immediately shaken, or rather rolled 
 in a lively way with great force, separating 
 from time to time those cohering. When no 
 more sugar will adhere they are dried over a 
 gentle fire, taking care not to bring them too 
 near the stove lest they should craelc. Shak- 
 ing, of course, must be continued till dryness 
 is effected." 
 
 Albumen cum Sacchaxo. Take the white of 
 an egg, and in an evaporating dish beat with 
 it as much powdered sugar, passed through a 
 very fine sieve, as will make rather a thick 
 fluid. Then place it in a water bath and 
 evaporate to dryness, stirring constantly, that 
 no sugar may be deposited. Pulverise and 
 set aside for further use. 
 
 M. Burden covers pills with collodion. Others 
 have recommended for this purpose a solu- 
 tion of gntta percha in either chloroform or 
 bisulphide of carbon. The ready solubility in 
 the stomach of pills thus covered has, with 
 justice, been questioned. Gelatin, or, still 
 better, gelatin mixed with a little sugar, is 
 unexceptionable in this respect ; whilst it un- 
 doubtedly excludes the taste of nauseous medi- 
 cines more effectually than any other sub- 
 stance. Mr Furley employs a thin coating of 
 albumen to render pills tasteless. 
 
 As pill-masses arc likely to get hard and 
 brittle by keeping, an excellent plan is to keep 
 the dry ingredients powdered and mixed to- 
 gether in well-corked bottles or jars, when a 
 portion may at any time be beaten up with 
 syrup, conserve, soap, &c. ; according to the 
 formula, and as wanted for use. The mixed 
 ingredients in this state are technically known 
 as 'species' or 'powder' for the respective 
 pills. 
 
 " It is generally said that pills should be 
 taken on an empty stomach, and at a con- 
 siderable distance from a meal ; but for our- 
 selves we think that it is nearly always better 
 to take them during a meal ; first, because the 
 stomach does not then find itself immediately 
 under the influence of substances which, if 
 not always dangerous, seldom fail to act more 
 or less disagreeably; secondly, because its 
 absorbent action is more certain; and, lastly, 
 because they are then taken more easily." 
 (Trousseau and Reveil.) The meal here re- 
 ferred to should be a light one, from which 
 acidulous and other substances likely to 
 interfere with the action of the remedy 
 snould be excluded. The dose should also be 
 increased.' 
 
 In the London Pharmacopoeia the singular 
 number *(* pilala') is now very properly em- 
 ployed to express the names of the officinal 
 pill-masses; but in the other Pharmacopoeias 
 the names are given in the plural form. As 
 the latter is almost universally adopted in speak- 
 ing of magistral formulae and riostrnms, we 
 have used it in all cases, for the sake of uni- 
 
 formity and for ease of reference. See Bolus, 
 ExTEACT, Peeboeibing, and below. 
 
 Pills, Abernethy's. See Abeenethy me- 
 dicines (page 6). 
 
 Pills of Ac'etate of lead. Si/n. Pilule 
 PLU^iBl ACETATis, L. Prep. 1. Acetate of 
 lead, 20 gr. ; powdered camphor, 15 gr. ; con- 
 serve of roses, q. ». ; mix aud divide into 12 
 pills. 
 
 2. (Radius.) Acetate of lead and powdered 
 mallow or liquorice root, of each i dr.; simple 
 syrup, q. s. ; divide into 18 pills. — Dose, 1 to 5 
 daily, washed down with water soured with 
 vinegar; as a powerful astringent in haemor- 
 rhages, dlarrhcea, the night-sweats in phthisis, 
 &c. See Opiated Lead pills. 
 
 PiUs of Acetate of Mercury. Syn. Pilulje 
 
 HYDEAEQTEI ACETATIS, L. Frep. 1. Sub- 
 acetate of mercury, 18 gr. j sugar of milk (or 
 manna), 1 dr.; mucilage, q. s. ; divide into 
 24 pills. — Dose. As an alterative, 1 daily ; 
 as a sialogogue, 1 every four or five hours, or 
 of tener ; in syphilis, &c. See Kbysee's 
 
 PILLS. 
 
 3. (Opiated — Ciirmixihael.) Acetate of mer- 
 cury, camphor, and opium', of each 30 gr. ; 
 syrup of poppies to mix. For 30 pills. Less 
 apt to affect the stomach and bowels than the 
 last. 
 
 Pills of Acetate of Mor'phia. St/n. Pilulje 
 MOEPHIiE ACETATIS, L. Prep. 1. Acetate of 
 morphia, 2 gr. ; sugar of milk, 15 gr. ; con- 
 serve of roses, 20 gr. ; for 12 pills. Anodyne, 
 sedative, and soporific. — Dose. One, as re- 
 quired. 
 
 2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Acetate of mor- 
 phia, 1 gr. J powdered foxglove, 6 gr. ; pow- 
 dered camphor, 10 gr.; powdered gum Arabic, 
 8 gr.; syrup of tolu, q. s. ; to be divided into 
 6 pills. Sedative and antispasmodic. — Dose. 
 One, every 3 or 4 hours ; in phthisis, palpita- 
 tions, spasms, &c. The hydrochlorate of mor- 
 phia may be used instead of the acetate, with 
 advantage. 
 
 Pills of Ac'onite. Si/n. PiLULjiE aconiti, 
 P. EXTEACTI A., L. I>rep. (Dr TurnbuU.) 
 Alcoholic extract of aconite, 1 gr. ; liquorice 
 powder, 12 gr. ; simple syrup, q.s.; mix, and 
 divide the mass into 6 pills.— Zlose. One pill, 
 every 3 or 4, hours ; as a powerful anodyne 
 and sedative in excessive action of the heart, 
 acute rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, &c. The 
 uljmost care should be taken both in their 
 preparation and administration. 
 
 Pills, Aliberf s. See Pills, Apeeient. 
 
 Pills of Aloes. */». PlLULA ALOES Soco- 
 TEINiE (B. P.), PlLFLa; ALOETlCi:, P1LDL.JB 
 
 ALOES (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Soco- 
 trine aloes (in powder) and Castile soap, equal 
 p;irts; conserve of red roses, q. ». to form a 
 pill-mass. 
 
 2. (Ph. V. S.) Powdered aloes and Castile 
 soap, equiil parts, beat into a mass, and divided 
 into 4 gr. pills. 
 
 3. (B.P.) PiLULA ALOES Baebadeitsis, Frep. 
 Barbadoes aloes, in powder, 2 oz. ; hard soap. 
 
PILLS 
 
 1290 
 
 in powder, 1 oz. j oil of caraway, 1 fluid dr. ; 
 coiifc-ct on of roses, 1 oz. Beat all togetliei- 
 until thoroughly mixed. 
 
 Obi. " Ttiis pill muy be also correctly made 
 with the finer qualities of East Indian alues, 
 as the (true) Socutrino variety is very scarce ; 
 :ind many, not without reason, prefer (pure) 
 Barbadoes aloes." (Ph. £.) The dose, as a 
 laxative, is 5 to 10 u:r. ; as a purgative, 12 to 
 20 gr., or more. Slu Pills op Aloes and 
 Soap. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Assafoetida. 5y». Pilula 
 ALOES ET ASSAPCETIDA (B. P.). Prep. Soco- 
 trine alues, in powder, 1 ; assafoetida, 1 ; pow- 
 dered hard soap, 1; conTection of roses, 1 (i 
 confection sufficient — Squire). Mix. Catliartic 
 Mud antiHpasmodic. — Doae, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Pillj of Aloes (Compound). Syn. Pilule 
 
 ALOETIC* COMPOSITE, PlLCLA ALOE3 CO.M- 
 P081TA (Ph. L.), PlLULJE A. OOMPOSIT*; (Ph. 
 
 U.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Socotrine aloes 
 (ill powder), 1 oz. ; extract of gentian, 1 oz. ; 
 oil of carawiiy, 40 drops ; treacle, q. s. ; tlie 
 whole tn be beiitcn together until tliey form a 
 mass proper for radking pills. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Hepatic aloes (in powder), 2 
 oz. j extract of gentian and treacle, of each 1 
 oz. ; oil of caraway, 1 ft. dr. ; as tlie last. 
 
 Obs. The above is a very valuable pur- 
 gative in habitual costivcness and indigestion, 
 in all cases in which the use of uloes is not 
 contra-indicated. The dose is from 5 to 15 
 gr., or more. 
 
 Pills of Aloes (Diluted). Si/n. Pilulje Ar,oi:s 
 DILOTS, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Miirslmll Hall.) 
 Barbadoes aloes, Castile soap, extract of liquo- 
 rice, and treacle, equal parts ; water, q. s. ; 
 dissolve, with heat, strain, and evaporate to 
 the onn-iitoticeoE a pill-mass. Resembles the 
 PILULA Aioiis orsr saponb— Ph. L. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Assafoeti'da. Si/n. Pilule 
 AL0E9 ET assapcetida (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. K ) Aloes (Socotrine or East Indian, 
 powdornl), asssaloetida, aud Castile soap, equal 
 parts; beat them with conserve of red roses to 
 a proper pill-mass. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr., once 
 or twice daily, iis a stomachic tonic and laxa 
 tive, in dyspepsia, flatulence, &c. ; and 12 to 
 20 gr., oa a purgative in similar ca~os. It is 
 extremely useful in costivenesSjwith flatulency, 
 occurring' in hysterical and liypocbondriacal 
 subjects. The B. P. preparation is the same 
 a^ this, eX'c-pt that hard soap is used instead 
 of Castile nnap. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Gin'ger. Syn. Piiul.e 
 ALoiia ET zi.saiBSUis, L. Pre/i. (Ph. U. 
 1826.) Aloes, 1 oz. ; Ca^tilL■ softp, i oz. ; 
 ginger. 1 dr. ; oil of peppermint, i dr. ; beaten 
 to a iiiai«s. A useful laxative in cold habits. — 
 Dote. As the last. 
 
 Fills of Aloes aud Ipecac'nanha. •.%». Dr 
 
 BaILLIF.'s I>I.\.\KIl PILLS; PlLUL.E ALOES El 
 
 irKCACL'AMi.F., L. Prep. (Dr Buillie.) Pow- 
 ili'roil uliie-, ;io gr. ; powdered ginger (linest). 
 45 gr. ; ipecacuauli.i, 12 gr. ; syrup of orange 
 
 peel, q.s. to mix. For 21 pills. — Dote. One, 
 about an hour before dinner. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and I'ron. S<^n. Pilci.e 
 ALOES ET FEEEI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. V.) 
 Barbadoes aloes, 2 ; sulphate of iron, 1^ ; 
 compound powder of cinnamon, 3; confection 
 of roses, 4 ; mix (6 of confection required — 
 Squire). — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Sulphate of iron, 3 parts ; Bar- 
 badoes aloes, 2 parts; aromatic powder, 6 
 parts; conserve of red ro-es, 8 parts; powder 
 the aloes and sulphate of iron separ.itel v, beat 
 the whole to a mass, and divide this into 5 -^m . 
 pills. An excellent medicine in chlorosis, hys- 
 teria, and atonic amenorrhoca. — Dose, 1 to 3 
 pills daily. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Uas'tic. .See Pills, 
 
 DiNNEE. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and tfer'cary. Si/n. Pilule 
 
 ALOES COM HYDBAEOIRO, L. See PiLLS, 
 
 Apeuient (8). 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Myrrh. Syn. llrpus's 
 
 PILLS; PlLl'LA aloes CUM MYRUUA (Ph. L. 
 & D.). PiLOL.E RUFI or COMMUNES { I'h. L. 
 
 1720), p. ALoiis ET MtBBHi; (B. p.. Ph. E.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (I'h. L.) Sneiitiino or hepatic 
 aloes (in powder, i oz. ; saffron, myrrh pow- 
 dered), and soft soap (Ph. L.), of each 2 dr. ; 
 treacle, q. s. to form a pill-mass. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Hepatic aloes, 2 oz. ; myrrh, 
 1 oz. ; dneJ saft'ron, i oz. ; all in powder; 
 treacle, 2i oz. 
 
 3. (I'll. E.) Aloes (Socotrine or East Indi in), 
 4 parts; myrrh, 2 parts; saffron, 1 part; beat 
 tliein to a pill-mass with i.'onserve of red roses, 
 q.s. 
 
 4. (Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. D. 1826.) Aloes 
 (in powder), 2 oz. ; saffron and pdwilered 
 myrrh, of each 1 oz. ; syrup, q.s. to form a 
 pill-mass. 
 
 5. (B. P.) Socotrine aloes, 2 ; myrrh, 1 ; 
 dried saffron, i ; ennfection of roses, 2\ (3 
 arc required — SjMtVe). Mix. Stimulant and 
 cathartic. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Obs. This compound is a most excellent 
 stomachic purgative and cminenagoijiie, when 
 there are no febrile symptoms present. It is 
 said to have been employed ever since the 
 time of Rliazes, and is still in extensive use. 
 — Dose, 10 to 20 gr. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Ehu'barb. Sipu Pii.uLiE 
 
 ALOiia EX EH EI, P. B. CUM EHEO, L. Prep. 
 
 Powdered Soci'trine or hepatic aloes, pow- 
 dered rhubarb, and soft soap (Ph. L.), of each 
 J dr. ; oil of chamomile, 10 drops ; for 30 
 pills. — Dose, 1 to 5, either as a stJiiiach tonic 
 or laxative; especially in dyspepsia,- with loss 
 of appetite. 
 
 Fills of Aloes and Kose-juice. Si/n. PiLULiE 
 
 ALOES BOSATJE, L. ; PiLULES A.NGELIQUES, 
 
 UuiiNS UE SANIE, Fr. Prep. Take aloes and 
 roscjniee, of eacb4oz.; jui.e of borage and 
 ehicoiy, of each 2 oz. ; dissolve witli heat, 
 evaporate to an e.Miacl; add, of rlmbarb, 2 dr.; 
 atr-iric, 1 dr.; ami divide the mass into IJ-gr. 
 pills. — Dose, 4 to 12, as a purge. 
 
1300 
 
 PILLS 
 
 Pills of Aloes with Soap. Syn. Vylv^m 
 ALOES CUM SAPONB (Pli. L.), L. Frep. (Ph. 
 L.) Powdered extract of Baibadoes aloes, soft 
 soup, and extract of liquorice, equal parts; 
 treacle, q. s. to form a pill-mass. — Dose, 10 to 
 20 gr. ; io the usual cases in which aloes is 
 administered. It is more readily soluble in the 
 juices of the primae vise, and is milder than 
 most of the aloetic pills without soap. See 
 PiLis or Aloes (Diluted). 
 
 Pills, Aloes and Turpentine. (Bois.) Syn. 
 Pilule aloes et TEEEBiUTHiKa;. Prep. 
 Boiled turpentine, 2 dr.; aloes, i dr. Divide 
 into 40 pills. 
 
 Pills, Al'terative. Syn. PiLULas alteeantes, 
 L. See Pills, Calomel, Meeoukial, and 
 Plummee's, &c. 
 
 Pills of Al'um. Syn. PiLULm aluminis, 
 P. A. coMPoaiTJE, L. Frep. 1. (Augustin.) 
 Alum, 20 gr. ; benzoic acid, 6 gr. ; powdered 
 gum and white sugar, of each 10 gr. ; water, 
 q. s. to form a mass. For 36 pills. In 
 phthisis and atonic mucous discharges. The 
 whole to be taken in the course of 2 or 3 
 days. 
 
 2. (Capuron.) Catechu, 1 dr. ; alum, \ dr. ; 
 opium, 10 gr. ; syrup of red roses, q. ». ; divide 
 into 5-gr. pills.— Z)ose, 1 to 3; in chronic 
 diarrlicea and leucorrhoea. 
 
 3. (Radius.) Alum and catechu, equal parts ; 
 extract of gentian, q. s. to mix; divide into 2 
 or 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 to 4, every four hours; 
 in passive hfemorrhages, mucous discharges, 
 and chronic diarrhoea. 
 
 Pills of Ammoni'acnm. Syn. PiLULiE am- 
 MONIACI, L. Frep. 1. Gum ammoniacum, 
 1 dr. ; powdered sugar, 5 dr. ; conserve of 
 hips, q. s. In old coughs and hysterical aifec- 
 tions. 
 
 2. (Compound.) — a. (Ainslie.) Ammonia- 
 cum, 1 dr. ; mercurial pill, 15 gr. ; powdered 
 squills, 6 or 8 gr. ; simple syrup, q, s. For 
 16 pills. In asthmatic coughs, with deranged 
 action of the liver. — Dose. One, 2 or 3 times 
 a day, 
 
 b. (W. Cooley.) Ammoniacum and saga- 
 penum, of each 1 dr. ; dried sulphate of iron, 
 \ dr. ; conserve of hips, q. a. In obstructed 
 menstruation, and in the chronic diarrhoea of 
 hysterical subjects. 
 
 Pills of Ammo"niated Cop'per. Syn. PiLULa; 
 
 CUPEI AMMONIATI (Ph. E.), p. C. AMMONIU- 
 
 EETI, L. Frep. (Ph. E.) Ammoniated copper 
 (in fine powder), 1 part; bread-crum, 6 parts; 
 solution of carbonate of ammonia, q. s. to 
 make a mass, which is to be divided so that 
 each pill may contain ^ gr. of ammoniated 
 copper. In epilepsy, and in some other spas- 
 modic diseases.. — Dose, 1 pill, night and morn- 
 ing, gradually increased to 5 or 6. 
 
 Pills of Ammoniated I'ron. Syn. Pilule 
 
 FEEEI AMMONIATI, P. E. AMMONIO-OHLOKIDI, 
 
 L. Frep. 1. (Dr. Copland.) Ammoniated 
 iron, 1 dr. J aloes and extract of gentian, of 
 each i dr. ; for 30 pills. In scrofula, chlorosis, 
 Ameuorrhoea, &c. 
 
 2. (Radius.) Ammoniated iron and gal- 
 banum, of each 1 dr. j assaf oetida, 2 dr. ; 
 castor, 20 gr ; tincture of valerian, q. s. For 
 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 pills, night and morn- 
 ing ; in atonic nervous disorders, epilepsy, &c. 
 
 Pills of Ammo"nio-cit'rate of Iron. Syn. 
 
 P1LUL.E PEEBI AMMONIO-OITBATIS, L. Frep. 
 (Beral.) Ammonio-citrate of iron, 1 dr. ; white 
 sugar, 3 dr. ; mucilage, q. s. to mix. For 
 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, or more; as a mild 
 chalybeate tonic. 
 
 Pills, Aualep'tic. See Pills, James', Ana- 
 leptic, &c. 
 
 Pills, Anderson's Scot's. Various formulse 
 for these pills are extant, the products of 
 which differ widely from the genuine article. 
 Dr Paris, some years since, declared that they 
 consisted of Barbadoes aloes, jalap, and oil 
 of aniseed. "A careful examination of the 
 proprietary article, with other facts that 
 have come to our knowledge, leads us 
 to believe that the first of the following 
 formulae is the one now employed in the 
 preparation of the ' Grana Angelica,' or 
 ' Anderson's True Scot's Pills,' of the present 
 day." (Cooley.) 
 
 Frep. 1. From Barbadoes aloes, 7 lbs. ; 
 jalap (in fine powder), 2^ lbs. ; treacle, i lb. ; 
 soap, 6 oz. ; melted together by the heat of a 
 warm bath, and, when partly cold, aromatised 
 by stirring in of oil of aniseed, 1 oz. The mass 
 is divided into about 3i-gr. pills, of which 
 26 or 27 are placed in each \s. \\d. box. A 
 mild and useful aperient. — Dose, 5 to 15 gr., 
 or more. 
 
 2. (Original formula.) Socotrine aloes, 1 oz. ; 
 best myrrh, J oz. ; saffron, 1 dr.; separately 
 pounded very fine ; mix them, in an earthen 
 pipkin, with a spoonful each of water and 
 sweet oil, by the heat of a slow fire, and 
 form the mass into "common-sized pills." 
 From a copy of the original document in the 
 Chapel of the Rolls. 
 
 3. (P. Cod.) Aloes and gamboge, of each 
 6 dr.; oil of aniseed, 1 dr.; syrup, q. s. ; mix, 
 and divide into 4-gr. pills. Much more power- 
 ful than the preceding, and closely resembling 
 Morison's ' No. 2 pills.' 
 
 4. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Barbadoes aloes 
 (in powder), 3 lbs.; Castile soap, i lb.; colo- 
 cynth and gamboge (both in fine powder), 
 2 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 1 oz. ; beat to a mass with 
 water, q. s., and divide it into 3-gr. pills. Less 
 active than the last, but more so than the 
 ' True Scot's Pills.' 
 
 Pills, An'odyne. Syn. Piluls) anodyne, 
 L. Frep. ] . (Hosp. F.) Qpium (in powder), 
 6 gr. ; camphor, 15 gr. ; conserve of roses, 
 q. s. ; divide into 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, as 
 reqnired. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, potassio-tar- 
 trate of antimony, and opium, equal parts ; 
 syrup of saif ron, q. s ; divided in SJ-gr. pills. 
 In acute rheumatism and neuralgia. — Dose, 
 1 pill, at bedtime. 
 
 Pills, Antibil'ioos. All the ordinary aperient 
 
PILLS 
 
 1301 
 
 and fltomnchic piMs may be (-lapsed under this 
 lifiiil. See till" names of their proprietors or 
 reputed inventors, or those of their leading 
 ingredients. 
 
 Pilla Antichlorofic. Si/a. Pir.ur,^ anti- 
 CHLOBITlc*. L. Prep. 1. (Radius.) Aloes 
 and ctirbouato of iron, of each ^ dr.; gum ara- 
 nioniiicnm. 1 dr. j extract of taraxacum, q. ». 
 For S-L'r. pills. — Dote, 2 to 6, ni^^ht and morn- 
 ing ; in chlorosis, amenorrha'a, &c. 
 
 2. (Tnitissuau & Kevcil.) Porphjrised iron 
 filings, 1 dr. ; extract of wormwood, q. n. For 
 36 pills. — Done, 3 or 4; as the last. 
 
 FUIb, Antimonial (Componnd). Si/n. Pilu- 
 le ANTIM0NIALI8 C0MP09IT.B, P. ANTIMONII 
 CO., L. Prep. 1. Antimonial powder, i dr. ; 
 calomel, camphor, and powdered opium, of 
 each 6 gr, ; conserve of roses, q. s. ; divide 
 into 4'-gr. pills. — Done, 2, at night; in acute 
 rheumatism, nL'uriil'.;iii, chronic coughs, »&c. 
 
 2. (St li. Ho-ip.) Tartar emetic, 1 gr. ; 
 guaiacum and pill of aloes and myrrh, of each 
 i dr.; treacle, to mix. For 16 pills. As the 
 last. 
 
 Fills, Antispasmod'ic. Syn. Pilule akti- 
 BP48MoDic^, L. Prep. (Ur A. T. Thomson.) 
 Opium, 1 gr. ; Russian castor, 13 gr. ; pow- 
 dered (ligiialisi, 2 gr. ; syrup, to mix j divide 
 into 4 pills. — Dose, 1 or 2, two or three times 
 a day ; in spasmodic asthma, difficulty of 
 breathing, &c. Several other formulas for 
 antispnsraralic pills will be found both above 
 and below. 
 
 2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Musk, 15 gr. ; 
 extract of valerian, i dr. ; liquorice powder, 
 q. 8. I'"or 20 pills.- — Dose, 1 eveiy two hours, 
 until there is a marked improvement iu the 
 symptoms ; in pneumonia, accompanied by 
 delirium, especially in drunkards; in spaims 
 of the uterus, and in various other spasmodic 
 affections. 
 
 Pills, Ape"rlent. Si/n. PiLULiB apebientks, 
 L. Prep. 1. Hepatic aloes, 2 dr. ; rhubarb 
 and Castile soap, of each 1 dr. ; scatnmony, 
 1 dr. (all in powder) ; essential oil (at will), 10 
 or 12 drops ; beaten to a smootli muss, and 
 divided into pills. 
 
 2. Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 
 1836), IJ dr.; extract of ^'eiitian, i dr. ; pow- 
 dered ipecacuanha, 20 4;r. ; oil of cloves, cara- 
 way, or cassia, a few drops. In dyspepsia, 
 loss of appetite, &c. 
 
 3. (Abcriiethy's.) See page 6. 
 
 4. (Alibpil's.) From calomel, resin of jalap, 
 and Castile soap, of each 1 dr.; oil of orange 
 peel or citron, 6 or 8 drops. For 60 pills. As 
 nn occasional mild pur^'ative, especially in 
 bilious hai'iis and worms. 
 
 5. (Sir B. Brodie.) Compound extract of 
 colocynth and mercurial pill, of each J dr. ; 
 scamiiiony and Castile soap, of each 15 gr. ; 
 oil of caraway, 6 or 7 drops. For 24 pills. 
 Aa the last. 
 
 6. (W. Cooley.) Aloes, 1^ dr.; jalap and 
 Castile -Clip, of each I dr. ; rhubarb and car- 
 damoms, of each i dr. (all in powder) ; oil 
 
 of juniper, 12 drops. For 3-gr. pills. A useful 
 mild aperient, for either frequent or occasional 
 use. 
 
 7. (Dr Copland.) Compound extract of 
 colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 40 gr. ; extract of 
 henbane, 30 gr. ; Castile soap, 12 gr. ; ipeca- 
 cuanha, 6 or 7 gr. For two dozen pills. — 
 Lose, 2, on retiring to rest. As an aperient 
 in nervous aflections and iiritable habits. 
 
 8. (Harvey.) Mercurial pill and powdered 
 aloes, of each t dr. ; ginger, 20 gr. For 24, 
 pills. Iu constipation, attended with a defi- 
 ciency of bile. 
 
 9. (Dr Neligan.) Compound colocynth pill 
 and soap of jalap, equal parts ; either with or 
 without a few drops of some aromatic essential 
 oil. For 4 or 5-gr. pilla. As an aperieut for 
 general use. 
 
 10. (Sir C. Scudamore.) Compound extract 
 of colocynth, 40 gr. j extract of rhubarb, i dr. ; 
 scimmony and soap, of each 12 gr. ; oil of 
 caraway, 5 or 6 drops. For 20 or 21- pills. 
 
 11. (Stahl's ; PlLOL^. AFEIIIKNTKS StAULII 
 
 — Ph. Hannov.) Powdered aloe-', 1 oz. ; com- 
 pound extract of eolocyutli, i oz. ; iron filings, 
 2 dr.; mucilage, q. s. Iu amenorrhea, low 
 habits, and worms. 
 
 12 (Vance.) Compound extract of colo- 
 cynth, 80 trr. ; extract of rhubarb, 12 gr. ; 
 Castile soip, 6 or S gr. ; oil of cinnamon, 4 or 
 5 drops- 
 OS*. The products of the above formula) 
 may be divided into pills of any size deemeil 
 most agreeable to the patient, and tliey may 
 be aromatised by the addition of any essential 
 oil at will. The dose varies, according to cir- 
 cumstances, from 5 to 10 or 12 gr., or more. 
 Those containing aloes or mercurials are beat 
 taken at bedtime, For other formula; see the 
 various offiemal and other pills contaiuing 
 aloes, colocynth, gamboge, rhubarb, scummony, 
 &c. 
 
 Pills, Aromai'ic. i">.v»- Pilule abomatic.t:, 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1740.) Compound powder 
 of aloes, 3 oz. ; balsam of Peru, i oz. ; syrup 
 of oran;^e peel, q. s. Aperieut, sudorific, and 
 nervine. — Dose, 10 to 20 gr. 
 
 Pills of Arse"iiiate of Iron. Si/n. Pilule 
 FEREi arseniatis, L. Prep. (Uiett ) Ar- 
 seniate of iron, 3 gr. ; extract of hops, 2 dr. ; 
 powdered mallow-root, i dr. ; syrup, q. s. For 
 48 pills. — Dose, 1 to 2, daily ; in caucerous, 
 scrofulous, and herpetic affections. !?ee Pills, 
 Aesenical. 
 
 PiUs of Arseniate of So'da. Sj/n. 1'ilulj! 
 SOD.E ABSBNIATIS, L. Prep. (Erasmus Wil- 
 son.) Arseniate of soda, 2 gr.; distilled water, 
 the smallest possible quantity to dissolve it ; 
 powdered gum guaiacum, i dr. ; oxysulphuret 
 of antimony, 20 gr. ; mucilHge, q. s. For 2i 
 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, as the last ; in herpes, &c. 
 See Pills, Absknical. 
 
 Pills, Arsen'ical. S^n. Asiatic pills, Cae- 
 NATic p.. East Indian p., Tanjoee p. ; Pi- 
 lule aksenici, p. aesenicalis, p. Asiatice, 
 P. ACID! AESKSiosi, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Ar- 
 
1302 
 
 PILLS 
 
 senious aciil, 1 gr. ; black peppet (in fine pow- 
 der), 12 gr. ; rub them together for some 
 (considerable) time in an iron mortar, then 
 adc|, of pondered gum, 2 gr.; water, q. s. to 
 make a mass ; whioh is to be accurately 
 divided into 12 pills. Each pill contains ^j 
 gr. of white arsenic. 
 
 Obs. This compound is commonly employed 
 in the East Indies in syphilis, elephantiasis, 
 intermittents, the bites of venomous snakes, 
 &o. ; and as a preventive to hydrophobia. 
 The common practice in England is to employ 
 16 gr, of pepper to 1 gr. of arsenious acid, and 
 to divide the mass into 16 instead of 12 pills. 
 The dose is one or two pills daily, taken after 
 a meal. The use of all compounds containing 
 arsenic demands great caution. 
 
 Fills, Arsenical (Opiated). Si/n. Vilvlm 
 ABSENIOI CUM OPio, L. Frej). (A. T. Thom- 
 son.) Arsenious acid, 2 gr. ; powdered opium, 
 8 gr. ; Castile soap, 20 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. 
 For 34 pills. — i>ose. As the last ; in inter- 
 mittents, herpes, lepra, psoriasis, periodical 
 headaches, neuralgia, &c. (See above.) 
 
 Pills, Asiatic. See Pills, Aksenioal. 
 
 puis of Assafoet'ida, Si/n. Pilol^ assa- 
 rcETiDA (Ph. E. & U. S ), L. Prep. 1 (Pli. 
 E.) Assafcetida, galbanuni, and myrrh, of 
 each 3 parts ; conserve of red roses, 4 piirts, 
 or q. a. ; mix, and beat them to a proper pill- 
 mass. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Assafcetida, IJ oz. ; Castile 
 soap, a oz. ; water, q. 3. ; divide into 240 pills. 
 
 Obs. The above (particularly the last) are 
 stimuhmt and antispasmodic — Dose, 5 to 10 
 gr. ; twice or thrice daily; in hysterical affec- 
 tions, &c. (See below.) 
 
 Pills of Assafcetida (Compound). Si/n. Fi- 
 
 ■LVLM ASSArOETIDJE COMPOSITE (B. P., Ph. D.) 
 
 Frep. 1. (Ph.D.) Assafcetida, 2 oi.; gal- 
 banum, myrrh, and treacle, of each 1 oz. ; mix 
 in a capsule, by the heat of steam or a water 
 bath, and stir until it becomes a uniform mass. 
 — Dose, ifc. As the last. The B. P. directs 
 the quantity of galbanum to be double the 
 above. 
 
 2. (Hosp. P.) Assafcetida, 1 dr. ; soft soap 
 (Ph. L.), 20 gr. ; ipecacuanha and squills, of 
 each (in powder), 12 gr. ; syrup, q. s. — Dose, 
 5 to 10 gr. ; in chronic asthmas, coughs, &c. 
 
 Pills of Assafcetida with I'ron. S^n. Pilvlm 
 
 ASSAFfflTID^ C.VM PEEBO, L. Frep. (W. 
 Cooley.) Assafcetida, 1 dr. ; extract of chamo- 
 mile, i dr. ; mix with a slight heat ; add, of 
 dried protosulphate of iron, 15 gr. ; oil of caje- 
 put, 10 drops ; and divide into 36 pills. In 
 hypochondriasis, hysteria, amenorrhcea, chlo- 
 rosis, &c., alter an aperient. 
 
 Pills, Asthma. Sj/n. Piutl^ antasthma- 
 TICM, L. Prep. 1. (Expectorant.) From 
 compound squill pill, 20 gr.; calomel, 5 gr. ; 
 powdered opium, 3 gr. ; made into 6 pills. — 
 Dose, 1 or 2, at bedtime. Expectorant, and 
 sometimes laxative. 
 
 2. (Tonic.) From compound iron pill, 2 dr. ; 
 extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; mix, and divide into 
 
 60 pills. — Duse, 2, night and morning, with 
 an occasional dose of laxative medicine. 
 Pills, Astringent. Sya. PiLULiE astrik- 
 
 aENTBS, L. See PiLLS OP AoETATE OP LEAD, 
 
 Alum, Gallic acid, Nitbaib op Silveh, 
 
 StILPHATE OP IeON, SULPHATE OP COPPEB, 
 
 Tannin, &c. 
 
 Pills of Atropine. (P. Cod.) Si/n. Pilitl* 
 ATE0PIJ3. Prep. Atropia, li gr. ; sugar of 
 milk, 1 dr.; gum Arabic, 12 gr. ; syrup of 
 honey, q. s. Triturate the atropia for a long 
 time with the sugar of milk, and make into 
 100 granules and silver them. Granules of 
 arsenious acid, digitalin, and strychnia, are 
 prepared in the same way. 
 
 Pills, Bacher's Ton'ic. Syn. Pilule tonics 
 Baoheei, L. Prep.l. (Dr Paris.) Extract 
 of black hellebore and powdered myrrh, of each 
 1 oz. ; powdered blessed thistle, 3 dr.; mix, 
 and divide into 1-dr. pills. — Dose, 2 to 6, three 
 times a day. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Alkaline extract of hellebore 
 and extract of myrrh, of each 2 dr. ; pow- 
 dered blessed thistle, 1 dr. For 4-gr. pills. 
 — Dose, 1 to 2, as the last. An alterative tonic, 
 hydragogue, and emmenagogue ; in debility, 
 dropsy, amenorrhcea, &c. A favourite remedy 
 in some parts of Europe. 
 
 Pills, Dr Baillie's. Prep. (Cooley.) Aqueous 
 extract of aloes and compound extract of colo- 
 cynth, of each 3 dr. ; Castile soap, 1 dr. ; oil 
 of cloves, 15 drops. For 4-gr. pills. A good 
 occasional aperient. — Dose, 1 to 3, at bedtime, 
 or early in the morning. See Pills, Dinner. 
 
 Pills, Balsamic. (Morton.) Si/n. Pilfls 
 balsamica. Prep. Powdered millipedes, 18 
 dr. ; gum ammoniacum, 9 dr. ; benzoic acid, 
 6 dr. ; saffron, 1 dr. ; balsam of tolu, 1 dr. ; 
 anisated balsam of saffron, 6 dr., or sufficient. 
 
 Pills, Barbarossa's. These are supposed to 
 have been the first mercurial preparation em- 
 ployed in medicine. They consisted of quick- 
 silver, rhubarb, musk, and amber. 
 
 puis, Rev. D. Barclay's. Prep. (Cooley.) 
 Resinous extract of jalap, 1 dr. ; almond or 
 Castile soap, 1\ dr. ; extract of colocynth, 2 dr. 
 (or powdered colocynth, 3 dr.) ; gum guaiacum, 
 3 dr. ; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 10 gr. ; 
 oil of juniper, 8 or 10 drops; oils of caraway 
 and rosemary, of each 4 drops ; make a mass 
 with syrup of buckthorn (the smallest possible 
 quantity), and divide into 4-gr. pills. A dia- 
 phoretic aperient. — Dose, 1 to 3, at bedtime. 
 
 Pills, Dr Baron's. Prep. From compound 
 rhubarb pill, 30 gr. ; compound extract of colo- 
 cynth, 20 gr. ; powdered ipecacuanha, 6 gr. 
 For 3-gr. pills. An excellent stomachic 
 aperient.— Iloie, 1 to 3 pills, at bedtime; in 
 dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c. 
 
 PiUs, Earthez's. Prep. Prom myrrh, 1 dr. ; 
 aloes, i dr. ; musk, 15 gr. ; camphor, 12 gr. ; 
 balsam of Peru, q. s. to form a mass. ForSi- 
 gr. pills.— Dose, 2, thrice daily ; in hysteria, 
 amenorrhcea, chlorosis, &c. 
 
 Pills, Bath Digestive. Prep. (Cooley.) Rhu- 
 barb, 2 oz. ; ipecacuanha and Castile soap, of 
 
PILLS 
 
 1303 
 
 each 1 oz. ; c;\psidiin, ginjjer, and gamboge, of 
 ciicli J oz. (all in powder) j syrup of back- 
 thorn, q. g. For 4-gr. pills. — Doae, 1 as a 
 dinner pill ; 2 or 3 as an aperient. 
 
 Fills of Be'beerine. Si/n. PilvlJ! bebeer- 
 iNiE, L. Prep. From sulphate of bcbeerine, i 
 dr. ; aromatic confection, q. s. ; oil of cajeput, 
 8 or 6 drops. For 18 pills. — Doae, 1 to 3, 
 every four hours ; as an antiperiodic, instead 
 of bark or quinine. 
 
 Pills, Be'chic. Pihtl.e BKcnioa;, L. Prep. 
 (Trousseau and Reveil.) Extract of digitalis, 
 18 gr. ; white oxide of antimony, 30 gr. ; ex- 
 tract of liquorice, 40 gr.; mix carefully, and 
 divide Into 40 pills. Expectorant and seda- 
 tive. — Dose, 2 to 12, or more ; in cases of irri- 
 tating coughs, catarrh of the pulmonary Ciipil- 
 larics or bronchia, &c. See Pills, Con&ii. 
 
 Pills, Beddoe's. Prep. From dried (efflo- 
 resced) carbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; soap, ij dr. ; 
 oil of juniper, 12 drops ; syrup of ginger, q. s. ; 
 divide into 30 pills. In gravel, stone, &c. 
 — Dose, 2 to 5. 
 
 Pills of Belladon'na (Compound). Si/n. PiLn- 
 
 L/li BKLLADONNiE C0MP03IT.E, L. Prep. 1. 
 
 (Ainslie.) Extract of belladnnna, mercurial 
 pill, and powdered ipecacuanha, equal parts. 
 For 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 niglit and morning, 
 in cancerous and glandular utfections. 
 
 2. (Debrevne.) Camphor and assafojtidn, of 
 each 1 dr. ; extract of belladonna, 20 gr. j ex- 
 tract of opium, 5 gr. ; syrup, q. s. For 48 
 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, gradually increased to 6, 
 daily. In hysteria, ameuorrhasa, &c. 
 Pills, Belloste's. See Pills, Mbkcurial. 
 Pills, Bennet's. See Pills, Fulleb's. 
 Pills, Benzoic. (Dr Paris.) Syn. Pilul.e 
 BENZOES. Prep, Benzoic acid, 12 gr. ; ex- 
 trnct of poppies, 18 gr. Mix, for 6 pills. — 
 Dose, 1 pill. Expectorant. 
 
 Pills of Biohlo"ride of Mercuryf. Pills of 
 corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Pills of Biclilo"rid9 of ■ Plat'innm. Syn. 
 PlLDL.*: PLATINI BIOHLOBIDI, L. Prep. (Dr 
 Hoefer.) Bichloride of platinum, 7i gr. j ex- 
 tract of gnaiat'um, 1 dr. ; liquorice powder, q. o. 
 For 24 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, twice or thrice 
 dally ; as an alterative, in syphilis, &c. 
 
 Pills, Bicker's. Prep. From rust (carbonate) 
 of iron, 2 dr. ; aloes, myrrh, and sulphur, of 
 each 1 dr.; ox-gall, q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. 
 pills. — Dose, 1 to 6, morning and evening ; in 
 debility, chlorosis, &c. 
 
 Pills of Bit'tersweet. Si/n. Pilul.^ dul- 
 OAMAsa:, L. Prep. (Radius.) Extract of 
 bittersweet (dulcamara), 1 dr. ; crude antimony 
 and bittersweet (iu powder), of each \ dr. 
 For 3-gr. pills.— Dose, 6 to 12, twice or thrice 
 a day ; in obstinate skin diseases. 
 
 Pills, Bland's. Syn. PiLTTLffi; antichloro- 
 Tic.K, L. Prep. (Trousseau and Reveil.) Sul- 
 phate of protoxide of iron, 2 parts ; reduce it 
 to powder, and dry it in a stove at 104° Fahr. ; 
 add to this dry carbonate of potassa, 2 parts ; 
 boney, 1 part; and form the mass into 80 
 
 pills. Tonic and emmenngogue. — Dose, 1 to 
 10, daily ; in debility, chlorosis, &c. 
 
 Pills, Blue. See Pills, JIkrcdbial. 
 
 Pills, Bontius's. Syn. Pilul.*: nTDROOOOJ:, 
 P. H. BoKTii, L. Prep. (B. Cod.) Socotriue 
 aloes, gamboge, and gum ammoniacum, of each 
 1 dr. ; white-wine vinei;ar, 6 dr. ; dissolve by 
 heat at twice, press out the liciuor, evaporate 
 to a pilular consisteuce, and divide Into 4-^r. 
 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3 ; as a strong cathartic, in 
 drop.sy. 
 
 Pills, Brigg's Gout and Ehenmatic. This 
 nostrum closely resembles in !ii>|ic:irauce, 
 odour, and properties, the I'LUMSiints pill of 
 the Pharmacopoeia ; the two are probably iden- 
 tical. (Cooley.) 
 
 Pill of Bro'mide of Iron. Syn. Pilclb 
 FEBBI BBOMIDI, L. Prep. (Masindle.) Bro- 
 mide of iron and powdered gum .Vniblc, of each 
 12 gr. ; conserve of rose^^, 20 gr. j mix, and 
 divide Into 20 pills. They should be kept iu 
 a dry, corked jihlal. Tonic and alterative, — 
 Dose, 1 to 2, night and morning; in debility, 
 especially that of scrofulous habits, in chlo- 
 rosis, &c. 
 
 Pills of Bra'cine. Syn. Pilul.e bbuch, 
 L. Prep. (Jliigcnilie.) Brucine, 12 t,'r. ; con- 
 fection of rose', ^ dr.; carefully niixi d and 
 divided iuto 2-1 pills, whicli arc recommended 
 to be silvered. 'The quantity of tlio coulectlon 
 may be advantageously doubled. — Dose, 1 pill, 
 night and morning; in the same affections as 
 those for which strychnine Is administered. 
 The acetate hydrochlorate, or sulphate of bru- 
 cine nniy be substituted for the alkaloid in the 
 above formula, in a slightly larger quantity. 
 
 Pills of Calomel. Syn. Pilul>ecalomela- 
 
 NOB, P. E CALOlIELiNK, P. nYDBAROIRI SUB- 
 CHLORIDI, P. n. CLOHIDit, P. H. C. MITIS 
 
 (Ph. U. S.), 1j. Prep. 1. Calomel, 4 dr.; 
 powdered gum Araliic, 1 dr.; simple syrup, 
 q. s. ; mix and divide into 240 pills. Each pill 
 contains 1 gr. of calomel. A cimvenient form 
 of exhibiting this drug when uncombined with 
 other i-cmedies. — Dose, 1 to 5 pills, according 
 to the indication. 
 
 2. (U. C. Hosp.) Calomel, 2 dr. ; rhubarb, 
 \\ dr. ; conl'ectiou of senna, q. ^. For 4 dozen 
 pills. An excellent alterative aperient, espe- 
 cially in hepatic affections. 
 
 Pills of Calomel (Compound), fyn. Phtm- 
 MEu's PILLS, Red p. ; Pilula niDHAHoyRi 
 
 SUBCHLOEIDI COMPOSITA, PlLCLi: CAI.OME- 
 LANOS COMPOSlT.fi (Ph. E. & D.), PlLTTIJi 
 PUJMMEBI, PiLtJLA HTDEABGYBI CHLOHIDI 
 
 COMI'OSITA, L. (Ph. L.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L.). 
 Chloride of mercury (calomel) and oxy>ulphide 
 of antimony, of each 2 dr. ; rub them together, 
 add of guaiacum (in powder) and treacle, of 
 each 4 dr., and form the whole into a pill- 
 mass. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Calomel and golden sulphide of 
 antimony, of each 1 part; gnaiacum (in pow- 
 der) and treacle, of each 2 parts ; beat the 
 whole to a pill-mass, and divide it iuto 6-gr. 
 pills. 
 
1301 
 
 PILLS 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Calomel and precipitated sul- 
 phide of aniimon V, of each 1 dr. ; triturate 
 them together, then add, of guaiacumreain (in 
 powder), 2 dr. ; castor oil, 1 fl. dr. ; and beat 
 the whole to a uniibriu mass. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Calomel, 1 ; sulphurated antimony, 
 1 ; guaiac resin (in powder), 2 j castor oil, 1 ; 
 mix. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Obs. An excellent alterative pill ; very use- 
 ful in lepra, in secondary syphilis affecting the 
 skin, and in various other chronic cutaneous 
 diseases ; also in dyspepsia and liver com- 
 plaints. — Dose, 3 to 10 gr., night and morn- 
 ing. 
 
 Pills of Calomel and Opium. Si/n. Pilul.^ 
 CAIOMELANOS ET OPII (Ph. E), L. Frep. 
 (Ph. E.) Calomel, 3 parts; opium, 1 part; 
 conserve. of red roses, q. s. ; divide the mass so 
 that each pill may contain 2 gr. of calomel. 
 — Dose, 1 or 2 pills, in rheumatism, facial 
 neuralgia, and various inflammatory affections. 
 They offer a convenient form for gradually 
 introducing mercury into the system, and, if 
 continued, induce salivation. 
 
 Pills of Camphor. Syn. Ptlvlm oam- 
 PBOEa;, P. CAMPHORATJ!;, L. Prep. Camphor 
 and sugar, of each (in powder) 2 parts; 
 conserve of hips, 1 part. For 3-gr. pilLs. 
 Anaphiodisiac, sedative, diaphoretic, and 
 nervine. — Dose, 1 to 5, twice or thrice a day. 
 
 Pills of Camphor (Compound). Si/n. ViimjjM 
 
 CAMPHORJE COaPOSIT.E, P. CAMPHOKAT.E u., 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Dupuytren.) Camphor, 21 gr. ; 
 pure musk, 8 gr. ; opium, 2 gr. ; syrup, q. s. ; 
 divide iiicn 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 4, tliree or 
 four times daily ; in putrescent sores, hospital 
 gangrene, &c. 
 
 2. (Fr. Hosp.) Gum ummoniacum. 40 gr. ; 
 camplior, 30 gr. ; musk, 10 gr. ; opium, 5 gr. ; 
 tincture of valerian, q. s. ; divide into 4-gr. 
 pills. — Dose, 2 to 6 pills, daily ; in nervous and 
 hysterical affections, &c. 
 
 3. (liicord.) Camphor and lactucarium (or 
 extract of lettuce), equal parts; divide into 
 4-gr. pills. — Dose, 3 to 6 pills daily ; as an 
 anaplirodisiac. 
 
 4. (U. C. Hosp.) Camphor, 20 gr. ; assa- 
 foetida, 1 dr. ; extract of valerian, 2 dr. JTor 
 30 pills. As No. 2. 
 
 Pills of Canthar'ides. Si/n. PiluLjE can- 
 
 THABIDIS, P. u. COMPOSURE, L. Prep, 1. 
 
 Cantharides (in very fine powdfr), 8 gr. ; ex- 
 tract of gentian, ^ dr. ; liquorice powder, lU 
 gr. For 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 4 daily ; as a 
 diuretic, emmenagogue, &c. 
 
 2. (Ellis.) Cantharides (in very fine pow- 
 der), 18 gr. ; opium and camphor, 36 gr. ; 
 mix, and divide into 36 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, at 
 bedtime ; as an aphrodisiac, in parties labour- 
 ing under general debility. They should be 
 used with extreme caution, and but seldom. 
 
 Pills of Caout'chonc. Syn. Vii.vlm gummi 
 BIASTICI, L. Prep. (Bonis.) India rubber, 
 cut into small squares or spheres, then moist- 
 ened with syrup of tolu, and, lastly, shaken in 
 a box with a mixture of powdered gnm and 
 
 sng.ir. In phthisis.— 2)o»e, 1 pill, three or 
 four times a day. They pass through the 
 primse vise unaltered, and may therefore fairly 
 be presumed to be inert. 
 
 Pills of Capsicum. Syn. Cayeunb peppeh 
 PILLS ; PiLUt.aE OAPSICI, L. Prep. 1. (Guy's 
 Hosp.) Ciipsicum, 1 part; rhubarb, 2 parts 
 (both in powder); treacle, q. s. ; mix, and 
 divide into 3i-gr. pills — Dose, 1 to 3, an hour 
 before dinner, to create an appetite and pro- 
 mote digestion. 
 
 2. (Radius.) Powdered capsicum, 20 gr.; 
 extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered gentian, 
 q. s. to form a mass. For 60 fiWs.—Dose, 2 
 to 4 pills, thrice daily ; in clironic dyspepsia, 
 e.^pecially in the loss of tone of the stomach 
 arising from intemperance. 
 
 Pills of Carbolic Acid. Syn. Piltjl.s acidi 
 OAEtiOLICI. Prep. Carbolic acid, 3 drops; soap 
 powder, '60 gram ; lycopodium, '06 gram ; 
 powdered tragacanth, q. s. For .six pills. The 
 two first ingredients form a semi-fluid mass, 
 which the lycopodium does not absorb, but 
 which is solidified by means of the traga- 
 canth. 
 
 Pills of CarTionate of I'ron. Syn. Vallet'8 
 
 PILLS ; VlhVLM FEERI CAEBONATIS (Ph. E ), 
 
 L. Prep. (B. P., Ph. E.) Saccharated car- 
 bonate of iron, 4 parts ; conserve of red roses, 
 1 part ; mix, and divide the mass into 5-gr. 
 pills. —Dose, 1 to 3, or more ; as a mild chaly- 
 beate and antichlorotic. 5 to 20 gr., B. P. 
 For another formula, see Pills, Blaud's 
 {above'). 
 
 PiUs, Carbonic Acid. (Mr Morson). Syn. 
 PILUL.S ACIDI CARBONICI. Prep. Mix J dr. of 
 bicarbonate of soda and 25 gr. of tartaric acid, 
 ciiarsely powdered, with the smallest possible 
 quantity of syrup and mucilage to form a 
 niHss. Divide into 12 pills. 
 
 Pills, Catarrh'. Syn. PiLUL.a!; anticatae- 
 KHALES, L. Prep. 1. (Trousseau and Reveil.) 
 Turpentine, 4 dr. ; ammoniacum, 1 dr. ; bal- 
 sam of toln, \ dr. ; aqueous extract of opium, 
 5 gr. ; liquorice powder, q. s. ; mix, and divide 
 into 80 pills. — Dose, 5 or 6 daily ; in chronic 
 catarrh of the bronchi and bladder. 
 
 2. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Alcoholic extract 
 of aconite, 30 gr. ; sulphuret of calcium, 16 
 L'r. ; p iwdered sugar, q. s. For 24 pills. — 
 Dose, 1 pill, three or four times daily; in 
 chronic pulmonary catarrh. 
 
 Pills, Cathar'tic. Syn. Pilul.e cathaeti- 
 CJE, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Collier.) Calomel, 10 
 gr. ; powdered jalap and prepared chalk, of 
 each i dr. ; oil of caraway, 10 drops ; syrup 
 of buckthorn, to mix ; divide into 5-gr. pills. 
 — Dose, 1 to 4. 
 
 2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Scammony, 4 gr. ; 
 extract of taraxacum, 16 gr. ; divide into 6 
 pills. — Dose, 3 pills, twice daily ; in hypo- 
 chondriasis and chronic inflammation of the 
 liver. 
 
 3. (A. T. Thomson.) Calomel, 15 gr. ; pow- 
 dered jalap, 45 gr ; mucilage, q. s. to mix. 
 For 18 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, at night, to empty 
 
PILLS 
 
 1303 
 
 tlie bowels, in bilious nlTuctiong. Other for- 
 muliu fur cathartic pills will be found both 
 abuve aii>l below. 
 
 PlUa, Cathartic (Compound). Si/n. Pilitl£ 
 CATHAHTIUai COMPOSITE, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) 
 Compounil extract of colocynth, 4 dr.; pow- 
 dered extract of jiilup and calomel, of each 
 3 dr. ; powdered gamboge, 40 gr. ; water, q. 
 B. ; mix, and divide into 180 pills. An excel- 
 lent purgative, ospecittlly in bilious atfections, 
 d_\-iH'p»iii. &c. — Doae, 1 to 3 pilU. 
 
 Pills of Cetrarine. (Dr Neligan.) Si/n. 
 PlLULK CETiUttLNa:. Cetrarine, 2+ gr. j ex- 
 tract of calumba, ^ dr.; make into 12 pills; 
 one every four hours as a febrifuge. 
 
 Fills, Chamberlain's Eestorfative. A nostrnm 
 composed of cinnabar and milk of sulphur, 
 e(innl parts ; benten up with conserve of hips. 
 
 PiUs of Cham'omile. Si/n. PiluL/E anthe- 
 
 MIDI8, P. FLOUUM CHAM^MEII, L. Prep. 
 Extriii't of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered aloes, i 
 dr. ; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr. ; oil of clia- 
 moMiile, 10 drops. A tonic and stomachic 
 aperient. — Dose, 5 to 15 gr. This forms tiie 
 ' chamomile pills ' of the shops. They should 
 be kept in a corked pliiul. (See below.) 
 Pills of Chamomile (Compound). Ht/n. PiLtt- 
 
 hM ANTUKMIDIS COMPOSITES, L. Prep. 1. 
 (Aiiislic.) Kxtract of chamomile, 1 dr. ; assa- 
 fa'tids, i dr. ; powdered rhubarb, 20 gr. ; di- 
 viiied int<i30or, better, 86 pills, — Dose, 1, as a 
 dinner pill ; or 2 to 3, twice a day, in flatulent 
 dyspepsia. 
 
 2. (Beasley.) Aqueous extract of aloes, 12 
 gr. ; extract of chamomile, 36 gr. ; oil of 
 chamomile, 3 drops. For 12 pills. — Dose, 2 
 at niglit, iir twice u diiy ; in dyspepsia, loss of 
 appetite, &c. See PiLLS, Nouton'b Cuamo- 
 MILS. 
 
 Pills, Chapman's. Prep. Mastic, 12 gr. ; 
 aloes, 16 ;:r. ; rliubiirh, 24 gr. For 12 pills. 
 An excellent stomachic aperient. — Dose, 2 
 to 4. 
 
 Pills of Chiray'ta, Syn. Dr Rekce'b pilts ; 
 Pn.l'i.K CHIKAYT*, L. Prep. Prom chiriiyta, 
 2dp. i diied carbonate of soda, 20 gr.; pow- 
 dered ginger (best), 15 gr. ; divided into 36 
 pills. — Dose, 2, twice a day. In acidity, flatu- 
 lence, ond dyspepsia, especially when compli- 
 cated with gout or debility. 
 
 PiUBofChlo"ride of Ba"rium. Si/a. Pilule 
 BABII CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. (Pierquin.) 
 Chloride of barium, 1 dr.; resin of guaiacum, 
 •t dr. ; conserves of fumitory, q. a, ; divided 
 into 188 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, morning and 
 evening, afterwards increased to 2 ; in tape- 
 worm, and iu the rheumatism of scroluluus 
 subjects. 
 
 2. (Walsh.) Chloride of barinm, 15 gr. ; 
 powdered uiursbmallow or liquorice root and 
 mucilage of tragacanth, of each q. o. to make 
 :;00 pills. — Dose, 3, gradually incroiised to 10 
 or 12, dally; in cancer, scrofula, g6itre, 
 syphilis, ilc. 
 
 Obg. The above are very poisonous, and 
 their exhibition demands great caution. 
 
 Pills of Chloride of Cal'cium. Svn. PiirL^ 
 CALCII CHLORIDI, L. Prep. 1. As the last. 
 
 2. (Griife.) Chloride of calcium, 1 dr. ; ex- 
 tract of opium, 10 gr. ; mucilagH, q. s. For 
 54 pills. — Dose, 1, every two or three hours, 
 gradually increased until 10, or even 12, are 
 taken every hour ; iu gonorrhoea, more espe- 
 cially when occurring in scrofulous subjects. 
 
 Pills of Chloride of Gold. Si/n. Pilul^b 
 AUHi CHI.OBIDI, L. J'rep. From tfrthloride 
 of gold, 3 gr. ; powdered liquorice, 1 dr. ; syrup, 
 q. 8. For 48 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, twice or thrice 
 daily. 
 
 Pills of Chloride of Gold and So'dinm. Syn. 
 Pilule; auei et bodi chlobidi. P. a. sodio- 
 CHLOEIDI, L. I>rep. (.Miiiii'ndie.) S.ida-ihlo- 
 ride of gold, 1 gr. ; extract of mezereon, 2 dr. ; 
 divide into 60 pills. 
 
 Pills of Chloride of Lime. Si/n. Pills op 
 
 CnLOBINATED LIME ; PlLCL^E CALCIS HYPO- 
 
 CHLOEITIS, L. Prep. 1. Chloride of lime, 12 
 gr. ; starch powder, 2 1 gr, ; conserve of hips, 
 q. s. ; divide into 36 pills. 
 
 2. (Dr Copland.) Chloride of lime, 15 gr. ; 
 compound powder of tragiicantli, 90 gr. ; 
 syrup, q. s. For 24 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, twice 
 or thricre daily ; in various putrid affections, 
 fevers, &c. 
 
 Pills -of Chloride of Mercuryf. Pills of 
 calnmel. 
 
 Pills, Chol'era. Sj/n. I'riTL.E aniichole- 
 BIC.X, E. Prep. 1. Powdered camphor, 15 gr. ; 
 powdered capsicum (pure), i dr, ; bicarbonate 
 of soda, 1 dr. ; conserve of roses, q. s. For 36 
 pills. — Dose, 2 to 4, every 15 minutes, washed 
 down with a wine-glassful of cold water con- 
 taining half a teaapoonful of ether ; repeated 
 every 15 or 20 minutes until reaction ensues. 
 They should be freshly made. 
 
 2. (PiLULA ANTICnOLEBlCAAKABICA.) Prep. 
 
 Assnfcetida, asclepias gigantea, and opium, of 
 each li gr. in each pill. One every half or 
 three quarters of an hour, broken down in a 
 spoonful of brandy and water, till the sym- 
 ptoms yield. After vomiting and purging 
 have ceased, if prostnvti'>u iiml spiisms are 
 urgent, give ^ or i dnses. Black pepper is 
 snhstiluted for aselepias in this country. 
 
 3. (PiLUL-E CAMBOGIS COMPOSITiE. I!. P.) 
 
 Prep. Gamboge, aloes boils, aud compound 
 cinnamon powder, of each 1 p:irt ; soap, 2 
 parts ; syrup, q. s. — Dose, 5 gr, to 10 gr. 
 
 Pills of Ci'trate of I'ron and Quinine'. Syn, 
 PlLCL^K FEEEI CITBATIS CUM QUINA, L. Prep. 
 From citrate of iron and quinine, 1 dr. ; pow- 
 dered citric acid, 20 gr. ; conserve of hips, 
 q. s. For 3.6 pills. An excellent tonic in 
 debility, chlorosis, &c. — Dose, 1 to 3, twice or 
 Jirice daily. 
 
 Pills, Sir C. Clark's. See Dinner pills. 
 
 Pills, Coindet's. See Pills of Iodide op 
 Mebcubt, 
 
 Pills of Col'chicnm. See Pills, Gout. 
 
 Pills of Col'ocynth. Sun- Pilulje e Duonirs, 
 
 P. EX COLOCYNTHIDE SIMPLICIORES, L. Prep. 
 
 (Ph. L. 1746.) Colocynth and scaramony, of 
 
1306 
 
 PILLS 
 
 canh 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 2 cTr. ; syrup of buck- 
 thorn, q. s. All active hjdragogue cathartic. 
 —Dose, 2 to 12 gr. 
 Pills of Colocynth (Componnd). Syn. Pill 
 
 OP COOHIA; PlLULiE OOOCIM, P. COOHIJE, 
 PlLTJLA COLOOTNTHIDIS COMPOSITA (B. P.), P. 
 COLOCTNTHIDIS COMPOSITE (Ph. li. & D.), 
 
 P. coLOOYNTHiDis (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Extract of colocynth (simple), 1 dr. ; 
 powdered extract of aloes, 6 dr. ; powdered 
 scammony, 2 dr.; powdered cardamoms, i' 
 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), IJ dr. ; mix, and beat 
 them altogether, so that a mass may be 
 formed. This is intended as a substitute for 
 the compound extract of culocyuth of the 
 Ph. L. 1836. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Socotrine or East Indian aloes 
 and scammony, of each 8 parts; sulphate of 
 Itotiissa, 1 part; beat them together; add of 
 colocyntl), in fine powder, 4 parts ; next add of 
 oil of cloves, 1 part ; and, with the aid of a 
 little rectified spirit, beat the whole to a mass, 
 and divide this into 5-gr. pills. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Colocynth pulp, scammony, and 
 Castile soap, of each (in powder) 1 oz. ; hepatic 
 aloes, 2 oz. ; treacle, 10 dr. ; oil of cloves, 1 fl. 
 dr. ; mix, and beat them into a mass of uniform 
 consistence. 
 
 4. (Ph. L. 1746.) Socotrine aloes and scam- 
 mony, of each 2 oz. ; pulp of colocynth, I oz. ; 
 oil of cloves, 2 dr. ; syrup of buckthorn, q. s. 
 to form a pill-mass. This is the original for- 
 mula published by Galen for 'pilnlas cochise 
 niinores,' and, under various slight moditica- 
 tions, it has continued in use ever since. 
 
 5. Aloes, IJ lb.; colocynth, | lb.; jalap, 6 
 oz. (all in powder); oil of cloves, IJ oz. ; 
 syrup or treacle, q. s. to mix. Trod. About 
 4| lbs. Tliis forms the common 'pil. coehioe ' 
 of the druggists. A few, more conscientious 
 than the rest, add to the above, scammony, 6 
 oz. It is greatly inferior to the Ph. pill. 
 
 6. (B. P.) Colocynth, in powder, 1 ; Bar- 
 badoes aloes, in powder, 2 ; scammony, in 
 powder, 2; sulphate of potash, in powder, i; 
 oil of cloves, i; distilled water, a suffiiuency 
 (about i) ; mix. Dr Gregory's favourite pill. 
 — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Obs. Compound colocynth pill is a cheap 
 and excellent cathartic, more powerful than 
 the other officinal aloetic pills, and well adapted 
 to cases of habitual costiveness. ^ It has long 
 been extensively used by the poorer classes, 
 and in domestic medicine generally. — Dose, 5 
 to 15 gr. 
 
 Pills of Colocynth and Hen'bane. Si/n. Pi- 
 
 LULiiE COLOOYNTHIDIS ET HTOSCTAMI (B. P., 
 
 Ph. E.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. E.) Colocynth pill- 
 mass, 2 parts ; extract of henbane, 1 part ; beat 
 them up with a few drops of rectified spirit (if 
 necessary), and divide them into 5 gr. pills. — 
 Dose, 1 to 3 pills ; as an anodyne purgative, in 
 irritable bowels. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Colocynth, in powder, 2 ; Bar- 
 badoes aloes, in powder, 2; scammony, in 
 powder, 2 j sulphate of potash, in powder, i ; 
 
 oil of cloves, i ; extract of hvoscyamus, 3 ; 
 distilled water, a sufficiency ; mix. — Dose, 5 
 to 10 gr. 
 
 Pills of Copaita. Sgn. PiiULa; copaib.e, 
 L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Pure balsam of co- 
 paiba, 2 oz. ; recently prepared calcined mag- 
 nesia, 1 dr. ; mix thoroughly, then set the 
 inixture aside until it acquires a pillular con- 
 sistence, and lastly, divide it into 200 pills. 
 
 Obs. Unless the magnesia has been very 
 recently calcined, the copaiba hardens very 
 slowly or not at all. It is said that " lime 
 produces the eft'ect more completely and uni- 
 formly than magnesia," and that " specimens 
 of copaiba which are old and contain the most 
 resin harden qqickest." (Redwood.) For 
 present use, the quantity of magnesia may be 
 at least doubled. Dr Pereira orders copaiba, 
 1 oz. ; magnesia, 5 or 6 dr. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 gr., frequently ; in diseases of the mucous 
 membranes of the urinary organs. Cubebs 
 are often added. 
 
 Pills, Dr Copland's. See Pills, Apeeient 
 and Pectoeal. 
 
 Pills of Corro'sive Sublimate. Si/n. Pills 
 OF chloride or meecurt; P. of eichlo- 
 KiDE OF Mt, Hoffmann's p. ; Pilttl^ sub- 
 
 LIMATIS COEEOSiyi, P. HTDEARGYBI BICHLO- 
 EIDI+, P. MAJOEES HOFFMANNI, L. Prep. 
 
 1. Corrosive sublimate, 3 gr. ; white sugar, 
 i dr. ; triturate together in a glass mortar for 
 some time, then add of powdered gum Arabic, 
 20 gr., and beat the whole to a mass with 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, q. s. For 36 pills, 
 each containing ^ gr. of corrosive subli- 
 mate. 
 
 2. (Brera.) Corrosive sublimate, 3 gr. ; 
 rectified spirit, the smallest po.'-sible quantity 
 to dissolve it; bread-crum, q. s. to form a 
 mass. For 24 pills, each contiiining \ gr. of 
 the coiTOsive subliniate. 
 
 3. (Dr Paris.) Corrosive sublimate and sal- 
 ammoniac, of each 5 gr. ; water, ^ fl. dr.; 
 triturate together until solution is complete, 
 then add of honey, i dr. ; liquorice powder, 
 1 dr. (or q. s.), and divide into 40 pills. Each 
 pill contains | gr. of corrosive sublimate. 
 
 4. (Ph. Hannov.) Corrosive sublimate, 15 
 gr. ; distilled water, J fl. dr. ; crura of bread, 
 q. s. to form a mass. For 120 pills, each con- 
 taining ^ gr. 
 
 5. (PlVULM HTDEAEGTEl BICHLOEIDI CUM 
 otTAiACO. Dupnytren.) Prep. Perchloride 
 of mercury in subtle powder, 3 gr. ; extract of 
 opium, 6 gr. ; extract of guaiacum, 12 gr. 
 Make into 20 pills. 
 
 Obs. The above formulse are among those 
 most usually employed. Other authorities 
 order pills containing .^th of a gr. Dzondi 
 orders ^\; gr., and Hufeland only jL gr., in each 
 pill. The commencing dose should not exceed 
 1 pill containing the ^ ot a grain, twice or 
 thrice a day. It may afterwards be safely 
 kept at ^th of a grain. They are chiefly em- 
 ployed in syphilis, but are also occasionally 
 exhibited with great advantage in glandular 
 
PILLS 
 
 1307 
 
 indurations and enlargements, and in cancer ; 
 due caution being observed. 
 Pills, Coagh. See PiiLS, Pectobal, Ex- 
 
 PBOTOBANT, &C. 
 
 Pills of Cre'aaote. Syn. Pilule cbeasoti, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Pitsclittft.) Creasote, 6 gr. ; 
 powdered henbane, 24 gr. ; conserve of hips, 
 q. 1. For 2t pills. — Dote, 1 three timeii daily ; 
 in sea-sicltness, the vomiting during preg- 
 nancy, &c. 
 
 2. (llieche.) Crensote, 1 dr.; extract of 
 liquorii'e and gum galbanum, of each i dr. ; 
 powiIiTid miillow-root, 2 dr.; to be divided 
 into 2-gr. pills. — Dote, 3 to 6, four times a 
 day ; in acute rheumatism, bronchitis, ncu- 
 rali;ia, phthisis, &c. 
 
 Pills, Creapigny's. S e Pills, Dibneb. 
 
 Pills of Cro'ton Oil. Sgn. PiluljE ceotonis, 
 P. tiolii, L. Prep. 1. Croton oil, 3 drops ; 
 oil of cloves, 4 drops ; bread-crum, q. s. For 
 3 pills, one of which is a dose. 
 
 2. (Ur Copland.) Croton oil, 6 drops; 
 pill of aloes and myrrh, IJ ilr. ; soap, 20 gr. ; 
 liquorice powder, q. s. For 30 pills. — Dose, 
 
 2 to 4. 
 
 3. (Dr Recce.) Croton oil, 6 drops ; Castile 
 soap, J dr. ; oil of cuniway, 8 drops ; liquoiice 
 powder, q. s. For 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3. In 
 dropsy, visceral obstructions, &c. See CaoTON 
 
 OIL. 
 
 4. (With MBRoniiY — Dr NcligNn.) Croton 
 oil soap, 3 gr. ; exirnet of henbane and mer- 
 curial pill, of each 24 gr. ; oil of pimento, 12 
 drops; divide into 12 pills. — Dose, 2 at bed- 
 time. (See above.) 
 
 Pills of Cy'anideof Mer'onry. Syn. VizxtLiE 
 
 HTDUARQYHI OTANIDI, P. H. CTAHITBKTI, L. 
 Prep, ((inibourt.) Cyiini Je of mercury, 6 (jr. ; 
 opium, 13 gr. ; bread-crum, 60 gr. ; honey 
 or syrup, q. a. For 96 pills. — Dose, 1 night 
 and morning; in .syphilis, chronic iullamma- 
 tion of the viscera, &c. 
 
 Pills of Cyanide of Potas'sinm. Si/n. Pi- 
 iVhM POTASSII CTANIDI, L. Prep. (Goliling 
 Hird.) Cyanide of potassium, 2 gr. ; arrow- 
 roiit, 20 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. For 18 pills. 
 — Dose, 1, twice or thrice a day ; as a sedative 
 in hysteria, gastrodynia, extreme nervous 
 excitability, &e. See Dbauqht and Mix- 
 
 TUBE, HydBOCTANIO. 
 
 Pills of Dandeli'on. See Pills, Taeaxa- 
 cuu. 
 
 Pills, De Haen's. Prep. (St Marie.) Gum 
 ammoniacum and pill aloes with myrrh, of 
 each 1 dr. ; extracts of hemlock and Castile 
 soap, of each IJ dr. For 2-gr. pills.— Z>ose, 
 
 3 to 6 daily ; in painful Or obstructed men- 
 sirnntion, chlorosis, &c. 
 
 Pills of Del'phine. S^n. Pilfl.e bel- 
 PHINI.E, U Prep. (DrTurnbuU.) Delphine, 
 1 gr. ; extracts of henbane and liquorice, of 
 each 12 gr. For 12 pills.— Z>om, 1 to 3, twice 
 n day j in dropsy, gout, rheumatism, &c., in- 
 stead of veratrine. 
 
 PiU», Deobstrnent. (I/. Ph., 1746.) Syn. 
 PiLULS EcpHBAcriCA. Prep. Aromatic pill, 
 
 3 oz. ; rhubarb, 1 oz. ; extract of gentian, 1 oz. ; 
 sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; carbonate of potash, 
 t oz. ; syrup of roses, q. s. 
 
 Pills of Dento-iodide (Biniodide) of Mercury. 
 Si/n. Pilul* hxdbauoybi DErro-iODiDi. 
 (Magendie.) Prep. Deuto-iodide (biniodide) 
 of Mercury, 7i gr.; extract of juniper, 75 gr.; 
 powdered liquorice, q. b. for 100 pills. 
 
 Fills, Diaphoret'ic. Syn. Pilule diapho- 
 RETlca;, L. Prep. 1. Antimonial powder, 
 i dr. ; opium, 10 gr. ; calomel, 5 pr. ; confec- 
 tion of opium, q. 8. to mix; divide into 10 pills. 
 — Dose, 1 at bedtime ; in coughs and bronchial 
 irritability, after an aperient. 
 
 2. Guaiacum, 19 gr. ; emetic tartar and 
 opium, of each 1 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. to 
 nii\ ; divide into Spills. — Dose, lto2, in acute 
 rheumatism, &c. 
 
 3. Camphor and antimonial powder, of each 
 i dr. ; opium, 10 gr. ; aromatic confection, q. e. 
 to mix. For 12 pills. In fevers, and in some 
 spasmodic diseases. — Dose, 1 pill. 
 
 4. Powdered guaiacum, 10 gr. ; compound 
 powder of ipecacuanha, 5 gr. ; confection of 
 roses, q. s. to mix ; for a dose. As a diapho- 
 retic, in inflammatory afEectiona and rheu- 
 matism. 
 
 Pills, DiaTrhoe'a. Syn. Pilule: antidi- 
 ABiiHtEALES, L. Prep. (Trousseau & Reveil.) 
 Soft extract of opium, li gr. ; calomel and 
 powdered ipecacuanha, of each 3 gr. ; conserve 
 of hips, q. 8.; divide into 10 pills. — Doxe, 1, two 
 or throe times daily; in chronic and chuleraic 
 diarrhoea. 
 
 Pills, Diges'tive. Under this bead are 
 generally classed all the stomachic and milder 
 aperient pills. See Pills, Bath ; Pills, 
 DiNNEB, Ac. 
 
 Pills of Digitaline. Syn. Pilulje dioi- 
 TALIN.E, L. Prep. 1. IJigitaline, 1 gr. ; 
 powdered sugar, i dr.; thick mncilape, q. s. 
 For 24 pills. — Dose, 1 to 4 daily, watching 
 the effects; as a sedative to reduce the tone 
 of the circulation, in phthisis, enlargement of 
 heart. &e. Sic Pills, Foxglove. 
 
 Pills, Din'ner. Si/n. Pilule dict^; ante- 
 ciBDJi, L. ; Grains DE SANTli, Fr. Prep. 1. 
 Aloes, 1 dr. ; rhubarb and extract of gentian, 
 of each i dr.; ipecacuanha and capsicum, of 
 each 12 gr. ; syrup of ginger, q. s. to mix. 
 For 3J-gr. pills. 
 
 2. (^Dr BaiUie's.) See oiore. 
 
 3. (Bath BiGESTiVE PILLS.) See aSorp. 
 
 4. (Pills oe aloes and mastic; Ladt 
 Ceesfigny's pills, Lady Hesketh's p., 
 Lady Webster's p., Digestive p.. Stomach 
 p., P1HJI.K aloes et mastiches. P. a. cum 
 
 MASTICHE, p. SIOMACBir^ MESUES; GbAINS 
 
 DE VIE, GBAINS DE MESUES.) From aloes (pow- 
 dered), 6 dr. ; powdered mastic and petals of 
 red roses, of each 2 dr.; syrup of wormwood, 
 q. 8. to form a pill-mass. For 3gr. pills. In 
 small doses they excite the appetite; in larger 
 ones tliey produce a bulky and ec pious eva- 
 cuation. This is the formula of the old Paris 
 
1308 
 
 PILLS 
 
 Codex. Rhubarb is now frequently substi- 
 tuted for the rose petals. 
 
 5. (Sir C. Bell's.) From sulphate of quinine, 
 4gr. ; mastic, 6 gr. ; rhubarb, 50 gr. ; syrup 
 of orange peel, q. s. to mix. For 12 or, prefer- 
 ably, 18 pills. 
 
 6. (Sir Chas. Clarke's.) From extract of 
 chamomile, J dr. ; myrrh and rhubarb (in 
 powder), of each 20 gr. ; powdered Socotrine 
 aloes, 10 gr. ; oil of chamomile, 8 drops; 
 mucilage, q. s. to form 20 pills. " These 
 pills, which were originally prescribed by Sir 
 Chas. Clarke, are much used in London." 
 (Redwood.) 
 
 7. (Frank's.) From aloes and jalap, of each 
 4 parts ; rliubarb, 1 part; syrup of wormwood, 
 q. s. For 3gr. pills. 
 
 8. (P. Cod.) Aloes, 6 dr. ; extract of cin- 
 chona bark, 3 dr. ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; syrup of 
 wormwood, q. s. 
 
 The do«e of the above is 3 to 5 gr., about an 
 hour before dinner, to promote the appetite; 
 or, ai a puigative, 10 to 15 gr. 
 
 Pills, Dluret'ic. Syn. Pilulje diureticb, 
 L. Frep. 1, From powdered foxglove, 12 
 gr. ; calomel, powdered squills, and opium, (if 
 each 4 gr. ; conserve of hips, q. o. For 12 
 pills. 
 
 2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Mercurial pill, 
 1 dr.; powdered squills, 20 gr. ; coufection 
 of roses, q. s. ; divided into 20 pills. The dose 
 of either of the above is 1 pill, twice or thrice 
 daily ; in dropsy, &c. 
 
 Fills, Dixon's. According to Dr P.ir!s these 
 pills consist of aloes, scammony, rhubarb, and 
 a little tartar emetic, beaten up with syrup. 
 ** The following formula produces a pill pre- 
 cisely siuiiliir to this nostrum : — Take of com- 
 pound extract of colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), 4 
 dr.; powdi-red rhubarb, 2 dr.; potassio- 
 tartrate of antimony, 8 gr. ; syrup of buck- 
 thorn, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 120 pills. 
 Aperient and diaphoretic. — Dose, 2 or 3, at 
 bedtime.'* (Cooley.) Although a nostrum it 
 is really an excellent medicine, adapted for 
 numerous case;*. 
 
 Pills, Duchesne's. Prep. From aloes and 
 gum ammouiacum, of each 30 gr. ; mastic 
 and myri'h, 10 gr. ; carbonate of potassa and 
 saffron, of each 3 gr. ; syrup, q. s. In the 
 dyspepsia of hysterical patients, in engorge- 
 ments of the abdominal viscera, following 
 intermittent fevers, &c. 
 
 Pills, Dys'entery. Syn. Pilul^e dtsekte- 
 EIC^, L. Prep. Pure alumina and tannic acid, 
 of each 20 gr. ; antimonial powder, 15 gr. ; 
 castor oil, J dr. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. ; fre- 
 quently. 
 
 Pills of Elate'rium. Syn. PiLui^ elate- 
 BII, L. Prep. (Radius.) Elaterium, 6 gr. ; 
 extract of gentian and Castile soap, of each 
 9 gr. ; mix, and divide in 12 pills. — Dose, 
 1 to 4 J in obstinate constipation, aud as a 
 purge in dropsy, &c. 
 
 Pills, Emet'ic. Syn. P1LITL.E EMETiOyE, P. 
 CtrPRI SOLPHATIS COMPOSITiE, L. Prep. 
 
 (Swediaur.) Sulphate of copper and ipeca- 
 cuanha equal parts; syrup or conserve of 
 roses, q. s. For 5-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 pill, 
 repeated every 15 minutes, until vomiting 
 comes on. See Emetics. 
 
 Pills, Epilep'sy. Syn. Pilulje antepilep- 
 TIC.E, P. AD epilepsiam, L. Frep. 1. 
 (Griffith.) Powdered indigo, 75 gr. ; assa- 
 foetida, 15 gr. ; Russian castor, 7 gr. ; mix, 
 and divide the mass into 20 pills. — Dose, 1 
 every hour. 
 
 2. (Recamier.) Ox,ide of iron, 9 gr.; cam- 
 phor and extract of belladonna, of each 6 gr. 
 For 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, every 3 or 4 
 hours. 
 
 Pills, E/got of Eye. Syn. Pilule eb- 
 
 GOT.E, P. SECALIS CORIfTJTI, L. Prep. 1. 
 
 (Dewees.) Powdered ergot, J dr. ; extract of 
 gentian, 1 dr.; divide into 15 pills. In ob- 
 structed and painful menstruation, hsemor- 
 rhages, &c. — Dose, 1 pill, thrice daily. 
 
 2. (L'.illemande.) Aloes, ergot, and rue, of 
 each 8 gr. ; for 12 pills; As the last. 
 
 Pills of Er'gotine. Syn. Pilttl^ EEO0Tiif.E, 
 L. Frep. (Bonjean.) Ergotine (Bonjean's), 
 24 gr. ; liquorice powder, 40 gr. ; sy rtip, q. s. 
 For 24 pills. — Dose, 3 to 6 daily ; as an in- 
 ternal hajmostatic, &c. 
 
 Pills, Everlast'ing. Syn. Perpetual pills , 
 
 PiLULiE MTERTSM, P. PEEPETUjE, L. Small 
 
 spheres of metallic antimony. They possess 
 tile property of purging as often as swallowed, 
 but have now long fallen into disuse. 
 
 Pills, Expec'torant. Syn. Piluls expec- 
 TORANTES, L. Prep. 1. Myrrh, IJ dr. ; 
 powdered squills, ^ dr. ; extract of henbane, 2 
 dr. ; syrup, q. s. ; divide into 30 pills. — Dose, 
 2, night and morning. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Powdered squills and 
 extract of hemlock, of each ^ dr. ; ammoui- 
 acum, IJ dr. ; divide into 30 pills. — Dose, 2 
 twice or thrice u day. In chronic coughs, 
 asthma, &c., after an aperient. See Pills, 
 Pectoral, &c. 
 
 Pills of Extract of "Walnut Leaves. (Nes- 
 rier.) Syn. Pilulze jdolandis. Prep. Ex- 
 tract of walnut leaves, 1 dr. ; powdered wal- 
 nut leaves, sufficient to form a mass ; to be 
 divided into 20 pills, 2 or 3 to be taken in the 
 day. 
 
 Pills, Family Antibil'ions. Syn. Aloe pills ; 
 
 ALOisS BOSATA, PlLUL^: ALOBS KOSAT^, L. 
 
 Prep. Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 3 oz. ; juice 
 of roses, 1 pint; dissolve by beat, strain through 
 a piece of coarse flannel, evaporate to a proper 
 consistence, and form it into pills. Purgative, 
 in doses of 5 to 15 gr. 
 
 Pills, Fe'ver. Syn. PiLtrL.E PEBRipuGa:, L. 
 Of these the principal are those containing 
 antimouials, bark, quinine, and salicine (which 
 see). 
 
 Pills, Fordyce's. An active purgative, closely 
 resembling in composition the compound gam- 
 boge pill of the Pli. L. 
 
 Pills, Dr Fcthergill's. Prep. (Cooley ) 
 Aloes, 4 dr.; extract of colocynth and scam- 
 
PILLS 
 
 1309 
 
 mony, of cnch 1 dr.; diaphoretic antimony, 
 30 gr. ; Bynip, q, s. For 3J-gr. pills. A dia- 
 phoretic aperient. — Dose, 1 to 4 piUa at bed- 
 time. 
 
 Pills of Fox'glove and Hen'bane. Syn. Pi- 
 
 LULJi DIOITALia ET HTOSCYAMF, L. Prep. 
 (Ur A. I'. Thomson.) Powdered foxglove, 4 
 gr. i powdered camphor, 12 gr. ; extract of 
 lienbiuio, 18 i,'r. For 6 pills— 2)o»e, 1 or 2 
 at bedtime ; as a sedative in maniacal and 
 8]>asmodic afTeitions, ic. 
 
 Pills of Fox'glove and Sqnills. Sy». Pi- 
 LtJUEDioiTALia KTSCILL* (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. E.) Powdered foxglove and squills, of 
 each 1 part; aromatic electuary (Pli. K.), 2 
 parts ; consorvu of red roses, q. s. ; divide into 
 4-gr. pills. A valuable diuretic in dropsies. 
 — Doae, 1 to 2 pills. 
 
 Pills, Frankfort. These are the Pilules An- 
 peliques noticed among PATENT MEDICINES, 
 furnied into 2-^'r. pills, and silvered. 
 
 Pills, Franks'. See Pills, Dinneb. 
 
 Pills of Fuligoka'li. Si/n. Pilulji puli- 
 OOKALI, L. Prep. (Deschaiups.) Fuligokiili, 
 6 dr. J stiircli, 2i dr. ; powdered tragncauth, 10 
 gr. ; syrup, q. s. For 100 pills, which must be 
 covered with 2 or 3 coats of gum, and pre- 
 served from the air. The pills of sulphuretted 
 fuligokal (Pilulffl Fuligokali Sulphurati) are 
 prepared in a similar manner. 
 
 Pills, Fuller's. St/n. Bennet pills; Pilu- 
 le benedict;e, L. Prep. (Cooloy.) Aloes and 
 sulphate of iron, of each i dr.; myrrh and 
 .'it'iina, of each 20 gr. ; nssafcetida and gal- 
 li.iuum, of each 10 gr. ; mace and saffron, of 
 each6gr. ; syrup, q.s.; mix and divide into 
 4-gr. pills. Antispasmodic, emmenagogue, and 
 tonic, and slightly aperient. — Dose, 1 to 4, 
 acciinling to tlio obji'ct in view. 
 
 Fills, Gairthorn's Mild Provi"sioiial. Prep. 
 (Coiiliy.) Compound gamboge pill, 60 gr. ; 
 aqueous extract of aloes, 40 gr. ; sulphate of 
 potassa and extract of senna, 30 gr.; compound 
 scammony powder, 15 gr. ; balsam of Peru, 6 
 or 8 gr. ; emetic tartar, 3 gr. ; mix, and divide 
 into 36 pills. Purgative. — Dose, 1,2, or more, 
 vrhen required. 
 
 Pills of Oalliannm (Componnd). Syn. Pi- 
 
 LULA OALBANI COMPOSIIA (Ph. L.), PiLULiE o. 
 
 COMPOSiTiE, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Myrrh and 
 prepared siiLMpenum, of each 3 dr. ; prepared 
 galbanum and soft soup, of each 2 dr. ; pre- 
 pared assufoctida, 1 dr. ; treacle, q. s. to form 
 a pill-mass. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, omitting the 
 soap. 
 
 3. (Ph. D. 1826.) As the Ph. L., except that 
 troncic is substituted for syrup. 
 
 Obs. These pilK are stimulant, expectorant, 
 antispasmodic, and emmenugogue. — Dose, 10 
 to 20 gr. ; in hysteria, chrouic coughs, chlo- 
 rosis, anienorrlneM, &c. 
 
 Pills of Oalbanmn with Iron, Syn. Pilule 
 OALBANI CUM FEKRO, L. Prep. (Ouy's IIo-p.) 
 Compound galbanum pill, 2 parts ; precipi- 
 t.ited sesqiiicixide of iron, 1 part; water, q. ». 
 
 to form a mass. For 4i-gr. pills. An excel- 
 lent tonic emmenagogue. — Dose, 10 to 20 gr. ; 
 iu chlorosis, amenorrhoea,&c., when chalybeates 
 are not contra-indicated. 
 
 Fills of Gam'boge (Componnd). Sgn. Gam- 
 boge pills, Fobdtce's p. ; Pilule cam- 
 
 B091« COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), P. CAMBOQl* (Ph. 
 E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Po^.lered Soco- 
 triue or hepatic aloes, 3 dr. ; powdered gam- 
 boge, 2 dr..; powdered ginger, 1 dr.; soft soap 
 (Ph. L.), 4 dr.; mix, and beat them to a pill- 
 mass. The formula) of the Ph. L. 1836 and 
 Ph. D. 1826 are precisely similar. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Uamboge, East Indian or Bur- 
 hadoes aloes, and aromatic powder, of each 
 (iu powder) 1 part; Castile so.ip, 2 parts; 
 syrup, q. s. 
 
 Obs. All the above are active cathartics. 
 — Dose, 6 to 15 gr., at bedtime ; in obstinate 
 constipation, &c. 
 
 Pills of Qen'tian (Componnd). S/in. Pilulje 
 OENTIAN,KOOM10SIT^, L. Prep. (W. Cooley.) 
 Extract of gentian, 1 dr. ; powdered rhuharh 
 and cardamoms, of each ^ dr.; ipecacuanh:!, 
 12 gr. For 3-gr. pills. Stomachic. — Dose, 2 
 or 3, twice or thrice daily, to improve the 
 appetite and digestion. 
 
 Pills, Gout. Slin. I'lLULaiANTABTlIKlTICE, 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Bouchardat.) Extract of eol- 
 chicum and compound extract of cotoeynih, 
 of each 1 dr. ; aqueous extract of opium, 3 
 gr. ; mix, and divide into 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 
 or 2, according to their purgative action, us 
 required. 
 
 2. (Sir H. Halford's.) Prom acetic extract 
 of colchicum, J dr. ; Dover's powder and com- 
 pound extract of colocynth, of each 18 gr. 
 For 12 \>\\\a.—Dose, 1 pill. 
 
 3. (Lartigue's.) From compound extract of 
 colocynth, 20 gr. ; alcoholic extract of colehi- 
 cum seeds and alcoholic exti'aet of digitalis, of 
 each 1 gr. For 2-gr. pills. — Dose, tfc. As 
 the last. 
 
 4. (St George's Hosp.) Acetic extract of 
 colchicum, 12 gr. ; Dover's powder, 30 gr. 
 For 12 pills. — Dose, 2 pills. 
 
 5. (Sir C. Scudaniore's.) From acetic ex- 
 tniet of colchicum, 1 dr.; powdered marsh- 
 mallow root, q.s. to form a mass. I'or 40 
 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, or more, with caution, as 
 required. 
 
 6. (Trousseau & Reveil.) Powdered colchi- 
 cum seeds, \ dr.; powdered digitalis and sul- 
 phate of quinine, of each 15 gr. ; calomel and 
 extract of colocynth, of each 8 gr. ; syrup, 
 q. s. For 20 pills. — Dose, 1 to 4, during the 
 diiy, at the commencement of an attnek of 
 gout. Other furmulie for gout pills will be 
 found under the respective names. 
 
 Pills, Dr Griffith's. Powdered rhubarb, 1\ 
 dr.; sulphate of iron, i dr.; Castile soap, 40 
 gr. ; water, q. s. to form a mass. For -48 
 pills. An excellent remedy in costiveness, 
 with loss of tone of the bowels. — Dose, 2 to 
 4, at bedtime. 
 
 Pills, of Gu'aiacum (Componnd.) Syn. PiLtJ- 
 
1310 
 
 PILLS 
 
 la; GFAIACI COMPOSlTiE, L. Prep. 1. Pow- 
 dered resin of guaiacum, 1 dr. ; oxysulphide of 
 antimony, 40 gr. ; oil of cajeput, 12 drops; 
 extract of gentian, q. s. to form a mass. For 
 4-gr. pills. — Dose, 3 to 6, thrice dally ; in 
 gout, rheumatism, secondary syphilis, various 
 obstinate cutaneous affections, &c. 
 
 2. (St B. Hosp.) Guaiacum, 30 gr. j Ipeca- 
 cuanha and opium, of each 3 gr. ; syrup, q. s. 
 For 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3. As the last. 
 
 Pills, Halford's. See Pills, Gout. 
 
 Pills, Dr Hamilton's. The same as the colo- 
 cynth and henbane pill of the Ph. E. The 
 compound pills of gamboge, now vended under 
 the title of 'Mobison's No. 2 Pills,' were 
 long known in Scotland as Dr Hamilton's 
 Pills. 
 
 Pill's, Head'aohe. Syn. Cephalic pills j 
 Pilule cephalic^, P. ANTicEPnALALOic^, 
 L. Prep. 1. Caffeine, 15 gr. ; aloes, 20 gr. ; 
 conserve of hips, q. s. For 12 pills. — Dose, 
 occasionally ; when only one side of the head 
 is affected. 
 
 2. (Bioussais.) Extract of opium, 6 gr. ; 
 extracts of belladonna and henbane, of each 
 15 gr. J extract of lettuce, 30 gr. ; butter of 
 caciio, 4 dr. For 120 pills. — Dose, 1, twice 
 or thrice diiily; in headache, accompanying 
 spasmodic affections, &c. 
 
 3. (Dr Wilson Philip.) Powdered nutmeg 
 and rhubarb, of each 20 gr. ; extract of cha- 
 momile, 20 gr. ; oil of peppermint, 10 or 12 
 drops. For 30 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, thrice 
 daily; in nervous headaches. 
 
 Pills, Helvetius's. %». Pilul^e aluminis 
 Helvetii, L. Prep. Alum, 2 dr. ; dragon's 
 blood, 1 dr. ; honey of roses, to mix. For 48 
 pills. Astringent. 
 
 Pills of Hem'lock (Compound). Syn. Vylvlm 
 CONII COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L.) Extract of hemlock, 5 dr.; pow- 
 dered ipecacuanha, 1 dr. ; treacle, q. s. Anti- 
 spasmodic, expectorant, and narcotic. — Dose, 
 4 to 8 gr (B. P. 5 to 10 gr.), twice or thrice 
 daily ; in hooping-cough, bronchitis, incipient 
 phthisis, &c. 
 
 Pills of Henbane (Compound). Syn. Pilul^e 
 
 HYOSCYAMt ET ZINCI, L. ; PlLULES DE MeS- 
 
 LIN, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Extracts of henbane 
 and Valerian, and oxide of zinc, equal parts. 
 For 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 10 ; as au anodyne 
 or sedative in neuralgia, nervous attacks, &c. 
 
 Pills, Lady Hesketh's. See Pills, Uinnek. 
 
 Pills, Hoffmann's. See Pills op Cobrosive 
 sublimate. 
 
 Pills, Holloway's. See Patent medicines. 
 
 Pills, Hooper's Female. Prep. 1. (Gray.) 
 Sulphate of iron and water, of each 8 oz. ; 
 dissolve, add, Barbadoes aloes, 25 lbs.; white 
 canella, 6 oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; opopanax, 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Phil. Coll. of Pharm.) Barbadoes aloes, 
 8 oz. ; dried sulphate of iron, 2i oz. ; myrrh, 
 extract of black hellebore, and Castile soap, of 
 each 2 oz. ; canella and ginger, of each 1 oz. ; 
 water, q. s. ; divide the mass into 2^- or 3-gr. 
 pills, and put 40 in each box. Cathartic and 
 
 emmenagogue. — Dose, 2, or more. " If we 
 omit the soap, lessen the quantity of extract 
 of hellebore, and increase that of the aloes, we 
 think the form will be nearer that of the 
 original." (Cooley.) 
 
 Pills of Honnd's-tongne. (P. Cod.) Syn. 
 PILUL.E CUM CTN0GL0SS6. Prep. Eoot-bark 
 of hound's-tongue, 4 dr. ; henbane seeds, 4 dr. ; 
 extract of opium, 4 dr. ; myrrh, 6 dr. ; oli- 
 banum, 4 dr. and 48 gr. ; saffron, 96 gr. ; 
 castor, 96 gr. ; syrup of honey, 14 dr. Mix. 
 Contains 1 gr. of extract of opium in 10 gr. 
 The original form of nicolans contained 
 styrax, and seems to have been the origin of 
 the compound styrax pill, as well as of this 
 compound. 
 
 Pills, Hnmphrey'B. See Pills, Pectoeai,. 
 
 Pills, Hunter's. See Pills, Renal. 
 
 Pills, Hydragogne. See Bontius's pills, 
 &c. 
 
 Pills, Hydropho'bia. Syn. PiLUL.aE ad ba- 
 BiEM, L. Prep. (Werlhoff.) Cantharides (in 
 very fine powder), ^ gr. ; belladonna and calo- 
 mel, of each 4 gr. ; camphor, 8 gr. ; muci- 
 lage, q. s. For 12 pills. — Dose, 2 to 3, twice 
 daily. 
 
 Pills of latropha. (DrBarham.) Syn. Pi- 
 LUL.S) Iateoph^:. Prep. Decorticated seeds 
 of Jatropha gossypifoli, 3 dr. ; gamboge, ex- 
 tract of colocynth and scammony, of each 1 
 dr. Make into 90 pills. — Dose, 1, 2, or more. 
 
 Pills of In'dian Hemp. Syn. PiLULiE can- 
 nabis Indict, L. Prep. From alcoholic ex- 
 tract of Indian hemp, J dr.; sugar of milk, 1 
 dr. ; mucilage, q. s. For 48 pills. An ex- 
 cellent pill for soothing pain and quieting the 
 system, acting without causing headache or 
 constipation of the bowels. — Dose, 1 pill, in- 
 creased to 2 or more, as necessary. 
 
 Pills of In'digo. See Pills, Epilepsy. 
 
 Pills of I'odide of Arsenic. Syn. Pilulje 
 ABSENioi lODiDi, L. Prep. 1. ( Dr Neligan.) 
 Iodide of arsenic, 2 gr. ; manna, 40 gr. ; 
 mucilage, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 12 pills. 
 
 2. (Gardner.) Iodide of arsenic, 1 gr. j 
 extract of hemlock, 20 gr. For 20 pills. — 
 Dose, 1 pill, twice or thrice daily ; in lepra, 
 psoriasis, and some other scaly skin diseases. 
 
 Pills of lodideof Iron. Syn. PiLUL.a; fekui 
 lODiDi, L. Prep. 1. Unoxidised iron filings 
 (recently levigated), 20 gr. ; iodine, 40 gr. ; 
 distilled water, ^ dr. ; mix in a cold wedg- 
 wood-ware mortar, and triturate them together 
 until the red colour of the mixture has en- 
 tirely disappeared; then add, of powdered gum, 
 20 gr. ; powdered sugar, 1 dr. ; liquorice pow- 
 der, q. s. to form a mass, and divide it into 
 48 pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of dry 
 iodide of iron. — Dose, 1 to 6 pills, twice or 
 ihrice a day. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Fine iron wire, 40 gr. ; iodine, 
 80 gr. ; rtflned sugar, in powder, 70 gr. ; 
 liquorice root, in povfder, 140 gr. ; distilled 
 water, 50 minims. Agitate the iron with the 
 iooine and the water in a strong stoppered 
 ounce phial until the froth becomes white. 
 
PILLS 
 
 1311 
 
 Ponr the fluid upon the sugar in a mortar, 
 triturate brisklv, and gradually add the 
 liquorice. — Doi«, 3 to 8 gr. 
 
 3. (Ph. U. S.) Protosulphate of iron, 60 
 gr. ; iodide of potnuium, 80 gr. (both in 
 fine powder) ; mix, add of powdered traga- 
 canth, 10 gr. ; powdered sugar, 30 gr. ; and 
 form tlie whole into a mass with syrup, q. s. 
 For 40 pill'i. Euch pill contains nearly 2 gr. 
 of the dry iodide, or about 2^ gr. of the 
 common hydrated iodide of the shops. — Dose, 
 1 to 3, as the last. 
 
 Obs. 'I he above pills are reputed alterative, 
 tonic, nnrt emmenagogue, and are found pecu- 
 liiirly UKcful in indurations, scrofula, chlorosis, 
 leucorrhoea, &c., when the administration of 
 chalybeates is not contra-indicated. 
 
 Pills of Iodide of Lead. %n. VihVLS 
 PLUMUi lODiui, L. Prep. Prom iodide of 
 leud, 16 gr. ; powdered sugar, 1^ dr. ; muei- 
 Ingp, q. s. For 60 pills. — Dote, 1 pill, gra- 
 dually increased to 3, or more, twice a diiy ; in 
 scrofuln, sciri Iiuh, &c. 
 
 Pills of Iodide of Mer'cnry. Sy». Pilule 
 nTmuuoYEi lODiDi, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 
 1836.) Qiecn iodide of mei'cury and pow- 
 dered ginger, of t*arh 1 dr. ; conserve of hips, 
 3 dr. — Duxe, 2 to 5 gr., twice or thrice daily, 
 as an allcrutive in scrofula and scrofulous 
 syphilis, &c, 
 
 li. (Coindkt'8 Pills.) From green iodide 
 of mercury, 1 gr. ; extract of liquorice, 20 gr. ; 
 mix, and divide into 8 pills. — Doee, 2 to 4, a^i 
 the last. Pills of red iodide of mercury are 
 uiiide in the siime way, but, owing to its 
 j:ru;\ter activity, only one fourth of tlie above 
 quantity of iodide must enter into their com- 
 position. 
 
 Fills of Iodide of Potas'sinm. S^n. Pilule 
 POTASSII lODiDl, L. Prep. 1. Iodide of 
 potassium and powdered starch, of each i dr. ; 
 conserve of hips, q. s. For 36 pills. — Dose, 
 1 to 6, thrice diiily ; in glandular indurations 
 and enlargements, goiture, scrofula, &c. 
 
 2. (\\>)ft..) Iodide of potassium, 15 gr. ; 
 burnt sponge and extract of duleamarn, of 
 each 5 dr. ; Wiiter, q. s. For 180 pills. — 
 Dose, 1 1" 6, twice a day, as the last. 
 
 Pills of I'odine. Si/n. Pilule: iodinii, L. 
 Prep. (Radius.) Iodine, 6 gr. ; extract of 
 gentian, 1 dr. j powdered gnni, q. s. For 24 
 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3 ; in scrofula, iScc. ; also, 
 in mercurial and scorbutic salivation. 
 
 Pills of Iodide of Silver. iSyi». Pilvlm ae- 
 OKNTI lODIUI. (Dr Patterson.) Prep. Iodide 
 of silver, nitrate of potash, of each 10 gr., rub 
 together iiiio a vei-y fine powder, and add, 
 liquorice powder, i dr. j white sugar, 20 gr. ; 
 mucilage, q. s. ; to form a mass, to be divided 
 into 40 pills ; 1 three times a day. 
 
 Pills of lod'oform. Si/n. Pilttl.^: iodo- 
 FOBUi, L. Prep. (Bouchardat.) lodiform, 
 t dr. J extract of wormwood (or gentian). 1 
 dr. ; mix, and divide into 36 pills. — Dose, 1, 
 t« iee (ir thrice daily ; in scrofula, &c. 
 Fills of Ipecac'aaiiha (Compound). Sj/n. 
 
 Pills op ipecacttakha with SQrii-L.s, P. of 
 I. AND OPIUM ; Pilule iPECACDASH.fi cuit 
 
 SCILLA (Ph. L.), P. IPECACUANHiE ET OPH 
 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) (.ompound 
 powder of ipecacuanha (Dover's powder), 3 dr. ; 
 powdered aramoniacum and squills (freshly 
 powdered), of each 1 dr. ; treacle, q. s. to form 
 a pill-mass. Anodyne, sudorific, and expecto- 
 rant. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. ; in chronic coughs 
 and asthma, &c. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Dover's powder, 3 parts; con- 
 serve of red roses, 1 part; mix, and divide into 
 4-gr. pills. R«-embles Dover's powder in its 
 effects. It is hence regarded by many as a 
 useless preparation. 
 
 3. {B. P.) PlLULA IPECACrANHS CUM 
 SciLLA. Prep. Compound ipecacuanha pow- 
 'leT-, 3 oz. ; fresh-dried squill, 1 oz. ; animonia- 
 cum in powder, 1 oz. ; treacle, q. o. Hiat 
 all tocelher. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 
 Pills of I'ron (Compound). Si/n. PiluljK 
 
 PEREI COMPOSITA (Ph.L.), P. F. CUM WYIIURM, 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Myrrh (in powder), 2 dr. ; 
 carbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; rub tlieni together iu 
 a warm mortar, then add of sulphate of iron, 
 1 dr., and again triturate; lastly, add of 
 treacle, 1 dr., and beat all together, to form a 
 pill mass. An excellent mild clialybeate tonic 
 and emmenagogue, similar in its properties to 
 ' GriHith's Mixture.' — Dose, 6 to 15 gr., two 
 or three times a day. 
 Fills, Italian Black. Sgn. Pilule Italics 
 
 NIOn.E, P. ALOETIca; FEBKATJE, h. Prep. (Ph. 
 Bor.) Powdered aloes and dried sulphate of 
 iron, equal parts; beaten up with rectified 
 spirit, q. s., and divided into 2- or -J-gr. pills. 
 See Pills of Aloes and laoN. 
 
 Pills of Jal'ap. Si/n. PiLULJi; jalap.*;, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 1783.) Extra.t of jalap, 
 :i dr.; aromatic powder, 1 ilr. ; syrup, q. >. 
 
 2. (Ph. Bor.) Soap of jalap, 3 parts ; pow- 
 dered jiilap, 1 part; beat them to a pill-mass. 
 — Dose (of either), 10 to 15 gr. 
 
 Pills, James's Analep'tic. Prep. 1. Anti- 
 monial powder, guaiacum, and pill of aloes 
 with myrrh, equal parts; syrup, q. s. 
 
 2. (Cooley.) Autiraonial powder (James's), 
 pill aloes with myrrh, and compound aloes 
 powder, of each 2 parts ; powdered ammo- 
 niacuui, 1 part; beaten up with tincture of 
 castor, q. s., and divided into 3J-).'r. pills. A 
 diaiihoretic purge. — Dose, 2 to 4 pills. 
 
 Pills, Dr J. Johnson's. Prep. From com- 
 pouud extract of colocynth, 2 dr.; calomel, 
 i dr. ; potassio-tartrate of antimony, 2 gr. ; 
 oil of cassia, 12 drops. For 4 dozen pills. An 
 excellent alterative and diaphoretic aperient. 
 — Dose, 1 to 3 pills. 
 
 Pills, Kaye's. See Pills, Wobshell's. 
 
 Pills, Keyser's. Prep. (Guibourt.) Red 
 oxide of mercury, IJ oz. ; distilled vineftar 
 (dilute acetic acid), 1 pint; dissolve, add to 
 the resulting solution manna, 2 lbs., and 
 triturate for a long time before the fire, 
 until a proper consistence is attained; lastly, 
 divide the mass iuto pills of l.i j.'r. each. 
 
1312 
 
 PILLS 
 
 Ols. Keyser's pills were once celebrated 
 tbroughout Europe as a remedy possessing 
 extraordinary virtue, and so highly were they 
 prized that the method of preparing them was 
 purchased by the French Government for the 
 benefit of the nation. Richard, who first pub- 
 lished a full account of them, concludes by ob- 
 serving that he considers this compound to be, 
 without exception, the most effectual remedy 
 for syphilis hitherto discovered. In this coun- 
 try, however, it has long sunk into compara- 
 tive disuse with the faculty ; probably from 
 pills of acetate of suboxide of mercury being 
 erroneously employed under the name, whereas, 
 according to Robiquet, acetate of protoxide of 
 mercury (called by him the * peroxide *) forms 
 the basis of the original preparation. The 
 dose is 1 to 2, night and morning, as an altera- 
 tive; and 2 to 6, twice a day, as a sialo- 
 gogue. 
 
 Pills, King's. See Patent medicines. 
 
 Pills, Kitchener's. Syn. Dr Kitcheneb's 
 
 PERISTALTIC PEESUADEB3 ; PlLUL^ EHiEI ET 
 
 CAEUi, L. Prep. From powdered Turkey 
 rhubarb, 2 dr.; simple syrup, 1 dr.; oil of 
 caraway, 10 or 12 drops. For 40 pills. An 
 admirable stomachic, dinner, or laxative pill, 
 according to the quantity taken. — Dose, 2 to 6. 
 " From 2 to 4 will gene?-ally produce one addi- 
 tional motion within 12 hours. The best time 
 to take them is early in the morning." 
 
 Pills, Klein's. Prep. From anjmonisicQm 
 and extract of centaury, of each i dr. ; Castile 
 soap, 1 dr. ; oil of amber, 3 drops. For 2gr. 
 pills. Stomachic, eramcuagogue, and pectoral. 
 — Dose, 2 to 6 pills. 
 
 Pills of Lac'tate of Iron. Syn. Pilulj! 
 FEEBi lACTATis, L. Prep. (Cap.) Lactate of 
 protoxide of iron and powdered marshmallow 
 root, equal parts; clarified honey, q. s. For 
 3-gr. pills. One of the most valuable of the 
 chalybeates. — Dose, 1 to 2, three or four times 
 a day. 
 
 Pills of Lax;tnca"rium. Syn. Pilule iac- 
 TUCAEII, L. Prep. 1. (Brera.) Lactucarium, 
 18 gr. ; conserve of elder-berries and extract 
 of liquorice, of each q. s. For 12 pills. — 
 Dose, 1 to 2 pills, every three or four hours ; 
 in dry asthma, obstinate coughs without ex- 
 pectoration, &c. 
 
 2. (Dr Duncan.) Lactucarium, 12 gr. ; 
 liquorice powder, 20 gr. ; simple syrup, q. s. 
 For 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 2 pills, every hour, 
 as an anodyne, or to induce sleep. 
 
 Pills, Lartigne's. See Pills, Goitt. 
 
 Pills of Lead. Prep. 1. See Pills op 
 Acetate oe Lead. 
 
 2. (Opiated; PiLULffi PLTTMBi opiATiE — 
 
 Ph. E.; PlLULA PLUMBI CUM OPIO — B. P.) 
 
 Acetate of lead, 6 parts j opium, 1 part ; con- 
 serve of red roses, about 1 part ; beat them 
 to a proper mass, and divide this into 4-gr. 
 pills. " This pill may also be made with 
 twice the quantity of opium." In haemor- 
 rhages, obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery, spitting 
 of blood, and other cases demanding the use 
 
 of a powerful astringent. It has also been 
 highly extolled in cholera. — Dose, 1 to 3 pills, 
 twice or thrice daily, washed down with water 
 soured with pure vinegar. 
 
 Pills, lee's Antibil'ions. Prep. ('Amer. 
 Journ.of Pharm.') Aloes, 12 oz. ; scammony, 
 6 oz. ; calomel, 5 oz. ; gamboge, 4 oz. ; jalap, 
 3 oz. ; Castile soap and syrup of buckthorn, 
 of each 1 oz. ; mucilage, 7 oz. ; beat them 
 together, and divide the mxss into 5-gr. pills. 
 A powerful cathartic, and, from containing 
 mercury, not adapted for frequent use. See 
 Wtndham's pills. 
 
 Pills, lewis's Al'terative and Liver. These 
 " for the most part resemble Scott's bilious 
 AND LITEE PILLS. They are, however, of a 
 more drastic and powerful character, and fre- 
 quently operate with considerable violence." 
 
 Pills, Lockstadfs. Prep. (Phoebus.) Sul- 
 phate of quinine, 3 gr. ; aromatic powder, 10 
 gr. ; essential oil of almonds, 1 drop; extract 
 of gentian, q. s. For 10 pills. — Dose, 1 to 2, 
 thrice daily, as a stomachic tonic ; or the 
 whole at once, before an expected attack of an 
 ague or intermittent. 
 
 puis, lockyer's. Prep. From panacea of 
 antimony, 6 gr. ; powdered white sugar, 4 dr.; 
 mucilage, q. s. For 48 pills. Cathartic and 
 emetic. — Dose, 1 to 4 pills. 
 
 Pills of Lnpulin. (Magendie.) Syn. Vi- 
 LULa; LUPULINI. Prep. The powder tritu- 
 rated forms a sufficiently tenacious mass for 
 pills, without any addition. 
 
 Pills, Dr Lynn's. Prep. Prom pill of aloes 
 with myrrh andcompound extractof colocynth, 
 of each 1 dr. ; calomel, J dr. For 4 dozen 
 pills. Aperient and antibilious. — Dose, 1 to 
 3 ; in costiveness, biliousness, &e. 
 
 Pills of Manganese, Carbonate. (Hannon.) 
 
 Syn. P1LUL.I: MANQ-ANESII CAEBONATIS. 
 
 Prep. Dissolve separately, 17 oz. of crystal- 
 lised sulphate of manganese, and 19 oz. car- 
 bonate of soda, in water, q. s. Mix the solu- 
 tions and add to every 17 oz. of tlie liquid, 1 
 oz. of syrup, and allow the precipitate to 
 subside in a well-closed bottle. Pour off the 
 supernatant liquid, wash the precipitate with 
 sugared water, express, mix it with 10 oz. of 
 honey, and evaporate rapidly to a pill consis- 
 tence. — Dose, from 4 to 10 4-grain pilla 
 daily, in ansemia, chlorosis, &c. 
 
 Pills of Manganese, Iodide. (Hannon.) 
 Syn. Pilule manqanesii iodidi. Prep. 
 Iodide of potassium, 1 oz. ; dried sulphate of 
 manganese, 1 oz. ; mix with honey, q. s. to 
 form a pill mass; divide into 4-gr. pills.— 
 Dose. From 1 pill daily, gradually increased. 
 
 Pills of Manganese, Malate. (Hannon.) 
 Syn. Pilule mak&anesii malatis. Malate 
 of manganese, 15 gr. ; powdered cinchona 
 bark, 15 gr. ; honey, q. s. for 20 pills. 3 to 5 
 or 6 daily. 
 
 Pills of Manganese, Muriate. (Niemann.) 
 
 Syn. PlLULJJ MANGANBSII MUBIATIS. Prep. 
 Chloride of manganese, 2 scruples; gum 
 Arabic, 2 scruples ; liquorice, 1 scruple. Mix. 
 
PILLS 
 
 1313 
 
 FilU of Uanganese, Phosphate. (Hannon.) 
 Sy/I. Prt,CL* MANOANE8II PHOSPnATIS. Prep. 
 Phosphttte oF inttngnnese, \\ dr.; cinchonu 
 bark, J dr. ; syrup of catecliu, q. ». Hake 
 into 4-gr. pills. 
 
 Fills of Manganese, Tartrate. Si/n. Pit.ulx 
 MAMOANESH TAETBATI8. As Pills of Miilate 
 Mani^aneso. 
 
 Fills of Manganese and Sulphate of Iron. 
 (Hnnnon.) Si/n. ViLVLM manoanesii kt 
 FEBEi suLPHATia. I'rep. Sulphate of iron, 
 13 oz. ; sulphate of manganese, 3^ oz. ; car- 
 bonate of soda, 17i oz. ; honey, 10 oz. ; syrup, 
 q. 8. to make a mass to be divided into 4-gr. 
 pills. 
 
 Pills, Mar'tial. Si/n. Pills op ikon and 
 WOBMWOOD; I'lLULa: fekbi oitm absinthio, 
 P. MABTiALKH, L. Frep. (Sydenham.) Levi- 
 gated iivin filings, 1 dr.; extract of wormwood, 
 q. s. Tonic and hsematinic. — Doae, 5 to 10 
 gr., twiiM- a day. 
 
 Pills, Matthew's. St/n. Pilt7L.£ MATTRiEi, 
 P. PACiFiCiK, L. Prep. 1. (Dr Paris.) 
 lilack hellebore, Castile soap, liquorice, opium, 
 saHVon, and turmeric, equal parts; made into 
 pills with oil of turpentine. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. 1741.) Opium and saffron, of 
 each 1 dr. ; castor, 2 dr. ; soap of turpentine, 
 
 3 dr.; balsam of copiiiba (or oil of turpentine), 
 q. s. to form a mass. Alterative and anodyne. 
 — Doae, 3 to 10 gr. 
 
 Fills, McKinsey's. See McKinsst's eata- 
 POTIA, among Patent medicines. 
 
 Fills, Meglin's. Si/n. Piltjlb8 db Meolin, 
 Fr. Sou PiLM OP Henbane (Compound). 
 
 Fills, Merca"rlal. Syn. Blue piu ; 
 
 PiLtTLA IITDBARGYKI (B. P.), PlLUL^ HY- 
 DBABOYRI (Pll. L.), PIHTL.E H. (Pll. E. i 
 
 D.), p. meeopbiales, L. ; Pilules mbbch- 
 niKLLES, Vr. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Jlenur.v, 
 
 4 dr. ; confection of roses, 6 dr. ; rub them 
 together until globules can no longer bo seen ; 
 then add of liquorice powder, 2 dr., and beat 
 tlie whole together, so that a proper mass may 
 be formed. 
 
 2. (I'h.E.) As the last; afterwards dividing 
 tile mass into 5-gr. pills. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) As the Ph. L. formula, but 
 takinj,' four times the quantity of tlio respective 
 ingredients. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Mercury, 2; confection of roses, 
 3; decorticated liquorice root, in fine powder, 
 1 ; rub the mercury with the confection of 
 roses until metallic globules are no longer 
 visible, then add the liquorice, and mi.\- the 
 whole well together. — Dose, 3 to 6 gr. as an 
 alterative, 10 gr. ns a purgative. 
 
 Obs. Th.' remarks under 'Mbbciteial oint- 
 JIKNT ' (p. 1179), for the most part, also apply 
 here. Tliis pill, when properly prepared, pre- 
 sents no globules of mercury when moderately 
 rubbed on a piece of white paper, and imme- 
 diately communicates a white stain to a piece 
 of bright gold or copper. It possesses con- 
 siderable density, and has a dark blue or slate 
 colour. It euntains l-Srd of its weight of 
 VOL. II. 
 
 mercury, which may be ascertained from its 
 ip. gr. ; or, more exactly, by au assay for the 
 metal. It is the mildest and the most exten- 
 sively used of all the mercurial preparations. 
 — Dose. A< an alterative, 1 to 3 ttr. ; as a 
 purgative, 10 to 15 gr. ; and as a sialogogne. 
 5 iir 6 gr., or more, twice or thrice daily. To 
 prevent it affecting the bowels, it is commonly 
 combined with either rhubarb or opium. A 
 blue pill taken ovcr-niglit, and a black 
 draught in the morning, is a popular remedy 
 in bilious complaints. See Abee.sethv medi- 
 cines. 
 
 5. (Collier.) Mercury, 2 dr.; sesquioxide 
 of iron, 1 dr.; confection of red roses, 3 dr.; 
 triturated, as before, until the globules disap- 
 pear. An excellent extemporaneous substitute 
 for the common mercurial pill. The addition 
 of only a few grs. of the sesquioxide of iron to 
 1 oz. of conserve, renders the latter capable 
 of rapidly killing a large quantity of quick- 
 silver. 
 
 (). (Tyson.) Grey oxide of mercury (pre- 
 pared by decomposing calomel with liquor of 
 potassa to which u little liquor of ammonia 
 has been adiled), 2 dr.; confection of roses, 6 
 dr. ; powdered chamomiles, 1 dr. ; mix. As 
 a substitute for the College pill. 
 
 7. (' Pharm. Journ.') Stearin, 1 dr.; rnb it 
 in a warm mortar till it assumes the consist- 
 ence of thick cream, then add of mercury, 4 
 dr., and again triturate until the globules di...- 
 appear ; next further add, of coufection of 
 roses and wheaten flour, of each 3 dr., pow- 
 dered i^um, 1 dr., and form the wliole into a 
 pill-ma.ss. As a substitute for the College 
 pill. 
 
 8. (PlLCLi; HYDEAEOTEOSiE — P. Cod.) 
 Mercury and honey, of each 6 dr. ; triturate 
 till the globules are extinguished, then add of 
 aloes, 6 dr. ; rlmbarb, 'A dr. ; scammony, 2 dr. ; 
 black pepper, 1 dr. ; and make a pill-mnss as 
 before. Contains l-4th part of quicksilver. 
 Alterative and aperient. — Dose, 5 to 10 gr. 
 BEt.LosTE'p, Babbaeossa's, Sedillot'b, and 
 Mobelot's PILLS are nearly similar com- 
 pounds. See Pills op Calomel and Coeeo- 
 siVE sublimate, &e. 
 
 9. (PlLULS UNOTTENTI HYDEAEOTEI — 
 Biett.) Prep. Mercurial ointment, powdered 
 sarsaparilla, 1 dr. Mix, and divide into 48 
 pills. From 1 to 4 daily. 
 
 10. ('Pilule bYDEAEOYEi cum saponk — 
 P. Cod.) Prep. Mercurial ointment, 2 dr. ; 
 soap, 1 scruples ; liquorice powder, 2 scruples. 
 Make into 3-gr. pills. 
 
 Pills, Mercurial (Arabic). Syn. PiLULiE 
 MEBOURIALES AeabiCE, L. Prep. Take of 
 quicksilver and coi'rosive sublimate, of each 
 i dr. ; triturate them patiently together until 
 the globules disappear; then add, of agaric, 
 pellitory, and senna, of each 1 dr. ; honey, 
 q. 8. to make a pill-mass. For 3J-gr. pills. — 
 Dose, 2 a day. Employed in the ' traitement 
 arabique' for the cure of obstinate cutaneous 
 diseases. 
 
 83 
 
1314 
 
 PILLS 
 
 Fills, HerciiriEil, Hahnemann's. (F. H.) 
 
 Syn. PlLUia! HTDEAKGYKI HaHNEMANNI. 
 Prep. Hahnemann's soluble mercury, 20 gr.; 
 gum Arabic, 30 gr. j sugar, 30 gr. Mix, and 
 divide into 30 pills. 
 
 Fills, Mitchell's. Prep. Aloes, J dr. ; rhu- 
 barb, 1 dr. ; calomel, 6 gr. j emetic tartar, 2 
 gr. For 36 pills. An alterative aperient. — 
 Dose, 2 to 4 pills. 
 
 Pills, Moat's. Similar to Moeisok's pills. 
 
 Pills, Morison's. Prep. — a. (No. 1 Pills.) 
 From aloes and cream of tartar, equal parts, 
 made into a mass with either syrup or muci- 
 lage. A mild aperient. 
 
 b. (No. 2 pills.) From colocynth, 1 part ; 
 gamboge, 2 parts ; aloes, 3 parts ; and cream 
 of tartar, 4 parts ; made into a mass with 
 sviup, as the last. An active purgative, often 
 acting with great violence. Both No. 1 and 
 No. 2 are divided into 3-gr. pills, of which 4 
 dozen are put into each Is. IJd. box. The 
 proper dose of either is 1 to 3 or 4 pills; but 
 they are often given by the Morisons in doses 
 of 12, 20, 30, or even more, daily. For the 
 history of these pills and their proprietors, 
 see'Auat. of Quackery,' or 'Med. Circ.,' ii, 
 9—27. 
 
 Pills of Mor'phia. Syn. PiLULai morphia, 
 L. Prep. (Magendie.) Morphine, 1 gr. ; con- 
 serve of roses (stiff), q. o. For 6 (or, better, 
 8) pills. — Dose, 1 pill; as an anodyne or 
 soporific. 
 
 Fills of Morphia (Compound). (Eougier.) 
 
 Sun. PiLULjE MOBPHIiE COMPOSITE. Prep. 
 Sulphate of morphia, 2 gr. ; cyanide of po- 
 tassium, 4 gr.; mucilage, q. s. Make into 24 
 pills; 1 every six hours, in neuralgia. 
 
 Pills, Moseley's. Prep. Finest Turkey rhu- 
 barb, 60 gr. ; Jamaica ginger, 30 gr. ; sugar, 
 20 gr. (all in powder) ; tincture of rhubarb, 
 q. s. to (orm a mass. For 4-gr. pills. A mild 
 and excelleut medicine, closely resembling 
 Kitchener's peeistaltic pekscaders. 
 
 Fills of Musk. Syn. Pilule moschi, L. 
 Prep. (Dupuytren.) Opium, 2 gr. ; musk 
 (genuine), 8 gr. ; camphor (in powdi r), 24 
 gr. ; syrup, q. s. For 8 pills. Antispasmodic 
 and stimulant. — Dose, 1 to 3, thrice daily, in 
 low nervous affections; or the whole during 
 the day in hospital gangrene, &c. 
 
 Fills of Myrrh. See Pills op Aloes and 
 Mykeh. r 
 
 Pills, Hapier's Neuroton'ic. Of these, like 
 Moeison's pills, there are No. 1 and No. 2. 
 The first is a simple stomachic aperient; the 
 other, a stimulant tonic. They both owe their 
 sale and reputed virtues to extensive adver- 
 tising. ('Anat. of Quackery.') 
 
 Pills, Napoleon's. See Peotoeal Pills. 
 
 Fills, Neuralg'ia. Hyn. Pilule antineu- 
 BiLGICiE, L. Prep. 1. (Marchal De Calvi.) 
 Aqueous extract of opium, 4 gr. ; sulphate of 
 ■quinine, 16 gr..; powdered cinnamon, pow- 
 dered orange leaves, and exti act of valerian, 
 o! each 20 gr. ; syrup of belladonna, q. s. 
 Por 3 dozen pills. — Dose, 1, hourly. 
 
 2. (Trousseau & Eeveil.) Extracts of opium 
 and stramonium, of each 8 gr. ; oxide of zinc, 
 2 dr. ; syrup, q. s. For 40 pills. — Dose, 1, 
 every two or three hours, gradually increased 
 in frequency until there is some considerable 
 disorder of vision, &c. Both of the above 
 should be used with care. See Fills, Meg- 
 lin's, &c. 
 
 Fills of Hi'trate of Bismnth. Si/n. Vilvlm 
 BISMHTHI TEiSNiTEATis, L. Prep. From 
 trisnitrate ot bismuth and powdered rhu- 
 barb, equal parts ; syrup of orange peel, q. s. 
 to form a mass. For 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 
 2, every two hours; as a tonic, stomachic, 
 and antispasmodic, in dyspepsia, debility, 
 spasms, &c. 
 
 Pills of Nitrate of Mercury. Sifn. PiLtrLJE 
 
 HYDEAEGYEI PEOTO-NITEATIS. PiLULESDE 
 
 Saintb Maeie. Prep. Powder of proto- 
 nitrate of mercury, 7i gr. ; extract of li- 
 quorice, i dr. Mix accurately, and divide 
 into 60 pills. — Dose, 1, four times a day. 
 Fills of Nitrate of Sil'ver. Syn. Pilul^e 
 
 AEGENTI NITEATIS, L. Prep. 1. (St. B. 
 
 Hosp.) Nitrate of silver (crystallised), 12 gr. ; 
 liquorice powder, 24 gr. j treacle, q. s. For 
 12 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, twice or thrice a day ; 
 in chi'onic epilepsy and some other spasmodic 
 disorders. 
 
 2. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Nitrate of silver, 
 6 gr. ; crum of bread, q. s. (say \ dr.); mix, 
 and divide into 12 pills. — Dose, 1, every six 
 hours. 
 
 Obs. To prevent the blue or slate coloured 
 tinge of the skin, sd often produced by the 
 continued use of the salts of silver, 8 drops of 
 diluted nitric acid in 1 fl. oz. of water should 
 be taken after each pill. 
 
 Pills, Norton's Chamomile. Prep. From 
 aqueous extract of aloes, 1 dr. ; extract of gen- 
 tian, 3 dr. ; mix, and drive off the excess of 
 moisture by the heat of a water bath ; then 
 add of essential oil of chamomiles, 20 drops, 
 and divide the mass into 60 pills. To preserve 
 their aromatic properties, they should he kept 
 in a dry glass bottle or a well-covered earthen- 
 ware pot. — Dose, 1, as a dinner pill; or 2, 
 night and morning, as a stomachic tonic, 
 (' Anat. of Quackery.') 
 
 Pills of Nux Vom'ica. Syn. Vi-lvlm nuois 
 voMicffi, L. Prep. 1. Nux vomica and aloes 
 (both in powder), equal parts ; syrup, q. s. 
 For 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 3, twice or thrice 
 daily, carefully watching the effects; in ner- 
 vous derangement, general debility, impotence, 
 paralysis, &c. 
 
 2. Alcoholic extract of nux vomica, 1 part i 
 powdered sugar, 2 parts; beaten up with rec- 
 tified spirit, q. s. For 2i-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 
 to 2 ; as the last. 
 
 3. (Mondiere.) Alcoholic extract, 6 gr. ; 
 levigated black oxide of iron, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s. 
 In atonic incontinence of urine, amenoirhoea, 
 &c. 
 
 Fills, Odontalgic. Syn. Pilules odontal- 
 aiCM, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Powdered opium 
 
PILLS 
 
 1315 
 
 and extract! of belladonna and lienbane, of 
 each 10 gr. ; oil of olivet, 20 drops ; powdered 
 pcllitory of Spain, i dr.; bent them to a mass, 
 ■ml divide it into 1-gr. pills; keep them in a 
 corked phial. 
 
 Fills, Opiated Lead. See Pills of Leas. 
 
 Pills of 0"pium. Si/n. Anodyne pills, 
 NionT p.. Thebaic p. ; Pilols opii (Ph. U. 
 S.), P. o. or THEBAIC* (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Pli. E. ) Opium and conserve of red roses, 
 of each 1 piirt; sulphate of potash, 3 parts; 
 rub tliem together to a proper mass, and divide 
 into 5-gr. pills. — Dose. 1 to 2 |iill9, as an 
 aiiocljno or soporific. Each pill contains 1 gr. 
 of opium, or double the quantity in the same 
 pill of the previous edition of t'ne Ph. E. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered opium, 1 dr. ; 
 Castile soap, 12 gr. ; water, q. s. For 60 pills. 
 As the last. 
 
 Fillsof Ox Qall. Si/a. Bile pill; Piltjl* 
 PKi.i.is BOVINI, P. BILIS, L. Prep. 1. From 
 inspissated ox-gall formed into pills by the 
 addition of any simple powder ; or the harder 
 I'xtract beaten up with u little proof spirit. 
 Powdered rhubarb is frequently used for the 
 purpose. For 3-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 6 ; for 
 coDitipution, flatulence, &c., arising from a 
 defiriency of bile. 
 
 2. (Compound.) From inspissiited ox-gnll, 
 1 dr. ; powdered rhubarb, 4 dr. ; powdered 
 ipecacuanha and capsicum, of each 15 gr. ; 
 oil of cai-nw.'iy, 12 drops. For 48 pills. — Dose, 
 1 to 4; in loss of appetite and dyspepsia, with 
 torpor of the bowels, &c. See Constipation, 
 Gall, &c. 
 
 Pills of Ox'ide of Gold. Si/n. Pilule; aubi 
 OXYDi, L. Prep, (Magoiidie.) 'i'eioxide of 
 gold, 6 gr. ; extract of mezureon, 2 dr. ; mix, 
 and divide into 60 pills. Each pill contains 
 ■J*! jfr. of teroxide. — Dose, 1 to 3 ; in scrofula, 
 syphilis, malignant fevirs, &c. 
 
 Pills of Oxide of Mercury. See Fills, 
 Heucobial. 
 
 Pills ofOnde of Sil'ver. Sj/n. Pilui..e ab- 
 GKNTI OXYDI, L. Prep. From oxide of silver, 
 t; gr. ; powdered rhubarb mid extract of gen- 
 tiiiii, of each 12 gr. For 1 dozen pills. — Dose, 
 1 pill, twice or tlirice daily ; in gastralgia, 
 hiemuri'huges, nervous nffecti'in.s, &i:. Milder 
 than the pills of nitrate of silvir. 
 
 Fills of Oxide of Zinc. Sj/n. Pilvl^s zinci 
 OXVUI, L. Prep. From oxide of zinc, pow- 
 dund iMsiarilla, and conserve of hips, equal 
 pirts. Fi)r 3.J-gr. pillj. Tonic and antispas- 
 modic. — Dose, 1 to 3, thrice daily; in dys- 
 j>e|i-ui, gastric or spasmodic coughs, epilepsy, 
 choi' n, ^c. 
 
 Pills, Parr's Life. Prep. Aloes, 7 lbs. ; rhu- 
 barli ;ind jidap, of each 5 lbs. (.ill in pow- 
 doi); cviract of gentian, 3J lbs.; soft soap, 
 I lb. ; liijuorice powder, Ireacli', iiiid moist 
 sug.ir, ot euL'h 4i lbs.; oil of cloves, 10 oz. ; 
 oil of caiaway. 3i oz. ; mix, and bent the 
 whole to a proper mass with syrup lii'ioins, 
 q. a.. :iiid divide it into 3i-!,'r. pills. " Tbin' 
 lire :ii>out;4 dozen in each Is. IJd. box, weigh- 
 
 ing (dry) barely 3 gr. each." A good stoma- 
 chic and aperient pill, but possessing none of 
 the exti-aordinary virtnes ascribed to it by 
 its proprietors. "('Med. Circ.,' ii, 146, 1G7, 
 &c.) 
 Pills of PauUin'ia. Si/n. Gpabaxa pills; 
 
 PlLUL.aE OUAHAN.E, P. PAOLLINIJE, L. Prep. 
 1. Faullinia mixed op with syrup of orange 
 peel, and the mass divided into 2i-gr. pills. — 
 Dose, 2 to 8. 
 
 2. (Dr Gavrelle.) Extract of guarann, 1 
 dr. ; liqnorice powder, q. s. For 40 pills. — 
 Dose, 3 to 6, daily. 
 
 Obs. These pills are highly esteemed on 
 the Continent as a tonic and astringent, in 
 diseases of the bowels and bladder, in chlo- 
 rosis, debility, &o. 
 
 Fec'toral Pllle. %». Breath pills ; Pi- 
 LUL7E PECTOEALES, L. Prep. 1. Compound 
 squill pill, 1 dr. ; gum benzoin, ^ dr. ; pow- 
 dered ipecacuanha and extract of henbane, of 
 each 15 gr, ; syrup, q. s. For 3 gr. pills. — 
 Dose, 2 to 4, three or four times a day ; in 
 asthmas, cliroiiic bronchial atFections, coughs, 
 &c. 
 
 2. (Dr Copland.) Camphor (in powder), 
 10 gr. ; ipec.icuanha, 15 gr. ; extract of hem- 
 lock, 1 dr. — Dose, 3 to 6 gr. ; in irritating 
 and spasmodic couphs, &c, 
 
 3. (Hajrgirt.) Powdered ipecacuanha and 
 squills, of each t dr. ; acetate of morphia, 6 
 pi . ; Castile soap, 3 dr. ; mix, and divide into 
 72 pills. A most excellent medicine, at once 
 aoothinpand expectorant. — Dose, 1 to 2, thrice 
 a day, or of tener, 
 
 4. (HuMPHiiiES' Couon Pills.) From pow- 
 dered ipecacuanh:i, 15 gr, ; compound squill- 
 pill, 1 dr, ; compound extract ofcolocynth, i 
 dr. For 3J-gr, pills. — Dose, 2 pills, nightand 
 morning. 
 
 5. (Ur Latham.) Coinpnnnd powder of 
 ipecacuanha, 1 dr. ; fresh squill and gutn am- 
 moniacuni, of each 20 gr, ; calomel, 4 gr. 
 For 20 pills. A most valuable pectoral and 
 expectorant. — Dose, 1 pill, thrice daily; in 
 bi'oiichitis, coughs, &c., after the more active 
 iiitlatntnatory symptoms have subsided. 
 
 6. (Na|ioleon's.) From ipecacuanha, 30 gr.; 
 squills and .iinmnniacum, of each 40 gr. (all 
 in powder); muciliige, q, s. to mix. For 24 
 pills. It is siiid that this was a favourite 
 renndy with the Emperor Napoleon I for 
 diffiinity of breathing, bronchitis, and various 
 affections of the organs of respiration. — Dose, 
 2 pills, ni'.'ht and morning. 
 
 7. (I^r Paris.) Powdered squills, J dr.; 
 powdered myrrh, li dr. ; extract of henbane, 
 40 gr. ; wai,Lr (or simple suuu), q. s. to mix. 
 For 4-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 pills, night and 
 moriiinr. As X', 2. 
 
 8. (Ph. L. 1746.) Gum ammoniacum, 4 
 dr.; gain bciuoiii, 3 dr.; gumm\rrh. 2 dr.; 
 satiron, 1 dr ; anisatLd bilsam of sulphur, i 
 dr. ; s\rup of tolu, q. s. to mix, — Dose, 5 to 
 15 !zr.' 
 
 9. (Richter.) Assafoetida and valerian, of 
 
1316 
 
 PILLS 
 
 each i dr. ; castor, 15 gr. ; powdered squills 
 and sesquicarbonate of ammonia, of each 8 
 gr. ; extract of aconite (alcoholic), 3 gr. For 
 4-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 3 pills, night and morn- 
 ing ; in spasmodic affections of the respiratory 
 organs. 
 
 Pills, Perpet'ual. See Pills, Eveelastins. 
 
 Pills, Peter's. Prep. (Cooley.) Aloes, 3 dr.; 
 gamboge, jaiup, and scammony, of each 2 dr. 
 (all in powder); calomel, 1 dr. ; beaten up with 
 rectified spirit, q. a. A powerful cathartic. — 
 Dose, 1 to 3 pills. 
 
 Pills of Phosphorus. (B. P.) Si/n. Piittl^ 
 Phosphoki. Prep. Phosphorus, 2 gr. ; bal- 
 sam of tolu, 120 gr. ; yellow wax, 60 gr. Put 
 the phosphorus and balsam into a wedgwood 
 mortar half full of hot water, and when the 
 phosphorus has melted and the balsam become 
 sufficiently soft, rub them together beneath 
 the surCace of the water until no particles of 
 phosphorus are visible, the temperature of the 
 water being maintained at or near 140° F. 
 Add now the wax, and as it softens mix it 
 thoroughly with the other ingredients. Allow 
 the mass to cool without being exposed to the 
 air, and keep it in a bottle immersed in cold 
 water. It may be softened with a few drops 
 of rectified spirit when made into pills. — Dose, 
 3 to 6 gr. 
 
 Pills of Pip'erine. /Syn. Pilule pipekinje, 
 L. Prep. From piperine, t dr. ; extract of 
 cinchona, q. s. For 80 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, 
 every two hours, during the intermission of 
 an ague; also as an aphrodisiac and a remedy 
 in piles. 
 
 Pills of Pitch. St/n. Pilulje piois nigb^, 
 L. Prep. From black pitch and powdered 
 black pepper, equal parts ; beaten together in 
 ii warm mortar, and divided into 4gr. pills. 
 — Dose, 2 pills, night and morning ; in piles, 
 &c. 
 
 Pills, Pitschaft's Eocoprot'ic. Prep. From 
 strained aloes and disulphate of quinine, equal 
 parts; made into 2-gr. pills. A tonic and 
 stomachic aperient. — Dose, 2 to 4, at bedtime ; 
 in torpor of the large intestines, the dyspepsia 
 of the debilitated, &c. 
 
 Pills of Podophyllin. S^n. Pilulje podo- 
 PHYLLINI. Prep. Kesin of podophyllin, ^ gr. 
 Extract of henbane. To make one pill. One 
 or two for a dose. 
 
 Pills of Prussian Blue. (Jolly.) Si/n. 
 
 PiLTJLK PEHBI PEEOYAHIDI COMPOSITA. Prep. 
 
 Prussian blue, 18 gr. ; sulphate of quinine, 
 12 gr. ; extract of opium, 1 gr. ; conserve of 
 roses, q. s. Mix, and make into 12 pills; 1 
 every three hours, in neuralgia. 
 
 Pills, Plnmmer's. See Pills of Calomel 
 (Compound). 
 
 Pills, Pur'gative. Sun. Pilule PunaANTES, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Dr Robinson.) Aqueous ex- 
 tract of aloes, 1 dr. ; powdered scammony, J 
 dr. ; balsam of Peru, 10 or 12 gr. ; oil of car- 
 away, 9 or 10 drops ; mix, and divide into 30 
 pills. A warm, stimulating aperient, highly 
 recommended to excite the peristaltic action of 
 
 the bowels of the aged, sedentary, and debili- 
 tated. — Dose, 1 to 4 pills, as required. 
 
 2. (Trousseau & Eeveil.) Eeain of jalap, 
 1 dr. ; scammony, J dr. ; extract of colocynth, 
 6 gr. ; excipient, as required. For 20 (or, 
 better, 24) pills. — Dose, 1, " every two hours, 
 in the morning, fasting, until they operate." 
 For other formulas see Pills, Apeeient and 
 Cathaetic, and Pills of Aloes, Jalap, 
 COLOCTNTH, &c. 
 
 Pills of ftninine'. See Pills of Sulphate 
 OF Quinine. 
 
 Pills, Eeece's. See Pills, Chieatta. 
 
 Pills, Ee'nal. Syn. Pilulze eenales, L. 
 Prep. 1. Squills, myrrh, and digitalis, of each 
 (in powder) 10 gr. ; extract of rhubarb and 
 mercurial pill, of each 15 gr. ; powdered nitre, 
 20 gr. ; oil of juniper, 10 or 12 drops. For 24 
 pills. Alterative, diuretic, and tonic. — Duse, 
 
 3 to 6, thrice a day. Hunter's Renal Purify- 
 ing Pills are similar.but omitting the mercurial 
 pill. Ue Roos' Renal Pills contain a prepara- 
 tion of copaiba. 
 
 Pills, Eheu'matism. Si/n. Pilule; anti- 
 EHEUMATlCiE, L. Prep. 1. Gum guaiacum, 
 1 dr. ; nitrate of potassia, 1^ dr. (both in 
 powder) ; soft soap (Ph. L.), i dr. ; oil of caje- 
 put, 16 drops. For 4 dozen pills. — Dose, 2 to 
 6, night and morning; in chronic rheumatism, 
 and rheumatic gout. Their action is accele- 
 rated by the copious use of lemon juice during 
 the day. 
 
 2. (Beasley.) Extract of artichoke, i dr. ; 
 powdered sarsaparilln, 20 gr. ; oil of sassa- 
 fras, 1 drop. For 12 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, thrice 
 daily. 
 
 Pills of Ehu'barh. Sv«. Pilule ehei (Ph. 
 E.),L. Prep. 1. (Ph.E.) Powdered rhubarb, 
 9 parts ; acetate of potassa, 1 part ; conserve of 
 red roses, 5 parts; mix, and divide into 5-gr. 
 pills. A stomachic and gentle aperient, parti- 
 cularly useful in atonic dyspepsia. —Dose, 2 to 
 
 4 pills. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. S.) Powdered rhubarb, 6 dr ; 
 Castile soap, 2 dr. ; beaten up with water, 
 q. s., and divide into 120 pills. As the 
 last. 
 
 Pills of Rhubarb (Compound). Syn. Aeo- 
 MATic pills. Balsamic laxative p., Edin- 
 EUEGH p.. Stomachic p. ; Pilula ehei com- 
 posita (B. p.. Ph. L.), PiLULiE E. composite: 
 (Ph. E. & D.), P. stomachicje, P. aeomatice, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Powdered rhubarb, 4 
 dr.; powdered Socotrine aloes, 3 dr.; pow- 
 dered myrrh, 2 dr. ; soft soap (Ph. L.), J dr.; 
 oil of caraway, 15 drops ; treacle, q. ». to form 
 a mass. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Powdered rhubarb.l oz. ; 
 aloes, 6 dr.; myrrh, 4 dr.; Castile soap, 1 dr.; 
 oil of caraway, J fl. dr. ; syrup, q. s. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 12 parts ; 
 aloes, 9 parts ; myrrh and Castile soap, of each 
 6 parts ; conserve of red roses, 5 parts ; oil of 
 peppermint, 1 part; mix, and divide into 5-gr, 
 pills. The oil of peppernjiut may be omitted, 
 when so preferred. 
 
PILT-S 
 
 1317 
 
 4. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, li 02. ; hepntic aloes, 
 9 dr.; myrrh and Castile Muip, of each in fine 
 jiowdcr, 6 dr.; oil of pcppcnniut, 1 fl. dr.; 
 treacle, 2 oz. ; mix, and beat the whole to a 
 uniform mans. 
 
 5. (Ph. U. S. & Ph. E. 1817 ) Rlnibnrb, 8 
 dr. ; aloe», U dr. ; myrrli, 4 dr. ; oil o( pepper- 
 mint, ) 11, dr.; Byrup of orange peel, q. B.; 
 mix, and divide into 240 ]>ill8. 
 
 (1. (B. P.) Uhuliarb, in fine powder, 3 oz.; 
 .^^ocdtrine aloes, in fine powder (some physi- 
 cians iirifer the aqueous extnict — Squire), 2i 
 o?.. i myrrh, in fine powder, IJ oz. ; bard soap, 
 11 oz. ; English oil of peppermint, IJ dr. ; 
 treacle, by weight, 4 oz. ; reduce the soap to 
 line powder and triturate it with the rhubarb, 
 aloes, aud niyi rli ; add the treacle and oil, and 
 beat into :\ ui ass. — Doae, 5 to 1 gr. 
 
 06». The above are tonic, stomachic, and 
 f;ently laxative ; extremely useful for obviating 
 costiveness and giving tone to the stomach 
 and bowels.— i>o*e, 6 or 8 to 20 gr. The Lon- 
 don pill is not only the most agreeable, but it 
 keeps the best. 
 
 Fills of Bliubarb and Car'avray. See 
 KncuKNKii'a Pebistaltio Peksuadees 
 (Patent inedicineB), 
 
 Fills of Khnbarb and Chamo'mile. Syn. 
 
 Sl'KEDIMAN'8 riLLB ; I'lLULJE UIIHI ET ANTHE- 
 
 Miuis, L. I'rijK From aloes, in \rrh, rhubarb 
 (eiich in powder), and extriict of cliauiomile, of 
 each 1 dr.; es»euti»l oil of chnmnmile, 10 or 
 1'2 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An excillent tonic 
 and stomachic aperient, particularly useful in 
 the ilyspepsia and loss of appetite of bard 
 driuki rs. — Vose, 1 to 3 pills, eiiber before din- 
 ner or at bedtime. 
 Fills of Khabarb and Copai'ba. Syn. Vi- 
 
 hVLB, KHIil ET OOPAID.E, P. U. BALSAMICJE, L. 
 
 Prep, (Swediaur.) Powdered rliubiirb aud 
 itiini. equal purls; balsam of enpaiba, q. s. 
 Pills of Bhubarb and Gin'ger. Syn. Sto- 
 
 IIAIII PILLS; PitrLJJ lUlEI ET ZINGIBEH13, 
 
 L. Prep. From powdered rhubarb, 1 dr. ; 
 powdered ginger, \ ilr. Castile soap, 20 gr. ; 
 tincture or essence of gin;;er, q. a. to form a 
 mass. For 30 pills. — Dose, 1 to 6. 
 Fills of Rhubarb and Ipecac'uanha. Syn. 
 
 PlLlL.K RHBI ET IPKOACUANHa;, L. Frep. 
 
 Fjoui rhubarb, \ dr. ; ipei'acuanha, 15 gr. ; 
 opium, 5 gr. (each in powder); oil of cin- 
 namon, 6 drops ; syrup, q. ». For 18 pills. — 
 Doxe. In loss of appetite and spasmodic dys- 
 |>ep6ia, 1 to 3 pills, twice a day ; in dysentery, 
 diarrhce I, &c., to relieve tormina and tenesmus, 
 1 every two hours. 
 
 Pills of Rhubarb and I'ron. Syn. Filvue 
 KHEI ET PEBRI (Ph. E.), L. Frep. (Ph. E.) 
 Dried sulphate of iron, 4 parts ; extract of 
 rhubarb, 10 parts; conserve of red roses, 5 
 piirts ; beat them to a proper mass, and 4'vide 
 tliis into 5-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 to 4 pills ; in the 
 atonic dys|)cpsia of debilitated subjects,, in 
 cbliipsi-, &c. 
 
 Fills of Ehabarb and Ox-gall. Syn. Pilule 
 mihi ET FELLis DoviNi, L. Frep. From pow- 
 
 dered rhubarb, gum ammoniacum, and inspis- 
 sated ox-gall, equal parts ; beaten up with a 
 little tincture of ginger or proof spirit, and the 
 mass divided into 2i-gr. pills. In dyspepsia 
 and constipation dependent on w tdrpid action 
 of the liver. — Dose, 2 to 6 pills. 
 
 Pills of Rhubarb and So'da. Syn. Pilule 
 
 nilEI ET gOD£, P. E. COMP. CUM SODA, L. 
 
 Frep. (Guy's Hosp.) Dried carbonate of 
 soda, powdered rhubarb, and extract of gentian, 
 equal parts. For 4j-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 to 4 
 pills ; in acidity, heartburn, diarrhcea, loss of 
 appetite, &c. 
 
 Pills, Richter's. See Pectoral pills. 
 
 Fills, Dr Robinson's. See Pills, Pchoa- 
 
 TIVE. 
 
 Fills, Rudins's. Syn. liroirs's exieact; 
 
 PiLULJ! EDDII, EXTEACTCM KUDU, L. Prep. 
 
 1. Colocynth pnlp, 6 dr. ; aguric, Idack helle- 
 bore, and turpetlium root, of each 4 dr. ; cin- 
 namon, mace, and cloves, of each 40 gr. ; 
 rectified spirit, \ pint ; digest for 4 days, ex- 
 press the tincture, and evajjoriite it to a proper 
 consistenceformakingpills. Formerly esteemed 
 one of the most safe and certain cathartics 
 in troublesome constipation. — Dose, o to20gr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. 17.S3.) Black hellebore and colo- 
 cynth, of each 2 oz, ; water, 4 pints (o. w. m.) ; 
 boil to a quart, strain, evaporate to the con- 
 sistence of bnney, and add, of aloes, 2 oz. ; 
 scammony (powdered), 1 oz. ; next remove the 
 vis-el from the fire, and further add if sulphate 
 of piitassa, 2 dr. ; oil of cloves, 1 dr. ; and form 
 the whole into a pill-mass. Resembles the last 
 (nearly). 
 
 Fills, Rufus's. See PiiLS of Aloes with 
 Myhbh, 
 
 Fills of Sahadilla, Syn. Piliti; cevadille. 
 Prep. Equal jiarts of subadiliii aud honey; 
 make into 5-gr. pilN. — Dose. For an adult, 4 
 to 6 pills ; for a child, 1 to 2, Vermifuge, 
 
 Fills of Saffron. Syn. Pilule ceooi, L. 
 Prep. 1. From buy saffron, 1 dr. ; myrrh, \ dr. ; 
 oil of cajeput, G drops; svrup of saffron, q. s. 
 For 36 pills. — Dose, 1 to 3 or 4, occasionally ; 
 as a stimulant in low spirits, hypochondriasis, 
 &c. 
 
 2, (Phoebus,) Saffron, myrrli, and sulphur, 
 equal parts ; inspissated bile, q, s. For 2-gr. 
 pills, — Dose, 2 to 12 daily ; as an eminena- 
 gogne. 
 
 Pills of Sagape'num (Compound). Syn. Vi- 
 LUL^SAGArENICOMPOSIT.E, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 
 1836.) Siigapenum, 1 oz. ; aloes, \ dr, ; syrup 
 of ginger, q, s. — Dose, 5 to 20 gr. ; as a stimu- 
 lant antispasmodic laxative, in dyspepsia with 
 flatulence, flatulent colic, &c. 
 
 Fills of Sal'icin. Syn. Pilul,e SALiciNiE, 
 L. Prep. From salicin, \ dr. ; powdered rhu- 
 barb, 20 gr. ; extract of gentian, q. s. to mix. 
 For 4-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 to 4, every three 
 hours, during the apvrexia of intermittents. 
 
 Fills of Sandal Wood Oil. (Ebert.) Syn. 
 Pilule olei santali. Prep. Oil of yellow 
 sandal wood, i oz. ; yellow wax, i oz. Melt 
 the wax into a capsule, and weigh into it the 
 
1318 
 
 PILLS 
 
 oil of sandal wood. Mix, and stir until cold, 
 then roll out the mass and divide it into 80 
 pills, by means of the pill machine or pill-tite, 
 in the same manner as in the ordinary mass, 
 and sprinkle with marshmallow root powder. 
 Each pill contains about 3 gr. or abont 5 
 drops of the oil. The excipient is unobjec- 
 tionable, as it is readily soluble in the juices 
 of the stomach. 
 
 Pilla of Scam'mony (Compound). Syn. 
 Pilule: soammonii composit.e, L. Frep. 1. 
 (St. B. Hosp.) Scammony, 24 gr.; ginger, 20 
 f;r. ; aloes and gamboge, of each 12 gr. ; 
 treacle, q. s. ; mix, and divide into 12 pills. A 
 powerful cathartic and vermifuge. — Done, 1 to 
 
 3 pills. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Resin of scammony, resin of 
 jalap, of each 1 oz. ; curd soap, in powder, 1 
 oz. ; strong tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 2 fl. oz. Add the tincture and 
 spirit to the soap and resins, and dissolve by 
 the aid of a gentle heat, then evaporate the 
 spirit over a wattr-bath until the mass has a 
 pilular consistence. — Dose, 5 gr. to 15 gr. 
 
 Pills, Scot's. Prep. From aloes, 9 lbs. ; 
 jalap, 3 lbs.; gamboge and ginger, of each \ 
 lb.; beaten with treacle, q. b. See PiLis, 
 Andeeson's Soot's. 
 
 Pills, Dr Scott's Bil'ions and Liver. Prep. 
 (Cooley.) Compound extract of colocynth (Ph. 
 L. 1836), 8 oz. ; powdered rhubarb, 4 oz. ; 
 powdered myrrh, 2 oz. ; sort soap, \ oz. ; oil 
 of caraway, 2i dr.; strong syrup of saffron, 
 q. o. to form a pill-mass. " There are twenty- 
 five 3i-gr. pills in each Is. l^d. box." " It 
 has been stated that these pills contain a 
 minute portion of antimony." ('Anat. of 
 Quackery.') 
 
 Pills, Sed'ative. Syn. Pilttije SEDATiva;, 
 L. Prep. 1. Hydrochlorate of morphia, 6 
 gr. ; powdered sumbul, 20 gr. ; alcoholic ex- 
 tract of Indian hemp, i dr. For 2-gr. pills. — 
 Dose, 1 to 3, twice or thrice daily ; in exces- 
 sive nervous iiTitability, painful menstrua- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 2. (U. C. Hosp.) Camphor, 1 dr. ; reduce 
 it to powder by means of rectified spirit, 3 or 
 
 4 drops; add of extract of henbane, 20 gr., 
 and divide the mass into 20 pills. To allay 
 pain and excitement, &c. — Dose, 1 to 2 pills. 
 
 3. To either of the above, add of powdered 
 rhubarb and extract of gentian, of each 20 
 gr., and divide the mass into 4-gr. pills. — 
 Dose, 1 to 4 pills ; when, besides the other 
 symptoms, the stomach and bowels are disor- 
 dered. 
 
 Pills, Sedillot's Febrifage. Prep. From pow- 
 dered opium, 3 gr. ; sulphate of quinine, 12 
 gr. ; confection of opium, 10 gr., or q. s. For 
 12 pills. — Dose, 1 to 2, every second hour, 
 during the intermission of an ague. 
 
 Pills of Sen'na. Syn. Piutl^ SEWNiE, P. 
 S. COMPOSITiE, L. Prep. 1. Powdered senna, 
 1 dr. ; extract of rhubarb, i dr. ; powdered 
 capsicum, 4 gr. ; oil of juniper, 6 or 8 drops. 
 
 For 3-gr. pills. An aperient well suited for 
 females. — Dose, 5 to 8 pills. 
 
 2. (Hufeland.) Powdered senna, 1 dr. ; ex- 
 tract of dandelion, q. a. to mix. For 30 pills. 
 As the last. 
 
 Pills, Smith's. Prep. From powdered aloes, 
 4 dr. ; jalap, 2 dr. ; ginger and soft soap, of 
 each 1 dr. ; oil of juniper, \ dr. ; emetic tartar, 
 6 gr. For 120 pills. Laxative and diuretic. 
 — Dose, 1 to 4, at bedtime, or early in the 
 morning. 
 
 Pills, Dr Hugh Smith's. See Stouach 
 Pills. 
 
 Pills of Soap. Syn. Pilule: safokis, P. 
 CFM SAPONE, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) White 
 Castile soap, 32 parts; powdered marshmallow 
 root, 4 parts ; powdered nitrate of porassa, 1 
 part; beat them to a mass, and divide this 
 into 4-gr. pills. In habitual costiveness, cal- 
 culary affections, &e. — Dose, 1 to 6 pills, twice 
 or thrice a day. 
 
 Pills of Soap (Compound). Syn. Pills op 
 
 SOAP AND OPirM, LaUDAHUM PILLS; PlLULA 
 SAPONIS COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), PlLUL.ffi BA- 
 
 PONis CUM opio, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Opium and liquorice, of each (in powder) 2 
 dr.; soft soap (Ph. L.), 6 dr.; beat them to 
 a uniform mass. 
 
 2. (B. P. & Ph. U. S.) Opium (in fine 
 powder), i oz. ; Castile soap, 2 oz. ; distilled 
 water, i fl. dr., or q. s. ; reduce the soap to 
 powder, mix it with the other ingredients, and 
 beat the whole together, as before. — T>ose, 3 
 gr. to 5 gr. See Pills op Opium. 
 
 Obs. The above pills contain l-5th part of 
 their weight in dry opium. The dose is 3 to 
 10 gr., in the usual cases in which the admi- 
 nistration of opium is indicated. Mr Skey, 
 the eminent surgeon of St. Bartholomew's 
 Hospital, has sliown the great value of this 
 pill in promoting the healing of obstinate 
 ulcers, more especially those of the legs. 
 
 Pills of Soda. Syn. Pilule; sous, caebo- 
 NATis, L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1817.) Exsiccated 
 carbonate of soda, 4 parts; Castile soap, 3 
 parts; syrup, q. s. to form a mass. Antacid 
 and slightly laxative. — Dose, 10 to 20 gr. 
 This pill was a great favourite of the once 
 celebrated Dr Beddoes. 
 
 Pills, Soot. (Dr Neligan.) Syn. Pilule; 
 PULiaiNIS. Prep. Extract of soot, i dr.; 
 compound galbanum pill, 1 scruple ; oil of 
 valerian, 15 minims. Make into 12 pills. 
 Take 2 three times a day. For hysteria. 
 
 Pills, Speedimau's. Prep. (Cooley.) Aloes, 
 3 dr.; rhubarb, myrrh (all in powdei), and 
 extract of chamomile, of each 1 dr.; oil of 
 chamomile, 20 drops. For 4-gr. pills. An 
 excellent aperient, tonic, and stomachic. — 
 Dose, 2 to 4 pills, as a purgative ; 1, as a sto- 
 machic or dinner pill. 
 
 Pills, Splenet'ic. Syn. Vilvlm antisple- 
 NETica;, L. Prep. (Saunders.) Strained aloes 
 and gum ammoniacum, of each 3 dr.; 
 myrrh and bryony, of each J dr. For 4-gr. 
 pills.— 2>o««, 8 to 5. "Extolled in amenor- 
 
PILLS 
 
 1319 
 
 r1up» and liypnchondrlnsiB." (Dr R. £. 
 Griffith.) 
 Fills of Squill (Componnd). Si/n. Couon 
 
 FILLS, PlLLB OF SQDlLLa AND OIMOKB; Pl- 
 LUH BOILIiK COMrOSlTJI (B. P., Ph. L.), 
 PiLUL.E sciLL* compobiTjE (Ph. D.), p. 
 SclLL.i; (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Pli. L.) Freslily 
 pnvvilered equilU, 1 dr. ; powdered ginger niid 
 powiliTcd ammoniaemn, of each 2 dr.; mix, 
 iidd of soft soap (Ph. L.), 3 dr. ; treacle, 1 
 dr.; and bent the whole together, so thut a 
 uia's may be formed. 
 
 2. (Ph. !<!.) Squills, ■'i parts; ammoniacnro, 
 gint'er (all in fine powder), and Spanisli soap, 
 of eacli 1 parts; conserve of red roses, 2 
 part« ; mix, as before, and divide the mass 
 into 5-gr. pills. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Squills (in fine powder), 2i dr. ; 
 ammoniacum, ginger, and Castile soap, of each 
 (in fine powder) 2 dr. ; treacle, J oz. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Squill (in fine powder), 1^; gin- 
 ger (in fine powder), 1; ammoniiicuni (in 
 powder), 1 ; hard soap (in powder), 1 ; treacle 
 (by weight), 2, or a sufficiency ; mix the pow- 
 ders, add the treacle, and beat into a mass. — 
 Dose, 6 to 10 grains. 
 
 Obs. Compound squill pill is a moat usef id 
 expc'itorant in chronic coughs, asthmas, bron- 
 chi;il affections, difficulty of breathing, &c. ; 
 and, combined with calomel and foxglove, and, 
 occasionally, witli oroton oil, as a diuretic, &c., 
 in dropsies. Unfortunately, however, it soon 
 spoils ; and, therefore, to be effective as a re- 
 medy, it must be recently prepared. As an 
 cxpi'ctcirant, it should not be administered 
 until the inflammatory symptoms have been 
 subdued by purgatives or bleeding. A little 
 powdered opium, or extract of henbane, is occa- 
 sionidlv added, to allay irritation. — Dose, 5 to 
 20 gr., twice or thrice u day, accompanied by 
 an otrnsional aperient. 
 
 Pills, Stahl'g. See Pills, Aperibnt. 
 
 Pills, Starkey's. Prep. (Original formula.) 
 Extniit of opium, 4 oz. ; mineral benznar and 
 nutuu'f,'. of each 2 oz. ; saffron and Virginian 
 snake-root, of each 1 oz.; Stiirlicy's soap, 4 lb.; 
 oil of sassafras, J oz. ; tincture of antimony 
 (Old Ph.), 2 fl. oz. Anodyne, diaphoretic, &c. — 
 Dole, 3 to 10 gr. The formula already given 
 under Matthew's pills is erroneously as- 
 signed to this pill by some writers. 
 
 Pills, Mrs. Stephen's. This once celebrated 
 remedy for stone was prepared from the cal- 
 cined shells of eggs and snails, made into 3 gr. 
 pills with soft soap. Its active ingredients 
 were, consequently, lime and potash. 
 
 Pills, Stirn'olant. Sj/n. Pijmlm stimu- 
 L.iXTES. L. Prep. 1. Capsicum, i dr. ; ni- 
 trate of silver, 2 gr.; conserve of hips, q. s. 
 For 12 pills. — Dote, 2 to 4, washed down with 
 a spoonful of warm spirit and water, and 
 repeated hourly until reaction ensues; in 
 cliolerii, 4c. 
 
 2. (A. T. Thomson.) Strychnine, 1 gr.; 
 acetic acid, 1 drop; cram of brend, 20 gr. ; 
 mix very carefully, and divide the mass into 
 
 10 pills. — Dote, 1 every six hours ; in paralysis 
 arising from lead. 
 
 Pills, Stoerck's. 5y». Piluue conii, P. 
 CICUT^, L. Prep. From extract of hemlock, 
 1 dr. ; powdered hemlock, q. s. to make a ma.«s. 
 For 2-gr. pills. — Dose, 1 to 4, twice a day ; in 
 various glandular and visceral enlargements, 
 pulmonary affections, cancer, scrofula, neu- 
 ralgia, &c. 
 
 Pills, Stomach. S^n. Piltjls stomaohice, 
 L. Prep. 1. Ipecacuanha, 10 gr. ; sumbul 
 and extract of rhubarb, of each 30 gr. ; pow- 
 dered quassia, 20 gr. ; oil of sassafras, 6 drops; 
 beaten up with essence of ginger (strongest), 
 q. s. For 3-gr. pills. — Done, 1 to 3, thrice 
 daily; in loss of appetite, flatulence, dyspepsia, 
 &c. 
 
 2. (Dr Hugh Smith's.) From aloes, rhu- 
 barb, ginger (all powdered), and sagapenum, 
 of each 1 dr. ; oils of peppermint and cloves, 
 of each 10 drops; balsam of Peru, q. s. to 
 mix. For 5-gr. pills. — Doae, 2 or 3 nightly ; 
 or 1 to 2 before dinner. For other forinulas. 
 see UlNNEE, APEUIKNT. COMPOUND BBUBABB, 
 
 Aloes and Mastic pills, &c. 
 Pills of Sto'rax (Compound). .<\yn. Stoeax 
 
 pills ; PiLULA STYRACIS COMPOSITA (I'h. L), 
 
 I'lLULiE STYiiAcis (Ph. K.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Prepared storax, 6 dr. ; Siifi"ron and 
 powdered opium, of each 2 dr. bunt them to- 
 1,'ether to a uniform mass. Contains l-5th of 
 its weight of opium. 
 
 2. (i'h. £.) Opium and saffron, .of each 1 
 part ; extract of styrax, 2 parts ; beat them to 
 a uniform mass, and divide this into 4-gr. pills. 
 Contains l-4th part of opium. 
 
 Obs. Tlie storax is litre chiefly employed to 
 disguise the odour and taste of opium. The 
 name of the preparation has been chosen so 
 that the word ' opium ' may not appear in the 
 proscription, a point highly necessary with 
 certain patients. — Dose, 3 to 10 gr. ; as com- 
 pound soap pill, and as an anodyne and expec- 
 torant in chronic coughs, &c. 
 
 Pills of Stramo"ninm. Syn. Pilul.e stra- 
 MONII, L. Prep. 1. Stramonium seeds (in 
 powder), 12 gr. (or leaves, 25 gr.) ; powdered 
 camphor and extract of seneka root, of each 
 1 dr. ; powdered savine, li dr. ; oil of cajeput,, 
 15 drops. For 2.1-gr. pills. — Dose, 2 to 4, 
 thrice daily ; in rheumatism, &c. 
 
 2. (Sir H. Halford.) Extract of stramoninmi 
 and liquorice powder, of each 1 dr. ; powdered 
 Castile soap, 2 dr. ; mucilage, q. s. to mix.' For 
 60 pills.— X>ose, 1 night and morning; in 
 asthmas, &c. 
 
 Pills of Strych'nine. St/n. Pilulje strych- 
 SIM, h. Prep. (Magendie.) ^trichnine, 2 
 gr. ; conserve of hips, 36 gr. (liquorice pow- 
 der, q. s.) ; mix very carefully, divide the mass 
 into 24 pills, and silver them. — Dose, 1 pill 
 night and morning; in amaurosis, impotence, 
 paralysis, &e. 
 
 Pills of Sulphate of Copper. (Brande.) 
 Sgn. PiLULS; CDPKi SULPHATIS. Prep. Sul- 
 phate of copper, 3 gr. ; bread cruio, 1 dr. 
 
1320 
 
 PILLS 
 
 Mix, for 24 pills; 1, three or four times a 
 day. 
 
 Pills of Snl'phate of I'ron. Syn. Pilulb 
 TEKKi SU1PHATI3 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. 
 E.) Dried sulphate of iron and conserve of 
 red roses, of each 2 parts ; extract of dande- 
 lion, 5 parts. For 5-gr. pills. A useful cha- 
 lybeate tonic. Dose, 1 to 2, twice or thrice 
 daily ; in dyspepsia, chlorosis, amenorrhoea, &c. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Sulphate of iron (dried), 
 1 oz. ; extract of chamomile, 1^ oz. ; oil of 
 peppermint, 1 dr. ; syrup, q. s. As the last. 
 
 3. (Ph. U. S.) As No. 1, but substituting 
 extract of gentian for extract of dandelion. 
 For other fuuuulm, see Pins, Hoopeb's 
 
 FEMALE, &C. 
 
 Pills of Sulphate of Quinine'. Syn. Yylv- 
 
 IjM QUINI^ SULPHATIS, P. Q. DISULPHATIS, 
 
 L. , Frep. 1. Sulphate of quinine, 20 gr. j 
 extract of gentian, 40 gr. For 20 pills. 
 
 2. (Ph. U. ^.) Sulphate of quinine, 2 dr.; 
 powdered gum, i dr.; strained honey, q. s. For 
 I'M pills. Each pill contains 1 gr. of the sul- 
 phate or disulphate of quiuine, — Dose, 1 or 2 
 twice a day, as a tonic and stomachic ; 6 to 
 12, every two or three hours during the 
 remissions of agues. 
 
 3. (U. P.) Mix 60 gr. of sulphate of qui- 
 nine, and 20 gr. of confection of hips to a 
 uniform mass. — Dose, 2 gr. to 10 gr. 
 
 06s. Various additions are often made to 
 the above forinulaj, according to the mdica- 
 tions, by wliich numerous other useful pills 
 are produced. Thus, potassio-tartrate of anti- 
 mony is frequently added in obstinate inter- 
 niittents; iodide of potassium, in scrofulous 
 affections ; foxglove, in the hectic fever of 
 phthisis ; bitter tonics and aromatics, in dys- 
 pepsia, flatulence, &q. ; carbonate of soda or 
 magnesia, in acidity and heartburn; calomel, 
 mercurial pill, in bilious atfections ; rhubarb 
 and aloes, in bowelly affections ; sulphate of 
 iron and other chalybeates, in debility, amenor- 
 rhcea, and chlorosis ; calomel, as an alterative, 
 «fcc., &c. 
 
 Pills of Sulphate of Zinc. St/n. PiLULa; 
 
 ZINOI SULPHATIS, P. Z, B. COMPOSITJJ, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. Sulphate of zinc, 12 gr. ; extract of 
 gentian, J dr. i liquorice powder, q. h. For 
 20 pills. In dyspepsia, epilepsy, and various 
 convulsive diseases. 
 
 2. (Dr Paris.) Sulphate of zinc, 10 gr. ; 
 powdered niyrrli, 1^ dr.; conserve (if roses, 
 q s. For 30 pills. — Dose, 1 to 2, twice or 
 thrice daily ; in hooping-cough, &c. 
 
 Pills of Sulphnret of Iron. (Biett.) Syn. 
 Pilule pekbi sulphubeti. Prep. Sulphuret 
 of iron, i dr. ;.marshmallow powder, 10 gr. j 
 syrup, q. s. Make into 20 pills ; 1 to 4 pills 
 daily, in scrofulous eruptions. 
 
 Pills, Syph'ilis. Syn. PilcL-E antistphi- 
 LITICJS, L. Seethe various pills of mercury, 
 gold, &c. The pills of corrosive sublimate 
 commonly pass under this name. 
 
 Pills, Tangore. See Pills, Aksenical. 
 
 Pills of Tan'nic Acid. Syn. Pilule tan- 
 
 Nlifl, P. ACIDI TANNIOI, L. Prep. From tan- 
 nic acid or tannin and powdered sugar, of each 
 i dr.; conserve ot roses, q. s. For 24 pills. 
 — Dose, 1 or 2 pills, thrice daily, in diarrhoea ; 
 or 2 every three hours, in internal haemor- 
 rhages, spitting of blood, &c. 
 
 Pills of Tar. Syn. PiLULa; picis LiQniDjE, 
 L. Prep. From tar, 1 dr. ; powdered gen- 
 tian, i dr., or q. s. For 24 pills. Stimulant, 
 diuretic, and sudorific. — Dose, 1 to 4, thrice 
 a day; in dropsies, worms, ichthyosis, and 
 several other skin diseases, &c. 
 . Pills of Tarax'acnm. Syn. Piiui^ taeax- 
 ACi, L. Prep. 1. Extract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; 
 powdered rhubarb, q. s. ; divide into 3^-gr. 
 pills. In dyspepsia, &c., complicated with 
 congestion of the liver. 
 
 2. (St Marie.) Extract of dandelion and 
 Castile soap, equal parts; liquid acetate of 
 potassa, q. s. to mix. For 4-gr. pills. As a 
 diuretic in dropsy. 
 
 3. Extract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; mercurial 
 pill, 20 gr. ; powdered digitalis, 15 gr. ; liquo- 
 rice powder, q. s. For 24 pills.— Dose, 1, after- 
 wards increased to 2 or 3; in dropsy connected 
 with liver disease. 
 
 Pills, Thomson's Stomach and Liver. Prep. 
 From extract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; scammony 
 aud rhubarb, of each 15' gr. For 14 pills. — 
 Dose, 2 pills, night and morning ; in hysteria, 
 hy])ochondriasis, and chronic inflammation of 
 the liver or kidneys. 
 
 Pills of Tobacco. (Augustin.) Syn. Pl- 
 LULiE TABACi. Prep. Powder of tobacco, 24 
 gr. ; confection of roses, q. s. ilix, and form 
 72 pills.— Dose, 2 to 4 daily, till nausea is 
 produced. In dropsy. 
 
 Pills, Tonic. Syn. Pilul^s; tonicb, L. 
 Prep. 1. Sulphate of iron, ginger, and myrrh 
 (all in |iowder), equal parts ; conserve of roses, 
 q. s. ; mix, and divide into 4-gr. pills. — Dose, 
 1, twice a day ; in debility, chlorosis, &c. 
 
 2. Powdered myrrh and sulphate of iron, 
 of each 1 dr. ; disulphate of quinine, \ dr., 
 powdered capsicum, 15 gr. ; conserve of roses, 
 q. s. to mix. For 60 pills. — Dose, 1 or 2, 
 twice or thrice a day ; in debility, dyspepsia, 
 ague, &c. 
 
 3. (Dr Collier.) Tartrate of iron and ex- 
 tract of gentian, of each 1 dr. ; oil of cinna- 
 mon, 2 drops. For 30 pills. — Dose, 3 to 6, 
 three or four times a day. A good stomachic 
 tonic. 
 
 4. (Dr Collier.) Oxide of zinc, \ dr. (or 
 sulphate of zinc, 20 gr.) ; myrrh, 2 dr.; cam- 
 phor, 20 gr. ; confection of hips, to mix. For 
 40 pills. — Dose, 1 or two pills, three times a 
 day; in epilepsy, chorea, and other nervous 
 disorders, debility, &c. 
 
 5. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Rhubarb and 
 ginger, of each 4 dr. ; extract of chamomile, 
 1 dr. ; divide into 30 pills. — Dose, 2 or 3, 
 twice a day; in dyspepsia and chlorosis. 
 
 6. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Sesquioxide of 
 iron and extract of hemlock, of each 1 dr. ; 
 mix, and divide into 20 pills. — Dose, 1 or 2, 
 
PILOCARPINE— PIMARIC ACID 
 
 1321 
 
 twice ft day j in fluor albus, scrofula, Ac. 
 Several other lormiilm for tonic pills will be 
 found under the niiiiies of the leading ingie- 
 dientx, 4c. (See above.) 
 
 Pills of Turpentine. (P. Cod.) Si/n. Pi- 
 lULS TKBKUINTHIN.U. jPrep. Venice turpen- 
 tine, li oz. ; ciirbonate of magnesia, 1 oz. 
 Miike into 200 pills. 
 
 Fills of Vale"rian (Componnd). St/n. Pi- 
 
 LVLS VALEBIAN^ OOMPOSITiE, L. Prep. 
 (Dupuytren.) Powdered valerian, i dr.; 
 castor and white oxide of zinc, of each 20 gr. ; 
 eyrup, q s. ; to mix. For 18 pills. — Dose, 2 or 
 3, tlirice daily ; in hysteria, hypochondriasis, 
 chlorosis, homicrania, &c. 
 
 Pills of Vale"rianate of Zinc. Si/n. Pi- 
 lULS VAtKBlANAB, L. Frep. From vale- 
 rianate of zinc and powdered gum, of each 
 15 gr. ; conserve of hips, q. s. to form a mass. 
 For 18 pills. — Dose, 1 pill, twice daily; in 
 nervous headaclie, neuralgia, hysteria, &c. 
 
 Pills, Vallet's. See Pills op Carbonate 
 OF luoN. 
 Pills, Vance's. See Puts, Apeeient. 
 Pills of Vera'trine. St/n. Pilulj? vkba- 
 TBIN^, h. Prep. 1. (Magendie.) Voratrine, 
 J gr. ; powdered giiui Arahic nud syrup of 
 gum, of each q. s. to form 6 pills. (See 
 Ac/ow.) 
 
 2. (Turnbull.) Vcriitrine, 1 gr. ; extract 
 of henbane and liquorice powder, of each 
 12 gr. ; mix, and divide into 12 pills. — Dose, 
 1 pill, every 3 hours; in dropsy, opilep'ii, 
 hysteria, paralysis, nervous palpitations, Ac. 
 This should be prepared aud used with great 
 caution. 
 
 Pills, Ward's Eed. 8yn. Waed's antimo- 
 NIAL PlLLB. Prep. From glass of nntiincmy 
 (finely levigated), 4 oz. ; dragon's blood, 1 oz. ; 
 mountain wine, q. s. ; to form a mass. For IJ- 
 gr. pills. Emetic. " They are recommended 
 iu obstinate rheumatism affections, in foulness 
 of the stomach and bowels, &c. Their action 
 is often of a very unpleasant character." 
 ('Anat. of Quackery.') 
 Pills, Lady Webster's. See Pills, Diknkk. 
 Pills, Whitehead's Essence of Mustard. Bal- 
 sam of tolu, with resin. (Dr Paris.) 
 
 PilU, Whytt's. Prep. (Radius.) Aloes, 
 chloride of iron, and extract of horehound, of 
 each \ dr. ; nssufoetida, \\ dr. For 2-gr. pills. 
 — Dose, 2 to 5, thrice daily ; in leucorrboea, 
 chlorosis, hysteria, &,c., with constipation. 
 
 Pills, Worm. Si^n. Pilul.*; anthelmin- 
 tics, P. VKHMiFUoa:, L. Prep. 1. Calomel, 
 1 oz. ; sugar, IJ oz. ; mucilage, q. s. ; mix, 
 and divide into 240 pills. — Dose, 1 to 2, over- 
 night, followed by a strong dose of castor oil 
 early the next morning. 
 
 2. Gamboge, 6gr. ; calomel, 5 gr.; mucilngo, 
 q. s. ; divide into 3 pills. For a morning's 
 dose, fasting. 
 
 8. Extract of wormwood, calomel, aud pow- 
 dered scammoiiy, equal parts. For 4-^.'r. pills. 
 — Dote, I to 2, as the last. For ascarides, and 
 other small worms. 
 
 4. (Bresmer.) Powdered aloes and tansy 
 seed, of each 4 dr. ; oil of rue, 9 or 10 drops. 
 For 12 pills.— Z)o*e, 3 to 6, in the morning, 
 fasting, and repeated in two or three hours. 
 
 5. (Phoebus.) Iron filings, i dr. ; assafcetida, 
 li dr.; essential oil of tansy, 10 or 12 drops; 
 extract of wormwood, q. s. ; mix, and divide 
 into 80 pl\h.— Dose, 6 pills, thrice daily. 
 
 6. (Peschier.) Ethereal extract of male 
 fern, 30 drops ; extract of dandelion, 1 dr. ; 
 powdered rhizomes of male fern, q. s. to mix. 
 For 30 pills. In tapeworm. — Dose, 6 to 15, 
 at bedtime ; the dose being repeated in the 
 morning, and then followed in au hour by a 
 strong dose of castor oil. 
 
 Pills, Wordsell's (Kaye's.) Prep. (Cooley.) 
 Powdered aloes, gamboge, and gnger, equal 
 parts ; together with a very small qnaotity of 
 iliapliorrtic antimony, beaten into a mass with 
 either syrup or treacle, and divided into 2 J-gr. 
 pills. " There are about 4i dozen pills in 
 each Is. lid. bo^." " The do*c, as given in 
 the directions, is from 2 to 8 pills (or even 
 10 to 12) daily." ('Anat. of Quackery.') They 
 (ivqnently operate with great violence. 
 
 Pills, Wyndham's (Lee's). Prep. (Cooley.) 
 Aloes and gamboge, of each (in powder) 3 oz. ; 
 Castile soap and extract of cow-parsnip, oi' 
 each 1 oz. ; nitre, i oz. For 5-gr. pills. 
 A powerful drastic cathartic. — Dose, 1 to 3 
 pills. 
 
 Pills of Zinc. Sec PiLis OP OxiDB, Sul- 
 phate and Valhuianate of Zino, &c. 
 
 PILOCARPIHE. Prep. Exiiaust the leaves 
 or bark of Jaborandi with 80^ alcohol, to 
 which hydrochloric acid has been added in the 
 proportion of 8 grains per litre; distil and 
 evaporate to the consistence of an extract. 
 Rcdissolve the extract with a small quantity 
 of distilled water and filter; treat with 
 ammonia in slight excess, and a large quan- 
 tity of chloroform. Distil off the clihToform, 
 dissolve the residue iu distilled water acidu- 
 lated with hydrochloric acid, and filter. Treat 
 afresh with chloroform and ammonia. The 
 chloroformic solution is then shaken with 
 water, to which hydrochloric acid is added, 
 drop by drop, up to the quantity sufficient to 
 satur.ite the pilocarpine. The foreign matters 
 remain in the chloroform, and upon evapora- 
 tion of the aqueous liquid the hydrochlorate is 
 obtained, well crystallised, in long needles 
 radiating from a common centre. The hydro- 
 chlorate dissolved in distilled water, and 
 treated with ammonia and chloroform, yieldc 
 the pilocarpine upon evaporation of the chlo- 
 form solution. 
 
 Pilocarpine appears under the form of a 
 soft viscous substance ; it is slightly soluble in 
 water and very soluble in alcohol, ether and 
 chloroform. It presents all the chemical cha- 
 racters of an alkaloid, and rotates the plane of 
 polarized light strongly to the right. (Paris 
 Pliarmaceutical Societv.) 
 
 PIMA'KIC ACID. A resin acid first Ob- 
 tained by Laurent from the turpentine of 
 
1322 
 
 PIMENTO— PIPETTE 
 
 Finus maritima (Bordeaux turpentine), by the 
 action of hot alcohol. 
 
 PIMEN'TO. Si/n. Alispicb, Clotb pepper, 
 Jamaica p.. Pimento bebeies; Pimenta 
 (B. P., Ph. L., E., & E.), Pipeb caetophtlla- 
 
 TUM, P. JaMAICENSE, P. ODOBATUM, PIMENTiE 
 
 bacCjE, L. " The dried unripe berries of the 
 allspice tree, JEugenia pimenta, from the West 
 Indies" — B. P. "The immature fruit of Uu- 
 genia pimenta (Myrtus pimenta, Linn)" — Pli. 
 L. It possesses a mixed odour of cinnamon, 
 cloves, and nutmegs, which, with its other 
 properties, it for the most yields to alcohol, 
 ether, and water. It is a stimulant and tonic, 
 and is much esteemed as an adjuvant in me- 
 dicines prescribed in dyspepsia, flatulence, 
 gout, hysteria &c. ; and also to cover the 
 taste of disagreeable medicines. — Dose, 5 to 
 30 gr., bruised or in powder. See Essence, 
 Oils (Volatile), Spirits, and Waters. 
 
 PIM'PLES. See Ebuptions (Papular). 
 
 PINCH'BECK. A gold-lilie alloy of copper 
 and zinc. See Dutch gold. 
 
 PINE APPLE. Sgn. Ananas. The fruit of 
 Ananassa sativa, a plant of the natural order 
 BromeliacecB. It is astringent, esculent, anrt 
 possesses a rich flavour and odour. In Europe 
 it is chiefly used as a delicacy for the table ; 
 but in tropical climates it is said to be valu- 
 able in renal diseases. See Essence, &c. 
 
 PI'NEY TAL'LOW. Syn. PiNET BESIN, P. 
 SAMMAB. An oleo-resinous substance obtained 
 from the fruit of Valeria indica, a tree com- 
 mon in Malabar, by boiling it with water. It 
 is intermediate between fat and wax, makes 
 good soap and excellent candles. It melts at 
 yS" Falir. Sp. gr. -9250 to 9265. 
 
 PI'NIC ACID. The portion of common resin 
 or colophony which is soluble in cold alcohol of 
 sp. gr. -838. 
 
 FINK. A well known shade of light red. 
 The name is also- applied to several pigments, 
 consisting of whiting stained with liquid dyes. 
 See Red and Yellow pigments, &c. 
 
 PINK DYE. Prep. From washed Siifflower, 
 2oz. ; salt of tartar, i oz. ; cold water, 1 
 quart ; digest for 3 hours, express the liquor, 
 and strain it. Used as a cosmetic, and to dye 
 silk stockings, &c., of a rose colour. The 
 colour is brought out by afterwards applying 
 to, or passing the articles through, water 
 soured with lemon juice. See Satjcees (Pink). 
 
 PIP'EEIN. CiyHigNOj. Syn. Pipebina. 
 PiPEEiNUM, L. J?rep. (P. Cod.) Alcoholic 
 extract of black pepper is treated with a weak 
 solution of caustic potassa (1 to 100), and the 
 residuum, after being washed with cold water, 
 is dissolved in alcohol ; the solution is next 
 agitated with a little animal charcoal, and the 
 filtrate is allowed to evaporate spontaneously ; 
 the product may he purified by the re-solution 
 in alcohol and re-crystallisation. 
 
 Prop., S;e. Colourleo, or only slightly yel- 
 low; tasteless; inodorous; fusible; and crvs- 
 tallisiible ; insoluble in water ; freely soluble 
 in strong spirit, and in the acids; very feebly 
 
 basic ; a few definite compounds have, how- 
 ever, been obtained with difficulty ; reddened 
 by oil of vitriol. It has been much employed 
 in Italy and on the Continent as a febrifuge. — 
 T>ose, 2 to 10 gr., frequently repeated, during 
 the apyrexia of intermittents. 
 
 04*. An assay for its piperin is the only 
 certain method of testing the quality of either 
 black or white pepper. For tliis purpose a 
 weighted quantity of the sample is reduced to 
 powder, and is exhausted with alcohol of the 
 sp. gr. '883 ; the mixed tinctures are then eva- 
 porated to an extract, which is treated as above. 
 See Peppeb. 
 
 PIPES. (In confectionery.) These are formed 
 from any of the common lozenge-masses, by 
 rolling them into cylinders of about the thick- 
 ness of a goose-quill. They are frequently 
 medicated. 
 
 PIPETTE. A graduated glass instrument, 
 in frequent use in the chemical laboratory, 
 for conveying a measured quantity of fluid 
 from one vessel to another. The pipette 
 mostly consists of a bulb, from each end of 
 which proceeds a straight, slender hollow stem, 
 communicating with the bulb, and varying in 
 length with the capacity of the instrument. 
 Thus constructed, the lower end of the pipette 
 can be dipped into a vessel with a narrow and 
 long neck, such as a flask, containing a fluid, 
 the required volume of which can be removed 
 from it. The pipette varies in capacity from 
 1 to 200 cubic centimetres. 
 
 ])r Fresenius gives the following directions 
 for its use : — " To fill a pipette with the fluid 
 which it is intended to transfer from one 
 vessel to another, the lower part of the 
 instrument is dipped into the fluid, and 
 suction applied to the upper aperture, either 
 direct with the lips or through a caoutchouc 
 tube until the fluid in the pipette stands a 
 little above the required mark ; the upper, 
 somewhat narrowed, ground orifice is then 
 closed with the point of the index of the right 
 hand, which to that end had always better 
 be moistened a little, and holding the pipette 
 in a perfectly vertical direction, the excess of 
 over the quantity required is made to drop 
 out by lifting the finger a little. When the 
 fluid in the pipette has fallen to the required 
 level, the drops which may happen to adhere 
 to the outside of the pipette are carefully 
 wiped off, and the contents of the tube are 
 then fully transferred to the other vessel. In 
 this process it is found that the fluid does not 
 run out completely, but that a small portion of 
 it remains adhering to the glass in the point 
 of the pipette ; after a time, as this becomes 
 increased by other minute particles of fluid 
 trickling down from the upper part of the 
 tube, a drop gathers at the lower orifice, which 
 may be allowed to fall from its own weight, or 
 may be made to drop off by a slight shake ; 
 if, after this, the point of the pipette be laid 
 against a moist portion of the inner side of 
 the vessel, another minute portion of fluid will 
 
PISTACHIO NUTS— f ITCOAL 
 
 1323 
 
 trickle out ; and lastly, another trifling droplet 
 or 80 limy bo got out by blowinir into the 
 piptttf tbrongli the upper orifice. Now, sup- 
 pnsing the operator follows nn fixed rule in 
 tliia respect, letting the fluid, for instance, in 
 one operiition simply run out, whilst in another 
 operation he lets it drain afterwards, and in a 
 tliird blows off' the last particles of it from the 
 pipette, it is evident that the re^puctive quan- 
 tities of fluid delivered in the several opera- 
 tions cannot he quite equal. I prefer in all 
 cases the second method, viz. to lay the point 
 of the pipette whilst draining finally against 
 H niuiit portion of the inner side of the vessel, 
 which I liave alwiiys found to give the most 
 accurate corresponding measurements. 
 
 FISTA'CHIO NUTS. Si/n. Pibtacia nuts ; 
 NnoES PISTACIJE, li. The kernels of the fruit 
 of Piscatia vera (Linn.), one of the turpentine 
 trees. They closely resemble almonds, buture 
 sweeter, ami form >i green emulsion with water. 
 Used in confectionery and perfumery, and also 
 as a deisort fruit. 
 
 PITCH. Syn. Bliok pitch. Boiled p., 
 Stone p., Wood p. j Pjx (Pli. L.), Pix kiqka, 
 L. " A dry bitumen prepared from liquid 
 pitch." Pli. L.) The residuum from boiling 
 tar in an open iron pot, or in a still, until the 
 volatile and liquid portion is driven off. The 
 volatile products principally consist of crude 
 pyroligueous acid and oil of tar. Pitch is 
 chietl.v employed in ship-building. As a 
 medicine, it is stimulant and tunic, and 
 has been used internally in some skin diseases, 
 and in pilc^. An ointment made of it is also 
 extensively used in cutaneous atfections of the 
 scaly. — Dose, 10 gr. to J dr. 
 
 Pitch, Burgundy. St/n. White pitch, Bun- 
 orNur PINE KEsiN ; Fix Bubodndica (B.P., 
 Ph. L., E., & D.), Ij. " Impure resin prepared 
 from the turpentine o(Abie» exceha," or Nor- 
 way spruce fir. (Ph. L.) " A concrete resi- 
 nous exudation, probably, in a great measure, 
 from Abies excelta." (Ph. E.) It is chiefly 
 used in plasters. 
 
 Obs. The importation of this substance has 
 for some years past been gradually lessening 
 in amount, in consequence of the substitution 
 for it of a fictitious pitch, made by melting 
 common resin with liuseed oil, and colouring 
 the muss with annotta or palm oil. The phy- 
 siolojjiial action of the two articles is, how- 
 ever, considerably different, since Burgundy 
 pitch acts upon the skin as a powerful local 
 irritant, exciting a slight degree of inflam- 
 mation, and not unfrequently producing a 
 pimply eruption and an exudation of purulent 
 matter. It is celebrated for its elt'ecta when 
 employed as a plaster in all cases where 
 warmth, support, and long adhesion to the 
 skin, arc desirable; and in the latter quality 
 no substance equals it. The fictitious Bur- 
 gundy jiitch has similar properties, but in an 
 immensely less degree. 
 
 Pbkpahbd Bukgundt Pitch (Pix Bue- 
 OPNUICA fs^Pabata — Ph. L.) is ordered 
 
 to be obtained in the same way as that 
 adopted for strained ammoniacum. This 
 plan is, however, seldom, if ever, adopted in 
 trade. 
 
 Fitch, Burgundy (Facti"tioua). Syn. Fix 
 BoEGUNDiCA factitia, L. Prep. By melt- 
 ing good yellow resin, 1 cwt.,with linseed oil, 
 1 gall., and palm oil (bright), q. s. to colour. 
 The mixture is allowed to cool considerably, 
 and is then pulled with the hands in the same 
 way as lead plaster is treated ; after which it 
 is placed in ' bladders ' or ' stands ' for sale. 
 
 Obs. The product of the above formula is 
 the ' Burgundy pitch ' of the shops. The 
 ' pulling ' or ' working ' destroys the trans- 
 lucenc V of the re-in, and imparts to it the 
 peculiar semi-opacity of foreign Burgundy 
 pitch. Cold water is commonly employed to 
 cool it down. Annotta is often substituted for 
 palm oil as a colouring substance. The addi- 
 tion of some of the ' droppings ' or ' bottoms ' 
 of Canada balsam, Ohio turpentine, oil of ju- 
 niper, &c., renders this article nearly equal to 
 foreign pitch ; but in commerce this is never 
 attempted, the aim being only the production 
 of a lively colour with moderate toughness. A 
 common melting-pan and fire (il clean, nnd 
 carefully managed) will succeed sufficiently, 
 but, both for safety and convenience, steam is 
 preferable, and on the large scale, nlnio-t indis- 
 pensable. A good workman can pull and put 
 into stands or casks about 5 cwt. daily; or 
 from li cwt. to 3 cwt. in bUdders, tlif hitter 
 quantity depending on tlie size of the bladders. 
 (See above.) 
 
 Pitch, Can'ada. Sf/n. Hemlock gum, H. 
 pitch. Similar to Burgundy pitch ; but from 
 the Abies C'lnadenses, or hemlock spruce fir. 
 
 Pitch, Jews'. Asphaltum 
 
 Pitch, Min'eral. Indurated mineral bitumen. 
 See AspiiALTUM, Bitumen, &c. 
 
 PIT'COAL. Si/n. CoAL; Houri-LB, Fr. ; 
 SteinkOHIE, Ger. This article has been truly 
 described as the most valuable of all those 
 niineriil substances from which Great Britain 
 derives its prosperity, and the one which may 
 be regarded as the main support of the whole 
 system of British production. It fuses the 
 metals, it produces the steam which sets our 
 machinery in motion, and, in short, it may be 
 said to render all the resources of this country 
 available for use. 
 
 The more important kinds of coal may be 
 classified as follows : — I. Lignite or brown 
 coal (?ce page 969).) — 2. Bituminonsor caking 
 coals. The most widely diffused and valuable 
 of English coals. They are subdivided into : 
 a. Caking coal. Splinters on heatinu, but 
 the fragments then fuse together in a semi- 
 pasty mass. The chief sources of this valu- 
 able variety of coal are the Newcastle and 
 Wigan districts, b. Cherry coal or soft c^al. 
 Lustre very bright; does not fuse, ignites 
 well and burns rapidly. Glaszow, Stafpord- 
 shire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, Lancashire, 
 lie. c. Splint, rough, or hard coal. Black 
 
1324 
 
 PLAGUE 
 
 and glistening ; does not ignite readily, but 
 burns up to a clear hot fire. It constitutes 
 the bulk of the great coal fields of North and 
 South Staffordshire, and occurs in the Glasgow 
 district, in Shropshire, Leicestershire, War- 
 wickshire, &e. d. Cannel or parrot cohI. Dense 
 and compact, having a shelly fracture, and 
 taking a poiisli like jet. Splinters in the fire, 
 and burns clearly and brightly. Wigan and 
 other parts of Lancashire, West Glasgow, &e. 
 The curious deposit at Bathgate, near Edin- 
 burgh, commonly known as • Boghead cannel 
 coal,' ' or ' Torbanehill mineral,' differs con- 
 siderably from the ordinary ' cannels.' — 3. 
 Anthracite or stone-coal. The densest, hardest, 
 and most lustrous of all kinds of pitcoal. 
 Burns with little flame or smoke, but gives 
 gi'eat heat. South Wales, Devonshire, &c. —4. 
 Steam coal. Approaches nearly to anthracite. 
 Admirably adapted for steam-vessels. South 
 Wales, Tyne district, &c. 
 
 The quality of coal may be ascertained by 
 either directly testing its heating power or 
 by chemical analysis. In the iqvestigations 
 undertaken at the Museum of Economic 
 Geology, under the directions of Sir H. De la 
 Beche, and which furnished the materials for 
 the celebrated ' Admiralty Reports,' three dif- 
 ferent methods were adopted for this purpose.' 
 These consisted in — the determination of the 
 quantity of water which a given weight of the 
 coal was capable of converting into steam, 
 the quantity of litharge which it was capable of 
 reducing to tlie metallic state, and, lastly, its 
 ultimate analysis by combustion with oxide of 
 copper. See Oeoanio Substances. 
 
 The quantity of sulphur in coal is another 
 matter of importance that may be determined 
 by chemical analysis. (See Sulphuk.) The 
 presence of more than 1^ of sulphur renders 
 coal unfit for the economical production of 
 good light-gas, and more than 2g of sulphur 
 renders it objectionable for use as domestic 
 fuel. In like manner, coals containing mineral 
 ingredients in excess are to be avoided, not 
 merely on account of the quantity of ashes 
 left by them, but for their tendency to vitrify 
 upon the bars of the furnace, and to produce 
 what is technically called 'clinkers.' The 
 presence of much silica or alumina, and more 
 particularly of any of the salts of lime, in 
 ' steam coal,' is, on this account, highly objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 For some further information connected 
 with this subject, see Anthkacite, Chim- 
 neys, Coke, Ppel, Gas, Lignite, Oils, 
 (Mineral), Okganio substances, &c. 
 
 PLAGUE. (Pestis). " A specific fever 
 attended with bubo of the inguinal and other 
 glands, and occasionally with carbuncles." 
 
 Such is the definition of plague given in 
 the 'Nomenclature of Diseases' (published in 
 1869), drawn up by a joint committee ap- 
 pointed by the College of Physicians. 
 
 More detailed acgounts of the diseape, 
 ' See Watt's * Diet, of Chemistry,* vol. i, page 1033. 
 
 described by other pathologists, state that 
 it attacks the patient with great suddeness, or 
 only after a few premonitory symptoms. 
 These are: — Shivering, extreme prostration, 
 intense headache and giddiness, excessive 
 restlessness, and an overwhelming sense of 
 anxiety. The patient's gait becomes uncer- 
 tain, and he staggers like a drunken man. 
 These symptoms are more or less accompanied 
 by nausea, bilious vomiting, and frequently by 
 bilious diarrhoea. As the disease advances, 
 delirium very frequently sets in ; the nausea, 
 vomiting, and diarrhoea increase in intensity, 
 the tongue becomes swollen and covered with 
 a dark fur, whilst the lips, teeth, and nostrils 
 are coated with a dry fetid incrustation. Pro- 
 vided the attack does not terminate fatally, in 
 a very rapid manner, these symptoms are ac- 
 companied by sharp pains (increasing in inten- 
 sity during the progress of the malady) in the 
 groin, armpits, and neck. These pains in the 
 above parts precede the appearance of tlie 
 buboes, and in many cases, of the carbuncles, 
 which, associated with the fever, are. so charac- 
 teristic of plague. These glandular swellings 
 vary, in different cases, as to the time when 
 they make their appearance. Sometimes they 
 do so during the first day of the attack, at 
 others, after two or throe da^'s — and in others, 
 again, not until uear the close of the disease. 
 With the buboes and carbuncles, small red 
 purplish spots {petechice), frequently appear 
 on the body. The carbuncle is by no means 
 an invariable accompaniment of the disease. 
 Dr Russell, out of 2700 cases, found only 
 490 in which it showed itself. He states 
 that when carbuncle develops itself, it is dis- 
 tributed over the whole surface of the body 
 with the exception of the scalp, the palms of 
 the hands, and the soles of the feet. 
 
 " The plague may be said to assume four 
 degrees of severity: — 1. Slight fever, without 
 delirium or buboes. 2. Pever, delirium, and 
 buboes. 3. Fever, delirium, or coma, buboes, 
 carbuncles, and petechia. 4. Congestive fever, 
 fatal on the first, second, or third day, before 
 the appearance of buboes. The fever, though 
 usually continued, may assume the intermit- 
 tent or remittent type."^ 
 
 There is considerable diversity of opinion 
 as to the origin of plague. By some patho- 
 logists it is maintained tliat it spreads solely 
 by contagion ; by others the contagion theory 
 is altogether repudiated, and certain local and 
 epidemic agencies are referred to as its source; 
 whilst others, again, adopt a medium view and, 
 whilst not denying its contagious origin, hold 
 that it may also be developed by endemic and 
 epidemic causes. It hears a great resemblance 
 to typhus. 
 
 With the exception of the outbreak of 
 plague at Veltianka, in Astrakan, in the 
 beginning of the current year (1879), the pes- 
 tilence has not visited Western Europe during 
 
 ' Hooper's ' Vade Mecum,' edited by Messrs Guy and 
 Harlcy. 
 
PLAGUE 
 
 1325 
 
 the present century an exemption whiili, 
 being »o obviously due to the improve I suui- 
 tary and liygienic coiidilions of the modern 
 European cities uud towns, is a forcible illus- 
 tration of how largely the power of curtailing 
 tbo propagation and progress of tbe scourge 
 U within the mciins of human control. There 
 can be little, if any, doubt that the same total 
 ab>encc of drainage, and the very possible 
 c'utisequent contamination of drinking water, 
 added to the narrowness of the streets, tbe 
 overcrowded and badly ventilated state of the 
 houses themselves, and the dirty habits of the 
 inmaten, whicli are also characteristic of those 
 quarturs of eastern cities and towns in which 
 plague is always more or less occasionally pre- 
 valent, obtained in tbe fourteenth, fifteenth, 
 sixteeiitb, and seventeenth centuries, amongst 
 Kuropcan communities, 
 
 \Vu learn, on the authority of Mr Marshall 
 (who gets his figures from the weekly bills of 
 mortality of the period), that during tbe six- 
 teenth and seventeenth centuries London was 
 seldom free from the pestilence, and that in 
 several yi'ars, not usually regarded by histo- 
 rians as plague epochs, it annually slew from 
 less than 1000 to 4O00 of the inhabitants. 
 
 Between the years 1593 and 1665, five 
 severe outbreaks of the disease occurred in 
 London, and the number of deaths for the 
 respective years were as follows ; — 1593, 
 11,003; 1603, 36,269; 1025, 35,417; 1636, 
 10,400; 1065, 68,596. According to Sir 
 William Petty, the average mortality during 
 these several attacks amounted to about a fiftli 
 of the population. 
 
 That insanitary surroundings and the spread 
 of plague, whilst sanitary cues and its decline, 
 follow each other like cause and eti'ect, may be 
 emphasised by the statement of two facts: — 
 1. The medical commissioner lately sent by the 
 Uuvsian government to tbe seat of the late 
 outbreak of the malady in Astrakan, dis- 
 covered the people dirty in their habits, living 
 in noisome, overcrowded houses, and the atmo- 
 sphere polluted with the smell of decaying 
 fish, added to which the village was most 
 miserably drained. 2. Ranken records that 
 in Rajpootana plague propagated by tbe filthy 
 habits of the inhabitants was for some years 
 ahnost entirely obliterated by tlie adoption of 
 sanitary precautious. 
 
 It may here be noticed thitt the Astrakan 
 plague was associated n itli rnttammation of the 
 lungs, a feature which led an eminent Russian 
 physician to adopt the opinion, that the 
 Astrakan malady is the same as the Indian 
 plague, which is believed to be the same 
 disease which, under the name of ' The Black 
 Death,' committed such appalling devastation 
 in Kurope, Asia, and Africa, in the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 In his ' Epidemics of the Middle Ages,' ' 
 Hecker has told of the ravages of this ruthless 
 pestilence, which made its appearance in 
 ' PuUlisLed by the Sjdcalinni Socii-ly, 18 W. 
 
 Europe in 1348. Its devastations at Florence 
 have been very powerfully described by Boc- 
 caccio in the introduction to his ' Decameron.* 
 Boccaccio was in Naples at the time it was 
 devastating Italy, therefore, it is conjectured, 
 his graphic description must have been derived 
 from hearsay and the reports of eyewit- 
 nesses. 
 
 In August of the same year it broke out at 
 Dorset, from which county it soon reached 
 Devon and Somerset, and thence rapidly 
 spread throughout England, slaying its thon- 
 sands in its progress. In London alone it has 
 been estimated that the mortality caused by it 
 amounted to a hundred thousand. 
 
 Hecker assumes that in Europe its victims 
 were twenty-five millions. These however, as 
 well as the following figures, must only be 
 received as approximations to the correct 
 numbers, which, owing to the absence of any 
 contemporary bills of mortality, cannot but be 
 very imperfect : — 
 
 In Florence there 
 
 died of 
 
 tbe 
 
 black plague . 
 
 , 
 
 
 . 60,000 
 
 In Venice . 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 . 100,000 
 
 In Marseilles, in one month 
 
 . 10,000 
 
 In Sienna . • 
 
 
 
 . 7u,000 
 
 In Paris . 
 
 
 
 . 50,000 
 
 In St Denis 
 
 
 
 . 14,000 
 
 Iii Avignon • 
 
 
 
 . 60,000 
 
 In Strasbourg . 
 
 
 
 . 16,000 
 
 In Lubeck . 
 
 
 
 . 9,000 
 
 In Busle . 
 
 
 
 . 14,000 
 
 In Erfurt at least 
 
 
 
 . 16,000 
 
 In Weimar 
 
 
 
 . 5,000 
 
 In Lemburg 
 
 
 
 . 2,500 
 
 In London at least 
 
 
 
 , 100,000 
 
 In Norwich 
 
 
 
 . 51,000 
 
 To wliich may be added: — 
 
 Franciscan Friars in Germany. 124,43 !• 
 Minorites in Italy . . . 30,000 
 
 From the circumstance — illustrative of the 
 religious and blind bigotry of this period— that 
 the Jews were brutally tortured, massacred, 
 and burnt, on suspicion of having poisoned 
 the welh from which drinking water was 
 drawn, it may be inferred that tbe wells, 
 owing to the entire al)sence of drainage, which 
 led to tlieir contamination by sewage matters, 
 contributed largely to tbe spread of the pes- 
 tilence. 
 
 Of the potency of the contagion dissemi- 
 nated by the ' Black Death ' Hecker re- 
 cords : — 
 
 " Every spot which the sick bad touched, 
 their breath, their clothes, spread the conta- 
 gion ; and in all other places tbe attendants 
 and friends, who were either blind to tlieir 
 danger, or heroically despised it, fell a sacri- 
 fice to their .sympathy. 
 
 " Even tbe eyes of the patient were con- 
 sidered as sources of contagion, which had 
 the power of acting at a distance, either on 
 acconnt of their unwonted lustre, or the dis- 
 
1326 
 
 PLAGUE 
 
 tortion which they always suffer in plague, or 
 in conformity with an ancient notion, accord- 
 ing to wliicli the sight was considered as tlie 
 bearer of a demoniacal excitement. 
 
 "The pestilential death of the sick, who ex- 
 pectorated blood, caused a terrible contagion 
 far and near, for even the vicinity of those 
 who had fallen ill of plague was certain death, 
 so that parents abandoned tlieir infected 
 children, and all the ties of kindred were dis- 
 solved." 
 
 There is a striking similarity between the 
 above description, referring to the plague of 
 1348, and the following, which is extracted 
 from Dr Doppner's official medical report to 
 the Russian government on the plague which 
 manifested itself at Veltiauka in Astrakan 
 as lately as January, 1879. Dr Doppner, 
 writes : — 
 
 " The necessary remedies were employed to 
 combat the disease. I prescribed especially 
 salicylic acid, muriatic acid, quinine, &o., 
 but everything proved useless. Not a single 
 putient recovered, viz. Dr Koch and six of 
 his assistants died, the priest of the Stanitza, 
 the Cossacks employed in burying the dead; 
 in a word, all those who approached the per- 
 sons attacked with the disease, although fur- 
 nished with the means of preservation used in 
 like circumstances, very few escaped the 
 plague.^ " 
 
 No case of plague has occurred in England 
 for more than two centuries, altiiough in 
 1721 it half depopulated Marseilles, and com- 
 mitted ft-arful ravages at Moscow, in 1771. 
 
 Within the present century it has appeared 
 in Europe at the following places : — At Malta, 
 in 1813 ; at Calabria, in 1816 ; nt Corfu, in 
 1818; in Silesia, in 1819; and amongst the 
 Russian troops in Bulgaria, in 1824. In 
 Malta between 4000 and 5000 people fell 
 victims to it. 
 
 It made its last appearance in England in 
 1665, and was especially fatal in London, 
 where it carried off, as we have already seen, 
 65,596 peciple. Because of the frightful mor- 
 tality it occasioned, this particular outbreak 
 of the disease has been named by historians 
 "The Great Plague of London." Rapidly 
 spreading from Westminster, where it first 
 manifested itself, to the more closely built 
 city, its progress increased with the warm 
 weather, until during the sultry months of 
 August and September it reached its height. 
 "Thus," writes Pepys in his diary, August 
 31st, 1 665 " this month ends with great sadness 
 upon the public through the greatness of the 
 plague everywhere through the kingdom 
 almost. Every day sadder and sadder news 
 of its increase. In the city died this week 
 7496, and of them 6102 of the plngne. But 
 it is feared the true number of the dead this 
 week is near 10,000 ; partly from the poor that 
 cannot be taken notice of through the great- 
 ness of the number, and partly through the 
 * Laucet.' 
 
 Quakers and others that will not have the bell 
 ring for them." The general aspect of the 
 pestilence stricken city is thus described by 
 Pepys, " To the Exchange, where I have not 
 been a great while. But, Lord ! how sad a 
 sight it is to see the streets empty of people 
 and very few upon the 'Change. Jealous of 
 every door that one sees shut up, lest it should 
 be plague ; and about us two shops in three, 
 if not generally more, shut up." 
 
 The doors of a house infected with the 
 plague were marked with a red cross, and on 
 them was written the words, " The Lord have 
 mercy upon us." Pepys tells of the fright he 
 experienced when he came upon two houses of 
 this description, in Drury-lane, for the first 
 time ; and as he adds that he was compelled to 
 buy some roll tobacco to smell and to chew, 
 it may be concluded that this substance was 
 at that time regarded as somewhat of a safe- 
 guard against the disease. 
 
 Large carts called nightly at the infected 
 habitations and collecting the bodies of any 
 dead conveyed them to pits, into which they 
 were flung, covered with quicklime. This 
 rude kind of burial became a necessity as the 
 disease gained ground, because the ordinary 
 grave-yards were full to overflowing. " This 
 is the first time," writes Pepys, " since I have 
 been in the church since I left London for the 
 plague, and it frightened me indeed to go 
 through the church more than I thought it 
 could have done, to see so many graves lie so 
 high upon the churchyards where people have 
 been buried of the plague." 
 
 Such was the fury of the pestilence, and 
 frequently so sudden were its attacks, that 
 wayfarers were often assailed with it in the 
 streets, and staggering like drunken men fell 
 down into the road or pathways ins 'nsible or 
 dead. Merchants in their counting-houses, 
 clergymen in the act of reading the burial 
 service, buyers and sellei's in the market-place, 
 were similarly assailed by the malignant 
 malady, and it was no uncommon occurrence 
 for the mourner at the grave of a relative or 
 friend one day, to be himself borne to his 
 own tomb the next. It is not improbable the 
 infection may have been conveyed by the 
 rapidly decaying and putrid corpse to large 
 numbers of people, owing to the custom that 
 prevailed of crowds of mourners attending the 
 obsequies. 
 
 Pepys records how he saw in broad daylight 
 two or three burials, one at the very heels of 
 another, each followed by forty or fifty people. 
 Furthertuore, he states that one day on his 
 way to Greenwich, during the month of 
 August in 1665, ho passed a coffin, " with a 
 dead body therein, dead of the plague, lying 
 in an open close belonging to Coombe Farm." 
 
 If this exposure of plague-stricken corpses 
 were at all general, it will readily he perceived 
 how greatly it must have aided the propaga- 
 tion of the pestilence. 
 Another important agent in the diffation of 
 
PLAICE— PLASTER 
 
 1327 
 
 the pl»gu(> iini»t have been the infected cloth- 
 ing, whi th r of tlie dead or of tliose who had 
 been in ne r or close contigaity to them. Ou 
 this pnrt of our suhjcct Ur Guy, remarks : — 
 " Nor will this surprise us if we imagine the 
 frantic and successful efforts that must have 
 been made by the non-infected to escape, and 
 the temptation to servants and nurses to appro- 
 priate aiul remove the property of the dying 
 and the dead. Indeed, Dr Hodges accuses the 
 nurses of strangling tlieir patients, and 
 si'cictly conveying the pestilential taint from 
 sores of tlie infected to those who were well ; 
 and he justiHes his accusations 'of these 
 abandoned miscreants' — the Gamps and Prigs 
 of the seventeenth century — by two instances ; 
 the one, of a nurse who, 'oa she was leaving 
 the house of a family, oil dead, loaded with 
 lier robberies, fell down dead under her burden 
 in the streets ;' the other, of a worthy citizen 
 who, being considered dying by his nurse, wus 
 beforehand stripped by her, but recovering 
 iigiiin, he came a second time into the wurld 
 n^iked." 
 
 Lastly, in endeavouring to account for the 
 fjreat prevalence and excessively fatal charac- 
 ter of this pestilence, we must not leave out 
 of consideration one important factor — viz. 
 fear. 
 
 We cnn easily conceive how powerfully the 
 appalling incidents by which tlie pliigue was 
 a<^comp>inied must have affected the imagina- 
 tiotts of those who were in its midst, and tliu^ 
 have stimulated tlie fear, which, acting liy its 
 depressing mental effect, would predispose and 
 prepare men and women for the reception uf 
 the contagion. 
 
 In ' Pepy's Diary' wo find a circumstance 
 recorded corroborative of this. A eirtuin 
 alderman, stumbling at night over a dead body 
 in the sti*eet, when he reaches home tells his 
 wile of his adventure, and she is forthwith 
 seized with the plngue and dies of it. Fur- 
 thermore, the belief derived from knowledge 
 of the dciidly character of the disease, operat- 
 ing upon the minds of those who were attacked 
 by it, would greatly diminish the chances ol 
 their recovery, since they would most likely 
 regard seizure and death as synonymous. 
 
 There is an old Eastern fable which tells of 
 a traveller journeying from an infected city, 
 and ovcrtiiliing the plague, who had not long 
 lelt it. The traveller accosts the plague and 
 reproaches him for having slain thirty thou- 
 sand people in the city. " You are in error 
 there," replied the plngue, " I slew only ten 
 thousiind, fear slew the rest." 
 
 Tropical climates are never visited by 
 plague. In those countries which suffer firom 
 its ravages it prevails most during the hot 
 months of the year, and its virulence and 
 spread appeiir to becommensurate with increase 
 of tempiritiire. In northern climates it 
 diminishes with the approach of cold weiither. 
 In Europe it has always been most fatal dur- 
 ing the sumuier and autumn, and in the great 
 
 plague of London the greatest mortality pre- 
 vailed during the months of August aud Sep- 
 temlier. 
 
 PLAICE. The Plateita vulgarii, a well- 
 known Hat fish, common to both the English 
 and Dutch coasts. Its flesh is good, and easy 
 of digestion, but more watery than that of the 
 flounder. 
 
 PLANTAIN. The plantain, which belongs 
 to the nat. ord. Musacese, and is a native of 
 the East Indies, is cultivated in all tropical 
 and subtropical regions of the world, in many * 
 of which it constitutes the principal food of 
 the inhabitants. There are a grent many 
 varieties of the plantain, in some of which the 
 stem is 16 or 20 feet high, whilst in others it 
 does not exceed 6 feet. It is one of the largest 
 of the herbaceous plants. 
 
 The fruit is sometimes eaten raw, but is 
 more generally boiled or roasted. It contains 
 both starch aud sugar. Boiled and beaten in 
 a mortar, it forms the common food of the 
 negroes in the West Indies. It also consti- 
 tutes the chief food of the Indians of North 
 and South America. 
 
 Humboldt has calculated that the food pro- 
 duce of the plantain is 44 times greater than 
 that of the potato and 133 times that of wheat. 
 
 The banana is a species of plantain. See 
 Banani. 
 
 PLASMA. The liquor sanguinis. A tena- 
 cious plastic liquid, forming the cciagulatiug 
 portion of the blood, and that in which the 
 cor|iU8<lis float. 
 
 PLAS'TER. (In boiling, (fee.) .SoeMoRTAii. 
 
 Plaster of Paris. Calcined sulphate of lime. 
 See Alabasteh, Gypsum, Lime, &c. 
 
 PLASTER. (In phiirmacy.) iS;yM. Em- 
 PLASTKtJM, L. Plasters (empl.istra) are exter- 
 nal applications that possess snfticient con- 
 sistence not to adhere to the fingers when cold, 
 but which become soft and adhesive ut the 
 temperature of the human body. 
 
 Plasters ore chiefly composed of unctuous 
 substances united to metallic oxides, or to 
 powders, wax, or resin. They are usually 
 formed, whilst warm, into i-lb. rolls, about 8 
 or 9 ii'-ches long, and wropped in paper. When 
 required for use, a little is melted uff the roll 
 by means of a heated iron spatula, and spread 
 upon leather, linen, or silk. Tlie less adhi si ve 
 plasters, when spread, arc usually surrounded 
 with a margin of resin plaster, to cause them 
 to adhere. 
 
 In the preparation of plasters the heat of a 
 water bath, or of steam, should alone be em- 
 ployed. Oil the large scale, well-cleaned and 
 polished copper or tinned copper pans, sur- 
 rounded with iron jackets, supplied with high- 
 pressure steam, are used for this purpose. The 
 resins and gum resins that enter into their 
 composition are previously puritied by -tvaiv- 
 iug. Alter the ingredients are mixed, and 
 the mass has acquired sufficient consistence by 
 conliiiL', portions of it are taken into the hands, 
 anointed with a little olive oil, and well 
 
1328 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 pulled or worked until it becomes solid enough 
 to admit of being formed into rolls. To pro- 
 mote the cooling of the plaster it is usual to 
 plunge it into cold water, and to expose it to 
 the action of the fluid by working it about 
 under the surface, after which it is well pulled 
 in the hands to remove the superfluous water; 
 but this process must not, on any account, he 
 practised on compound plasters, containing 
 odorous substances, or substances soluble in 
 water. These should be suffered to cool on an 
 oiled marbled slab, until sufliciently 'stiff' to 
 be formed into rolls. Many plasters, as those 
 of lead and resin, derive much of their 
 whiteness and beauty from the treatment just 
 referred to. White plasters are not, however, 
 always the best ; but they are those which are 
 most admired, and the most sought after in 
 trade. 
 
 Plasters are preserved by enveloping the 
 rolls with paper, to exclude the air as much 
 as possible, and by keeping them in a cool 
 situation. A few, as those of belladonna 
 and ammoniaciim with mercury, are com- 
 monly placed in pots. When kept for any 
 length of time, they are all more or less apt 
 to become hard and brittle, and to lose their 
 colour. When this is the case, they should be 
 remelted by a gentle heat, and sufflcient oil 
 added to the mass to restore it to a proper 
 consistence. 
 
 The operation of spreading plasters for use 
 requires skill and experience on the part of 
 the operator. Various textures are employed 
 for the purpose, of which linen or cotton cloth, 
 or leather, are those most generally employed. 
 Silk and satin are used for ' court plaster.' 
 The shape and size must be regulated by the 
 part to which they are to be applied. 
 
 On the large srale plasters are spread by 
 means of a * spread'ng machine.' 
 
 Compound plasters are now much less fre- 
 quently employed in medicine than formerly. 
 Those principally in use are such as afford 
 protection to sores and abraded surfaces, and 
 give support to the parts. A few, however, 
 which contain acrid, stimulating, and narcotic 
 substances, and operate as rubefacients, blisters, 
 or anodynes, are still retained in the Pharma- 
 copoeias. 
 
 Plaster of Ac'onite. Syn. Empiaste-om 
 ACONITI, L. I'rep. (Curtis.) Gently evapo- 
 rate tincture of aconite to the consistence of a 
 soft extract, then spread a very small portion 
 over the surface of a common adhesive plaster, 
 on either calico or leather. Mr Curtis has 
 strongly recommended this plaster in neu- 
 ralgia. A little of the alcoholic extract may 
 he employed instead of that obtained fresh 
 from the tincture. 
 
 Plaster, Adhe"rent. See Plaster, Soap 
 (Compound). 
 
 Plaster, Adhe'sive. See Plastee, Eesin, 
 CODBT p., &c. 
 
 Plaster, Adhesive Lime. Si/n. Emplas- 
 
 TEUM ArTia;siTtrM caloakeum. Prep. Soap 
 of lime, 200 parts; boiled turpentine, 100 
 parts ; suet, 25 parts. 
 
 Plaster, Ammoni'acal. Syn. De Kibi- 
 land's tolatile plastee j Emplasteum 
 
 AMMONIJE, E. A. HYDBOCHLOEATIS, L. Prep. 
 Take of load plaster, 1 oz. ; white soap (shaved 
 fine), i oz. ; melt them together, and, when 
 nearly cold, add of sal ammoniac (in fine pow- 
 der), 1 dr. Stimulant and rubefacient. Dr 
 Paris, who highly recommends it in pulmonary 
 aSections, employs double the above propor- 
 tion of sal ammoniac. Its efficacy depends on 
 the gradual extrication of free ammonia by the 
 decomposition of the sal ammoniac, on which 
 account it is proper to renew the application 
 of it every 24 hours. 
 
 Plaster of Ammoni'acum. Si^n. Emplas- 
 TETTM AMMONIACI (Ph. L., B., & D.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Ammoniacnm (strained), 
 5 oz. ; dilute acetic acid (distilled vinegar), 
 8 fl. oz. (9 fl. oz. — Ph. E.); dissolve, and, fre- 
 quently stirring, evaporate by a gentle heat to 
 a proper consistence. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Gum ammoniacum (in coarse 
 powder), 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve 
 by the aid of a gentle heat, and evaporate, as 
 before. 
 
 Obs. This plasterisadhesive, stimulant, and 
 resolvent, and is employed in scrofulous and 
 indolent tumours, white swellings, &c. In the 
 Ph. D. 1826 vinegar of squills was ordered 
 instead of distilled vinegar. 
 
 Plaster of Ammoniacnm with Hem'lock. 
 Syn. Emplastetjm ammojiiaci cum cicuta, 
 L. Prep. (Ph. E. 1744.) Gum ammoniacum, 
 8 oz. ; vinegar of squills, q. s. to dissolve ; hem- 
 lock juice, 4 oz. ; gently evaporate, as before. 
 In cancerous and other painful tumours. A 
 better plan is to add 1 dr. of extract of hem^ 
 lock to li oz. of strained ammoniacum (pre- 
 viously reduced to a proper consistence with a 
 little distilled vinegar), melted by a very gentle 
 heat. 
 Plaster of Ammoniacnm with Her'cnry. 
 
 Sl/n, EjIPlASTRtTM AMMONIACI CUM HYDEAE- 
 
 aTEO (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L. & E.) Olive oil, 1 dr.; heat it in a 
 mortar, add of sulphur, 8 gr. ; triturate ; fur- 
 ther add of mercury, 3 oz. ; again triturate, 
 and when the globules are extinguished, add 
 it to ammoniacum (strained), 1 lb. (12 oz., 
 B. P.), previously melted by a gentle heat, and 
 mix them well together. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) From ammoniacum plaster, 
 4 oz. ; mercurial plaster, 8 oz. ; melted together 
 by a gentle heat, and then stirred constantly 
 until nearly cold. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 38 oz. ; 
 prepared sevum, 5 oz. ; triturate, as last, and 
 add the mi.xture to strained ammoniacum, 
 10 lbs., previously sufficiently softened by a 
 gentle heat. Possesses a fine blue colour, 
 and is quickly made. 
 
 Obs. This plaster cannot he rolled till con- 
 siderably cooled, and neither this nor the 
 
PLASTER 
 
 1329 
 
 iimple plaater must be put into water. It ie 
 powtirfully diHciitient, and ie iipplied to indu- 
 rotrd Kliiiids, iiidolunt tumours, &c. 
 Fluter, An'odyne. See Plastbb, Opium, 
 
 PlABTEB, UkLLADONNA, &C. 
 
 Floater, Antimo"iiial. Sj/n. Emflasthvm 
 
 AITTIHONIALB, E. ANTIMONII FOTASSIO-TAa- 
 TBATI8, L. Prep. (V. C. Hosp.) By sprink- 
 lin(t tartar emetio, in very fine powder, on the 
 surface of a apreiid liurgundy piteh (or commnn 
 adhesive) plaster. It has been BuccessfuUy 
 applied to tlie nape of the neck, in the scarla- 
 tit<a of children ; also the chest, in phthisis; 
 and, wilh the addition of a little opium, in 
 rheumatic affections of the joints. 
 
 Plaster, Arnica. (Ph. U. S.) Syn. Km- 
 PLASTRDM AiiSiOM. Prep, Alcoholic extract 
 of arnic:i, li oz. ; resin plaster, 3 oz. Add 
 the extract to tlie plaster previously melted 
 over a water bath, and mix it thoroughly. 
 
 Plaster, Aromatic. Syn. STosrACB plis- 
 TBB ; Emplastbum abomatioum, L. Prep. 
 (Ph. D. 1826.) Strained frankincense (thus), 
 3 oz. ; beeswax, i oz. ; melt them together, 
 anil, when the mass has considerably heated, 
 add, of powdered cinnamon, 6 dr. ; oils of all- 
 spice and lemons, of each 2 dr. Stimulant; 
 applied over the stomach in dyspepsia, spasms, 
 nausea, tlatulence, &c. Camphor, 1 dr., is 
 commonly added. 
 
 Plaster of Assafoetida. Si/n. Antihtbtbbic 
 PLABTEB, Antispasmodic p.; Kmplastbom 
 
 A98AF(ETIDjK (Ph. E.), E. ANTIIITSTEBICtTM, 
 
 Ac, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) From lead plaater 
 and strained ossafaitida, of each 2 oz. ; strained 
 galbanum and beeswax, of each 1 oz.; melted 
 together. Antispasmodic; opplied to the sto- 
 mach or abdomen in spasms, hyuteria, &e.; 
 and to the chest in hooping-cough. 
 
 Plaster, Baynton's Adhesive. Prep. From 
 yellow resin, 1 oz. ; lead pliister, 1 lb. ; melted 
 together. Uecommouded for bad legs, and 
 otiior like sores. 
 
 Plaster of Belladon'na. St/n. Emplastrum 
 DKLiADONNJi (11. p.. Ph. L., E., & D), L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Soap plaster, 3 oz. ; melt it by the 
 heat of a water bath ; add of extract of bella- 
 donna (deadly nightshade), 3 oz. ; and keep 
 constantly stirring the mixture until it ac- 
 quires a proper consistence. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Keain plaster, 3 oz.; extract 
 of belladonna, 1^ oz. ; as the last. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Besin plaster, 2 oz. ; extract 
 of belladonna, 1 oz, 
 
 4. (B. P.) Extract of belladonna, 3; resin 
 plaster, 3 ; rectified spirit, 6 ; rub the extract 
 and spirit together in a mortar, and when the 
 insoluble matter has subsided, decant the clear 
 solution, remove the spirit by distillation or 
 evaporation, and mix the alcoholic extract 
 thus obtained with the resin plaster melted at 
 tlie heat of a water bath, continuing the heat 
 until with constant stirring the plaster has 
 acquired a suitiible consistence. 
 
 Uset, H^c. Asa powerful anodyne and nnti- 
 spusmudic ; in neuralgia and rheumatic puiu::, 
 VOL. II. 
 
 and as an application to painful tumours. 
 The plaster of the shops is usually deficient 
 in extract. The tbllowiog formula is in com- 
 mon use in the wholesale trade : — Lead plaster 
 and resin plaster, of each 2J lbs. ; extract of 
 belladonna, 1| lb. This plaster must not be 
 ' pulled ' in water. 
 Plaster, Berg's Antirheumatic. Syn. Gout 
 
 FAPEB ; EmPLASTEUM ANTIBHEUMATIOUM, 
 
 Chabta antieheumatica, L. Prep. By 
 digesting euphorbium, 2 parts, and cuntha- 
 rides, 1 part (both in powder), in rectified 
 spirit, 10 parts, for eight days ; adding to the 
 strained liquid, black resin and Venetian tur- 
 pentine, of each 4 parts ; assisting the mixture 
 by a gentle beat. Two or three coats of the 
 product are successively spread over the sur- 
 face of thia paper. Used in gout and rheu- 
 matism. (' Anat. of Quackery.') 
 
 Plaster, Black. Ht/n. Emplastbum m- 
 OBUM. Prep. Mr Sharp's black plaster was 
 formed by boiling together olive oil, 13 oz.; 
 wax, 2i oz. ; carbonate of lead, 10 oz. 
 
 Plaster, Black Diach'ylon. See Coubt 
 
 PLA8TEB. 
 
 Plaster of Black Pitch. Si/n. Emplastbum 
 PICI8 NIOR,]!, L. Prep. (Ph. Wirtem.) Black 
 pitch, black re»in, and beeswax, of each 8 
 parts; suet, 1 part; melted together. Rube- 
 facient and stimulant. 
 
 Plaster, Blistering. See Plasteb of Can- 
 
 THABIDES. 
 
 Plaster, Bree's Antiasthmatic. Prep. From 
 lead plaster, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 1 dr. ; melted 
 together, and, when somewhat cooled, mixed 
 with powdered camphor, 2 dr. ; powdered 
 opium, 1 dr., and at once spread on leather. 
 
 Plaster, Brown. Sj/n. Emplastbum pus- 
 CUM, L.; Okouent db la mere, Fr. The 
 butter, lard, oil, suet, and wax should be 
 first melted together, and the heat gradually 
 increased until they begin to smoke; the 
 litharge is then to be sifted in, and the 
 stirring and heat continued until the mixture 
 assumes a brown colour; the pitch is next 
 added, and the whole stirl-ed for some time 
 longer. 
 
 Plaster, Brown Diach'ylon. See Plastbb of 
 Galbanum. 
 
 Plaster, Bryony. (Boerhaave.) iSyn. Em- 
 plastbum BHYONia;. Prep. Strained gal- 
 banum, 4 oz. ; wax plaster, 9 oz.; olive oil, 
 
 1 oz. Melt together and add powdered 
 bryony root, 2 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 1 oz. ; 
 Ethiops mineral, 2 dr.; stir till cold. 
 
 Plaster of Bur'gundy Pitch. Sy». Cbphalic 
 plastee, Breath p. ; Emplastbum picis 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), E. p. COMPOSITUM, E. p. 
 Bubguhdic^, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Pre- 
 pared (strained) Burgundy pitch, 2 lbs. ; pre- 
 pared frankincense (thus), 1 lb. ; yellow resin 
 and beeswax, of each 4 oz. ; melt them toge- 
 ther, then add, olive oil and water, of each 
 
 2 fl. oz. ; expressed oil of nutmeg (mace), 1 
 oz. ; and, constantly stirring, evaporate to a 
 proper consistence. 
 
 84 
 
1330 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Burgundy pitch, 1 lb.; resin 
 !ind beeswax, of each 2 oz. ; olive oil and 
 water, of each 1 fl. oz. ; oil of mace, i oz. ; as 
 the last. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Burgundy pitch, 26; common 
 frankincense, 13 ; resin, 4^ ; yellow wax, 4J ; 
 expressed oil of nutmegs, 1; olive oil, 2; 
 water, 2; add the oil and the water to the 
 other ingredients, previously melted together ; 
 stir, and evaporate to a proper consistency. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Burgundy-pitch plaster is stimu- 
 lant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant. It is a 
 common application to the chest in pulmonary 
 aft'ections, to the joints in rheumatism, and to 
 the loins in lumbago. Spread on leather, it 
 forms a good warm plaster to wear on the 
 chest during the winter. " When it produces 
 a serons exudation, it should be frequently 
 renewed." 
 
 The BtTEGUNDT-PiTCH piASTEE of the shops 
 is commonly made as follows : — Factitious 
 Burgundy pitch (bright coloured), 42 lbs.; 
 palm oil (bright), J lb. ; beeswax (bright), 5 
 lbs ; melt, and, when nearly cold, add, of oil 
 of mace, 6 oz. ; oil of nutmeg, 1 oz. 
 
 Plaster of Bnrgandy Pitch (Irritating.) (Ph. 
 G.) Syn. Emplastkum picis ieeitans. 
 Prep. Burgundy pitch, 32 oz. ; yellow wax, 
 12 oz. ; turpentine, 12 oz. ; euphorbium, 3 oz. 
 
 Plaster. Califa'oient. Syn. Waem plaster; 
 Emplasteum calepaciens (Pli. D.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. D.) 1. Plaster of cantiiarides, i lb. (1 
 part) ; Burgundy pitch, 5i lbs. (11 parts) ; 
 melt them together by a gentle heat, and stir 
 the mixture as it cools until it stiffens. Stimu- 
 lant, rubefacient, and counter-irritant ; in a 
 variety of affections. In some persons, when 
 long applied, it blisters or produces a running 
 sore. 
 
 2. (Ph. B.) Cantharides in coarse powder, 
 4 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; expressed oil of 
 nutmeg, 4 oz. ; yellow wax, 4 oz. ; resin, 4 oz. ; 
 soap plaster, 3J lbs.; resin plaster, 2 lbs. 
 Infuse the cantharides in the boiling water 
 for six hours ; squeeze strongly through calico, 
 and evaporate the expressed liquid by a water- 
 bath till reduced to one third. Then add the 
 other iiigredients and melt in a water bath, 
 stirring well till the whole is thoroughly 
 mixed. 
 
 Plaster, Camphor. Syn. Emplasteum 
 
 , CAMPHOE^. Camphor is best applied by 
 
 sprinkling the powder on the warm surface of 
 
 a spread adhesive or other plaster. Blisters 
 
 are treated in this way to prevent strangury. 
 
 Plaster, Can'cer. Syn. Emplasteum anti 
 CANOEOSUM, L. Prep. 1. Wax plaster, 1 oz. ; 
 extract of hemlock, 1 dr. ; levigated aisenious 
 acid, i dr. 
 
 2. { Richter.) Extract of hemlock, 1 oz. ; 
 ■extract of henbane, \ oz. ; powdered bella- 
 donna, 1 dr. ; acetate of ammonia, q. s. to form 
 a plaster. Both the above must be used with 
 great caution. See Cancee, &c. 
 
 Plaster of Canthar'ides. Syn. Blisteeing 
 'Plastee, Vesicant p., Plastee op Spahish 
 
 PLIES; Emplasteum canthaeidis (B. P.t 
 Ph, L., E., & D.), E. c. TESiCATOEa;, E- 
 lttt^, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Yellow wax and suet, of 
 each 7i oz.; lard, 6 oz.; resin, 3 oz.; melt 
 them together, remove the vessel from the fire, 
 and, a little before they concrete, sprinkle in 
 of cantharides (in very fine powder), 1 lb. 
 (12 oz. B. P.), and mix. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, beeswax, resin, 
 and suet, equal parts ; as the last. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 6 oz.; prepared 
 lard, resin, and yellow wax, of each 4 oz. ; pro- 
 ceed as before, and "stir the mixture con- 
 stantly until the plaster is cool." 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) From beeswax and good 
 lard, of each 4 lbs. ; flies and yellow resin, 
 of each 6 lbs. ; suet, 10 lbs. A commonly 
 used formula, the product of which is, how- 
 ever, greatly inferior to that of the Phar- 
 macopceia. 
 
 Obs. All the above are used to raise blis- 
 ters. The plaster is spread on white leather 
 with a cold knife, and is surrounded with a 
 margin of resin plaster to make it adhere. A 
 Jjiece of thin muslin or tissue paper is usually 
 placed between the plaster and the skin to 
 prevent absorption. A little powdered camphor 
 is sometimes sprinkled on the surface of the 
 spread plaster, to prevent strangury. Abetter 
 mode of obviating the action on the urinary 
 organs is by the copious use of diluents. This 
 plaster should be rolled in starch powder, 
 and not with oil. 
 
 Plaster of Cantharides (Compoand). Syn. 
 Emplasteum canthaeidis compositum, L. 
 Prep. (Ph. E.) Venice turpentine, 4i oz.; 
 cantharides and Burgundy pitch, of each 3 oz. ; 
 beeswax, 1 oz. ; verdigris (in tine powder), 
 ^ oz. ; powdered mustard and black pepper, of 
 each 2 dr. ; mix at a heat under 212° Fahr. 
 Stronger than the last, and quicker in its 
 action ; but it causes more pain, and is much 
 more apt to occasion troublesome ulcerations. 
 Used in gout, spasms of the stomach, &c. 
 
 Plaster, Capuchin'. See Plastee op Eu- 
 phobium. 
 
 Plaster of Car'bonate of lead. Syn. Em- 
 plasteum PLUMBI oaebonatis, E. cekubs^, 
 L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Carbonate of lead, lib.; 
 olive oil and water, of each 2 lbs. ; boil them 
 together until they combine and form a plas- 
 ter; lastly, reroelt this with white wax, 3i oz. 
 Its properties resemble those of ordinary lead 
 plaster. An excellent emollient and defensive 
 plaster. See Plastee, Maht'b. 
 
 Plaster, Cephal'ic. Syn. Labdanum plas- 
 tee; Emplasteum cephalicum, E. labdani, 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) Labdanum, 3 oz. ; 
 frankincense (thus), 1 oz. ; melt, and add to 
 the mixture, when nearly cold, powdered cinna- 
 mon and expressed oil of mace, of each ^ oz. ; 
 oil of mint, 1 dr. Applied to the forehead or 
 temples, in headache ; to the stomach, in colds, 
 &c. See Plastee op Bukqdndy pitch, 
 &c. 
 
PLASTER 
 
 1331 
 
 FlMter, Cheselden's Stick'lsg. 5y». Eu- 
 PLiSTBBM PLCMBl CUM PICE, L. Prep. From 
 lead plaster, 2 lbs. { Burgundy pitch (genaine), 
 1 01. ; melted tugotlier. 
 
 Flajter, Corn. St/n. Emplastrvh ad cla- 
 vos, L. Prep. 1. Resin plaster, 5 parts j 
 luelt, stir in of sal ammoniac (in tine powder), 
 
 1 part, and at once spread it on linen or soft 
 leather. 
 
 2. (Kennedy's.) From beeswax, 1 lb.; 
 Vcnici' turpentine, 5 oz. ; verdigris (in fine 
 powder), 1^ oz. ; mixed by a gentle heat, and 
 spread on cloth. It is cut into pieces, and 
 polished, and of these 1 dozen are put into 
 each box. 
 
 8. (liC Foret.) Galbanum plaster, 2 oz. ; 
 melt by a very gentle heat ; add, sal ammoniac 
 and saffron, of each ) oz. ; powdered camphor, 
 
 2 oz. ; and, wlicu nearly cold stir in of liquor of 
 ammonia, 2 oz. Applied, spread on leather, to 
 the corn only, as it will blister the thinner skin 
 surrounding its base. 
 
 4. (Ph. Siix.) Galbanum plaster, 1 oz. ; 
 pitch, 1 oz. ; lead pliistir, 2 dr. ; melt them 
 together, and add verdigris and sal ammoniac 
 (in fine powder), of each 1 dr. For other 
 fonnulte, see PLiSTEE oP Vebdioeis (below), 
 and CoBNB. 
 
 Plaster, Court. Si/a. Stickino plaster, 
 
 IBINOLASB p. ; EmpLASTBUM ICHTHTOCOLL.fi, 
 E. ADHUSIVUM ANOLICUM, L. Frep. 1. Isin- 
 glass, 1 part ; water, 10 parts ; dissolve, strain 
 the solution, and gradually add to it of tinc- 
 ture of benzoin, 2 parts ; apply this mixture, 
 gently warmed, by means of a camel-hair 
 brush, to the surface of silk or sarcenet, 
 stretched on a frinnt^, and allow each coating 
 to dry before applying the next one, the appli- 
 cation being repeated as often as necessary ; 
 lastly, give the prepared surface a co:iting of 
 tincture of benzoin or tincture of balsam of 
 Peru. Some manufacturers apply this to the 
 unprepai-ed side of the plaster, and others luld 
 to the tincture a few drops of essence of amber- 
 gris or essence of musk. 
 
 2. (Oeschanips.) A piece of fine muslin, 
 linen, ur silk is fastened to a flat board, and a 
 tliin coating of smooth, strained flour puste is 
 given to it; over this, when dry, two coats of 
 colourless jrclatin, made into size with water, 
 q. 8., are applied warm. Said to be superior 
 to theordinai'v court plaster. 
 
 3. (I.i-t(iii\.) .'<ouk isinglass, 1 oz., in water, 
 2i fl. oz.. until it becomes swollen and quite 
 soft; then aiid of proof spirit, 3J fl. oz., and 
 expose the mixture to the heat of hot water, 
 frequently stirring, until the unioniscomplete; 
 lastly, apply four coats of the solution to the 
 surface of oiled silk nailed to a boai d, by means 
 of a soft brush. 
 
 4. ( Di- Paris.) Black silk or sarcenet is 
 strained and brushed over 10 or 12 tinn s with 
 the following composition ; — Gum benzoin, ^ 
 oz. : reetiHe'l spirit, Ouz. ; dissolve. In a sepa- 
 rate ves-c ti ssolve of isiii<.;lass, loz., in as little 
 water as possible ; strain each solution, mix 
 
 them, decant the clear portion, and apply it 
 warm. When the last coating is quite dry, a 
 finishing coat is given with a solution of 
 Chio turpentine, 4 oz., in tincture of benzoin, 
 6 oz. 
 
 06a. The common ' COURT plaster ' of the 
 shops is generally prepared without using 
 spirit, and with merely suflicient tincture of 
 benzoin, or other aromatic, to give it an agree- 
 able odour. Formerly, black silk or sarcenet 
 was exclusively employed as the basis of the 
 plaster, but at the present time checkered silk 
 is also much in favour. ' Flesh-coloured 
 court plaster' is likewise fashionable. 
 'Tbanspabent court plasteb' is prepared 
 on oiled silk. ' Watebproop court plaster' 
 is simply the common plaster which has re- 
 ceived a thin contin;; of pale drying oil on its 
 exposed surface. The pinest cotrt plaster 
 of the West end houses is now pre|iared on 
 gold-beaters' skin (or the prepared mem- 
 brane of the cajcum of the ox), one side 
 of which is coated with the isinglass solu- 
 tion, as above, and the other with pale dry- 
 ing oil or a soluiion of either gutta percha or 
 caoutchouc in chloroform, or in bisulphuret of 
 carbon. 
 
 Plaster of Cro'ton Oil. Sgn. E^^PLASTEUM 
 OBOTonis, E. olei tiolii, L. Prep. (Bou- 
 chardat.) To lead plaster, i parts, melted by 
 a very gentle heat, add of croton nil, 1 jiiut. A 
 powerful counter-irritant ; it also generally 
 acts powerfully on the bo^\■els. 
 
 Plaster of Cum'in. Si/n. EMPLASTur.M 
 CFMINI (Ph. L.), E. CTMINI, L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Burgundy pitch, 3 lbs.; beeswax, 
 3 oz. ; melt, adil of cumin seed, cai-aways, and 
 bay-lx!rric8, of each (in powder) 3 oz. ; next 
 add of olive oil and water of each 1^ fl. oz., 
 and e\'M]i<irtte to a proper consistence. 
 
 2. (Wiiolesale.) From yellow resin, 7 lbs. ; 
 beeswax and linseed oil, of each ) lb.; pow- 
 dered cuinin and caraway seeds, of each 7 oz. ; 
 mix. 
 
 Obs. This is a mere revival of the formula 
 of the Ph. L. 17l' t. In that of the Ph. L. 
 1778 no water was ordered, and the powders 
 simply stirred into the melted mass shortly 
 before it cools; the eomujou practice in ail 
 laboratoi ies. 
 
 Cumin plaster is carminative, 6timulant,and 
 discutient. It is applied over the regions of 
 the stomach and bowels in colic, dyspepsia, 
 and flatulence, and i* also applied to indolent 
 tumours. It has long been a favourite remedy 
 with the lower clas-es. 
 
 Plaster, Delacroix's Agglu'tinative. Syn. 
 Emplastbum glutinans Sancti Andrew a 
 Cruce, E. picis cum elemi, L. Empl.atbe 
 d'Andbe de la Ckoix, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
 From Burgundy pitch. 25 parts ; gum elemi, 
 6 parts ; \ enice tnrpentine and oil cf bays, 
 of each 3 parts; melted together, and 
 strainetl. 
 
 Plaster, Diach'ylon. See Plaster op Lead. 
 
 Plaster, Diapal ma. ^^eo Plasteb, Palji. 
 
1332 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 Plaster of El'emi. St/n. Emplasteum ble- 
 Mi, L. Frep, From wax plaster, 3 parts ; 
 guin elemi, 1 part ; melted together by a gen- 
 tle heat. Stimulant and discuticnt. Used for 
 issues, &c. 
 
 Plaster of Euphor'bium. Syn. Empiastbum 
 EUPHOBBii, L. Prep. 1. (Gay's Hosp.) Bur- 
 gundy pitch plaster, 8 oz. ; melt, and add of 
 eaphorhium (in powder), 1 dr. 
 
 2. (Capuohih plastee— Ph. Wirt.) Bur- 
 gundy pitch and beeswax, of each 3 oz. ; 
 Venice turpentine, 1 oz.; melt them together, 
 add, gum ammoniacura, olibanum, mastic, and 
 lapis calaminaris, of each 1 oz. ; euphorbium, 
 pyrethrum, and common salt, of each (in pow- 
 der) 2 oz. ; and stir until the mass concretes. 
 Both of the above are stimulant, rubefacient, 
 aud counter-irritant. 
 
 Plaster, Fayard's. See Papee (Gout). 
 
 Plaster of Flower of Ointments. Syn. Est- 
 
 PLASTEUM FLOS TJNOUENTOEUM DICTUM. — L. 
 
 Prep. From frankincense (thus), yellow resin, 
 suet, and beeswax, of each 1 lb. ; olibanum, 
 ^ lb. ; Venice turpentine, 5 oz. ; gum myrrh, 
 2 oz. ; white wine, 16 fl. oz. ; boil to a plaster, 
 adding, before the mass cool, of camphor, 
 \ oz. Calorifacient and stimulant. 
 
 Plaster of Frani'lncense. Syn. Steekgth- 
 
 ENINa PLASTEE; EmPLASTETTM THUEIS, E. 
 
 eoboeans, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1788.) To lead 
 plaster, 2 lbs., melted by a gentle heat, add of 
 frankincense (thus), J lb., dragon's blood (in 
 powder), 3 oz., and stir well. In muscular 
 relaxations, weak joints, &c. Mr Redwood 
 says that a " better-looking plaster is pro- 
 duced by melting tlie frankincense and dragon's 
 blood together, and straining them through a 
 cloth, then mixing these with the lead plaster 
 previously melted." See Piastee op Oxide 
 OP Ihon. 
 Plaster of Gal'banum. Syn. Compound 
 
 GiLBANUM PLASTEE, YeLLOW DIACHYLON, 
 
 Gum PLASTEE, Diachylon with the sums, 
 Emplastrum galbani (B. p., Ph. L.), E. 
 GUMMOSUM (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. I;.) 
 Take of strained gallianum, 8 oz. ; common tur- 
 pentine, 1 oz. ; melt them together, then add 
 of prepared frankincense (thus), 3 oz. ; and 
 next, of lead plaster, 3 lbs., previously melted 
 over a slow fire. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Gum ammoniacum and galba- 
 num, of each \ oz. ; melt them together, strain, 
 and add, of litharge plaster, 4 oz. ; beeswax, 
 i oz. (both previously melted) ; and mix the 
 whole thoroughly. These proportions are the 
 same as those of the B. P. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From lead plaster, 42 lbs.; 
 yellow resin, 12 lbs. ; strained galbanum,3 lbs.; 
 strained assafoetida, 1 oz. 
 
 Obs. Galbanum plaster is stimulant and 
 resolvent, and is much used in indolent, scrofu- 
 lous, and other tumours, painful gouty and 
 rheumatic joints, in rickets, &c. 
 
 Plaster, Gaulthier's. Prep. (Guibonrt.) Palm 
 plaster, 12 parts ; olive oil aud white wax, of 
 each 1 part; melt, and add of Venice turpen- 
 
 tine, 2 parts. More adhesive than the simple 
 
 PALM PLASTEE. 
 
 Plaster of Gin'ger. Syn. Emplastbum zin- 
 
 GIBEEIS, L. See GiNGEE. 
 
 Plaster, Gout. Syn. Emplastbum Antab- 
 THEiTicuM, L. See Plaster op Galbanum, 
 Pitch, &c. ; Papee, Gout. 
 
 Plaster of Gum. See Plastee op Galba- 
 num. 
 
 Plaster of Hemlock. Syn. Emplastbum 
 CONii, E. CI0UT.S, L. Prep. 1. Wax, 1 part ; 
 Burgundy pitch, 9 parts ; melt them together, 
 and add of extract of hemlock, 3 parts. 
 
 2. (Ph. Bat.) Lead plaster and beeswax, 
 of each 1 lb. ; olive oil, 6 fl. oz. ; melt, and add 
 of powdered hemlock (recent), 1 lb. 
 
 Obs. Hemlock plaster is occasionally used 
 as an application to painful and malignant 
 ulcers and tumours, painful joints, &c. A 
 spread plaster of it, with 6 or 8 gr. of tartar 
 emetic (in very fine powder) sprinkled over its 
 surface, has been highly extolled as a counter- 
 irritant in hooping-cough, phthisis, &c. 
 
 Plaster of Hen'bane. Syn. Emplastbum 
 hyoscyami, L. Prep. As the last, but using 
 henbane instead of hemlock. As an anodyne, 
 in various external affections. 
 
 Plaster of I'odide of Lead. (Ph. B.) Syn. 
 Emplastbum plumbi iodidi. Prep. Add 
 iodide of lead in fine powder, 1 oz. ; to soap 
 plaster and resin plaster, of each 4 oz., pre- 
 viously melted together. Mix thoroughly. 
 
 Plaster of Iodide of Potas'slum. Syn. Em- 
 plastbum POTASSII IODIDI (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L.) Iodide of potassium,! oz. ; olive oil, 
 2 fl. dr. ; triturate them together, then add, 
 of strained frankincense (thus), 6 oz. ; wax, 6 
 dr. ; and stir constantly until the mass cools. 
 " This plaster is to be spread on linen, rather 
 than on leather." Used as a diseutient or re- 
 solvent ; more particularly as an application to 
 scrofulous tumours and indurations. 
 
 Plaster of I'odine. Syn. Emplastbum 
 lODiNil, L. Prep. Triturate iodine, 1 dr., in a 
 warm mortar, with olive oil, 1 oz. ; then add, 
 of beeswax, 1 oz. ; yellow resin, J oz. ; pre- 
 viously melted together, and stir the whole 
 until it concretes. It should be, preferably, 
 spread at once on leather, and applied shortly 
 after being prepared. Used as the last. 
 
 Plaster of Iodine (Compound). Syn. Em- 
 plastbum lODiNii compositum, L. Prep. 
 1. Iodine, 1 dr. ; iodide of potassium, 2 dr. ; 
 rub them to a fine powder, add this to lead 
 powder, 2 oz. ; Burgundy pitch, 1 oz. ; pre- 
 viously melted together, and just about to 
 concrete. More active than cither of the 
 preceding. 
 
 2. (Emp. iod. cum BELLADONNA.) To bel- 
 ladonna plaster, 2 oz., melted by a very gentle 
 heat, add iodine aud iodide of potassium (in 
 fine powder), of each 1 dr. ; and stir the mix- 
 ture until nearly cold. Powerfully resolvent 
 and anodyne. Used in the same cases as the 
 preceding, when there is much pain. 
 
PLASTER 
 
 1333 
 
 FlMter of I'lon. See PLiSTBB of oxide of 
 Ibon. 
 Fluter of r'ainglass. See Plasteb, CotrsT. 
 Fluter, la'ine. 6yn. Emflabthum ad fon- 
 
 TICUI.09, SpABADBIPDM PBO FOSTtCULIS, L. 
 Prep. 1. From beeswax, i lb. ; Burgundy 
 pitch and Chio turpentine, ot each 4 oz. ; ver- 
 inilioD and orris powder, of each 1 oz. ; musk, 
 4 gr.i mHltcd together and spread upon Uuen. 
 This is afterwards polished with a siiiooth piece 
 of glass moistened with water, and cut into 
 pieces. 
 
 2. (Ph. Aust.) Yellow wax, 6 oz. ; mutton 
 suet, 2(>z. ; laid, l^oz. ; melt, add of turpen- 
 tine, IJ oz., nnd afterwards of red lend, 4 oz. ; 
 dip pieces of linen into the melted mixture, 
 pass these between rollers, and, when cold, 
 polish them, as before, and cut them into 
 squares. The insuo plaster (issue paper; charta 
 ud fontieulos) of the Ph. Suecica is a nearly 
 similar compound, with the addition of about 
 l-48th part of verdigris, in very fine powder, 
 and being spread upon paper. 
 
 Plaster, Kennedy's. See Plastebs, Cobn. 
 
 Plaster, Kirkland's. See Plasieb, Am- 
 
 MONIAOAL. 
 
 Plaster of Lab'dannm. See Plabteb, 
 C'i;i'UALio. 
 
 Plaster of Lead. Syn. Lead plaster, Li- 
 TnAHOK p., (Common p., Diachylon, Simple 
 DIACHYLON, White d.j Emplasteum plumbi 
 
 (B. 1'., Ph. L.), E. LYTUAKGYBI (Ph. E. & D.), 
 10, COMMnNE, UlAOUYLON BIMPLEX, L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Oxide of lead (lithiirge), in very 
 fine powder, 6 lbs.; olive oil, 1 gall.; water, 1 
 quart ; boil them over u slow fire, constantly 
 stirring to the consistence of a plaster, adding 
 a little boiling water, if nearly the whole ,of 
 that used in tho beginning should be con- 
 sumed before the end of the process. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Litharge, 5 oz. ; olive oil, 12 fl. 
 oz. ; water, 8 11. oz. ; as the last. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Litharge, 5 lbs.; olive oil, 1 
 gall. ; water, 1 quart. 
 
 ■t. (Otto Kohnke.) For each lb. of litharge 
 employed, iidd \ pint of colourless vinegar 
 (each fl. oz. of which is oipable of saturating 
 i dr. of carbonate of potassa) ; add the oil, boil 
 until all moisture is evaporated, and until 
 only a few striaj of litharge rise to the surface, 
 then remove the vessel from the heat, add 
 trraduaily J tn i as much vinegar as before, and 
 boil the mixture to a proper consistence. 
 
 5. (Wholesale.) From Genoa oil, 7 galls, (or 
 65 lbs.) ; lithar^'e (perlectly free from copper), 
 2S lbs. J water, 2t galls.; boil to a plaster, as 
 before. 
 
 6. (B. P.) Oxide of lead, in very fine pow- 
 der, 1 ; olive oil, 2J ; water, 1 j boil all the in- 
 gredients together gently by the heat of a 
 steam bath, and keep thein simmering for 4 or 
 u h'lurs, stirring constantly until the product 
 acquires tlio proper consistem-e for plaster, 
 adding more water during the process, if 
 necessary. 
 
 Obe. The London College orders too little 
 oil. The second, fourth, and fifth formula: 
 produce beautiful plasters, that keep well ; 
 those of the others, although very white, get 
 hard and brittle much more rapidly. The 
 proper proportion of oil is fully 2i times the 
 weight of the litharge, — 2J times appears the 
 be^t quantity; and without this is used, the 
 plaster speedily gets hard and non-adhesive. 
 The process consists in putting the water and 
 the litharge into a perfectly clean and well- 
 polished tinned copper or copper-pan, mixint; 
 them well together with a spatula, adding the 
 oil, and boiling, with constant stirring, until 
 the plaster is sufficiently hard, when thoroughly 
 cold. This process usually occupies from 4 to 
 6 hours, but by adopting the fourth formula 
 an excellent plaster may be made in from 20 
 to 30 minutes. Ibis plaster is generally cooled 
 by immersion in cold water; nnd to render it 
 very white, a quality highly prized in the 
 trade, it is usual to submit it to laborious 
 ' pulling,' in the manner already noticed. 
 
 Use. As a simple defensive plaster or strap- 
 ping; but principally as > basis for other 
 plasters. 
 
 Plaster, Listen's. See Plaster, Coubt. 
 
 Plaster, Mahy's. St/n. £.mfla3tbum 
 
 PLUMBI CABBONATia, E. P. 0. COMPOSITITH, 
 
 L. I'rep. (Ph. U.S.) CarhonntPOtlead(pure 
 white lead), 1 lb. ; olive oil, 32 fl. oz. ; water, 
 q. s. ; boil them together, constantly stirrin); 
 until perfectly incorporated ; then add, of 
 yellow wax, 4 oz. ; lead plaster, 1 i lb. ; and 
 when these are melted, and the mass somewh.>t 
 cooled, stir in of powdered orris root, 9 oz. A 
 favourite application in the United States of 
 America to inflamed and excoriated surfaces, 
 bed sores, burns, &c. 
 
 Plaster of Mel'ilot. Si/n. Emplastbum meli- 
 LOTi, E. ii MELILOTO, L. I'rep. 1. (Ph. E. 
 1744.) Fresh melilot, chopped small, 6 lbs. ; 
 suet, 3 lbs.; boil until crisp, strain with pres- 
 sure, nnd add, of yellow resin, 8 lbs. ; bees- 
 wax, 4 lbs., and boil to a plaster, stimulant. 
 Used to dress blisters, &c. The greater portion 
 of this plaster in the shops is made without 
 the herb, and is coloured with verdigris. (Sie 
 the next formula.) 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) Take of yellow resin, 18 
 lbs. ; green ointment, 4 j lbs. ; yellow wax, 3 
 lbs.; finely powdered verdigris, q. n. to give a 
 deep-green colour. 
 
 Plaster, Mercu"rial. Sj/n. Emplastbdm 
 
 MEKCUKIALE, E. HYDEABGYEI (B. P., Ph. L., 
 
 E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Add, 
 gradually, of sulphur, 8 gr., to heated olive 
 oil, 1 fl. dr., and stir the mixture constantly 
 with a spatula until they unite; next add of 
 mercury, 3 oz., and triturate until globules are 
 no longer visible; lastly, gradually add of lead 
 plaster (melted over a slow fire), 1 lb., and mix 
 them all well together. (About 1 fl. dr. of 
 balsam of sulphur maybe substituted for the 
 oil and sul pimr ordered above.) These propor- 
 tions are the same as those of the B. P. 
 
133i 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Resin, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 9 fl. dr. ; 
 mix by heat, cool, add of mercury, 3 oz., and 
 triturate until its globules disappear; then add 
 of litharge plaster, 6 oz. (previously liquefied), 
 and mix the whole thoroughly. 
 
 3. (Ph.D.) Oilof turpentine, 1 fl.oz. ; resin, 
 2 oz. ; dissolve, with the aid of heat ; add of 
 mercury, 6 oz. ; triturate until the globules 
 disappear, and the mixture assumes a dark 
 grey colour, then add of litharge plaster (pre- 
 viously melted), 12 oz., and stir the whole until 
 it sti^ens on cooling. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) Take of mercury, 7 lbs.; 
 prepared serum, i lb. ; triturate until the glo- 
 bules disappear, and add the mixture to lead 
 plaster (melted by a gentle heat), 36 lbs. ; stir 
 them well together, and until they concrete. 
 Very fine bluish-slate or lead colour. 
 
 Obs. Mercurial plaster is used as a dis- 
 cutient in glandular enlargements, and other 
 swellings; and is also applied over the hepatic 
 regions in liver complaints. 
 
 Plaster, Mercurial, with Belladon'na. St/a. 
 
 EmPLASTEUM HYDEAEOTKI CDM BELliDONNA, 
 
 L. JPrep. Prom mercurial plaster, 6 dr. ; ex- 
 tract of belladonna, 2 dr.; olive oil, 1 dr.; 
 mixed by a gentle heat. One of our most 
 useful anodyne and discutient applications, in 
 painful scirrhous, scrofulous, and syphilitic 
 tumours. The Medico-Chirurgical Phiirm. 
 orders J fl. dr. of hydrocyanic acid to be added 
 to every 2 oz. of the above. 
 
 Plaster of Mezereon and Cantharides. (Ph. 
 G.) /Sy». Emplastkum mezeeei oanthaei- 
 DATUM. Prep. Cantharides in coarse 
 powder, 3 oz., mezereon cut and dried, 1 oz. 
 acetic ether, 10 oz. by weight. Macerate for 
 8 days, filter, and dissolve in' the filtered 
 liquid 175 gr. of sandarac, 87 gr. of eleme, 87 
 gr. of resin, which, spread on silk previously 
 covered with the following solution ; isinglass, 
 2 oz. ; distilled water, 20 oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 5 oz. by weight. 
 
 Plaster of Miu'inm. Si/n. Emplastbum: 
 
 MINII, E. E MINIO, E. PITJMBI OXTDI KUEEI, 
 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Olive oil, 4 lbs. ; 
 minium (red lead), in fine powder, 2i lbs. ; 
 water, q. s. ; proceed as for lead plaster (which 
 it closely resembles). 
 
 Obs. To ensure a good colour and the quality 
 of keeping well, the quantity of oil should be 
 increased about l-3rd. When discoloured by 
 heat it forms the 'brown minium plaster' 
 (emp. & minio fuscum) of old pharmacy. Lead 
 plaster, either alone or with the addition of a 
 little red lead, is usually sold for it. 
 
 Plaster of Minium (Compound). St/n. Ntr- 
 
 BEMBEEQ' PLASTEE ; EMPLASTEUM: MINII OOM- 
 POSITUM, L. ; EmplAtke DE NnBEMBEK&, Pr. 
 Prep. (Soubeiran.) Red lead, 12 parts; olive 
 oil, 8 parts; grind them together on a por- 
 phyry slab, and add the mixture to lead plas- 
 ter, 50 parts, beeswax, 24 parts, melted 
 together; lastly, when nearly cold, stir in of 
 camphor, 1 part. 
 
 Plaster, Morrison's Adhesive. S^n. Mob- 
 eibon's adhesive paste. From wheaten flour, 
 2 oz. ; mild ale, i pint; stir them together, 
 and heat the mixture to the boiling point; 
 when cold, add of powdered resin, 3 oz. ; and, 
 constantly stirring, again heat them to boiling. 
 Used as a depilatory in ringworm, &c. 
 
 Plaster of Mu'cilagea. Syn. Diachylon 
 
 COMPOaiTUM, EmPLABTBTTM E MUOILACmriBUS, 
 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1746.) Beeswax, 20 oz.; 
 oil of mucilages, 4 oz. ; melt, and add them to 
 strained ammoniacum, 3 oz. ; common turpen- 
 tine, 1 oz., previously melted together. Stimu- 
 lant and emollient. 
 
 Plaster of Mns'tard. Syn. EMPiASTEtm 
 siNAPis, L. This is always an extempora- 
 neous preparation. Flour of mustard is made 
 iuto a stiff paste with lukewarm water, or with 
 vinegar, and is then spread on a piece of calico 
 or linen (folded two or three times) ; over the 
 surface of the mustard is placed a piece of 
 gauze or thin muslin, and the plaster is then 
 applied to the part of the body it is intended 
 to medicate. Its action is tbat of a powerful 
 rubefacient and counter-irritant; but its ap- 
 plication should not be continued long, unless 
 in extreme cases. Its effects are often ap- 
 parently wonderful. We have seen very severe 
 cases of facial neuralgia, sore throat, painful 
 joints, rheumatic pains, &c., relieved in a few 
 minutes by means of a mustard plaster or 
 ' poultice.' 
 
 Plaster, Nuremberg. See Plastee, Minitjh 
 (Compound). 
 
 Plaster of Oak-mistletoe. (Hardy.) Si/n. 
 Emplasteum tisci (JUEEcini. Prep. To 
 2 parts of melted beeswax add gradually 1 
 part of juice of true oak mistletoe, and form a 
 plaster. In neuralgic pains. 
 
 Plaster of Cpinm. St/n. Emplasteum 
 ANODTNUM, E. OPII (B. P., Ph. L. E. & D.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lead plaster, 8 oz.; 
 melt, and add of frankincense (thns), 2 oz. ; 
 next, add of extract of opium, 1 oz., previously 
 dissolved in boiling water, 1 fl. oz. ; and, con- 
 stantly stirring, evaporate the mixture over a 
 slow fire to a proper consistence. This plaster 
 is much stronger than that of the Ph. L. 1836 
 and of the other British Colleges. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Lead plaster, 1 lb. ; melt, 
 add of powdered thus, 3 oz. ; mix, and further 
 add, of powdered opium, i oz., water, 8 fl. oz , 
 and boil to a proper consistence. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 12 oz.; Bur- 
 gundy pitch, 3 oz. ; liquefy by heat, then add, 
 by degrees, of powdered opium, i oz., and 
 mix them thoroughly. This and the pre- 
 ceding contains only l-3rd part of the opium 
 ordered in the present Ph. L. & D. 
 
 4. (Ph. D.) Resin plaster, 9 oz. ; opium, in 
 fine powder, 1 oz. ; as the last. Same as B. P. 
 
 5. (Ph. B.). Powdered opium, 1 oz ; 
 resin plaster, 9 oz. ; melt the plaster and add 
 the opium. 
 
 Obs. The above plaster is reputed aundyne, 
 and useful in various local pains ; but its vir- 
 
PLASTER 
 
 1335 
 
 tiie« in this way have been greatly exnggerated. 
 Tlif formula "f the Ph. L. 1836, from bHing 
 lens costly, is etill often employed in place of 
 tliBt of the I'h. L. 1851. The following is 
 eoMiuionly used : — Lend plaster, 14 lbs.; yellow 
 resin, '^ lb". ; powdered opium, i lb. 
 
 Plaster of Opium and Camphor. ( Dr Paris. ) 
 Si/n. Emplabtbum opii et camphoeje. 
 Prep. 0|iium and camphor, of each i dr. 
 Lend plaster q. ■. Mix. 
 
 Plaster of Ox'ide of I'ron. Syn. Iron 
 
 PLASTKR, FbANKINCKNSE P., StBENGTHENINO 
 
 p.; Emplastbuu bobobanb, E. pkbki (B. 
 p., I'll. L. E. & D.), K. THUEia, E. pebei 
 OXTDi ECDEi, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lead 
 plaster, 8 oz. ; f rankincenite (thus), 2 oz. ; 
 melt them together over a slow fire, sprinkle 
 into the mixture sesquioxide of iron, 1 oz., and 
 mix the whole well together. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 3 oz. ; yellow 
 resin, 6 dr. ; beeswax, 3 dr. ; melt them 
 together, then add of red oxide of iron, 1 oz., 
 previoii"ly triturated with olive oil,3i fl. dr. 
 
 3. (I'h. D.) Litharge plaster, 8 oz. ; Bur- 
 gundy pitch, 2 oz. ; peroxide of iron, in fine 
 powder, 1 oz. ; as No. 1. Same as B. P. 
 
 4. (Wholesiilc.) From lend iilusier (quite 
 dry), 84 lbs. j powdered yellow resin, 14 lbs.; 
 • crocus martis' (lively coloured), 14 lbs. ; olive 
 oil, 3 pints ; as No. 2, 
 
 5. (B. P.) Add hydrnted peroxide of iron 
 in fine powder, 1 oz., to Burgundy pitch, 2 oz , 
 and litharge plaster, 8 oz., previously melted 
 together, und stir the mixture eori^tiintly till 
 it stiffens on cooling. 
 
 Obs. Iron plaster is reputed strengthening 
 and stimulant. It is employed as a mechan- 
 ical support in muscular relaxation, weak- 
 ness of the joints, &c., especially by public 
 dancers. Us tonic action is probably wholly 
 imaginary. No. 4 is the ' emplasthilm bo- 
 BOBANB ' of the shops at the present time. 
 
 Plaster, Oxycro'ceam. Sga. Ksiplastbttm 
 OXYOBOCEITM, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 174 i.) 
 Beeswax, 1 lb. ; black pitch and strained gal- 
 lianum, of each J lb.; melt, and add of Venice 
 turpentine, powdered myrrh, and olibanum, of 
 each 3 oz. ; powdered saffron, 2 oz. 
 
 :.'. (Wholesale.) From blaik pitch, 9 lbs. ; 
 black resin, 11 lbs. ; beeswax and lard, of each 
 liilbs. ; melted together. Warm ; diseutient. 
 Still popular with the lower orders. The 
 saffron of the original formula never finds 
 its way into the oxycroceum plaster of the 
 druggists. 
 
 Plaster, Palm. S^n. Emplabtbum diapal- 
 MUM, L. ; Diapalme, Empiatke diapaimb, 
 Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 32 parts ; 
 yellow wax, 2 parts ; melt them together, add 
 of sulphate of zinc, 1 part, dissolve iu a little 
 water, and continue the heat, with constant 
 agitation, until all the water is evaporated. 
 
 04*. This plaster originally contained palm 
 oil. and this ingredient is still ordered in the 
 formula) of PIcnck and Reuss. Soubeiran 
 directs white wax to be employed. 
 
 Plaster, Paracelsus's. Si/n. EMPLAsiarM 
 Pabacklsi, E. STYpnciTM," L. Prep. From 
 lead plaster, 28 lbs. ; galbannin plaster, 2 lbs. ; 
 powdered white canella and gum thus, of 
 each li lb.; melted together. The original 
 formula, as well as that of the Ph. L. 17:il 
 were similar, although much more compli- 
 cated. 
 
 Plaster of Pitch. Syn. PooE man's plabtkb. 
 
 Gout p., AKTI-BHErMATIC p. ; PyMPLASTErM 
 PAUPEEIS, E. ANTIEHEl'MATICUM, E. AXTAB- 
 THEITICUM, E. PICIS COMMTTNE, L. This has 
 been already noticed under the bead of Rksin 
 Papeb. It is also, but less frequentl.v , spread 
 on cloth and leather. 
 
 Plaster, Prestat's Adhe'sive. Prep. From 
 lead plaster,2J lbs.; yellow resin, 5 oz. ; Venice 
 turpentine, 4 oz.; gum aunnouiacuiu and mas- 
 tic, of each li oz.j made into a plaster, and 
 spread on linen or calico. 
 
 Plaster of Eed lead. See Piastee of 
 MlNIBM. 
 
 Plaster of Bes'in. Si/n. Adhebivs plastee, 
 
 liESINOCB p.; EmPIASTEUM AIiIIESIVDM, K. 
 BESINJi (B. p., Ph. L. & D.), E. BESIKOSIM 
 (Ph. E.), E. LVTHAEOIEI CUM BESINA, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) I'o lend plaster, 3 lbs., 
 melted by a gentle heat, add of resin, i lb., 
 also liquefied by heat, and mix. Tlie formula 
 (if the Ph. V. S. is similar. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Litharge plaster, 5 oz. ; resin, 
 1 oz.; mix with a moderate heat. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 2 lbs., melted 
 liy a frciitle heat, add, of powdered resin, 4 oz., 
 Casiile soap, in powder, 2 oz., and mix them 
 intimiitily. 
 
 4. (\\'li"le9ale.) Pale lead plaster (from a 
 previous hatch, and quite dry), 72 Ihs. ; olive 
 oil (Genua). 3 lbs.; melt them together in a 
 bright and perfectly clean copper pan, and 
 silt iu of pale vellow resin (in powder), 12 lbs., 
 stirring all the while. The mixture is to be 
 cooled, aud ' pulled' or ' worked,' after the 
 uiauner of lead plaster. 
 
 5. (B. P.) Resin (in powderX 2 ; litharge 
 plaster, 16 ; bard soap, 1 ; melt the plaster 
 wiih a gentle heat, add the resin aud soap, 
 first liquefied, and mix. 
 
 Obs. Resin pl.ister, spread upon calico, forms 
 the well-kuown ' STRAPPING* or ' ADHESIVE 
 PLASTKB* so extensively used to protect raw 
 surfaces, support parts, and for dressing ulcers, 
 retiining the lips of recent cuts and wounds 
 in contact, &c. It is gently stimulant, and is 
 thought to assist the healing process. It is 
 also employed as a basis for other plasters, 
 rile 'HOSPITAL plastee' of certain houses is 
 of this kind. See Plasteb oe Soap, Com- 
 pound. 
 
 Plaster, Eesol'vent. Si/n. Emplastbum be- 
 
 SOLVENS, E. ex MIXTI3 QXJATUOB, L. Prep. 
 (P. Cod.) Galbanum, hemlock, mercurial, and 
 soap plasters, equal paits, melted together. 
 
 Plaster, Roper's Koyal Bath. Prep. (Cooley.) 
 Strained black pitch, 16 oz.; Burgundy pitch, 
 10 oz.; tar and beeswax, of each 1 oz.; melt. 
 
1336 
 
 PLASTER 
 
 and, when considerably cooled, add of expressed 
 oil of mace, 2 dr. ; croton oil, 1 dr. j and spread 
 the mixture upon heart-shaped pieces of white 
 sheep-skin, without remelting it. Stimulant 
 and counter-irritant; recommended by its 
 proprietor as a cure for all human ailments. 
 The ' Bath-piasteb Pills,' also prepared by 
 Mr Roper, resemble several of the aperient 
 pills already noticed. (See 'Anat. of Quackery.') 
 
 Plaster, Scott's. Prey. From lead plaster, 
 14 oz. ; olive oil and white resin, of each 1 oz. ; 
 melted together, and spread on calico. 
 
 Plaster, Sharp's Black, trej). From olive 
 oil, 5 parts ; carbonate of lead, 4 parts ; bees- 
 WHX, 1 part ; boiled to a plaster. 
 
 Plaster, Simple. See Plaster, Wax. 
 
 Plaster of Soap. %». Emplasteum e 
 SAPONE, E. SAPONIS (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) To lead plaster, 3 lbs., 
 melted by a slow heat, add of Castile soap, 
 sliced, 4 lb., re»in, 1 oz., both (also) liquefied 
 by heat, and, constantly stirring, evaporate to 
 a proper consistence. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) To litharge plaster, 4 oz., 
 gum piaster, 2 oz., melted together, add of 
 Castile soap, in shavings, 1 oz., and boil a 
 little. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) To litharge plaster, 2i lbs., 
 melted over a gentle fire, add of Castile soap 
 in powder, 4 oz., and heat them together 
 (constantly stirring) until they combine. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Hard soap (in powder), 6; 
 lead piaster, 36; resin (in powder), 1; to the 
 lead plaster, previously melted, add the soap 
 and the resin, first liquefied, then, constantly 
 stirring, evaporate to a proper consistence. 
 
 OS*. Care must be taken to evaporate all 
 the moisture from the above compounds, as, if 
 any is left in the plaster, it turns out crumbly, 
 and does not keep well. Much heat discolours 
 it. (SeeieioOT.) 
 
 Soap plaster is emollient and resolvent, and 
 is used in abrasions and excoriations, and as a 
 dressing to soft corns, lymphatic tumours, 
 &c. 
 
 Plaster of Soap (Camphora,ted). (P. Cod.) 
 Syn. Emplabtkum saponis camphouatum. 
 Soap planter, 10 oz.; camphor, 48 gr. 
 
 Plaster of Soap (Compoimd). Syn. Emplas- 
 teum SAPONIS COMPOSITUM, E. ADHJEKENS, L. 
 Peep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Besin plaster, 3 oz. ; 
 soap plaster, 2 oz. ; melted together. 
 
 Ohs. Less emollient, but more stimulant, 
 than the simple plaster. The ' emplasteum 
 E MiNio CUM saponb' — Ph. E. 1744 was made 
 by melting 1 part of soap with 5 parts of 
 minium plaster. Neither of the above must 
 be put into water. See Plasteb oe Eesin, 
 Ph. D. 
 
 Plaster of Soap-ce'rate. Syn. Emplasteum 
 CBEATi saponis (,B. P.). Pre]). 1. From soap 
 cerate, heated by means of a water bath until 
 all the moisture is evaporated. Sometimes 2 
 or 3 dr. each of powdered mastic and gum 
 ammoniacum are added for each pound of 
 
 cerate. The product is generally spread whilst 
 still warm. Said to be suppurative, resol- 
 vent, cooling, and desiccative. See Ceeatb 
 (soap). 
 
 2. (B. P.) Hard soap, 10; beeswax, 12i; 
 oxide of lead (in powder), 15 ; olive oil, 20 ; 
 vinegar, 160 ; boil the vinegar with the oxide 
 over a slow fire, or by a steam bath, constantly 
 stirring them until they unite ; then add the 
 soap and boil again in a similar manner until 
 all the moisture is evaporated; lastly, mix 
 with the wax previously dissolved in the oil, 
 and continue the process till the product takes 
 the consistence of a plaster. 
 
 Plaster of Squill, Componnd. Syn. Em- 
 plasteum SCILL^ COMPOSITUM. Prep. Gal- 
 banum, J oz. ; soap, i oz. ; litharge plaster, 
 2 oz. ; melt together, and add opium, 1 dr. ; 
 ammoniacum, J oz.; vinegar of squills, 3 oz., 
 mixed together; keep them over the fire con- 
 stantly stirred till they are incorporated. 
 
 Plaster, St Andrew's. Prep, Prom yellow 
 resin, 8 oz. ; gum elemi, 2 oz. ; Bordeaux tur- 
 pentine and oil of the bay-laurel, of each 1 oz. ; 
 melted together by a gentle heat. A stimu- 
 lant, resolvent, and adhesive plaster, once sup- 
 posed to possess extraordinary virtues. 
 
 Plaster, Stick'ing. See Plasteb, Couht, 
 Plabtee op Resin, &c. 
 
 Plaster, Stoni'ach. See Plasteb, Aeomatio, 
 &c. 
 
 Plaster, Strength'ening. See Plastees or 
 Feaneinoense and Oxide op Ieon. 
 
 Plaster, Styp'tic. See Plastee op Oxide 
 op Ieon, Paeacelsus's p., &c. 
 
 Plaster of Snl'phate of Qninine'. Syrt. Em- 
 plasteum QUINI^, E. Q. DISULPHATIS, L. 
 Prep. 1. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr.; resin 
 plaster, 1 oz. Applied to the abdomen in 
 intermittents. 
 
 2. Sulphate of quinine, 1 dr. ; mercurial 
 plaster, 2 oz. In affections of the liver or 
 spleen, following intermittents, applied over 
 the regions of those viscera. 
 
 3. Resin plaster, 9 dr. ; sulphate of quinine, 
 
 1 dr.; camphor and oil of cajeput, of each \ 
 At. Applied over the epigastrium as ~ pro- 
 piiylactic of cholera. 
 
 Plaster of Thus. See Plasteb op Fkank- 
 
 INCENSE. 
 
 Plaster of Ver'digris. Syn. Emplasteum 
 
 aiEUGINIS, E. OUPEI SUBACETATIS, L. Prep. 
 (P. Cod.) Beeswax, 4 parts; Burgundy pitch, 
 
 2 parts ; melt, add of Venice turpentine and 
 prepared verdigris (in powder), of each 1 part, 
 and stir until the mass is nearly cold. For 
 other formuliE, see Plastee, Coen, &c. 
 
 Plaster, Ver'mifuge. Syn. Emplasteum 
 termipuqum, E. anthelminticum, L. Prep. 
 From powdered aloes, 1 dr. ; oil of chamomile, 
 10 drops ; croton oil, 2 drops ; oil of turpentine, 
 q. s. 
 
 Plaster, Vigo's. Syn. Emplasteum tiqokis, 
 L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Lead plaster, 40 oz. ; 
 mercury, 12 oz. ; liquid styrax, 6 oz. ; bees- 
 wax, turpeuiine, and resin, of each 2 oz. ; am- 
 
PLATE-PLATINUM 
 
 1337 
 
 tnonincum, bdellinni, myrrh, and olibanam, of 
 each 5 dr. ; HnfFron, S dr. ; oil of lavender, 
 2 dr. ; niHcie into a pUetor 8. a. 
 Plaster, Warm. See Calkpaoiknt plabteb, 
 
 BUBOONUT PITCH P., &C. 
 
 Flatter of Wax. St)n. Simple plaster ; 
 
 F.MPLASTnlrM ATTBAHENS, E, SIMPLEX (Ph. 
 
 E.), B. CEU.E, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Bi-es- 
 wux, 3 oz. ; 8uet and yellow resin, of each 2 
 oz. ; melt them together, und stir the mixture 
 briskly until it concretes by cooling. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Yellow wax and suet, of 
 each 3 lbs. ; yellow resin, 1 lb. ; as the last. 
 Intended to be employed as a simple dressing, 
 especially to blistered surfaces. It is now 
 seldom used. 
 
 Plaster, White SiacVyloa. See Plastbe 
 OF Lrad. 
 
 Plaster, Tellow Diachylon. See Plaster 
 OF Oaldanum. 
 
 Plaster, Zinoo-lead. St/n. Ehplastbum 
 
 ZINOOPLOMBICUM, E. DIAPOMPHOLYOOS, L. 
 
 J'rep. (Pi). Suec.) Beeswax, 1 lb ; olive oil 
 and graphite (black lead), of each 6 oz. ; 
 carbonnteof lead, 4oz. ; oxide of zinc ^impure), 
 8 oz. ; olibanum, 1^ oz.; boil to a plaster. 
 Astringent and desiccant. Otiier forma sub- 
 stitute an equal weight of litharge for the 
 graphite. 
 
 PLATE. The name is commonly given to 
 gold anil silver wrought into instruments or 
 utensils for domestic use. 
 
 The cleaning of plate is an important opera- 
 tion in a large estHblishment, as its durability, 
 and much of its bi^iiuty, depend on this beiii^' 
 properly done. The common practice of using 
 mercurial plate powder is destructive to 
 both of these, as mercury not only rapidly 
 eriides the surface of silver, but renders it 
 soft, and, in extreme cases, even brittle. 
 The only powder that may be safely used for 
 silver is prepared chalk, of the best quality. 
 For gold, the form of red oxide of iron, known 
 as Jeweller'i Rouge, is the most useful and 
 appi'upriate. 
 
 in his 'Workshop Receipts' Mr Spon re- 
 commends tlie following : — " Take an ounce 
 ciuh of cream of tartar, common salt, and 
 alum, and boil in a gallon or more of water. 
 After the plate is taken out and rubbed dry it 
 puts on a beautiful silvery whiteness. Pow- 
 dered magnesia may be used dry for articles 
 slightly tarnished, but if very dirty it must be 
 used tirst wet and then dry." 
 
 Chamois leather, a plate brush, or very 
 soft woollen rags, should alone be used to 
 apply them ; and their application should be 
 gentle and long continued, rather than the 
 reverse. Dirty plate, after being cleaned with 
 boiling water, may be restored by boiling it in 
 water, each quiirt of which contains a few 
 grains of carbonate of soda, and about an 
 ounce of prepared chalk, calcined hartshorn, or 
 cultle-fiah bone, in very fine powder. The ebul- 
 lition sets up a gentle friction, which effects 
 iU purpose adiuirably. The boiled plate, after 
 
 being dried, is best ' finished off' with a piece 
 of soft leather or woollen cloth which has been 
 dipped into the cold mixture of chalk and 
 water, and then dried. The same method 
 answers admirably with German silver, brass, 
 pewter, and all the softer metals. See Powdee 
 (Plate), &c. 
 
 PLATINA. See Platimjm. 
 
 PLA"TING. The art of covering copper 
 and other metals with either silver or gold. 
 
 Plating is performed in various ways. 
 S'>metimes the silver is fiuxed on to the sur- 
 face of the copper by means of a solution of 
 borax, and subsequent Exposure in the 'plating 
 furnace,' and the compound ingot is tlien 
 rolled to the requisite thinness between cylin- 
 ders of polished steel. The common thickness 
 of the silver plate before rolling is equal to 
 about the l-40th of that of the compound 
 ingot. Sometimes the nobler metal is pre- 
 cipitated from its solutions upon the copper 
 by i\ie action of chemical affinity, or, more 
 frequently, by the agency of electro-chemical 
 decomposition (electro-plating). 
 
 The metal employed lor plating is a mixture 
 of copper and brass, annealed or hardened, as 
 the case may require. For electro-plated 
 goods, ' nickel silver ' is now almost invariably 
 employed. See ELEOTBOiypK, Gildikg, Pla- 
 tinising, Silvebing, &c. 
 
 PLAT'INISING. Metals may be coated with 
 platinum by nearly similar processes to those 
 already referred to under Plating. In the 
 'moist way ' vessels of brass, copper, and silver 
 are conveniently platinised in the following 
 manner : — Solid bichloride of platinum, 1 part, 
 is dissolved in water, 100 parts, and to this 
 solution is added of common salt, 8 parts ; or, 
 still better, 1 part oC ammonio-cliloride of 
 platinum and 8 parts of chloride of ammonium 
 are placed in a suitable porcelain vessel, with 
 about 40 parts of water, and the whole heated 
 to ebullition ; the vessels or utensils, pre- 
 viously made perfectly bright, are then im- 
 mersed in the boiling liquid. In n few seconds 
 they generally acquire a brilliant and firmly 
 adhering layer of platinum. 
 
 Silver plates for voltaic batteries are com- 
 monly platinised by immersing them for a 
 tew seconds in a mixture of saturated solution 
 of bichloride of platinum, 1 part ; dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, 3 parts ; water, 4 to 6 parts. 
 Platinum battery plates are covered with a 
 pulverulent deposit of platinum by means of 
 the electrotype. 
 
 Platinised asbestos is prepared by dipping 
 asbestos into a solution of bichloride of plati- 
 num, or one of the double chlorides of that 
 metal, and then gradually heating it to red- 
 ness. It is used as a substitute for spongy 
 platinum. See Electbottpe, Voltaic elec- 
 
 TRICITT. 
 
 PIAT'INUM. Pt. Sj/n. Platina, White 
 GOLD ; Platinum, L. A heavy, greyish- 
 white metal, occurring chiefly in certain of the 
 alluvial districts of Mexico and Brazil, in the 
 
1338 
 
 PLATINUM 
 
 Ural mountains of Eussia, in Ceylon, and in a 
 few other places. It occurs in nature under 
 the form of grains and small rolled masses, 
 associated with palladium, rhodium, osmium, 
 ruthenium, iridium, and a little iron. It has 
 only been known in Europe since 1748. 
 
 Prep. The native alloy of this metal (crude 
 platinum) is acted upon, as far as possible, by 
 nitro-hydrochloric acid containing an excess 
 of hydrochloric acid, and slightly diluted 
 with water, in order to dissolve as small a 
 quantity of iridium as possible ; to the deep 
 \ ellowish-red and high acid solution thus 
 produced ammonium fchloride is added, by 
 which nearly the whole of the platinum is 
 thrown down in the state of ammonio-chloride. 
 This substance, after being washed with a 
 little cold water, is dried and heated to red- 
 ness; the product is spongy metallic platinum. 
 This is made into a thin uniform paste with 
 water, introduced into a slightly conical myuld 
 of brass, and subjected to a graduated pressure, 
 by which the water is squeezed out, and the 
 mass rendered at length sufficiently solid to 
 bear handling. It is next dried, very care- 
 fully heated to whiteness, and hammered, or 
 subjected to powerful pressure by suitable 
 means, whilst in the heated state. It will 
 now bear forging into a bar, and may after- 
 wards be rolled into plates, or drawn into 
 wire, at pleasure. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Platinum is one of the heaviest 
 substances known, its sp. gr. being 21'5. It is 
 whiter than iron, harder than silver, infusible 
 in the strongest heat of our furnaces, and 
 melts only when exposed to the highest tem- 
 perature obtained by Deville's oxyhydrogeu 
 gas furnace. It is unaffected by air, water, 
 and all the ordinary acids, and even its polish 
 is uninjured by the strongest heat of a smith's 
 forge; aqua regia, however, dissolves it, though 
 with much more difBculty than gold ; it is 
 also superficially oxidised by fused hydrate 
 of potassium. Spongy platinum, powdered pla- 
 tinum, and even perfectly clean platinum foil, 
 possess the remarkable property of causing 
 the union of oxyi,'en and hydrogen gases, 
 with more or less elevation of temperature. 
 Platinum is precipitated from its solutions bv 
 deoxidising substances under the form of a 
 black powder (platinum black), which has 
 the power of absorbing oxygen, and again 
 imparting it to combustible substances, and 
 thus causing their oxidation. In this way 
 alcohol and pyroxylic spirit may be converted 
 into acetic and formic acids, &c. 
 
 Platinum black is simply platinum in a fine 
 state of division, and is readily obtained as 
 follows: — 1. A solution of platinic chloride, to 
 which an excess of carbonate of sodium and a 
 quantity of sugar have been added, is boiled 
 uniil the precipitate which forms after a little 
 time becomes perfectly black, and the super- 
 natant liquid colourless ; the black powder is 
 then collected on a filter, washed, and diied 
 by gentle heat. 
 
 2. Platinie-amraonium chloride, reduced to 
 very fine powder, is moistened with strong 
 sulphuric acid, and a small piece of zinc is 
 thrust into the mixture ; after the whole is 
 reduced to a black powder it is washed, first 
 with hydrochloric acid, and then with pure 
 water, and is, lastly, dried. 
 
 8. (Zdrawkowitch.) Platinum black, in a 
 highly active condition, can be obtained, ac- 
 cording to the author, by adding 3 to 5 c.c. of 
 solution of perchloride of platinum, drop by 
 drop, to a boiling mixture of 15 c.c. of glycerin 
 and 10 c.c. of solution of caustic potash of 
 108 sp. gr. 
 
 4. (Ph. B.) Boil down rapidly, solution of 
 potash, 2 pints, in a silver or clean iron vessel, 
 until there remains a fluid of oily consistence, 
 a drop of which removed on a warm glass rod 
 solidifies on cooling. Pour this into proper 
 moulds, and when solidified and while still 
 warm put it into stoppered bottles. 
 
 Platinum, in the state of platinum black, 
 possesses the property of condensing gases, 
 more especially oxygen, into its pores, and 
 afterwards giving it out to various oxidisable 
 substances. When placed in contact with a 
 solution of formic acid it converts it, with 
 copious effervescence, into carbonic acid ; alco- 
 hol, dropped upon it, becomes changed by 
 oxidation into acetic acid, the rise of tem- 
 perature being often sufficient to cause 
 inflammation ; exposed to a red heat, it 
 shrinks in volume, assumes the appearance of 
 spongy platinum, and, for the most part, 
 loses these peculiarities. That prepared with 
 zinc explodes, when heated, like gunpowder. 
 The spongy platinum is obtained by igniting 
 the ammonium platinic chloride at a red heat. 
 
 The salts of platinum are recognised as 
 follows : — Sulphuretted hydrogen throws down 
 from neutral and acid solutions of the platinic 
 salts a blackish-brown precipitate, which is 
 only formed after a time in the cold, but 
 immediately on heating the liquid. Ammonium 
 sulphide also gives a blackish-brown preci- 
 pitate, which completely redissolves in a large 
 excess of the precipitant, provided the latter 
 contains an excess of sulphur. 
 
 Chloride of ammonium and chloride of po- 
 tassium give yellow crystalline precipitates, 
 insolnble in acids, but soluble in excess of the 
 precipitate, upon the application of heat, and 
 decomposable by heat, with production of 
 spongy platinum. Ammonia and potassium 
 hydrate also give similar precipitates in solu- 
 tions previously acidulated with hydrochloric 
 acid. 
 
 ISstim. This may be effected by throwing 
 down the metal in the form of chloride 
 of ammonium and platinum, which, after 
 being washed on a filter with a little weak spirit 
 to which a little of the precipitate has been 
 added, and afterwards with the spirit alone, 
 may be carefully dried at 212° Pahr., and 
 weighed. Or, the precipitate may be ignited 
 in a platinum crucible, and weighed in the 
 
PLATINUM 
 
 1339 
 
 ■tate of a iponf^y platinum. 193-23 gr. of the 
 platinic and ainmoiiiuin chloridea arc equi- 
 valent to 08'7& gr. of metallic platinum. 
 
 t jc.t. Platiuum ia valuable for the forma- 
 tion of cruciblca, capsules, and other utensils 
 or InHtrumentB inti--iidcd to he exposed to a 
 strouK heiit, or to the action of acids. Platinic 
 cliloride and the platinic and sodium chloride 
 are much used in chemical analysis. Uuth of 
 these are also used in medicines with the same 
 intentions, and in the same doses, as the cor- 
 responding salts of gold. These compounds 
 are poisonoux. The antidotes and treatment 
 are siniiliir to those described under Gold. 
 
 Concladinff Memarks. — Daville and Debray 
 have introiluced a metliod of refining pla- 
 tinum, wliich has already done much to ex- 
 tend the useful applications of the metal. The 
 pruce'is consists in submitting the crude metal 
 to the action of an intensely high temperature, 
 obtained by the combustion of hydrogen (or 
 coal-gas) with oxygen, in a crucible of lime, 
 liy tliis means large qunntities of platinum 
 (5U lbs. or more) can be kept fused until the 
 sulphur, phiisphorus, arsenic, and osmium, 
 generally occurring in crude platinum, are 
 oxidised and volatilised, and the iron and 
 copper are oxidised and absorbed by the lime 
 forming the crucible. At the International 
 Exhibition of 1862 an ingot. of pure platinum, 
 weighing over 2 cwt.,wa8 exhibited hy Me>ara 
 Johnson & Miithey, as an illustration of the 
 priietiial results of this process. 
 
 Platinic Chloride. PtCI^. £yn. Bichloride 
 OF platinum:, Chlouide op platinum, 
 
 PKBOHLdUlDK OP p. J PlAIINI BICnLOBIDUM 
 (Pll. L.), L. PlATINI TETHACnLOUIDUM. 
 Prep, liy dissolving platinum in nitro-hy- 
 drocliloric acid, and evaporating the solution 
 to dryness at a gentle heat. Prop., Sfo, 
 lieddish-brown, deliquescent, and very soluble 
 in both water and alcohol, yielding orange- 
 coloured solutions. It combines with a va- 
 ri'ty of metallic chlorides to form 'double 
 salts." Used as a test in chemical analysis, 
 and as an alterative in secondary syphilis, &c. 
 — Dose, tV '0 i gr , dissolved in distilled water, 
 or made into a pill with syrup and liquorice 
 powder. Some per&oiis prescribe much larger 
 doses, but unsafely. Hoefer recommends an 
 ointment made with it as an application to 
 indolent ulcers. In doses of 5 gr. and up- 
 wards it acts as a violent caustic poison. This 
 last salt is the ' chloride of platinum ' of the 
 shops, and the one used in the arts and medi- 
 cine. It forms one of the tests included in 
 the .\ppendix to the Ph. L. 
 
 Flatinic-Ammoniom Chloride. Pt(NHj)jCl5, 
 or PtCI^ 2NH4CI. Sj/n. Ammonio chlokide 
 OP platinum, Platino-chloride op ammo- 
 nium. Prep. A solution of chlnride of ammo- 
 nium is added to a strong solution of platinic 
 chloride, and the precipitate washed with 
 dilute .ilcohol. 
 
 Prop. Minute, transparent, yellow octa- 
 hedral crystals very feebly soluble in waUr, j 
 
 leas 80 in dilute alcohol, and insoluble in acids ; 
 heat converts it into spongy platinum. 
 
 Platinic- Fotassium Chloride. PtK^Cle, or 
 PtClj2KCl. Sy». Platino-chlobide'of po- 
 tassium, Potabsio-Chlobidk op platinum. 
 Prep. A bright yellow, crystalline precipitate, 
 formed whenever solutions of the chlorides of 
 platinum and of potassium are mixed ; or a 
 salt of potassium, acidulated with a little hy- 
 drochloric acid, is added to platinic chloride. 
 In appearance, solubility, &c., it closely resem- 
 bles ammonio-chloride of platinum. 
 
 Platinic - Sodium Chloride. PtNiijCl,, or 
 PtCl42NaC]. Syn. Chloride op platixcm 
 and sodium, Sodio-chloeidb op platinum, 
 Platino-biohlobide op sodium ; Platini et 
 
 SODII CHLOBIDDM, PlATINI SODIO-CHLOEI- 
 
 DIUM, kc, h. Prep. (Redwood.) Platinic 
 chloride, 17 parts ; chloride of sodium, 6 parts ; 
 dissolve tlie two salts separately in water, q. s., 
 mix the solutions, and evaporate, that crystals 
 may form. The crystals are large, transparent, 
 and of a yellow-red colour. — Dose, -jl^ to i gr.; 
 in the same cases as the bichloride. 
 
 Platinic Oxide. I'tO,. iSyn. Binozids op 
 PLATiNiM. Prep. 1. By exactly decom- 
 posing the platinic sulphate with nitrate of 
 barium, and adding pure hydrate of sodium to 
 the filtered solution, so as to precipitate only 
 half the oxide. (Berzelins.) — 2. By boiling 
 platinic chloride with hydrate of sodium, in con- 
 siderable excess, and then adding acetic acid. 
 
 Prop., ice. As the hydrate (Pt(HC) 1,), it is 
 a bulky brownish powder; this, when gently 
 heated, becomes black and anhydrous. It 
 forms salts with the acids, and combines with 
 some of the bases. The salts have a red or 
 yellow colour, and a remarkable tendency to 
 form double salts with the alkaline salts. 
 
 Obs. Both the oxides of platinum are re- 
 duced to the metallic state on ignition. 
 
 Platinons Oxide. PtO. Syn. Oxide op 
 PLATINUM. Prep. By heating to below red- 
 ness the platinic chloride and digesting with 
 hydrate of potassium the residue. 
 
 Prop., Sec. A black powder, soluble in 
 excess of alkali, and freely so in the acids, 
 forming brown solutions of the platinons salts. 
 These are distinguished from solutions of the 
 platinic salts by not being precipitated by 
 chloride of ammonium. Platinons oxalate, in 
 fine copper-coloured needles, may be obtained 
 by heating platinic oxide in a solution of oxalic 
 acid. 
 
 Platinum Gas. Syn. Gazplatine ; Gil- 
 lard's GAS. In Paris this gas is employed 
 by gold- and silversmiths and electro-platers 
 because it gives rise to no sulphur product and 
 burns without giving ofE soot or smoke. It is 
 free frum smell. Steam is decomposed by 
 being made to pass through a retort filled with 
 red-hot charcoal. The hydrogen being freed 
 from the carbonic acid which is associated 
 with it, by means of crystalli-ed carbonate of 
 soda, is burnt from an Argand burner provided 
 with numerous small holes. The flame, which 
 
1340 
 
 PLEURISY— PLUM 
 
 is not luminous in itself, is surrounded by a 
 network of moderately fine platinam wire, 
 which on becoming white-hot becomes lumi- 
 nous. It burns quite steadily, and its illumi- 
 nating power is said to exceed slightly that of 
 coal gas. 
 
 Platinam, Spongy. Frep. 1. By boating 
 ammoaio-chloride of platinum to redness. 
 
 2. Crude bichloride of platinum and chlo- 
 ride of ammonium are separately dissolved in 
 proof spirit, and tbe one solution added to 
 the other as long as a precipitate forms ; this 
 is collected, and, whilst still moist, formed 
 into little balls or pieces, which are then dried, 
 and gradually heated to redness. 
 
 Prop., S(c. Tliese have been noticed above. 
 Small balls of spongy platinum are used for the 
 hydrogen instantaneous-light lamp (Dobe- 
 reiner's lamp) ; but they are apt to absorb 
 moisture from the atmosphere, and then lose 
 their power of inflaming hydrogen, until they 
 are re-dried and heated. 
 
 PLEURISY. Inflammation of the pleura, 
 or membrane covering the lungs. The sym- 
 ptoms of pleurisy are a sharp pain in the side, 
 which is rendered more acute when a deep 
 breath is taken \ quick, short, difficult inspira- 
 tion ; a quick pulse ; and fever. Much pain 
 is also experienced if the attempt be made to 
 lie on the affected side. 
 
 Pleurisy sometimes accompanies pneumonia 
 or inflammation of the substance of the lungs. 
 If allowed to run on, the disease produces 
 effusion ot serum or of lymph into the cavity 
 of the chest, in either case giving rise to 
 adhesions, which cause embarrassment of 
 breathing. On the contrary, it may terminate 
 by resolution or complete recovery. 
 
 Pleurisy generally arises from exposure to 
 the cold. A blow or a wound will also cause 
 it, and a not uncommon origin is the splintered 
 end of a broken rib. In every case the advice 
 of the medical practitioner should be souglit 
 upon the first indications of the disease. The 
 following treatment is suggested for adoption 
 only by emigrants, or others unable to procure 
 the services of the medical man in cases of 
 urgency : — • 
 
 Under these circumstances the patient, sit- 
 ting in an upright posture, should be hied 
 until lie is able to breathe without feeling 
 pain. If after bleeding the pain should return, 
 leeches, if obtainable, should be applied to the 
 painful part, and a large blister should be 
 placed near the afiected spot. After being 
 
 bled the patient should have n hot bath. 
 Should the pain not subside, leeching must be 
 had free recourse to, or bloud be drawn by 
 cupping. A brisk purgative should be given 
 at the commencement of the disease, and after 
 this has ceased acting the patient should take 
 two grains of calomel and a quarter of a grain 
 of opium every four hours, but this treatment 
 must not be continued longer than is neces- 
 sary. The patient should remain in bed in a 
 room which has a uniform temperature of 60° 
 P., and adopt a low diet. 
 
 In Hobses. — Symptoma. Fever, indicated 
 by shivering, indisposition to move or turn, 
 quick pulse, painful cough, and hurried re- 
 spiration. 
 
 " Place the animal without delay in a cool, 
 airy, loose box, and bleed to the extent of 
 seven or eight quarts, or until the pulse 
 falters. Bleeding is never justifiable after the 
 third day, when the pulse reaches 70. Three 
 or four drachms of aloes in solution will suffice 
 for the horse, and clysters must also be given. 
 Until the physic operates sedatives must be 
 used with great caution. Twenty minims of 
 Plemming's tincture of aconite should be given 
 every three hours. 
 
 " Towards the close of the second day the 
 aconite may be discontinued, and a scruple of 
 calomel and a drachm of opium given in a 
 bolus, and repeated every four hours until 
 four or five doses have been given. Apply 
 liniment of ammonia or mustard to tbe sides. 
 If the animal be thirsty give water in which 
 nitre has been dissolved. Keep the animal 
 perfectly quiet, and let it have soft laxative 
 food." (Finlay Dun.) 
 
 PLUG'GIITG. The introduction of a mass of 
 lint, sponge, or other suitable material, into a 
 wound or cavity, with the intention of arrest- 
 ing bajniorrhage. It is now seldom adopted, 
 except in cases of bleeding from tbe nose, and 
 that only after more approved methods have 
 failed. 
 
 PLUM. A name applied to several varieties 
 of the Prunus domesticus (Linn.), or wild plum. 
 Among the cultivated varieties, the damson, 
 greengage, French plum, magnum bonum or 
 Mogul p., mirabelle p., Orleans p., and prune, 
 are those best known. Grocers' * plums' are 
 raisins, or dried grapes. 
 
 In the following table will be found the 
 composition of the principal varieties of 
 plum. 
 
PLUMBAGO— PNEUMONIA 
 
 1341 
 
 
 MirabHle, 
 conimon 
 yelluw. 
 
 Grccn^'ige. 
 
 Blark- 
 blue, 
 
 niitidlo 
 sized 
 
 Plums. 
 
 Dark 
 
 black-red 
 
 Flumi, 
 
 [ Miuiel Plums. 
 
 Yellow- 
 green, 
 luiddle 
 size. 
 
 Large 
 green, 
 very 
 Bweet. 
 
 ' Conimon. 
 
 Italian, 
 T,ry 
 s«eet. 
 
 Soluble mailer — 
 
 Sugar .... 
 Free ncid, reduced to 
 equiraleiit in malic acid 
 Albuminous Bubstanees 
 Pectous substances, &c. 
 Ash ... . 
 
 lutoluhle matter — 
 Hieds 
 
 Slcins, &c. . 
 IVctose 
 
 [^Aihfrom insoluble mat- 
 ter included on weight) 
 given'] .... 
 Water. 
 
 3-584 
 
 0-582 
 0197 
 5-772 
 0-570 
 
 5-780 
 0179 
 1-080 
 
 [0-082] 
 82-256 
 
 2-960 
 
 0-960 
 
 0-477 
 
 10-475 
 
 0-318 
 
 3-250 
 0-680 
 0-010 
 
 [0-039] 
 80-841 
 
 3-405 
 
 0-870 
 
 0-401 
 
 11-074 
 
 0-398 
 
 2-852 
 1-035 
 0-215 
 
 [0-037] 
 79-720 
 
 1-996 
 
 1-270 
 0-400 
 2-313 
 0496 
 
 4-190 
 1 0-509 
 
 [0-041] 
 88-751 
 
 2-252 
 
 1-331 
 
 0- 126 
 5-851 
 0553 
 
 3-329 
 1-020 
 
 [0-063] 
 85-238 
 
 5-793 
 
 n-9o2 
 0-785 
 3-616 
 0-734 
 
 3 540 
 r 1-990 
 1 0-030 
 
 [0094] 
 81-930 
 
 6-730 
 
 0-.S41 
 o,s:t2 
 4-105 
 0-590 
 
 3-124 
 0-!l72 ! 
 1-534 
 
 [0-066] 
 81-272 
 
 
 100-00 
 
 99-971 
 
 100-00 
 
 99-925 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 10000 
 
 FLUMBA'GO. 8g». Gbaphite, Blaok-lead. 
 One of the nntive forms of cnrbon. It contains 
 from 95 to lOO^j of pure carbon ; has a metallic 
 lustre, and conducts electricity nearly ns well 
 as the metals. It was formerly regarded as a 
 carbide of iron, but the iron generally found 
 is now known to be merely in a state of mix- 
 ture. There are two distinct varieties of 
 grnphite — crystiiUised or foliated graphite, ob- 
 tained chiefly from Ceylon; and amorphous 
 graphite (the ordinary plumbago or black- 
 lead), largely imported to this country from 
 Germany. The Borrowdale mine in Cumber- 
 land, from which the finest black-lead was 
 formerly derived, is now nearly exhausted. 
 The foliated graphite of Ceylon and other 
 parts is the principal material employed for 
 making plumbngo crucibles and other lire-re- 
 sisting goods. The amorphous graphite is used 
 for milking black-lead pencils, polishing pow- 
 der for stoves and grates (' lustre,' ' serviiiits' 
 friend,' &<'.), and to diminish friction in heavy 
 machinirv (anti-friction powder). Its powder 
 is also used to give conducting surfaces to 
 articles on which it is desired to deposit cop- 
 per by the electrotype. In medicine plum- 
 bago has been used with apparent advantage 
 in lierpes and several chronic skin diseases — 
 externally, as an ointment made with four 
 times its weight of lard; and internally, made 
 into pills. 
 
 Purification. For medical and chemical use 
 graphite may be treated as follows : — 
 
 1. (Dumas and Stas.) Heat it to redness 
 with caustic potiissa, in a covered crucible, then 
 v/ash it well with water, boil it in nitric acid 
 and in aqua regia, again wa^ll it with water, 
 dry it, and expose it at a white heat to a stream 
 of . dry chlorine gas ; lastly, wash it with 
 
 water, and again heat it to dull redness. In 
 analysis. 
 
 2. (Ph. Bor.) Pure native plumbago, 1 lb., 
 is boiled in water for 1 hour, then drained, 
 and digested for 24 hours in a mixture of 
 water, 8 oz.i nitric acid and hydrochloric acid, 
 of each 2 oz. ; it is, lastly, well washed with 
 water, and dried. 
 
 3. (Brodie's patent.) This process is only 
 applicable to the hard varieties of graphite, as 
 that of Ceylon. It consists in introducing 
 coarsely powdered graphite, previously mixed 
 with j)jth of its weight of chlorate of potas^a, 
 into 2 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid, 
 which is heated in a water bath uutil the evo- 
 lution of acid fumes ceases. The acid is then 
 removed by water, and the graphite diied. 
 Thus prepared, this substance, when heated to 
 a temperature approaching a red heat, swells 
 up to a voluminous mass of finely divided 
 grnphite. This powder, which is quite free 
 from grit, may be afterwards consolidated by 
 pressure, and used for making pencils or other 
 purposes. 
 
 PLUM'BIC ACID. Binoxide of lead occa- 
 sionally receives this name on account of its 
 combining with some of the bases to form 
 compounds which have been called plum- 
 bates. 
 
 PLUM'BUM COR'KEUM. See Lead, Chlo- 
 ride OF. 
 
 PIUM'OSE AL'UM. The old name of the 
 silky amianthine crystals of the double sul- 
 phate of aluminum and iron occasionally found 
 on alum slate. Asbestos has also been so 
 
 PLUNKETS CANCEE REMEDY. See 
 CArsTic, Plunket's. 
 
 PNEUMONIA. Inflammation of the sub- 
 
1342 
 
 PNEUMONIA 
 
 stance of the lungs. Wlien the inflammation 
 extends to the pleura, or covering of the lungs, 
 the disease is distinguished as Pletteo-pneu- 
 MONIA. By most pathologists pneumonia is 
 described under the three general heads of — 
 (1) Croupous pneumonia, (2) catarrhal pneu- 
 monia, (3) chronic pneumonia, each of which 
 have, by some medical writers, been subdivided 
 into other forms and varieties. 
 
 1. Acute okoupous pneumonia. This first 
 description of pneumonia is most common 
 amongst persons of from twenty to thirty 
 yuiirs of age, although no age escapes it, and 
 it is generally very severe in character when 
 it attacks the very young or old. It prevails 
 more amongst men than women, since the 
 former, from their more frequent exposure to 
 the weather and to changes of temperature, 
 run greater risk of being overtaken by a very 
 fertile cause of croupal pneumonia, viz. a 
 sudden chill when the body is unusually 
 heated. 
 
 It frequently seizes those suffering from 
 chronic or acute disorders, as well as those 
 who are intemperate and drunken. It olten 
 assails patients suffering from contagious and 
 acute maladies, such as measles, smallpox, 
 pyai-mia, puerperal fever, typhus, and as ap- 
 pears from the accounts of the recent out- 
 break of AstraUan plague in that disease also. 
 It likewise frequently prevails amongst the 
 poor and badly fed living in the overcrowded 
 quarters of large towns and cities. 
 
 The following are the principal symptoms 
 of acute croupous pneumonia, given by Dr 
 Roberts :' — 
 
 " In some cases there are premonitory signs 
 of general indisposition for a short time. In 
 primary, or nnmixed pneumonia, the attack 
 sets in usually very suddenly, the invasion 
 being attended with a single^ severe^ more or 
 less prolonged rigor. There may be great 
 prostration witli fever; vomiting or nervous 
 symptoms, viz. headache, delirium, restless 
 stupor, or, in children, convulsions. The special 
 symptoms are local and general. 
 
 " Local symptoms. — Pain in the side is usually 
 present, commonly stabbing or piercing, in- 
 creased by a deep breath. Difficulty of breath- 
 ing. Cough also commences speedily ; it does 
 not coviie on in violent paroxysms, but is short 
 and backing and difficult to repress. Soon 
 expectoration occurs, the expectorated matter 
 presenting peculiar characters. It is scarcely 
 at all trothy but extremely viscid and adhe- 
 sive, and the vessel which contains it may 
 often be overturned without its escaping. The 
 expectorated matter has a rusty colour or pre- 
 sents vaiious tints of red, from admixture of 
 blood, and as the case progresses, changes of 
 colour are observed through shades of yellow, 
 until filially they become merely like the ex- 
 pectoration of bronchitis. In some cases of 
 croupdl pneumonia pain and other symptoms 
 
 1 • Handlionk of the Tlieory alitl Practice of Medicine,' 
 by r. J. llulierts, M.D., &c. Lewis, 1873. 
 
 are sometimes very slight or absent, and the 
 expectoration may be merely like that in 
 bronchitis, absent, or in low cases present the 
 appearance of a dark, offensive, thin fluid, 
 resembling liquorice or prune juice. 
 
 " General symptoms. — These may he summed 
 up generally as severe fever with great de- 
 pression and prostration. The skin is hot, 
 dry, and burning. The temperature rises with 
 great rapidity to 102°, 103°, 105°, or sometimes 
 higher. It has been known to reach 107° in 
 cases which recovered, and in fatal cases it has 
 attained to 109'4°. In a large number of 
 instances it does not exceed 104°. There is 
 usually considerable flushing of the cheeks. 
 The pulse ranges generally from 90 to 120, 
 or may be much above this." 
 
 In the majority of cases this variety of 
 pneumonia has a favorable termination, but 
 however slight the form in which it shows 
 itself, or the mildness of its attack, the pro- 
 perly qualified practitioner should be called in 
 to combat it. We have described the nature 
 and cause of the disease and given the course 
 to be followed in treating it, for the benefit 
 only of the emigrant and others similarly 
 situated. The above comments are meant to 
 apply to the other descriptions of pneumonia, 
 which will be adverted to in the course of the 
 present article. 
 
 Treatment to he followed in croupous pneu- 
 monia. — Bleeding was formerly had recourse 
 to, but this treatment has either been aban- 
 doned of late years, or very rarely practised, 
 the only case in which its moderate employ- 
 ment is recommended being that in which the 
 patient is threatened with death from partial 
 privation or suspension of breath. 
 
 Leeches may be applied to the spot in pain, 
 and a large blister near it, but it is preferable 
 to first try the effect of hot fomentations and 
 poultices containing laudanum ; or turpentine 
 sprinkled on a warm damp flannel may be 
 tried. A third of a grain of tartarised anti- 
 mony, with a few drops of laudanum, or a 
 third of a grain of hydrochlorate of morphia 
 may be given every four hours. 
 
 " In all low forms of the disease the only 
 chance is in free stimulation. At the same 
 times full doses of carbonate of ammonia, 
 with bark, spirits of chloroform, ether, cam- 
 phor, and such remedies, must be administered. 
 In some cases quinine with iron is use- 
 ful."2 
 
 The best diet consists of milk and beef tea. 
 The patient, it is needless to say, should he 
 kept in bed, and the temperature of his 
 chamber should be maintained at about 60° F. 
 It is also most essential that the room should 
 be thoroughly ventilated, and all the expec- 
 torated matter, stools, &c., thoroughly disin- 
 fected before removal. 
 
 2. Cataebhal PNEtJMONiA. The acute va- 
 riety of this form of pneumonia is that which 
 principally attacks infants and children, and 
 ' Br Roberts. 
 
PNEUMONIA 
 
 1313 
 
 frequently complicates diphtheria, hooping- 
 ''ough, lueasles, luid influenza ; although it may 
 ui'CHHionally occur when not associated wilh 
 these diseases. 
 
 In the othervariety— chronic catarrhal pneu- 
 monia — the greater number of cases arise from 
 bronciiitis. Many authorities look upon tlie 
 liiat variety of pneumonia as tlie cause of a 
 grrat proportion of the cases of pulmonary 
 phthisis. 
 
 Syinptomt. — These differ, in the great majo- 
 rity of cases, from croapal pneumonia, in not 
 being preceiled by rigors. There is always 
 fever and a rise of bodily temperature from 
 103° to 195°. There is often copious perspira- 
 tion and increased pulse. As the disease pro- 
 gresses the breathing becomes more difficult 
 and rapid, the cough changes its character, 
 and " becomes short, harsh, hacking, and pain- 
 ful, tlie child endeavouring to repress it, and 
 having an expression of pain or crying and 
 diminished expectoration."' 
 
 The treatment of this form of pneumonia 
 couHists in keeping up the strength of the 
 patient by means of good nourishing food, and 
 stimulants judiciously administered. Ammonia 
 and seup);a should be given if the sufferer is 
 very weak. In ordinary cases ipecacuanha 
 wine will be found useful. Poultices of lin- 
 seed or mustard to the chest are also pre- 
 scribed. During convalescence the patient 
 requires canful watching; his diet should be 
 generous, and should include wine; cod-liver 
 oil, quinine, and iron, or other tonics are ad- 
 diuonally necessary. 
 
 3. CimoNio PNEUMONIA. This disease, in 
 which the substance of the lung is in a more 
 or less abnoimal or altered condition, is mostly 
 the result of some previous pulmonary all'ec- 
 ti(m. It frequently follows successive attacks 
 of the catarrhal variety of pneumonia and the 
 l>roncljial irritation arising from the inhala- 
 ticm of small particles of dust given off by 
 substances employed in certain occupations or 
 mauufaetnres, such as coal, steel, granite, &c. 
 
 The symptoms are pains in the side, cough, 
 sometimes occurring in severe paroxysms, 
 shortness of breathing, the patient meantime 
 gradually becoming Lhinner and weaker. 
 .Simetimes nifjht sweats occur, but generally 
 there is liUle or no fever. 
 
 The be-t treatment is nourishing diet, com- 
 bined with tonics and cod-liver oil. 
 
 Of late years the doctrine of the contagious 
 nature of some forms of acute pneumonia 
 (whether complicated with pleurisy or not) 
 seems to have been gaining ground amongst 
 medical practitioners. The well-known fact 
 that the pleuro- pneumonia of cattle is propa- 
 gated by contagion, if it does not prove thi- 
 contention, ia at any rate "worthy," as Dr 
 Parkes remarks, "of all attention." 
 
 The following cases, selected from amongst 
 many others equally striking, would appear to 
 lend considerable support to this view : 
 ' Dr Kobtrls. 
 
 1. The 'Lancet' for January 9th, 1862, 
 contains a communication from Dr Bryson, 
 describing an epidemic of pleuro-pneumonia 
 which occurred in 1860 amongst the Mediter- 
 ranean fleet. The infectious character of the 
 disease is stated to have been very marked ; 
 besides which there were several points of 
 resemblance between it and the pleuro-pneu- 
 monia which attacks cattle. 
 
 2. Professor Bock of Christiana has re- 
 corded an outbreak of pneumonia which took 
 place in the Akerhas prison of that city in 
 1866. Out of 360 prisoners 62 of them were 
 attacked with pneumonia in six months. The 
 prison, like the cattle sheds, ravaged by 
 pleuro-pneumonio, was badly ventilated and 
 overcrowded. 
 
 The following illustrations are extracted 
 from Dr Wynter BIyth's valuable ' Dictionary 
 of Hygiene and Public Health." 
 
 1. "Mr Alfred Mayo, Mildenhall, Suffolk, 
 in a private letter to the author, gives a series 
 of cases in which the infectious character of 
 the malady was well marked. The first ca~e 
 was that of a bricklayer, about thirty-tive 
 years of age, who was taken ill with pleuro- 
 pneumonia. His mother, who nursed him, 
 very shortly afterwards took the ►ame disea-c 
 and died. A neighbour, a heidthy young 
 woman over thirty, who came in to nurse the 
 last patient, was also taken similarly ill, and 
 died with all the physical and other signs and 
 symptoms well developed; and lastly, her 
 child contracted the disease, but eveutually 
 recivered. There were other cases in the 
 neighbourhood at the same time, and all ot 
 tliem were remarkable for their fatality." 
 
 2. " Dr Richard Budd, of Barnstaple, has 
 communicated to the author the following 
 remarkable cases: — 1. A clergyman, after 
 attending a public meeting, became affected 
 with acute pneumonia. 2. The nurse in 
 attendance became ill of the same disease 
 about a week afterwards. 3. The clergyman's 
 sister, taking the place of the nurse, was iu 
 her turn also seized with pneumonia. 4. A 
 brother of the clergyman, who now undertook 
 the duty of nurse, was in a very short time laid 
 up with the same malady. Tire nurse and 
 sister died, the two brothers recovered. Dr 
 Budd concludes his commuiiications as fol- 
 lows : ' Since tliat time I have witnessed in- 
 numerable instances of the occurrence of this 
 disorder iu several members of the same 
 family in succession, and I am thoroughly 
 convinced that it spreads by infection, as the 
 facts I have observed admit of no other 
 explanation.' " 
 
 The following table, from the Registrar- 
 General's Report for 1875, gives the yearly 
 number of deaths from pneumonia in England 
 from 1818 to 1875:— 
 
 1818 . 
 
 . 21,868 
 
 1852 . 
 
 . 21,l-21 
 
 IS 19 . 
 
 . 21,194, 
 
 l,s.->3 . 
 
 . 2 1X198 
 
 1S50 . 
 
 . 20,303 
 
 ls.j I. . 
 
 . 23,523 
 
 1851 . 
 
 . 22,001 
 
 lSo5 . 
 
 . 2(!,052 
 
134:4, 
 
 POACHING— POISON 
 
 1856 . 
 
 . 22,653 
 
 1866 . 
 
 . 25,155 
 
 1857 . 
 
 . 23,452 
 
 1867 . 
 
 . 21,118 
 
 1858 . 
 
 . 26,486 
 
 1868 . 
 
 . 19.908 
 
 1859 . 
 
 . 24,514 
 
 1869 . 
 
 . 25,246 
 
 1860 . 
 
 . 25,264 
 
 1870 . 
 
 . 23,729 
 
 1861 . 
 
 . 22,914 
 
 1871 . 
 
 . 22,768 
 
 1862 . 
 
 . 23.713 
 
 1872 . 
 
 . 20,282 
 
 1863 . 
 
 . 24,181 
 
 1873 . 
 
 . 22,904 
 
 1864 . 
 
 . 24,470 
 
 1874 . 
 
 . 25,927 
 
 1865 . 
 
 . 22,489 
 
 1875 . 
 
 . 27,161 
 
 As a commentary upon the high death-rate 
 from pneumonia for 1875, we may quote the 
 Report for 1877 of the Registrar-General to 
 the President of the Local Government Board. 
 He writes, " The winter of 1875 was unusually 
 severe ; extremes of temperature, with a long 
 continuance of east winds, were fatal to in- 
 fants and to elderly people, and no less than 
 162,156 deaths were registered in England 
 for the first quarter of the year ; the mortality 
 was at the annual rate of 27*5 per 1000, or 
 2'6 per 1000 above the average of the thirty- 
 eight years— 1838-75." 
 
 In animals. For pneumonia and ordinary 
 pleuro-pneumonia, the treatment prescribed 
 fur pleurisy may be followed. 
 
 Epidemic PLEnEO -pneumonia of cattle. 
 It is now universally admitted that this dis- 
 ease is very often traceable to contagion, and 
 hence that its propagation has been largely 
 due to the practice of purchasing infected 
 animals in open market, and afterwards 
 allowing them to herd with healthy ones. 
 When a cow is attacked with this epizootic 
 disease, the fli'st noticeable symptoms are 
 generally tenderness and flabbiness of the 
 udder, and a frothy condition of the milk. 
 
 These symptoms are accompanied with a 
 dry cough and irregularity of appetite; at the 
 same time the mouth, horns, and legs become 
 hot, the pulse becomes more rapid, and the 
 breathing also. When on its feet the animal 
 arches its back, and when lying down rests 
 itself upon its breast bone. Generally, how- 
 ever, when in the recumbent posture, it lies 
 on that side where the affected lung is. 
 
 The treatment, omitting the bleeding, is 
 very similar to that recommended for pleurisv, 
 except that it should be supplemented by the 
 application to the sides of fomentations of hot 
 water, followed by the rubbing in of mustard 
 or of some vesicant. "If no improvement 
 occur after the third or fourth day, give three 
 times daily an ounce each of ginger and 
 gentian, with four drachms of sulphate of 
 iron. Where there is debility, arrested secre- 
 tion, and cold extremities, give several times 
 a day a quart of warm ale, with an ounce 
 each of ginger, cardamoms, fenugreek, or other 
 aromatics."' 
 
 POACH'ING. Amongst cooks, a peculiar 
 method of cooking small articles by a slight 
 boiling or stewing process. 
 
 Poached eg&s are prepared by breaking 
 ^ Finlay Dun. | 
 
 them into a small saucepan or stewpan con- 
 taining about i a pint of boiling water, to 
 which a teaspoonful of common salt, and, oc- 
 casionally, a little vinegar, is added, and gently 
 simmering them for 3 or 4 minutes, or until 
 sufficiently firm to bear removal with a spoon 
 or ' slice.' Another method is to employ melted 
 butter instead of water, and to dress them 
 either with or without stirring. 
 
 Poached eggs are commonly served on toast, 
 or with fried ham or bacon, with spice or vege- 
 table seasoning at will. They form an excel- 
 lent breakfast, or ' make-shift dinner.' 
 
 PODOPH'YILIN. Si/». Resin op podo- 
 PHTILTIM ; Resina podophylh (B. P.). Ob- 
 tained from the root of the Podophyllum pelta- 
 tum (Linn.), or may-apple, a substance officinal 
 in the Ph. U. S. 
 
 Prep. 1. The alcoholic extract of may-apple 
 is digested in cold ether to remove fatty matter, 
 and is then dissolved in rectified spirit; the 
 solution is decoloured with a little animal char- 
 coal, and filtered ; it is, lastly, allowed to eva- 
 porate spontaneously. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Podophyllum, in coarse powder, 
 1; rectified spirit, 3|, or a sufficiency; dis- 
 tilled water and hydrochloric acid, of each a 
 suflRciency ; exhaust .the podophyllum by per- 
 colation with the spirit; distil over the spirit; 
 slowly pour the liquid remaining after the dis- 
 tillation of the tincture into three times its 
 volume of water acidulated with -^fh part of 
 its weight of hydrochloric acid, constantly 
 stirring; let it stand 24 hours; collect the 
 re.sin which falls, wash on a filter with distilled 
 water, and dry in a stove. Cholagogue purga- 
 tive ; used as a substitute for calomel. — Dose, 
 ^ to J gr., or even 2 gr. It is best to begin 
 with ^ gr. (Squire.) 
 
 Prop., ^c. An amorphous, greyish-white 
 mass, soluble in alcohol, and slightly soluble in 
 water. It is a safe and certain cathartic, supe- 
 rior in activity to resin of jalap. — Dose, ^ to 3 
 gr. See Extract op May-'Appie. 
 
 PODOPHYLLUM SCOT. Syn. Podophtlli 
 RADIX (B. P.) The dried rhizome of the Podo- 
 pkyUum peltatitm ; imported from North Ame- 
 rica. Active and certain cathartic. — Dose, 10 
 to 20 gr. 
 
 POIS'GN. Syn. ToxicuM, Venenum, L. 
 Any substance which, when swallowed or ap- 
 plied in any particular way to the living body, 
 disturbs, suspends, or destroys one or more 
 of the vital functions. In sufficient quantity, 
 or in small doses long continued, the com- 
 mon result of the administration of dele- 
 terious substances is either impaired vitality or 
 death. 
 
 Poisons are classified by Orfila under four 
 heads : — 
 
 1. Iehitant poisons, or such as inflame or 
 corrode the parts with which they come in 
 contact. Their chief effects are upon the ali- 
 mentary canal, with, sometimes, ulceration of 
 the tongue, fauces, and oesophagus. Nausea, 
 vomiting, stomachic and intestinal pains, ex- 
 
rOLAUISATlON— POLYCHRESr 
 
 1345 
 
 troiue «nxiety mid nnguish, quick and feeble 
 pulse, cold and clammy skin, iind mucous, 
 bilious or Moody diarrlicea, are nmon<j the com- 
 mon leading symptom*. Arsenic, bine vitriol, 
 verdigris, strong acids and alkalies, drastic 
 purgatives, and numerous other substances, 
 belong to this diss. 
 
 2. Nabcotic OE STCPBFriNO POiaoNS, or 
 such as pnralyae the functions of the nervous 
 system, and produce headache, vertigo, con- 
 fused vision, delirium, stupor, convulsions, 
 coiiio, &c. It includes morphia, opium, hen- 
 buni', oil of bitter almonds, prussic acid, &c. 
 
 3 N'abootico-aceid poisons, which produce 
 at the Slime time narcotism and jrritHtion of 
 the parts which they touch. Alcohol, bella- 
 donna, cocculus indicus, colchicutn, foxglove, 
 hemlock, poisonous fun^i, strychnine, tobacco, 
 verntrine, Ac, iire of this kind. 
 
 4. Septic ob Puthefiant poisons, includ- 
 ing all those which alter, liquefy, or cause the 
 putrescence of the fluids of the body ; iis sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, the gas from sewers and 
 cesspools, putrefying organic matter.miasmata, 
 (to. 
 
 The treatment of cases of poisoning varies 
 with the substance occasioning it; the 
 proper antidotes will lie found noticed under 
 the names of the various substances that 
 exert a deleterious action on the nnimsl body. 
 It may here, however, bo useful to remark 
 that, in almost nil cases of poisoning, copious 
 vomiting shiinld be excitod as soon as possible 
 by the administration of a powerful emetic; 
 its action being promoted by copious draughts 
 of lukewarm water, tickling the throat with the 
 Rnger, &o. Should this full, but notothcrwise, 
 the stomach-pump should be had recourse to. 
 The vomiting should be kept up and the 
 stomach well washed out with bland albumi- 
 nous or mucilaginous liquids, such as milk- 
 iind-water, barley water, sweetened water, 
 flour-and-water, or any similar matters, as cir- 
 cumstances may afford. After the vomiting a 
 brisk aperientdraught, or clyster, maybe admi- 
 nistered, and nervous irritability or exhaustion 
 allayed by means of ether, opium, wine, or 
 warm spirit-and-water, as the case may require. 
 Even in a suspected case of poisouing, when 
 proper medical advice is not at hand, an 
 emetic should be immediately administered. 
 Vomiting may be, in general, produced very 
 promptly by merely swallowing a cupful of 
 warm water mixed with a teaspoonful of flour 
 of mustard. If no dry mustard is at hand, a 
 portion of the contents of a mustard-pot, put 
 into the water, will answer nearly as well. As 
 mustard may tlius prove of so much use, it 
 should never be wanting in any house; but 
 even should there be no mustard at hand, warm 
 water by itself, freely taken, forms a tolerably 
 eflicacious emetic. 
 
 POLARISATION (of light). A change pro- 
 duced upon light by the action of certain media 
 and surfaces, by which it ceases to present the 
 ordinary phenomena of reflection and trans- 
 voi. II. 
 
 mission. Instruments or apparatus emjiloyed 
 to effect this change are called ' polariscopes,' 
 Altliough the polarisation of light is frequently 
 employed us a means of chemical investigation, 
 and is of the utmost interest to the philosophical 
 in<[nirer,it8consideJ'iiLion scarcely comes within 
 the province of this work. See 'Watt's Diet, 
 of Chemistry,' ' Ganot's Physics,' &c. 
 
 FOIi'ISH. Various substancts, diilViin.' 
 widely from each otlier, are uopnlarlv known 
 under this name. See Powdebs, Vaunish, 
 &e., and below, 
 
 Polish, French. See FBExnt polish. 
 
 Polish, French Reviver. Frep. 1. Linseed 
 oil, i pint ; pale lac varnish and wood naphtha, 
 of each J pint; well shaken tu^'etlier, and 
 again every time before use. 
 
 2. Methylated rectified spirit, 3 pints ; lin- 
 seed oil and French polish, of each 1 piut; as 
 the last. 
 
 3. Linseed oil (pale), 1 quart ; strong dis- 
 tilled viucgar, J pint; spirit of turpentine, ^ 
 pint ; muriatic acid, 1 oz. 
 
 Furniture Cream. Prep. 1. Poarlasb, 2 oz. ; 
 soft soap, -1 oz. ; beeswax,! lb.; water, 1 
 gall.; boil until the whole is united and forms 
 a creamy liquid when cold. 
 
 2. Beeswax, i lb. ; good yellow soap, i lb. ! 
 water, 5 pints; boil to a prop' r consistence 
 with constant agitation, then add of boiled oil 
 and spirit of turpentine, of each 1 pint. For 
 use, the above are diluted with water, spread 
 upon the surface with a painter's brush, and 
 then polished off with a hard brush, cloth, or 
 leather. 
 
 3. Boiled oil (pale), i pint; beeswax, Ij 
 oz. ; mixed by heat. Ajiplied by a ' rubber,' 
 and at once polished ofl'. 
 
 4. (For wooden furniture.) White wax, 
 8 parts ; resin, 2 parts ; true Venice turpen- 
 tine, i piut; melt at a gentle heat. The 
 warm mas^, completely melted, is poured into a 
 stone jar, ajiitated, and 6 parts of rectified 
 oil of turpentine added thereto. Alter 24 
 houTs the mass, having the consistency of soft 
 butter, is ready for use. Before u.sing the 
 paste the furniture should be washed with 
 soap and watei-, and then well dried. (' Dlng- 
 ler's Journal.') 
 
 Furniture Oil. See Oils, Mixed. 
 
 Furniture Paste. Prep. 1. Oil of turpen- 
 tine. 1 pint ; alkaline root, i oz. ; digest until 
 sutficiently coloured, then add of beeswax 
 (scraped small), 4 oz. ; put the vessel into hot 
 water, and stir until the mixture is complete, 
 then put it into pots. If wanted pale, the 
 alkauet root should he omitted. 
 
 2. (^ White.) White wax, lib. ; solution of 
 potassa, i gall. ; boil to a proper consistence. 
 
 Polish, Harness. See Blacking, Hae- 
 
 >'ESS. 
 
 Polish, Leather. See Blacking. 
 
 POL'LARD. See Floue. 
 
 POL'YCHREST. Si/n. Poltchsestus, L. 
 A term formerly applied to several medicines 
 on account of the numerous virtues they were 
 
 85 
 
1346 
 
 POLYCHROITE— POMMADE 
 
 supposed to possess. Sal polyerestus is the old 
 iiHme for sulphate of potassa. 
 
 POL'YCHKOITE. The name formerly given 
 to the colouring matter of saffron, from the 
 variety of colours which it exhibits with dif- 
 ferent reagents. Its alcoholic and aqueous 
 solutions are of a golden yellow ; nitric acid 
 turns it green ; sulphuric acid, first blue, and 
 then lilac. 
 
 POM'ACE. See Cidee. 
 
 POMA'TUM. Syn. Pommade, Fr. This 
 term was originally applied to a fragrant oint- 
 ment prepared with lard and apples ; but is 
 now wholly restricted, in this country, to 
 solid greasy substances used in dressing the 
 hair. The pomatums of French pharmacy 
 
 (POMMADES, aEAISSES M^DIOAMENTEtTBES — 
 
 P. Cod. ; IIPAEOLES — Guibourt ; LIPAEOIES 
 and IIPAEOID^S— Beral; steaeoles — Che- 
 reau) are soft ointments, having a basis oflurd 
 or fat, without resinous matter. See Oint- 
 ment and Pommade. 
 
 POMEGEAN'ATE. The Tunica granatum 
 (Linn.), a small tree indigenous in Persia and 
 the East. Fruit (pomeqeanjite; geanata, 
 MALA pitnica) is cooling and astringent; 
 
 fruit-rind (POMEGEANATE PEEL; MATACO- 
 EIUM, COEI-EX GEANATI ; GEANATUM — Ph. 
 
 L.) and root-bark (geanati eadix — B. P., 
 Ph. L., E., & D.) are powerfully astringent, 
 detersive, and anthelmintic ; the last more par- 
 ticularly so. The double flowers of the wild 
 tree (balaustines ; BALAUSTias, as well as 
 those of the cultivated one (cttini), are tonic 
 and aiitringent. — Dose, 15 to 20 gr. of the 
 root-bark, repeated every 30 or 46 minutes, 
 until four doses have been taken, followed by 
 castor oil ; in tapeworm. As an astringent, 
 all the parts described are commonly given 
 under the form of decoction. 
 
 POMMADE. [Fr.] The term applied by 
 Continental perfumers to any soft fragrant 
 ointment (pomatum). 
 
 In the preparation of pommades one of the 
 first objects of consideration is to obtain their 
 fatty basis in as fresh and pure a state as pos- 
 sible. Lard, beef, and mutton suet, beef mar- 
 row, veal fat, and bear's fat, are the substances 
 commonly employed for this purpose, either 
 singly or in mixtures of two or more of 
 them. The fat, carefully selected from a young 
 and healthy animal, after being separated from 
 extraneous skin and fibre, is pounded in a 
 marble mortar, in the cold, until all the mem- 
 branes are completely torn asunder. It is 
 next placed in a covered porcelain or polished 
 metal pan, and submitted to the heat of a 
 water bath, which is continued until its fatty 
 portion has liquefied, and the albuminous arid 
 aqueous matter, and other foreign substances, 
 have completely separated and subsided. The 
 liquid fat is then carefully skimmed, and 
 at once passed through a clean flannel filter. In 
 this state it may be aromatised or perfumed 
 at will ; after which, when it is intended tliat 
 thepoumiade should he opaque and white, it is 
 
 assiduously stirred or beaten with «. glass or 
 wooden knife, or spatula, until it concretes; 
 but when it is desired that it should appear 
 transparent or crystalline, it is allowed to cool 
 very slowly, and without being disturbed. To 
 prevent the accession of rancidity, a little 
 benzoic acid, gum benzoin, or nitric ether may 
 be added to the fat, whilst in the liquid state, 
 as noticed under Fat and Ointment. Some- 
 times a small portion of white wax or bees- 
 wax (according to the intended colour of the 
 product) is melted with the fat to increase its 
 solidity. Some parties employ a few grains of 
 powdered citric acid per ounce, in a like manner, 
 with the intention of increasing the whiteness 
 of the compound ; but the practice is not to 
 be commended, as pommades so prepared prove 
 injurious to the hair. 
 
 The French perl'umers, who are celebrated 
 for the variety and excellence of their pom- 
 mades, divide them into four classes : — 
 
 1. Pommades by infusion. These are 
 made by gently melting in a clean pan, over 
 a water bath, 2 parts of hog's lard, and 1 part 
 of beef suet (both of the finest quality, and 
 carefully ' rendered '), and adding thereto one 
 part of the given flowers, previously carefully 
 picked and separated from foreign matter ; or, 
 if the odorous substance is a solid, then coarsely 
 bruised, but not reduced to fine powder. The 
 mixture is next digested at a very gentle heat 
 for from 12 to 24 hours, with occasional stir- 
 ring, the vessel being kept covered as much 
 as possible during the whole time. The next 
 day the mixture is reheated, and again well 
 stirred for » short time, after which it is 
 poured into canvas bags, and these, being 
 securely tied, are submitted to powerful pres- 
 sure, gradually increased, in a screw or barrel 
 press. This operation is repeated with the 
 same fat and fresh flowers, several times, until 
 the pommade is sufticiently perfumed. A good 
 pommade requires thrice to six times its 
 weight in flowers to be thus consumed; or gf 
 the aromatic barks and seeds a corresponding 
 proportion. The pommades of cassia, orange 
 flowers, and several others kept by the French 
 perfumers, are prepared in this manner. 
 
 2. Pommades by contact (enfleueaoe). 
 These are made by spreading, with a palette 
 knife, simple pommade (made with lard and 
 suet as above) on panes of glass or pewter 
 plates, to the thickness of a finger, and stick- 
 ing the surface all over with the sweet-scented 
 flowers. These last are renewed daily for one, 
 two, or three months, or until the pommade 
 has become sufficiently perfumed. On the 
 large scale, the panes are placed in small 
 shallow frames, made of four pieces of wood 
 nicely fitted together, and are then closely 
 piled one upon another. On the small scale, 
 pewter plates are generally used, and they 
 are inverted one over the other. In some of 
 the perfumeries of France many thousands of 
 frames are employed at once. The pommades 
 of jasmin, jonquil, orange flowers, narcissus. 
 
POMMADE 
 
 1347 
 
 tuberose, violet, and r>f gome other delicate 
 flowers, are prepared in tliis mauner. 
 
 3. PoMMADES BT ADDITION. These are 
 prepared by simply adding the fragrant 
 essences or esnential oils, in tliu required quan- 
 tity, to the simple pominiide of lar^l and suet 
 t) produce the proper odour. In tliis way the 
 jinnimades of bi-rgainotte, c^drat, cinnamon, 
 lemons, lemon thyme, lavender, limettes, mar- 
 joram, Portu?«l roses, rosemary, thyme, ver- 
 bena, and about 40 others kept by the Parisian 
 perfumers, are made. 
 
 4. Mixed foumadeb. Of these a great 
 variety exists, prepared by the addition of 
 judiciiiu'i combinations of the more esteemed 
 perl'uiues to simple pomraade ; or, by the ad- 
 mixture of the different perfumed pommades, 
 whilst in the semi-liquid state. (See below.) 
 
 The coloueed pommades derive their re- 
 spective tints from tinctorial matter added to 
 the melted fat before peifuming it. Geeen 
 is given by gum guaiacum (in powder), or by 
 the green leaves or tops of hpinach, parsley, 
 liivendt'r, or walnut;— bed, by alkanet root 
 and carmine; — yellow and oeanoe, by an- 
 natto or palm oil ; white fommades are 
 miide with mutton suet, instoid of beef suet. 
 The BEOWN and black hard pomatums, vended 
 under the name (Vf ' OOSMBTKJWB,' arc noticed 
 at pajje 513. A few compound pommades are 
 used as skin cosmetics. 
 
 Pommade. Syn. Pomatum. Prep. 1. 
 (Plain pomatum, Simple p.)— a. From lard, 
 2 lbs. ; beef suet, 1 II). ; carefully rendered as 
 above. The ordinary consistence for temperate 
 climates. 
 
 J, Liird and suet, equal parts. For warm 
 climates. Both may be scented at will. 
 
 2. (Scented pomatum.)— o. Plain pomatum, 
 1 lb. ; UK'lt it by the least possible degree of 
 heat, add of essence of lemon or essence of 
 lierpiMHit, 3 dr. ; and stir the mixture until it 
 concretes. Tliis forms the ordinary ' pomatum' 
 of tlie shnps. 
 
 4. Pla n pomatum, 1 J lb. ; essence of berga- 
 mot, li dr.; essence of lemon, 1 dr. ; oils of 
 rosemary and cassia, of each i dr. ; oil of 
 cloves, 20 drops. More fragrant than the 
 last. 
 
 Pommade, Castor Oil. Prep. 1. From 
 castor oil. 1 lb.; white wax, 4oz. ; melt them 
 together ; then add, when nearly cold, of 
 essence of bergamot, 3 dr. ; oil of lavendi r 
 (English), i dr. ; essence of ambergris, 10 
 drops. Supposed to render the hairy glossy. 
 
 2. (Crystallised.) From castor oil, 1 lb ; 
 spermaiiti, 3 oz. ; melt them togntlier by a 
 gentle heat, add, of essence of bergamot. 3 dr. ; 
 oil of virlieiia, lavender, and rosemary, of 
 each i dr. ; pour it into wide-mouthed glass 
 bottlfs, and allow it to cool very slowly and 
 undistnrl'ed. 
 
 Pommade, Castor Oil and Glycerine. (Ameri- 
 can receipt.) White wax, IJoz. ; glycirin, 2 
 02. ; insior oil, 12 oz. ; essence of lemon, 5 
 dr. J essence of bergamot, 2 dr.; oil of laven- 
 
 der, 1 dr. ; oil of cloves, 10 drops ; annatto, 
 10 gT. ; rectified spirit and distilled water, of 
 eacb a sufficient quantity. By a moderate 
 heat dissolve the wax in a small portion of 
 the castor oil (one fourth), and triturate it with 
 the remainder of the oil and glycerin till quite 
 cool; then add volatile oils. Lastly, rub the 
 annatto with a drachm of water till smoothly 
 suspended ; add a drachm of alcohol, and stir 
 the colouring into the pomade until it is 
 thoroughly mixed. Avoid much heat. 
 
 Pommade, Cazeuave's. Prep. From pre- 
 pared beef marrow, 4 oz. ; tincture of can- 
 tharides (P. Cod.), 3 to 4 dr. ; powdered cin- 
 namon, J oz. ; melt them together, stir until 
 the spirit has, for the most part, evaporated, 
 then decant the clear portion, and again stir 
 it until it concretes. Recommended as a 
 remedy for baldness and weak hair. It is to 
 be used night and morning ; the head being 
 washed with soap-and-water, and afterwards 
 with salt-and-water, before applying it. Dr 
 Cattell scents it with the oils of origanum and 
 bergamot instead of cinnamon. 
 
 Pommade, CoUante. Prep. 1. Oil of almonds, 
 3 oz. ; white wax, J oz. ; melt them together, 
 and add, of tincture of mastic (strong), 1 oz. ; 
 essence of bergamot, i dr. Used to stiffen the 
 hair, and keep it in form. 
 
 2. Burgundy pitch (true), 3 oz. ; white wax, 
 2 oz. ; lard, 1 oz. ; melt, and, when consi- 
 derably cooled, stir in, of tincture of benzoin, 
 1 oz. ; essenie of bergamot, J dr. Used to 
 fasten false curls. 
 
 Pommade, Cowslip. Prep. From plain 
 pommade, 2 lbs. ; essence ol bergamot, 3 dr. ; 
 essence of lemon and essence of orange peel, of 
 each 1 dr.; huile an jasmin and essence de 
 petit grain, of each i dr. ; essrnce of amber- 
 gris, 6 drops. 
 
 Pommade, Crystallised. Prep. From nlive 
 oil and spermaceti, as crystallised castor oil 
 pommade, with scent at v\iU 
 
 Pommade of Cucnmbera. Syn. Pommade db 
 CorcoMBUES. Unguentum cucfmis. Prep. 
 Lard, 10 oz. ; veal suet, 6 oz. ; balsam of tolu, 
 9gr.; rose water, 44 minims; cucumber juice, 
 12 oz., by weight. Melt the lard and the suet 
 over a water bath, and add tlie tolu, previously 
 dissolved in a little alcohol, and then the rose- 
 water. When clear, decant it into a tinned 
 basin, then add to a third of the cucumber 
 juice, and stir continually for 4 hours ; pour ofE 
 the juice and add another third, stir as Ijelbre, 
 then pour off, and add the remainder of the 
 juice; separate as much a^ possible the fat 
 from the liquid, melt by a water bath, and 
 after some hours skim, and put into pots. 
 (Beat, when in a semi-liquid state, with a 
 woollen spatula, when it will become much 
 lighter and nearly double in bulk.) 
 
 Pommade d'Alyon. See Ointment op Niteic 
 acid. Se.' Cups. 
 
 Pommade de Beauty. Prep. From oil of al- 
 monds, 2 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 dr. j white wax, 
 IJ^ dr. ; glycerin, 1 dr. ; balsam of Peru, i dr. ; 
 
13i8 
 
 POMMADE 
 
 mixed by a gentle heat. Used as a skiu cos- 
 metic as well as for the hair. 
 
 Pommade de Casse. Prep. From jilain 
 pommade, 1 lb. ; palm oil, i oz. ; melt, ppur 
 ott'the clear, and add oil of uussiaand huile au 
 jasmin, of ench 1 dr. ; neroli, 20 drops j oil of 
 verbena or lemon grass, 15 drops; otto of 
 roses, 5 drops ; and stir until nearly cold. 
 Very fragrant. 
 
 Pommade d'Hebe. Frep. To white wax, 
 
 1 oz., melted by a gentle heat, add, of the 
 juice of lily bulbs and Narbonne lioney, each 
 
 2 oz. ; rose water, 2 dr. ; otto of roses, 2 
 drops. Applied night and morning to remove 
 wrinkles. 
 
 Pommade de Ninon de I'Enclos. Prep. Take 
 of oil of almonds, 4 oz. j prepared lard, 3 oz. ; 
 juice of houseleek, 3 fl. oz. Used chiefly as a 
 skin cosmetic. Said to be very softening and 
 refreshing. 
 
 Pommade Divine. Prep. 1. Washed and 
 purified beef marrow, 2 lbs.; liquid styrax, 
 cypress wood, and powdered orris root, of each 
 
 2 oz. ; powdered cinnamon, 1 oz. ; cloves and 
 nutmegs, of each (bruised) 4 oz. ; digest 
 the whole together by the beat of a water 
 bath for six hours, and tlien strain through 
 flannel. 
 
 2. Plain pommade, 2 lbs.; essence of lemon 
 and bergamot, of each 2 dr. ; oils of lavender 
 and origanum, of each 1 dr. ; oils of verbena, 
 cassia, cloves, and neroli, of each 12 drops; 
 huile au jasmin, 3 dr. ; essence of violets, 
 i oz. 
 
 Pommade, Dupnytren's. Prep. 1. Take of 
 prepared beef marrow, 12 oz. ; melt, add of 
 baume nerval (see Ointment, Nervine), 4 oz. ; 
 Peruvian balsam and oil of almonds, of each 
 
 3 oz. ; and lastly, of alcoholic extract of can- 
 fcharides, 36 gr. ; (dissolve in) rectified epirit, 
 3 fl. dr. This is the original formula for this 
 celebrated pommade. The following modifi- 
 cations of it are now commonly employed : — 
 
 2. (Cap.) Beef marrow, 2 oz. ; alcoholic 
 extract of cantbarides, 8 gr. ; rose oil, 1 dr. ; 
 essence of lemons, 30 drops. 
 
 3. (Guibourt.) Beef marrow and ' baume 
 nerval ' (page 1179), of each 1 oz. ; rose oil, 
 
 1 dr.; alcoholic (or acetic) extract of can- 
 tbarides, 6 gr. ; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 
 q. o. These compounds are used to promote 
 the growth of the hair and to prevent bald- 
 ness, for which purpose they are usually co- 
 loured and scented according to the taste of 
 the manufacturer. To be useful, they should 
 be well rubbed on the scalp, at least once 
 daily, for several weeks, and the head should 
 be occasionally washed with soap-and-water. 
 
 Pommade, East India. Prep. Take of suet, 
 3 lbs.; lard, 2 lbs.; beeswax (bright), \ lb.; 
 palm oil, 2 oz. ; powdered gum benzoin, 3 oz. ; 
 musk (previously triturated with a little lump 
 sugar), 20 gr. ; digest the whole together in a 
 covered vessel, by the heat of a water bath, for 
 
 2 hours, then decant the clear portion, and 
 add, of essence of lemon, \ oz. ; oil of lavender. 
 
 J oz.; oils of cloves, cassia, and verbena, of 
 each i dr. A favourite pommade In the East 
 Indies. 
 
 Pommade for Freckles. (' New York Drug- 
 gists' Circular.') Prep. Citrine ointment and 
 oil of almonds, of each 1 dr. ; spermaceti 
 ointment, 6 dr.; oil of roses, 3 drops. Mix 
 well in a wedgewood mortar, using a wooden 
 or bone knife. 
 
 Pommade, Hard. Syn. Haed pomatum. 
 Roll p. Prep. 1. Take of beef suet, 2 lbs. ; 
 yellow wax, \ lb. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; pow- 
 dered benzoin, i oz. ; melt them together, 
 then add, of oil of lavender, 2 dr.; essence of 
 ambergris, \ dr. Before it concretes pour it 
 into moulds of piiper or tin foil. 
 
 2. Mutton suet and lard, of each I lb. ; 
 white wax, 6 oz. ; melt, and add, of essence of 
 lemon, 2 dr. ; oil of cassia, i dr. Other per- 
 fumes may be einplnyed at will. 
 
 Hard pomatums are used to gloSs and set 
 the hair. They act both as 'pommade' and 
 ' fixateur.' See Cosmetiqtje. 
 
 Pommade, Macassar. Prep. Prom castor 
 oil, 5 oz. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; alkanet root, 
 i dr. ; heat them together until sufiiciently 
 coloured, then strain, and add, oil of origanum 
 and oil of rosemary, of each 1 dr. ; oil of nut- 
 meg, \ dr.; otto of roses, 10 drops. Said to 
 be equal in efficacy to macassab oil. 
 
 Pommade, Marechal. Plain pommade scented 
 by digesting it with poudre marechale. 
 
 Pommade, Marrow. Syn. Maekow poma- 
 tum. Prep. Piom prepared beef marrow, 
 i lb. ; beef suet, J lb. ; palm oil, i oz. ; melted 
 together and scented at will. 
 
 Pommade, Millefleur. Prep. From plain 
 pommade scented with a mixture of essence of 
 lemon and essence of ambergris, each 4 parts ; 
 oil of lavender, 2 parts; oil of cloves and essence 
 de petit grain, of each 1 part; or with other 
 like perfumes so proportioned to each other 
 that no one sliall predominate. Much es- 
 teemed. 
 
 Pommade, Roll. See Pommade, Haed. 
 
 Pommade, Eoman. See below. 
 
 Pommade, Rose. Si/n. Eose pomatum. This 
 is plain pommade or hard lard, which has been 
 well beaten with eau de rose, or, better still, 
 scented with otto of roses. It is sometimes 
 tinged with alkanet root. 
 
 Pommade, Soft. Plain pomatum scented at 
 will. 
 
 Pommade, Sonbeiran'a. Prep. From beef 
 marrow, 1^ oz. ; oil of almonds, i oz. ; disul- 
 pliate of quinine, 1 dr. Recommended for 
 strengthening and restoring the hair. 
 
 Pommade, Transparent. Prep. Spermaceti, 
 2 oz. ; castor oil, 5 oz. ; alcohol, 5 oz. ; oil of 
 bergamot, -j dr. ; oil of Portugal, i dr. 
 
 Pommade, Vanilla. Syn. Roman pommade, 
 Pommade a la vanille, Pommade Romain. 
 Froin plain pommade and pommade k la rose, 
 of each 12 lbs. ; powdered vanilla, 1 lb. » heat 
 them together in a water bath, stir constantly 
 for 1 hour, let it settle for another hour 
 
POPPT— PORTER 
 
 13^9 
 
 decant the clear, and add, oil a lu rose, 2^ lbs.; 
 bt'ijrimot, 1 I z. 
 
 POPPY. Si/n. White poppy ; Papaver' 
 BOHNIFEHOH, L. Tlie c«psul>-» or fruit (" ma- 
 ture" — Ph. L. ; " not quite ripe" — Pli. E.) 
 fnnn tile poppies or jioppy-lieails of the shops 
 
 (PAPAVEKIS CAPSCL^; PAPAVEB— Pll. L., E., 
 
 1^ U.). Tliey are anodyne and narcotic, 
 similar to opium, but in onl.v a very slight 
 degree. The seeds (maw seed), which are 
 Kweet, oleaginous, and nutritious, are used a< 
 a substitute for almonds in confectionery and 
 mixtures, and are pressed for their oil. See 
 ExTBAOT, Opium, and Stbup. 
 
 Poppy, Ked. Syn. CoBN poppT, Corn eose ; 
 Papaveb bhceab, L. The fresh petals or 
 Howers (rhcbadob petalaj bhceas — Ph. L., 
 K . & D.) are reputed pectoral, but are chiefly 
 employed ou account of their rich colour. 
 Slt SykuP. 
 
 POP'ULIIf. S(/n. POPULISUM, h. A pe- 
 culiar neutral, crystallisahle suhstnnce, for- 
 merly supposed to be an alkuliiid, found, asso- 
 ciated witli BALIOIN, in the root-bark of the 
 Populus tremula (Linn.), or a«pen. 
 
 Prep. Concentrate the decoction by a gentle 
 heut, and set it aside in a cool situation to 
 iiysLullisc ; dissolve the cr^Ktals which are 
 <lc|io>-ited in rictiftud spirit, decolour them by 
 tlit;L'-tinn with animal *charconl, filter, aiid 
 again crystallise. To render them still purer 
 they may be redissolved and crystallised a 
 second and a third tira«, if necessary. 
 
 Prop., S(c. It resembles saliciu in appear- 
 ance and solubility, hut, unlike that substance, 
 has ■• penetrating swict tiiste. Dilute acids 
 couveit it into benzoic acid, grape sugar, and 
 saliretiii ; and with a mixture of sulphuric acid 
 and bichromate of potassa it yields u large 
 quantity of 8;ilicylou3 acid. It appears to be 
 tunic, stomachic, and febrifuge. 
 
 POR'CELAIIT. See Pottery. 
 
 PORE. The value of pork as an article of 
 diet Is well known. That from the young and 
 properly fed animal is savoury, easy of diges- 
 tion, and, when only occasionally employed, 
 highly wholesome j but it is apt to disagree 
 with some stomachs, and should, in such cases, 
 he avoided. To render it proper for food, it 
 should be thoroughly but not overcooked. 
 When salted it is less digestible. The fre- 
 quent use of pork is said to favour obesity, 
 and to occasion disorders of the skin, especially 
 in the sedentary. See Meat. 
 
 POR'PHYEIZED, PORPHORIZA'TION. 
 Words coined by recent pharmaceutical writers, 
 and possessiiis; similar meanings to levigated 
 
 and LEVIOATION. 
 
 POEPHY'ROXIN. A neutral crystallisable 
 substance discovered by Merck in opium. It 
 is soluble in both alcohol and ether, insoluble 
 in water, and is characterised by assumins; a 
 purpl'sh-red colour when heated in dilute 
 )iydrochloric acid. 
 
 PORRI'GO. See Ringworm. 
 
 FOR'TEK. This well-known bcverap-o. now 
 the common drink of the inhabitants of Lon- 
 don, by whom it is generally termed ' beer,' 
 originated with a brewer named Harwood. in 
 1722. Previously to this date, 'ale,' 'beer.' 
 and 'twopenny,' constituted the stock in trade 
 of tlie London publican, and were drnuk, 
 either singly or together, under the names "f 
 ' halt-and-half or 'three threads,' for wliicii 
 the vendor was compelled to have recnurse to 
 two or three different ca>ks, as the case might 
 demand. The inconvenience and trouble thus 
 incurr-ed led Mr Harwood to endeavour to 
 produce a beer which should possess the flavour 
 of the mixed liquors. In this he succeeded so 
 well that his new beverage rapidly super- 
 seded the mixtures then in use, and obtained a 
 general preference among the lower classes of 
 the people. At first this liquor was called 
 ' entire' or ' entire butt,' on account of it 
 being drawn from one cask only, but it after- 
 wards acquired, at first in derision, the now 
 familiar name of ' porter,' in consequence of 
 its ^'er.cral consumption among porters and 
 labourers. The word ' entire' is still, however, 
 frequently met with on the signboards of 
 taverns about the metropolis. 
 
 The characteristics of pure and wholesome 
 porter are its transparency, lively dark brown 
 colour, and its peculiar bitter and slightly 
 burnt taste. Originally, these qualities were 
 derived from the ' high-dried malt,' with which 
 alone it was browed. It is now generally, if 
 not entirol V, miide from ' pale' or * amber malt,' 
 mixed with a sufficient quantity of 'patent' 
 or 'roasted malt' to impart the necessary 
 flavour and colour. Formerly, this liquor was 
 'vatted' and 'stored' for some time before 
 being sent out to the retailer, but the chant'C 
 in the taste of the public during the last 
 quarter of a century in favour of the mild or 
 new porter has rendered this unnecessary. The 
 best ' draught porter,' at the time of its con- 
 sumption, is now only a few weeks old. In 
 this state only would it be tolerated by the 
 modern beer-drinker. The old and acid 
 beverage that was formerly sold under the 
 name of porter would be rejected at the pre- 
 sent day as ' hard' and unpleasant, even by the 
 most thirsty votaries of malt liquor. 
 
 The ' beer' or ' porter' of the metropolitan 
 brewers is essentially a weak mild ale, coloured 
 and fiavoured with roasted malt. Its richness 
 in sugar and alcohol, ou which its stimulating 
 and ni'tritive properties depend, is hence less 
 than that of an uncoloured mild ale brewed 
 Irom a like original quantity of malt. For 
 pale malt is assumed to yield 80 to 84 lbs. of 
 saccharine per quarter; whereas the torrefied 
 malt employed by the porter brewers only 
 yields 18 to 24 lbs. per quarter, and much of 
 even this small quantity is altered in its pro- 
 perties, and is incapable of undergoing the 
 vinous fermentation. In the manufacture of 
 porter there is a waste of malt which does not 
 occur in brewing ale ; and the consumer must, 
 
1350 
 
 POKTEE 
 
 therefore, either pay a higher price for it or be 
 content with a, weaker liquor. 
 
 The hygienic properties of porter, for the 
 most part, resemble those of otiier malt 
 liquors. Some members of the faculty con- 
 ceive that it is better suited to persons with 
 delicate stomachs and weak digestion than 
 either ale or beer. That there may be some 
 reason for this preference, in such cases, we 
 are not prepared to deny, but undoubtedly, 
 when the intention is to stimulate and nourish 
 the system, ale is preferable. Certain it is, 
 however, that the dark colour and strong taste 
 of porter render its adulteration easier than 
 that of ale, whilst such adulteration is more 
 dif&cult of detection than in the paler varieties 
 of malt liquors. " For medical purposes, 
 ' bottled porter' (cbrbvisia laoenaeia) is 
 usually preferred to ' draught porter.' It is 
 useful as a restorative in the latter stages of 
 fever, and to support the powers of the system 
 after surgical operations, severe accidents, &c." 
 (Pereira, ii, 982.) When ' out of condition' 
 or adulterated, porter, more than perhaps any 
 other malt liquor, is totally unfit for use as 
 a beverage, even for the healthy ; and when 
 taken by the invalid, the consequences must 
 necessarily be serious. Dr Ure says that pure 
 porter,' " when drank in moderation, is a fur 
 wholesomer beverage for the people than 
 the thin acidulous wines of France and 
 Germany." 
 
 The manufacture of porter has been described 
 in our articlj on Beewino, and is also referred 
 to above. It presents no difficulty or pecu- 
 liarity beyond the choice of the proper ma- 
 terials. A mixture of 'brown' and 'black 
 malt' is thought to yield a finer flavour and 
 colour to the pale malt that gives the body to 
 the liquor than when ' black' or ' roasted malt' 
 is employed alone. The proportion of the 
 former to the latter commonly varies from l-6th 
 to l-4th. When * bl»ck malt' is alone used, 
 the proportion varies from the I-lOth to l-15th. 
 1 lb. of 'roasted malt,' mashed with about 79 
 lbs. of pale malt, is said to be capable of im- 
 parting to the liquor the flavour and colour of 
 porter. The following formulae were formerly 
 commonly employed in London : — 
 
 1. (Deauqht pobtee.) From pale malt, 
 3i qrs. ; amber malt, 3 qrs. ; browi< malt, Ij 
 q. ; mash at twice with 28 and 24 barrels of 
 water, boil with brown Kent hops, 56 lbs., and 
 set with yeast, 40 lbs. Prod. 28 barrels, or 3i 
 times the malt, besides 20 barrels of table-beer 
 from a third mashing. 
 
 2. (BOTTLIHa POETEB; BeOWN STOUT.) 
 
 From pale malt, 2 qrs. ; amber and brown malt, 
 of each 1^ qr. ; mash at 3 times with 12, 7, 
 and 6 barrels of water, boil with hops, 50 lbs., 
 and set with yeast, 26 lbs. Prod, 17 barrels, 
 or li times the malt. 
 
 The purity and quality of porter, as well as 
 of other malt liquors, may be inferred in the 
 maimer noticed under Beee; but can only 
 be positively determined by a chemical exami- 
 
 nation. For tills purpose several distirujt opera- 
 tions are required : — 
 
 ■ 1. Richness in ALCOHOL. This may be coi - 
 rectly found by the method of M. Gay-Lussac ; 
 or from the boiling point. (See Alcoholome- 
 TET and Ebtiilioscopb.) The method with 
 anhydirous carbonate of potassa will also 
 give results sufiSciently near to the truth 
 for ordinary purposes, when strong or 
 old beer is operated on. The quantity of 
 the liquor tested should be 3600 water- grains 
 measure; and it should be. well agitated, with 
 free exposure to the air, after weighing it, but 
 before testing it for its alcohol. The weight of 
 alcohol found, multiplied by 1'8587, gives 
 its equivalent in sugar. This may be con- 
 verted into ' brewer's pounds' or density per 
 barrel, as below. 
 
 2. Richness in baochaeine or exteactite 
 MAITEE. A like quantity of the liquor under 
 examination, after being boiled for some time 
 to dissipate its alcohol, is made up with distilled 
 water, so as to be again exactly equal to 3600 
 water-grains measure. The sp. gr. of the 
 resulting liquid is then taken, and this is 
 reduced to 'brewers' pounds' per barrel, by 
 multiplying its excess of density above that ot 
 water (or 1000) by 360, and pointing off the 
 three right-hand figures as decimals. 
 
 3. AoBTio ACID 0? TINEQAE. This is de- 
 termined by any of the common methods of 
 AOIDIMETEY (which see ; see also Acetime- 
 tbt). Each grain of anhydrous acetic acid 
 so found represents 16765 gr. of sugar. 
 
 4. OravUy of oeioin AL woet. This is ob- 
 tained by the addition of the respective quanti- 
 ties of saccharine matter found in Nos. 1, 2, 
 and 3 {above). These results are always 
 slightly under the true original density of the 
 wort, as cane sugar appears to have been taken 
 by the Excise as the basis of their calculations. 
 More eoriectly, 12g of proof spirit is equiva- 
 lent to 19 lbs. of saccharine per barrel. lOJlbs. 
 of saccharine are equiv. to 1 gall, of proof 
 spirit. 
 
 5. Detection of NAECOTics. This may be 
 effected either by the method described under 
 Alkaloid, or by one or other of the following 
 processes : — 
 
 a. Half a gallon of the beer under examination 
 is evaporated to dryness in a water bath ; the 
 resulting extract is boiled for 30 or 40 minutes 
 in a covered vessel with 10 or 12 fl. oz. of 
 alcohol or strong rectified spirit, the mixture 
 being occasionally stirred with a glass rod, to 
 promote the action of the menstruum ; the 
 alcoholic solution is next filtered, treated with 
 a sufficient quantity of solution of diacetate of 
 lead to precipitate colouring matter, and again 
 filtered ; the filtrate is treated with a few drops 
 of dilute sulphuric acid, again filtered, and then 
 evaporated to dryness ; it may then be tested 
 with any of the usual reagents, either in the 
 solid state, or after being dissolved in distilled 
 water. Or the extract, obtained as above, may 
 be boiled as directed with rectified spirit, the 
 
PORTER 
 
 1351 
 
 soliitlou filtered, the spirit distill.il olT, and a 
 «inall quantity of pure liquor of putuwa added 
 to tliu aqueous residue, wliich is then to be 
 shaken up ivitli about 1 fl. oz. of ether ; lastly, 
 the ethereal solution, which separates and floats 
 on the surface, is decanted, evaporated, and 
 the residuum tested, as before. The alkaline 
 liquid, from wliich the ether has been de- 
 canted, is then separated from any precipitate 
 which may have formed, and both of these 
 separately tested for alkaloids. 
 
 A. From 2 to 3 oz. of purified animal char- 
 coal arf diffused through I gall, ol the beer, and 
 is digested in it, with frequent agitation, for 
 from 8 to 12 hours ; the liquor is next filtered, 
 and the chareonl collected on the filter is 
 boiled with about i pint of rectified spirit; 
 the resulting alcoholic solution is then further 
 fronted as above, and tested. This answers 
 well for the detection of strychnia or nux 
 vomica. 
 
 6. PiCElO ACID. This substance, which was 
 formerly employed to impart bitterness to 
 London porter in lieu of hops, may be de- 
 tected as follows : — 
 
 a. A portion of the liquor agitated with 
 a little solution of diacetate of lead loses its 
 bitter fliivour if it depends on hops, but 
 retains it if it depends on picric acid. 
 
 b. Pure beer is decoloured and deodorised 
 by anim^il elmrcoal; but beer coi:taining picric 
 aciil, when thus treated, ret lins a lemon-yellow 
 colour and the odour. 
 
 c. Unbleached sheep's wool, boiled for six 
 or ten minutes, and then washed, takes a 
 canary-yellow colour if picric acid be present. 
 The test is so delicnte that 1 grain of the 
 adulterant in 150,000 gr. of beer is readily 
 detected. 
 
 d. (Vitiite.') The author ngitates 10 cc. of 
 the suspected beer in a test tube with hiilf its 
 volume of pure amylic alcohol. It the mix- 
 ture is left to settle, the amylic stratum sepa- 
 rates entirely, and is drawn off with a pipette, 
 evaporated to dryness at a convenient tem- 
 jierature in a porcelain capsule, and the residue 
 is filially taken up in a little distilled water 
 with the aid of heat. The aqueous solution is 
 divided into portions, and submitted to the 
 following reii;;ent8. One portion is treated 
 with a solution of ammonio-sulphate of cop- 
 per, which, iu dilute solutions of picric acid, 
 instantly produces a turbidity, due to the 
 formation of very minute crystals of the 
 ammouio-picrate of copper, of a greenish 
 colour. Another portion may be treated with 
 a coneeiitiutod solution of cyanide of potas- 
 ►ium, which produces a blood-red colour, 
 more or less intense, according to the quantity 
 of picric acid present, in consequence of the 
 formation of iso-purpurio acid. A third por- 
 tion may be submitted to the action of sul- 
 pliide of ammonium, rendered still more alka- 
 line by the addition of a few drops of 
 ammonia. Here also a blood-red colour is 
 
 * * Chemical Ne«i,' vol. xxxv, p. 75. 
 
 produced, which becomes more intense on the 
 application of heat, and is due to the formation 
 of picramic acid. 
 
 7. MiNEEAL MATTEH. — a. A Weighed quan- 
 tity of pure beer evaporated to dryness, and 
 then ineinerated, does not furnish more than 
 from '20^ to -SSg of ash, the quantity varying 
 \yithin these limits with the strength of the 
 liquor anil the character of the water used in 
 brewing it. 
 
 4. A solution of this ash, made by decoction 
 with distilled wiuer, should be only renderid 
 slightly turbid by solutions of acetate of lend, 
 biciiloride of platinum, nitrate of baryta, nitrate 
 of silver, oxalate of ammonia, and sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 V. If the beer contained common salt, the 
 above solution will give a cloudy white preci- 
 pitate with a solution of nitrate of silver. 
 Each grain of this precipitate is equivalent to 
 i gr. of common salt (nearly). 
 
 d. If GREKN COPPERAS (sulphate of iron) is 
 present, ferridcyanide of potassium gives a 
 blue precipitate, and ferrocyanide of potassium 
 a bluish-wliite one, turning dark blue in the 
 air; solution of chloride of barium gives a 
 white precipitate, each grain of which, after 
 being washed, dried, and ignited, represents 
 1'188 gr. of crystallised protosulphate of 
 iron. 
 
 e. The ash, digested in water slightly acidu- 
 lated u'ith nitric acid, and then bi>iie<l, vieKls a 
 solutiim which, when cold, gives a black pre- 
 cipitate with sulpliuretted liydrotron, and a 
 white one with dilute sulphuric acid when 
 lead is present. 
 
 8. IVilistein^n method for the defection of 
 ADULTEEAKTS in beer.' One litre of the sus- 
 pected beer is evaporated by a uiuder.ite heat 
 to the consistence of a thick syrup. This is 
 poured into a tarred glass cylinder capable of 
 containing ten times its volume and \veighed; 
 five times its weight of 93^ to 95° iilcohol is 
 added, and the whole (reijuently stirrr d, by 
 means of a thick glass rod, during twenty-!' ur 
 hours. 
 
 By this means all the gum, dextrin, sul- 
 phates, phosphates, and chlorides are sepa- 
 rated, and a comparatively small portion is 
 obtained in solution. After clearing, this solu- 
 tion is dccauted, the residue is again treated 
 with fresh alcohol, the two products mixed, 
 filtered, and the alcohol driven off by a gentle 
 heat. 
 
 o. Of the syrupy residue left afr«r this 
 evaporation, a small portion is diluted with 
 three times its bulk of water, and tested for- 
 picric acid, according to the directions already- 
 given. 
 
 i. The remaining largest portion of the 
 syrup is agitated for some time with six times 
 its weight of pure colourless benznl (boiling 
 point 80° C.) ; this is decanted off, and the 
 operation is repeated with fresh benzol, and 
 
 ' 'Archiv 6er Pharniacie," January, 1876, (' Pkaroj. 
 Juuraal,' 3r(l series, T.) 
 
1352 
 
 PORT-FI RE— POTASH 
 
 the two liquors, the first of which has become 
 yellow, the second liaviiig scarcely changed 
 colour, are evaporated at a gentle heat. The 
 pale, yellow, resinous residue thus obtained 
 may possibly contain brucine, strychnine, col- 
 chicine, or colocynthin. To ascertain this, 
 tliree portions of the resin are placed on a 
 porcelain capsule ; one is treated with nitric 
 iicid (sp. gr. 1-33 to 1'40), another with con- 
 centrated sulphuric acid, and the third, after 
 a few morsels of red chromate of potash have 
 been, added, aKo with sulphuric acid. A red 
 colour, produced by the nil ric acid, indicates 
 brucine with certainty, and a violet colour col- 
 chicine; a red colour produced by sulphuric 
 acid indicates colocynthin, and a purple violet, 
 produced by sulphuric acid and bichromate of 
 potash, reveals strychnine. Resin in which one 
 or other of these colorations is produced pos- 
 sesses an extremely bitter taste; that in which 
 the coloration does not take place is also bitter, 
 but the bitterness recalls the well-known hop 
 flavour. 
 
 c. The syrup which has been treated with 
 benzol is freed, by gentle heating, from the 
 small quantity of benzol remaining, and agi- 
 tated twice with pure colourle.-samvlic alcohol 
 (boiling point 132° C). Tlie fiist'portion of 
 tlie alcohol acquires a moi-e or less wine or 
 golden-yellov/ colour. It would take up any 
 picrotoxin or aloes if present, and thereby 
 acquire a strongly bitter taste. 
 
 If neitlier of these two suljstances be pre- 
 sent, the amylic alcohol does not become 
 bitter, because neither the hop bitter nor the 
 remaining four bitter principles — absinthin, 
 gentipicrin, menyauthin, and quassiin — are 
 soluble in it. 
 
 In order to distinguish picrotoxin from 
 ;iloes a portion of the first obtained amylic 
 alcoholic solution is poured upon glass, and 
 allowed to evaporate spontaneously. If a fine 
 white crystallisation be formed picrotoxin is 
 present, if not aloes is present, and can only 
 be recognised by its peculiar, saffron-like 
 odour. 
 
 d. The syrup which has been treated with 
 benzol and amylic alcohol is freed by means of 
 blottitig piper from the small quantity of 
 amylic alcohol adhering to it, evaporation by 
 heat being impracticable in consequence of the 
 high boiling point of the alcohol, and shaken 
 with anhydrous ether. This takes up the hop 
 bitter yet present and absinthin. After eva- 
 poration the latter is easily recognised through 
 its woi'mwood-like ai'oma; it also gives' a red- 
 dish-yellow solution with concentrated sul- 
 phuric acid, which changes quickly to an 
 indigo-blue colour. 
 
 e. After treating with ether the syrnp has 
 yet to be tested (or gentipicrin, menyantliin, 
 and quassiin. As it is now tree from the hop 
 bitter, a decidedly bitter taste points to one of 
 these three substances. Any remaining ether 
 is removed, and the syrup is dissolved in 
 water and filtered ; to one portion is added 
 
 strong ammonincal solution of silver, and it is 
 then heated. 
 
 If it remains clear quassiin is present ; if a 
 silver mirror be formed it originates eith.r 
 with gentipicrin or menyanthin. Another 
 portion is evaporated to dryness on porcelain, 
 and concentrated sulphuric acid added. II, 
 while cold, no change of colour takes place, 
 but on heating it becomes carmine red, gen- 
 tipicrin is present ; menyanthin would give a 
 yellowish-brown colour, gradually changing to 
 violet. 
 
 For further information connected with 
 this subject, see Alcohoiometbt, Ale, Beee, 
 Bbewino, Malt liquoes, &c. 
 
 PORT-FIRE. A paper tulie, from 9 to 12 
 inches in length, filled with a slow-burning 
 composition of metal powder, nitre, and sulphur, 
 rammed moderately hard, by a similar process 
 to that adopted for small rockets. It is u-ed 
 in lieu of a touch-match, to fire guns, mortars, 
 pyroteehnical devices, &c. 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT. A species of mortar 
 formed by calcining a mixture of limestone and 
 argillaceous earth, and grinding the calcined 
 mass to powder, in which state it must be pre- 
 served from the air. It is characterised by 
 absorbing a large quantity of water, and then 
 rapidly becoming solid, and, after a time, ac- 
 quiring considerable hardness. See Moetae 
 and Cement. 
 
 POSOLOGT. See Dose. 
 
 POS'SET. Syn. Possetum, L. Milk curdled 
 with wine or any other slightly acidulous liquor. 
 It is usually sweetened with either sugar or 
 treacle, and is taken hot. 
 
 Prep. From new milk, \ pint ; sherry or 
 marsala, 1 wine-glassful ; treacle, 1 or 2 table- 
 spoonfuls, or q. s. ; heat them together in a 
 clean saucepan until the milk coagulates. 
 This is called ' treacle posset' or ' molasses 
 posset,' and, taken on retiring to rest, is 
 highly esteemed in some parts of the country 
 as a domestic remedy for colds. Lemon juice, 
 strong old ale, or even vineijar, is occasionally 
 substituted for wine, and powdered ginger or 
 nutmeg added at will. 
 
 POT METAL. See CoCE metal. 
 
 POT'ASH. The ' potash,' or • potashes' of 
 commerce is an impure carbonate of potassium, 
 so named after the pots or vessels in which it 
 was first made. The ' potash,' or ' potassa,' 
 of the chemist is the hydrate of a peculiar 
 metal, potassium, which is more particularly 
 referred to below. The word potash is vul- 
 garly applied to the crude or commercial car- 
 bonate of potassium. See Caebonate of 
 Potassium, &c. 
 
 Potash is now principally obtained from the 
 following sources : — 
 
 1. Prom carnallite,' a hydrated double 
 chloride of potassium and magnesium, which 
 occurs associated with other salts of potassium 
 
 ' Caniallite contains nearly a fourllL of its wciglit of 
 pota.ssium chloride. 
 
POTASSIUM 
 
 1353 
 
 and magnesium, as well at of sodium, in a bed of 
 clay, at Stasslurt, near Madgeburg, <n Prussia. 
 
 2. Feldspar and similar inincraN. 
 
 3. Sea water, and the mother- liquor of salt 
 works. 
 
 i. Native saltpetre. 
 
 5. The osliea of several plants. 
 
 6. The calcined residne of the molasses of 
 beet-root sugar remaiiiing after distDlation. 
 
 7. The seaweeils, as a by-product of the 
 manufacture of iodine. 
 
 8. Friira the fleece of the sheep.' 
 
 The following is a process for obtiiining 
 alkali from seaweed, described in the ' Clie- 
 iiiicul News ' for Nov. 10th, 1876 :— 
 
 Al the chemical works at Aalbourg, in Jut- 
 lanii, Denmark, where about 30 tons of alkali 
 are made per week by the ammonia process, 
 Mr Theobald Schmidt, the director of the 
 manufactory, proposes to work, in conjunction 
 with this process, a method devised by himFelt' 
 of treating seaweed so as to obtain iodine, 
 potash, salts, and other marketable prnduits 
 therefrom. 
 
 In Denmark a very heavy duty is levied on 
 the importation of common salt, whilst enor- 
 mous quantities of seaweed rich in iodine and 
 potash can be obtained at small cost in the 
 neighbourhood of the works. Mr Schmidt's 
 process is as follows : — After the seaweed is 
 dried and burnt, a concentrated solution of 
 the ash is made and added to the liquor, con- 
 taining chlorides of sodium and calcium, left 
 alter the ammonia has been recovered in the 
 au-.nionia-soda process by boiling with lime. 
 The sulphates of potash, soda, and magnesia, 
 contained in the ash of the seaweed are 
 thereby decomposed, and hydrated sulphate of 
 lime and hydiated magnesia are precipitated 
 in a form which may be available for paper- 
 making, as ' pearl-hardening.' The last 
 traces of sulphates are got rid of by add- 
 ing a small quantity of solution of chloiide of 
 barium. To the clear solution nitrate of lead 
 is now added, until all the ioiline is precipi- 
 tated as iudide of lead, which is then sepa- 
 rated by filtration and treated for the produc- 
 tion of iodine or iodides. After filtration the 
 liquid is boiled; nitrate of soda is added to 
 convert the chloride of potassium present into 
 nitrate of potash. The latter is separated by 
 crystallisation. There remains a solution of 
 common salt, containing traces of ammonia 
 from the previous soda operation, and a trace 
 of chloride of potassium. This solution is 
 ufrain tre;itid by the ordinary ammonia-soda 
 process for the production of bicarbonate of 
 soda and while alkali. See Caebonatk of 
 PoTjiseiUM, &c. 
 
 POTASSIUM. K. The metallic base of pot- 
 ash. It was discovered, in 180?, by Sir H. 
 Davy, who obtained it by submitting moist- 
 ened potassium hydrate, under a film of naph- 
 tha, to the action of a powerful voltaic current. 
 
 ' M Jtumrn^ and R(i|relet Btate tliat a fleece weigliing 
 D lbs. coauiiiiB about 6 ounces of pure potash. 
 
 It has since been procured by easier methods, 
 of which the following, invented by Brunner, 
 is the best. 
 
 Prep. An intimate mixture of carbonate of 
 potassium and charcoal is prepared by calcin- 
 ing, in a covered iron pot, the crude tartar of 
 commerce; when cold, it is rubbed to powder, 
 mixed with 1-lOth part of charcoal in sma'l 
 lumps, and quickly transferred into a retort of 
 stout hammered iron ; the latter may be one of 
 the iron bottles in which qnicksilver is im- 
 ported, a short and S'imewhat wide iron tube 
 having been fitted to the aperture ; the retort, 
 thus charged, is placed upon its side, in a fur- 
 nace so constructed that the flame of a very 
 strong fire, preferably fed with dry wood, may 
 wrap i-ound it, and maintain every part of it 
 at a very high and unilbrm de;.'ree of hcMt. 
 A copper receiver, divided in the centre by a 
 diaphragm, is next connected to the iron pipe, 
 and keiit cool by the application of iec, whilst 
 the receiver itself is partly filled with mineral 
 naphtha, to preserve the newly formed po- 
 tassium us it distils over. The arrangement <if 
 the apparatus being completed, the fire is 
 gradually raised until the requisite tempe- 
 rature, which is that of full whiteness, is 
 reached, when decomposition of the alkali by 
 the charcoal commences, carbonie acid ^^as is 
 abundantly disengaged, and potassium distils 
 over, and falls in lar^e drops into the liquid. 
 To render the product absolutely pure, it is 
 redistilled in an iron or preen-glass retort, 
 into which some naphtha has been put, that 
 its vapour may expel the air, and prevent the 
 oxidation of the metal. The pieces of charcoal 
 are introduced for the purpose of absorbing 
 the melted carbonate of p<>tassitim and pre- 
 ventiui; its separation from the finely divided 
 carbonaceous matter. Prud. 3{5 to l-S ol tuo 
 weight of tartar acted on; 1 lb. \ieliied 
 28U gr. 
 
 Prop., S(c. Pure p itassium is a brilliant 
 white metal, with a hgh lustre; at the com- 
 mon temperature of the air it is soft, .ind may 
 be easily cut with a knife, but at 32" Fahr. it 
 is brittle and crystalline ; it melts completely 
 at 136° Fahr., and in close ve-sela distils nu- 
 altered at a low red heat. ."Sp. gr. •865. Its 
 most remarkable property is its affinity for 
 o\yc:eii, which is so great that it takes it from 
 most other substances containing it. Exposed 
 to the air, its surface is instantly tarnished, 
 and quickly becomes coveted with a crust of 
 oxide or hydrate. It inflames spontaneously 
 when thrown on water, and burns with a beau- 
 tiful purple or purple-red flame, yielding a 
 pure alkaline solution. It can only be pre- 
 served in naphtha, rock oil, or some other 
 fluid hydrocarbon. 
 
 The salts of potassium are all soluble in 
 water, the tartrate, periodate, and fluosilicate 
 being the least so; they are usually colourless, 
 unless the acid be coloured, crystallise readily, 
 and form numerous double compounds. They 
 can be re<;ognised as follows : — 
 
1354 
 
 POTASSIUM 
 
 Sulpliuretted hydrogen, sulphide of ammo- 
 nium, and carbonate of ammonium, do not 
 affect them. A solution of tartaric acid, added 
 in excess, to moderately strong neutral or al- 
 kaline solutions of potassium salts, gives a 
 quickly subsiding, gritty or crystalline, white 
 precipitate, which is redissolved on heating 
 the liquid, and again separates as it cools; 
 and is also soluble in aqueous solutions con- 
 taining free alkali, or free mineral acids. 
 Platinic chloride produces, in neutral and acid 
 solutions, a yellow crystalline precipitate. Al- 
 kaline solutions require to be first slightly 
 acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The sepa- 
 ration of the precipitate here, as well as that 
 produced by tartaric acid, is promoted by vio- 
 lent agitation and frietion against the sides 
 of the vessel, and the delicacy of both is in- 
 creased by the addition of some alcohol. 
 When converted into carbonate by igniting 
 with excess of carbonate of ammonium and 
 alcohol, and treated with sulphuretted liydro- 
 gen solution and nitro-prusside of sodium, 
 gives a splendid violet colour, turning through 
 red to green on standing. 
 
 Potassium salts give with sodium periodate 
 and hydro-fluosilicie acid white precipitates 
 soluble in much water. 
 
 Heated in the inner flame of the blow-pipe 
 on platinum wire, they impart a violet colora- 
 tion, masked, however, by a mere trace of 
 sodium salts. 
 
 Potassium, Acetate of. KC2H3O2. Syn. 
 Acetate op potash, Potassio acetate; 
 Potass* acetas (B. P., Ph. L., E., D.). Prep. 
 (Ph. L ) Acetic acid, 26 fl. oz. ; distilled 
 water, 12 fl. oz. ; mix, and add, gradually, 
 carbonate of potassium, 1 lb., or q. 3. to 
 saturate the acid ; next, filter the solution, 
 and evaporate it by the heat of a sand 
 bath, gradually applied, until the salt is 
 dried. 
 
 Prop,, Sfc. Acetate of potassium, prepared 
 as above, occurs in shining white masses, hav- 
 ing a foliated soft texture, a slight but peculiar 
 odour, and a warm sharp taste ; it deliquesces 
 in the air ; dissolves in rather less than its own 
 weight of watfr, and in about twice its weight 
 of alcohiil ; and by exposure to a red heat is 
 converted into pure carbonate of potassium. 
 In trade it is preserved in well-corked and 
 sealed bottles. 
 
 Pur. It is entirely soluble in water, and 
 in rectified spirit. These solutions neither 
 affect litmus nor turmeric, nor are they dis- 
 turbed by either chloride of barium or nitrate 
 of silver ; but if from a stronger solution any- 
 thing is thi-own down'by nitrate of silver, 
 the sfime is again dissolved on the addition of 
 water or dilute nitric acid. Sulphuric acid 
 being added, the vapour of acetic acid is 
 evolved. 100 gr. of this salt, digested in sul- 
 phuric acid, tlje solution evaporated, and the 
 residuum dried at a high temperature, furnish 
 88'8 gr. of sulphate of potassium. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Acetate of potassium has been 
 
 found useful in dropsies, febrile aiTections, 
 jaundice, scurvy, calculus, and several chronic 
 skin diseases. During its exhibition the nrine 
 becomes at first neutral, and then alkaline, 
 owing to the salt being converted into carbo- 
 nate of potassium in the system. — Dose. As 
 a diaphoretic and antiscorbutic, 15 to 20 gr. ; 
 as a diuretic, 20 to 60 gr. ; as an aperient, 2 
 to 3 dr. ; in each case dissolved in some bland 
 liquid, or in the infusion of some mild vege- 
 table bitter. 
 
 Potassium Antimoniatea. The normal po- 
 tassic antimoniate may be obtained by heating, 
 in an earthen crucible, 1 part of metallic anti- 
 mony with 4 parts of nitrate of potash. The 
 mass so obtained is reduced to powder, and 
 afterwards washed with warm water to remove 
 the excess of potash and potassic nitrite. The 
 residue must be boiled in water for an hour or 
 two; the insoluble anhydrous antimoniate is 
 tlius converted into a soluble bydrated modi- 
 fication (KjSbaOg'SHjO.) The insoluble residue 
 now consists chiefly of acid antimoniate of 
 potassium. The normal salts possess the pro- 
 perty of readily dissolving the acid antimoniate, 
 which is precipitated when such a solution is 
 mixed with any neutral salt of one of the al- 
 kalies. The normal antimoniate does not 
 crystallise, and has an alkaline reaction. 
 
 Acid antimoniate of potassium (KjSb^On.) 
 may be procured by passing a stream of car- 
 bonic anhydride through a solution of the 
 normal antimoniate. 
 
 Acid metantimoniate of potash, or hydro- 
 potassic metantimoniate is prepared as fol- 
 lows : — Potassic antimoniate is first formed by 
 deflagrating antimony with nitre, the residue 
 being washed and boiled as described above, so 
 as to bring the whole of the normal antimo- 
 niate into solution ; the resulting liquid is 
 filtered, and evaporated to a syrup consistence 
 in a silver dish, fragments of caustic potash 
 are then added, and the evaporation is con- 
 tinued until a drop of liquid placed upon a 
 cold slip of glass begins to crystallise ; it is 
 then allowed to cool and the alkaline super- 
 natant liquid is poured off the crystals, which 
 are allowed to drain upon a porous tile. This 
 salt is employed as a test for sodium. 
 
 Potassium, Arseniate of. KH2ASO4. St/n. 
 Abseniate op potassa, Monopotassic abse- 
 uiate, Potassittm DTHTDBIO AHSENIATE; 
 I'OTASSJE BINAESENIAS, L. Prep. Take of 
 iirsenious acid (white arsenic) and nitrate of 
 potassium, of each, in powder, 1 part ; heat the 
 mixture to dull redness in a glass flask, until 
 it fuses and red vapours cease to be evolved ; 
 dissolve the residuum, when cold, in boiling 
 distilled water, 50 parts ; concentrate the 
 solution by evaporation, and set it aside to 
 crystallise. 
 
 Prop., ^c. This salt forms large crystals, 
 which are permanent in dry air, soluble in 
 about 4i parts of water, and insoluble in al- 
 cohol. It is reputed tonic, alterative, and 
 antiperiodio. — Dose, xs to | gr. dissolved in 
 
POTASSIUM 
 
 1355 
 
 •weeUncd water. It is also used to form a 
 resist-piute ia calico printing, and in the 
 mnniifaeture of cobalt blui". 
 
 Potassium, Borate of. K4B4O8. Syn. Po- 
 TASSA BOBA8, L. Prep. From dry carbonate 
 of potassium and dry boracic acids, equal parts, 
 reduced to powder, and heated to redness in a 
 covered crucible ; the sublimed mass, when 
 rold, bein^ dissolved in boiling water, and the 
 flltcri d solution concentrated by evaporation, 
 and then xet aside to crystallise; or at once 
 completely evaporated to dryness. — Dose, 1 
 to 6 gr. ; in calculi, &c. 
 
 Fotassiam, Borotartrate of. S^n. Potass^ 
 
 BOBOTAttTEAS, CBKMOE TABTABI SOLCBILIS, 
 L.J CEliMB DB TABTBK SOLUBLE, Fr. Prep. 
 (P. Cod.) Crystallised boracic acid, 1 part ; 
 bitartrate of potassium, 4 parts ; water, 24 
 parts ; dissolve, by the aid of heat, in a silver 
 basin, and, constantly stirring, evaporate the 
 resulting solution, either to dryness, and then 
 powder it, or merely to a syrupy consistence, 
 when it may be spread upon plates, and dried 
 in scales, by the heat of a stove. It must 
 afterwards be preserved from the ulr. 
 
 Prop., 1(0. A white, deliquescent powder, 
 freely soluble in water. It has been used as a 
 solvent fill' lithic calculi, and in gout, &c. — 
 Dose, 15 to 30 gr. In doses of 2 to 3 dr. it 
 is laxative, and is very popular as such on 
 the Continent. 
 
 Potassium, Bromide of. KBr. Syn. Po- 
 TASSii BBOMiDtrM (B. P.). Prep. Exactly 
 as the iodide, which it resembles in its cha- 
 racter, only being somewlint lies soluble in 
 water and more in ahohol. Employed in 
 similar cases and given in similar duses to the 
 iodide. 
 
 Potassium, Carbonate of. K0CO3. Syn. 
 
 CaBBONATB op POTA8SA, SUBCABBONATE OP 
 
 POTASSA, Salt op tabtab ; Potassje cabbo- 
 NAS (B. p., Ph. L., E., D.). Impure or crude 
 carbonate of potassium is chiefly imported 
 from America and Russia, and is obtained by 
 lixivinling wood ashes, and evaporating the 
 solution to dryness. The mass is then trans- 
 ferred into iron pots, and is kept in a state of 
 fusion for several hours, until it becomes quies- 
 eeiit, when the heat is withdrawn, and the 
 wliolc is left to cool. It is next broken up 
 and packed in air-tight barrels, and in this 
 state constitutes the ' potashes ' or ' potash ' of 
 commerce. Another method is to transfer the 
 black salts, or product of the first evaporation, 
 from the kettles to a large oven or furnace, so 
 constructed that the flame is made to play 
 over the alkaline mass, which is kept con- 
 stantly stirred by means of an iron rod. The 
 i;;iiition is continued until the impurities are 
 burned out, and the mass changes from a 
 blackish tint to a dirty or bluish white. The 
 whole is next allowed to cool, and is then 
 brnken into fragments, and packed in casks 
 as before. It now constitutes 'pearlash.' 
 
 When pe.irlash is dissolved in cold distilled 
 water, the solution depurated, filtered and crys- 
 
 tallised, or simply evaporated to dryness, it 
 forms ' refined ashes,' or carbonate of potash 
 sufliciently pure for most pbarmacentical and 
 technical purposes. The granulated carbonate 
 of potash, salt of tartar, or prepared kali, of 
 the shops, is simply refined ashes which, 
 during the evaporation, and more especially 
 towards the conclusion of the desiccation, has 
 been assiduously stirred, so that it may form 
 small white granulations, instead of adhering 
 together to form an amorphous solid mass. 
 In this state it constitutes the ordinary or carbo- 
 nate of potassa of the Piiarmacopoeias. Ordi- 
 nary potash or pearlash may be refined as 
 follows: — Raw potash, 10 parts, is dissolved in 
 cold water, 6 parts, and the solution is allowed 
 to remain for 24 hours, in a cool place ; it is 
 then filtered, and somewhat concentrated by 
 evaporation, crystallisation being prevented by 
 continually stirring the mass until the whole is 
 nearly cold j it is next decanted into a strainer, 
 and the mother-liquor allowed to drip off ; the 
 residuum is evaporated to dryness at a gentle 
 heat, and redissolved in an equal quantity of 
 cold distilled water; the new solution, after 
 filtration, is again evaporated to dryness. The 
 product is quite free from potassium sulphite, 
 and is nearly free from both potassium chloride 
 and silicates. 
 Potassium, Pure Carbonate of Carbonatb 
 
 op potassa (P0TAS8.E CABBONAB PUKCM — 
 
 Ph. E. & D., and Ph. L., 1836).— (I'h, L., 
 1836.) From bicarbonate of potassium, in 
 crystals, heated to redness in a crucible. 
 
 (Ph. E.) As the last. Or, more cheaply, 
 by dissolvincr bitartrate of potassium in thirty 
 parts of boiling water, separ.itins: and washing 
 the crystals which form on cooling, heatiuir 
 them in a loosely covered crucible to redness 
 as long as fumes are riischarged, breaking 
 down the mass, and roasting it in an oven for 
 two hours, with occasional stirring ; lixivint'ng 
 the product with (cold) distilled water, filter- 
 ing the solution thus obtained, evaporating it 
 to dryness, granulating the salt to.i'ards the 
 close by brisk agitation ; and, lastly, heating the 
 granular salt thus obtained nearly to redness. 
 
 (Ph. D.) Bitartrate of potassium, 2 lbs., is 
 exposed to a red heat in an iron crucible, as 
 before ; the powdered calcined ma-s is boiled 
 for 20 minutes in water, 1 quart, the solution 
 filtered, and the filtiaie waslied with water, 1 
 pint, to which ammonium sesquicarbonate, \ 
 oz., has been added ; the mixed and filtered 
 liquors are evaporated to dryness, and, a \ovi 
 red heat having been applied, the residuum is 
 rapidly reduced to powder in a warm mortar, 
 and at once enclosed in (dry and) well-stoppered 
 bottles. 
 
 Prop. These are well known. It exhibits 
 most of the properties of hydrate of potassium, 
 but in a vastly less degree. It is very deli- 
 quescent, effervesces with acids, exhibits a 
 marked alkaline reaction w ith test paper, is in- 
 solulilein alcohol, but dissolves in Uss than its 
 own weight of water, its affinity for the last 
 
1356 
 
 POTASSIUM 
 
 bi'irg so great tliat it takes it from alcoliolic 
 mixtures. 
 
 Pur., S(e. Carbonate of potassium frequently 
 contains an undue quantity of water, as well 
 as silicic acid, sulphates, and chlorides. The 
 water may be detected by the loss of weight 
 the salt suffers when heated; the silica, by 
 adding to it hydrochloric acid in excess, evapo- 
 rating to dryness, and igniting the residuum, 
 by which tliis contamination is rendered in- 
 soluble; the sulphates and chlorides may be 
 detected by adding nitric acid in excess, and 
 testing the liquid with nitrate of silver and 
 chloride of barium. If the former produces a 
 white precipitate, a chloride is present; and if 
 the latter does the same, the contamination is 
 a sulphate. Carbonate of potassium deliquesces 
 in the air, and is almost entirely dissolved by 
 water; in an open vessel it spontaneously lique- 
 fies. It changes the colour of turmeric brown. 
 Supersaturated with nitric acid, neither carbo- 
 nate of sodium nor chloride of b.arium throws 
 down anything:, and nitrate of silver very little. 
 100 gr. lose 16 gr. of water by a strong red 
 heat; and the same weight loses 263 gr. of 
 carbonate anhydride when placed in contact 
 with dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Fotassinm, Bicarbonate of. KHCOg. Syn. 
 Potassium htdeogen carbonate, Bioakbo- 
 nate of potassa; potass.e bioaebonas (b.p., 
 Ph. L., E., & D.). Frep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 Carbonate of potassium, 6 lbs. ; distilled water, 
 1 gall. ; dissolve, and pass carbonic anhydride 
 (from chalk and sulphuric acid diluted with 
 water) through the solution to saturation ; 
 apply a gentle heat, so that whatever crystals 
 have been formed may be dissolved, and set 
 aside the solution that crystals may again 
 form ; lastly, the liquid being poured off, dry 
 them. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Carbonic anhydride, obtained by 
 the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on chalk 
 (the latter contained in a perforated bottle im- 
 mersed in a vessel containing the acid), is 
 passed, by means of glass tubes connected by 
 vulcanised india rubber, to the bottom of a 
 bottle containing a solution of carbonate of 
 potassium, 1 part, in water, 2J parts ; as soon 
 as the air is expelled from the apparatus the 
 corks through which the tubes pass are ren- 
 dered air-tight, and the process left to itself 
 for a week; the crystals thus obtained are 
 then shaken with twice their bulk of cold 
 water, drained, and dried on bibulous paper, 
 by simple exposure to the air. From the 
 mother-liquor, filtered, and concentrated to one 
 half, at a heat not exceeding 110° Fahr., more 
 crystals mav he obtained. The tube immersed 
 in the solution of carbonate of potassium will 
 have to be occasionally cleared of the crystals 
 with which it is liable to become choked, else 
 the process will be suspended. 
 
 3. (Ph. B.) The same. 
 
 4. (Apothecaries' Hall, London.) Potassium 
 carbonate, 100 lbs. ; distilled water, 17 galls. ; 
 dissolve, and saturate the solution with car- 
 
 bonic anhydride, as in No. 1, when 35 to <U)lbs. 
 of crystals of bicarbonate of potassium may be 
 obtained; next dissolve carbonate of potassium, 
 50 lbs., in the mother-liquor, and add enough 
 water to make the whole a second time equal 
 to 17 galls. ; the remaining part of the opera- 
 tion is then to be performed as before. This 
 plan may be repeated again and again, for 
 some time, provided the carbonate used is suffi- 
 ciently pure. 
 
 5. (Ph. E.) Take of carbonate of potassium, 6 
 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammonium, 3^ oz. ; tri- 
 turate them together, and, when reduced to a 
 very fine powder and perfectly mixed, make 
 them into a stiff paste with a very little water ; 
 dry this, very carefully, at a heat not higher 
 than 140° Fahr., until a fine powder, perfectly 
 devoid of ammoniacal odour, be obtained, occa- 
 sionally triturating the mass towards the end 
 of the process. 
 
 6. (Commercial.) From carbonate of potas- 
 sium, in powder, made into a paste with water, 
 and exposed for some time on shallow trays, in a 
 chamber filled with an atmosphere of carlionic 
 anhydride, generated by the combu-tion of 
 either coke or charcoal, and purified by being 
 forced through a cistern of cold water; the 
 resulting salt is next dissolved in the least pos- 
 sible quantity of water at the temperature of 
 120° Fdhr., and the solution filtered and crystal- 
 lised. 
 
 Prop. It is soluble in 4 times its weight of 
 water at 60° Fahr. ; is fixed in the air, but 
 loses carbonic acid below the temperature of 
 a carbonate at a red heat. It possesses the 
 general alkaline properties of carbonate of po- 
 tassium, but in an inferior degree, having 
 only a slightly alkaline taste, and, when abso- 
 lutely pure, not affecting the colour of tur- 
 meric. 
 
 Pur. In a solution of pure bicarbonate of po- 
 tassium a solution of mercuric chloride merely 
 causes an opalescence, or very slight white pre- 
 cipitate; if it contains carbonate, a brick- 
 coloured precipitate is thrown down. From 100 
 gr. of the pure crystals of bicarbonate, 307 
 gr. of water and carbonic acid are expelled at 
 a red heat. In other respects it may be tested 
 like the carbonate. 
 
 Uses, S(c. Bicarbonate of potassium is the 
 most agreeable of all the salts of potassium, 
 and is much used as an antacid or absorbent, 
 and for making effervescing saline draughts. 
 It has also been successfully employed in 
 rheumatism, scurvy, gout, dyspepsia, and 
 various other diseases in which the use of pi)- 
 tassium is indicated. The dose is from 10 gr. 
 to 4 dr. 
 
 20 gr. bicarbonate, in ci-y.^tals. 
 
 are equivalent to 
 
 14 gr. of crystallised nitric acid 
 
 Is OT. ta rf.ii ri f> af\ 
 
 15 gr. 
 \ oz. of lemon juice 
 
 tartaric acid, and 
 
POTASSIUM 
 
 1357 
 
 Fotutium, Chlorate of. KCIO,. St/n. 
 
 CllLOUATB OF POTASH ; P0TA8B« CHIX)KA8 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & n.), L. Prep. 1. Chlorine 
 gaa h conduotud by a wide tabe into a mode- 
 rately fitroDg and warm solution of hydrate or 
 carbonate of potassiuiii, until the absorption of 
 the gaa ceases and tbe alkali is completely 
 neutnilised ; tlic liquid is then kept at the 
 boiling temperature for a few minutes, after 
 which it is gently evaporated (if oecessary) 
 until a pelliclu forms on the surface, and is 
 next set aside, so as to cool very slowly; the 
 crystals, tlius obtained, are drained and care- 
 fully washed on a filter, with ice-cold water, 
 and are purified by re-solution and re-crystal- 
 lisation. The product is chlorate of potassium. 
 The mother-liquor, which contains much chlo- 
 ride of potassium mixed with some chlorate, is 
 either evaporated for more crystals (which are, 
 however, less pure than the first crop) or is 
 preserved f'>r a future operation. 
 
 Obi. The product of the above process is 
 small, varying from 10 to 45g of the weight of 
 the potassium consumed in it, according to the 
 skill with which it is conducted ; this apparent 
 I<is4 of potassium arises from a large portion of 
 it being converted into chloride, a salt of com- 
 paratively little value. The following pro- 
 cesses have been devised principally with the 
 view of preventing this waste, or of employ- 
 ing a cheaper salt of potassium than the car- 
 bonate : — 
 
 2. (Ph. B.) Mix slaked lime, 53 oz., with 
 carbonate of potash, 20 oz., and triturate them 
 with a few ounces of distilled water, so as to 
 make the mixture slightly moist. Place oxide 
 of manganese, 80 oz., in a large retort or flask, 
 and having poured upon it hydrochloric acid, 
 24 pints, diluted with 6 pints of water, apply 
 a gentle sand heat, and conduct the chlorine as 
 it comes over, first through a bottle containing 
 
 6 oz. of water, and then into <i large carboy 
 containing the mixture of carbonate of potash 
 and slaked lime. When the whole of the 
 chlorine hus come over remove the contents of 
 the carboy and boil them for 20 minutes with 
 
 7 pints of distilled water; filter and evaporate 
 till a film forms on tbe surface, and set aside 
 to cool and crystallise. 
 
 The crystals thus obtained are to be purified 
 by dissolviii;; them in 3 times their weight of 
 boiling distilled water, and again allowing 
 the solution to crystallise. — Dote, 10 gr. to 
 30 gr. 
 
 3. A solution of chloride of lime is preci- 
 jiituted with a solution of carbonateofpotassium, 
 and the li(iuid, after filtration, saturated with 
 chlorine gas; it is then evaporated and crys- 
 tallised as before. Dr Ure has suggested the 
 substitution of sulphate of potassium for the 
 carbonate, by which the process would be ren- 
 dered very inexpensive. 
 
 4. Carbonate of potassium, 69 parts of the 
 dry or SL' parts of the grannlnted, hydrate of 
 calcium, 37 parts (dry fresh slaked lime), both 
 in powder, are fhixed together, and exposed to 
 
 the action of chlorine gas, to saturation (the 
 gas is absorbed with great rapidity, the tem- 
 perature rises above 21:i'" Palir., and water is 
 freely evolved); the heat, with free exposure, 
 is then maintained at 212° for a few minutes 
 (to remove some trace of * hypochlorite '), tbe 
 residuum, consisting of chlorate of potassium 
 and chloride of calcium, is treated with hot 
 water, and the chlorate of potassium crystal- 
 lised out of the resulting solution, as before. 
 This process, which is an excellent one (the 
 loss of potassium being for the most part 
 avoided), has been modified and improved by 
 various authorities, as will be seen below. 
 
 5. A solution of chloride of lime (IS' to 20" 
 Bi(ume) is heated in a leaden or ca-^t-iron vessel, 
 and suflScient of a salt of potassium added 'o 
 raise the density of the liquid 3 or 4 hydro- 
 meter degrees; the solution is then quickly, 
 but carefully, concentrated until the gravity 
 rises to 30° or 31° Baume, when it is set aside 
 to crystallise. A good and economical proccv.i. 
 
 6. Chloride of potassium, 76 parts, and fresh 
 calcium hydrate, 222 parts, are reduced to a 
 thin paste with water, q. »., and a stream of 
 chlorine gas passed through the mixture, to 
 saturatioti; chloride of calcium aud chlorate of 
 potassium are formed; the last is then removed 
 by solution in boiling water, and is crystallised 
 as before. This process, which has received 
 the approval and recommendation of Liebig, 
 has long been practised in Germany, and was 
 originally introduced to this country by I)r 
 Wun;enmann. The product is very large, and 
 of excellent quality. 
 
 Prop, White, inodorous, four- or six-sided 
 pearly scales, soluble in about 20 parts of cold 
 and 2^ parts of boiling water ; in taste it re- 
 sembles nitre, but is somewhat more austere ; 
 at about 450° Fahr. it undergoes the igneous 
 fusion, and on increasing the heat almost to 
 redness effervescence ensues, and fully 39^ of 
 pure oxygen gas is given off, whilst the salt 
 becomes changed into chloride of potassium. 
 When mixed with inflammable substances and 
 triturated, heated, or subjected to a smart blow 
 or strong pressure, or moistened with a strong 
 acid, it explodes with great violence. 
 
 Pur., Tests, 4'c. The usual impurity of this 
 salt is chloride of potassium, arising from care- 
 less or imperfect manipulation. When this is 
 present, a solution of nitrate of silver gives a 
 curdy white precipitate, soluble in ammonia; 
 whereas a solution of the pure chlorate remains 
 clear. 
 
 Uses. Chlorate of potassium is principally 
 used in the manufacture of lucifer matches, 
 fireworks, oxygen gas, &c., and as an oxidising 
 agent in calico printing. It was formerly 
 used to fill percussion caps, but was abandoned 
 for fulminating mercury, on account of its dis- 
 position to rust the nipples of the guns. As a 
 medicine it is stimulant and diuretic. It has 
 been given in dropsy, syphilis, scurvy, cholera, 
 typhus, and other depressing affections. It 
 gives a fine artificial colour to the blood. 
 
1338 
 
 POTASSIUM 
 
 (Stevens.) — Dose, 5 to 15 gr., in solution, 
 twice or tlirice a day. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. — formerly, chlorate of 
 potassium was a salt which was made only on 
 the small scale, and chiefly used in experimental 
 chemistry ; now it is in considerable demand, 
 and forms an i'tiportant article of chemical 
 manufacture. The latter has hence, of late 
 years, received considerable attention and im- 
 provement iu the leadinglaboratories of Europe. 
 The chlorate requires to be handled with great 
 care. It should never be kept in admixture 
 with any inflammable substance, more espe- 
 cially with sulphur, phnsphorns, or the sul- 
 phides, as these componnds are exploded bythe 
 most trivial causes, and, not unfrequently, 
 explode spontaneously. 
 
 Potassium, Chloride of. KCl. Syn. Chlokide 
 OF POTASSA. Prep. The chloride of potas- 
 sium of commerce is usually a secondary pro- 
 duct in the manufacture of chlorate of potas- 
 sium and other substances. The mother-liquor 
 of the former is evaporated to dryness and 
 heated to dull redness, the calcined mass is then 
 dissolved iu water, the solution purified by 
 defeiiition and evaporated down for crystals. 
 
 It can also he well prepared by neutralising 
 boiling solution of carbonate of potassium by 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporating down, and 
 crvstallising. 
 
 Prop., i(c. It closely resembles culinary salt 
 in appearance; is anhydrous; dissolves in 
 about 4 parts of cold and 2 of boiling water ; 
 has a slightly bitter, saline taste; fuses at a 
 red heat; and is volatilised at a very high 
 temperiiture. As a mt^dicine it is diuretic and 
 aperient. It was formerly in high repute as a 
 resolvent and antiscorbutic, and, particularly, 
 as a remedy for intermittents. It is now 
 seldom used. — Dose, 10 gr. to i dr., or more. 
 
 Potassium, Chromate of. KjCrO^. Syn. 
 Chkomate of POTASSA, Necteal cheomate 
 
 OP p., MONOCHEOMATE OF P., YelLOW G. OF 
 
 P., Salt of oheome ; Potass^ cheomas, P. 
 C. FLAVA, L. This salt is only prepared on the 
 large scale. Its source is 'chrome oee,' a 
 natural octahedral chromate of iron, found in 
 various parts of Europe and America. For 
 medicinal purposes the commercial chromate is 
 purified by solution in hot water, filtration, and 
 recrvstallisation. 
 
 Prep. 1. The ore, previously assayed to de- 
 termine its richness, and freed as much as pos- 
 sible from its gangue, is ground to powder in 
 a mill, and mixed with a quantity of coarsely 
 powdered nitre rather less than that of the 
 oxide of chromium which it contains ; this 
 mixture is exposed, for several hours,- to a 
 powerful heat on the hearth of a reverberatory 
 furnace, during which time it is frequently 
 stirred up with iron rods; the calcined mass 
 is next laked out and lixiviated with hot water, 
 and the resulting yellow-coloured solution eva- 
 porated briskly over a naked fire, or bythe heat 
 of high-pressure steam ; chromate of potas- 
 sium falls, under the form of a granular yellow 
 
 salt, which is removed from time to time with 
 a ladle, and thrown into a wooden vessel, 
 furnished with a bottom full of holes (draining 
 box), where it is left to drain and dry. In this 
 state it forms the chromate of potassium of 
 commerce. By a second solution and recrystal- 
 lisation, it may be obtained in large and regu- 
 lar crystals. The next process has for its object 
 the employment of a clieaper salt of potassa 
 than the nitrate. 
 
 2. (Swindell & Co. Patent dated Nov., 1850.)- 
 A mixtuveof pulverised chrome ore and chloride 
 of potassium is exposed to a full red heat, on 
 the heartli of a reverberatory f nrnace, witli oc- 
 casional stirring for some time, when steam at 
 a very elevated temperature is made to act on 
 it until the conversion is complete, known by 
 assaying a portion of the mass; the chromate 
 is then dissolved out of the residuum, as 
 before. Common salt or hydrate of calcium 
 may be substituted for chloride of potassium, 
 when the chromates of sodium or calcium are 
 respectively produced. 
 
 3. On the small scale this salt may be pre- 
 pared from the bichromate by neutralising it 
 with hydrate of potassium. 
 
 Prop. Yellow ; tastes cool, bitter, and dis- 
 agreeable ; soluble iu 2 parts of water at 60° 
 Pahr. ; the crystals are efflorescent. 
 
 Pur. The salt of commerce is frequently 
 contaminated with large quantities of sulphate 
 or chlorate of potassium. To detect these, M. 
 Zueber adds tartaric acid, dissolved in 50 parts 
 of water, to a like solution of the sample. As 
 soon as the decomposition is complete, and the 
 colour verges towards the green, the super- 
 natant liquor should afford no precipitate with 
 solutions of the nitrates of silver and barium, 
 whence the absence of chlorides and sulphates 
 may be respectively inferred. The proportions 
 are, 8 parts of tartaric acid to 1 part of the 
 chromate. If saltpetre is the adulterating 
 ingredient, the sample deflagrates whenJ}hrown 
 upon burning coals. 
 
 Assay. 1. A solution of 50 gr. of the salt 
 is treated with a solution of nitrate of barium, 
 the precipitate digested in niti-ic acid, and the 
 insoluble portion (sulphate of barium) washed, 
 dried, and weighed. 117 gr. of this substance 
 are equivalent to 89 gr. of sulphate of potas- 
 sium. 
 
 2. The nitric solution, with the washings 
 (see above), is treated with a solution of nitrate 
 of silver, and the precipitate of chloride care- 
 fully collected, washed, dried, ignited, and 
 weighed. 144 gr. of chloride of silver repre- 
 sent 76 gr. of chloride of potassium. 
 
 3. The nitric solution, with the washing 
 (see above), after having any remaining barium 
 thrown down by adding dilute sulphuric acid, 
 iu slight excess, is treated with ammonia, and 
 the resulting precipitate of chromic oxide col- 
 licted on a filter, washed, dried, carefully 
 ignited in a silver, platinum, or porcelain cru- 
 cible, and weighed. 40 gr. of this oxide 
 represent 100 gr. of pure chi-bmate of pntas- 
 
POTASSIUM 
 
 1359 
 
 •inm. Any deficiency cousists of impurities 
 (ir a<lulteriinU. 
 
 Ute». Chromate of potasaium ia used in dye- 
 ing;, hleacliingithemanufiictureofchromic acid, 
 biiliroinutc of potasaium, &o. It ia the commoa 
 dource of nearly all the other compounds of 
 chromium. It is reputed alterative in doses 
 of -]■( to ^ ^r. ; and is emetic in doses of 1 to 4 
 gr. A solution in 8 parts of water is occa- 
 sionally used to destroy fungus; 1 in 30 to 
 40 parts of water is also used as an antiseptic 
 and dcsiocant. 
 
 Concluding Bemarkf. — The first process is 
 nndimbtedly the best, when expense is not an 
 object. To reduce this, a mixture of ' potash ' 
 or ' pcarlnsh," with about S of its weight of 
 nitre, or 1 5th part of its weight of peroxide of 
 manganese, may he substituted without much 
 inconvenience. The assay of the chrome ore, 
 alluded to above, may be made by reducing 
 100 gr. of it to powder, mixing it with twice 
 its weight of powdered nitre, and a little 
 hydrate of calcium, and subjecting the mixture 
 to a strong red heat for 8 or 4 hours ; the cal- 
 cined mass may then be exhausted with boiling 
 wuttr, and the resulting solution, after preci- 
 pitation with dilute sulphuric acid, in slight 
 excess, and filtration, may be treated with 
 rectifled spirit, when its chromium may be 
 thrown down by the addit on of ammonia. 
 (See above.) In the conversion of chrome ore 
 into chromntc of potassium care should, in all 
 cases, be taken that the proportion of nitre 
 or alkali should be slightly less than what is 
 absolutely required to saturate the ore, »s the 
 production of a neutral salt is thereby ensured; 
 for should not the whole of the chromate be de- 
 composed by the first calcination, it may easily 
 be roasted a second time with fresh alkali, 
 should the remaining quantity be thought 
 worth the troubled The nature of the furnace 
 to be employed in the conversion is not of any 
 great importance, so long aa carbonaceous 
 matters from the fire are entirely excluded, 
 and the rei|uired temperature is attainable. 
 
 Potassium, Bichromate of. Kfivfiy, or 
 KjCrt^.CiOj. >Syn. Bichromate of po- 
 
 TASSA, HeD CHBOMATB OP POTASH, ACID C. 
 op P. J POTASSJE BICHBOMAB, L. Prep. 1. 
 To a concentrated solution of yellow chromate 
 of pota'sinm, sulphuric acid, or, better, acetic 
 acid, is added in quantity equal to one half that 
 required for the entire decomposition of the 
 salt; the liquid is then concentrated by evapora- 
 tion and slowly cooled, so that crystals may 
 form. 
 
 2. (Jacqnelain.) Chrome ore, finely ground 
 and sifted, is mixed with chalk ; the mixture 
 is spread on a thin layer on the hearth of a re- 
 verber;itory furnace, and heated to bi'ij^ht red- 
 ness, with re)icated stirring, for 9 or lU hours. 
 The yellowish-green product consists essen- 
 tially of neutral chromate of calcium, mixed 
 with ferric oxide. It is ground and stirred up 
 with hot water, and sulphuric acid is added till 
 a slight acid reaction becomes apparent, a sign 
 
 that the neutral chromate has beeu converted 
 into bichromate. Chalk is now stirred in to 
 precipitate the ferric sulphate, and after a 
 while the clear solution is run off into another 
 vessel, where it ia treated with carbonate of 
 potassium, which precipitates the lime and 
 leaves bichromate <>f potassium in solntion. Tlie 
 solution is then evaporated to the crystallising 
 point. This process, when carried out on a 
 large scale, is very economical. 
 
 Prop., S^e. It forms very beantiful square 
 tables, or flat four-sided prismatic crystals ; 
 permanent in the air; soluble in 10 parts of 
 water at 60°, and in le«s than 3 parts at 212° 
 Pahr. J it has a metallic, bitter taste, and is 
 poisonous. It is chiefly used in dyeing and 
 bleaching, and as a source of chromic acid. 
 The tests, &c., are the same as for the yellow 
 chromate. 
 
 Potassium, Citrate of. KaCjH/);. Syn. 
 PoTAsaa; OITEAs, b. Prep. From a solution 
 of citric acid neutralised with carbonate of 
 potassium, evaporated, and granulated, or crys- 
 tallised; very deliquescent. Or, extempora- 
 neously, in the form of solution, by adding car- 
 bonate or bicarbonate of potassium to lemon 
 juice, as in the comuiou effervescing draught. 
 (Ph. B.) The same. 
 
 Potassium, Cyanate of. KCyO, or KCNO. 
 Prep. 1. By roa>ting, at a red heat, dry ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium, in fine powder, upon an 
 iron plate, constantly stirring it until it becomes 
 fused into one mass, which most be reduced to 
 fine powder and digested in boiling alcohol, 
 from which crystals of the cyanate will be de- 
 posited as the solution cools. 
 
 2. (Liebig.) A mixture of ferrocyanide of 
 potassium, with half its weight of peroxide of 
 manganese, may also be used to produce this 
 salt, as the last; the compound shonld be 
 kindled by a red-hot boily, and allowed to 
 smoulder away, after which it may be treated 
 with alcohol, as before. 
 
 3. A mixture of ferrocyanide of potassium 
 and litharge is heated as before, and dissolved 
 out by alcohol, and crystallised. 
 
 Prop. Crystallisahle colourless or white 
 salt, readily soluble in alcohol and water, but 
 readily decomposed when moist into bicar- 
 bonate of potassium and ammonia, or in soln- 
 tion into the carbonate of potassium and 
 ammonium. 
 
 This salt is poisonous. The cyanntes of 
 silver, lead, and many other metals may be 
 made by adding a solution of cyanate of 
 potassium to another of a neutral salt of the 
 base. 
 
 Potassium, Cyanide of. KCN, or KCy. 
 Syn. Ctanidk op potash, Cyancket op 
 
 POTASSIUM ; POTASSII CTANIDUM, P. CYANU- 
 HETCM, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Medicinal cyanide op potas- 
 sium.) — a. A solution of pure hydrate of po- 
 tassium, 2 parts, in highly rectified spirit, 7 
 parts, is placed in a receiver furnished with a 
 safety tube, and surrounded with bnii-cd ice ; 
 
1360 
 
 POTASSIUM 
 
 the beak of a tubulated retort, containing 
 f en-ocyanide of potassium, in powder, 4 parts, 
 is then adapted to it in such a manner that 
 any gas or vapour evolved in the retort must 
 traverse the solution in the receiver; the ar- 
 rangement being complete, sulphuric acid, 3 
 parts, diluted with an equal weight of water, 
 and allowed to cool, is cautiously poured into 
 the retort, and the distillation conducted very 
 slowly, a very gentle heat only being applied, 
 as circumstances may direct ; as soon as the 
 force of ebullition in the retort has subsided, 
 the distillation is complete, and the connec- 
 tion between the retort and receiver is broken; 
 the contents of the receiver, now transformed 
 into a mixture of a crystalline precipitate of 
 cyanide of potassium, and an alcoholic solu- 
 tion of undecomposed hydrate of potassium, 
 is carefully thrown on a filter, and the pre- 
 cipitate, after the mother-liquor has drained 
 off, very cautiously washed with ice-cold and 
 highly rectified spirit, and then drained, 
 pressed, and dried on the same filter. The 
 product is chemically pure, and equal to fully 
 log of the ferrocyanide employed. This is a 
 modification of what is commonly known as 
 * Wiggei*'s process.' 
 
 i. Expose well-dried and powdered ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium to a moderate red heat, 
 in a close vessel; when cold, powder the fused 
 mass, place it in a funnel, moisten it with a 
 little alcohol, and wash it with cold water; 
 evaporate the solution thus formed to dry- 
 ness, expose it to a dull red heatiu a porcelain 
 disli, cool, powder, and digest it in boiling 
 rectified spirit; as the spirit cools, orvstals of 
 cyanide of potassium, nearly pure, will be de- 
 posited. The alcohol employed in both this and 
 tlie preceding process may be recovered by 
 distillation from calcined sulphate of iron. 
 
 2. (CeUDB or COMMEEOIAL CYANIDE — 
 
 Liebig.) Commercial ferrocyanide of potas- 
 sium, 8 parts, rendered anhydrous by gently 
 heating it on an iron plate, is intimately mixed 
 with dry carbonate of potassium, 3 parts; 
 this mixture is thrown into a red-hot earthen 
 crucible, and kept in a state of fusion, with 
 occasional stirring, until gas ceases to be 
 evolved, and the fluid portion of the mass 
 becomes colourless ; the crucible is then left 
 at rest for a few minutes, to allow its contents 
 to settle, after which the clear portion is poured 
 from the heavy black sediment at the bottom 
 upon a clean marble slab, and the mass, whilst 
 yet warm, broken up, and placed in well- 
 closed bottles. 
 
 Obs. A cheap and excellent process. The 
 product is said to contain about l-8th part 
 of cyanate of potassium, and, though not 
 sufiiciently pure for employment in medicine 
 as potassium cyanide, is admirably adapted 
 for the various technical applications of this 
 substance, as in electro-plating, electro-gild- 
 ing, photography, &c. It may also be advan- 
 tageously substituted for the ferrocyanide in 
 the preparation of hydrocyanic acid by the 
 
 distillation of that substance along with 
 dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Prop., ^c. When pure, this salt is colour- 
 less and odourless ; it forms cubic or octahe- 
 dral crystals, which are anhydrous ; it ia 
 freely soluble in water and in boiling alcohol, 
 but most of it separates from the latter as 
 the solution cools ; it is fusible ; and under- 
 goes no change, even at a full red heat, in 
 close vessels; it exhibits an allcaline reaction; 
 when exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs 
 moisture, and acquires the smell of hydro- 
 cyanic acid. If it effervesces with acids, it 
 contains carbonate of potassium, and if it be 
 yellow it contains iron. It is employed in 
 chemical analysis, and for the preparation of 
 hydrocyanic acid ; cyanide of sodium may be 
 made in the same way. The dose is -Jj to ^ 
 gr., in solution; in the usual cases in which 
 the admiuistration of hydrocyanic acid is 
 iudicated. — Antidotes. The same as for hydro- 
 cyanic acid. 
 
 Potassium, Ferricyanide of. KjPeCyj, or 
 Kj, FeCgNg. Syn. Fbebidctanide op po- 
 tassium, Fbbkicyantjret op p.. Red peus- 
 
 SIATE OP potash ; POTASSII PEEKICTANIDUM, 
 
 P. PEUSsiAS ettbrum:, L. This important 
 and beautiful salt was discovered by L. 
 Gmelin. At first it was merely regarded as 
 a chemical curiosity, but it is now extensively 
 employed in dyeing, calico printing, assaying, 
 &c. 
 
 Prep. 1. Chlorine gas, prepared in the 
 ordinary manner, is slowly passed into a cold 
 solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, 1 part, 
 in water, 10 parts, with constant agitation, 
 until the liquid appears of a deep reddish- 
 green colour, or of a fine red colour by trans- 
 mitted light, and ceases to give a blue pre- 
 cipitate, or even a blue tinge, to a solution of 
 ferric chloride, an excess of chlorine being 
 carefully avoided; the liquor is next evapo- 
 rated by the heat of steam or boiling water, 
 until a pelli(de forms upon the surface, when 
 it is filtered, and set aside to cool ; the crystals 
 are afterwards purified by re-solution and 
 re-crystallisation. — Another method is simply 
 to evaporate the original solution to dryness, 
 by a steam heat, with agitation, then to re- 
 dissolve the residuum in the least possible 
 quantity of boiling water, and, after defeca- 
 tipn or filtration, to allow the new solution 
 to cool very slowly, that crystals may form. 
 
 2. (Extemporaneous.) Add nitric acid, very 
 gradually, to a cold solution of ferrocyanide 
 of potassium, with constant agitation, until a 
 drop of the mixture ceases to impart a blue 
 colour to a solution of ferric chloride, care- 
 fully avoiding excess of acid. It may be at 
 once used in solution, or evaporated, &c., as 
 before. 
 
 Prop, Sfc. Magnificent regular prismatic 
 or, sometimes, tubular crystals, of a rich ruhy- 
 red tint; permanent in the air ; combustihle; 
 decomposed by a high temperature ; soluble 
 in 4 parts of cold water ; insoluble in alcohol. 
 
I'OTASSIUM 
 
 1361 
 
 Olotira ft^rrir salU a pale brown, gives with 
 ferrous aalts a deep blue, and precipitates bia- 
 muth saUa pile yelluw ; cadmium and mer- 
 curic nalta, yellow ; zinc salts, deep yellow ; 
 mercurous, cupric, molybdenic, silver, und 
 uranic salts, reddish brown ; cobalt salts, 
 dnrk brown ; manganous salts, brown ; cupric 
 salts, greenish ; and nickelous salts, olive 
 brown. 
 
 Potassium, Ethylate. (CjHjKO.) Ldweg 
 and Weidmann obtained this compound by 
 heating together acetate of ethyl and potas- 
 sium. Dr B. W. Richardson, some few years 
 ago, recommended the employmentof the alka- 
 line ethylates as caustics, and they are now fre- 
 quently used as such in surgery. When first 
 applied to the body the etiiylates produce no 
 aclion, but as they absorb water from the 
 tissues they are decomposed, the potassium 
 or sodium is oxidised, yielding caustic potash 
 or soda in the fresh condition, while alcohol 
 is reformed from the recombination of hydro- 
 gen derived from the water. Dr Kichardson 
 believes the ethylates of potassium and so- 
 dium will be found the most effective and 
 manageable of ail caustics, and that in cases 
 of cancer, when it is important to destroy 
 structure without resorting to the knil'e, and 
 in the removal of noevus and other simple 
 growths, they will be of essential service. 
 The ethylates dissolve in alcohol of dilferent 
 strengths ; tlie solution may either be applied 
 with a glass brush or injected by the needle, 
 and a slow or quick effect can be insured 
 according to the wish of the operator. The 
 ethylate of potiissium is the more powerful 
 agent. 
 
 Potassium, Perrocyanide of. K^, FeCy,, or 
 K,, PeCjNii. Sy». Pkbbooyaktjret op po- 
 
 TAS9IUM, PltUSSIATE OP POTASH, YeLLOW P. 
 
 OF P.; Potass^ peubsia plata (B. P.), Po- 
 
 TA38II PEKttOOYANIunM (Ph. L., E., & U.), L. 
 This valuable salt, the well-known ' prussiate 
 of potash ' of commerce, was discovered by 
 the illustrious Scheele about the middle of the 
 18th century. It is now only manufactured 
 on the large scale. 
 
 Prep. Good ' potash ' or ■ pearlash,' 2 parts, 
 and dried blood, horns, hoofs, woollen rags, or 
 other refuse animal matter, 5 or 6 parts, are 
 reduced to coarse powder, and mixed with 
 some coarse iron borings ; the mixture is then 
 injected into egg-shaped cast-iron pots in a 
 state of moderate ignition ; the mass is fre- 
 quently stirred with an iron spatula, so as to 
 prevent it running together, and the calcina- 
 tion is continued until fetid vapours cease to 
 be evolved, and flame is no longer seen on 
 stirring the mixture, care being taken to ex- 
 clude the air from the vessels as much as 
 possible ; during the latter part of the process 
 the pots are kept constantly covered, and the 
 ignited moss stirred less frequently ; the hot 
 pasty moss is then removed with an iron ladle, 
 and excluded from the air until cold ; it is 
 aeit exhausted by edulcoratiou with boiling 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 water, and the resulting solution, after defe- 
 cation or filtratii)n, is concentrated by evapo- 
 ration, BO that crystals may form as the liquid 
 cools ; these are redissolved in hot water, and 
 the Holntion allowed to cool very slowly, when 
 large and beautiful yellow crystals of ferrocya- 
 nide of potassium are deposited. — Product. 1 
 ton of dried blood or woollen refu-u, with 3 
 cwt. of pearlash, yields from 2 to 2 J cwt. of 
 commercial ferrocyanide. The mother-liquor 
 contains sulphate of potassium. 
 
 Prop. It forms large and very bountiful 
 yellow crystals, which are permanent iu the 
 air, and very tough and difficult to powder; it 
 is soluble in 4 parts of cold and 2 parts of boil- 
 ing water ; has a mild saline taste; at a gentle 
 heat loses water ; at a higher temperature, 
 in closed vessels, it is for the most part con- 
 verted into cyaniile of potassium, and, when 
 exposed to the air, into cyanate of potusi.ium. 
 Precipitates solutions of antimonous, bismuth, 
 mercurous, and zinc salts, white; cadmium 
 salts, of a pale yellow; cuprous salts, white, 
 turning red ; ferrous salts, white, turning 
 blue; leadsalts, white ;manganous salts, white, 
 turned red; mercuric salts, white, turning 
 bluish ; nickelous salts, white, turning green ; 
 silver salts, white ; stannous salts, white ; co- 
 balt salts, green ; cupric salts, chocolate red ; 
 ferric salts, dark blue; palladous salts, green ; 
 stannic salts, yellow ; uranic salts, reddish 
 brown ; and zinc salts, white. 
 
 Cf»ea, S;c. Ferrocyanide of potassium is 
 chiefly used in dyeing and calico printing, in 
 the manufacture of Prussian blue, in electro- 
 plating, and, in chemistry, as a test, and a 
 source of hydrocyanic acid. As a medicine 
 it is said to be sedative and astringent, and in 
 large doses purgative, but appears to pos- 
 sess little action. — Dose, 10 gr. to \ dr., 
 dissolved in water ; in hooping-couith, chro- 
 nic bronchitis, night-sweata, lencorrhcea, &c. 
 D'Arcet swallowed a solution containing \ oz. 
 of this salt without experiencing any injurious 
 effects. 
 
 Potassium, Hydrate of. KHO. Syn. Po- 
 
 TASSA HTDBATB, HYDRATE OP POTASSA, PO- 
 
 TAS8A, Caustic p., Hydrated oxide op po- 
 tassium; Potass A OAtrsTiCA (B. P.), Potass a 
 
 (Ph. E.), P. CAUSTIOA (Ph. D.), P. IIYDBAS 
 (Ph. L.), P. PU3A. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liquor 
 of potassa, 1 gall. ; evaporate the water in a 
 clean iron vessel over the fire until the ebulli- 
 tion being finished, the residuum nf potassium 
 hydrate liquefies; pour this into proper 
 moulds. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. & D.) As the last, but pouring 
 the fused hydrate upon a bright and clean iron 
 plate (silver or iron dish — Ph. D.) ; as soon as 
 it solidifies, break it quickly (into fragments), 
 and put it into stoppered glass (green-glass — 
 Ph. D.) bottles. 
 
 3. (Pure.) The hydrate, obtained as above, 
 is dissolved in alcohol or rectified spirit, and, 
 after repose for a few days in a closely 
 stopped green-glass or silver vessel, the solu- 
 
 86 
 
1362 
 
 POTASSIUM 
 
 tion is decanted, and cautiously evaporated 
 in a deep silver basin, out of contact with 
 the air. 
 
 4. (Pure.) M. Polacci states that he procures 
 very pure hydrate of potash in a few minutes 
 by the following process. He heats together 
 ill an iron vessel to a red heat a mixture con- 
 sisting of 1 part of nitrate of potash well 
 triturated with 2 or 3 parts of iron filings. 
 The mass becomes red in a few minutes, and, 
 alter cooling, it is treated with water, left to 
 settle, and then decanted. A more or less 
 concentrated solution may thus be obtained, 
 or it may be evaporated to produce the solid 
 potash. 
 
 Prop., S(c. When perfectly pure it is white, 
 solid, very soluble in water and in alcohol ; 
 very deliquescent; intensely acrid and corro- 
 sive; and exhibiting the usual signs of alka- 
 linity in the highest degree. That of the shops 
 has usually a greyish or bluish colour. 
 
 Potassium, I'cdate of. KIO3. Syn. Po- 
 TASS« lODAS. L. Prep. Neutralise a hot 
 solution of hydrate of potassium with iodine, 
 evaporate to dryness hy a gentle heat, powder 
 the residuum, and digest it in alcohol, to 
 remove iodide of potassium, dissolve the in- 
 soluble portion in hot water, and crystallise. 
 
 Obs. lodate of potassium is resolved at a 
 red heat into oxj'gen gas and iodide of potas- 
 sium. It has beeu recommended in bron- 
 chocele. — Dose, 1 to 5 gr. 
 
 Potassium, Iodide of. KI. Syn. Potassti 
 lODiDCM (B. P., Ph. L., E., and D.). 
 
 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of iron filings, 2 
 oz. ; distilled water, 2 quarts ; iodine, 6 oz. ; 
 mix them, and heat the solution until it turns 
 green, and then add of carbonate of potassium, 
 4 oz., dissolved in water, 1 quart ; filter, wash 
 the residuum on the filter with water, evapo- 
 rate the mixed filtered liquors and crystallise. 
 — Product, 1 oz. of iodine yields 1 oz. 45 gr. 
 of iodide. 
 
 The formulae of the Ph. D. and Pn. E. are 
 very similar. 
 
 2. Add iodine to a hot solution of pure 
 hydrate of potassium until the alkali is perfectly 
 neutralised, carefully avoiding excess ; eva- 
 porate the liquid to dryness, and expose the 
 dry mass to a gentle red heat in a platinum or 
 iron crucible ; afterwards dissolve out the salt, 
 gently evaporate, and crystallise. An excel- 
 lent process, yielding a large product, but, if 
 the ignition be not carefully managed, it is 
 apt to contain a little undecomposed ibdate. 
 To obviate this, Mr Scanlan proposes the 
 addition of a little powdered charcoal to the 
 mass before ignition — a plan adopted in the 
 Ph. U.S. 
 
 3. Iodine is treated with a small proportion 
 of phosphorus in water, and is thus converted 
 into 'hydriodic acid;' hydrate of calcium is 
 then added, and the ' iodide of calcinm' formed 
 is first fused, and then decomposed by sulphate 
 of potissium into ' sulphate of calcium,' which 
 ie precipitated, and 'iodide of potassium,' which 
 
 remains in solution, and may be crystallised, 
 as in the other processes. This is a modifica- 
 tion of a method devised by Liebig. 
 
 4. (Ph. B.) Put solution of potash, 1 gall., 
 into a glass or porcelain vessel, and add iodine 
 29 oz., or q. s., in small quantities at a time, 
 with constant agitation, until the solution ac- 
 quires a permanent brown tint. Evaporate 
 the whole to dryness in a porcelain dish, pul- 
 verise the residue, and mix this intimately with 
 wood charcoal in fine powder, 8 oz. Throw 
 the mixture, in small quantities at a time, into 
 a red-hot crucible, and when the whole has 
 been brought to a state of fusion, remove the 
 crucible from the fire and pour out its contents. 
 When the fused mass has cooled, dissolve it in 
 2 pints of boiling distilled water, filter through 
 paper, washing the filter with a little distilled 
 boiling water ; unite the liquids, and evaporate 
 till a film forms on the surface. Set aside to 
 cool and crystallise. Drain crystals and dry 
 quickly with a gentle heat ; more crystals may 
 be obtained by evaporating the mother liquor, 
 and cooling. The salt should be kept in a 
 stoppered bottle. 
 
 Prop. It crystallises in cubes, which iu 
 the pure salt are extremely white, though fre- 
 quently opaque ; these arc anhydrous ; fuse 
 when heated, without decomposition ; dissolve 
 in less than an equal weight of water, at 60° 
 Pahr., and very freely in alcohol; and do not 
 deliquesce in moderately dry air unless they 
 contain undecomposed hydrate of potassium. 
 Its solution dissolves the iodine freely, and also, 
 less readily, several of the insoluble metaUic 
 iodides and oxides. 
 
 Pur. It is entirely soluble in both water 
 and alcohol. Its aqueous solution alters the 
 colour of turmeric either not at all or but 
 very slightly, nor does it affect litmus paper, 
 or effervesce with acids. Nitric acid and 
 starch being added together, it becomes blue. 
 It is not coloured by the addition of tartaric 
 acid with starch. No precipitate occurs on 
 adding either a solution of hydrate of calcium 
 or of chloride of barium. 100 gr., dissolved in 
 water, by the addition of nitrate of silver, yield 
 a precipitate of 141 gr. of iodide of silver. 
 
 Assay. The iodide of commerce frequently 
 contains fully one half its weight of either 
 chloride or carbonate of potassium, or both of 
 them, with variable quantities of iodate of 
 potassium, a much less valuable salt. The 
 presence of these substances is readily de- 
 tected by the above tests. As the first of these 
 is only very slightly soluble in cold alcohol, 
 and the others insoluble in that liquid, a 
 ready method of determining the richness of 
 a sample in pure iodide, sufficiently accurate 
 for ordinary purposes, is as follows : — Reduce 
 50 gr. of tlie sample to fine powder, introduce 
 this into a test tube with 6 fl. dr. of alcohol, 
 agitate the mixture violently for one minute, 
 and tlirow the whole on a weighed filter set in 
 a covered funnel, observing to wash what 
 remains on the filter with another fl. dr. of 
 
POTASSIUM 
 
 1363 
 
 alcohol. The filtrate, evaporated to dryness, 
 gives the quantity of pure iodide, and the 
 filter, dried by the heat of boiling water, that 
 of the impurities present in the sample ex- 
 amined, provided it contained no hydrate of 
 potassium. The quantity of allcali, whether 
 iiyiirate or carbonate, may be found by the 
 c xumoQ method of ' alkalimetry.' 
 
 {/»«», ifo. Chiefly in photography, medicine, 
 and pharmacy. — Dose, 1 to 10 gr., twice or 
 thrice daily, made into pills, or, better, in solu- 
 tion, either alone or combined with iodine ; in 
 bronchocele, scrofula, chronic rheumatism, 
 dropsy, syphilis, glandular indurations, and 
 various other glandular diseases. Also exter- 
 nally, made into a lotion or ointment. 
 
 Potassium, Nitrate of. KNOj. Syn. Niteatb 
 
 OF POTASH, NiTEE, SaLTPETEE ; PoTASSm 
 KITEAS (B. P., Ph. L.,E.,&D.), NiTEUMt.SAL 
 
 NiTiiit, Sal PETEJj-f, Kali NiTSATUM-f, L. 
 This salt is produced naturally in the soil by 
 the action of the atmosphere, and crystallises 
 upon its surface, in various parts of the world, 
 especially in the East Indies. On tlie Conti- 
 nent it has Ion); beeu produced artificially, by 
 exposing a mixture of calcareous soil and 
 animal matter to the atmosphere, when 
 c.ilcium nitrate is slowly formed, and is ex- 
 tracted by lixiviation. The liquid is then 
 decomposed by the addition of wood ashes, or 
 carbonate of potassium, by which carbonate of 
 calcium is precipitated, and nitrate of potas- 
 sium remains in solution. The places where 
 these operations are performed are called 
 ' nitriiiries,' or 'nitriftres artilicielles.' The 
 British market is wholly supplied from India. 
 The salt of the first crystallisation, by either 
 process, is called ' crude nitre' or 'rough salt- 
 petre.' This is purified by solution in boiling 
 water, skimming, and, after a short time 
 allowed for defecation, straining (while still 
 hot) into wooden crystallisinij; vessels. The 
 crystals thus obtained are called 'single re- 
 fined nitre ;' and when the process is repeated 
 ' double refined nitre.' 
 
 1. (PoTAsaiE NITEAS PtTK0M —Ph. D.) Com- 
 mercial nitre, 4 lbs. ; boiling distilled water, 
 1 quart ; dissolve, withdraw the heat, and stir 
 the solution constantly as it cools ; the minute 
 crystal*, thus obtained, are to be drained, and 
 washed, in a glass or earthenware percolator, 
 witli coUl distilled water, until that which 
 trickles through ceases to give a precipitate 
 with a solution of nitrate of silver, the contents 
 of the percolator are then to be withdrawn, 
 and dried in an oven. 
 
 Prop. White, pellucid, six-sided prisms; per- 
 manent in the air; soluble in 7 parts of water 
 at 60° and in 1 part at 212° Fahr.; insoluble 
 in alcohnl ; its taste is cool, saline, and slightly 
 bitter and pungent; at about 560° it fuses to 
 an oily-looking mass, which cnncretes on 
 cooling, foi ining ' sal prunella ;' at a led heat 
 it gives out oxvfron, and, afterwards, nitrous 
 Innics; sp. gr. I'Oiij to 1975. 
 
 Pur. Coramorciiil riitre generally contains 
 
 chlorides, sulphates, or calcareous salts. The 
 first may be detected by its solution giving a 
 cloudy white precipitate with nitrate of silver. 
 The second by chlorides of barium or calcium 
 giving a white precipitate, and the third by 
 oxalate of ammonium giving a white pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Assay. Of the numerous methods prescribed 
 for this purpose, few are sufiiciently simple 
 for mere practical men. The proportion of 
 chlorides, sulphates, and calcareous salts may 
 be determined as above ; and the general 
 richness of the sample by the method of Gay- 
 Lussac, modified as follows : — 100 gr. of the 
 sample (fairly chosen) are triturated with 50 
 gr. of lampblack and 400 gr. of common salt, 
 and the mixture placed in an iron ladle, and 
 ignited or fused therein, due care being taken 
 to prevent loss; the residuum is exhausted 
 with hot water, and the solution thus obtained 
 tested by the usual methods of alkalimetry for 
 carbonate of potassium. The quantity of car- 
 bonate found, multiplied by 2°125 or 2^, gives 
 the per-centage richness of the sample in 
 nitrate. 
 
 Uses, Sic. Nitre is chiefly employed in the 
 manufacture of gunpowder, fireworks, and 
 nitric acid. It is also used in medicine as a 
 sedative, refrigerant, and diaphoretic, and as a 
 cooling diuretic. It has been recommended 
 in active heemorrhages (especially spitting of 
 blood), in various febrile affections, in scurvy, 
 and in herpetic eruptions ; and it has been 
 highly extolled by Dr Basham as a remedy 
 in acute rheumatism, — Dose, 5 to 15 gr., every 
 2 hours. A small piece, dissolved slowly in 
 the mouth, frequently stops a sore throat at 
 the commencement. In large doses it is poi- 
 sonous. The best treatment is » powerful 
 emetic, followed by opiates. 
 
 Potassium, Nitrite of. KNO,. S/in. Ni- 
 
 TEITE OF POTASSA ; POTASSJE NITBIS, L. Prep. 
 
 1. By heating nitre to redness, dissolving the 
 fused mass in a little water, and adding twice 
 the volume of the solution in alcohol ; after a 
 few hours the upper stratum of liquid is 
 decanted, and the lower one, separated from 
 the crystals, evaporated to dryness. 
 
 2. (Coreuwinder.) Nitric acid, 10 parts, 
 are poured on starch, 1 part, and the evolved 
 gas passed through a solution of hydrate of 
 potassium of the sp. gr. 1-380, to saturation ; 
 the liquid is then either neutralised with a 
 little hydrate of potassium (if necessary), and 
 kept in the liquid form, or at once evaporated. 
 Fused pinkish mass, or clear colourless soluble 
 crystals, used iu chemistry as a reagent, and 
 deoxydiser. 
 
 Potassium, Oxalate of. KnC204. Syn. Nett- 
 
 TRAIi OXALATE OF POTASSA; POTASSJE 0XALA8, 
 L, Prep. Neutralise a solution of oxalic acid, or 
 the acid oxalates, with carbonate of poiassium, 
 evaporate, and crystallise. Transparent colour- 
 less rhombic prisms, soluble in 3 parts of 
 water, and of the formula KjCO,, Aq. 
 Potassium, Hydrogen Oxalate of. KHCJO4. 
 
1364 
 
 POTASSIUM 
 
 Syn. PoTAasiUM: binoxaiate, Salt of 
 
 80KBBL, EsSEHTIAL SALT OF LEMONS; PoTASS^ 
 BIKOXALAS, L. Prep. By saturating a solution 
 of oxalic acid, 1 part, with carbonate of potas- 
 sium, adding to the mixture a similar solution 
 of 1 part of oxalic acid, unneutralised, and 
 evaporating for crystals. It may also be 
 obtained from the expressed juice of wood or 
 sheep's sorrel, by clarifying it with eggs or 
 milk, and evaporating, &c., as before. Colour- 
 less rhombic crystals of the formula KHC2O4, 
 Aq, soluble in 40 parts of cold and 6 parts of 
 bqiling water, yielding a very sour solution. 
 
 Fotassinm, Trihydrogen Oxalate of. KH3 
 (C2O4), or KHC2O4, H2C2O4. Syn. POTASSIUM 
 
 QUADEOXALATE, POTASSIUM ACID OXALATE. 
 
 Prep. By neutralising 1 part of oxalic acid 
 with carbonate of potassium, adding to the solu- 
 tion .■? parts more of oxalic acid, evaporating 
 and cr\stallisin^. Besembles the last; has 
 the formula 1^113(0304)2. 2Aq ; but is less 
 soluble, and more intensely sour, and forms 
 modified octahedral crystals. The salt is 
 occasionally sold under the names of ' sal 
 aeetosellsB,' ' salt of sorrel,' and ' essential salt 
 of lemons.' Both are used to remove ink and 
 iron stains from linen, to bleach the straw 
 used for making bonnets, and, occasionally, in 
 medicine, as a refrigerant. 
 
 Potassinm, Oxide of. K2O. Prep. Burn 
 pure potassium in a current of oxjgen. White 
 powder, rapidly absorbing water and forming 
 the hydrate. 
 
 Potaesium, PercUorate of. KCIO4. Syn. 
 I'OTASSA PEECHLOEAS, L. Prepared by pro- 
 jecting well -dried and finely powdered chloiate 
 of potassium in small portions at a time, into 
 i\ arm nitric acid. The salt is separated from 
 the 'nitrate' by crystallisation. 
 
 Potassium, Fras'siate of. See Potassium 
 
 FEEEIOYANIDE and FEEEOCTANIDE. 
 
 Potassium, Salicylite of. Formed by mix- 
 ing salicylous acid (artificial oil of niendow- 
 sweet) with a strong solution of hydrate of po- 
 tassium ;' it separates, on agitation, as a yellow 
 crystalline mass, which, after pressure in 
 bibulous ' paper, is recrystallised from alcohol. 
 Golden-yellow crystals, soluble in both water 
 and alcohol; damp air gradually converts 
 them into acetate of potassium and melanic 
 acid. 
 
 Potassium, Silicate of. (Ure.) Syn. Vo- 
 TASS^ SITICAS. Prep. Mix 1 part of pow- 
 dered quartz or flint, or of fine siliceous sand, 
 with 2 parts of carbonate of potash, and fuse 
 them in a Hessian crucible. Dissolve the 
 mass in water, filter the solution and evaporate 
 it to dryness. — Dose, 10 gr. to 15 gr., in 6 or 
 8 oz. of water, twice a day. To dissolve gout 
 concretions. An impure silicate of potash is 
 used as a water-glass. 
 
 Potassium, Sulphate of. K2SO4. Syn. Po- 
 TASS.E SULPHAS (B.P., Ph. L., E., &D.). Prep. 
 The sulphate of potassium of commerce is a 
 secondary product of several chemical and 
 manufacturing processes. Thus, the residuum 
 
 of the distillation of nitric acid from nitre is 
 dissolved in water, the solution neutralised 
 with carbonate of potassium, and, after defeca- 
 tion, evaporation until a pellicle forms; it is 
 then strained, or decanted, and set aside to 
 crystallise. Or, the residuum is simply Ignited, 
 to expel excess of acid, and then dissolved 
 and crystallised as before. 
 
 Prop., S(o. Anhydrous, heavy, quartz-like 
 crystals; permanent in the air; soluble in 12 
 parts of water at 60° and in 5 parts at 212° 
 Fahr. ; insoluble in alcohol ; extremely nau- 
 seous, and bitter-tasted. It crepitates on 
 the application of heat; fuses at a red heat, 
 but loses nothing in weight. 100 gr. dis- 
 solved in distilled water, on the addition of 
 chloride of barium and hydrochloric acid, fur- 
 nish 132 gr. of sulphate of barium, dried at a 
 red heat. 
 
 Potassinm, Bisnlphate of. KHSO4. Syn. 
 
 PoTASSIUM-HTDEOOBir SULPHATE, ACID PO- 
 TASSIUM SULPHATE ; Potass^ bisulpeas. 
 Prep. 1. (Anhydrous.) Neutral sulphate of 
 potassium and oil of vitriol, equal parts; hot 
 water, q. s. (not more) to dissolve ; anhydrous 
 bisulphate crystallises out, in long delicate 
 needles, as the solution cools. If these are 
 left for several days in the mother-liquor they 
 are redissolved, and crystals of the ordinary 
 hydrated bisulphate are deposited. 
 
 2. (Hydrated.)— a. (Ph. L. 1836.) Salt left 
 in distilling nitric acid, 2 lbs. ; boiling water, 
 3 quarts; dissolve; add of sulphuric acid 1 
 lb.; concentrate by evaporation, and set the 
 liquid aside, so that crystals may form. 
 
 b. (Ph.D.) Sulphate of potassium (in pow- 
 der), 3 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; mix them 
 in a porcelain capsule, and expose it to a heat 
 capable of liquefying its contents, until acid 
 vapours cease to be evolved ; powder the 
 residuum, and preserve it in a well-stopped 
 bottle. 
 
 Prop., c5"c. Sour and slightly bitter-tasted 
 rhombic prisms; soluble in about 2 parts of 
 cold and 1 part of boiling water, the solution 
 exhibiting a strongly acid reaction. It is 
 much employed, in lieu of tartaric acid, for the 
 production of carbonic acid, in ' gazogenes,' 
 &c. ; also to adulterate cream of tartar and 
 tartaric acid. According to Dr Paris, it 
 forms a "grateful adjunct to rhubarb." — 
 Dose, 12 gr. to \\ dr., in solution, combined 
 with rhubarb or bitters, as the neutral sul- 
 phate. 
 
 Potassium, Sulphide of. Syn. Sulphtteet 
 
 OF POTASSIUM, LiTEE OF SULPHUEf ; Po- 
 TASBII SULPHUEETCM (Ph. L., E., & U. S.), 
 
 Hepab sulphueis (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. E.) Sulpliur, 1 oz. ; carbonate of potas- 
 sium, 4 oz. ; mix, heat them in a covered 
 crucible till they form a uniform fused 
 mass; when cold, break it into fragments, 
 and preserve it in well-closed vessels. The 
 formulas of the Ph. L. 1836 and Ph. U. S. are 
 similar. 
 2. (Ph.D.) Sublimed sulphur, 4 oz. ; car- 
 
POTATO 
 
 1365 
 
 bonateofpoUasinm (from penrlash, first dried, 
 iind then reduced to powder), 7 oz. ; mix in u 
 warm mortir, heat thura in a Hessian crucible, 
 as before, pour the fused mass into an iron 
 cup, over which immediutely invert a second 
 vessel, to exclude the air, and, when cold, break 
 the muss into fragments, and preserve it in a 
 green-glass stoppered bottle. 
 
 Prop., S(c. A hard, brittle, liver or greenish- 
 brown coloured solid ; inodorous whilst dry ; 
 soluble in water, forming a highly-fetid solu- 
 tion ; and, in ucids, evolving strong fumes of 
 sulphuretted hydrogen; reaction, alkaline; 
 exposed to the air, it is gradually converted 
 into sulphate of potassa. As a medicine it is 
 reputed diaphoretic, expectorant, and stimu- 
 lant. — Doie, 2 to 6 gr., in solution, or made 
 into pills with soap; in gout, rheumatism, 
 liver affections, and various chronic skiu dis- 
 eases. Externally, made into a lotion and oint- 
 ment. It is highly acrid and corrosive, and in 
 Urge doses poisonous. 
 
 fotosBinm, Sulphocyauide of. KCNS, or 
 
 KCyS. Sl/n. StTLPHOOYANUEET OP POTAS 
 BIUM; POTASSII BULPHOOrANIDnM, P. SUL. 
 PHO-OTANDEETUM, h. Prep. 1. Fenocyanicie 
 of potassium (anhydrous, or dried by a gentle 
 heat), 46 parts ; sulphur, 82 parts ; pure carbo- 
 nate of potassium, 17 parts ; reduce them to 
 powder, and very gradually heat the mixture 
 to low redness in a covered iron crucible, which 
 it will less than one half fill ; remove the half- 
 relVigerated and scill soft mass, crush it, ex- 
 haust it with water, and evaporate the aque- 
 ous solution to dryness ; powder the residuum, 
 and exhaust it with hot alcohol or rectified 
 spirit; the alcoholic solutiun will yield beau- 
 tiful white crystals as it cools, and the resi- 
 duum or mother-liquor may be evaporated for 
 the remainder of the salt. 
 
 2. Cyanide of potassium, 3 parts; sulphur,! 
 part; water, 6 parts; digest ihera tofretlier 
 for some time, add 3 parts more of water, 
 filter, evaporate, and crystallise. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Ijong, slender, colourless prisms 
 or plates, which are anhydrous, bitter- tasted, 
 deliquescent, fusible, very soluble in both water 
 and alcohol, and non-poisouous. It is chielly 
 used as a test for ferric oxide, for which 
 purpose it is preferable to all other sub- 
 stances. 
 
 Potassium, Tartrate of. K-iCjA^Oe. Syn. 
 
 XEnTBALTABTBATKOP POTASSIUM, TaETEATB 
 OF POTASSA, NeUTEAL TABTAE, SoLUBLS T. ; 
 
 P0TAS6.E taetbab (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 Kali TAiiTABiZATUMf, L. Prep. (Ph. D.) 
 Carbonate of potassium, 8 oz. ; distilled water, 
 2 quarts; dissolve, and to the solution, whilst 
 boiling hot, gradually add of hitartrate of po- 
 tassium, in fine powder, 1 lb., or q. s., so that 
 the liquid, after ebullition for a couple of 
 minutis, i-eases to change the colour of either 
 blue or reddened litmus paper; next filter the 
 liquid through calii'o, evaporate it until a pel- 
 licle forms on the surface, and set it aside to 
 erystallise; after 12 hours collect the crystals, 
 
 dry them on bibnlnus paper, and preserve them 
 from the air. The formula of the Ph. L. 1836 
 is nearly similar. 
 
 Prop., S(c. The crystals of this salt, which 
 are obtained with difficulty, ore right rhombic 
 prisms, and are deliquescent. The salt of 
 commerce is usually in the form of a white 
 granular powder, which is obtained by simply 
 evaporating the solution to dryness, with con- 
 stant stirring. In this state it requires about 
 4 parts of cold water for its solution. Acids 
 convert it into the hitartrate. As a medicine 
 it acts as a gentle diuretie and aperient, and 
 is valued for correcting the gripiug properties 
 of senna and resinous purgatives. It is also 
 antiscorbutic. — Doie, \ dr. to \ oz., in pow- 
 der, or dissolved in water. The solution 
 changes the colour neither of litmus nor tur- 
 meric. The addition of almost any acid 
 throws down crystals of hitartrate of potas- 
 sium, which cenerally adhere to the vessel. 
 The precipitate occasioned by either chloride 
 of barium or acetate of lead is dissolved by 
 dilute nitric acid. 
 
 Potassium, Bitartrate of. KHC^HjOj. Syn. 
 Acid tabtratk op potassa, Supek-taetkatk 
 OF p., Ckeam op taetab; Ceemob taetabi, 
 Potass* bitaeteas(B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 Potass* supeb-taetbas, Taetabi ceystalm, 
 L. This well-known salt is deposited during 
 the fermentation of grape juice as a crust on 
 the sides of the casks or vats. In its unpre- 
 pared or crude state it is called white or red 
 tartar or argol, according to the wine from 
 which it has been obtaiued. It is purified by 
 boiling it in water, crystallisation, resolution 
 in water,and treatment with freshly burnt char- 
 coal and aluminous clay, to remove the colour; 
 the clear liquid is then decanted, whilst still hot, 
 and allowed to cool slowly; the resulting crys- 
 tals form the ' cream of tartar" of commerce. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Small, translucent, gritty, pris- 
 matic crystals, irregularly grouped together ; 
 permanent in the air; requiring fnlly 100 
 parts of cold water, and about 15 parts of 
 boiling water, for their perfect solution; the 
 solution has a harsh, sour taste, and, like that 
 of the tartrate, suffers spontaneous decomposi- 
 tion by keeping. Its solution reddens lituius. 
 At a red heat it is converted into carbonate 
 of potassium. Entirely soluble in 40 parts of 
 boiling water; 40 gr., in solution, are neu- 
 tralised by 30 gr. of crystallised carbonate of 
 soda. — Doxe. As an aperient, 1 to 3 dr. ; as 
 a diuretic, J dr. to 1 dr. ; as an antiscorbutic, 
 10 to 20 gr. frequently. It is much used to 
 make a pleasant cooling drink (' Imperial'), 
 and in tooth-powders. 
 
 POTA'TO. This well-known and valuable 
 article of food is the tuber of the Solanum tu- 
 berosum or esculentum, a plant which was in- 
 troduced to this country by either Sir Francis 
 Drake or Sir Walter Raleigh, towards the 
 latter part of the 16th century. It is now 
 extensively cultivated in all the temperate 
 climates of the world. It yields a vast quantity 
 
1366 
 
 POTATO 
 
 of food on a small space of ground, but only 
 about l-7th part of the weight of the tuber 
 is nutritious, and this is chiefly farinaceous. 
 Its farina or starch is, however, accompanied 
 by no inconsiderable portion of saline matter, 
 more especially of potassa, which renders it 
 highly antiscorbutic, and a powerful corrective 
 of the grcssncss of animal food. When form- 
 ing part of a mixed diet, perhaps no sub- 
 stance is more wholesome than the potato, 
 and, certainly, no other esculent hitherto dis- 
 covered appears equally adapted for universal 
 use. 
 
 Boussingault gives the following as the 
 average composition of the tubers of the 
 potato :— 
 
 Moist Dry. 
 
 Water . 
 
 75-9 . 
 
 ^ 
 
 Albunieij 
 
 2-3 . 
 
 . 96 
 
 Oily matter 
 
 0-2 . 
 
 . 0-8 
 
 Fibre . 
 
 0-4 . 
 
 . 1-7 
 
 Starch . 
 
 20-2 . 
 
 . 83-8 
 
 Salts . 
 
 10 . 
 
 . 4-1 
 
 1000 
 
 1000 
 
 Manuring experiments on potatoes in 1867- 
 1869 show that on light soils a mixture of 
 mineral superphosphate, crude potash salts, 
 and ammonium sulphate, produces very bene- 
 flcial results; on stiff soils nitrogenous manures 
 have little effect. Further proof is given that 
 manuring with common salt tends to decrease 
 the yield. 
 
 Analyses, conducted by A. Stocltardt, of 
 potatoes grown in eight different years, show 
 tbnt those manured with salt invariably con- 
 tain less starch than those nnmanured, the 
 decrease being from 10 to 20 per cent, of 
 starch ; the same effect is produced when the 
 salt is mixed with other manures. 
 
 Under the microscope the cells are seen 
 to be very sparingly fitted with starch grains. 
 
 Unmanured potatoes contained '43 per cent, 
 of sodium chloride in the dry substance, and 
 those which had received a small dressing of 
 common salt 1'34 per cent.' 
 
 No certain rule can be laid down for ' dress- 
 ing ' potatoes. " If boiled, it may be that they 
 require to be put into boiling water, or, may 
 be, into cold, and either boiled quickly or 
 slowly ; but this you must find out. Choose 
 them all about the same size, with a, smooth 
 skin, and when they are boiled and begin to 
 crack, throw off the water immediately, as it 
 only damages the rout. When dressed let 
 them stand near the fire, with a cloth over 
 them, and serve them in their skins. Salt may 
 be put into the water at the beginning. A 
 watery potato will require quick boiling, and, 
 sometimes, to be put into boiling water." 
 (Soyer.) 
 
 To retain the highest amount of n ourishment 
 in potatoes they should be ' dressed' with their 
 skins on them. The bruised or damaged parts, 
 worm-holes, &c., being removed with a knife, 
 the dirt should be carefully cleaned out of the 
 ' eyes,' and from the rough parts of the skins, 
 by means of a brush and water, after which 
 tbey should be well rinsed in clean water, and 
 drained in a colander. If they are at all dry 
 or shrivelled, they may be advantageously left 
 to soak for 3 or 4 hours in clean cold water 
 before cooking them. Potatoes 'dressed' in 
 the skins have been found to be nearly twice 
 as rich in potassa salts as those which have 
 been first peeled. The skins are easily removed 
 before sending them to table. 
 
 New potatoes should have their loose outer 
 skin rubbed off with a cloth or stiff brush 
 before being dressed or cooked. 
 
 Potato starch granules. 
 
 jMasheb potatoes are prepared by crushing, 
 with the back of a spoon, or with a rolling- 
 pin, the hot 'dressed' tubers, placed in a bowl 
 
 ^ '(J> 
 
 Potato stai-ch granules swollen by liquor potassv. 
 
 or dish, or on a pie-board. A little milk, 
 
 1 Voelcker ' Key. Afiric, Society's Journal,' quoted in 
 Journal of Chemical Society," vol. x.tv. 
 
I'OT POUREI— POTTERY 
 
 1367 
 
 battor, and salt may be added to them at will, 
 Bad tli(>v rany be either at once 'served up,' 
 or prpHsed into * lorins,' and first ' browned off* 
 in tlio ovi'ii, Potacoea, if not soft and mealy, 
 and well manticated, frequently escape the 
 Hiilvint action of the stomach, and pass olf 
 uudi^i^sted, often to the serious derangement 
 of tile bexlth. By mashing them this incon- 
 venience is removed. The delicate, the dy- i 
 peptic, and the aged should take them in no 
 other form, 
 
 Potatoes may be preserved so as to stand 
 the longest voyages unchanged, by thoroughly 
 desiccating them in an oven, or by steam heat. 
 For this purpose the roots, either raw or 
 three parts dressed, are generally first cut 
 into dice ol' above i inch square, to facilitate 
 the operation. Under a patent granted to 
 Mr Uownes Edwards, Aug., 1840, the billed 
 potatoes are mushed and granulated by fi<rc- 
 ing them through a perforated plate before 
 drying them. The granulated product, beaten 
 up with a little hot milk or hot water, forms 
 an excellent extemporaneous dish of mashed 
 potatoes. 
 
 The microscopic detection of potato starch 
 is easy. Instead of being round or oval, and 
 with a central hilinn, the starch grains are 
 pyrilorm, with an eccentric hilum placed at 
 the smaller end, and with well-marked con- 
 centric rings. A weak solution of liquor 
 ]iotas-!o (one drop of the Phaimacopoeia pre- 
 paration to ten of water) swells them out 
 greatly after a timej while wheat starch is 
 liitle aflected by potash of this strength; if 
 the strength is 1 to 3 (as in the Jigs.) the 
 swelling takes place very rapidly. 
 
 POT POUREI. [Pr.] A mixture of odorous 
 flowers, roots, gums, &c., varied according to 
 the taste of the operator, either mixed toge- 
 ther dry, or in the fresh state preserved with 
 salt. "The usual way of making it is to 
 collect roses, lavender, an I other sweet-scented 
 flowers, as they blow; to put them into a 
 large jar mixed (stratified) with salt, until a 
 sufficient quantity has been collected ; then to 
 add to these smh other odorous substances as 
 may be required to form an agreeable per- 
 fume." Among the substances thus added are 
 — ambergris, benzoin, calamus root, cascaiilla, 
 cassia, cas-ia buds, cinnamon, civet, cloves, 
 musk, musk seed, orange berries and flowers, 
 orris root, pimento, storax, vanilla, yellow 
 sandal wood, &c. 
 
 " Instead of the fresh flowers, dried roses 
 are sometimes used, and, with the addition of 
 some essential oils, these answer quite as well." 
 (Redwood.) 
 
 The following is a French formula : — Take 
 the petals of the pale aud red roses, pinks, 
 violets moss rose, orange flower, lily of the 
 valley, acacia flowers, clove gilliflowers, mig- 
 nonetti', heliotrope, jonquils, with a small pro- 
 portion of the Holers of myrtle, balm, rose- 
 mar y, Ind thyme; spread thera out for some 
 days, and us they become dry put them into a 
 
 jar, with alternate layers of dry salt mixed 
 with orris powder, till the vessel is filled. 
 Close it for a month and stir the whole up, 
 and moisten it with rose water. 
 
 POT'TED MEATS. See PCTBEFACTIOS and 
 Potting (below). 
 
 POT'TEBY. The mechanical operations con- 
 nected with the manufacture of pottery (CB- 
 BiMic AET) do not come within tlie province 
 of this work. The materials emph>yed, in 
 this country, to produce the be^t kind of 
 earthenware (Stapfokdshibe ware) are the 
 fine white clays of Devonshire and Cornwall, 
 and powdered chert or flint. This is brought 
 to a perfectly homogeneous plastic mass with 
 witer, and in this state is fashioned upon the 
 potter's wheel and lathe, or by moulding, into 
 all the varied nhjects of utility and ornament, 
 which are made in this material. After the 
 newly formed ve-<sels and other articles have 
 been dried by exposure in heated rooms, tluy 
 are enclosed in clay cases (seooars) and ex- 
 posed to heat in a kiln, by which they arrive 
 at a state (bisctjit) which renders them tit 
 for glazing; the patterns (if any) and, after- 
 wards, appropriate vitreous materials having 
 been applied to their surfaces, they are again 
 pl.ieed in the seggars, and are again exposed 
 in a kilu to a heat sufficiently high to fuse the 
 newly applied compound, by which they ac- 
 quire a uniform enamelled surface, and become 
 lit for the market. Poecklain, or China, as 
 it is commonly called, is manufactured in .i 
 nearly similar manner, but the materials are 
 selected and the vai-ious processes conducted 
 with corresponding skill and care. 
 
 The ornamental patterns are prridnced upon 
 both Staffordshire ware and porcelain by a 
 number of ingenious processes, among which 
 printing, painting, and moulding are the 
 principal. The colours employed are those 
 which have been already referred to under 
 Enamels. 
 
 The metallic lustres now so common on 
 stoneware, &c., are given as follows : — 
 
 1. Gold lustre. Dissolve grain-gold, 1 
 dr., iu aqua regia, J oz.; to the solution add 
 of metallic tin, 6 gr. ; and when this is dis- 
 solved, pour it very gradually, with constant 
 stirring, into a mixture of balsam of sulphur, 
 i dr. ; oil of turpentine, 20 gr. ; when the 
 mass begins to stiffen, 4 dr. more of oil of tur- 
 pentine must be added, and well mixed in. 
 More gold deepens and brightens the lustre j 
 more tin turns it on the violet or purple. 
 
 2. Ikon lijSTRE. From a mixture of * mu- 
 riate of iron' (ferric chloride) and spirit of 
 tar. 
 
 3. Platinum iustre. To a solution of 
 platinum in aqua regia (platinic chloride) is 
 added, drop by drop, a mixture of spirit of tar 
 and balsam of sulphur in equal proportions, 
 until by a trial the composition is found to 
 give the required result. This gives the .appear- 
 ance of poli.shed steel. 
 
 4. SliTER LUSTBB. The ammonio-chloride 
 
1368 
 
 POTTING— POULTICE 
 
 of platinum is reduced to an impalpable pow- 
 der, ground up to the requisite consistence 
 with a little spirit of tar, and at once applied 
 with a brush. 
 
 The above lustres are applied, over an easily 
 fusible glaze, to the outer surfaces only of the 
 vessels, after which adhesion is produced by 
 exposing the pieces to a slight degree of heat 
 in the muJBe. To give them their full beauty 
 they must be rubbed with cotton, wool, or 
 chamois leather, after the firing. See Alu- 
 mina, Clay, Enamels, Gilding, Glazes, 
 Kaolin, &e. 
 
 POT'TING. A term commonly applied to 
 the operation or practice of preserving animal 
 substances in a state fit for immediate use, in 
 small pots or jars. The method of proceeding 
 is, first, to mince the substance (previously 
 well dressed, and carefully deprived of bones, 
 sinews, skin, &c.), and, next, to pound it in a 
 clean polished marble or iron mortar, along 
 with a little butter and some cayenne pepper, 
 or other suitable spice or sauce, until it forms 
 a perfectly smooth paste j this is pressed into 
 the pots, so as to about 2-3rds fill them, and 
 clarified melted butter is then poured in to the 
 depth of about l-8th of an inch; the pots 
 are, lastly, closely covered over, and kept in 
 a cool situation. In this state their contents 
 may be preserved lor a year, or longer. Potted 
 heef, ham, veal, poultry, game, anchovies, 
 bloaters, salmon, &c., are commonly sold in 
 the shops. They are all intended for relishes, 
 and are spread upon bread in the same manner 
 as butter. 
 
 POUDEE KOTJSIftUE. [Fr.] A French nos- 
 trum, consisting of nitre and sulphur, of each 
 50 parts; charcoal and antimony, of each 1 
 part. It is divided into J-dr. doses, of which 
 three are put into each packet. It is given 
 to dogs in a ball of butter, to prevent tlie 
 disorders to which they are liable. 
 
 POUDRE METALLIQUE. [Fr.] See Tooth 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 POUDRE SUBTILE. [Fr.J See Depila- 
 
 TOE¥. 
 
 POUDRETTE. [Fr.] Dried night-soil. The 
 niuiinre sold under this name is a, compound 
 of night-soil with clay, charcoal, or gypsum, 
 made into balls or cakes. Its extensive use in 
 Belgium, France, the United States of America, 
 and, more particularly, in China, where it was 
 first employed, has shown it to be the most 
 fertilising and generally applicable of all the 
 numerous substances used as manure. Unfor- 
 tunately, the prejudices of Englishmen lead 
 them to poison the air of their cities and towns, 
 and the waters of their rivers, with a substance 
 which, if rightly applied, would crown their 
 fields with golden harvests, and drive pauper- 
 ism from the land. 
 
 Tardieu, speaking of the men engaged in 
 making piudrette, says: — "The action of the 
 exhalations from the manure manufacturers is 
 certainly not injurious. The workmen show 
 actually no trace of sickness or disease which 
 
 can be referred to the influence of these ex- 
 halations." 
 
 That 'poudrette' is, however, occasionally 
 liable to set up fermentation seems undeni- 
 able; and when this is the case, and large 
 quantities of poudrette are stored within a 
 small space, serious consequences may ensue. 
 
 Parent Duchatelet cites the case of a vessel 
 carrying poudrette to Guadaloupe, in which 
 half the crew died, and the remainder were in 
 a very low state of health on the arrival of the 
 vessel at Guadaloupe, owing, as he affirms, to 
 the exhalations given off by the poudrette. 
 
 POUL'TICE. Sj/n. Cataplasm ; Cata- 
 PLASMA, Ij. An external application, generally 
 extemporaneous, used to promote suppuration, 
 allay pain and inflammation, resolve tumours, 
 &c. 
 
 Poultices (cataplasmata) are generally pre- 
 pared with substances capable of absorbing 
 much water, and assuming a pulpy consistence, 
 so as to admit of their application to any sur- 
 face, however irregular. Their curative action 
 principally depends upon the liquids with which 
 they are moistened, and the heat retained by 
 the mass. With this object they should never 
 be heavy or very bulky, and should be fre- 
 quently repeated, and lightly, but securely, 
 bandaged on, to prevent displacement. 
 
 The addition of a little lard, olive oil, or, 
 still better, glycerin, to a poultice, tends greatly 
 to promote its emollient action, and to retard 
 its hardening. 
 
 As the continued medication of the part 
 with warmth and moisture, or with substances 
 applied in the moist way, is the principal object 
 to be attained in the application of poultices, 
 a fold or two of lint or soft linen dipped in hot 
 water, either simple or medicated, and covered 
 with a piece of thin sheet gutta percha or india- 
 rubber cloth, to prevent evaporation, may be 
 olten conveniently applied in their stead. A 
 very elegant and useful substitute of this kind 
 is sold under the name of 'spongio piline.* Its 
 cleanliness, lightness, and ease of application 
 has led to its extensive adoption by the medical 
 profession. 
 
 The following f ormulse embrace all the cata- 
 plasma of the Pharmacopoeias: — 
 
 Poultice of Al'nm. St/n. Cataplasma aw- 
 MlNis, L. Prep. (B. P., Ph. D. 1826.) Alum 
 (in powder), 1 dr. ; whites of 2 eggs ; shake 
 them together until they form a coagulum. 
 Applied, between the folds of fine linen, to 
 oh Iblains, sore nipples, inflamed eyes, &c. 
 
 Poultice, Anodyne. (P. Cod.) Syn. Cata- 
 plasma ANODTNUM. Frep. Poppy heads, 
 1 oz. ; dried leaves of henbane, 2 oz. ; water, 24 
 oz. Boil, strain, and add to the liquor 4 oz. of 
 emollient meals, to form a poultice. 
 
 Poultice, Antiseptic. (Fr. Hosp.) St/n. 
 Cataplasma antiseptioum. Frep. Barley 
 flour, 6 oz.; powdered Peruvian bark, 1 oz. ; 
 water, q. s. Boil and, when cool euou|h, add 
 camphor in powder, 1 dr. 
 
POULTICE 
 
 1369 
 
 Poultice, AitrinKent (Foy.) 8i/n. Cata- 
 PLASMA ASTurNOKtCB. Prep. Cutechn, 1 oz. ; 
 puwdereil oak bark and barley meal, of each 1 
 01. ; cold wxter, q. a. 
 
 Pooltice of Belladoima. (Dr Reece.) Syn. 
 Cataplasha belladonna. Prep. Extract 
 of belludonna, made in vacuo, 1 dr.; oatmeal, i 
 lb. ; boiling water, q. 8. 
 
 Foaltice, Bran. Sgn. Cataflasma pub- 
 FtlBM. Prep. Fine bran, with one tenth of 
 linseed meal, made into a poultice with boiling 
 water. Mr Payne recommends, as a cheap lios 
 pital poultice, 3^ peeks of pollard, 14 lbs. of 
 bruised meal, and i lb. of lard. 
 
 Pooltice of Bread. %n. Cataplasma fanis, 
 L. Prep. From crum of bread, sonked in hot 
 water, slightly pressed, and then beaten up 
 with a little lard, butter, or oil. Emollient. 
 See Poultice, Linseed meal (below). 
 
 Poultice of Car'rot. St/n. Caiaflasha 
 DAUOI, L. Prep. 1. From the common 
 esculent carrot, scraped fine, so as to form a 
 pulp. 
 
 2. (Ph. D. 1826.) From the cultivated car- 
 rot boiled with a little water until it becomes 
 soft enough to form a poultice. Anodyne and 
 antisepUc. Used in foul and painful ulcers, 
 burns, contusions, &c. That from the first 
 formula is the more stimulant. 
 
 Foaltice of Char'coal. Sgn. Cataflasma 
 OAHBONia (B. P., Ph. L.), C. 0. LIGNI, L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Soak bread, 2 oz., in boiling water, 
 i pint ; to this add, by degrees, of linseed 
 meal, 10 dr.; and, afterwards, of powdered 
 (recently burnt) charcoHl, 2 dr. ; lastly, 
 sprinkle on the surface of the poultice pow- 
 dered charcoal, 1 dr. As an application to 
 fetid and gangrenous sores ; frequently re- 
 newed. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Wood charcoal, i oz. ; bread, 2 
 oz. ; linseed meal, 1^ oz. ; boiling water, 10 oz ; 
 soak the bread in the water near the Hre, add 
 the linseed meal and half the charcoal, stirring 
 to a soft poultice, sprinkling the remainder of 
 the chare >al on the surface. 
 
 Poultice of Clila"ride of So'da. S,i/n. Cata- 
 
 PLA8MA SOD« CHLOBINATJE (B. P., Pll. L.), L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Boiling water, 6 11. oz.; lin- 
 seed meal, 41 nz. ; mix gradually, then add of 
 solution of chlorinated soda, 2 fl. oz. Applied 
 to foul ulcers, gangrenous parts, &c. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Solution of chlorinated soda, 1 ; 
 linseed raeal, 2; boiling water, i; add the 
 linseed meal gradually to the water, stirring 
 constantly, then mix the solution of chlori- 
 nated soda. 
 
 Pooltice, Compound Farina. Syn. Cata- 
 FLASMA FABIN* COMP03ITUM. Prep. Kye 
 Hour, 1 lb.; old yeast, 4 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; hot 
 water, q. d. 
 
 Foaltice, Commin. (L. Ph. 1788.) St/n. 
 Cataflasma CPIIINI. Prep. Cummin seeds, 
 1 lb.; bay berries, scordlum leaves, serpentaria 
 root, of each 3 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz, ; to be powdered 
 together and mixed with thrice their weight of 
 hunev. I 
 
 Pooltice, Discotient. Si/n. Cataflasm;! 
 DI80BTIEN8. Prep. Barley meal, 6 OZ. ; fresh 
 hemlock, 2 oz. ; vinegar, q.s. Boll and add sal 
 ammoniac, i oz. (Fr. Hosp.) The same, with 
 2 dr. of acetate of lead added. 
 
 Poultice, Effervescing. Syn. Cataflasma 
 bffeevescens. Prep. Fresh wort thickened 
 with oatmeal, and a spoonful of yeast added. 
 
 Foaltice, Emetic. Si/n. Cataflasma bmb- 
 TICUM. Prep. Bruised groundsel (Senicio 
 vu/garis) applied over the stomach produces 
 vomiting. 
 
 CataplasmaofFig. Syn. Cataflasma Koi. 
 Prep. A dried fig, roastel or boiled (some- 
 times in milk), is frequently applied to gum- 
 boil, &c. 
 
 Poultice, Foxglove. (Mr AUand.) Si/n. 
 Cataflasma digitalis. Prep. A stron;,' 
 decoction of foxglove, with bread-crum, or 
 linseed meal, q.s. 
 
 Poultice, Galbanom. Syn. Cataflasma 
 O-ALBANi. Prep. Lily roots, 4oz. ; fip-, 1 
 oz. ; boil till soft, and bruise them with li oz. 
 of onions and J oz. of galhnnum, triturated 
 with yolk of egg and a sufficient quantity of 
 linseed meal. 
 
 Foaltice, Galvanic. (Recamier.) Syn. Ca- 
 taflasma QALVANicnM. It consists of cotton 
 wadding containing a layer of very thin zinc 
 plates, and another layer of copper ones. This 
 pad, conveniently quilted, is enclosed in a bag, 
 one face of which is of quilted calico, the other 
 of impermeable tissue. The natural perspira- 
 tion, confined by the impermeable tissue, ex- 
 cites galvanic action between the metals. 
 
 Pooltice of Hem'lock. Syn. Cataflasma 
 CONII (B. P., Ph. L.), L. jPrep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Boiling water, J pint; linseed meal, 44 oz , or 
 q. s. ; make a poultice, and on this spread of 
 extract of hemlock (Ph. L.), 1 oz., first softened 
 with a little hot water. Anodyne. In irrit- 
 able and painful cancerous, scrofulous, and 
 syphilitic sores, tumours, &c. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Hemlock leaf, in powder, 1 oz. ; 
 linseed meal, 3 oz.; boiling water, lu oz. ; 
 mix the ingredients, then add them to the water 
 gradually, constantly stirrir a;. 
 
 Foaltice, Henbane. Syn. Cataflasma 
 HTOSOTAMI. The same as Poultice of 
 
 FOFFT. 
 
 Foaltice, Hop. (Dr Trotter.) Syn. Cata- 
 flasma HUMULI. Hops softened with hot 
 water. To foul ulcers. 
 
 Foaltice, Iodine. Syn. Cataflasma iodu- 
 betum. To a commou poultice add solutiou 
 or tincture of iodine. 
 
 Pooltice, Lead. Syn. Cataflasma plumbi. 
 Prep. Goidard water, 1 lb. ; bread crum, q. s. 
 
 Pooltice, Lily. Syn. Cataflasma lilii. 
 The pulp of the white lily boiled and bruised. 
 
 Poultice, Lime. Syn. Cataflasma calcis. 
 Prep, Slaked lime, 2 oz. ; oatmeal, 2 oz. ; 
 lard, 4 oz. Formerly used at Bath Hospital. 
 
 Foaltice of Linseed Meal. Syn. Cataflasma 
 LINI (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) To 
 boiling water, 4 pint, add, gradually, constantly 
 
1370 
 
 POULTICE 
 
 stirring, of linseed meal, 4i oz., or q. s. Emol- 
 lient. Used to promote the suppuration or 
 'ripening' of tumours. A little oil or lard 
 should be added, and some smeared over the 
 surface as well, to prevent its getting hard. 
 For small 'gatherings,' as of the fingers, a 
 little chewed b;"end and butter is an efficient 
 and convenient substitute. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Linseed meal, 4; olive oil, i; 
 boiling water, 10; mix the linseed meal with 
 the oil, add the water gradually, constantly 
 stirring. 
 
 Obs. Linseed meal prepared from the cake, 
 from which the oil has been expressed, is less 
 adapted for poultices than that prepared from 
 the unpressed, whole seed. The latter is or- 
 dered in the Ph. L. 
 
 Poultice, Malt. (Guy's Hosp.) S^n. Cata- 
 PLASMA BYNES. Prep. Ground malt, with 
 yeast, q. s., to form a poultice; to be applied 
 warm. 
 
 Poultice, ffiatnrative. (L. 1745.) Syn. Cata- 
 
 PLABMA MATUBAN3. Prep. Pulp of figs, 4 
 
 oz. ; resin ointment, 1 oz. ; strained galbanum, 
 2 oz. 
 
 Poultice of Mus'tard. Syn. Catapiasma 
 SINAPIS (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. L.) 
 Linseed meal and powdered mustard, of each 
 2^ oz., or q. s. ; boiling water, \ pint ; mix as 
 before. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, but substi- 
 tuting boiling vinegar for water. Used as a 
 powerl'ul counter-irritant, stimulant, and ru- 
 befacient; in low fevers, apoplexy, coma, &c., 
 where there is a determination of blood to 
 the head ; in deep-seated inflaramatory pains, 
 neuralgic pains, &c. It should not be left 
 on long enough to raise a blister. See 
 Plastees. 
 
 Poultice, Onion. Syn. Cataplasma CEPiE 
 Prep. Onions roasted and mashed. 
 
 Poultice of Pop'py. Syn. Cataplasma pa- 
 PATEEIS, L. Prep. 1. (P. Cod. 1839.) A strong 
 decoction of poppies, thickened with crum ol 
 bread. Anodyne. 
 
 Poultice, Potash, Acetate of. Syn. Cata- 
 plasma POTASS.B ACETATIS ; CATAPLASMA 
 KEtfTEALE. Prep. Acetate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 1 pint ; crum of bread, q. o. To ill- 
 conditioned sores. 
 
 Poultice of Po'tato. Syn. Cataplasma 
 SOLANI TUBEKOSi, L. Prep. Prom the raw 
 potato, scraped or grated fine. A popular 
 application to fresh bruises, extravasations, 
 burns, scalds, &c. 
 
 Poultice of Potato Starch. (P. Cod.) Syn. 
 Cataplasma feoul.^. Prep. Potato starch, 
 2 oz. ; mix with a little cold water, add to it 
 20 oz. of boiling water, and boil for an 
 instant. Cataplasms of rice and wheat starch 
 are made in the same manner. 
 
 Poultice, Pradier's. Syn. Peadiee's cata- 
 plasma; CATAPL4SME DE Peadiee, Fr. Prep. 
 Take o\ balsam of Mecca, 6 dr. ; rectified spirit, 
 16 oz. ; dissolve ; next, separately, take red cin- 
 chona bark, sarsaparilla, and sage, of each 1 
 
 oz. ; saffron, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 32 oz.; 
 digest for 48 hours, and filter; mix the two 
 liquors ; add to them twice their weight of 
 lime water. In gout; 2 fl. oz. are sprinkled 
 on the surface of a hot linseed-meal poultice 
 sufficiently large to surround the affected part. 
 It is said that the Emperor Napoleon gave 
 je2500 for this receipt. 
 
 Poultice of Pyroligneous Acid. (Dr Eeece.) 
 Syn. Cataplasma acidi pieoliososi. Prep. 
 Bran, 1 lb.; linseed meal, 1 oz.; impure pyro- 
 ligneous acid, q. s. For scrofulous ulcers; 
 occasionally 30 minims of tincture of perchlo- 
 ride of iron, and 3 dr. of extract or powder of 
 hemlock, are added. 
 
 Poultice of Eed 'Wine. (Gl. Hosp.) Syn. 
 Cataplasma tini eubei. Prep. Linseed 
 meal, IJ oz. ; boiling water, 5 oz. ; stir it over 
 a slow fire tor a minute, remove, and add 2 oz 
 of red wine. 
 
 Poultice, Eoasted Apple. Syn. Cataplas- 
 ma MALI. The soft pulp of roasted apple, 
 applied to infiamed eyes. Other ingredients 
 are sometimes added. 
 
 Poultice, Rose. Syn. Cataplasma 'BOsm. 
 Prep. Powdered alum, 30 gr. ; confection of 
 roses, 4 oz. ; mix. 
 
 Poultice of Sea-wrack. (Dr Russell.) Syn. 
 Cataplasma pcci. Prep. Fresh bladder 
 fucus (sea-wrack) bruised. Applied to glan- 
 dular tumours, ike. 
 
 Poultice, Sim'ple. Syn. Cataplasma sim- 
 plex, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Powder for 
 a cataplasma and boiling water, of each q. s. to 
 form a poultice, the surface of which is to be 
 smeared over with olive oil. Emollient. Bread 
 poultice and linseed-meal poultice are now 
 generally called by this name. See Powdee 
 (Poultice). 
 
 Poultice of Slippery Elm. Cataplasma 
 ULMi. The powdered bark of the slippery elm 
 ( Ulmusfulva) mixed with a sufficient quantity 
 of hot water. 
 
 Poultice of Soap. Syn. Cataplasma ba- 
 PONIS, L. Prep. From white soap (scraped 
 or sliced), 1 oz. ; boiling water, i pint ; dissolve, 
 and add crum of bread, q. ». As an application 
 to scalds and burns. 
 
 Poultice, Sorrel. Syn. Cataplasma ox- 
 alis. Prep. Bruised sorrel leaves, mixed 
 with oatmeal and beer. 
 
 Poultice, Stimulating. (Dr Hugh Smith.) 
 Syn. Cataplasma stimulans. Prep. Bye 
 flour, 1 lb. ; old yeast, 4 oz. ; common salt, 
 2 oz. 
 
 Poultice, Sulphate of Lime. (Blizard.) Syn. 
 Cataplasma calois sqlphatis. Prep. Paris 
 plaster mixed with water to a soft paste, and 
 applied before it hardens. Formerly applied 
 to ulcers to form an artificial scab ; now occa- 
 sionally used to atford mechanical support in 
 some surgical cases. 
 
 Ponltice of Sulphate of Soda. (Kirkland.) 
 Syn. Cataplasma sod.b sulphatis. Prep. 
 Sulphate of soda, 1 oz.; boiling water, ^ lb.; 
 crum of bread, a sufficient quantity. 
 
POULTRY— POWDER 
 
 1371 
 
 Ponltice to canse Snppnration. (E. Ph. 
 1774.) Syn. Cataplasma snpprBANS. To an 
 emollient cataplaim add bruised onions, 1) oz.; 
 bBKilicon oiiitiiient, 1 oz. 
 
 Poultice of Taanate of Lead. (0. Ph.) 8t/n. 
 Cataplasua ad decumbituu ; Pluubdm 
 TiNNIcnM PDLTIFOHMB. Prep. Boil 2 OZ. of 
 oak bark in auflicient water to yield 10 oz. of 
 strained decoction ; add to this 1 oz. (by weight) 
 of liquid Subacetate of lead, collect the pre- 
 cipitate on a filter, and put it into a bottle with 
 2 dr. of TectiSed spirit. 
 
 Ponltice, Tonic. (G. Hosp.) Si/n. Cata- 
 PtASMATONlcuM. Prep. Powdered bark, 1 OZ. ; 
 cburcoul, 1 oz. ; camphor, li dr.; oil of tur- 
 pentine, q. 8. 
 
 Poultice, Turnip. Syn. Cataplasma bapi. 
 Prep. I'cul turnips, boil them till soft, beat 
 them to a pulp, and apply warm. 
 
 Ponltice, Turpentine. (Dr Reece.) Si/n. 
 CATAPLABMA TBHEBINTHINiE. Prep. Oil of 
 turpentine, 2 dr. ; olive oil, 1 oz. ; linseed meal, 
 1 oz. ; Oiitmeal, 4 oz. ; boiling water, q. a. To 
 indolent ulcers, and, with more turpentine, to 
 deep burns, scalds, and chilblains. 
 
 Poultice of Via'egar. Syn. Cataplasma 
 ACBTi, L. Prep. From crum of bread soaked 
 in vinegar. Applied cold in bruises, extrava- 
 sations, &c., especially black eyes. Verjuice is 
 often employed in the same way. 
 
 Poultice of Walnut Leaves. (Perfect.) Syn. 
 Cataplasma juolandis. Prep. Tlie fresh 
 IciiVLs of wiilnut bruised and mixed with 
 honey- Applied over the abdomen as a ver- 
 mifuge, 
 
 Ponltice of Yeast. Si/n. Cataplasma peb- 
 
 MhNTI (B. P., Ph. L.), C. F. CEBEVISIJE, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Beer yeast and water at 
 100° Fahr., of each 5 fl. oz. ; mix, stir in flour, 
 lib., and place it near the fire until it rises. In 
 gangi cnovis or foul ulcers ; to correct the 
 fetor of the discharge, and to hasten the 
 sloughing, 
 
 2, (B, P.) Beeryenst, 6j flour, 14; water 
 (at 100° Fahr.), 6 ; mix. Place the mass near 
 the fire till it rises. 
 
 POUL'TRY. Domestic birds, which are pro- 
 pagated and fed for the table, and for their 
 eggs, feathers, &c. 
 
 The poultry of this country are the common 
 domestic fowl, the turkey, the duck, and the 
 g"0<e; to which some writers add the guinea- 
 fowl and the peacock. Of these, the first is 
 tlie most generally useful. Though a native 
 of India, it accompanies man through almost 
 every gradation of civilisation and climate, and 
 flourishes almost everywhere, when properly 
 secured from the inclemency of the weather, 
 and allowed an ample supply of fresh air, with 
 proper food. For the production ol abundance 
 of eggs it must, however, be well fed and 
 warmly lodged. The hen-roosts and poultry- 
 houses should be well protected from the 
 weather, and their temperature should be duly 
 niiiintalned by proximity to the stables, cow- 
 houses, or dwelling-house, and, in cold weather. 
 
 by the employment, when necesssry, of artifi- 
 cial heat. The food should also contain an 
 ample supply of nitrogenous matter, for with- 
 out this how can it be expected that hens can 
 produce abundanceof eggs, which are peculiarly 
 rich in nitrogen ? The ' greaves' of the tallow- 
 chandlers, and such-like substances, are hence 
 excellent additions to the ordinary food of 
 poultry. But it is not sufficient merely to 
 supply ponltry with abundance of food and 
 warmth ; it is equally necessary that they 
 should have ample space for exercise and re- 
 creation. This space " should always contain 
 living plants of various kinds, and some 
 gravelly or sandy soil ; because worms, snails, 
 as well as, occasionally, grass and herbii'.-e.lonii 
 a part of the food of poultry ; and sand or 
 gravel is swallowed by them for the purpose 
 of promoting digestion. Hence, no healthy 
 poultry can over be reared in towns, however 
 much the natural food may be imitated by the 
 supply of animal matters, herbage, and sand." 
 (Loudon.) 
 
 POUNCE. Powdered gum sandarac generally 
 passes under this name. It is used to prepare 
 parchment for writing on, and to prevent ink 
 from spreading upon paper after erasures. 
 Powdered cuttle-flsh bone is occasionally em- 
 ployed in the same way. Both are applied to 
 the surface by means of a ovllndrical roll of 
 list called a ' rubber.' Packers rub the sur- 
 face of porous and greasy woods, as the heads 
 of boxes, cases, casks, &c., with wliiting or 
 powdered resin, to make them boar the ink. 
 The coloured powders u->ed by pattern drawers, 
 for sprinkling over pricked papers, are also 
 called ' pounce.' For liquid pounce,see Mabe- 
 
 ING INK. 
 
 POWDER. Syn. Pulvis, L. Powders are 
 divided by pharmaceutical writers into two 
 classes — simple and compound. The first are 
 prepared by simple pulverisation ; the second 
 by the admixture of two or more simple pow- 
 ders. For use the appropriate doses are sepa- 
 rately weighed, and placed in separate pa]>ers. 
 They are usually exhibited in a little honey, 
 sugar, or milk, either taken frim a spoon or 
 made iiito an electuiiry or bolus, and swallowed 
 in the semi-solid form. Metallic and other 
 heavy powders are best taken in the latter 
 st'ite. Very active substances shou'd be, in 
 all cases, mixed with some inert powder, as that 
 of starch, gum, liquorice, or marshmallow, at 
 the time of 'dispensing' them. 
 
 " This form of preparing medicines is tlie 
 simplest, and perhaps the least objectionable ; 
 but it is not applicable to all the articles of the 
 Materia Medica. Those remedies which are 
 very unpleasant to the tnste; those which 
 deliquesce rapidly when exposed to tlie air, or 
 are very volatile; and those which require to 
 be given in very large doses, or \vhiv h nvo not 
 diffused readily in water, cannot, with pro- 
 priety, be administered in the form of powder. 
 Some substances cannot be reduced to powder 
 unless they be very much dried, and tiic heat 
 
1372 
 
 POWDER 
 
 necessary for that purpose alters their proper- 
 ties." Nor can we " be surprised that a great 
 alteration siiould be effected in a short time 
 by the action of the air on so great an exten- 
 sion of surface as takes place in the operation 
 usually adopted fur reducing drugs to a tine 
 powder." (A. T. Thomson.) 
 
 In this country compound powders appear 
 to be a favourite form of medicine in the dis- 
 eases of infancy and childhood. 
 
 " It is necessary that whatever we order to 
 be reduced to powder should be rubbed tlirough 
 a fine sieve, so that the impurities and coarser 
 parts may be separated ; and it is needful that 
 most powders should be recently prepared, and 
 not too long kept." (Ph. L.) ' 
 
 As nearly all powders suffer by exposure to 
 the air and light, they should be preserved in 
 closely-corked opaque or green-glass bottles, 
 or in tin canisters from which the external air 
 is carefully excluded. See Pulveeisation, 
 (!tc. 
 
 Powder, Algaroth'e. See Antimony, Oxy- 
 
 OHLOEIDE. 
 
 Powder of Al'oes (Compound). Syn. Pulvis 
 
 ALOES COMPOSITUa (Pll. L.), p. ALOES CUM 
 
 GUAiACO, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or 
 hepatic aloes (in powdei), 1\ oz. ; guaiacum 
 (in powder), 1 oz. ; compound cinnamon pow- 
 der, \ oz. ; rub them togetlier. A warm, sudo- 
 rific purgative. — Dose, 10 to 20 gr. 
 
 Powder of Aloes with Canel'la. Syn. 
 Aloetic powdeb. Holy BiTTEEf ; Hieea 
 piOBAf, Pulvis aloe3 cum oanhlla, L. 
 Prep. From powdered Socotrine or hepatic 
 aloes, 4 pnrts; powdered white canella, 1 part. 
 Uses and dose, as the last. 
 
 Ohs. Once a highly popular remedy. It 
 was originally made into an electuary with 
 honey, and in this form was frequently called 
 ' HIERA LOGADIl.' It is still a favourite in 
 domestic medicine and veterinary practice. 
 The principal objection to both this and the 
 preceding preparation is the nauseous flavour 
 of the aloes, which is ill concealed by the 
 aromatics. The * HIERA PICRA* for Carriers 
 is usually made with the cheapest Cape 
 aloes. 
 
 Powder of Aloes with Iron. (L. Ph. 1788.) 
 Syn. Pulvis aloetious cum perbo. Prep. 
 Aloes, li oz. ; myrrh, 2 oz. ; sulphate of iron, 
 1 oz. ; dr'cd extract of gentian, 1 oz. 
 
 Powder of Al'um (Compound). Syn. Styp- 
 tic powder; Pulvis siyptiods, P.aluminis 
 coMposiTus (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) 
 Alum, 4 ciz. ; kino, 1 oz. ; mix them, and re- 
 duce them to fine powder. Astringent and 
 styptic. — Dose, 5 to 15 gr. ; in diarrhoea, 
 profuse menstruation, &c. Externally, in 
 hffimorrhages, &c. 
 
 Powder, Alum, Opiated. (Bouohardat.) Syn. 
 Pulvis ald minis opiatus. Prep. Alum, 1 
 dr. ; sugar, 1 dr. ; opium, 4 gr. ; mix lor 12 
 powders. 2 or 3 daily in obstinate diarrhoeas 
 and passive ha3morrhage8. 
 
 Powder of Alum with Capsicum. (Dr Turn- 
 
 bull.) Syn. PULTIS aluminis ocm capsico. 
 Prep. Alum, 3 parts ; concentrated tincture 
 of capsicum, 1 part ; mix, dry, and triturate 
 again. Applied to the tonsils. 
 
 Powder of Alum with Gnm. (Frankel.) 
 Prep. Alum, gum tragacanth, of each equal 
 parts. Applied to sore breasts. 
 
 Powder of Alum with Starch. (St. Th. Hosp.) 
 Syn. Pulvis aluminis cum amylo. Prep. 
 Alum and starch, equal parts. In insu£3ation 
 of rhinorrhcea. 
 
 Powder of Ambergris with Knsk. (Bat. 
 Ph.) Syn. Pulvis AMBEROEisEa; MosCHATUs. 
 Prep. Ambergris, 6 dr. ; musk, 1 dr. ; oil of 
 cinnamon, 2 scruples ; refined sugar, llj oz. ; 
 mix. 
 
 Powder, Ammonlated Aromatic. Syn. Pul- 
 vis AMMONIAXUS AROMATICUS ; LeaYSON'S 
 •AMMONIACAL COLLTEIUM. Prep. Muriate 
 of ammonia, 1 dr.; slaked lime, 1 oz.; char- 
 coal, 15 gr. ; cinnamon, 15 gr. ; cloves, 15 gr. ; 
 bole, i dr. Put them into a buttle and moisten 
 with a little water. 
 
 Powder of Ancho'vy. Syn. Pulvis clupej; 
 ENCBASICOLI, L. Prep. Pound anchovies to 
 a paste, then rub them through a sieve, and 
 add enough flour to make a dough, which 
 must be rolled out into thin slices and dried 
 by a gentle heat in a stove ; it is, lastly, pow- 
 dered and bottled. Colouring is frequently 
 added. Chiefly used to make sauces. British 
 anchovies are frequently substituted for the 
 genuine fish. 
 
 Powder, Authrakokali, Compound. Syn. 
 Pulvis anthrakokali, compound. Prep. 
 Authrakokali, 2 gr. ; washed sulphur, 6 gr. ; 
 mix. For 1 dose. 
 
 Powder, Authrakokali, Simple. (Poy)a.) 
 Syn. Pulvis antheakokali simplex. Prep. 
 Authrakokali, 2 gr. j liquorice powder, 6 gr. ; 
 mix. For 1 dose. 
 
 Powder, Antiepileptic, Syn. Pulvis anti- 
 epilepticus (E. Ph., 1744.) Prep. White 
 dittany, pseony, valerian, mistletoe of the oak, 
 equal parts. — Dose, 10 to 6 gr. (Behrends.) 
 Prep. Valerian, 4 dr.; magnesia, muriate of 
 ammonia, oil of cajeput, of each 1 scruple. — 
 Dose. A tea spoonful three times a day. Dr Paris 
 says the following was used successfully by a 
 Dutch empiric : — Sulphur, 1 scruple ; sulphate 
 of potash, 10 gr. ; rhubarb, 5 gr. ; nutmeg, 
 2gr. ; mix. (Germ. Hosp.) Prep. Oxide of 
 zinc, 16 gr. ; carbonate of magnesia, 48 gr. ; 
 oleosaccharum of cajeput, 3 dr. Mix for 8 
 doses. Poudre de Ragolo. Oxicle of zinc, 
 10 gr. ; valerian, mistletoe, sugar, orange 
 leaves, of each 4 dr. ; magnesia, 2 scruples ; 
 oil of cajeput, 2 scruples ; a teaspoonful three 
 times a day. Pasquier prescribes — Wall crop, 
 10 gr. ; gum Arabic, 10 gr. ; 1 to 4 powders 
 daily for eight times. Sommer's specific 
 consists of — Wall crop, 6 to 10 gr. ; oleo-sac- 
 charnm of mint, 8 gr. ; one morning and 
 evening for six times. See Pulvis aetkmisijs 
 SACOHAEATUS. The Poudre de Guttete consists 
 of mistletoe, 2 parts; white dittany, 2; pasony 
 
POWDER 
 
 1373 
 
 root and seeda, S ; prepared coral, 1 ; elk's 
 boof, 2 ; seeda of oriiche, 3. Given in doBes of 
 a few grains in convulaions of infanta, or in 
 larf^er doses for epilepsy. 
 
 Powder, Antihydrophobic. (Dr Mead.) Si/n. 
 Pbitis ANTILT88U8. Prep. Aah-coloured 
 ground liver-wort (Pettidea canina), i oz. ; 
 black pepper, 2 dr. ; miic, and give a fourth 
 part every morning for 4 times. 
 
 Powder, Antlmo"nlBl. St/n. Peveb pow- 
 
 DEE, LiSLE's p., JAMBS'B P. ; PULVIS JACOBI, 
 PULVIS ANT1M0NIALI8 (B. P., Ph. E., & D.), 
 PULVIS ANTIMONII COMPOSITIJS (Ph. li.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) A mixture of teraulphide 
 of antimony, 1 lb., and hartahorn shavings, 2 
 lbs., is reduced to powder, thrown into a cru- 
 cible heated to whiteness, and stirred con- 
 stantly until vapour no longer rises ; the 
 cnlcincd mixture is then rubbed to powder, 
 ngain put into the crucible, and the beat gra- 
 dually increased to whiteness, and maintained 
 so for 2 hours; the residuum is, lastly, re- 
 duced to a very fine powder. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) From aulphide of antimony 
 nnd hartshorn shavings, equal weights ; as the 
 last. 
 
 8. (Ph. D.) Tiirtariscd antimony, 4 oz., is 
 I dissolved in water, ^ gall., and added to 
 solution of phosphate of soda, 4 oz., in water, 
 1 quart; a solution of chloride of calcium, 2 
 ni , in water, 1 quart, and to which solution 
 of ammonia (Ph. D.), 4 fl. oz,, has been added, 
 is next poured in, and the whole boiled for 20 
 minutes; the precipitate is then collected on 
 a calico filter, and washed with hot distilled 
 water, until the liquid which passes ceases to 
 give a precipitate with a weak solution of ni- 
 trate of silver ; it is, lastly, dried by a steam 
 or water heat, and reduced to a fine powder. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Oxide of antimony, 1 ; precipi- 
 tated phosphate of lime, 2 j mix. — Dose, 2 to 
 6gr. 
 
 Uses, ^0. Febrifuge and diaphoretic. In- 
 tended as a substitute for the proprietary and 
 more expensive James's powder. — Dose, 3 
 to 10 or 12 gr., or more, repeated every 
 fourth or filth hour until diaphoresis is set up ; 
 in fevers, rheumatic affections, chronic skin 
 diseases, &,c. It is a very uncertain and va- 
 riable compound, unless it has been carefully 
 prepared. Dr EUiotson exhibited it in doses of 
 100 gr. without producing any sensible effect. 
 A spurious article, made by triturating 1 oz. 
 of tartar emetic with 18 or 19 oz. of burnt 
 hartahorn, is frequently sold for it in the 
 shops. See Antimonious acid and James's 
 
 POWDEE. 
 
 Powder, Antispasmodic. (P. Cod.) Syn. 
 PnLTiB aniispasmodious. Prep. Cyanide 
 of zinc, 3 gr. ; calcined magnesia, 24 gr. ; 
 oiunaraon, 12 gr. ; mix. For 6 doses. 
 
 Powder, Antispasmodic. (Jourdan.) Si/n. 
 PcLVis AXTI3PA8MOUICCB. Prep. Valerian, 
 1 oz.; oxide of zinc, 1 scruple; musk, 8 gr. ; 
 mix. 
 
 Powder, Aromat'ic. See Powdkb, Com- 
 
 POUSD CINNAMON. 
 
 Powder, Arsenical. See Powdeb, Escha- 
 
 BOTIC. 
 
 Powder of Asarabas'ca (Componnd). Set; 
 Snppp (Cephalic). 
 
 Powder, Astrin'gent. Syn. PrLVisASTEiw- 
 OBNS, P. 8TTPTICU8, L. Prep. 1. From Aleppo 
 galls and burnt alum, in fine powder, equal 
 parts. Used in piles, soft polypi of the nose, 
 chilblains, &c. 
 
 Powder, fia"kiDg. Prep. 1. Tartaric acid, 
 ^ lb. ; bicarbonate of soda and potato farina 
 or British arrow-root, of each f lb. (each in 
 powder); separately dry thtm perfectly liy a 
 very gentle heat, then mix them in a dry room, 
 pass the mixture through a sieve, nnd at once 
 put it into packets, observing to press it bard, 
 and to cover it with tinfoil or close-made 
 paper, to preserve it as much as possible from 
 the air and moisture. 
 
 2. (Delforte's.) Powdered tartaric acid, J 
 lb. ; powdered alum, \ lb. ; bicarbonate of 
 soda, J lb.; farina, 1 lb.; dry separately, na 
 before, mix, and further add of sesquicarbonate 
 of ammonia (in powder), 3 oz.; lastly, closely 
 pack it in tinfoil. 
 
 3. (Green's.) Tartaric acid, 35 lbs. ; ses- 
 quicarbonate of soda, 56 lbs. ; potato flour, 1 
 cwt. ; mix as before. 
 
 Uses, cf'o. Baking powder is chiefly employed 
 as a substitute for yeast. 1 or 2 tcaspoonfuls 
 are mixed with the dry flour and other ingre- 
 dients, which are then made into a dough, as 
 quickly as possible, with cold water, and at 
 once baked or boiled as the case may be. By 
 the addition of about \ dr. of turmeric pow- 
 der to each pound of the mixture it is con- 
 verted into egg powder. When intended to 
 be kept for any length of time it should be 
 preserved in bottles or tins, so as to prevent 
 the ' absorption of moisture. We have dis- 
 covered traces of arsenic in some of the baking 
 powders of the shops, which we refer to com- 
 mon washerwoman's soda being used in their 
 composition, instead of the pure carbonate or 
 sesquicarbonate. 
 
 Powder, Basil'ic. Syn. Royal powbeb, 
 
 COENiCHINl'S p. ; Pl'LVIS BASIMCCS, P. CoE- 
 
 NACHINI, L. Prep. From scammony, calo- 
 mel, cream of tartar, and diaphoretic antimony, 
 equal parts. This is the formula generally 
 adopted for this compound, which has now 
 long been omitted from the Pharmacopoeias. 
 It is still a favourite with many practitioners, 
 as an alterative purgative, and vermifuge 
 for children. — Dose. For a child, 2 to 8 
 gr. ; for an adult, 5 to 20 gr. Compound 
 powder of scammony is now generally sold for 
 it. 
 
 Powder, Belladonna, Saccharated. (Wertz- 
 ler.) Syn. Puivis belladonnje sacchabatus. 
 Prep. Belladonna root, 15 gr.; pure sugar, 
 Idr. ; mix. For 72 powders. One twice a day, 
 or oftener, according to the age. In hooping- 
 cough. 
 
X374 
 
 POWDER 
 
 Powder, Blaine's Distem'per. The basis of 
 this preparation is tlie ' aurum musivum,' or 
 bisulphuret of tin. (Dr Paris.) 
 
 Powder, Blancmauge'. Fr^, From sago 
 meal, 1 lb. ; essence of lemon, 15 drops ; mace, 
 12 gr. ; mix. 
 
 Powder, Bleach 'ing. Chlorldeor hypochlorite 
 of lime. 
 
 Powder, Blue. See Smalts. 
 
 Powder, Bronze. See Siannic sulphide, 
 Ubonzikg, &c. 
 
 Powder of Burnt Hartshorn. Syn. Pultis 
 coENir OEBVIKI USTI, L. Prep. From pieces 
 of hartshorn calcined to whiteness, and pow- 
 dered. It consists principally of phosphate of 
 lime. — Dose, 10 to 30 gr. ; in rickets, &c. 
 
 Powder of Burnt Hartshorn with O'pium. 
 Syn. PuLTis 0PIATU3, Pulvis corhu tisti 
 CUM OPIO, L. Prep. From powdered calcined 
 hartshorn, 1 oz. ; powdered opium and cochi- 
 neal, of each 1 dr. — Dose, 5 to 20 gr. 
 
 Powder of Camphor. Camphor may be 
 readily pulverised by triturating it with the 
 addition of a tew drops of rectiiied spirit or 
 ethfr. 
 
 Powder, Camphorated Nitre. (SwediHur.) 
 Syn. Pdlvis kitko camphoeatds. J?re<p. 
 Nitre, 10 gr. ; camphor, 4 gr. ; gum Arabic,- 
 24 gr. ; mix. For two or three doses. 
 
 Powder, Capuchin'. Prep. From powdered 
 cevadilld, parsley ^eed, stavesacre, and tobHcco, 
 equal parts. Used to destroy pediculi. 
 
 Powder, Castillon's. Prep. From sago meal, 
 salep, and gum ti'agacanth, of each 3 dr. ; 
 prepared oyster shells, 1 dr. ; cochineal, q. s. 
 to colour. Absorbent. — Dose, i to 1 dr., 
 boiled in milk ; in diarrhoea, &c. 
 
 Powder of Cat'echu(Compound). Syn. Pultis 
 CATECHU coMPOsiTus (b. P., Ph. D.), L. Frep. 
 1. (Ph. D.) Take catechu and kino, of each 
 2 oz. J cinnamon and nutmeg, of each \ oz. ; 
 reduce each to a fine^owder, mix, and keep 
 tlie prepared powder in a well-stopped bottle. 
 Aromatic and astringent. — Dose, i dr. to 2 
 dr. ; in various affections. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Pale catechu ; kino, 2 ; rha- 
 tany, 2; cinnamon, 1; nutmeg, 1; mix. — 
 Dose, 15 to 30 gr. 
 
 Powder of Chalk (Compound). Syn. Pulvis 
 
 CEET^ AEOMATICUS (B. 1'.), PULTIS OEETiE 
 
 coMposiTDs (Ph. L., E., & D.), p. caebonatis 
 CALCis COMP., L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Pre- 
 pared chalk, J lb.; cinnamon, 4 oz. ; torraen- 
 til and gum acacia, of each 3 oz. ; long pepper, 
 5 oz.; rub them, separately, to a very tine 
 powder, and mix them. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Prepared chalk, 4 oz. ; cinna- 
 mon, iu fine powder, 1^ dr. ; nutmeg, in fine 
 powder, 1 dr. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Prepared chalk, 5 oz. ; oinna- 
 mon, 2i oz. ; gum, 2 oz. ; nutmeg, 4 oz. 
 
 4. (Aeomatic Powdee OP Chalk — B. P.) 
 Chalk, 11; cinnamon, 4 ; nutmeg, 3 ; saffron, 
 3 ; cloves, IJ ; cardamom seed, 1 ; refined 
 sug ir, 25 ; all in powder ; mix, — Dose, 30 to 
 60 gr. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Aromatic, astringent, and ant- 
 acid. — Dose, 10 to 30 gr. ; iu acidity, flatu- 
 lence, heartburn, diarrhoea, &c. The following 
 form is used by many wholesale houses : — 
 Prepared chalk, 41bs. ; powdered cassia, 2 lbs. ; 
 powdered calamus aromaticus, 4 lb. ; powdered 
 gum, li lb. ; long pepper, i lb. 
 
 Powder of Chalk with Opium (Compound). 
 
 Syn. PULVIB OUETJB AEOMATICUS CUM OPIO 
 
 (B. P.); Opiated chalk powdee; Pulvis 
 
 CEETJE COMPOSITUS CUM OPIO (Ph. L.), PULVIS 
 CEETiE opiatus (Ph. E. & D.j, L. Frep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Compound chalk powder, 6^ oz. ; 
 powdered opium, 80 gr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Compound chalk powder, 6 oz. ; 
 powdered opium, 80 gr. 
 
 3. (Ph.D.) Compound chalk powder, 4 oz 
 7 dr.; opium, in fiue powder, 1 dr. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) Compound chalk powder, 
 21 oz. ; powdered opium, ^ oz. Anodyne, ant- 
 acid, and carminative. — Dose, 10 to iJO gr. ; 
 in the same cases as the preceding, than which 
 it is more active. It has long been a favourite 
 remedy in all cases of simple and even cho- 
 leraic diarrhoea. 
 
 5. Aromatic powder of chalk {see Powdee 
 op Chalk (Compound), 4), 39 ; opium, in 
 powder, 1 ; mix thoroughly, and pass through 
 a sieve. — Dose, 10 to 40 gr. 
 
 Powder, Chalk Hixture. Syn. Pultis peg 
 MISTUBA CEETiE, L. Frep. (Beasley.) Pow- 
 dered guui acacia, 5 oz. ; prepared chalk, 4 oz. ; 
 white sugar, 3 oz. ; oil of cinnamon, IJ fl dr. ; 
 mix. 40 gr. of this powder, triturated with 
 
 1 fl. oz. of water. 
 
 Powder, Chol'era (Saline). Syn. Pulvis 
 SALIKUS anticholeeicus, L. Frep. 1. (Dr 
 O Shaughnessy.) Carbonate of soda, 5 gr. ; 
 chloride of sodium, phosphate of soda, and 
 sulphate of soda, of each 10 gr. For » 
 dose. 
 
 Powder of Cin'namon (Compound). Syn. 
 Aromatic powdee; Pulvis cinitamomi 
 COMPOSITUS (B. P.. Ph. L.), Pulvis aeoma- 
 Ticus (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cin- 
 namon, 2 oz. ; cardamoms, IJ oz. ; ginger, 1 
 oz. ; long pepper, J oz. ; rub them together so 
 that a fine powder may be made. 
 
 2. (B. P., Ph. E.) Cinnamon, cardamom 
 seeds, and ginger, equal parts ; to be kept in a 
 well-closed glass vessel. 
 
 3. (Ph.D.) Cinnamon and ginger, of each 
 
 2 oz. ; cardamom seeds (husked), and nutmegs, 
 of each 1 oz. Aromatic and carminative. — 
 Dose, 10 to 30 gr. In the powder of the 
 shops cassia is generally substituted for cinna- 
 mon. 
 
 Powder, Cla'rifying. Flake albumen. See 
 Albumen. 
 
 Powder, Cock'le. From the well-known 
 shellfish Cardium edule (Linn.), as oyster 
 powder. 
 
 Powder, Colhatche's Specific. Frep. From 
 solution of sesquichloride of iron and acetate of 
 lead, of each 4 oz. ; mix, evaporate to dryness, 
 powder the residuum, and preserve it from 
 
POWDER 
 
 1875 
 
 the nir. Astringent and hieinostatic. — Vote, 
 3 to 8 grs. 
 
 Powder of Col'ocynth. Syn. Pplvis colo- 
 OYNTHtDls, L. That of the shops is generally 
 prepiired from the whole of the peeled fruit, 
 with the Heeds, instend of merely from the 
 pulp, by which its activity is (greatly lessened. 
 A fiictitious article is also met with in trade, 
 made by grindinjf bryony root with about 
 twice its weight of colocy nth seeds and a very 
 small quantity of gamboge. 
 
 Powder, Compound Almond. (B. Ph.) Si/n. 
 
 P0I.VI8 AMYODAL^E C0MP08ITUS. Prep. 
 
 Steep 8 oz. of Jordan almonds in warm water 
 till their iking can be easily removed ; and, 
 when blanched, dry them thoroughly with a 
 soft cloth, and rub them lightly in a mortar to 
 a amonth consistence ; mix gum Arabic in pow- 
 der, 1 oz. J and refined sugar, in powder, 4 
 oz. ; and adding them to the pulp gradually, 
 rub the whole to a conriie powder. Keep it in 
 11 lightly covered jar. 
 
 Powder, Componnd Bark. (Qeneva Ph.) 
 Syn. PnLVis ciNonoN.*; cOMPOSiTca. Prep. 
 Peruvian bark, loz.; rhubarb, I i dr.; muriate 
 of ammonia, 1^ dr. ; mix. 
 
 Powder, Compound Belladonna. 1. (Hecker.) 
 Syn. Prep. Bellndonna, 1 to 3 gr. ; musk, 
 6 gr. ; camphor, 5 gr. ; white sugar, 30 gr. j 
 mix. For 8 powders. 
 
 2. (Kopp.) Belladonna root, 2 er. j ipecncu- 
 Huha, 2 gr. ; sulphur, 32 gr. ; sugar of milk, 
 32 gr. Mix, arid divide into 3 powders, three 
 daily. In bonping-cough. 
 
 Powder, Compound Ceruse, (Ph. L. 1788.) 
 
 Sfin. PtJLVIS CERDSiE OOMPOSITUS. Prep. 
 ('urlioiiate of lead, 5 oz. ; sarcocol, 1\ oz. ; 
 tragacanth, \ oz. ; mix. For outward use. 
 Powder, Compound, of Cyanide of Zinc. 
 
 (Guibourt.) Syn. PliLVIS ZINOI CTANIDI COM- 
 POSlTcrs. Prep. Cyanide of zinc, 2 gr.; cal- 
 cined magnesia, 27 gr. ; cinnamon, 10 gr.; 
 mix. For 6 doses, in cramp of the stomach. 
 
 Powder, Compound Fennel. (Brunsw. Ph.) 
 Syn. PuLVis fcbniotjli composiius. Prep. 
 Carbonate of magnesia, 1 oz. ; fennel seeds, 
 i oz. ; orange peel, 2 dr. ; white sugar, 2 dr. 
 Reduce each to a fine powder and mix. 
 
 Powder, Componnd Musk. (Russ. Ph.) 
 Syn. Pdlvis moschi compositus. Prep. 
 Musk, 8 parts ; valerian, 10 parts ; camphor, 
 3 parts. 
 
 Powder, CompoundOpinm. (B. P.) Syn. Pcl- 
 TIS OPII COHPOSITUS. Prep. Mix thoroughly 
 li oz. of opium, in powder, with 2 oz. of 
 powdered black pepper, 5 oz. of ginger, 6 oz. of 
 caraways, and i oz. of tragacanth. Pass the 
 powders througli a fine sieve, rub them lightly 
 in a mortar, and keep the powder in a 
 stoppered bottle. This powder nearly repre- 
 sents the dry ingredients of coulectiou of 
 opium, L. — Dote, 2 to 5 gr. 
 
 Powder, Componnd Silver. (Serre.) Stin. 
 PCLVis AROENTi COMPOSITCS. Prep. Chlo- 
 ride of silver, 1 gr. ; washed orris powder, 2 gr. I 
 
 Used in frictions, the same as compound oold 
 
 POWDER. 
 
 Powder, Componnd of Sulphate of Soda. 
 Syn. Pdlvis B0D.B sulphatis compositus. 
 Skl de Gdindee. Prep. Dried sulphate of 
 soda, 18 dr. ; nitrate of potash, i dr. ; potas- 
 sio-tartrate of antimony, 1 gr. A third part 
 to be taken in water or herb broth. 
 
 Powder, Compound Sulphur. Syn. Pulvis 
 soLPHUEis compositus. Ratieb:— Sulphur, 
 
 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; white sugar, 
 q. s. Van Mons (antidysenteric powder) :— 
 Sulphur, 1 oz. ; fennel seed, 1 dr.; white sugar, 
 
 2 oz. ; gum Arabic, 2 oz.; mix. Swediaub 
 (pectoral powder) :— Sulphur, i oz. ; liquorice, 
 1 oz.; orris, 2 dr.; benzoic acid, 1 scruple; 
 white sugar, 2 02. ; oil of ai.ise and fennel, of 
 each 10 drops. 
 
 Powder of Contrayer'va (Compound). Syn. 
 
 PULTIS CONTEAYEEV.E COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. 
 
 (Ph. L. 1824.) Powdered contrayerva root, 
 5 oz. ; prepared oyster shells, li lb.; mix. A 
 tonic absorbent or antacid. — Dose, 10 gr. to 
 i dr., as required. 
 
 Powder, Cooling. (G. Ph.) Syn. Pulvis 
 tempebane. Prep. Nitrate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
 cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; sug.^r, 6 oz. 
 
 Powder, Corn. See Coen solvent and 
 Powder, Wart {belouo). 
 
 Powder, Cosmet'ic. Syn. Pulvis cosmeti- 
 cus, L. Prep. (Ph. Hann. 1831.) Blanched 
 sweet almonds and beans, of each 18 oz. ; 
 orris root, 8 oz. ; white Spanish sonp, 6 oz. ; 
 spermaceti, IJ oz. ; dried carbonate of soda, 
 1 oz. ; oils of lavender, berganiot, and lemon, 
 of each G dr.; mix, and beat them le a 
 powder. See Powder, Haih, and Hand 
 (below). Paste (Almond), Powders (Scented), 
 &c. 
 
 Powder of Cryst'al. From qu;irtz, like 
 Powdered glass (page 805). Used to make 
 fine glass ; also for a dryer for paints, and sold 
 under the name of 'diamond dust' for razor 
 strops. 
 
 Powder of Cnbebs with Alum. (MattUeu.) 
 Syn. Pulvis cubebs cum alumine. Prep. 
 Cnbebs, 2 oz.; alum, rtdr. ; mix. For 9 doses. 
 Three daily, in gonorrhoea. 
 
 Powder, Curry. Syn. Indian cueet pow- 
 der. The samples of this Ci>nipound prepared 
 by different houses vary so greatly from each 
 other in the proportions of the ingredients, 
 that it is uifiicult to regard any one as a stand- 
 ard. The following are therefore merely given 
 as examples : — 
 
 Prep. 1. Corianders, 1 lb. ; tnrmeric, 
 J lb.; black pepper, i lb.; scorched mustard, 
 i lb. ; ginger, 2 oz. ; cnmin seed, 1 oz. ; cap- 
 sicums, f oz. ; mace, \ oz. (all in powder); 
 mi.K well. 
 
 2. Coriander seeds and black pepper, of each 
 8 lbs. ; turmeric and cumin seeds, ot each ilbs., 
 allspice, J lb. ; mace, 1 oz. (all in powder) ; 
 mix. This receipt is employed by an eminent 
 wholesale house that does very largely in curry 
 powder. 
 
137S 
 
 POWDER 
 
 3. (See page 524.) 
 
 Used as a condiment and flavouring ingre- 
 dient. The addition of a few heads of 
 garlic gives it an increased zest for Indian 
 veterans. 
 
 Powder, Cust'ard. Frep. From sago meal, 2 
 lbs.; powdered turmeric, i 02. J bitter-almond 
 powder, cassia, and mace, of each \ dr. 
 
 Powder, Cyprus. Prom Cladonia rangiferina, 
 or reindeer moss. It has a very agreeable 
 smell, and, being extremely retentive of odours, 
 is much used as a basis for scent-powders, 
 f^achets, &c. The lichen known as the ragged 
 hoary evevnia also possesses nearly similar 
 properties, and is often substituted for it. 
 See Powders (Scented). 
 
 Powder, Diapente. (Ed. Ph. 174.4.) Si/n. 
 PULTJS DIAPENTE. Prep. Aristolocbia root, 
 gentian, bay berries, myrrh, ivory dust, of each 
 2 oz. ; mix. 
 
 Powder, Disinfect'ing. Syn. PuLVis disin- 
 PECTAN3, L. Prep. (Keist.) Bisulphate of 
 potassa, 41 parts ; sugar of lead, 7 partfe ; 
 binoxide of manganese, 3 parts, reduce them 
 separately to a fine powder, and, when wanted 
 for use, mix a proper quantity in any suitable 
 vessel. For other formulae, see DiaiirPEOTiNa 
 COMPOUNDS. The name is generally applied 
 to hypochlorite of lime. 
 
 Powder, Diuretic. (P. Cod.) Syn. Pultis 
 DiURETicns. Prep. Gum Arabic, 6 oz. ; 
 sugar of milk, 6 oz. ; nitrate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
 marshmallow root, 1 oz. ; liquorice root, 2 oz. ; 
 mix. 
 
 Powder, Dover's. Syn. Pctltis Doveei, L. 
 Prep. (Original formula.) Nitre and sulphate 
 of potassa, of each 4 oz. ; melt tliem together 
 in a red-hot crucible, reduce the cold fused 
 matter to powder, and add powdered ipeca- 
 cuanha, liquorice, and opium, of each 1 oz. 
 This is the formula adopted in the Paris 
 Codex. Compound ipecacuanha powdeb 
 is now sold under this name. (See telom.) 
 
 Powder, Duke of Portland's. Syn. Pultis 
 ANTiAETHElTicus. Prep. Round birthwort, 
 gentian, tops of lesser centuary, tops of ground 
 pine, and germander, of each equal parts. — 
 Dose, 1 dr. 
 
 Powder, Egg. See Powder, Bakin&. 
 
 Powder of Elaterium, Compound. (B. Ph.) 
 Puvis elatebii oompositus. Prep. Elate- 
 rium, 10 gr. ; sugar of milk, 90 gr. Rub 
 them together to fine powder. — Dose, ^ gr. 
 to 5 gr. 
 
 Powder, Emmen'agogue. Syn. Pulvis em- 
 
 MENAG-OaUS, P. aaiMATINUS, P. CONTRA AMB- 
 
 HOBEHiBAM, L. Prep. 1. Saccharine car- 
 bonate of iron, 3 parts ; powdered myrrh, 
 ginger, and nutmeg, of each 1 part; divide 
 into i-dr. papers. One for a dose, twice or 
 thrice daily. 
 
 2. (Augustin.) Myrrh, 12 gr. ; saffron, 
 3 gr. ; oil of cloves, 1 drop. For a dose, as 
 the last. 
 
 3. (Klein.) Calomel, 4 gr. ; extract of yew, 
 10 gr.; powdered savine, 1 dr.; Quevenne's 
 
 iron, i dr. ; loaf sugar, 2 dr. For 6 powders ; 
 as before. 
 
 Powder, Emulsive, of GInten. (Taddel.) Syn. 
 Pultis aiUTENis emulsivus. Prep. Fresh 
 vegetable gluten, 10 oz. ; soap, 2 oz. ; water, 1 
 pint. Dissolve, evaporate the solution, dry it 
 on plates, and reduce to powder. As an anti- 
 dote to coiTosive sublimate. 
 
 Powder, Escharot'ic (Arsenical). Syn. Pul- 
 tis eschaeoticus AESENICALIB, L. ; POUDBE 
 DU Feeees Cosmb, Fr. Prep, 1. (Original 
 formula.) From white arsenic, 12 gr. ; burnt 
 hartshorn, \ dr. ; cinnabar, 1 dr. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Red sulphuret of mercury and 
 powdered dragon's blood, of each 2 parts; 
 levigated arsenious acid, 1 part ; carefully 
 mixed together. See Caustic, Aesekioal. 
 
 Powder of Extract of Col'ocynth (Compound). 
 Syn. Pultis extbaoti colooynthidis com- 
 PosiTi, L. Prep. From compound extract of 
 colocynth (Ph. L. 1836), dried by a gentle 
 heat, and powdered. 
 
 Obs. This, like many other articles em- 
 ployed I)y lazy dispensers, does not represent 
 the preparation for which it is used as a sub- 
 stitute ; whilst, from its peculiar character, it 
 is very open to sophistication — a practice, we 
 regret to say, very general with certain drug- 
 gists. Indeed, some of these pai-ties make this 
 article by simply throwing the ingredients of 
 the extract into a pan along with a little water, 
 and, when they have become soft, stirring them 
 together with a spatula, after which they are 
 desiccated and powdered. This is then la- 
 belled by certain houses, " Pulv. Ext. Coloc. 
 CO. — P. L.," and sold to their unfortunate 
 customers as such, although no such an ex- 
 tract has been in the Ph. L. since that of 
 1836. 
 
 Powder, Faynard's. The charcoal of beech- 
 wood, finely powdered. (Paris.) Used in piles, 
 and as a styptic. 
 
 Powder, Fe'ver. See Powdee, Antimonial 
 {above ). 
 
 Powder of Flint. Syn. Silex conteitus 
 (Ph. L.), L. Prep. As powdered glass. (Sec 
 page 805.) It is ordered in the Ph. L. to be 
 employed, instead of magnesia, for the purpose 
 of mechanically dividing the essential oils used 
 in the preparation of distilled water. It is 
 also used as an escharotic. 
 
 Powder, Fly. Prep. From white arsenic, 
 5 oz. ; white sugar, 6 lbs. ; rose pink, 2 oz. ; mix, 
 and put 6 dr. in each paper. Used to kill flies. 
 It is poisonous, and should be employed with 
 great caution, particularly where there are 
 children. 
 
 Powder, Fu"mlgating. Syn. Pultis pu- 
 malis, L. Prep. (Ph. Buss.) Amber, mastic, 
 and oHbanum, of each 3 parts; storax, 2 
 parts ; benzoin and labdanum, of each 1 part; 
 reduce them to coarse powder, and mix them 
 well. See FuMiaATioN. 
 
 Powder, Galls of (Componnd), Syn. Pultis 
 Och-isLM coMPOSiTUs, L. See Powbbb, As- 
 
 TEINOENT. 
 
POWDER 
 
 1377 
 
 Powder, Oascoign's. 5y». PtiLVis EcnKLis 
 COMPOSITES. Prep. Prepiired crab sliellB, 1 
 lb. ; prepared chalk, 3 oz. ; prepared corul, 3 
 oz. ; mix. 
 
 Powder, Goelia'a Aiitihec'tic. Prep. From 
 burnt hartshorn, powdered nutmeg, black 
 pepper, iind roastid lunrel beriies, ot each 
 1 part; lujnoiice puwder, 3 parts. — Dose, \ 
 to 1 dr. ; in the hectic fever of Bcrufulous 
 subject!). 
 
 Powder, Gold. Syn. Pulvis auei. Tri- 
 turate gold leaf with 10 or 12 times its weight 
 of sulphate of potash till bright particles are 
 no longer visible; pass it through a sieve, mix 
 with boiling water, wash what remains on the 
 filter, and dry in a stove.' 
 
 Powder, Gold Compound. Syn. Pultis auei 
 COMPOSITDS. Prep. Auro-chloride of sodium, 
 1 gr. ; lycopodium, starch, or washed orris 
 powder, 1 scruple J mix. A-i'jthpart, gradually 
 increased to ith part, of this powder to be 
 rubbed on the gums. 
 
 Powder of Gold and Iron. (Buckler.) Syn. 
 PuLTis AUKi ET FEUBI. Prep. Pulverised 
 foMt'i scrujiles; clean levigated iron Klings, 
 'Z scru|iles ; gum Arabic in powder, 30 gr. ; 
 mix. Fi)r one dose, to be given in water acidu- 
 lated with a few drops of sulphuric acid, as an 
 antidote lor corrosive sublimate. 
 
 Powder, Goulard. EtHoresced sugar of lead. 
 Poisonous. 
 
 Powder, Grey. Mercurial powder. 
 
 Powder, Gregory's. See Powdeb op ItH0- 
 BAllB (Compound). 
 
 Powder of Guarana, Compound. (Dr Gav- 
 
 rcUe). Kyii. PULVIS PACLLINiaS OOMPOSIIUS. 
 
 Prep. Ouarana, 1 dr. ; compound ciiiuaiuon 
 powder, 4 dr. Mix. 
 
 Powder, Gum. (G. Ph.) Syn. PnLVia 
 onMsiDfUS. Prep. Gum Arabic, 3 oz. ; 
 liquorice, 2 oz. ; refined sugar, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 Powder, HBBmostat'io. Syn. Pulvis um- 
 MOSTAllcus, L. Prep. 1. (Guibourt.) Char- 
 c"al and gum Arable, of each, in powder, 1 
 part ; jiciwdered resin, 4 parts, 
 
 2. (.Mialhe.) From powdered alum, gum 
 trogneanth, and tannin, equal parts. Used to 
 check local bleeding. 
 
 3. (P. Cod.) Prep. Resin, 4 dr.; gum 
 Arabic, 1 dr.; powdered catechu, 1 di'. Mix. 
 
 Powder, Hair. Syn. Pulvi3 peo oeine, L. 
 Starch reiliieid to a very fiue powder, and 
 then scented according to the fancy of the 
 artist; it is, lastly, passed through a gauze 
 sieve. In its simple form, without any addi- 
 tion, it constitutes 'plain hair powder.' In 
 other cases it is distinguished by the name of 
 the substance added to perfume it. Thus, we 
 liavc 'rose hair powder, 'violet h. p.,' &c. 
 Potato farina, well triturated, is now com- 
 monly used for hair powder. Amongst the 
 lower classesi, the contents of the 'flour 
 dredger' ol the kitchen are frequently misap- 
 pro]piiate(l to this purpose. See I'OWDEKS, 
 Si INTED {below.) 
 Powder, Hand. Prep. From almond powder, 
 VOL. II. 
 
 1 lb. ; powdered cuttle-fish bone and white 
 soap, ot each 4 oz.; orris powder, 1 oz. ; mix. 
 Used to clean the hands, and to render them 
 soft and white. See Potvdeb, Cosmetic. 
 
 Powder, Helvetius's. Syn. Pulvis Helte- 
 Tii, L. A mixture of powdered alum and 
 dragon's blood. (Dr Paris.) 
 
 Powder, Herrenscwand's Specific. See Pa- 
 tent Medicines. 
 
 Powder, Hiera Picra. Powder of aloos with 
 caiiella (see above). 
 
 Powder, Hnfeland's. Syn. HcPELiXD'a 
 
 QUINQUINA PACTICE, PuLVls (INCnONi: PAC- 
 TiTiDa, p. 8ALICISC0MP0SITUS, L. Prep. From 
 bennet(the herb), calamus arorauticus, chestnut 
 bark, gentian root, and willow bark, equal 
 parts ; reduced to powder. 
 
 Powder, Hunter's. See Powdeb, Wabt 
 {below). 
 
 Powder, Hunt's. See Powdeb, Hkeak- 
 
 PABT. 
 
 Powder of Ipecacuan'ha (Compound). Syn. 
 Doveb's powdeb. Compound powdeb of 
 
 IPECACUANHA WITH OPIUM ; PiaVlsi DoVEKI, 
 
 Pulvis iPECACUANUiE cojiposiri's (U. P., 
 Ph. L., E., & D.), L. ; PouDBE d'ipeoacuanha 
 ET d'opium, Fr. Prep. 1. (B. P., Ph. L.) 
 Ipccaeuanha and opium, of each, in fine pow- 
 der, 1 dr.; sulphate of putassa, in fine powder, 
 1 oz. ; mix them (thoroughly). The Edin. and 
 Dublin FurmuliB are similar. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Nitre and sulphate of potaasa, 
 of each 4 oz. ; ipecacuanha, liquorice root, and 
 hard extract of opium, of each 1 oz. This 
 clo-ely resembles the original formula. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From powdered ipecacuanha 
 and opium, of each 1 lb.; powdered sulphate 
 of potassa, 8 lbs. Vaes, J(c. ' Dover's powder, 
 is a powerful and valuable sudorific. — Dose, 
 5 to ] 5 or 20 gr., followed by warm diluents; 
 in infiammatory ufleetions, rheumatisms, colds, 
 &c. 
 
 Powder, Itch. Syn. Pulvis antipsoeicus, 
 L. Prep. 1. Sulphur and potato farina, 
 of each J lb. ; essence of bergamot, i oz. ; 
 mix. 
 
 2. (Poudre de Pihorel.) A mixture of 
 finely pulverised sulphuret of calcium and 
 farina, in nearly equal quantities. Used 
 either as a dusting powder or mixed with 
 a little oil or fat, and rubbed into the affected 
 part. 
 
 3. (Fr. Hosp.) Flowers of sulphur, 1 oz. ; 
 acetate of lead, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 4. Equal parts of sulphur and charcoal. 
 
 Powder of Jal'ap (Compound). Syn. Pul- 
 vis jALAPi: C0MP0SITU3 (B. P., Ph, L., E., i 
 D,), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Jalap, 3 oz. ; 
 bitartrate of potassa, 6 oz. ; ginger, 2 dr. ; rub 
 them separately into fine powder, then mix 
 them. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) As the last, omitting the 
 ginger. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Jalap, 2 oz. ; bitartrate of 
 potassa, 3.i oz. ; giUL'er, J oz. (all in fine pow- 
 der) ; mix by careful trituration. — Dose, 20 to 
 
 B7 
 
1378 
 
 POWDER 
 
 60 gr. ; as a purgative in habitual costiveness, 
 dropsies, &c. j also in worms, the tumid bellies 
 of cliildren, &c. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Jalap, in powder, 5 ; acid tar- 
 trate of potash, 9; ginger, in powder, 1 ; mix. 
 —Dose, 20 to 60 gr. 
 
 5. (PnLVis LENiTivrrsj Sucee okanoe 
 PtmoATiv.) From refined sugar, f lb. ; jalap 
 and cream of tartar, of each 2 oz. ; oil of 
 orange peel, i oz. A popular purgative on the 
 Continent. — Dose, 1 to 3 dr. 
 
 Powder, James's. Syn. Pultis Jacobi, P. 
 PEBEiEUGUs Jacobi, L. The antimonial pow- 
 der, or compound powder of antimony, of the 
 Pharmacopoeias (see above) is the preparation 
 which usually passes nuder this name; but 
 the true James's powder is a nostrum the 
 pretended secret of tlie preparation of which 
 is claimed to be possessed by only two parties 
 in the kingdom. The patent specification 
 of the once celebrated Dr James runs as 
 follows : — 
 
 "Talfe of antimony, calcine it with a con- 
 tinued protracted heat, in a tlat, unglazed 
 earthen vessel, adding to it, from time to time, 
 a sufficient quantity of any animal oil and salt, 
 welldephlegmated ; then boil it in melted nitre 
 for a oonsliterable time, and separate tlie pow- 
 der from the iiiire by dissolving it in water." 
 On this it bus been remarked that it yields a 
 product totally different from that which Dr 
 James and his successors have sold under the 
 name, and he has hence been charged with con- 
 cealing the real formula for his powder, and 
 publishing a f.ilse one in its stead. 
 
 According to Dr Robinson, the original 
 formula for this nostrum, and that still 
 adopted by the vendors of the proprietary 
 article at tlie present day, is — Tartarised anti- 
 mony, 1 pait; prepared burnt hartshorn and 
 calx of antimony, of each 5 parts; carefully 
 mixed together, and divided into 21- gr. pow- 
 ders. (' Phil. Journ. Pliarm.,' vi, 282.) 
 
 From analyses recently made of three speci- 
 mens of James's powder ('Newberry's,' ' But- 
 ler's,' and a sample of 60 years old obtained by 
 Mr Si[uire), it appears that antimonious acid 
 was pi'eseut in dilFerent proportions, from 
 about 452 to SSj, the amount being greatest 
 in the old specimen ; teroxide of antimony was 
 also present to the extent of from 9{j to less 
 than Ig, tlie greatest quantity being again in 
 the old preparation ; the remainder in each 
 specimen consisted chiefly of phosphate of lime; 
 ni) trace of tartaric acid was discoverable in 
 any of the samples. 
 
 Perhaps no nobtrum ever received such ex- 
 tensive patronage from the faculty as James's 
 powder. Dr James himself was remarkably 
 successful in its use ; but whether his success 
 depended upon his powder or the mercurials 
 and bark which he commonly employed at the 
 same time is still undetermined. 
 
 Powder of Kermes with Camphor. (Germ. 
 Hosp.) Sun. Pultis keemetis cum cam- 
 PHOai. JPie/p. Kermes mineral, 3 gr.; cam- 
 
 phor, 6 gr. ; white sugar, 2 dr. ; mix. For 12 
 
 doses. 
 
 Powder of Eermes with Ipecacuanha. (Fr. 
 Hosp.) S</n. Pultis kebmetis cum ipeca- 
 cuanha. Prep. Kermes, 2 gr. ; ipecacuanha, 
 2 gr. ; crabs' eyes, 2 scruples ; gum Arabic, 2 
 scruples; mix. For 12 doses. In hooping- 
 cough. 
 
 Powder of Ki'no (Compound). 8yn. Pulvis 
 KINO COMPOSITUS (Ph. L.), L. Frep, (Ph. L.) 
 Kino, 15 dr. ; cinnamon, 4 dr. ; dried opium, 
 1 dr. ; reduce them separately to fine powder, 
 and then mix them. — Dose, 5 to 20 gr, ; in 
 diarrhoea, pyrosis, &c. 
 
 (B. P.) Frep. Kino, 3| oz. ; cinnamon, 
 1 oz. ; opium, J oz. ; mix. — Dose, 5 to 20 gr. 
 
 Powder, Lausanne. Frep. From nitre, IJ 
 dr. ; carbonate of magnesia, bitartrate of po- 
 tassa, precipitated sulphur, and oleo-saccharum 
 of peppermint, of each 4 dr. ; sugar of milk, 
 1 oz. Lenitive and antidysenteric. 
 
 Powder, lax'ative. See Species, Laxa- 
 tive. 
 
 Powder of Liquorice (Compound). Syn. 
 Pultis oltoyekhiz.« compositus, L. Frep. 
 1. (Ph. Bor.) Liquorice root and senna 
 leaves, of each 6 oz. j fennel seed and milk of 
 sulphur (pure), of each 3 oz. ; white sugar, 
 18 oz. (all in fine powder) ; mix. Pectoral 
 and laxative. 
 
 2. (B. Ph.) Frep. Senna and liquorice 
 root, both in fine powder, of each 2 uz. ; sugar, 
 in fine powder, 6 oz. Mix thoroughly and pass 
 through a fine sieve. — Dose, \ dr.'to 1 dr. 
 
 Powder of Magne'sia and Ehu'harh. See 
 Powder op Compound Rhubaeb {below). 
 
 Powder, Martin's Cancer. An American 
 nostrum, composed of the powdered stems of 
 tbe Orobanche T'irginiana (Linn.), combined 
 with a very small quantity of arsenious acid. 
 It is used as a sprinkle for open cancers and 
 cancerous sores. 
 
 Powder, ]y[ercu"rial. Syn. Gret powdee 
 (Hydeaeoyhu-m cum oeeta, B. P.), Mekcuey 
 WITH chalk. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Mercury, 1; 
 prepared i:halk, 2 ; triturate till the globules 
 disappear. — Dose, 3 to 8 gr. 
 
 2. Mercury, 3 oz. ; powdered resin, f oz ; 
 prepared chalk, 5 oz. ; rectified spirit, q, s. ; 
 make a paste with the resin and a small quan- 
 tity of the spirit; add the mercury, which 
 may be extinguished in a short time ; then the 
 clialk and alcohol, gradually, so as to keep up 
 the pasty consistence; lastly, add sufficient 
 spirit to dissolve out the resin, wash the pow- 
 der on a filter, and dry it. Rectified oil of tur- 
 pentine may be substituted for the spirit. 
 
 Powder, Morison's Ape"rient. See Patent 
 medicines. 
 
 Powder of Mngwort, Saccharated. (Breslcr.) 
 Powdered mngwort root, 3 oz. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; 
 a teaspoonf ul lour times a day in chorea and 
 epilepsy. 
 
 Powder of Mnsh'room. Syn. Pultis agaeici, 
 P. A. esculenti, L. From edible mushrooms, 
 dried by a gentle heat, and then powdered 
 
POWDER 
 
 1379 
 
 alon^ with a litth' wliite pepper, cloves, and 
 uiAce. Souu' cayenne is frequently added. 
 
 Powder of Uni'sel. From the My^'l'^ edulU 
 (Linn.), or common mussel, in the same way as 
 
 POWDER OP OySTEB. 
 
 Powder of Myrrh (Compoond). Syn. TuLVis 
 k mvebhA coMrosiTDB, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 
 1788.) Myrrh, dried savine, dried rue, and 
 Kussinn cutor, equal parts, rubbed to powder, 
 and then well mixed. Emraenagoguc and 
 antispasmodic. — Dose, 12 to 30 gr. 
 
 Powder, Nephritic. (Fuller.) Syn.Vvvna 
 NEPUBITICU9. Prep. Powdered roots of 
 amall.ige and siixifruge, of each 2 dr. ; crabs' 
 eyes, 1 dr. ; sulphate of potash, 1 dr. ; sal 
 prunella, 2 scruples ; oil of juniper, 4 drops. 
 Mix.— Dose, 20 to 60 gr. 
 
 Powder, Nnr'sery. See Powdee, Violet 
 (below). 
 
 Powder of Nnz Vomica, Componnd. Syn, 
 Pplvis KUCI9 voMioji; coMPOBiTUs ; Voot's 
 STOSfAOHio POWDEB. Prep. Nux vomica, 
 18 gr. ; ipecacuanha, 21 gr. ; rhubarb, 1 dr.; 
 prepared oyster shell, 48 gr. ; oleo-saccharum 
 of mint, 1 dr. Mix, and divide into 12 
 powdeis. 
 
 Powder, 0"piated, Powder of chalk with 
 opium. 
 
 Powder, Opiated Guaiacum. (Parcira.) Syn. 
 PcrLVi8 OUAIACI OPlAins. Prep. Guaiacum, 
 1 dr. ; orange leaves, i dr. ; acetate of mor- 
 phia, } gr. Mix, and divide into 6 powders. 
 One every two hours in articular rlicuiuii- 
 tism. 
 
 Powder of Oys'ter. Syn. Pcri.vig oste^, 
 L. Prep. From the common oyster {Ostrea 
 ednlui — l>inn.), pulped through a sieve, made 
 into --^ paste with wheateu flour and a little 
 salt, and then rolled out into thin piecfs, and 
 dried ; these are reduced to powder, sifted, and 
 packed in well-corked bottles. Used to make 
 sauce ; about 1 oz., to water, 1 pint. Other 
 ehell-lish are treated in the siime way. 
 
 Powder of Oxide of Zinc with Starch. 
 (Caztnavo.) Syn. PcLVis ZINCI o-tTDi cum 
 AUYLO, Prep. Starch, 1 oz. ; oxiile of zinc, 
 1 dr. ; camphor, io powder, 1 dr. For exco- 
 riations iind bed-sores. 
 
 Powder. Parturifacient. (E. Ph. 1741). 
 Syn. PCLVIS AD PAUTUM. Prep. Borax, 
 4 dr.; castor, 1\ dr.; satlVon, IJ dr.; oil of 
 cinniimon, 8 drops; oil of amber, 6 diop-*. 
 Jlix.— Do*?, 20 to 30 gr. (This name, and 
 aUo til it 01 PULVis PAETL'EIFACIENS, has been 
 giiiMi to powdered ergot.) 
 
 Powder, Pea. Syn. Pea flofe; Faeina 
 PisoBU.\t, L. Prep. From peas, in the usual 
 niiiiiner. Used to make extemporaneous pea- 
 son p. 
 
 Powder, Pearl. Prep. Prom pure pearl 
 white uiul Flinch chalk (scraped fine by Dutch 
 riislii's), ei|n;il parts ; triturated togetht-r, 
 Some inak.rs add more Ficiirh chalk. U-od 
 ai a skin cosmetii-. This mixture is pnfur- 
 iihle Io |ii-arl wliite alone, Irom being more 
 mihesive. 
 
 Powder, Pease. Prep. From dried mint and 
 sage, of each 4 oz. ; celery seed and white 
 pepper, of each i oz.; turmeric powder, i oz. ; 
 reduced to fine powder. Used as a condiment 
 and kitchen spice. 
 
 Powder, Peo'toral. See Powdee of Liquoe- 
 ICE, &c. 
 
 Powder of Phosphate of Lime, Saccharated. 
 
 Syn. PULTIS CALCI8 PHOSPHATIS, BACCHA- 
 EATU8. Prep. Precipitated phosphate of 
 lime, 15 gr., white sugar, 85 gr. ; triturate 
 and divide into 20 packets. Two or more pow- 
 ders daily, according to age of child. In 
 rickets. 
 Powder, Piles. Syn. Pulvib antih.I'mob- 
 
 EHOIDALIS, p. H«MOEEHOIDALIS, L. Prep. 
 
 1. (Fr. Hosp.) Precipitated sulphur, 3 oz. ; 
 cream of tartar and black pepper, of each 1 oz. ; 
 oil of cubebs, J dr. — Dose. A teaspoouf ul, in 
 milk or honey, thrice a day. 
 
 2. (External.) — a. From Aleppo galls, in very 
 fine powder, 2 oz. ; opium, in fine powder, 1 dr. 
 A pinch to be applied occasionally. 
 
 b. From sesquioxideof iron, 1 oz. ; powdered 
 acetate (>f lead, \ dr. As the last. 
 
 Powder of Pitch, Compound. .Syn. Pulvis 
 
 PICIB COMFOSIIOS; DiSINEECTIKG POWDEE 
 
 OP COENE AND Demaitx. 100 parts of plaster 
 of Paris ai"e triturated thoroughly with 1 to 5 
 parts of coal tar. Used as an absorbent and 
 disinfectant to fetid ulcers and wounds. 
 
 Powder, Plate. Syn. Pdlvis peo aeoento, 
 L. Prep. 1. Jeweller's rouge, J lb.; pre- 
 pared chalk or levigated burnt hartshorn, J lb.; 
 mix. 
 
 2. Levisinted putty powder, J lb.; burnt 
 hartshorn, ^ ib. ; prepared chalk, 1 lb. ; rose 
 pink, 1 oz. 
 
 3. (Meiictteial.) From quicksilver with 
 chalk, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 11 oz. ; mix. 
 Used to clean and polish plate. 8i-e Plate. 
 
 Powder, Plate Boiling. Prep. From cream 
 of tartar, common salt, and alum, equal parts. 
 A little (if this jtowdcr, added to the water in 
 which plate is boiled, gives to it a silvery 
 whiti^iii s-^. 
 
 Powder, Plummer's Al'terative. See Anti- 
 mony, Etuiops of. 
 
 Powder, Poultice. Syn. PuLVis peo cata- 
 PLASMAIE (Ph. D. 1826), L. Prep. From 
 linseed meal, 1 part; oatmeal, 2 parts; mixed 
 togt'tber. 
 
 Powder, Purgative and Anthelmintic. 
 (Boerhaave). Hyi'. PULVis PUKGANS AN- 
 THELMINTIOUS. Prep. Jala|i, 12 gr. (or 
 agaiie, 8 gi.), Etliiups mineral, 12 gr.;.lbr 
 one (lose. 
 
 Powder of ftninine. Aerated, (Or Meireu). 
 Syn. Pdlvis quixle aekatus. Prep. Tar- 
 taric iicid, 15 gr. ; disulphate of qoiiiia, li gr. 
 Jli.x, and add bicarbonate of soda, 18 gr. ; 
 leliiied suirar. 30 gr. Mix for oue dose, 
 between the fits of intermittent fever. 
 
 Powder of Quinine and Tobacco. (Hug.) 
 
 S(in. Put.VIS QUl.M.E SULPHATIS ET TABACI. 
 
 Pr,p. DMilpliate of quinine, 12 gr. ; snuff, 
 
1380 
 
 POWDER 
 
 1 oz. To be used as a snuff for nervous head- 
 acheji. 
 
 Powder, Rat. See Rats. 
 
 Powder of Ehu'barb (Compound). Syn. 
 Gkeooet's mixtcee, Ghegoby's powbek ; 
 PiTLVia EHBi coMPOsiTDS (B. P., Ph. E. and 
 D.) L. Prep. 1. (Pii. E.) Calcined mag- 
 nesia, 1 lb. ; rhubarb, 4 oz. ; ginger, 2 oz. (all 
 in fine powder) ; mix, and preserve it Irom the 
 air. 
 
 2. (B. P., Ph. D.) Calcined magnesia, 6 oz. ; 
 rhubiirb, 2 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz. 
 
 3. Calcined magnesia, 8 oz. ; rhubarb, 3 oz. ; 
 chamomile, 2 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz. 
 
 Obs. An excellent stomachic, antacid, and 
 laxative. — Dose, 20 gr. to \ dr. Some drug- 
 gists substitute tlie heavy carbonate for tlie 
 <alcined magnesia ordered above, but this 
 alters the iiature of the preparation, and re- 
 quires the dose to be increased. Heavy cal- 
 cined maguesia may, however, be employed 
 with advantage. 
 
 Powder, Sach'et. See Scented powders. 
 
 Powder, Saline' (Compound). Syn. PuLVis 
 SALiNUS COMPOSITUS (Ph.E.), L. JPrep. (Ph. 
 E.) Pure chloiide of sodium and sulphate of 
 magnesia, of each 4 oz. ; sulphate- of potash, 
 3 oz. ; each separately dried by a gentle heat, 
 and pulverised, then triturated together, and 
 preserved in well-closed vessels. An excellent 
 saline purgative. — Dose, 2 to 6 dr., in 4 pint 
 of water or table-beer, in the morninar, fasting. 
 
 Powder of Scammony (Compound). Syn. 
 PUITIS SOAMMONII OOMl'OSITUS (B. P., Ph. 
 L., E., & D.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Scam- 
 mony and hard extract of jalap, of each 2 oz.; 
 liinger, \ oz. ; rub them separately to a very 
 fine powder, and tlien mix them. — Dose, 5 to 
 15 gr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Scammony and bitartrate of 
 potassa, of each, in very fine powder, equal 
 parts. — i3o.se, 7 to 20 gr. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Scammony, in fine powder, 
 1 oz. ; compound powder of jalap, 3 oz. ; mix, 
 —Dose, 10 to 30 gr. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Scammony, 4 ; jalap, 3 ; ginger, 
 ■1 ; mix, and reduce to fiue powder. — Dose, 10 
 to 20 gr. 
 
 Obs. The above are favourite cathartics in 
 worms, especially for children. They are com- 
 monly sold for basilic powder. (See above.) 
 
 Powder of Scammony with Cal'omel. Syn. 
 
 PULVISSCAMMONIICUMCALOMELAKE, L. Prep. 
 
 Prom scammony, \ oz. ; calomel and white 
 sugar, of each 2 dr. An excellent vermifuge 
 for childi'en.— iJoie, For an adult, 5 to 20 gr. ; 
 for a child, 2 to 8 gr. Sold for basdic powder, 
 to which it approaches nearer in composition 
 than the preceding. 
 
 Powder of Scammony with Soot. Syn. PuL- 
 VIS SOAMMONII CtTM EULIQINE ; POUDEE 
 d'Ailhaut. Prep. Scammony, 1 dr. ; wood 
 soot, li dr. ; resin, 2 dr. ; mix. Dose, \ dr. 
 A once fashionable purgative. 
 
 Powder, Schmidt's Partnrifa"cient. Syn. 
 Schmidt's poudee oottiqde, Pr. Prep. 
 
 From powdered ergot of rye, borax, and oleo- 
 saccharum of camomile, of each 8 gr. ; pow- 
 dered sugar, q. s. For a dose ; to be repeated 
 every quarter of an hour until some effect is 
 produced. 
 
 Powder of Scordium (Compound). Syn. Pul- 
 VIS B SCOEDIO COMPOSITUS. j[L. Ph. 1746.) 
 Prep. Bole, 4 oz. ; scordium, 2 oz. ; cinna- 
 mon, 1^ oz. ; stj'rax tormentil, bistort, gentian, 
 dittany, galbanum, gum acacia, red rose petals, 
 of each 1 oz. ; long pepper, 4 oz. ; ginger, 
 \ oz. Make a powder. 
 
 Powder of Scordium with Opium. Syn. 
 PuLTia E SCOEDIO CUM OPIO. Prep. Add 
 to the preceding, 3 dr. of dry strained opium, 
 and powder it with the other ingredients. 
 
 Powder of Senna (Battley's Green). Syn. 
 PuLVis senNjG TIEIDIS, L. Prep. From 
 senna leaves, dried and heated until they turn 
 yellow, then powdered along with a little 
 (blue) charcoal, to give a green colour. 
 
 Powder of Sen'na (Compound). Syn. Pultis 
 SENN.E COMPOSITUS, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1824.) 
 Senna and bitartrate of potassa, of each 2 oz. ; 
 scammony, 4 oz. ; ginger, 2 dr. ; all in fine 
 powder; mix. — Dose, 20 to 30 gr., or more; 
 as a purgative or anthelmintic. 
 
 Powder, Sil'vering. Prep. 1. Silver dust 
 (fine), 20 gr. ; alum, 30 gr. ; common salt, 
 1 dr.; cream of tartar, 3 dr.; rub them to- 
 gether to a fine powder. 
 
 2. As the last, but substituting 35 gr. of 
 nitrate of silver for the silver dust. 
 
 3. Chloride of silver is dissolved in a solution 
 of hyposulphite of soda, and the solution made 
 into a paste with levigated burnt hartshorn 
 or bone dust ; this is next dried, and pow- 
 dered. 
 
 4. Silver dust, 1 oz. ; common salt and sal 
 ammoniac, of each 4 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 
 I oz. 
 
 Obs. The above powders, made into a paste 
 with a little water, are used to silver dial- 
 plates, statuettes, and other articles in copper, 
 previously well cleaned, by friction. The best 
 silver powder for the purpose is that precipi- 
 tated from its nitric solution by means of a 
 copper plate. When the product of the last 
 formula is used, the articles should be after- 
 wards made red hut, and polished. 
 
 Powder of Soap. Syn. Sapo conteitus, 
 Pultis saponis, L. Castile soap, sliced or 
 cut small, dried by exposure to a warm atmo- 
 sphere, or by a very gentle heat, and then 
 powdered. Used in dispensing; also as a band, 
 shaving, and tooth powder. As a cosmetic it 
 may be scented at will. 
 
 Powder, Spermaceti. Syn. Pultis cetacei. 
 Spermaceti is pulverised as camphor, by the 
 aid of a few drops of spirit. 
 
 Powder of Spermaceti, with Sugar. Syn. 
 Pultis cetacei cum sacchaeo. One part 
 of powdered spermaceti with two of sugar. 
 Pectoral, 
 
 Powder of Sponge. Syn. Pultis SPONGi.ffi 
 P. si'ONaiJi; usT.iE, L. Prep. Let sponge, cut 
 
POWDER 
 
 13S1 
 
 into small pu'cc, be liciton so as to free it from 
 tuiiid or stunc'Et ; ttien burn it ill a covt-rcil iron 
 vtssel* until it becomes iilack and frinble ; 
 finally, reitucc it to powder. Ueobstnn nt. 
 — Dose, i to 3 ilr. ; in glandular inuurations 
 ■nd enlargements, &c. It should be of a 
 brownish-bluck colour ; if over burnt its effi- 
 cacy is di-stroyed. 
 
 Powder of Squills. Sj/n. PcLVis soill^, L. 
 Prep. Keinove the membranous intej;uments 
 fnnn the hulb of the squill, cut it into thin 
 slio's, and dry it at a heat between 90^ and 
 100° Palir. ; next reduce it to powder, and 
 keep it in Holl-stoppcred bottles. 
 
 Powder, Sternuta'tory See S>uff8 (Medi- 
 cutfd). 
 
 Powder, Stahl's Sesolvent. S^n. Pultis 
 BsaoiiVENS STAHLii. I'rep. Aiitimonial 
 powder, nitre, prepared crabs' eyes, in equal 
 part<. 
 
 Powder of Starch with Soda. Si/n. Pultis 
 
 AHVLI KT BODJS; DfcVEECHJi'e ALKALINK POW- 
 
 DKB. Preji. .Mix 1 part of carboiinte of soda 
 in fine powder with 10 of white starch. For 
 cxtornal use in some skin diseases. 
 Powder, Styp'tic. See Powdeb, Astbin- 
 
 QENT, PaYNAKD'b P., &C. 
 
 Powder, Tonquln. Si/n. Pultis antityssus 
 TU.viituNENBis ; Sir (i. Cobd's tonquin 
 POWDBE. Prep. Musk, II! gr. ; einiiabir, 
 48 gr. ; to be mixed or washed down with 
 arrack or other spirit. Three doses to be givi'n 
 on three alternate dii\ s, and three more on the 
 thrcr next changes of the moon. 
 
 Powder of Trag'acanth (Compound). Si/n. 
 
 Pl'LVta TEAOACANTII.F. COMPOSITUS (U. P., 
 
 Ph. L. & E), L. Prop. 1. (Ph. L.) Gum 
 tragacanth, gum aciuia, and starch, of each, 
 in line powiUi-, IJ oz. ; powdered white suifar, 
 3 uz. The Edinburi;h formula is similar. 
 Demulcent.— i)ose, i dr. to 2 dr., in w.iter 
 or any simple liquid; in hoarseness and ca- 
 t.irrhs, comliined with squills and henb me, to 
 allay irritation; in dysentery, combined with 
 ipeciicuahna ; in gonorrhoea, strangury, ic, 
 combined with scetale of potassa or nitre. 
 
 2. (U. P.) Tragacaiith, in powder, 1 ; gum 
 Arabic, in powder, 1 ; starch, in powder, 1 ; 
 refined sugar, in powder, 3 ; rub well together. 
 — Cove, 10 to GO gr. 
 
 Powder of Vanilla, with Sugar. (P. Cod.) 
 ■V/». Pdltis tanilljj cnii saoohaeo; 
 PotJDEK BE VANiLLE sucb£b. Vanilla is re- 
 duced to piiwiltr by cutting it in pieces, and 
 triturating it with 9 times its weight of refined 
 sugar. 
 
 Powder of Verdigris with Calomel. Si/n. 
 
 PULVIS -KBrOIMS COM OALOMELANK. Prep. 
 
 Prepared verdigris, 1 dr. ; ciilomel, 1 dr. ; mix. 
 For extenuil use. 
 
 Powder, Violet. St/n. Nuhseey powdee. 
 Skin p. This is simply starch, reduced to a 
 very fine pnwder. and scented with orris pow- 
 der or esseuic of violets. The best kinds are 
 also perfumed with a little musk or ambergris, 
 and are now generally made with potato farina. 
 
 The commoner sort is only scented with a 
 little essence of bergamit or essence of 
 lemon. ' Plain violet powder ' is, of course, 
 unscented. 
 
 Prep. 1. Powdered starch, 28 lbs. ; pow- 
 dered orris root, 1 lb. ; essence of ambergris 
 and essence of bergamot, of each i oz. ; oil of 
 rhodium, i dr.; mix, and pass the powder 
 through a sieve. 
 
 2. Powdered stanh, 14 lbs. ; essence of ber- 
 gnmot, i oz. ; oil of cloves, i oz. ; as last. 
 U-<ed as a dusting powder in excoriations. Sic. 
 Si-o PowDEBS, Cosmetic (below). 
 
 Powder. Ward's Sweating. Resembles Do- 
 tbe's powueb. 
 
 Powder, Wart. Syn. Coek powdeb, cos- 
 metic CAUSvic, &c. Prep. 1. Ivy leave^ 
 ground to powder. A pinch is applied with a 
 rug, the piirt being first nioi>t. n.-d with 
 strong vinegar. Useful for soft corns and 
 warts. 
 
 2. (Hunter's.) From savins and verdigri-, 
 eqinil psrts. See CoBN solvent. 
 
 Powder, Warwick's (Earl of). Sr/n. Pultis 
 CoMiTis Wauwicenois, L. Piep. From 
 scamniony, pvep.ucd witli the fumes of sul- 
 phur, 2 oz. ; diaphoretic antimony, 1 oz. ; 
 cream of tartar, J oz. — Dofe, l.'j to HO gr. 
 
 Obs. Tliis is a inodifieutiun of Cdunacbini's 
 POWDEB. It is representc'l in tlie present 
 I'liarmacopoeias by roMi'OUND sca.mmony 
 FOVTDER. *' Cornachini wrote a whole book 
 about his powder, the proportions of the in- 
 gredients of whieli he varied according to 
 circuiustsiiict"^." (* .Med. Lex.') 
 
 Powder, Wash'ing. The numerous com- 
 pounds vcntied under this name hnvc for their 
 basis the soda-ash of coinmetce, blended with 
 common Scotch soda in variable proportions. 
 The best of them consist either wholly or 
 chiefly of the first of these substances. The 
 alkaline matter is reduced to coarse powder, 
 antl stirred up with liquid size, or with a de- 
 coction of lin-eeil, Iri>h moss, or British gum, 
 and is then dried, and again crushed or pow- 
 dered, and at once put into the packages, in 
 which it is rannned tight, and covered up im- 
 mediately. The object aimed at by the manu- 
 facturer is to keep his commodity from the 
 air as much as possible, because exposure 
 renders it less cuustic, and consequently less 
 detergent. 
 
 Powder of Yellow Bladder-wrack. (Ph. D.) 
 Syn. PuLvis QUEUcCs MAEIN^. Prep. 
 Yellow bladder-wrack, in flower, is dried, 
 cleansed, and heated in a crncible with a per- 
 forated lid till vapours cease to be given oH', 
 and the carbonaceous residue reduced to 
 powder. — Dose, 10 gr. to 2 dr. 
 
 POWDEES. The foUoning preparations 
 have been placed under this head instead of 
 under ' PowDEB,' because some are invariably 
 spoken of in the plural number, and the others 
 may be conveniently noticed in classes or 
 groups. 
 
 Powders, Aerated Sherbet (in one bottlb). 
 
1382 
 
 POWDERS 
 
 Double refined sugar, 144 "z-; P'wdert-d 
 orange pee), 12 gr. j bicarbonate of soda, 3| 
 oz. ; essence of cedrat, 12 drops ; oil of orange, 
 peel, 60 drops; tartaric acid, 4 oz. The pow- 
 ders must be carefully dried, mixed quickly, 
 and afterwards kept dry, in a bottle securely 
 corked. A measure holding nearly 3 dr. of 
 the powder should accompany each bottle. 
 Powders, Efferves'cing. Prep. 1. (Pui- 
 
 VEKES EFFEBTBSCENTES — Ph. E.) Take of 
 
 tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 oz. 
 54 gr. (534 gr.), or bicarbonate of potassa, 1 
 oz. 2 dr. 40 gr. (640 gr.) ; reduce tiie acid 
 and either bicarbonate separately to fine pow- 
 der, divide each of these into 16 powders, and 
 jireserve the acid and alkaline powders in 
 separate pa pers of different colours. 
 
 2. (PtTLTEEES EEFEBVBSCENTES CITEATI — 
 
 Ph. D.) Take of citric acid (crystallised), 9 
 dr.; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or bicar- 
 bonate of potassa, 13 dr., proceed as last, 
 dividing each into 18 parts. 
 
 3. (PULVEEES EFFEKTESCENTES TAETAEI- 
 
 ZATI — Ph. D.) Take of tartaric acid (in crys- 
 tals), 10 dr. ; bicarbonate of soda, 11 dr., or 
 bicarbonate of potassa, 13 dr. ; reduce them 
 to powder, and divide them into 18 parts, as 
 before. (See helow.) 
 Powders, Effervescing, with Iron. (P. Cod.) 
 
 Sl/n. PULTEEES EFFEttVESCENTES OtfM FEEEO. 
 
 Prep. Tartaric acid, 2j oz. ; bicarbonate ol 
 yndii, 2 oz. ; powdered sugar, 9 oz. ; dried sul- 
 phate of iron, 46 gr. Mix the acid and the 
 sulphate of iron (previously reduced to coar-se 
 powder), add the sugar, and lastly the soda, 
 not in very fine powder. All the ingredients 
 must be very dry. Half an ounce of this 
 powder is to be quickly added to 2 pints of 
 pure water (without air) contained in a bottle, 
 which is to be immediately corked. 
 
 Powders for Gazogene. For 2 pints : — Pow- 
 dered tartaric acid, 14 scruples; bicarbonate 
 of soda, 17 scruples. 
 
 For 3 pints : — Powdered tartaric acid, 17 
 scruples ; bicarbonate of soda, 21 scruples. 
 
 For 5 pints: — One each change of 2 and 3 
 pints. 
 
 Powders, Gin'ger Beer. Si/n,. Pulteeeb 
 
 EFFEEVESCENTES CUM ZINGIBEEE, L. iVep. 
 
 1. Powdered white sugar, 1 to 2 dr.; bicar- 
 bonate o£ soda, 26 gr. ; finest powdered 
 Jamaica ginger, 6 gr. ; essence of lemon, 1 
 drop ; mix, and wrap it in blue paper. In the 
 white paper put of powiered tartaric acid, 35 
 gr., or of powdered citric acid, 30 gr. 
 
 2. Finest Jamaica ginger, 1 dr. ; bicarbonate 
 of soda, 5 dr. ; white sugar, 16 dr. ; essence 
 of lemon, 6 Or 8 drops; mix, and divide it be- 
 tween 12 papers (blue). For the white papers, 
 divide tartaric acid, 6 dr., in the same way. 
 By taking the drachms as ounces, the quantity 
 will be sufficient for 8 dozen. For use dissolve 
 one of each colour separately in somewhat less 
 than half » glass of water, mix the two, and 
 drink the mixture whilst effervescing. 
 
 3. (In one bottle.) — a. The sugar and the 
 
 saline ingredients are separately dried by a 
 very gentle heat, then mixed in a dry room 
 with the ginger and essence of lemon, and at 
 once put into bottles. 
 
 b. By adding to the ' acidulated kali,' noticed 
 at page 929, about l-16th of its weight of 
 the finest powdered Jamaica ginger (i. e. \ dr. 
 to each oz. ; 1 oz. to each lb.) at the time of 
 mixing the ingredients together. A dessert- 
 spoonful, thrown into a tumbler two thirds 
 filled with cold water, produces an excellent 
 glass of ginger beer. 
 
 Powders, Ink. The article usually sold 
 under this name is noticed under Ink. Another 
 formula, which we have adopted with con- 
 siderable success, is as follows : — Good black 
 ink, 3 pints, lump sugar, li oz., and gum 
 Arabic, \ oz., are put into a cleau iron pan, 
 and evaporated by the heat of boiling water, 
 with occasional stirring, to dryness; the dried 
 mass is reduced to powder, and divided into 
 12 parts, which are enveloped in either tin- 
 foil or glazed paper, and kept dry. One of 
 these papers dissolved in \ pint of hot water 
 forms that quantity of excellent black ink, 
 without sediment, and which answers well 
 with the copying press. 
 
 Powders, Lem'onade. Syn. Lemon shee- 
 
 BET ; LiMONADnM SICCTTM, PtJLVIS PEO 
 
 LIMINADO, L. Prep. 1. Powdered citric 
 or tartaric acid, 12 gr. ; powdered white 
 sugar, J oz. ; essence of lemun, 1 drop (or 
 a little of the yelli>w peel of a lemon 
 rubbed off on a piece of sugar) ; mix. For 
 one glass. 
 
 2. White sugar, 4 lbs. ; citric or tartaric 
 acid, li oz. ; essence of lemon, i oz. ; mix 
 well, and preserve it in a bottle for use. 1 to 
 2 dessert-spoonfuls make a glass of lemonade. 
 It is also put up in papers containing about 
 2i dr. each. 
 
 3. (Effeevescing.) — a. For the blue 
 papers, take of powdered white sugar, 1 lb. ; 
 bicarbonate of soda, ^ lb. ; essence of lemon, 
 la dr.; mix, and divide it between 6 dozen 
 papers. Next divide tartaric or citric acid, 
 5 oz., between 6 dozen white papers. Or 
 the two may be kept in bulk, iu separate 
 bottles. 
 
 I. (In one bottle.) As ' aciduiated kali." 
 Some makers slightly increase the quanti- 
 ties of acid and essence of lemon there ordered. 
 
 Powders, Orangeade. Syn. Aeeatedshee- 
 BET. Prep. Powdered sugar, 14^ oz. ; pow- 
 dered orange peel, 12 gr. ; oil of orange peel, 
 60 drops ; essence of cedrat, 12 drops ; bicar- 
 bonate of soda, 3i oz. ; mix, and put 145 gr. 
 in each blue paper. In the white paper put 
 32 gr. of tartaric acid (or 30 gr. of citric acid). 
 Or the alkaline and acid powders may be put 
 into separate bottles, with a measure holding 
 the proper proportions of each. The orange 
 peel may be omitted, if necessary. 
 
 Powders, Pol'ishing. Frep. 1. (For brass 
 and copper.) — a." From rotten stoue, 8 oz. ; 
 powdered soap, 1 oz. 
 
POWDERS 
 
 1383 
 
 i. From rotten stone, 7 oz. ; powdered oxalic 
 iicid, 1 oz. Until are used with a little water. 
 See Bbass FA8TB. 
 
 2. (For pfilil.) Jeweller's rouge. See Ses- 
 
 QtTIOXIDE OP I 111 IN. 
 
 8. (For ivory.) Pumice stone and putty 
 powder. 
 
 4. (For plate.) See Plate and Powdeb, 
 1'latb. 
 
 6. (For silver.) As the last. 
 
 Powders, Scented. Prep. 1. Cosmetic 
 rowDEBS. — a. (PoCDEEDK CHIPBE.) .Macerate 
 oiilt moss in running water for 2 or 3 days, 
 then dry and powder it. Used as a basis for 
 other powders, on account of its being higlily 
 retentive of odours. Reindeer moss and ragged 
 hoary evernia are also used for the same pur- 
 pose. See Cypbus powdeb (above). 
 
 b. (POUDKB DE OHIPEE DE MONTPEMF.tt.) 
 From poudre de chipre 2 lbs.; musk, 30 gr. ; 
 civet, 20 nr. (the last two powdered by 
 means of a little sugar) ; cloves, i oz. 
 
 e. (POUDEK DE FLEUR3 D'OEAHaES.) From 
 starch or Cyprus powder, 25 lbs. ; orange 
 flowers, 1 lb. ; mixed in a covered chest, and 
 stirred twice or tlirice daily; the process 
 being repented, witii fresh flowers, a second 
 and a third time. Or, the plain powder is 
 Bi'ented by the addition of » little neroli or 
 essence of petit 1,'riiin. 
 
 d. (PouDBE DE PEANOIPANNI.) From pou- 
 dre (If fleurs d'urunges and poudre de chipre, 
 of each 6 Ib-s. ; essence of ambergris, 1 oz. ; 
 civpt (powdered with sugar), i dr. Ash-grey 
 colour. 
 
 <s. (POUDEE DE JASMINE.) As POUDEE 
 
 DE FLEUfiS d'oeanges, but using Jasmin 
 (lowers. 
 
 /. ( PotlDEE A liA MAE^CH ALE.) From pOU- 
 drn di'iliipie, 2 lbs. j slarcli powder, 1 lb. ; ca- 
 lamus aroiiiaticus, cloves, and cyperus perennis 
 or rotundis, of each 2 oz. Or, starch powder, 
 ■!H lbs. ; powdered cloves, | lb. ; powdered 
 orris mot, i lb. ; essence of ambergris, 2 dr. 
 
 g. (I'OUDEE A LA MOnSSELINE.) From 
 orris root, 1 lb.; coriander seed, 6 oz. ; mace 
 and violet ebony, of eacdi 2 oz. ; musk seed, 
 cassia, cloves, and sandal wood, of each 1 oz. 
 
 A, (Poudre de jonqcille. From jon- 
 quils, as POUDEE DE JASMINE. 
 
 i. ( PoDDEE A L'CEILLET.) From plain pow- 
 der, 2 lbs. ; orris root and dried red rose leaves, 
 of each 1 lb. ; cloves and musk seed, of each 
 4 oz. ; essence of bergamot and essence de 
 petit grain, of each J dr. 
 
 k. (Poudbe de boses communes.) Prom 
 pale rcKes, as poudbe de pleues d'oeanoes. 
 
 I. (Poudbe db eoses musquees.) From 
 musk roses, as the la-t. 
 
 ra. (Poudbe a la vanilla.) From poudre 
 de chipre or Cyprus, 3 lbs. ; vanilla, powdered 
 by means of sugar, 2 dr. ; oil of cloves and 
 cssenoi' of ambergris, of each 20 drops. 
 
 n. (Poudbe a la violeite.) See Pow- 
 deb, Violet (as above). 
 
 The above are used as cosmetic powders for 
 
 the skin and hair; also, but less frequently, 
 for sachets, drawers, 4c. 
 
 2. Sachet powdeb. — a. From orris ro 't, 
 2 oz. ; cassia,!^ oz. j cloves, 1 oz. ; vcUow 
 sandal wood, i oz. ; oils of lavender and ber- 
 gamot, of each 1 dr. ; otto o( rosea, 20 drops ; 
 musk and ambergris, of each, rubbed with a 
 little sugar, 6 gr. ; reduce the dry ingre- 
 dients to coarse powder, mix them, and add 
 the oils. 
 
 b. From corianders, orris root, rose leavi>s, 
 and calamus aromaticus, of each 4 oz. ; la- 
 vender flowers, 8 oz. ; rhodium wood, 1 dr. ; 
 musk, 20 gr. 
 
 c. From corianders, nrri", calamus aromati- 
 cus, and red roses (dried), of eai-h 1 oz. ; 
 lavender flowers, 2 oz. ; mace and cloves, of 
 each 1 dr. ; essential oil of almonds, 10 drops. 
 
 d. As last, but substituting inu^k, 5 gr., for 
 the oil I if almonds. 
 
 e. From patchouli, 8 oz. ; lavender flowers, 
 (lightly dried), 3 oz. ; orris root, 2 oz. ; cloves, 
 1 oz. ; essence of berfraraot, 1 dr. ; essences of 
 ambergris and musk, of each ) dr. 
 
 The.se are used, along with cotton wool, to fill 
 scent bags, cassolettes, &c. ; and as scent pow- 
 der for boxes, drawers, and the like. The 
 scent is added to the dry ingredients, separately 
 reduced to powder, and the whole is then 
 passed through a fine sieve, to ensure perfect 
 admixture. 
 
 3. Paefum poue lbs autees poudbbs. 
 From poudre d'amlirette, 12 lbs.; civeitc, IJ oz.; 
 musk, 1 dr. ; reduce the last two to powder by 
 grinding them with some dry lump sugar, then 
 mix the whole together, and pass it through a 
 sieve. Used to perfume hair powder, sachet.s, 
 &c. 
 
 Powders, Seidlitz. Syn. Pui.veees effee- 
 tescentes apeeientks, L. Prep. 1. Potas- 
 sio-tartrate of soda (Rochelle salt), 2 dr ; bi- 
 carbonate of soda, 40 gr. ; mix, and put it in 
 a blue paper; tartaric acid, 35 gr. ; to be put 
 in a white paper. For about i pint of water. 
 Laxative. 
 
 2. (In one bottle.) From potassio-tartrate 
 of soda, 12 oz. ; bicarbonate of do., 4 oz. ; tar- 
 taric acid, 3J oz. ; white sugar, 1 lb. (all in 
 fine powder) ; dry each separately by a gentle 
 heat, add of essence of lemon, \ dr. ; mix well, 
 pass the mixture through a sieve, and put it 
 at once into clean dry bottles. — Dose. A des- 
 sertspoonful, or more, to a tumblerful of 
 water. 
 
 Obs. The above mixtures, though now nni- 
 versally sold as Seidlitz powder, do not, when 
 dissolved, exactly resemble the natural water, 
 which contains carbonates, sulphates, and. 
 chlorides of calcium and magnesium. How- 
 ever, the factitious article is equally effective,^ 
 and much more agreeable. 
 
 Powders, Sher'bet. These are made of the 
 same materials as lemonade powders, the fla- 
 vouring ingredient being varied to suit the 
 particular case. 
 
 Powders, So'ii a- water. Syn. Effeevescino 
 
1384 
 
 POWDERS 
 
 POWDEEB, E. SALINE P., SODAIO P., AbBATED 
 BOSA P.; PDIiVEKES EFIfEETESCBNTES, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. From bicarbonate of eod«, 30 gr. 
 in each blue paper ; tartaric acid, 25 gr. (or 
 citric acid, 24 gr.), in each white paper. One 
 of each is dissolved separately in about half a 
 glassful of water, and the two solutions mixed, 
 and drank immediately. A cooling, wholesome 
 summer bevernge, but it should not be indulged 
 in to excess. 
 
 2. (Chalybeated.) By adding 1 gr. of dried, 
 protosulphate of iron to each paper of acid. 
 Tonic. 
 
 3. (Midgeley's.) Made by adding ^ gr. of 
 tartarised aiitimony to each paper of acid. 
 Refrigerant and diaphoretic. J?or the Ph. 
 formulae see Powdebs, Effervescing (above). 
 
 Powders, Soup. See Powdee, Cueey, I'ow- 
 DEE, Pea, Spioe, &c. 
 Powders, Spruce Beer. Si/n. Pdlveees ef- 
 
 FEKVESCENTES CUM ABIETE, L. I'rep. As 
 
 ginger-beer powders, but substituting essence 
 of spruce, 3 to 6 drops, for the powdered 
 ginger. 
 
 Powders, Tooth. Si/n. Pultis deniifeicii, 
 L. The general principles which sliould be 
 kept in view in the selection of the materials, 
 and in the preparation of dentifrices, have been 
 already fully noticed undi-r Dentifeices, and 
 need not, therefore, be repeated here. Care 
 must be taken that all the dry ingredients be 
 finely pulverised, and that, the harder and 
 gritty ones be reduced to tiie state of an im- 
 palpable powder, either by levigation or elu- 
 triation. The mixtui'e of the ingredients must 
 also be complete. This is the most readily 
 effected by stirring tliem well together until 
 they form an apparently homogeneous powder, 
 and then passing this powder through a very 
 fine sieve. Those which contain volatile sub- 
 stances should be preserved in closely toiked 
 wide-mouth bottles, and those which contain 
 acidulous or gritty matter should not be 
 frequently employed. The selection of the 
 tooth brush likewise deserves attention. It 
 should be sufiiciently stiff to eff'ect its purpose 
 completely ; but, at the same time, it should 
 be so formed as not to cause irritation or 
 injury to the gums during its use. 
 
 Frep. 1. Cuttle-fish bone and prepared chalk, 
 of each 2 oz. ; oil of cloves, 20 drops. This 
 may be perfumed at will, and medicated by 
 any of the substances referred to under Den- 
 tifrices. 
 
 2. To the last add of powdered Castile soap, 
 2 oz. 
 
 3. Prepared chalk, 12 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone, 
 8 oz. ; orris root, 4 oz. ; dragon's blood, 1^ oz. j 
 oils of cloves and cassia, of each i dr. 
 
 4. Prepared chalk, 1 lb. ; pumice-stone, in 
 impalpable powder, i lb. ; orris root, 2 oz. ; 
 pure rouge, J oz. ; neroli, i dr. 
 
 5. Yellow cinchona bark and myrrh, of 
 each i oz. ; recently burnt charcoal, 3 oz. ; 
 cloves, 1 dr. 
 
 6. Pumice-stone, red coral, and powdered 
 
 rhatany root, of each, 2 oz. ; orris root, J oz. ; 
 essence of vanilla, i dr. 
 
 7. (Aeomatic tooth powder.) From cut- 
 tle-fish bone, 4 oz. ; calamus aromaticus, 2 oz. ; 
 powdered Castile soap, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, 
 idr. 
 
 8. (Asiatic dentifeioe.) From prepared 
 red coral. Si lbs. ; Venetian red, f lb. ; pre- 
 pared challi and pumice-stone, of each li lb.; 
 China mask, 30 gr. 
 
 9. (Cadet's.) From lump sugar and charcoal, 
 of each 1 oz. ; Peruvian bark, ^oz. ; cream of 
 tartar, i oz. ; cinnamon, ^ dr. 
 
 10. ^Camphorated.) See Camphoeated 
 
 CHALK. 
 
 11. (Chaeooal DENTIFEICB.) From char- 
 coal, prelerably that from the willow or the 
 areka nut, either alone or combined with twice 
 its weight of prepared chalk. Scent or medi- 
 cinals injure it. (See 9, 19, and 26.) 
 
 12. (CoEAL DENTIFEICB.) See 16, 23, and 
 25 [heloio), 
 
 13. (Deschamp's alkaline dentifeioe.) 
 From powdered tale, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of soda, 
 1 oz. ; carmine, 6 gr. ; oil of mint, 12 or 15 
 drops. 
 
 14. (Ploeentine dentifeioe.) Fi-om pre- 
 pared shells, 4 oz. ; orris root, li oz. ; bitar- 
 trate of potassa, f oz. ; Florentine lake, q. s. 
 to colour. 
 
 15. (Galvanic dentifrice.) From gold, 
 3 leaves ; silver, 4 leaves ; triturate them with 
 alum and sulphate of potassa, of each \\ dr. ; 
 then add, of dry common salt, pellitory of Spain, 
 and Peruvian bark, of each 1 dr.; prepared 
 hartshorn, 1 oz.; mi.t, and either colour it blue 
 with smalts or red with lake. A useless com- 
 pound. 
 
 16. (Grosvenor's.) Prom red coral, 3 lbs.; 
 prepared oyster-shells, 2^ lbs. ; orris powder, 
 i lb. ; oil of rhodium, 25 drops. Rose-pink 
 is now commonly substituted for the coral. 
 
 17. (Hemet's.) From cuttle-fish bone, 6 oz.; 
 cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; orris root, i oz. 
 
 18. (' Lancet.') Red bark and Armenian 
 bole, of each 1 oz. ; powdered cinnamon and 
 bicarbonate of soda, of each \ oz. ; oil of 
 cinnamon, 2 or 3 drops. 
 
 19. (Lardner's.) From charcoal, in very 
 fine powder, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 3 oz. ; mix. 
 
 20. (Mialhe's eational dentifeicb.) From 
 sugar of u.ilk, 3 oz. ; pure tannin, 3 dr.; red 
 lake, 1 dr. ; oils of mint and aniseed, of each 
 7 or 8 drops ; neroli, 4 or 5 drops. 
 
 21. (Mtkeii dentifrice.) From cuttle-fish 
 bone, 6 oz. ; myrrh and orris root, of each 2 oz. 
 
 22. Peael dentifeioe.) From heavy car- 
 bonate of magnesia or precipitated chalk, 1 lb.; 
 finest smalts, 3 dr.; essence de petit grain, i dr. 
 
 23. (Pelletier's quinine dentifeioe.) I'rom 
 prepared red coral, 3 oz. ; myrrh, 1 dr. ; disul- 
 phate of quinine, 12 to 15 gr. 
 
 24. (Ph.Russ.) Cinchona b irk, 4 oz. ; orris 
 root, 2oz. ; catechu and myrrh, of each 1^ oz.; 
 sal ammoniac, 1 oz. j oil of cloves, 20 drops. 
 
 25. (PonDEE DENTIFEICB — P. Cod.) Red 
 
POX 
 
 1385 
 
 rorni, red bole, nud cuttle-flah bone, of each 
 3 ni. ; dragon's blood, 1^ 07„ ; cinnnmon, } oz. ; 
 coi-liineal, 3 dr. ; cloves, 1 dr. ; bitiirtrate of 
 potassa, 4i oz. ; reduce them Beparntely to very 
 tine powder U'lore mixing tboin. This is the 
 ' coral dentifrice ' of the French. 
 
 26. (Uifinini's.) From charcoal, 1 oz. ; yel- 
 low baric, i oz. 
 
 27. (Rose UENTiFKiCE.) From precipitated 
 chalk, Goz.; cuttle-K>h bone, 3 oz. ; bicarbo- 
 nate of soda, li uz. ; red lake, i oz. ; otto of 
 rosHii, 2<) drops. 
 
 'M. (Uuspini's.) From cuttle-fish bone, 8 oz.; 
 Roinim aliiiij and orris root, of each 1 oz. ; cream 
 ot till t.ir, :i oz. ; oil of rhodium, 6 or 8 drops. 
 
 211. (Violet tooth powdeb.) From orris 
 root, 3 oz. ; cuttle-fish bone and rose pink, of 
 eiich 6 oz. ; precipitated chalk, 12 oz. ; pure 
 indigo, q. s. to give it a pale violet tinge. 
 
 30. (Zieter's.) From finely powdered cal- 
 cined hartshorn and cuttle-fish bone, of each 
 6oz. ; calaniusaromaticus, cassia, and pellitory 
 of Spain, of each 1 oz. ; essence of vanilla, 
 
 1 dr. ; essence of ambergris, 10 or 12 drops. 
 
 31. Chalk, carbonate of magnesia, and pale 
 bark, of each 1 oz. ; oil of peppermint, 5 drops. 
 
 32. Creiira of tartar, sugar of milk, of ciicli 
 
 2 oz. ; carmine, 88 gr. (all in very subtle pow- 
 der) ; oil of peppcnuint, 4 drops. 
 
 Powders, Worm. Si/n. Pdlveres anthkl- 
 MiNTlci,RvBKMiFnGi,L. Prep. 1. (Bouchar- 
 dat.) Powdered Cursican moss and worm-seed, 
 of each 5dr. J calomel, 40 pr.; rub tliem together. 
 
 2. (Collier.) From powdered jalap and 
 seammoiiy, of each 1 dr. ; creain of tartar, 2 
 dr. ; Ethiops minenil, 3 dr. 
 
 3. ((luibuurt.) Sulphate of iron, 1 dr. ; 
 tansy, 2 dr. j worm-seed, 3 dr. 
 
 4. (!'. Cod.) Cinsicaii moss and worm seed, 
 of eadt 2 oz. ; rhubarb, 1 oz. ; rubbed to a hue 
 powder, and innlidly mixed. 
 
 POX. A corruption of a Saxon word, ori- 
 ginally applied to pustules or eruptions of auy 
 kind, but now restricted to varicella, variola, 
 vaccinia, and, in its unqualified form, to syphilis. 
 {Sec below.) 
 
 Pox, Chick'en. Sm. Water- pox ; Vam- 
 CELLA, L. All eruptive disease, consisting of 
 smooth, semi-transparent vesicles, of varous 
 sizes, which aftiTHiirds become white and 
 stiaw-coloured, and about the fourth da\ 
 break and scale off, without leaviiig any per- 
 manent mark behind them. In hot weather 
 the discharge sometimes becomes purulent, and 
 iit others the eruption is attended wiih con- 
 siderable fever. Sometimes the vesicles assume 
 a pointed form, and the fluid remains clear 
 throughout the disease; it is then frequently 
 called the "swine-pox." When the vesicles 
 lire l:irrr<. and globular, and their contents, at 
 first "hoy-coloured, alterwards turn yellow, it 
 is popularly known iis ' hives.' 
 
 The treatment of chiekeu-pox consists in 
 the adoption of a light, vegetable diet, and in 
 the adniinirtration of mild saline aperients 
 and cooling drinks. 
 
 The chicken-pox, except in children of a very 
 bad habit of body, is an extremely mild dis- 
 ease. Like the smallpox, it rarely attacks the 
 same person more than once during life. 
 
 Pox, Cow. Syn. Vaccinia, Vaeiola vac- 
 cina, L. This disease was proposed as a 
 substitute and a preventive of smallpox by 
 Dr Jenner in 1798, and its artificial produc- 
 tion (vaccination) has rendered smallpox a 
 comparatively rare disease in Britain. There 
 appears no reason to doubt that the preten- 
 sions of the advocates of vaccination have heeu 
 fully justified by the experience of more than 
 half a century ; or that this disea-e, when 
 actively developed, evinced by the complete- 
 ness and maturation of the pustules, acts as a 
 prophylactic of smallpox. 
 
 The process of vaccination is similar to 
 that of inoculation for smallpox. Tne point 
 of a lance is wetted with the matter taken 
 from one of the pustules, aud is then gently 
 inserted under the cuticle, and the scratcn 
 afterwards rubbed over with the same. Ha- 
 morrhage should be avoided, as the blood is upt 
 to wash away the virus, or to form a cake which 
 shields the living tissue from its action. 
 
 Pox, Small. Syn. Vaeiola, L. This dis- 
 ease comes on with the usmil symptoms of in- 
 flammatory fever. About the third day red 
 spots, resembling flea-bites, make their np- 
 pearance on the face aud head, and gradually 
 extend over the whole body. About the fifth 
 day small circular vesicles, depie>sed in tlio 
 centre, surrounded by an areola, and contain- 
 ing a colourless fluid, begin to form, when the 
 feverish symptoms abate ; about the sixth day 
 the throat becomes sore ; about the eighth day 
 the face is swollen ; and about the eleventh day 
 the pustules acquire the size of a pea, and 
 cease to eidarge, the matter which they con- 
 tiiin becomes opaque and yellow, a d:iik eelitml 
 spot forms on each, the swelling of the faeo 
 subsides, and secondary symptoms of fever 
 come on ; the pustules become rough, break, 
 and scab over, and a dark spot remains for 
 some days, often followed by permanent inden- 
 tations, popularly known a-. ' pock-marks.' At 
 the end of the sixteenth or eighteenth day the 
 symptoms usually disappear. In the con- 
 fluent smallpox, a severer form of the di». 
 ease, the pustules coalesce, the eruption Is irre- 
 gular in its progress, and the Inflaiumati-'ry 
 symptoms are more severe. 
 
 The treatment of ordinary cases of smallpox 
 resembles, for the most part, that mentioned 
 above for chicken-pox. As soon as the fe- 
 brile symptoms become marked the patient 
 should not be suffered to lie in a hot bed, but 
 on a mattress, in a cool and well-ventilated 
 apartment, and antiseptic cooling drinks should 
 be freely administered. When convuWons 
 occur, or great irritability exists, small doses 
 of morphine, opium, or camphor may be ad- 
 ministered, and obstinate vomitiiiL' arrested by 
 effervescing saline draughts. When the skin 
 is pale and cold, the pulse weak, and the erup- 
 
1386 
 
 PRECIPITATE— PRESCRIBING 
 
 tiou lauguidly developed, the warm or tepid 
 bath is often serviceable. An infusion of the 
 rootof Sarraeenia pupurea, an American plant, 
 has been strongly recommended as a preven- 
 tive and cuie of smallpox, but many of our 
 most eminent physicians regard it as valueless. 
 The application on the third day of a mask 
 formed of thin muslin, covered with mercurial 
 ointment, and having holes cut in it for the 
 nostrils, eyes, and moutli, will effectually pre- 
 vent ' pitting.' (Dr. Stewardson.) With the 
 same intention some persons recommend the 
 puncture of the pustules as soon as they are 
 raature. A solution of india rubber in chloro- 
 form is now olten painted over the face when 
 the eruption has become fully develojied. The 
 chloroform quickly evaporates, leaving an elas- 
 tic film of india rubber, which almost entirely 
 removes the itchiness of the pustules and 
 prevents ' pitting.' To remove the pock- 
 marks, whether recent or old, nothing appears 
 to be better than warm sea-bathing, or the use 
 of tepid iodiiretted lotions. 
 
 The smallpox is eminently contagious, but 
 only attacks the same person once during life. 
 Formerly, a milder form of the disease was 
 propagated by inoculation, a practice intro- 
 duced into England from Turkey by Lady 
 Mary Wortley Montague, about the year 1721. 
 At the present day, in England, inoculation, 
 as well as the exposure of a patient labouring 
 under smallpox, is penal, the punishment being 
 either by tine or imprisonment. See Pox, Cow 
 {above). 
 
 " The absolute necessity for enforcing this 
 measure after smallpox is conclusively shown 
 by the following cases which occurred during 
 the late severe outbreak of the disease at 
 Ipswich. In the first instance a young man 
 brought a bundle of infected linen with him 
 irom London and had it washed at Ipswich. 
 Twelve days after, the servant who washed it 
 showed symptoms of smallpox. In another 
 case, a woman who had been at Highgate Hos- 
 pital brought with her a shawl which she had 
 worn during convalescence, but had not been 
 disinfected ; and in fourteen days her sister, 
 who washed the shawl, was attacked with 
 smallpox." — Sanitary Record, 
 
 PRECIPITATE. Any substance which has 
 separated from its solution in a solid and, 
 usually, a pulverulent or flocculentform. The 
 substance by which such a change is produced 
 is called the * precipitant; ' and the act or 
 operation by which it is effected is called 
 ' precipitation.' The old chemists gave this 
 name to several compounds. Red precipitate, 
 or precipitate per se, is the red oxide of mer- 
 cury prepared by heat. White precipitate is 
 the Ammoniated merctjey of the B. P. 
 
 PEECIPITA'TION. The formation or sub- 
 sidence of a precipitate. (See above.) When 
 the precipitate is the chief object of the pro- 
 cess, it is necessary to wash it, after it is sepa- 
 rated, by filtration. This operation requires 
 little attention when the substance thrown 
 
 C^-^ 
 
 down is insoluble in water; but when it is 
 
 in some degree soluble in that liquid, great 
 
 attention is required 
 
 to prevent the loss 
 
 which might result 
 
 from the use of too 
 
 much water. Precipi- 
 
 issisSi ^ tales soluble in water, 
 
 ^^P' W but insoluble in al- 
 
 ?» Q ^ cohol, are frequently, 
 
 on the small scale, 
 
 washed with spirit 
 
 more or less concentrated. 
 
 The best precipitating vessel is a very tall 
 glass jar, furnished with a lip and spout, and 
 narrower at the bottom than at the month, so 
 that the precipitate may readily collect by 
 subsidence, and the supernatant liquor be 
 decanted off with more ease. 
 
 PEEGITAHCT. For the preservation of the 
 health, and the prevention of the numerous 
 discomforts and dangers which so frequently 
 attend this condition, nothing is so effective 
 as exercise. It is this that is so favorable to 
 the humble peasant, and it is its absence that 
 inflicts such calamities on the wealthier classes. 
 Exercise, moderate and unfatiguing, when 
 assisted by regular habits, and a diet nutri- 
 tious, but not too liberal, is, indeed, capable 
 of not only affording pleasure and increasing 
 the comforts of existence, but is also generally 
 sufficient to greatly lessen the severity of the 
 sufferings, and to ward off the not unf requently 
 fatal results which terminate this interesting 
 condition. 
 
 The sickness of pregnancy may be greatly 
 ameliorated, if not removed, by the occasional 
 use of a saline aperient, and by effervescing 
 draughts formed with the bicarbonate of po- 
 tassa and citric acid. The oxalate of cerium is 
 strongly recommended by Professor Simpson, 
 of Edinburgh, as a remedy for obstinate vomit- 
 ing in pregnancy. — Dose, 1 gr. to 2 gr. three 
 times a day in pills. 
 
 PEESCEI"BING (Art of). Besides a know- 
 ledge of diseases and their treatment, much of 
 the success of the physician depends on cir- 
 cumstances connected with the form in which 
 the remedies are exhibited. In writing a pre- 
 scription it is necessary to consider the age, 
 sex, temperament, habits and idiosyncracy of 
 the patient, as well as the conditions of climate 
 and season, before the selection of tlic leading 
 medicament and the apportioning of the dose. 
 The most convenient form of exhibiting it, 
 whether it should be given alone or in some 
 simple form, or combined with other ingre- 
 dients, the compatibility nf the latter, and 
 how far these are likely to assist, impede, or 
 modify its operation, must also receive the 
 con>ideration of the practitioner. Without a 
 careful attention to all these circumstances 
 the most valuable remedies may be rendered 
 worthless, and the highest medical skill and 
 the best intentions frustrated. 
 
 A prescription generally contains several 
 
PRESCRIPTIONS— PRESSURE 
 
 1387 
 
 mcdicinnl substances, Hliich arc diatinguislied 
 bv medical writers by names indicative of the 
 otBce wliieh each of them performs. These 
 lire — 1. The DA8ia, which is the principal or 
 nicist sctive ingredient; — 2. The adjuvant, 
 or that which is intended t5 promote the 
 anion of the base; — 3. The oonnECTiVE, in- 
 tended to correct, modify, or control its action, 
 or to cover its odour or taste, as when we add 
 carininiitives or diaphoretics to cathartics, or 
 aromatics or liquorice to nauseous substancei; ; 
 — 4. The EXCIPIBNT, or that which gives the 
 whole a commodious or agreeable form, and 
 which, consc(|uently, gives the prescription its 
 peculiar character, as that of draught, mix- 
 ture, pills, &c. To these, certain Continental 
 writers add a 5th, the INTBEMEDim, which 
 is the sabstance employed to unite remedies 
 which are not, by themselves, miscilile witli 
 each other, or with the exoipient. Of this 
 character are the yolk of egg and muuilage, 
 employed in the preparation of emulsions. 
 
 The medicinal substances, with the quan- 
 titie< to bo taken, generally arranged as above, 
 are said to form the ' inscription,' — the di- 
 rections as to their combination or dispensing, 
 which usiiiilly comes next, the ' subscription,' 
 and — the orders for the exhibition of the com- 
 pound medicine, which follow these, the ' in- 
 structions.' These distinctions are, however, 
 in many cases more technical than useful. 
 
 In clioosing tlie form of a prescription it 
 should be recollected that solutions and emul- 
 sions generally act with more certuiuty and 
 rapidity than powders diffused through water; 
 iind these, again, than the semi-solid and solid 
 ~ firms of medicine, represented by electuaries, 
 boluses, and pills. On these matters, how- 
 ever, the taste and wishes of the patient 
 should not bo disregarded. Foi* this purpose 
 the taste of .nauseous medicines should bo dis- 
 guised as much as possible by tlie judicious 
 seketion of an appropriate corrective or ex- 
 cipient. Thus, the disagreeable Havnur of 
 Epsom salt may be in a great measure covered 
 by dissolving it in peppermint water ; that of 
 aloes by liquorice; that of castor oil and 
 copaiba by orange peel ; and that of powdered 
 bark by mixing it with milk immediately 
 before ttking it; whilst the bitterness of all 
 bitter substMueesis concealed by strong cott'ee. 
 In order that a prescription may be well 
 made it is not necessary to unite all the ele- 
 ments above referred to. The basis and the 
 excipicnt are the only two which are abso- 
 lutely necessary, since there are many medi- 
 cines which have no need of an adjuvant. 
 The agreeable flavour and odour of some, and 
 the mild and harmless nature of others, often 
 render the intervention of a corrigent unne- 
 cessary when they are employed. A single 
 substance may also " be capable of answering 
 two or more purposes. Thus, the adjuvant 
 may also act as a corrigent, as when the addi- 
 tion of soap to aloes, or to extract of jiilap, 
 lessens their griping properties, and ut the 
 
 same time promotes their action. In the 
 same way neutral salts correct the colic which 
 follows the use of resinous purgatives, and acce- 
 lerate their action." According to Gaubins, 
 the number of ingredients in a prescription 
 should scarcely ever exceed three or lour. See 
 Dose, Medicises. Incompatiblks, Pills, &c. 
 
 PEESCRIP'TIONS. Recipes or formula; for 
 the preparation and exhibition of mcdieines 
 intended, generally, for immediate use. See 
 Prescribino (above). 
 
 PSESEBVES'. A general term, under which 
 are included the various fruits and vegetables 
 which are seasoned and kept in sugar or syrup, 
 more especially those which are so preserved 
 whole or in slices. See Candtiho, Jam. 
 Makmalade, &c. 
 
 PRESS (Correcting for the). See Pboopb. 
 
 PRESSURE, BAROMETRIC, on the Phe- 
 nomena of Life. M. Bert has contributed 
 to the 'Comptes Rendns '' (Ixxiii, 213, 503 ; 
 Ixxiv, fil7; Ixxv, 29, t>s) an account of the 
 following experimental researches on the in- 
 fluence of changes in the Barouietric I'ressnre 
 on the Phenomena of Life : — 
 
 He finds that at pressures under 18 centi- 
 metres of mercury animals die from want of 
 oxygen ; at a pressure of one to two atmo- 
 spheres, from want of oxygen and presence of 
 carbonic acid ; at 2 — G atmospheres, from the 
 presence of caibonic acid alone; at 6 — 15 
 atmospheres, from the presence of carbonic 
 acid and of excess of oxygen; and at l.> — 23 
 atmospheres, from the poisonous action of 
 o.xygen alone. 
 
 Animals die from want of oxygen when the 
 amount contained in their arterial blood is not 
 suflicient to balance a pressure of 3 5 per cent, 
 of oxygen in the atmosphere. They die from 
 poisoning by carbonic anhydride when the 
 amount contained in their venous blood is 
 sufficient to balance a pressure of 26 to 28 per 
 cent, of carbonic anhydride in the atmospliero 
 in the case of fparrows, of 2H to 30 Iit mam- 
 mals, and of 15 or 16 for reptiles. 
 
 As the pressure of oxygen in the .-nrround- 
 ing air depends on two factors, the percentiige 
 proportion and the barometric pressure, the 
 barometric pressure may be reduced to 6 cen- 
 timetres for sparrows, if the proportion of 
 oxygen in the air is increased ; and it may be 
 raised to 23 atmospheres without causing 
 death, if the proportion of oxygen is reduced 
 by mixing the air with nitrogen. Aeronauts 
 niiglit, therefore, ascend higher than it has 
 hitiierto been possible to do by taking with 
 them a bag of oxygen to inhale ; and the danger 
 tliat threatens divers of being poisoned by the 
 oxygen in the compressed air might be averted 
 by using a mixture of air and nitrogen. 
 
 From an examination of the gases in the 
 blood of animals confined in rarefied air the 
 author finds that both the oxygen and the car- 
 bonic anhydride in the, blood diminish. The 
 dyspucca which is felt in ascending mountains 
 1 'JoumHl Cliemual ^uclcty,' vol. xxv. 
 
1388 
 
 PRINCE'S METAL— PRINTING 
 
 is therefore dae to v/ant of oxygen in tlie 
 blood. The dimiuutiou in oxygen becomes 
 diminished at 20 centimetres pressure, yet 
 this is the pressure under which the inhabi- 
 tants of tlie elevated Mexican plateau of 
 Anahuiic live. The oxygen diminishes more 
 quickly and more regularly than the carbonic 
 anhydride. Although there are but very small 
 quantities of gases simply dissolved in the 
 blood, the chemical combinations in which 
 they take part are dissociated very easily and 
 in a progressive manner under the influence of 
 diminished pressure, and this dissociation 
 takes place more easily in the organisms than 
 in experiments in vacuo. 
 
 PRmCE'S METAL. One of the names for 
 Dutch giild. (See Gold, UniOH.) 
 
 PRINT'mCr (Anastatic). A method of 
 zincography, patented in 1815, having for its 
 object the reproduction of drawings, engrav- 
 ings, and letter-press, from copies howe^'er 
 old. To describe briefly the preparation of a 
 plate or cylinder, let us suppose a newspaper 
 about to be reprinted by this means. The 
 sheet is first moistened with dilute acid and 
 placed between sheets of blotting paper, in 
 order that the superfluous moisture may be 
 absorbed. The ink resists the acid, which 
 attacks the blanks only. In all cases where 
 the letter-press is of recent date, or not per- 
 liaps older than half a year, a few minutes suf- 
 fice for this purpose. The paper is then care- 
 fully placed upon tlie plate with which the 
 letter-press to be transferred is in immediate 
 contact, and the whole passed under a press, 
 un removal from which, and on carefully dis- 
 engaging the paper, the letters are found in 
 reverse on the plate. A preparation of gum 
 is then applied to the plate by means of a 
 roller, after which the letters receive an addi- 
 tion of ink, which is immedialely incorporated 
 with that by which they are already tormed. 
 These operations are effected in a few minutes. 
 The surface of the plate round tlie letters is 
 next bitten in a very slight degree by dilute 
 acid, and on the fresh application of the ink it 
 is rejected by the ziuc, and received only by 
 the letters, which are charged with the ink by 
 the common roller used in hand-pririting. 
 Each letter conies from the press as clear as 
 if it had been imprinted by type n;etal; and 
 the copies are fac-similes, which cannot easily 
 be distinguished from the original sheet. 
 
 When pen-and-ink drawings are to be repro- 
 duced, tbey are made on any paper free from 
 hairs or filaments, and well-sized. The ink 
 used is a preparation made for the purpose, 
 closely resembling lithographic ink, and may 
 be mixed to any degree of thickness in pure 
 distilled water. It should be used fresh, and 
 slightly warm when a fine effect is to be given. 
 In making or copying a design a pencil may 
 be used; but the marks must be left on the 
 paper, and by no means rubbed with India 
 rubber or bread. It is necessary to add that 
 the paper should be kept quite clean and free 
 
 from friction, and should not be touched by 
 the fingers, inasmuch as it will retain marks 
 of very slight touches. 
 
 Before closing this notice of anastatic print- 
 ing it may be proper to remark, that the great 
 pretensions originally set up by the patentees 
 have not been fulfilled by its extensive adop- 
 tion in trade. 
 
 PKINXING (LetterpreBs).' Syn. Ttpo- 
 OKAPHY. The art of collecting together and 
 arranging movable types for the purpose of 
 printing, in one or more colours, by pressure 
 applied from a flat surface or by means of a 
 cylinder biting the paper to be printed, and 
 which is inserted between itself and the type. 
 
 In illustration of this sectiop, some specimen 
 types are appended, the greater portion being 
 from the well-known foundry of Messrs V. & 
 J. Figgins, and should now be carefully read 
 down to render the further remarks Intelligible. 
 The key is contained in itself by reading the 
 column as one continuous paragraph with the 
 helpof the foot-notes. Some idea may thus 
 be formed of the vast number of distinct kinds 
 of type necessary to carry out the requirements 
 of the present system of printing. 
 
 Mention there has been made that the name 
 of the body is determined by its number ot lines 
 to a foot; but this must be qualified. The 
 Imperial foot, or inch, or yard, is an arbitrary 
 measure of length in reality as well as in 
 name. When one foundry was sufficient to 
 supply all the types that were required for 
 use in the early ages of printing, then a nai e 
 and its dimensions could be taken as absolute. 
 But with the increase of printing, type-found- 
 ers also increased; and this has produced the 
 variations of bodies which are so annoying tn 
 the typographer, for one single letter or space 
 taken from a' body larger than its own, yet of 
 the same name, will be enough to throw the 
 column of type out of a straight line all the 
 way through. Still, when we look to the fact 
 that, according to the ancient masters, the 
 large-sized type called Pica (No. 3 and Nos. 18, 
 19, 20 & 21) requires 72J lines to the foot, and 
 that Nonpareil, half its size (No. 9, and Nos. 
 26, 27, 28 & 29), requires 145 lines to the 
 foot, and recollecting that the slightest varia- 
 tion multiplied 145 times must produce a very 
 sensible deviation, the wonder is that each of 
 the founders should approach each other so 
 closely as they do. An attempt was made 
 some years ago to introduce a certain fixity of 
 stand:ird for each body throughout the trade, 
 based on the French system ; the difficulties 
 of altering the standards and matrices of each 
 foundry were seen to be so great that the 
 effort was unavailing. 
 
 . Daring the latter half of the present century 
 there has been a growing disposition to return 
 to the cut of the letters as used by the early 
 printers. To meet this desire, nearly all the 
 type-founders have introduced Old-stjie faces, 
 
 I The Editor is mucli indebted to Mr J. E. Adlard for 
 this interesting article. 
 
PRINTING 
 
 1389 
 
 The ordinary printing^ 
 
 types are technically known" 
 as Book Founts — those more' 
 especially adapted for newspapers* 
 are styled Nrw.s Founts. Each fount* 
 is divided into two distinct portions — the" 
 roiiiuti or upright letters forming one part,' 
 and the italic, or sloping, the other. There is,' 
 moreover, an addition of shall capitals to the roman' 
 Bootion of the typo-founders' bill for a complete fount ofi" 
 a parttcnlar weight. Tlie lieifflit of a typo is ratlier more n 
 
 than T'» at ku Inch, thua givlog deptli at tbo aicfef for luckiag-uf the U 
 
 l^^onsi^^rufion 
 
 tfpea. Tbe Kmal1e*t fount cut t* 
 
 /& tke. J^ai7LencLc±iLtLe.- 
 
 14 
 
 Ki 
 
 ^PtinttnQ;C|)ptsare 
 
 lctj)iucal(]j nanub accorliing to/^ 
 first, the BODY, that is,^^ 
 how many lines, when'' 
 
 order, will make, by Measurement, the length of a^^ 
 FOOT. HAVING NOW DETERMINED^^ 
 
 THE NAME OF THE BODY, -^ 
 
 The SPECIAL. CUT, or" 
 
 1F/S\(glj D§ A©©!© TTG^lK^lTOj " 
 thus completing ttae ITAIWi: by wbicb 26 
 
 Type-Fouaders and lypographers recognise " 
 EACH DISTmCTIVE SIZE AHD «» 
 STYLE OF THE MANV-VARIED TVPES USED IN THE 
 Frodufltion of that luxury which has now beoome an ^ 
 APPARENT NECESSITY OF THE AGE— PRINTING. 
 
 RcfcrencCB to the above types — by rCHcIing HCross. 
 
 BODT. BOOKWORK FACE. DISPLAY FACE. 
 
 1 Great Primer — llDUum ^* Gt. Primer Manuscript 
 
 
 
 15 „ JUxt. Onmniented 
 
 
 
 18 „ Black 
 
 * English— 
 
 Komnn 
 
 17 „ Condensed Black 
 
 > Pica- 
 
 Kuniuu 
 
 18 Pica Antique 
 18 „ Clarendoa 
 20 „ Rustic 
 
 * Small Pica— 
 
 Rnmau 
 
 *i „ Narrow Gauge 
 
 * \m\% Primer- 
 
 - Rom 11 n 
 
 ** Long Primer rCondensed 
 LSanastril' 
 
 • Bourgeois— 
 
 Huniiin 
 
 ? Brevier- 
 
 Aomtin 
 
 ^3 Brevier Grotesque 
 « „ Extended 
 
 ■ Minion— Rom 
 
 & Italic 
 
 " „ Open Sansaerif 
 " Nonpareil Egyptian 
 
 • iNonpiireil — 
 
 Roman 
 
 
 
 "7 „ Hair line 
 
 
 
 -« „ Oriiamentrd 
 
 
 
 '-^ „ Coudenaed Gro- 
 
 w Rubv— 
 
 R'tninn 
 
 tesque 
 
 " P.»rl- 
 
 Human 
 
 30 Pearl Clarendon 
 
 '* Diamond — 
 
 Horn. in 
 
 81 Diiimoud Grotesque 
 
 " Small Pica 2-line I. Nc. 4 doubled) German Text 
 
 bnt yet modernised iis to their pecaliarities. 
 Considering that this article would not be 
 complete without bome sucli notice thereof, 
 as well as to show the contrast, the following 
 is here introduced to the reader. 
 
 Thele Old-faced Types 
 CUT BY THE CELEBRATED 
 William Caslon, in or about the 
 years 1716-30, are even now viewed 
 with great satisfaction, and held in high 
 efteem, by judges of the typographic art as 
 mafter-pieces of fhape and finiih. 
 
 To the list of types presented, and which 
 give a sufficient general vitw, may be added 
 Emerald — between Minion and tlonparril — 
 for book-work, and also for borders and flowers 
 to be used in neat and artistic work ; Gem and 
 Semi- Nonpareil for music j utui Minikin, for 
 inusii; and Oriental work. 
 
 The larger sizes of typo are, with very few 
 exceptions, simple mult plis of the Pica; for 
 instance, Q-line Roman tuenns a roman letter 
 of the depth of six lines of Pica; 20-line 
 Antique, an antique of the depth of twenty 
 lines; and so on. 
 
 Very little more need be fnid on the names 
 applied to the different faces. Letters used 
 in Title-pages are especially cut for and styled 
 Titling — Square, Condensed, and if very much 
 condensed in width, Compressed or Narrow- 
 Qauge. On tbe other hand, when the letters 
 seem pulled out right and left, they are styled 
 Extended. 
 
 If the reader will notice the type in which 
 this volume is composed, he will observi' that 
 the bottoms of the tail letters are very clo-e 
 down upon the top-j of the tall letters, and all 
 but touch : this is termed solid. When a page 
 or book is required to look light and less 
 wearisome to the visinn, the lines of type are 
 removed from each other, and i\ spnce-line in- 
 serted between them — the piigc is now termed 
 leaded. These space-lines u^ed to be cut, by 
 the compositor, from milled lead, first in strips 
 of the necessary width, then of the required 
 length ; hence the term leads, by which name 
 tlicy are commonly known. However, they 
 were but poor appliances at the best. Moulds 
 are now used for casting the metal to the 
 specified thickness in strips of about 9 inches 
 long, then cut by h machine to a set gauge; 
 by these means the thickness of the space- 
 lines, or leads, is not only more uniformly se- 
 ciire.l, bnt lav greater regularity obtained in 
 tbe leu^ths cut. Here, as in the large type, as 
 above mentioned. Pica is the standard which 
 regnhites the lead ; in other « ords, leads are 
 cast as 3 to a pica, that is, 3 Iciids form the 
 solid measurement of the Pica boily ; 4rto-pica 
 requires 4 leads, and the body of the lead con- 
 tinues to decrease according to the prefixed 
 figure, which simply denotes into how many 
 parts the pica is to be divided. Leads are 
 
1390 
 
 PRINTING INK 
 
 cast so delicately fine that 16 form the pica, 
 but they are seldom used. In many of the 
 News offices brass space-lines have superseded 
 those cast from type-metal. 
 
 The method of manufacturing type is — 
 The face having been determined upon — 
 light or heavy, round or narrow, as well as 
 the thickness of the downstroke — a piece of 
 prepared soft iron is taken, and upon the tip- 
 end thereof the proposed letter is cut in re- 
 lief; when this cutting is finished it is case- 
 haidened, and afterwards styled the punch. 
 The strike is the next operation. The punch 
 (the letter cut upon which, by-tlie-bye, is 
 backward) is now punched, or struck, into an 
 oblong piece of copper, about 3 inches long 
 and ^rd of an inch thick, the breadth such as 
 the size of the letter may require : this is the 
 matrix. A most particular part has now to 
 be performed, called justifying ; which means 
 that the matrices shall, when placed in the 
 mould, deliver the letters perfectly upright, 
 and all to be true on a line as fine as a razor's 
 edge. When the process of justifying is ac- 
 complished, the matrix is fixed at the bottom 
 of a mould, of the shape of a parallelogram, 
 of the size of the body one way, of the width 
 of "the letter the other, and the depth the 
 standard height of the type ; the molten metal 
 is forced down this tube, either by hand or 
 by a pump worked by hand or steam, the 
 metal filling the matrix (the sunk letter upon 
 which is now forward) receives the shape of 
 the lettei*, which is once more reversed, or in 
 a backw^ard position, like as the original punch 
 was cut. The castings are released from the 
 mould by a very ingenious method of opening 
 from the two diagonal corners. The types as 
 cast are forwarded on to the dressers to remove 
 burrs and other superfluities; then are placed 
 in long lines in a frame for finishing ; next 
 turned face downwards, and a grooving plane 
 driven across the feet to insure correctness in 
 height; finally looked over for blemishes, 
 when all faulty letters are thrown out ; the 
 process is completed by ranging into lines of 
 handy length, and tied up — ready for delivery 
 to the typographer. 
 
 PEINX'ING INK. Frep.—a. TheTAENlSH. 
 Linseed or nut oil, 10 or 20 galls., is set over 
 the fire in an iron pot capable of containing 
 fully as much more ; when it boils, it is kept 
 stirred with an ir(m ladle, and, if it does not 
 take fire of itself soon after the smoke begins 
 to rise, it is kindled by means of a piece of 
 burning paper, stuck in the cleft end of a long 
 stick ; the pot is shortly afterwards removed 
 from the fire, and the oil is suffered to burn 
 for about hulf an hour, or until a sample of 
 the varnish cooled upon a palette knife may 
 be drawn into strings of about i inch long, 
 between the fingers ; the flame is now extin- 
 guished by the application of a closely fitting 
 tin cover, and, as soon as the froth of the ebul- 
 lition has subsided, black resin is added, in the 
 proportion of | lb. to 1 lb. for every quart of 
 
 oil thus treated ; the mixture is next sth-red 
 until the resin is dissolved, when dry brown 
 soap, cut into slices, 1| lbs., is further added 
 (cautiously), and the ingredients are again 
 stirred with the spatula until the whole is 
 united, the pot being once more placed over 
 the fire to promote the combination ; when 
 this is effected, the varnish is removed from 
 the heat, and, after a good stirring, is covered 
 over and set aside. 
 
 b. The INK. Indigo and Prussian blue, of 
 each, in fine powder, 2\ oz. ; mineral lamp- 
 black (finest), 4 lbs. ; vegetable lampblack, 3J 
 lbs. ; stir them gradually into the warm var- 
 nish (a), and submit the mixture to careful 
 grinding, either in a mill or by means of a 
 slab and muller. On the large scale, steam 
 power is now generally employed for this 
 purpose. 
 
 An extemporaneous superfine black ink may 
 be made by the following formula: — Take of 
 balsam of copaiba (pure), 9 oz. ; lampblack, 
 3 oz. ; indigo and Prussian blue, of each | oz. ; 
 Indian red, | oz. ; yellow soap (dry), 3 oz. ; 
 grind the mixture to an impalpable smooth- 
 ness by means of a stone and muller. Canada 
 balsam may be substituted for balsam of 
 copaiba where the smell of the latter is ob- 
 jectionable, but the ink then dries very 
 quickly. 
 
 COLOUEED PKiNTiNa INKS are made in a 
 similar way from the following pigments : — 
 Carmine, lakes, vermilion, chrome yellow, red 
 lead, orange red, Indian red, Venetian red, for 
 red ; orange chrome, chrome yellow, burnt 
 terra di sienna, gall-stone, Roman ochre, yel- 
 low ochre, for orange and yellow ; verdigris, 
 Scheele's green, Schweinfurt green, blues, 
 and yellows mixed, for greens ; indigo, Prus- 
 sian blue, Antwerp b., cobalt b., charcoal b., 
 for blue ; lustre, bronze powders, &c., for 
 metallic colours ; and umbia, sepia, &c., for 
 brown. 
 
 Obs, It is necessary to prepare two kinds 
 of varnish, varying in consistence, from more 
 or less boiling, to be occasionally mixed to- 
 gether as circumstances may require; that 
 which answers well in hot weather being too 
 thick in cold, and vice versd. Large charac- 
 ters also require a thinner ink than small 
 ones. Old linseed oil is preferable to new. 
 Yellow resin soap is preferied for black and 
 dark-coloured inks, and white curd soap for 
 light ones. 
 
 A good varnish may be drawn into threads 
 like glue, and is very thick and tenacious. 
 The oil loses from 10§ to 14g by the boiling. 
 Mr Savage obtained the large medal of the 
 Society of Arts for his black ink made as 
 above. 
 
 A PBINTEH'S INK EASILY BEMOVED FKOM 
 WASTE PAPEB. The following process for the 
 preparation of a printer's ink that can be far 
 more readily removed from waste paper than 
 ordinary printer's ink has been patented by 
 Kirscher and Ebner. Iron is dissolved in some 
 
PRINTS— PRUNES 
 
 1391 
 
 acid — Bulpliuric, hydroo'nlorlc, acotic, Ac. will 
 Hnswer, and hull of the solution is oxidised 
 witli nitric acid and added to the other half 
 anil the oxide precipitated from the mixture 
 by means of soda or potash. The precipitate 
 it thoroughly washed, and treated with equal 
 parts of solutions of tiiunic and gallic acids, 
 »nd the bluish black, or pure black pigment 
 formed, is thoroughly washed and dried, und 
 mixed with linseed-oil varnish, and can then 
 be immediately used for printing from type, 
 copper, wood, steel, or stone. Waste paper 
 printed with it can be bleached by digesting 
 it for li'l hours in a lukewarm bath of pure 
 water, :ind 10 per cent, of caustic potash or 
 soda, and then grinding it well in the rag 
 engine, and throwing the pulp upon cloth and 
 allowing it to drain. It is then to be waslied 
 with pure water, containing 10 per cent, of 
 hydrochloric, acetic, or oxalic acids, or of bin- 
 oxalate of pota-s:i, and allowed to digest for 24 
 hours, and may then be worked up iuto paper, 
 or it can be dried and used as a substitute in 
 the manufacture of finer paper. 
 
 PEINTS (Ackerman's Liquor for). Frep. 
 Take of the tinest pale glue and wliito curd 
 sonp, of each 4 oz. ; boiling water, 3 pints ; 
 dissolve, then add of powdered alum, 2 oz. 
 Used to siie prints and pictures before colour- 
 ing them. 
 
 PEINTS, To Bleach. Simple Immersion of 
 the prints in a solution of hypochlorous acid 
 (tbe article remaining in the solution for a 
 lciuj;or or shorter space, according to the 
 strength of the solution) is generally uU that 
 is required to whiten it. 
 
 FEIVI£S. See Watebclosbts. 
 
 PROOF. See Acbtimetby, Alooholomk- 
 
 TET, &C. 
 
 PROOFS (Correcting). The specimen on tbe 
 next piige, with the notes, will, if carefully 
 perused, put the reader into possession of all 
 the secrets nf tliis useful art. 
 
 PROPYLA'MINE. Syn. TErrYiAJiiNB. 
 CaHjN, or C3H, , 
 
 This compound or sub 
 
 H In. 
 hJ 
 
 stitutcd ammonia, in which one of the three 
 atoms of hydrogen is displaced by the radicle 
 propyl or trityl (C3H;), is isomorphous with 
 trimethyliimine, which has been often mistaken 
 for it. 
 
 Piopo-ied as a remedy for acute and chronic 
 rheumatism. 
 
 Heijce it is that the commercial substance 
 known under the name of 'propylamine,' 
 which has been proposed and employed as a 
 remedy for rheumatism, has been shown to be 
 not propylamine, but its isomer, triniethyla- 
 aiiue, or a mixture of this latter, in varying 
 proportions, with ammonia. 
 
 Mendius gives the following process for the 
 preparation of propylamine : — 36 grams 
 of cyanide of etliyl, 600 grams nf common 
 alcohol, 2U0 grains of water, and 50 Rrams of 
 i;o per cent, hydrochloric :icid, are allowed to 
 
 act on excess of granulated zinc, and then 
 distilled. 
 
 The distillate is put back once, and 400 
 grams of hydrochloric acid are added. 
 
 The product is distilled to get rid of the 
 alcohol, then excels of alkali added to the 
 residue, and the distillation continued, where- 
 upon propylamine and water come over. Men- 
 dius says 36 grums of the cyanide of ethyl 
 yield 9 grinn< of pure propylamine. The 
 propylamine is dried by distillation from 
 solid potash. 
 
 Propylamine is a bright, colourless, highly 
 refracting, very mobile liquid, possessing a 
 peculiar, strongly ammouiacal odour. It 
 mixes with water, heat beinj^ generated by 
 the mixture. It boils at M' C, and has a 
 sp. gr. of -7134 at 21° C. 
 
 Propylamine combines with acids, and forms 
 crystallised salts. The chloride is a very 
 deliquescent salt. The sulphate occurs in 
 crystals, and is also deliquescent. See Tbi- 
 METHTLAMINB. 
 
 PROPYL'IC ALCOHOL. CjHjO. Syn. Ht- 
 
 DBATED OXIDE OF PBOPTL, ThITVL ALCOHOL. 
 
 A liquid boiling at 201-8' l''uhr., obtained by 
 repeiitedly rectifying the first products of the 
 distillation of tbe fusel oil of marc brandy. It 
 stands to ethylic alcohol (ordinary alcohol) in 
 the same relation in which the latter stands to 
 methylic alcohol (pyroxylic spirit). 
 
 PRO'TEIN. The name given by .Mulder to 
 a substance which he regiirded a-^ the original 
 matter from which animal albumen, casein, 
 and fibrin, were derived; but which is now 
 considered as a product of the decomposition 
 of those important principles by moderately 
 strong caustic alkali. 
 
 Frep. (Liebig.) Albumen, casein, or fibrin 
 is dissolved in moderately strong potoss:i, the 
 solution heated for some time to 120° Fahr., 
 and acetic iicid added ; a gelatinou'i precipitate 
 subsides, which, after being washed and dried, 
 is protein. 
 
 Ohs. The names binoxiilo and teroxide of 
 protein have been given by Jl alder to pro- 
 ducts of the long-continued action of boiling 
 water upon fibrin in contact with the air. 
 
 PEO'TIDE. A soluble, straw-yellow sub- 
 stance, formed, along with other products, by 
 tbe action of strong solution of potassa on 
 albumen, fibrin, or casein. See Ebythbo- 
 
 PHOTIDB. 
 
 PR0T0-. See Nomexclatuee. 
 
 PEOVr'SlONS ( Preservation of ). See 
 Putrefaction. 
 
 PRUNES. [Fr.] Tbe frnit of cultivated 
 varieties of Pntnus domesiica (Linn.). The 
 dried fruit (French pehnes or plums ; pku- 
 NUU— B. P., Ph. L., PEUSA— Ph. E. & D.) is 
 cooling and gently laxa'.ive, and, as such, is 
 uselul in habitual eostiveness and fevers. 
 
 Prunes, Pulp of. S,<in. Prepared phuxes ; 
 PULPA PRUXOKUir, Pruxum pejeparatcm 
 (Ph. L.), L. Prep. The imported dried fruit 
 is boiled gently fur four hours with water, q. s. 
 
1392 
 
 PROOF 
 
 \_Proof. 
 /*_ /> As the vine^ which has long 
 
 
 fiom. 
 
 twined its graceful foliage 
 about the oaky and been 
 lifted by it into sunshine, will, 
 when the hardy plant is rift^^ 
 ed by the thunderCZ^bolt, 
 cling rounds it with its 
 caressing tendrils, and bind 
 
 Alts shattered boughs up^, 
 ^ so is it {^ordered \ beautif ullyy 
 T'LfiiM by Providence, that woman 
 an/ who is the mere depend^t 
 {,'ui/ and ornament of man in tlie 
 -^v/ happier hours, should ^ his 
 'Ian on/ stay and solace "^ 
 
 / fWhen smitten by 
 
 sudden calamity / winding 
 herself ™ into the rugged 
 recesses of his ifature, ten- 
 derly supporting the droop- 
 ing -tfrad-j and binding up 
 me/iur the broken heart. [It also 
 .^^ is /interesting to /notice how 
 ^^g some MINDS seem almost to 
 ^.(y/' create themselves, springing 
 up un'^r, and working their 
 /^solitary, ( but irresistible way,A 
 
 
 r 
 
 through 
 cles J/ 
 
 a thousand obsta- 
 Nature seems^ &c. 
 
 [The same corrected.^ 
 
 As the vine, which has long twined its graceful 
 foliage about the oak, and been lifted by it into 
 suushine, will, when. the hardy plant is rifted by 
 the thunderbolt, cling round it with its caress- 
 in°; tendrils, and bind up its shattered boughs 
 BO is it beautifully ordered ))y Providence, that 
 WOMAN, who is the mere dependant and orna- 
 ment of man in his happier hours, should be his 
 stay and solace when smitten by sudden calamity ; 
 winding heraelf into the rugged reresses of his 
 nature, tenderly supporting the drooping head, 
 and binding up the broken heart. 
 
 It also is interesting to notice how someminils 
 seem almost to create themselths, springing 
 up under every disadvantage, and working their 
 *• solitary, but irresistible way," through a thou- 
 sand obstacles. Nature seems, &r. 
 
 mVING. 
 
 ^Explanation of the marTcs : 
 
 1. "When a letter or word is to he in italics. 
 
 3. "When a letter is turned upside down. 
 
 8. The substitution of a comma for another 
 point or letter. 
 
 4. Tlie insertion of a hyphen ; also marked (-). 
 
 5. 'When letters should be close together. 
 
 6. When a letter or word is to be omitted. 
 
 7. When a word is to be changed to ronian. 
 8, 9. Two methods of marking a transposition: 
 
 when there arc leveral words to be transposed, 
 and they are much intermixed, it is a common 
 plan to number them, and to put the usual mark 
 in the margin. 
 
 30. Substitution of a capital for a small letter. 
 
 11. "When a M'ord is to be changed from small 
 letters to capitals. 
 
 13. The transposition of letters in a word. 
 
 13. The substitution of one word for another. 
 
 11. When a word or letter is to be inserted. 
 
 15. When a paragrnph occurs improperly. 
 
 16. The insertion of a semicolon. 
 
 17. When a space or quadrat stands up, and is 
 seen along with the type. 
 
 18. When letters of a wrong fount are used. 
 
 19. When words crossed iff are to remain. 
 
 20. The mark lor a paragraph, when its com- 
 mencement has been neglected. Sometimes the 
 sign [, or % or the word ' hreak,^ is used instead 
 of the syllables 'New Par* 
 
 21. Tor the ijiaertion of a space when omitted 
 or insufhcient. 
 
 22. To change capitals to small letters. 
 
 23. To cliangc small letters to small capitals. 
 
 24. "When lines or words are not straight. 
 25,36. The insertion of inverted commas. The 
 
 apostrophe is similarly marked. 
 
 27. The insertion of a period when omitted, or 
 in place of another point or letter. 
 
 28. Substitution of one letter for another. 
 
 29. The method of marking an omission or 
 insertion when too long for the side margin. 
 
PKUNING- PRUSSIAN BLUE 
 
 1393 
 
 lo cover tliem, nnd tlien pressed, first through 
 n fine cano sieve, and afcerwnrds through a 
 fine hair sieve ; the pulp ia, lastly, evaporated 
 by the hent of a water bath to the consistence 
 of a confection. A better plan is to use as 
 little water as possible, by which the necessity 
 of subsequent evaporation is avoided. Used 
 in the prennrntion of coufnction of senna. 
 
 FBU'KINQ varies according to the kind of 
 plant or tree operated on and the particular 
 object in view, and its skilful performance 
 must, therefore, greatly depend on the expe- 
 rience and knowledge of the gardener. " In 
 the operation of pruning, the shoots are cut 
 off close to the buds, or at a distance not 
 greater than the diameter of the branch to be 
 cut off; because without the near proximity 
 of a bud the wounds will not heal over. In 
 shoots which produce their buds alternately 
 the cut is made at the back of the bud slop- 
 ing from it, 80 that it may be readily covered 
 by the bark in the same or in the following 
 year; but in the case of branches where the 
 buds are produced opposite each other, either 
 one bud must be sacrificed or the branch must 
 be cut off ut right angles to its line of direc- 
 tion, which is most conveniently done with 
 the pruning shears." (Loudon.) 
 
 PRUS'SIAK AI'KALI. Ferrocyan'ide of 
 potassium. 
 
 FEUS'SIAN BLUE. Syn. Beblin blub 
 
 PaBIS B., FEBBOOYiNIDK OF lEON, PbUSSIATE 
 
 OP I., CiANBEBT OF I. TIlis is the well- 
 known blue pigment of the shops. 
 
 Prep, 1. The crude but clear solution of 
 ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) is 
 precipitated by a mixed solution of alum, 2 
 parts, and greeu sulphate of iron, 1 part ; the 
 dingy greenish precipitate that falls gradually 
 becomes blue by absorption of atmospheric 
 oxygen, which is promoted by exposure and 
 ngitation of the liquor; as soon us it has ac- 
 ((uired its full colour, the sediment is re- 
 peotedly washed with water, and is then 
 drained, and dried, at first in a stove, but 
 afterwards on chalk stones. Product large, 
 but infirior in quality. 
 
 2. Repeatedly digest and wash the preci- 
 pitate obtained by the above process in very 
 dilate hydrochloric acid, and then iu pure 
 water; drain and dry it, as before. Superior. 
 
 3. (Paris blue.) — a. Neutralise the solution 
 of ferrocyanide of potassium (blood lye) with 
 dilute sulphuric acid, precipitate the liquid 
 with a solution of any persalt or sesquisalt of 
 iron(as the persulphate, nitrate,Besquichloride, 
 or peracetate) ; well wash the precipitate with 
 water, and dry it, as before. A very rich and 
 intense colour. 
 
 4. (Hochstatter.) Crystallised ferrocyanide 
 of potassiuraandgroensulphateof iron, of each 
 6 parts, are each separately dissolved in water, 
 13 parts; after the admixture of the solutions, 
 and frequent agitation, oil of vitriol, 1 part, 
 and fuming hydrochloric acid, 24 parts, are 
 stirred in; after some hours have elapsed a 
 
 VOt. II. 
 
 strained solution of chloride of lime, 1 parti 
 dissolved in water, 80 parts, is gradually added, 
 the addition beins; stopped as soon as an effer- 
 vescence from tlic escape of chlorine is per- 
 ceived; the whole is now left for 5 or 6 hours, 
 when the precipitate is thoroughly washed 
 in pure soft water, drained, and dried. Or, 
 instead of the above, the precipitate is at once 
 washed iu dilute nitric acid until its colour 
 ceases to be improved by the process. The 
 product is of the finest quality. 
 
 Prop. Insoluble in water and in dilute 
 acids, except the oxalic, in solutions of which 
 it dissolves freely when pure; oil of vitriol 
 dissolves it to a white pasty mass, which is 
 again precipitated of the usual blue colour by 
 water; alkalies instantly decompose it, and so 
 do red oxide of mercury and some other oxides 
 when boiled with it ; it burns in the air like 
 tinder, leaving an ash of oxide of iron. It is 
 not poisonous. 
 
 Pur., Sfo. The quality of Prussian blue 
 may be estimated by the richness of its colour, 
 and by the quantity of potassa or soda required 
 to destroy this. If it effervesces with acids, 
 it contains chalk ; and if it forms a paste with 
 boiling water, it is adulterated with starch. 
 It is pure if, " after being boiled with dilute 
 hydrochloric acid, ammonia throws down 
 nothing from the filtered liquid." (Ph. L. 
 1836.) It is distinguished from indigo by 
 exhibiting u coppery tint when broken, but 
 which is removed by rubbing with tlie nail. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. The commercial Prus- 
 sian blue is not purt ferrocyanide of iron, 
 but a mixture of this salt with varying pro- 
 portions of the ferricyanide of iron and potas- 
 sium, which also has a fine deep blue colour. 
 The oliject in employing alum is to prevent or 
 lessen the precipitation of oxide of iron by the 
 free alkali in the blood lye, but a portion of 
 alumina is in consequence thrown down with 
 the blue, and tends to render it paler and 
 increase the product. The quantity of alum 
 employed may be varied according to the 
 shades of the intended blue. Samples con- 
 taining this contamination mnst not be em- 
 ployed medicinally. (iSee page 324.) 
 
 Finssian Blue, Sol'uble. Prep. 1. (Basic 
 Prussian blue.) By adding a solution of 
 protosulpliate of irou to a solution of ferro- 
 cyanide of potassium ; a bluish-white precipi- 
 tate, turning dark blue by free exposure, is 
 formed, which, after it has acquired this 
 colour, is washed until it begins to dissolve in 
 the watei", and colour it blue ; it is then either 
 collected and dried, or is at once dissolved in 
 pure water. This variety is not precipitated 
 from its solution by alcohol. 
 
 2. (Feeeoctanidk op potassium and 
 ieon.) By precipitating a solutiou of a ses- 
 quisalt or persalt of irou (as the persulphate, 
 pernitrate, peracetate, or sesquichloride) with 
 a stronger solution of ferrocyanide of potassium, 
 so that the latter may be in considerable exce.ss. 
 A bine precipitate is formed, which is treated 
 
1394 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID— PULVERISATION 
 
 as before. Tliis variety is precipitated by al- 
 cohol. Both are freely soluble in pure water, 
 but not in water wliich has the slightest saline 
 contamination. Hence it is that lengthened 
 exposure to the atmosphere and the use of the 
 common steel pen causes the gradual precipi- 
 tation of this substance from its solution when 
 used .as ink. See Wbitin& fluids. 
 
 PRU"SSIC ACID. See Hydeocyanic acid. 
 
 PSEU'DO-MOK'PHIA. A substance of little 
 importance, occasionally found in opium. It 
 differs from morphine chieily in not decom- 
 posing iodic acid. It is said to contain ni- 
 trogen. 
 
 PTIS'AN. Syn. Ptisanj, L. A decoction 
 made of pearl barley, liquorice, raisins, and 
 otber like vegetable matters, either alone or 
 so slightly medicated as to be taken as a com- 
 mon drink in fevers, catarrhs, &c. Those re- 
 tained in English pharmacy have been alreiidj 
 noticed. The French physicians often employ 
 this form of medicine. The 'tisanes' of the 
 P. Cod. are numerous. Ste Decoction, In- 
 pirsioif, JuiEP, Tisane, &c. 
 
 PTY'ALIN. A peculiar animal matter, analo- 
 gous to diastase, obtained from the saliva. 
 It is soluble in water, but insoluble in al- 
 cohol. 
 
 Mialhe named ptya'iu " animal diastase," 
 and regarded it as the principal agent in 
 etl'ecting the digestion of starchy foods, by 
 converting them into soluble glucose. One 
 part of ptjalin, according to Mialhe, was 
 capable of transforming 800 parts of in- 
 soluble starch into sugar. It has been com- 
 pute4 that the average daily secretion of 
 ptyalin by an adult amounts to 116 grains. 
 It very quickly decomposes, and in properties 
 somewhat resembles sodic albuminate. 
 
 PUCHA PAT. Syn. Patchouli. Pucha 
 pat is the dried foliaceous tops of Pogostemon 
 Patchouli, an Indian species oi Lahiatce. It is 
 much used in perfumery, particularly for 
 making sachets ; but its odour, although very 
 durable, is not so agreeable as that of many 
 other substances, unless it is combined with 
 lavender, hergaitiot, ambergris, musk, or some 
 other like perfume. 
 
 PUD'DINGS. The instructions given under 
 Cakes, Pies, &c., will be found, with some 
 slight modifications, also to apply to puddings, 
 and, therefore, need not be repeated here. 
 Soyer tells us that every sort of pudding, if 
 sweet or savory, is preferably dressed in a 
 basin instead of in a cloth. If boiled in a 
 basin the paste receives all the nutriment of 
 the materials, which, if boiled in a cloth, are 
 dissolved out by the water, when by neglect 
 it ceases boiling. To cause them to turn well 
 out, the inside of the basin should be tho- 
 roughly ' larded ' or rubbed with butter. 
 
 In the preparation of meat puddings the 
 " first and most important point is never to 
 use any meat that is tainted; for in pudding, 
 above all otber dishes, it is least possible to 
 disguise it by the confined progress which the 
 
 ingredients undergo. The gradual heating of 
 the meat, which alone would accelerate de- 
 composition, will cause the smallest piece of 
 tainted meat to contaminate all the rest. Be 
 particular, also, that the suet and fat are not 
 rancid, ever remembering the grand principle 
 that everything which gratifies the palate 
 nourishes." 
 
 " A pudding cloth, however coarse, ought 
 never to be washed with soap ; it should be 
 simply dried as quickly as possible, and kept 
 dry and free from dust, and in a drawer or 
 cupboard free from smell." (Soyer.) 
 
 PUD'DLING. See Ieon. 
 
 PULMONI'TIS. Inflammation of the lungs. 
 
 PULP. Syn. Pulpa, L. The softer parts 
 of plants, more particularly of fruits, sepa- 
 rated from the fibrous and harder portions. 
 
 " Pulpy fruits, if they be unripe, or ripe and 
 dried, are to be placed in a damp situation 
 until they become soft; then the pulp is to be 
 pressed out through a hair sieve ; afterwards 
 it is to be boiled with a gentle heat, frequently 
 stirring; and finally, the (excess of) water is 
 to be evaporated in a water bath, until the 
 pulp acquire proper consistence. 
 
 " Press the pulpy fruits which are ripe and 
 fresh through a hair sieve, without boiling 
 them." (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 
 PULVEEISA'TION. The reduction of any 
 substance to dust or powder. 
 
 On the small scale, pulverisation is usually 
 performed by means of a pestle and mortar; 
 on the large scale, by stamping, grinding or 
 cutting the substance in a mill. A few soft 
 substances, as carbonate of magnesia, carbonate 
 of lead, &c., may be pulverised by simply rub- 
 bing them through a fine sieve, placed over a 
 sheet of paper ; whilst many hard, gritty sub- 
 stances can only he reduced to fine powder by 
 porphyrisation or levigation. Elutriation, or 
 ' washing over,' is adopted for several sub- 
 stances, as chalk, antimony, &c., which are 
 required to be reduced to fine powder on the 
 large scale. For some articles which are very 
 tough, fibrous, or resisting, a rasp or file is 
 employed. Whichever of these methods is 
 adopted, the body to be powdered must be very 
 dry, and where spontaneous drying is insuffi- 
 cient, artificial desiccation in a stove or oven, 
 gently heated, is employed. To facilitate this, 
 the substance should be first cut into pieces or 
 crushed small. On the other hand, a few sub- 
 stances, as rice, sago, nux vomica, and St 
 Ignatius's bean, are often soaked in water, or 
 steamed, before being further opeiated on. 
 Whenever a substance cannot be dried com- 
 pletely, without an alteration of its properties, 
 an intermedium is had recourse to, by which 
 the moisture may be absorbed, or its state of 
 aggregation modified. Thus, sugar is employed 
 in pulverising civet, musk, nutmeg, atid vanilla. 
 When camphor is to be pulverised, the addition 
 of a very small quantity of alcohol renders the 
 operation easy. In other cases the interme- 
 dium is of so hard a nature as to assist in break- 
 
PUMICE STONE-PUNCH 
 
 1395 
 
 iag down the substance to be powdered ; thus, 
 gold lent is reduced to powder by rubbing it 
 with sulphate of potassa, and afterwards re- 
 moving this lust by meau!i of water. Fusible 
 luotals, us zinc and tin, are powdered by pour- 
 ing thfin into a mortar, and stirring them 
 rHpidly whilst cooling; or, by briskly agitating 
 them, in the melted state, in a wooden box 
 covered with chalk or whiting. Phosphorus is 
 powdered by melting it in urine or lime water, 
 and thtn shaking the bottle uutil its contents 
 have become quite cold. Qlass, quartz, and 
 silicated stones, require to be heated red hot, 
 and in this state to be thrown into cold water, 
 by which they become sufficiently friable to 
 admit of pulverisation. Many salts which are 
 reduced to fine powder with very great diffi- 
 culty, arid do not dissolve in spirit of wine, 
 are easily obtained in a pulverulent form, bv 
 agitating their concentrated aqueous solution 
 with a considerable quantity of rectified spirit; 
 the disengaged fine crystallised powder may 
 then be dried, nml further divided by tritura- 
 tion. Potivssio tartrate of antimony may be 
 advantageously thus treated. A large number 
 of salts, including nitre, sal aminoniiic, and 
 carbonate of potash, may also be reduced to 
 powder by keeping their solutions in a state ot 
 constant and violent agitutiuu during their 
 rapid evaporation. 
 
 The following rules should be observed in 
 the preparation of powders : — 
 
 1. If possible, perfectly dry articles should 
 alone be operated on, and only in dry weather. 
 
 2. The nature of the mortar, and the mode 
 of operating, should be adapted to the nature 
 of the substance. Thus, woods and barks 
 should he pulverised in an iron mortar ; suj;ar, 
 alum, and nitre, in oue of marble or wedg- 
 wooil-warc ; and corrosive sublimate, only in 
 Dne of glass. 
 
 3. Ihe mortar should be provided with a 
 cover, to prevent loss and annoyance to the 
 operator. It' much powder escapes, or if it is 
 dangerous or disagreeable when breathed, or 
 it' the substance is rare or costly, the mortar 
 should be covered with a skin of leather, to 
 Vrhich the pestle is attached, so that the latter 
 may be freely moved without causing the 
 slightest opening for the escape of the dust 
 occasioned by the process. When aloes or 
 gamboge is powdered, a few drops of olive oil 
 are commonly added with the same inten- 
 tion. 
 
 4. The pulverised portions should he sepa- 
 rated from time to time by aid of a sieve, the 
 coarser paitieles being returned to the mortar 
 to be again beaten and triturated ; and this 
 alternate pulverisation :ind sifting is to be 
 repestc'l until the process is complete. 
 
 PUM'ICE STONE. Sy». 1'umex, Lapis 
 PITHiCKDs, L. FCMicis, L. Found in the 
 neighlwnrhood of volcanoes. Used, in the 
 ■olid form, to pnli^h wood, paint, &c. ; also, 
 when pulveri-ed, ik a polishing powder for 
 gla'S, bone, ivory, marble, metals, &c. 
 
 PUMP FOE USE IN CHEMICAL, PAPEE, 
 and other Works. The Perreaux Pump 
 Valve is made of vulcanised india rubber, and 
 is of the form of the valves in the human 
 body. It is of the greatest, and perhaps the 
 really only valuable improvement in valves 
 applicable, equally, to the common hand or 
 jack pump, and the most elaborate mechanical 
 combinations for raising water. 
 
 The valve may be taken as the key of the 
 pump; a perfect valve renders an indilferent 
 pump avaiuable and effective macliine, whereas 
 an imperfect valve, in an otherwise excellently 
 constructed pump, renders it practically use- 
 less. 
 
 The pump which Simon the tanner, of 
 Joppi, used for pumping his pits, nearly two 
 thousand years ago, may be taken as the type 
 of the comiyoii hand pump in use to this day. 
 Various mechanical improvements have been 
 made in its form and construction, but, prac- 
 tically, and effectively, the only real and valu- 
 able improvement is the Perreaux valve, now 
 under oonsideiation. 
 
 Constructed of a flexible material, and made 
 in form, as nearly as may be, to the valves of 
 the human body, they may be said to be auto- 
 matic in their action, or self acting; upon 
 the pump being actuated, tlio least motion of 
 the pump ensuring a corresponding action of 
 tiie valve, and the most rapid action of the 
 pump, beiiij; equally responded to by the pul- 
 sation of tlie valves. 
 
 Although the most perfect valves for pump- 
 ing clear water, because, what is mechanically 
 termed the duty of the pump is complete, in 
 other words, the quantity displaced is dis- 
 charged, absolutely without loss, yet their most 
 valU'ible feature is that they pump semifluids 
 equally well as clear water. 
 
 For the pulps and stuffs in paper mills, for 
 bleaches, dye.-*, and corrosive liquors, for 
 liquid manures and other such semi-tluids, 
 tliey stand alone, they are absolutely uncbok- 
 able. 
 
 Used in conjunction with cylinders or barrels 
 made of toughened glass, they form the 
 most perfect pump where the fluid to be 
 raised is of a caustic or corrosive nature, and 
 where the fluid would be destructive to or 
 destroyed by its action upon metals, such fur 
 example as the caustic bleach used in the 
 maiiuiacture of p iper, &c. See Valves. 
 
 PUNCH. An acidulous, intoxicating; beve- 
 rage, conipostd of water sweetened with sugar, 
 with a mixture of lemon juice and spirit, to 
 wliich some aromatic, as nutmeg, mace, or cin- 
 namon, is occasionally added. Wine is some- 
 times substituted for spirit. It is much less 
 drunk than formerly. Rum punch is themost 
 popular amongst sailors, who are now the 
 principal consumers of ihis beverage. 
 
 Frtp. I. Juice of 3 or 4 lemons; yellow 
 peel of 1 lemon ; lump sugiir, J lb ; boiling 
 wat<'r, 3t pints; infuse \ an hour, strair, and 
 add, of bitter ale, J pint ; rum and brandy, of 
 
1396 
 
 PURGATIVES— PURPLE 
 
 each f to 1 pint (or rum alone, li to 2 pints). 
 More hot water and sugar may be added if the 
 punch is desired either weaker or sweeter. 
 
 2. Cold punch.) From arrack, port wine, 
 and water, of each 1 pint ; juice of 4 lemons; 
 white sugar, 1 lb. 
 
 3. (Gin punch.) From the yellow peel of 
 i a lemon ; juice of 1 lemon ; strongest gin, 
 -J pint ; water, If pint ; sherry, 1 glassful. 
 
 4. (Iced punch.) From champagne or 
 Rhenish wine, 1 quart ; arrack, 1 pint ; juice 
 of 6 lemons ; yellow peel of 3 lemons ; white 
 sugar, 1 lb. ; soda water, 1 or 2 bottles ; to 
 be iced as cream. 
 
 5. (Milk punch; Vbedee.) Steep the 
 yellow rinds of 18 lemons and 6 oranges, for 
 
 2 days, in rum or brandy, 2 quarts ; then add 
 
 3 quarts more of either spirit ; hot water, 3 
 quarts ; lemon juice, 1 quart ; loaf sugar, 4 
 lbs. ; 2 nutmegs, grated ; and boiling milk, 
 2 quarts; mix well, and in 2 hom's strain the 
 liquor through a jelly-bag. 
 
 6. (NoKPOLK PUNCH.) Take of Trench 
 brandy, 20 quarts ; yellow peels of 18 oranges 
 and 30 lemons ; infuse for 12 hours ; add, of 
 cold water, 30 quarts ; lump sugar, 20 lbs. ; 
 and the juice of the oranges and lemons; mix 
 well, strain through a hair sieve, add of new 
 milk 2 quarts, and in 6 weeks bottle in. Keeps 
 well. 
 
 7. (ORANftE PUNCH.) As No. 1, Using 
 oranges, and adding some orange wine, if at 
 hand. A little curacoa, noyau, or maroschino 
 improves it. 
 
 8. (Raspbekrt PUNCH.) As the last, but 
 using raspberry juice, or raspberry vinegar, for 
 the oranges or lemons. 
 
 9. (Reoekt's PUNCH.) From strong hot 
 green tea, h-mon juice, and capillaire, of each 
 li pint ; rum, bi'andy, arrack, and curacoa, of 
 each 1 pint ; cliampague, 1 bottle ; mix and 
 slice a pineapple into it. 
 
 10. (Tea punch.) From strong hot tea, 
 1 quart; arrack, J bottle; white sugar, 6 oz. ; 
 juice of 8 lemons ; and the yellow rinds of 4 
 lemons; mixed together. 
 
 11. (Wine punch.) From white sugar, 1 
 lb.; yellow peel of 3 lemons; juiceof 9 lemons; 
 arrack, 1 pint; port or sherry (hot), 1 gall. ; 
 cinnamon, i oz.; nutmeg, 1 dr. ; mix. 
 
 12. (Yankee punch.) Macerate sliced 
 pineapple, 3 oz. ; vanilla, 6 gr. ; and amber- 
 gris (rubbed with a little sugar), 1 gr., in the 
 strongest pale brandy, 1 pint, for a few hours, 
 with frequent agitation ; then strain with ex- 
 pression ; add, of lemon juice, 1 pint ; lemon 
 syrup, and either claret or port wine, of each 
 1 bottle; with sugar, ^ lb., dissolved in boiling 
 water, 3 i pint. See Shkub. 
 
 PURG'ATIVES. %n. Dejectoeia, Pue- 
 GANTIA, PuHSATiVA, L. These have been 
 divided into five orders or classes, according to 
 their particular actions. The following are the 
 principal of each class : — 
 
 1. (Laxatives, lenitives, or mild cathae 
 TICS.) Manna, cassia pulp, tamarinds, prunes. 
 
 honey, phosphate of soda ; castor, almond, and 
 olive oils ; ripe fruit. 
 
 2. (Saline or cooiiiro laxatives.) Epsom 
 salt, Glauber's salt, phosphate of soda (tasteless 
 salt), seidlitz powders, &c. 
 
 3. (Active cathaeticb, occasionally acrid, 
 frequently tonic and stomachic.) Rhubarb, 
 senna, aloes, &c. 
 
 4. (Deastic or violent cathaetics.) Jalap, 
 Ecammony, gamboge, croton oil, colocynth, 
 elaterium, &c. 
 
 5. (Meecueial puegatives.) Calomel, blue- 
 pill, quicksilver with chalk, &c. 
 
 In prescribing purgatives regard should be 
 had to the particular portion of the alimeutary 
 canal on which we desire more immediately 
 to act, as well as to the manner in which the 
 medicine effects its purpose. Tlius, Epsom 
 salt, sulphate of potassa, and rhubarb, act 
 chiefly on the duodenum ; aloes on the rectum; 
 blue pill, calomel, and jalap on the larger in- 
 testines generally ; and tartrate and bitartrate 
 of potassa, and sulphur on the whole length of 
 the intestinal canal. Again, others are stimu- 
 lant, as aloes, croton oil, jalap, scammony, &c. ; 
 others are refrigerant, as most of the saline 
 aperients ; magnesia and its carbonate are both 
 aperient and antacid; whilst another class, 
 including rhubarb, damask roses, &c., are 
 astringent. Further, some produce only serous 
 or watery deject'ons, without greatly increasing 
 the peristaltic action of the bowels ; whilst a 
 few occasion a copious discharge of the 
 fseces in an apparently natural form. See 
 Deaught, Mixtuee, Pills, Peesceibino, 
 &c. 
 
 PUEI. Frep. To ale or beer, i pint, gently 
 warmed, add of bitters, 1 wine-glassful, or 
 q. s. Some add a little spirit. A favourite 
 beverage with hard drinkers early in the 
 morning. 
 
 PUE'PLE. A rich compound colour, pro- 
 duced by the admixture of pure blue and pure 
 red. This colour has always been the distin- 
 guishing badgeof royalty and distinction. The 
 celebrated Tyrian purple was produced from a 
 shell- fish called murex. 
 
 Purple An'iline. Si/n. Peekin'S pueple. 
 Mauve. This valuable dye-stuff is prepared 
 under W. H. Perkin's patent, by mixing solu- 
 tions of sulphate of aniline and bichromate of 
 potassa iu equivalent proportions, and, after 
 some hours, washing the black precipitate with 
 water, drying it, digesting it repeatedly in 
 coal-tar naphtha, and, finally, dissolving it in 
 boiling alcohol. It may be further purilied by 
 evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, 
 dissolving the residue in a large quantity of 
 boiling water, reprecipitating by caustic soda, 
 washing with water, dissolving 'in alcohol, 
 filtering, and evaporating to dryness. Thus 
 pui'ifiert, mauve forms a brittle substance, 
 having a bronze-coloured surface. It imparts 
 a deep purple colour to cold water, though 
 dissolving sparingly in that liquid ; it is 
 more soluble in hot water, and very soluble in 
 
PUKPLE DYE— I'UTREl'ACTION 
 
 1397 
 
 alcohol. See Pdbflb dve (below), and Tab 
 
 COLOCBS. 
 
 Purple of Cassins. Sgn. Pcrfle rRECiFi- 
 
 TATE OP OASSIUa, GOLD FDBPLE, GOLD FBE- 
 FABED WITH TIN ; ACBtTM STANNO PABATUM, 
 PDKPDBA MIKKEAL18 CaSII, L. Trep. 1. 
 CryatuH'mcd protuchloride of tin, 1 pait; crys- 
 tallised peroliloride of tin, 2 parts ; dissolve 
 each separately, mix the solutions, and add of 
 crystallised tercliloride of gold (in solution), 
 1 part ; carefully wash, and dry the precipitate. 
 Very fine. 
 
 2. (Frick.) Dissolve pure grain tin in cold 
 dilute aqua rcgia until the fluid becomes faintly 
 opalescent, then take the metal out and weigh 
 it; next, dilute the solution largely with 
 water, and add, simultaneously, a dilute 
 solution of gold and dilute sulphuric acid in 
 SMch prnportion that the tin in the one shall 
 be to the gold in the other in the ratio of 10 
 to 36. 
 
 8. (P. Cod.) Turchloi ide of gold, 1 part, is 
 dissolved in distilled wuter, 200 parts; another 
 Bolutioa is made by dissolving in the cold, 
 pare tin, 1 part, in a mixture of nitric acid, 
 1 part, and hydrochloric acid, 2 parts ; this 
 last solution is diluted with distilled water, 
 100 parts, and is then added to the solution of 
 tercliloride of gold until precipitation ceases 
 to take place; the powder is, lastly, washed 
 by decantation, and dried by a very gentle 
 heat. 
 
 4. Silver, 150 parts ; gold, 20 parts ; pure 
 grain tin, 35 parts; fuse them together under 
 charcoal and borax, cool, laminate, and dissolve 
 out the silver with nitric acid. 
 
 Obs. Purple of Cassias is generally supposed 
 to be a combination of oxide of gold and ses- 
 quioxidc of tin, in which the latter acts as an 
 acid. Heat resolves it into a mixture of 
 metallic gold and binoxide of tin. It is used 
 as a purple in porcelain painting, and to com- 
 municate a ruby-red colour to glass, when 
 melted In open vessels. 
 
 PUKPLE DTE. The purples now in vogue 
 are the numerous shades of ' mauve ' and 
 'magenta' obtained by the * aniline colours.' 
 (See above, also RsD.) For silk and woollen 
 goods no mordant is required. The proper 
 proportion of the clear alcoholic solution is 
 mixed with water slightly warm, any scum that 
 may form is cleared otf, and the goods are 
 entered and worked until the required shade 
 is obtained ; a small quantity of acetic or tar- 
 taric aeid is recommended to be added in some 
 cases. For dyeing on cotton with the aniline 
 colours, the cloth or yarn is steeped in sumac 
 or tannic acid, dyed in the colour, and then 
 fixed by tin ; or it may be steeped in sumac 
 and mordanted with tin, and then dyed. Pur- 
 ples were formerly, and are still occasionally, 
 produced by first dyeing a blue in the ' indigo 
 vat,' and then dyeing a cocliiueal or lac scarlet 
 upon the top. See Vioiet dye. 
 
 PDK'PUaATE OF AMMO'NIA. See Mw- 
 
 KBXISK. 
 
 PORPU'KIC AWD. See MuREXAN. 
 
 PUEPUHIN. CjHjOj. Si/n. Maddbe FUH- 
 FLE. The name given by Kiliiijuet and Colin 
 to a beautiful colouring principle obtained 
 from madder, 
 
 Pre-p. Coarsely powdered madder is allowed 
 to ferment with water, after which it is boiled 
 in a strong solution of alum ; the decoition is 
 next mixed with sulphuric acid, and the re- 
 sulting red precipitate is purified by one or 
 more crystallisations from alcohol. 
 
 JProp.,Sfc. Crystalline red needle.*, insoluble 
 in cold water, but soluble in hot water, and in 
 alcohol, ether, and solutions of alum and the 
 alkalies. It ditfersfrom alizarin or madder red 
 in containing 2 atoms less of carbon. 
 
 PUR'EEE. Syn. Indian yellow. A yellow 
 substance, of duulitl'ul origin, imported from 
 China and India, and now extensively used in 
 both oil and water-colour painting. According 
 to the researches of Stenhouse and Erdmaiin 
 it consists of purreic acid, a ^trllngly tinc- 
 torial vegetable substance, united to mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 PUEEE'IC ACID. Syn. Euxanthio acid. 
 This substance is obtained frt)m purree. It 
 crystallises in nearly colourlc-s needles, which 
 are only sparingly soluble in cold water, and 
 forms rich yellow- coloured compounds with 
 the alkalies and earths. Heat converts it into 
 a neutral, crystallisable substance, called pur- 
 renone. 
 
 PUS. The cream-like, white or yellowish 
 liquid secreted by wounded surfaces, abscesre-, 
 sore*, &e. 
 
 PUTREFACTION. Syn. Putbefactio, L. 
 The spontaneous decomposition of animal and 
 nitrogeni^ed vegetable substances, under the 
 joint influence of warmth, air, and moisture. 
 The solid and fluid matters are resolved into 
 gaseous compounds and vapours, which escape, 
 and into earthy matters, which remain. The 
 most striking characteristic of this species of 
 decomposition is the ammoniacal nr fetid ex- 
 halations that constantly accompany it. 
 
 The nature of putrefaction, and the conditions 
 essential to its occurrence, have been briefly 
 alluded to under fermentation, to which we 
 must refer the reader. It may here, however, 
 be useful to reiterate that this change can only 
 be prevented by the abstraction or exclusion 
 of the conditions essential to its occurrence. 
 This may be affected by — reduction of tempe- 
 rature, — exclusion of atmospheric air, or — the 
 abstraction of moisture. The antiseptic pro- 
 cesses in common use are efiective in precisely 
 the same degree as these preventive means are 
 carried out. Frozen meat may be preserved 
 for an unlimited period, while the same sub- 
 stance will scarcely keep for more than a few 
 days at the ordinary heat of summer. Animal 
 3ub^tances will also remain uninjured for a 
 long period if kept in vessels from which the 
 air is entirely excluded, as in the process now 
 so extensively adopted for the preservation of 
 fresh meat for the use of our armyaud marine. 
 
1398 
 
 PUTREFACTION. 
 
 The third condition is falSUed when nitro- 
 genised matter is preserved in alcohol, brine, 
 or any similar fluid, and when it is dried. In 
 either case water is abstracted from the sur- 
 face, which then loses its propensity to putrefy, 
 and forms an impervious layer, which ex- 
 cludes atmospheric oxygen from the interior 
 and softer portion of the substance. Creasote, 
 and most of the antiseptic salts, also act in 
 this way. 
 
 Among special antiseptic processes are the 
 following : 
 
 Application op cold. The accession of 
 putrefaction is prevented, and its progress 
 arrested, by a temperature below that at which 
 water freezes. In the colder climates of the 
 world, butchers* meat, poultry, and even vege- 
 tables, are preserved from one season to the 
 other in the frozen state. In North America 
 millions are thus supplied with animal food, 
 which, we can state, from personal experience, 
 is often superior in flavour, tenderness, and 
 apparent freshness, to tliat from the recently 
 killed animal. In temperate climates, and in 
 cold ones daring their short summer, ice- 
 houses and ice-safes afford a temperature suffi- 
 ciently low for keeping meat fresh and sweet 
 for an indefinite period. Substances preserved 
 in this manner should be allowed to gradually 
 assume their natural condition before cooking 
 ihem ; and on no account should they be 
 plunged into hot water, or put before the fire, 
 whilst in the frozen state. 
 
 BucANiNO. A rude kind of drying and 
 smoking meat, cut into thin slices, practised by 
 hunters in the prairies and forests. 
 
 Desiccation or detino. In this way every 
 article of food, both animal and vegetable, 
 may be preserved without the application of 
 salt or other foreign matter. The proper 
 method is to expose the substances, cut into 
 slices or small fragments, in the sun, or in a 
 current of warm dry air, the temperature of 
 which should be under 140° Pahr. Articles 
 so treated, when immersed for a short time in 
 cold water, to allow the albumen and organic 
 fibres to swell, and then boiled in the same 
 water, are nearly as nutritious as fresh meat 
 cooked in the same manner. If a higher degree 
 of heat than 140° be employed for animal 
 substances, they become hard and insipid. 
 Owing to the practical difficulties in the way 
 of applying the above process to fresh meats, 
 it is "usually employed in conjunction with 
 either salting or smoking, and, frequently, with 
 both of them. 
 
 EXCLTTSION OP ATMO3PHEEI0 AIE. This is 
 effected by the method of preserving in sugar, 
 potting in oil, and, more particularly, by some 
 of the patented methods noticed below. Fresh 
 meat may be preserved for some months in 
 that state, by keeping it in water perfectly 
 deprived of air. In practice some iron filings 
 and sulphur may be placed at the bottom of the 
 vessel, over which must be set the meat ; over 
 the whole is gently poured recently boiled 
 
 water, and the vessel is at once closed, so aa 
 to exclude the external air. 
 
 Immbesion in antiseptic hquids. One 
 of the commonest and most effective liquids 
 employed for this purpose is alcohol of 60 to 
 70^, to which a little camphor, ammonia, sal 
 ammoniac, or common salt, is occasionally 
 added, A cheaper and equally efficient plan 
 is to employ a weak spirit holding a little 
 creasote in solution. A weak solution of sul- 
 phurous acid may be substituted for alcohol. 
 Weak solutions of alum, or carbolic acid, with 
 or without the addition of a few grains of cor- 
 rosive sublimate, or of arsenious acid, are also 
 highly antiseptic. These are chiefly employed 
 for anatomical specimens, &c. A solution con- 
 taining only ^Joth part of nitrate of silver is 
 likewise very effective; but, from this salt 
 being poisonous, it cannot be employed for 
 preserving articles of food. Butchers' meat is 
 occasionally pickled in vinegar. By immers- 
 ing it for 1 hour in water holding ^J^jth part 
 of creasote in solution, it may be preserved 
 unchanged for some time even during summer. 
 Injection op antiseptic liquids into the 
 veins or arteries of the recently killed animal. 
 It is found that the sooner this is done after 
 the slaughter of the animal the more effective 
 it becomes, as the absorbent power of the 
 vessels rapidly decrease by age. See Gannal's 
 PEOCESS {below). 
 
 Jeekino is a method of preserving flesh 
 sometimes adopted in hot climates. It con- 
 sists in cutting the lean parts of the meat 
 into thin slices, and exposing these to the 
 sunshine until quite dry and brittle, when 
 they are bruised in a mortar, and pressed into 
 pots. 
 
 Pickling in vinegae. In this method the 
 substances, lendered as dry as possible by ex- 
 posure to the air, are placed in glass or stone- 
 ware jars (not salt-glazed), o^ wooden vessels, 
 when strong vinegar, either cold or boiling hot, 
 is poured over them, and the vessel at once 
 closely corked or otherwise covered up, and 
 preserved in a cool situation. Meat is occa- 
 sionally thus treated; vegetables frequently 
 so. See Pickle. 
 
 Pottino in oil. In this case salad or olive 
 oil is substituted for vinegar (see dbove)j andi^ 
 always used cold. 
 
 Salting acts chiefly by abstracting water 
 from the albuminous portions of the ment, 
 by which its disposition to change is lessened. 
 
 Smoking. This process, which, as well as 
 the last, is referred to further on, acts both by 
 the abstraction of moisture and the antiseptic 
 properties of certain substances (creasote, &c.) 
 contained in wood smoke. Fresh meat and 
 fish are occasionally smoked ; but, in general, 
 substances intended to be thus treated are first 
 salted. 
 
 In Donkin and Gamble's patent process the 
 substances, previously parboiled, are placed in 
 small tin cylinders, which are then filled up 
 with rich soup ; the lids are next soldered on 
 
PUTTY 
 
 1399 
 
 quite air-ti|;ht, and a smnll hole ia afterwards 
 made in the centre ; tlie cylinders are then 
 placed in a bath of strong brine, or a strong 
 solution of chloride nf calcium, which is at 
 once heated to the boiling point, to nearly 
 comiileto the cooking process; alter which the 
 small hole in the lid is hermetically sealed by 
 covering it with solder while the vessel still 
 remains boiling hot ; the tins are, lastly, again 
 submitted to heat in the he»ted bath, the 
 duration of which is proportioned to the quan- 
 tity and character of their contents, the ' dress- 
 ing ' of which is to be perfected by this opera- 
 tion. Ihe ends of the tins, on cooling, assume 
 a conc:ive form, from the pressure of the 
 atmosphere, without which they cannot be air- 
 tight, and the prucess has been unsuccessful. 
 To determine this, the patentees expose the 
 canisters, prepared as before, for at least a 
 month in an apartment heated to about 100° 
 t'ahr. J when, if the process has failed, putre- 
 faction commences, and the ends of the cases, 
 instead of remaining concave, bulge or become 
 convex. This is called the ' test.' By this 
 process, which was invented by M. Appert in 
 France about the year 1808, fish, flesh, poultry, 
 and vegetables may be preserved for years in 
 any climate. 
 
 Ooldner's process differs somewhat from the 
 preceding, in the employment of a higher 
 degree of heat, more hastily applied, and not 
 prolonged or repeated after the tins are sol- 
 dered up. 
 
 Gnnnal's process, hnving for its object the 
 preservotion of butchers' meat in the fresh 
 state, depends on the peculiarly absorbent pro- 
 perty of the flesh of recently killed animals, 
 above referred to. This process consists in in- 
 jecting a solution of sulphate of alumina, or, 
 letter, of chloride of aluminium, of the sp. gr. 
 1 070 to 1-085 (10° to 12° Bmm6), into the 
 cnrotid artery, by means of a syphon, as soon 
 as the blood ceases to flow from the slnugh- 
 tered nnimal ; both extremities of the jugular 
 vein being previously tied. 9 to 12 quarts of 
 the solution are sufficient for an ox, and a pro- 
 portionate quantity for smaller animals. A 
 less quantity is also required in winter than 
 summer. When the animal "has been well 
 bled, and the injection skilfully performed, it 
 is I'carcely pereeptilile that the animal has un- 
 dergone any preparation. The injected animal 
 is cut up in I he usual way ; and when intended 
 to be eaten within 2 or 3 weeks merely requires 
 to be hung up in a dry, airy situation free 
 from flies ; but if it is to be kept for a longer 
 period, it is directed to be washed with a 
 mixed solution of common salt and chloride of 
 aluminium at 1U° Baum^ and then simply 
 dried and packed in clean air-tight barrels, 
 and kept in a cool, dry place. If the air 
 cannot be perfectly excluded, it should be 
 packed in dry salt, not for the purpose of pre- 
 serving it, hut to prevent the vegetation of 
 bi8.sus, as, witlimit this precaution, the meat 
 becomes musty from exposure and the action 
 
 of moisture. Jfeat preserved by this process 
 may be kept for several years, aud merely 
 requires soaking for 24 hours in water, for the 
 purpose of swelling its pores, to ^:ive it the 
 appearance and taste of fresh meat, fit for 
 either roasting or boiling. For hot climaii s a 
 somewhat stronger solution, or a larger quan- 
 tity of the usual one, may be injected. The 
 use of the strong solutions ordered in some 
 recent works, however, deprives the flesh of 
 a portion of its apparent freshness, and makes 
 it more nearly approach in flavour to that 
 which has been slightly salted in the ordinary 
 manner. 
 
 In addition to the above it may be added 
 that both flesh and fish may be preserved by 
 dipping them into, or l.riishin;,' them over 
 with, pyroligneous acid, and then dr\ ing them. 
 This gives them a smoky flavour; but if pure 
 acetic acid (Ph. L.) be nsed, no taste will be 
 imparted. These fluids may be applied by 
 means of a clean painter's brush, or even .i 
 stiff feather. A taLilc-spoonful is suffieieiit to 
 brush over a large surface. Fish and flesh so 
 prepared will bear a voyage to the East Indies 
 and back, uninjured. 
 
 Fish may also be preserved in a dry state, 
 and perfectly fresh, by means of ^ugar alone. 
 Fresh fish may be thus kept for some days, so 
 as to be as good when boiled as il just caught. 
 If dried and kept free from mouldjness, there 
 seems no limit to their preservation ; and they 
 are much more nutritious in this way than 
 when saUed. This process is particularly valu- 
 able in making what is called ' kippered sal- 
 mon;' and the fi~h preserved in this manner 
 are far superior in quality and flavour to those 
 which are salted or smoked, A few table- 
 spoonfuls of brown sugar are sufficient for a 
 salmon of five or six pounds' weight; and if 
 salt be desired, u teaspoonful or two may be 
 added. Saltpetre may be used instrad of salt, 
 if it be wished to make the kipper hard. 
 
 The well-kno"ivn property possessed by ether, 
 alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, chlorolorni, and cer- 
 tain other hydrocarbons, of averting putrefac- 
 tion, has been thus applied by JI. Kobin : — He 
 encloses the meat or other substances to be pre- 
 served in a glass case, along with a sponge or 
 a capsule containing the preservative liquid, 
 which latter is continnally evolved in a vapor- 
 ous condition, and exercises the preservative 
 agency. In this way the vapours of hydro- 
 cyanic acid are found to be very efficacious. 
 Camphor is thus employed in the mummt cases 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 It has been asserted by Mr George Hamilton 
 that in an atmosphere of binoxide of nitrogen, 
 in the dark, flesh preserves its natural colour 
 and freshness for about five months ; and eats 
 well provided it be boiled in open ves.-els, to 
 expel nitrous fumes. See Candtixo, Egg, 
 Fish, Fbuit, Milk, Pickles, Pottiko, Pbe- 
 SESVES, Salting, Smoking, Stuffing, Vb. 
 
 OETABLK SDB3TANCES, &C. 
 
 PUT'TY. This name is given to the follow- 
 
1400 
 
 PUZZOLANA— PYROMETER 
 
 ing preparations (when used alone, ' Glazier's 
 putty' is generally indicated) : — 
 
 Putty, Glazier's. From whitingraadeintoa 
 stiff paste with drying oil. It is used to fix 
 panes of glass in sashes, to fill holes and cracks 
 in wood before painting it, &c. 
 
 Putty, Plasterer's. A fine cement used by 
 plasterers, made of lime only. It differs from 
 ' PINE stupe' in the absence of hair. 
 
 Putty, Polisher's. Sgn. Pbttt powdeb. 
 Calcine; Cineebs stanni, Stanni oxtdum 
 CBUDUM, L. A crude peroxide of tin, obtained 
 by exposing metallic tin in a reverberatory 
 furnace, and raking off the dross as it forms ; 
 this is afterwards calcined until it i)ecoines 
 whitish, and is then reduced to powder. 
 Another method is to melt tiu with rather 
 more than an equal weight of lead, and then 
 to rapidly raise the heat so as to render the 
 mixed metal red hot, when the tin will be 
 immediately fiung out in the state of * putty' 
 or ' peroxide.' The products of both these 
 processes are very hard, and are used for 
 polishing glass and japau work, and to colour 
 opaque white enamel. See Tin. 
 
 Putty, To Soften. Take 1 lb. of American 
 pearlash and 3 Ihs. of quick-lime. After 
 slaking the lime in water add the pearlash, 
 and let the mixture be made of a. consistence 
 about the same as that of paint. When 
 required for use apply it to both sides of the 
 glass, and let it remain in contact with the 
 putty for twelve hours ; after which the putty 
 will have become so softened that the glass 
 may be removed from the frame without any 
 difficulty. 
 
 PUZZOLA'ITA, PuozzOLANA, or, more cor- 
 rectly, PuzzuoLANA, is a volcanic ash found 
 at Puzzuoli, near Naples. When mixed with 
 lime it forms an excellent hydraulic cement. 
 A good FACTITIOUS PUZZOLANA may be made 
 by heating a mixtur-e uf 3 bushels of clay and 
 1 bushel of fresh-slaked lime for some hours 
 to redness. (M. Bruyere.) See Cement and 
 
 MOETAE. 
 
 PYEI'TES. A term applied to several native 
 metallic sulphides. IBON pybites is the best 
 known of these. 
 
 P Y'RO-. The term is applied to several acids 
 that are obtained by the action of heat on 
 other substances ; as, PYEOQALLIO ACID, PYEO- 
 
 LIQNEOCS A., &C. 
 
 PYROACE'TIC SPIRIT. See Spieit (Pyro- 
 acetic). 
 
 PYKOGAI'LIC ACID. HCsH^Oj. St/n. 
 AciDUM PTEOQALLIOUM, L. Frep. 1. From 
 either gallic or tannic acid, heated in a retort 
 by means of an oil bath, and steadily maintained 
 at a temperature of about 420° Pahr. as long 
 as crystals are formed in the neck of the retort, 
 or in the receiver, both of which should be kept 
 well cooled. Pure. If a much higher heat is 
 employed, the product consists chiefly of meta- 
 gallic acid. 
 
 2. From Aleppo galls, in very coarse pow- 
 der, heated in a dish covered with thin filter- 
 
 ing paper pasted to its edge, and connected 
 with a well-cooled receiver. Dr Ure says 
 that the so-called Chinese g.tlls furnish, by 
 dry distillation, a " very concentrated solu- 
 tion of pyrog.iUio acid, which, evaporated on 
 the water bath, yields of brown crystalline 
 pyrogiiUic acid nearly lo^ of the weight of the 
 galls." 
 
 3. (Dr Stenhouse.) By sublimation from 
 the dry aqueous extract of nut-galls, in aMobr's 
 apparatus, in the same way that benzoic acid 
 is obtained from benzoin resin, observing 
 the precautions referred to in No. 1 (above). 
 Nearly pure. The product is fully lOg of the 
 weight of extract operated on. 
 
 Prop. Light crystals, which, when perfectly 
 pure, are quite white; freely soluble in water, 
 but the solution canitot be evaporated without 
 turning black and suffering decomposition; it 
 strikes a rich blackish-blue colour with the 
 protosalts of iron, and reduces those of the 
 sesquioxide to the state of protoxide; when 
 heated to 480° Fahr., it is converted into 
 METAOALLIC ACID and water. 
 
 UseSt Sfc. Pure pyrogallic acid is now very 
 extensively employed in photography. A solu- 
 tion of the crude acid mixed with a little spirit 
 is used to dye the hair, to which it imparts a 
 fine brown colour, but has the disadvantage of 
 also staining the skin when applied to it. 
 
 PY'EOBEN ACIDS. Those generated by 
 heat. 
 
 PYRO'LA. See Wintbe geeen. 
 
 PYROLIG'HEOUS ACID. Sy». Vineoae op 
 
 WOODt, SpIEIT of -W.t, SmOKINQ LIQUOEt, 
 
 Essence op SMOKEf; Acidfm pteomono- 
 SUM, L. Impure acetic acid, obtained by the 
 destructive distillation of wood in close vessels. 
 It comes over aloug with tar creasote, and 
 other liquid and gaseous matters. In this 
 state it contains much empyreumatic matter 
 in solution ; but by separation from the tar, 
 saturation with slaked lime or chalk, defeca- 
 tion, and evaporation, an impure acetate of 
 pyrulignate of lime is obtained, which, after 
 being gently heated, to destroy part of its em- 
 pyreumatic matter, without injuring its acetic 
 acid, is again dissolved and defecated, and then 
 precipitated by a solution of sulphate of soda, 
 when a solution of acetate of soda and a pre- 
 cipitate of sulphate of lime are formed by 
 double decomposition. The solution is next 
 evaporated to dryness, the dry mass (pyrolig- 
 nite of soda) dissolved in water, and the new 
 solution filtered and recrystalli-ed. The crys- 
 tals of acetate of soda, obtained by the last 
 process, yield nearly pure acetic acid by dis- 
 tillation along with sulphuric acid. See Acetic 
 acid and Vineoae. 
 
 PYROLIG'MEOUS SPIRIT. See Spieit 
 (Pyroxilic). 
 
 PYROM'ETER. An instrnment to measure 
 high degrees of heat. Wedgwood's pyeo- 
 METEE, the one best known, depends on the 
 property which clay possesses of contracting 
 when strongly heated. Peop. Daniel's py- 
 
PVROPHORUS-PYROTECHNY 
 
 liOl 
 
 ROMBTER cotnistn, csdpntinlly, of n small rod 
 or bstr of pintitium, which acts in a precisely 
 oppa'<it<> muimcr to the preceding, viz., by its 
 expMHsion. 
 
 PYROPH'ORUS. Si/n. LriT-ZtnrDBB, Ger. 
 Any substance that inflames spontaneously 
 when exposed to the air. 
 
 Prep. 1. Neutral cliromate of lead, 6 parts ; 
 sulphur, 1 part; triturate them with water, 
 q. s. to form a paste, and make this into pel- 
 let* ; dry these perfectly by a gentle heat, then 
 beat them in a closed tube until the sulphur 
 is all driven off ; lastly, transfer them to a 
 stoppered phial. 
 
 2. (HoMBKBo'sprEOPHOB08.) From alum 
 and brown xugar, equal parts ; stir the mixture 
 in an iron ladle over the fire until dry, then 
 put it Into an earthen or coated glass phiul, 
 and keep it at a red heat so long ae the flarae 
 is emitti^d ; it must then be carefully stopped 
 up and cooled. 
 
 3. (Dr Hiire.) Lampbliick, 3 parts; burnt 
 alum, 4 parts ; carbonate of potassa, 8 parts ; as 
 the last. 
 
 4. (Gay Lussac.) From sulphnte of po- 
 tnsSB, 9 pirts; calcined lampblack, 5 parts; as 
 No. 2. 
 
 5. Alum, 3 parts ; wheat flour, 1 part ; as 
 No. 2. 
 
 6. (Lead PYBOPnoutrs — Giibel.) Heat tar- 
 trate of lead to redness in a glass tnbe, and 
 then hermetically seal it. See Tabtuatk of 
 Lkad. 
 
 Oba. When the above are properly pre- 
 pared, a little of the powder rnpidly becomes 
 very hot, and inflani(;s on exposure to the air. 
 The accession of the combustion is promoted 
 by nloisture, as a dump atmosphere or the 
 breath. With the exception of the first and 
 sixth, "they owe their combustibility to the 
 presence of sulphide of potassium." (Gay 
 Lussnc.) 
 
 PYROPHOSPHOR'IC ACID. See Dibasic 
 PltosPHOBio ACID (Phosphorus). 
 
 PYRO'SIS. Si/n. Black wateb, Watee 
 BKASH, VVatkb qualm. An aflvction of the 
 stomach, attended by a sensation of heat and 
 the eructation of a thin, sour liquid, often 
 in considerable quantity, especially in tlie 
 morning. 
 
 The following pill will be foimd of service 
 in this aSection : — Powdered opium, Jth gr. ; 
 subnitrate of bismuth, 5 gr. ; extract of gen- 
 tian, sufficient to make into 2 pills. To be 
 taken two or three times a day, before meals. 
 The solution of bismuth and citrate of 
 ammonia (I/>>|uar Bismuthi et Ammoniac 
 Citratis, B. P.), in doses of i dr. to 1 dr., 
 taken as above, is another medicine which 
 may be had recourse to, should the above fail 
 to give relief. 
 
 PYROTARTAR'IC ACID. HjCsHeO^. Ob- 
 tuined by the destructive distillation of tartaric 
 acid. See Tabtaeic acid. 
 PYROTECH'HY. The art of making fire. 
 
 works. The three principal materials em- 
 ployed in this art are charcoal, nitre, and sul- 
 phur, along with filings of iron, 8t«el, copper, 
 or zinc, orwii^h resin, camphor, lycopodiuui,or 
 other subntiinces, to impart colour, or to 
 modify the effect or the duration of the com- 
 bustion, (iimpowder is used "either in grain, 
 half crushed, or finely ground, for different 
 ptiruoses. The longer the iron filings are, the 
 brighter red and white spots they give ; those 
 beinj; preferred which are made with a coarse 
 fiJe, and quite free from rust. Steel filings 
 and cast-iron borings contain carbon, aiid 
 afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radin- 
 tions. Copper filings give a greenish tint to 
 flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colonr; the 
 sulpbiilc of antimony gives a less greenish blue 
 than zinc, but with much smoke; amber aflbrds 
 a yellow fire, as well as colophony (resin) and 
 common salt; but the last must be very dry. 
 Lampblack produces a very red colour with 
 gunpowder, and a pink one with niti e in ex- 
 cess; it serves for making golden showers," 
 U'licn this substance is lightly mixed with 
 gunpowder and put into cases, it throws out 
 small stars resemhling the rowel of a spur; 
 this composition has liencc been called ' spur 
 fire.' "The yellow sand, or glistening mica, 
 communicates to fire-works golden radiations. 
 Verdigris imparts a pale green ; sulphate of 
 copper and sal ammoniac gives a palm-tree 
 green. Camphor yields a very white flame 
 and aromatic fumes, which masks the bad smell 
 of other substances. Benzoin and storax are 
 also used, on account of their agreeable odour. 
 Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a 
 magnificent flame; but it is principally em- 
 ployed in theatres to represent lightning, or to 
 charge the torch of a Fury." (Ure.) See 
 FiiiEs (Coloured), Flame Coloues, Gcnpow- 
 DKB, Stabs, Rockets, &c. 
 
 The following substances are in requisition 
 by the Pyrotechnist : — 
 
 Zinc. This metal is employed in the form 
 of fine powder, which is obtained as follows : — 
 The metal, scarcely melted, is poured into a 
 hot mortar, where it is ndnced to powder, 
 being kept dui-ing the operation at a tempe- 
 rature of 401° F. It is then sifted to remove 
 any particles which may have escaped contact 
 with the pestle. 
 
 CoPPEE. This metal may be obtained in a 
 state of minute division by precipitating it 
 from a solution of sulphate of copper by 
 means of iron, the precaution being taken of 
 using a large quantity of iron. The precipi- 
 tate, after being well washed, is dried between 
 folds of blotting paper, and kept in well 
 stoppered bottles. 
 
 Ibon-sand. a quantity of sulphur is melted 
 in a crucible over a slow fire, and when it is 
 quite fluid, iron filings are thrown in while 
 the whole is being stirred. The crucible is 
 removed from the fire, and the contents are 
 rapidly stirred until cold. The material is 
 then rolled on a board till it is broken up as 
 
1402 
 
 PYEOTECHNY 
 
 fine as corned powder, after which the sulphur 
 ia sifted out. 
 
 Soda Powdee. This powder is prepared 
 with the same precaution as ordinary gun- 
 powder, the proportions which answer hest 
 being : 
 
 Nitrate of soda . . . 630 parts. 
 
 Sulphur 125 „ 
 
 Charcoal 125 „ 
 
 880 parts. 
 
 As the nitrate of soda is hygrometric, this 
 powder must be preserved in close vessels 
 from the moisture of the air. 
 
 Lbad Powdek. This mixture is also pre- 
 pared like gunpowder, and the constituents 
 are used in the following proportions : 
 
 Nitrate of lead ... 12 parts. 
 Nitrate of potash ... 2 „ 
 Charcoal 3 „ 
 
 17 parts. 
 
 In the mnnufacture of this mixture on a large 
 scale considerable care is necessary, since the 
 mixture of nitrate of lead and charcoal is very 
 liable to ignite by friction. 
 
 Peepaeed Blood. 450 to 500 grammes of 
 zinc is dissolved in 1340 grammes of hydro- 
 chloric acid 22° B., largely diluted with water, 
 and filtered. This solution is again diluted 
 with its own volume of water, and mixed with 
 fresh blood. The whole is well stirred from 
 time to time for 48 hours, and the clear liquor 
 is siphoned off from the precipitate. The pre- 
 cipitate is well washed with water, dried, and 
 reduced to powder, in which state it may be 
 kept for any length of time. 
 
 Touch Papeb. This paper is prepared by 
 immersing purple or blue paper in a solution 
 of nitrate of potash in spirits of wine or vin- 
 egar, and carefully drying it. 
 
 When the touch paper is used with small 
 articles, a piece is tied round the orifice with 
 thread, leaving sufficient paper to form a small 
 tube at the end. This tube is filled with gun- 
 powder, and the paper twisted over it, when 
 all is ready for firing. 
 
 Touch paper for cupping every description 
 of fireworks, such as squibs, crackers, Roman 
 candles, &c., is prepared in the following 
 manner : — Dissolve 2 oz. of the best saltpetre 
 in 1 quart of warm water, and take care that 
 the water is very clean. 
 
 After the irtixture has stood for half an hour, 
 pour off li pint into a white basin, then cut 
 your sheets of dark blue double-crown paper 
 in half. The weight of the paper should be 
 12 or 14 lbs. per ream. 
 
 Place the paper on a sliib sufficiently large 
 to give you room to use a small piece of 
 sponge, with which you use the liquor to wet 
 your paper. Cover each half sheet with the 
 liquor as quickly as possible, on one side only, 
 and immediately this is done place it on aline. 
 
 the wet side on outwards, and when nearly 
 dry, if you have a great number of sheets, 
 place them together as evenly as possible under 
 a press for one hour, then lay them out to dry, 
 after which they will be quite smooth and 
 ready for use. 
 
 In pasting this paper on the work, take 
 care that the paste does not touch that part 
 which is to burn. To use this paper correctly, 
 cut it in strips sufficiently long to go twice 
 round the mouth of the case, or even more if 
 requisite. When you paste on the strips, 
 leave a little above the mouth of the case not 
 pasted ; in small cases a little meal powder is 
 put into the mouth, and then the paper is 
 twisted to a point. In larger cases damp 
 priming is used, and when dry, the capping 
 process is proceeded with. 
 
 Cbackees. The following mixtures are 
 used for ordinary crackers : — 
 
 Meal powder 
 
 . parts 5 15 6 8 16 
 
 Fine charcoal 
 
 1 4 - 2 17 
 
 Coarse charcoal 
 
 - - 6 - - 
 
 Sulphur . . 
 
 „ - - 2 - 1 
 
 Saltpetre . . 
 
 . „ - - 16 1 7 
 
 Composition for crackers with Chinese fire- 
 
 Meal powder 
 
 parts . . 9 6 16 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 „ . . . 6 8 - 
 
 Sulphur 
 
 ,,...123 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 „ . . . li U 2 
 
 Fine iron 
 
 „ ... 5 - 7 
 
 Sand . . 
 
 „ . . . - 5 - 
 
 Composition for crackers with brilliant fire — 
 
 Meal powder . parts 8 8 36 18 32 
 
 Sulphur . . „ 1 U 1 1 3 
 
 Iron filings . . „ 2 2i - - 
 
 Litharge . . „ _ _ _ 2 - 
 
 Steel filings . . „ - - 8 3 12 
 
 The paper generally used for cartridge is that 
 known as ' elephant ' or cartridge, the latter 
 being the more frequently employed. 
 
 Cartridge paper is employed in the prepa- 
 ration of crackers, which vary from 12 to 15 
 inches, and 3J inches diameter. One edge of 
 the paper is folded down about |-inch in 
 breadth, then the double edge is turned down 
 about i-inch, and the single edge is bent back 
 over the double fold so as to form a channel 
 4-inch wide. This is filled with meal powder, 
 which is then to be covered by the folds on 
 each side, when the whole is to be pressed 
 very smooth and close, by passing it over the 
 edge of a flat ruler. The part containing the 
 powder is to be gradually folded into the 
 remainder of the paper, each fold being care- 
 fully pressed down. The cracker is then 
 doubled backwards and forwards into as many 
 folds of about 2^ inches as the paper will 
 allow. 
 
 The whole is pressed together by means of 
 a wooden vice, a piece of twine is passed twice 
 round the middle across the folds, and the 
 joinings are secured by causing the twine to 
 
PYEOTECHNY 
 
 1403 
 
 take a turn round the middle nt every turn. 
 One of the ends of the folds may be doubled 
 short under, which will produce an extra 
 report, but the other must project a little 
 bi'jorul tlie rest, for the priming and capping 
 with the touch paper. When these crackers 
 are fired they give a report at every turn of 
 the paper. 
 
 The crackers may also be made of two 
 single cards, rolled over each other and covered 
 with paper coated with paste. The crackers 
 are partially filled with the composition by 
 means of a tin funnel. Ordinary powder is 
 then iutroduceil, nnd the remaining space is 
 filled with a little sawdust. 
 
 Kkvolvino Cbackebs. These crackers are 
 charged at each end with clay to a depth of 
 two lines, and filled with a composition with- 
 out gunpowder. The clay prevents the fire 
 streaming out at the ends, and it escapes 
 through two holes placed opposite each other. 
 The two holes arc united at the same time by 
 connecting them by means of a quick-match, 
 and a rotxtory motion is thus communicated 
 to the cylinder. 
 
 English Pin Wheels. Pin, or Catherine 
 wheels are of very simple construction. A 
 long wire about i\th of an inch in diameter 
 is the former ; on this wire are formed the 
 pipes, which being filled with composition, are 
 afterwards wound round a small circle of 
 wood so as to form a helix or spiral line. The 
 cases are generally made of double-crown paper 
 (yellow wove), and cut into strips to give the 
 greatest length, and of width sufficient to roll 
 aliout four times round the wire, and pasted at 
 the edge so as to hite firmly at the end of the 
 last turn. When a number of pipes are made 
 and perfectly dry, they are filled with compo- 
 sition. These cases are not driven for filling, 
 hut are filled by means of a tin funnel with 
 a tube } of an inch long, made to pass easily 
 into the mouth of the case, which is gradually 
 filled by lilting a wire up and down in this 
 tube, the diameter of the charging wire being 
 half that of the tube. The dry composition 
 being placed in the funnel, the moment an 
 action of the wire takes place the composition 
 begins to fall into the case, which the charging 
 wire compresses by continuous motion until 
 you have filled the pipe to within | of an inch 
 of the top. The pipe is then removed, and the 
 mouth neatly twisted, which will be the point 
 for lighting. 
 
 When a number of pipes are ready, place 
 them on a diunp floor, or in any damp situa- 
 tion, until they become very pliant, but by no 
 means wet; then commence winding them 
 round a circle uf wood whose substance must 
 
 be equal to the thickness of the diameter of 
 the pipe; and when wound, secnre the end 
 with sealing-wax, to prevent its springing 
 open ; after winding the required quantity let 
 them dry. Now cut some strips of crimson or 
 purple paper -,Sjth of an inch wide, and in 
 length twice the diameter of the wheel ; then 
 paste all over thoroughly. Take a strip and 
 paste it across the wheel diametrically, rnb it 
 down, then turn the wheel over, and place the 
 ends down to correspond with the opposite 
 side ; when dry, the wheel will be ready for 
 firing. 
 
 They may be fired on a large pin or held in 
 tlie hand, but it is preferable to drive the pin 
 into the end of a stick, which will prevent any 
 acciilent. shonld a section of the wheel burst. 
 
 Squibs. These are either filled with grained 
 powder, or with a mixture consisting of: — 
 (ianpowder, 8 parts ; charcoal, 1 part ; sul- 
 phur, 1 part. The cases, which are about 6 
 inches long, are made by rolling strips of 
 stout cartridge paper three times round a 
 roller, and pasting the last fold. They are 
 then firmly tied down near the bottom, and 
 the end is either dipped into hot pitch or 
 covered with sealing-wax. The cases are 
 filled by putting a thimble full of the powder 
 in, and ramming it tightly down with a roller, 
 this operation being cnntinued until the case 
 is filled. It is then capped with touch paper. 
 
 Serpents (Makboon Squibs). A suitable 
 cise being ready, it is filled two thirds up with 
 a powder consisting of : — Saltpetre, 16 parts ; 
 sulphur, 8 parts ; fine gunpowder, 4 parts ; 
 antimony, 1 part. This, after being rammed 
 down into the case tolerably tightly, the 
 remainder of the space is filled with grained 
 or corned powder. 
 
 Spaeks. These fireworks differs from stars 
 in size, being very small and made without 
 cases. The English method of preparing them 
 is as follows : — A mixture of 
 
 Fine gunpowder . . 1 part 
 Powdered saltpetre . 3 parts 
 Powdered camphor. . 4 „ 
 
 is placed in a mortar, and some weak gum- 
 water in which a little gum tragacanth has 
 been dissolved, is poured over it, and the whole 
 worked up into a thin paste. Some lint, pre- 
 pared by boiling it in vinegar or saltpetre, and 
 afterwards dried and unravelled, is placed in 
 the composition so as to absorb the whole. 
 This is then poured into balls about the size of 
 a pea, dried and sprinkled with fine gun- 
 powder. 
 
 In Germany the following compositions are 
 used: 
 
1404 
 
 PYROTECHNY 
 
 Chlorate of 
 
 potash , parts 
 Chlorate of 
 
 potash and 
 
 copper . „ 
 Chlorate of 
 
 barjta . „ 
 Nitrate of 
 
 potash . „ 
 Nitrate of 
 
 lead . . „ 
 Nitrate of 
 
 bary ta . „ 
 Calomel . . „ 
 Sulphide of 
 
 copper . . „ 
 Sulphate of 
 
 strontia . „ 
 Oxaliite of 
 
 soda . . „ 
 Chalk . . „ 
 Powdered 
 
 zinc . . „ 
 Powd ered 
 
 charcoal . „ 
 Sulphur . „ 
 Gum lac . „ 
 Soap . . . „ 
 Starch . . „ 
 Sugar . . „ 
 Piue soot . „ 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 1 
 
 2 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 20 
 
 40 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 11 
 
 8 
 40 
 
 28 
 28 
 
 3 
 10 
 
 9 
 21 
 23 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 21 
 23 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 14 
 
 4 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 96 
 
 18 
 
 72 
 
 18 
 1 
 
 14 
 40 
 
 37 
 
 8 
 
 The above mixtures are Intended to give 
 coloured sparks, according to the numbers. 
 No. 1 gives a bluish-white colour. 
 2 and 3 give yellow. 
 
 4 gives green. 
 
 5 gives green. 
 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 give blue. 
 
 11 and 12 give violet. 
 
 13 gives red. 
 
 14 gives purple. 
 
 The materials are mixed with a small quan- 
 
 tity of" a solution of starcb, so as to form a 
 thick paste, which is forced through a per- 
 forated plate, the holes in which are twice 
 as large as it is intended the sparks should be 
 on drying. The small pieces fall on a paste- 
 board, to which the workman gives a rupid 
 horizontal motion to round the grains. They 
 are then dried, and those which are perfectly 
 round are selected and separated by sieves of 
 different meshes to collect those of the same 
 size together. 
 
 Chinese Piee. 
 Sed Chinese or Oerbe Fire. 
 
 Calibre of the case. 
 
 12 to 16 lbs. 
 16 to 22 „ 
 22 to 36 „ 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 lib. 
 1 ,. 
 1 ,. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 3 oz. 
 
 3 „ 
 
 4 „ 
 
 White Chinese Fire. 
 
 
 Charcoal. 
 
 4 OZ. 
 
 5 „ 
 6.. 
 
 Iron Sand. 
 Ist order. 
 
 7 OZ. 
 
 7 „ 8 drms 
 
 8 „ 
 
 Calibre. 
 
 12 to 16 lbs. 
 16 to 22 „ 
 22 to 36 „ 
 
 Saltpetre. 
 
 lib. 
 1 ., 
 1 ., 
 
 Bruised Powder. 
 
 12 OZ. 
 11 ,. 
 11 ,. 
 
 7 
 8 
 8 
 
 Charcoal, 
 OZ. 8 drms. 
 
 ", 8 „ 
 
 Iron Sand. 
 3rd order, 
 
 11 OZ. 
 
 11 „ 8 drms. 
 
 12 „ 
 
 The iron sand is moistened with n little 
 spirits of wine, and then mixed with the char- 
 coal and saltpetie, which have been previously 
 incorporated in another mortar. 
 
 Simple Stabs ob Fieeballs. These are 
 generally used in combination with other 
 arrangements, &c., and the composition of 
 which they are made, consists of — saltpetre. 
 
PYEOXYLIC SPIRIT— PYROXYLIN. 
 
 1405 
 
 16 pnrta i Bulplitir, 8 purts ; fine gunpowder, 
 3 purU. 
 
 Tlu"<i' materiula are mixed with gum and as 
 little apirits of wine as will suffice to make a 
 very stiff paste. This paste is cut up into 
 snmil squares, wliioli arc rolled up iiitu bails 
 on a boanl coviroil with guiipowdir. 
 
 Till' gunpowder, which adheres, serves for 
 tlie purpoxe of firing them. When perfectly 
 ilry, they aic nady fur use. 
 
 (jEHBes. Tlii'se fireworks display them- 
 selves as luminous jets of fire somewhat re- 
 sembling a water spout. Previously to put- 
 Ordinary. Chinese. 
 
 ting in the brilliant composition, put two 
 scoops of first firing or preparatory fire, {• r 
 which the following will suit, in cases not 
 larger than J lb. size: — 16 oz. meal powder, 
 6 oz. saltpetre, 3 oz. sulphur, 3 oz. fine coal. 
 It is iniportint to see thnt the interior ef 
 the eases are quite smooth and free from 
 wrinkles. 
 
 Gold Rain. The larger rockets arc filled 
 with this material, which consists of small 
 squares made in the same way as the simple 
 stars. It is composed as follows : — 
 
 Saltpetre 
 .Sulphur 
 Fine charcoal 
 Pine soot 
 Meal ]iii\v(ler 
 
 parts 
 
 10 
 8 
 2 
 2 
 4, 
 
 4 
 2 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 A portion of the cotton is softened in lin- 
 seed oil, and the materials prepared in a mortar 
 with water. 
 
 Roman Candles. These are made some- 
 what like gerbes and filled with the same 
 materials, the only difference being thnt stars 
 are placed between the difl«rent layers of sub- 
 stances. The materials must not be too 
 tightly rammed down or tlie stars will be 
 destroyed. 
 
 Simple Stars ob Pibeballs. Take of 
 saltpetre 16 parts, sulphur 8 p;irts, fine gun- 
 powder 3 piirts ; mix them with gum and only 
 just enough spirits of wine to make a very 
 stiff paste. Cut this up into small squares, 
 and roll into balls covered with gunpowder. 
 When properly dry they are ready for use. 
 
 Mabuoons. These are small cubical boxes 
 filled with an explosive composition which 
 explodes suddenly, making a loud report. 
 They are generally used in combination with 
 other fireworks. The boxes are made of paste- 
 board, the corners being made tight by pasting 
 paper over them, but leaving the top open 
 until they are filled. They are filled with 
 coarse gunpowder, when the top is closed with 
 strong paper well cemented, and the whole box 
 is wrapped round two or three times with 
 lind cord dipped in strong glue. A hole is 
 made in one of the coruers, into which a 
 quick-match is introduced, and the marroon 
 is ready for action. 
 
 The reader who may be desii'ims of further 
 information on the subject of Pyrotechny, 
 cannot do better than consult the article on 
 thatsubject in ' Kunpp's Chemical Technology,' 
 edited by Messrs. Richardson and Watts.' 
 
 To this work we are indebted for much of 
 the material contained in the present papers. 
 See CoLOCKED fibes. 
 
 PYEOXYl'lC SPIRIT. See Spibit (Py- 
 roxylic). 
 
 PYEOX'YLIN. Si/a. FriMixATixo cotton, 
 Gun-cotton. A liiglily inflammable and ex- 
 > Vol. 1, pan 4, No. 1. Ballifere & Co. 
 
 Saltpetre 
 iSul|)hur 
 Fine small coals 
 Fine gunpowder 
 Coarse cast iron 
 
 parts 
 
 Cninpositiou for 
 inimeUmte use. 
 4 
 2 
 1 
 8 
 4 
 
 plosive compound, discovered by SchOnbein. 
 It is obtained by the action of nitric acid on 
 cotton (cellulin, CjHjqOj), in the presence of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 By varying the strength of the nitric acid 
 three kinds of gun-cotton may be obtained, 
 called respectively mononitro-cellulin [CjH^ 
 (N0j)05], dinitro-cellulin rC'eHsliNO.loO,], and 
 triuitro-cellulin [t'6H;(NO2)305j. 'flie first is 
 but slightly explosive ; the second is not suffi- 
 ciently explosive to be used us a substitute for 
 gunpowder, but is best adapted for the pre- 
 paration of collodion ; the third is highly ex- 
 plosive, and is the variety employed in mining 
 and military operations, Slc. 
 
 Prep. 1. (B. P., DlNlTBO-CELLtTLIN.) Cot- 
 
 ton-wool, 1 ; sulphuric acid, 5 ; nitric acid, 5 ; 
 mix the acids, immerse the cotton, ;ind stir 
 with a glass rod for three minutes, or until it 
 is thoroughly wetted, then remove it, and 
 thoroughly wash out the acid, so that the wash- 
 ings cease to produce a precipitate with chlo- 
 ride of barium. Drain on filtering paper, and 
 dry in a water bath. Used in the prcparatiou 
 of Collodion. 
 
 2. Concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. I'BOO) 
 and concentrated sulphuric acid (sp. gr. 1845) 
 are mixed together in about equal measures; 
 when the mixture has become cold it is poured 
 into a glass or wedgwood-ware mortar or 
 basin, and clean, dry caTded cotton, in as loose 
 a state as practicable, is immersed in it for 4 
 or 5 minutes, the action of the liquid being 
 promoted by incessant stirring with a glass 
 rod ; the acid is next poured off, and the cotton, 
 after being squeezed as dry as possible, by 
 means of the glass stirrer, or between two 
 plates of glass, is thrown into a brge quantity 
 of clean soft water, and again squeezed to free 
 it from superfluous moisture ; it is then 
 washed in a stream of pure water until it 
 becomes perfectly free from acid, and is, lastly, 
 carefully dried by the heat of hot water or 
 steam, at a temperature not higher than about 
 180° Fahr. 
 
1406 
 
 QUACK MEDICINES— QUARANTINE 
 
 3. (Sehonbein.) Nitric acid (1-45 to 1-50), 
 1 part; sulphuric acid (1'85), 3 parts (both 
 by volume) ; proceed as above, but, after the 
 cotton has been squeezed from the acid, allow 
 it to remain in a covered vessel for an hour 
 before washing it, and after washing it, dip 
 it into a solution of carbonate of potassa, 1 oz., 
 in pure water, 1 gall., then squeeze, and par- 
 tially dry it ; next dip it into a weak solution 
 of nitre, and dry it in a room heated by hot 
 air or steam to about 150° Fahr. (See Patent 
 Specif.) 
 
 4. (Von Lenk.) The cotton, having been 
 thoroughly cleansed and dried, is steeped, as 
 above, in a mixture of nitrieand sulphuric acids 
 (thestrongest obtainable in coiiiinerce),8queezed 
 as dry as possible, and immersed in a fresh 
 mixture of strong acids, being allowed to re- 
 main in this second mixture 48 hours. It is 
 then washed in a stream of water for several 
 weeks, and finally treated with a solution of 
 silicate of potassa (soluble glass). This is the 
 celebrated Austrian gun-cotton which was 
 reported on so favorably by a committee of 
 the British Association in 1863. The treat- 
 ment with silicate of potassa is adopted merely 
 for the purpose of retHrding the combustion. 
 
 5. (' Bulletin de St Petersbourg.')— a. Take 
 of powdered nitre, 20 parts; sulphuric acid 
 (1"830 to 1'835), 31 parts ; dissolve in a glass 
 vessel, and, whilst the solution is still warm 
 (122° Fahr.), add of dry carded cotton 1 part, 
 and employ agitation until this last is well 
 saturated ; then cover over the vessel with a 
 plate of glass, and let it stand, for 24 hours, at 
 a temperature of about 86° Fahr. ; next well 
 wash the cotton, as above, first with cold and 
 afterwards with boiling water, and dry it care- 
 fully at a very low temperature. 
 
 b. From sulphuric acid (containing 3 equiv. 
 of water), 13 parts ; nitric acid (monohjdrated), 
 12 parts ; carded cotton, 1 part ; the immer- 
 sion being limited to one hour at a temperature 
 of from 104° to 122° Fahr. (See 'Pharm. 
 Journ.,' vol. xiii. No. 2.) 
 
 Prop., Sec. Pyroxylin explodes, with a very 
 sudden flash, and the development of very 
 little heat, without either smoke or residue, at 
 a temperature of about 300° Fahr. (No. 3 at 
 277° Fahr.). Several modifications of pyroxy- 
 lin are known, varying considerably in compo- 
 sition, though they all contain the elements of 
 hyponitric acid, and are all explosive. Some 
 are insoluble in a mixture of ether and alcohol, 
 whilst others are readily dissolved, forming 
 the glutinous solution which is used in surgery 
 under the name of ' collodion,' and which is 
 also extensively used in photography. The 
 best gun-cotton (Von Lenk's) is of no use 
 whatever for making collodion. The pyroxylin 
 prepared by the formula 5, a (above), is soluble 
 in a mixture of 7 parts of ether aud 1 part of 
 alcohol; whilst the product of 5, b, if pre- 
 pared by 2 hours' digestion instead of 1, is said 
 to be even soluble in absolute alcohol. 
 
 Ois. General von Lenk has overcome all 
 
 the difficulties which have hitherto prevented 
 gun-cotton being used in place of gunpowder. 
 By spinning the gun-cotton into thread or 
 yarn, and weaving this into webs, he has suc- 
 ceeded in making cartridges which will pro- 
 duce the exact amount of force required. The 
 time needed for the complete ignition of tlie 
 cartridge can be diminished or increased at 
 pleasure by varying the mechanical arrange- 
 ment of the spun threads. Each gun and each 
 kind of projectile requires a certain density of 
 cartridge. In general, it is found that the 
 proportion of 11 lbs. of gun-cotton occupying 
 1 cubic foot of space produces a greater force 
 than gunpowder of which from 50 to 60 lbs. 
 occupies the same space, and a force of the 
 nature required for ordinary artillery. See 
 Collodion and Xtloidin ; consult also Abel's 
 researches in the ' Transactions of the Royal 
 Society.* 
 
 aUACK MED'ICINES. See Patent medi- 
 cines. Ointment, Pills, &c. 
 
 QUAIL. The Coturnix vulgaris, a gallina- 
 ceous bird, allied to the partridge, but of 
 smaller size. Its flesh is highly esteemed by 
 epicure'. It is imported from Turkey, pre- 
 served in oil ; and from Italy, potted with 
 clarified butter. 
 
 aUARANTINE. The old laws of Quaran- 
 tine, as the French derivation of the word 
 indicates, compelled a vessel coming from the 
 shores of a country liable to, or ravaged by, an 
 infectious disease, such as plague, to those of a 
 region free from contagion, to undergo forty 
 days' isolation before it was unladen, or its 
 passengers were allowed to land at the healthy 
 port. 
 
 In Europe these ancient enactments against 
 the importation of infection are still more or 
 less vexatiously enforced in Spain, Portugal, 
 Greece and Turkey; and in amodifit-d format 
 Malta and some of the French and Italian 
 ports. In the Mediterranean ports, ships 
 coming from countries which lie in the 
 southern or eastern shores of that sea are 
 usually subjected to a quarantine of from six 
 to fifteen days, during which period the pas- 
 seuL'ers are confined in a sort of barrack 
 called a ' lazaretto,' the merchandise, letters, 
 &c., of the vessel being in the meantime fre- 
 quenily fumigated, or otherwise disinfected. 
 
 The inconveniences to commerce and the 
 neces.'ary intercourse between nations attend- 
 ing the too rigorous carrying out of quaran- 
 tine have, within the last twelve years, led to 
 a series of sanitary international conferences 
 between the European Government.s with the 
 object of divising some methods which, with- 
 out weakening the safeguards to the public 
 liealih, should as much as possible reduce tlie 
 inoonveniences attending tlie enforcement of 
 quarantine to a minimum. At tlie last o' tbese 
 conferences, which was held at Vienna in 1873, 
 the members were almost uiianiinous in advis- 
 
QCAKTAN— QUASSU 
 
 1407 
 
 iiig thu ahiilition of quarantine on European 
 rivers. 
 
 Until within the last twenty years tlie old 
 quarantino lawa were pretty strictly enforced 
 in this cimiitry. Since this time, however, 
 they have been considerably relaxed, or, we 
 should rather 8<y, superseded by the following 
 ordinances, which, upon the authority of an 
 order in council of July 81st, 1871, can be 
 enforced in tlie case of suspected vessels. 
 
 This ordinance declares that it is lawful for 
 a sanitary authority, having reason to believe 
 that any ship arriving in its district comes 
 from a place infected with cholera, to visit 
 and examine the ship before it enters tlie 
 port. 
 
 Art. 8 provides that the master of a cholera- 
 infected ship, or one that has even been ex- 
 posed to the infection of cholera, is to moor, 
 anchor, or place her in such a position as Irom 
 time to time the sanitary authority shall direcu 
 
 Art. 4 provides that no person shall land 
 from any such ship until after the examina- 
 tion. 
 
 Art. 5 provides for the proper examination 
 of all persons on board by a legally-qualified 
 practitioner, and permits those not suffering 
 from cholera to land immediately. 
 
 Another order in council, dated August 3rd, 
 1874, empowers any custom-house officer, or 
 other person having authority from the Com- 
 missioners or Board of Customs, at any time 
 before the Nuisance Authority shall visit and 
 examine the ship, to detain the ship. 
 
 "No person sliall, after such detention, 
 land from the ship, and the officer shall forth- 
 with give notice of the detention, and of the 
 cause thereof, to the proper nuisance (local) 
 authority; and the detention shall censo as 
 soon as the nuisance authority shall visit and 
 examine the ship, or at the expiration ol 
 twelve hours after notice shall have been 
 given to such nuisance authority." 
 
 Another order in council, dated August 5th, 
 1871, directs that the muster of a vessel, in 
 which cholera has existed, shall not be allowed 
 to bring his vessel into port until he has des- 
 troyed the infected clothes ond bedding. 
 
 Local Government Boards are also invested 
 with considerable executive powers, by wliich 
 they are enabled to enforce quarantine during 
 the prevalence of any contagious disease in 
 other countries. The main Act, however, 
 relating to quarantine, is the 6th of Geo. IV., 
 c. 78; and all vessels having on board any 
 person or persons affected with a dangerous or 
 infections disorder, are to be deemed as com- 
 ing within its provisions (see 'Public Health 
 Act,' Schedule v., part 8). There is a land, 
 as well as a sea quarantine. Thus for instance, 
 in some countries, more particularly those of 
 Eastern Europe, tlie former is still in force on 
 the frontiers of contiguous States, to the great 
 impediment of commerce and inconvenience of 
 travellers. 
 
 The late outbreak of plague in Astrakan 
 
 has led to its being established and very 
 strictly carried out on the borders of Russia, 
 Austria, Hungary, and Germany. 
 
 Hecker, writing on the probable origin of 
 quarantine, remarks: — "The fortieth day, 
 according to the most ancient notions, has 
 always been regarded as the last of ardent 
 diseases, and the limit of separation between 
 these and those which are chronic. It was 
 the custom to subject lying-in women for 
 forty days to a more exact superintendence. 
 
 There was a good deal also said in medical 
 works of forty days' epochs in the formation 
 of the foetus, not to mention that the alche- 
 mists always expected more durable revolu- 
 tions in forty days, which period they called 
 the philosophical month. This period being 
 generally held to prevail in natural processes, 
 it appeared reasonable to assume and reason- 
 ably to establish it ; as that required for the 
 development of latent principles of contagion, 
 since public regulations cannot dispense with 
 decisions of this kind, even though they 
 should not be wholly justified by the nature 
 of the case. Great stress ha^ also been laid 
 on theolotfical and legal grounds, which were 
 certainly of greater weight in the fifteenth 
 century than in modern times; such as the 
 forty days' duration of the flood ; the forty 
 dnys' sojourn of Moses on Mount Sinai ; our 
 Saviour's fast for the same length of time in 
 the uilderness; lastly, what is called the 
 Saxon term, which lasts for forty days. 
 
 QUAR'TAN. Occurring every fourth day. 
 
 QUARTA'TION. The practice, among as- 
 sayers, of alloying 1 part of gold with 3 parts 
 of silver, before submitting it to the operation 
 of 'parting;' in order that its particles may 
 be too far separated to protect the copper, 
 lead, palladium, silver, or other metals, with 
 which it is contaminated, from the solvent 
 action of the nitric or sulphuric aci>l, as the 
 case may be. See Assaying. 
 
 QUARTZ. Pure native silica. It is an es- 
 sential constituent of granit3 and many other 
 rocks. Its crystalline, transparent varieties, 
 are known as rock crystal. See Glass, Pow- 
 D£B, &c. 
 
 QUAS8. St/n. PoscA tenalis. L. Prep. 
 Mix rye-flour and warm water together, and 
 keep the mixture by the fireside until it has 
 turned sour. Used as vinegar in Russia. 
 
 aUAS'SIA. St/n. Quassia (Ph. L., E., & D. ; 
 Quassia lignum. Quassia wood, B. P). 
 The " wood of Picrcena (Piorasma) excelsa, 
 Liiidl." (B. P., Ph. L.), or Jamaica quassia; 
 and also of the " Quassia amara, Linn." (Ph. 
 E.), or Surinam quassia. The latter is the 
 original quassia, but it is no longer imported. 
 Quassia is characterised by its intense bitter- 
 ness. It is reputed tonic and stomachic, 
 assistini; digestion, and giving tone and vigour 
 to the system. Its name was given to it by 
 Linnajus, in honour of a negro slave who had 
 long employed it as a remeily for the malig- 
 nant endemic fevers of Surinam. When sliced. 
 
140S 
 
 QUASSIN— QUILLS 
 
 it forms the ' quassia chips' of the shops. It 
 is generally taken in the form of infusion. 
 This last, sweetened with sugar, forms a safe 
 and effective poison for flies. — Dose (in pow- 
 der), 10 to 20 gr. 
 
 Roasted quassia, reduced to powder, is 
 largely employed, instead of hops, to embitter 
 porter; and the unroasted powder is used foi' 
 the same purpose in the adulteration of the 
 bitter varieties of ale. ' 
 
 ftUAS'Sm. Syn. Qttassitb, Qitassina. A 
 peculiar bitter principle, obtained by precipi- 
 tating decoction of quassia with milk of lime, 
 evaporating the (iltrate, dissolving the residue 
 in alcohol, treating with animal charcoal, 
 again evaporatino:, dissolving in water, and 
 crystallising. 8 lbs. of quassia chips yield 1 
 drachm. 
 
 QUEEN'S BLUE. Thumb blue. See Blue. 
 
 QUEEN'S MET'AL. A species of pewter 
 used for teapots, &c., made by fusing under 
 charcoal a mixture of tin, 9 parts, and anti- 
 mony, bismuth, and lead, of each 1 part ; or, 
 tin, 100 parts ; antimony, 8 parts; copper, 4 
 parts ; bismuth, 1 part. See Beitannia 
 Metal and Pewteb. 
 
 QUEEN'S YEL'IOW. Subsulphate of mer- 
 cury. 
 
 QUEECITEIN. The bark of the Quercus 
 tincioria yields a neutral substance, to which 
 the above name has been given. Quercitrin 
 may be prepared as follows by the process of 
 Kochleder: — The bark is boiled with water, 
 the decoction is left to cool, and tiie impure 
 quercitrin which separates is collected, then 
 rubbed to a pulp with alcohol of 35° B., heated 
 over the water bath, collected on linen, and 
 pressed, whereby the principal impurities are 
 removed. The residue is dissolved in a larger 
 quantity of boiling alcohol, the solution is fil- 
 tered hot, and wacer is added to it until it 
 becomes turbid, so that the greater part of the 
 quercitrin separates before the liquid is cold. 
 It is then collected, pressed, and purified by a 
 repetition of the same treatment. 
 
 Another process, by Zwenger and Dronke, 
 is this: — The bark, in small pieces, is ex- 
 it lUsted with boiling alcohol, the alcohol is 
 distilled off, and the residue, while still warm, 
 is mixed with a little acetic acid, and then 
 with neutral acetate of lead ; the filtrate, freed 
 from lead by sulphuric acid, is evaporated, 
 and the quercitrin which crystallises is purified 
 by repeated crystallisation from alcohol. 
 
 " Hydrated quercitrin forms microscopic, 
 rectangular, partly rhombic tablets, having 
 their obtuse lateral edges truncated ; pale 
 yellow when pulverised. It is neutral, inodo- 
 rous, tasteless in the solid state, bitter in solu- 
 tion, permanent iu the air."^ 
 
 QUEE'CITRON. The bark of Quercus nigra 
 or tinctoria, a species of oak indigenous in 
 North America. With alum mordants it yields 
 a very permanent yellow dve. 
 
 QUEE'CITRON. A yellow dye stuff, com- 
 > Watts. 
 
 posed of the shavings and powder of the bark 
 of Quercus tinctoria, or Q. nigra, or Q. ci- 
 trina, a kind of oak, a native of North 
 America. It abounds more particularly in 
 Pennsylvania, Carolina, and Georgia. 
 
 In America quercitron is used for tanning, 
 and in Europe for dyeing only. When em- 
 ployed for the latter purpose it is used in the 
 form of an aqueous decoction, mordanted 
 with alum or chloride of tin. Leesching 
 states that a dye possessing greater colorific 
 powder may be procured by boiling the bark 
 with dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. 
 
 QUICK'SILVEE. See Mebcuet. 
 
 QUILLAI BA£K. Syn. Quillat baek. 
 Soap babe. The Qnillaya saponaria, from 
 which yields this bark, is an evergreen tree, 
 growing in the mountainous parts of Chili, in 
 South America. 
 
 It is believed to take its name from the 
 native word quillay, which signifies to wash. 
 The inner bark only is employed. When 
 bruised and agitated in water it imparts a 
 lather to the water, in the same way that soap 
 does. This quality has been found to be due 
 to the existence in the bark of saponin — the 
 same principle which confers a similar pro- 
 perty on Saponaria officinalis. The bark is 
 free from any bitter principle, as well as from 
 tannic acid. It is very generally used amongst 
 the inhabitants residing on the western sideof 
 South America, where it is employed for re- 
 moving grease from silk, and also in the form 
 of a wash for cleansing and preserving the 
 hair. 
 
 When had recourse to for cleansing silks, 
 quillai bark is said not to change the colour of 
 the fabric. It is sometimes given as a febri- 
 fuge, and as u remedy for cold in the head. 
 For this latter purpose the powder is snuffed 
 up the nostrils, when it occasions sneezing and 
 profuse discharge from the nose. 
 
 QUILLS. Prep. 1. The quills or wing- 
 feathers of the goose (goose quills) are se- 
 parately plunged, for a few seconds, into liot 
 ashes, cinders, or sand, of a temperature about 
 equal to that of boiling water, after which 
 they are scraped with a blunt knife, strongly 
 rubbed with a piece of flannel or woollen cloth, 
 and gently ' stoved ;' they are, lastly, tied up 
 in bundles by women or children. A yellow 
 tinge is often given to them by dipping them 
 for a short time into dilute hydrochloric or 
 nitric acid, or into an infusion of turmeric. 
 
 2. Suspend the quills in a copper over water 
 sufficiently high to nearly touch the nibs ; 
 then close it steam tight, and apply three or 
 four hours' hard boiling ; next, withdraw the 
 quills, and dry them, and in 24 hours cut the 
 nibs and draw out the pith ; lastly, rub them 
 with a piece of cloth, and expose them to a 
 moderate heat in an oven or stove. Quills 
 prepared in this way are as hard as bone, with- 
 out being brittle, and nearly as transparent as 
 glass. Crow quills and swan quills may be 
 cured in the same manniT. 
 
QUINA-QUINIDINE 
 
 1409 
 
 QOITTA. See QtriNiKB. 
 
 NjOj. Tliis alkaloid was discovered by Hesse, 
 in 1872, in the b«rk of Cinchona tuccirubra, 
 cultivated at Oarjiliiig, in British Sikbiin. 
 
 Dr de Viij gives the following process for 
 the prepiiration of qiilnamine: — The mixed 
 alkaliiiils obtniued from tlie red b;irk are 
 converted into nintral sulphates, and tue solu- 
 tion treated with Rochelle salt, whereby the 
 tartrates of quinine and of cinchonidine are 
 separated. After collecting these upon a filter 
 the filtered liquid is shaken with caustic soda 
 and ether. By this process tlie amorphous 
 alkaloid and the quinaoiino are dissolved by 
 the ether, with slisfht traces of cinchonine, 
 whilst the bulk of this last alkaloid remains 
 undissolved. After distilling the ethereal 
 solution the residue is transformed into neu- 
 tral acetate, and the solution of this mixed 
 with n solution of sulphocyanate of potas- 
 sium. 
 
 By this reaction the sulphocyanate of the 
 ninorphous alkaloid is precipitated in the 
 i'h:ipe of a yellow, soft, resinous substance, 
 whilst the sulphocyanate of quinamine re- 
 mains dissolved. After subsiding and filter- 
 ing, the solution is clear and quite colourless, 
 and by addition of caustic soda the quinamine 
 is precipitated. It is then collected upon a 
 lilter, washed, and dried. It can now easily 
 bo obtained crystallised by dissolving it in 
 boiling spirit, from which it crystallises in 
 cooling. By this process the author obtained 
 0'38 per cent, of pure quinamine from sam- 
 ples of red cinchona quill bark, which be 
 liad received, through the Secretary of State 
 for India, from the plantations in British 
 Sikhim. 
 
 QUINCE. Syn. Ctdonia, L. The fruit of 
 Cydonia vulgaris, or common quince tree. Its 
 fliivour in the raw state is austere, but it 
 forms an excellent marmalade (quince marma- 
 lade), and its juice yields an agreeable and 
 wholesome wine. The seed or pips (cydonia 
 seminee; cydoninm — Ph. L.) abound in gummy 
 matter, which forms a mucilage with water, 
 and possesses the advantage of not being af- 
 fected by the salts of iron or alcohol. See 
 Dkcoction, Fixatubb, and Jellt. 
 
 QUINETUn. The alkaloids contained in 
 the East Indian red bark (Cinchona sued- 
 rubra) consist of a large percentage of cin- 
 chonidine, cinchonine, quinine, and amorphous 
 alkali>id, besides a trace of quinidine, tlie pre- 
 ponderating alkaloid being cinchonidine. 
 
 Dr de Vrij, of the Hague, has devised a 
 process by which these can be extracted in 
 their entirety, and to the mixed alkaloids so 
 obtained the name 'quinetum' has been 
 given. 
 
 It is affirmed of qninetum that it possesses 
 a remedial value as a tonic and antiperiodic 
 that renders it, in niony cases, superior to 
 quinine, ague being one of these ; also that it 
 may be advantigenusly employed in affections 
 VOL. II. 
 
 in which quinine wonld be inadmissible. A 
 medical correspondent informs us that he has 
 used it with signal success in *hay asthma. 
 Another advantage it has over quinine is, it 
 is much lower in price. Quinetum, according 
 to Dr de Vrij's process, as well as a sulphate 
 and hydrochlorate, are prepared by Mr Whiflen, 
 of Battersea. 
 
 aUINICINE. An altaloid obtained in 1853 
 by Pasteur, by exposing quinine or quinidine, 
 under lavorable circumstances, to a tempera- 
 ture varying from 248° to 266° Fahr., for 
 several hours. It is very probable that this 
 alkaloid is either identical, or in very close 
 connection, with the amorphous alkaloid solu- 
 ble in ether which occurs in all barks, and 
 particularly in the young barks of the planta- 
 tions in India. 
 
 aUINIDINE. C.j„Hj<0jN„.2Aq. %». Qui- 
 NIDIA, CONCHIKINB, &c. An alkal.iid con- 
 tained in many species of cinchona, together 
 with quinine and cinchonine, and therefore 
 often found in the mother liquors of quinine 
 manufactures. It is identical with the /3 
 quinine of Van Heyningen, and was dis- 
 covered, in 1833, by Henry and Delondre. 
 As the cinchonidine discovered by Winckler, 
 in 1818, has been unhappily denominated 
 quinidine by this chemist, there is still a con- 
 fusion about these alkaloids, and, therefore, 
 the quinidine of commerce was very often a 
 mixture of both, till Pasteur made, in 1853, u 
 classical investigation of this matter. He main- 
 tained the name of quinidine for the alkaloid 
 discovered by Heurv and Delondre, because it 
 is isomeric with quinine, and gives the same 
 green colour when treated with chlorine fol- 
 lowed by ammonia, and gave the name of 
 cinchonidine to the alkaloid discovered by 
 Winckler, because it is isomeric with cin- 
 chonine. He determined also the action of the 
 solutions of these alkaloids on the plane of 
 polarisation, and found that the quinidine 
 turned this plane to the right, its molecular 
 rotation in' alcoholic solution being [o] = 
 
 250-75° ^ S-, whilst he found that the 
 
 cinchonidine turned this plane to the left, its 
 molecular rotation in alcoholic solution being 
 [«] = 144-61°^ ^. 
 
 Prop. ifc. Many of the salts of quinidine 
 are 'very similar to those of quinine, but the 
 normal salt with bydriodic acid is not only 
 very different from that of quinine, but also 
 from those of all the other cinchona-alkaloids. 
 The normal hydriodate of quinidine is so very 
 sparingly soluble in water that 1 part requires, 
 at 60° Fahr., not less than 1200 parts of water 
 to be dissolved. Therefore the presence of 
 sulphate of quinidine in the sulphate of 
 quinine, which often occurs, either from that 
 article being carelessly made or from wilful 
 adulteration, can be easily detected by adding 
 a few minims of solution of iodide of potassium 
 to the saturated solution of sulphate of quinine 
 in water of 60° Fahr., whereby, if quinidine is 
 present, its hydriodate will be separated either 
 
 89 
 
14,10 
 
 QUININE 
 
 in the shape of a sandy precipitate or, if only 
 traces are present, in the shape of striajon the 
 sides of the glass where this has been rubbed 
 by a glass rod. 
 
 For an account of its medicinal properties, 
 the reader should consult the recent report 
 from India upon the experiments made there 
 by order of Government with all the four 
 cinchona-alkaloids, which experiments are very 
 favorable to the therapeutical action of quini- 
 dine compared with that of quinine. 
 
 QTIININE. CioHijON. Si/n. Qttina, 
 Qtjinia. Till recently it was found in the 
 greatest quantity in good Calisaya bark, parti- 
 cularly in that from Bolivia, but since it has 
 been found in great quantity in some other 
 harks, especially in the bark of Cinchona offici- 
 nalis, for instance, in the bark of that species 
 grown in Ceylon. Red bark contains not only 
 quinine and cinchonine, but also ciuchoni-. 
 dine. 
 
 Prep. 1. By precipitatini» a solution of 
 sulphate of quinine with a slight exc&ssoi am- 
 monia, potassa, or soda, and washing and dry- 
 ing the precipitate. By solution in alcohol, 
 sp. gr, 'SIS, and spontaneous evaporation, it 
 may be procured in crystals. Crystals may also 
 be obtained from " its solution in hot water 
 with a little ammonia." (Liebig.) 
 
 2. (Direct.) By adding hydrate of lime, 
 in slight excess, to a strong decoction of the 
 (frouud bark made with water acidulated with 
 sulphuric acid, washing the precipitate which 
 ensues, and boiling it in alcohol ; the solution, 
 filtered while hot, deposits the alkaloid on 
 cooling. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Quinine, when prepared by pre- 
 cipitation, is an amorphous white powder, but 
 when this precipitate is left in the liquor it 
 assumes, after some time, the appearance of 
 aggregated crystalline needles ; when slowly 
 crystallised from its solution, these needles are 
 remarkably fine, and of a pearly or silky lustre. 
 It is freely soluble in rectified spirit and in 
 ether, and of all the cinchona-all^aloids it is 
 the most soluble iu ammonia. It is upon this 
 f actthat Kerner's method for testing the purity 
 of sulphate of quinine is founded. Its normal 
 salts, if dissolved iu water, have a slightly 
 alkaline reaction upon red litmus paper. It 
 is only sparingly soluble in water, even when 
 boiling ; both the fixed and volatile oils dis- 
 solve it with the aid of heat, more especially 
 when it has been rendered anhydrous, or is 
 presented to them under the form of an ethe- 
 real solution. It fuses by a gentle heat, with- 
 out decomposition ; forms erystallisable salts, 
 which are only slightly soluble in water, unless 
 it be acidulated, and, like the pure alkaloid, 
 are extremely bitter, and possess much of the 
 characteristic flavour of cinchona bark. It is 
 precipitated by the alkalies and their carbo- 
 nates, by tannic acid, and by most astringent 
 substances. 
 
 Pur. See Quinine, Sulphates or, and 
 QuiNOMBTEr {below). 
 
 Testa. Quinine is recognised by — 1. Its 
 appearance under the microscope. — 2. Its solu- 
 bility in ether, and in pure ammonia water. — 
 
 3. Its solubility in concentrated nitric acid, 
 forming a colourless liquid, which does not 
 become yellowish until it is heated.^4. The 
 solubility of itself and salts, when pure, iu 
 concentrated sulphuric acid, forming colourless 
 fluids, " which do not acquire any coloration 
 upon being heated to the point of incipient 
 evaporation of the sulphuric acid, but which 
 afterwards become yellow, and finally brown." 
 (Fresenius.) — 5. Its solubility in concentrated 
 sulphuric acid- to which some nitric acid has 
 been added, forming a colourless, or, at the 
 most, only a faintly yellowish liquid. — 6. It is 
 wholly destroyed by heat. 
 
 A solution of quinine in acidulated water, 
 and solutions of its salts, exhibit the following 
 reactions : — 1. Ammonia, potassa, and the al- 
 kaline carbonates, give white, pulverulent pre- 
 cipitates, becoming crystalline after some time 
 (see above), and which are soluble iu ammonia 
 in excess, and which, when ether is added after 
 the ammonia, and the whole is agitated, redis- 
 solve in the ether, whilst the clear liquid, on 
 repose, presents two distinct layers. — 2. Bi- 
 carbonate of soda (avoiding excess) gives a 
 similar precipitate, both in acid and neutral 
 solutions of quinine, either at once or after a 
 short time. The precipitate is soluble in ex- 
 cess of the precipitant, and is again precipi- 
 tated from the new solution upon protracted 
 ebullition. " Vigorous stirring of the liquid 
 promotes the separation of this precipitate." 
 (Fresenius.) — 3. If recently prepared chlorine 
 be added to it, and then ammonia, a beautiful 
 emerald-green colour is developed. (Ph. L.) — 
 
 4. A concentrated solution of ferrocyanide of 
 potassium being added, in excess, after the 
 chlorine, instead of the ammonia, a dark red 
 colour is instantly produced, which after some 
 time passes into green, especially when freely 
 exposed to the light. This reaction is not cha- 
 racteristic of quinine, for with quinidine one 
 gets the same reaction. — 5. If caustic potassa 
 be used instead of ammonia (see above), the 
 solution acquires a sulphur-yellow colour. 
 " These reactions are restricted to this alka- 
 loid." (Dr Garrod.) 
 
 Fliiekiger' says : — " The most characteristic 
 test for ascertaining the presence of quinine 
 is the formation of the splendid green com- 
 pound called thalleiochine, which is produced 
 if solutions of the alkaloid or its salts are 
 mixed with chlorine water, and then a drop of 
 ammonia added." 
 
 If one part of quinine is dissolved in 4000 
 parts of acidulated water, and then about jL; 
 of the volume of the liquid, of chlorine water, 
 and a drop of ammonia added, a green zone 
 will be readily formed if the liquids are cau- 
 tiously placed in a flask without shaking. 
 
 If the solution of quinine contain no more 
 
 > In ■ Jahrb. f. Pliarm.,' A.prU, 1872, 136 (' Ph. Journal,' 
 Srd series, li, 901). 
 
QUININE 
 
 liU 
 
 than rrfs-H' ^^° green of one mny still be 
 obtained, but in more diluted golotioas the 
 succe!}8 becomes more and more uucertaia. 
 
 From a prncticHl point oTview we may state 
 that u'sti of the alkaloid is the smallest quan- 
 tity whose preseiue can thus be discovered 
 with certainty; Kerner (1870) has succeeded 
 *'"' soio!!' ''"* ^ """8 "o' "ble to corroborate 
 this statement. 
 
 The author was also induced to try the 
 action of bromine in place of chlorine. The 
 thalieiockine is then, indeed, produced in 
 solution which contain only i^rJrni °^ quinine. 
 
 Yet the behaviour of bromine displays some 
 striking differences. Chlorine alone, as already 
 stated, causes no immediate alteration of 
 somewhat diluted solutions of quinine, whereas 
 they became turbid on addition of bromine as 
 long as there is about TtVn °^ more of quinine 
 present. Now, the precipitate which is pro- 
 duced by bromine in solution of quinine does 
 not turn green if u little ammonia is subse- 
 quently added, or, at least, the thalloiochine 
 tlius obtained is rather gre.yish. But in 
 more dilute solutions of quinine bromine acts 
 more readily than chlorine. An excess of 
 bromine-is to be carefully avoided. 
 
 This is easily performed if the vapour of 
 bromine, not the liquid bromine itself, is 
 allowed to fall down on the surface of the 
 solutions of quinine ; their superficial layer 
 only must be saturated with bromine by gently 
 moving the liquid. Then a drop of ammonia 
 will produce the green or somewhat bluish 
 zone, which is much more persisteut than that 
 due to chlorine. 
 
 Consequently, for demonstration of the test 
 under notice, chlorine is to be used in com- 
 paratively concentrated solutions. In solu- 
 tions contnining so little quinine (less than 
 T^^ that it is no longer precipitated by the 
 vapour of bromine, the thalleiochine test suc- 
 ceeds much better with bromine, and goes 
 much further, as shown above. 
 
 The author also shows that morphine gives 
 n dark, dingy brown colour with chlorine and 
 aiumouia, which is capable of more or less 
 uiaiking the reaction of quinine. 
 
 Another test for quinine is the formation of 
 its iodosulphate, the so-called herapathite. 
 Kor this purpose the quinine is dissolved in 
 10 parts of proof spirit, acidulated with ^jjth 
 part of sulphuric acid, and to this solution an 
 alcubolic solution of iodine is carefully added, 
 and the liquid in the meanwhile stirred with 
 a glass rod. There appears either imme- 
 diately or after some minutes a black precipi- 
 fctte of iodosulphate of quinine, which if redis- 
 solved in boiling proof spirit, forms in cooling 
 the beautiful crystals of herapathite. 100 
 parts of this herapatliite, if dried on a water 
 bath, repnseut 56'5 parts of pure quinine. 
 
 Dr de Vrij prefers the employment of the 
 iodosulphate of chiniodineasa reagent for the 
 detection and estimation of quinine. In a 
 comiouuioation to the ' Pharmaceutical Jour- 
 
 nal ' he writes :' — " In estimating quinine in a 
 "iixture of cinchona-alkaloids by means of an 
 alcoholic solution of iodine the reagent re- 
 quires to be added in slight excess, in order to 
 ensure complete precipitation. An undue 
 excess of the reagent, however, causes the for- 
 mation of a compound richer in iodine and 
 much more soluble in alcohol than herapathite, 
 and thus renders the determination inaccu- 
 rate." For this reason the author suggests 
 the application of an alcoholic solution of 
 iodosulphate of ehiniodine (so-called sulphate 
 of nmorphons quinine) in place of free iodine. 
 The reagent is made as following: — 
 
 Two parts of sulphate of ehiniodine are 
 dissolved in eight parts of water containing 
 5 per cent, of sulphuric acid. To this cl«ar 
 solution, contained in a large capsule, a solu- 
 tion of one part of iodine and two parts of 
 iodide of potassium, in 100 parts of water, 
 is slowly added with continuous stirring, so 
 that no part of the solution of ehiniodine 
 comes into contact with excess of iodine. By 
 this addition an orange - cobmred flucculent 
 precipitate is formed of iodosulphate of chin- 
 iodine, which either spontaneously, or by a 
 slight elevation of temperature, collapses into 
 a dark brown, red-coloured, resinous sub- 
 stance, whilst the supernatant liquor becomes 
 clear and slightly yellow coloured. This liquor 
 is poured otf, and the resinous substance is 
 washed by heating it on a water bath with 
 distilled water. After washing, the resinous 
 substance is heated on the water bath till all 
 the water has been evaporated. It is then 
 !-oft and tenacious at the temperature of 
 boiling water, but becomes hard and brittle 
 after cooling. One part of this substance is 
 now treated with 6 parts of alcohol of 92 or 
 94 per cent, until it is completely dissolved,, 
 and the solu.tion allowed to cool. In cooling 
 a part of the dissolved substiince is separated. 
 The clear dark-coloured solution is evaporated 
 on a water bath, and the residue dis^olveJ in & 
 parts of cold alcohol. This second solution 
 leaves a small part of iu>oluble substance. 
 The clear dark-coloured solutiou obtained by 
 the separation of this insoluble matter, either 
 by decantation or filtration, constitutes the 
 reagent which the author has used for some 
 time under the name of iodosulphate of chin- 
 iodine, both for the qualitaliie and quantita- 
 tive determination of crystalluable quinine. 
 
 To determine a quantity of quinine contained 
 in the mixed alkaloids obtained from a sample 
 cif cinchona bark, 1 part of the alkaloid is dis- 
 solved in 20 parts of alcohol, of 90 or 92 per 
 cent., containing 16 per cent, of snlphuric 
 acid, to obtain an alcoholic solution of the 
 acid sulphates of tbe alkaloids. 
 
 From this solution the quinine is separated 
 by adding carefully, by means of a pipette, 
 the above-mentioned solution of tbe iodosul- 
 phate of ehiniodine, as long as a dark brown- 
 red precipitate of iodosulphate of quinine- 
 ^ 3rd series, vi, 461. 
 
1412 
 
 QUININE 
 
 lierapathite is formedi As soon as all the 
 quinine has been precipitated, and a slight 
 excess of the reagent has been added, the 
 liquor acquires an intense yellow colour. The 
 beaker containing the liquor with the pre- 
 cipitate is now covered by a watch-glass, and 
 heated on a water bath till the liquid begins 
 to boil. 
 
 After cooling, the beaker is weighed, to 
 ascertain the amount of liquid which is 
 necessary in order to be able to apply later 
 the above-mentioned correction. For although 
 quinine-herapathite is very little soluble In 
 alcohol, it is not insoluble, and therefore a 
 correction must be applied for the quantity 
 which has been dissolved both by the alcohol 
 used for the solution of the alkaloids and the 
 alcohol contained in the reagents. 
 
 The liquor is now filtered to collect the 
 iodosulpbate of quinine on a small filter, 
 where it is washed with a saturated solution 
 of herapathite in alcohol. After the washing 
 has been completed, the weight of the funnel 
 with the moist filter is taken, and the filter 
 allowed to dry in the funnel. As soon as it is 
 dry the weight is taken again, to ascertain 
 the amount of solution of herapathite which 
 remained in the filter, and which left the 
 dissolved herapathite on the filter after the 
 evaporation of the alcohol. 
 
 This amount is subtracted from the total 
 amount of liquid, and for the remaining the 
 correction is calculated with reference to the 
 temperature of the laboratory during the time 
 of the analysis. The dry iodosulpbate of 
 quinine is taken from tlie filter and dried 
 on a water bath, in one of a couple of large 
 watch-glasses closing tightly upon each other, 
 so that the weight of the substance contained 
 in the glass may be taken without the access 
 of air. 
 
 When, after repeatedly ascertaining the 
 weight, it remains constant, this weight is 
 noted down, and to it is added the product 
 of the calculated correction. The sum of this 
 addition is 'the total amount of iodosulphate 
 of quinine obtained from the mix6d alkaloids 
 subjected to the operation, and from this 
 weight the amount of crystallisable quinine 
 can be calculated by the use of Hauer's for- 
 mula, 2C4„H24N2043 (HO1SO3), 31 (old nota- 
 tion), ^hich the author has found to be 
 correct. According to this formula, 1 part of 
 iodosulphate of quinine, dried at 100° C, 
 represents 0'5509 per cent, of anhydrous 
 quinine, or 0'7345 per cent, of disulphate of 
 quinine. 
 
 The accuracy of this determination may be 
 seen from the following examples : 
 
 0*24 gram of anhydrous crystallised quinine 
 gave 0'541 gram of herapathite dried at 100° 
 C.=0'298 gram of quinine. 
 
 According to Hauer's formula, 0'5336 gram 
 of herapathite = 0'294 gram of quinine, which 
 ought to have been obtained. 
 
 1'048 gram of bitartrate of quinine gave 
 
 1-224 gram of herapathite =0674 gram of 
 quinine. 
 
 According to the formula of the bitartrate, 
 Ca,H34N202iC4H(iO, + Aq. = 442 ; 1048 of bitar- 
 trate represents 0'69 of quinine, so that 
 1'255 gram of herapathite should have been 
 obtniued. 
 
 Notwithstanding the different circumstances 
 in which the reagent was applied, the results 
 are satisfactory. 
 
 The two following experiments were made 
 with pure quinine, dried at 100° C, at which 
 temperature it still retains water, under iden- 
 tical circumstances : — 
 
 10664 gram of hydrated quinine gave 
 17266 gram of herapathite = 164'5 per 
 cent. 
 
 1"055 grams of the same hydrated quinine 
 gave 1'7343 gram of herapathite =164'3 per 
 cent. 
 
 The author further states that the iodosul- 
 phate of quinine and of quinidine prepared 
 by means of his new reagent have an analo- 
 gous composition, and are identical with the 
 compound described by Herapath, whilst the 
 iodosulphates of cinchonine and cinchonidine 
 have a different composition from the'former, 
 and both require more iodine to be converted 
 into the optical iodosulphates described by 
 Herapath. Of all these iodosulphates that of 
 quinine is by far the most insoluble in alcohol, 
 and is precipitated first and free from the 
 others by a j udicious application of the iodo- 
 sulphate of chinioidine. 
 
 Quinine is distinguished from both cincho- 
 nine and quinidine by its comparatively free 
 solubility in ether ; the last of these being 
 very sparingly soluble, and the other wholly 
 insoluble, in that menstruum. The presence of 
 cinchonine may also be positively determined 
 by reference to the behaviour of that alka- 
 loid. Quinidine is also distinguished from qui- 
 nine by the different crystallisation, greater 
 specific gravity, and freer solubility of its 
 salts in cold water.' 
 Estim. See Quinometet. 
 Uses, ^c. Pure quinine is but rarely used 
 in medicine, but several of its salts are em- 
 ployed as remedies, on account of theit great 
 stimulant, tonic, and febrifuge powers. As a 
 tonic in dyspeptic affections, and for restor- 
 ing strength and vigour to morbidly weakened 
 habits, and as an antiperiodic or agent to 
 counteract febrile action, it appears to be supe- 
 rior to all other remedies, provided no abnor- 
 mal irritability of the mucous membranes, or 
 of the circulatory organs, exists. The dose of 
 the salts of quinine, as a tonic, is ^ to 1 gr., 
 twice or thrice daily ; as an antiperiodic, 2 to 
 5 gr., or even more, every second or third 
 hour, during the intervals of the paroxysms of 
 ague, and of other intermittent or periodic 
 
 ' An extremely elegant and highly sensitive method of 
 testing for quinine and quinidine by means of the micro- 
 scope, &c., is desoriljed at considerable length, by Dr 
 Herapath, in tlie 'Pharm. Journ.* for November, 1853. 
 
QUININE 
 
 1413 
 
 iffectiona; also in acute rheumatUm. The 
 eiilphute (disulpliate) is the suit gi-norally u^ed ; 
 thin mid other salts are most effective when 
 taken in solution. 
 
 The nature of the influence exerted upon 
 blood hy quinine was, In 1872, made the sub- 
 ject of a fresh investigation by Schnlte.' Its 
 extraordlniiry power of stopping fermentation 
 and putrefaction, by destroying low organisms, 
 such us bacteria and fungi, lias been before 
 pniuted out. It is supposed to diminish the 
 formation of pus in inflammation by arresting 
 the motions and preventing the exit from the 
 blood-vessels of the white blood-corpuscles, 
 tbeaccuinulHtion of which, according to Cohn- 
 heira, constitutes pus. 
 
 By depriving the red blood-corpuscles of the 
 power to produce ozone, it diminishes the 
 chsnge of tissue in the body, and thereby 
 lessens the production of heut. Kanke and 
 Keriier have shown the waste of tissue is re- 
 duced wlien large doses of quinine arc ad- 
 ministered, as indicated in the sm.all propor- 
 tion of uric acid and urea excreted. 
 
 With the object of nsoertaining whether this 
 effect is referable to the direct influence of 
 quinine on oxidation in the blood, or to its 
 indirect influence through the nervous system, 
 Schulte employed a method, bapcd upon the 
 chaiigfs occurring in the alkalinity of the 
 blood, observed by Zuntz, who had noticed 
 that a consideriible formation of acid takes 
 place in freshly-drawn blood, and continues in 
 a less decree till putrefaction commences. 
 
 The amount of acid formed was estimated 
 from the diminished alkalinity of the blood, 
 as companitively shown by the quantity of 
 dilute phosphoric acid required for exact 
 saturation. 
 
 k sutticient quantity of chloride of sodium 
 Has sdded to the phosphoric add to prevent 
 tlie blood-corpuscles from being dissolved, and 
 intirferiiig with the reaction hy their colouring 
 matter. The point of saturation » as fixed at the 
 point of transient reddening of carefully pre- 
 pared test paper by the carbonic acid. Schulte 
 has thus been enabled to confirm the experi- 
 ments of Zuntz and Scharrcnbroicb, showing 
 that quinine and berberine lessen the produc- 
 tion of acid, and that quinine can stop it 
 both before and after coagulation ; that sodium 
 nitropicrate has an action similar to, and 
 nearly as powerful as, quinine; while the 
 actiiin of ciiichonine is much less energetic. 
 Harley has shown chat whilst quinine lessens 
 oxidation in blood, some substances, such as 
 snake poisons increase it. BInz found that 
 when putrid fluids were injected into the 
 circulation of an animal, the temperature rose ; 
 but that this increase of temperature could 
 be more or less prevented by the addition of 
 quinine to the putrid liquid, or the simul- 
 taneous inj< olion ol the qninine. 
 
 With respect to the influences of quinine on 
 
 ' 'N. Eop. PUarm,' xx. 539 ('Pliarm. Joam.,' 3rd 
 senis. ii, 629). 
 
 the change of tissne, Schnlte gives the result 
 of some careful experiments made by Zuntz, 
 who found that after taking three 0-6 gram 
 doses of hydrochlorate of qninine for two 
 days, the amount of urine he excreted was 
 Increased by one third, and then deer, ased a* 
 much, the specific gravity falling from 1018 
 to 1012 ; the urea also showed a marked de- 
 crease. 
 
 The salts of qninine maybe made by simply 
 saturating the dilute acids with the base, so 
 that part of the latter remains undissolved, 
 and gently evaporating the solutions lor crys- 
 tals, or to dryness. Prince Lucien Bonaparte 
 recommends all these salts to be prepared by 
 the addition of a strong alcoholic solution of 
 quinine to a cold solution of the acid. We 
 have tried this method with success. 
 
 duinine, Ac'etate of. Sga. Qvmxi acetas, 
 L. frep. 1. (P. Cod.) Mix quinine, 2 parts, 
 with water, 3 parts ; heat the mixture, and 
 add of acetic acid, q. s. to dissolve the alkaloid, 
 and to render the solution slightly acid ; lastly, 
 decanter filter the solution whilst boiling hot, 
 and set it aside to crystallise. The mother 
 water, on evaporation, will yield a second crop 
 of the acetate. 
 
 2, Effloresced sulphate of quinine, 17 parts, 
 is dissolved in boiling water, and mixed with 
 crystallised acetate of soda, 6 parts. The 
 metate oC quinine crystallises. 
 
 Prop., S^c. Satiny, acicular crystals, which 
 are rather more soluble in water than those of 
 the sulphate. — Dose, i to 5 grains. 
 
 Quinine, Ar8e"niate of. Syn. Quin£ aii- 
 SENIAS, L. Prep, (Bouriferes.) Arsenic acid, 
 li dr.; quinine, 5 dr.; distilled water, 6 fl. 
 oz. ; boil them together in a covered glass 
 vessel until the alkaloid is dissolved, then set 
 the solution a-ide to crystallise. 
 
 Uses, S(c. liecommended by Dr Neligan, 
 and others, as being more powerfully antipe- 
 riodic than the other preparations of quinine. 
 — Dose,-^ to i gr., made into pills; in agues, 
 neuralgia, &c. ; also in cancer. 
 
 Quinine, Ar'senlte of. Syn. Qvivm aesenis, 
 L. Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts, is 
 dissolved in alcohol, 600 parts, and boiled with 
 arsenious acid, 14 parts. The liquid is then 
 filtered. The poisonous salt is deposited in 
 the crystalline form as the liquid cools. 
 
 Uses, 4"c. As the last. 
 
 Quinine, Clilo"ride of. Hydrochlorate of 
 quinine (see betoto). 
 
 Qninine, Ci'trate of. Si/n. Quin.s; citeas, 
 L. Prep. 1. By mixing a hot solution of 
 sulphate of quinine with a like solution of 
 citrate of soda. 
 
 2. From quinine and citric acid, as the 
 acetate. Needle-shaped prisms. — jDo*e, ^c. As 
 the sulphate or disulphate. 
 
 Qninine, Disulphate of. Sulphate of quinine 
 (see below), 
 
 Qninine, Ferrocy'anide of. Sgn. Ctanide 
 
 OP lEON AND QUININE ; QuUfa; HTDHOFEREO- 
 CYAHAS, QniN.E FEBEO-PEUSSIAS, L. Prep. 
 
1414 
 
 QUININE 
 
 (P. Cod.) Sulphate of quinine, 100 parts ; 
 ferrocyanide of potassium, 31 parts; distilled 
 water, 2500 parts; boil for a few minutes, and, 
 when cold, separate the impure salt which 
 floats as an oily mass on the surface, wash it 
 with a little cold water, and dissolve it in 
 boiling alcohol j the solution will deposit crys- 
 tals as it cools. 
 
 Ohs. This compound is by some said to be 
 the most ef&cacious of all the salts of quinia. 
 Pelouze asserts that it is simply quinine 
 mixed with some Prussian blue. — Ilose, 1 to 
 6gr. 
 
 Quinine, FerrosnI'phate of. See Quinine 
 AND Iron, Suiphatb oe (below). 
 
 Qninine, Hydri'odate of. Syn. Iodide ov 
 
 QiriNINE ; QUIN^ HTDKI0DA8, Q. lODIDTTM, L. 
 Prep. 1. By adding, drop by drop, a concen- 
 trated solnbion of iodide of potassium to a like 
 solution of acid sulphate of quinine, and dry- 
 ing the precipitate in the shade ; or heat the 
 liqnid nearly to the boiling point, and allow it 
 to crystallise. 
 
 2. (Pairish.) Effloresced sul[hat6 of quinine, 
 5 parts, dissolved in alcohol, and decomposed 
 by an alcoholic solution of 3 parts ot iodide of 
 potassium, precipitates sulphate of potassa, and 
 yields, on cooling and evaporating, hydriodate 
 of quinine in fine crystalline needles.' 
 
 3. (loDTiEETTBD — Bouchardat.) From an 
 acid solution of quinia and a solution of iodide 
 of iron containing a slight excess of iron, as 
 No. 1. 
 
 Oba. The above are reputed alterative, 
 tonic, and antipeiiodic. — Dose, 1 to 4 gr. ; in 
 obstinate intermittents, and in the scrofulous 
 affections of debilitated subjects. 
 
 Quinine, Hydrochlo"rate of. Syn. Chioeide 
 
 OF QUININE, MdEIATE OE QUININEf ; QuiN^ 
 HTDEOCHLOEAS, QUIN^ MUEIAS, L. Prep. 
 
 1. By neutralising dilute hydrochloric acid 
 with the base, as above. 
 
 2. (Ph. Bor.) Chloride of barium, 5 dr. ; 
 boiling water, 1 lb. ; dissolve, add, gradually, 
 of sulphate of quinine, 2 oz. ; boil gently for a 
 few minutes, filter the solution whilst hot, and 
 set it aside that crystals may form. 
 
 3. (QuiNiE MUEIAS— Ph. D.) Dissolve 
 chloride of barium, 123 gr., in distilled water, 
 2 fl. oz. ; add of sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dis- 
 solved in boiling water, IJ pint ; mix, evaporate 
 the solution to one half, filter, and again eva- 
 porate until spiculae begin to appear ; next 
 allow the liquid to cool, collect the crystals, 
 and dry them on bibulous paper. The mother 
 liquor, by further concentration and cooling, 
 will yield an additional product. 
 
 Obs. Hydrochlorate of quinine occurs in 
 snow-white groups of feathery crystals, of a 
 mother-of-pearl lustre, which are more freely 
 soluble than those of the disulphate. 
 
 Quinine and Iodide of Iron. Syn. Quin.se: 
 
 1 *' 1 and 2 are not identical ; 1 is an acid salt which 
 readily crystnilises, but 3 is a normal salt which I never 
 saw crystttlhse, hut always like a fluid resin, quite amor- 
 phous." — De Vrij. 
 
 ET FEEEi lODiDTJM. (Bouchardat.) Prep. 
 Pour a strong solution of acid sulphate of 
 quinine into a fresh solution of iodide of iron ; 
 collect the precipitate, dry it quickly by 
 pressing it between blotting paper, and keep 
 it from the air. 
 
 Quinine, Ki'uate of. Syn. QuiNX KiNAa, L, 
 Prep. By saturating a solution of kinlc acid 
 with quinine, and purifying by crystallisation 
 out of alcohol. The kinate of quinine is 
 obtained in crystalline warts, soluble in 4 
 parts of water and 8 parts of alcohol. 
 
 Quinine, Lac'tate of. Syn. QuiN.s; lacias, 
 L. Prep. As the acetate or citeate. By 
 spontaneous evaporation fine crystals may he 
 obtained. Said to agree better with dyspeptic 
 patients than the other salts of quinine. 
 
 Quinine, Mn"riate of. Hydrochlorate of 
 quinine (see above'). 
 
 Quinine, ITeutral Hydiobromate of. Syn. 
 QuiNiE HTDEOBEOMAS. (M. Boille.) This 
 salt is prepared by double decomposition of 
 bromide of barium and neutral sulphate of 
 quinia, and is thus easily obtained pure and 
 free from chloride, the great solubility of 
 bromide of barium in alcohol facilitating the 
 removal of any chloride which is insoluble. 
 
 The two salts are dissolved separately in 
 alcohol and the solutions filtered. The neutral 
 sulphate of quinia solution is gradually added, 
 in slight excess, to the bromide of barium solu- 
 tion until a precipitate ceases to form. 
 
 Thesolutions, diluted with water,are distilled 
 to recover the alcohol, afterwards filtered to 
 separate the sulphate of quinia which has 
 been precipitated by tlie water, and then con- 
 centrated sufficiently to induce rapid crystal- 
 lisation. 'Ihe addition of water is indispen- 
 sable for the concentration and crystallisation; 
 the hydrobromate, being soluble in alcohol of 
 all proportions, redissolves as the alcoholic 
 liquor is concentrated. M. Boille claims for 
 his neutral hydrobromate of quinine its much 
 readier solubility over the ofiBcinal sulphate, 
 as well as its superior richness in quinine. 
 
 Quinine, Ni'trate of. Syn. Quin^ nitbas, 
 L. Prep. As the htdeochlokate, substi- 
 tuting ailute nitric acid, or nitrate of baryta 
 (P. Cod.), for hydrochloric acid or chloride of 
 barium. 
 
 Quinine, Phos'phate of. Syn. QuiNa: phob- 
 EDAS, li. As the acetate. Silky, needle- 
 shaped crystals, with a pearly lustre. It has 
 been highly recommended in intermittents, 
 &c., associated with rickets and stomach 
 affections. 
 
 Quinine, Salicylate of. Syn. Quisa: saii- 
 CYLAS. This may be made by mixing an alco- 
 holic solution of quinine with an alcoholic 
 solution of salicylic acid to complete satura- 
 tion, and afterwards allowing the alcohol 
 slowly to evaporate. 
 
 Quinine, Sulphates of. The salt often called 
 * disulphate of quinine' is now generally re- 
 garded as the normal sulphate, while the solu- 
 ble salt, often called the 'neutral sulphate' 
 
QUININE 
 
 1415 
 
 li congidcrcd to bo nn acid salt. This change 
 in nomenclature resulta from doubling the 
 atomic weight of the alkaloid quinine : — 
 
 1. Qolnine Acid, Sulphate of. {C^P^'Sfi^. 
 
 HjS(\.7Aq.) Si/n. HOIPHATB OP QtllNINEt, 
 NkPTEAL BCLPnATB OP QTIININEt, SOLUBLE 8. 
 OP Q. ! QtnN.« BULPHAB S0LCDILI8, L. Prep. 
 From sulphate of quinine, 1 oz., dissolved, by 
 the aid of heat, in water, i pint, previously 
 aiidulotcd with dilute sulphuric acid, 5 fl. dr. ; 
 the solution affords crystals on cooling, and 
 more on evaporation, 
 
 04*. This salt possesses tlie advantaerc of 
 being soluble in about 10 parts of water at 
 60° Fahr; but it is seldom used in the crys- 
 talline form; still, as the officinal sulphate 
 (' disulphate') is generally prescribed along 
 with a small quantity of dilute sulphuric acid 
 to render it soluble, this acid sulphate is, in 
 fact, the compound which is commonly given. 
 It is the ' bisulphate,' 'supersulphate,' or 'acid 
 sulphate of quina' of Soubeiran and other 
 Continental chemists. 
 
 2. Quinine, Sulphate of. (C2oH24N20.j)j. 
 2H2S04.7Aq.) Si/n. NoEMAL bulphate 
 
 OF QUININE, DlStTLPHATE OP Q., QUININE; 
 QUIN^ DISULPnAB (Ph. L.), QUINZE SULPHAS 
 
 (Ph. E., U., & U. S., ci; P. Cod.), QuiNiE sul- 
 phas (B. P.), L. ; Sulphate bb quinine, Pr. 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of yellow cin- 
 chona biu'k, bruised, 7 lbs. ; snlphuric acid, 4i 
 oz. ; (diluted with) water, 6 galls. ; boil them 
 for 1 hour, and strain ; repeat this a second 
 time for 1 hoxir, with a like quantity of acid 
 and water, and again strain ; next boil the bark 
 for 3 hours, in water, 8 galls., and strain ; wash 
 the residue with fresh quantities of boiling dis- 
 tilled water; to the mixed decoctions and wash, 
 ings, add moist hydrated oxide of lead to 
 saturation, decant the supcrnntant lluid, and 
 wash the sediment with distilled water ; boil 
 down the liquor for 15 minutes, and strain, 
 then precipitate the quina with liqnor of am- 
 monia and wash the precipitate (with very 
 cold water) until nothing alkaline is percep- 
 tible; saturate what remains with sulphuric 
 acid, i oz., diluted with water, q. s., digest 
 with animal charcoal, 2 oz., and strain ; lastly, 
 the charcoal being well washed, evaporate the 
 mixed liquors, that crystals may form. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) This process varies from the 
 last one, in the bark (1 lb.) being first boiled 
 in water (4 pints) along with carbonate of soda 
 (4oz.); the residuum, being pressed, is moist- 
 ened with water, and again pressed, and this 
 operation is repeated a second and a third 
 time, the object being to remove, as much as 
 possible, the acids, coluuring matter, gum, and 
 extractive, before proceeding to extract the 
 alkaloid. Carbonate of soda is also used as the 
 precipitant, instead of ammonia, and the pre- 
 cipitate is formed into a sulphate (disulphate) 
 by being stirred with boiling water, 1 pint, to 
 which sulphuric acid, 1 fl. scruple, or q. s., is 
 subsequently added. The crystals, after di- 
 gestion with prepared animal charcoal, 2 di-., 
 
 are ordered to be dried at a beat not higher 
 than 140° Fahr. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Yellow bark, 1 lb., is macerated 
 for 24 hours in water, 2 quarts, acidulated 
 with oil of vitriol, 2 fl. dr., and then boiled 
 for half an hour, after which the fluid is de- 
 canted ; this is repeated a second and a third 
 time with water, 2 quarts, and oil of vitriol, 
 1 fl. dr.; the decanted (or strained) liquors are 
 evaporated to a quart, and filtered, and slaked 
 lime, 1 oz., or q. s., added to the solutiim until 
 it exhibits a decidedly alkaline reaction ; the 
 precipitate is next collected on a calico filter, 
 and, after having been washed with cold water, 
 partially dried on porous bricks, and -ubjected 
 to powerful inta^ure enveloped in blotting 
 paper, is boiled for 20 minutes in rectified 
 spirit, 1 pint, and the liquid, after subsidence, 
 decanted ; this is repeated a second and a third 
 time with a fresh pint of spirit, and the resi- 
 duum being well pressed, the mixed liquors are 
 filtered, and the spirit removed by di.-tillation ; 
 the brown viscid residaum is dissolved in 
 boiling water, IG fl. oz., boiled, and dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, i fl. oz , or q. s., added to render 
 the solution neutral or only sliL'htly acid ; 
 animal charcoal, i oz., is next stirred in, the 
 mixture boiled (or about 5 minutes, filtered, 
 and set aside to crystallise ; the cry.-tals are 
 dried on blotting paper by mere exposure to a 
 dry atmosphere. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Yellow cinchona bark, in coarse 
 powder, 16; hydrochloric acid, 3; distilled 
 water, a sufficiency; solution <if soda, .SO; 
 dilute sulphuric acid, a suffieienoy. Dilute 
 the hydrochloric acid with 10 pint** of the 
 water. Place the bark in a porcelain basin, 
 and add to it as much of the diluted hydro- 
 chloric acid as will render it thoroughly moi^t. 
 After maceration, with occasional stirring, for 
 twenty-four hours, place the bark in a dis- 
 placement apparatus, and percolate with the 
 diluted hydrochloric acid until the solution 
 which drops through is neiirly destitute of 
 bitter taste. Into this liquid (hydrochlorate 
 of quinine) pour the solution of soda, agitate 
 well, let the precipitate (quinine) completely 
 subside, decant the supernatant fluid, collect 
 the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with 
 cold distilled water until the washings cease to 
 have colour. Transfer the precipitate to a 
 porcelain dish containing a pint of distilled 
 water, and, applying to this the heat of a 
 water bath, gradually add diluted sulphuric 
 acid until very nearly the whole of the pre- 
 cipitate has been dissolved, and a neutral 
 liquid has been obtained. (Or add about half 
 the precipitated quinine to some water in an 
 evaporating basin, warm themixtuie and pour 
 in diluted sulphuric acid until the precipitate 
 has dissolved and the liquid is neutral or only 
 faintly acid, then add the other half, stir well, 
 and again heat liquid.) Filter the solution 
 (sulphate of quinine), while hot, through paper, 
 wash the filter with boiling distilL'd water, oon- 
 ceutrate till a film forms on the surlace of the 
 
1416 
 
 QUININE 
 
 solution, and set it aside to crystallise. Tlie 
 crystals should be dried on filtering paper 
 without the application of heat. 
 
 5. " Those who are well acquainted with the 
 chemistry of the cinchona-alkaloids all agree 
 with me in condemning the boiling of bark 
 with dilute acids. I prefer the following 
 method, which can also be used on a small 
 scale for quinometry : — 
 
 " Yellow bark, or any other bark in which 
 quinine prevails, like, for instance, that of 
 Cinchona officinalis, 1 lb., is mixed with milk 
 of lime, made from 4 oz. of lime and 40 oz. of 
 water. After drying this mixture it is ex- 
 hausted with strong methylated spirit (the 
 strongest possible) and the slightly coloured 
 solution neutralised with sulphuric acid, so tliat 
 the liquor has a slight acid reaction upon blue 
 litmus paper. After filtering or subsiding, the 
 clear liquid is distilled and the residue in the 
 still dissolved in water, carefully neutralised, 
 so that the solution has a slight alkaline re- 
 action upon red litmus paper, treated with 
 charcoal and crjstallised, &c." — De Vrij. 
 
 6. ('Hospital sulphate' — Mr E. Her- 
 ring.) The crushed bark is boiled in a solution 
 of caustic soda or potassa, to extract colouring 
 matter and gum ; it is then pressed, washed 
 with cold water, a second time boiled with 
 a solution of caustic alkali, and again pressed, 
 washed, and pressed ; the decoloured and puri- 
 fied bark is next exhausted by coction with 
 acidulated water, in the usual way, and the 
 filtered mixed decoctions are precipitated with 
 carbonate of soda ; the precipitated quina is 
 then dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric acid, to 
 saturation, when the ' hospital sulphate ' 
 crystallises out as the solution coots ; this is, 
 lastly, washed with a little cold water, drained, 
 and dried. — The advantage of this process is 
 the non-use of animal charcoal as a bleacher, 
 and the consequent less cost of the product. 
 In the preparation of his 'white sulphate,' 
 Mr Herring uses benzol as a solvent, instead 
 of alcohol. Patent dated July 28th, 1853. 
 
 Frop. When pure, sulphate of quinine forms 
 very light, delicate, flexible, wliite needles, 
 which are efflorescent, inodorous, and intensely 
 bitter ; it is soluble in 740 parts of water at 
 60°, and in 30 parts at 212° Fahr. ; it takes 
 about 80 parts of cold rectified spirit for its 
 solution, but is freely soluble in boiling alcohol 
 and in acidulated water; it melts at 240° 
 Fahr., and is charied and destroyed at a heat 
 below that of redness. The,, crystals contain 
 76'1^ of quinine, 8-7g of sulphuric acid, and 
 15"2g uf water ; of tiie last, they lose about 
 3-4'.hs by exposure to dry air, and nearly the 
 whole when kept in a state of lusion for some 
 time. 
 
 Pur. This may not be inferred from the 
 form of its crystallisation, for the sulphates of 
 quinidine and of cinchonidinemay be obtained 
 in the same form of crystallisation. As men- 
 tioned already, the reaction with chlorine and 
 ammonia does not distinguish quinine from 
 
 quinidine, as both give the same green 
 colour. " It is entirely soluble in water (hot), 
 and more readily so when an acid is present. 
 Precipitated by ammonia, the residuary liquid, 
 after evaporation, should not taste of sugar. 
 By a gentle heat it loses 85 or lOJ of water. It 
 is wholly consumed by heat. If chlorine be 
 first added, and then ammonia, it becomes 
 green." (Ph. L. 1836.) " On adding chloride 
 of barium to 100 gr. of this salt, dissolved in 
 water mixed with hydrochloric acid, 26'6 gr. 
 of sulphate of baryta, dried at a red heat, are 
 prepared." (Ph. L. 1851.) " A solution of 
 10 gr., in 1 fl. oz. of distilled water, and 2 or 
 3 drops of sulphuric acid, if decomposed by a 
 solution of i oz. of carbonate of soda, in two 
 waters, and heated until the precipitate shrinks 
 and fuses, yields, on cooling, a solid mass, 
 which, when dry, weighs 7"4 gr. and when 
 reduced to powder, dissolves entirely in a solu- 
 tion of oxalic acid." (Ph. E.) 
 
 Adult. Sulphate of quinine is said to be 
 often adulterated with starch, magnesia, gum, 
 sugar, cinchonine, quinidine, &c. ; but, accord- 
 ing to De Vrij, those with starch, magnesia, 
 gum, and sugar, are very rare if ever they 
 were really observed. Very frequent are those 
 with the sulphates of the other cinchona-alka- 
 loids, and these become even still more frequent, 
 as very different kinds of bark are used for 
 the manufacture of quinine. Salicin is, if 
 ever, but very seldom used for adulteration of 
 quinine. The best practical test for the purity 
 of sulphate of quinine is the following :— -A 
 saturated solution of the salt is made at 
 60° Fahr., and one part of this solution is 
 mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a concentrated 
 solution of iodide of potassium, whilst an- 
 other part is mixed with 2 or 3 minims of a con- 
 centrated solution of tartrate of potash and soda. 
 If the sulphate of quinine is pure its solution 
 will remain unaltered by both reagents, even 
 after rubbing the sides of the test tube with a 
 glass rod and standing many hours. But if it 
 contains one or more of the other cinchona- 
 alkaloids there will appear either precipitates 
 or striae on the glass where it has been rubbed 
 by the glass rod. Iodide of potassium indicates 
 particularly the presence of even traces of 
 quinidine, but also of cinchonidine and cincho- 
 nine, provided their quantity be not too small. 
 Tartr.ite of potash and soda indicate, under 
 these circumstances, only the presence of cin- 
 chonidine. The first three remain undissolved 
 when the salt is digested in spirit; the fourth 
 is dissolved out by cold water ; the fifth may 
 be detected by its total insolubility in ether ; 
 or, by precipitating the quinine by solution of 
 potassa, and dis-olving the precipitate in boil- 
 ing alcohol ; cinchonine crystallises out as the 
 solution cools, but the quinine remains in the 
 mother liquor; and the last, by the greater 
 solubility and sp. gr. of the salt, &c. If 
 the sample disengages ammoniacal fumes when 
 treated with liquor of potassa, it contains 
 sal ammoniac. The presence of most foreign 
 
QUININE 
 
 1417 
 
 organic Bub'tancca M alio shown by the 
 (ample bi'in); turned brown, and being soon 
 charred when treiitod with a drop of con- 
 ccutrated salphuric acid. It' it turn red it 
 contains satidn, a substance which is now 
 frequently used to adulterate sulphate of 
 quinine. The pure sulphate is not discoloured 
 by this reagent. 
 
 Ute; Sfe. The sulphate is more extensively 
 employed than any of the other salts of quinine, 
 and, indeed, to almost the exclusion of them. 
 It is the article intended to be used whenever 
 ' sulphate ' or ' disulphate ' of quinine, or even 
 'quinine,' is ordered for medicinal purposes, 
 unless the name is qualilied by some other 
 term. It is a most valuable stomachic, in 
 doses of i to 1 gr. ; as a tonic, 1 to 3 gr. ; and 
 as a febrifuge, 2 to 20 gr. 
 
 Quinine, Snlpho-tar'trate of. Syn. Qt;in,i: 
 8PLPH0-TABTBAS, L. Prep. Prom sulphate 
 of quinine, i parts ; tartaric acid, 5 parts ; dis- 
 tilled water, 20 parts ; mix, gently evaporate 
 to dryness, and powder the residuum. 
 
 Quinine, Tau'nate of. Sj/n. Qcinje tannas. 
 L. I'rep, Dissolve sulphate of quinine in 
 slightly acidulated water, and add a solution of 
 tuuuic acid as long as a precipitate forms ; 
 wash this with a little cold water, and dry it. 
 The Ph. Qrajca orders infusion of gnlls to be 
 used as the precipitant. In inteiraittent neu- 
 ralgia. 
 
 Quinine, Tar'trate of. St/n. Quinx taktrab, 
 L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From tartaric acid and 
 quinine, as the acetate. 
 
 Quinine, 7ale"rianate of. Si/n. QuiN£ 
 VALEBIANAS (Ph. D.), L. Frep. 1. As the 
 acetate or citrjte. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Valerianate of soda, 124 gr., 
 distilled water, 2 ft. oz. ; dissolve; also dis- 
 solve hydrochlorate of quinine, 7 dr., in dis- 
 tilled water, 14 A. oz. ; next heat I'acli solu- 
 tion to 120° (not higher), mix them, and set 
 the vessel aside for 24 hours ; lastly, press 
 the mass of crystals thus obtained, »nd dry 
 them, without the application of artificial heat. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Silky needles and prisms ; its 
 solution sutlers decomposition when heated 
 much above 120° Fahr. It is powerfully anti- 
 spasmodic, antiperiodic, and nervine. — Dose, \ 
 gr., every two hours, or 1 to 3 gr. twice or 
 thrice daily ; in epilepsy, hemicrania, hysteria, 
 uenrah.'ia, and other nervous affections. 
 
 QUININE ANB COI)-LIT£B OIL. Syn. 
 
 COD-LIVKB OIL WITH QUININE, QUINIABETTED 
 COO-UVBK OIL; OtBCMMOBBHCa; CUMQUINA, 
 
 Oleum jecobis aselli cum quina, L. This 
 medicine is a solution of pure anhydrous quin- 
 ine in pure cod-liver oil. 
 
 Prep. 1. Pure quinine (preferably recently 
 precipitated) is fuised in a glass or porcelain 
 capsule by the heat of an oil or sand bath, 
 carefully applied, by which it assumesi a brtiwn 
 colour and the appearance of a resin ; it is 
 then allowed to cool out of contact with the 
 air, after which it is reduced to powder in a 
 dry mortar, and added to pure pale Newfound- 
 
 land cod-liver oil, gently heateil in a closed 
 glass vessel over a water hath ; the solution of 
 the alkaloid is promoted by constant agitation, 
 ttud, when complete, the vessel, still corked, ii 
 set aside in a dark situation to cool ; when tlie 
 ' quiiiiaretted oil' is quite cold it is put into 
 bottles, in the usual manner, and preserved as 
 much as possible from the light and air. 
 
 2. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in a 
 little anhydrous ether before adding it to the 
 oil, which in this case need not he heated, as 
 the union is affected by simple agitation; 
 should this not take place, it may be gently 
 warmed for a few minutes. 
 
 3. The anhydrous quinine is dissolved in 
 anhydrous alcohol, and after being added to the 
 oil, the whole is gently he^ited, in an open 
 vessel, by the heat of a water bath, until the 
 alcohol is expelled ; agitation, &c., being had 
 recourse to as in No. 1. 
 
 Prop., ^0. The above prep irution resembles 
 ordinary cod-liver oil, except in having a pale 
 yellowish colour and a slightly bitter taste, 
 similar to that of cinchona bark. It is said to 
 possess all the properties of cod-liver oil com- 
 bined with those peculiar to quinine, by wliiili 
 the tonic, stomachic, and antiperiodic qualities 
 of tlie hitter are associated, in one remedy, 
 with the genial supporting, and alterative 
 action of the other. The co.nnion strength is 
 2 gr. of qniiiiiie per oz. - 
 
 QUININE AND I'fiON. These two import- 
 ant medicinal agents are combined together in 
 various ways. The following compound salts 
 are often prescribed. 
 
 Quinine and Iron, Cit'rate of. Syn. Citbate 
 
 OF lEON AND QUININE; FeBEI ET QUINi CI- 
 
 TEAB, B. P. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of 
 persulphate of iron, 4i ; sulphate of quiniii, 
 1 i dilute sulphuric acid, IJj citric acid, 3; 
 solutiou nf ammonia and distilled water, of 
 each a sufficiency; mix 8 of the solution of 
 animouia with 40 of the water, :ind to this add 
 tlie solution of persulphate of iron, previously 
 diluted with 40 of the water, stirring them 
 constantly and briskly. Let the mixture stand 
 for 2 hours, stirring it occasionally, then put it 
 on a calico filter, and when the liquid has 
 drained away, wash the precipitate with dis- 
 tilled water until that which passes through 
 the filter ceases to give a precipitate with chlo- 
 ride of barium. Mix the sulphate of quinia 
 with 8 of the water, add the sulphuric acid, 
 and when the salt is dissolved, precipitate the 
 quinia with a slight excess of solution of am- 
 monia. CollectiSe precipitate on a filter, and 
 wash it with 30 of the water. Dissolve the 
 citric acid in 5 of the water, and having applied 
 the heat of a water bath, add the oxide of 
 iron, previously well drained ; stir thein toge- 
 ther, and when the oxalic acid has dissolved, 
 add the precipitated quinia, continuing the 
 agitation until this also has dissolved. Let the 
 solution cool, then add, in small quantities at 
 a time, li solution of ammonia, dilute with 2 
 of the water, stirring the solution briskly, and 
 
1418 
 
 QUIN INE— QUINOIDIN E 
 
 allowing the quinia which separates with each 
 addition of ammonia to dissolve before the next 
 addition is made. Filter the solution, evapo- 
 rate it to the consistence of a thin syrup, then 
 dry it in layers on flat porcelain or glass plates, 
 at the temperature of 100° Fahr., remove the 
 dry salt in flalies, and keep it in a stoppered 
 bottie. Solubility, 2 in \.—Test. Taste bitter 
 as well as chalybeate. When burned with 
 exposure to air, it leaves a residue (oxide of 
 iron) wliich yields nothing to water. 50 gr., 
 dissolved in an ounce of water, and treated 
 with a slight excess of ammonia, gives a white 
 precipitate (quinia) which, when collected on 
 a filter and dried, weighs 8 gr. The precipi- 
 tate is entirely soluble in pure ether, iudicat- 
 ing absence of quinidia and cinehonia. When 
 burned it leaves no residue. When dissolved 
 by the aid of an acid it forms a solution which, 
 after decolorisation by a little puritied animal 
 charcoal, turns theplane of polarisation strongly 
 to the left (cinchona turns it to the right).— 
 Dose, 5 to 10 gr. as a tonic, three times a 
 day, in solution or in pill. 
 
 2. (Ph. U.S.) Trituralesulphate of quinine, 
 1 oz., with distilled water, 6 fl. oz., and having 
 added sufficient diluted sulphuric acid to dis- 
 solve it, cautiously pour into the solution water 
 of ammonia with constant stirring, until in 
 slight excess. Wash the precipitated quinine 
 on a filtur, and having added solution of citrate 
 of iron, 10 fl. oz., keep the whole at a tempe- 
 rature of 120° by means of a water bath, and 
 sLir constantly until the alkaloid is dissolved. 
 Lastly, evaporate the solution to the consist- 
 ence of a syrup, and spread it on plates of 
 glass, so thiit, on drying, the salt may be 
 obtained in scales. — Dose, 2 gr. to 5 gr. 
 
 Quinine and Iron, I'odide of. Si/n. Quin^ 
 ET FEiiHi lODiDiTM, L. Prep. From protio- 
 dide of iron, 2 parts ; hydriodate of quinine, 
 1 part ; rectified spirit, 12 parts ; heat them 
 together, and either evaporate to dryness or 
 crystallise by refrigeration. A powder, or 
 crystalline scales. 
 
 Quinine and Iron, Sul'phate of. Syn. Feeko- 
 
 SULPHATE OF QUININE ; QuiNi; FEEKO-StlL- 
 PHAS, QniN^ ET FEREI SITLPHAS, L. Prep. 
 
 From solutions of the sulphates of iron and 
 quinine, in atomic proportions, mixed whilst 
 hot, and the crystals which form as the liquid 
 cools carefully dried and preserved from the 
 air. 
 
 QUININE AND MERCUEY. See Mebcueio 
 AND Quinine chloeide. 
 
 QUINOA. 'I'he seed of tjiis plant (a species 
 of Chenopodium) is largely consumed by the 
 people who dwell in the elevated regions of 
 Chili and Peru, in which countries it is found 
 growing at a height of some 13,000 feet above 
 the sea-level. Mr Johnston says there are 
 two varieties of it, a sweet and a. bitter one. 
 It is a liiglily nutritious serial, resembling 
 ointment in properties. 
 
 According to Voelker, quinoa lias the follow- 
 ing composition : 
 
 Quinoa seeds dried Quinoa 
 at 813° r. flour. 
 
 Nitrogenous matter • 22"86 . 19 
 Starch .... 56-80 . 60 
 Fatty matter . . . 5-74 . 5 
 Vegetable fibre . ■ 9'53 . — 
 
 Ash 505 . — 
 
 Water .... — . 16 
 
 QUINOID'INE. Syn. Amoephoits qui- 
 nine, CfllNOIDINK ; QUINA AMOEPHA, QuiNA 
 INF0KMI3, QUINOIDIA, QUINOIDINA, QuiNOI- 
 
 DINUM, Chinoipbum, L. A few years after 
 the discovery of the quinine by Pelletier and 
 CaventoUj Sertuerner, a German physician, and 
 known as the discoverer of morphia, obtained, 
 by a peculiar method, from yellow bark, an 
 amorphous alkaloid which was called by him 
 Chinoidin' (to which the name amorphous 
 quinine is improperly given), and also tever- 
 kiUer (Fiebert6dter). He found that not only 
 this alkaloid itself, but also all its compounds 
 with acids, were equally amorphous. As 
 recent investigations have proved that this 
 amorphous alkaloid occurs in all cinchona 
 barks, and is found particularly in many 
 young Indian barks in great quantity, it is 
 quite natural that in the manufacture of 
 quinine the uncrystallisable sulphate of this 
 alkaloid should accumulate in the mother 
 liquors of the snlphate of quinine. From 
 such liquors it is precipitated in an impure state 
 by an alkali, and brought into commerce 
 under the name of quinoidtne. As this amor- 
 phous alkaloid has the property of prevent- 
 ing the crystallisation of the salts of the 
 other alkaloids, particularly those of quiiii- 
 dine, it is clear that the quinoidine of com- 
 merce very often contains quinidine and also 
 cinchonidine. Dr de Vrij, for instance, found 
 sometimes more than 20gof quinidine in some 
 samples of quinoidine of commerce. Although 
 commercial quinoidine contains many impu- 
 rities which may have their origin partly 
 in the adulteration of the cinchona-alkaloids, 
 unadulterated quinoidine, no doubt, chiefly 
 consists of the amorphous alkaloid discovered 
 by Sertuerner. 
 
 The quinoidine of commerce ought never to 
 be used in medicine unless purified. For this 
 purification there are two methods : 1. That 
 of Mr Bullock, which gives the purer but the 
 more expensive product. Crude quinoidine is 
 exhausted with ethor, which, after defecation, 
 is distilled off, leaving the purified quinoidine 
 behind. This process has been patented in 
 England by Mr Bullock. 2. That of Dr de 
 Vrij, which consists in boiling 9 parts of crude 
 quinoidine with a solution of 2 parts of oxalate 
 of ammonium in water. By this process the 
 alkaloids contained in the quinoidine are dis- 
 solved whilst the impurities, and amongst 
 them the lime which is often contained in 
 the ciude quinoidine, remain undissolved. 
 The solution is mixed with a large bulk of 
 ' Sertuerner, ' Die neuesten Entdeckuiigen in der 
 Fliysik, Heilkunde, und Chemie,' Ster Band, Stes Helt, 
 Suite 369 (1830). 
 
QUINOMETRY 
 
 1419 
 
 wnter, then filtered and the purified quinoi- 
 dine precipitated by b slight excess of liquor 
 of soda. 
 
 Prop., 1(0. In its crude form qninoidine 
 somewhat resembles aloes; in its purest state 
 it is a vi'llowislj-brown, resin-like mass, freely 
 soluble in iiUohol and ether, but nearly in- 
 voluble in water ; with the acids it forms dark- 
 coloured, uncrystallisable salts. It is power- 
 fully febrifuge, but less so than either quini- 
 ditic or quinine, although it is identical in 
 chemical composition with both of them. — 
 Dose, 2 to 4 gr. lor adults, i to 1 gr. for chil- 
 dren, given in wine, lemonade, or acidulated 
 honey. 
 
 ftUINOU'ETET. Syn. Cinchonometet. 
 The art of estimating the quantity of quinine 
 in cinchona bark, and in the commercial salts 
 of this alkaloid. 
 
 Proc. 1. Foe baek.— o. (Ph. E.) A fil- 
 tered decoction of 100 gr. of bark, in distilled 
 water, 2 fl. oz., is precipitated with 1 fl. dr., or 
 q. 8, of a concentrated solution of carbonate of 
 soda ; the precipitate, after being heated in 
 the fluid so as to become a fused mass, and 
 having again become cold, is dried iind weighed. 
 " It should be 2 gr., or more, and entirely dis- 
 solve in a solution of oxalic acid." To render 
 the result strictly accurate, the product should 
 be dissolved in 10 parts of proof spirit, con- 
 taining i^th of sulphuric acid, and to this 
 solution carefully added an alcoholic solution 
 of iodine as long as there appears a brown pre- 
 cipitate, which immediately turns black by 
 stirring with u glass rod. This precipitate, 
 eollceU'd upon a filter, washed with strong 
 alcohol and dried on a water biith, is Herapath's 
 iodosulphate of quinine, of which 100 parts 
 represent 56'5 parts of pnre quinine. 
 
 4. (Rebourdain.) 100 gr. of the bark 
 (coarsely powdered) are exhausted with acidu- 
 lated water, and the filtered solution rendered 
 alkaline with solution of potassa ; it is next 
 shaken with about l-3rd of its volume of 
 chloroform, and then allowed to repose for a 
 short time j the chloroform holding the alka- 
 loid in solution sinks to the bottom of the 
 vessel in a distinct stratum, fmni which the 
 snpernatiiut liquid is separated by decautation ; 
 the chloriif irmic solution, either at once or after 
 being washed with a little cold water, is allowed 
 to evaporate ; the residuum, when weig-hed, 
 gives the pcr-centage richness of the sample. 
 
 Ohs. A like result may be obtained with 
 ether instead of chloroform ; in which case 
 the solutiou of quinine will form the upptr 
 stratum. 
 
 e. Instead of Rebourdain's process, Dr de 
 Vrij prefers that of Charles,' so far as regards 
 the separation of the total mixed alkaloids 
 from the bark. To this mixture is applied 
 the process mentioned above (o), viz. solutiou 
 in acidulated proof spirit, &e. 
 
 2. For the salts. The above methods, as 
 
 1 •Journal di- Pharmacie et do Cliin\it,' 4e s^rie, 1. 13, 
 p. 81 (Aoat, l»7u;. 
 
 well as several others which have been devised 
 for the purpose, may also be applied to the 
 salts of quinine ; but, unfortunately, they are 
 inapplicable when great accuracy is required, 
 owing to the non-recognition of the presence 
 of quinidine, as such, and which, consequently, 
 goes to swell the apparent richness of the 
 sample in quinine. The following ingenious 
 method, invented by Dr Ure, not merely 
 enables us to detect the presence of cinchonine 
 and quinidine in commercial samples of the 
 salts of quinine, but, with some trifling modi- 
 fications, it also enables us to determine the 
 quantity of each of these alkaloids present in 
 any sample : — " 10 gr. of the salts to be 
 examined " (the sulphate is here more espe- 
 cially referred to) " is put into a strong test- 
 tube, furnished with a tight-fitting cork ; to 
 this ure to be added 10 drops of dilute sul- 
 phuric acid (1 acid and 5 water), with 15 
 drops of water, and a gentle hent applied to 
 accelerate solution. This having luen etTected, 
 and the solution entirely cooled, f>(^ drops of 
 officinal sulphuric ether, with 20 drops of 
 liquor of ammonia, must be added, and the 
 whole well shaken while the top is closed by 
 the thumb. The tube is then to be closely 
 stopped, and shaken gently from time to time, 
 so that the bubbles of nir may readily enter 
 the layer of ether. If the salt be free from 
 cinchonine and quinidine, or contain the latter 
 in no greater proportion than Id", it will be 
 completely dissolved; while on the surface, 
 where contact of the two layers of clear fluid 
 takes place, the mechanical impurities only 
 will be separated. After some time the layer 
 of ether becomes hard and gelatinous, and no 
 further observation is possible." 
 
 " From the above statement respecting the 
 solubility of quinidine in ether, it appears that 
 the 10 gr. of the salt examined may contain 1 
 gr. of quinidine, and still a complete solution 
 with ether and ammonia may follow ; but in 
 this case the quinidine will shortly begin to 
 crystallise in a layer of ether. The least trace 
 of quinidine may be yet more delinitely de- 
 tected by employing, instead of the ordinary 
 ether, s ine ether previously saturated with 
 quinidine, by which means all of the quinidine 
 contained in thequinine examined must remain 
 undissolved. It is particularly requisite, in 
 performing this last experiment, to observe, 
 (immediately) after the shaking, »hether all 
 has dissolved ; for. owing to the great ten- 
 dency of quinidine to crystallisation, it may 
 become again separated in a crystalline form, 
 and be a source of error." 
 
 " If more than 1-lOth of quinidine or (any) 
 cinchonine be present, there will be lound an 
 insoluble precipitate at the limits of the t\yo 
 layers of fluid. If this be quinidine, it will 
 be dissolved on the addition of proportionately 
 more ether, while cinchonine wdl remain un- 
 afl'ected." 
 
 ^'ute. To Dr Ure's test Dr de Vrij prefers, 
 for several reasons, Dr Kerner's test, ' Zeit- 
 
1420 
 
 QUINOVIC ACID— RABBIT 
 
 sohrift fiir Analytische Cheinie,' von Pre- 
 senius, 1st Jahrg, 1862 ; ' Ueber Die Pruf ung 
 des Kiiufliclien Schwefelsauren Chinins auf 
 freinde Alkaloides,' von Dr G. Kerner. 
 
 QUINOVIC ACID. CjsHasO,. This is in- 
 soluble in water, also in chloroform, and diffi- 
 cultly soluble in alcohol. It can be obtained 
 from the boiling alcoholic solution, by coolingr, 
 in small crystals. In the leaves, bark, and wood 
 of the cinchona tree this acid is contiiined, to- 
 gether with quinovin, and it is this mixture 
 which hasbeeii recently applied in therapeutics, 
 as a powerful tonic in cases of dysentery, &c. 
 The mixture can easily be obtained from the 
 leaves, bark, or wood of cinchona, and even 
 from bark which has been exhausted by ebul- 
 lition with water or diluted acids, by cold 
 maceration with weak milk of lime, by which 
 it is dissolved, as it combines easily with 
 bases. It is only the quinovate of lime which 
 has till now been used in medicine. — Dose, 2 
 to 8 gr. every two hours. 
 
 ftUIKOVIN. CajH^gOg. Syn. Cikchovin, 
 
 QUINOVIA. 
 
 QUINOVIIT. A very bitter amorphous glu- 
 coside contained in the genus Cinchona, Naus- 
 lea, and probably in many other allied genera. 
 It is insoluble in water, very soluble in recti- 
 fied spirit and in chloroform, with which last 
 liquid it forms, in concentrated solutions, a 
 jelly. If a current of hydrochloric gas is 
 passed into its alcoholic solution the liquid be- 
 comes hot and the qiiinovin is split up into a 
 peculiar klml of sujiar. 
 
 aUIN'aUINA. Dr de Vrij states that the 
 substance known under this name is a mixture 
 of hydroehlorate of ciuchonidine and of cin- 
 chonine. See Cinohoka. 
 
 QUIN'SY. See Theoat AFFECTIONS. 
 
 ftlTINTES'SElTCE. Syn. Quinta essentia, 
 L. A term invented by the alchemists to 
 
 represent a concentrated alcoholic solution of 
 the active principles of organic bodies. It is 
 still occasionally employed in perfumery and 
 the culinary art. See EsBBNCE, Tinctuee, &c. 
 
 QUIITOS. It generally shows itself at the 
 top or coronet of the hoof of the horse, in the 
 form of a fistulous opening (whence quittor is 
 also called ' the pipes '), iilled with a purulent 
 discharge. 
 
 Quittor invariably points to the presence of 
 an internal ulcer, abscess, or some other irritat- 
 ing cause, the discharge from which, accumu- 
 lating under the hard hoof, slowly works its way 
 to the surface. The origin of quittor is 
 generally some injury to the hoof, such as a 
 corn, a prick, or an inequality of tread. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to remove the 
 animal's shoe, to cut away any dead or dis- 
 coloured horn, so as to reach the seat of the 
 suppuration, and to allow it to escape by a 
 more direct outlet. Hot-water fomentations 
 and poultices should afterwards be applied 
 for a lew days. Should the sores show an in- 
 disposition to heal, the parts should be washed 
 with a tolerably strong solution of sulphate of 
 zinc, or of bichloride of mercury — 25 grams 
 of the latter to an ounce of water. The appli- 
 cation of strong caustics is to be particularly 
 deprecated. 
 
 QTJOTID'IAK. Occurring or returning daily. 
 See Ague. 
 
 £AB'£IT. The Lepus cuniculvs (Linn.) of 
 the Cuvian order Rodentia. The domestic 
 rabbit, when young, is a light and wholesome 
 article of food, approaching in delicacy to the 
 common barn-door fowl; but lias less flavour 
 than the wild animal. The fat is among the 
 'simples' of the Ph. L. 1618. Its hair and 
 skin are made into cheap furs, gloves, hats, 
 
 &C. 
 
 Composition of Rabbit's Flesh (Baetlett).' 
 
 1 
 
 Ril)bit 
 No. 1. 
 Grains. 
 
 Rabbit 
 Nil. 2. 
 Grams. 
 
 Riibliit 
 Nu. 3. 
 Grains. 
 
 Averajie 
 Grains. 
 
 Per- 
 cent!! y;e, 
 Griiiiis. 
 
 Water 
 
 Fibrin and Syntonin . . . 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 Pat 
 
 Albumen ..... 
 Alcoholic extract, including salts . 
 Watery extract .... 
 Calcium phosphates 
 
 
 5,982 
 1,143 
 302 
 240 
 276 
 106 
 102 
 16 
 
 6,623 
 1,247 
 335 
 272 
 305 
 119 
 108 
 19 
 
 7,315 
 1,393 
 350 
 345 
 340 
 135 
 125 
 25 
 
 6,640 
 1,261 
 329 
 286 
 307 
 120 
 112 
 20 
 
 73-17 
 13-90 
 3-63 
 315 
 3-38 
 132 
 1-23 
 0-22 
 
 Edible portion , 
 
 Additional gelatin from stewing bones . 
 Bones, &c., dissected out and stewed 
 Shank bones, fur and eyes, thrown away 
 
 8,167 
 
 215 
 
 1,501 
 
 313 
 
 9,028 
 
 232 
 
 1,674 
 
 352 
 
 10,029 
 
 251 
 
 1,854 
 
 382 
 
 9,075 
 
 233 
 1 2,027 
 
 100-00 
 
 2-06 
 r 17-88 
 \ waste. 
 
 
 
 10,201 
 
 11,286 
 
 12,516 
 
 11,335 
 
 
 •Lancet,' March 29tli, 1873. 
 
RACAHOUT— RADICLE 
 
 1421 
 
 Rabbit Pie. Cut ap tn-o young rabbits, 
 eeaion with white pepper, snlt, a little niuce, 
 and nutmeg:, all in fine powder; add also a 
 little Cayenne. Pack the rabbit with slices 
 of ham, forcemeat balls, and hard egg', by 
 turns in luyers. If it is to be baked iu a dish 
 add a little wiiter, but omit the w»t>'r if it is 
 to be raised in a crust. By the time it is taken 
 out of the oven have ready a gravy of knuckle 
 of veal, or a bit of the scrng, with some shank 
 bones ol mutton, seasoned with herbs, onions, 
 mace, and white pepper. If the pie is to be 
 eaten hot, truffles, morels or mushrooms miiy 
 be added, but nob if intended to be eaten cold. 
 If it be made in a dish put as much gravy as 
 will till the dish, but in raised crusts the gravy 
 mu|t be carefully strained, and then put iu 
 cold as jelly. 
 
 Babbit Fndding. Cut a rabbit into sixteen 
 pieces, and slice a quarter of a pound of bacon ; 
 season with chopped sai^e, pepper, and salt ; 
 then add potatoes and onions according to the 
 size of the family, and hiilf a pint of water 
 Boil for two hours. The meat and vegC' 
 tables must be well mixed. Rice mny be 
 substituted for potatoes if preferred. 
 
 Sabbit, Ragout of. " Wash and clean a 
 good-sized Ostend rabbit; boil the liver and 
 heart, chop them, and mix with veal stuffing; 
 till the rabbit, sew it up, and tie it into shape 
 Put a piece of fat beef and 1 lb. of bacon, 
 cut in slices, into n saucepan, with 1 oz. of 
 dripping j put in the rabbit to brown, turning 
 it over to brown both sides ; pour o(f the drip- 
 ping, and put in 1 quart of water ; let it sim- 
 mer gently an hour and a half. A quarter of 
 an hour before serving skim o& all the fat, and 
 thicken the gravy with a little corn flour; 
 season with pepper and salt, and, if liked 
 stew a bunch of herbs and half an onion with 
 it. Lay the rabbit on a dish with the 
 hncon round it, and pour the gravy over.' 
 (Tfgctmeier.) 
 
 RACAHOUT. Si/n. Racahout DKS Arabes 
 This is said to be farina prepared from the 
 acorns of Querms Sallota, or Barbary oak; 
 disguised with a little flavouring. The fol- 
 lowing is recommended as an imitation :— 
 Roasted cacao or chocolate nuts, 4 oz. ; ta 
 pioca, and potato farina, of each fi oz. ; white 
 sugar, slightly flavoured with vanilla, i lb. 
 Very nutritious. Used as arrow-root. 
 
 RACE'UIC ACID. 5y». Paeatabtabic 
 ACID. This compound was discovered by 
 Eeatner in 1820, replacing tartaric acid in 
 grape juice of the Dep«rtment of the Vosges. 
 Racemic acid and tartaric acid have exactly 
 the same composition, and yield, when exposed 
 to heat, the same products ; the racemates also 
 correspond in the closest manner with the tar- 
 trates. Racemic acid is rather less soluble 
 than tartaric, and separates first from a solu- 
 tion contiiining the two acids. A solution of 
 racemic acid precipitates a neutral salt of cal- 
 cium, which is not the case with tartaric acid. 
 
 A solntion of racemic acid does not affect a 
 ray of polarised light, while a solution of tar- 
 taric acid rotates the ray to the right. 
 
 " Dessargnes and Jnngfleisch found by ex- 
 periment that nnder the influence of heat 
 ordinary tartaric acid is readily transformed 
 into inactive tartaric acid and racemic acid, 
 and the latter chemist tlionght to find in this 
 fact an explanation of the production of 
 racemic acid. 
 
 " But observations continued throngh many 
 years upon mother liquors from various 
 tartaric acid factories showed that although 
 more or less inactive tartaric acid was present 
 in all of them, racemic acid was not, even when 
 they had been subjected to prolonged treat- 
 ment, and its occurence iu appreciable quan- 
 tity was confined to a small number of speci- 
 mens. In fact, some samples of mother liquor 
 from factories where evaporation was carried 
 on in a partial vacuum contained more racemic 
 acid than others from factories where evapo- 
 ration was carried on over a pure lire. Re- 
 cently Jungfleisch noticed tliat the liquors 
 richest in inactive tartaric acid were also rich 
 in alumina, and the suspicion that alumina 
 favoured the conversion was confirmed by 
 direct experiment ; also that the neutral alumi- 
 num sulphate has but little action. Jnngfleiscli 
 has come to the conclusion that wlien there 
 is an accumulation of alumina on the mother 
 liquor, the conditions are favorable tor the 
 production of a large proportion of inactive 
 tartaric acid, and a small proportion of racemic 
 acid, although when the latter is present in 
 considerable quantity, it becomes the most 
 manifest through its comparative insolubility. 
 Examination of liquors from which racemic acid 
 has been deposited has always shown them to 
 contain much inactive tartaric acid. This 
 theory does not exclude the probability that 
 certain vines under particular conditions pro- 
 duce racemic acid."' 
 
 RACK'INO. See CiDKE and Wines. 
 
 RAD'lCIiE. Syn. Radical. According to 
 the binary theory of the constitution of saline 
 compounds, every salt is composed, like chlo- 
 ride of sodium (NaCl), of two sides or parts, 
 which are termed its radicals. Tliat part of a 
 salt which consists of a metal, or of a body 
 exercising the chemical functions of one, is 
 called the metallic, basic, or basylous radical ; 
 while the other part, which, like chlorine, by 
 combining with hydrogen would produce an 
 acid, is designated the chlorous or acidulous 
 radical. Every salt, therefore, consists of a 
 basic and of an acid radical. Sometimes ra- 
 dicals are elementary in their nature, when 
 they are called simple; and sometimes they 
 are made up of a group of elements, when 
 they are termed compound. Some radicals, 
 both simple and compound, have been isolated, 
 while many have but a hypothetical existence. 
 In the following tormulffi the vertical line 
 separates the basic from the acid radicals, the 
 * ' PliHrmuceuticiil Journal.' 
 
1422 
 
 RADISH— RAIN-GAUGE 
 
 former being on the left, the latter on the 
 right : — 
 
 H P Hydroflaorio acid {Fluoride of 
 hydrogen). 
 
 Na CI Chloride of sodium. 
 
 K CN Cyanide of potassium. 
 
 Ca OO3 Carbonate of calcium. 
 
 NHj CI Chloride of ammonium 
 
 C2H5 NO2 Nitrite of ethyl. 
 
 BAD'ISE. The common garden radish 
 (kaphanus, L.) is the root of Eaphanus sa- 
 tivus (Linn.), one of the Cruciferce. There 
 are several varieties. They are all slightly 
 diuretic and laxative, and possess considerable 
 power in exciting the appetite. The seed is 
 pressed for oil. The horseradish (aemoeacia, 
 li.) belongs to a distinct genus. 
 
 KAIN-GATT6E. Syn. Ombometkc, Pm- 
 yiAMETEB, Udometer. An instrument for 
 determining the quantity of water, which falls 
 as rain, at any given place. A simple and 
 convenient rain-gauge for agricultural pur- 
 poses is formed of a wide mouthed funnel, or 
 open receiver, connected with a glass tube 
 furnished with a stop-cock. The diameter of 
 the tulie may be exactly 1-lOOth that of the 
 receiver, and if tlie tube be graduated into 
 inches and tenths, the quantity of rain that 
 falls may be easily read off to the 1-lOOOth 
 of an inch. The instrument should be set in 
 some perfectly open situation; and, for agri- 
 cultural purposes, with its edge as nearly level 
 with the ground as possible. Another form of 
 gauge is furnished with a float, the height of 
 which marks the amount of liquid. The dia- 
 meter of the gauge should not range between 
 4 and 8 inches. The quantity of water should 
 be duly measured and registered at 9 a.m. 
 daily. 
 
 Mr Symonds, F.R.B.S., has drawn the fol- 
 lowing code of instructions for the guidance 
 of those registering the amount of rainfall at 
 any locality : — 
 
 1. Site. A rain-gauge should not be set on 
 ii slope or terrace, but on a level piece of 
 ground, at a distance from shrubs, trees, walls, 
 and buildings — at the very least as many feet 
 from their base as they are in height. 
 
 Tall growing flower.s, vegetables, and 
 bushes must bo kept away from the gauges. 
 If a thoroughly clear site cannot be obtained, 
 shelter is most endurable from north-west, 
 north, and east ; less so from south, south- 
 east, and west; and not at all from south-west 
 or north-east. 
 
 2. OW Gauges. Old-established gauges 
 should not be moved, nor their registration 
 discontinued, until at least two years alter a 
 new one has been in operation, otherwise the 
 continuity of the register will be irreparably 
 destroyed. Both the old and the new ones 
 must be registered at the same time, and the 
 results recorded for comparison. 
 
 3. Level. The funnel of a rain-gauge must 
 bo set quite level, and so firmly fixed that it 
 
 will remain so, in spite of any gale of wind 
 or ordinary circumstances. Its correctness in 
 this respect should be tested from time to 
 time. 
 
 4. Height. The funnel of gauges newly 
 placed should be one foot above grass. In- 
 formation respecting height above sea level 
 may be obtained from G. J. Symons, Esq., 64, 
 Camden Square, N.W., London. 
 
 5. Smt. If the funnel of a japanned 
 gauge become so oxidised as to retain the rain .. 
 in its pores, or threatens to become rusty, it 
 should have a coat of gas tar or japan black, 
 or a fresh funnel of zinc or copper should be 
 provided. 
 
 6. Float Gauges. If the measuring rod is 
 detached from the float it should never be left 
 in the gauge ; if it is attached to the float it 
 should be pegged or tied down, and only 
 allowed to rise tD its proper position at the 
 time of reading. To allow for the weight of 
 the float and rod these gauges are generally 
 so constructed as to show O only when a 
 small amount of water is left in them. Care 
 must always be taken to set the rod to the zero 
 orO. 
 
 7. Can and Sottle Gauges. The measuring 
 glass should always be held upright. The 
 reading is to be taken midway between the 
 two apparent surfaces of the water. 
 
 8. Date of Entry. The amount measured at 
 9 a.m. on any day is to be set against the 
 previous one, because the amount measured at 
 9 a.m. of, say, the 17th, contains the fall 
 during fifteen hours of the 16th, and only nine 
 hours of the 17th. (The rule has been ap- 
 proved by the meteorological societies of Eng- 
 land and Scotland, cannot be altered, and is 
 particularly commended to the notice of 
 observers.) 
 
 9. Mode of Entry. If less than one tenth 
 (•10) has fallen, the cipher must always be 
 prefixed; thus, if the measure is full up to the 
 seventh line, it must be entered as '07 — that 
 is, no inches, no tenths, and seven hundredths. 
 For the sake of clearness it has been found 
 necessary to lay down an invariable rule that 
 there shall always be two figures to the right 
 of the decimal point. If there be only one 
 figure, as in the case of one tenth of an inch 
 (usually written '!), a cipher must be added, 
 making it '10. Neglect of this rule causes 
 much inconvenience. All columns should be 
 cast tioiee — once up and once down — so as to 
 avoid the same error being made twice. 
 When there is no rain a line should be drawn 
 ratlier than a cipher inserted. 
 
 10. Caution. The amount should always be 
 written down before the water is thrown 
 away. 
 
 11. Small Quantities. The unit of mea- 
 surement being '01, observers whose gauges 
 are sufficiently delicate to show less than that 
 are, if the amount is under '005, to throw it 
 away ; if it is -005 to '010 inclusive, they are 
 not to enter it as '01. 
 
RAISINS— U ASH 
 
 1423 
 
 12. Abneace. Every obsn-ver should train 
 some one as an osaiatant ; but where this is 
 not possible, instructions should be given that 
 the f^HUf^e should be emptied at 9 a.m. on tlie 
 1st of the month, and the water bottled, la- 
 Iwlled, and tightly corked, to await the 
 observer's return. 
 
 13. Heaiin Raint. When very heavy rains 
 occur it is desirable to measure immediately 
 on their termination ; and it will be found a 
 safe plan, after measuring, to return the water 
 to the gau;;e, so tbat the moruing registration 
 will not bo interfered with. Of course, it 
 there is the slightest doubt as to the gauge 
 holding all the falls it must be emptied, the 
 amount being previously written dowa. 
 
 1 1. Snaiu. In snow three methods may be 
 adopted; it is well to try them all: — (1) 
 Melt what is caught in the funnel by adding 
 to the snow a previously ascertained quantity 
 of warm water, and then deducting this quan- 
 tity from the total measurement, enter the 
 residue as rain, (2) Select a place where the 
 snow has not drifted, invert the funnel, and, 
 turning it round, lift and melt what is en- 
 closed. (3) Measure with a rule the averaj;e 
 depth of snow, and take one twelfth us the 
 equivalent of water. Some observers uso in 
 snowy weather a cylinder of the same diameter 
 lis the rain-gauge, and of considerable depth. 
 If the wind is at all rough all the snow is 
 blown out of a flat-funnelled rain-gauge. 
 
 15. Overflow. It would seem needless to 
 laiition observers on this head, but as a recent 
 I'ureign table contains six instances in one day, 
 ill which gauges were allowed to run over, it 
 ii evidently necessary that British observers 
 should be on the alert. It is not desirable to 
 purchase any new gauge of wliich the capacity 
 is loss than four inches. 
 
 16. Second Oanges. It is often desirable 
 that observers should have two gauges, and 
 chat one of them should be capable of holding 
 eight inches of ruin. One of the gauges 
 should he registered daily, the other weekly 
 or monthly, as preferred, but always on the 
 Ist of each month. By this means a thorough 
 cheek is kept on accidental errors in the 
 entries, which is not the Ciise if both are read 
 daily. 
 
 17. Dew and Fog. Smnll amounts of water 
 are at times deposited in rain-gauges by fog and 
 dew. They should be added to the amount of 
 rainfall, because (1) " they tend to water the 
 earth and nourish the streams," and not for 
 that reason only, but (2) because in many cases 
 the rain-gauges can only be visited monthly, 
 and it would then obviously he impossible to 
 separate the yield ot snow, rain, &o. ; therefore, 
 for the sake of uniformity, all must he taken 
 together. 
 
 18. Doubtful Entries. Whenever there is 
 the least doubt respecting the accuracy of any 
 observation, the entry should be marked with 
 a P, and the reason stated for its being 
 placed there. 
 
 Obs. The height at wliich the rain-gange 
 is elevated from the ground is a matter of 
 considerable moment. Thus, one observer 
 found the fall of rain at York for twelve 
 months (1833-1834) to be — at a height of 213 
 feet from the ground, 14-96 inches; at 44 
 feet, 19'85 inches ; and ou the ground, 25'71 
 inches. 
 
 Later experimentalists have confirmed this 
 curious fact. Thus, Colonel Warde found the 
 following to be the relative rainfall at different 
 periods for the four years extending from 1864 
 to 1867 : 
 
 Inches. 
 
 On a level with the ground . 107 
 
 At a height of 2 inches . .1-05 
 
 „ 6 ., . . 1 01 
 
 1 foct . . 1-00 
 
 „ 2 feet . . 0-99 
 
 3 „ . . 0-98 
 
 5 „ . . 0-96 
 
 10 „ . . 095 
 
 20 „ . . 0-94 
 
 Ono of the causes that have been 
 assigned for this singular phenomenon has 
 been — the greater exposure in elevated situa- 
 tions of the rain to dispersive action of the 
 wind, a surmise which derives some support 
 from the circumstance, that when a rain-gauge 
 is placed on a building, tiic roof of which is 
 Hat, of large area, and with few, if any, chim- 
 neys to distub the air currents, an amount of 
 ruin is collected equalling that obtained on the 
 surface of the ground. 
 
 EAI'SINS. Sgn. Dried okapes ; Uvx (U. 
 P.). VVM sioOAT*:, UvA (Ph. L ), Uva; pass.b 
 (Ph. E. & D.), L. " The prepared fruit of 
 Vitis vinifera" (hmn.) — Ph. L. The grapes 
 are allowed to ripen and dry on the vine. 
 After being plucked and cleaneil, they are 
 dipped, fur a few seconds, into a boiling lye of 
 wood ashes and quicklime at 12^ nr 15^^ Baume, 
 to every 4 galls, of which a handful of culinary 
 salt and a pint of salad oil lias been added ; 
 they are then exposed for 12 m- 14 days in the 
 sun to dry ; they arc, lastly, carefully garbled, 
 and packed for exportation. Tlie sweet, fleshy 
 kinds of grapes are those selected for the 
 above treatment ; and, in general, their stalks 
 are cut about one half through, or a ring of 
 bark is rem'U'ed, to hasten their maturation. 
 
 Raisins are nutritious, cooling, antiseptic, 
 and, in general, laxative ; the latter to a greater 
 extent than the fresh fruit. There are many 
 varieties found in commerce. Their uses as a 
 dessert and culinary fruit, and in the manu- 
 facture of wine, <i.c., are well known, and are 
 referred to elsewhere. See Grapes, Wines, &c. 
 
 EANCID'ITY. The strong, sour flavour 
 and odour which oleaginous bodies acquire by 
 age and exposure to the air. For its preven- 
 tion, see Fats, Oils (Fixed). &c. 
 
 RAPE OIL. See Oils (Fixed). 
 
 RASH. Erasmus Wilson notices four dif- 
 ferent affections, as included under this 
 head: — 
 
1424, 
 
 RASPBERRY 
 
 1. St Anthoht's itee, or erysipelas, 
 tile severest of them all, hlready referred to. 
 
 2. Nettle-eash, or ueticaeia, character- 
 ised by its tingling and pricking pain, and its 
 little white elevations on a reddish ground, 
 like the wheals caused by the sting of a nettle. 
 This efflorescence seldom stays many hours, 
 and, sometimes, not even many niiuutes, in 
 the same place, and is multiplied or repro- 
 duced wheneverany part of the skin is scratched 
 or even touched. No part of the body is 
 exempt from it, and when many of them occur 
 together, and continue for an hour Or two, the 
 parts are often considerably swelled, and the 
 features temporarily disfigured. In many 
 cases these eruptions continue to infest the 
 skin, sometimes in one place, and sometimes in 
 another, for one or two hours together, two or 
 three times a day, or perhaps, for the greatest 
 part of the twenty-four hours. In some 
 constitutions this lasts only a few days; in 
 others several mouths. 
 
 There are several varieties of nettle-rash or 
 urticaria noticed by medical writers, among 
 which UETICAEIA FBBBILIS, PEESISTANS, and 
 ETANIDA, are the principal. 
 
 The common cause of nettle-rash is some 
 derangement of the digestive functions, aris- 
 ing either from the use of improper food or a 
 disordered state of the nervous or other sys- 
 tems of the body. Lobsters, crabs, mussels, 
 shrimps, dried fish, pork, cucumbers, mush- 
 rooms, and adulterated beer or porter, bear 
 the character of frequently causing this affec- 
 tion. In childhood it commonly arises from 
 teething. Occasionally, in persons of peculiar 
 idiosyncrasy, the most simple article of food, 
 as almonds, nuts, and even milk, rice, and 
 eggs, will produce this affection. 
 
 The treatment may consist of the adminis- 
 tration of gentle saline aperients, and inseverer 
 cases a gentle emetic, followed by the copious 
 use of acidulated diluent drinks, as weak 
 lemon-juice-and-water, effervescing potassa- 
 draughts, &c., and, when required, diaphoretics. 
 The clothing should be liglit, but warm, and 
 the itching, when severe, may be allayed by 
 
 Soluble Matter — 
 
 Sugar ..,,.. 
 
 Free acid (reduced to equivalent 
 in mMlic acid) .... 
 
 Albuminous substances. . . 
 
 Pectous substances, &c. • . 
 
 Ash 
 
 Insoluble Matter — 
 
 Seeds . . . , , . "1 
 
 Skins, &c J 
 
 Pectose ..... 
 
 [^Ask/rom insoluble matter included 
 
 in weights given'] . , , 
 
 Water . .... 
 
 the application of a lotion of water to which a 
 little vinegiir or camphorated spirit has been 
 added ; the latter must, however, be employed 
 with caution. A hot knee-bath is useful in 
 drawing the affection from the face and upper 
 part of the body. A ' compress,' wrung out of 
 cold water until it ceases to drip, and kept in 
 contact with the stomach by means of'a dry 
 bandage, has been recommended to relieve ex- 
 cessive irritation of the stomach and bowels. 
 It has been stated that decoction of Virginian 
 snake-root is particularly useful in relieving 
 chronic urticaria. 
 
 3. Red-eash, bed-blotch, or pieet spot, 
 is commonly the consequence of disordered 
 general health, of dyspepsia, and particularly, 
 of females, of tight lacing. Sometimes it is 
 slight and evanescent ; at others it approaches 
 in severity to the milder forms of erysipelas, 
 there being much swelling and inflammation. 
 Chaps, galls, excoriations, and chilblains are 
 varieties of this disease produced by cold, ex- 
 cessive moisture, or friction. The treatment 
 is similar to that of nettle-rash. 
 
 4. Rose-bash, talse measles, or boseola, 
 is an efilorescence, or rather a discoloration of 
 a rose-red tint, in small irregular patches, 
 without wheals or papulre, which spread over 
 the surface of the body, and are ushered in by 
 slight febrile symptoms. There are several 
 varieties. The causes are the same as those 
 which produce the preceding affections, and 
 the treatment may be similar. In all of them 
 strict attention to the diet, and a careful avoid- 
 ance of cold applications, or exposure to cold, 
 so as to cause a retrocession, are matters of 
 the first moment. 
 
 EASP'BEEEY. 5yn. Hindbeeet. The 
 fruit of Rubus IdcEus (Linn.), a small shrub 
 of the natural order Bosacece, It is cooling, 
 antiscorbutic, and mildly aperitive. It is fre- 
 quently used to communicate a fine flavour to 
 liqueurs, confectionery, wine, &c. See Feuits 
 and Vegetables. 
 
 Fresenius gives the following as the com- 
 position of raspberries : 
 
 Wild Red. 
 
 
 Eed. 
 
 llVAl 
 
 White. 
 
 3-597 
 
 • 
 
 4-708 
 
 • 
 
 3-703 
 
 1980 
 0-546 
 1-107 
 0-270 
 
 # 
 • 
 
 1-356 
 0-544 
 1-746 
 0-481 
 
 . 
 
 1-115 
 0-665 
 1-397 
 0-318 
 
 8-460 
 
 • 
 
 4-106 
 
 ^ 
 
 4-520 
 
 0-180 
 
 • 
 
 0-502 
 
 • 
 
 0040 
 
 [0 134] 
 86 860 
 
 • 
 
 [0-296] 
 86-557 
 
 • 
 
 [0-081] 
 88-180 
 
 100000 
 
 100-000 
 
 100-000 
 
RATAFIA— RATS 
 
 1425 
 
 KATAFI'A. Originally a liquor dranU at 
 the ratiflcotion of an aifrccment or treaty. It 
 ia now the common generic name in France of 
 liqnenra compounded of spirit, sugar, and the 
 odoriferous iiud flavouring principles of vege- 
 tables, more particularly of tliose containing 
 the juices of recent fruits, or tlie kernels of 
 apricots, cherries, or peaches. In its un- 
 qualified sense this name is commonly under- 
 stood as referring to cherry-brandy or peach' 
 bmndy. 
 
 Ratafias are prepared by distillation, mace- 
 ration, or extemporaneous admixture, in the 
 manner explained under the head liqueub. 
 ThefoUowing list includes those which are com- 
 monly prepared by the French liquoristes ; — 
 
 Ratafia d'AngeHqne. From angelica seeds, 
 Idr. ; angelica stalks, 4 oz. ; blanched bitter 
 almonds, bruised, 1 oz. ; proof spirit or brandy, 
 6 quarts ; digest fur 10 days, filter; add, of 
 water, 1 quart j white sugar, 3J lbs. ; mix well, 
 and in a fortnight decant the clear portion 
 through a piece of clean flannel. 
 
 Batafia d'Auis. See (Liqueur) Cobdial, 
 Aniseed. 
 
 Batafia de Baume de Tola. From balsam 
 of Tola, 1 oz. J rectified spirit, 1 quart ; dis- 
 solve, add water, 3 pints ; filter, and further 
 add of white sugar, 1^ lb. Pectoral and trau- 
 matic. 
 
 Batafia de Bron de Nolx. From young wal- 
 nuts with soft shells (pricked or pierced), 60 
 in no. i brandy, 2 quarts ; mace, einnavnon, and 
 cloves, of each 16 gr. ; digest fur 8 weeks; 
 press, filter, add of white sugar, 1 lb. ; and 
 keeping it for some months before decanting 
 it for use. Stomachic. 
 
 Batafia de Cacao. Si/n. R. se chocolat. 
 From Cnracca cacao-nuts, 1 lb. ; West Indian 
 do., i lb. ; (both roasted and bruised ;) proof 
 spirit, 1 gall.; digest for 11 days, filter, and 
 add, of while su^'iir, 2ilbs. ; tincture of vanilla, 
 i dr. (or shred of vanilla may be infused 
 with tlie nuts in the spirit instead); lastly, 
 decant in a month, and oottloit. 
 
 Batafia de Cafe. From coffee, ground and 
 roasted, 1 lb.; brandy or proof spirit, 1 gall.; 
 sugar, 2 lbs. (dissolved in) ; water, 1 quart ; as 
 lust. 
 
 Batafia de Cassis. From black currant juice, 
 1 quart ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; cloves and peach 
 kernels, of each i dr. ; brandy, 1 gall. ; white 
 sugar, 3 lbs. ; digest for a fortnight, and straiu 
 tlirouirh flannel. 
 
 Batafia de Cerise. From Morello cherries, 
 with their kernels bruised, 8 lbs.; brandy or 
 proof spirit, 1 gull. ; white sugar, 2 lbs.; as iast. 
 
 Batafia de Chocolat. Ratafia de cacao (see 
 oioii*). 
 
 Batafia de Coings. From quince juice, 3 
 quarts ; bitter- almonds, 3 dr. ; cinnamon and 
 coriander 8ee<is, of each 2 dr. ; mace, i dr. ; 
 cloves, 15 gr. (all bruised); rectified spirit, 
 (quite flavourli<s), ) gall.; digest for a week, 
 filter, and add of white sugar, 3J lbs. 
 Batafia de Crimo. From crime de noyeau 
 
 TOL, II. 
 
 and sherry, of each J pint; capillnirc, i pint; 
 fresh creaui, 1 pint; bL-aten together. 
 
 Batafia de Cnrafoa. Curinjo,!. 
 
 Batafia de Framboises. Raspberry cordial. 
 
 Batafia de Genievre. From juniper berries 
 (each pricked wiih a fork), i lb. caraway and 
 coriander seed, of each 40 gr. ; finest malt 
 spirit (22 u, p.), 1 gall.; white sugar 2 lbs.; 
 digest a week, and strain with expression. 
 
 Batafia de Grenoble. From the small wild 
 black cherry (with the kernels bruised), 2 lbs. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 gall. ; white sugar, 3 lbs. ; citron 
 peels, a tew gr.iins; as before. 
 
 Batafia de Grenoble, de Teyssire. From 
 cherries (bruised with the stones), 1 quart ; 
 rectified spirit, 2 quarts; mix, digest for IS 
 hours, then express the liquor, and heat it to 
 boiliug in a close vessel ; when cold, add of 
 suf^iir or capillaire, q. s., together with .•■onie 
 noyeau, to flavour, and a little syrup of tlie 
 bay laurel, and of galangal; in 3 montlis 
 decant, and bottle it. 
 
 Batafia de Noyeau. From poach or apricot 
 kernels (bruised), 120 in no.; proof spirit or 
 brandy, 2 quarts; white sugar, 1 lb. ; dii^'est 
 for a week, press, and filter. 
 
 Batafia de (Eillets. From clove-pinks (witli- 
 out the white buds), 4 lbs.; cinnamon aud 
 cloves, of each 15 gr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; 
 macerate for 10 days, express the tincture, 
 filter, and add of white sugar, 2i lbs. 
 
 Batafia d'Ecorce d'Orange. Ci iuie d'Orange. 
 
 Batafia de Flenrs d'Oranger. From fresh 
 orange petals, 2 lbs. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; 
 white sugar, 2^ 1I)S. ; as last. Instead of 
 orange flowers, neuroli, 1 dr., may be used. 
 
 Batafia a la FroTen9ale. From striped 
 pinks, 1 lb. ; brandy or proof spirit, 1 quart ; 
 white sugar, } lb.; juice of strawberries, J 
 pint ; saffron, 20 gr. ; as before. 
 
 Batafia des Quatre Fruits. I'rom cherries, 
 30 lbs. ; gooseberries, 15 lbs. ; raspberries, 8 
 lbs. ; IjIhcIc currants, 7 lbs. ; expre»s the juice, 
 and to each pintadd,of white sugar, 6 oz. ; cin- 
 namon, 6 gr. ; cloves and mace, of each 3 gr. 
 
 Ratafia Bonge. From the juice of black 
 cherries, 3 quarts ; juices of strawberries and 
 raspberries, of each 1 quart ; cinnamon, 1 dr. ; 
 miKC and cloves, of each 15 gr. ; proof spirit 
 or Ijr.nuly, 2 galls.; white sugar, 7 lbs. ; mace- 
 rate, &(-., as before. 
 
 Ratafia Sec. Take of the juice of goose- 
 berries, 5 pints; juices of cherries, straw- 
 berr es, and raspberries, of each 1 pint; proof 
 spirit, fi quarts; sugar, 7 lbs.; as before. 
 
 Ratafia a la Violette. From orris powder, 
 3 oz. ; litmus, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; 
 digest for 10 days, strain, and add of wliite 
 sugar, 12 lbs. ; dissolved in soft water, 1 gall. 
 
 BATS. Tlie common or brown rat is the 
 Mus Decumanus (Linn.), one of the most pro- 
 lific and destructive species of the Hudenlia. 
 It was introduced to the,-e Islands from Asia ; 
 aud has since spread over the whole country, 
 and multiplied at the expense of the black 
 rat (^^fl^s Sattus — Linn.), which is the old 
 
 90 
 
1426 
 
 RAZORS— RKD 
 
 British species of tliis animal, until its inroads 
 on our granaries, our stores, and dwelling- 
 houses have increased to such an extent, that 
 its extirpation has become a matter of serious, 
 if not of national, importance. 
 
 For the destruction of these noxious animals 
 two methods are adopted : — 
 
 1. Trapping. To render the bait more 
 attractive, it is commonly sprinkled with a 
 little of one of the rat scents noticed below. 
 The trap is also occasionally so treated. 
 
 2. Poisoning. The following are reputed the 
 most effective mixtures for this purpose : — 
 
 Arsenical Paste. From oatmenl or whcaten 
 flour, 3 lbs.; powdered indigo, J oz. ; finely 
 powdered white arsenic, i lb. ; oil of aniseed, 
 i dr. ; mix, add of melted suet, 2J lbs. ; 
 and beat the whole into a paste. A similar 
 compound has the sanction of the French 
 Government. 
 
 Aesenical Powdeb. From oatmeal, 1 lb. ; 
 moist sugar, i lb. ; white arsenic and rotten 
 cheese, of each 1 oz. ; rat-scent, a few drops. 
 
 MiLLEES' Rat Powdee. From fresh oat- 
 meal, 1 lb. ; nux vomica (in very fine powder), 
 
 1 oz.; rat-scent, 5 or 6 drops. This is highly 
 spoken of by those who have used it. 
 
 MiNEHAL Rat-poison. Prom carbonate of 
 baryta, i lb. ; sugar and oatmeal, of each 
 6 oz. ; oils of aniseed and caraway, of each 
 a few drops. 
 
 Philanteope Muophobon. a French 
 preparation, which, according to Mr Beasley, 
 consists of tartar emetic, 1 part, with fari- 
 naceous matter, 4 parts, and some other (un- 
 important) ingredienis. 
 
 Phosphoe Paste. 
 
 Eat-scents. The following are said to be 
 the most attractive ; 
 
 a. Powdered cantharides steeped in French 
 brandy. For traps. It is said that rats are 
 so fond of this, that if a little be rubbed about 
 the hands they may be handled with impunity. 
 
 b. From powdered assafcetida, 8 gr. ; oil of 
 rhodium, 2 dr. ; oil of aniseed, 1 dr. ; oil of 
 lavender, J dr. ; mix by agitation. 
 
 c. From oil of aniseed, J oz. ; tincture of 
 assafcetida, i oz. 
 
 d. From oil of aniseed, i oz. ; nitrous acid, 
 
 2 to 3 drops ; musk, triturated with a little 
 powdered sugar), 1 gr. 
 
 BA'ZOES. See Papers, Paste, and Shatino. 
 
 EEA'aBNTS. See Tests. 
 
 E£AL'GAK. This valuable red pigment is 
 the bisulphide of arsenic. It is found native 
 in some volcanic districts ; but that of com- 
 merce is prepared by distilling, in an earthen 
 retort, arsenical pyrites, or a mixture of sul- 
 pliur and arsenic, of orpiment and sulphur, or 
 •of arsenious acid, sulphur, and charcoal, in the 
 proper proportions. See Disdlphide op 
 
 EECOMMENDATIONS TO PAEMEES. A 
 ■series of valuable suggestions, intended for the 
 guidance of farmers in the purchase of manures 
 , and cattle-feeding materials have lately been 
 
 issued by the Royal Agrienltural Society of 
 England. In substance they are as follows :^ 
 In the purchase of feeding-cakes, the guaran- 
 tee of ' pure ' should be insisted upon, since 
 this means a legal warranty that the article is 
 produced from good clean seed. The terms 
 'best' and 'genuine' are of no value, and 
 should be objected to. Furthermore, the 
 sample should be subjected to analysis. For 
 this purpose a sample should be taken out of 
 the middle of the cake, whilst the remainder 
 of the cake from which the sample has been 
 selected, should be sealed up and placed aside 
 for reference in case of dispute. 
 
 The following advice is given to farmers 
 about to purchase manures : — Raw bones or 
 bone dust should be purchased ' as pure,* 
 whilst they should be guaranteed to contain 
 not less than 45 per cent, of tribasic phosphate 
 of lime, and 4 per cent, of ammonia. ' Boiled 
 bones ' should be purchased as ' pure ' boiled 
 bones, guaranteed to contain not less than 48 
 per cent, of tribasic phosphate of lime, and If 
 per cent, of ammonia. Dissolved bones vary 
 so greatly that the buyer should insist on a 
 guarantee of quality under the heads of 
 ' soluble phosphate of lime,' ' insoluble phos- 
 phate of lime,' and ' nitrogen ' or ' ammonia ;' 
 also for an allowance at current rates for each 
 unit per cent, if the bones should prove on 
 analysis to contain less than the guaranteed 
 per-centages, &c. It should be insisted that 
 mineral superphosphates are delivered dry and 
 in good condition, and be guaranteed to contain 
 a certain per-centage of soluble phosphates at 
 a certain price per unit per cent. No value 
 is to be attached to ' insoluble phosphates.' 
 Compound artificial manures, which are rarely 
 used, should be purchased on exactly the same 
 terms. Nitrate of soda should be purchased 
 on exactly the same terms. Nitrate of soda 
 should be guaranteed to contain 94 to 95 per 
 cent, of pure nitrate. Sulphate of ammonia 
 should yield 35 per cent, of ammonia. Peru- 
 vian guano should' be sold under that 
 name, and guaranteed to be in a dry, friable 
 condition, and to contain a certain per-centage 
 of ammonia. 
 
 In buying artificial manures the purchaser 
 is recommended to obtain a guarantee that 
 they shall be delivered in a sufficiently dry 
 and powdery condition to allow of sowing by 
 the drill. 
 
 Samples, taken out of three or four bags, 
 should be well mixed together, and they 
 should be analysed not later than three days 
 after delivery. Two tins, holding about half 
 a pound each, should be filled in the presence 
 of a witness, sealed up, one sent to the analyst, 
 and the other retained for future reference. 
 
 EECTIFCA'TIOW . The redistillation, &c., of 
 a fluid, for the purpose of rendering it purer. 
 
 EED. A term denoting a bright colour, 
 resembling blood. Red is a simple or primary 
 colour, but of several different sljades or hues, 
 as scarlet, crimson, vermilion, orange-red, &c. 
 
RED ANILINE-RED PIGMENTS 
 
 1427 
 
 KED, AK'ILINE. Syn. RoBANiuyE. This 
 artificial base is prepared by the action of 
 biohluride of tin, mercurial bhUs, arsenic acid, 
 and many other oxidising agents, upon aniline. 
 The aniline reps of commerce, now go largely 
 naed fur dyeing, are saline compounds, more or 
 less pure, of rosaline, with 1 equiv. of acid. 
 These compounds nre known under the names 
 of 'magenta,' 'fuchsiiie,' 'roseine,' 'aza- 
 leine,' &c. In England the aniline red com- 
 monly employed is the acetate of rosaniline, 
 which has been prepared by Mr Nicholson in 
 splendid crystals of very considerable dimen- 
 sions. In France the hydrochlorate of rosani- 
 line is chiefly employed. The free base 
 presents itself in colourless crystalline plates, 
 but its compounds with 1 equiv. of acid have, 
 when dry, a beautiful green colour, with golden 
 loiitre, and furnish with water un intensely 
 coloured red solution. iSee PtriiPLE (Aniline) 
 and Red dte, also Tab coloubb. 
 
 BED DTE. The substances principally era- 
 ployed for dyeing reds are cochineal, luc-dye, 
 and madder, which, under proper treatment, 
 yield permanent colours of considerable bril- 
 liancy, the first and third more particularly 
 so. Extremely beautiful but fugitive colours 
 nre also obtained from Brazil wood, safflower, 
 archil, nnd some other substances. For purple- 
 red or crimsons (magenta, fuchsine, &c), 
 on silk or wool, the aniline reds (salts of ros- 
 aniline) are now extensively used. (See Tab- 
 OOLOUBS.) The mode of appljing them is 
 noticed under Pitbple dte. Silk is usually 
 dyed of a permanent red or scarlet with cochi- 
 neal, safflower, or lac dye ; wool, with cochi- 
 neal and, still more frequently, witli madder ; 
 and cotton, with madder (chiefly). Brazil wood, 
 &c. The leading properties of these substances 
 are given under their respective names, and 
 the methods of employing them are generally 
 reierred to in the articles Dyeing, Moedants, 
 &e., and, therefore, need not be repeated 
 here. The following may, however, be useful 
 to the reader : — 
 
 1. Fir.-t, give the ' goods ' a mordant ofalum, 
 or of ulum-and-tartar, rinse, dry, and boil 
 them in H bath of madder. If acetate of iron be 
 used instead of alum, the colour will be purple, 
 and by CDUibiuiug the two, as mordants, any 
 intermediate shade may be produced. 
 
 2. The yarn or cloth is put into a very weak 
 alkaline bath at the boiling temperature, then 
 washed, dried, anil ' galled ' (or, when the 
 calico is to be printed, for this bath may be 
 substituted one of cow-dung, subsequent ex- 
 posure to the air for a day or two, and im- 
 mernion in very dilute sulphuric acid. In this 
 way the stuH^ gets opened, and takes and 
 retains the colour better). After the ' galling ' 
 the goods are dried, and alumed twice ; then 
 dried, riiisid. and passed through a madder 
 bath, cDinpcpsed of j lb. of good madder for 
 every lb. weight of the goods; this bath is 
 slowly raised to the boiling point in the course 
 of 50 or 60 niiuutes, more or less, according 
 
 to the shade of colour required ; after a few 
 minutes the stuff is taken out, and slightly 
 washed ; the operation is then repeated, in the 
 same manner, with fresh madder ; it is, lastly, 
 washed and dried, or passed through a hot 
 soap bath, which carries off the fawn-coloured 
 particles. 
 
 3. (Adeianoplb bed, Tubket e.) This 
 commences with cleansing or scouring the 
 goods by alkaline baths, after which they are 
 steeped in oily liquors brought to a creamy 
 state by a little carbonate of soda ; a bath of 
 sheep's dung is next often used as an inter- 
 mediate or secondary steep j the oleaginous 
 bath, and the operation of removing the 
 superfluous or loosely adhering oil with an 
 alkaline bath, is repeated two or three times, 
 due care being taken to dry the goods tho- 
 roughly after each distinct process; then fol- 
 low the distinct operations of galling, aluming, 
 maddering, and brightening, the last for re- 
 moving the dun-coloured principle, by boiling 
 at an elevated temperature witli alkaline 
 liquids end soap; the whole is generally con- 
 cluded with treatment by spirit ot tin. In this 
 way are given the most brilliant reds on cotton, 
 
 Obs. Wool takes from half its weight of 
 madder to an equal weight to dye it red; 
 cott(m and linen take rather less. On account 
 of the comparative insolubility of the colour- 
 ing matter of madder, this dye-stuff must be 
 boiled along with the goods to he dyed, and 
 not removed from the decoction, as is the 
 practice in using many other articles. Other 
 dye-stuff's are frequently add>d to the madder 
 bath, to vary the shades of colour. Decoction 
 of fustic, weld, logwood, quercitron, &c., are 
 often thus emploxed, the mordants being 
 modified accordingly. By adding bran to the 
 madder bath the colour is said to be rendered 
 much lighter, and of a more agreeable tint. 
 
 RED GUM. A slight eruptive disease of 
 infancy, occasioned by teething, and, less Ire- 
 queutlv, by irritation from rimgh flannel worn 
 next to the .«kin. See SlEOPHnLUS. 
 
 KED LAV'ENDEE. See Timctueb of 
 Lavendeb (Compound). 
 
 KED LIQ'UOR. The crude solution of ace- 
 tate or sulpho-acetate of alumina employed 
 in calico printing. It is generally prepared 
 by mixing crude sulphate of alumina with 
 about an equal weight of crude pyrolignite of 
 lime, both being in the state of solution. 
 
 RED PIG'MENTS. The preparation of the 
 principal red pigments are described under 
 clieir respective names. The following list 
 includes most of the reds in use : — 
 
 Arme'nian Bole. 5y». Bole Abmenian ; 
 Boms Abmeniji, L, Formerly imported from 
 Armenia, Portugal, Tuscany, &c. ; now gene- 
 rally made by grinding together a mixture of 
 whiting, red oxide of iron, and red ochre, in 
 nearly equal proportions. 
 
 Bed, Brown. A factitious mixture of red 
 oxide of iron and red ochre, in variable pro- 
 portions. 
 
1428 
 
 EEDUCTION— RE FRIG ERATION 
 
 Car'miue. 
 
 Caimina'ted Lake. 
 
 Bed Chrome. Si/n. Dicheomate of iBir, 
 Red cheomate of l. ; Plumbi noHEOMAB, 
 P. CHEOMUS BXIBEUM, L. Frep. 1. Boil pure 
 carbonate of lead with chromate of potassa, in 
 excess, until it assumes a proper colour; then 
 wash it well with pure water, and dry it in 
 the shade. 
 
 2. Boil neutral chromate of lead with a 
 little water of ammonia or lime water. 
 
 3. (Liebig and Woiiler.) Fuse saltpetre at 
 a low red beat in a Hessian crucible, and 
 throw in chromate of lead (pure chrome yel- 
 low), by small portions at a time, as long as a 
 strong ebullition follows upon each addition 
 of the pigment, observing to stir the mixture 
 frequently with a glass rod ; after repose 
 for a minute or two, pour off the fluid part, 
 and, as soon as the solid residuum is cold, 
 wash it with water, and dry it by n gentle 
 heat. 
 
 Obs. Great care must be taken, in conduct- 
 ing the last process, not to employ too much 
 heat, nor to allow the saline matter to stand 
 long over the newly formed chrome-red, as 
 the colour is thus apt to change to a brown 
 or orange. When well managed the product 
 has a crystalline texture, and so beautiful a 
 red colour that it vies with native cinnabar. 
 The liquid poured from the crucible is reserved 
 for manufacturing chrome yellow. 
 
 Red, In'dian. Syn. PtTEPiB ochee ; Ochea 
 PUEPUEEA Peesioa, T ebea Pbesica, L. This 
 is a native production, brought from Ormus. 
 A factitious article is prepared by calcining a 
 mixture of colcothar and red ochre. 
 
 Lakes (Various). 
 
 Red, Light. From yellow ochre, by careful 
 calcination. It works well with both oil 
 and water, and produces an admirable flesh- 
 colour by admixture with pure white. All 
 the ochres, both red and y«llow, are darkened 
 by heat. 
 
 Red Ov'ange. Syn. Sandix. Obtained 
 from white lead by calcinatim. Very bright. 
 
 Keal'gar. Bisulphide of arsenic. 
 
 Red Bole. See Aemenian and Veketian 
 BOLE, (Ochres.) 
 
 Bed Chalk. A clay iron ore, much used for 
 pencils and crayons, and, when ground, also 
 for paints. 
 
 Red Lead. Syn. Minium. The finest red 
 lead is prepared by exposing ground and elu- 
 triated massicott, or dross of lead, in shallow 
 iron trays (about 12 inches square, and about 
 4 or 5 inches deep), piled up on the hearth of 
 a reverberatory furnace, to a heat of about 
 600 to 650° i'ahr., with occasional stirring, 
 until it acquires the proper colour. The fur- 
 nace employed for the preparation of massicot 
 during the day usually possesses sufficient 
 residuary heat during the night for this pro- 
 cess, by which fuel is saved. Lead for the 
 above purpose should be qiiite free from copper 
 and iron. 
 
 Red Ofchie. A natural product abounding 
 on the Mendip hills. 
 
 Red Or'pimeut. Syn. Red aesenic. Ter- 
 sulphide of arsenic. 
 
 Red Vene'tian. Syn. BoLrs Veneta, L. 
 A species of ochre, brought from Italy, 
 
 Rose Fiuk. This is whiting coloured with 
 a decoction of Brazil wood to which a little 
 pearlash has been added. A very pretty colour, 
 but it does not stand. It is always kept in a 
 damp state. The colour may be varied by 
 substituting alum for pearlash, or by the addi- 
 tion of a little spirits of tin. 
 
 Vermil'ion. (See under that word.) 
 
 REDUCTION. Syn. REVlviFlfcATioif. A 
 term in its fullest sense applied to any opera- 
 tion by which a substance is restored to its 
 neutral state ; but now generally restricted, 
 in chemistry, to the abstraction of oxygen, 
 and hence frequently termed deoxidation 
 or deoxidisement. This change is operated 
 by either heating the substance in contact 
 with carbon or hydrogen, or in exposing it to 
 the action of some other body having a pow- 
 erful affinity for oxygen. See Potassium, 
 &c, 
 
 REFI"1HNG. A term employed in com- 
 mercial chemistry and metallurgy synony- 
 mously with purification. The separation of 
 the precious metals from those of less value, 
 as in the operation of parting, constitutes the 
 business of the ' refiner,' See Gold, Siltee, 
 &c, 
 
 REFRACTION (of Light). The deviation 
 of a ray of light from its original path on 
 entering a medium of a different density or 
 power. For the practical application of this 
 property, see Gems. 
 
 REFRI"G£RANIS. Medicines or agents 
 which tend to lessen the animal temperature 
 without causing any marked diminution of 
 sensibility or nervous energy. Among inter- 
 nal relrigerants cold water, weak acidulous 
 drinks, and saline aperients, are those which 
 are probably the best known and the most 
 useful. Among external refrigerants are cold 
 water, evaporating lotions, weak solutions of 
 subacetate of lead, &c, 
 
 REFRIGERA'TION. The abatement of 
 heat; the act or operation of cooling. 
 
 Among the purposes to which refrigeratory 
 processes are applied in the arts, the principal 
 are — the condensation of vapours — the cooling 
 of liquids — the congelation of water, and — the 
 production of extreme degrees of cold in chemi- 
 cal operations. The first of these is referred 
 to under the heads Distilxation, Still, &c. , 
 and the second under Woet. It is, therefore, 
 only necessary to notice here the third and 
 fourth applications of cold, artificially pro- 
 duced, above referred to. 
 
 The refrigeratory processes at present em- 
 ployed depend upon the greater capacity for 
 heat which the same body possesses as its 
 density lessens, or its attenuation increases; 
 as exhibited in the sudden liquefaction of solids. 
 
refrigeration'. 
 
 1429 
 
 the rapid evnpnration of liqnids, and tlie almost 
 inetantaneo<iB nturu of atmospheric air, or 
 other gaKeou^i boily, from u highly condensed 
 state to its normal condition. Tlie loss of sen- 
 siljle heat in the first example is the basis of 
 the various processes of producing cold by 
 what are commonly called 'jrkezino-' or 
 • JEIOOBIWC-MIXTCBKS,' all of which act 
 upon the principle of liquefying solid sub- 
 stances witliout supplying heat. The caloric 
 cf liquidity being in these cases derived from 
 that previously existing in tlie solid itself in 
 a sensible state, the temperature must neces- 
 sarily fail. The degree of cold produced 
 depends upon the quantity of heat which is 
 tlius diffused through a larger mass, or which, 
 as it were, dlsappeiirH ; and this is dependent 
 on the '.quantity of solid matter liquefied, and 
 the rapidity of the liquefaction. Saline com- 
 pounds are the substauces most frequently 
 employed for this purpose, and those which 
 have the greatest affinity for water, and thus 
 liquefy the most rapidly, produce the greatest 
 degree of cold. Similar changes occur during 
 the evaporation of liquids. When heat passes 
 from the seusible to the insensible state, »s in 
 the formation of vapour, cold is generated. 
 Tills may be shown by pourini; a few drops of 
 ether or rectified spirit on the palm of the 
 hand, when a strong sensation of cold is expe- 
 rienced. A still moi'e familiar illustration of 
 this (act is exhibited iu the rapidity with which 
 the animal body loses heat when enveloped in 
 damp or wet clothing. The evaporation of 
 water produies a degree of cold wliieh is 
 greater than that of otlier liquids, in exact 
 proportion as tlic insensible or latent heat of 
 its vapour exceeds theirs. In the attenua- 
 tion or rarefaction of gases similar phenomena 
 occur. 
 
 It has been found that evaporation proeeeds 
 much more rapidly from tlie sui-face of fluids 
 ill a vaiuum than in the atmosphere. Water 
 ui:iy be easily frozen by introducing a surlace 
 of sulphuric acid under the receiver of an air- 
 puinp, over which is placed u capsule filleii 
 with water, so that the vapour arising from 
 the latter may be immediately absorbed by the 
 former. After a tew strokes of the piNtoii the 
 water is converted into a solid cake of ice. 
 The acid operates by absorbing the aqueous 
 vapours as soon as generated, and thus main- 
 taining the integrity of the vacuum. Pro- 
 fe'isor Leslie found that, when air is thus rari- 
 fied 25U times, the surface of evaporation was 
 cooled down 12U' in winter; and when only 
 50 tiiiie^, a depression of 80" or even 100° 
 took place. " Sulphuric acid is capable of 
 congealing more than 20 times its weight of 
 water before it has imbibed nearly its own 
 bulk of that liquid, or has lost about |th of its 
 refrigerating power." (Ure.) Sulphuric acid, 
 which lias become diluted in this way, may be 
 reconcentrated by heat. Any substance having 
 a great tendency to absorb moisture may be 
 substituted for the sulphuric acid. Fused 
 
 chloride of calcium, qnicklime, nitrate of 
 masnesium, chloride of zinc, and oatmeal 
 (dried nearly to brownness before a common 
 fire), have been used for this purpose. Again, 
 instead of employing an air-pump, a vacuum 
 may be produced by the a!,'incy of steam, 
 afterwards condensed by the affusion of cold 
 water. 
 
 A pleasing philosophical toy, illustrative of 
 the evaporative power of a vacuum, is the 
 ' CBYOPHonua,' or ' fbost-beahee,' of Dr 
 WoUastou. This instrument consists of two 
 
 6 
 
 small glass globes, united by a tube, one of 
 which is partly filled with water. The whole 
 apparatus is perfectly free from air, and is, 
 consequently, filled with attenuated aqueous 
 vapours. No sooner is the pressure removed 
 as by plunging the empty ball into a freezing 
 mixture (which condenses the vapour), than 
 rapid evaporation commences, and tlie water 
 ill the other ball is frozen iu two or time 
 minutes. 
 
 Even in hot climates ice may be produced 
 under favorable circumstances by evapora- 
 tion. On the open plains, near Calcutta, this 
 is effected by exposing a thin stratum of water 
 to the atmosphere, during the Bne clear nights 
 of December, January, and February. The 
 pans are made of porous earthenware, and 
 water is poured in to the depth of about IJ 
 inch. A large number of these vessels are 
 arranged in an excavation iu the ground, 30 
 or 4-0 (eet squarn and 2 feet deep, the bottom 
 of which is covered, to the depth of 10 or 12 
 inches, with sugar canes or the stalks of Indian 
 corn. At sunrise the pans are visited, the ice 
 separatetl from the water, and packed as tight 
 as possible in a deep cavity or pit, well screened 
 from the heat. 
 
 Several machines have recently been in- 
 vented by which water is trozen in large 
 quantities by exposure to condensed air iu 
 the act of its subsequent expansion. They 
 are worked by either band or steam power. 
 The refrigerating apparatus invented by Mr 
 Kirk, of the Bathgate Paraffin Works, acts on 
 this principle; and it does its work so cfii- 
 ciently that it produces a cooling efl'eet equiva- 
 lent to two tons of ice every twenty-four hours, 
 at a very small expenditure of fuel. A small 
 model worked by hand will readily freeze mer- 
 cury. Kirk's apparatus is used at Bathgate 
 to cause the crystallisation of solid paraffin 
 from the heavy paraffin oils. Formerly, a 
 machine, actiug by the evaporation of ether, 
 was employed for the same purpose. 
 
 For the production of an extremely low 
 temperature, such as is required for the lique- 
 faction of some gases, Faraday employed solid 
 carbonic acid mixed with a little ether. 
 
1430 
 
 EEGULUS— REMEDIES, FEERUGINOUS 
 
 In the production of ice or an extreme 
 degree of culd, by saline mixtures, the salts 
 should be in the crystallised state, and as rich 
 as possible in water, but without being in the 
 least damp. They should also he coarsely 
 pulverised at the time of using them, and 
 should not be mixed until immediately before 
 throwing them into the liquid ingredients. 
 The mixture should be made in a thick vessel, 
 well clothed, to prevent the accession of ex- 
 
 ternal heat ; and the substance to be acted on 
 should be contained in a very thin vessel, so 
 as to expose it more fully to the action of the 
 mixture. On the large scale, a vessel called a 
 ' iBEEZiNa pot' or ' babotieeb' is commonly 
 employed. The following table, though 
 founded on experiinents made more than 50 
 years ago by Mr Walker, gives full and accu- 
 rate information on the subject of freezing 
 mixtures : — 
 
 Table exhibiting a few of the most useful Feigobipio MiXTUBEa. 
 experiments performed by Mr Walkee. 
 
 Drawn upfront actual 
 
 liigredieiits. 
 
 Thermometer sinks. 
 
 Deg. of cold 
 produced. 
 
 < Snow or pounded ice . . . .2 parts 
 X Cliloride of sodium . . . . 1 „ . 
 ^ Snow or pounded ice . • . . 5 „ ' 
 J. Cliloride of sodium . . . . 2 „ 
 
 C Sal ammoniac 1 „ , 
 
 ( .Snow or poundod ice . . . .12,, 
 
 < Chloride of sjdiui 5 „ 
 
 (. Nitrate of ammonia . . . . S „ ^ 
 
 f Snow 8 „ 1 
 
 t. Hydrochloric acid (fo»(;«n^ra^0(^) . 5 „ J 
 
 i Snow 2 „ 1 
 
 X Crystaltised chloride of calcium 3 „ J 
 
 C Sal ammoniac .... 6 „ - 
 
 \ Nitrate of potassa . . . . 5 „ 
 C Water 16 „ , 
 
 < Nitrate of ammonia . . . 
 
 X Water 
 
 ( Nitrate of ammonia . . . 
 i Carljonate of soda . . . 
 
 (. Water 
 
 C Phosphate of soda .... 9 
 
 < Nitrate of ammonia .... 6 
 (. Diluted nitrous acidt ... 4 
 f Sulpliate of soda . . . .8 
 {. Hydrochloric acid .... 5 
 
 / Snow S 
 
 t. Diluted nitrous.acid^ . . .3 
 
 ( Snow_ . a 
 
 X Sulphuric acid^ 1 
 
 (. Water 1 
 
 f Snow .1 
 
 X Crystallised chloride of calcium . 3 
 
 f Snow 1 
 
 X Crystallised chloride of calcium . 3 
 C Snow 8 
 
 < Sulphuric acid ... 5 
 (.Water 5 
 
 E is 
 
 to- 5° 
 
 to-SS" 
 
 From + S2''to-37= 
 From + 33" to -50° 
 
 From+60°to+10° 
 
 From +60° to +4' 
 
 From +60° to +7° 
 
 From +60° to -21° 
 
 From+60°toO° 
 From 0° to-46° 
 
 rrom-30°to-60° 
 
 From 0° to- 66° 
 From-40°to-73° 
 
 From-68°to-91° 
 
 40° 
 46° 
 
 67° 
 
 50° 
 46° 
 
 33° 
 23° 
 
 Obs. The materials in the first column are 
 to be cooled, previously to mixing, to thfe 
 temperature required in the second, by the 
 use of otlier mixtures. 
 
 REG'ULUS. A term applied by the alche- 
 mists to various metallic matters obtained by 
 fusion; as EEGULTIB or AlfTIMOlIY, AESENIC, 
 &c. It is now obsolete. 
 
 KEL'ISHES. See Sauces. 
 
 t Fuming " nitrous acid," 2 parts j water, 1 part; by 
 weiglit. 
 
 8 Prof. Pfaundler has shown that an acid containing 
 66'19 per cent, of HgSO^, is tlie most advantageous tu 
 employ for this purpose; one part of an acid of this 
 strength with l'()97 parts of bnow lorming a refrigeraliug 
 mixture which will reduce the teiiiperuture to-37° C. 
 (-36° F.). For practical purposes it is su<;gested an 
 excess of snow would be better, since tlie relrigerating 
 value of the mixture is therehy largelv increased, though 
 the lowest teaiperatiu-e is not obtained. See lc£. 
 
 REMEDIES, FEEEUGIITOUS. Rob. Frey 
 gang :— 
 
 SiEEL BBANDT is an Ordinary clear brown- 
 ish brandy, containing a very little bitter 
 matter, like the stomachic bitters of the 
 apothecaries, and mixed with about 1 per cent, 
 of sugar. 10,000 parts contain about IJ part 
 oxide of iron. 
 
 Stkei stomachic bittbes. This is more 
 aromatic, but otherwise similar to the steel 
 brandy ; 10,000 parts contain f part iron oxide. 
 
 Steel liqueue is a clear, agreeably-tasting 
 liqueur, of the colour and containing much of 
 the juice of raspberries. 10,000 parts contain 
 nearly 1,200 of eu^ar and only 1 of iron oxide. 
 Steel syeup— Syrop ferrujiineux de Quin- 
 quina. A clear slightly violet-coloured, thin, 
 sweet fluid, containing spirit and sugar, of 
 
REMITTENT-KESIN 
 
 1431 
 
 vhirh cinchona bark may be an ingredient, 
 thongh it is appreciable by neither taste nor 
 tests. It contains li part iron in 10,000 parts. 
 Stbbl BONiioNB Contain a trace or iron 
 oxido. 
 
 The iron present in the above preparations 
 is in the form of citrate. (Hager.) 
 
 EEMIT'TEHT. A term applied to fevers, 
 and other diseases, which exhibit a decided 
 remission in violence during the twenty-four 
 hours, but without entirt'ly leaving the patient, 
 in which they differ from intermittents or 
 agues. 
 
 EEN'NET. Si/n. RuNKET, Pbkpaeeb oj^lp's 
 MAW. Tlie fourth or true digesting stomach 
 of the calf, freed from the outer skin, fat, and 
 useless membrane, washed, treated with either 
 brine or dry suit for a few hours, and then 
 hung up to dry. When well prepared, the 
 dried ' veils' somewhat resemble parchment in 
 appearance. 
 
 Uset, S(c. Rennet is employed to curdle 
 milk. A piece of the requisite size is cut off, 
 and Bonked for some hours "in whey or water, 
 after wliich the whole is added to tlie milk for 
 curdling, sliglitly warmed, and the mixture is 
 slowly heated, if necessary, to about 122°Pahr. 
 In a short time after this temperature has 
 been attained the milk separates into a solid 
 white coagulum (curd), and into a yellowish, 
 translucent liquid (whey). Two square inches 
 from the bottom of a good 'veil' are sufficient 
 for a cheese or 60 lbs. It is the gastric juice of 
 the stomach that operates these changes. The 
 stomachs of all sucking quadrupeds possess the 
 same properties. See Cbeesb, 
 
 Sennet, Liquid. Syn. Essence of bennbt. 
 Prep. From fresh rennet (cut small), 12 oz. ; 
 common salt, 3 oz. ; knead them together, and 
 leave the mixture at rest, in a cool place, for 6 
 or 6 weeks j then add of water 18 oz. ; good 
 rum or proof spirit, 2 oz. ; lastly, digest for 24 
 hours, tllter, and colour the liquid with a little 
 burnt sugar. 
 
 Sennet, Liquid. iS^n. Esbeitoe of bennet. 
 Fri'sli rennet, 12 oz.j salt, 2 oz.; proof spirit, 
 2 oz. ; white wine, a quart j digest for 24 
 hours and strain. A quart of milk requires 2 
 or 3 tea spoonfuls. WiSLiK directs 10 parts of 
 a calf's stomach ; salt, 3 parts. The membrane 
 of the stomach is to be cut with scissors and 
 kneaded with the salt, and with the rennet 
 found in the interior of that organ ; the wliole 
 left in a cool place in an earthen pot till the 
 chee-y odour is replaced by the proper odour 
 of rennet, which will be in one or two months. 
 Then add 16 parts of water and 1 of spirit. 
 Filter and colour with burnt sugar. 
 
 The German Pharmacopoeia gives the fol- 
 lowing formula for liquid rennet : — 3 parts of 
 the mucous membrane of fresh calf's rennet, 
 macerated for tliree days in 26 parts of white 
 wine, 1 part of table salt being added. 
 
 Obt. 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls will curdle a quart 
 of milk. Some persons nse white wine instead 
 
 of water, with simple digestion for a day or 
 two. 
 
 EES'IH. Syn. Resisa, L. This name is 
 applied to many vegetable principles composed 
 of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 The resins (BESiNf) cannot be very accurately 
 de6ued, but we may in a general way describe 
 them as substances which are solid at ordinary 
 temperatures, more or less transparent, inflam- 
 mable, readily fusible, do not volatilise un- 
 changed, become negatively electrified by rub- 
 bing; are insoluble in water, but soluble in 
 alcohol ; mostly inodorous, and readily incor- 
 porated with fatty bodies by fusion. Their 
 sp. gr. varies from -9 to 1'2. According to 
 Liebig, they are oxidised essential oils. Com- 
 mon resin, rosin, or colophony, and the shellac 
 of which sealing-wax is made, are familiar 
 examples of these substances. (See beloa.) 
 
 Resin, Black. Syn. RosinJ, Black vl.X, 
 CoLOpnoNT ; Resina nioba, Colophokia, L. 
 What remiins of turpentine after the oil has 
 been distilled. Wlien this substance, whilst 
 still fluid, is agitated with about l-8th part of 
 water, it forms tlie yellow resin of pharmacy. 
 Used for violin bows, dark-coloured ointments, 
 varnishes, &c. 
 
 Resin, Yellow. Syn. Ybliow BOSiNt, 
 White e.J; Resina fiava, Resina (Ph. L), 
 La. Detergent. Used in ointments, plasters, 
 &c. (See above.) 
 
 RES'INOIDS. Syn. Resinous extbaots, 
 
 CONCENTEATED E. ; EXTBACTA BE81NA, L. 
 
 Under this head, the so-called ' Eclectics,' who 
 form a numerous class among American phy- 
 sicians, place their most important 'concen- 
 trated remedies.' " Viewed as pharmacentical 
 preparations eligible for use in medicine, 
 though not pnritied so as to rank as distinctive 
 proximate principles, these are very appro- 
 priately named ' resinous extracts,' or ' resins,' 
 The term *resin"id,* so commonly used, is less 
 appropriate to the class, implying, as it does, a 
 resemblance to resins, while all of the.-e are 
 either resins, oleo-resins, or more or less mixed 
 proximate principles possessing no real resem- 
 blance to the class of resins." (Parrish.) Most 
 of them are prepaied from plants indigenous 
 to North America, by precipitating a strong 
 alcoholic tincture with water. Tiiey are all 
 brought to the condition of ponder, those 
 wiieh are naturally soft and oily being mixed 
 ivith a sulficient quantity of sugar ot milk, or 
 other dry material. One of tliese eclectic 
 remedies has been introduced into regular 
 practice. See Podophyli.in. 
 
 EESIN, or ROSIN OIL. This is a product 
 of the dry distillation ot resin. The apparatus 
 used consists of an iron pot, a head piece, a. 
 condensing arrangement, and a receiver. 
 
 In distilling the resin, a bright oil first 
 comes over with water. As soon as a cessa- 
 tion in the flow of the distillate occurs the 
 receiver is changed, and the heat is further 
 raised, when a red-coloured and heavy rosin 
 oil comes over. The black residue remaining 
 
1432 
 
 EESOLVENTS— RBSPIEATION 
 
 in the pot is used as pitch. The light oil, 
 called ' pinoline/ is rectified, and the acetic 
 acid water passing over with it is saturated 
 with calcium hydrate, filtered and evaporated 
 to dryness ; and the calcium acetate obtained 
 is employed in the manufacture of acetic acid. 
 The rosin oil, obtained after the light oil has 
 passed over, lias a dark violet-blue colour, and 
 is culled ' blue rosin oil.' The red oil is 
 boiled lor a day with water, the evaporated 
 water being returned to the vessel; next day 
 the water is drawn off, and the reinainini.' 
 rosin oil is saponitied with caustic soda lye of 
 36° Baume, and the resulting solid mass is 
 distilled so long as oil passes over. 
 
 The product obtained is 'rectified rosin 
 oil,' which is allowed to stand in iron vessels, 
 protected by a thin layer of gypsum, whereby 
 after a few weeks a perfectly clear oil is ob- 
 tained free from water. The oil of first quality 
 is obtiiined by a repetition of the foregoing 
 operation upon tlie once rectified oil. The 
 residues of both operations are melted up with 
 the piteh.i 
 
 Bosin oil is employed in the manufacture of 
 axle grease, the oil being previously converted 
 into a soap by heating with slaked lime. 
 
 RESOLVENTS. Syn. Disoutibnts; Re- 
 SOLVENTIA, L. Substances or agents which 
 discuss or resolve inflammatory and other 
 tumours. See Digestives. 
 
 KESPIEA'TION . The peculiar function by 
 which the blood is submitted to the action of 
 the air, Jbr the purpose'of removing carbonic 
 acid, and restoring its vitality by the absorption 
 of atmospheric oxygen. 
 
 The air expired from the lungs is found to 
 have undergone a most remarkiible change. 
 It is now loaded with aqueous vapour, whilst 
 a consideralile portion of its oxygen has dis- 
 appeared, and its place is supplied by about a 
 like volume of carbonic acid. It is no longer 
 capable of supporting animal life, and even a 
 lighted taper plunged into it is immediately 
 extinguished. In the mean time the ' venous 
 blood' which entered the lungs from the right 
 chambers of the heart has lost its dingy hue, 
 and has acquired the rich florid colimr which 
 is characteristic of * arterial blood.' In this 
 state it is returned to the left chambers of the 
 heart, and is propelled by that organ to every 
 part of the body, from which it passes by the 
 capillaries to the veins, and by these again to 
 the heart and lungs, to undergo the s;ime 
 changes and circulation as before. The carbon 
 and hydrogen of the blood, ultimately derived 
 from the food, are, in this course, gradually 
 converted iuto carbonic acid and water by a 
 species of slow combustion ; but how these 
 changes are effected is not definitely ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 The lungs, as is well known, receive the 
 atmospheric air through the trachea or wind- 
 pipe. At the root of the neck this divides 
 
 1 Dinpler's 'Polytech. Jouni,,'ccvi, 246 (' Jouni.Cliem, 
 Sue.,' new aenea, vol. xi, 301). 
 
 into two branches, called bronchi, and each 
 bronchus, upon entering its respective lung, 
 divides into an infinity of small t^bes. The 
 latter terminate in small pouches, called the 
 air-cell»', and a number of these little air-cells 
 communicate together at the extremity of each 
 small tube. The number of air-cells in the 
 two lungs has been estimated at 1,744,000,000, 
 and the extent of the membrane which lines the 
 cells and tubes together at 1500 square feet. 
 (Dr Addison.) Under ordinary circumstances, 
 from 22 to 43 cubic inches of air are thrown 
 out at each expiration ; but, by a forced 
 effort, 50 or 60 inches are ordinarily expelled. 
 The number of respirations per minute in 
 health, when the individual is tranquil and 
 undisturbed, is about 15. Exercise increases 
 this number. See Pood, NniRiTiOH, &c. 
 
 Respiration, Artificial. Various means have 
 been adopted for this purpose, among which 
 blowing air into the lungs is, perhaps, that 
 generally adopted. A better, and, in geueial, 
 a much more efficient method, is as follows: — 
 Powerful but not violent pressure is made 
 upon the sides of the chest and upon the abdo- 
 men at the same time, by which the cavity of 
 the thorax is diminished, and the air contained 
 in the lungs is expelled; the compression is 
 then suddenly withdrawn, when the elasticity 
 of the ribs causes them to resume their old 
 expanded positions; the chest is again en- 
 larged, a partial vacuum is formed, and air 
 rushes into the lungs^-to be again expelled by 
 pressure upon the ribs and abdomen as before. 
 By this means artificial respiration may be kept 
 up for a great length of time, without the use 
 of bellows, or any other apparatus. The chief 
 principle of Dr Marshall Hall's so-called 
 ' ready method ' is the postural performance 
 of artificial respiration. The patient is first 
 placed gently on the face, and then turned on 
 the side ; then on the face again, alternately ; 
 these measures being repeated deliberatelyj 
 efficiently, and perseveringly, fifteen times in 
 the minute. When the prone position is re- 
 sumed, equable, but efiicient, pressure is ap- 
 plied along the spine ; this pressure is removed 
 immediately before rotation on the side. 
 
 The 'Silvester' method,' invented by Dr 
 Henry Silvester, is now acknowledged to be 
 far more effective than Dr Hall's method, 
 and is adopted by the Royal Humane Society 
 for the restoration of the apparently drowned. 
 It consists in laying the patient on the back, 
 slightly raising the head and shoulders, draw- 
 ing the tongue forwards, and keeping it so by 
 passing an elastic baud over it and under the 
 chin. The arms are then grasped just above 
 the elbows, and drawn gently upwards until 
 they meet above the head (this is for the pur- 
 pose of drawing air into the lungs), keeping 
 the arms in that pos-ition for two seconds. 
 The patient's arms are then turned down, and 
 pressed gently and firmly for two seconds 
 against the sides of the chest (this is ibr the 
 purpose of pressing the air out of the lungs). 
 
REVALENTA ARABICA-RHATANY 
 
 1433 
 
 Artificial breathing ig thus curried on. These 
 efforts are repented fifteen times in ii minute, 
 until a apnntaneous effort to respire is per- 
 ct'ii'ed. During the employment of these 
 means the no-trils are excited with snuff or 
 smclliag salts, or the throat is tickled with a 
 feather. After natural breathing has been 
 restored, warmth and circulation are induced 
 by wrapping thi' body in hot blankets, apply- 
 ing bottles or bladders of hot water, heated 
 bricks, &c., to the pit of the stomach, the arm- 
 pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of 
 the feet, and by rubbing the limbs upwards 
 firmly and energetically. 
 
 In the ' Landw. Versuchs Stat.' (xviii, 81 — 
 169)1 Rudolph Pott has recorded a series of 
 interesting experiments instituted with the 
 object of determining the comparative quan- 
 tities of carbonic acid excreted by respiration 
 and perspiration in different species of animals 
 in equal intervals of time ; together with some 
 experiments on the excretion of carbonic acid 
 by the same animals under different physiolo- 
 gical conditions. 
 
 The author states that in his researches he 
 used an air tight box, with glass side<i, in 
 which the animal is placed, and through which 
 the air cnn be drawn at any rate required by 
 means of an aspirator. 
 
 The air before entering the glass chamber 
 passes over caustic potasli and through baryta 
 water; alter leaving the chamber it passes 
 through three flasks containing known quan- 
 tities of bnryta water. 
 
 In the first part of this paper the author 
 estimates the amount of carbonic acid ex- 
 creted by different animals during the space 
 of six hours, and under otherwise similar cir- 
 cumstances. The following are the most im- 
 portant conclusions he arrives at : — 
 
 1. The greatest quantity of carbonic acid 
 in proportion to their weight is given off by 
 birds. Mammals are the next in order. In- 
 sects exhale less than either of these. 
 
 2. Worms, amphibia, fishes, and snails form 
 another group which excrete much less car- 
 bonic acid. Of these worms exhale the most 
 and snails the least. 
 
 3. Those animals of the second group, which 
 live in water, give off the greatest part of their 
 carbonic acid to the air, and only a mnch 
 smaller portion to the surrounding water. 
 
 4. Young animals excrete more carbonic 
 acid than old ones; this is most marked in 
 amphibia. For example 100 grams of an old 
 frog (Rana temporaria) exhaled in six hours 
 •213 grm., whereas 100 grams of a young frog 
 giive olf in the same time '765 grm. 
 
 8. The larvoe of insects exhale less carbonic 
 acid than the insects themselves. 
 
 6. Different individuals of the same species 
 exhale in the same time nearly the same 
 quantity of carbonic acid in proportion to 
 their body-weight. 
 
 In the second part of this paper the author 
 ' ' Jouni. Chein. Soc," 1876, vol. i, p. 721 
 
 describes experiments in the influence of 
 coloured light on the excretion of carbonic 
 acid; in the same animal (mouse) and for the 
 same time. 
 
 He concludes that — 
 
 1- The excretion of carbonic acid is less in 
 ordinary daylight than in coloured light. 
 
 2. The violet and red rays exercise the least 
 influence on the excretion of cnrbonic acid, 
 the green and yellow are the most active; and 
 the milk-white and blue rays occupy an inter- 
 mediate position. The relation of these dif- 
 ferent actions may be expressed by the follow- 
 ing figures : — 
 
 Violet. 
 86-89 
 
 Blue. 
 122-63 
 
 Eed. 
 93-38 
 
 Green. 
 128-52 
 
 Milk-\^ hite. 
 100 
 
 Yellow. 
 . 17 i 79 
 
 Finally, the author experimented with a 
 mouse during the night, and found then the 
 excretion of carbonic acid at that time is con- 
 siileralily less than during the day. 
 
 EEVALEN'TA ARABICA. A mixture of 
 the red Arabian or Egyptian lentil with barley 
 flour, and a little sugar or salt. (' Lancet.') 
 See Lentil and Revalknta. 
 
 EETEEB'EEATORT FURNACE. See Ftte- 
 
 NACE. 
 
 EEVI"VEE. Prep. 1. (Black hktiveb, 
 Pakis's ANTiCABDitTM.) — a. Blue galls 
 (bruised), 4 oz. j logwood and sumach, of each 
 1 oz. ; vinegar 1 quart; macerate in a closed 
 vessel, at a gentle heat, for 24 hours, then 
 strain ofl'the clear, add iron filings and green 
 copperas, of each 1 oz., shake it occasionally 
 for a week, and preserve it in a corked 
 bottle. 
 
 b. Galls, 1 lb.; logwood, 2 lb.; boil for 2 
 hours in water, 5 quarts, until reduced to a 
 gallon, then strain, and add of green copperas 
 i lb. Used to restore the colour of faded 
 black cloth. 
 
 2. (Blue eevivee.) From soluble Prussian 
 blue, 1 oz. ; disS'ilveil in distilled water, 1 
 quart. Used for either black or blue cloth. 
 
 EHAM'HIN.' Frep. Ex|iriss the juice from 
 buckthorn berries scarcely ripe, which is to be 
 rejected ; boil the cake or residue with water, 
 strain with pressure, and filter the liquid 
 whilst hot; crude rhamnin will be deposited 
 as the liquid cools, which, by solntion in boil- 
 ing alcohol and filtration, may be procured in 
 crystals. 
 
 Obs. Buckthorn jnice (succus rhamni), "the 
 juice of the fruit of Rhamnus catharticut 
 (Linn.)," is officinal in the Ph. L. 
 
 RHAT'ANY. Syn. Rhatant koot; Kea- 
 MBRiiE RADIX (B. p.) ; Keameeia (Ph. L. 
 E. & D.), Rhatanije eadix, L. "The root 
 of Krameria iriandria." (Ph. L.) It is 
 stomachic, and powerfully astringent and 
 styptic. — Dose, 20 to 60 gr., eitlier in powder 
 or made into a decoction or infusion. It is 
 
1434 
 
 BHEIN- RHUBARB 
 
 much employed in tooth powders, to fix the 
 teeth when they hecome loosened by the re- 
 cession of the gums, and also for improving 
 the natural red colour of tlie lips and gums. 
 A saturated tincture or fluid extract, made 
 with brandy, forms the ' wine-colouring' used 
 by the Portuguese to give roughness, colour, 
 and tone to their port wine. Hard extract 
 of rhataijy is also much employed for the same 
 purpose. 
 
 EHE'II]'. Syn. Chetsophanio acid. The 
 yellow colouring principle of rhubarb. 
 
 KHEUMATIC and GOUT PILLS (W. Gross 
 Cardiff). Pills weigliing 2 grammes rolled in 
 lycopodium, the essential ingredients of which 
 are quinine sulphate, gamboge, jalap, resin, 
 and a little rhubarb. (Hager.) 
 
 RHEU'MATISM. Syn. Bhetoatismtis, L. 
 An affection of the joints, and of the external 
 muscular, tendinous, and fibrous textures of 
 the body, attended with swelling, stiffness, and 
 great pain. Acute rheumatism or rheumatic 
 fever, — arthritis, inflammation of the synovial 
 membrane, or rheumatic gout, — sciatica, or 
 rheumatism of the cellular envelope of the 
 great sciatic nerve, affecting the hip, — and 
 lumbago, or rheumatism of the loins, are 
 varieties of this disease. 
 
 The treatment of rheumatism consists in the 
 administration of purgatives and diaphoretics 
 or sudorifics, accomp.anied by tonics, as bark, 
 quinine, &c. Calomel with opium, and iodide 
 of potassium, haie also been frequently and 
 successfully employed in this complaint. Of 
 late years the administration of the bicar- 
 bonate, citrate, or nitrate of potassa, in rather 
 large doses, has been strongly recommended, 
 and in numerous cases adopted with success. 
 Lemon juice, liberally taken, has also proved 
 useful in suddenly cutting short .severe attacks 
 of certain forms of rheumatism. The compound 
 powder of ipecacuanha, taken at night, will 
 generally promote the ease and sleep of the 
 patient, and, by its sudorific action, tend con- 
 siderably to hasten a cure. Where possible, a 
 dry atmosphere and a regular temperature 
 should be sought, since a damp atmosphere, 
 and, indeed, exposure to damp under any form, 
 are the principal causes of rheumatism. Stimu- 
 lating embrocations, blisters, frictions, and, 
 above all, the hot or vapour bath, are also fre- 
 quently serviceable in rheumatism, especially 
 in lumbago and casual attacks arising from 
 cold. The daily use of oranges, or of lemon 
 juice diluted with water, has been found, in the 
 majority of eases, to lessen the susceptibility 
 of those who employ them to attacks of rheu- 
 matism and rheumatic gout arising from a 
 damp situation or exposure to the weather. 
 See Lbmon juice. 
 
 RHO'DIUM. A whitish metal discovered by 
 Wollaston, in 1803, associated with palladium 
 in the ore of platinum. 
 
 It is chiefly employed for tipping the nibs 
 of metallic pens ('rhodium' or 'everlasting 
 pens'). A very small quantity added to steel 
 
 is said to improve its closeness, hardness, and 
 toughness, and to render it less easily corrodible 
 by damp. 
 
 RHU'BAEB. Syn. Khei badix (B. P.); 
 Rheum (Ph. E. & D.), Rheum — Sinense (Ph. 
 L.), RHABAEBABUMf, RncEUMf, h. " The 
 root of uncertain species of Riieum." (Ph. L.) 
 According to Dr F. Farre, the term ' sinense' 
 (Cliinese), employed by the London College, 
 " was placed after ' rheum,' to include the 
 so-called Russian and East Indian rhubarbs, 
 wliich are considered to be the produce of 
 China and Chinese 'I'artary, and to exclude 
 European, Himalayan, &c." 
 
 Three principal varieties of rhubarb are 
 known in this country : — 
 
 Russian or Turkey rhubarb is the produce 
 of six-year-old plants of the mountain de- 
 clivities of Chinese Tartarv; and its principal 
 excellence depends on its more careful prepa- 
 ration, and subsequent garbling, both before 
 its selection for the Russian market, and after 
 its arrival at Kiachta, and again at St Peters- 
 burg. At Kiachta all pieces of a porous, 
 grey, or pale colour are rejected, the whole 
 heing pared and perforated, the better to 
 determine the quality of the interior portion. 
 At St Petersburg the pieces are again care- 
 fully examined and garbled, and are, finally, 
 packed in close cases or chests, which are ren- 
 dered air-tight by the application of pitch on 
 the outside. 
 
 East India or Chinese rhubarb is the pro- 
 duce of the locality just referred to, as well as 
 of other parts of China. It is obtained from 
 younger plants, and its preparation and sub- 
 sequent selection or garbling is conducted with 
 less care. 
 
 English rhubarb is principally produced at 
 Banbury, Oxfordshire, from the Rheum rha- 
 ponticum. It is cut and dressed up alter the 
 manner of Turkey rhubarb, for which it is 
 sold by itinerant vendors, habited as Turks. 
 
 Adult. Dr Maisch' says the presence of 
 turmeric may be detected in powdered rhubarb 
 by tire following method : — A small quantity 
 of the suspected rhubarb is agitated for a 
 minute or two with strong alcohol, and then 
 liltered, chrysophanie acid being sparingly 
 soluble in this menstruum. The brown yellow 
 colour of the filtrate is due to the resinous 
 principles of rliubarb mainly; if adulterated 
 with turmeric, the tincture will be of a 
 brighter yellow shade; a strong solution of 
 borax produces in both tinctures a deep red- 
 brown colour. 
 
 If now pure hydrochloric acid be added in 
 large excess, the tincture of pure rhubarb will 
 instantly assume a light yellow colour, while 
 the tincture of the adulterated powder will 
 change merely to a lighter shade of brown- 
 red. 
 
 The test is a very delicate one, and is based 
 on the liberation of boracic acid, which im- 
 parts to curcumine a colour similar to that 
 1 ' American Journal of Pharmacy," xliii, 259. 
 
EICE 
 
 1435 
 
 prodaced by nlkaliei, while all the principles 
 of rhubarb aoluble in Btrong alcohol yield pale 
 yrllonr toliitionn in ucid liquidn. 
 
 Qual. Rusainn or Turkey rhabiirb occurs in 
 irref^alar plano-convex or roundish lumps, 
 perforated with a circular hole; it possesses a 
 yellow colour outside ; when recently broken, 
 the inside presents a rich mottled appearance, 
 and evolves a peculiar and somewhat aromatic 
 odour. It is firm, compact, heavy, perfectly 
 free from moisture, and easily grated. Its 
 ta^te is bitter, slightly astringent, and sub- 
 acid ; and when chewed it feels gritty, and 
 tinges the SHiiva of a beautiful yellow colour. 
 It breaks with a rough, liiickly fracture, is 
 easily pulverised, and its powder is of a bright 
 huff-yellow colour. 
 
 East India, Canton, or Chinese rhubarb is in 
 Hat pieces, seldom perforated, and its tiiste and 
 odour nre stronger than the other. It is also 
 heavier, tinges the saliva of an orange-red hue, 
 and when pulverised the powder is redder than 
 that of Russian rhubarb. 
 
 English rhubarb possesses all the preceding 
 quulities in a greatly less degree. It is light 
 iind spinsry, does not feel gritty between the 
 teeth, its tiixtc is mucilagiuous, and its powder 
 has a peculiar pinkish hue not present in 
 either of the other varieties of rhubarb. As o 
 medicine it posseHseHlittle value, and is chiefly 
 employed to adulterate Kiist India and Turkey 
 rhubarb. 
 
 Prop. SfO. Rhubarb is astringent, stoma- 
 chic, and purgative. In small doses its ope- 
 ration is priucipally or wholly confined to the 
 digestive organs ; in larger ones, it first 
 acts as a mild aperient, and, afterwards, as an 
 astringent; hence its value in diarrhoea. It 
 has also been used externally to promote the 
 healing of indolent sores. — Dose. As a sto- 
 machic, 1 to 6 gr. J as » purgative, 10 to 20 
 gr. It is most effective when chewed, or in 
 the form of powder produced by grating it. 
 
 Rhabarb, Roast'ed. Si/u. BcnirT bhdbakb ; 
 Rhbuh U8TUM, L. Prep. I. Rhubarb, in 
 co.irse powder, is carefnlly and regularly heated 
 in a smooth shallow iron disc, with constant 
 stirring, until its colour has changed to a 
 modern tely dark brown, when it ia allowed to 
 cool out of contact with the air ; when cold, it 
 is reduced to powder, and at once put into a 
 well-closed bottle. 
 
 2. (Hoblyn.) Roast powdered rhubarb, in an 
 iron vessel, constantly stirring, until it becomes 
 almost black ; then smother it in a covered jar. 
 — Dote, 5 to 10 gr. ; as an astringent in diar- 
 rhoea, and a tonic in dyspepsia, &c. Prof. 
 Procter, the well-known American Pharma- 
 ceutist, recommends the rhubarb to be only 
 roasted to a ' light brown.' 
 
 RIC£. ^vn. Ortza, L. The seed of Oryza 
 latioa, a plant of the natural order Grami- 
 nacere. Several varieties are known in com- 
 merce, distinguished by the name of the 
 country or district which produces them. The 
 finest is that imported from Carolina. It 
 
 reaches this country in a decorticated condi- 
 tion. ' Paddy' is rice with the husk upon it. 
 Dr Letheby estimates that it affords nourish- 
 ment to not less than a hundred millions of 
 people. 
 
 As an article of diet, rice is highly nutri- 
 tious and wholesome when combined with fresh 
 animal or other nitrogenised food ; but, owing 
 to the very small quantity of ' flesh-formers' 
 which it contains, and its comparative desti- 
 tution in saline matter, it is totally unfit to 
 form the principal portion of tiie diet of the 
 working classes, or the poorly fed, at least in 
 this climate. " It does not appear so well cal- 
 culated lor European constitutions as the 
 potato, for we find the poor constantly reject 
 it when potatoes can be had." This preference 
 evidently depends on something more than 
 mere whim or taste, for some years ago, when 
 rice was substituted for potatoes in some of our 
 union workhouses, the most serious conse- 
 quences followed. In one of these, nine or ten 
 deaths from scurvy and allied diseases occurred 
 in a single fortnight. Large quantities of rice 
 are annually imported into Britain, and used 
 by distillers in the manufacture of spirits. 
 
 Letlieliy gives the foUowini; as the compo- 
 sition of r ce ; — 
 
 Nitrogenous matter . 
 
 . 6-3 
 
 Cur*»o-liydratefl . . 
 
 - 79-5 
 
 Fatty matter . 
 
 . 0-7 
 
 Saline matter . . 
 
 . 0-5 
 
 Water 
 
 . 13 
 
 100-0 
 
 Payen f;ives the following as the composition 
 of dried rice : — 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 
 . 7-55 
 
 Starch . 
 
 . 88-65 
 
 Dextrin, &c. . 
 
 . 100 
 
 Fatty matter . 
 
 . 0-80 
 
 Cellulose 
 
 . 1-10 
 
 Mineral water 
 
 . 090 
 
 
 10000 
 
 Ash of riee : — 
 
 
 Potash . 
 
 . 18-48 
 
 Soda 
 
 . 10 67 
 
 Lime . • 
 
 . 127 
 
 M agnesii 
 
 . 11-69 
 
 Oxide of iron . 
 
 . to 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 . 53-36 
 
 Chlorine . 
 
 . 027 
 
 Silica . 
 
 . 335 
 
 99-54 
 
 Rice, To Cook. If rice is boiled it should be 
 subjected to a low temperature. The best 
 w,i V of cooking rice, however, is t>y tlioroughly 
 steaming it. By this method, it is said, the 
 loss of nitrogenous matter is prevented, and 
 the grain coni-eqnently suffers no diminution of 
 nutritive power, as in the case of boiling. 
 
1436 
 
 RICINOLEIC ACID— RICKETS 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Microscopic appearance of Mice. 
 
 Fig. 1 — Transverse section of the husk of rice. 
 
 Fxo. 2 — A.ppenrance of husk as seen ia a transparent meclium of gt^cerin and ^um : a. Siliceous granules arrariged 
 
 in longituilinal and transverse ridges, perforated by openinga — stomata, some having liaira over them. 
 
 b c. Transverse and longitudinal, bntile, rouifh-edtred fibres, d, A Hue membrane of transverse angular cells; 
 
 these overlie a very delicate membrane of large cells, e. 
 
 . %Mm& 
 
 
 ai{6 
 
 ^Q O Q 
 
 Microscopic iippearance of ground rice-flour. 
 
 EICINO'LEIC ACID. A variety of oleic i generally confined to chiltlhood, characterised 
 
 acid discovered in saponified castor oil. by a lnrge head, prominent foreliead, protruded 
 
 EICK'ETS. Syn. Rachitis, L. A disease, breast bone, flattened ribs, tumid belly, ema- 
 
RINGWORM— ROB 
 
 1437 
 
 elated limbs, and great gen»ral debility. The 
 bono6, more particularly those of the spine and 
 legs, become distorted, and exhibit a deficiency 
 of earth V mutter ; the stools are frequent and 
 loose, a slow fever succeeds, with cough, pain- 
 ful and dilRcult respiration, and, unless the 
 child ruUii's, atrophy is confirmed, and death 
 eu»ut/s. When recovery takes place there is 
 always more or less deformity left. 
 
 The common causes of rickets are bad nurs- 
 ing, exposure to damp and cold, and insuffi- 
 cient nutrition, arising from the use of white 
 bread containing alum, or any uf the per- 
 nicious compounds vended nnder the niimi> of 
 ' PAUINACEOUa FOOD,' ' INFANTS' F.,' ' PATENT 
 F.,' &c. Rickets, like caries of the bones, is a 
 diseusG which is scarcely known amongst in- 
 fanta whose pap is made of pure wheaten 
 bread, and whose mothers or nurses consume 
 tlie same themselves. 
 
 The treatment of rickets depends more on 
 proper domestic management than on direct 
 medication. Careful nursing, warm dry cloth- 
 ing, thorough ventilation, moderate exercise, 
 and, above all, a light nutritious mixed diet 
 abounding in nitrogenous mutter and the 
 phosphates, will do much to elfect a cure. To 
 these may be added the administration of 
 the milder chalybeate tonics, bark, or quinine, 
 with occasional doses ot some mild aperient, as 
 phosphate of soda, or, when there is diarrhoea, 
 of rhubarb or some other tonic purge. The 
 administration of small doses of phosphate of 
 lime or of dilute phosphoric acid, frequently 
 repeated, or, still better, the daily use of jelly 
 made of pure ivory or bone shavings, will often 
 effect wonders in tliose cases in which the 
 bones are implicated from an apparent defi- 
 ciency of e«rthy matter. See BuEiD, Faeina, 
 NUBSING, &c. 
 
 EING'WORM. Si/n. Scald-head; Pok- 
 Bioo, L. The common ringworm, the pob- 
 BIGO SCUTULATA of medical writers, is a 
 disease that appears in circular patches of little 
 pustules, which afterwards form scabs, leaving 
 a red pimply surface, and destroying the bulbs 
 of tile hair in its progress. It spreads rapidly, 
 and is very infectious, often running through a 
 whole school. It chiefly affects the neck, 
 forehead, and scalp of weakly children, and 
 frequently iirises without any apparent cause, 
 but, in general, may be traced to uncleanuess, 
 or contact with parties suffering from the 
 disease. 
 
 The treatment of ringworm consists in 
 shavin;; the part, and keeping it clean with 
 i-oap and water, at the same time that an 
 occasional mild saline aperient is administered, 
 and a light, nutritious diet, of which the red 
 meat and ripe fruits should form a portion, be 
 rigorously adhered to. When the scabbing 
 commeucus, dressings of tar ointment, or of the 
 ointment of nitrate or red oxide of mercury, 
 or a mixture of equal parts of the first and 
 either the second or third, should be applied, 
 in each case diluting the mixture with suffi- 
 
 cient lard to adapt it to the state of irritability 
 of the part. During this treiitment the head 
 should be covered with an ordinary nightcap, 
 or some simple bandage, and not enveloped in 
 a bladder or oil-skin case, as ia commonly the 
 practice, since the complete exclusion of at- 
 mospheric air tends to aggravate the disease. 
 
 EI"PEiriNG. See Bbbwing, Malt li- 
 (JlTOBS, Wine, 4c. 
 
 EOAST'IKG. Alexis Soyer recommends, "as 
 an invariable rule," that " all dark meats, such 
 as beef and mutton, should be put down to a 
 sharp fire for at least fifteen minutes, until the 
 outside has acquired a coating of osmazome, 
 or condensed gravy, and then removed back, 
 and allowed to cook gently. Lamb, veal, and 
 pork, if young and tender, should be done at a 
 moderate fire. Veal should even be covered 
 with paper. 
 
 " Very rich meat, if covered with paper, 
 does not require basting. Fowls, Ac, should 
 be placed close to the fire, to set the skin, and 
 in about ten minutes rubbed over with a small 
 piece of butter, pressed in n spoon. Meats, whilst 
 roasting, should be dredged with flour, just at 
 the time when the gnivy begins to appear; 
 the flour absorbs It, and forms a coating which 
 prevents any more coming out. Hares and 
 small game should be treated in the same 
 manner." 
 
 Under ordinary circumstances as to the fire, 
 and the distance between it and the joint, 
 beef, mutton, and veal, take about i hour per 
 lb. in roasting. Lamb, poultry, and smiM game, 
 require only 12 to 14 minutes per lb,; whilst 
 veal takes fully 15 minutes, and pork takes 
 from i hour to 20 minutes, as they must 
 always be well done. The flesh of old animals 
 requires more eouking than the Hesh of young 
 ones ; and Inferior, tough, and bony parts thau 
 the prime joints and pieces. 
 
 Roasting is not an economical method of 
 cooking pieces of meat abounding in bone or 
 tendinous matter, since the nutritious portion 
 of these is either destroyed or rendered inso- 
 luble by the heat employed. Thus, the raw 
 bones from a joint are capable of affording a 
 rich and excellent basin of soup, higlily nutri- 
 tious; whilst the bones from a corresponding 
 joint which has been rousted are nearly worth- 
 less when so treated. The same applies with 
 even greater force to the gristly and tendinous 
 portions. A dry heat either destroys them 
 or converts them into a horny substance, unfit 
 for food ; whilst by boiling they are trans- 
 formed into a highly succulent and nutritious 
 article of food, besides affording excellent soup 
 or jelly. Hence the policy of 'boning' meat 
 before roasting or baking it ; or, at all events, 
 of removing the bony portion which would be 
 most exposed to the action of the fire. See 
 Bone and Jkixt. 
 
 EOB. Syn. ROOB. A term, derived from 
 the Arabic, formerly applied to the inspissated 
 juice of ripe fruit, mixed with honey or sugar 
 to the consistence of a conserve of thin 
 
1438 
 
 ROCK— ROT 
 
 estraot. Rob of elder-berries (eldeb eobj 
 KOOB sAMBirci), juniper berries (juniper rob ; 
 BOOB JtJifiPEBi), mulberries (mclbeeet hob ; 
 hoob diamoeum), and walnuts (walnut eob ; 
 EOOB dtacaeyon), witb a few others, are still 
 found in some of the foreign Pharmacopoeias. 
 
 SOCE. The popular name of a sweetmeat 
 formed of sugar boiled to a candy, and then 
 poured upon aa oiled slab, and allowed to cool 
 in the lump. It is variously flavoured. 
 
 £OCK CRTS'IAL. Native crystallised silica. 
 See Quartz. 
 
 KOCE OIL. See Petroleum. 
 
 SOCK SOAP. A native silicate of alumina ; 
 used for crayons, and for washing cloth. 
 
 SOCKETS. (In pyrotechny.) Prep. The 
 CASES. — These are made of stout cartridge 
 paper, rolled on a mould and pasted, and then 
 throttled a little below the mouth, like the 
 neck of a phial. The diameter should be ex- 
 actly equal to that of a leaden ball of the 
 same weight, and the length should be equal to 
 3J times the external diameter. Above the 
 spindle there must he one interior diameter of 
 composition driven solid. They are filled 
 with the following mixtures, tightly driven in, 
 and when intended for flight (sk¥-eookets), 
 they are 'garnished,' and affixed to willow rods 
 to direct their course. 
 
 The COMPOSITION. — 1. (Marsh.) — a. For 
 2-oz. rockets. Fi ora nitre, 54i parts ; sulphur, 
 18 parts ; charcoal, 27i pirts ; all in fine 
 p iwder, and passed through lawn. > 
 
 6. For 4-oz. do. From nitre, 64 parts; 
 sulphur, 16 parts ; charcoal, 20 parts ; as the 
 last. 
 
 c. For Jib. to 1-lb. do. From nitre, 62f 
 parts; sulphur, 15i parts; charcoal, 214 
 parts. 
 
 2. (Ruggieri.) — a. For rockets of |-inch 
 diameter. From nitre, 16 parts; charcoal, 
 7 parts ; sulphur, 4 parts. 
 
 b. For |- to 1 J -inch rockets, use 1 part more 
 of nitre. 
 
 V. For If-inch rockets, use 2 parts more of 
 nitre. 
 
 d. By using 1 part less of charcoal and 
 adding respectively 3, 4, and 5 parts of fine 
 steel filings, the above are converted into 
 ' Brilliant fires.' 
 
 e. By tlie substitution of coarse cast-iron 
 borings for filings, and a further omission of 2 
 parts of charcoal from each, the latter are con- 
 verted into ' Chinese pire.' 
 
 Hand-eookets and ground-rockets are 
 usually loaded with nothing but very fine 
 meal gunpowder and iron or zinc filings or 
 borings. 
 
 After bet-eockets and watee-eockets are 
 charged, a piece of clay is driven in, through 
 which a hole is pierced, and the ' head ' or 
 'garniture' filled with stars, and a little corn- 
 powder is then applied. See Fibeb, Stars, 
 and PrEOTEOHNT. 
 
 KOLliS. A variety of fancy bread, gene- 
 rally in the form of email semi-cylindrical cakes, 
 
 prepared by the bakers, and intended to be 
 eaten hot for breakfast. They differ from 
 ordinary fine or French bread, as it is called, 
 chiefly in containing more water. Some are 
 wetted up witb milk and water, and are hence 
 called ' milk rolls.' 
 
 EOLL (Wine). Prep. Soak a French roll 
 or sponge-biscuit in raisin, marsala, or sherry 
 wine, surround it by a custard or cream thick- 
 ened with eggs, and add some spice and orna- 
 ments. 
 
 BOOT. '8i/n. Radix, L. That part of a 
 plant which imbibes its nourishment from the 
 soil or medium in which it grows. In popular 
 language, bulbs, corms, tubers, &c., are im- 
 properly inclnded under this term. 
 
 KO"FIN£SS. See Mali liquors and 
 Wines. 
 
 KHYPOPH'AGON. Prep. From yellow 
 soap, sliced, 1 oz. ; soft soap (finest), 3 oz. ; 
 melt them by the heat of hot water, then 
 allow them to cool a little, and stir in of oil 
 of cloves, 4 dr. ; essence of ambergris, 10 
 drops. It is kept a month before sale. Ust;d 
 for shaving. 
 
 EOSE. 8yn. Rosa, L. The typical genus 
 of the natural order Rosacea. It includes 
 numerous species greatly prized as garden 
 plants. 
 
 Rose, Cabbage. Syn. Hundred-leaved 
 
 rose; RoS^ OKNTIFOLIJB PETALA (B. P.), 
 
 Rosa cbntifolia (Ph. L. & E.), L. "The 
 fresh petals " (Ph. L.) of this species are used 
 in medicine. Odorous and slightly astringent 
 and laxative. See Waters and Syrup. 
 
 Eose, Dog. The Rosa canina, or wild briar. 
 See Hips. 
 
 Eose, French. Syn. Red eose; RosiE 
 
 UALLIC^ PETALA (B.P.), RoSA GALLIOA (Ph. 
 
 L. E. & D.), L. " The fresh and dried unex- 
 panded petals" (Ph. L.) of this species are 
 officinal. The white claws of the petals are 
 removed before drying them. 
 
 Uses, ^e. The red rose is an elegant 
 astringent and tonic, and, as such, is used as 
 the basis of several pharmaceutical prepara- 
 tions. See Confection, Honeys, Infusion, 
 and Syrup. 
 
 SOSE'IIAEY. Syn. Rosmarinus (Ph. L. 
 E. & D.) The flowering tops of Rosmarinus 
 officinalis (Linn.), or the common rosemary of 
 our gardens, are officinal in the Ph. E. & D. ; 
 as is also the oil (oleum rosmarini) in the 
 B. P. and Ph. L. The odour of both is refresh- 
 ing, and they are reputed carminative, em- 
 menagogue, and neurotic. The dried leaves 
 are occasionally used by the hysterical and 
 hypochondriacal as a substitute for China tea. 
 The oil is an ingredient in Hungary water, and 
 is much used in various cosmetic compounds, 
 under the presumption of its encouraging the 
 growth of hair and improving its quaiitv. 
 
 EOSE PINK. See Red piqments. 
 
 EO'SIN. See Resin. 
 
 EOSY-DEOP. See AcNB. 
 
 EOT. Syn. Greatkot, Htdeophio e., 
 
ROT— EUBIDIUM 
 
 1439 
 
 Shekf b., Wet b. A disease peculiar to 
 abeep, produced by the prescace in the liver 
 of the DUtoma hepalica, a parasite commonly 
 known under the name of "a fluke." Rot 
 prevails during very wet or rainy sensons. The 
 leading tymptoms are loss of Hesh and vivacity; 
 the lipH and tongue look vivid, and the eyes 
 sad and glassy; the pelt comes off on the 
 slightest pull ; the breath is fetid, and the 
 urine highly coloured and scanty ; and there 
 is either black purging or obstinate costive- 
 ness. The treatment consists in a change to 
 a dry warm elevated situation, and a dry diet^ 
 consisting of oats, barley meal, tail-wheat, 
 Ac, to which some turnips, carrots, or man- 
 f[e\ wurzel may be added, with a liberal supply 
 of common salt, and a few grains of sulphur, 
 daily. These last two substances form the 
 active ingredients in Flesh's ' Patent Resto- 
 rative.' See Meat, Disease of. 
 
 BOT (in Timber). See Dbx bot. 
 
 BOTA'TION (of Crops). The rotation or 
 succession of crops is absolutely necessary for 
 the successful and economical cultivation of 
 the soils. Crops have been divided by agri- 
 culturists into exhausting crops, restoring 
 crops, and cleaning crops. The most exhaust- 
 ing crops are usually considered to be those of 
 com, but all those that are allowed to ripen 
 tlieir seed iind which arc carried off the ground 
 are also exhausting, but in different degrees. 
 Even clover, tiires, and grass out green are 
 considered as exhausting, but in a less degree 
 than those that are allowed to ripen. Re- 
 st' >riiig crops are such as are allowed to decay 
 upon tiie ground, or are consumed upon it by 
 douiestic animals. Cleaning crops are such 
 lie are grown in drills, and undergo the usual 
 operations of weeding, hoeing, &e. ; the ma- 
 j'lrity of thes^e may also bo regarded as ex- 
 hausting crops. An exhausting crop should 
 iilwaysbe followed by a restoring or a cleaninff 
 crop; or, where possible, by both combined. 
 Crops should also succeed each other in such a 
 way that the soil may not be exhausted of any 
 one particular kind of nutriment. This is 
 heat effected by so rotating the crops that 
 plants which are nearly allied should not suc- 
 ceed each other on the same soil, or, at all 
 events, not more than once. See Aqbicdl- 
 TUBE, Soils, &c. 
 
 ROTTEN STONE. See Tbipoli. 
 
 ROUGE. Syn. Toilet kocoe; Rougb 
 VEGETAL, Rouse d'Espaone, Fr. Prep. 
 Wiish safflowcr (any quantity) until the water 
 comes off colourle>8; dry and pulverise it, 
 and digest the powder in a weak solution of 
 crystallised carbonate of soda; then place some 
 fine cotton-wool at the bottom of a porcelain 
 or glass vessel, pour the filtered tinctorial 
 solution on this, and throw down the colouring 
 matter, by gradually adding lemon juice or 
 wbite-winc vinegar, until it ceases to produce a 
 precipitate ; next woiili the prepared cotton in 
 pure cold water, and dissolve out the colour 
 with a fresh solution of soda; to the new 
 
 solution add a quantity of finely powdered 
 talc or French chalk, proportionate to the 
 intended quality of rouge; mix well, and pre- 
 cipitate with lemon juice, as before; lastly, 
 collect the powder, dry it with great care, 
 with as little heat as possible, and triturate it 
 with a very small quantity of oil of olives, to 
 render it smooth and adhesive. 
 
 Obs. According to the best authorities, 
 this is the only article which will brighten a 
 lady's complexion without injuring the skin. 
 The relative fineness and proportion of talc 
 employed determines the quality of the rouge. 
 It is applied by means of a camel-hair pencil, 
 a small ' powder puff,' or a hare's foot. It is 
 also employed under the form of ' pnmmade ' 
 and 'crepons.' The last of these consist of 
 pieces of white woollen crape, upon which the 
 colouring matter of the carthamus has been 
 precipitated, instead of upon the talc, noticed 
 above. 
 
 The following articles also pass under the 
 name of rouge, and are used for the purposes 
 named after each i — 
 
 Bonge, Brown-red. Jeweller's rouge. 
 
 Bonge, Chinese Card. This is said to be u 
 'carUuimate of soda;' it is colourless when 
 applied, but, being decomposed by the acid se- 
 cretions of the skin, acquires a most beautiful 
 rose-like tint. (U'Sbaughnessy.) 
 
 Boage, Jeweller's. Sesquioxide of iron pre- 
 pareil by calcination. Used to polish gold,&c. 
 
 Bouge, Liquid. The red liquid left from the 
 preparation of carmine ; or a solution of car- 
 mine in weak carbonate of potash water, or of 
 pure rouge in alcohol acidulated with acetic 
 acid. 
 
 Bonge, Indienne. The terra persica, or 
 Indian red ; imported from Orinuz. 
 
 Bouge de Frusse. Light red or burnt 
 yellow ochre. See Red pigments. 
 
 Bonge, Spanish Lady's. This is cotton wool 
 which has been repeatedly wetted with an 
 ammoniaial solution of carmine, and dried. 
 It is applied like 'ronge crepons.' 
 
 Bonge d'Athenes, Vert. Syn. Pube bouge. 
 See Caethamine. 
 
 BOUGH'ENING. See \Vi>-es. 
 
 BUBEFA"CIENTS. Syn. Rubepacientia, 
 L. Substances or agents which, when applied 
 for a certain time to the skin, occasion a red- 
 ness and increase of heat, without blistering. 
 They act as counter-irritants. Mustard, pow- 
 dered ginger (both ma<1e into a paste with 
 water), hartshorn and oil, and ether and spirit 
 of wine (when their evaporation is prevented), 
 are familiar examples of this class of reme- 
 dies. 
 
 BUBE'OLA. See Measles. 
 
 BUBIA'CIN. An orange-coloured substance, 
 obtained (rom madder. 
 
 BUBID'IUM. [Eng., L.] A metal belong- 
 ing to the alkaline group discovered by Bunsen 
 and KirchbofE by means of spectrum analysis. 
 It is found in many mineral waters associated 
 with caesium. 
 
1440 
 
 RUBY— BUST 
 
 EU'BY. See Gems and Pastes. 
 
 EUB. Syn. ViVTM. FOWA, RuTA (Ph. L. & 
 E.), L. " The leaf Ruta graveolena." (Ph. 
 L.) A powerful antispasmodic, diuretic, and 
 stimulant. It is also reputed nervine and em- 
 menagogiie. The fresh leaves are powerfully 
 acrid, and even vesicant ; but they Tjecome 
 milder in drying. — Dose. Of the powder, 15 
 to 30 gr., twice or thrice daily ; in hysteria, 
 flatulent colic, &c. See Infdsion and Oils 
 (Volatile). 
 
 EUM. Syn. Spieitus .Iamaoiehsis, Spi- 
 ElTns SACCEABi, L. An ardent spirit ob- 
 tained by distillation from the fermented 
 skimmings of the sugar-boilers (syrnp scum), 
 the draiuings of the sugnr-pots and hogsheads 
 (molasses), the washings of the boilers and 
 other vessels, together with sufficient recent 
 cane juice or wort, prepared by mashing the 
 crushed cane, to impart the necessary flavour. 
 The sweet liquor before fermentation com- 
 monly contains from 12 to X6% of saccharine, 
 and every ten gallons yield from one to two 
 gallons of rum. 
 
 The average strength of rum, as imported 
 into this country, is about 20 o.P. Like all 
 other spirits, it is colourless when it issues 
 from the still, but owing to the taste of the 
 consumer the distiller is compelled to colour 
 it before it leaves his premises. 
 
 Ohs. Rum is imported from the West In- 
 dies. The best comes from Jamaica, and is 
 hence distinguished by that name. Leeward 
 Island rum is less esteemed. The duty on 
 rum is 10s. 2d. per proof-gallon if imported 
 direct from any of the British Colonies (Colo- 
 nial rum), but 10*. hd. if from any other part 
 of the world (foreign rum). The consumption 
 of rum has long been declining in England ; 
 its place being chiefly supplied by gin. Rum 
 owes its flavour to a volatile oil and butyric 
 acid, a fact which the wary chemist has 
 availed himself of in the manufacture of a 
 butyric compound (essence of rum) for the 
 especial purpose of enabling the spirit dealer 
 to manufacture a factitious rum from malt or 
 molasses spirit. In Jamaica it is usual to put 
 sliced pine apples into the puncheons con- 
 taining the finer qualities of rum, which is 
 then termed pine-apple mm. See Alcohol, 
 Spibit, &c. 
 
 RUM, BAY, E Rother's Formula for. 
 According to an American authority, true 
 bay rum is made from Fimenta acris 
 {Myrica acris, Schwartz; Myrtus acris, 
 Willd.), and not from Laurus nobilis, as 
 commonly supposed; the method of its dis- 
 tillation not being known outside the West 
 Indies, it has been customary to make it 
 extemporaneously with the oil of bay distilled 
 from the leaves of the former plant. This 
 preparation is inferior in fragrance, however, 
 to the genuine article. The following formula 
 of R. Rother is said to give very good results. 
 Take of oil of b.ayberry, 1 fl. oz.; Jamaica 
 rum, 1 pint ; strong alcoliol, 4 pints j water, 3 
 
 pints. Mix the rum, alcohol, and water, then 
 add the oil; mix and filter. 
 
 EUPEET'S DEOPS. These are made by 
 letting drops of melted glass fall into cold 
 water. By this means they assume an oval 
 form, with a tail or neck resembling a retort. 
 They possess this tingular property that, if a 
 small portion of the tail is broken off, the 
 whole bursts into powder with an explosion, 
 and a considerable shock is communicated to 
 the hand. 
 
 EUPIA. This is an affection of the skin 
 attended by the formation on it of vesicles, 
 that develop into ulcers which copiously dis- 
 charge a fonl, unhealthy, and reddish matter. 
 After a time this matter hardens and forms a 
 thick incrustation over the sores. 
 
 The best treatment is to put the patient 
 upon a generous diet, including wine, and to 
 administer iodide of potassium with sarsa- 
 parilla or quinine. The scabs should be poul- 
 ticed. 
 
 EXJP'TUEE. See Suboeey. 
 
 RUSKS. Prep. From 4 eggs ; new milk 
 and warm water, of each \ pint; melted but- 
 ter and sugar, of each i lb. ; yeast, 3 table- 
 spoonfuls ; beat well together with as much 
 flour, added gradually, as will make a very 
 light paste ; let it rise before the fire for half 
 an hour, then add a little more flour, form 
 into small loaves or cakes 5 or 6 inches wide, 
 and flatten them ; bake these moderately, and, 
 when cold, cut them into slices of the size of 
 rusks, and put them into the oven to brown a 
 little. A nice tea-cake when hot, or with 
 caraways, to eat cold. Plain busks are made 
 by simply cutting loaves of bread into slices, 
 and baking them in a slow oven to the proper 
 colour. 
 
 EUS'ffiA. An arsenical iron pyrites, found 
 in Galatia, which, when reduced to powder, 
 and mixed with half its weight of quicklime, 
 is used by the Turkish ladies to make their 
 * PSILOTHEONS,' Or Compounds to remove super- 
 fluous hair. See Depilatoet. 
 
 RUST. Syn. RuBiQO, L. The coating or 
 film of oxide or carbonate which forms on the 
 surface of several of the metals when exposed 
 to a moist atmosphere; more particularly, 
 that which forms on iron or steel (eekbi hy- 
 BEATE ; HYDEATED, SESQDIOXIDB OF lEON ; 
 EEREUaO, PEEEI EUBIGO). 
 
 To prevent iron or steel goods rusting, it is 
 merely necessary to preserve them from damp 
 or moisture. In the shops, small articles in 
 steel are, commonly, either varnished or en- 
 closed in quick-lime finely pulverised; large 
 articles are generally protected with a coating 
 of plumbago, or of boiled oil, or some cheap 
 varnish, applied to them, previously gently 
 heated. Surgical instruments are frequently 
 slightly smeared with a little strong mercurial 
 ointment, with the same intention. 
 
 Spots of rust may be removed from the sur- 
 face of polished iron or steel by rubbing them 
 with a little tripoli or very fine emery made 
 
RUTHENIC ACJD— RTE 
 
 1441 
 
 into a paste with nweot oil ; or, chemically, by 
 H mixture of polisher's putty-pjwdcr with a 
 little oxalic acid, applied with water. When 
 the last is employed, the articles should be 
 afterwards well rinsed in pure water, then 
 wiped dry, »nd finished off with a warm and 
 dry rubber, in order to remove every trace of 
 acid. 
 
 HUTHENIC ACID. 5y». Ruthknio anht- 
 DBIOB (RiiOj). This may be procured by 
 heating any of the preceding oxides with 
 potassic nicruto. Kutbenio acid is insoluble 
 in water. 
 
 Enthenic Sesqnioxide. (RujO^) ; occurs in 
 the anhydrous form when the metul is ignited 
 in a current of air. It is the most stable 
 of the baHic oxides of the metal. Alkalies 
 fail to dissolve it. With acids it forms soluble 
 salts of a yellow colour; when, to n solution 
 of these, an alkali is added, a bulky blackish- 
 brown precipitate of the hydra ted oxide, having 
 the composition Ru^OSg, SH^O, is thrown 
 down. 
 
 There are three chlorides of ruthenium : — 
 RuClj ; RuCls ; and RuClj. 
 
 EUIHEN'IUM. (Ru. = 104-2.) A metnl dis- 
 covered by Claus, associated with iridium, in 
 the residue from crude platinum, which is 
 insoluble in aqua regia. It forms smnll anguliir 
 mnsneH, with a metallic lustre; is very brittle 
 and infusible; resists the action of acids, but 
 reaililv oxidises when heated in the air. Sp. 
 gr. H to 11-4. 
 
 In Fremy's process for sepnrating osmium 
 from the residues of platinum ore, ruthenium 
 occurs in a dioxide. By beating this dioxide 
 in a current of oxygen, the metal may be 
 obtained in the form of a powder of dark grey 
 colour. 
 
 With oxygen, ruthenium forms four com- 
 pounds :—RuO ; RujOa; RnO„; and RuOj. 
 
 Euthenium Trichloride (RtiClj), which is 
 the most important of the chlorides, may be 
 procured by dissolving the Bcquioxide in 
 hydrochloric acid. The solution beini; evapo- 
 rated, the trichloride occurs as a greenish-blue 
 deliquescent mass, wliicti is soluble in alcohol. 
 
 Tests. In solutions of the trichh>riile, hydro- 
 gen sulphide gives a brown precipitate of 
 rutheniesesquisulphide, the supernatant liquid 
 being of a bright blue eulour. This reaction 
 i< a very delicate as well as a very character- 
 istic one. 
 
 Metallic zinc reduces the yellow trichloride 
 to the blue dichloride, the inetiil being after- 
 wards precipitated as a black powder. Pluui- 
 bicaietatcgive-sa purplisli-red pr'CiiiitKte,mer- 
 curie cyanide a blue one, the supernatant liquid 
 beine: also blue. The caustic and carbonated 
 alkalies, throw down a black precipitate of 
 sesqnioxide of ruthenium, which is insoluble in 
 exiess of the precipitant. If the salts of 
 ruthenium are boiled with sodic forniiate or 
 oxalate the solution becomes colourless, hut 
 no precipitate of reduced nietjil takes place. 
 
 ET£. Syn. Sboale, L. The seed of 
 
 Kio. 1. — Transverse section of testa, 8ic. x 108. 
 
 Kio. 2 — CoaU i» iM Horn mthom. x 170. a, Eiternnl ; h, Middle ; c, Internal coat j i, Starch jtrams. x 108. 
 VOL. II. 91 
 
1442 
 
 SABADILLA— SACHET 
 
 Secale cereale, a gramineous plant, the native 
 country of which is undetermined. It is a 
 more certain crop and reqnires less culture 
 and manure than wheat, and is hence largely 
 cultivated in Germany, Russia, and in the 
 northern parts of Europe, where it is exten- 
 sively employed for bread. VVlien roasted it is 
 occasionally used as a sub.stitute for ciifEee. 
 It furnishes an excellent malt for the distilla- 
 tinn of spirit, and is mucli used iu the making 
 of Hollands. 
 
 Eye bread is very likely to cause diarrhoea 
 iu those unaccustomed to partake of it. By 
 continued use, however, this inconveuience 
 disappears. Bye bread is acid and dark in 
 colour. It is about equal in nutritive power 
 to wheat. It is less abundant than wheat in 
 librin, but richer in casein and albumen. 
 
 The foregoing plate represents the micro- 
 scopic appearance of rye. 
 
 Sommer recommends the microscopic exa- 
 mination of rye flour to be conducted as fol- 
 lows : — The flour is placed on a glass slide, and 
 moistened with water ; a single drop of oil of 
 vitriol is added, and a small disc is laid upon 
 it. If, now, it be viewed with a magnifying 
 power of 200, the starch grains of wheat and 
 rye are seen to dissolve in a uniform manner, 
 hut the grains of barley starch, after losing 
 their external coat, break up into a number 
 of polyhedrons before their solution is com- 
 pleted. 
 
 Eye, Spurred. See EnaoT. 
 
 SABADIL'LA. iSyn. Ceeadilla, Ckva- 
 DiLiA, Sabadixla U*- P. Ph. E.), L. Tlie 
 dried fruit {Asagreea officinalis). A drastic 
 and dangerous cathartic, occasionMlly used in 
 tapeworm ; and, externally, to destroy pedi- 
 culi, but, even for this purpose, when the scalp 
 has been denuded or ulcerated, it has some- 
 times caused death. It is now used chiefly 
 as a source of verateinb. 
 
 SA'BLE. The Mustella Zihellina (Linn.), a 
 small quadruped of the uiartin-cat family, 
 found iu Northern Asia. Its fur is remarkable 
 for its fine quality and rich colour, and (or 
 the hairs turning with equal ease in every di- 
 rection. The skins of the rabbit, cat, &c., 
 dressed, painted, and lustred, are sold under 
 the nsme of commok or uoce: sable. 
 
 SABOTlEEE. [Fr.] An apparatus of pe- 
 culiar construction, employed by tlie French 
 confectioners for making ices. It consists of 
 a pail to contiiin a freezing mixture, and an 
 inner vessel for the creams to be iced. It may 
 be used with a mixture of pounded ice and 
 salt, or any other freezing mixture. The pail 
 and cream vessels being loaded, and closely 
 covered, an alternate rotatory motion is given 
 to the apparatus by means of the handle, for 
 10 or 15 minutes, care being taken to occa- 
 sionally SCI ape down the frozen portion of the 
 cream from the sides, by means of a wooden 
 spoon. See Ices and Refeigekation. 
 
 SACCHAE'IC ACID. Syn. Oxalhydeic 
 
 ACiDf. A compound, resulting from the 
 ac.ion of dilute nitric acid on sugar. 
 
 SAC CHABINE. The technical name of the 
 uncrystallisahle sugar found in malt-wort. 
 
 SACCHARINE FESHEIITATIGir. This 
 occurs during the germination and kiln-drying 
 of grain in the operation of malting, and in 
 the mashing of malt in brewing. The sweet- 
 ening of bread during its exposure to heat in 
 the oven is also included under this head by 
 many writers. 
 
 The substance which most powerfully excites 
 the sugar fermentation was first shown by 
 Payen and Persoz to be a peculiar principle 
 to which they have given the name of ' dias- 
 tase.' This is always present in good malt, 
 and possesses the singular property of con- 
 verting STAECH successively into gum (dex- 
 trin) and sugar, at a temperature ranging 
 between 149° and 168° Fahr. During the 
 action of this substance on starch it is itself 
 decomposed; and when the sugar fermentation 
 ceases it is found to have entirely disappeared. 
 It is the presence of diastase in malt which 
 alone converts the starch of tlie grain into 
 sugar during the operation of mashing with 
 hot water ; and hence the absolute necessity of 
 employing water at the proper temperature, as 
 on this depends the strength and sweetness of 
 the wort, and consequently its fitness for un- 
 dergoing the vinous fermentation, and for 
 making beer. Vegetable albumen and gluten 
 also possess the property of exciting the sac- 
 charine fermentation, but in a considerably 
 inferior degree to diastase. 
 
 The sugar formed during the germination of 
 seeds containing starch results from the action 
 of diastase, and disappears as soon as the 
 woody fibre (lignin), which has a similar con- 
 stitution, is developed, forming the skeleton of 
 the young plant. (Liebig.) See Bbewing, 
 Diastase, Dextrin, &c. 
 
 SACCHAEOm'ETEE. An instrument simi- 
 lar in principle to the common spirit hydro- 
 meter, but so weighted and graduated as to 
 adapt it for the indication of the richness of 
 malt-worts in sugar, or saccharine, expressed 
 in pounds per barrel, or the excess of gravity 
 over that of water, the lust being taken at 1000. 
 See Beewino, Syeup, Wobt, &e. 
 
 SACH'ET. Syn. Saccwlus, L. Sachets 
 (sACcnu) are little bags containing dry sub- 
 stances, used for the external medication of 
 parts, or for communicating agreeable per- 
 fumes to wearing apparel, drawers, furniture, 
 &c. Those belonging to perfumery are com- 
 monly filled with mixtures of (ragrunt vegeta- 
 ble substances, reduced to coarse powder, and 
 differ from those employed for pot pourri 
 chiefly in being used in the dry state. Sac- 
 cnli are now seldom employed in this coun- 
 try in legitimate medicine. See Powdeks 
 (Scented), &c. 
 
 Sachet, Ammoniacal. Syn. SAccuirs am- 
 MONiACALis. Prep. Equal parts of sal am- 
 moniac and quicklime are mixed, and sprinkled 
 
SACK— SAFFRON 
 
 1143 
 
 between cotton wadding, which is to be quilted 
 in muslin. 
 
 Sachet, Anodyne. (Qiiinpy.) 8i/n. Sac- 
 OOWSAKODYNCS. Prfp. Cljiimorailes, 1 oz. ; 
 bay berries, 1 oz. ; Iiivender flower, i oz. : hen- 
 bune seiid, 1 dr. ; opium, 1 dr. To be dipped 
 in hot spirits. 
 
 Sachet, Anti-phthisic. Si/n. Saccdlits anti- 
 pnTursicna. L. Prep. Dissolve of aloes, 1 oz., 
 in strong decoction of fresh rue, i jiint; next 
 fold a piece of soft muslin in eight fold'' large 
 enough to cover the chest and part of the 
 ■tomach ; steep this in tlie decoction, and dry 
 it in the shade ; lastly, place in a small bag, 
 one side of which is formed of scarlet silk or 
 wool, and the other, intended to be worn next 
 the skin, of the finest net or gauze. A cele- 
 brsted domestic remedy fur consumption and 
 aetliina. It is intended to be constantly worn 
 on the che-t. 
 
 Sachet, Besolr'ent. S^n. MsLTiNa baq ; 
 SACCrLUS BE80LVKNS, L. Prep, 1. (Dr 
 Brcslau.) Iodide of potassium, 1 part ; sal 
 ammoniac, 8 parts ; dry, and reduce Citch si'pii- 
 nitcly to fine powder; mix them, and enclose 
 i oz. to 1 oz. of the mixed powder in a small 
 hag of linen or silk. Used as a resolvent to 
 indolent tumours, especially goitres and scro- 
 fnlous indurations. It should be worn on the 
 part iiigiit and day for some time. The part 
 next the skin should be well pricked with 
 a needle, ami the powder shaken up and read- 
 justed every 2 or 3 days ; and it should be 
 reneweil about once a fortnight. 
 
 2. (Trousseau & Ileveil.) Iodide of potas- 
 sium, 1, part; burnt sponge, 4 parts; fine saw- 
 dust, 6 parts ; as before. 
 
 Sachet, Sponge. St/n. SACCtTLirs sfonoii, 
 CoLLlKB DB MoBAND. Prep. Muriate of 
 ammonia, chloride of radium, burnt sponge, of 
 cich 1 oz. ; mix, sprinkle the powder im a 
 piece of cotton wool, and quilt between muslin, 
 in the form of a cravat. To be worn con- 
 stantly in eoitre or bioucliocele, renewing it 
 every month. 
 
 Sachet, Stomachic. (Fuller.) Si/n. Sac- 
 CCira. Prep. Alint, 4 dm.; wormwood, 
 thyme, red roses, each 2 drm. ; balastines, 
 angelica mot, caraway seed, nutmeg, mace, 
 cloves, of each 1 drm. Coarsely powder tlie 
 ingredients, and put them into a bag, to be 
 moistoned with hot red wine when applied for 
 flatulence. 
 
 SACK. (From sec, Fr., dry.) A wine used 
 by our ancestors, supposed by some to have 
 Ixen Rhenish or Canary ; but, with more 
 probability, by others, tn have been dry 
 mountain — vin d'Espagne ; vin sec— (How- 
 ell, • Fr. and Kng. Diet.,' 1650). Fiilstaffi calls 
 it ' sherris sack ' (sherry sack), from Xeres, 
 a sea town of Corduba, where that kind of 
 sack (wine) is made. (Blount.) At a later 
 
 * In "^li ike*pe ire's ifiy lack whs nrcnaionally adulte- 
 rniod witli II. IIP. ;iii we ItHrii from KiitBtatTa speech lo tlie 
 Dravcr: " You rugae, there's lime in lliis sack." 
 
 period the term came to be used as a general 
 name for all sweet wines. 
 
 SAF'FIiOWEK. Si/n. Bastard saffron. 
 Dteb's b. ; Cabthamus, L. The florets of 
 Carlhamut iinctoriut, a plant cultivated in 
 Spain, Egypt, and the Levant. It contains 
 two colouring principles — the one yellow, an. I 
 the other red. The first i< removed by water, 
 and is rejected. The second is easily dissolved 
 out by weak solutions of the carbonated alka- 
 lies, and is again precipitated on the additi.m 
 of an acid. This property is taken advantnfjo 
 of in the manufacture of rou^^e, and in dyeing 
 silk and cotton. 
 
 The most lively tints of cherry, flame, flesh, 
 orange-re<l, poppy, and rose colour, are im ■ 
 parted to silk by the following process, modi- 
 fied to suit the particular shade required: — 
 The sifflower (previously deprived of its yel- 
 low colouring matter by water) is exhau-tcd 
 with water oontsining either carbonate of soda 
 or of potas^a, in the proportion of abmt 5Jf of 
 the weight of the prepared dye-stuff acted on ; 
 the resulting liqu d is next treated with pure 
 lemon juice until it acquires a distinct and rich 
 nvl colour ; the silk is then introduced an.l 
 turned about as long as it is perceived to tik" 
 up colour,a little more lemon juice being added 
 as may appear necessary ; for deep sliados this 
 is repeated with oiie or more fresh baths, the 
 silk being dried and rinsed between each im- 
 mersion ; it is, lastly, brightened by turning 
 it for a few minutes through a b itli of warm 
 water, to which a little lemon juice has been 
 previously added. For flame colour the silk 
 "hould receive a slight shade with annotta 
 before putting it into the saffl iwer b ith. For 
 the deeper shades, when expense is an object, 
 a little archil is commonly added to the first 
 and second hath. See Cathabmix. 
 
 SAF'FRON. The prepared stigmata or stig- 
 mas of the Croats sativus, or saffrou crocus. 
 There are two piincipal varieties known in 
 commerce : — 
 
 1. (Saffeon, Hat s. ; Ckocus in fcbno, 
 C. Htspanioi.us, Ckooistiq.niata; Cbocus — 
 B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.) This consisted of the 
 stigmas, with part of the styles, carefully 
 picked from the other parts of the flowers, and 
 then dried on paper by a very gentle heat, 
 o-encrallv in a poi'table oven constructed for 
 the purpose. 
 
 2. (Cake saffeon; Cbocus in placenta.) 
 This, professedly, merely varies from the last, 
 it beinu' compressed into a cake after it has 
 become softened by the fire, and being then 
 dried in that condition. The 'cake saflron' 
 of commerce is now, however, mostly, if not 
 entirely, composed of safilower made into a 
 paste with some sugar and gum water, rolled 
 out on paper into oval cakes 10 to 12 inches 
 long, 9 or 10 bro.id, and abont ^th of an inch 
 thick, and then dried. " I can detect neither 
 saffron nor marigold in them." (Dr. Pereira.) 
 
 Par. Saffron, of all the articles of com- 
 merce, except French brandy, is, perhaps, the 
 
1441 
 
 SAGAPENUM— SAGO 
 
 one most largely and constantly adulterated. 
 Abroad it is frequently mixed with safflower, 
 and in England with ' prepared marigolds,' or 
 • French (moc;k) saffron.' Tliese frauds may 
 be detected by the inferiority of the colour, 
 and by soaking the leaves in water, when the 
 stigmas of the Crocus sativus may be readily 
 distinguished from the floreis of safflower and 
 the petals of marigolds. Wiuckler and Gruner 
 proposed to detect these substances by means of 
 a solution of nitrate of silver or of sesqui- 
 cliloride of iron. The infusion of true saffron 
 is not altered by those reagents, hut that of 
 either of the above-mentioned adulterants is 
 rendered opaque, ahd is at length precipitated. 
 '' It consists of tripartite filaments, of an 
 orange-red colour, with the small filaments 
 towards the apex dilated." (Ph. E.) In the 
 wholesale drug trade prepared marigolds are 
 not only employed to mix with genuine saf&on, 
 but are extensively sold to the country dealers 
 for that purpose. Old and dry saffron is 
 'freshened up' by rubbing it between the 
 hands slightly oiltd, and then repicking it. 
 
 The late Mr D. Hanbury, P.R.S., found that 
 the article known in commerce as alicante 
 saffron was largely sophisticated with carbonate 
 of lime, which he says had been made to 
 adhere to the thread-like saffron without in 
 the least altering its general appearance. To 
 ascertain the amount of earthy matter thus 
 fiauduletitly added, he subjected several speci- 
 mens of saffron to incineration,; each having in 
 the first insiance been dried in warm air until 
 it caused it to lose its weight. 'I'lie result 
 indicated that while good Valentia saffron 
 yields from 4 to 6 per cent, of ash, the alicante 
 furnishes from 12 to 28 per cent." The 
 method of taking a sample of saffron for earthy 
 adulteration which Mr Hanbury recommends 
 is this : — Place in a watch glass a small quan 
 tity (say 1 grain) of the saffron, and drop upon 
 it 8 or 10 drops of water; lightly touch the 
 saffron with the tip of the finger, so as to 
 cause the water to wet it. If the drug is free 
 from earthy matter, a clear bright-yellow 
 solution will be immediately obtained; if 
 adulterated, a white powder will Instantly 
 separate^ causing the water to appear turbid ; 
 and if a drop of hydrochloric acid be now 
 added, a brisk effervescence will take place. 
 
 Mr Hanbury says that saffron almost 
 always contains a few of the pale yellow 
 stamens, accidentally gathered ; but the pollen 
 from them which is detached when the drug is 
 wetted, but which is minute in quantity, is 
 easily distinguished from carbonate of lime, by 
 not dissolving when hydrochloric acid is added. 
 Moreover, the form of pollen grains may be 
 easily recognised under the microscope. 
 
 Mr Hanbury furthermore states that nri 
 effectual method of examination is to scatter 
 a very small pinch of saffron on the surface of 
 a glass of warm water. The stigma of the 
 saffron-crocus immediately expands, and ex- 
 hibits a form so characteristic that it cannot 
 
 be confounded with the flowrets of safflower, 
 marigold, or arnica, or with the stamens of 
 crocus itself.^ 
 
 Frop., Sfc. Saffron is anodyne, cordial, 
 emmenagogue, and exbilarant; but is now 
 seldom employed, except as an adjuvant, in 
 medicine. Amongst cooks, confectioners, and 
 liquoristes, it is largely used on account of its 
 fine colour. 
 
 Saffron, Mead'ow. See Colchicum. 
 SAGAPE'NUM. This substance is described 
 in the London Pharmacopoeia as a gum resin, 
 the production of an uncertain species of 
 Ferula. The mass of the sagapenum sold to 
 the retail trader is, however, a factitious 
 article, formed by softening a mixture of assa- 
 foetida, 3 parts, and galbanum, 15 parts, over 
 a water or steam bath, and then stirring in 
 about -jVth of their weight of oil of turpentine, 
 with a little oil of juniper. This mixture is 
 labelled 'Gum Sagapeni Opt.' an inferior 
 sort being made by adding sundry portions of 
 yellow resin and paste of gum tragacanth to 
 the above. 
 
 Peepaked sa&apenum (sAGAPEiriiM vnm,- 
 PARATUM— Ph. L.) is ordered to be prepared 
 in the same manner as 'prepared ammo- 
 niacum.' 
 
 Obs. Sagapenum is the feeblest of all the 
 fetid gum resins. — Dose, 5 to 15 gr., made 
 intopiUs; as an antispasmodic and emmena- 
 gogue. 
 
 SA'GO. Syn. Sago (Ph. L., E., k D.), L. 
 " The ffflcula (starch) from the stem of Sagus 
 ItBvis, S, Rumphii, and, perhaps, of other species 
 of palms." (Ph. L.) It forms the principal 
 portion of the pith of the Sago palms, the 
 Gommnti palm, the Talipot palm, and other 
 allied trees. Its properties .and uses, for the 
 most part, resemble those of arrow-root. It is 
 used for making puddings, jellies, &c. 
 
 Under the microscope the starch-grains of 
 sago present an elongated form, rounded at 
 the larger ends, and compressed at the smaller. 
 They differ altogether in appearance from 
 potato starch. 
 
 The pilum of the sago starch-grains is a 
 point, or, more frequently, a crop, slit, or star, 
 and is seated at the smaller end, whilst in the 
 marsanta arrow-root the pilum is situated at 
 the larger end. Rings are more or less clearly 
 seen. 
 
 Sa'go, To Prepare. Wash an ounce of pearl 
 sago in cold water ; then boil it very gently in 
 a pint of fresh water, stirring it frequently 
 till dissolved. It may be flavoured with wine, 
 spices, and sugar. For children, and for con- 
 sumptive and debilitated persons, it will he 
 found advantageous to substitute milk for 
 water. The common sago being in larger 
 grains, more time is required to dissolve it, 
 and it is usually steeped for some hours before 
 boiling it. 
 
 Sa'go MUk. (See above.) 
 Sa'go Posset. (For invalids.) Macerate a 
 ' Fharm. Journ.* 
 
ST VITUS' DANCE— SALADS 
 
 1445 
 
 Sago of conintcrce, Dinguified Xi7 times. 
 
 table-spoonful of sngo in a pint of water for 
 two liours on tlie hob of a stove, then boil for 
 15 minutes, assiduously stirrini^. Add sugar, 
 with an aromatic, such as ginger or nutmeg, 
 and a tablespoonful or more of white wine. 
 If white wine be not permitted flavour with 
 lemon juire. 
 
 ST VITUS' DANCE. See CnonnA. 
 
 SAL. [L.] Siilt. A word much used in 
 compound names, handed down to us from the 
 old chemists. 
 
 Sal Absin'thii. Carbonate of potassium. 
 
 Sal Acetosellte. Binoxalute and quadrox- 
 alKte of potassium. 
 
 Sal Alem'broth. Ammoniated mercury 
 (white precipitate). 
 
 Sal Ainmo"niac. Chloride of ammonium. 
 
 Sal de Suobus. Sulphate of potassium. 
 
 Sal Dlare'ticnai Acetate of potassium, 
 
 Sal Enis'uin. Crude bisulphate of potas- 
 »ium. 
 
 Sal Gem'mse. Bock or fossil salt (chloride 
 of sodium). 
 
 Sal Uar'tis. Sulphate of iron. 
 
 Sal Mirab'lle. Sulphate of sodium. 
 
 Sal Ferla'tnm. Phosphate of sodium. 
 
 Sal Folycreat'os. Sulphate of potassium. 
 
 Sal Prunel'Ia. Si/n. Sobk-thboat salt. 
 Crystal minbbai,;' Potass j; nitkas tcsa, 
 
 NiTETTM TABULATUM, SaL PEUNEI.L.E, L. 
 From nitre' fused in a Hessian crucible, and 
 poured out on a smooth surface, or into moulit.s, 
 to cool. Its usual form and size is th:it of an 
 ordinary ninskot bullet, with the tail, in which 
 state it is known in the dru? trade as 'sal 
 prunelliB globosum.' When in cnkes it is 
 often called 'sal p. in placent's,' or ■ s. p. 
 tabulatum.' A small portion allowed to dis- 
 solve hlowly in the mouth, tlie saliva being 
 slowly swallowed, often removes incipient in- 
 flammatory sore throat. 
 
 Sal Satnrn'i, Sugar of lead (neutral acetate 
 of lead). 
 
 Sal Seignette'. Rochelle salt (tartrate of 
 pot'iB^iiim and sodium). 
 
 Sal Volat'ile. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia. 
 
 The name is commonly used as an abbreviation 
 of aromatic spirit of ammonia. 8ee Sfibits 
 (MedlcinnI). 
 
 SAL' ADS are generally made of esculent 
 vegetables, either singly or mixed, chosen 
 according to taste or time of ynar, and 
 'dressed' withoil, vinegar, and salt and some- 
 times also with mustard and other condiments. 
 Sliced boiled egg is a common addition. 
 
 Sydney Smith's recipe for salad dressing: — 
 
 To make this condiment your poet begs 
 
 The powdered yellow of two hard-boiled 
 eg!,"^ ; 
 
 Two boiled potatoes passed through kitchen- 
 sieve 
 
 Smoothness and softness to the salad give; 
 
 Let onion atoms lurk within the bowl. 
 
 And, half suspected, animate the whole; 
 
 Of mordant mustard add a single spoon 
 
 (Distrust the condimeut that bites too 
 soon) ; 
 
 But deem it not, thou man of t:iste, a fault 
 
 To add a double quantity of salt; 
 
 And, lastly, o'er the flavoured compound 
 toss 
 
 A magic soup^on of anchovy sauce. 
 
 Oh ! green and glorious ! Oli ! herbaceous 
 treat ! 
 
 'Twould tempt the dying anchorite to eat; 
 
 Back to the world he'd turn his fleeting 
 soul. 
 
 And pkinpe his finger in the salad bowl ; 
 
 yereiiely full the epicure would say, 
 
 " Fiite cuinot harm me, 1 have dined to- 
 day."' 
 
 Another recipe for salad dressing: — Yolk 
 of two eggs ; table salt, i oz. ; salad oil, 4 oz. ; 
 mustard, | oz. ; best vinegar, 6 oz. ; ijiiiiilii.-s, 
 1 dr. ; soluble cayenne, 10 grams. (• Phar. 
 Jour.') 
 
 Cold meat, poultry, and game, sliced small, 
 with some cucumber or celery, and a little onion 
 or chopped parsley, or, instead of them, some 
 
 » Tlie port bas innclverlently ignored tbe oil and vinegar. 
 
1446 
 
 SALADS 
 
 pickles, make a very relisliing salad. Fish are 
 also employed in the same manner. 
 
 Mr C. J. Robinson, writing to ' Nature '■ on 
 our salad herbs, says : — " There is, perhaps, no 
 country in the world so rich as England in 
 native materials for salad making, and none in 
 which ignorance and prejudice have more re- 
 stricted their employment. At every season 
 of the year the peasant may cull from the 
 field and hedgerow wholesome herbs which 
 would impart a pleasant variety to his monoto- 
 nous meal, and save his store of potatoes from 
 premature exhaustion. Besides there can be 
 no question that in hot seasons a judicious ad- 
 mixture of fresh green food is as salutary as it 
 is agreeable. Much has been said lately 
 about the advantage which the labouring man 
 would derive from an accurate acquaintance 
 with the various forms nf fungus; he has been 
 gravely told that the Fistulma hepatica is an 
 admirable substitute for beef - steak, the 
 Agaricus gambosus for the equally unknown 
 veal cutlet. 
 
 " But deep-seated suspicion is not easily 
 eradicated, and there will always be a certain 
 amount of hazard in dealing with a class of 
 products in which the distinctions between 
 noxious and innocuous are not very clearly 
 utarlted. 
 
 '• There is not this difficulty with regard to 
 salad herbs, and we conceive that the diffusion 
 of a little knowledge as to their properties 
 and value would be an unmixed beneiit to our 
 jural population. 
 
 " The first place must be assigned on the 
 score of antiquity to the sorrel plant (i2a«tex 
 acetosa), which in some districts still preserves 
 the name of ' green sauce,* assigned to it in 
 ewrly times, when it formed almost the only 
 dinner vegetable. 
 
 *' Its acid is pleasant and wholesome, more 
 delicate in flavour than that of the wood- 
 sorrel (Oooalia acetosella), which, however, is 
 used for table purposes in France and Ger- 
 many. Chervil (Anthriseus cerefolmm) is often 
 found in a wild state, and is an admirable 
 addition to the salad bowl ; and it is un- 
 necessary to enlarge upon the virtues of celery 
 {Apium graveolens) when improved by culti- 
 vation." 
 
 John Ray, writing in 1663, says that " the 
 Italians use several herbs for sallets, which 
 are not yet, or have not been used lately, but in 
 England, viz. Selleri, which is nothing else 
 but the sweet smallage ; the young shoots 
 whereof, with a little of the head of the root, 
 cut oft', they eat raw with oil and pepper," and to 
 this we may add that the alisander (Smt/rnium 
 olasattrum) is no bad substitute for its better- 
 known congener. The dandelion, which in 
 France is blanched for the purpose, affords 
 that amarie aliquid which tlie professed 
 salad maker finds in the leaves of the endive, 
 and the same essential ingredient may be sup- 
 plied by the avens (Geum urbanum), the 
 1 August 18th, 1870. 
 
 bladder campion (Silene injlaid), and the 
 tender shoots of the wild hop. Most people 
 are familiar with the properties of the water- 
 cress (Nasturtium officinale), garlic hedge 
 mustard (Erynmum aliaria), but it may not 
 be generally known that the common shep- 
 herd's purse {Eupsulla Bursa-paatoris) and 
 the lady's-smock (Cardamine pratensis) are 
 pleasant additions, whose merits have long 
 been recognised by our foreign neighbours. 
 In fact, there is scarcely a herb that grows 
 which has not some culinary virtue in a French 
 peasant's eyes. Out of the blanched shoots of 
 the wild chicory (Cichorium Intybua) he forms 
 the well-known barbe de capucius, and digni- 
 fies with the title of Salade de chamoine our 
 own neglected corn-salad {Fedia olitaria). It 
 would be very easy to extend the dimensions 
 of our list of native salad herbs, for there are, 
 perhaps, some palates to which the strong 
 fl.ivours of the chives {Allium schanopraatm) 
 and stonecrop {Sedum rejlexum) may commend 
 themselves ; but enough has been said to show 
 that nature has not dealt niggardly with us, 
 and that only knowledge is needful to make 
 the riches she offers available. 
 
 If the British peasant can be taught to dis- 
 cover hidden virtues in these plants, with 
 whose outward forms he has had life-long 
 familiarity, we do not despair of his acquiring 
 the one secret of salad-making, viz. the judi- 
 cious employment of oil, so as to correct the 
 acrid juices of the plants, and yet preserve 
 their several flavours unimpaired. 
 
 Salad, let'tuce. Prep. Take two large let- 
 tuces, remove the faded leaves and the coarser 
 green ones; next cut the green tops off, pull 
 each leaf off separately, rinse it in cold water, 
 cut it lengthways, and then into four or ten 
 pieces; put these into a bowl, and sprinkle 
 over them, with your fingers, 1 small tea- 
 spoonful of salt, i do. of pepper, 3 do. of salad 
 oil, and 2 do. of English or 1 of French vinegar; 
 then with the spoon and fork turn the salad 
 lightly in the bowl until thoroughly mixed ; 
 the less it is handled the better. A tea- 
 spoonful each of chopped chervil and tarragon 
 is an immense improvement. 
 
 Obs. The above seasoning is said to be 
 enough for i lb. of lettuce. According to 
 Soyer, it is " such as the Italian count used to 
 make some years since, by which he made a 
 fortune in dressing salads for the tables of the 
 aristocracy." The above may be varied by 
 the addition of 2 eggs, boiled hard, and sliced, 
 a little eschalot, or a few chives or young 
 onions. Several other salad herbs, especially 
 endive, water-cresses, and mustard-aud-cress, 
 may be ' dressed ' in the same manner ; always 
 remembering that the excellence of a salad 
 depends chiefly on the vegetables which com- 
 pose them being recently gathered and care- 
 fully cleansed. 
 
 To improve the appearance of the above 
 and other salads, when on the table or side- 
 board, before being used, the gay flawer of the 
 
SALEP— SALICYLIC ACID 
 
 1447 
 
 nnttartium or tnnrigold, with a little sliced 
 boet-root or radish, mid sliced cucumber, may 
 bo tastefully intermixed nith them. 
 
 Salad, Lobs'ter. Prep. (Soyer.) " Hiive the 
 bowl hair filled with any kind of salad herb 
 you lilie, as endive, lettuce, &c. ; tlien brealc a 
 lobster in two, open the tail, extract the meat 
 in one piece, brenl< the claws, out the meat of 
 both in small slices, about u quarter of an inch 
 thick, and arrange these tastefully on the 
 salad ; next take out all the soft part from the 
 belly, mix it in a basin with 1 teuspoonful of 
 salt, half do. of pepper, 4 do. of vinegar, and 4 
 do. of oil ; stir these well together, and pour the 
 mixture on the salad ; lastly, cover it with 2 
 hard eggs, cut into slices, and a few slices of 
 cucumlier." " To vary this, a few capers and 
 some fillets of anchovy may be added, stirred 
 lightly, and then served either with or with- 
 out some salad sauce. If for a dinner orna- 
 ment it with sume flowers of the nasturtium 
 and marigold." 
 
 SAL'EP. Syn. Salop, S.»loop. The tu- 
 berous roots of Orchis mascula, and other 
 allied species, washed, dried, and afterwards 
 reduced to coarse powder. That imported 
 from I'ersia and Asia Minor occurs in small 
 oval grains, of a whitish-yellow colour, often 
 semitraiislucent, with a faint, peculiar smell, 
 and a taste somewhat resembling gum tiaga- 
 canth. It consists, chiefly, of bassorin and 
 starch, is very nutritious, and is reputed aphro- 
 disiac. It is employed in the same way as 
 sago. A decoction of about 1 oz. of this sub- 
 stance in a pint of water was formerly sold at 
 street-stalls. A tea made of sassafras chips, 
 flavoured with milk and coarse brown sugar or 
 treacle, was also sold in the same way, and 
 under the same name. 
 
 Fkknch SALEP is prepared from the potato. 
 Dr Ure mya that the Orchis mascula of our 
 own country, properly treated, would atlbrd an 
 artit'le of salep equal to the Turkey, and at a 
 vastly lower price. 
 
 SAL'ICIN. CiaHijO,. A white, crystalline 
 substance discovered by Le Boux and Bucliner 
 In the bark and leaves of several species ot iSalix 
 and Populus. It occurs most abundantly in the 
 white willow {Salixalba) and the aspen (Salix 
 helix), but is also found in all the bitter pop- 
 lars and willows. From willow bark which is 
 fresh, and rich in salicin, it may be obtained 
 by the cautious evaporation of the cold aqueous 
 infusion. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Merck.) Exhaust willow bark by 
 repeated coction with water, concentrate the 
 mixed liquors, and, while boiling, add litharge 
 until the liquid is nearly decoloured ; filter, 
 remove the dissolved oxide of lead, first by 
 sulphuric acid, and afterwards by sulphuret of 
 barium ; filter, and evaporate, that crystals 
 may form ; the crystals must be purified by 
 resolution and recrystallisation. 
 
 2, As No 1, but using a stream of sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen, to free the solution from lead. 
 
 3. (P. Codex.) To a strong filtered decoction 
 
 of willow bark add milk of lime, to throw down 
 the colour ; filter, evaporate the liquor to a 
 syrupy consistence, add alcohol (sp. gr. '847), 
 to separate the gummy matter, filter, distil oft' 
 the spirit, evaporate the residuum, and ^et it 
 aside in a cool place to crystalli-e ; the crys- 
 tals are purified by solution in boiling water, 
 agitation with a little animal charcoal, and 
 recrystallisation. 
 
 Prop., S[c. Salicin forms white, silky needles 
 and plates ; it is intensely bitter ; inodorous ; 
 neutral ; non-basic ; fuses at 230° Falir., with 
 decomposition; burns with a bright fiume; is 
 soluble in 5^ parts of water at 60°, and in 
 much less at 212° ; dissolves readily in alcohol, 
 but is insoluble in ether. It is tonic, like sul- 
 phate of quinine, but less liable to irritate the 
 stomach. It is giveu In indigestion and iiitei- 
 mittcnt diseases, in from 5- to 10 j;r. doses. 
 
 Salicin bus lately been used with considerable 
 advantage in acute rheumatism. 
 
 Dr Mttclagau' states that he found when 
 administered in doses of 10 gr. to \ dr., every 
 2 to 4 hours, the pain and fever ceased in the 
 course of 48 hours. The results are stated to 
 have been quite as favorable as those follow- 
 ing the employment of salicylic acid. It was 
 found to effect with certainty a great reduction 
 in the bodily temperature. 
 
 Pur. cf Tests. — 1. It is entirely soluble in 
 watir and rectified spirit. — 2. When strongly 
 heated it is wholly dissipated, aiid, if kindled, 
 burns with a bright flame, leaving a bulky 
 charcoal. — 3. Its solution is absolutely neutral 
 to test-paper.^-4. Concentrated sulphuric acid 
 causes it to agglutinate into resin-like lumps, 
 with the accession of an intense blood-red 
 colour. — 5. When its aqueous solution is mixed 
 with some hydruchlorK' acid, or dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, Kiul the mixture is boiled for a 
 short time, the liquid suddenly becomes turbid, 
 and deposits salibetin, under the form of a 
 granular crystalline precipitate. This is cha- 
 racteristic. — 6. No reagent deposits salicin 
 without decomposition. See Salicylic and 
 Salictlous acids. 
 
 SAIiICYL. CjHjO. A compound radical, 
 forming the basis of the sn-cilled SALICIL- 
 C0MP0UND3, or 8ALICYL-6EKIES. It is known 
 only in combination. The volatileoilof meadow- 
 sweet is a natural hydride of salicyl, a sub- 
 stauce which, when artificially prepared, is 
 better known under the name of salictlous 
 ACID. (Stc below.) 
 
 SALICYL'IC ACID. HjCyH^Oa. A peculiar 
 volatile, crystallisable acid, discovered by Piria. 
 It is obtained by fusing salicylous acid with 
 solid hydrate of potassa in slight excess, until 
 the mixture turns white and gas is disengaged, 
 and treating a solution of the residuum with 
 hydrochloric acid, in slight excess to separate 
 the potassa ; the salicylic acid separates in 
 crystals, which are purified by solution in hot 
 water. It may aUo be obtained from the oil 
 1 'Lancet,' March 4tli aail Uth, 1876. 
 
1448 
 
 SALICYLIC ACID 
 
 of partridge-berry {OauUheriaprocumbens), by 
 acting on it with a strong and hot solution of 
 potassa, and afterwards separating the acid as 
 before. Tliis oil is methylo-salieylic ether, or 
 salicylate of methyl. In its general properties, 
 salicylic acid closely resembles benzoic acid. 
 
 The greater part, if not the whole, of the 
 salicylic acid of commerce is now obtained by 
 a method invented by Professor Kolbe. This 
 process, which consists in acting on sodium 
 carbolate with carbonic acid, is thus described 
 in the ' Archiv der Pharm.,' 3rd series, v, 445.' 
 In a strong crude soda liquor of known 
 strength is dissolved a sufiBciency of previously 
 melted cjystals of carbolic acid to saturate the 
 soda. 
 
 The solution is then evaporated in an iron 
 capsule, and by means of stirring brought to a 
 dry powder. The sodium carbolate so ob- 
 tained is gradually heated in a retort to a 
 temperatui e of from 220° to 250 C.°, in a con- 
 tinuous current of dry carbonic anhydride. 
 
 The reaction is ended when at the above- 
 mentioned temperature no more carbolic acid 
 passes over. It might have been expected 
 that, the reaction going forward in this 
 manner, a molecule of carbonic anhydride 
 would have been introduced into the molecule 
 of sodium carbonate, and thus a molecule of 
 sodium salicylate be formed. 
 
 This, however, is not the case, only half 
 the sodium carbolate being converted into 
 salicylate. The reaction proceeds according 
 to the following equation : — 
 
 2NttC6H50 + C0„= Na^CyHA + HC5H5O. 
 
 The disodic salicylate is dissolved in water 
 and decomposed by hydrochloric acid. Sali- 
 cylic acid then separates in crystalline films 
 and may be purified by recrystallisation out of 
 its solution in hot water. 
 
 Props. — Salicylic acid is a white solid which 
 forms acicular crystals j it melts at from 
 155° — 156° 0. ; it dissolves in about 1800 
 parts of cold water, but is more soluble in 
 boiling water as well as in alcohol and in 
 ether. An aqueous solution of salicylic acid 
 mixed with one of a ferric salt produces a deep 
 violet colour. 
 
 Professor Kolbe surmised that from the 
 constitution of salicylic acid, as revealed by 
 his synthetical process, that it would split up 
 with heat into carbonic anhydrate and car- 
 bolic acid, and hence that it might be em- 
 ployed as an antiseptic and antiputrefactive 
 Hgent. He quotes the following experiments 
 as confirmatory of his views on this point : — 
 Mustard meal, which, in a few minutes after 
 being mixed with warm water, gave off a 
 ■strong smell of mustard oil, formed with 
 water a scentless mixture, when a little sali- 
 cylic acid had been previously added. No 
 lermcntation was setup by yeast iu a fer- 
 mentation of grape sugar, to whicn salicylic 
 
 * 'Pharm. Journal,' Srd series, v, 421. 
 
 acid had been added ; whilst in a sugar solu- 
 tion already in fermentation the action stopped 
 after the addition of some salicylic acid. The 
 preservation influence of this acid upon fresh 
 meat is also recorded. 
 
 The following, among other experiments, in 
 their results, illustrate the physiological action 
 of salicylic acid : — 
 
 Solution of amygdalin mixed with emulsion 
 of sweet almonds developed no smell of bitter 
 almonds if some salicylic acid were added. 
 Beer, to which salicylic acid, in the proportion 
 of 1 to 1000, was added, was thereby prevented 
 from being spoiled by fungoid growth. 
 
 Fresh pure cow's milk, mixed with 0'04 per 
 cent, of salicylic acid, and allowed to stand in 
 an open vessel at a temperature of 18° C, 
 curdled thirty-six hours later than a similar 
 quantity of milk standing by the side of it, 
 but containing no salicylic acid. The milk 
 remained of a good flavour, the small quantity 
 of salicylic acid present not being perceptible 
 to the palate. 
 
 Some fresh urine was divided into two por- 
 tions, and placed in separate vessels, after some 
 salicylic acid had been added to one portion. 
 
 The urine containing the acid was on the 
 third day still clear and free from ammoniacal 
 odour, whilst the other portion was far ad- 
 vanced in putrefaction. 
 
 Professor Thiersch has investigated the 
 antiseptic action of this acid, specially in re- 
 lation to surgery. He has found that as a 
 powder, either alone or mixed with starch, it 
 destroys for a long time the fetid odour of 
 cancerous surfaces or uncleansed wounds, 
 without setting up any inflammatory sym- 
 ptoms. A solution of one part of salicylic 
 acid, and three parts of sodium phosphate iu 
 fifty parts of water, promotes the healing of 
 granulated surfaces. 
 
 According to Dr Rudolph Wagner, salicylic 
 acid may be applied to the following indus- 
 trial purposes : — 
 
 If a concentrated aqueous solution of sali- 
 cylic acid be applied to fresh meat, and the 
 meat be then placed in well-closed vessels, it 
 will remain perfectly fresh for a long period. 
 This solution is also very useful in the manu- 
 facture of sausages and such food. Butter 
 containing a bitter salicylic acid will remain 
 fresh for months, even in the hottest weather. 
 The same acid prevents the moulding of pre- 
 served fruits. In the manufacture of vinegar 
 this acid is of great utility. 
 
 The addition of a little salicylic acid renders 
 glue more tenacious. Tiie acid also prevents 
 decomposition in giit and parchment during 
 their manufacture. 
 
 Skins to be used for making leather do not 
 undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute 
 solution of salicylic acid. 
 
 Weaver's or bookbinder's glue and other 
 allied substances may be preserved for a long 
 period by treating them with a solution of this 
 acid. 
 
SALICYLOUS ACID- SALT 
 
 1449 
 
 Atbumen may be preserved by the same 
 menni. 
 
 This acid ia a very delicate test reagent for 
 iron. 
 
 The methyl ether and amyl ether of salicylic 
 acid are used as perrames. The calcinm 
 »Hlt ou keeping and distilling with water 
 yields a liquid which has a strong odour of 
 roses. 
 
 Mr Rother, an American chemist, contends 
 that the antiseptic powen of salicylic acid 
 have been much overrated. He states that 
 he had tried it for the preservation of the 
 syrups of marshmallow, raspberry juice, and 
 milk, and that it was a failure. I'rol'essor 
 Salkowsky regards it as of less value as an 
 antiseptic than benzoic acid. 
 
 Dr Muter gives the following method for 
 estimating the value of commercial samples of 
 salicylic acid, and of detecting it in milk and 
 similar organic solutions: — A standard solu- 
 tion of pure salicylic acid (1 grain of acid 
 dissolved in 1 litre of water, so that 1 c.c. 
 represents 1 ingm. of acid) is prepared ; the 
 indicator solution consists of a solution ot 
 pure neutral ferric chloride, of such a strength 
 that 1 c.c. lidded, drop by drop, to 50 c.c. of 
 standard acid, just ceases to give any increase 
 in intensify of colour; 1 gram of the com- 
 mercial sainpio is then dissolved in 1 litre of 
 water, and 50 c.c. is put into a Nessler tube ; 
 to this 1 c.c. of ferric solution is added, and 
 the colour observed after standing' for live 
 minutia, some of the standard acid is also 
 poured into another tube, and made up to 60 
 c.c. with water, and the 1 c.c of ferric cliloride 
 added. When the colours are alike the amount 
 of pure acid present in the sample is equal to 
 the amount of pure acid added. All mineral 
 acids should be absent, even acetic acid allects 
 the reaction. To detect the presence of sali- 
 cylic acid added to beer or milk, four ounces 
 of these liquids are dinlysed for twelve hours 
 in a pint of distillcil w»ter; if after that time 
 salicylic acid is still found to be present, the 
 dialvsi^ must be continued for foity-eight 
 hours. The amount present is determined in 
 the nianncr iib ive stated. 
 
 SALICYL'OUS ACID. CyHeO,. Syn. Sali- 
 
 CTLOL, HrDHOSALICYLIC ACIDf, HiDRIDE OF 
 BALICTL, AbTIFICIAL OIL OF MBADOW-SWKET. 
 A nearly coluurless, oily, inHiimraable liquid, 
 discovered by Pii^'enstecher in the volatile oil 
 of Spiraa ulmaria (meadow-sweet), which, 
 when pure, entirely consists of it; and by 
 Piria, as a product of the decomposition of 
 salicin. 
 
 Prep. The oil of meadow-sweet is mixed 
 with a strong solution of caustic pota^sa, uud 
 the yellow crystalline muss which separates on 
 iigitatioii is purified by pressure between folds 
 of bibulous paper and reirystallisation from 
 alcohol ; tlie resulting crystals (salicylite of 
 potassium) are then decomposed by the addi- 
 tion of dilute sulphuric acid, the floating oil 
 separated from the water, and freed from 
 
 moisture by careful distillation from chloride 
 of calcium. 
 
 Prop., ^e. Salicylous acid is soluble in ether 
 and alcohol, and slightly so in water, to which 
 it imparts its peculiar fragrance and the cha- 
 racteristic property of striking a deep violet 
 colour with the sesquisalts of iron. It is dis- 
 tinguished from salicylic acid, which also 
 exhibits this reaction, by its liquid form aud 
 odour. 
 
 SAIiI'VA. See Mastication. 
 
 SALM'ON. Syn. Salmo, L. The Salmo 
 Salar (Linn.), a well-known, soft-finned abdo- 
 minal fish, its normal locality is at the mouth 
 or estuary of the larger rivers of the northern 
 seas, which, during the breeding season, it 
 ascends, sooner or later, in the summer months, 
 agiiinst all obstacles, for the purpose of depo- 
 siting its spawn. 
 
 The salmon is an excellent and highly es- 
 teemed fish ; but it is rich, oily, and difficult 
 of digestion, and, therefore, ill adapted to the 
 delicate or dyspeptic. When pickled, salted, 
 or smiiked it is only fitted for persons of very 
 strong stomachs, although in this state it is 
 regarded as a great delicacy by epicures. 
 
 Salmon hos the following composition: — 
 Nitrogenous mutter . . 161 
 
 Fat 6-5 
 
 Saline matter .... 1'4 
 Water . . . . - 77' 
 
 1000 
 
 Salmon is preferably cooked by boiling. One 
 weighing 10 lbs. will require to be gently sim- 
 mered for about an hour, reckoning from the 
 time the water commences boilinir. For fish 
 of other weights, from 6 to 7 minutes per lb. 
 may be allowed. See Fish, &c. 
 
 SAIiOOP'. Sassafras (chips) tea, flavonr'cl 
 with milk iind sugar. A wholesome ami useful 
 drink in cutaneous and rheumatic aliectioiis. 
 See Salep. 
 
 SALT. Syn. Sai, L. ; Sel, Fr. Salts may 
 be regarded us acids in which one or mnre 
 iitoms of hydrogen, a constant constituent of 
 all true acids, are replaced by a metal or other 
 basic radic:il. This relationship between acids 
 and salts will be better understood by reference 
 til the subjoined list of acids and their corre- 
 sponding potassium and ammonium salts : — 
 
 Acids. S.\r,TS. 
 
 HCl (Hydrochloric aciil) — KCl ( Cliloride of potas- 
 sium). 
 „ „ — X H,C1 (Chloride ot ani- 
 
 nioniuml. 
 HKO, (Nitric acid) — K.MJj ( Kitrate ot potas- 
 
 j, „ — KH^NOj (Nitrate of ammo- 
 
 niuui) 
 II2SO4 (Sulphuric acid) — KjSO, 1 Sulphate ot potas- 
 
 BluniK 
 
 ,_ „ — (NH4i.jS0, (Sulphate of am- 
 
 IIIOUIUIU). 
 
 Acids are, in fact, hydrogen s.alts. The so- 
 called Double salts are, according to one 
 
1450 
 
 SALTING— SALTS 
 
 view, combinations of two salts of the same 
 acid, but of diflerent basic radicles ; thus, com- 
 mon alum is a compound of sulpliate of alu- 
 minum and sulphate of potassium. 
 
 The salts are a most important class of 
 bodies, and their applications and uses in the 
 arts of life and civilisation are almost infinite. 
 See Nomenclature, &c. 
 
 Salt of Bark. See Extract of Babe, dried. 
 
 Salt, Bitter Pnr'ging. Epsom salt. 
 
 Salt, Cathar'tic. Of Glatjeee, sulphate of 
 sodium; English or bitter s., sulphate of 
 magnesium (Epsom salt). 
 
 Salt, Common. Syn. CnLiNABT salt. Chlo- 
 ride of sodium. 
 
 Salt, Sluret'ic. Acetate of potassium. 
 
 Salt, Ep'som. Sul|ihate of magnesium. 
 
 Salt, Feb'rifuge. Chloride of potassium. 
 
 Salt, Fu"sible. Phosphate of ammonium. 
 
 Salt, Glauber's. Sulphate of sodium. 
 
 Salt, Macqneer's. Binarseniate of potassium. 
 
 Salt, Ilicrocos'mic. Phosphate of sodium 
 and ammonium. 
 
 Salt, Eed. Common salt wetted with an 
 infusion of beet-root, or cochineal, or tincture 
 of red Sanders wood, then dried, and rubbed 
 through a sieve. Used to impart a colour to 
 gravies, &c. Infusion of saSron also gives a 
 beautiful colour for this purpose. It has been 
 proposed to colour Epsom salt in this way, to 
 distinguish it from oxalic acid. 
 
 Salt, Eochelle. Tartrate of potassium and 
 sodium. 
 
 Salt, Sea. Chloride of sodium. 
 
 Salt, Sed'ative. Boracic acid. 
 
 Salt, Smelling. See Salts (below). 
 
 Salt, Sore-throat. Sal prunella. 
 
 Salt, Tasteless. Phosphate of sodium. 
 
 Salt, Veg'etable. Tartrate of potassium. 
 
 Salt, Tol'atile. Common carbonate of am- 
 monium. 
 
 Salt of Lem'ons. Syn. Sal limonum, L. 
 Citric acid. 'J hat sold in the shops for the 
 removal of ink spots from linen is biiioxalate 
 or quadroxalate of potassium, either alone or 
 mixed with one half its weight of cream of 
 tartar. 
 
 Salt of Sor'rel. Binoxalate or quadroxalate 
 of potassium. 
 
 Salt of Steel. Sulphate of iron. 
 
 Salt of Tar'tar. Carbonate of potassium. 
 
 Salt of Vlt'riol. Sulphate of zinc. 
 
 Salt of Wormwood. Carbonate of potassium. 
 
 SALT'IHG. PiCKLiNQ. Syn. This is an 
 
 easy method of preserving butcher's meat, 
 
 fish, and, indf?ed, most animal substances. It 
 
 is performed iu two ways : — 
 
 1. (Dry salting.) This, as practised in 
 Hampshire, Yorkshire, and in various large 
 establishments elsewhere, consists in merely 
 well rubbing ordinary culinary salt, mixed with 
 a little saltpetre, into the meat, until every 
 crevice is thoroughly penetrated, and, after- 
 wards, sprinkling some over it, and placing it 
 on a board or in a trough, in such a manner 
 that the brine may drain off. On the small 
 
 scale, in private families, a mixture of salt, 
 2 lbs., with saltpetre, 1\ or 2 oz., either with 
 or without about an oz. of good moist sugar, is 
 commonly used for the purpose, and imparts a 
 fine flavour to the me.it. In both cases the 
 pieces are turned every day, or every other 
 day, until sufficiently cured, a little fiesh salt 
 being added as required. Sometimes the fresh 
 meat is packed at once in casks, with the best 
 coarse-grained or bay salt. This method is 
 that commonly adopted for sea stores. 
 
 2. (Wet salting, or pickling in beine.) 
 When the meat is allowed to lie in the liquor 
 that runs from it (see above), or is at ome 
 plunged into strong brine, it is said to be 
 ' pickled,' or ' wet salted.' On the small scale, 
 this is most conveniently performed by rub- 
 bing the fresh meat with salt, &c., as above, 
 and, after it has lain a few hours, putting it 
 into a pickle formed by dissolving about 4 lbs. 
 of good salt and 2 oz. of saltpetre in 1 gall, of 
 water, either with or ivithout the addition of 
 J to 1 lb. of moist sugar. This pickling liquor 
 gets weaker by use, and should, therefore, be 
 occasionally boiled down a little, and skimmed, 
 at the same time adding some more of the 
 dry ingredients. Three to ten days, depend- 
 ing on the size, is sufficiently long to keep 
 meat in the brine. When it is taken out it 
 should be hung up to di'y, after which it may 
 be packed in barrels with coarse-grained salt, 
 or smoked, whichever may be desired. Salt- 
 petre added to brine gives the meat a red colour, 
 and brown sugar improves the flavour. 
 
 The sooner animal substances, more espe- 
 cially flesh, are salted after being killed, the 
 better, as they then possess considerable ab- 
 sorbent power, which they gradually lose by 
 age. See Poteefaction, Scdevy, Smoking, 
 &c. 
 
 SALTPE'TRE. Nitrate of pota.ssium. 
 
 SALTS for producing Factitious Mineral 
 Waters. Aerated, or Carbonate Waters. 
 These require the aid of the powerful machine 
 employed by soda-water manufacturers, to 
 charge the waters strongly with carbouie-acid 
 gas. The gas is made from whiting and di- 
 luted sulphuric acid, and is forced by a pump 
 into the watery solution. Sometimes the gas is 
 produced by the mutual action of the ingre- 
 dients introduced into the bottle of water, 
 which must be instantly closed; but this 
 method is found practically inconvenient, and 
 is only adopted in the absence of proper appa- 
 ratus. The quantity of gas introduced is 
 directed, in the French and American phar- 
 macopoeias, in most cases, to be 5 times the 
 volume of liquid. For chalybeate and sul- 
 phuretted waters the water should be pre- 
 viously deprived of the air it naturally contains, 
 by boiling, and allowing it to cool in a closed 
 vessel. 
 
 There are various manufacturers of aerated- 
 water machines, and of syphon bottles for 
 holding these waters when made. The names 
 
SALTS 
 
 1451 
 
 and addressea of these makers may be found 
 ia any trade directory. 
 
 SiMPLB Aebated Watbb. Carbonic-ttcid 
 gu water. Water charged with fire or more 
 volami-s of carhonio-acid gas, as above. 
 
 Alkaline Aebated Watebs. Aerated aoda 
 and potash waters should be made by dissolv- 
 ing a draclim of the carbonated alkali in each 
 pint of water, and charging it strongly with 
 carbonic-acid gas. Tlie soda water of the 
 shops generally contains bat little (or no) 
 toda. 
 
 Aerated Maonesia Water. This is made 
 of various strefigths. 
 
 Mdrbay's and Dinnefoed's Fluid Mag- 
 NSBIA may bo thus made: — To a boiling solu- 
 tion of 16 oz. of sulphate of magnesia in 6 
 pints of water add a solution of 19 oz. of crys- 
 tallised carbonate of soda in the same quantity 
 of water ; boil the mixture till gas cease-* to 
 escape, stirring constantly ; then set it aside 
 to settle ; pour off the liquid, and wash the 
 precipitate on a cotton or linen cloth, with 
 warm water, till the latter passes tasteless. 
 Mix the precipitate, without drying it, with a 
 gallon of water, and force carbonic-acid gas 
 into it under strong pressure, till a complete 
 solution is etfected. The Sau Mugnesienne 
 of the French codex is about a third of this 
 strength ; and we have met with some pre- 
 p:ir< d in this country not much stronger. 
 
 Cabbonated Lime Watbb. Osrrura water. 
 Lime water (prepared from lime made by chI- 
 cining Currara marble) is supersaturated by 
 strong pressure with carbonic acid, so that 
 the carbonate of lime at first thrown down is 
 redissolveil. It contains 8 gr. of carbonate of 
 lime in 10 11. oz. of water. 
 
 Aebated Lithia Watbe. This may be 
 conveniently made from the fresh precipitated 
 carbonate, dissolved in carbonated water, as 
 directed for fluid magnesia. Its antacid and 
 antilithic properties promise to be useful. 
 
 Saline Cabbonated WATBBa. 
 
 The following afford approximate imitations 
 of these waters. The earthy salts, with the 
 salts of iron, should be dissolved together in 
 the smiillest quantity of wiiter. The other in- 
 gredients to be dissolved in the larger portion 
 of the wuter, and the solution impregnated 
 with the gas. The first solution may be then 
 added or be previously introduced into the 
 b'lttles. The salts, unless otherwise stated, 
 are to be crystallised. 
 
 Baden Wateb. Chloride of magnesium, 
 2 gr. ; chloride of calcium, 40 gr. ; perchloride 
 of iron, \ gr. (or 3 minims of the tincture); 
 ehloriile of sodium, 30 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 
 10 gr. i carbonate of soda, 1 gr. ; water, 1 pint; 
 carbunic-acid ^'as, 5 volumes. 
 
 Cablsbad Wateb. Chloride of calcium, 
 8pr. J tincture of chloride of iron, 1 drop; 
 sulphate of soda, 60 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 
 GO gr. ; chloride of sodium, 8 gr. ; c.irbonated 
 water, 1 piut. 
 
 Eseb. Carbonate of soda, 5 gr. ; sulphate 
 of sodii, 4 scruples j chloride of sodium, 10 gr. ; 
 sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr. ; chloride of cal- 
 cium, 5 gr. ; carbonated water, 1 piut. (Or it 
 may be made without apparatua, thus : — ^Bi- 
 carbonate of aoda, 30 gr. ; chloride of sodium, 
 8 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 8 gr. ; water, a 
 pint; dissolve, and add a scruple of dry 
 bisulphate of soda, and close the bottle imme- 
 diately.) 
 
 Eua. Carbonate of soda, 2 scruples; sul- 
 phate of potash, 1 gr. ; sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, 5 gr. ; chloride of sodium, 10 gr. ; 
 chloride of calcium, 3 gr.; carbonated water, a 
 pint. 
 
 Mabiendad. Carbonate of soda, 2 scru- 
 ples; sulphate of soda, 96 gr. ; sulphate of 
 magnesia, 8 gr. ; chloride of sodium, 15 gr. ; 
 chloride of calcium, 10 gr. ; carbonated water, 
 a pint. (Or, bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr. ; sul- 
 phate of soda, I dr.; chlorideof sodium, 15 gr.; 
 sulphate of miignesia, 10 gr. ; dissolve in a pint 
 of water, add 25 gr. of dry bisulphate of soda, 
 and cork immediately.) 
 
 Mabienbad PcBaiNa Salts. Bicarbonatf 
 of soda, 5 oz. ; dried sulphate of soda, 12 oz. ; 
 dry chloride of sodium, li oz. ; sulphate of 
 magnesia, dried, 2 oz. ; dried bisulphate of 
 soda, 2^ oz. Mix the salts, previously dried, 
 separately, and keep them carefully from the 
 air. 
 
 PuLLNA Wateb. Sulphate of soda, 4 dr. ; 
 sulphate of magnesia, 4 dr.; chloride of cal- 
 cium, 15 gr. ; chloride of magnesium (dry), n 
 scruple ; chloride of sodium, a scruple ; bicar- 
 bonate of soda, 10 gr. ; water, slightly car- 
 bonated, 1 pint. One of the most active of 
 the purgative saline waters. 
 
 PuLLNA Wateb without the Machine. 
 Bicarbonate of soda, 50 gr. ; sulphate of ma^.;- 
 nesia, 1 dr. ; sulphate of sodii, 3 dr. ; chloride 
 of sodium, a scruple ; dissolve in a pint of 
 water ; add, lastly, 2 scruples of bisulphate of 
 sod'i, and clo-ie the bottle immedi.itely. 
 
 Salts foe making Pdllna Water. Dry 
 bicarboniite of soda, 1 oz. ; exsiccated sulphate 
 of soda, 2 nz. ; exsiccated sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, li oz.; dry chloride of sodium. 2 dr.; 
 dry tartaric acid, J oz. (or rather dry bisulphate 
 of soda, 1 oz.). 
 
 Seidlitz Wateb. This is usually imitated 
 by strongly aerating a solution of 2 dr. of sul- 
 phate of magnesia in a pint of water. It is 
 also made with 4, 6, and 8 dr. of the salts to a 
 pint of water. 
 
 Seidlitz Powder. The common seidlitz 
 powders do not resemble the water. A closer 
 imitation would be made by using effloresced 
 sulphate of magnesia instead of the potassio- 
 tartrate of soda. A still more exact compound 
 will be the following : — Effloresced sulphate of 
 m-.ignesia, 2 oz. ; bicarbonate of soda, \ oz. ; 
 dry bisulphate of soda, i oz. ; mix, and keep 
 iu a close bottle. 
 
 Seidschutz Watee. Sulphate of masr- 
 uesia, 3 dr.; chloride of calcium, nitrate <'f 
 
1452 
 
 SALTS 
 
 lime, bicarbonate of soda, of each 8 gr. j sul- 
 phate of potash, 5 gr. ; aerated water, 1 
 pint. 
 
 Seltzee Wateb. Chloride of calcium and 
 chloride of magnesium, of each 4 gr. j dissolve 
 these in a small quantity of water, and add it 
 to a similar solution of 8 gr. of bicarbonate of 
 soda, 20 gr. of chloride sodium, and 2 gr. of 
 phosphate of soda; mix, and add a solution of 
 i gr. of sulphate of iron ; put the mixed solu- 
 tion into a 20-oz. bottle, and fill up with 
 aerated water. Much of the Seltzer water 
 sold is said to be nothing more than simple 
 carbonated water, containing a little chloride 
 of sodium. An imitation of Seltzer water is 
 also made by putting into a stone Seltzer 
 bottle, filled with water, 2 dr. bicarbonate of 
 soda, and 2 dr. of citric acid in crystals, cork- 
 ing the bottle immediately. Sodaic powders 
 are sometimes sold as Seltzer powders. 
 
 Vichy Water. Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; 
 chloride of sodium, 2 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 
 8 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 3 gr. ; tincture 
 of chloride of iron, 2 drops ; aerated water, 
 a pint. Dorvault directs 75 gr. of bicar- 
 bonate of soda, 4 gr. of chloride of sodium, 
 ^ gr. sulphate of iron, 10 gr. sulphate of soda, 
 3 gr. sulphate of magnesia, to a pint of water. 
 By adding 45 gr. (or less) of citric acid, an 
 effervescing water is obtained. 
 
 M. Soubeiran, relying on the analysis of 
 Ijongchamps, imitates Vichy water by the fol- 
 lowing combination: — Bicarbonate of soda, 
 135 gr. J chloride of sodium, 2i gr. ; cryst. 
 ciiloride of calcium, 12 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 
 1 1 4 gr. ; sulphate of magnesia, 3 J gr. ; tartrate 
 of iron and potash, ^ gr. ; water, 2-^ pints (1 
 litre) ; carbonic acid, 305 cub. inches (5 litres). 
 Dissolve the salts of soda and iron in part of 
 the water, and add the sulph. magnes. and 
 then the chlor. calc. in the remaining water. 
 Cliarge now with the carbonic-acid gas under 
 pressure. 
 
 Vichy Salts. Bicarbonate of soda, IJ oz.; 
 chloride of sodium, 15gr. ; effloresced sulphate 
 of soda, 1 dr. ; effloresced sulphate of mag- 
 nesia, 1 scruple ; dry tartarised potash and 
 iron, 1 gr. ; dry tartaric acid, 1 oz. (or dry 
 bisulphate of soda) ; mix the powders, pre- 
 viously dried, and keep them in a close 
 bottle. 
 
 Saline Watees, &c., not Caebonated. 
 
 Sea Watee. Chloride of sodium, 4 oz. ; 
 sulphate of sorla, 2 oz. ; chloride of calcium, 
 J oz. ; chloride of magnesium, 1 oz. ; iodide of 
 potassium, 4 gr. ; bromide of potassium, 2 gr. ; 
 water, a gallon. A common substitute for sea 
 water as a bath is made by dissolving 4 or 5 
 oz. of common salt in a gallon of water. 
 
 The following mixture of dry salts may be 
 kept for the immediate production of a good 
 imitation of sea water : — Chloride of sodium 
 (that obtained from evaporating sea water, 
 and not recrystallised, in preference), 85 oz. ; 
 effloresced sulphate of soda, 15 oz. ; dry 
 
 chloride of calcium, 4 oz. ; dry chloride of 
 magnesium, 16 oz. ; iodide of potassium, 
 2 dr. ; bromide of potassium, 1 gr. Mix, 
 and keep dry. Put 4 or 5 oz. to a gallon of 
 water. 
 
 Balaeito Watee. Chloride of sodium, 1 
 oz.; chloride of calcium, 1 oz.; chloride of 
 magnesium, i oz. ; sulphate of soda, 3 dr. ; 
 bicarbonate of soda, 2 dr. ; bromide of potas- 
 sium, 1 gr. ; water, a gallon. Chiefly used for 
 baths. 
 
 SuLPHtrBBTTED WATEBS. 
 
 Simple Sclphubbtted Watees. Pass sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen into cold water (pre- 
 viously deprived of air by boiling, a[id 
 cooled in a closed vessel) till it ceases to be 
 absorbed. 
 
 Aix-la-Chapelle Wateb. Bicarbonate of 
 soda, 12 gr. ; chloride of sodium, 25 gr. ; 
 chloride of calcium, 3 gr. ; sulphate of soda, 
 8 gr. ; simple sulphuretted water, 2 J oz. ; 
 water, slightly carbonated, 17^ oz. 
 
 Babeoes Watee. (Cauterets, Bagn^resde 
 Luchon, Eaux Bonnes, St Sauveur, may be 
 made the same.) Crystallised hydrosulphate 
 of soda, crystallised carbonate of soda, and 
 chloride of sodium, of each li gr. ; water 
 (freed from air), a pint. A stronger solu- 
 tion for adding to baths is thus made: — 
 Crystallised hydrosulphate of soda, crystal- 
 lised carbonate of soda, and chloride of sodium, 
 of each 2 oz. ; water, 10 oz. ; dissolve. To 
 be added to a common bath at the time of 
 using. 
 
 Naples Wateb. Crystallised carbonate of 
 soda, 15 gr. ; fluid magnesia, 1 oz. ; simple 
 sulphuretted water, 2 oz. ; aerated water, 
 16 oz. Introduce the siilphuretted water 
 into the bottle last. 
 
 Haeeooate Watee. Chloride of sodium, 
 100 gr. ; chloride of calcium, 10 gr. ; chloride 
 of magnesium, 6 gr. ; bicarbonate of soda, 
 2 gr. ; water, 18^ oz. Dissolve, and add 
 simple sulphuretted water, 1^ oz. 
 
 Chalybeate Watees. 
 
 Simple Chalybeate Watee. Water freed 
 from air by boiling, 1 pint; sulphate ol iron, 
 i gr- 
 
 Aeeated Chalybeate Watee. Sulphate 
 of iron, 1 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 4 gr. ; water 
 (deprived of air and charged with carbonic- 
 acid gas), a pint. Dr Pereira recommends 
 10 gr. each of sulphate of iron and bicarbonate 
 of soda to be taken in a bottle of ordinary 
 soda water. This is equivalent to 4 gr. of 
 carbonate of iron. 
 
 Beighton Chalybeate. Sulphate of iron, 
 chloride of sodium, chloride of calcium, of 
 each 2 gr. ; carbonate of soda, 3 gr. ; car- 
 bonated water, 1 pint. 
 
 _ BrssANO, Forges, Peovinb, and other 
 similar waters, may be imitated by dissolving 
 from i to grds of a grain of sulphate of iron, 
 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of soda, 1 gr. of sul- 
 
SALTS— SANDAL WOOD 
 
 1453 
 
 pbate of magnesia, and 1 of chloride of sodium, 
 in n pint of aerated water. 
 
 Mont i>'Ob Watbb. Bicarbonate of soda, 
 70 t'r. ; anlphate of iron, j gr. ; cliloride of so- 
 dium, 12 gr.; sulphate of sodii, i gr. ; uliloride 
 of culcium, 4 gr. ; chloride of magnesium, 
 2 gr. ; aerated water, a pint. 
 
 Pasbt Watbb. Sulphate of iron, 2 gr.; 
 cliloride of sodium, 3 gr. ; carbonate of sod.i, 
 4gr. ; cliloride of magnesium, 2 gr. ; aerated 
 water, a pint. 
 
 PrBMONT Wateb. Sulphate of magnesia, 
 20 gr. ; chloride of magnesium, 4 gr. j chlo- 
 ridu of sodium, 2 gr. ; bicarbonate of soda, 
 16 u'r. ; sulphate- of iion, 2 gr. ; Carrara water, 
 n pint. 
 
 Vabious Aebated Mediofnal Watees not 
 
 EKSBKBLINO ANY NaTUEAL SpEIN&. 
 
 Mialue'b Abbated Chalybeate Wateb. 
 Water, a pint; citric acid, 1 dr.; citrate of 
 iron, 15 gr. ; dissolve, and add 75 gr. of 
 bicarbonate of soda, 
 
 Teosseac's Mautial Aebatbb Watee. 
 Potassio. tartrate of iron, 10 gr. ; artiduinl 
 Seltzer water, a pint. 
 
 BoCCHAEDAT'sGAaKOUS P0BOATIVE. PllOS- 
 phate of soda, IJ oz.; carbonated water, a 
 pint. 
 
 Mialhe's Iodubetted Gaseous Watbb. 
 Iodide of potassium, 15 gr. ; bicarbonate of 
 soda, 75 gr. ; water, a pint ; dissolve and add 
 sulphuric acid, diluted with its weight of 
 water, 75 gr. Cork immediately. 
 
 Dupasqpieb's Gaseous Wateb of Iodide 
 OF luoN. Solution of iodide of iron ^contain- 
 ing T'„th of dry iodide), 30 gr. ; syrup ofgum, 
 2i 0/.. ; aerated water, 17i oz. 
 
 SALTS (Smelling). Si/n. Sal volatilis 
 OLKosus, L. Sesquicarbonate of ammonia 
 commonly passes under the name of ' smelling 
 salts,' and, with the addition of a few drops 
 of (■s>(utial oil, is I'requently employed to fill 
 ' SMELLING bottles ;' but when a strong and 
 durable pungency is desired, the caibonate 
 should alone be used, as in oue or other of the 
 lolloning formula): — 
 
 1. Carbonate (not sesquicnrbonate) of am- 
 monia, 1 lb. ; oil of lavender (Mitcham), 2 oz. ; 
 essence of bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of cloves, i oz. ; 
 nib them tii).'erlit'i-, and sublime; teep the 
 prodiiit in well-stopped bottles. 
 
 2. Carbonate of ammonia, 1 lb. ; oil of laven- 
 der, 2 oz. ; oils of bergamot and lemon, of each 
 1 oz. ; as the lust. 
 
 3. Carbonate of ammonia, i lb. ; essence of 
 bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of verbena, i oz. ; otto of 
 roses, 1 dr. ; as before. 
 
 4. Cirbonate of ammonia, } lb.; essences of 
 bersainot and lemoti, of each J oz. j essence 
 de petit grain, i oz.; oil of cloves, 1 dr.; as 
 before. 
 
 5. (Extemporaneous.) — o. From sal ammo- 
 niac, 1 dr.; pure potassa, 3 dr.; grind them 
 t >i:other, and add, of esuence of lemons, 15 
 drops; oil of cloves, 3 or 4 drops. — 4. Prom 
 
 carbonate or sesqaicarbonate of ammonia 
 (bruised), q, s. ; volatile ammoniacal essence, a 
 few drops. 
 
 According to Dr P.iri«, Godfbet's Smell- 
 ing Salts arc made by resuhliming volatile 
 salt with subcarbonate of potassa aud a little 
 spirits of wine (and essential oil). 
 
 SALVE. A name indiscriminately applied 
 by the vulgar to any consistent, greasy prepa- 
 ration used in medicine. 
 
 Salve, Lip-. S^n. Cbbatum labiale, L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Red or Peeutian.) Prom sper- 
 maceti ointment, i lb. ; alkanet root, i oz. ; 
 melt them together until su6Bciently coloured, 
 strain, and, when the strained fat has cooled 
 a little, add of balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; stir 
 well, and in a few minutes pour off the clear 
 portion from the dregs ; lastly, stir in of oil 
 of cloves, 20 or 30 drops. This never gets 
 rancid. 
 
 2. (Rose.) See Ceeate. 
 
 3. (White.) From the finest spermaceti 
 ointment or cerate, 3 oz. ; finely powdered 
 white sugar, 1 oz. ; neroli or essence de petit 
 grain, 10 or 12 drops, or q. s. 
 
 Obs, Numerous formulae are extant for 
 lip-salves, as for other like articles, but the 
 preceding are those generally employed in 
 trade. The perfumes may be varied at will, 
 and the salve named after them. A very 
 small quantity of finely powdered borax is 
 occasionally added. Feench lipsalvu is 
 said to contain alum, in fine powder; and 
 Gebman lip-salve is said to be made of cacao 
 butter. See Ceeate, Pojimade, and Oint- 
 ment. 
 
 SAND. Si/n. Abena, L. River and sea 
 sand consist chiefly of finely divided siliceous 
 matter, mixed, occasionally, with carbonate of 
 lime. That of Lynn and Alum Bay is nearly 
 purely silica, and is, therefore, select e I for the 
 luanufacture of glass. Sand is used by mould- 
 ers in metal, and as a manure for heavy land. 
 It is a large and necessary portion of every 
 fertile ^oil. 
 
 SAND PAPEE. The • American Bidder' 
 gives the follovviuLT process for nmkiiig ^and- 
 paper of superior quality, at almost nominal 
 cost: 
 
 " The device for making sand-paper is 
 simple and at hand to any one who has occa- 
 sion to use the paper. A quantity of ordinary 
 window glass i~ taken (that having a green 
 co'our is said to be the best) and pounded fine, 
 after which it is passed throngli one or more 
 sieves of difEeient degrees of fineness, to se- 
 cure the glass for coarse or fine paper. Then 
 any tough paper is covered evenly with glue, 
 having about one third more water than is 
 generally employed for wooti work. The 
 glass is sifted upon the paper, allowed a day 
 or two in which to become fixed in the g ue, 
 when the refuse glue is shaken oif, and the 
 paper is fit for use." 
 
 SAN'DAL WOOD. 1. (Red sandees wood, 
 
 R. SAUNDEES W.; LiGNCM SANTALI BUBBI, 
 
1454 
 
 SANDARACH— SANITARY AUTHORITIES 
 
 Lignum santaliitpm bubbum, Ptebooaepus 
 — Ph. L. & E.) The wood of Pterocarpus 
 santalinus. It is used in medicine as a colour- 
 ing matter. It is also employed in dyeing, 
 and to stiiiu varni-hes. Wool, may be dyed a 
 carmine red by dipping it alternately into an 
 infusion of tliis wood and an acidulous bath. 
 (Trommsdortf.) Prepared with a mordant of 
 alum and tartar, and then dyed in a bath of 
 sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish- 
 yellow. (Bancroft.) See Santalin. 
 
 2. (White sandal wood, White sandees ; 
 Santalum album.) The young timbfr, or, 
 according to others, the outsi'ie wood of San- 
 talum album. (Linn.) 
 
 3. (Yellow sandal wood ; Santalum 
 CITEINUM, S. PLATUM.) Tile old timber, or, 
 according to others, the heart of the same 
 tree. Both the latter are much esteemed on 
 account of their (ragranee, and yield a valuable 
 essential oil. 
 
 SAN'DAKACH. Syn. Sandbao, Gums. A 
 resin obtained from Tkuja artieulata, and 
 Juniperus communis (in warm climates). It is 
 slightly frasirant, is freely soluble in rectified 
 spirit, and has a sp. gr. ot 1'05 to 1'09. It is 
 used as incense, pounce, in varnishes, &c. 
 
 SAN'DERS WOOD. See Sandal Wood. 
 
 SAH'DIVER. Syn. Glass gall ; Fell 
 TlTBi, Sal vitui, L. The saline scum that 
 swims on glass when first made. It is occa- 
 sionally used in tooth powders. 
 
 SANGTTINA'RIlfE. Sj/n. Sanguinabina,L. 
 Obtained from the root of Sanguinaria Cana- 
 densis (Linn.), or blood-root, by digesting it in 
 anhvdnius alcohol; exhausiing it with weak 
 sulphuric acid ; precipitating by liquor of am- 
 monia ; dissolving out by ether, and precipi- 
 tating sulphate of eanguinarine by the addition 
 of sulphuric acid. The sulphate may be de- 
 composed by ninmonia, which precipitates the 
 alkaloid as a white pearly substance, of an 
 acrid taste, very soluble in alcohol, also soluble 
 in ether and volatile oils. Wilhacids it forms 
 soluble salts, remarkable fortheir beautiful red, 
 crimson, and scarlet colours. These salts are 
 used in medicine as expectorants, in doses of 
 fractions of a grain. 
 
 The '.saiiguinarin ' of the American 'Eclec- 
 tics' is prepared by precipitating a saturaled 
 tincture of blood-root by water. It contains 
 an uncertain proportion of the alkaloid, and is 
 of a deep reddish-brown colour. See Resin- 
 OIDS. 
 
 SANITARY AUTHORITIES AND SANI- 
 TARY DISTRICTS. With the exception of 
 the metropolis, the whole of Englaud and Ire- 
 land is divided into urban and rural sanitary 
 districts, which are respectively governed by 
 urban and rural authorities. 
 
 The Public Health Act (sec. 6) thus defines 
 an urban distiict, and ah urban authority in 
 England : — 
 
 Urban Districts. 
 
 Borough constituted such either be- 
 fore or afcei' the passing; of tins Act, 
 
 Improvement act district, constituted 
 Bucli liefoi'e the passing of the Pub- 
 lic Health Act, 1872, and having no 
 Eart of its area situated witliin a 
 orough or local government dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Local government district constituted 
 such either before or after the pas- 
 sing ot this Act, having no p»rt ot' 
 its area situated within a borough, 
 and not coincident in area with a 
 borough or improvement act dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Vriian Authority. 
 
 The mayor, alder- 
 men, and bur- 
 gesses, acting 
 by the council. 
 
 The improvement 
 cumiuissionei'S. 
 
 The local board. 
 
 Provided that — 
 
 1. Any borough the whole of which is in- 
 cluded in and forms part of a local govern- 
 ment district or improvement act district, and 
 any improvement act district which is included 
 in and forms part of a local government dis- 
 trict, and any local government district which 
 is included in and forms part of an improve- 
 ment acl^ district, ^hall, for the purposes of tliis 
 Act, be deemed to be absorbed in the larger 
 district in which it i"* included, or of which it 
 forms part; and the Improvement commis- 
 sioners, or local board, as the case may be, of 
 such larger district, shall be the urban autho- 
 rity therein; and 
 
 2. Where an improvement act district is 
 coincident in area with a local government 
 district, the improvement commissioners, and 
 not a local board, shall be the urban authority 
 there ; and 
 
 3. Where any part of an improvement act 
 district is situated within ^ borough or local 
 act district, or where any part of a local go- 
 vernment district is situated within a borough, 
 the remainins part of such improvement act 
 district or of such local government district 
 so partly situated within a borough, shall for 
 the purposes of this Act continue subject to 
 the like jurisdiction as it would have been 
 sub.iect to if this Act had not been passed, 
 unless and until the Local Government Board 
 by provisional order otherwise" directs. 
 
 For the purposes of the Public Health Act, 
 the boroughs of Oxford, Cambridge, Blandford, 
 Oalnc, Wenlock, Folkestone, and Newport, 
 [sle of Wight, are not to be deemed boroughs. 
 
 The borough of Cambridge is to be deemed 
 an improvement act district, the borough of 
 Oxford is to be included in the local govern- 
 ment district of Oxford, and there is a special 
 provision in the case of the borough of Folke- 
 stone. 
 
 An English rural sanitary district and au- 
 thority are thus defined by the Public Health 
 Act (see. 9) :— 
 
 " The area of any union which is not coin- 
 cident in area with an urban district, nor 
 wholly included in an urban district (in this 
 
SANITARY AUTHORITIKS 
 
 11^55 
 
 •ectlon cnlled a rural anion), with the excep- 
 tion of those (lortions (if nny) of the area 
 which are included in ony urban diatrict, shall 
 be a rurni district, and the guardians of the 
 union shiill form the rural authority of such 
 district, provided tliat — 
 
 " 1. An ex officio guardian resident in any 
 parish or part of a parish belonging to such 
 union, wliich parish or part of a parish forms 
 or is situated in an urban district, shall not 
 act or vote in any case in which guardians of 
 ttuch union act or vote as members of the rural 
 BUtliority, unless he is the owner or occupier 
 of property situated in tlie rural district of a 
 value sufficient to qualify him as an elective 
 guardian for the union. 
 
 " 2. An elective guardian of any parish be- 
 longing to suih union, and forming or being 
 included within an urban district, shall not act 
 or vote in any case in which guardians of sucli 
 union act or vote as members of the rur.il 
 authority. 
 
 " 3. Where part of a parish belonging to a 
 rural union forms or is situiited in an urban 
 district, the Local Government Hoard may by 
 order divide such parish into separate wards, 
 and determine tlie number of guardians to be 
 elected by such wards respectively, iu such 
 luanner as to provide for the due represen- 
 tation of the part of the parish situated witldn 
 tlic rur.il district ; but until such order has 
 been made, the gmirdian or guardians of such 
 parish may act and vote as members of the 
 rural antliDiity in the same manner as if no 
 part of sucli parish formed part of, or was 
 situated iu, the urban district." 
 
 Where the number of elective gu:irdians, 
 who are not by this section disqualified from 
 acting and voting ns members of the rural 
 authority, is less than five, the Local Govern- 
 ment Board nuiy from time to time by order 
 nominate such number of persons as may be 
 necessary to make up that number, from 
 owners iir occupiers of property situated in tlie 
 rural district of a value sufficient to qualify 
 them lis elective (luardians for the union ; and 
 the persons so nominated shall be entitled to 
 act and vote as members of the rural authority, 
 but not furtiier or otherwise. 
 
 Sulyect to the provisions of this Act, all 
 statutes, orders, and legal provisions applicable 
 to aiiy board of guardians shall apply to them 
 in their capacity of rural authority under this 
 Act for tlie purposes of this Act ; and it is 
 hereby declared that the rural authority are 
 the same body as the guardians of the union 
 or pari-h for or witliin which such authority 
 act. 
 
 Siiiiitiry districts in Ireland are: — The City 
 of Dublin, other corporate towns above 6000, 
 and towns or townships having commissioners 
 under local Acts. 
 
 And urban authorities are: — 
 
 In the City of Dublin, the Right Hon. the 
 Lord .Mayor, Aldermen, and Burgesses acting 
 bv the town couucil. 
 
 In towns corporate, the town council. 
 _ In towns exceeding 6000, having commis- 
 sioners under the Lighting, Cleaning, nnd 
 Watching Act of George IV j or having muni- 
 cipal commissioners under 3 and 4 Vict, c. 
 108; or town commissiouers under tlie Towns 
 Improvement (Ireland) Act (17 and 18 Vict., 
 c. 103), the said commissioners, municipal, or 
 town councillors respectively. 
 
 In towns or townships having commissioners 
 under local Acts, the town or township com- 
 missioners (37 and 38 Vict. c. 98, s. 3). 
 
 Tlie Irish rural sanitary districts and 
 authorities are exactly analogous to the 
 English. 
 
 In Scotland, sanitary powers are exercised 
 by town councils, police commissioners, and 
 parochial boards, controlled and supervised 
 by a board of supervision ; but the names of 
 nrban nnd rural sanitary authorities have not 
 yet been applied to tliem. 
 
 Under the Eniilish Public Health Act, there 
 may also be formed united districts; for 
 example; 
 
 Where, on the application of any local 
 authority of any district, it appears to the 
 Local Government Board that it would be for 
 the advantage of the districts, or any of them, 
 or any parts thereof, or of any contributory 
 places, in any rural district or district-, to be 
 formed into a united district for all or any 
 of the purposes following : — 
 
 1. The procuring a common supply of 
 water ; or 
 
 2. The making a main sewer, or carrying 
 into effect a system of sewerage for the use of 
 all such districts, or contributory places ; or 
 
 3. For any other purposes of tliis Act, the 
 Local Government Board may, by provisional 
 order, form such districts or coutributory 
 places into a united district. 
 
 All costs, charges, and expenses of and inci- 
 dental to the formation of a united district 
 are, in the event of the united district being 
 formed, to be a first charge on the rates levi- 
 able in the united district in pursuance sec- 
 tion 279 of the Public Health Act. 
 
 Notice of the provisional onler must be 
 made public in the locality ; and should the 
 union be carried out, the incidental expenses 
 thereto are a first charge on the sanitary rates 
 of the united district. A united district is 
 governed by a joint board consisting of such 
 ex officio^ and of such number of elective 
 members as the provisional order determines. 
 
 The business arrangements of the joint 
 board differ little from those of a sanitary 
 authority. 
 
 The joint board is a body corporate having 
 a name — determined by the provisional order 
 — a perpetual succession, and a common seal, 
 and having power to acquire and hold lands 
 without any licence in mortmain. The joint 
 board has only business and power in matters 
 for which it has been formed. With the ex- 
 ception of these special objects, the component 
 
1456 
 
 SANITARY AUTHOKITIES 
 
 districts continue as before to exercise inde- 
 pendent powers. 
 
 Nevertheless, the joint boai-d may delegate 
 to the sanitary authority of any component 
 district the exercise of any of its powers, or 
 the performance of any of its duties (Public 
 Health Act, sec. 281). 
 
 Sanitary authorities and districts may be 
 also combined for the execution and mainte- 
 nance of works, for the prevention of epidemic 
 diseases, as well as for the purpose of appoint- 
 ing a medical officer of health. Districts 
 when once formed are not fixed and unvariable, 
 the Local Government Board having the most 
 extensive powers over the alterations of areas. 
 
 1. The Local Government Board, by provi- 
 sional order, may dissolve any local govern- 
 ment district, and may merge any such dis- 
 trict in some other district, or may declare 
 the whole or any portion of a local government 
 or a rural district immediately adjoining a 
 local government district to be included in 
 such last mentioned district, or may declare any 
 portion of a local government district imme- 
 diately adjoining a rural district to be included 
 in such last-mentioned district; and thereupon 
 the included area shall, for the purposes of the 
 Public Health Act, be deemed to form part of 
 the district in which it is included iu such 
 order; and the remaining part (if any) of 
 such local government district or rural district 
 affected by such order, shall continue shbject 
 to tlie lilie jurisdiction as it would have been 
 subject to if such order had not been made, un- 
 less and until the Local Government Board by 
 provisional order otherwise directs, 
 
 2. In the case of a borough comprising 
 within its area the whole of an improvement 
 act district, or having an area coextensive 
 with such district, the Local Government 
 Board, by provisional order, may di.-solve such 
 district; and transfer to the council of the 
 borough, all or any of the jurisdiction and 
 powers of the improvement commissioners of 
 such district, remaining vested in them at 
 the time of the passing of the Public Health 
 Act. 
 
 3. The Local Government Board may, by 
 order, dissolve any special drainage district 
 constituted either before or after the passing 
 of the Public Health Act in which a loan for 
 the execution of worlts has not been raised, and 
 merge it into the parish or parishes in which 
 it is situated ; but in tlie cases where a loan 
 has been raised the Local Government Board 
 can only do tins by provisional order (Public 
 Health Act, sec. 271). 
 
 Disputes with regard to the boundaries of 
 districts are to be settled by the Local Govern- 
 ment Board after local inquiry (Public 
 Health Act, sec. 278). 
 
 Wliere districts aUo are constituted for the 
 purposes of main sewerage only, in pursuance 
 of the Public Health Act of 1848, or where a 
 district has been formed subject to the juris- 
 diction of a joint sewarage board, in pursuance 
 
 of the Sewage Utilisation Act of 1867, such 
 districts or district may be dissolved by pro- 
 visional order, and the Local Government 
 Board may constitute it a united district, sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction of a joint board (Pub- 
 lic Health Act, sec. 823). 
 
 The Local Government Board may also de- 
 clare by provisional order any rural district to 
 l^e a local government district. 
 
 The Local Government Board has also the 
 important power of investing a rural authority 
 with urban powers as follows : 
 
 " The Local Government Board may, on the 
 application of the authority of any rural dis- 
 trict, or of persons rated to the relief of the 
 poor, the assessment of whose hereditaments 
 amounts at the least to one tenth of the net 
 rateable value of such district, or of any con- 
 tributory place therein, by order to be pub- 
 lished in the 'London Gazette,' or in such other 
 manner as the Local Government Board may 
 direct, declare any provisions of this Act in 
 force in urban districts to be in force in such 
 rural district or contributory place, and may 
 invest such authority with all or any of the 
 powers, rights, duties, capacities, liabilities, 
 and obligations of an urban authority under 
 this Act, and such investment may be made 
 either unconditionally or subject to any con- 
 ditions to be specified by the board as to the 
 time, portion of its district, or manner during, 
 at, and in which such powers, rights, duties, 
 liabilities, capacities, and obligations are to be 
 exercised and attach, provided that an order 
 of the Local Government Board made on the 
 application of one tenth of the persons rated 
 to the relief of the poor in any contributory 
 place shall not invest the rural authority with 
 any new powers beyond the limits of such 
 contributory places " (Public Health Act, 
 sec. 276). 
 
 Powers and Duties of Sanitary Authorities. 
 In England urban sanitary authorities have 
 very extensive powers and duties under the 
 Public Health Act of 1875, and in addition 
 they have to carry out the Bakehouse Kegn- 
 bition Act, and the Artisans and Labourers' 
 Divellinfjs Attt. They also have power to adopt 
 the B.iths and Wash-houses Acts, and the 
 Labouring Classes' Lodging Houses Acts; but 
 where adopted or in force, the powers, rights, 
 duties, &c., of these Acts belong to the urban 
 authority. The powers of any local act for 
 sanitary purposes (except a Eiver Conservancy 
 Act) are transferred to the urban authority. 
 
 The powers of an English rural authority 
 are exercised principally under the Public 
 Health Act, but they have also to carry 
 out the Bakehouse Regulation Act. 
 
 The powers given by the Irish Public Health 
 Act to Irish Sanitary Authorities are similar. 
 
 The Local Government Act is not in force 
 there, and equal powers are given without dis- 
 tinction to urban and rural sanitary autho- 
 rities. 
 
 The duties of sanitary authorities are to 
 
SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS— SANITATION, DOMESTIC 
 
 1457 
 
 carry out the Acts which apply to them, and 
 appoint certiiln officers, such as mediciU offi- 
 cers of health, inspectors of nuisances, clerit, 
 treasurer, &c. 
 
 .Speaking generally, it may be affirmed that 
 all sanitary authorities are invented with am- 
 ple powers for enforcing sanitary measures. 
 Their duty consists in perfecting drainage, 
 sewerage, and water sn|iply. In towns they 
 have the control of streets and houses, both 
 private and public, and in all localities they 
 possess ample powers to cause every species of 
 nuisance to be abated, which is in the least 
 inimical to health. 
 
 The Public Health Act contains a pro\i^o 
 for dealing with an authority which fails in 
 its duty. Under these circumstances, the 
 Local Government Board is invested with 
 compulsory powers, and may compel the 
 due performance of whatever it may deem 
 necessary. 
 
 SANITARY HERBAL BITTERS— Gesund- 
 heitskrauter-Bitter. An indispensable house- 
 hold remedy for every family, for colic, 
 stomach-ache, cramp in the bliidder, flatu- 
 lence, lojs of appetite, nausea, chronic liver 
 diseases, constipation, and diarrhoea ; also as a 
 soothing ngent for iufiints (Gottschlich). The 
 fluid contains in 100 grammes the soluble 
 portion of iibout "8 gramme opium. (Hagur.) 
 SANITARY LIQUEUR— Gesuudheits Li- 
 queur. Swedish elixir of life, with rhubarb 
 in place of the aloes, made into u, liqueur 
 with sngai- and spirit. (Hnger.) 
 
 SANITARY, POPULAR, ERRORS. It is a 
 popular sanitary error to think that the more a 
 man eats the fatter and stronger he will become. 
 To believe that the more hours children study 
 the faster they learn. To conclude that, if 
 exercise is good, the more violent the raoie 
 good is done. To imagine that every hour 
 taken from sleep is an hour gained. To act 
 on the presumption that the smallest room in 
 the house is laJ^e enough to sleep in. To 
 imagine that whatever remedy causes one to 
 feel immediately better is good for the system, 
 without regard to the ulterior effects. To eat 
 without an appetite; or to continue after it 
 has buen satisfied, merely to gratify the taste. 
 To oat a he luty supper at the expense of a whole 
 night of disturbed sleep and weary waking in 
 the morning (' Sanitary Record'). 
 
 SANITARY RATATIA — Oesundheits Ra- 
 tafia. For removing all stomach, chest, and 
 bowel complaints, indigestion, colic, diarrhoea, 
 vomiting, flatulence, dysuria, and affections 
 caused by chills. A clear brown schnapps con- 
 t!rming,in 350 grammes by weight,75 grammes 
 sugar, 105 grammes water, 100 grammes strong 
 spirit, 40 grammes each of tincture of orange 
 peel and tincture of orange bL'rries,2°S grammes 
 each tincture of cloves and tincture of 
 wormwood, 1 drop oil of peppermint, 5 drops 
 acetic ether, and some drops of caramel. 
 (Dr Horn.) 
 SANITARY SOUL, Flowers of- Gesnnd- 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 heitsblomengeist. Amixtureofspirit, 500 parts; 
 tinct.aromatica, 5parts;oilsolbergam^>t,laven- 
 der, and rosemary, of each 2 parts ; oil of thyme, 
 3 parts ; oil of spearmint, 1 part. (Hager.) 
 
 SANITATION, DOMESTIC. Not one of the 
 least creditable or important benefits con 'erred 
 of late years, by the efforts of pliilanthropic 
 and enlightened enterprise upon the poorer 
 classes of this country, has been the erection — 
 in cities and large towns more particularly — 
 of healthy houses for them to dwell in. In 
 the construction of these habitations the 
 architects and designers have fur the most 
 part been guided by sound sanitary principles, 
 the carrying out of which lias been elfected hy 
 means of legislative supervision, and if needful, 
 of legislative action. 
 
 The result of these measures has, in most 
 cases, been to provide residences for nur poorer 
 brethren, wherein, aniong-t other advantages, 
 they enjoy the two primary ones of pure air 
 and water. That the richer, upper, and 
 middle eksse-;, whilst devising and achieving 
 so much in the way of comlbrt and health fur 
 those beneath them, should themselves in so 
 many case< live in houses notoriously unhealthy, 
 and should fail to recognise the advantages of 
 the compulsory enfurcement of necessary 
 hygienic arrangements, are anomalies so 
 amazing as to be, at first si:,'lit, scarcely credible. 
 Yet a little piece of statistics may serve to 
 discomfit those who are incredulous on this 
 point. The average mortality in London is 
 24 persons in a 1000. In the improved dwell- 
 ings of the poor it is only 14 in the 1000. 
 
 This subject was ventilated in a very earnest 
 and valuable paper read before the Social 
 Science Congress at Brighton in 1875 by 
 ,Mv H. H. Collins. In this paper Mr Collins 
 refers only to the houses of the metropolis and 
 its suburbs, and maintains that, as far as 
 regards the enforcement of sanitary pre- 
 cautions in house buildinpr, T^oudon and its 
 suburbs are infinitely worse provided for than 
 many second-rate provincial towin, most of 
 which, he says, have the construction of their 
 buildings and streets regulated by bye-laws 
 is-ueil under the powers of the Public Health 
 Act, and sanctioned by the Home Secretary, 
 whereas in London the various Acts of Parlia- 
 ment for this purpose have been inoperative. 
 Mr Collins describes the insanitary condition 
 of some of the high-rented houses he examined, 
 and says the descriptions which follow equally 
 apply to many others situated in the most 
 aristocratic quarters of London. 
 
 Imaffine one of our legislators who, perhaps, 
 had been voting for the passing of the 
 "Nuisance Removals Act," returning from 
 his parliamentary duties to such a mansion as 
 is pourtrayed by Mr Collins in the following 
 extract:— "I have recently purchased on 
 behalf of a client the lease of a mansion in 
 Portland Place from a well-known nobleman, 
 who had spent, as I was informed, a tortune in 
 providing new drainage ; indeed, I found the 
 
 t7A 
 
1458 
 
 SANITATION, DOMESTIC 
 
 principal water-closet built ont of the house 
 altogether; the soil-pipe of it, however, was 
 carried through the basement, where it was 
 supposed to be connected with the drain. 
 Upon removing the floor- boards to examine it, 
 I found the ground surrounding the con- 
 nection literally one mass of black sewage, the 
 soil oozing through the point even at the time 
 of the examination, and the connection with 
 the main-drain laid in it at right angles. The 
 9-inch drain-pipes ran through the centre of 
 the house, having a very slight gradient, and 
 had evidently not been laid in many years, yet 
 they were nearly full of consolidated sewage, 
 and but little space was left for the passage of 
 the fluid. With but a slightly increased 
 pressure the joints would have given way, and 
 the sewage would have flowed under the 
 boards instead of into the sewer. The sinks, 
 water-closets, and cisterns were all badly 
 situated, and all more or less defective in 
 sanitary arrangement. In the butler's pantry 
 the sink was placed next to the turn-up bed- 
 stead of the butler, who must have inhaled 
 draughts of impure atmosphere at every inspi- 
 ration. The soil-pipes of the closets had 
 indeed been ventilated with a zinc rectangular 
 tube, but, as tliis had been so placed as to let 
 the sewer-gas through an adjacent skylight 
 into the house, and the odour being extremely 
 disagreeable, it had been by his lordship's 
 directions (as I am told) closed. Here was 
 evidence that it had at all events been doing 
 some service, and probably had only poisoned 
 a few of the domestics. 1 found the bends of 
 soil-pipes likewise riddled with holes, as de- 
 scribed by Dr Leargus. There liappened to be 
 a housemaids' sink situated close to a bedroom, 
 the waste from which had been carefully con- 
 nected with the soil-pipe, so that probably had 
 the closets been satisfactorily ventilated, this 
 arrangement would have defeated the object 
 in view. I should also mention that the best 
 water-closet was situated on the bedroom floor 
 under the stairs, and was lighted and venti- 
 lated through a small shaft formed of wood 
 boarding and carried to the roof; it also 
 opened liy a window to the main or principal 
 staircase. The gutter of the roof ran through 
 the bedrooms and under the floors; at the 
 time of examination it was full of black slimy 
 filth. This is a fair specimen of the sanitary 
 arrangements of a nobleman's town house, 
 situated in one of the best streets of this great 
 metropolis in the year of grace 1875." 
 
 Let us take another example: — "A few 
 years ago a client of mine, who resided in a 
 large house in a wealthy suburb, informed me 
 that his wife and two daughters had suffered 
 in health ever since they had occupied their 
 house, that he had consulted several medical 
 men without beneficial result, and that he 
 wished me to make a survey of the premises. 
 He paid a rental of about £200 per annum. I 
 found that the drainage was in every way 
 defective, although he told me that he had 
 
 spent a large sum of money in making it 
 'perfect;' the gradients were bad, the pipes 
 choked, and the joints unsound. The servants' 
 water-closet was adjacent to the scullery, 
 which was in communication with the kitchen, 
 the sink being directly opposite the kitchen 
 range. The water-closet was supplied direct 
 from the cistern, the waste from which entered 
 the drain, although it was said to be trapped. 
 The waste of the sink was simply connected with 
 the drains and trapped with an ordinary bell- 
 trap, the cover or trap of which I found broken. 
 Under the kitchen range hot- water tap I found 
 a trapped opening, also leading into the drain. 
 The domestics complained of frequent head- 
 aches and general depression, and I need not 
 add that it excited no surprise, seeing that the 
 kitchen tire was continuously drawing in from 
 the sewers and house drains a steady supply of 
 sewer-gas to the house and drinking-water 
 cistern. In addition I found the basement 
 walls damp, owing to the absence of a damp- 
 proof course and the want of dry areas. The 
 upper water-closets, house-closets, and cisterns 
 were situated over each other, off the first- 
 floor landing, and directly opposite the bed- 
 room doors. The bath and lavatory were fixed 
 in the dressing-room, communicating with the 
 best bedroom, the wastes from which were 
 carried into the soil-pipe of closets. This latter 
 was unventilated, but was trapped with an S 
 pipe at bottom. The water-closets were pan 
 closets, and were trapped by D traps. The 
 upper closet periodically untrapped the lower 
 closet, and both traps leaving the impure air 
 free access to the house and cistern, which 
 latter was also in communication by means of 
 its waste-pipe with the house-drains. The 
 overflows from safes of the water-closets were 
 practically untrapped. The peculiar nau- 
 seating odour of sewer-gas was distinctly per- 
 ceptible, and I had hut little doubt but that 
 atonic disease was rapidly making its inroads 
 on the occupants. 'The landlord refused to 
 recognise the truth of my report. My client, 
 acting on my advice, relinquished his lease, 
 took another house, the sanitation of which 
 was carefully attended to, and his wife and 
 children have had no recurrence of illness." 
 
 Mr Collins mentions a very alarming and 
 unsuspected source of aerial poisoning in many 
 town-houses to be the existence of old disused 
 cesspools in the centre of the buildings. 
 These receptacles, which are frequently nearly 
 filled with decaying fsecal substances, are very 
 often found to be insecurely covered over with 
 tiles, stones, or boarding. To ensure the con- 
 struction of a healthy dwelling-house, Mr 
 Collins regards attention to the following con- 
 ditions as essential: — "All subsoil should be 
 properly drained, proper thickness of the 
 concrete should be applied to the foundations, 
 damp-proof courses should be inserted over 
 footings, earth should be kept back from walls 
 by dry areas properly drained and ventilated, 
 external walls should be built of good hard 
 
SANTALIN— SANTONIN 
 
 1459 
 
 well-burnt stork brickwork, of gradnated 
 thick nesseK, and never lesg than 14 inches 
 thick; internal divisions should be of brick 
 in cement. The mortar and cement should be 
 of good quality. All basement floors should 
 have u concrete or cement bottom, with air 
 flowing under the same, and the boarding 
 thereof should be tongued so as to prevent 
 draught and exhalation penetrating through 
 the joints of the same. Ample areas back and 
 front should be insisted on, the divisional or 
 party IVnco walls of which should never be 
 allowed to exceed 7 feet in height, to allow 
 free circulation and to prevent the areas 
 becoming wells or shafts for stagnant air. 
 Tile main drains should be carried through the 
 back yards, and, to prevent inconvenience to 
 adjoining owners from any obstruction, they 
 should be laid in subways, so that the sewer 
 inspector could gain ready access thereto 
 without entering any of the premises or causing 
 any annoyance to the tenants. No basement 
 should on any account be allowed to be con- 
 structed at such a level as will not permit of 
 tlie pipes having good steep gradicuts to the 
 sewer. 
 
 All sinks should be placed next external 
 walls, having windows over the same, and 
 ii'inoved from the innuence of tlie fire-grates. 
 All wastes should discharge exteriorly over 
 and not into trapped cess-pits, all of which 
 should be provided with splashing stones 
 fixed round the same. The basement ciatern- 
 n)!;e should be phiced in convenient and acces- 
 sible positions, protected from dirt and guardt il 
 from the effects of alternations of temperature. 
 They should be of slate and Riilvanised iron, 
 and never of lead or zinc. They should be fitted 
 with overflows discharging over the sink, or 
 over trapped cesses as just mentioned. They 
 should lie supplied with stout lend encased, 
 block-tin pipe, the services tlierefroui for all 
 drinking purposes should be of the same descrip- 
 tion, and should be attached to an asccndiiiu: 
 filter, so that water may be delivered tree from 
 lead or organic impurities. Lead poisoning is 
 more frt-queiit than is generally bclicvtcl. 
 Cupboards under stairs, under sinks, under 
 ilr('>-cis, or out-of-the-way places should be 
 avoided, and when fitted up should always be 
 well ventiliited. All passages should be well 
 lighted and ventilated. Borrowed lights ar,' 
 better than none at all. Every room should 
 be furnished with a fireplace, and Comyn and 
 Chiiii;o ventilators over doors and windows 
 should be freely disposed. It would conduce 
 to the health of the hnuse, without adding one 
 shilling' to its cost, to build next the kitchen 
 flue a separate ventilating flue, and to conduct 
 the proilU' ts of combustion from gas and other 
 impure or soiled air, Ac, into the same, from 
 ventiliftors placed in the centre of or close to the 
 ceiliuL's, OS amy be found most convenient. B\ 
 carHlnllv proportioning the inlet and outletvt-n- 
 tilatioii, the air will be kept moving without 
 draught, and preserved in a pure and sweet con- 
 
 dition for respiration. The windoirs and doors 
 will then serve only their legitimate objects of 
 admitting light, and of atFording ingress and 
 egress to the various apartments. The stair- 
 case should be made the main ventilator of the 
 house, and it is essentially necessary to pre- 
 serve the ar surrounding the same, uncon- 
 taminated, pure, and undefiled. It will be 
 better to light and ventilate it from the top ; 
 and to prevent the Ethiopians or blacks of 
 London findiug their way into the house, an 
 invisible gauze net may be placed under it, 
 which can periodically be easily removed and 
 cleansed, or it may be furnished with a 
 movable inner, ornamental flat light. 
 
 Under no circura^ttances must lavatories or 
 sinks be brought in connection with the drains. 
 Most people desire the bath-room to be in 
 proximity to the bedrooms ; whether so placed 
 or not, all connection with main drainage 
 must be studiously avoided. The hot and cold 
 pipes, known as the flow and return pipes, 
 should be of galvaiused iron, with junctions 
 carefully mad^ with running joints in red 
 lead ; on no account should these be in contact 
 with any other pipes. The wastes from the 
 bath safe (and lavatories if any) should be 
 carried through the front wall of the house, 
 and should turn over and into rain-water head, 
 covered with domical wire grating to prevent 
 birds building their nests therein, and carried 
 down to the basement area, where they must 
 discharge over a trapped cess-pit, as before 
 described, surrounded with u, splash-stone or 
 curve to obviate the nuisance of the soap-suds 
 flowing over the pavement. A brush passed 
 up and down the-e waters now and then will 
 effectually remove any soapy sediment which 
 may cliug to their surfaces. The wasle from 
 bath, &c., into heads should be furnished with 
 a ground valve flap and collar to prevent 
 draught, and the bath should be fitted with 
 india-rubber seat ngs between the metal and 
 wood framing. Mansarde or sloping' roofs 
 should be avoided; they are injurious to the 
 health of the domestics, whose sleeping 
 chambers they are guierally appropriated to; 
 they are unhealthy, hot in summer, and pre- 
 judicially cold ill winter, laying the basis for 
 future disease for tho-e least able to bear it. 
 Gutters taken tbrou.'h roofs, known as 
 * trough,* !^ll^uld never be permitted; they 
 eongretcate putrescent filth, which remains in 
 them for years to taint and poison the atmo- 
 sphere." Consult also, as supplementing this 
 sui'ject, the articles Drains, Dustbins, Cess- 
 pools, Tanks, Tkaps, Waiee-oloskts. 
 
 SAN'TALIN. The colouring principle of 
 red Sanders wood. 
 
 SANTONIN. CijHisOj. St/n. Santonio 
 ACID; Santoninu.m, L. The crystalline and 
 characteristic principle of the seed of several 
 varieties of JHe^ui.sia. 
 
 Prep. (Ph. Baden, 1811.) Take of worm- 
 seed, 4 parts; hydrate of lime, li part; mix, 
 and exhaust them with alcohol of 90§ ; distil. 
 
1460 
 
 SAP GREEN— SARSAPARILLA. 
 
 off 3-4tliB of the spirit, and evaporate the re- 
 mainder to cue halt, which, at the boiling tem- 
 perature, is to be mixed with acetic acid in 
 excess, and afterwards with water ; on repose, 
 impui e santonin subsides ; wash this with a 
 little weak spirit, then dissolve it in rectified 
 spirit, 10 parts, decolour by ebullition for a 
 few minutes with animal charcoal, and filter ; 
 the filtrate deposits colourless crystals of san- 
 tonin as it cools ; these are to be dried, and 
 kept in opaque bottles. 
 
 Mr W. G. Smith, M.B., states that two 
 singular effects are known to result from the 
 administration of santonin in moderate doses, 
 viz. visual derangements and a peculiar al- 
 teration in the colour of the urine. He adds 
 that three hours after taking 5 gr. of pure 
 white santonin, he became conscious, while 
 reading, of a yellowish tint on the paper, and 
 a yellow haze in the air. His own hands, and 
 the complexions of others, appeared of a sallow 
 unhealtliy colour ; and the evening sky, which 
 was really of a pale lavender colour, seemed to 
 be light green. Vision was not perfectly 
 distinct for some hours, and was accompanied 
 by a certain vagueness of definition. Mr 
 Smith endorses the observations of previous 
 observers who had noticed that the urine of 
 persons under the influence of santonin is 
 tinged of a saffron yellow or greenish colour. 
 The coloured urine resembles that of a person 
 slightly jaundiced, and like this permanently 
 stitins linen of a light yellow colour. 
 
 The best test for santonin in the urine is 
 an alkali, upon the addition of which the urine 
 immediates assumes a fine cherry-red colour, 
 varying in depth according to the amount of 
 santonin present. Potash was found to be 
 the preferable alkali. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Prismatic or tubular crystals ; 
 inodorous; tasteless, or only slightly bitter; 
 fusible; volatilisable ; soluble in 4500 parts 
 of cold and about 250 parts of boiling water; 
 soluble in cold alcohol and ether ; freely solu- 
 ble in hot alcohol. It is much esteemed as a 
 tasteless worm medicine, and is especially 
 adapted to remove lumbricales (large round 
 worms). — Dose, 6 to 18 or 20 gr., repeated 
 night and morning, followed by a brisk 
 purge. 
 
 (Ph. B.) Boil 1 lb. of santonico, bruised, 
 with 1 gall, of distilled water, and 5 oz. of 
 slaked lime, in a copper or tinned iron vessel 
 for an hour, strain through a stout cloth and 
 express strongly. Mix the residue with i 
 gall, of distilled water and 2 oz. of lime, boil 
 for half an hour, strain and express as before. 
 Mix the strained liquors, let tliem settle, 
 decant the fluid from the deposit, evaporate 
 to the bulk of 2i pints. To the liqnor while 
 hot add, with diligent stirring, hydrochloric 
 acid, until the fluid has become slightly and 
 permanently acid, and set it aside for five days 
 that the precipitate may subside. Remove, by 
 skimming, any oily matter which floats on 
 the surface, and carefully decant the greater 
 
 part of the fluid from the precipitate. Collect 
 this on a paper filter, wash it first with cold 
 distilled water, till the washings pass colourless 
 and nearly free from acid reaction, then with 
 i fl. oz. of solution of ammonia, previously 
 diluted with 5 oz. of distilled water, and, 
 lastly, with cold distilled water, till the 
 washings pass colourless. Press the filter 
 containing the precipitate between folds of 
 filtering paper, and dry it with a gentle heat. 
 Scrape the dry precipitate from the filter, and 
 mix it with 60 gr. of purified animal char- 
 coal. Pour on them 9 fl. oz. of rectified spirit, 
 digest for half an hour, and boil for ten min- 
 utes. Filter while hot, wash the charcoal with 
 1 fl. oz. of boiling spirit, and set the filtrate 
 aside for two days in a cool dark place to 
 crystallise. Separate the mother liquor from 
 the crystals, and concentrate .to obtain a fur- 
 ther product. Collect the crystals, let them 
 drain, redissolve them in 4 fl. oz. of boil- 
 ing spirit, and let the solution crystallise as 
 before. Lastly, dry the crystals on filtering 
 paper in the diirk and preserve them in a 
 bottle protected from the light. 
 
 SAP GKEEN. See Geeen pigments. 
 
 SAPOKIFICA'TION. See Soap. 
 
 SAP'OHIN. Syn. Saponinum, L. A white, 
 non-crystallisable substance, obtained by the 
 action of hot diluted alcohol on the root of 
 Saponaria officinalis (Linn.), or soapwort. 
 
 Prop., iSfc. Saponin is soluble iu hot water, 
 and the solution froths strongly on agitation. 
 The smallest quantity of the powder causes 
 violent sneezing. 
 
 SAKCOCOL'LA. A gum -resin supposed to 
 be derived from one or more plants of the 
 natural order Jlentsaeea, growing in Arabia 
 and Persia. It somewhat resembles gum 
 Arabic, except in being soluble in both water 
 and alcohol, and in having a bitter-sweet 
 taste. It was formerly used in surgery. 
 
 SAE'COSINE. C3H7O5N. A feebly basic 
 substance, obtained by boiling kreatlne for 
 some time with a solution of pure baryta. It 
 forms colourless, transparent plates, freely 
 soluble in water, sparingly so in alcohol, and 
 insoluble in ether; it may be fused and vola- 
 tilised. 
 
 SAKSAPARIL'LA. Si/n. Sasism eadix 
 (B.P.), Radix saezs. Radix saesapaeillze, 
 Saeza (Ph. L. & E.), Saesapabilla (Ph. D. 
 & U. S.), L. " Jamaica sarza. The root of 
 Smilax officinalis, Kunth " (Ph. L.) ; " and 
 probably of other species." (Ph. E.) 
 
 The sarsaparillas of commerce are divided 
 by Dr Pereira into two classes : — ' Mealy 
 sarsaparilla' and 'non-mealy sarsaparillas.' 
 In the first are placed Brazilian or Lisbon, 
 Caraccas or gouty Vera Cruz, and Honduras ; 
 the second includes Jamaica, Lima, and true 
 Vera Cruz. 
 
 The mealy sarsaparillas are distinguished by 
 " the mealy character of the inner cortical 
 layers, which are white or pale-coloured. The 
 meal or starch is sometimes so abundant, that 
 
SARSAPARILLIN— SASSAFRAS 
 
 1461 
 
 a ahowcr of it, in the form of white dust, fnlls 
 when we fracture the roots." The medulla 
 or pith ia aliio frequently very amyluceous. 
 
 The non-mealy sarsaparillas " are charac- 
 terised by a deeply coloured (red or brown), 
 uanally non-mealy, cortex. The cortex is red, 
 and much thinner than in the mealy sorts." 
 " If a drop of oil of vitriol be applied to a 
 transverse section of the root of the non- 
 mealy sarraparillas, both cortex and wood 
 acquire a dark-red or purplish tint ;" whilst in 
 the preceding varieties, the mealy coat, and, 
 sometimes, the pith, is but little altered in 
 colour. " The decoction of non-mealy sarsa- 
 parilla, when cold, is somewhat darkened, but 
 does not yield a blue colour when a solution of 
 iodine is added to it." The aqueous extract, 
 when rubbed down with a little cold distilled 
 water in a mortar, does not yiell a turbid 
 liquid, nor become bltie on the addition of 
 iodine. The reverse Is the case with the de- 
 coction and extract of the meiily varieties. 
 The Jamaica, Red Jamaica, or Rbd- 
 
 BEABDED BABSAPABtl/LA (SaBZA JAItTAICENSIS 
 — Ph. D.), is the variety which should alone 
 be used in medicine. This kind yields from 
 33 to 44g of its weight of extract (Battley, 
 Uennell, Pope), and contains less starchy 
 matter than the other varieties. It is dis- 
 tinguished by exhibiting the above pecu- 
 liarities in a marked degree, by the dirty 
 reddish colour of its bark, which "is not 
 mealy," and by being "beset very plentifully 
 with rootlets" (fibres). — Ph. L. Its powder 
 has aKo a pale reddish-brown colour. The 
 other varieties of sarsaparlUa, viz. the Lisbon, 
 Lima. Vera Cruz, and Honduras, are frc- 
 qnently substituted for the Jamaica by the 
 druggists in the preparations of the decoctions 
 and extracts of this drug; but the products 
 are vastly inferior in quantity, colour, taste, 
 and medicinal virtue, to those prepared from 
 the officinal sarsaparilla. Decoction of sarsa- 
 parilla, when made with the Honduras root, is 
 very liable to ferment, even by a few hours' 
 exposure, in hot weather. We have seen hogs- 
 heads of the strong decoction, after exposure 
 for a single night, in as active a state of fer- 
 mentation as a }.'yle of beer, with a frothy head, 
 and evolving a most disagreeable odour, that 
 was not wholly removed by several hours' 
 boiling. When this occurs tiie decoction 
 suffers ill density, and the product in extract 
 is, consequently, considerably lessened. Yet 
 this is frequently allowed to occur in the 
 wholesale laboratory, where the rule should be 
 — always begin a 'bath of sarza' (as it is 
 culled), and, indeed, of other perishable 
 articles, early in the morning, and finish it, 
 completely and entirely, the same day. 
 
 Sarsaparilla has been recommended as a 
 mild but efficacious alterative, diaphoretic and 
 tonic. It has long been a popular remedy in 
 chronic rheumatism, rheumatic and gouty 
 pains, scurvy, scrofula, syphilis, secondary 
 syphilis, lepra, psoriasis, and several other skin 
 
 diseases j and, especially, in cachexia, or a 
 general bad habit of body, and to remove the 
 symptoms arising from the injudicious use of 
 mercurials, often falsely called ' secondary 
 syphilis.' During its use the skin should be 
 kept warm, and diluents should be freely taken. 
 Its efficacy has been greatly exaggerated. It 
 is, however, much more effective in warm 
 than in northern climates. — Dose. In sub- 
 stance, ^ to 1 dr., three or four times daily; 
 but, preferably, made into a decoction or in- 
 fusion. 
 
 The articles so much puffed under the 
 names of American or United States sar- 
 saparilla and extract of sarsaparilla are 
 " nothing more than the decoction of a 
 common herb, a sort of ' aralia,' inhabiting 
 the swamps and marshes of the United States. 
 When cut up it has the appearance of chaff, 
 but not the slightest resemblance In character, 
 colour, or taste, to even the most inferior 
 species of smilax (or sarza). The decoction is 
 sweetened with a little sugar, flavoured with 
 benzoin and sassafras, and, finally, preserved 
 from decomposition by means of the bichloride 
 of mercury." " I have heard of several cases 
 of deadly sickness, and other dangerous symp- 
 toms, following its use." "We do not believe 
 that a particle of real sarsaparilla ever entered 
 into the composition of either of the articles 
 referred to." (' Med. Circ.,' ii, 227.) See De- 
 coction and EXTBAOT. 
 
 SAESAPARIL'LIN. *». Pahiohn, Pa- 
 
 EILLIO ACID, SaLSAPAHIN, SmILACIN. A 
 white, crystalllsable, odourless, and nearly 
 tasteless substance, discovered by Pallotta 
 and FolchI, in sarsaparilla. 
 
 Prep, The bark of J.imaica sarsaparilla is 
 treated with hot rectified spirit, and the re- 
 sulting tincture reduced to about one third 
 by distdling off the spirit ; the residual liquid 
 is then filtered, whilst boiling, slightly con- 
 centrated by evaporation, and set aside to 
 crystallise; the crystalline deposit is redis. 
 solved in either hot rectified spirit or boiling 
 water, and decoloured by agitation with a 
 little animal charcoal; the filtrate deposits 
 crystals of nearly pure smilacin as it cools. 
 It may also be extracted by boiling water. 
 
 Prop., i(c, A non-nitrogenised neutral 
 body. Water holding a very small quantity 
 of it in solution froths considerably on agita- 
 tion. This is especially the case with infusion 
 of Jamaica sarsaparilla, and this property has 
 consequently been proposed as a test of the 
 quality of sarsaparilla root. Its medicinal 
 properties are similar to those of sarsaparilla. 
 According to Pallotta, it is a powerful seda- 
 tive, and diminishes the vital energies in 
 proportion to the quantity taken. — Dose, 2 
 tolOgr. ; in the usual cases in which the root 
 is given. 
 
 SAS'SAFEAS. Syn. Sassapbas eadix 
 (B. P.), Sassafeas eabix, Sassafeas (Ph. L., 
 E., & D.), L. •' The root of Sassafras officinale, 
 Nees. Laurtis sassafras, Linn." — Ph. L. It 
 
1462 
 
 SATURATION— SAUCE 
 
 has a fragrant odour, and a sweetish aromatic 
 taste. It has long been reputed a stimulating, 
 alterative, diaphoretic, diuretic, and tonic ; 
 and an infusion of the chips (sassafras chips), 
 under the name of sassafras tea, has been 
 a popular ' diet drink ' in various cutaneous 
 affections, gout, chronic rheumatism, &c. 
 
 SATUEA'TION. The state in which a body 
 has talien its full dose, or chemical proportion, 
 of any other substance with wliich it can 
 combine, or which it can dissolve ; as water 
 with Bugtir or a salt, or an alkali with an acid, 
 when the properties of both are neutralised. 
 
 SATTCEES (for Dyeing). Prep. 1. (Blue.) 
 From blue carmine, made into a paste with 
 gum water, which is then spread over the 
 inside of the saucers, and dried. 
 
 2. (Pink.) — a. From pure rouge mixed with 
 a little carbonate of soda, then made into a 
 paste with thin gum water, and applied as the 
 last. 
 
 b. Well-washed safflower, 8 oz. ; carbonate 
 of soda, 2 oz. ; water, 2 gall. ; infuse, strain, 
 add of French chalk (scraped fiue with Dutch 
 rushes), 2 lbs. ; mix well, and precipitate the 
 colour by adding a solution of tartaric acid ; 
 collect the red powder, drain it, add a very 
 small quantity of gum, and apply the paste 
 to the saucers. Inferior. Both the above are 
 used to tinge silk stockings, gloves, &c. 
 
 SAUCE. A liquid or semi-liquid condiment 
 or seasoning for food. The following receipts 
 for sauces may be useful to the reader : 
 
 Sauce, Ancho'vy, 1. (Extemporaneous.) 
 From 3 or 4 anchovies, chopped small; butter, 
 3 oz. ; water, a wine-glassful ; vinegar, 2 
 tablespoon fuls ; flour, 1 do. ; stir the mixture 
 over the fire till it thickens, then rub it 
 through a coarse hair sleeve. 
 
 2. (Wholesale) As essence of anchovies. 
 Other fish sauces may be made in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Sauce, Apple. From sharp apples, cored, 
 sliced, stewed with a spoonful or two of water, 
 and then beaten, to a perfectly smooth pulp 
 with a little good moist sugar. Tomato, and 
 many other like sauces, may be made in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Sauce, Aristocratiqne. From green-walnut 
 juice and anchovies, equal parts ; cloves, mace, 
 and pimento, of each, bruised, 1 dr. to every 
 lb. of juice; boil and strain, and then add to 
 every pint, 1 pint of vinegar, \ pint of port 
 wine, i pint of soy, and a few shallots; let the 
 whole stand for a few days, and decant the 
 clear liquor. 
 
 Bech'amel. A species of fine white broth or 
 consommee, thickened with cream, and used 
 as ' white sauce.* 
 
 Sauce, Caper. Put twelve table-spoonfuls 
 of melted butter into a stewpan, place it on the 
 fire, and, when on the point of boiling, add 1 
 oz. of fresh butter and 1 table-spoonful of 
 capers; shake the stewpan round over the 
 fire until the butter is melted, add a little 
 
 pepper and salt, and serve where directed. 
 Also as mint sauce. 
 
 Sauce, Chut'ney. 1. From sour apples (pared 
 and cored), tomatoes, brown sugar, and sultana 
 raisins, of each 3 oz. ; common salt, 4 oz. ; red 
 chillies and powdered ginger, of each 29 ozj; 
 garlic and shallots, of each 1 oz. ; pound the 
 whole well, add, of strong vinegar, 3 quarts ; 
 lemon juice, 1 do. ; and digest, with fnquent 
 agitation, for a month ; then pour off nearly 
 all the liquor, and bottle it. Used for fish 
 or meat, either hot or cold, or to flavour stews, 
 &c. The residue is the ' Chutney,' ' Chetney,' 
 or ' Chitni,' which must be ground to a smuoth 
 paste with a stone and muller, and then put 
 into pots or jars. It is used like mustard. 
 
 2. (BbnqaI/ chitni.) As the last, but using 
 tamarinds instead of apples, and only suffi- 
 cient vinegar and lemon juice to form a paste. 
 
 Cor'atch. From good mushroom ketchup, 
 \ gal. ; walnut ketchup, } pint ; India soy and 
 chiliie vinegar, of each i pint; essence of an- 
 chovies, 5 or 6 oz. ; macerate for a fortnight. 
 
 Sauce, Epicnrienne. To the last add of 
 walnut ketchup and port wine, of each 1 quart ; 
 garlic and white pepper, of each (bruised) 
 4 oz. ; chillies (bruised), 1 oz. ; mace and 
 cloves, of each J oz. 
 
 Sauce, Fish. From port wine 1 gall. ; moun- 
 tain do., 1 quart ; walnut ketchup, 2 quarts ; 
 anchovies (with the liquor), 2 lbs. ; 8 lemons, 
 48 shallots, scraped horseradish, 1^ lb. ; flour 
 of mustard, 8 oz. ; mace, 1 oz. ; caj enne, q. s. j 
 boil the whole up gently, strain, and bottle. 
 
 Ketchup. See under that name. 
 
 Sauce, Kitchener's. Syn. Kitcheneb's 
 RELISH. From salt, 3 oz. ; black pepper, 2 oz. ; 
 allspice, horseradish, and shallots, of each 1 
 oz. ; burnt-sugar colouring, « wine-glassful ; 
 mushroom ketchup, 1 quart (all bruised or 
 scraped) ; macerate for 3 weeks, strain, and 
 bottle. 
 
 Lem'on Pickle. From lemon juice and vine- 
 gar, of each 3 gall.; bruised ginger, 1 lb.; 
 allspice, pepper, and grated lemon peel, of each 
 8 oz. ; salt, 34 lbs. ; cayenne, 2 oz. ; mace 
 and nutmegs, of each 1 pz. ; digest for 14 
 days. 
 
 Sauce, Iiobs'ter. From lobsters, as akchovt 
 
 SAUCE. 
 
 Sauce, Mint. From garden mint, chopped 
 small, and then beaten up with vinegar, some 
 moist sugar, and a little salt and pepper. 
 
 Sauce, Ou'ion. From onions boiled to a pulp 
 and then beaten up with melted butter and a 
 little warm milk. 
 
 Sauce, Oys'ter. From about 12 oysters, and 
 6 or 7 oz. of melted butter, with a little cay- 
 enne pepper, and 2 or 3 spoonfuls of cream, 
 stirred together over a slow tire, then brought 
 to a boil, and served. 
 
 Sauce, Piquante. Prom soy and cayenne 
 pepper, of each 4 oz.; port wine, \ pint; 
 brown pickling vinegar, 1^ pint ; mix, and let 
 them stand for 7 or 8 days before bottling. 
 
 Sauce, Quin's. Prom walnut pickle and 
 
SAUEIIKRAUT— 8AVINE 
 
 1463 
 
 port wine, of each 1 pint; inunbrcom ket- 
 chup, 1 quart; anchovies undshiillots (chopped 
 fine), of each 2 dozen; soy, | pint; ciiyrnne, 
 i oz. ; simmer gently for 10 minutes, and in a 
 tortni);ht strain, and bottle. 
 
 Sance an Roi. From brown vinegar (good), 
 3 qiiurts; soy and wulnut ketchup, of each 
 i pint ; clovrs and shallots, of each 1 doz. ; 
 CAveune pepper, 1^ oz. ; mix, and digest fur 
 14 days. 
 
 Saace, Shrimp. From shrimps or prawns, 
 
 as ANCHOTY 8AV0B. 
 
 Soy. See that article. 
 
 Sauce, Superlative. From port wine, and 
 muslirooni kutcbup, of each 1 quart ; walnut 
 pickle, 1 pint; soy, j pint; powdered ancho- 
 vies, i lb. ; fresh lemon peel, minced shallots, 
 and scraped horseradish, of each 2 oz. ; all- 
 spice and black pepper (bruised), of each 
 1 oz. ; cayenne pepper and bruised celery seed, 
 of each i oz. (or currie powder, f oz) ; digest 
 for 14 days, strain, and bottle. Very relish- 
 ing. 
 
 Sance, Toma'to. From bruised tomatoes, 1 
 gall. ; good ^iilt, i lb. ; mix, in 3 days press 
 out the juice, to each quart of which Hdd of 
 slittllots, 2 oz. ; black pepper, 1 dr. ; simmer 
 very gently for 20 to 30 minutes, strain, and 
 add to the strained liquor, miice, allspice, gin- 
 ger, nutmegs, and cuchineal, of each j oz. ; 
 coriander seed, 1 dr.; simmer gently fir 10 
 minutes, strain, cool, and in a week put it 
 into buttlcH. 
 
 Sance, Waterloo. Fiom strong vinegar 
 (nearly boiling), 1 quart, port wine, | piut; 
 musliruom ketchup, t pint; walnut ketchup, 
 i pint ; essence of ancliuvips, 4 oz. ; 8 clove» 
 of garlic ; cochineal (powdered), i iiz. (or red 
 beei, sliced, 3 uz.) ; let them stand together for 
 a fortnight or lunger, occasiouuily blinking the 
 bottle. 
 
 Sauce, White. Syn. Butter sauce. Melted 
 BUTTKE. From good butter, 4 oz. ; creuni, 
 2J oz. ; salt (in very fine powder), i tea- 
 spoonful ; put them into a put or basin, sut 
 this in hot water, and beat the whole with u. 
 bime, wooden, or silver spoon, until it forms a 
 perfectly smooth, iream-like mixture, avoiding 
 too much heat, which would make it run oily. 
 A table-spoonful of sherry, marsiihi, lemon 
 juice, or vinegar, is sometimes added ; but tlie 
 selection must depend on the dishes the suuce 
 is intended for. Used either by itself, or as a 
 basis for other sauces. Beaten up with any of 
 the 'bottled sauces,' an excellent comp mnd 
 sance of the added ingredient is immediately 
 obtained. 
 
 Sauces, American. White vinegar, 15 gall.; 
 walnut ketchup, 10 gall. ; Madeira wine, 5 
 gull. ; mushroom ketchup, 10 gall, ; table salt. 
 1'5 lbs. (iroy); Canton soy, 4 gall.; powdered 
 capsicum 12 lbs. (troy); allspice, powdered, 
 coriander |>owder, of each 1 lb. (troy) ; clnvcs, 
 mace, cinnamon, of each i lb. (troy) ; assa- 
 fcetida, \ lb. (troy) ; dissolved ni brandy, 1 
 gall. ; 20 lbs. of hog's liver is boiled for 1 2 
 
 hours with 10 gall, of water, renewin the 
 water from time to time. Take out the liVer, 
 chop it, mix it with water, and work it 
 through a sieve ; mix with the sauce. 
 
 2. White vinegar, 240 gall. ; Canton soy, 
 36 gall. ; sugnr-hou^e syrup, 30 gall. ; wal- 
 nut ketchup, 50 gall. ; mushroom ketchup, 
 50 gall. ; table salt, 120 lbs. (troy) ; pow- 
 dered capsicum, 15 lbs. (troy) ; allspice, cori- 
 ander, of each 7 lbs. (troy) ; cloves, luace, cin- 
 namon, of each 4 lbs. (troy) ; assafoetidn, 2^ 
 lbs. (troy), dissolved in St Croix rum, 1 gall. 
 
 3. White vinegar, 1 gall. Canton >oy, 
 molasses, of each 1 pint; walnut keliliup, 
 1) pint; table salt, 4 oz. ; powdered capsicum, 
 allspice, of each 1 oz. ; coriander, | uz. ; cloves, 
 mace, of each i oz. ; cinnamon, 6 dr., assa- 
 foetida ^ oz. in 4 oz. uf rum. 
 
 SAUERKRAUT. [Ger.] Frep Clean 
 wlilte cublia^'i's, cut theiu into small pieces, and 
 stratify them in a cask along with culinary 
 salt and a few juniper berries and caraway 
 seeds, observing to pack them down as hard 
 as possible, without cru-hing tliem, and to 
 cover them with a lid pressed down with a 
 heavy wei^'ht. The cask should be placed 
 in u cold situation as soon as a sour smell is 
 perceived. U^cd by the Germans and other 
 northern nations of Europe, like our ' pickled 
 cabbaj:e,' but more extensively. 
 
 SAU'SAGES. From the fat and Icon of 
 pork (poke sausaoks), or of beef (beep s.4i- 
 SAOEs), chopped small, fl.ivoured with spice, 
 and put into gut skins, or pressed into pots or 
 balls (sausage meat). Crum of bread is 
 also added. Their quality is proportionate to 
 that of the ingredients, and to the caro and 
 cleanliness employed in preparing them. 
 
 A pea sausage, composed of pea Hour, fat 
 pork, and a little salt, was largely consumed 
 by the German soldiers during the Franco- 
 German campaign. Ur Parkes found 100 
 parts of this sausage to consist ol — IG'2 parts 
 of water, 719 of salts, 12-i:[17 of albuiniuat.s, 
 33-65 of fat, and 30 063 of c.irholn drite-. 
 It is ready cooked, but can be made into 
 soup, although much relished for a f .\v days. 
 The soldiers soon became tired of it. In some 
 eases it gave rise to flatulence and diarrhoea. 
 See Meat. 
 
 SAVELOYS. Pork sausoges mode in such 
 a way that they keep good for a considerable 
 time. Frep. (Mrs Rundell.) Take of young 
 pork, free from bone and skin, 3 lbs.; salt it 
 with 1 oz. of saltpetre, and i lb. of common 
 salt, for 2 days ; then chop it fine, add, 3 tea- 
 spoonfuls of pepper, 1 doz. sage leaves, chopped: 
 fine, and 1 lb. uf grated bread ; mix well, fill 
 the skins, and steam them or bake them half 
 an hour in a slack oven. They are said to be 
 good either hot or cold. 
 
 SAV'IHE. Syn. Satin; Foha sabinjE, 
 SiBINA (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. " The recent 
 and dried tops of Juniperis sabina, Linij.," or 
 common savine. (Ph. L) It is a powerful 
 stimulant, diaphoretic, emmeuagogue, and an- 
 
1464 
 
 SAVONETTES— SCAB IN SHEEP 
 
 thelmintio ; and, externally, rubefacient, cb- 
 charotic and vesicant. In large doses it is apt 
 to occasion abortion, and acts as a poison. 
 Savine powdee mixed with verdigris is often 
 applied to corns and warts. It is now chiefly 
 used in the form of ointment. — Dose, 5 to 15 
 gr., twice or thrice daily (with ciire), in amen- 
 orihoea and worms. See Cerate. 
 
 SAVONETTES. [Pr.] Syn. Wash BALLS. 
 These are made of any of the mild toilet soaps, 
 scented at will, generally with the addition of 
 some powdered starch or farina, and sometimes 
 sand. The spherical or spheroidal form is given 
 to them by pressure in moulds, or by first 
 roughly forming them with the hand;, and, 
 when quite hard, turning them in a lathe- 
 According to Mr Beasley, " they are formed 
 into spherical balls by taking a mass of the 
 prepared soap in the left hand, and a conical 
 drinking-glass with rather tliin edges in the 
 right. B^v turning the glass and ball of soap 
 in every direction, tlie rounded form is soon 
 given ; when dry, the surface is scraped, to 
 render it more smooth and even.'* 
 
 Prep. 1. Take of curd soap, 3 lbs. ; finest 
 yellow soap, 2 lbs. (both in shavings) ; soft 
 water, f pint ; melt by a gentle heat, stir in of 
 powdered starch (farina), 1 J lb. ; when the 
 mass has considerably cooled, further add of 
 essence of lemon or bergamot, 1 oz., and 
 make it into halls. 
 
 2. (Camphoe.) Melt spermaceti, 2 oz. ; 
 add camphor (cut small), 1 oz. ; dissolve, and 
 add the liquid mass to white curd soap, li lb., 
 previously melted by tlie aid of a little water 
 and a gentle heat, and allowed to cool con- 
 siderably as above. These sliould b^ covered 
 with tin-foil. 
 
 3. (Honey.) From the finest bright-coloured 
 yellow soap, 7 lbs. ; palm oil, \ lb. ; melt, and 
 add of oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger- 
 grass, 1 oz. ; as No. 1. Sometimes \ oz. of oil 
 ot rosemary is also added. 
 
 4. (Mottled.) — a. Ked. Cut white curd 
 or Windsor soap (not too dry) into small 
 square pieces, and roll these in a mixture of 
 powder bole or rouge, either with or without 
 the addition of some starch j then squeeze 
 them strongly into balls, observing to mix the 
 colour as little as possible. — b. Blue. Roll 
 the pieces in powdered blue, and proceed as be- 
 fore. — c. Geeen. Roll the pieces in a mixture 
 of powder blue and bright yellow ochre. By 
 varyiug the colour of the powder, mottled 
 savonettes of any colour may be produced. 
 
 5. (Sand.) Prom soap (at will), 2 lbs. ; fine 
 siliceous sand, 1 lb. ; scent, q. s. ; as No. 1. 
 Por the finer qualities, finely powdered pumice- 
 stone is substituted for sand. 
 
 6. (Violet.) From palin-oil soap, 4 lbs. ; 
 farina, 2 lbs. ; finely powdered orris root, 1 lb. 
 Sometimes a little smalts, or indigo, is added. 
 
 SAWDUST, Preparation of Alcohol from. 
 M. Zetterland' states that he haa obtained 
 alcohol from sawdust by the following process 
 1 'Chemical News,' xxvi — 181. 
 
 — Into an ordinary steam-boiler, heated by 
 means of steam, were introduced 9 cwt. of 
 very wet sawdust, lO'Vcwt. of hydrochloric acid 
 (sp. gr. 1'18), and 30 cwt. of water ; after 
 eleven hours boiling there was formed 19 67 
 per cent, of grape sugar. 
 
 The acid was next saturated with chalk, so 
 as to leave in the liquid only a small quantity 
 (i degree by Ludersdorf's acid areometer) ; 
 when the saccharine liqnid was cooled down 
 to 30° yeast was added, and the fermentation 
 finished in twenty-four hours. By distillation 
 there were obtained 26'5 litres of alcohol of 
 50 per cent, at 15°, quite free from any smell 
 of turpentine, and of excellent taste. It 
 appears that the preparation of alcohol from 
 sawdust may be successfully carried on indus- 
 trially when it is precisely ascertained what 
 degree of dilution of acid is required, and how 
 long the liquid has to be boiled. 
 
 If all the cellulose present in sawdust could 
 be converted into sugar, 50 kilos of the former 
 substance would yield, after fermentation, 12 
 litres of alcohol at 50 per cent. 
 
 SCAB'IES. See Itch. 
 
 SCAB IN SHEEP. This disease, cor- 
 responding to mange in the dog, the horse, or 
 in cattle, is caused by a species of acaris, a 
 minute insect which burrows under the skin 
 of the sheep, and sets up therein a considerable 
 amount of imtation, which is followed by an 
 irruption of pimples, accompanied with scurf, 
 but frequently the wool comes off from the 
 affected part. 
 
 The following are some of the numerous 
 remedies employed for this disease : — 
 
 1. Quicksilver, 1 lb. ; Venice turpentine, i 
 lb. ; rub them together until the globules are 
 no longer visible ; then add \ pint of oil of 
 turpentine, and 4 lbs. of lard. The mode of 
 applying this ointment is asfuUows : — Begin at 
 the head of the sheep, and proceeding from 
 between the ears along the back to tlie end 
 of the tail, divide the wool in a furrow till the 
 skin can be touched ; and let a finger, slightly 
 dipped in the ointment, be drawn along the 
 bottom of the furrow. From this furrow 
 similar ones must be drawn along the shoul- 
 ders and thighs to the legs, as far as tlie wool 
 extends. And if much infected, 2 or more 
 should also be drawn along each side, parallel 
 with that on the back , and one down each 
 side before the hind and fore legs. It kills 
 the sheep-fag, and probably the tick and other 
 vermin. It should not be used in very cold or 
 wet weather. (Sir Joseph Banks.) 
 
 2. Tar oils. Tobacco juice. Stavesacre. (Fin- 
 lay Dun.) 
 
 3. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 part; lard, 
 5 parts; mix. (Youatt.) 
 
 4. Quicksilver, 1 lb. ; Venice turpentine, ^ 
 lb. ; spirit of turpentine, 2 oz., laid, 4i lb. ; to 
 be made and used as No. 1. In summer 1 lb. 
 of resin mav be substituted for alike quantity 
 of lard. (Clater.) 
 
 5. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb. j lard, 
 
SCAGLIOLA— SCARLET DYE 
 
 1465 
 
 4 lbs.; oil of turpentine, 8 oz.; sulphur, 12 oz. 
 — Whitb. 
 
 6. Mild. FIowersofBulphiir.l lb. ; Venice 
 turpentine, 4 oz. ; rancid lard, 2 lbs. ; strong 
 mcrciirlHl ointment, 4 oz. ; mix well. — Ciatkb. 
 
 7. Lard or other f jt, with an equal quantity 
 of oil of turpentine. — Dattbenton. 
 
 8. H^ithout mercury. Lard, 1 lb. ; oil of 
 turpentine, 4 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 6 oz. — 
 W'niTK. 
 
 9. Strong mercurial ointment, 1 lb. ; lard, 
 4 lbs. J Venice turpentine, 8 oz. ; oil of turpen- 
 tine, 2 oz. If mixed by heat, care must be 
 taken not to use more heat than is necessary, 
 and to add the oil of turpentine when the 
 other ingredients begin to coo) and to stir till 
 cold.— ArEwEN. 
 
 10. Corrosive sublimate, 2 oz.j white helle- 
 bore, 3 oz. ; fish oil, 6 quarts ; resin, ^ lb. ; 
 tallow, \ lb. The sublimate and then the 
 hellebore to be rubbed with a portion of the 
 oil till perfectly smooth, and then mixed with 
 the other ingredients melted together. — 
 Stevenson. 
 
 11. The following once had considerable 
 local celebrity, but it obviously requires to be 
 used with caution. Dissolve 24 oz. of corrosive 
 sublimate in the same quantity of muriatic 
 acid, and beat up the solution with 6 lbs. of 
 strong mercurial ointment ; put in a large pan, 
 and pour on it 19^ lbs. of lard, and 1} lb. ot 
 common turpentine, melted together and still 
 hot, and stir the whole continually until it 
 becomes solid. 
 
 12. Castor-oil seeds well bruised and steeped 
 for 12 hours in sour milk, after straining rub 
 the liquid briskly into the skin. (An Indian 
 remedy ) 
 
 SCAQLIO'LA. A species of plaster or stucco, 
 made of pure trypsum, with variegated colours, 
 in imitatlm of marble. In general, the liquid 
 employed is u weak solution of Flanders glue; 
 and the colours, any which are not decomposed 
 or destroyed by admixture with sulpliate of 
 lime and exposure to the light. The compo- 
 sition is olten applied upon hollow column^ 
 formed of wood, or even of laths nailed to- 
 gether, and the surface, when hard, is turued 
 smooth in a lathe, and polished. 
 
 SCALES. A special article under the head 
 of " Balance " lias been devoted to the scales 
 employed by the chemist and analyst. 
 
 But although these claimed from their 
 greater complexity of structure and the ex- 
 treme delicacy of movement required of them 
 a separate notice, every pharmacist and 
 apothecary will recognise the importance 
 of bestowing an equal amount of attention 
 upon his dispensing scales; and, to ensure 
 accurate weighing by them, will take care to 
 kei'p them scrupulously dean, and properly 
 poised. 
 
 For dispensing purposes, scales fitted with 
 glass pans (or at least with one glass pan, in 
 which mi dirinal substances can be wei'„'hed) 
 shouldaliiays beemployed. The beams should 
 
 be of steel, and the attachments of one piece of 
 brass only, in preference to chains, or supports 
 of silken thread. The beams are best cleaned 
 with sand paper, or rotten stone, and may be 
 protected from rust by being rubbed over with 
 a little almond oil. 
 
 SCALD-HEAD. See RiNGWonjt. 
 
 SCALDS. See Burns and Scalds. 
 
 SCALL. 8yn. Scald. The popular name 
 of several skin diseases distinguished by scabs 
 or scuriiness, whether dry or humid. Ste 
 Eecptions, Ringworm, &c. 
 
 SCAM'MONY. Syn. Scvmmonhtm (B. P., 
 Ph. L., E., & D.), L. The " gum resin emitted 
 from the cut root of Conrohmlus Scammonia, 
 Linn." (I'h. L.), or Aleppo scamnnny plant. 
 
 There are three principal varieties or quali- 
 ties of scammony known in the market; viz. 
 viROiK (sp. gr. 1-21); SECONDS (sp. gr. 
 1"460 to l-4'63) ; and thirds (sp. pr. 1165 
 to 1500). The best, and that only intended 
 to be used in medicine, is imported from 
 Aleppo. 
 
 Pur. Scammony is not only hiriioly adulte- 
 rated in the country of its production, but 
 again after its arrival in EuL-land. S.mtkna 
 SCAMMONY, a very inferior vanety, is also 
 commonly dressed up, and .sold as Aleppo 
 scammony. In many cases substances are 
 sold at the public sales in London, and else- 
 whirc, as scammony, which contain only a 
 mere trace of that article. This is all ground 
 up to form the scammony powder of the shops. 
 ( f '«rfe ' Evid. Com. Ho. Com.,' 115.5.) Pure 
 8CAMM0NT has a peculiar cheesy smell, and a 
 greenish-grey colour. It is " porous ami brittle, 
 and the freshly broken surface shines ; hydro- 
 chloric acid being dropped on it, it emits no 
 bubbles; nor docs the powder digested in 
 water, at heat of 170° Falir., become blue 
 by the simultaneous addition of iodide of 
 potassium and dilute nitric acid. Out of 100 
 gr., 78 (80— Ph. E.) should be soluble in 
 ether?' (Ph. L.) The tincture of pure scam- 
 mony is not turned green by nitric acid. If 
 the powder effervesce with dilute acids, it 
 contains chalk. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Pure scammony is a powerful 
 drastic purgative and anthelmintic, inadmis- 
 sible in inflammatory conditions of the ali- 
 mentary canal, but well adapted for torpid 
 and inactive couditions of the abdominal 
 organs. Associated with calomel, rhubarb, or 
 sulphate of potassa, it is useful in all cases in 
 which an active cathartic or vermifuge may be 
 required, especially for children. — Vote. (For 
 an adult) 5 to 15 gr., in powder, or made into 
 a bolus or emulsion. 
 SCARLATI'NA. See Scarlet fetes. 
 SCAR'LETDYE. Proc. (Poerner.)— a. The 
 'BouiUoil.' Take of cream of tart:ir. If oz. ; 
 water, q. s. ; boil in a block-tiu vessel, and 
 when dissolved, add of solution of tin (made by 
 dissolviufr 2 oz. of grain tin in a mixture of 
 1 lb. each of nitric acid and witter, and 1^ oz. 
 of sal ammoniac), IJ oz. ; boil for 3 miuutes. 
 
1466 
 
 SCARLET FEVER— SCENE-PAINTING 
 
 then introdnce the cloth, boil for 2 hoars, 
 drain it, and let it cool. — 5. The ' Rougie.' 
 Next take of cream of tartar, i oz. ; water, 
 q. s. ; boil, and add powdered cochineal, 1 oz. j 
 iigain boil tor 5 minutes, then gradually add of 
 solution of tin, 1 oz., stirring well all the time ; 
 lastly, put in the goods and dye as quickly as 
 possible. The quantities given are those for 
 1 to 1^ lb. of woollen cloth. The result is a 
 full scarlet. To make the colour turn on the 
 ' ponceau ' or poppy, a little turmeric is added 
 to the bath, 
 
 Obs. Scarlet is red with a tinge of yellow ; 
 it is nearly always produced by cochineal. See 
 Bbd dye. 
 
 SCARLET PE'VEX. Syn. ScABlATiNA, Fe- 
 BMS SOAKLATINA, L. A highly contagious 
 disease, so named after the peculiar eruption 
 or efflorescence of the skin which accompanies 
 it. The milder form of this disease (scaela- 
 TINA BIMPLEK, s. MiTis) comes on with lan- 
 guor, chilliness alternated by fits of heat, 
 nausea, vomiting (frequently), and other com- 
 mon symptoms of fever; followed, on the 
 third or fourth day, by a scarlet efflorescence 
 upon the skin, which after three or four days 
 ends in the cuticle or scarf-skin peeling off in 
 branny scales. Dropsical swelling of the 
 whole body sometimes follows the disappear- 
 ance of the eruption j but this, with tlie fe- 
 brile symptoms, and the soreness of the throat 
 (if any), then give way, and the patient gradu- 
 ally regains his former health and strength. 
 In the malignant form of scarlet fever (SCAE- 
 LATINA CTNANOHIOA, S. ANG-INOSA, S. MALIG-NA) 
 the febrile symptoms, from the first, are more 
 alarming j there is bilious vomiting, great sore- 
 ness and ulceration of the throat, the pulse is 
 small and quick, and the breathing laborious. 
 Tiiese symptoms rapidly increase on the ap- 
 pearance of the eruption; the body then be- 
 comes swollen, the nose and e^es inflamed, the 
 breath fetid, the throat suppurates, putrid 
 symptoms ensue, and the patient is either 
 suddenly cut off or recovers very slowly. 
 
 The early symptoms of scarlet fever are dis- 
 tinguished from those of the MEASLES and 
 SMALLPOX by the greater extent and want of 
 elevation of the eruption, and by its not con- 
 gregating into putclies. Nor are there the 
 cough or running from the eyes and nose 
 which usher in the measles. 
 
 The treatment of the milder form of scarlet 
 fever, especially that of childhood, may con- 
 sist of the adiniaistration of an emetic, fol- 
 lowed by a saline aperient, to clear the bowels ; 
 the latter being repeated as occasion may re- 
 quire. The patient should be kept in a coul 
 and well-ventilated room, the diet should be 
 light and farinaceous, and the use of diluent 
 drinks copiously indulged in. If the febrile 
 symptoms are severe, or the throat much af- 
 fected, small doses of some mild mercurial, as 
 calomel, mercurial pill, or quicksilver with 
 chalk, may be administered, either separately 
 or combined with antimonial diaphoretics or 
 
 Dover's powder. In malignant scarlet fever a 
 smart emetic should be given early, and mer- 
 curials and duipboretics at once freely exhi- 
 bited. Acidulated gargles may be used for the 
 throat, and, when the heat of the body is much 
 above the natural standard, sponging the whole 
 body with cold water, or with vinegar and 
 water, may be had recourse to. If the malig- 
 nant symptoms run high, and assume a typhoid 
 or putrid character, the system must be sup- 
 ported with stimulant tonics as wine, bark, 
 capsicum, &c. 
 
 According to Hahnemann, Koreff, and 
 Randhahn, belladonna is a prophylactic against 
 scarlet fever. The homoeopathists also hold 
 it to be almost a specific in the disease. 
 
 Dr Renfrew's medicin.al treatment consists 
 in the administration of a mixture consisting 
 of tincture of perchloride of iron and chlorate 
 of potash. He contends that the chlorine 
 which the mixture contains destroys the blood 
 poison, that the hydrochloric acid supplies a 
 desirable ingredient for the blood, that the 
 iron improves the impaired red blood disks 
 and assists in forming new ones, whilst the 
 chlorate of potash is a source of oxygen 
 whereby the disintegrated matters floating in 
 the blood are burnt up and destroyed. 
 
 Scarlet fever is common to all ages of life, 
 but children and young persons are the most 
 subject to it. Unlike the smallpox, it occa- 
 sionally attacks the same person more than 
 once. It is most common in dirty, close, 
 damp situations. 
 
 In horses, the commencing symptoms are 
 very similar to those in man — indisposition to 
 movement, febrile symptoms as indicated by a 
 hot and dry skin, and sore throat, the glands 
 about the head and neck being f lequently ten- 
 der and swollen. The respiration becomes 
 quickened and the pulse thready. In about 
 48 hours scarlet spots about the size of a pea 
 show themselves on the mucous membrane 
 about the lips and nostrils, the spots alter a 
 time becoming confluent. Except the attack 
 be a very mild one, similar spots spread all 
 over the body, but are most plentiful about 
 the animal's head and neck. Alter abont a 
 fortnight or three weeks, the hair leaves the 
 parts on which the spots are, and then des- 
 quamation sets in, and hare bald patches are 
 left. The after .results bear a great resem- 
 blance to those which frequently follow an 
 attack of the same disease in the human being. 
 The best treatment consists in placing the 
 animal in a cool, well-ventilated loose box, ap- 
 plying bandages to the legs, and a linen cover 
 to the body, with a warm rug over that. 
 
 A dose of nitre and Mindererus spirit should 
 be given in water three times a day, combined 
 with mild tonics, stimulants, and diuretics. 
 
 See DiSINPECTANTS. 
 
 SCEHE'-PAIMTING. A variety of distemper 
 painting employed in theatres, &c., governed 
 by perspective, and having for its ol ject the 
 production of striking effects when viewed at 
 
SCENT-BAGS— SCIENCE 
 
 1467 
 
 a distance. Water, aire, turpentine, and the 
 ordinitry pigments, are the materials used for 
 the purpose. 
 
 SCENT BAGS. See Saohits. 
 
 SCENT BALLS. iSyn. Pabtillks de toi- 
 lette ODOBANTES, Fr. These are prepared 
 from any of the materials noticed under pot 
 FOUaRI, aCSNTBD FOWDEBS, and SACHETS, 
 made into a paste with mucilage of gum traga- 
 cunth, and moulded into any desired forms, as 
 thnt of balls, beads, medallions, &c. The larger 
 onos are frequently polished. 
 
 SCENTED CAS'SOLETTES. See Pot foubbi, 
 and above. 
 
 SCENTS (Pommade). Prep. 1. (Cowslip.) 
 From e-iseuce of bergamot, 8 oz. ; essence of 
 lemon, 4 oz. ; oil of cloves, 2 oz. ; essence de 
 petit grain, 1 oz. 
 
 2. (JONQCILLE.) From essence of bergamot 
 and lemon, of eiich 8 oz. ; oils of orange peel 
 nnd cloves, of each 2 oz. ; oil of sassafras, 
 1 oz. ; liquid storax.^oz. ; digest, with warmth 
 and agitation, for a few hours, and decant the 
 clear portion in a week. 
 
 3. (MiLLEFLEUB.) From essence of arabtr- 
 gris (finest), 4 oz. ; essence of lemon, 3 oz. ; 
 oil of cloves and English oil of lavender, of 
 each 2 oz. ; essence tie petit grain, essence of 
 berstamot, and balsam of Peru (genuine), of 
 eacli 1 oz. ; as the last, 
 
 Ohs. Tlio above are employed to scent 
 pomatums, hair oils, &o. 1 oz. of any one of 
 them, dissolved in one pint of the strongest 
 rectified spirit, produces a delicious perfume 
 for the handkerchief. 
 
 SCENTS (Snuff). Frep. 1. Essence of ber- 
 gamot, 2 oz. ; otto of roses and neroli, of each 
 
 1 dr. 
 
 2. Oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; essence of lemon, 
 
 2 oz. ; essence of bergamot, 4 oz. 
 
 3. To the last, add of oil of cloves, 2 oz. 
 
 4. Essence of musk and ambergris, of each 
 1 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, i dr. See Sndff, 
 &c. 
 
 SCHEELE'S GREEN. See Gbeen pia- 
 
 MENTS. 
 
 SCHLIPPE'S SALT. Sulphantimoniate of 
 sodium. Sef Antimony, Sulphantimoniate. 
 
 SCHWARTZ'S DROPS. See Drops, Wobm. 
 
 SCIATICA. See KnBrMATisM. 
 
 SCIENCE. " Man," says Whewell, " is the 
 interpreter of nature. Science the right 
 iiiterpretiition. The senses place before us 
 tile characters of the * Book of Nature ;' but 
 these convey no knowledge to us till we have 
 discovered the alphabet by which they are to 
 be read." 
 
 Various classifications of the sciences have 
 been proposed by different authors. Dr Neil 
 Ariiott conceived that the object of all the 
 sciences, viz. a knowledge of nature, might be 
 best attained by the study of physics, clie- 
 mistry, life and mind, including under this 
 latter the laws of society, or the modern 
 MieiHP of sociology. 
 
 As to mathematics he regarded it as u 
 
 system of " technical mcnsnration," invaded 
 by the mind in order to enable it to study the 
 other sciences. In his ' Cours de Philosophie 
 Positive,' Cointe traverses the entire circle of 
 the theoretical, abstract, or fundamental sci- 
 ences, and divides them into mathematics, 
 astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and 
 sociology. He admits no distinct science on 
 psychology or the science of mind. 
 
 Mr Herbert Spencer proposes to classify 
 the sciences into three groups; viz. :— 1. 
 Abstract science, which treats of the forms of 
 phenomena detached from their embodiments. 
 2. Abstract concrete science, or the 2>heno- 
 mena of nature analysed into their separate 
 element-i. 3. Concrete science or natural 
 phenomena in their totalitie.s. 
 
 " For the classification of the sciences it is 
 convenient to prepare the way by distinguish- 
 ing between theoretical sciences which are 
 the sciences properly fo c illed, and practical 
 science. A theoretical science embraces a 
 distinct department of nature, and is so 
 arranged as to give in the most compict form 
 the entire body of ascertained (sciiiitific) 
 knowledge in that department, such ns 
 mathematics, chemistry, physiology, and zoo- 
 logy. A practical science is the application 
 of scientifically obtained facts and laws in one 
 or more departments to some practical end, 
 which end rules the selection and arrange- 
 ment of the whole; as for example, naviga- 
 tion, engineering, mining, and medicine. 
 Another distinction must be made before laying 
 down the systematic order of the theoretical 
 sciences. 
 
 " A certain number of these sciences have 
 for their subject-matter each a separate depart- 
 ment of natural forces or powers; thus, 
 biology deals » ith the department of organised 
 beings, p-iychology with mind. Oilurs deal 
 with the application of powers elsewhere 
 recogni-cd to some re;:ion of concrete facts or 
 phenomena. Thus, geology does not di>cuss 
 any natural powers not found in other sciences, 
 but seeks to apply the laws of physics, che- 
 mistry, and biology to account for the appear- 
 ance of the earth's crust. 
 
 " The sciences that embrace peculiar natural 
 powers are called abstract, general, or funda- 
 niental sciences ; those that apply to the 
 powers treated of under these, to rei:ions of 
 concrete phenomena, are called concrete, 
 derived, or applied sciences."' 
 
 The separation of the sciences into these 
 two sections is that now gener.illy accepted. 
 
 The first section, that of the alistracc or 
 theoretical sciences, is subdivided by almost 
 common consent into mathematics, physics, 
 chemistry, biology (vegetable and animal 
 physiology), psychology (mind), and sociul igy 
 (the laws of society). 
 
 The second section, that of the concrete 
 scienres, includes meteorology, mineralogy, 
 botany, zoology, geology, and geography. 
 1 • CliamberB's Encydopadia.' 
 
1468 
 
 SCILLITIN— SCROFULA. 
 
 The order in which the abstract sciences 
 are arranged above has also been found to 
 best illustrate the sequence in which they 
 may be most advantageously studied. 
 
 SCIL'LITIlf. Syn. Soillitina, Scilhtitb. 
 A whitish, resinous, translucent, bitter, deli- 
 quescent substance, obtained by Vogel from 
 squills. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and 
 acetic acid, and is purgative, acrid, and poi- 
 sonous. 
 
 SCORBU'TUS. See ScravT. 
 
 SCO"BIA. Dross; the refuse or useless 
 part of any substance, more especially that 
 left from bodies which have been subjected 
 to the action of fire. It is frequently used 
 in the plural (SCOBI.E). 
 
 SCOTT'S DBOFS. See Patent medicines. 
 
 SCOURING. The common method of clean- 
 ing cloth is by beating and brubhing it, unlf ss 
 it be very dirty, when it undergoes the opera- 
 tion of scouring. This is best done on the 
 small scale, as with articles of WEAEiHa 
 APPAREL, as follows : — A little curd soap is 
 dissolved in water, and, after mixing it with a 
 little clarified ox gall, is applied to all the 
 spots of grease, dirt, &c., and well rubbed into 
 them with a stifE brush, until they appear to 
 be removed ; after which the article is well 
 cleaned all over with a brush or sponge dipped 
 into some warm water, to which the previous 
 mixture and a little more ox-gall has been 
 added. The cloth is next thoroughly rinsed 
 in clean water, and hung up to dry. For 
 dark-coloured cloths, some fullers earth is 
 often added to the mixtnre of soap and gall. 
 When the article is nearly dry, the nap is laid 
 smooth, and it is carefully pressed (if with a 
 hot irim, on the wrong side), after which a 
 soft brush, moistened with a drop or two of 
 olive oil, is frequently passed over it, to give it 
 a finish and gloss. 
 
 Cloth is al-o cleaned in the dry way : — The 
 spots being removed, as above, and the wetted 
 parts having become dry, clean damp sand ia 
 strewed over it, and beaten into it with a 
 brush, after which the article is well gone over 
 with a hard brush, when the sand coiues out, 
 and brings the dirt with it. 
 
 Buff and dbab cloth is generally cleaned 
 by covering it with a paste made with pipe- 
 clay and water, either with or without a little 
 umber to temper the colour, which, when dry, 
 is rubbed and bru-hed off. 
 
 When the article requires renovation as well 
 as scouring, it is placed, whilst still damp, on a 
 hoard, and the threadbare parts are rnl,bed 
 with a half- worn hatter's card filled with flocks, 
 or with a teasel, or a prickly thistle, until a 
 nap is raised ; it is next hung up to dry, after 
 which it is ' finished ofl! ' as belore. When the 
 cloth is much faded, it is usual to give it a 
 ' dip,' as it is called, or to pass it through a 
 dye hath to fieshen up the colour. Black and 
 DARK blue cloth, if rusty or faded, is coin- 
 monly treated to a coat of ' reviver,' instead of 
 being ' re-dipped,' and is then hung up until 
 
 next day, before being pressed and finished off. 
 See Spots and Stains. 
 SCOURING IN ANIMALS. See DiAB- 
 
 BBCEA. 
 
 SCOURING DBOFS. See Drops. 
 
 SCROFULA. Syn. Kino's evil, stecma, 
 STRUMOUS DISEASE. By modem pathologists 
 scrofula is regarded as a constitutional 
 tendency to form and deposit in various 
 tissues and organs of the body a substance 
 called tubercle.^ The tendency may, however, 
 in some cases only exist without any actual 
 tuberculous deposit taking place. Sir James 
 Paget thus describes scrofula as generally 
 understood to be a " stated of constitution 
 distinguished in some measure by peculiari- 
 ties of appearance even during health, but 
 much more by peculiar liability to certain dis- 
 eases, including pulmonary phthisis. The 
 chief of these ' scrofulous' diseases are various 
 swellings of the lymphatic glands, arising 
 from causes which would be inadequate to 
 produce them in healthy persons. 
 
 "The swellings are due sometimes to mere 
 enlargement, as from an increase of natural 
 structure, sometimes to chroTiic inflammation, 
 sometimes to an acute inflammation or abscess, 
 sometimes to tuberculous disease of the 
 glands. 
 
 " But besides these it is usual to reckon as 
 ' scrofulous ' afl*ections certai n chronic inflam- 
 mations of the joints; slowly progressive carious 
 intlammations of bones; chronic and frequent 
 ulcers of the cornea; ophthalmia attended 
 with extreme intolerance of light, but with 
 little, if any, of the ordinary consequences of 
 inflammation ; frequent chronic abscesses ; 
 pustules or other cutaneous eruptions fre- 
 quently appearing upon slight afli'ection of the 
 health or local irritation; habitual swelling 
 and catarrh of the mucous membrane of the 
 nose; habitual swelling of the upper lip." 
 
 Scrofula is a disease which almost always 
 shows itself during childhood, and rarely alter 
 maturity has been attained. 
 
 Scrofulous children, or those of scrofulous 
 diathesis, are frequently narrow-chested, or 
 their chests present that projecting appear- 
 ance known as ' pigeon-hreasted ;' their 
 abilomens are also unnaturally large, and 
 their limbs emaciated. Their circulation is 
 latiguid, and they are very generally attacked 
 witd chilblains during inclement weather. 
 They also suffer from obstinate indigestion. 
 Bearing in mind the fact that scrofula is 
 frequently induced, irrespective of hereditary 
 taint, in the children of the poor by bad and 
 damp air, insufficient food and clothing, 
 exclusion from sunshine, and such like in- 
 sanitary surroundings, the chief treatment 
 that will suggest itself will consist in remedy- 
 ing these adverse conditions. Hence the 
 patient should live on generous but digestible 
 food, partaking of meat twiie a day. Milk 
 and eggs also form an excellent diet for the 
 > See Flitbi9is. 
 
SCUDAMOEE'S LOTION— SCURVr 
 
 1469 
 
 icrofulon'. A scrof nions mother stionid refrain 
 from suckling her offspring, and procure a wet- 
 uarse for that purpose. Flannel should be 
 wnrD both summer and winter. Varioas medi- 
 cines have been employed in this disease, 
 including cod-liver oil, sarsaparilla, bark, syrup 
 of iodide of iron, the alkalies, and mineral 
 acids. Of these cod-liver oil and fyrup of 
 iodide of iron deservedly enjoy the highest 
 reputation. 
 
 SCUDAMORE'S LOTION. See Lotion, 
 GotTT. 
 
 SCUEP. Syn. Fubfuea. Scurf "is a 
 natural and healthy formation, and though it 
 may be kept from accumulating, it cannot be 
 prevented. It is produced on every part of 
 the body where hair is found, although, from 
 the more active growth of hair on the scalp, 
 the facilities for collecting, and the contrast of 
 colour, it strikes the eye most disagreeably in 
 that situation. This will show how futile any 
 attempt mu-t be which shall have for its 
 object to prevent the formation of the scurf. 
 It may be removed, and should be removed, 
 every day, with the hair-brush ; but pre. 
 vention is impossible, inasmuch as it is opposed 
 to a law of nature. Occasionally, as a morbid 
 notion, an unusual quantity of scurf is produced, 
 iu which case medical means may be adopted 
 to bring the scalp into a more healthful 
 state." (Eras. Wilson.) In such cases the 
 daily use of some njild stimuhiting or deter- 
 l^ent wash, with due attention to the stomach 
 imd bowtls, will generally abate this aur.oy- 
 nnce. 
 
 SCURF POWDER— Grindpnlver (Mnhon, 
 Paris). Three powders which, according to 
 Chevalier and Figuier, are nothing but wood 
 ashes. Buchner found no alkalies, but an- 
 nounced the following composition : — Organic 
 calcium carbonate (oyster shells, egg shells, 
 crab shells), with a little gypsum, charcoal 
 powder, and more or less brick-dust, pow- 
 dered, mixed, and exposed to a moderate red 
 heat in a covered crucible, till part of the 
 chalk is converted into quicklime, and the 
 gypsum reduced by the charcoal powder to 
 ciilcium sulphide, which in its turn is 
 graduiilly converted by the air into calcium 
 sulphite. All three powders are made of the 
 same ingredients, but in different proportions. 
 No. 1 hHs more gypsum and charcoal powder; 
 No. 2 less chiircoal and more chaik; and 
 No. 3 more brickdust. (Wittstein.) 
 
 SCURF SALVE— Grinsalbe. In France it 
 is generally a mixture of 2 parts slaked lime, 
 5 parts soda crystals, and 25 parts fat. 
 (Hager.) 
 
 SCUR'VT. Syn. SconBUTUS, L. This disease 
 commences with indolence, sallow looks, debi- 
 lity, and loss of spirits ; the gums become sore 
 and spongy, the teeth loose, and the breath 
 
 fetid ; the legs swell, eruptions appear on dif- 
 ferent parts of the body, and, at length, the 
 patient sinks under general emaciation, diar- 
 rhoea, and haemorrhages. 
 
 The treatment of ordinary eases of this 
 disease mainly consists in employing a diet of 
 fresh animal and green vegetable food, with 
 mild ale, beer, or lemonade, as beverages ; 
 scrupulously avoiding salted and dried meat. 
 The fresh-squeezedjuice of lemons is, perhaps, 
 of all other substances, the most powerful 
 remedy in this disease in its early stages, 
 and is useful in all of them. Ertervescing 
 draughts formed with the bicarbonate of po- 
 tas.m (not soda) are also excellent. 
 
 In former years, before the nature of this 
 malady had been intelligently investigated, and 
 the proper preventive methods and remedial 
 measures for combating it were unknown, 
 scurvy was not only a very common but a very 
 fatal disease in our own navy, as well as in the 
 navies of other powers. Of 961 men who con- 
 stituted Anson's tleet sent out during our war 
 with Spain in 1742, 626 died of scurvy in nine 
 months ; whilst >Sir Gilbert Bhme records that 
 in the year 1780, out of ii fleet composed of 
 between 7000 and 8000 men, more than 1000, 
 or one in seven, perished from the same cause. 
 Sir Richard Hawkins, one of the naval cele- 
 brities of Elizabeth and James' reign, affirmed 
 that during twenty years he had kuown 20,000 
 sailors fall victims to scurvy alone; and a 
 Portuguese writer, quoted by SirCharles Blane, 
 speaking of the number of victims from scurvy, 
 during a naval exploring expedition of his own 
 countrymen, says " that if the dead who from 
 this cause had been thrown overboard between 
 the coast of Guinea and the Cape of Good 
 Hope,and between that Cape and Mozambique, 
 could have bad tombstones placed for them, 
 each on the spot where he sank, the whole 
 way would have appeared one continued 
 cemetery."' 
 
 The statistical report of the navy for 1871 
 offers a gratifying contrust to the above 
 figures. From this document it appears thut 
 out of a total force of 47-0 sailors, only four 
 were affected with scurvy during that year. 
 The much grenter number of men attacked 
 by the disease on boHrd merchant ships ap- 
 pears to be due to the inferior or worthless 
 character of the lime or lemon juice purchased 
 by them. 
 
 Writing on the hygienic condition of the 
 merchant marine in 1867, Mr Harry Leach 
 saj s : — 
 
 " We are prepared to maintain, from the 
 following table (and other statistics from which 
 these have been taken), that the want of good 
 lime or lemon juice was distinctly the cause 
 of scurvy in the vessels below mentioned. 
 1 Di Guy. 
 
1470 
 
 SEALING-WAX— SEA-SICKNESS 
 
 Casea of 
 Scurvy, 
 
 s 
 
 10 
 6 
 5 
 
 8 
 7 
 4 
 8 
 6 
 2 
 7 or 8 
 3 
 9 
 2 
 
 
 Ho, of Hands 
 
 Name of Ship. 
 
 (all told). 
 
 Hermione . . 
 
 17 
 
 Merrie England . 
 
 29 
 
 Stirling Castle 
 
 32 
 
 Hoang-Ho 
 
 21 
 
 Blanche Moore 
 
 33 
 
 St Andrew's Castle 
 
 19 
 
 Tamerlane • 
 
 21 
 
 MarlborougU 
 
 23 
 
 Galloway . 
 
 29 
 17 
 
 Tamar 
 
 French Empire 
 
 27 
 
 Eiiglet 
 
 14 
 
 Gei-long 
 
 14 
 
 Thorndean 
 
 3S 
 
 B«sutt of examination 
 of Lime juice. 
 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 Stinking. 
 Very weak. 
 Acetic acid. 
 Musty and nauseous. 
 Citric acid. 
 Nauseous. 
 A'ery weak. 
 Short allowance. 
 Very weak. 
 Citric acid. 
 'J'hick and nasty. 
 Taken irregularly. 
 Spoiled (short supply of 
 provisions) 
 
 Taken with ships that, with others, have 
 arrived in the port of London during the past 
 two years with cases of scurvy. 
 
 " Of direct causes this is nndouhtedly first 
 and foremost ; but of indirect causes we have 
 a few words to say. Dirt, bad provisions, and 
 any form of disease to which sailors, in com- 
 mon with other men, are subject, will predispose 
 to scurvy. This cannot and should not be 
 denied, but it affords to parsimonioils captains 
 a very large peg whereon to hang sundry in- 
 vectives as to the cry lately made about the 
 continued prevalence of this disease in the 
 merciintile marine. Such captains, with par- 
 donable ignorance, consider scurvy a form of 
 venereal disease, give the wretched subject 
 thereof mercury, and bring him into port 
 salivated as well as scorbutic." 
 
 Mr Leach further adds : — 
 
 "In summing up statistics of scurvy for 
 the past year (ISw), we find that a total of 235 
 accredited cases were admitted into British 
 hospitals, giving no account of those who 
 convalesced in sailors' homes or elsewhere. 
 
 "To this we may add, that seven suilors were 
 left at St Helena, from a ship recently arrived 
 in the Thames ; that a vessel put into Falmouth 
 on the 29th ult., with no less than sixteen 
 severe cases of scurx'y on board, and that 
 between twenty and thirty cases have arrived 
 in this port during the present month. It 
 would be well (as a supplementary aid to the 
 prevention of scurvy by inspection of lime 
 juice) that the dues levied for the St Helena 
 Hospital should be abolished . It was stated 
 to us some weeks ago by a very old inhabitant 
 of that Island, that this fact alone caused 
 many ships to pass without calling for needful 
 supplies of antiscorbutic material. 
 
 "I would however remark, that if the system 
 proposed by the Seamen's Hospital Society 
 were put in force, no such aid to the prevention 
 of this disease would be required, inasmuch as 
 every ship would then be supplied with goo(f 
 lime juice." 
 
 The following figures, giving the number 
 of patients suffering from scurvy admitted 
 into the Seamen's Hospital, shows a decrease 
 
 in the disease, since the publication of the 
 above : — 
 
 In 1865, 
 
 from British vessels. 
 
 101; 
 
 foreign do. 1 
 
 „ 1866 
 
 „ ,» 
 
 96 
 
 „ 5 
 
 „ 1667 
 
 J, n 
 
 9U 
 
 ■* 
 
 „ 1868 
 
 ,p » 
 
 6i 
 
 10 
 
 „ 1869 
 
 „ », 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 „ 1870 
 
 ■1 »i 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 „ 1871 
 
 » » 
 
 24 
 
 16 
 
 SEALING WAX. See Wax. 
 SEA SICKNESS. The most effectual pre- 
 ventive of sea sickness appears to be the hori- 
 zontal position. When there is much pain, 
 after the stomach has been well cleared, a few 
 drops of laudanum may be taken, or an opium 
 plaster may be applied over the region of the 
 stomach. Persons about to proceed to sea 
 should put their stomach and bowels in proper 
 order, by the use of mild aperients, and even 
 an emetic, if required, when it will generally 
 be found that a glass of warm and weak 
 brandy-and-water, to which 15 or 20 drops of 
 laudanum, or, still better, 1 or 2 drops of 
 creasote, have been added, will effectually pre- 
 vent any disposition to sea sickness, provided 
 the bowels be attended to, and excess in eating 
 and drinking be at the same time avoided. A 
 spoonful of crushed ice, in a wine-gbisst'ul of 
 cold water, or weak brandy-and-water, will 
 iiften afford relief when all other means fail. 
 Smoking at sea is very apt to induce sickness. 
 M. F. Curie, in the ' Comptes Eendus,' asserts 
 that drawing in the breath as the vessel 
 descends, and exhaling it as it ascends, on the 
 billows, by preventing the movements of the 
 diaphragm acting abnormally on the phrenetic 
 nerves, prevents sea sickness. On this Mr 
 Atkinson, at one of the meetings of the British 
 Association, observed that — if a person, seated 
 on board ship, holding a tumbler filled with 
 water in his hand, makes an effort to prevent 
 the water running over, at the same time 
 allowing not merely his arm, but also his 
 whole body, to participate in the movements, 
 he will find that this has the effect of prevent- 
 ing the giddiness and nausea that the rolling 
 and tossing of the vessel have a tendency to 
 produce in inexperienced voyagers. If the 
 person is suffering from sickness at the com- 
 
SEDATIVE PILLS— SELENIUM 
 
 1471 
 
 mencoment of his experiment, as toon as he 
 gmsps the gliiss of liquid in his hand, and 
 ■nffcm his unn to take its course nni) go 
 througli the movements alluded to, he fuels as 
 if he were perlbrming them of his own free 
 will, and tlie nausea abates immedialely, and 
 very soon censes entirely, and does not return 
 so long as he sufiers his arm and body to 
 n«6nme the postures into which they seem to 
 be drawn. Should he, however, resist the free 
 course of his hand, he instantly feels a thrill 
 of puin, of a peculiarly stunning kind, shoot 
 thrnu);h his head, and experiences a sense of 
 dizziness and returning nausea. 
 
 Ur During, a Viennese physician, states that 
 an ordiuiry dneo of chloral hydrate is an 
 unfailing remedy for sea sickness. In various 
 cases recorded by him it seems to have been 
 of the greatrst service, even during long sea 
 voyages, ensuring a good night's rest, arrest- 
 ing violent sickness when it has set in, and 
 preventing its return. 
 
 SEDATIVE PILLS, Ganther's. These are 
 composed of the following ingredients : — 
 AssafoBtida powder, 50 parts; extract of vale- 
 rian, 50; extract of belladonna, ,S; oxide of 
 zinc, 1 part; castor, 2 parts. Make into a 
 pill-mass, to be administered in doses of 3 to 
 10 grains, twice daily, in chorea. Sec. 
 
 SED'ATIVES. Syn. Sedativa, L. Medi- 
 cines and agents which diminish the force of 
 the circulation or the animal energy, and allay 
 pain. Foxglove, henbane, tobacco, potassio- 
 tartriite of antimony, and several of the 
 neiitnil salts and acids, act as sedatives. Cold 
 is, perhaps, the most powerful agent of this 
 class. 
 
 SEED. Si/n. Seuen, L. The seeds of plants 
 are conspicuous for their vast number and 
 variety, and their extreme usefulness to man. 
 fhe seeds ol certain of the Oraminaceee furnish 
 him with his daily bread ; some of those of the 
 Leguminona in either the immature or ripe 
 state, supply his table with wholesome escu- 
 lents, or provide a nourishing diet for his 
 domestic animals; whilst those of numerous 
 other plants, dispersed through every class, 
 orders, and family, yield their treasures of oil, 
 medicinnU. or perfumes for his use. 
 
 SELENIC ACID. HjSeOi. Si/n. Acidum 
 SELENici'M, L. Prep. By fusing selenium 
 with iiiirati' of potassium or of sodiuii, acting 
 on tile f usml mass with water, precipitating the 
 resultiiifj solution with acetate or nitrate of 
 lead, and deromposing the precipitate (si lenate 
 of lead), dillused in water, with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. The selenic acid, thus obtained, 
 may he cautiously concentrated in a glass 
 vessel, if necessary; but if this be pushed too 
 far, it is resolved into selenious acid (HjSeOj) 
 and oxysrcn. 
 
 Prop., .\c. Hydrated selenic acid is a colour- 
 less liquid, closely resembling sulphuric acid; 
 its salts (>elenates) bear the closest analogy to 
 the 8nl|ihates. 
 
 Sklknio Acid (HjSeO^). No selenic an- 
 
 hydride is known. Selenic acid may be ob- 
 tained in solution by deflagrating selenium or 
 a selenite with potassic nitrate. Th« residue 
 dissolved in water is mixed with a solution of 
 plumbic nitrate, an insoluble plumbic seleniate 
 being precipitated. The plumbic seleniate is 
 suspended in water and decomposed by means 
 of a current of sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 Plumbic sulphide is precipitated, and the 
 liberated selenic acid separated by filtration is 
 concentrateil until it acquires a sp. gr. of 2'6; 
 if heated above 554° F. it decomposes iuto 
 selenious anhydride, water, and oxygen. 
 Selenic acid has a great resemblance to sul- 
 phuric acid. It acts upon the metals in the 
 same manner, and even dissolves gold. The 
 seleniates are also very similar in properties to 
 the sulphates, and both classes of salts are 
 isomorphous. The seleniates give the same 
 characteristic odour before the blowpipe as 
 the selenites. Their solutions give white pre- 
 cipitates with the salts of barium, slroniiaii 
 and lead, insoluble in nitric acid. If a 
 soluble seleniate is boiled with hydrochloric 
 acid, selenic acid is set free, and is reduced to 
 selenious acid, sulphurous acid will then pre- 
 cipitate reduced selenium from the solution. 
 Baric seleniate may be also decomposed in u 
 similar manuer, and this reaction distinguishes 
 it from baric sulphate. 
 
 SELE'KIUM. So. A rare chemical clement, 
 discovered by Berzelius in 1817 in the 
 refuse of a sulphuric acid manufactory near 
 Fuhlim, in Sweden, it having been derived 
 from the pyrites employed in the mauu- 
 facture of tlie acid. Hence the pyrites of 
 Fahlun forms the chief source of this rare 
 body, altliough it exists, but less abundantly, 
 in combination with a few other metaU, 
 termed selenides. Selenium is chiefly inte- 
 resting to the chemist from its reuiarkahic 
 analogy in chemical properties to suljiiiur. 
 Like this latter element, it is capalile of 
 assuming three allatropic forms — the amor- 
 phou-*, the vitreous, and the crystalline. 
 
 The latter varii ty of selenium, like the 
 crystalline form of sulphur, dissolves in bi- 
 sulphide of carbon, but much less readily. 
 Selenium boils below a red heat and becomes 
 converted into a deep yellow vapour, which, 
 when heated, is subject to the same anomalous 
 expansion as sulphur vapour. It is not so 
 combustible as sulphur, which it still further 
 resembles by burning with a blue flame when 
 ignited in the air. During combustion it 
 gives off a peculiar and cliaractiri-tie smell, 
 resembling that of putrid horse-radish. 
 Heated with strong sulphuric acid', selenium 
 Ibrms a green solution. If this solution is 
 poured iuto water, the selenium separates and 
 is thrown down. Selenium is without taste or 
 smell, is insoluble in water, and in its normal 
 state is a non-conductor of heat and eleetricity. 
 Selenium may be extracted from the Falitun 
 residue by the following process: — It should 
 be first boiled with sulphuric acid, diluted 
 
1472 
 
 SELENIUM 
 
 with an equal volume of water, and nitric acid 
 should then be added in small quantities until 
 the oxidation of the selenium is accomplished, 
 which may be known when red fumes cease to 
 be cooled. The solution which contains sele- 
 nious (Se02) and selenic (SeOj) acid is then to 
 be largely diluted with water, filtered, the 
 filtrate mixed with about one fourth of its 
 bulk of hydrochloric acid, and then concen- 
 trated a little by evaporation, the result of 
 which is that the hydrochloric acid reduces 
 the selenic to selenioas acid. A current of 
 sulphurous acid being then passed through 
 the solution, the selenium is precipitated in 
 red flakes, which form into a dense black 
 mass when the liquid is gently heated. The 
 following equation illustrates the reaction: — 
 H20,Se62 + HjO + 2S02=2(H2SOg) + Se. 
 
 Like sulphur, selenium combines with oxy- 
 gen and forms an anhydride corresponding to 
 sulphurous anhydride. Sblenious abht- 
 DEIDE (SeO^) may be obtained by burning 
 selenium in a current of oxygen; it is, how- 
 ever, more easily prepared by boiling selenium 
 with nitric ncid or with aqua regia, the excess 
 of acid being expelled by heat, the selenions 
 anhydride is left as a white mass. When this 
 is dissolved in water it yields a crystalline 
 hydrate of selenious acid (H^SeOj). The 
 salts formed by selenious ncid (selenites), with 
 the exception of those of the alkali metals, are 
 mostly insoluble in water. They are easily 
 known by tlie peculiar odour of selenium 
 which they give off when heated on charcoal 
 in the reducing flame of the blowpipe ; solu- 
 tions of the selenites give a reddish-brown 
 precipitate when treated with sulphurous 
 acid, 
 
 Seleniuretted Hydrogen (HgSe). This may 
 be obtained in a precisely similar manner, 
 namely, by acting on selenide of iron or potas- 
 sium with diluted sulphuric or hydrochloric 
 acid. Seleniuretted hydrogen is soluble in 
 water, and precipitates many metals from 
 their salts as selenides. The solution is feebly 
 acid, and, like its analogue solution of sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, if exposed to the air, 
 absorbs oxygen and deposits selenium. The 
 selenides of the alkali metals are soluble in 
 water. The selenides of cerium, zinc, and 
 manganese are flesh-coloured ; most of the 
 others are black. This gas is inflammable like 
 sulphuretted hydrogen ; it lias, however, a 
 still more ofEensive smell than this latter gas. 
 Berzelius lost bis sense of smell for several 
 hours by the application to his nose of a 
 bubble of seleniuretted hydrogen not larger 
 than a pea. There are two chlorides of sele- 
 nium — a dichloride (SejCl^), a volatile liquid of 
 a brown colour, and a tetra-chloride (SeCl4), 
 which occurs as a white crystalline solid. 
 Selenium unites with sulphur, forming a bi- 
 sulphide (SeSj) and a tersulphide (SeSj). A 
 very curious physical property of selenium 
 when exposed to the action of liglit was first 
 noticed in 1873 by itfr May, assistant chemist 
 
 at the Telegraph Station at Valentia, in 
 Ireland, who observed that a stick of crystal- 
 lised selenium which had been used for some 
 time in telegraphy, where high electrical 
 resistance was required, offered a considerably 
 diminished resistance to the current when 
 exposed to the light than when kept in the 
 dark. Mr May's discovery, which was at 
 first received with some amount of incredulity, 
 has since been amply corroborated by the 
 observations and researches of many physicists, 
 amongst them by Professor Werner Siemens, 
 the result of whose experiments on this inte- 
 resting subject we quote from a lecture 
 delivered at the Koyal Institution by his 
 brother, Dr William Siemens, in February, 
 1876. After describing the method by which 
 his brother arranged the selenium, so that, 
 when inserted in the galvanic current of a 
 single Daniell's cell, the surface action pro- 
 duced by the light upon it attained a maximum 
 effect, and tliereby did away with the necessity 
 of employing a large galvanic battery, and at 
 the same time allowed an ordinary galvano- 
 meter to be used instead of a delicate one, as 
 hitherto employed, Dr Siemens proceeded to 
 illustrate the action of light upon the element 
 by experiment. "I here hold," he said, "an 
 eleme?it so prepared of amorphous selenium, 
 which I place in a dark box, and insert in a 
 galvanic circuit comprising a Daniell's cell 
 and a delicate galvanometer, the face of 
 which will be thrown upon the screen through 
 a mirror by meaus of the electric light. 
 
 " In dosing the circuit it will be seen that no 
 deflection of the needle ensues. We will now 
 admit light upon the selenium disc and close 
 the circuit, when again no deflection will be 
 observed, showing that the selenium in its 
 present condition is a non-conductor both in 
 the dark and under the influence of light. I 
 will now submit a similar disc of selenium 
 which has been kept in boiling water for an 
 hour and gradually cooled to the same tests as 
 before. In closing the circuit while the plate 
 is in the dark a certain deflection of the gal- 
 vanometer will be discernible, but I will now 
 open the lid of the box so as to admit light 
 upon the disc, when on again closing the 
 circuit a slight deflection of the galvanometer 
 needle will be observed. In closing the box 
 against the light this deflection will subside, 
 but will again be visible the moment the light 
 is readmitted to the box. Here we have, 
 then, the extraordinary effect of light upon 
 selenium clearly illustrated. 
 
 "I will now insert into the same circuit 
 another selenium plate which has been heated 
 up to 210° C, and, after having been kept at 
 that temperature for several hours, has been 
 gradually cooled ; it will be observed that this 
 plate is affected to a greater extent than the 
 former by the action of light, and other con- 
 ditions, to which I shall presently allude, prove 
 the selenium heated to a higher temperature 
 to be in other respects dissimilar to the other 
 
SELENIUM 
 
 1473 
 
 two modificatinnB of the same. These di{- 
 ferencrs will be best revealed in describing 
 my brother's ciperimcnt. He placed one of 
 his amorphous preparations of selenium in an 
 air-bath heated above the melting point of 
 selenium (to 260° C), while the connecting 
 wires were inserted in a galvanic circuit con- 
 sisting of only one Daniell's element and a 
 delicate refleciing galvanometer, and every 
 five minutes the temperature and conductivity 
 of the selenium were noted. Up to the tem- 
 perature of 80° C. no current passed; from 
 this point onward the conductivity of the 
 material rapidly increased until it obtained its 
 maximum at the temperature of 210° C, 
 being nearly its melting point, after which an 
 equally rapid diminution of conductivity com- 
 menced, reaching a minimum at a temperature 
 of about 240° C, when the conductivity was 
 only such as could bo detected by a most 
 delicate galvanometer. In continuing to 
 increase the temperature of the fluid selenium 
 very gradually but steadily, its conductivity 
 increased again. 
 
 The interpretation of these experiments is 
 as follows : Amorphous selenium retains a very 
 large amount of specific heat, which renders it 
 a non-conductor of electricity : when heated to 
 80° this amorphous solid mnss begins to change 
 its amorphous condition fcir the crystalline 
 form, in which form it po-sesses a greatly 
 reduced amount of specitic heat, giving rise to 
 the increase of temperature beyond that of 
 surrounding objects when the change of 
 condition is once set in. If care is taken to 
 limit the rise of temperature of the selenium 
 to 100° C, and if it is very gradually cooled 
 after being maintained for an hour or two at 
 that temperature, a mass is obtained which 
 conducts electricity to some extent, and which 
 shows inerell^ed conductivity under the in- 
 fluence of light. But in examiniug the con- 
 ductivity of selenium so prepared at various 
 temperatures below 80°, and without accession 
 of light, it was found that its condtictivity 
 increaset with rise of temperature, in which 
 respect it resembles carbon, sulphide of metals, 
 and generally electrolytes. This my brother 
 terms his first modification of selenium. 
 
 But in extending the heating influence up 
 to 210°, and in maintaining that temperature 
 by means of a bath of paraffin for some 
 hours before gradually reducing the same, he 
 obtained a second modification of selenium, 
 in which its conductivity increases with fall of 
 temperature, and in which modification it is, 
 therefore, analogous to the metals. This 
 second modification of selenium is a better 
 condnctiir of electricity than the first, ard its 
 sensitiveness to light is sn great that its con- 
 ductivity in sunlight la fifteen times greater 
 than it is in the dark, as will ha seen from the 
 following table, in which is given the effects 
 of different intensities of light on selenium 
 (Modification II) obtained at Woolwich on 
 the ll-ih of February, 187G: — 
 
 VOL. II. 
 
 Seleninm in 
 
 Relative CondnctiTi- 
 ties. 
 
 Eesistjinne ui 
 Ulims. 
 
 DeflectioDS. 
 
 Batio. 
 
 1. Dark 
 
 2. Diffused 
 
 daylight . 
 
 3. Lamplight 
 
 4. Sunlijjht . 
 
 32 
 
 110 
 
 180 
 470 
 
 1-0 
 
 3-4 
 
 5-6 
 
 14-7 
 
 10,070,000 
 
 2,930,000 
 
 1,790,000 
 
 680,000 
 
 Unfortunately, however, the second modifica- 
 tion is not so stalile as the first ; when lowered 
 in temperature parts of it change back into 
 the first or metalloid modification by tnking 
 up specific heat, and in watching this effect a 
 point is discovered at which ratio of increase 
 of conductivity with fall of temperature 
 chan-ies sign, or where the electrolyte sub- 
 stance appears to predominate over the me- 
 tallic selenium. If cooled down to 15° C, the 
 whole of the metallic selenium is gradually 
 being converted back into the first variety. 
 The physical conclusions here arrived at may 
 be said to be an extension of Helmholtz's 
 theory that the conductivity of metals varies 
 iiivrsely as the total heat contained in them. 
 Helmholtz had only the sensible heat of tem- 
 perature (counting from the absolute zeru 
 point) in view, but it has already been shown 
 by Hittorf and Werner Siemens that it applies 
 in the ca-e of tin and some other metals, also 
 to specific heat and 'to the latent beat of 
 fusion. In selenium the specific heat is an 
 extremely variable quantity, changing in the 
 solid mass at certain temperatures, and, it is 
 contended, under the influence of light. 
 Aided by these experimental researches, my 
 brother arrives at the conclusion that the 
 influence of light upon selenium may be ex- 
 plained by a " change of its molecular coTidition 
 near the surface, from the first or electrolyte 
 into the second or metallic modification, or in 
 other words, by a liberation of specific heat 
 upon the illuminated surface of crystalline 
 selenium, which liberated heat is reabsorbed 
 when the liberating cause has ceased to act." 
 Professor Adams, who has likewise investi- 
 gated this singular action of light upon 
 selenium, ascribes it to a diflerent cause. He 
 says : — 
 
 1. That the light falling on the seleninm 
 causes an electromotive force in it in the 
 same direction as the battery current passing 
 through it, the effect being similar to the 
 effect due to polarisation in an electrolyte, 
 but in the opposite direction. 
 
 2. TJiat the light falling on the selenium 
 causes a change on its surface akin to the 
 change which it produces on the surface of a 
 phosphorescent body, and that in consequence 
 of this change the electro current is enabled to 
 pass more readily over the surface of the 
 selenium. 
 
 93 
 
1474 
 
 SEMOLA— SEVEN SEALS 
 
 SEM'OLA (Bnllock's). This preparation 
 consists of wlieaten flour deprived of much of 
 its starch by washings with water, and con- 
 tains the largest amount (48 per cent.) of 
 nitrogenous or albnmenoid principles consistent 
 with its adaptability to culinary purposes. It 
 IS specially intended as a food for infants, 
 weakly children, and invalids. 
 
 SEMOLI'NA. Syn. Semoule, Semottlina. 
 The large hard grains of wheat flour retained 
 in the bolting machine, after the fine flour 
 has passed through its meshes. " The best 
 semoule is obtained from the wheat of the 
 southern parts of Europe. With the semoule 
 the fine white Parisian bread called 'gruaa' is 
 baked." (Ure.) 
 
 SEN'EGA. Si/n. Sbneka, Snakeeoot, 
 Rattlesnake e. ; SENEoa) eadix (B.P.) ; 
 SEKEGA(Ph. L., E., & D.), Radix SENEoa;, L. 
 " The rootof thePoZy^aZa Senega^ Linn." (Ph. 
 L.) A stimulating diaphoretic, and expecto- 
 rant; in large doses diuretic, cathartic, and 
 emetic. In America it is used as an antidote 
 to the bite of the rattlesnake. Drs Chapman 
 and Hartshorne extol it as an emmenagogue. 
 Dr Pereira says that it is an exceedingly 
 valuable remedy in the latter stages of bron- 
 chial or pulmonary inflammation, when this 
 disease occurs in aged, debilitated, or torpid 
 constitutions. — Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in powder 
 or decoction (combined with aromatics, opium, 
 or camphor), thrice daily. 
 
 Accordiiig to Patrouillard senega is occa- 
 sionally adultprated with the roots of Asclepias 
 vincetoxlcum. The branches of the latter 
 root are cylindrical, very white, and almost 
 devoid of taste; those of senega, on the con- 
 trary, are yellowish and twisted, and have a 
 very acrid taste. The froth produced by 
 shaking an infusion of senega keeps much 
 longer than that produced by an infusion of 
 the adulterant. In other respects there is a 
 great resemblance between the two roots. 
 
 SEN 'EGIN Syn. PoLYGAilN, Poltoalio 
 ACID. A white odourless powder, discovered 
 by Gehlin in the bark of seneka root (JPoly- 
 gala Senega), 
 
 SEN'N A. Syn. Senna, Sekn^s poiia, L. 
 There are three principal varieties : — 
 
 1. Alexandeian senna (senna Alexan- 
 BEINA— U. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), referred in the 
 Ph. L. to Cassia officinalis and Cassia ohovata, 
 in the Ph. D. to Cassia acutifoUa (Delile),and 
 in the Ph. E. to various species of cassia. The 
 leaves are ** unequal at the base, ovate acute, 
 or obovate mucronate." (Ph. L.) It is gene- 
 rally mixed with the leaves of Solenostemma 
 Argel (argel leaves), the presence of which is 
 often the occasion of much griping. The leaf 
 of argel is fully an inch long, warty, regular 
 in its formation, and the lateral nerves are 
 imperfectly seen on the under side; whilst 
 that of the true Alexandrian senna never 
 exceeds f inch in length, is oblique, and the 
 rerves on the nnder side are very conspi- 
 cuous. ' 
 
 2. Indian senna (senna Indica — B. P., 
 Ph. L., & E.) is referred to Cassia officinalis in 
 the Ph. L., and in the Ph. E. & D. to Cassia 
 elongata (Lemaire, Lisancourt). The leaf is 
 " unequal at the base," and " Lanceolate." 
 (Ph. L.) 
 
 3. Tinnetbilt senna, forming the finest 
 Indian, now introduced into the Ph. D., is 
 therein described as composed of the leaflets 
 of Cassia oblongata. These are pale green, 
 thin, flexible, and from 1 to 2 inches long, and 
 nearly J inch broad. This variety is equal in 
 medicinal virtue to the best Alexandrian, and 
 is to be preferred, on account of its being 
 imported perfectly free from adulteration. 
 
 Senna is purgative in doses of 10 to 30 gr., 
 either in powder or made into an infusion of 
 tea with water, combined with ginger, cara- 
 ways, or some other aromatic, to prevent 
 griping. It acts chiefly on the small intestines, 
 and generally effects its purpose within 4 hours 
 after being taken. 
 
 SE"PIA. A pigment prepared from the 
 ' ink' or black fluid secreted by Sepia officinalis 
 (Linn.), and several other varieties of cuttle- 
 fish. The contents of the ' ink bags' are in- 
 spissated as soon as possible after collection, 
 and then form the crude sepia of commerce. 
 This is prepared for artists by boiling it for a 
 short time in a weak lye of caustic alkali, preci- 
 pitating the solution with an acid, and well 
 washing and carefully drying the precipitate 
 by a gentle heat. It possesses a fine brown 
 colour, and is used like Indian ink. 
 
 SEE'PENTART. Syn. ViEGINIAN SNAKE- 
 BOOT ; Seepentaeia eadix (B. p.), Sebpbn- 
 TAEI.E EADIX, Seepentaeia (Ph. L. & E.), 
 Aetstolochia seepentaeia (Ph. D.), L. An 
 excellent stimulating diaphoretic and tonic ; 
 in typhoid and putrid fevers, dyspepsia, &c. 
 It is admirably suited to check vomiting and 
 to tranqnillise the stomach, particularly in 
 bilious cases. (Dr Chapman.) — Dose, 10 to 
 20 gr., every third or fourth hour, its use 
 being preceded by an aperient. 
 
 SE"EUM. Syn. Sbealbitmen. The clear 
 pale fluid in which the blood-globules float, 
 and which separates from blood during its 
 coagulation. It is, essentially, a feebly alka- 
 line solution of albumen. See Albumen. 
 
 SESCITJI-. See Nomenclatuee. 
 
 SE'TON. Syn. Setaoeum. An artificial 
 ulcer, made by passing a portion of silk or 
 thread under the skin by means of a setou 
 needle, a part of which is drawn through 
 daily, and thus keeps up a constant irritation. 
 Occasionally the thread is anointed with some 
 irritating substance for the purpose of in- 
 creasing the discharge. 
 
 SEVEN SEALS, or Golden Wonder— Dr Ead- 
 cliffe's Great Kemedy. According to the 
 prospectus, this remedy is good for cholera 
 morbus, dysentery, diarrhoea, burns, sprains, 
 rheumatism, warts and corns, and all diseases. 
 In a quadrangular bottle we find about 95 
 grammes of a brownish-orange clear fluid, 
 
SEVUM— SEWAGE 
 
 147S 
 
 which is n spirituous tincture of cayenne 
 pepper Diixed with ether, chloroform, 
 American oil of peppermint, and a little 
 camphor. The proportion of these ingredients 
 is, approximately, 4 grammes ether, 6 grammes 
 chloroform, '4 gramme camphor or camphora- 
 ceous oil, 2 grammes oil of peppermint, 35 
 grammes tincture of capsicum, 50 grammes 
 spirit of wine (90 per cent.) (Hager.) 
 SETUM (Prepared). Si/n. Setcm pebpa- 
 
 BATUM (B. P.), SeVOM MAaHBTIOUM.L. Prep. 
 1. (' Pliarrn. Jourri.') Mould candles, at least 
 2 years old, meltid by a very gentle heat, and 
 strained from the wiclis. 
 
 2. As MAONETio ADEP8. Used to make 
 mercurial ointment. Triturated with 8, 12, or 
 Ifi times its weight of quicksilver, the globules 
 are completely extinguished in from 10 to 15 
 minutes. 
 
 SEWAGE, Bemoval and Disposal of. The 
 waste and pntrescible refuse discharged from 
 dwelling-houses by house-pipes and drains 
 into sewers may be said, in general terms, to 
 consist, besides human fasces and urine,' of 
 the dirty wat«r and soapsuds arising from 
 washing our bodies, our houses, and linen, 
 more or less foul, as well as the water which, 
 having been used for cooking operations, neces- 
 sarily contains variable quantities of mineral 
 and vegetable matter. 
 
 The above statement will have prepared us 
 not only for the complex nature of sewage 
 water as shown in the following tables, but 
 also for the variability in the amount of its 
 constituents, this latter condition depending 
 upon locality, and, as experiment shows, the 
 hour of the day at which the sewage was 
 collected. 
 
 Composition of Sewer Water (Wat). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grains per gallon. 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 3. 
 
 8. 
 
 4. 
 
 Organic matters (soluble) 
 
 19-40 
 
 41-03 
 
 12-30 
 
 ■ 9-20 
 J 
 
 „ (suspended) 
 
 
 3910 
 
 17-00 
 
 24-37 
 
 Lime 
 
 
 1013 
 
 14-71 
 
 12-53 
 
 11-25 
 
 Magnesia .... 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 1-82 
 
 1-59 
 
 1-35 
 
 Soda 
 
 
 
 401 
 
 2-40 
 
 2-41 
 
 1-89 
 
 Potash .... 
 
 
 
 3-66 
 
 3-57 
 
 3-31 
 
 1-09 
 
 Chloride of Sodium 
 
 
 
 2G-40 
 
 22-61 
 
 84-30 
 
 5-58 
 
 Sulphuric Acid 
 
 
 
 5-34 
 
 531 
 
 6-40 
 
 3-43 
 
 Phosphoric Acid . 
 
 
 
 2 63 
 
 5-76 
 
 2-48 
 
 OCA 
 
 Carbouic Acid 
 
 
 
 9-01 
 
 8-92 
 
 11-76 
 
 '■ 4-77 
 
 siiicia (o^i^'of '■:''"■. . 
 
 L Oxide of zmc J 
 
 
 
 6-20 
 
 13-55 
 
 6-46 
 
 Ammonia .... 
 
 
 
 7-48 
 
 8-43 
 
 7-88 
 
 
 
 134-78 
 
 145-11 
 
 125-78 
 
 39-20 
 
 
 London Sewer Water (Lei 
 
 rnEBT). 
 
 
 
 
 
 GraiuB per gallon. 
 
 
 
 Day Sewage. 
 
 Night Sewage 
 
 Slorm Sewage 
 
 
 
 Soluble matters 
 
 55-74 
 
 6509 
 
 70-26 
 
 
 
 Organic matters 
 
 
 
 15-08 
 
 7-42 
 
 14-75 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 
 5-44 
 
 5-19 
 
 7-26 
 
 
 
 Mineral matters 
 
 
 
 40-66 
 
 57-67 
 
 55-71 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 
 
 0-85 
 
 0-69 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 Potash . 
 
 
 
 1-21 
 
 1-15 
 
 1-61 
 
 
 
 Suspended matters 
 
 
 
 38-15 
 
 13-99 
 
 31-88 
 
 
 
 Organic . 
 
 
 
 16-11 
 
 7-48 
 
 17-55 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 
 0-78 
 
 0-29 
 
 0-67 
 
 
 
 Mineral , 
 
 
 
 2 -2 -04 
 
 6-51 
 
 14-33 
 
 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 
 
 0-89 
 
 0-64 
 
 0-98 
 
 
 
 Potash . 
 
 
 
 8-08 
 
 0-04 
 
 0-16 
 
 
 ' In the drainage of «ome towns the freces are not allowed to enter the sewers. This, however, is the exception. 
 
1476 
 
 SEWAGE 
 
 Letheby states that the sewer water in 
 towns with water-closets has the following 
 iirerage composition per gallon : 
 
 Organic matter . . . 27'72 
 
 Nitrogen .... 6'21 
 
 Phosphoric acid ... 1'57 
 
 Potash 2-03 
 
 Sewer water placed under the microscope 
 reveals various dead decaying matters, besides 
 swarms of bacteria, ciliated infusoria, amoebi- 
 form bodies, and fungi, consisting of spores 
 and mycelium. The rotifera, diatoms, and 
 desmids are few in number.' That a fluid 
 having a composition such as sewage water 
 has been shown to possess, when mixed with 
 solid excreta, would, from the decomposition 
 that so soon takes place in it, seriously 
 endanger the health of those in whose habita- 
 tions it was allowed to remain, is so self- 
 evident to the sauitariqn and pathologist that 
 it is no wonder every civilised community 
 should endeavour to get rid of this refuse 
 from their habitations as speedily and effec- 
 tively as possible. But the removal of the home 
 sewage is a proceeding as illogical as it is imper- 
 fect if we afterwards neglect so to dispose of it 
 as to render it innocuous ordevoid of danger to 
 the public health. The old method of getting 
 rid of sewage (even when deprived of the 
 faecal matter) by turning it into rivers and 
 streams, has, more particularly since the 
 Report of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners 
 in 1870, been gradually abandoned. That 
 when sewer water passes into a river it under- 
 goes a great amount of purification from 
 oxidation, subsidence, and the agency of water- 
 plants is undeniable. 
 
 Letheby considered that if sewage mixed 
 with twenty times its bulk of water flowed 
 for nine miles it would be perfectly oxidised. 
 It appears, however, from the experiments of 
 Frankland, that so far as sewage when mixed 
 with twenty times its volume of water being 
 oxidised during a flow of ten or twelve miles, 
 scarcely two thirds of it would be so destroyed 
 in the flow of 168 miles, at the rate of one 
 mile per hour, or after the lapse of a week. 
 The results of Frankland's experiments led 
 him to infer that there is no river in the 
 United Kingdom of suSicient length to effect 
 the destruction of sewage by oxidation ; 
 and he adds, "there is no process practi- 
 cable on a large scale by which the noxious 
 material (sewage matter) can be removed from 
 water once so contaminated, and, therefore, I 
 am -of opinion that water which has been 
 once contaminated by sewage or manure 
 matter is thenceforth unsuitable for domestic 
 use." 
 
 The discharge of sewage water, whether 
 with or without solid excreta, into our springs 
 and rivers, was - practice so dangerous and 
 prejudicial to health that it is no cause for 
 wonder the Legislature should, during the 
 
 session of 1876, have passed a measure the 
 object of which was after the lapse of one 
 year to facilitate legal proceedings being 
 instituted against persons who permitted 
 sewage or other deleterious refuse to flow into 
 rivers or streams. This measure, known as 
 the " Rivers Pollution Prevention Act," is now 
 in force, and permits offenders to be proceeded 
 against J but it still leaves unsolved the 
 important hygienic problem — How are we 
 ultimately and with safety to the community 
 to dispose of our sewage ? 
 
 The numerous processes (the chief of which 
 will be brought under notice) proposed for 
 the athiinment of this end have been divided 
 by writers and authorities on sanitary science 
 into — 
 
 1. Wet methods. 
 
 2. Det methods. 
 
 1. Wet methods. These comprise the 
 removal of excreta — (1) By discharging it into 
 running water. (2) By storage in tank with 
 overflow. (3) By carrying it into the sea. 
 (4) By preciijitation. (5) By irrigation and 
 filtration. 
 
 (1) -By discharging it into running water. 
 Our previous remarks have already shown in 
 what respect this proposal is fallacious, and 
 why it has, therefore, been discontinued. 
 
 (2) -By storage in tan]c with overflow. In 
 this process the sewage runs into a well- 
 cemented tank fitted with an overflow pipe, 
 which sometimes leads into a second tank 
 arranged in the same manner ; the solids 
 subside, and are removed from time to time, 
 whilst the liquid is allowed to run away. 
 Instead of permitting the liquid to escape 
 into a ditch or stream, it has been proposed to 
 carry it into drain pipes, which are buried from 
 half a foot to a foot in the subsoil, where it 
 will be readily sucked up by the roots of 
 grasses. This plan is only suited for small 
 villages, oi* for a single house or mansion. 
 
 (3) Sy carrying it into the sea. The pre- 
 cautions to be observed in the working of this 
 system are, wherever possible, tX> let the outlet 
 or discharge pipe, which conveys the sewage to 
 the sea, be always under water even at ebb tide, 
 and to take special care that the wind does 
 not blow up the sewers. A tide-flap, opening 
 outwards, which is usually fixed by a hinge 
 on the sewer at its outlet, will obviate this 
 last contingency. At high water the tide 
 will fill the outfall sewers to its own level, 
 and to that extent will check the discharge of 
 sewage, and thus cause a deposit in the sewers 
 filled with mixed sea water and sewage. It is 
 most important that this should be removed. 
 
 " If the sewage cannot be got well out to 
 sea, and if it issues in narrow channels, it may 
 cause a nuisance, and may require to be 
 purified before discharge."' 
 
 (4) By precipitation. The simplest of the 
 plans proposed for this method of removal is 
 by subsidence only, and would afterwards 
 
 * Parkes. 
 
SEWAGE 
 
 1477 
 
 permit the cl!tichar|;e of the supernatant 
 •ewuge water into running water or over the 
 land. The rtinoval of the solid material is 
 elTeetcd in a manner somewhat similar to that 
 followed in plan No. 2, but as the thin water 
 which rnus oil' must, when poured into rivers 
 or streams, be almost as dangerous as the 
 sewage itself, tlie process of precipitation by 
 settlement alone has little to commend it 
 over the old rude and objectionable practice, a 
 circuinstunee that in these days will doubtless 
 lead to its entire prohibition. 
 
 In order to ensure greater purification the 
 sewage in the subsiding tanks is now usually 
 mixed with certain chemical reagents, which, 
 it is believed, have the effect not only of 
 speedily precipitating the solid materials, but 
 also currying down injurious matters sus- 
 pended in the sewiige water, thu» rendering it 
 sufficiently pure to be discharged without risk 
 to health into any watercourse. 
 
 Of the numerous precipitants employed for 
 this purpose, we may mention the fullowing : 
 
 Lime and salts of lime. Quiekliiiie, in the 
 proportion of 8 gr. to a gallon of water ; or 1 
 Ib.toabouteOOgalls. of sewage; lime, wiih the 
 adilition of iibout a fortieth of its weight of 
 chluriJe of lime ; calcic phosphate dissolved in 
 sulphuric acid ; Whitehead's patent, which 
 consists of a mixture of mono- and dicalcic 
 phosphate ; chloride of calcium. 
 
 Aluminous compounds. Bird's process — A 
 mixture of aluminous earths and sulphuric 
 acid. Andersons and Lenk's — Impure sul- 
 phate of alum ; refuse of alum works, either 
 alone or mixed with lime or charcoal. Scott's 
 cement process — Clay mixed with lime; 
 natural phosphate of aluminium dissolved by 
 sulphuric acid and mixed with lime. 
 
 The quantities of the above substances when 
 used as precipitants vary, in some of them 
 tif ty, and in others eighty grains to a gallon of 
 sewer water being employed. 
 
 liagnesium salts. Impure chloride of mag- 
 nesium mixed »iih superphosphate of lime. 
 
 Carbon. As vegetable charcoal, peat, sea- 
 weed charcoal, curbonised tan, lignite, and 
 Boghead coke. 
 
 Iron. In the form of sulphate. EUerman's 
 and Dale's — Perchloride; the sulphate is 
 sometimes mixed with coal dust. 
 Manganese. Condy's fluid. 
 Zinc. As sulphate and chloride. 
 milar's process. The A. B. C. process, so 
 called because composed of alum, blood, 
 charcoal, and clay. 
 
 Hill's process. Lime and tar are the 
 precipitants. The effluent water is filtered 
 through charcoal. The question now arises 
 as to whether the sewer water after treatment 
 with any of the above substances is in a fit 
 condition to be poured into a stream or 
 river. The Rivers Pollution Commissioners in 
 their first and second reports give a number 
 of analyses, from which it appears that on 
 in average the chemical treatment removes 
 
 89'8 per cent, of the matters suspended in the 
 sewage waters, but only 36'6 per cent, of the 
 organic nitrogen is dissolved in them. 
 
 Of the A. B. C. process, Mr Crookes states 
 that, when properly carried out, it removes all 
 the phosphoric acid ; and Professor Voelcker's 
 analysis of the efflaent water from sewage 
 treated by the acid phosphate of alumina 
 process gives more ammonia than the original 
 sewer water, less organic nitrogen by one half, 
 and less phosphoric acid. Such a water is 
 said by some authorities to be pure enough 
 to be discharged into streams. 
 
 General Scott's process. General Scott 
 proposes to treat the sewer water with lime 
 and clay, and instead of employing the 
 precipitate obtained by this means as a 
 manure, would, after burning it, use it as 
 cement. He argues that the deposit contains 
 so much combustible matter as to considerably 
 reduce the quantity of coal usually expended 
 in the manufacture of cement, and conse- 
 quently the cement could he sold at a 
 remunerative price. 
 
 This, like the ' oarbnnisaticm ' process, 
 possesses the merit of effectually destroying 
 any noxious principles present in the deposit. 
 Commenting on the various precipitation 
 processes Dr Parkes writes : — " When the 
 sewer water is cleared by any of these plans is 
 it fit to be discharged into streams ? In the 
 opinion of some authorities, if the precipitate is 
 a good one it may be so, and it appears certain 
 that in many cases it is chemically a tolerably 
 pure water, and it will no longer silt up the 
 bed nor cause a nuisance. But it still con- 
 tains, in all cases, some organic matter, as 
 well as ammonia, potash, and phosphoric acid. 
 It has, theretbre, fertilising powers certainly, 
 and possibly it has also injurious powers. No 
 proof of this has been given, but also no 
 disproof at present, and when we consider 
 how small the agencies of the specific diseases 
 probably are, and how likely it is that they 
 remain suspended, we do not seem to be in a 
 position to expect that the water, after 
 subsidence of the deposit, will be safe to 
 drink. 
 
 (6) jBy irrigation and filtration. By this 
 process is meant the passing of the sewer water 
 over and through soil, with the object not 
 only of effecting its purification to such an 
 extent as to render it fit to be discharged into 
 a river or stream, but also of employing it as 
 a valuable manure. In the present article we 
 shall treat only of the application of the pro- 
 cess to the first of these purposes. 
 
 There is ample evidence to show that,* if 
 carried out with due attention to detail, no 
 process for the treatment of efilucnt sewage 
 water, so as to render it innocuous, is equal to 
 that which subjects it to irrigation and 
 filtration. 
 
 The Rivers Pollution Commissioners thus 
 report on it ;— " We are, therefore, justified in 
 recommending irrigation as a safe as well as 
 
1478 
 
 SEWAGE 
 
 profitable aud efficient method of cleansing 
 town sewage." 
 
 The conditions necessary for the successful 
 carrying out of this system are thus stated by 
 Mr T. J. Dyke, in explaining " the process 
 of the downward intermittent filtration of 
 sewage at Troedyrhiw, near Merthyr Tydvil :" 
 ■ — " 1. The soil of the land to be used mnst be 
 porous. 2. A main effluent drain, whicii must 
 not be less than six feet from the surface, 
 must be provided. 3. Tlie surface of the soil 
 to be 80 inclined as to permit the sewage 
 stream to flow over the whole land. 4. The 
 filtering area shonld be divided into four equal 
 parts, each part to be irrigated with the 
 sewage for six hours, and then an interval of 
 eighteen hours to elapse before a second irri- 
 gation taltes place; each of the four parts 
 would thus be used for six hours out of the 
 twenty-four. An acre of land so prepared 
 would purify 100,000 gallons of sewage per 
 day." At Troedyrhiw the sewage has lime 
 added to it, and the mixture is strained through 
 cinders into tanks. From the tank it flows on 
 to the conduit, by which it is conveyed to the 
 Altering areas. 
 
 "These consist of about twenty acres of 
 land, immediately adjoining the road on which 
 the tanks are placed, and have been arranged 
 into filtering areas or beds on a plan devised 
 by Mr J. Buyley Denton. The land is a loamy 
 soil, eighteen inches thick, overlying a bed of 
 gravel. The whole of these twenty acres have 
 been underdrained to a depth of from five to 
 seven feet. The lateral drains are placed at 
 regular distances from each other, and run 
 towards the main or effluent drain. This is 
 everywhere six feet deep. The surface of the 
 land is formed into beds ; these have been made 
 to slope towards the mkin drain by a fall of 
 1 in 150. 
 
 " The surface is ploughed in ridges ; on these 
 vegetables are planted or seeds sown. The 
 line of the ridged furrow is in the direction of 
 the under drain. Along the raised margin of 
 each bed, in each area, delivering carriers are 
 placed, one edge being slightly depressed. 
 
 " The strained sewage passes from the con- 
 duits into the delivery carriers, and as it over- 
 flows the depressed edges runs gently into 
 and along the furrows down to the lowest and 
 most distant part of the plot. The sewage 
 continues to be so delivered for six hours, then 
 an interval of rest of eighteen hours takes 
 place, and again the land is thoroughly charged 
 with the fertilising stream. The water per- 
 colates through the six feet of earth, and 
 reaches the lateral drains, which convey it to 
 the main efiluent drain. 
 
 " The result of this plan of disposing of 
 sewage by downward intermittent filtration, 
 may be seen in samples of the efiluent water 
 taken from the outlet of the main drain. 
 Such water is bright, perfectly pellucid, free 
 from smell, and tastes only of common salt. 
 It may be safely drunk — in fact, is used by 
 
 the workmen employed on the farm. During 
 the process of irrigation no nuisance is caused, 
 for the soil quickly absorbs all the fluids 
 passed on to it ; in fact, in two or three hours 
 after the water has ceased to flow on the land, 
 an observer would say that the ground had not 
 been wetted for days. The workmen say that 
 no unpleasant smell is noticed, nor has the 
 health of the persons employed, in any one 
 instance, been affected by any presumed 
 poisonous exhalation. 
 
 " The only imperfection of the plan is that, 
 at the end of the furrows nearest the lowest 
 comer of a plot, a slight deposit of scum is 
 formed. This scum is formed by the fine in- 
 soluble precipitate caused mainly by the 
 addition of lime to the sewage stream." 
 
 The table on next page, taken from the report 
 of the Rivers Pollution Commissioners, gives 
 the composition of the effluent water after it 
 has passed through the soil. 
 
 If those results be compared with the 
 condition of the supernatant sewage water, 
 after treatment by any of the chemical pre- 
 cipitants already enumerated, the inferiority 
 of these latter as methods of removal of the 
 organic impurity of the sewage water will be 
 evident. 
 
 The best of these precipitants give a removal 
 of only 65-8 per cent, of organic nitrogen, 
 whilst the A. B. C. process shows a diminution 
 of 589 only. It appears from the first and 
 second reports of the Rivers Pollution Com- 
 missioners, that on an average the precipitation 
 processes remove 898 per cent, of the sus- 
 pended matters, but only 36'6 per cent, of the 
 organic nitrogen dissolved in the liquid. 
 
 The effects of a soil upon sewage water 
 passing through it are the following : — 
 
 1. The filtering property of the soil me- 
 chanically arrests and retains the suspended 
 particles of the sewage. 
 
 2 and 3. The porosity and physical attrac- 
 tion of the soil lead to the oxidation of the 
 organic matter contained in the sewage, as 
 instanced in the discovery of nitrates and 
 nitrites in the effluent water, which did not 
 exist previous to filtration. 
 
 4. A chemical reaction takes place between 
 the constituents of the sewage and those of 
 the soil. 
 
 If the charges brought against the system of 
 irrigation, viz. that it is detrimental to the 
 health and comfort of those who reside near 
 sewage farms cannot be denied, it seems pretty 
 certain that, in most cases, any ill effects 
 arising from the method may be traced to its 
 defective management. The selection of the 
 soil which is to receive the sewage is a highly 
 important consideration. The best for this 
 purpose seems to be a loose marl, containing 
 oxide of iron and alumina ; but sand, as well 
 as chalk, are both said to answer excellently. 
 
 If the soil be of a stiff clayey nature it must 
 be broken up and mixed with sand, lime, or 
 ashes. The >ipper parts must be comminuted 
 
SBWAGE 
 
 1479 
 
 
 Percentage ordiisolved Organic 
 Puliation removed. 
 
 Percentage of 
 
 Buulto of irrigation, in parti |icr lOO.OuO. 
 
 
 susfifndi'iJ 
 OrganicPoilntion 
 
 
 
 
 Organic 
 
 Organic 
 
 reujoved. 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 >iir.>g.n. 
 
 
 On fnllow land at Chorley (adhesive loam) . 
 
 62-3 
 
 70-2 
 
 100- 
 
 At Edinburgh (both xand and cloy) . 
 
 45-3 
 
 811 
 
 84-9 i 
 
 Barking (gravelly soil) 
 
 65-8 
 
 86-2 
 
 100- 
 
 Aldersbot (light sand) — 
 
 
 
 
 Best result .... 
 
 91-8 
 
 87-3 
 
 99 7 
 
 Worst result .... 
 
 69-9 
 
 82-9 
 
 87-7 
 
 Average result .... 
 
 80-9 
 
 851 
 
 '.I3-7 : 
 
 Carlisle (light loam) 
 
 77-9 
 
 59-8 
 
 IdO- 
 
 Penrith (light loam) 
 
 75-0 
 
 77-2 
 
 100- 
 
 Uugby (adhesive soil) . 
 
 72-3 
 
 92-9 
 
 960 
 
 Banbury (principally clay)— 
 
 
 
 
 Best result . . . • 
 
 87-8 
 
 91-3 
 
 960 
 
 Worst result .... 
 
 (111 
 
 801 
 
 90-3 
 
 Average result .... 
 
 7t)- 
 
 85-7 
 
 o:i-2 
 
 Warwick (stiff clay) .... 
 
 71-7. 
 
 89-6 
 
 100- 
 
 Worthing (loam) .... 
 
 42-7 
 
 bo-3 
 
 1(K> 
 
 Bedford (light gravelly soil), nverngc re-ult . 
 
 71-6 
 
 81-3 
 
 100- 
 
 Norwood (clay), average result 
 
 650 
 
 75 1 
 
 100- 
 
 Croydon (gravelly soil)— 
 
 
 
 
 Best result .... 
 
 73-2 
 
 93-2 
 
 100- 
 
 Worst result .... 
 
 61-6 
 
 fiu-t 
 
 1( 10- 
 
 Average result .... 
 
 67-4 
 
 91-8 
 
 100- 
 
 and rendered porous, and it must be efficiently 
 and deeply drained. At Troedyrhiw, as we 
 liave seen, the effluent drain is six feet deep. 
 
 The sewer water should be poured over the 
 land in as fresh a condition as possible, having 
 been previously deprived of any solid or grosser 
 parts by straining. At Carlisle, decomposition 
 of the sewage during its flow is prevented by 
 adding carbolic acid to it. Lastly, it is of the 
 utmost consequence that the amount of laud 
 used as the Kltering medium shall be large. 
 Lethehy has shown that where this precaution 
 is neglected, not only is the purificati>>n of the 
 sewage incomplete, but the plan becomes a 
 public nuisance. The amount of filtering earth 
 should not be less than one cubic yard for 
 eight gallons of sewage in twenty-four hours, 
 in properly prepared soils ; in some sods more 
 than a cubic yard is required. 
 
 The late Dr Parkes has given a summary of 
 various reports that have from time to time 
 been issued as to the effects of sewage farms 
 upon the public health and comtort. He 
 says: — "That sewage farms, if too near to 
 houses, and if not carefidly conducted, may 
 give off disagreeable effluvia is certain ; but 
 It is also clear that in some farms this is very 
 trifling, and that when the sewer water gets 
 on the land it soon ceases. It is denied by 
 some persons that more nuisance is excited 
 than by any other mode of using manure. As 
 regards health, it has been alleged that these 
 farms may — 1st, give off effluvia which may 
 produce eateric fever or dysentery, or some 
 allied affection ; or, 2Qd, and in the spread of 
 
 entozoic diseases; or, 3rfl, make ground 
 swampy and marshy, nnd may also poison 
 wells, and thus affect health." 
 
 The evidence of Edinburgh, Croydon, Al- 
 dershot, Rugby, Worthing, Romfonl, the Sus- 
 sex Lunatic Asylum, is very strong against 
 any influence in tlie production of typhoid by 
 sewage farms effluvia. On tlie other hand, 
 Dr Clouston's record of the outbrenk ot dysen- 
 tery in the Cumberland Asylum is counter 
 evidence of weight, and so is one of the cases 
 noted by Letheby of typhoid fever outbreak 
 in Copley, when a meadow was irrigated with 
 the brook water containing the !.ewat,'e of 
 Halifax. 
 
 The neeative evidence is, however, so strong 
 as to justify the view that the effluvia from a 
 well-managed sewage farm do not produce ty- 
 phoid fever, or dysentery, or any affection of 
 the kind. lu a case at Eton in whieli some 
 cases of enteric fever were attributed to the 
 effluvia, Dr Buchanan discovered that the 
 sewer water had been drunk j this was more 
 likely to have been the cause. 
 
 With regard to the second point, the spread 
 of entozoic diseases by the carriage of the 
 sewer water to the land, has been thought 
 probable by Cobbold, though as solid excreta 
 from towns have been for some years largely 
 employed as manure, it is doubtful whether 
 the liquid plans would be more dangerous. The 
 special entozoic diseases which, it is feared, 
 might thus arise, are tapeworms, round worms, 
 trichina, Bilharzia, and distoma hepaticum in 
 sheep. Cobbold's latest observations show 
 
1480 
 
 SEWAGE 
 
 that the embryos of Bilharzia, die so rapidly, 
 that even were it introduced into England 
 there would be little danger. 
 
 The trichina disease is only known at pre- 
 sent to be produced in men by the worms in 
 the flesh of pigs wliich is eaten, and it seems 
 doubtful whether pigs receive them from the 
 land. There remain, then, only tapeworms 
 and round worms for men and distoma hepa- 
 tioum for sheep to be dreaded. With regard 
 to these, the evidence at present is negative ; 
 and though much weight must be attached to 
 any opinion of Cobbold's, this argument 
 against sewage irrigation must be admitted 
 to want evidence from experience. 
 
 Tlie third criticism appears to be true. 
 The land may become swampy and the adja- 
 cent wells poisoned, and disease (ague, and 
 perhaps diarrlicea and dysentery) be thus pro- 
 duced. But this is owing to mismanagement, 
 and when a sewage farm is properly arranged 
 it is not damp, and the wells do not suffer.' 
 
 The foregoing processes for the removal of 
 excreta from dwellings necessitates the joint 
 employment of sewers and large quantities of 
 water. It may, however, sometimes happen 
 that the adoption of either of these appliances 
 may be not only difficult, but altogether im- 
 practicable ; as for instance, in localities where 
 a sufficient fall cannot be obtained for the 
 eewers; or where the supply of water is not 
 adequate ; or when the severity of the climate 
 at certain times is such, that for months in the 
 year the water is frozen. Under these condi- 
 tions the excreta must either be allowed to 
 accumulate about hon^'es, or else be removed 
 by methods other than those we have de- 
 scribed, at more or less short intervals. Of 
 course their speedy removal is the best and 
 safest ; but in cases where they are permitted 
 to accumulate, it is essential they should be 
 mixed with deodorants, and confined in pro- 
 perly constructed receptacles (as far as possible 
 from dwellings), from which category such pre- 
 eminently unsanitary arrangements as cess- 
 pools and dead wells must be excluded. 
 
 When excreta are got rid of from houses 
 by other means than those of sewers and 
 water, the processes employed are termed, 
 2. Dby methods. These comprise — 
 
 1. Eemoval of the excreta without admix- 
 ture. 
 
 2. Removal of the excreta after treatment 
 with deodorising and anti-putrescent sub- 
 stances. 
 
 1. Jiemoval without admixture. In some 
 cases boxes and tanks receive the ordure and 
 urine, and these are changed more or less 
 frequently. 
 
 In Glasgow the excreta from a part of the 
 city containing eighty thousand people is thus 
 collected and removed without admixture,^ 
 daily. 
 
 ^ * Practical Hygiene.' 
 
 ' Except that from tlie garbage of the houses. 
 
 In Edinburgh there are also many closets sup- 
 plied with movable metal pails, wliich are like- 
 wise removed daily. Many large dwelling- 
 houses in this latter city are entirely without 
 water-closet accommodation ; hence the custom 
 of placing pails full of excrement, urine, &e., 
 outside the houses to be taken away by the 
 scavenger. In Bochdale the excrement, &c., 
 is collected in tubs, with tight-fitting lids, 
 which are emptied twice or thrice a week. 
 These tubs are manufactured out of disused 
 paraffin casks. In Leeds, also, the excreta are 
 collected in boxes without being subjected to 
 admixture. In some towns in the north of 
 England the excreta fall into receptacles con- 
 structed upon what is termed the ' Goux ' 
 principle, In this system the pails or recep- 
 tacles are lined with some absorbent lining, 
 which abstracts the urine;' another contri- 
 vance is to have the receptacle fitted with a 
 pipe or drain ; the object in each case being 
 to render the faeces drier and to delay their 
 decomposition. 
 
 The pail or tub system (Fosses Mobiles) 
 which is employed in Belgium, has for its ob- 
 ject the collection of the Iseces in a state of 
 purity, without admixture with water, in a 
 clean and odourless condition. 
 
 The apparatus for carrying it out consists 
 of— 
 
 1. The seat. This consists simply of a soil- 
 pan of stoneware or faience, without woodwork, 
 the soil-pan merely projecting from the top of 
 the descent pipe. Its borders are furnished 
 with a groove filled with water or sand, into 
 which the raised rim of the lid fits. 
 
 2. The connecting pipe. This pipe is straight 
 without a syphon, and joins the descent pipe 
 at the very acute angle of 22*^, and is about 4 
 inches in diameter inside. It is, like the next, 
 made of stoneware, glazed inside. 
 
 3. Descent pipe. This is from 6 to 8 
 inches in internal diameter ; it is vertical, and 
 is composed of a series of pipes, connected 
 with each other by dry sand joints, without 
 cements, fixed to the wall by iron bands. 
 
 It rests at the ground-floor level on a strong 
 flagstone. Its prolongation through and 
 below this stone consists of a sliding pipe of 
 wrought copper capable of being lengthened 
 or shortened, and solidly fixed to the stone by 
 a cast-iron connector. A sort of circular 
 shallow dish (ecaelle), which can be hung 
 under this last part of the descent pipe, serves 
 at a given moment to shut its lower orifice. 
 
 4. I'ub (Tonneau). The exeremental matters 
 coming down the descent pipe fall into a tub 
 
 ■of from 2 to 3 hectolitres (44 to 66 gallons), 
 in a hole in the top of which the lower part 
 of the pipe fits tightly. A cover fitted with 
 a spring serves to shut and lute the tub when 
 it is full. Placed on a stand furnished with 
 wheels, the tub is easily managed. 
 
 When filled it is immediately replaced by 
 
 • Ihe refuse of cloth manufacturers is chiefly used for 
 this purpoae. 
 
SEWAGE 
 
 1481 
 
 mother similar contrivance. If tbe tub is 
 uudergronnd, the rails (nn which tbe stand 
 mures) ahoold he placed on »n incline, so that 
 tbe removul and replacement may he easily 
 effected. Ttie undergroniid chamber must be 
 ixolated, and the entrance to it placed outside 
 tlic building. The thorough tarringof the inte- 
 rior of the tub not only preserves tbe staves, 
 but also )iartly neutralises the effect of tbe 
 nicphitio gases which the cxcremental matters 
 discharge. 
 
 Ventilation pipe. To prevent tbe smells 
 and gases which arc given off from tbe mouth 
 of the tub from spreading themselves (in the 
 house) by means of the opening in the privy 
 seat, at the upper extremity of tbe descent 
 pipe, is fixed a ventilation pipe, which rises 
 above tbe coping of the roof, and tbe action 
 of which is increased by means of a vane, or 
 any other contrivance producing the same 
 effect.' 
 
 It is said that in the working of any of the 
 above processes, little or no nuisiince ensues, if 
 only ordinary care and intelligence arc uned. 
 In many cases the excreta collected by the 
 methods above specified is conveyed to manu- 
 factories and then converted into manure. 
 
 It does not appear that in England the 
 health of the workmen employed in a manure 
 manufactory or of those who live in the neigh- 
 bourhood of it suffers in consequence. 
 
 Semoval of the excreta after treatment with 
 deodorising and antiptttreacent subsiarwes. 
 This is the method usually adopted when 
 the dry process is followed ; the excreta 
 mixed with the deodorising substance when 
 removed from the bouse being at once applied 
 to the land. 
 
 a. Coal and wood ashes. It is a common 
 practice in the north of England to throw 
 coal ashes on tbe excreta, which fall into 
 closets made with hinged flaps or seats for the 
 purpose of admitting tbe ashes, as at Man- 
 chester and Salford. Wood ashes are far 
 more effective deodorisers than coal ashes, but 
 they are seldom procurable. " In some towns 
 there are receptacles called ' middens,' in- 
 tended hi>th for excreta and ashes ; some- 
 times these are cemented, and there may 
 be a pipe leading into a sewer so as to dry 
 them. Tbe midden system is a bad one j even 
 with every care, tbe vast heaps of putrefying 
 material which accumulate in some of our 
 towns must have a very serious influence on 
 the health, and the sooner tbe middens are 
 abolished the better. 
 
 i. Deodorising poaders. At some of the 
 Indian stations deodorants, such as Al'Dou- 
 gall's, or Calvert's carbolic acid powders, have 
 been successl'ully employed, a comparatively 
 small quantity being mixed with tbe ex- 
 creta. 
 
 In Germany a mixture of lime, chloride of 
 magnesium, and tar is largely used for tbe 
 
 > CoiBeld. 
 
 " Porkes. 
 
 same purpose, and is known as Siivcrns' deo- 
 doriser." 
 
 Another deodoriser (the Miiller Scbiir), also 
 used in the dry method, is composed of lime, 
 100 lbs. ; powdered wood charcoal 20 lbs. ; peat 
 powder or sawdust, 10 lbs.; and carbolic acid 
 (containing 60 to 70 per cent, of real acid) 1 
 lb. Alter having been mixed, the mass is 
 placed under cover for a night to avoid any 
 chance of spontaneous ignition, and when dry 
 it is packed in barrels. 
 
 c. Charcoal. The powerfully deodorising 
 properties of charcoal obviously adapt it for 
 the removal of excreta in the dry state, after 
 the admixture with them. But the compara- 
 tively high price of animal charcoal, although 
 nearly six times the value of dry earth as a 
 deodorant, prohibits its being extensi vuly used. 
 Peat is, however, cheaper than animal iliarcoal. 
 To obviate the objection of cost, Mr Stanford, 
 in 1872, proposed to make charcoal for this 
 purpose from seawiod. I'he charcoal obtained 
 from this source is said to he cheap aud of 
 great service as an excretal deodoriser. The 
 mixed charcoal and sewage is sufiiciently odour- 
 less to ho storcil for some mouths in a conve- 
 nient receptacle outside a dwelling-house. 
 
 After tbe seaweed charcoal has become 
 thoroughly impregnated with foccus and urine, 
 the mixture is recarhonised in a retort, and 
 tbe carbon can he again used ; the distilled 
 products (ammoniacal liquor, containing ace- 
 tate of lime, tar, and gas) are sufBclent to 
 pay the cost, and it is said even to yield a 
 profit.' 
 
 d. Dried earth. The Rev. Mr Moule was 
 tbe first to direct attention to tbe value of 
 dried earth as a deodorant of fxcreta. 
 
 Mr Moule's 'earth closet' consists of a box 
 with a receptacle below for the excreta. By 
 pulling a plug dried earth, which is placed in 
 a hopper above, enters the closet and fall-^ 
 upon the excreta, thus disinfecting and deodo- 
 rising it. Tbe consumption of earth averages 
 from li to li lb. a day. The slop water 
 should not he thrown into the closet, hut dis- 
 posed of in some other way. In another plan, 
 as in Taylor's improved closet, the urine is 
 carried off without mixing at all with the 
 fsBces. 
 
 Clay, marl, and vegetable humus form tbe 
 best kind of earths. When dried the clay 
 may be easily reduced to powder. Chalk and 
 sand are comparatively useless. The recep- 
 tacle is emptied from time to time, tbe 
 contents forming a valuable manure. 
 
 The earth closet is more particularly 
 adapted for small villages and isolated man- 
 sions. One difficulty of its application by 
 cottagers consists in the necessity of coUect- 
 
 » About tlie same time carbonisation of seimge in 
 rttorts, witli or witliout previous admixture with cliarooal, 
 WHS proposed bj Mr Hickev, of Dnijeelins. There can be 
 littie iloulit that, regarded in a purely sainlarv point of 
 vu™- (arhonisation of sewage matter is an excellent plan. 
 MrUickey proposed the utilisalion of the ammouiacal 
 products resulting from his process. 
 
1482 
 
 SHADDOCK— SHA GREEN 
 
 ing, drying, and storing the earth ; the 
 cottager's mostly limited space in his dwelling 
 not permitting this. One great obstacle to 
 the effective carrying out of this system 
 amongst extensive communities is the diffi- 
 culty of procuring the large supply of earth 
 that its adoption neressitates. With proper 
 supervision and care the 'earth system' 
 answers admirably ; but if these are not 
 bestowed on it, it as signally fails. It has 
 been adopted with great success in many 
 schools, barracks, and other large buildings. 
 
 " It is coming into great use in India, and 
 is carried out with great attention to detail. 
 In those European stations where water is not 
 procurable Mr Moule's invention has been 
 a boon of great value, and medical officers say 
 that nothing has been done in India of late 
 years which has contributed so much to the 
 health and comfort of the men. The plan of 
 separating the urine from the faeces has been 
 strongly advocated by Dr Cornish, of Madras, 
 :ind would, no doubt, be attended with great 
 advantages in India if there are means of dis- 
 posal of the urine. The chief difficulty in 
 the Eviropean birracks in India is (elt during 
 the rainy season, when the mixed excreta and 
 earth cannot be kept sufficiently dry. In the 
 case of natives of India, however, a serious 
 difficulty arises in the use of the earth system, 
 in consequence of the universal use of water 
 for ablution after using the closet. Every 
 native takes with him a small vessel holding 
 ten to twenty ounces of water, so that a large 
 amount of fluid has to be disposed of. The 
 usuhI earth closet does not suffice for this. 
 Mr Charles Turner, C.E., of Southampton, has 
 contrived a closet suitable for the native 
 family ; it is unfortunately too costly, and 
 possibly a simple iron box, with a pipe to 
 carry off the urine and ablution water, would 
 be better suited for the poorer classes."' 
 
 e. Captain Lieurnur's pneumatic plan. 
 This process, the invention of a Dutch engi- 
 neer, is in use at Amsterdam, Leyden, 
 Drodreeht, and a few other Continental towns. 
 It is also known as the 'aspiration plan.* Its 
 outlineii are as follows : — " The pipes and 
 tubes leading from the various water-closets 
 and privies peculiar to the system are con- 
 nected witli street mains, which mains again 
 communicate with underground horizontal 
 cast-iron cylinders or tanks, these tanks 
 being directly connected with a powerful air- 
 pump worked by steam. Communication 
 between the main and the tanks, as well as 
 between the tanks and the pump, can be 
 made or broken by means of stopcocks. 
 Hence it follows that when access is allowed 
 between one of the tanks and the air-pump, 
 this latter will, when put into action, produce 
 a vacuum in the tank, and if the stopcock of 
 the main leading to the tank be then opened, 
 the contents of all the privies and water- 
 closets, the pipes of which run into the main, 
 1 Parkea. 
 
 will be removed by being swept into the tank 
 by pneumatic force. In this manner each 
 tank is treated in succession. Similarly the 
 sewage is carried to the large reservoirs of a 
 manure manufactory. It is here mixed with 
 a little sulphuric acid to prevent the forma- 
 tion of ammonia, and being evaporated down 
 in vacuo becomes converted, when sufficiently 
 dry, into poudrette. In Lieurnur's process 
 all deodorants are dispensed with, and its 
 mixture with water is prevented by means of 
 porous drain pipes laid above the sewers, by 
 which contrivance the subsoil water is kept 
 out of the sewers. 
 
 Sewage, Utilisation of. " Mr Peregrine 
 Birch read before the Institution of Sur- 
 veydi'S a paper on 'The Use of Sewage 
 by Farmers,' which embodied some facts 
 that deserve to be noticed, as bearing on 
 a question we have repeatedly discussed. 
 It appears that there are at the present 
 time 'upwards of one hundred owners and 
 occupiers of land in Great Britain who use 
 sewage for the sake alone of what they can 
 get out of it by agricultural means.' Of these 
 * more than sixty are tenant farmers, who 
 continue to use it although they have, annually 
 at least, the option of ceasing to do so.' It 
 seems five out of six of the tenant farmers 
 purchase the sewage they employ, so that 
 tlieir adhesion to the method proves conclu- 
 sively that it pa^s. Nearly four thousand 
 acres of land are under regular cultivation 
 with sewage. Mr Birch is of opinion that 
 ' advocates of sewage precipitation processes 
 should not regard sewage farmers as tlieir 
 rivals, for a chemical process might be very 
 largely used with advantage when farmers are 
 being persuaded or taught to use sewage. 
 Bat this should be the distinct aim of all 
 cultivation, for there is no chemical process 
 that could not be worked to greater advantage 
 during two months of the year than twelve, or 
 applied to a small quantity of sewage at less 
 cost than to a large.' Our primary interest is 
 to see the utilisation of sewage generally 
 adopted ; the method employed must be 
 determined by experience on the grounds of 
 cheapness and expediency." — Lancet. 
 
 SHAD'DOCK. A large species of orange, 
 the fruit of Citrus Deeumana (Linn.). 
 
 SHAGEEEN'. This is prepared from the 
 skins of the horse, wild ass, and camel, as fol- 
 lows ! — The skin, freed from epidermis and 
 hair by soaking in water, and, alter dressing 
 with the currier's fleshing-knife, is sprinkled 
 over, whilst still wet and stretched, with the 
 seeds of a species of chenopodium, which are 
 imbedded in it by strong pressure, and in this 
 state it is dried ; the seeds are then shaken off, 
 and the surface rubbed or shaved down, nearly 
 to the bottom of the seed-pits or indentations ; 
 it is next soaked in water, by which the skin 
 swells, and the recently depressed surface rises 
 into a number of minute prominences ; it is, 
 lastly, dyed and smoothed off. Black is given 
 
SHALLOT— SHELLFISH 
 
 1483 
 
 to !t with calls and copperas; blue, with a 
 aolution of indigo ; green, with copper filings 
 and sal aiiiinoniac ; aud red, with cochineal and 
 alum. Sliitrreen was formerly very extensively 
 MSivtl for covering the cases of watches, spec- 
 tacles, surgical instruments, &C. 
 
 SHALLOT'. Syn. Eschalot. The Allium 
 eucalonicum (Linn.), a plant allied to the 
 onion, tlie hulb of which is much used as a 
 sauce or pot-herb. 
 
 SHAMFOO'INO. A practice common in the 
 Eist, having for its object the increase or 
 restoration of the tone and vigour of the body, 
 or the mitigation of pain. It is applied either 
 in the batli or immediately after quitting it, 
 generally the latter, and consists in pres-^ing 
 and kneading the flesh, stretching and relax- 
 ing the knee-joints, and laboriously brushing 
 and scrubl)ing tlie skin. 
 
 SHARPS. See Flovb. 
 
 SHA'VING. The fuUowingare Mr Mechi's 
 instructions tor this, to muny persons, trouble- 
 some operation : — Never fail to well wash your 
 bi-ard with soxp tmd cold water, and to rub it 
 dry, immediately before you apply the lather, 
 of which the more you use the easier you will 
 shiive. Never use warm water, which makes a 
 tender face. Place the razor (closed, of course) 
 in your pocket, or under your arm, to warm it. 
 The moment you leave your hed is the best 
 time to shave. Always put your shaving- 
 brush away with the lather on it. 
 
 The razor (being only a very fine saw) 
 should he moved in a sloping or sawing di- 
 rection, holding it iieurly flat to your face, care 
 being taken to draw the skin as tight as pos- 
 sible with the left hand, so as to present an even 
 surface and throw out the beard. The prac- 
 tice of pressing on tlie edge of a razor in strop- 
 ping generally rounds it ; the pressure should 
 he directed to the back, which must never he 
 raised from the strop. If you shave from heel 
 to point of the razor, strop it from point to 
 heel; but if you begin with the point, then 
 strop from heel to point. If you only once 
 put away your razor without stropping or 
 otherwise cleaning the edge, you must no 
 longer expect to shave well, the soap and 
 damp so siion rust the fine teeth or edge. A 
 piece of plate leather should always be kept 
 with tlie razors. 
 
 SHAVIMG FLUID. See Essence op Soap. 
 
 SHAWLS, To Scour. Scrape one pound of 
 soap into thin shavings, and let it be boiled 
 with as much water as will convert into a thin 
 jelly. When cold, beat it with the hand, and 
 mix with it three tablespoonfuls of oil of 
 turpentine, and one of hartshorn. Let the 
 shawl be well washed in this mixture, and 
 afterwards rinsed in cold water, so as to get 
 rid of all the soap. 
 
 Next let the shawl be rinsed in salt and 
 water, then wring out the water from it, and 
 fold it between two sheets, being careful not 
 to allow two folds of the shawl to lie together j 
 finally mangle, and iron with a cool iron. 
 
 SHEEP. St/n. Oris, L. The Ovis aries, 
 an animal domesticated almost everywhere. 
 Its flesh supplies us with food, its skin with 
 leather, its fleece with wool, and its intes- 
 tines with catgut. Its fat (sevnm) is officinal. 
 See Mutton, Suet, &c. 
 
 Sheep Washes. 1. Arseniou^ acid in powder, 
 carbonate of potash, of each 6 oz. ; water, 1 1 
 gall. Boil together for half an hour. 
 
 2. Arsenious acid in powder, soft soap, and 
 carbonate of potash, of each 6 oz. ; sulphur, 
 i oz. ; bruised hellebore root, 2 oz. ; water, 14 
 gall. Boil the ingredients in a portion of 
 the water for half an hour, or until the arsenic 
 is dissolved, then odd the remainder of the 
 water, and strain through a coarse sieve. Mr 
 Youatt says : — " More care than is usually 
 taken should be exercised in order that the 
 fluid may penetrate to every part of the skin, 
 and which should he ensured by a previous 
 washing in soap and water. The arsenic that 
 necessarily remains about the wool when the 
 water has dried away would probably destroy 
 the acari as fast as they are produced. When 
 a greater quantity of arsenic bus been used, 
 or the sheep has been kept too long in the 
 water, fatal consequences have occasionally 
 ensued." 
 
 3. A sheep-dipping composition employed 
 on the Continent is : — Arsenious acid, 1 lb. ; 
 sulphate of zinc, 10 lbs.; dissolved in 25 gal- 
 lons of water. 
 
 4. The Australian »heep farmers use a weak 
 solution of bichloride of mercury (1 oz. of the 
 bichloride to 4 gall, of water). 
 
 5. Water, 40 parts, at the temperature of 
 oil to 57" C. ; to this add 1 part of soluble glass 
 (the soluble silicates). This is recommended 
 as a very efficient and perfectly «ale slieip 
 wa>h by Messrs Baerle and Co., of Worms, in 
 washing the sheep with this preparatiou care 
 should be taken to cover tlie eyes of the 
 animal with a bandage, to perform the waslc- 
 ing with the solutiou instantaneously, and to 
 remove the surplus with tepid water. 
 
 " Yards into which newly clipped sheep are 
 to be turned should bH previously cleared of 
 all green food, hay, and even fresh water ; if 
 perfectly empty tliey are still safer. When 
 the dipping is finished they should be 
 cleaned, washed, and swept, and any of the 
 unused dipping solution at once poured down 
 the drains. Dipped sheep should remain, if 
 possible, in an open exposed place, as on a dry 
 road, or in a large open yard. Overcrowding 
 should he avoided, and every facility given for 
 rapid drying, which is greatly expedited by 
 selecting for the operation fine, clear, drying 
 weather. On no account should sheep he 
 returned to their grazings until they are dry, 
 and all risk of dripping over.' 
 
 SHELL-FISH. The common name for the 
 
 Crnstacean and Molluscous animals that are 
 
 used for food. ' Shell-fish ' are extremely liable 
 
 to disturb the functions of the stomach and 
 
 1 Fiulay Dutm. 
 
1484 
 
 SHEL-IiAC— SHOW BOTTLES 
 
 bowels. The oyster (Ostrea edulis), and the 
 cockle {Cardium edule), are, perhaps, the least 
 objectionable. The crab {Cancer pagurua), 
 the crayfish {Astacus fluvialis), the lobster 
 {Somarus vulcfaris),t\ie m\xsse\{Mi/tilus edulis), 
 the prawn (PaZffimon serratus), the periwinkle 
 {lAttorina IHtorea), and the shrimp (Crangon 
 vulgaris), with the exception of the claws of 
 the first three, are always suspicious, parti- 
 cularly in hot weather, and often absolutely 
 poisonous. We have seen the most alarming, 
 nay, fatal symptoms, follow the use of mussels, 
 even amongst those habitually accustomed to 
 take them ; whilst it is a well-known fact 
 that the luscious bodies of the crab and lobster 
 have too often formed the last supper of the 
 epicure. See Oyster, &c. 
 
 SHEL-LAC. See Lac. 
 
 SHELLS (Prepared). Si/n. Test^: pejepa- 
 KAT^ (Ph. L. 1836), L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 Wash oyster-shells (oste« — Ph. L.) with 
 boiling water, having previously freed them 
 from extraneous matters ; then prepare them 
 in the manner directed for chalk. The pro- 
 duct is similar in constitutlou and properties 
 to prepared chalk. 
 
 Shells, To Polish. 1. The surface of the 
 shell should be first cleaned by rubbing it over 
 with a rag dipped in hydrochloric acid, till the 
 outer dull skin is removed. It must be then 
 washed in warm water, dried in hot sawdust, 
 and polished with chamois leather. Those 
 shells which are destitute of a natural polished 
 surface, may be either varnished or rubbed 
 with a mixture of tripoli powder and turpen- 
 tine applied by means of a wash-leather, after 
 which fine tripoli alone should be used, and, 
 finally, a little olive oil, the surface being 
 brought up with the chamois leather as before. 
 
 2. " The shells are first boiled in a strong 
 solution of potash, then wound on wheels, 
 sometimes through one strata to show an 
 underlying one, then polished with hydro- 
 chloric acid and putty powder. In this opera- 
 tion the hands are in great danger. Shell 
 grinders are generally almost all cripples in 
 their hands. (Spon.) 
 
 SHER'BET. [Pers.] A cooling drink, used 
 in the East, prepared with the juices of fruit, 
 and water, variously sweetened and flavoured. 
 The word has been, of late years, commonly 
 employed in these countries in a similar 
 manner. See Lemonade, Obangeabe, and 
 
 POWDEES. 
 
 SHER'ET. %K. Sheebt wine, Shbeeis ; 
 ViNUM Xeeicum (Ph. L.), Vinum album 
 
 (Ph. E.), ViNUM AIBUM HlSPANICUM (Ph. D.), 
 L. This is the only wine ordered in the 
 British Pharmacopoeias. See WiNEa. 
 
 SHERRY-COBBLER. Prep. (Redwood.) 
 Half fill a tumbler with clean pounded ice ; 
 add a table-spoonful of powdered white sugar, 
 a few tliin slices of lemon witb the peel (or 
 some strawberries or other similar fruit, 
 bruised), and a wine-glassful or more of sherry 
 wine 5 mix them together (lightly), and us the 
 
 ice melts, suck the liquor through a straw (or 
 a small tube of silver or glass). 
 
 Obs. A favourite American drink j very 
 refreshing in hot weather. 
 
 SHIN"GLES. Sj/n. Zobteb, Hbepbs zos- 
 TEE, Hebfes zona, L. A local variety of 
 herpes or tetter, remarkable for forming a 
 kind of belt round or partly round some part 
 of the trunk of the body, chiefly the waist or 
 abdomen. See Tbtiees. 
 
 SHODDY. The epithet (we believe of 
 American origin) is applied to the old, used- 
 up wool and cloth, fraudulently mixed with 
 fresh woollen fabrics. A plan for the examina- 
 tion of a fabric suspected of containing shoddy 
 has been given by a German chemist, Herr 
 Schlesinger, and is as follows: — Examine it 
 with the microscope and note if it contains 
 cotton, silk, or linen, as well as wool. If so 
 dissolve them by ammoniacal solution of cop- 
 per. A qualitative examination is thus ob- 
 tained. Then direct attention to the wool. 
 In shoddy both coloured and colourless fibres 
 are often seen, the fibres having been derived 
 from different cloths which have been par- 
 tially bleached ; the colouring matter, if any, 
 instead of consisting of one pigment, will be 
 composed of two or three different kinds, such 
 as indigo, purpurin, or madder. Again, the 
 diameter of the wool is never so regular as in 
 fresh wool, but is seen to vary suddenly or 
 gradually in diameter, and suddenly widens 
 again with a little swelling, and tapers off 
 again, besides which the cross markings or 
 scales are almost always absent. When 
 shoddy-wool is placed in liquor potassae it is 
 much more speedily attacked than new wool. 
 
 SHOT METAL. Prep. Prom lead, 1000 
 parts ; arsenic, 3 parts. When the lead is 
 coarse, 6 to 8 parts of metallic arsenic are 
 required to fit it for this purpose. 
 
 SHOW BOTTLES. The large ornamental 
 carboys and jars filled with coloured liquids, 
 and displayed in the shop-windows of drug- 
 gists, may be noticed under this head. They 
 are striking objects when the solutions they 
 contain are bright and of a deep pure tint, 
 especially at night, when they are seen by 
 transmitted light. The following formalse 
 for the solutions have been recommended by 
 different persons : — ■ 
 
 Ambee. Prom dragon's blood (in coarse 
 powder), 1 part ; oil of vitriol, 4 parts ; digest, 
 and, when the solution is complete, dilute the 
 mixture with distilled or soft water, q. s. 
 
 Blue.— o. Prom blue vitriol, 2oz. ; oil of 
 vitriol i oz. ; water, 1 pint.— 6. A solution of 
 indigo in sulphuric acid, diluted with water, 
 q. s. — c. A solution of soluble Prussian blue in 
 either oxalic or hydrochloric acid, slightly 
 diluted, and afterwards further diluted with 
 water to the proper shade of colour. 
 
 Ceimson. — a. Prom alkanet root, 1 oz. ; oil 
 of turpentine, 1 pint. Used chiefly for the 
 bull's eyes of lamps. — 6. As pink (6), below. 
 ' Geebn. — a. From sulphate of copper, 2 oz. ; 
 
SHRIMP— SICKNESS 
 
 1485 
 
 bicliromato of potash, 1 dr., or q. s. ; water, 
 1 pint. — b. A solutioQ of sulphate of copper, 
 2ox. ; chlorideuf soilium, 4 oz ; water, 1 pint, 
 or q. 8, — c. A solution of distilled verdigris in 
 acetic acid, diluted with water, q. a. — d. Dis- 
 wlve blue vitriol ia water, and add nitric acid 
 until it turns green. 
 
 LiLAO. — a. Dissolve crude oxide of cobalt 
 (zitfrre) in nitric or bjdrocbloric acid, add ses- 
 quiciirbonnte of ammonia, in excess, and after- 
 wards sufficient ammonio-sulphate of copper 
 to strike the colour. — b. As the purple, but 
 more diluted. 
 
 Magenta. Acetate of rosaniline, dissolved 
 iu water, q. s. 
 
 Olive. Dissolve sulphate of iron and oil 
 of vitriol, equal weights, in water, and add of 
 nitrate of copper, q. s. to strike the colour. 
 
 Obanse. — a. A solution of bichromate of 
 potash in water, either with or without the 
 addition of some hydrochloric or sulphuric 
 acid. — b. Dissolve gamboge or annotta in 
 liquor of pota&sa j dilute with water, and add 
 a little spirit. 
 
 Pink.— a. To a solution of chloride or ni- 
 trate of cobalt, in water, add sesquicarboniite 
 of ammonia, q. o. to dissolve the precipitate 
 at first farmed. — b. From madder (washed 
 with cold water), 1 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of 
 ammonia, 4 oz. ; water, 3 pints ; digest, with 
 agitation, for 24 hours, then dilute with more 
 water, and tilter. 
 
 Pdsplb. — a. A solution of sulphate of cop- 
 per, 1 oz., in water, 1 qu»rt, or q. s., with tlie 
 addition of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, li oz. 
 — b. To the last add a sufficient quantity of 
 the first pink (above) to turn the colour. — c. 
 To an infusion of logwood, add carbonate of 
 ammonia or of potassa, q. s. — d. Sugar of lead, 
 3 oz. ; powdered cochineal, 1 dr. ; water, q. s. 
 — e. Add sulphate of indigo, nearly neutra- 
 lised with chalk, to an infusion of cochineiil, 
 till it turns purple. 
 
 Bed. — a. Dissolve carmine in liquor of nra- 
 monia, and dilute with water. — b. Digest pow- 
 dered cochineal in a weak solution of ammonia 
 or of sal ammoniac, and afterwards dilute with 
 water. — o. Add oil of vitriol, 4 oz., to water, 
 1 gall., and digest dried red rose leaves, 8 oz., 
 iu the mixture for 24 hours. — d. Dissolve 
 madder lake in a solution of sesquicarbonate of 
 ammonia, and dilute the solution with water. 
 
 Violet. To a solution of nitrate of cobalt 
 in a lolution of sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 
 add solution of ammonio-sulphate of copper, 
 q. 1. to strike the colour. 
 
 Yellow. — a. A solution of sesquioxide or 
 rust of iron, } lb., in hydrochloric acid, 1 quart, 
 diluted with water. — A. To a strong decoction 
 of French berrifs add a little alum. — c. A 
 simple solution of cbromate or bichromate of 
 potash in distilled water. — d. A solution of 
 equal yfrta of nitre and either chromate or 
 bichromate of potash, in water. 
 
 Oba. Most of the above require filtering, 
 which should be done through powdered glass, 
 
 placed in a glass fnnnel, and never through 
 paper. They usually need a second filtration, 
 after being exposed to the light for some 
 week-i ; hence it is convenient always to make 
 a little more of them than is required to fill 
 the bottle, as several of them, when diluted 
 after filtration, become again turbid. Distilled 
 water or filtered rain water should be used, 
 
 SHEIMP. See Shell-fish. 
 
 SHEUB. A species of concentrated cold 
 punch, prepared with lemon juice, spirit, 
 sugar, and water. When the word is used in 
 its unqualified form, bttu shbub ia alluded to. 
 
 Shrub, Brandy. Prep. 1. Take of brandy, 
 1 gall.; orange and lemon juice, of each 1 
 pint ; peels of 2 oranges ; do. of 1 lemon ; 
 digest for 24 hours, strain, and add of white 
 sugar, 4 lbs., dissolved in water, 5 Jiints ; in a 
 fortnight decant the clear liquid for use. 
 
 2. As BUM SHEUB (below), but using brandy. 
 
 Shrub, Lemon. Si/n. IiKmonadk shbub. 
 Concentrated lemonade, either with or without 
 the addition of a little spirit. Used to make 
 lemonade or lemon sherbet. 
 
 Shrub, Punch. Concentrated punch, made 
 with equal parts of spirit and water. Used to 
 make punch. 
 
 Shrub, Sum. Prep. 1. Asdbandtshbub, 
 but substituting rum for brandy. 
 
 2. Take of rum, at proof, 31 gall, (or, if of 
 any other strength, an equivalent quantity) ; 
 essential oils of orange and lemon, of each 2 oz., 
 dissolved in rectified spirit, 1 quart; good 
 lump sugar, 300 lbs. ; dissolved in water, 20 
 galls.; mix well by 'rummaging,' and gradually 
 and cautiously add of Seville orange juice, or of 
 a solution of tartaric acid in water, q. s. to 
 produce n pleasant but scarcely perceptible 
 acidity; next 'rummage' well for 15 minutes, 
 then add sufficient water to make the whiile 
 measure exactly 100 galls., and again 'rum- 
 mage' well for at least half an hour; histly, 
 bung the cask down loosely, and allow it to 
 repose for some days. In a fortnight, or les-, 
 it will usually be sufficiently 'briUiant' to be 
 racked. The product is 100 galls., at 66 u. p. 
 
 Obs. Bum shrub is the kind in the greatest 
 demand, and that having u slight prepon- 
 derance of the orange flavour is the most 
 esteemed. If wholly flavoured with lemon it 
 is apt to acquire a kind of 'dead' or 'musty' 
 flavour by long keeping. The substitution of 
 a few gallons of brandy for a portion of the 
 rum, or the addition, after racking, of about 
 1 oz. each of bruised bitter almonds, cloves, 
 and cassia, the peels of about 2 dozen oranges, 
 and a 'thread ' of the essences of ambergris and 
 vanilla, render it delicious. 
 
 SIAL'OGOGTIES. Medicines which increase 
 the flow of saliva. Mercurials and pellitory of 
 Spain belong to this class. 
 
 SICE'NESS. Nausea and vomiting fre- 
 quently arise from the use of improper food, 
 and other articles which offend the stomach ; 
 at other times it is symptomatic of some 
 disease, as colic, cholera, dyspepsia, head afifec- 
 
use 
 
 SIFTING— SILICA 
 
 tioiis, incipient fever, &c. ; in which case the 
 primary affection should be attended to. 
 Nausea lowers the pulse, contracts the small 
 vessels, occasions cold perspiration, severe 
 rigors, and trembling ; and diminishes, as long 
 as it lasts, the actions, and even the genera] 
 powers, of life. The act of retching, and 
 vomiting more especially, on the coiitrary, 
 rouses rather than depresses, puts to flight all 
 the preceding symptoms, and often restores 
 the system to itself. 
 
 The best remedies or p-.illiatives in these 
 affections are effervescing saline draughts, 
 either with or without the addition of a few 
 drops of tincture of henbane, or tincture of 
 opium. A glass of srenuine lemonade, iced, or 
 a spoonful of crushed iee in a wine-glassful of 
 mint water, is also very serviceable. Pepsin 
 (Bullock and Reynolds) and oxalate of cerium 
 are said to be most valuable remedies in the 
 sickness of pregnancy. See DaACaHTS, Pbeq- 
 NANCT, Sea sickness, &c. 
 
 SIPT'ING is to pulverulent substances what 
 filtration is to liquids; but in this case the 
 medium through which the substance passes 
 is, usually, of a simpler and coarser descrip- 
 tion. Sieves are commonly employed for the 
 purpose, which are fitted with silk or brass- 
 wire gauze for fine purposes, and horsehair 
 cloth, ur wire netting, for coarser ones. Drum 
 sieves are such as are furnished with covers 
 and an enclosed space to receive the fine pow- 
 der that passes through, by which dust and 
 loss are prevented. 
 
 SIGHT. See Vision. 
 
 Sight, Effect of Gaslight on. The German 
 Minister of Instruction lias recently issued a 
 report on the influence of gaslight on the eye. 
 The conclusion arrived at in tliis report — the 
 result of frequent conference with well-known 
 physicians — is that no evil results follow a 
 moderate use of gas, if the direct action of the 
 yellow flame on the eye is prevented. For this 
 purpose screens or shades are employed. Very 
 great objections, however, exist to the use of 
 zinc or lead shades, most evils affecting the 
 eye being traceable to them. Their use, it 
 is said, inevitably tends to blindness or inflam- 
 mation, and other harmful effects. The milky- 
 white glass shade is the best, as it distributes 
 the light and has a grateful effect on the eyes. 
 The burner should not be too close to the 
 head, as congestions of the forehead and head- 
 aches result from the radiated heat. The glass 
 plate below the gas, employed in some places, 
 is especially useful for the purpose, as it causes 
 an eqnal distribution of the light — necessary 
 where a number are working at one burner — 
 prevents tlie radiation of heat, and tends to a 
 steady illumination by shielding the flames 
 from currents of air. In cases of highly- 
 inflamed eyes, dsirk-blue globes can be very 
 beneficially employed. With precautions of 
 this kind no evil effects from the burning of 
 gas need be feared. 
 
 SIG'NATURES (Facsimiles of). These may 
 be readily obtained as follows : — 
 
 1. Let the name be written on a piece of 
 paper, and, while the ink is still wet, sprinkle 
 over it some finely-powdered gum Arabic, then 
 make a rim round it, and pour on it some 
 fusible alloy in a, liquid state. Impressions 
 may be taken from the plates formed in this 
 way, hy means of printing ink and the copper- 
 plate press. 
 
 2. By the use of transfer ink and litho- 
 graphy. 
 
 SILBEE LIGHT. This light is thus de- 
 scribed in ' Dingler's Polytechnic Journal :'' — 
 This mode of illumination is recommended 
 where gas cannot he had. 
 
 The material used is oil, which is converted 
 into gas before combustion takes place, whereby ' 
 the combustion of the wick is greatly lessened 
 (one wick may last a year) ; the accumulation 
 of impurity is obviated, and the prevention of 
 smell completely effected. The light is regu- 
 lar and uniform, and of a white colour. The 
 light, with a burner li inch wide, is equal 
 to that of 28 sperm candles, each consuming 
 120 gr. per hour, and with one If inch wide 
 a light is obtained equal to 50 such candles. 
 
 The burning apparatus consists of a row of 
 concentrically enclosed double cylinders, per- 
 pendicularly arranged at definite intervals. 
 The innermost cylinder contains the wick be- 
 tween its two walls, the hollow space in the 
 interior serving to convey fresh air to the in- 
 terior of the flame. The second cylinder con- 
 veys air to the outer side of the wii k, and the 
 third contains oil, and is in direct communica- 
 tion with both wick and reservoir. The 
 mouths of all these chambers have a dome- 
 shaped head, and form a suitable opening in 
 this; the gas streams forth in such a manner 
 that it comes in contact with a current of air, 
 and thus a complete combustion is attained. 
 
 According to the nature of the oil burnt the 
 construction is somewhat varied in its minor 
 details. Rape oil or light hydrocarbon oils 
 are mentioned. 
 
 SIL'ICA. SiOj. Si/n. Silicic awhtdeide, 
 Silicic acid, Sieex, Siliceous EABTHf, 
 Eaeth oe PLINTSt. This exists in quartz 
 and rock crystal in a nearly pure state. The 
 sands of rivers and the sea-shore, flint, and 
 almost all the scintillating stones, chiefly con- 
 sist of it. 
 
 Silica occurs under two conditions — ^the 
 crystalline and the amorphous. The former 
 variety has a sp. gr. of 2-642; the amorphous 
 of 2'2 — 2'3. Some of our well-known native 
 gems and precious stones consist almost wholly 
 of one of the above forms of silica. In agate 
 and calcedony the two varieties are combined. 
 Amethyst is silica, coloured purple by ferric 
 oxide. Onyx is formed of calcedony arranged 
 in layers of different colours. Cornelian is 
 a red or brown variety of silica coloured with 
 
 1 ccix, 79 ('Joam. Chem. Society,' toL xi, new series, 
 1373). 
 
SILICA 
 
 1487 
 
 ferric oxide, whilst opnl is amnrpiious silica 
 combined with varying quantities of water. 
 Silica is present in tiie stemti of certain plants, 
 such as wheat, many grasses, to which tlie 
 shining appearance of the stems is due, &c. 
 The Italiuus polish marble with the ashes of 
 burnt straw, the usefulness of which for such 
 a purpose depends upon the silica contained in 
 the straw; for similar reasons the Dutch rush 
 is thus employed. Siiica also occurs in solu- 
 tion in many natural waters. In the geysers, 
 or boiling springs of Iceland, it exists in large 
 quantity. 
 
 It may be obtained in a state of absolute 
 purity by passing gaseous fluoride of silicon into 
 water, collecting the resulting gelatinous pre- 
 cipitate on a calico filter, washing it with dis- 
 tille'l water, drying it, and heating it to red- 
 ness. Another method is to precipitate a 
 solution of silicate of soda or potassa (soluble 
 glass) with dilute hydrochloric acid, and to 
 treat the precipitate as before. 
 
 Nearly pure silica may also be procured by 
 heating colourless quartz to redness, and 
 plunging it into cold water, by which treat- 
 ment the quartz is rendered so friable as to be 
 easily reducible to fine powder. Ordinary 
 Hints, subjected to this method, are found to 
 yield silica in a condition approaching to 
 purity. Amorphous silica is much more easily 
 attacked by solvents than thp crystalline 
 variety. The artilicial forms of silica are all 
 amorphous. 
 
 The test for a silicate consists in fusing the 
 suspected body with sodic or potarsic car- 
 bonate, heating the residue with acid, and 
 evaporating to dryness. If the residue be 
 then treated with hot water the silica remains 
 undissolved in the form of a white powder, 
 which will yield a colourless bead when fused 
 with sodic carbonate upon a piece of platinum 
 foil before the blowpipe flame. If silica be 
 fused with borax it becomes slowly dissolved, 
 forming a clear, colourless bead. 
 
 Chapman contests Plattner's opinion that, 
 when silicates are fused with phosphor salt, 
 the 'silica skeleton' that results is especially 
 due to the presence of alkalies or earthy 
 bases. 
 
 Chapman says : " It is true enough that 
 silicates in which these bases are present ex- 
 liibit the reaction ; but as other silicates- 
 practically all, iiidoed^-exhibit the reaction 
 also, the inference implied in the above state- 
 ment is quite erroneous. 
 
 " The opalescence of the glass arises entirely 
 from precipitated silica. 
 
 " If some pure silica (or a silicate of any 
 kind), in a powdered condition, be dissolved 
 before the blowpipe flame in borax until the 
 glass be saturated, and some phosphor salt be 
 then added, and the blowing be continued for 
 an instant, a precipitate of silicate will im- 
 mediately take place, the bead becoming milky 
 white (or, in the case of many silicates, 
 opaque) on cooling. This test may be resorted 
 
 to for the detection of silica in the case of sili- 
 cates, which dissolve with ditficulty in phos- 
 phor salt alone, or which do not give the 
 pronounced ' skeleton' with that reagent."' 
 
 Prop., gfc. A fine, white, tasteless, infusible 
 powder, insoluble in all acids, after being 
 heated, except the hydrofluoric ; requires the 
 heat of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe for its 
 fusion ; approaches the precious stones in 
 hardness ; soluble in strong alkaline solutions ; 
 its salts are called silicatss. Sp. gr. 2-66. 
 See Glass, Glass, Soluble, &c. 
 
 SUica, Hydrates of. By pouring a dilute 
 solution of sodinm silicate into a considerable 
 excess of hydrochloric acid the whole of the 
 silica is retained in solution, together with 
 the chloride of sodium formed by the action of 
 the hydrochloric acid upon the soda. By sub- 
 jecting this solution to dialysis (see dialysis) 
 the hydrochloric acid and chloride of sodium 
 are removed, whilst the hydrate of silica is left 
 behind, in solution, in the dialyser. Graham 
 recommends a stratum of the liquid four 
 tenths of an inch in depth, to be subjected for 
 four or five days to dialysis, the water in the 
 outer vessel to be changed every twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 If the solutiou so obtained be carefully eva- 
 porated down in a flask, and any drying of the 
 silicic acid at the edges of the liquid being 
 prevented, a solution may be obtained con- 
 taining 14 per cent, of silica. 
 
 The solution hiis a very feebly acid reaction, 
 and is without taste or colour. It cannot be 
 preserved in the liquid state for more than a 
 very few days, even in well-closed vessels, but 
 becomes converted into a transparent gelati- 
 nous mass, which separates from the water. 
 Hydrochloric acid, as well as small quanti- 
 ties of caustic potash or soda, retard the 
 coagulation. 
 
 When the solution is evaporated in vacuo at 
 59° F. over sulphuric acid, a lustrous trans- 
 parent glass is left behind, which consists of 
 22 per cent, of water, which closely accords 
 with the formula HiOoH.O. 
 
 By the action of moist air upon silicic ether 
 a transparent glassy hydrate was obtained by 
 Ebelmen, to which this chemist assigned the 
 formula 2S 0^,3H<,0. Two hydrates of silica 
 were obtained by Fuchs, one having the for- 
 mula 3Si02,H,0, the other, lSiO;,HjO. 
 
 Silicic Chloride. Syn. Silicic teteaohlo- 
 EIDB. (^iCl^.) This compound is rarely, if 
 ever, obtained by the direct method, viz. by 
 heating silicon in chlorine, but by the follow- 
 ing indirect process : — A paste is made of finely 
 divided silica, oil, and charcoal, and heated in 
 a covered crucible. The fragments of the 
 charred substance (consisting of silica and 
 carbon) are then placed in a porcelain tule, 
 which is raised to a red heat in a furnace, and 
 during the ignition of the fragments a current 
 of dry chlorine is passed into ond over them ; 
 the silicic chloride which is thus formed being 
 1 Ctiapman on * Blow-pipe Reactions.* 
 
1488 
 
 SILICOFLUOEIC ACID— SILICON 
 
 made to distil over into a bent tube surrounded 
 by a freezing mixture of ice and salt, whereby 
 it becomes condensed. 
 
 Silicic chloride is a very voluble and strongly 
 fuming gas, transparent and colourless, with 
 an irritating and pungent smell. It is imme- 
 diately decomposed by water into hydrochloric 
 acid and hydrated silica, which deposits in the 
 vessel. 
 
 Silicic Fluoride. Syn. Silicic teteafltto- 
 BIDE. (SiF4.) This gas is best prepared by 
 heating in a capacious £ask or retort equal 
 parts of finely powdered fluor spar and white 
 sand, or glass with ten or twelve times their 
 weight of strong sulphuric acid. This gas 
 must be collected over mercury, and in jars 
 that are free from the least trace of moisture. 
 
 Silicic fluoride is a colourless gas, with a very 
 pungent odour, fuming strongly in the air, 
 and neither burning nor supporting combus- 
 tion. Faraday succeeded in liquefying it 
 under great pressure, and Natterer states that 
 at a temperature of — 220° F. it may he so- 
 lidified. By water it is partially decomposed 
 and partially dissolved, yielding silicic acid 
 and hydrofluosilic acid. 
 
 With twice its volume of ammouiacal gas 
 silicic fluoride combines to form a crystalline 
 volatile. Silicic hydride has an acid reaction. 
 
 Silicic Hydride. (H4Si ?) To procure this 
 gas eilicide of magnesium is decomposed with 
 cold diluted hydrochloric acid. 
 
 The silicide of magnesium may be prepared 
 as follows : — Mix intimately 40 parts of fused 
 mngnesic chloride, 35 of dried sodie silico- 
 flaoride, and 10 of fused sodio chloride ; these 
 are mixed in a warm, dry tube, with 20 parts of 
 sodium in small fragments, and thrown into a 
 red-hot Hessian crucible, which is immediately 
 covered, the operation being finished when the 
 vapours of sodium cease to burn. 
 
 Silicic hydride becomes spontaneously ig- 
 nited in the air, and in doing so gives off white 
 fumes, which consist of amorphous silica 
 (SiOj). A cold body, such as a piece of porce- 
 lain or glass, introduced into the flame, becomes 
 covered with a brown deposit of reduced sili- 
 con. Passed into solutions of cupric sulphate, 
 argentic nitrate, and palladium chloride, this 
 gas throws down the metals, in most cases 
 combined with silicon. 
 
 SILICOFLUOEIC ACID. See FiuosiLicio 
 
 ACID. 
 
 SILICON. Si. Si/n. Silicitjm. An ele- 
 mentary substance forming the base of silica. 
 
 This element was first obtained by Sir 
 Humphry Davy, by acting upon silica with 
 potassium. It is now procured much more 
 easily by the decomposition of silico-fluoride 
 of potassium, at an elevated temperature, with 
 potassium or sodium. By heating a mixture 
 of fluor spar and ground flints with sulphuric 
 acid a gaseous tetra-fluoride of silicon is 
 formed, whicli, being partially soluble in water, 
 yields an acid solution of the tetra-fluoride. 
 Caustic potash is then added to the acid solu- 
 
 tion of the tetra-chloride until it becomes neu- 
 tralised, and the sparingly soluble silico-fluo- 
 ride of potassium thus formed is thoroughly 
 dried and mixed in a glass or iron tube with 
 eight or nine tenths of its weight of potassium 
 or half its weight of sodium, and heated. 
 The following equation explains the reaction 
 that takes place : 
 
 2KF,SiP4 -I- 2K2=Si + 6KP. 
 The resulting mass, consisting of potassic 
 fluoride, and reduced silicon in partial com- 
 bination with the excess of potassium, is treated 
 with cold water, when a copious evolution of 
 hydrogen gas ensues, owing to the decomposi- 
 tion of the water by the excess of potassium. 
 The potassic fluoride is got rid of by washing 
 with cold water, its entire removal being in- 
 dicated by the water ceasing to have an alka- 
 line reaction on test paper, whilst amorphous 
 silicon is left behind in the form of a brown 
 powder. 
 
 Another method by which silicon may also 
 be procured is by passing the vapour of silicic 
 chloride over heated potassium or sodium, 
 placed on a porcelain tray in a glass tube. In 
 this operation it is advisable to protect the 
 lining of the tube with thin plates of mica. 
 
 The silicon obtained by the above processes 
 is known as amorphous silicon, and, as already 
 stated, occurs as a brown powder. It is dull 
 in colour, and, being heavier than water, as 
 well as insoluble in it, sinks in that fluid. It 
 is a non-conductor of electricity, is unaffected 
 by nitric or sulphuric acid, but dissolves 
 readily in hydrofluoric acid, and in a warm 
 solution of caustic potash. It burns with 
 great brilliancy when heated in air or oxygen, 
 and becomes converted into silica, which, 
 owing to the great heat of combustion, fuses, 
 and thus forms a superficial crust over theun- 
 bnrnt silicon. A crystalline variety of silicon 
 may also be procured by heating the brown 
 amorphous silicon, already described, intensely 
 in a platinum crucible, with exclusion of air. 
 This crystalline silicon so obtained is much 
 darker in colour than the amorphous, and also 
 considerably denser; besides which it diff'ers 
 widely in properties from the latter. It will 
 not take fire if heated strongly in the air or 
 oxygen, even if before the blowpipe flame. 
 Its density is such that it sinks in strong 
 sulphuric acid, and hydrofluoric acid fails to 
 dissolve it, although it is soluble in a mixture 
 of hydrofluoric and nitric acids. It does not 
 become oxidised, even if fused with potassic 
 nitrate or chlorate, unless a white heat is ob- 
 tained, when it burns brilliantly, giving rise, on 
 so doing, to the formation of silica. 
 
 In addition to the above, a. graphitoid form 
 of silicon, occurring in plates, has been de- 
 scribed by Deville and Wohler. These che- 
 mists obtained this last modification from an 
 alloy of silicon and aluminium, which was 
 treated in succession with boiling hydro- 
 chloric and hydrofluoric acids. The plates of 
 silicon which arc left have a metallic lustre. 
 
SILK 
 
 14S9 
 
 and n sp. gr, of 2'49. The grapbitoid bears a 
 great resemblance in properties lo the erystal- 
 Ime silicon. It is a conductor of electricity. 
 Like the crystalline variety) it dissolves in a 
 mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids, 
 although slowly, but, unlike the crystalline, 
 it undergoes no change when heated to white- 
 ness in u current of oxygen. 
 
 Derille states that silicon requires a, tem- 
 perature between the melting points of iron 
 and steel to fuse it. He effected its fn<<ion in 
 a platinum crucible lined with lime, the pla- 
 tinum crucible being then placed in a clay 
 crucible, which was then exposed to intense 
 heat in a wind furnace. 
 
 By passing the vapour of silicic chloride 
 over pure aluminium, placed on a porcelain tray, 
 and raised to an intense heat, the aluminium, 
 becomes volatilised as aluminic chloride, whilst 
 the silicon remains behind in crystals possess- 
 ing a rediiish lustre. These crystals occur in 
 regular six-sided prisms, terminated by three- 
 sided pyramids, derived from the octohedra, 
 and are so hard that glass may be cut by 
 them, in the same way as by the diamond. 
 
 With oxygen silicon forms only one oxide, 
 silica, described above. 
 
 SILK, As an article of clothing, as far as 
 " roundness of fibre, softness of texture, ab- 
 sence of attraction for moisture, and power of 
 oommnnicating warmth, are concerned, silk is 
 greatly superior to both linen and cotton ; 
 moreover, it gives the sensation of freshness to 
 the touch which is so agreeable in linen. But, 
 with all these advantages, silk (when worn 
 next the body) has its defects ; on the slightest 
 friction it disturbs the electricity of the skin, 
 and thus becomes a source of irritation. 
 Sometimes, it is true, this irritation is advan- 
 
 tageous, as causing a determination of blood 
 to the surface; but when this action is not 
 required, it is disagreeable, and q\ute equal, 
 in a sensitive constitution, to producing an 
 ernption on the skin. I have seen eruptions 
 occasioned in this manner, and, when they 
 have not occurred, so much itching and irri- 
 tation as to call for the abandonment of the 
 garment." (Eras. M'ilson.) 
 
 Silk is characterised by its fibres appearing 
 perfectly smooth and cylindrical, without de- 
 pressions, even under a magnifying power of* 
 160. Its fibres (even when dyed) acquire a 
 permanent straw-yellow colour when steeped 
 in nitric acid of the sp. gr. 1'20 to 1 30. The 
 fibres of white or light - coloured silk are 
 similarly stained by a solution of picric acid. 
 A thread of silk, when inflamed, shrivels and 
 burns with difficulty, evolves a peculiar odour, 
 and leaves a bulky charcoal. By these pro- 
 perties silk is distinguished from cotton and 
 linen. 
 
 Cotton, wool, and silk may be easily dis- 
 tinguished from each other by means of the 
 microscope. 
 
 The cotton fibre will be seen to consist of 
 only one cell ; wool (as well as hair and 
 alpaca) is made up of numerous cells in juxta- 
 position ; whilst silk fibre is similar to the 
 secreted matter of spiders and caterpillars. 
 
 The silk fibre (fig. 1) is smooth, cylindrical, 
 devoid of structure, not hollow inside, and 
 equally broad. The surface is glossy, and 
 only seldom are any irregularities seen on it. 
 If it is desired to detect in a woven fabric the 
 genuineness of the silk, it is best to cut a 
 sample to pieces, place it under water under 
 the object-glass of a microscope, magnifying 
 120 to 200 times, covering it with a thiu piece 
 
 Fio.l. 
 
 Ilo. 3. 
 
 Fio. S. 
 
 »0L. n. 
 
14fiO 
 
 SILKWOEM 
 
 of glass. The round, glazed, equally propor- 
 tioned silk fibre (fig. 1), is easily distinguished 
 from the unequalled and scaled wool fibre (w 
 in fig. 2), and fioin the flat, band-like, and 
 spiral cotton fibre (b, fig. 3). Under the mi- 
 croscope also the mixture of inferior with 
 superior fibres of silk can be easily detected. 
 
 Black silk, the weight of which has been 
 augmented by extensive sophistication, is not 
 uncommon in English, French, and German 
 markets. It is known as 'weighted' or 
 * shotted' sillc, and very frequently contains no 
 more — and frequently less — than one third of 
 its weight of silk, the remaining two thirds 
 consisting, according to Persoz, of a combina- 
 tion of iron salts, with some astringent sub- 
 stance, salts of tin, and cyanides. It is easily 
 distinguishable from genuine silk by its want 
 of elasticity and tenacity, and its much greater 
 combustibility. Persoz found a specimen of 
 this adulterated silk to yield, upon incinera- 
 tion, more than 8 per cent, of ferric oxide. 
 
 The cleaning and renovation of articles of 
 wearing apparel made of silk are matters 
 requiring some care. No silk goods look well 
 after being washed, however carefully it may 
 be done ; and this method should, therefore, 
 never be resorted to but from absolute neces- 
 sity. It is recommended to sponge faded silks 
 with warm water and curd soap, then to rub 
 them with a dry cloth on a flat board, and 
 afterwards to iron them on the wrong side 
 with an ordinary smoothing iron. Sponging 
 with spirir, benzol, or pure oil of turpentine, 
 aUo greatly improves old silk, and is often 
 preferable to any other method. The odour 
 of the benzol passes off very quickly, that of 
 the turpentine after exposure for a few days. 
 When the ironing is done on the right side 
 thin paper should be spre.»d over the surface 
 to prevent 'ghizing.' See Dteino, Gildins 
 &c. 
 
 Silk Material, a New. The 'Textile Manu- 
 facturer' contains the following: — The utili- 
 sation of new substances as raw material for 
 manufactures is a distinguishing feature of 
 the scientifii; investigations of the nineteenth 
 century. One of the most recent suggestions 
 is the result of the researches of Her Tycho 
 Tulburg, an emjnent German naturalist, on 
 the products of tlie mussel. It will be remem- 
 bered it was from one of the mussel species 
 the famous purple dye was in past ages ob- 
 tained, and this colour gained an imperishable 
 renown from its^being adopted by the Roman 
 emperors, and the imperial purple became the 
 symbol of sovereignty. In these latter days 
 animal products have been displaced by aniline 
 dyes, and there is no likelihood of their regain- 
 ing their former celebrity. The researches of 
 Tulburg have not, however, been in the direc- 
 tion of dyes, but in the adaptation of animal 
 products other than the silkworm for silk 
 yarns. The mussel (Mytilus edulis) fastens 
 itself to the rocks by strong threads, called by 
 naturalists hyssus, and it is this substance 
 
 which it is proposed to utilise for the manu- 
 facture of silk. The material is of a silky 
 texture and very tough, and the experiments 
 that have been made prove that it is well 
 adapted to be made into yarn. Already the 
 Pinna,one of the mussel tribe, has been already 
 manufactured into fabrics, although it is not 
 of general use, nor at present of much com- 
 mercial value, and the same obstacles to the 
 use of the hyssu9 of the common mussel are 
 apparent. Notwithstanding the abundant 
 supply of this popular shell fish, it is difficult 
 to see how a sufficient quantity of byssus can 
 be collected to enable manufacturers to pur- 
 chase the raw material at rates low enough for 
 a marketable remuneration on the manufac- 
 tured article. But the records of industrial 
 progress testify to greater difficulties than 
 these having been successfully overcome; and 
 should the commercial value of the new mate- 
 rial he satisfactorily demonstrated, there is no 
 doubt some agency will be developed whereby 
 the requisite supply may be obtained. 
 
 At present it is sufficient to notice the dis- 
 covery that has been made, and to welcome 
 another instance of the results of scientific la- 
 bour being for the advantage of manufacturers. 
 
 SILE'WOBM, Diseases of. Silkworms are 
 liable to a disease known as pebrine, which 
 Pasteur has shown to be due to the presence, 
 on the body, the egg, and in the blood of the 
 insect, of peculiar parasitic corpuscles. 
 
 Pasteur states that the black specks which 
 constitute these bodies are very easily distin- 
 guishable in the moth of the silkworm, but 
 that in the earlier stages of its development, 
 such as in the egg and worm condition, the 
 detection of them becomes difficult, if not im- 
 possible. Pasteur further adds that sound 
 moths produce sound eggs, and unsound 
 moths the reverse, and that although the un- 
 sound eggs show no sign of disease, they never 
 give rise to healthy worms. 
 
 Pasteur advises the silk cultivator, there- 
 fore, to ensure breeding from healthy moths 
 at starting, and to abandon the old and 
 useless precaution of hatching apparently 
 healthy eggs. 
 
 The loss resulting from the silkworm dis- 
 ease in Italy may be seen from the following 
 tables, which are calculated for bales of 
 102 lbs. weight :'— 
 
 Average production prior to disease, 81,600. 
 
 1863 . Bales, 50,600 . Deficit, 38 per cent. 
 
 1864 . „ 38,000 . „ 53 „ 
 
 1865 . „ 38,700 . „ 52 ,, 
 
 1866 . „ 39,600 . „ 51 „ 
 
 1867 . „ 44,000 . „ 46 „ 
 
 1868 . „ 41,000 . „ 49 „ 
 
 1869 . „ 47,300 . „ 42 „ 
 
 1870 . „ 69,900 . „ 14 „ 
 
 1871 . „ 76,300 . „ 6 „ 
 
 1872 . „ 68,000 . „ 16 „ 
 
 The value of the cocoons grown in the whole 
 ' ' BritUli Manufactory of Industries,' Stamrold. 
 
SILLABUB— SILVER 
 
 1491 
 
 world in 1870 wag said to be aa follows : — 
 Kniiice, £4,834.000; Italy, £ll,2fi0,000; 
 Spain and other European countrieB, £084,000; 
 Riving a total for Europe of i;i6,588,000. 
 China. £17,000,000; Indin,i;4,800,000; Japan, 
 £3,200,000; Persia, £920,0(xi; other Asiatic 
 BtiiU'8. £2,192,000; giving a total for Asia 
 of £2H.112,000. Africa, £68,000. Ame- 
 rica, £20,000. Making a general total of 
 £4-1,788.000. 
 Silkworm Gnt. See Gut. 
 SIL'LABOB. Prep. Grate off the yellow 
 peel of a lemon with lump sugar, and dissolve 
 the sugar in \ pint of wine ; add the juice of 
 \ a lemon, and a i pint of cream ; beat the 
 whole together until of a proper thickness, 
 and then put it into glasses. 
 
 Obn. J to 1 pint of new milk is often sub- 
 stituted for the cream, and strong cider or 
 perry for the wine. Griited nutmeg is often 
 added. Wlien ' whipped' to a froth it is 
 called 'WHIPPED sillabub.' See Cbbam 
 (Whipped). 
 
 SILVES. Ag. Syn. Aeqentum, L. This 
 metal, like gold, appears tu have been as 
 much valued in the remotest ages of antiquity 
 of whicli we have any record, as at the 
 present time. It is found in nature, both in 
 the metallic state and mineralised, in the 
 state of »lloy, and combined with sulphur, 
 chlorine, und other metallic snlphurets. In 
 Great Britain it is found in combination 
 chiefly with lead. It is extracted from its ores 
 principally by the process of amalgamation, 
 founded on its easy solubility in mercury, and 
 by suliseqvientcupellation. It is only prepared 
 on the lurge scale. 
 
 Chemically pure silver may be obtained by 
 the methods noticed subsequently. 
 
 trof. Pure silver has a very white colour, 
 a hish degree of lustre, is exceedingly malleable 
 und ductile, and is the best conductor of heat 
 and electricity kuown. Its hardness is between 
 that of copper and gold ; its sp. gr. is 
 10-475 to 10-500; it melts at about 1873° 
 Fuhr. ; or bright redness (Daniell) ; is freely 
 soluble in nuric acid, and dissolves in sul- 
 phuric acid by the aid of heat; it nfuses to 
 oxidise alone at any tempeniture, but, when 
 strongly heated in open vessels, it absorbs 
 many times its bulk of oxygen, which is again 
 disengaged at the moment of soliditieation ; 
 its surface is rapidly tarnished by sulphuretted 
 hydrogen and by the fumes of sidphur. 
 
 Pur. " Entirely soluble in diluted nitric 
 acid. This solution, treated with an excess 
 of muriate of soda, gives a white precipitate 
 entirely soluble in ammonia water, and a fluid 
 which is not afFected by sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen." (Ph. E) 
 
 Tettt. 1. The compounds of silver, mixed 
 with carbonate of soda, and exposed on a 
 charcoal support to the inner fl ime of the 
 blowpipe, afford white, brilliant, and ductile 
 metalliu globules, without any incrustation of 
 the charcoal. — 2. The salts of silver are non- 
 
 volatile and colourless, but most of them 
 acquire more or less a black tint by exposure 
 to full daylight 
 
 The soluble salts of silver give — 1. A white 
 curdy precipitate (chloride of silver) with 
 hydrochloric acid and the soluble metallic 
 chlorides, which is soluble in ammonia and 
 insoluble in nitric acid, and blackened by 
 exposure to light; — 2. White precipitates with 
 solutions of the alkaline carbonates, oxalates, 
 and ferrocyanides ; — 3. Yellow precipitates 
 with the alkaline arsenites and phosphates ; — 
 
 4. With the arseniates, red precipitates; — 
 
 5. With the fixed alkalies, brown precipitates ; 
 — 6. With sulphuretted hydrogen and hydro- 
 sulpburet of ammonia, a blark powder, which 
 is insoluble in dilute acids, alkalies, alkaline 
 snlphurets, and cyanide of potassium, but 
 readily soluble, with separation of sulphur, 
 in boiling nitric acid; and — 7. With phos- 
 phorus, and with metallic copper or zinc, pure 
 silver. 
 
 Atsay. 1. The method of assaying silver by 
 cupellation has been explained under Assay 
 and CiTFELLATiON; and that method is alone 
 applicable when the alloy contains a very small 
 quantity' of silver, as a few ounces only per ton. 
 When the reverse is the case, as with the silver 
 of commerce, the following is a much more 
 accurate method : — 
 
 2. Humid assay of silver. — a. Dissolve 10 
 gr. of the silver for assay in lOU gr. of 
 nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*28, by the aid of heat, 
 the solution being made in a tall stoppered 
 glass tube, furnished w ith a foot ; then place 
 it in a very delicate balance, bring it into an 
 exact state of equilibrium, and add the test 
 solution (see below), gradually and cautiously, 
 until the whole of the silver be thrown down, 
 the number of gi-ains now required to restore 
 the equilibrium of the balance or scales gives 
 the exact quantity of pure silver in 1000 parts 
 of the sample. — Obs. To ensure accuracy, after 
 each addition the stopper should be placed in 
 the tube, and the latter violently agitated for 
 a short time, when the liquor will rapidly 
 clear and enable us to see when the operation 
 is concluded. We must then, as a check, 
 add a small quantity of a solution of nitrate 
 of silver to the liquor in the tube, after having 
 first carefully taken the weight. If too 
 much of the test liquor has been added, this 
 will produce a fresh precipitate, and the assay 
 cannot then be depended on. — Instead of 
 weighitif; the quantity of test liquor used, a 
 tube graduated into 100 parts, and holding 
 1000 gr., may be employed, every division of 
 which, required to throw down the silver, will 
 represent the ^th of a grain. See Alkali- 
 
 METEY and ACIDIitETET. 
 
 J. The precipitate of chloride of silver may 
 be collected in a paper filter, and be dried, 
 washed, fused, and weighed. The previous 
 weight of the paper, deducted from the gross 
 weight of the filter and its contents, gives the 
 quantity of chloride of silver present, which 
 
1492 
 
 SILVER 
 
 multiplied by 0-75278, gives the weight of the 
 pure silver in the sample. 
 
 Test liquor. Dissolve 54-27 (54^) gr. of 
 pure sea salt in 9945-73 gr. (or 22 oz. and 
 320| gr. avoirdupois) of distilled water; 
 filter, and keep the liquor in a stoppered 
 hottle for use. Pure sea salt is obtained by 
 boiling together, for a few minutes, in a glass 
 vessel, a solution of common salt with a little 
 pure bicarbonate of soda ; then adding to the 
 filtered liquor sofficient hydrochloric acid to 
 render it neutral to litmus and turmeric paper, 
 and, lastly, evaporating and crystallising. 
 
 Obs. The presence of mercnry, lead, or 
 sulphuret of silver, interferes with the ac- 
 curacy of the above assay. When mercury 
 is present, the precipitate blackens less readily 
 by exposure to light ; and when it contains 
 TciW °'' Tooo o*^ chloride of mercnry, it remains 
 of a dead white ; with j„'„„ it is not sensibly 
 discoloured by the diffused light of a room, 
 with I Sou ""'y slightly darkened, with -j-too 
 more so, but with pure chloride of silver, the 
 effect is very rapid and intense. When this 
 metal is present, which is, however, seldom 
 the case, the assay sample must be placed in a 
 small crucible, and exposed to a full red hewt, 
 before solution in the acid. Another method, 
 proposed by M. Level, and modified by M. Gay- 
 Lnssac, is to add to the nitric solution of the 
 silver sufficient acetate of ammonia or crystal- 
 lised acetate of soda to saturate all the nitric 
 acid existing in the liquor, either in the free 
 state or combined with the silver. When the 
 alloy contains lead, shown by the precipitated 
 chloride being partly soluble in water, it may 
 either be laminated and subjected to the 
 action of acetic acid before solution in the 
 nitric acid ; or, the test solution of chloride 
 of soda sliould be replaced by one of chloride 
 of lead ; (139-355 gr. of the latter are equiv. 
 to 58-732 gr. of the former). The presence 
 of sulphuret of silver is detected whilst dis- 
 solving the sample in nitric acid, by the black 
 flakes which may be observed floating about 
 in the liquor in an insoluble state. These 
 flakes may be dissolved by fuming nitric 
 acid, or by adding pure concentrated sul- 
 phuric acid to the solution, which should be 
 then heated for about a ^ hour in a steam- 
 bath. When thus treated, the precipitate 
 produced by the test liquor represents the 
 whole of the silver contained in the alloy. 
 
 Dr Grager ' gives the following process of 
 the preparation of pure metallic silver : — He 
 dissolved the alloy of silver in nitric acid, 
 taking care to use as small a quantity of the 
 acid as possible. The solution is then trans- 
 ferred to a large-sized porcelain basin, and 
 gradually neutralised with previously lixivia- 
 ted chalk free from chlorine. The neutralised 
 liquid is next boiled, and chalk again added 
 
 1 'Chemical News," xxv, Ko. 641, 119. 
 
 to it, while boiling, until the fluid has become 
 colourless. (In order to test more accurately, 
 a drop of the liquid is poured on a piece of 
 white filtering-paper, and next to that drop is 
 placed one of a solution of ferrocyanide of 
 potassium j as long as the well-known red 
 colouration, copper reaction, hereby ensues, 
 chalk is added.) The fluid is next filtered to 
 separate the carbonate ofcopper,and the filtrate 
 (a solution of nitrate of silver, and nitrate o( 
 lime) is again boiled, and either further treated 
 with carbonate of lime, or better still, with 
 carbonateof soda. The brightyellow-coloured 
 precipitate thereby ensuing, a mixture of 
 carbonate of silver, and carbonate of lime, is 
 washed, dried, and ignited, leaving a greyish- 
 white mass of metallic silver, mixed with 
 carbonate of lime. This mixture is treated 
 with dilute hydrochloric acid, washed with 
 distilled water, and then fused along with 
 borax, yielding pure silver. The bright green 
 coloured carbonate of copper can be used as a 
 pigment for painting purposes. 
 
 Kriiger says : — In frequently experimenting 
 with silver salts, a mixture of solution of 
 precipitates is obtained, in which silver exists 
 in all kinds of combination. When such mix- 
 tures are shaken up with an ethereal solution 
 of phosphorus, the solution and the precipitate 
 soon separate, the former being more or 
 less yellow, the latter intensely black. If 
 light-coloured particles are perceived in the 
 precipitate, the quantity of phosphorus solution 
 employed is not sufficient, and more must be 
 added till the precipitate is uniformly black. 
 The precipitate is next filtered, washed, and 
 dried, or placed while still damp, in a porcelain 
 dish and boiled with potash solution. Pure 
 metallic silver is thus obtained. If a solid 
 fused mass is required, pure potassium hydrate 
 is fused in a crucible, and to this the dried 
 precipitate is added in small portions. 
 
 Uses, <^c. Metallic silver, unless in a state 
 of very minute division, has no action on the 
 human body. A plate of silver is ordered, in 
 the Ph. L., as a test of the presence of nitric 
 acid in the acetic and phosphoric acids; and 
 metallic silver (preferably granulated) is em- 
 ployed by the other colleges in the preparation 
 of the nitrate. Its numerous applications in 
 the arts are well known. The standard silver 
 of England contains 111 parts of silver and 
 9 parts of copper. 
 
 Concluding SemarJcs. The researches of 
 Tillet, D'Arcet, and Gay-Lnssae have clearly 
 shown that the percentage of silver in an alloy, 
 as indicated by cupellation, is always below its 
 real ricliness in that metal, owing to loss in 
 the process ; and, that the cupelled button 
 always retains a trace of lead and copper, 
 the precise quantity of which is variable. 
 The following table exhibits the additions 
 to be made on this score, when the quantity 
 assayed (assay pound) is 20 gr. ; — 
 
SILVER 
 
 1193 
 
 
 Actual rich- 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Weiglit after cupellatlon. 
 
 neBH in pare 
 
 of richness in 
 
 
 tilver. 
 
 pure silver. 
 
 19979 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 18-95 
 
 19 
 
 95 
 
 17-92 
 
 18 
 
 90 
 
 16-917 
 
 17 
 
 85 
 
 16-914 
 
 16 
 
 80 
 
 14-91 
 
 15 
 
 75 
 
 13-905 
 
 14 
 
 70 
 
 12-9('5 
 
 13 
 
 65 
 
 11-906 
 
 1-2 
 
 60 
 
 10906 
 
 11 
 
 55 
 
 9-906 
 
 10 
 
 50 
 
 7-921 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 5-948 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 3-949 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 1-982 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 In assaying lead ores very poor in silver 
 the best quantity to be taken for cupelliitiou 
 in 500 gr. ; and from that quantity 00148 
 of silver, including compensation for loss, 
 repreeents one ounce of silver to the ton. 
 A cupel may absorb its own weight of lead. 
 If tlie quantity of lead to be absorbed is more 
 considurablo, another cupel mny be turned 
 topsy-turvy, and the cupel in wliich the assay 
 ia to be made may be placed upon it. See 
 ASSAT, and M. Gay-Lussno's elaborate memoir 
 on the ' Mumid Assay of Silver.' 
 
 For the recovery or reduction of silver from 
 the chloride and its other compounds, several 
 methods arc employed : — 
 
 a. The washed chloride is placed in a zinc 
 or iron cup, along with a little water strongly 
 acidulated with sulphuric acid ; or in a glass 
 or porcelain cup along with a zinc plate ; the 
 whole may then be left to itself for some 
 hours ; or, to hasten the reduction, gently 
 heated, or even boiled; the precipitated silver 
 is washed with pure water, and dried. 
 
 b. (Hornung.) Digest the chloride with 
 some ammonia and pure copper fllinsjs, for 
 24 hours, then wash and dry the powder. 
 
 c. (M. Level.) The washed chloride is 
 mixed with an equal weiglit of sugar, and 
 the mixture is digested in an excess of a, 
 moderately strong solution of caustic potassa, 
 with occasional agitation for 24 hours ; or the 
 whole is boiled for some time ; the reduced 
 silver is washed with distilled water. 
 
 d. (Miihr.) The dry chloride is mixed with 
 l-3rd of its weight of powdered black resin, 
 and moderately heated in a crneible until the 
 flame ceases to have a greenish-blue colour; 
 the heat is then suddenly increased so as to 
 melt the metal into a button or ingot. 
 
 c. (M. GajLussac.) 11 the chloride, dry 
 it, and throw it, in successive portions, into 
 twice its wci'.'ht of carbonate of potassa 
 fused in a red-hot IIes~iau crucible; effer- 
 
 vescence ensues, and the pare silver subsides 
 to the bottom. — If a " soluble salt," as the 
 nitrate, acidulate the solution, and precipitate 
 it by means of a polished plate of copper ; the 
 silver is then obtained in the form of powder. 
 The products of the above processes, when the 
 latter are carefully conducted, are chemically 
 pure silver. 
 
 Silver, Acetate of. Syn. ABOEN-n acetas, 
 L. Prep. By adding a solution of acetate of 
 potassa to a like solntion of nitrate of silver, 
 washing the precipitate with cold water, re- 
 dissolving it in a little hot water, and setting 
 the solution aside to crystallise. .Small colour- 
 less needles. 
 
 Silver, Ammoninret of. .See Fri.Mi sating 
 SILVER (Bertholkt's, Xns. 1 and 'I.page'HH). 
 
 Silver, Ammonia-chloride of. Si/n. Aboknto- 
 
 CHLORIDE OP AUMOKIA ; AbGBNTI AMMONIO- 
 
 OUIORIDU.M, L. Prep. Add, gradually, chlo- 
 ride of silver (recently precipitated and well 
 washed) to concentrated liquor of antmonia, as 
 long as it is dissolved on agitation, applying a 
 gentle heat towards the end ; then heat the 
 solution to the boiling-point, concentrate a 
 little, and allow it to cool very slowly; collect 
 the crystals which form, dry them by pressure 
 (with care) between folds of bibulous paper, 
 and at once preserve them from tlie light and 
 air. — Dose, -jV to | gr. 
 
 Silver, Ben'ioate of. AgC-Hfi.,. Thin 
 transparent plates, which are blackened by ex- 
 posure to the light. See Henzoate. 
 
 Silver, Bro'mide of. AgBr. Resembles the 
 chloride. 
 
 Silver, CarTjonate of. Ag2C03. Sj/n. Ab- 
 QENTI cabbonas, L. A white insoluble pow- 
 der, obtained by precipitating a cold solution 
 of nitrate of silver with another of carbonate of 
 sodium. It is decomposed by heat. 
 
 Silver, Clilo"rlde of. AgCI. Syn. Aegentic 
 CHLOBTDE. Prep. Precipitate a solution 
 of nitrate of silver by dilute hydrochloric aeid 
 or a solution of common salt ; wash the preci- 
 pitate, and dry it in the shade. — Dose, i to 3 
 gr., thrice daily ; in epilepsy, chronicdysentery, 
 cholera, diarrhcea, ie. Dr Perry regards it as 
 preferable to the nitrate. When fused, chlo- 
 ride of silver forms horn silver, the ' luna 
 cornea' of the older writers. 
 
 Silver, Cy'anide of. AgCN. Syn. Argentic 
 
 CYAMPE, HVDHOCYAXATB OP SILVER. Prep. 
 
 Add dilute hydrocyanic acid to a solution of 
 nitrate of silver, as long as a precipitate 
 falls ; wash this with distilled water, and 
 dry it. 
 
 Prop., c?-c. Cyanide of silver is a white pow- 
 der, soluble in ammonia, and decomposed by 
 contact with vegetable substances ; light turns 
 it violet-coloured. — Dose, -jV *" ¥ g""-! '" 
 syphilis, &c. It has been proposed as a source 
 of hydroeyanie acid. (Everitt.) 
 
 Silver "Hyposul'phite of. As-.SjOa. Syn. 
 Argenti HYPOsrLPHls, L. A white substance,, 
 insoluble in watei-, and very prone to decompo- 
 sition. It is very soluble in the alkaline hypo- 
 
1494 
 
 SILVER 
 
 sulphites, forming compounds possessing an 
 intensely sweet taste. See Htposulphueous 
 Acid. 
 
 Silver, I'odide of. Agl. Syn. Abqentio 
 IODIDE ; Aboknti iodiddm, L. Prep. Preci- 
 pitate a solution of nitrate of silver with 
 another of iodide of potassium ; wash the pre- 
 cipitate with distilled water, and dry it in the 
 shade. Pdle greenish-yellow ; insoluble in 
 water and in liquor of ammonia ; soluble in a 
 solution of hyposulphite of soda. Used in 
 some of the French hospitals in the stomach 
 affections of scrofulous subjects : also in epi- 
 lepsy. — Dose, -j^ to 1 gr. 
 
 SUver, Ni'trate of. AgNOs. Si/n. Ahgenti 
 NITBAS, L. This article is found in commerce 
 under two forms : — 
 
 1. Cktstallised. Frep. By dissolving 
 grain silver in nitric acid diluted with about 
 twice its weight of water, evaporating the so- 
 lution until it is strong enough to crystallise 
 on cooling, and then allowing it to cool very 
 slowly. Colourless; transparent, anhydrous 
 rhombic prisms or tables ; soluble in an equal 
 weight of cold and in half their weight of 
 boiling water; soluble in alcohol; fuse when 
 heated, and at a higher temperature suffer 
 decomposition; blacliened by light, and by 
 contact with organic substances. Its solution 
 in distilled water is not sensibly darkened by 
 light, in the absence of organic matter. Used 
 for solutions, and in photography. 
 
 2. Fused (Lunab caustic; Aeoenti ni- 
 
 TKAS— B. P., Ph. L, & E., A. N. PUSUM— Ph. 
 
 I).). Prep. (Ph. D.) Refined silver, 3 oz. ; pure 
 nitric acid, 4 fl. oz. ; d stilled water, 5 11. oz, ; 
 mix in a glass flask, and apply in a gentle heat 
 until the metal is dissolved ; transfer the solu- 
 tion to a porcelain capsule (or a large porcelain 
 crucible), decanting it off a heavy black pow- 
 der which appears at the bottom of the flask, 
 and, having evaporated it to dryness, raise the 
 heat (in a dark room) until the mass liquefies ; 
 then pour it into a brass mould (iron moulds — 
 Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836), furnished with cylin- 
 drical cavities of the size of a goose-quill, and 
 which then admits of being opened by a hinge ; 
 preserve the concreted salt in well-stopped 
 bottles, impervious to the light. The fonnulse 
 of the Ph, E. & Ph. L. 1836 are similar. 
 
 Obs. In preparing this salt care should be 
 had that the silver is free from copper. Pure 
 nitrate of silver may, however, be prepared 
 from silver containing copper, by evaporating 
 the nitric solution to dryness, and cautiously 
 heating the mixed nitrates to fusion, A small 
 portion of the melted mass is examined from 
 time to time, until a little dissolved in water, 
 and treated with ammonia in excess, ceases to 
 strike a blue colour. When this point is 
 arrived at, the fused nitrate is allowed to cool, 
 when it is redissolved in water, filtered or de- 
 canted from the insoluble black oxide of copper, 
 and evaporated in the usual way. 
 
 The heat employed in preparing the fused 
 nitrate should not exceed 420° Fahr., and the 
 
 fusion should be effected completely, but with 
 moderate expedition, to prevent loss of nitric 
 acid. Formerly, a mass of well-tempered 
 white clay, perforated by means of a well- 
 greased goose-quill, was used instead of metal 
 moulds. In the Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836 the 
 moulds are ordered to be greased; when this 
 is done, the sticks of caustic should be wiped 
 clean before rolling them in paper. The moulds 
 should be gently heated before pouring the 
 fused nitrate into them. Mr Benzoin, the 
 celebrated Danish pharmaceutist, recommends 
 mould formed of the massive white Bohemian 
 talc or of English slate. 
 
 Pur., Sj'c. Pure nitrate of silver, whether 
 crystallised or fused, is entirely soluble in 
 water, yielding a colourless solution, from 
 which metallic silver is precipitated by a piece 
 of bright copper; both are originally white, 
 but are darkened by exposure to light and 
 contact with organic matter. 
 
 Uses, S(c. Nitrate of silver is a powerful 
 tonic, antispasmodic, astringent and escha- 
 rotic. — Dose, -J^ to 1 gr., gradually increased, 
 twice or thrice a day, made into a pill with 
 crum of bread ; in cholera, epilepsy, &c., pre- 
 ceded by purgatives. It has been highly ex- 
 tolled by Mr Ross as a remedy in cholera. 
 Its continued use permanently colours the 
 skin. It is also extensively employed exter- 
 nally as a caustic. It is powerfully poisonous. 
 A solution of common salt, emetics, and de- 
 mulcents, constitute the treatment in such 
 cases. Nitrate of silver is much employed in 
 the manufacture of ' indelible ink * for linen, 
 and hair dyes. 
 
 Silver, Di'oxide of. AgjO^. Syn. Aeoenti 
 SUBOXYDUM, L. Prep. From dry citrate of 
 silver heated to 212° Fahr., in a stream of 
 hydrogen ga^, until it turns dark brown, when 
 it is dissolved in water ; the solution is next 
 treated with potassa, aud the precipitate is 
 carefully washed and dried. A black powder, 
 easily decomposed, and soluble in ammonia. 
 
 Silver, Oxide of. AgjO. Syn. Peoxoxide op 
 
 SILVEE ; AEGENTI OXYDUM, A. PEOTOXTDUM, 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Lane.) Nitrate of silver, 2 
 parts ; hydrate of potassa, 1 part ; dissolve each 
 separately in distilled water, mix the solutions, 
 and, after frequent agitation during an hour, 
 collect and wash the precipitate, and dry it by 
 a gentle heat in the shade. A pale brown 
 powder. 
 
 2. Recently precipitated chloride of silver 
 is boiled in a solution of hydrate of potassium 
 of the sp. gr, 1-25, with frequent stirring 
 and trituration, until, on testing a little of it, 
 it is found to be entifely soluble in dilute nitric 
 acid, when it is washed and dried, as before. A 
 black and very dense powder. Chemically 
 pure. 
 
 3. Nitrate of silver, \ oz. ; water, 4 fl. oz., 
 dissolve, and pour the solution into a bottle 
 containing lime water, 2 quarts, or q. s. ; 
 agitate the mixture well, collect and wash the 
 sediment, and dry it at a heat not exceeding 
 
SILVER DUST-SILVERINQ 
 
 1495 
 
 212° Fahr. A dark oliTe-bronrn povrder. 
 Pure. 
 
 Prop., l(c. Very Bolable in solutiona of 
 iminoiiia and of the alkaline bvposulphites ; 
 •lightly soluble in water; reaction alkaline; 
 decomposed by light, — Dote, } to 2 gr. ; in 
 epilepsy, gustralgic irritations, &c. It is much 
 used in France, and has been highly extolled 
 in menorrhagia. By some, however, it is not 
 considered superior to the nitrate. 
 
 Silver Pencils, Nitrate of. According to 
 A. Huber, very thin pencils of nitrate of 
 silver, such as are sometimes required for intra- 
 uterine applications may be prepared in the 
 following manner : — Silver nitrate is fused in 
 a capsule, and the liquid drawn up by slow 
 and cautious suction into a glass tube, the 
 calibre of which is a trifle larger than the 
 required diameter of the pencil. Especial 
 cure is to be taken that no cavities filled with 
 air-bubbles are produced in the contents of 
 the tube. When entirely cold the tube is 
 warmed by turning over a spirit-lamp until 
 the outer surface of the stick has become soft, 
 when it m:iy be easily pushed out by means of 
 a knitting needle. With a little practice very 
 handsome pencils of considerable length may 
 be obtained in this manner. 
 
 Silver, Ferox'ide of. iSgn. Abgenti peb- 
 OZTDITM, L. A black crystalline substance 
 which forms on the positive electrode of a 
 voltaic arrangement employed to decompose 
 solution of nitrate of silver. 
 
 Silver, Sulphate of. Ag^SO^. Sj/n. AEaENXi 
 stTLPHAS, L. Prep. By boiling silver in sul- 
 phuric acid ; or, by precipitating a solution of 
 the nitrate by another of sulphate of sodium. 
 It dissolves in 80 parts of hot water, and falls 
 in small colourless needles as the solution 
 cools. 
 
 Silver, Snl'phide of. AgjS. St/a. Sulphcekt 
 
 OP SILVKE; ABOENTI SriPHCEETUM, L. Frv.- 
 pared by passing sul phuretted hydrogen tbrongh 
 a solution of nitrate of silver; or, by melting 
 its constituents together. It possesses a grey- 
 ish-black colour, and is a strong sulphur- 
 base. 
 
 Silver, Ox'idised. The high appreciation in 
 which ornamental articles in oxidised silver are 
 now held, renders a notice of the process fol- 
 lowed interesting. There are two distinct 
 shades in use, one produced by chlorine, which 
 has a brownish tint, and the other by sulphur, 
 which has a bluish-black tint. To produce tlje 
 former, it is only necessary to wash the 
 article with a solution of sal ammoniac. A 
 much more beautiful tint may, however, be 
 obtained by employing a solution composed of 
 equal parts of sulphate of copper and sal am- 
 moniac dissolved in vinegar. A fine black 
 tint maybe produced by a slightly warm solu- 
 tion of sulphide of potassium or of sodium. 
 (' Chem. Techn.') 
 
 SILVER DUST. Si/n. Silteb powbek; 
 Akoenti CBocrs, A. pulvis, L. Frep. 1. 
 Pure pulverulent silver, obtained by any of the 
 
 methods explained on the previous page. 
 Used to coat pills, by japanners, Ac. 
 
 2. Heat oxide of silver to dull redness in a 
 porcelain crucible, cool, triturate the powder 
 in an agate mortar, and pass it through a fine 
 sieve. Used at the hospital of MontpcUier. 
 
 SILV££ SHEliLS. These are prepared and 
 used like gold shells. 
 
 SIl'VEEING. The art of covering the 
 surfaces of bodies with a thin coating of 
 silver. Leather, paper, wood, 4c., are sil- 
 vered by covering them with silver leaf, by a 
 similar process to that employed for gilding 
 them. 
 
 Silvering of Glass. Two distinct methods 
 are adopted for this purpose — one of which 
 consists in employing a layer of tin-foil and 
 mercury, falsely called 'silvering;' the other in 
 using a coating of real silvtr precipitated 
 from a solution of that metal. 
 
 1. Plane surfaces, as those of mirrors, ie., 
 are commonly silvered as follows :— A sljuit of 
 tin-foil corresponding to the size of the plate 
 of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth 
 and solid marble table, and every wrinkle on 
 its surface is carefully rubbed down with a 
 brush ; a portion of mercury is then potired 
 on, and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece 
 of very soft woollen stuff, or a hare's foot, after 
 whieli two rules are applied to the edges, and 
 mercury poured on to the depth of a crown- 
 piece, when any oxide on the surface is care- 
 fully removed, and the sheet of ^lass, made per- 
 fectly clean and dry, is slid along over the 
 surface of the liquid metal, so that no air, 
 dirt, or oxide can possibly either remain or 
 get between then. When the glass has ar- 
 rived at its proper position, gentle pressure is 
 applied, and the table sloped a little to carry 
 oil the waste mercury, after which it is covered 
 with flannel and loaded with heavy weights; 
 in 24 hours it is removed to a wooden table 
 and lurther slanted, and this position is pro- 
 gressively increased during u mouth, until it 
 becomes perpendicular. 
 
 For silvering convex or concave surfaces a 
 mould of plaster of Paris is employed, so that 
 the amalgamated foil may be accurately fitted 
 to the surface. 
 
 Globes and other hollow vessels are com- 
 mouly silvered by the application of one of the 
 silvering amalgams noticed at page 117. 
 
 2. In the humid way. — o. (Drayton.) A 
 mixture is first made of nitrate of silver (in 
 coarse powder), 1 oz., ammonia, i oz., and 
 water, 2 o»., which, after standing for 24 
 hours, is filtered (the deposit upon the filter, 
 which is silver, being preserved), and an addi- 
 tion is made thereto of spii'it (by preference, 
 rectified spirit at 60^ o, p.), or naphtha, 3 oz. ; 
 from 20 to 30 drops of oil of cassia are theu 
 added; and, after remaining for about 6 hours 
 longer, the solution is ready for use. The 
 glass to be silvered (first well cleaned and 
 polished) is placed in a horizontal position, 
 and a wall of putty, or other suitable material. 
 
1496 
 
 SILVERING 
 
 formed around it ; the above solution is then 
 poured over it to the depth of from i to i inch ; 
 from 6 to 12 drops of a raixtuie of oil of cloves 
 and spirit of wine (in the proportion of 1 part, 
 by measure, of oil of cloves, to 3 of , spirit of 
 wine) are next dropped Into it, at different 
 places; or the diluted oil of cloves may be 
 mixed with the solution before it is poured 
 upon the glass, a larger quantity, in both 
 cases, increasing the rate of the deposit. When 
 the glass is sufficiently silvered, the solution is 
 poured off; and as soon as the silver on the 
 glass is perfectly dry, it is varnished with a 
 composition formed by melting together equal 
 quantities of beeswax and tallow. The solu- 
 tion, after being poured off, is aliened to stand 
 for 3 or 4 days, in a close vessel ; as it still 
 contains silver, and may be again employed 
 after filtration, and the addition of a sufficient 
 quantity of fresh ingredients to supply the 
 place of those which have been used. 18 gr. 
 of nitrate of silver are sufficient for one square 
 foot of glass. Hollow vessels may be silvered 
 by pouring the solution into them. By the 
 addition of a small quantity of oil of caraway, 
 oil of cloves, or oil of thyme, the colour of the 
 silver may be varied. (' Patent Journ.') 
 
 h. (Thomson & Mellish.) Nitrate of silver, 
 2 oz. ; water and rectified spirit, of each 3 fl. 
 oz. ; dissolve, add of spirit of hartshorn or 
 liquor of ammonia, 1 fi. oz., mix, and after a 
 short time filter the solution ; to each ounce of 
 this add of grape sugar, i oz., previously dis- 
 solved in a mixture of rectified spirit and 
 water, of each i pint; after 3 or 4 hours' 
 repose it is fit for use. This solution is 
 applied to the glass, heated to about 160° 
 Pahr., in a similar manner to the last. Pa- 
 tented. 
 
 V. The best plan of silvering plain or slightly 
 curved surfaces is, however, the method em- 
 ployed for coating the specula of the silvered- 
 glass Newtonian telescopes. This method is 
 very easy, and has the advantages of giving a 
 brilliant and durable surface on both sides, 
 and the film is sufficiently firm to admit of 
 being polished with rouge and fine wash- 
 leather. 
 
 One half ounce of pure nitrate of silver is 
 dissolved in 4 oz. of distilled water, and 
 divided into two equal portions. One is treated 
 with dilute ammonia until the brownish preci- 
 pitate is entirely redissolved ; and to this clear 
 solution, i oz. of pure hydrate of potassium 
 dissolved in 8 oz. of water added ; and the 
 brown precipitate, and grey sediment that 
 remains after the brown precipitate disappears, 
 di-solved by the cautious addition of ammonia, 
 stirring well all the time. The remaining 
 nitrate of silver solution is now added, stirring 
 well until it gives a greyish precipitate that 
 does not disappear after well stirring. The 
 bulk of the solutionis next made up to 100 oz., 
 and allowed to settle, when the clear solution is 
 .poured off for use. 
 
 The reducing solution is prepared by dis- 
 
 solving i oz. of pure milk sugar in 10 oz. of 
 hot water, and adding 10 minims of pure 
 alcohol. 
 
 This quantity of silvering solution will coat 
 over two square feet of glass surface with a 
 brilliant film of pure silver. The glass must 
 be perfectly clean, and is to be suspended face 
 downwards on the surface of the solution and 
 allowed to stand one hour; the temperature of 
 the solution being best about 80° Fahr. 
 
 d. (R.Siemens.) As a reducing agent, acetic 
 aldehyde is used in the form of aldehyde 
 ammunia, prepared by passing dry ammoniacal 
 gas into aldehyde. Pour grams of silver 
 nitrate and 2^ grams of aldehyde ammonia are 
 separately dissolved in a litre of distilled water, 
 and the solutions mixed and filtered. The 
 article to be silvered, after washing out with 
 potassium carbonate, and then with spirits of 
 wine and distilled water, to remove every trace 
 of grease, is filled with this solution (as far as 
 it is desired to silver), and then hung up in the 
 water bath. 
 
 It is now gradually heated, and as soon as 
 the temperature reaches 50° C. the separation 
 of the silver mirror begins, and soon spreads 
 over the whole inner glass surface. Its forma- 
 tion is soon finished, usually between 55° or 60°. 
 When the beauty of the silver surface reaches 
 a maximum it is time to withdraw the article 
 from the water bath, and pour off the contents, 
 or the brilliancy of the mirror will be im- 
 paired. The article is finally rinsed in distilled 
 water. 
 
 e. (Martin.) M. Martin makes use of four 
 liquids, viz., first, a 10 per cent, solution of 
 nitrate of silver; second, liquor ammonias, sp. 
 gr. '970 ; third, a 4 per cent, solution of caustic 
 soda; and fourth, a 12^ per cent, solution of 
 white sugar, to which he adds 2^ per cent, of 
 nitric acid, and after twenty minutes' boiling 
 he adds to it 25 parts of alcohol and water, to 
 make up the bulk to 250. The silvering solu- 
 tion is made by mixing together 12 parts of 
 solution No. 1, 8 parts of No. 2, 20 parts of 
 No. 3, and 60 parts of distilled water, and 
 finally, in twenty-four hours, 10 parts of No. 4. 
 The object to be silvered is then immersed, 
 when it will be covered with a film of reduced 
 silver, which in ten minutes' time will be suffi- 
 ciently thick for use. After having been 
 washed with distilled water and dried the sur- 
 face may be polished with chamois leather and 
 rouge. 
 
 Silvering of Metals. 1. (Lbai siivebino-.) 
 This is performed with leaf silvering in the way 
 described under GiLDiNa for the gilding of 
 polished metals. 
 
 3 (Cold silveeiit(1.) Mix chloride of 
 silver, 1 part, with pearlash, 3 parts, common 
 salt, li part, and whiting, 1 part; and well 
 rub the mixture on the surface of the brass or 
 copper (previously well cleaned), by means of 
 a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened 
 with water and dipped into the powder. 
 When properly silvered the metal should be 
 
SIMAEODBA— SKm 
 
 iiriT 
 
 well wiithcd in hot water slightly alkalised, 
 and than wiped dry. 
 
 3. (Klkctko-bilvewso.) This is described 
 under Elkctuotypb. 
 
 Silver, A New Imitation of. A patent for nn 
 nlloy has been taken out by M. Lemarqiiand, 
 which is said to bears close renembance to silver 
 in appearance! and to be unalfected by atmo- 
 spheric inilueuces. It has the following com- 
 position : — 
 
 Pure copper . . . 750 parts. 
 Nickel . . . . 140 „ 
 Black oxide of cobalt . 20 „ 
 Tin, in sticks . . 18 „ 
 
 Zinc . . . . 72 „ 
 
 SIMABOU'BA. 8yn. Simabuba (Ph. B. & 
 D.). L. The root-bark of Simaruba amara or 
 officinalii, the raouiitain damson. Tonic, bitter, 
 and astringent.— jDo«e, 20 to 30 gr, ; in iutcr- 
 mittents, obstinate diarrhoea, dysentery, and 
 dyspepsia. 
 
 SUCAUINE. C4H,N3. A basic substance 
 formed, along with sulphide of lead, when 
 thiosinamine is treated with oxide of lead. It 
 is very bitter tasted, has a powerful alkaline 
 reaction, and, when slowly obtained from its 
 concentrated aqueous solution, forms brilliant 
 colourless crystals. 
 
 SIN'AFISU. Syn, Sinapism crs, L. A 
 mustard poultice. 
 
 SIN'APOUHE. CjHijNjO. A basic sub- 
 stance, formed, along with carbonic acid, when 
 the volatile oil of mustard, or sulpliocy.inide 
 of allvl, is treated with oxide of lead. It is 
 soluble in water and alcohol, has an alkaline 
 reliction, and crystallises in colourless plates. 
 
 SINKS. " III no case," says Mr Eassie,' 
 " should the waste pipe of sink, laboratory, or 
 hath lead direct into the drains ; yet how fre- 
 queutly is this the case, and a special card sent 
 out to disease and death. 
 
 " It must also be remembered it is every whit 
 as dangerous if these waste conduits lead into 
 the soil pipe of a closet. V\'aste pipes from 
 the above-named places should be led down to 
 within 12 or 18 inches from the ground, and 
 should deliver on to the grating of a gully or 
 yard trap." 
 
 This subject has been already treated in the 
 article on " Sanitation, Domestic," wherein 
 we have embodied tlie practical suggestions 
 of Mr CuUliis, another sanitary house re 
 former, as well as in our article on " Drainage," 
 in which will be found details for carrying 
 out the system recommended by Messrs Eassie 
 and Symnnds, and thus preventing the ad 
 mission into our dwelling-houses of the 
 poisonous vewer gas. 
 
 The nmtlcr lias so important a bearing upon 
 health, that we shall make no apology for 
 having thus reiterated and emphasised it by 
 qiio^lug Mr Eossie's words of wuroing. See 
 TBAfS. 
 
 ' 'Healtliv Houses,' by Wm. Eassie, C.E, Simpkin, 
 Uarshall ts. Co. 
 
 SIT'FASTS. These hard tumours, possessing 
 but little sensibility, are situated in tbo-e 
 superficial parts of the horse's body which 
 have been exposed to the unequal pressure of 
 the collar, the saddle, or the harness. The 
 tumour should be removed by the veterinary sur- 
 geon, if thfe previous application of cither blis- 
 ters, biniodide of mercury ointment, or a seton 
 have been tried and failed to disperse it. The 
 precursor of the sitfast is always ii swelling 
 filled with semin and lymph, caused, as before 
 stated, by badly-fitting harness. Hence the 
 soundest treatment is to prevent its develop- 
 ment into the hard form, by proper means, 
 directly it shows itself, the best remedies 
 being the application of salt and water or 
 Cioulard water, and correcting the defects of 
 the hiirness. 
 
 SIZE. Obtained, like glue, from the skins 
 of animals, but is evaporated less, and kept in 
 the soft state. See Gold and Gold bize. 
 
 Size, Oil. This may be made by grinding 
 yellow ochre or burnt red ochre with boiled 
 linseed oil, and thinning it with oil of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 SKATE. The Raia batis (Linn.V Other 
 varieties of Raia also pass under tlie name. 
 It is a coarse fish, and is principally salted and 
 dried fur exportation. 
 
 SKIN (The). Syn. Cutis, Deemis, Pellis, 
 L. Every person must be familiar with the 
 external appearance and general properties 
 of the skiu; but there are many of our 
 readers who may not be aware of its pecu- 
 liar compound character. The skin, then, al- 
 though apparently a single membrane, is com- 
 posed of three distinct layers or membranes, 
 each of which performs its special duties: — 1. 
 The exterior of the*e is called the cuticle, 
 epidermis, or scarl-skin. It is an albumin- 
 ous tissue, possessing no sensibility, and is 
 found thickest on those parts of the body 
 most exposed to friction or injury. — 2. The 
 mucous net, or rete mueosam, which is a 
 thin layer of soft pnlpy matter, which lies im- 
 mediately under the cuticle, and is supposed 
 to be the scat of the colour of the skin. — 3. 
 The derma, cutis vera, or true skin, is a 
 highly sensitive, vascular, gelatinous texture, 
 the third, and list in sue. es^iou from the sur- 
 face of the body. It is this which, when the 
 scarf-skin and hair have been removed, is con- 
 verted by the process of tauuing or tawing 
 into leather. 
 
 The skin, because of its tough, elastic, 
 flexible nature and its underlying layer of fat, 
 is admirably adapted for covering the varicms 
 internal parts and organs, as well as for bodily 
 movement and exertion. Besides this, it 
 exercises, in common with the lungs, the liver, 
 and the kidneys, the important function of a 
 depurator, and may, with the organs above 
 specified, be regarded as one of the main out- 
 lets for the waste products of the body ; the 
 cft'ete and noxious matters of which, when in 
 a healthy condition, it effects the removal, are 
 
1498 
 
 SKIN 
 
 those contained in the perspiration, and in 
 addition carbonic acid, and, in the case of nn- 
 healtby subjects, nitrogen. The importance 
 of the removal of these substances from the 
 organism will be realised when it is stated 
 that, when this excretory function of the skin 
 has, in the coarse of experiments upon ani- 
 mals, been prevented by covering their bodies 
 over with a coat of varnish or some other 
 impermeable agent, the animal has quickly 
 perished. 
 
 The perspiration is variable in amount, 
 owing to various causes, such as temperature, 
 the amount of exercise taken, the more or less 
 hygroscopic condition of the surrounding 
 atmospheres, the quantity of fluid swallowed, 
 the season of the year, &c., with the exception 
 of that which occurs under the armpits and 
 upon the soles of the feet, it has generally an 
 acid reaction, due to the presence in it of un- 
 combined formic and lactic acids. Under 
 ordinary conditions of life it averages daily 
 about 2 lbs. in quantity, being, as might be 
 expected, more abundaut than the urine in 
 summer, and less in winter. The persijiration 
 is of very complex composition, and contains 
 lactates, butyrates, and acetates of sodium 
 and ammonium, sodic chloride, phosphate of 
 calcium, and sulphates — these latter, however, 
 occurring in but small quantities. It also 
 contains a peculiar nitrogenous substance that 
 very quiclily decomposes, and a peculiar 
 odorous principle. According to Anselmino 
 the proportion of solid matter in the perspira- 
 tion varies from 5 to 12'5 parts in 1000. 
 
 Various observers have arrived at different 
 conclusions respecting the amount of carbonic 
 acid exhaled from the skin. Professor Schar- 
 ling believed it to be from a fortieth to a 
 sixtieth the amount given ofE by the lungs. 
 Recent observations seem, however, to have 
 shown that this estimate was too high. Dr 
 Edward Smith, operating upon himself by 
 placing every part of his body except the head 
 in a caoutchouc bag, and subsequently col- 
 lecting the evolved carbonic acid (the experi- 
 ment being performed in the summer time), 
 found the quantity evolved to be 6 grains per 
 hour, or about a hundredth part of that 
 passing off from the lungs. 
 
 Aubert's experiments led him to the con- 
 clusion that it was about half the amount 
 given by Smith ; whilst Reinhart estimated it 
 at 34 or 35 grains a day. 
 
 These excretory processes of the skin are 
 effected by means of very minute vessels called 
 the sudoriparous or sweat-glands. These 
 glands abound in almost every part of the 
 human skin. They are of largest size under 
 the axillae or arm-pits, where perspiration is 
 most profuse. They are also very abundant 
 upon the palms of the hand. Professor 
 Erasmus Wilson says that as many as 3528 of 
 these sweat-glands exist in a square inch of 
 surface on the palm of the hand; and as 
 every tube, when straightened out, is about a 
 
 quarter of an inch in length, it follows that, 
 in a square inch of skin from the palm of the 
 hand, there exists a length of tube equal to 
 882 inches, or 73^ feet. These glands, as we 
 have seen, vary in number for different parts 
 of the human body ; but if we take Professor 
 Wilson's average for the superficial area of a 
 man of ordinary stature, viz., 2800 of them to 
 the square inch, it follows " the total number 
 of pores on such a man's skin would be about 
 seven millions, and the length of perspiratory 
 tubing would then be 1,750,000 inches, or 
 145,833 feet, or 48,611 yards, or nearly 28 
 mjles."i 
 
 Sudoriferous Gland from the palm of the hand magnified 
 40 diam. : — a, a, contorted tubes, composiog tlie gland, 
 and uniting in two excretory ducts ; 4, b, wliich unite 
 into one spiral canal that perforates the epidermis at 
 c, and opens on its surfare at d ; the gland is imbedded 
 in fat-vesicles, whicli are seen at e, e, 
 
 ' Carpenter's • Human Physiology.' 
 
SKIN BALSAM-SKINS 
 
 1499 
 
 In luidition to the ntdoHparout, the akin 
 alao poa8<'N8('9 tebaceout glands which stud 
 ahnost every part of its surface except the 
 pahus of the hands and the soles of the feet. 
 The sebaceous glands secrete a semi-fluid, 
 greasy kind of substance, the office of which is 
 probably to aid in rendering the skin soft and 
 supple, and to prevent the too rapid evapora- 
 tion of moisture Irom it. The sebaceous 
 glands are more particularly found on the 
 scalp, the anus, and the nose, their locality 
 in the skin of this last feature being some- 
 times marked by small black specs, which 
 when squeezed yield a little white mass re- 
 sembling a mnggot in appearance. This is 
 merely the solidified secretion from the se- 
 baceous gland, A parasite known as the 
 Acarus foUiculorum infests the sebaceous 
 glands. In the cartilaginous part of the 
 external passage of the ear are other, glands, 
 the ceruminoua, which secrete the wax that 
 forms a protective film for the membrane of 
 the tympanum or drum, and guards it against 
 dust, insects, &c. See Exebcise, Pebspiba.- 
 
 TION. 
 
 SKIN BALSAM, Glycerin— Glycerin Hant, 
 Balsam. A mixture of 1000 parts glycerin, 
 120 parts orange-flower water, 1 part each 
 oils of neroli and bitter almonds. (Huger.) 
 
 SKIN COSMETICS. The simplest, cheapest, 
 and most generally employed cutaneous cos- 
 metics ore soap and water, which at once 
 cleanse and soften the skin. Soap containing 
 a full proportion of alkali exercises a solvent 
 power upon the cuticle, u minute portion of 
 which it dissolves ; but when it contains a 
 small preponderance of oily matter, as the 
 principal part of the milder toilet soaps now do, 
 it mechanically softens the skin and promotes 
 its smoothness. Almond, Naples, and Castile 
 soaps are esteemed for these properties, and 
 milk of roses, cold cream, and almond 
 powder (paste), are also used for a similar 
 purpose. To produce an opposite effect, and 
 to harden the cuticle, spirits, astringents, 
 acids, and astringent salts, are commonly 
 employed. The frequent use of hard water 
 hai a similar efl'ect. The application of these 
 irticles is generally for the purpose of strength- 
 ening or preserving some particular part 
 against the action of cold, moisture, &c.; as 
 the lips, or mammee, from chapping, or the 
 hands from contracting chilblains ; but in 
 tliis respect oils, pommades, and other olea- 
 ginous bodies, are generally regarded as pre- 
 ferable. 
 
 Another class of cutaneous cosmetics are 
 employed to remove freckles and eruptions. 
 Among the most innocent and valuable of 
 these is Gowlland's lotion, which has long been 
 a popular article, and deservedly so, for it not 
 only tends to impart a delightful softness to 
 the skin, but is a most valuable remedy for 
 many obstinate eruptive diseases which fre- 
 quently resist the usual methods of treatment. 
 
 Bitter almonds have been recommended to 
 remove freckles (Celsns), but moistening them 
 with a lotion made by mixing 1 fl. oz. of rec- 
 tified spirit, and a teaspoonful of hydrochloric 
 acid with 7 or 8 fl. oz. of water, is said to do 
 this more_ effectually. A safe and excellent 
 cosmetic is an infusion of horseradish in cold 
 milk. (Withering.) 
 
 Hermann presci ibes the following lotion : — 
 Blanched almonds, 2 oz. ; rose water, 8 oz. ; 
 orange-flower water, 2 oz. Make an,«mulsion, 
 strain, and add sal ammoniac, 1 ii.; simple 
 tincture of benzoin, 2 dr. / 
 
 Skin paints and skin stains/aro employed 
 to give an artificial bloom jHf delicacy to the 
 skin. Rouge and carmine are the articles 
 most generally used to communicate a red 
 colour. The first is the only cosmetic that 
 can be employed, without injury, to brighten 
 a lady's complexion. The other, though pos- 
 sessing unrivalled beauty, is apt to impart a 
 sallowness to the skin by frequent use. Starch 
 powder is employed to impart a white tint, 
 and generally proves perfectly harmless. The 
 American ladies, who are very fond of painting 
 their necks white, use finely-powdered mag- 
 nesia, another very innocent substance. Se- 
 veral metallic compounds, as the trisnitrate, 
 chloride, and oxide of bismuth (penrl white, 
 Fard's white, &c.), carbonate of lead (flake 
 white), white precipitate, &c., are frequently 
 used to revive faded complexions; but they 
 are not only injurious to the skin, but 
 act as poisons if taken up by the absorbents. 
 Trisnitrate of bismuth (pearl white), pro- 
 bably tbe least injurious of these articles, has 
 been known to cause spasmodic tremblings of 
 the muscles of the face, ending in paralysis. 
 ('Voght. Pharm.') The employment of liquid 
 preparations containing sugar of lead, which 
 are commonly sold under J^he name of milk 
 of roses, cream of roses, &c., is equally inju- 
 rious. Another disadvantage of these metal- 
 lic preparations is, that they readily turn black 
 when exposed to the action of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas, or the vapours of sulphur, such 
 as frequently escape into the apartment from 
 coal fires. There are many instances recorded 
 of a whole company being suddenly alarmed 
 by the pearly complexion of one of its belles 
 being thus transformed into a sickly grey or 
 black colour. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be remarked that tbe 
 best purifiers of the skin are soap and water, 
 followed by the use of a coarse but not a stitf 
 cloth, in opposition to tbe costly and smooth 
 diapers that are commonly employed; and the 
 best beautifiers are health, exercise, and good 
 temper. 
 
 Skin, Goldbeat'er's. See Goldbeateb's 
 
 SKIN. 
 
 SKINS (of Animals). The preparation and 
 preservation of fur skins are noticed under 
 Pbitbt; the preparation and uses of the skins 
 of the larger animals under Leathee, Tas- 
 KINO, Tawino, &c. 
 
1500 
 
 SLACK— SLEEP 
 
 SLACK. Small coal, such as is used for 
 kilns. 
 
 SliAG. The semi-vitrified coinpounda, pro- 
 duced, on the large scale, during the reduction 
 of metallic ores by fluxes. Those from iron 
 and copper works are often used for building 
 mxteriHls, mending roads, &c. 
 
 According to Eglestoij^ the following are 
 some of the industrial applications to which 
 tile slag from blast furnaces is put. 
 
 When required for building stones the slag 
 is run from the blast furnace into a semi- 
 circular vessel on moving wheels, and having 
 its bottom covered three centimetres deep 
 with sand and coke dust. My means of a bent 
 iron instrument the slag is mixed with sand 
 and coke dust till the escape of gases has 
 nearly ceased and the mass is sufficiently tough. 
 With the same tool it is next pressed into a 
 mould furnished with a lid, which is forced 
 down as soon as the escape of gas ceases. The 
 red-hot stone is then placed in the cooling 
 oven, covered with coke dust, and allowed to 
 remain three or four days to cool completely. 
 These stones are impervious to damp, and 
 make good foundations. According to another 
 method the slag, which should contain from 
 38 to 44 per cent, of silica, is run down a 
 shoot into a large cavity, and then covered 
 over with sand and ashes, and left to cool 
 from five to ten days, when it is distributed in 
 moulds, and there hardens. In certain parts 
 of Belgium slag is poured upon iron plates 
 and cooled by water, and thus a kind of glass 
 is manufactured. 
 
 In other districts the slag is granulated as 
 it flows from the blast furnace by means of a 
 stream of water. The granulated slag is pre- 
 ferred by the puddlers to the sand for the 
 moulds of pig iron. The slag gravel may be 
 advantageou>ly substituted for sand in mortar 
 making, a more rapid hardening being thus 
 secured, a matter of great moment in building 
 foundation walls. 
 
 Artificial stone is also manufactured from 
 the graunlated slag, and used for building 
 purpo-es, furnishing warm dry houses of 
 handsome appearance. 
 
 When stones for building with enamelled 
 surfaces are required they are obtained in some 
 parts of Europe as follows : — The unburnt 
 bricks are covered with granulated slag, and 
 after drying are burnt in a furnace where 
 they do not come in contact with carbon. 
 The stones are completely glazed, and accord- 
 ing to the different kinds of slag nsed are 
 tinted of different colours. This operation is 
 also employed advantageously with tiles, pipes, 
 and earthenware. 
 
 If, in the preparation of fire-proof bricks, 
 a certain proportion of mixture of clay and 
 granulated slag be added to the mixture, very 
 hard and durable fire bricks are obtained. 
 These have been tested in a brass furnace, 
 and experiments are being tried as to their 
 1 Diagler's 'Polytech.Journ.,' 'Journ. Chem. Society.' 
 
 apnlicability to building puddling furnaces. 
 This granulated slag may also be advanta- 
 geously used for manure. Blast furnace slag 
 has also been drawn out iu fine threads or 
 filaments, furnishing the so-called 'furnace 
 wool.' This substance, being a very bad con- 
 ductor of heat, has suggested various house- 
 hold and other uses. A cheap and valuable 
 cement, said to be equal to Portland cement, 
 has been prepared from the finely granulated 
 slag, which will also resist well the action of 
 ai'ids. 
 
 Mr Britten in 1876 patented a process for 
 the manufacture of glass from blast furnace 
 slag. Large works for the purpose of carry- 
 ing out this invention, under the title of 
 ' Britten's Patent Glass Company,' have been 
 erected at Finedon in Northamptonshire, and 
 are, we believe, successfully worked in manu- 
 facturing glass bottles. 
 
 The method consists in removing molten 
 slag in a ladle from the blast furnace, and 
 pouring into a Siemen's furnace, when certain 
 amounts of carbonate of sodium and silica are 
 added, depending upon the quality of the slag 
 used, and of the glass required. 
 
 SLATE. The excellence of this material 
 for water cisterns deserves a passing notice 
 here. 
 
 Irish slate (Lapis Sihernicus) is an argilla- 
 ceous mineral, said to contain iron and sul- 
 phur, found in different parts of Ireland. It 
 is a common remedy, among the vulgar, for 
 internal bruises, taken in a glass of gin. 
 
 SL£EF. During the period of our waking 
 hours the exercise of the animal functions 
 entails a waste or destruction of tissue in the 
 organs performing them, which, unless duly 
 repaired, would soon lead to the enfeeblement 
 and consequent failure of the powers of the or- 
 gans themselves, for the animal economythere- 
 fore to be maintained in a state of efficiency the 
 repair of the reduced tissnes is a necessity ; and 
 this essential condition is effected by the agency 
 of sleep, during which respiration, circulation, 
 digestion, &c., continue to be carried on simul- 
 taneously with assimilative processes which 
 end in the regeneration of the impaired tissue. 
 
 A proper amount of sleep is therefore as 
 great or even a greater necessity than a proper 
 supply of food ; and any one failing to obtain 
 it soon perishes of exhaustion. Thus it is 
 that any great mental emotion — such as 
 intense remorse, grief, anxiety, or the depress- 
 ing effectof a reverse of fortune — so frequently 
 expedites death. Like Macbeth " it munlers 
 sleep," one of the great needs of man's 
 existence. 
 
 Infants and children it is well known require 
 much more sleep than adults. In these latter 
 the organism, being already matured, demands 
 only so much sleep as will enable it to make 
 up for the daily waste of the body, which 
 waste falls very far below the amount of nu- 
 trition rtquired by the growing infant. In a 
 still earlier state of development, viz., the 
 
SLEEPLESSNESS AND COLD FEET 
 
 1501 
 
 fiDtal one, life may bo snid to be passed entirely 
 ill slumber ; whilst ciiildren prematurely born 
 scarcely ever wake except for food. We may 
 assume that, as a general rule, infants take 
 treble the amount of sleep that adults do, and 
 that very young infants thrive the better the 
 larger the auiount of sleep they get, is borne 
 out by the experience of medical practitioners, 
 who affirm that they have known many chil- 
 dren who were born small and weakly, but 
 who slept the greatest part of their early 
 existence, aTterwards became strong and 
 healthy J whilst those children on the contrary 
 who, being born large and strong, were not 
 good sleepers, became subsequently enfeebled 
 and unhealthy. As regards the sleep of adults, 
 il' the slumber has been of average length, or 
 the subject of it awakes fully refreshed there- 
 from, asccond sleep insteadof being conducive 
 is prejudicial to health, and should never be 
 encouraged. 
 
 During sickness a patient, if in a very help- 
 less and enfeebled stxte, may often be exposed 
 whilst iisleep to great peril, unless the nurse 
 who attends him exercises intelligence and a 
 proper amount of vigilance. In his work on 
 ' Household Medicine ' Dr Gardner has pointed 
 out the dangers that beset the sleeping patient, 
 and the means by which they may be avoided 
 "Hiiving disposed," he says, " of the patient in 
 bed in the best manner, be careful that no 
 part of the pillow can project over the mouth 
 or nose, and that tlje bedclothes do not cover 
 the mouth. 
 
 " The attendantshould be particularly atten- 
 tive to these points, when a narcotic has been 
 taken, when the disease is paralysis, fever, 
 head diseases, bronchitis, or any pulmonary 
 complaint. The patient should bo watched 
 until he sleep-i, and during his sleep, if a nurse 
 is'not constantly present, should be visited 
 frequently, to observe whether the mouth and 
 nostrils are free, and nothing obstructs the 
 breathing. 
 
 "Very little suffices for an obstruction in such 
 cases, which miiy extinguish life. Hundreds, 
 perhaps we may say thousands of persons die 
 prematurely from suffocation during sleep, in 
 a low condition of the vital energies. 
 
 " How often does it happen that a patient 
 left in a calm sleep is found dead upon being 
 visited an hour or two after. Soft yielding 
 pillows, in which the head and face get buried, 
 are the instruments of suffocation to weakly 
 persons, very, very often." 
 
 The larger amount of sleep indulged in by 
 the very old, over adults, is referable to the 
 incapacity of the aged for exercise, and to their 
 enfeebled powers of nutrition. Besides age, 
 temperament, habit, and snrrounding circum- 
 stances exercise considerable influence on the 
 amount of sleep necessary for man. Persons 
 of lymphatic temperament are generally great 
 sleepers ; whilst those of a nervous and active 
 nature are mostly the reverse. The late Earl 
 liussuU was we believe in the years of his active 
 
 political life a very small sleeper, his slumber* 
 seldom extending over five hours. So, likewise 
 was toe Duke ot Wellington ; General Elliott, 
 the defender of Gibraltar, seldom slept more 
 than four hours out of the twenty-four. As a 
 contrast to these cases may be mentioned that 
 of Dr Keid, the metaphysician, of whom it is 
 stated that he could take as suf}ieient food and 
 afterwards as much sleep as would suffice for 
 an ordinary man for two days. 
 
 Several well-attested cases of excessive 
 slumber are on record in which the -leep lasted 
 in some cases for weeks, and in others even 
 for months. 
 
 In the 'Comptes Kendns ' for 1864 Dr 
 Blanchet records the case of one of his patients 
 a lady of 24 years of age, who had slept for 
 40 days when she was 18 years of age. Two 
 yeiirs later she had a sleep lasting 50 days. 
 Upon a subsequent occasion she fell asleep on 
 Easter Sunday, 18G2, and did not wake till 
 March, 1863. She was fed during this period 
 with milk and soup. She continued motionless 
 and insensible, the pulse was low, the brcathiug 
 scarcely perceptible, there were no evacuations, 
 iind she betrayed no signs of wasting awav, 
 whilst her complexion is described as florid 
 and healthy. 
 
 This, however, as well as other cases of a 
 similar kind, must not be rejiarded ns an 
 extreme instance of healthy slumber, but as a 
 form of lethargy or coma, as indicative of 
 disease, as the opposite condition or sleepless- 
 ness, that is frequently an accompanimint of 
 certain forms of fevers, inflammatory affec- 
 tions, and brain disorders. 
 
 Mr Durhaiii,of Guy's Hospital, seems to have 
 disposed of the condition that sleep is caused 
 by the pressure of the distended veins on the 
 brain. 
 
 A piece of bone being removed from a dog's 
 sknll so thbt the animal's brain could 1)0 
 observed when sleeping, it was f'und, 1, the 
 veins were not distended. 2. During sleep 
 the brain is in a comparatively bloodless con- 
 dition, and the blood in the encephalic vessels 
 is nut only diminished in quantity, but moves 
 with diminished rapidity; and this is corro- 
 borated by the observations of Dr Hnghlings 
 Jackson on the ophthalmoscopic condition of 
 the retina during sleep, the optic Ahk being 
 then whiter, the arteries smaller, and the 
 retina generally more aniemic than in the 
 waking state. 3. The condition of the cere- 
 bral circulation during sleep is from physical 
 causes, that which is most favorable to the 
 nutrition of the brain tissue. See Bed, 
 Watchpitlnbss. 
 
 SLEEPLESSNESS AND COLD FEET. The 
 association betwixt cold feet and sleeplessness 
 is much closer than is commonly imagined. 
 Persons with cold feet rarely sleep well, es- 
 pecially women. Yet the number of persons 
 so troubled is considerable. We now know 
 that if the blood-supply to the brain be kept 
 up, sleep is impossible. An old theologian. 
 
1502 
 
 SMALLPOX— SMOKE PREVENTION 
 
 when weary and sleepy with much writing, 
 found thac he could keep his bruin active by 
 immersing his feet in cold water; the cold 
 drove the blood from the foet to the head. 
 
 Now, what this old gentleman accomplished 
 by design is secured for many persons much 
 agaiuEt their will. Cold feet are the bane of 
 many women. Light boots keep up a blood- 
 less condition of the feet in the day, and in 
 many women there is no subsequent dilatation 
 of the blood-vessels when the boots are taken 
 off. These women come in from a walk and put 
 their feet to the fire to warm— the most 
 effective plan of cultivating chilblains. At 
 night they put their feet to the fire, and have 
 a hot bottle in bed. But it is all of no use ; 
 their feet still remain cold. How to get their 
 feet warm is the great question of life with 
 them — in cold weather. The effective plan is 
 not very attractive at first sight to many minds. 
 It consists in first driving the blood-vessels 
 into firm contraction, after which secondary 
 dilatation follows. See the snowballer's 
 bands 1 The first contact of the snow makes 
 the hands terribly cold ; tor the small arteries 
 are driven thereby into firm contraction, and 
 the nerve-endings of the finger-tips feel the 
 low temperature very keenly. But as the 
 snowballer perseveres, his hands commence to 
 glow ; the blood-vessels have become secon- 
 darily dilated, and the rush of warm arterinl 
 blood is felt agreeably by the peripheral 
 nerve-endings. This is the plan to adopt with 
 cold feet. They should be dipped in cold 
 water for a brief period; often just to im- 
 merse them, and no more, is sufficient ; and 
 then they should be rubbed with a pair of 
 hair flish gloves, or a rough Turkish towel, 
 till they glow, immediately before getting into 
 bed. Afier this a hot-water bottle will be 
 successful enough in maintaining the tem- 
 perature of the feet, though without this 
 preliminary it is impotent to do so- Disagree- 
 able as the plan at first sight may appear, it 
 is efficient ; and those who have once fairly 
 tried it continue it, and find that they have 
 put an end to their bad nights and cold feet. 
 Pills, potions, lozenges, " night-caps," all nar- 
 cotics, fiiil to enable the sufferer to woo sleep 
 successfully : get rid of the cold feet, and then 
 sleep will come of itself. — British, Medical 
 Journal. 
 
 SMALLPOX. See Fox. 
 
 Smallpox in Sheep. Syn. Vabiola ovina. 
 This di!,ease, although bearing the same name 
 as that which attacks the human subject, is a 
 perfectly distinct malady, and incapable of 
 being communicated to man either by inocU' 
 lation or contagion. In about ten days froir 
 the time of the animal's having imbibed the 
 contagion feverish symptoms set in accom 
 panied with a mucous discharge of a purulent 
 character from the nose. Ked infiammatory 
 pimples then begin to develop, first appearing 
 where the skin is thin. After the pimples 
 have been out about three days they assume a 
 
 white appearance, and are filled with serum 
 and pus. " Some of the vessels dry up, 
 leaving brown scabs ; others, especially in the 
 severer cases, run together, and the scarf skin 
 is detached, leaving an ulcerated surface. It 
 is in this ulcerated stage that the prostration 
 reaches its height, and that most sheep die. 
 The mortality from smallpox in sheep ranges 
 from 25 to 90 per cent."' 
 
 The disease being a very infectious one, the 
 affected animals must be kept separate from 
 the healthy ones. Thirty grains of chlorate 
 of potash should be given three times a day, 
 whilst the food should be nutritious and such 
 as to tempt the animal's appetite. It may 
 consist of bruised oilcake, bran, and steeped 
 oats. Professor Simonds recommends inocu- 
 lation as a prophylactic measure. 
 
 Smallpox Marks, Frevention of. 1. For pre- 
 venting disfigurement from smallpox marks, 
 Dr Bernard suggests that the pustules as soon 
 as they have acquired a certain size should be 
 punctured with a fine needle, and then 
 repeatedly washed with tepid water. 
 
 2. Dr Thorburn Patterson prescribes the 
 following ointment : — Carbonic acid, 20 to 30 
 minim.s ; glycerine, IJ dr. ; ointment of oxide 
 of zinc, 6 dr. 
 
 3. Cream smeared on the pustules, fre- 
 quently during the day, with a feather. See 
 also Ointments. 
 
 SMALTS. Si/n. Azuee, Powdeb blttb. 
 Siliceous b., Smait, Azuetjm, Smalta, L. 
 This consists, essentially, of glass coloured by 
 fusing it with oxide of cobalt. 
 
 Prep. 1. Cobalt ore is roasted, to drive off 
 the arsenic, then made into a paste with oil of 
 vitriol, and heated to redness for an hour; the 
 residuum is powdered, dissolved in water, and 
 the ferric oxide precipitated with carbonate 
 of potassium, gradually added, until a rose- 
 coloured powder begins to fall; the clear por- 
 tion is then decanted, and precipitated with a 
 solution of silicate of potassium (prepared by 
 fusing together, for 5 hours, a mixture of 10 
 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely ground 
 flints, and 1 part of char<;oaI) ; the precipitate 
 after being dried is fused, and reduced to u 
 very fine powder, A very rich colour. 
 
 2. Boasted cobalt ore and carbonate of 
 potassium, of each 1 part; siliceous sand, 3 
 parts; fuse them together, and cool and 
 powder the residuum. Used as a blue pig- 
 ment, also to colour glass, and for 'blueing' 
 the starch used to get up linen. See Blue 
 
 PI&MENTS. 
 
 SMELL'IMG SALTS. See Salts, Smelling. 
 
 SMELT. A beautiful little abdominal fish 
 abounding in the Thames, and a few other 
 rivers, between the months of November and 
 February. It is esteemed a great delicacy by 
 epicures, but sometimes proves offensive to the 
 delicate and dyspeptic. 
 
 SMOKE PREVEN'TION. Although the full 
 consideration of this subject belongs to public 
 1 Fiutay Dun. 
 
SMOKING— SXUFF 
 
 1503 
 
 hjgiene and civil engineering, its immediate 
 application and advuntages are interesting and 
 iiupiirtitnt to everybody. 
 
 The liistory of mnolie burning scarcely com- 
 mences before the vear 18M, at which date 
 Hr Charles Vfye William» obtained a patent 
 for this purpose. Since that time a 'thou- 
 sand-and'One' schemes, either patented or 
 non-patented, professedly for the same object, 
 have been brought before the public. Most 
 of these have bticn supported by the most 
 reoltleas statements regarding their value, 
 made by interested parties; and the most 
 eiTious inconvenience and losses have often 
 followed their adoption. Williams's method is 
 to admit an abundant snpply ofcold air through 
 a large number of small perforations in the 
 door and front part of the furnace. Lark's 
 metliod is based on the admission of heated 
 air, under due regulation, both through the 
 door, and at the bridge or back of the fur- 
 nace, by which means combustion is rendered 
 more complete, and smoke thereby prevented. 
 
 Irison's plan consists in the introduction of 
 steam by minute jets over the fire, which is 
 thus greatly Increased in intensity without the 
 production of smoke, and with a saving of fuel. 
 In Jucke's arrangement the grate bars of a 
 furnace are replaced by an endless chain web, 
 which is carried round upnn two roller'^, in 
 such a way that each part of the fuel is 
 exposed to conditions most favorable for per- 
 fect combustion. Other inventions are based 
 upon supplying fuel to the tires from beneath, 
 so that the products of combustion must pass 
 through the incandescent coals above. 
 
 For household tires, the smokeless grate, 
 invented by Dr Arnott, will bo found entirely 
 successful, and most economical. Its general 
 introduction would be a great advance in both 
 domestic and public hygiene; and, being 
 hence of national importance, should be 
 enforced by law. 
 
 8II0"KING', This is done, on the large scale, 
 by hanging up the articles (previously more or 
 less salted) in smoking rooms, into which smoke 
 is very slowly admitted from smothered dry- 
 wood fires, kindled in the cellar, for the pur- 
 pose of allowing it to cool and deposit its 
 cruder part before it arrives at the meat. 
 Thi< process requires from six days to as many 
 weeks to perform it properly, and is best done 
 in winter. In fiirin-bouses, where dry wood is 
 burnt, hams, &,c„ are often smoked by hanging 
 them up in some cool part of the kitchen 
 chimney. When the meat is cut into slices, 
 or scored deeply with a knife, to allow the 
 smoke to penetrate it, it is called 'bucaniko.' 
 
 " The quality of the wood has an influence 
 upon the smell and taste of the smoke-dried 
 meat; smoke from beech wood and oak being 
 preferable to that from fir and larch. Smoke 
 from the twigs and berries of juniper, from 
 rosemary, peppermint, &c., impart somewhat 
 of the aromatic fl.ivour of these plants." (Ure.) 
 The occasion il addition of a few cloves or all- 
 
 spice to the fuel gives a very agreeable Havour 
 to the meat. 
 
 Hung beef, a highly esteemed variety of 
 smoked beef, is prepared from any part, free 
 from bone and fat, by well salting and pressing 
 it, and then drying and smoking it in the usual 
 manner. It is best eaten shredded. See 
 PUTKEPACTIOH, SaLTIKO, &c. 
 
 SNAKE-POISOHING, Mortality from. The 
 'Lancet'' quoting a letter from T. B. Heighten, 
 Esq., of the Bengal Civil Service, magistrate 
 of the Culna district of the Burduan province 
 of Bengal, says : — " Tlie Culua district com- 
 prises, we presume, 80 or 100 square miles, 
 and has a population of about 300,000. Mr 
 Beighton says that deaths from snakebite are 
 singularly common in the subdivi-ion. An 
 average of one per day is reported through 
 the police. The actual deaths are probably 
 double the number reported. If this daily 
 average is meant to apply the whole year 
 round, we should thus get in a comparatively 
 small district the frightful death of 700 persons 
 from snakebite. It is lamentable to think 
 that despite the supposed remedial discoveries 
 in this direction, we still seem to be wifiout an 
 "gent to neutralise the effects of the bites of 
 poisonous snakes." 
 
 SNAKE-ROOT. See Seneoa. For 'Vir- 
 ginian snake-root' see Sekpentaey. Snake- 
 weed {BistortcB radix) is the root of Poly- 
 gonum BUiorta ( Linn.). 
 
 SKIPE. The Scolopax Gallinago, a well- 
 known bird indigenous to this country. It is 
 fine-flavoured, but^ rather indigestilile. 
 
 SNOW, Foreign Bodies in. M. Bondier- 
 having lately made an examination of snow, 
 records that of the solid matters floating in 
 the air and retained in the snow, the most 
 abundant was fonnd to be soot ; next some 
 cells of Protococeiia virictUy aud spores and 
 fliaments of other cryptograms ; then granules 
 of starch and cells and flijres of various plants. 
 Epithelial cells and hairs of animals were also 
 present, as well as fibres of wool and silk. 
 These last, being dyed, indicated the presence 
 of man, as did also the fibres of hemp, cotton, 
 and indigo. The amount of foreign matter 
 was greatest in the snow collected at the 
 lowest levels, especially in the vicinity of 
 human habitations and of woods, which are 
 both fertile sources of floating partieles. Per- 
 manganate of potassium was used to estimate 
 the amount of organic matter dissolved by the 
 filtered snow water. 
 
 Immediately mixed with the soot were the 
 ferruginous corpuscles observed by Tissandier. 
 These are regarded by the author, in opposition 
 to the opinion of Tissandier, as of terrestrial 
 origin. 
 
 SNUFF. Svn. PuLvis tabaoi, L. ; Tabac 
 en poudee. Ft. A powder, prepared from 
 tobacco, for the purpose of being sniffed up the 
 nose as a stimulant or intoxicant. 
 
 ' ■ An»lyst,' mil, 1&70. 
 • 'Joarn. Ch. Soc' 
 
1504, 
 
 SNUFP 
 
 The finer kinds of snuff are made from the 
 soft portions of the best description of manu- 
 factured leaf-tobacco, separated from the da- 
 maged portion ; but the ordinary snuffs of the 
 shops are mostly prepared from the coarser 
 and damaged portions, the mid-ribs, stems, or 
 stalky parts that remain from the manufacture 
 of 'shag tobacco,* the dust or powder sifted 
 from the bales, and the fragments that are 
 unfit for other purposes. 
 
 Frep. The proper material being chosen, 
 and if not in a sufficiently mature state ren- 
 dered so by further fermentation, they are 
 sufficiently dried by a gentle heat or exposure 
 to the air to admit of being pulverised. This 
 is performed, on the large scale, in^Ji mill, and 
 on the small scale, with a kind of pestle and 
 mortar. During the operation the tobacco is 
 frequently sifted, that it may not be reduced 
 to too fine a powder, and is several times 
 slightly moistened with rose or orange-flower 
 water, or eau d'ange, which are the only liquids 
 fit for the superior kinds of snuff, In pre- 
 paring the dry snutfa no moisture is used. The 
 scent or other like matters are next added, and, 
 after thorough admixture, the snuff is packed 
 in jars or canisters. 
 
 Adult. During the grinding of tobacco it is 
 frequently mixed with dark-coloured rotten 
 wood, various English leaves, colouring, and 
 other matter. A>nmonia,hellebore,euphorbium, 
 and powdered glass are common additions to 
 snuffs to increase their pungency. We have 
 seen powdered sal ammoniac sent by the hun- 
 dredweight at one time to a certain celebrated 
 London tobacconist. The moist kinds of snuff 
 are generally drugged with pearlash, for the 
 triple purpose of keeping them damp and in- 
 creasing their pungency and colour. The dry 
 snuffs, especially * Scotch ' and ' Welsh,' are 
 commonly adulterated with qnicklime, the 
 particles of whi<:h may be occasionally distin- 
 guished even by the naked eye. This ad- 
 dition causes their biting and desiccating 
 effect on the pituitary membrane. " We 
 were once severely injured by taking snuff 
 which, after our suspicions were awakened, 
 we found to contain a mixture of red lead and 
 umber." (Cooley.) 
 
 The following circumstance related by Dr 
 Garrod' in a lecture at King's College Hospital 
 leads to the inference that the custom of pack- 
 ing snuff in lead is not free from danger. 
 The doctor says : — A gentleman, a resident in 
 India, began to suffer some time since from 
 nervous exhaustion, anaemia, and debility of 
 both extremities ; ho was a great snuff taker, 
 taking on an avernge as much as an ounce in 
 the course of a day. He consulted several 
 medical men in India, and they attributed his 
 symptoms to inordinate snuff taking. He, 
 however, continued to take snuff and to get 
 worse, and at last came to England to seek 
 further advice. When Dr Garrod saw him he 
 discovered a blue line on the gums. His 
 1 'Lancet.* 
 
 suspicions were directed to the snuff, which he 
 found to contain a considerable quantity of 
 lead. To ascertain whether or not the pre- 
 sence of lead in this circumstance was an 
 accidental circumstance, six packets were 
 ordered from the bouse in Calcutta with 
 which the gentleman had been in the habit of 
 dealing. The snuff was contained in sheet- 
 load packages, which were all found to contain 
 lead to about the same extent as the first 
 specimen. Dr Garrod exhibited a solution, 
 which he tested in the following way : — Ten 
 grains of snuff were burned in a platinum 
 crucible, and the ash was treated with nitric 
 acid, the crystallised result was dissolved in 
 water with the addition of a small quantity of 
 acetic acid, and then tested with iodide of 
 potassium, which threw down an abundant 
 precipitate of yellow iodide of lead. The 
 leaden packages were labelled 'best brown 
 r ippee,' and bore the name of » well-known 
 Bnglish firm, from which they had been 
 exported to India. The snuff itself was rather 
 moist. Where it adhered to the sides of the 
 case it was dotted with white spots, probably 
 consisting of carbonate of lead, formed by, Dr 
 Garrod suggests, the fermentation of the damp 
 snuff. 
 
 Since Dr Garrod's attention has been 
 directed to this subject, he has spoken to a 
 medical man recently returned from Calcutta, 
 who told him that he had quite lately met 
 with three cases of lead-poisoning, which, on 
 investigation, were found to he due to the use 
 of snuff. 
 
 Var, Snuffs are divided into two kinds — 
 DKY SNUFPS, as ' Scotch,' ' Irish,' ' Welsh,' 
 and ' Spanish snuff, ' ' Lundyfoot,' &c. ; and 
 MOIST SNurFS, or BAFPEES, including ' black ' 
 and ' brown rappee,' ' carrotte,* ' Cuba,' ' Hard- 
 ham's mixture,' 'prince's mixture,' 'prin- 
 ceza,' 'queen's snuff,' &e. The last three also 
 come under the denomination of scented 
 SNUFFS. 
 
 The immense variety of snuffs kept in the 
 shops, independently of the above-named con- 
 ditions, depend for their distinguishing charac- 
 teristics on the length of the fermentation, the 
 fineness of the powder, the height to which 
 they are dried, and the addition of odorous 
 substances. Tonquin beans, essence of tonquin 
 bean, ambergris, musk, civet, leaves of orchis 
 fusca, root and oil of calamus aromaticus, pow- 
 der and essence of orris root, and the essences 
 or oils of bergamot, cedra, cloves, lavender, 
 petit grain, neroli, and roses (otto), as well as 
 several others, either alone or compounded, are 
 thus employed. Tabao paeft7m:^e aux fleces 
 is perfumed by putting orange flowers, jasmins, 
 tuberoses, musk roses, or common roses, to the 
 snuff in a close chest or jar, sifting them out 
 after 24 hours, and repeating the treatment 
 with fresh flowers, as necessary. Another way 
 is to lay paper, pricked all over with a large 
 pin, between the flowers and the snuff. 
 
 Macottba snuff is imitated by moistening 
 
SOAP 
 
 1305 
 
 the tobaoro with a miztare of treacle and 
 water, and allowing it to ferment well. 
 
 Spanish sncff is made from unsifted 
 ' Havannah anuH',' reduced by adding ground 
 Spanish uutshells, sprinkling the mixture with 
 treacle water, and allowing it to sweat for 
 some days before packing. 
 
 Ybllow snupp is prepared from ordinary 
 pale snuff moistened witti a mixture of yellow 
 ochre diffused in water, to which a few spoon- 
 fuls of thin mucilage have been added; when 
 dry, the colour that does not adhere to the 
 snuff is separated with a fine sieve. 
 
 Kes Snuff. As last, but using red ochre. 
 
 Snoff, Asarabac'ca. Syn. CErnALic sndfp, 
 Compound fowosb of abababacoa; Pulyis 
 ASAui COMPOSITDS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. D. 
 1836.) Asarabacca leaves, 1 oz. ; lavender 
 flowers, 1 dr. (both dried) j mix and powder 
 them. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. 1817.) Asarabacca leaves, 3 dr.; 
 leaves of marjoram and flowers of lavender, of 
 each 1 dr. ; as before. Both are used as 
 errliiiies in headaches and ophthalmia. See 
 Snupf. Cephalio, Asaeabacoa, &c. 
 
 Snuff, Ceplial'ic. Prep. 1. From asarabacca 
 leaves and Lundyfoot snuff, of each 2 oz. ; 
 lavender flowers, \ oz.; essence of bergamottc 
 and oil of cloves, of each 2 or 3 drops ; mixed 
 and ground to a powder, the perfume being 
 added last. 
 
 2. (Boeli's.) From tobacco or pure snufP 
 and viilerian root, of each ^ oz. ; reduced to 
 powder, and scented with the oils of lavender 
 and marjoram, of each 5 or 6 drops. 
 
 Obt. The first formula is an excellent one ; 
 and the product is very useful in nervous 
 headaches, dimness of sight, &c. See Snupp, 
 ASABABACCA (above). 
 
 Snuff, Eye. Prep. From finely levigated 
 tribiisic sulphate of mercury ('Turpeth mine- 
 ral"), 4 dr.; pure dry Scotch or Lundyfoot 
 snuff, 1 oz. ; triturate them well together. A 
 pinch of this, occasionally, has been recom- 
 mended in inflammation of the eyes, dim- 
 ness of sight, headache, polypus, &c. ; but 
 it should be used with caution, and not tix> 
 often. 
 
 SOAP. Si/n. Sapo, L. j Savon, Fr. Spa- 
 nish, Castile, or habd soap, made with olive 
 oil and soda (sAPO, sapo sx oliv^ oleo et 
 soda confectcs— Ph. L. ; sapo dueus — B.P., 
 Ph. E., & D.), and SOFT soap, made with olive 
 oil and potasli (sapo mollis — B.P., Ph. L., & E., 
 
 sapo ex OLlVi; OLKO ET POTASS* CONPECITTS 
 — Ph. L.), are the only kinds directed to be 
 employed in medicine. The former is intended 
 whenever 'soap' is ordered, and is the one 
 which is principally employed internally ; the 
 latter is used in ointments, &c., and in some of 
 the olKcinal pills. 
 
 Prep. The fatty or oleaginous matter is 
 boiled with a weak alkaline lye (soap-lye) ren- 
 dered caustic by quicklime, and portions of 
 stronger lye are added from time to time, the 
 ebullition being still coutiuued, until these 
 Tob n. 
 
 substances, reacting on each other, combine to 
 form a tenacious compound, wbich begins to 
 separate from the water; to promote this 
 aepiration and the granulation of the newly- 
 formed soap, some common salt is generally 
 added, and the fire being withdrawn, the cun- 
 tents of the boiler are allowed to repose for 
 some hours, in oi-der that the soap may collect 
 into one stratum, and solidify; when this 
 happens it is put into wooden Irxmes or moulds, 
 and when it has become stiff enough to be 
 bandied it is cut into bars or pieces, and ex- 
 posed to the ttir, in a warm situation, to further 
 harden and to dry. 
 
 In the print works of Alsace, where an 
 immense quantity of egg albumen is con- 
 sumed, there collect, as a neuessary result, 
 enormous quantities of the yolks of egg. 
 Amongst other purposes to which these are 
 applied that of soiip-making \-i one. According 
 to Kingzett,tbe olein i" not the mily ingredient 
 of the yolk which reacts upon the soda or 
 potash, and tlius produces soap; but the yolk 
 also contains another body, which, absorbing 
 water under the influence of the bases, splits np 
 into oleic and margaric acids. 
 
 " Besides the olein contained in the free Ftate, 
 there is," says Mr Kingzitt, " present a body 
 called iecithine of the formula C^iHg^NPOg." 
 Gobloy, Diakonow, Strecker, Thudicum, and 
 Kingzett have studied this substance, and 
 express its chemolysis as follows : — 
 
 Glycero- 
 Lccithiiie. Water, phoapliuric 
 acid. 
 
 C4jH8jNPOg-3HaO = C3HsPO, 
 
 Choline. 
 
 Oleic acid. 
 
 Pnlniitic 
 HCid. 
 
 -H Call^NOj -H C,8Hj,0j -f C.eHjjOj. 
 
 That is to say, bases have the power, by 
 abstracting water, to split up Iecithine into, 
 among other products, oleic and palmitic acid; 
 so that when eggs are used for ^oap-making 
 this process actually occurs, the soila or potash 
 employed being sufficient to efl'ectthe necessary 
 decomposition, and the resulting soap being, 
 therefore, the product from not only the olein, 
 but from the fatty acids so formed. 
 
 Tessie dn Mothay has proposed a method for 
 the recovery of potash, soda, &c., from soap 
 water, which is as follows: — Ho decomposes 
 the soap water by calcium, barium, or mag- 
 nesium carbonate, and then passes carbonic acid 
 through the liquid. The bicarbonate form 
 precipitates orgonic matter and other impuri- 
 ties, and these settle down. The solution is 
 then evaporated or treated with baryta water, 
 which precipitates the last portion of foreign 
 matters, and leaves a solution of caustic alkali. 
 At a particular stage of the process an acid is 
 used in order to hasten the separation of the 
 resinous substances, and, in certain cases, of the 
 sulphides of sodium and calcium, or barium 
 and calcium and ferric oxide, and then passes 
 carbonic acid into the liquid. The prccipi- 
 
 95 
 
1506 
 
 SOAP 
 
 tated metillic substances carry down with 
 them tlic humus-like substances present. 
 
 Var. The principal varieties of soap found 
 in commerce are : — 
 
 Almond Soap (Sapo amtodalistts), made 
 from almond oil and caustic soda, and chiefly 
 used for the toilet. 
 
 The P. Codex gives the following' formula 
 for its preparation :— Solution of caustic soda 
 (1'334), by weight, 10 oz.; oil of almonds, by 
 weight, 21 oz. ; add the ley to the oil in small 
 portions, stirring frequently ; leave the mixture 
 for some days at a temperature of from 64° to 
 68° Fahr., stirring occasionally, and when it has 
 acquired the consistence of a soft paste, put it 
 into moulds until sufficiently solidified. It 
 should be exposed to the air for one or two 
 months before it is used. 
 
 Animal Soap. Sapo animalis, Cubd 
 SOAP (B. P.). A soap made with soda and a 
 purified animal fat consisting principally of 
 stearin (P. Cod.). Put 5 parts of beef marrow 
 with 10 parts of water into a porcelain or 
 silver basin, heat, and when melted add by 
 portions, with constant stirring, 24 parts of 
 Hquor sodse (1'33) ; when saponified, add 1 
 part of salt ; stir, remove the soap from the 
 surface, drain it, melt it with a gentle heat, 
 and pour it into moulds. 
 
 Castile Soap, Spanish s., Maeseilles s. ; 
 Sapo Castiliensis, Sapo Hispanious. An 
 olive-oil soda soap, kept both in the white and 
 marbled state. The former is said to be the 
 purest, the latter the strongest. 
 
 CnKD Soap, made with tallow (chiefly) and 
 soda (see above). 
 
 Medicated Soa!ps, containing various 
 active ingredients. The chief of these are 
 noticed below. 
 
 Mottled Soap, made with refuse kitchen- 
 stuff', &c. 
 
 SoPT Soap (of commerce), made with whale, 
 seal, or cod oil, tallow, and caustic potash. 
 
 N. Grager ' gives the following method for 
 the easy determination of the fat and alkali in 
 soft (potash) soaps: — 25 to 50 grammes 
 of soap are dissolved in 150 c.c. of water 
 by aid of heat, cooled, and mixed with 
 an excess of salt, so that a soda-soap separates 
 out; the latter is washed on a paper filter with 
 a saturated solution of salt. In the filtrate the 
 free alkali is estimated by a normal acid. The 
 precipitate is decomposed by wiirming with 
 excess of normal acid, and the quantity of 
 acid neutralised by the combined alkali, 
 determined by a standai-d soda solution. 
 The cake of fat which separates in the last 
 operation is dried and weighed after adding to 
 it, while melted, a known weight of stearin or 
 paraffin to give, it hardness. 
 
 Toilet Soaps, prepared from any of the 
 preceding varieties, and variously coloured and 
 «cented. Pormute are given below. 
 
 Yellow Soap, Kesin soap, made with 
 
 '^ '.Dingler'a Journal' (Journ. of Chem. Soc.,* vol. ix, new 
 
 tallow, resin, and caustic soda. Soluble glass 
 is now largely employed in place of resin. 
 
 Soaps are also divided into SOET or potash 
 SOAPS, and HAED or soda soaps. 
 
 Assay. 1. For the WATEB. A piece, fairly 
 taken from the sample, and weighing 100 gr., 
 is reduced to thin shavings, which are dried 
 by the heat of boiling water, Until they cease 
 to lose weight. The loss indicates the pro- 
 portion of free water. This should not exceed 
 35§ for ordinary curd and mottled soap, 45J 
 for yellow soap, and about 15J to 16g for 
 Castile soap. 
 
 2. For the alkali. 100 gr. of the soap are 
 dissolved in 4 or 5 fl. oz. of boiling water, and 
 the solution tested by the common method of 
 alkalimetry. Curd and yellow soap usually 
 contain from 6J to 7^, mottled soap from 7^ to 
 8§, and Castile soap 8g to 9S of soda. 
 
 8. For the oil or pat. The solution tested 
 for alkali (see No. 2) is heated, and then 
 allowed to cool slowly ; when cold the floating 
 fatty matter is removed, freed from water, and 
 weighed. When the fat or oil has little con- 
 sistence, 100 gr. of pure white wax is added to 
 the soap solution before heating it. The 
 weight obtained, in grains in the one case, and 
 the excess above 100 gr. in the other, give the 
 proportion of oil or fat present. This, in 
 ordinary mottled soap, should be about 68§ ; 
 in yellow soap, 65g; in card soap, 60§; and in 
 Castile soap, 75§. 
 
 4. UnSAPONIPIED PATTY MATTER.— a. Pure 
 soap is entirely soluble in distilled water and 
 insoluble in saline solution; if a iilm of fatty 
 matter forms on its solution in the former, 
 after repose, that portion has not been sa- 
 ponified. 
 
 b. The fat separated from soap (see No. 2), 
 when it has been perfectly saponified, is 
 entirely soluble in alcohol. 
 
 5. Other impurities. Pure soap is solu- 
 ble in rectified spirit, forming a colourless 
 or nearly colourless solution. The undissolved 
 portion, if exceeding Ig, is adulteration. 
 
 Another Method op Soap Assat (M. 
 Moffit). The constituents to be determined 
 in an analysis of soap are alkalies (combined 
 and free), carbonates, fatty acids, resin, gly- 
 cerin, salts, colouring matters, and water. 
 
 Three portions of the fiinely divided soap are 
 weighed ofiE, containing respectively 10 grams, 
 20 grams, and 40grams. Ten giams are digested 
 with alcohol on the water-bath and filtered. The 
 residue containing carbonates and other salts, 
 colonring matter, &c., is dried at 100°, weighed, 
 digested with water, and titrated with normal 
 oxalic acid. Every c. c. of acid used indi- 
 cates 0053 NajCoj. 
 
 Regard must be had to a slight precipitate 
 of calcium oxalate. The weight of NajCo;, 
 found is subtracted from the total residue 
 insoluble in alcohol, the difference is the weight 
 of the salts and foreign matters. The filtrate 
 is subjected to a stream of carbonic acid, 
 I filtered, and the precipitate dissolved in water 
 
SOAP 
 
 1507 
 
 find titrated with oxalic acid. Each c.c. of 
 acid indicates 0°03l free soda, or 0042 free 
 potash. No precipitate shows the absence of 
 Irev alkalies. The liltrate from the precipitatH 
 produced Ijy the carbonic acid is, after the 
 addition of 15 c.c. of water, evaporated to re- 
 move the alcohiil. The aqueous solution, 
 treated with normal oxalic acid to acid reac- 
 tion, shows for every c.c. of acid 0*031 soda, 
 or 0'0'12 piitash in combination. Sulphuric 
 acid is then added, and the whole is heated on 
 a water bath with pure beeswax to separate 
 the fHtty acids and resin, which are then 
 weighed, the weight of the beeswax being 
 Bnbtr;icted. 
 
 Forty grams of the soap are next dissolved 
 in water and mixed with sulphuric acid, as long 
 as any precipitate is formed. On st.anding 
 the fatty acids separate, and can be dried 
 nnd weighed. These fatty acids are digested 
 with a mixture of equal volumes of water and 
 alcohol, till the liquid on cooling ceases to 
 appear milky. The solid layer is again 
 weighed, anil the difference between the 
 weight and that obtained above shows the 
 weight of the resin. 
 
 The melting point of the acids is next 
 determined. Ten grams are then dissolved in 
 alcohol, and sulphuric acid diluted with alcohol 
 is added, till a precipitate is no lunger formed. 
 The liquid is filtired, mixed with barium car- 
 bonate, and again filtered. The sweet residue 
 left after evaporation of the alcohol Is gly- 
 cerin. The weights of the carbonates, bkIIs, 
 snd foreign matters, free and combined alka- 
 lies, fatty acids, resiu, und glycerin are 
 added together, and the sum subtracted 
 from 10 grams gives the weight of the wattr. 
 
 See aUo Soap analysis, ' Chem. News,' xxxv, 
 2. The article is too long to allow of inser- 
 tion here. 
 
 Uses, S(c. The common uses of soap need 
 not be enumerated. As u medicine it arts as 
 a mild purgative and lithontriptic, and it has 
 been thought by some to be u-eful in certain 
 nll'ections of tlie stnraach arising from de- 
 ficiency of bile. Externally it is stimulant 
 and detergent. — Dose, 3 to 20 or 30 gr., made 
 into pills, and usually combined with aloes or 
 rhubarb. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. Prior to the researches 
 of Ciievreul, no con ect ideas were entertained 
 as to the constituiiou of soap. It was long 
 known that the tixed oils and fats, in contact 
 with caustic alkiiliue solutions at a high tem- 
 perature, undergo the remarkable changn 
 which is called saponiKcation ; but hero tne 
 kiiou ledge of the matter stopped. Ciievreul 
 discovered that if the soap, so produced, be 
 afterwards decomposed by the addition of an 
 acid, the fat which separates is found to be 
 ciimph'tely changed in character ; to have 
 acquired a strong acid reaction when applied 
 in a melted state to test paper, and to have 
 bcioaic S'duble with the greatest facility in 
 warm alcohol ; in other words — that u new 
 
 substance, capable of forming salts, and exhi- 
 biting all the characteristic properties of an 
 acid, has been generated out of the elements 
 of the neutral fat under the influence of the 
 base. Stearin, when thus treited, yields 
 stearic acid, palmatin gives palmatic acid, 
 olein gives oleic aciJ, and common animal fat, 
 which is a mixture of several neutral bodies, 
 atfords, by saponification by an alkali and 
 subsequent decomposition of the soap, a mix- 
 ture of the corresponding fatty acids. Thee 
 bodies are nut, however, the o.dy products of 
 saponification; the change is always accom- 
 panied by the formation of a very peculiar 
 sweet substiince called glycerin, which remains 
 in the mother liquor from which the acidified 
 fat has been separated. The process of s ipnni- 
 ficatiun it-ielf proceeds with perfect f icilty, 
 even in a clused vessel ; no gas is ilist'ni,'iiged ; 
 the neutral fat, of whatsoever kind, is simply 
 resolved into an alkaline salt of the fatty 
 acid, which is soap, and into glycerin, a neutral 
 body resembling syrup, and, like that liquid, 
 misc'iliie with water in every proportion. 
 
 ** When yellow soap is made with the cheaper 
 kinds of fat it will hardly ac(uire a suflii'ient 
 degree of firmness or hardness to satisfy the 
 thrifty washerwoman. It melts away too 
 nipidiy in hot water, a defect which may be 
 well ruiiR'diiMl by the introduction into the 
 soap of a little (l'20th) fused sulphate of soda ; 
 and this sale concrt-ting gives the suap a de- 
 ^inlblo hardness, whilst it improves its colour, 
 and renders it a more desirable article for the 
 washing tub." (Ure.) This process was pa- 
 tented by Dr Normandy, but soon proved a 
 source of annoyance and molestation to him on 
 the part of the Board of Excise, it being an 
 enormous crime in law to attempt to improve 
 and cheapen soap. 
 
 " Soda which contains sulphurcts is preferred 
 for makiii!^ mottled or marble soap, whereas 
 the desulphuretted soda makes the best white 
 curd soap." " The Barillas always contain 
 a small proportion of potash, to which their 
 peculiar value, in making a less brittle or 
 more plastic hard soap than the factitious 
 sodas, may, with great probability, be as- 
 cribed." (Ure.) 
 
 The mottled appearance is usually given, in 
 the Londim Soap-works, by watering the 
 nearly finished soap with a strong lye of crude 
 soda, by means of a watering can furnished 
 with a rose spout. For ' Castile soap ' a solu- 
 tion of sulphate of iron is so employed. See 
 Soaps (Medicated and Toilet). 
 
 Soap, Arsen'ical. Si/n. SiPO aesenicalis, 
 L. Prep. (BecoDiirs.) From carbonate of po- 
 tash, 12 oz. ; white arsenic, white soap, and 
 air-slaked lime, of each i oz. j powdered cam- 
 phor, f oz. ; made into a pasl^e with water, 
 q. s. LVed to preserve the skins of bird?, aud 
 other small animals. 
 
 Soap, Black. Si/n. Sapo nigeb, S. MOiLig 
 COMMUNIS, L. A crude soft soap, made of fish 
 oil and potash ; but the following mixture is 
 
1503 
 
 SOAPS (MEDICATED) 
 
 usually sold for it : — Soft soap, 7 lbs. 5 train 
 oil, 1 lb. ; water, 1 gall. ; boil to » proper 
 consistence, adding ivory black or powdered 
 charcoal, q. s., to colour. Used by fan-iers. 
 
 SOAPS (Med'icated). A few only of these 
 deserve notice here : — 
 
 Soap, Autimo"uial. Syn. Safo aktimo- 
 NiALis, Sapo STlBlATirs, L. Frep. (Hamb. 
 Cod. 1845.) Golden sulphuret of antimony, 
 2 dr. 5 solution of caustic potxssa, 6 dr. (or 
 q. s.) ; dissolve, and triturate the solution 
 with medicated (Castile) soap (in powder), 
 Vt oz,, until the mass assumes a pilular 
 consistence. It should be of a greyish-white 
 colour. 
 
 Soap, Chlorina'ted. Syn. Sapo cat.cis oh lo- 
 
 EINATiE, L. ; SaTOU AHTISTPHIIITIQnE, Fr. 
 
 Prep. From Castile soap (in powder), 11 oz. ; 
 chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 oz. ; mix, 
 beat them to a mass with rectified spirit, q. a. ; 
 (holding in solution) oil of verbena or of ginger 
 grass, i oz. ; lastly, form the mass into flat 
 tablets, and wrap these in thin sheet gutta 
 percha. A most excellent detergent and sti- 
 mulant soap in various affections, admirably 
 adapted for hospital use, and for removing 
 stains from the skin and rendering it white. 
 It is the most powerful known agent against 
 infection from contagious diseases communi- 
 cable by contact. 
 
 Soap, Cod-Liver Oil. Syn. Sapo olei 
 JscOBis (Deschamps). Trep. Cod-liver oil, 
 2 oz. ; caustic soda, 2 dr. ; water, 5 dr. ; dis- 
 solve the soda in the water, and mix it with 
 the oil. An ioduretted soap is made by mix- 
 ing with the above, 1 dr. of iodide of potas- 
 sium dissolved in 1 dr. of water. 
 
 Soap, Cro'ton. Syn. Sapo ceotonib, L. 
 Prep. From croton oil and liquor of potassa, 
 equal parts ; triturated together in a warm 
 mortar until they combine. Cathartic. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 gr. 
 
 Soap of Gamboge. Syn. Sapo aAMEOGiie. 
 (Soubeiran.) Prep. Mix 1 part of gamboge 
 with 2 of soap, dissolve it with a little spirit, 
 and evaporate to a pilular consistence. 
 
 Soap, of Gna'iacum. Syn. Sapo guaiaci, 
 Sapo guaiacinus, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) 
 Liquor of potassa, 1 oz. ; water, 2 oz. ; mix in 
 a porcelain capsule, apply heat, and gradually 
 add of resin of guaiacum (in powder), 6 dr., 
 ■or as much as it will dissolve ; next decant or 
 filter, and evaporate to a pilular consistence. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 gr. ; in chronic rheumatism, 
 various skin diseases, &c. 
 
 Soap I'odiue. Syn. Sapo iodtteatus, L. 
 Prep. From Castile soap (sliced), 1 lb.; iodide 
 of potassium, 1 oz. ; (dissolved in) water, 3 fl. 
 oz. ; melt them together in a glass or porce- 
 lain vessel, over a water bath. Excellent in 
 various skin diseases; also as a common soap 
 for scrofulous subjects. 
 
 Soap of Jal'ap. See Jalap, Soap op. 
 
 Soap, larch. Syn. Sapo lahicis. (Dr 
 Moore.) Prep. Dissolve 12 oz. of white curd 
 soap in 24 oz. of rose w.ater on a steam bath. 
 
 Infuse 4 oz. of wheat bran in 10 oz. of cold 
 water for 24 hours, and express. Add to the 
 last, 3 oz. of pure glycerin. Dissolve 6 dr. 
 of extract of larch bark in 1 oz. of boiling 
 water. Mix these solutions with the dissolved 
 soap, evaporate over a steam bath to a proper 
 consistence, and pour into moulds to cool. 
 For the local treatment of psoriasis. 
 
 Soap, Macquer's Acid. Syn. Sapo titeio- 
 licus, L. Prep, From Castile soap, 4 oz. ; 
 softened by heat and a little water, and then 
 continually triturated in a mortar with oil of 
 vitriol (added drop by drop). Detergent. 
 Used where alkalies would be prejudicial. 
 
 Soap, Marine. Patent. This is made by 
 substituting cocoa nut oil for the fats and oils 
 used in the manufacture of common soap. It 
 has the advantage of forming a lather with 
 salt water. 
 
 Soap, Mercu"rial. Syn. Sapo hydeae- 
 GYEI. (M. Herbert.) 1. Prep. Dissolve 4 oz. 
 of quicksilver in its weight of nitric acid with- 
 out heat ; melt in a porcelain basin by water 
 bath 18 oz. of veal suet, and add the solution, 
 stirring the mixture till the union is complete. 
 To 5 oz. of this ointment, add 2oz. of solution 
 of caustic soda (1'33), porphyry slag, till a 
 soap is formed, which is completely soluble in 
 water. For external use, alone, or dissolved in 
 water, in some cutaneous diseases. 
 
 2. Sapo mebcueialis, L. Prep. (Sapo 
 S0BLIMATIS COKEOSITI.) From Castile soap 
 (in powder), 4 oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 dr. j 
 (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. ; beaten 
 to a uniform mass in a porcelain or wedgwood- 
 ware mortar. 
 
 3. (Sapohtdeaegtei, PEECIPITATI AIBI — 
 Sir H. Marsh.) Prep. Beat 12 oz. of white 
 Windsor soap in a marble mortar, add 1 dr. 
 of rectified spirit, 2 dr. of white precipitate, 
 and 10 drops of otto. Beat the whole to a 
 uniform paste. 
 
 4. (Sapo htdeaegtei, peecipitati eubei 
 — Sir H. Marsh.) From white Windsor soap, 
 2 oz. ; nitric oxide of mercury (levigated), 
 1 dr. ; otto of roses, 6 or 8 drops ; (dissolved 
 in) rectified spirit, 1 to 2 fl. dr. ; as the last. 
 Both the above are employed as stimulant de- 
 tergents and repellants, in various skin dis- 
 eases ; also as SAVON antisyphilitiqtjb. 
 
 Soap of Snbacetate of Lead. Syn. Sapo 
 SATTJKNI (Bristol Infirmary). Prep. Boil 
 1 lb. of white soap in 4 pints of rain water ; 
 when the soap is dissolved add 1 oz. of cam- 
 phor pulverised with spirit, and mixed with 2 
 oz. of liquid subacetate of lead, stir the whole 
 till cold. 
 
 Soap, Sul'phnretted. Syn. Sapo stjlphueis, 
 Sapo sulphtjeatus, L. Prep. (Sir H. Marsh.) 
 From white soap, 2 oz. ; sublimed sulphur, 
 ^ oz. ; beaten to a smooth paste in a marble 
 mortar with 1 or 2 fl. dr. of rectified spirit 
 strongly coloured with alkanet root, and hold- 
 ing in solution otto of roses, 10 or 12 drops. 
 In itch and various other cutaneous diseases. 
 
 Soap, Tar. Syn. Sapo piois liquid^;, Sapo 
 
SOAPS (TOILET) 
 
 1509 
 
 Tictvs, h. Prep. From tar, 1 part; liquor of 
 potuKBU and eoap (in slmvings), of each 2 
 paits ; beat them together until they unite. 
 Stimulant. Uxed in p^ioriasis, lepra, &c. 
 Soap, Tnr'pentine. St/n. Stabeey's boap ; 
 
 SAPO TEBEBINTBINS, S. TEUEBIMHINATU8, 
 L. ; Savon teiii';binthine, Fr. Prep. (P. 
 Cod.) Subcarbonate of potash, oil of turpen- 
 tine, and Venice turpentine, equal parts ; tri- 
 turate them togutlier, in a warm mortar, with 
 a little water, until they comliine ; put the 
 product iiito paper moulds, and in a few days 
 ■lice it, and preserve it in a well-stopped 
 bottle. 
 
 SOAPS (Toilet). Of toilet soaps there are 
 two principal varieties : — 
 
 1. (Hard.) The basis of these is, generally, 
 a mixture of suet, 9 parts, and olive oil, 1 part, 
 saponified by caustic soda ; the product is 
 variously scented and coloured. They are also 
 made of white tallow, olive, almond, and palm- 
 oil soaps, either alone or combined in various 
 proportions, and scented. 
 
 2. (Soft.) The basis of these is a soap made 
 of hog's lard and potash, variously suetited 
 and coloured. 
 
 3. Guido Sclinitzer, writing to * Dingler's 
 Journal ' (eciii, 129 — 132),' siiys that the use 
 of sodium silicate (ordinary water-glass) has 
 proved of great value in the nianuiacture of 
 pulin oil Riidc»coa-nutoil soaps, as ib increases 
 their alkalinity, and gives to them greater 
 hardness and durability. It is for these reasons 
 the silicate is much used in the manufacture 
 of toilette soaps. 
 
 He states that during the American war, 
 when the price of resin soap reached a high 
 price, sodium silicate was much used as a 
 substitute in soap making. The soap is found 
 to be the more active and durable in propor- 
 tion to the amount or silica in the silicate. 
 
 Schnitzer made a series of experiments iu 
 order to discover a mixture which, on fnsins:, 
 wilt yield a silicate as rich as possible in silica, 
 without being insoluble in boiling water, and 
 he found the following proportions yielded on 
 fusion the best silicate for the above pur- 
 poses : — 
 
 100 parts of soda ash (containing 91 per 
 cent, of NiijCoj), and 180 of sand. In the 
 solution of silicate obtained on treatment with 
 boiling water, the proportion of the NajO to 
 the Sif)j would then be as 1 to 29. 
 
 After long boiling with water, there ordi- 
 narily remains a ^limy residue, which, on 
 lioiling up with fresh dilute soda-lye for a 
 li'iig time, furnishes a concentrated solution of 
 silicate. This residue, consisting of silica, 
 with insoluble higher silicates, was boiled with 
 soda solution at 6° Baume, and the solution 
 concentrated to 40' Banme, when the propor- 
 tion therein of NajO to SiO™ was found to be as 
 1 to 1', and on cooling those crystallised out, 
 sodium silicate of the formula N112S1O3 x 8H3O, 
 iu white foliated crystals. 
 
 > * Journ. of Cliem. Soc.,* oew series, Tol. z. 
 
 On the small scale the perfume is generally 
 added to the soap melted in a bright copper 
 pan by the heat of a water bath ; on the large 
 scale it is mixed with the liquid soap, at the 
 toap-maker's, before the latter is poured into 
 the frames. 
 
 The lollowing arc examples of a few of the 
 leading toilet soaps :- 
 
 Soap, Bitter Al'mood. Si/n. Savohd'amande, 
 Fr. Prep. From white tallow so ip, 56 lbs. ; 
 essential oil of almonds, } lb. ; as before. 
 
 Savon an Bouquet. [Fr.]" Prep. From 
 tallow soap, 30 lbs. ; olive-oil soap, 10 lbs. ; 
 essence of bcrgamot, 4 oz. ; oils of cloves, 
 sassafras, and thyme, of each 1 oz. ; pure 
 neroli, i oz. ; brown ochre (finely powdered), 
 i Ib. ; mixed as the last. 
 
 Soap, Cin'namon. Prep. From tallow soap, 
 14 lbs. ; palm-oil soap, 7 lbs. ; oil of cinnamon 
 (cassia), 3 07. ; oil of sassafras and essence of 
 bergjuiot, of each | oz. ; levigated yellow 
 oclir,', i lb. 
 
 Soap, Floating. Prep. From good oil soap, 
 14 lbs. ; water, 3 pints ; melted together by 
 the heat of a steam or water bath, and assidu- 
 ously biaten until the mixture has at least 
 doubled its volume, when it must be put into 
 the frames, cooled, and cut into pieces. Any 
 scent may be added. 
 
 Soap, Glycerin. Any mild toilet soap being 
 liquefied, glycerin is intimately mixed with 
 it in the p< o|iortion of from a 20th to a 2oth of 
 the wiifibt of the soap. Sometimes a red, 
 and others an orange tint is given to it. The 
 scent usually consists of bergamot, or rose 
 geranium, mixed with a little oil of cassia, to 
 which sometimes a little oil of bitter almonds 
 is added. 
 
 2. (Spon.) 40 lbs. of tallow, 40 lbs. of 
 lard, and 20 lbs. of cocoa-nut oil, are sapo- 
 nified with 45 lbs. of soda lye, and 5 lbs. of 
 potash lye, of 40° Baume, when the soap is 
 to be made in the cold way. To the paste 
 then add, pure glycerin 6 lbs., oil of Portugal, 
 i oz., oil of bergamot, i oz., bitter almond oil, 
 5 07., oil of vitivert, 3 oz. 
 
 Soap, Hon'ey. Prep. 1. From palm-oil soap 
 and olive-oil soap, of each 1 part ; curd soap, 
 3 parts; melted together and scented with 
 the oil of verbena, rose-geranium, or ginger- 
 grass. 
 
 2. From the finest bright-coloured yellow 
 soap, scented with the oils of ginger-grass and 
 ber^'amot. 
 
 Soap, liquid Glycerin — Glycerinseife, 
 Flussige. Sesame or cotton-seed oil is sapo- 
 nified with sufficient caustic potash, and while 
 moist is dissolved in six times its weight of 
 spirit of wine. The solution is filtered, live- 
 sixths of the spirit is distilled from a water 
 bath, and the cooled residue is reduced to the 
 consistence of thin honey, with a mixture of 2 
 parts glycerin and 1 part spirit. It is then 
 perfumed. 
 
 Soap, Musk. 1. A good ox suet or tallow 
 » See also Savonkttrs. 
 
1510 
 
 SODA— SODIUM 
 
 *oap is generally used for the basis of this. 
 The scent is composed of a mixture of essence 
 of musk, with small quantities of the oils of 
 bnrgamot, cinnamon, and cloves. The quan- 
 tity of musk must be regulated by the amount 
 of fragrance required. The soap is usually 
 coloured with caramal. 
 
 2. Another kind is made with tallow and 
 palm-oil soap, to which is added a mixture of 
 the powders of cloves, roses, and gilliflowers, 
 oil of bergaraot, and essence of musk. The 
 colouring matter is brown ochre. 
 
 Soap, llusk. As ciknamon soap, but with 
 essence of musk, supported with a little essence 
 of bergamot and oil of cloves, as perfume, and 
 burnt sugar, to colour. 
 
 Soap, Naples. From olive oil and potash. 
 Soap, Orange-flower. As Saton k la £OSe, 
 with oil of neroli or essence de petit grain, sup- 
 ported with a little of the essence of amber- 
 gris and Portugal, for perfume. 
 
 Soap, Palm-oil. S^n. Violet soap. Made 
 of palm oil and caustic soda lye. It has a 
 pleasant odour of violets and a lively colour. 
 
 Soap, Pearl. Sya. Almond oeeam ; CuEnrE 
 d'amandes, Fr. Prep. From a soap made 
 of lard and caustic potash lye; when quite 
 cold it is beaten in small portions at a time 
 in a marble mortar, until it unites to form a 
 homogeneous mnss, or 'pearls,' as it is called ; 
 essence of bitter almonds, q. s., to perfume, 
 being added during the pounding. 
 
 Savon a la Hose. [Fr.] Frep. From a 
 mixture of olive-oil soap, 36 lbs. ; best tallow 
 soap, 24 Ib-i. (both new and in shavings); 
 water, 1 quart ; melted in a covered bright 
 copper pan, by the heat of a water bath, then 
 coloured with vermilion (finely levigated), 
 2J oz. ; and, after the mixture has cooled a 
 little, scented with otto of roses, 3 oz. ; es- 
 sence of bergamot, 2^ oz. ; oil of cloves and 
 cinnamon, of each 1 oz. 
 
 Soap, Bondeletia. This is merely cinnamon 
 soap scented with the essence mnde with 
 mixed essential oils, &c., known as rondeletla. 
 It is coloured with brown or yellow ochre. 
 Soap, Sha"Tlng. See Paste (Shaving). 
 Soap, Transpa"rent. Frep. From perfectly 
 dry almond, tallow, or soft soap, reduced to 
 shavings, and dissolved, in a. closed vessel or 
 still, in an equal weight of rectified spirit, the 
 clear portion, after a few hours' repose, being 
 poured into moulds or frames ; after a few 
 weeks' exposure to a dry atmosphere, the 
 pieces are ' trimmed up' and stamped, as de- 
 sired. It may be scented and coloured, at 
 will, by adding the ingredients to it while in 
 the sort state. A rose colour is given by tinc- 
 ture of archil ; and yellow, by tincture of tur- 
 meric or anqotta. It does not lather well. 
 
 Soap, Windsor. Si/n. Sapo ViNDESoiia;, S. 
 ViNDESOBiENSia, L. Frep. 1. (White; S. 
 V. ALBUS.) The best ' English ' is made of a 
 mixture of olive oil, 1 part, and ox tallow or 
 suet, 9 parts, sapotiiiied by caustic soda. 
 ' French Windsor-soap ' is made of hogs' lard. 
 
 with the addition of a little palm oil. That 
 of the shops is merely ordinary curd soap, 
 scented with oil of caraway, supported with a 
 little oil of bergamot, lavender, or origanum. 
 To the finer qualities a little of the essences of 
 musk and ambergris is occasionally added, 
 li lb. of the mixed scents is the common pro- 
 portion per cwt. 
 
 2. (Beown; S. V. PUSOUS.) This merely 
 differs from the last in being coloured with 
 burnt sugar, or (less frequently) with umber. 
 Originally it was the white variety, that had 
 become mellow and brown with age. 
 
 SO'SA. See Sodium. 
 
 SO'SITTM. Na. S^n. Natbium. The me- 
 tallic base of soda. It was first obtained by 
 Sir H. Davy, in 1807, by means of a powerful 
 galvanic battery ; but it may be more conve- 
 niently and cheaply procured, in quantity, by 
 the method described under Potassium. The 
 process, when well conducted, is, however, 
 much easier and more certain than that for the 
 last-named metal. 
 
 Prep. The anhydrous carbonate of so- 
 dium, 6 parts, is dissolved in a little water, 
 and the solution mixed with charcoal in fine 
 powder, 2 parts, and charcoal in small lumps, 
 1 part ; the whole is then evaporated to dry- 
 ness, transferred to an iron retort, and treated 
 in the manner described at page 1353. 
 
 Obs. Very important improvements have 
 been made in the manufacture of this metal by 
 Devllle, consisting partly in the simplification 
 of the receiver, and partly in the addition of 
 carbonate of calclunj to the mixture, which ad- 
 dition appears to facilitate the reduction of 
 the sodium in a most remarkable manner. 
 
 Prop,, Sfc. Sodium is a soft silver-white 
 metal, scarcely solid at common temperatures, 
 fuses at 194° Fahr., and volatilises at a red 
 heat ; it oxidises very rapidly in the air ; when 
 placed on the surface of cold water, it decom- 
 poses that liquid with great violence, but 
 generally without flame, in which it differs 
 from potassium ; on hot water it burns with a 
 bright yellow flame — in both cases a solution 
 of pure soda being Ibrmed. Sp. gr. '972 ; it is 
 more malleable than any other metal, and may 
 be easily reduced into very thin leaves (Ure) ; 
 its other properties resemble those of potas- 
 sium, but are of a feebler character. With 
 oxygen it forms two oxides ; with chlorine, a 
 chloride (common salt) ; and — with bromine, 
 iodine, fluorine, &c., bromide, iodide, fluoride, 
 &c., all of which may be obtained by similar 
 processes to the respective compounds of po- 
 tassium, which, for the most part they re- 
 semble. 
 
 Uses. Until recently sodium has been re- 
 garded as a mere mechanical or philosophical 
 curiosity; it has now, however, become of 
 great practical importance, from being em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of the metals alumi 
 nium, magnesium, &c. 
 
 Tests. Sodium salts are recognised by their 
 
SODIUM 
 
 IBIX 
 
 tnlnbilitjr in wnter, anii by their giving a pre- 
 cipitate with none of the urdlnary reagents. 
 Tlicy give a rich yellow colour to the colour- 
 li'sa Bunson or the pale blue blowpipe fliine. 
 They con, to a certain extent, be also distin- 
 guinlied from potassium salts by the carbonate 
 bfiiig an easily crystallisable salt, effervescing 
 in dry air ; the larbonate of potassium being 
 crystallised with difficulty, and deliquescent. 
 Platinum chloride does not give a precipitate 
 with sodium chloride; neither does picric acid, 
 perchlorate of ammonium, nor tartaric acid. 
 
 Sodium, Acetate of. NaC^HjOj. Syn. Ace- 
 tate OF SODA J SOD.E ACBTA8 (B. P., Ph. D.), L. 
 Prepared from carbonate of sodium as the cor- 
 responding potassium salt ; but the resulting 
 solution is evaporated to a pellicle, and set 
 aside to crystallise. Its crystals are striated 
 oblique rhombic prisms ; it efSuresces slightly 
 in tlie air, aud is soluble in 4 parts of water at 
 60° Fahr. Diuretic— X>ote, 20 to 40 gr. 
 
 Sodium, Alnminate. This salt has of late 
 been in extensive demnnd by the calico printer 
 and dyer. In France it is obtiiined from 
 banxite, a native hydrate of alnminate. by 
 treatment with caustic or carbonate of sodii. 
 If caustic soila be employed, the powdered 
 banxite is boiled with a KolutioYi of the alkali, 
 whereas if carbonate of soda be used, it is 
 fused with tlie bnnxite in a reverbatory fur- 
 mice. By the first process the resulting aln- 
 minate of soda is dissolved in water, and cvii- 
 porated to dryness, forms the commercial 
 article. If prepared by ignition, the seniilused 
 moss is lixiviated with water, and then evnpo- 
 latcd to dryness. Aluminute of soda prepared 
 as above occurs as a white powder, of a green- 
 ish-yellow hue, and dry to the touch. 
 
 It is equally soluble in both hot and cold 
 water, and readily decompoj;ed by carbonic and 
 acetic acids, bicarbonate and acetate of soda, 
 chloride of ammonia, &c. Dr Wagner states 
 that it is used for the preparation of like 
 colours, the induration of stone, in the manu- 
 facture of artiticial stone, and for the saponi- 
 fication of fats in tlie manufacture of stearin 
 candle manufacture, also in the preparation ol' 
 au opaque, milky-looking glass, or semi- 
 porcelnin. 
 
 Aluminute of soda may likewise be procured 
 from cryolite, as described under Alum. 
 
 Sodium Arseniates. Syn. Sobm Ab- 
 BENIAS (B. P.). Arsenious acid, 10 oz. ; nitrate 
 of soda, 8) nz. ; driedcarbnnateof snda,5{ oz. ; 
 boiling distilled water, 35 fl. oz. Reluce the 
 dry ingredients separately to fine powder, aud 
 mix them thoroughly in a porcelain mortar. 
 Put the mixture into a large clay crucible and 
 cover it with the lid. Expose it to a full red 
 heat till all effervescence has ceased, and com- 
 plete fuiion lois taken place. Four out the 
 fused suit on a clean flagstone, and as soon as 
 it has solidified and while it is still warm put 
 it into the boiling distilled water, stirring 
 diligently. When the salt has dissolved filter 
 the solution through paper, and set it aside to 
 
 crystallise. Drain the crystals, and having 
 dried them rapidly on filtering paper, enclose 
 them in a stoppered battle. 
 
 Sodium, Benzoate. Syn. Soj>m benzoas. 
 (B. Cod.) Prep. Heat gently benzoic acid and 
 water, and add caustic soda, q. ». to neutralise 
 the acid. Filter, evaporate, and crystallise 
 over sulphuric acid under a bell-glass. 
 
 Sodium, Bisulpliate. Syn. Acid bvlfhats, 
 SoD^ BiSTJLPHia. Prep. l)i-solve crystal- 
 lised carbonate of soda in twice its weight of 
 water, and pass sulphurous acid in excess 
 through the solution. Set it aside to crystal- 
 lise. Its solution is used to preserve sub- 
 jects. 
 
 Sodium, Bromide of. Syn. Sovii bboui- 
 DtJM. Prepared as bromide of pot issiura. 
 
 Sodium, Carbonate of Na.^'U,. lOAq. Syn. 
 Caebonatb op soda, Mono-cahbonate of 
 
 SODA.SUBOARBONATEOFS.f, SaLI OFUABllLAf; 
 
 Sod Ji caebonas (B. P., Ph. L, E., & D), L. 
 The carbonate of sodium of cominerce (Wash- 
 isa BODA) was formerly prepiirid from the 
 ashes of seaweed, aud other marine vcL'et.ibles, 
 in a somewhat ^milar manner to that by which 
 carbonate of pot issium is obt:iiiicd; but it is 
 now usually obtained from chloride of sodium 
 by the action of heat, sulphuric acid, and car- 
 bonaceous matter. 
 
 Prep. 1. (From common salt or sulphate 
 of sodium ) The latter is generally obtained 
 by decomposing the former with sulphuric 
 iicici, the evolved gas being passed into water, 
 or through flues filled with coke, over which a 
 very small stream of cold water constantly 
 flows, by which it is condensed, and forms 
 ' LIQUID HTDEOCHLORIO ACID,' a substance 
 afterwards consumed, in large quantities, in 
 the manufacture of chloride of lime, and for 
 other purposes. The sulphate of sodium, ob- 
 tained from this or any other source, is well 
 mixed with an equal weight of cliulk or lime- 
 stone, and about half its weight of small coul, 
 each being previously ground to powder, and 
 the mixture is exposed to a strong he, it in a 
 ' reverbatory furnace ' (see evgr.) until the 
 decomposition of the sulphate is complete, the 
 mass during the calcination being frequently 
 stirred about with a long iron rod ; the semi- 
 liquid is now raked into an iron trough, where 
 it is allowed to cool, whilst the furnace is re- 
 charged with fresh materials. The crude 
 dark-grey product, thus obtained, is known us 
 ' bull ulkili,' or ' British barilla,' nnd usually 
 contains about 22 or 23^ of pure hydrate of 
 
 Scotch Soda Furnace. 
 
1512 
 
 SODIUM 
 
 sodium. This is now lixluiated with tepid 
 water, and the solution, after defecation, eva- 
 porated to dryness; the residuum is mixed 
 with a certain quantity of sawdust, coal-dust, 
 or chaieoal, and roasted in a reverberatory 
 furnace, at a heat not exceeding 700° Fahr,, 
 until all the sulphur is expelled. The product 
 is the ' soda-ash,' ' soda salt,' or ' British 
 alkali,' of commerce, and contains about 50S 
 of pnre sodium, partly in the state of carbonate, 
 and partly as hydrate, the remainder being 
 chiefly sulphate of sodium and common salt. 
 When this is purified by solution in water, 
 defecation, evaporation, and crystallisation, it 
 furnishes commercial crystallised carbonate of 
 soda. When this last is redissolved, and the 
 filtered solution is carefully crystallised, it 
 constitutes tlie ordinary carbonate of sodium 
 used in pharmacy and medicine. 
 
 Another process for the preparation of com- 
 mercial carbonate of sodium, known as the 
 ' ammonia process,' has of late years met with 
 considerable adoption. The history of this 
 process, together with the process itself, are 
 thus described by Dr R, Waj^uer :^ " Six years 
 ago (he «as writing in 1873), when the inter- 
 national jury at t)ie Paris Exhibition ex- 
 pressed their opinion upon the state of the 
 soda industry at that time, all the judges, 
 whether practical or theoretical men, believed 
 that Lebianc's process (that previously de- 
 scribed) would hold the field for a long time 
 yet. This seemed still more probable, since a 
 process had just been introduced for recovei ing 
 the sulphur from the soda residues. At that 
 time all the soda in use was prepared by this 
 process, excepting a comparatively small 
 amount obtained from Chili saltpetre and 
 cryolite, although there were already tan- 
 gible indications that soda could be made on 
 a larger scale by another method, which would 
 be cheaper than Leblanc's process. 
 
 " The chemical section of the international 
 jury at the Vienna Exposition, under the 
 presidency of Professor A. W. Hofmann, .con- 
 stituted a congress of chemical technology. 
 By its labours during the course of the sum- 
 mer this congress of scientific men was able 
 to authenticate the very important fact that 
 although Leblanc's process niight in the future 
 possess some importance for certain branches 
 of the industry, vet in most places another 
 soda process would be introduced in the im- 
 mediate future, and entirely supersede that of 
 Leblanc. Since the time of the Paris Exhi- 
 bition this new process has grown from a small 
 germ to a strong tree. 
 
 " The process in question, and which is called 
 by Professor Hofmann 'the ammonia process,' 
 is not new, from either a chemical or scientific 
 point of view. It belongs to the same methods 
 as those in which oxide of lead, bicarbonate of 
 magnesia, quicklime, alumina, silicate of alu- 
 mina, oxide of chromium, or fluoMlicic acid are 
 employed to decompose chloride of sodium, 
 1 'Journal of Applied Chemistry.' 
 
 and convert it directly into soda or its carbo- 
 nated. None of these attempts met with a 
 success deserving of notice; although for a 
 century past efforts have been made to 
 render them practically operative. The new 
 process is founded upon a reaction noticed over 
 thirty years ago — that of bicarbonate of 
 ammonia upon a strong solution of common 
 salt. Tlie greater part of the sodium is pre- 
 cipitated as bicarbonate, while chloride of 
 ammonium remains in solution, from which 
 the ammonia for a second operation is expelled 
 by quicklime. The carbonic acid necessary to 
 convert the ammonia into bicarbonate of 
 ammonia, and thus make the process a con- 
 tinuous one, is obtained by heating the bicar- 
 bonate of soda to convert it into the simple 
 carbonate. 
 
 " The sensation which the ammonia process 
 has created in industrial circles will render a 
 brief history of its development not uninter- 
 esting. 
 
 "So far as I know, Harrison, Dyer, Grey, and 
 Hemming were the first to patent the ammonia 
 process in Great Britain in 1838. Great ex- 
 pectations were excited by it, but it soon sank 
 into oblivion. 
 
 " Thirty or forty years ago the manufacture 
 of soda was by no means at the heart of the 
 great branches of industry ; at that time, too, 
 ammonia was not to be had cheaply and in 
 immense quantities, and that branch of machine 
 building which has furnished the necessary 
 apparatus for chemical industries did not 
 exist. Besides this, Anton, of Prague, in 1840, 
 claimed to have proved tiiat in the ammonia 
 process a very considerable portion of thecom- 
 mon salt still remained undecom posed. 
 
 " After a sleep of sixteen years the ammonia 
 process again entered the field. On the 26th 
 of May, 1854, Turck took out a patent in 
 France, and on the 21st June, the same year, 
 Schloesing, chemist of the Imperial Tobacco 
 Factory at Paris, took out a patent for France 
 and Great Britain. The mechanical portion 
 and machinery for Schlcesina's proee.'-s were 
 designed by Engineer E. R..lland, director of 
 the tobacco factory. In 1855 a coinpany was 
 organised to work this process. An experi- 
 mental manufactory was started at Puteaux, 
 near Paris, but, owing to its situation and 
 arrangements, as well as the salt monopoly, it 
 could not produce soda cheap enough to com- 
 pete with the other process, and hence, 
 in 1858, the experiment was abandoned. 
 Schloesing and Rolland were of the opinion 
 that sooner or later the new process must 
 come into use in making soda. 
 
 " It must here be noticed that in 1858 Pro- 
 fessor He«ren, of Hanover, subjected the am- 
 monia process to » very careful test in his 
 laboratory. 
 
 " From his experiments and calculations it 
 was ascertained that this process was better 
 adapted to the manufacture of the bicarbonate 
 than of the simple protocarbonate of soda. 
 
SODIUM 
 
 1513 
 
 " To render this iketch more complete and 
 historically true, it must bo mentioned that 
 T. Hill, of England, took out a patent, Oct. 
 13th, 1857, for a new «oda process, which in 
 principle and practice was almost literally the 
 »Hinc as that of Dyer. 
 
 "It was known when the jury was working 
 at Paris in 1867 that essential improvements 
 hud been introduced into the ammonia process 
 by the efforts of Marguerite and De Sour- 
 deval, of I'aris, and James Young, of Glasgow. 
 A more important fact, however, is that 
 Solvay and Co., of Conillet, in Belgium, 
 actui'Uy exhibited at the Paris Exhibition car- 
 bonate of soda prepared by this now process. 
 
 " Since that time the ammonia process has 
 been developed and perfected to such an extent, 
 especially by Solvay, Honigmann, and Prof. 
 Gerstenhoefer, that as early as February, 1873, 
 A. W. Hofmann, in his introduction to the 
 third group of the catalogue of the Exhibi- 
 tion of the Oerman Empire, was able to 
 make this remark : — ' At all events the am- 
 monia process is the only one which threatens 
 to become an important competitor of the 
 now also most exclusively employed process of 
 licblanc' The Vienna Exposition has since 
 proved the truth of this assertion. 
 
 " There are now large works in England, 
 Hungary, Switzerland, Westphalia, Thuerin- 
 gia, and Baden, which employ the improved 
 ammonia process, and some of them make 
 fifteen tons of soda per day. 
 
 "The advantages of the new process over 
 that of Leblnnc are very evident, although the 
 details of the process have not yet been made 
 public. 
 
 " The chief advantage consists in the direct 
 conversion of salt into carbonate of soda, and 
 next from the fact, that from a saturated 
 brine only the sodium is precipitated, with 
 none of the other metals of the mother liquor. 
 Besides this, the product is absolutely free 
 from all sulphur comiounds, the s-oda is of a 
 high grade, the apparatus and utensils are very 
 ■■impic, there is a great saving of labour and 
 fuel, and no noxious gases and waste products 
 arc produced, which is of importance from a 
 sanitary point of view. The only weak point 
 of the ammonia process is the loss of chlo- 
 rine, which is converted into worthless chlo- 
 ride of calcium. 
 
 " The effect which the general introduction 
 of the new soda process will exert upon largre 
 chemical industries in general, and especially 
 upon the consumption of sulphur, the mauufac- 
 ture of sulphuric acid, and chluride of lime, 
 cannot be overlooked." 
 
 3. Another method for the direct preparation 
 of sodii and potash from their chlorides is 
 descrihed in the ' Bayerisches Indu>trie nnd 
 Gewerbe Blatt.'' The process is thus de- 
 scribed by its author, Hcrr E. Bohlig : 
 
 1. Magnerium oxalate (freshly prepared 
 when newly starting, but, after the first opera- 
 > 'New Bcmediei,' 187B, 4. 
 
 tion, obtained as a dry product in the next 
 step) is allowed to drain, and then mixed in a 
 large vat with the proper quantities of sodium 
 chloride, or concentrated brine and hydro- 
 chloric acid, after which it is allowed to stand 
 a few hours. Decomposition takes place 
 almost instantaneously; all the magnesium 
 goes into solution in form of syrupy mag- 
 nesium chloride, while all the sodium and oxalic 
 acid are deposited as a crystalline acid salt 
 (acid sodium oxalate, or binoxalate of sodium). 
 
 Since the magnesium oxahite is always ob- 
 tained of the same composition and in the same 
 quantity, it is sufficient to determine its weight 
 once for all, and to take each time the pre- 
 viously common amounts of common salt. 
 The acid need not be weighed either ; it must 
 be added in just sufficient quantity to destroy 
 the milky appearance which the mixture first 
 assumes. 
 
 The reaction is as follows ! 
 
 MsC.O^ + HCI + NaCl = NaHC^Oj -F Jf pCl,, 
 Muiinesiuni-|-H.vJro--t-Soiliuni = Sudiuni Miiriicsium 
 
 oxaiiite. cliloric cliluride. binoxu- chloride, 
 
 acid. late. 
 
 The crystalline powder of sodium binoxalate 
 is transferred to large draining filters, washed 
 with water until the acid solution of mag- 
 nesium cliloride is removed, and worked up, as 
 below described, while still moist. 
 
 The acid solution of magnesium chloride is 
 made use of several times in succession as so 
 much hydrochloric acid, together with a quan- 
 tity of fresh acid sufficient for the reaction. 
 Finally, when the magnesium chloride has in- 
 conveniently accumulated, it is worked up by 
 itself into magnesia and hydrochloric acid. 
 
 2. In order to ol>t»in the soda, the sodium 
 binoxalate is brought together with an equiva- 
 lent quantity of magnesium carlionate and 
 water in a tight cask. As soon as the remain- 
 ing air has been nearly expelled by the 
 generated carbonic acid gas, the cask is closed, 
 and a stirring mechanism set in motion. 
 
 A pressure gauge attached to the cask indi- 
 cates a gradual rise of the pressure to two atmo- 
 spheres, but, on continual stirring, this dimin- 
 ishes, until, finally, the gauge stands again atO°. 
 The cask now contains a concentrated solution 
 of sodium bicarbonate, and a precipitate of 
 magnesium oxalate, which latter, being coarsely 
 granular, is easily separated trom the liquid, 
 and is used over agaiu, after washing, fur a 
 new operation. 
 
 The solution of sodium bicarbonate is boiled 
 for a short time with magnesia, obtained in 
 distilling magnesium chloride, and both are 
 thereby converted into simple carbonates. 
 Both reactions are shown in the following 
 scheme : 
 
 1. NaHCA -I- MgC02=NaHC03-h M!rC,01 
 Sudluni' + Mat;liesiuui= Sodium MugiitrBium 
 biiii'xalHte. cnrbouatc. biciirbuDate. oxalate. 
 
 2. 2NaHC03-l- MgO = N»2C03-hM<rCOs-t-HjO 
 
 Soiliuiii + iiugne- = Sodium -f- .Mn^ne- -f Water 
 bicarbouate. Bia. carbonate, siuui 
 
 carboaate. 
 
1514 
 
 SODIUM 
 
 As the solution of sodium carbonate, after 
 concentration to 40 °B., is incapable of dissolv- 
 ing or retaining in solution any sodium oxalate. 
 it follows that the whole of the oxalic acid is 
 recovered. The magnesia which is required 
 for the purpose is obtained by distilling mag- 
 ne.sium chloride, which thereby splits up into 
 hydrochloric acid and magnesia. One half of 
 the latter receives, as we have seen, its car- 
 bonic acid by boiling with sodium bicarbo- 
 nate ; the other half is placed, whilst still 
 moist, upon trays in great wooden closets, 
 through which the gases of the furnace pass, 
 and is thereby carbonated. The process may 
 also be so modified that the sodium binoxalate 
 is first decomposed by caustic magnesia, and 
 tliat magnesium carbonate is afterwards 
 added. 
 
 The whole mixture is then transferred to 
 a stirring cask, provided with openings for 
 the passage of cooled furnace gases, whereby 
 the caustic soda present is very soon carbo- 
 nated. 
 
 3. As soon as a large quantity of magne- 
 sium chloride solution has accumulated, it is 
 tested as follows : — A small sample is mixed, 
 while boiling, with magnesium oxalate, as long 
 as the latter is dissolved, and then allowed 
 to cool. There should be no crystalline deposit 
 of sodium biuoxalate formed, a proof that the 
 solution does ndt contain any sodium chloride 
 in excess, and is fit for distillation. It is first 
 neutralised by adding some more magnesia, and 
 evaporated over a naked fire in large kettles 
 to a doughy consistence, short of driving off 
 the hydrochloric acid. It is then transferred 
 into the ordinary soda furnace, where it is 
 distilled with a moderate fire. Theeliminateci 
 hydrochloric acid is condensed in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 The residuary mass should not be heated 
 red hot, so as not to impair its porosity or its 
 ready afBnity for carbonic acid. If, however, 
 the first-mentioned test shows the magnesium 
 chloride to contain sodium chloride the whole 
 mass must be mixed with magnesium oxalate, 
 and after removal of the precipitated sodium 
 oxalate, saturated with magnesia and distilled. 
 The same process, in all its details, may also 
 be employed for the manufacture of potassa 
 and its carbonate. 
 
 4. Another method of manufacture of com- 
 mercial soda is by treating the mineral cryo- 
 lite (adouble fluoride ofsodium and aluminium) 
 with either caustic, or hydrate of lime. The 
 results of the reaction are caustic soda, sodium 
 aluminate, and calcium fluoride. 
 
 The aluminate and. caustic soda being both 
 soluble in water, a stream of carbonic acid is 
 passed through the solution containing them, 
 whereby all the soda becomes converted into 
 carbonate, whilst the alumina is thrown down 
 as an insoluble precipitate. In the wet way, 
 if enough hydrate of lime be employed, all the 
 soda may be obtained in the caustic condition. 
 
 This process is largely used in Germany. 
 
 Various other processes for the manufacture of 
 commercial soda have been devised, some of 
 which are still followed, whilst others, being 
 impracticable, have collapsed. 
 
 Mr Eingzett, in bis work on the alkali 
 trade, has described most of them. 
 
 When anhydrous carbonate of sodium is re- 
 quired (SOD^ CABB0NA8 BXSICOATA, B. P., 
 
 Ph. L. ; SoDa; caebonas siccatum. Ph. E. & 
 D.), the crystallised carbonate is heated to red- 
 ness, and, when cold, powdered. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Carbonate of sodium forms large, 
 transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, which, 
 as ordinarily met with, and of the formulae 
 NajCOj .10 A q ; but by particular management 
 may be had with fifteen, nine, seven, or some- 
 times with only one molecule of water of 
 crystallisation (Fownes) ; it is soluble in twice 
 its weight of water at 60°, and less than an 
 equal weight at 212° Fahr. As a medicine it 
 is deobstruent and antacid, and is given in 
 doses of 10 to 30 gr. It is also, occasion- 
 ally, nsed to make effervescing draughts. 
 When taken in an overdose it is poisonous. 
 The antidotes are the same as for carbonate 
 of potassium. The crude carbonate is largely 
 employed in the manufacture of soap, glass, 
 &c. 
 
 Fifty three gr. of the dried carbonate are 
 equal to 143 of the crystallised salt. The 
 medicinal properties of both are similar. It 
 has, however, the disadvantage of being 
 difficultly soluble in water. 
 
 The ordinary carbonate of sodium generally 
 contains either sulphates or chlorides, or both ; 
 and these may be detected as under Cae- 
 BONATE OP PoTASSitTM. "When supersatu- 
 rated with nitric acid, it precipitates only 
 slightly, or not at all, chloride of barium or 
 nitrate of silver; and 143 gr. require at 
 least 960 grain-measures of solution of oxalic 
 acid " (B. P.). At a high temperature 100 gr. 
 lose 62'5 gr. of water. 
 
 Sodium, Bicarbonate of. NaHCOj. 8yn. 
 
 SeSQUICAEBONATE op SODA, SODa; BICAE- 
 
 BONAS (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.). This salt can 
 be prepared in exactly tlie same manner as the 
 corresponding salt of potassium. Another 
 method is as follows : — Take of crystallised 
 carbonate of sodium, 1 part; dried carbonate 
 of sodium, 2 parts (both in powder) ; tritu- 
 rate them well together, and surround them 
 with an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas, 
 under pressure ; let the action go on until no 
 more gas is absorbed, which will generally 
 occupy 10 to 14 hours, according to the pres- 
 sure employed, then remove the salt, and dry 
 it at a heat not above 120° Fahr. 
 
 Prop., S(c. A crystalline white powder ; it is 
 soluble in 10 parts of water at 60° Fahr., but 
 it cannot be dissolved in even warm water 
 without partial decomposition; it is more 
 pleasant tasted and more feebly alkaline than 
 the carbonate of the same base. When abso- 
 lutely pure it does not darken turmeric paper, 
 or only very slightly. The dose is from 10 to 
 
SODIUM 
 
 1515 
 
 40 ge., at an antacid and absorbent. It is 
 innch employed in the preparation of efFer- 
 vetriiig powders and draagbta, for which 
 purpose 
 
 20 gr. of commercial bicarbonate of sodinm 
 
 N ^ ^ 
 
 are taken with 
 
 , ^v . 
 
 18 gr, of crystallised tartaric acid ; 
 
 17 gr. of crystallised citric acid ; or 
 
 i il. 07.. of lemon juice. 
 Tbe quantity of bicarbonate any given 
 Boinple contains may be approximately de- 
 termined by well washing 100 gr. of the salt 
 with an equal weight of water, and filtering 
 tlie solution. The residuum left upon the 
 filter, dried at a heat of 120° Fahr., and 
 weighed, gives the per-centage of pure bicar- 
 bonate of sodium present (very nearly). The 
 solution of tliis in water will give only a very 
 trifling white precipitate with corrosive sub- 
 limate; whilst the filtered portion, which was 
 used to wa^h the salt, will give a red one, if it 
 contains the Kiraple carbonate of sodium. 
 Sodinm, Chloride of. NaCl. Si/n. SoDii 
 
 CHIORIDDM (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), SOD^E MU- 
 BIAS (Ph. E.), L. This important and whole- 
 some compound appears to have been known 
 in tlie earliest ages of which we have any 
 record. It is mentioned by Moses (Gen. xix, 
 26), and by Homer in the Iliad (lib. ix, 214). 
 In ancient Korae it was subjected to a duly 
 [veotigal salinarium) ; and even at the present 
 day II similar tax furniiihea no inconsiderable 
 portion of the revenue of certain nations. 
 Common salt forms no small portion of the 
 mineral wealth of England, and has become an 
 important article of commerce in every part of 
 the ixiiown world. The principal portion of 
 the suit consumed in this country is procured 
 by the evaporation of the water of brine 
 springs. It is also prepared by the evapo- 
 ration of sea-water (hence the term ' sea-salt'), 
 but this process has been almost abandoned In 
 Eugland, beiu<; more suited to hot dry climates 
 or to very cold ones. 
 
 lor. Bat SALT; BAL MAEINUa, SAL NIOEE ; 
 imported from France, Portugal, and Spain, 
 and obtained from sea-water evaporated in 
 shallow ponds by the sun ; large-grained and 
 dark-coloured. — British bat salt, Chkshihe 
 LABOK-OBAINED B. ; by evaporaiing native 
 brine at a heat of 130° to 140° Falir. j hard 
 cubical crystals. Both of the above are used 
 to salt provisions for hot climates, as they dis- 
 solve very slowly in the brine as it grows 
 weaker. Chcshibb stoyed salt, lump s., 
 BASXKT s. ; obtained by evaporating tbe brine 
 of salt springs; small flaky crystals. — Loif- 
 Dos's PATENT SOLID SALT; Cheshire rock salt, 
 melted and ladled into moulds. — Rock salt, 
 
 rossiL 8. ; SAL QEMH.S, SAL F0SSILI8 ; found 
 in miiieral beds in Cheshire; has commonly ii 
 reddish colour; chiefly exported for purifica- 
 tion. 
 Prop. Pure chloride of sodium is fixed in 
 
 the air ; crystallises in anhydrous cubes, which 
 are often grouped into pyramids or steps; 
 dissolves in about 2\ parts of water at 60° 
 Fahr. ; its solubility is not increased by heat ; 
 it is slightly soluble in proof spirit ; insoluble 
 in alcohol ; decrepitate-! when heated ; fuses at 
 a red heat, and volatilises at a much higher 
 temperature. 
 
 Pur., Sfc. The common salt of commerce 
 contains small portions of chloride of mag- 
 nesium, chloride of calcium, and salphate of 
 calcinm ; and hence has commonly a slightly 
 bitter taste, and deliquesces in the air. To 
 separate these, dissolve the suit in 4 times its 
 weight of pure water, and drop into the fil- 
 tered solution, first, chloride of barium, and 
 then CHrbnnate of sodium, as long as any pre- 
 cipitate falls; filter, and evaporate the clear 
 fluid very slowly, until tlie last crystallises, 
 which is pure chloride of sodium. (' Thom- 
 son's Chein.,' ii, 377 ) For medical purposes 
 the Ph. E. orders the salt to be dissolved in 
 boiling water, iind tbe solution to be filtered 
 and evaporated over tbe fiie, skimming off the 
 crystals as they form, which must then he 
 quickly washed in cold water, and dried. A 
 solution of pure salt is not precipitated by a 
 solution of carbonate of ammonium, followed 
 by a solution of phosphate of sodium; a solu- 
 tion of 9 gr. in distilled water is n it entirely 
 prei i|>itated by a solution of 2G gr. of nitrate 
 of silver. (Ph. E.) 
 
 Uses. Common salt is stimulant, anti- 
 septic, and vermifuge, and is hence employed 
 as a condiment, and for preserving animal 
 and vegetable substances. It is also occa- 
 sionally used in medicine, in clysters and 
 lotions. 
 
 Sodinm, Dried Sulphate of. St/n. Sosm sul- 
 phas EX8ICCATA, EfFLOBESCKD GlAUBEB SALT. 
 Expose the crystals to a warm dry air till they 
 fall into powder. They lose half their weight. 
 The dose is reduced in like proportion. 
 
 Sodium, Effervescing Citro-tartrate of. 
 Si/n. Sod* citeo-taetbas effebvescens. 
 (B. P.) Prep. Mix thoroughly, powdered 
 biciirbonate of s ida, 17 oz. ; tiirtaric acid, 8 
 oz ; and citric aci.i, 6 oz. ; place in a dish or 
 pan of suitable form, heated to between 200° 
 and 220° Fnhr., and when the particles begin to 
 a^rgregate, stir assiduously till they assume a 
 granular form. By means of suitable sieves 
 separate the granules of uniform and most 
 convenient size. Preserve in well-closed 
 hot ties. 
 
 Sodium, Ethylate. Prepared as Potassittm 
 ethtlate, substituting so Hum for potassium. 
 Properties similar to ethylate of polHssium. 
 
 Sodium, Hydrate of. NnHO. Si/n. Htdbatb 
 OF soda. Sodium htdbate, Caustic soda ; 
 SODE HTDSA8. Prep. Exactly in the same 
 manner troin carbonate of sodium as potas- 
 sium hydrate is prepared from carbonate of 
 put^issium. 
 
 The ' Pharmaceutical Journal ' ' states that 
 1 3rd series, i, 65. 
 
1516 
 
 SODIUM 
 
 a pure hydrate of sodium is now manufactured 
 from metallic sodium by tlie following method : 
 — A deep silver vessel, of a hemispherical form, 
 and capable of holding about four gallons of 
 water, is employed. Into this vessel, which is 
 cooled externally with a current of colJ water, is 
 placed a very little water, and upon the water 
 is placed a cube of metallic sodium, of about 
 half an inch in diameter. 
 
 The vessel is made to revolve, so as con- 
 tinually to bring fresh portions of liquid intu 
 contact with the metal, and by this meansexplu- 
 sion is avoided. When the first cube of metal 
 has dissolved, and yielded a thick syrupy 
 liquid, a little more water and a second cube 
 of metal are added, and the reaction allowed 
 to take place, as before, the vessel being kept 
 in motion all the time. In this manner several 
 pounds of sodium may be worked up into soda. 
 
 The thick syrup so resulting is next eva- 
 porated down, heated to redness, fused, and 
 poured into a mould. 
 
 Inasmuch as the price of sodium is five shil- 
 lings a pound, the yield of soda from 1 lb. of 
 metal being about 1| lb., it is plain that the 
 alkali so prepared must be cheap. 
 
 The danger of explosions (which, however, 
 are not likely to occur if proper care is taken) 
 necessitates the employment of skilled labour 
 In this manufacture, and constitutes a very 
 serious drawback to the commercial success of 
 the process. 
 
 Greyish, semitranslucent, deliquescent mas- 
 ses, very soluble in water, and bearing a very 
 great resemblance to the corresponding potas- 
 sium compound. 
 
 Sodium, Hypochlo"rite of. Syn. Chlobi- 
 
 NATED SODA, ChLOEIDE OF SODA J ; SODA 
 
 CHLOEINATA, L. Prep. (Dr Christison.) Dried 
 carbonate of sodium, 19 parts, are triturated 
 with water, 1 part, and the mixture placed 
 in a proper vessel, and exposed to the 
 prolonged action of chlorine jias, generated 
 from a mixture of chloride of sodium, 10 
 parts ; binoxide of manganese 8 parts ; sul- 
 phuric acid, 14 parts ; (diluted with) water, 10 
 parts. 
 
 Sodium Hypopliosphate. See Phosphokus. 
 
 Sodium, Hyposul'phite of. NajSjOj. Syn. 
 SoDiE HYPOS0LPHIS, L. Prep. 1. Dried car- 
 bonate of sodium, 1 lb.; flower of sulphur, 10 
 oz. ; mix, and slowly heat the ponder in a 
 porcelain dish until the sulphur melts; stir 
 the fused mass freely to expose it to the atmo- 
 sphere until the incandescence flags, then dis- 
 solve the mass in water, and immediately boil 
 the filtered liquid with some flowers of sulphur ; 
 lastly, carefully concentrate the solution for 
 crystals. 
 
 2. A stream of well-washed sulphurous an- 
 hydride gas is passed into a strong solution of 
 carbonate of sndium, which is then digested 
 with sulphur at a jrentle heat during several 
 days; by evaporating the solution at a mode- 
 rate temperature, the salt is obtained in large 
 and regular crystals. 
 
 3. (Capaun's process.) Boil a dilute solu- 
 tion of caustic soda with sulphur to saturation, 
 then pass sulphurous acid gas into the solution 
 until a small portion, when filtered, is found 
 to have a very pale yellow colour ; when this 
 is the case, it must be filtered and evaporated, 
 as before. 
 
 4. (P. Cod.) Dissolve carbonate of sodium, 
 8 parts, in water, 16 parts; add of sublimed 
 sulphur, 1 part, and pass sulphurous acid gas, 
 in excess, into the solution; next boil the 
 liquid in a glass matrass for a few minutes, 
 filter, gently evaporate the filtrate to l-3rd 
 its volume, and set it aside in a coal place to 
 crystallise. 
 
 Prop., Sec. Hyposulphite of sodium crystal- 
 lises in four-sided prisms, which, in the dry 
 state, are unalterable in the air; it is fieely 
 soluble in water. It may be perfectly freed 
 from sulphide of sodium by agitating it with 
 about half its weight of alcohol ; the alcohol 
 dissolves out the sulphide, which may then he 
 easily separated. This salt is now very exten- 
 sively used in the practice of photography, also 
 as an ' antlchlore,' to extract the last traces 
 from paper pulp. 
 
 Sodium, Iodide of. Nal. Sqn. SoDii iodi- 
 Bnn. Prep. As Iodide of Potassium. This, 
 as well as the bromide, crystallises in clear or 
 whitish cubes, deliquescent, and soluble in 
 water. Used in medicine in the same manner 
 as the corresponding potassium salts. 
 
 Sodium and Iron, Pyrophosphate of. Syn. 
 
 SO'DM ET PEREI PTEOPHOSPHAS, NaTEUM 
 PTEOPHOSPHOEIOUM FEKHATUM. (Ph. G.) 
 
 Prep. Dissolve 20 oz. of pyrophosphate of 
 snda in 40 oz. of cold distilled water, and add, 
 gradually, to the solution, and with constant 
 stirring, 8 oz. (by weight) of solution of per- 
 cbloride of iron (Ph. G.), previously diluted 
 with 22 oz. of distilled water, as long as the 
 precipitate is redissolved. Filter, and to the 
 clear, bright green liquid thus obtained pour 
 in 100 oz. (by weight) of rectified spirit, wash 
 the precipitate witii more spirit, press it 
 between blotting paper, and dry by a gentle 
 heat. 
 
 Sodium Lactate. Syn. SoDii laotas. Prep. 
 Let lactate acid be diluted with three parts of 
 water ; saturate whilst boiling with sodium 
 bicarbonate; then evaporate, and run into 
 flakes. 
 
 Sodium lactate is a very deliquescent salt. 
 The solution evapor.ated to the consistence of 
 a syrnp deposits flattened prismatic crystals, 
 anil stellar groups of needles. 
 
 Sodium, Ni'trate of. NaNOj. Syn. Chih 
 saltpetee. Cubic nitee; Sodje niteas, L. 
 This salt occurs native like ordinary nitre, and 
 is chiefly imported into England from South 
 America. It is largely employed as a manure, 
 in the preparation of nitric acid, and, recently, 
 in the manufacture of fireworks, on account of 
 the comparative slowness with which it burns. 
 It is deliquescent and very soluble in water. 
 
 Sodium, Nitrite of. Syn. SoD.^ siteis. 
 
SODIUM 
 
 1517 
 
 (B. P., 186i.) Mix nitrate of soda, 1 lb., and 
 cbircoal, recently burned, and in fine powder, 
 li 01., thoroughly in a mortitr, and drop* the 
 niixtnre in successive portions into a clay 
 crui'ible, heated to a dull redness. Wlien 
 the suit has become quite white, raise the 
 heat so as to liquefy it, pour on to a clean 
 flagstone, and when it has solidified break 
 into fragments, and keep in a stoppered 
 bottle. 
 
 Sodinm. Oxide of. Ne^O. Syn. Anhtdbous 
 SODA. Prep. By burning dry metallic sodium 
 in air. White powder, very deliquescent, and 
 soluble iu water, forming pure sodium 
 hydrate. 
 
 Sodinm, Phos'phate of. NojHPO, . 12Aq. 
 Syn. Common tbibasio phosphate op soda, 
 KuoMBio p. op s.; SodjE phosphas (B. p., Ph. 
 L., E., A D.). Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take of 
 powdered bone ashes, 10 lbs. ; sulphurii; acid, 
 4411. 02. ; mix, udd gradually of water 6 pints, 
 Bud digest for 3 dayK, replacing the water 
 which evaporates ; then add 6 pints of boil- 
 iuf; water, strain through linen, and wash the 
 residue on the filter with boiling water; mix 
 the liquors, and, after defecation, decant and 
 evaporate to 6 pints ; let the impurities agiiin 
 settle, and neutralise the clear fluid, hented 
 tu boiling, with a solution of carbonate of 
 sodium in slight excess ; crystals will be depo- 
 sited as the solution cools, and by successively 
 evaporating, adding a little more carbonate of 
 sodium to the mother liquor till it is feebly 
 alkaline, and cooling, more crystals may be 
 obtained; these must be kept in close vessels. 
 The formula of the Ph. D. is nearly simil.ir. 
 It is placed in the Materia Medica of the B. P. 
 and Ph. L. 
 
 2. (Funcke.) To ground calcined bones, 
 dill'usvd through water, add a little dilute sul- 
 phuric iicid to saturate any carbonate of cal- 
 cium present ; when effervescence ceases, dis- 
 solve the whole in nitric acid, q. s.j to this 
 si>lutian add as much sulphate of sodium as the 
 bone ash used, and distil the whole to recover 
 the nitric acid ; the residuum is treated with 
 water, and the resulting solution filtered, eva- 
 porated, and crystallised. 
 
 Prop., S(o. it forms very beautiful oblique 
 rhombic prisms, of the formulas Na2H,P04, 
 I2H3O, which effloresce in the air, dissolve in 
 abont 4 parts of cold water and in 2 parts at 
 212° Pahr., and fuse when heated. As a medi- 
 cine it is mildly aperient, in doses of i to 1 
 oz., or even more; and antacid in doses of 20 
 to 80 gr., frequently repeated. It has a 
 purely saline taste, resembling that of culi- 
 nary salt, and is commonly taken in broth or 
 soup. 
 
 Sodioin Pyrophosphate (Crystallised). Syn. 
 Sods ptsopuosfuas cetstaliisata. (P. 
 Cod.) Prep. This salt may be obtained by 
 beating, gently at first, and afterwards to a red 
 heat, crystallised phosphate of sodium iu a pla- 
 tinum crucible until all the water is driven off, 
 and the salt has become fused. Dissolve the 
 
 fused mass in water, filter, and concentrate 
 until it has a density of 1-20, and ciystallise 
 in the cold. 
 
 Sodinm, Salicylate of. Syn. S0D.S salict- 
 LUS. Prep, Made by neutralising a solution 
 of pure salicylic acid with caustic soda, and 
 evaporating to dryness. It must be purified 
 by crystallisation from alcohol. Antipyretic ; 
 given in acute rheumatism. — Dose, 10 to 
 20 grams. 
 
 Sodium Santouate. Syn. Sodj: baittonas. 
 This salt is made by digesting an alcoholic 
 solution of santonic acid with carbonate of 
 soda, evaporating, redissolving in strong alco- 
 hol, and crystallising. 
 
 Sodinm, Sesqnicarbonate of. Na4H:(C0,),. A 
 salt found native on the banks of the soila lakes 
 of Sotrena, in Africa, whence it is exported us 
 * Trona.' 
 
 Sodium Silicate. See Glass, SotUBLB. 
 
 Sodium, Stan'nateof.Na^nO,. Pr*/). (Green- 
 wood &, Co.) Caustic soda, 22 lbs., is heated to 
 low redness in an iron crucible, when nitrate 
 of sodium, 8 lbs., and common salt, 4 lbs., are 
 added; when the mixture is at a 'fluxing 
 heat,' 10 lbs. of feathered block tin is stirred 
 in with an iron rod, both the stirring and heat 
 being continued until the mass becomes red 
 hot and * pasty,' and ammoniucal fumes arc 
 given off. The product may be purified by 
 solution and crystallisation. Patented. (See 
 beloto.) 
 
 Sodium, Stau'nite of. Prejr. (Greenwood 
 &, Co.) From caustic soda, 13^ lbs. ; feathered 
 block tin and conimon salt, of each 4 lbs.; 
 as the last. Patented. Both the above are 
 used to prepare tin mordants (abont 12 oz. to 
 water, 1 gall.). The stannate and stannite 
 of potassium are prepared in a similar 
 manner. 
 
 Sodium Sulphate. Syn. Sods sttlphis. 
 Prep. Pass sulphurous acid to saturation 
 tlirough a solution of carbonate of B0<la. 
 Used internally for sarcina ventriculi, and ex- 
 ternally as an application in skin diseases of 
 fungous origin. Hyposulphate of soda is em- 
 ployed in the same eases. 
 
 Sodinm, Snl'phate of. Na^SO^ . lOAq. Syn. 
 GIiATTbee's salt ; iovM sulphas (B. P., Ph. 
 L., E., & D.), Sal cathaeticub GLAtTBEBif, L. 
 This is obtained as a secondary product in 
 various chemical processes; but it may be 
 easily formed directly from its constituents. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. It forms transparent, six-sided, 
 irregular, channelled prisms, with dihedral 
 summits, of the formulee Na2S0jlOH.,O, which 
 effloresce in the air, and fall to an opaque 
 white powder; soluble in about 3 parts oi' 
 water at 60', and in considerably less at 100° 
 Fahr., but at a higher temperature its solu- 
 bility rapidly lessens ; insoluble in alcohol ; 
 fuses when heated. It is seldom wilfully 
 adulterated. When pure the solution is neu- 
 tral to test paper; nitrate of silver throws 
 down scarcely anything from a dilute solution ; 
 nitrate of baryta more, which is not dissolved 
 
1518 
 
 SODIUM 
 
 by nitric acid. It loses 55"5gof its weight by 
 a strong heat. 
 
 TJaes. It is purgative, but being extremely 
 bitter-tasted, is now less frequently used than 
 formerly. Its nauseous flavour is said to be 
 covered by leinon juice. — Dose, i to 1 oz. The 
 dried salts (soDa; sulphas exsiccata) is twice 
 as strong. Lymingtok Glaubbe's salt is 
 a mixture of the sulphates of soda and 
 potassa obtained from the mother liquor of sea 
 salt. 
 
 Sodium, Sul'phide of. Prep. (P. Cod.) 
 Saturate a solution of caustic soda (sp. gr. 
 1'200) with sulphuretted hydrogen, closely 
 cover up the vessel, and set it aside that cry.stals 
 may form ; drain, press them in bibulous paper, 
 and at once preserve them in a well-closed 
 bottle. Used to make'miueral waters, and in 
 certain skin diseases. 
 
 Of this salt Dr Ringer says — " it possesses 
 the property of preventing and arresting 
 suppuration, and stopping the formation of 
 pus. Given for boils and carbuncles ; it also 
 produces excellent results. — Dose. For adults, 
 ^th of a grnin, mixed with sugar of milk 
 every hour or two on the tongue. 
 
 The anhydrous sulphides resemble closely 
 and are prepared in the same manner as the 
 potassium sulphides. 
 
 Sodium, Sulpho-Carbolate. Syn. SoDi: SUL- 
 PHO-CAEBOLAS. (Pareira.) Prep. Mix two vol- 
 umes of pure carbolic acid with one volume of 
 sulphuric acid in a flask, and heat the mixture 
 to 280° or 290° F. for five minutes. Let cool, 
 dilute, and saturate with carbonate of soda, 
 evaporate, and crystallise. The other sulpho- 
 carbolates m^y be prepared in the same 
 manner. — Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in phthisis and 
 zymotic diseases ; externally, as a lotion in 
 ozaena and fetid ulcers. 
 
 Sodium, Snlpho-Salicylate of. Syn. Sod^ 
 SULPHO-SAIIOYLAS. Mr J. Williams obtains 
 tills salt by treating very pure salicylic acid 
 with about twice its weight of sulphuric acid, 
 then adding carbonate of barium, and decom- 
 posing the sulpho-salicjlate of barium by sul- 
 ?lmte of soda (see ' Pharm. Journ.,' Sept. 30th, 
 876). 
 
 Sodium Sulphovinate. Syn. Sodii sul- 
 PHOVINAS. Prep. Sulphoviiiic acid is flrst 
 prepared by pouring gradually, with great 
 care, and increasingly stirring with a glass rod, 
 1000 grams of 60° sulphuric acid into 1000 
 grams of rectified 96° alcohol. The mixture 
 is left for some hours in contact, then diluted 
 with 4 litres of distilled water, and afterwards 
 saturated with pure barium carbonate. 
 
 When the saturation is complete the barium 
 sulphate is allowed to deposit on a filter. The 
 solution of barium sulphovinate is then decom- 
 posed with pure carbonate of soda until it 
 ceases to give a precipitate. 
 
 The liquid, evaporated in a water bath, is 
 left to crystallise. If necessary the crystals 
 are purified by recrvstallisation. They should 
 be kept in well-closed flasks. 
 
 Sodium sulphovinate crystallises in hexa- 
 gonal tables, which are slightly unctuous to 
 the touch, and very soluble in water and in 
 alcohol. If heated in a capsule they give off, 
 at 120", the alcohol which they contain in 
 combination. They become gradually deprived 
 of bitterness. Sodium sulphovinate ought not 
 to contain sulphuric acid,, nor have an acid 
 taste. It should not be precipitated by barium 
 chloride, and especially by soluble sulphates. 
 The possession of either of these properties is 
 a proof of faulty preparation, and that a por- 
 tion of the sulphovenic acid has been decom- 
 posed. In such a case it should be rejected. 
 
 Sulphovinate of soda is said to be a very 
 effective, and by no means unpleasant, saline 
 aperient, and to be unattended with sub- 
 sequent constipation. The dose is from 5 to 
 6 dr. 
 
 Sodium, Tartrate of, and Potassium. 
 KNaC4H408.4Aq. Syn. Taeteate of potassa 
 
 AND SODA, B.O0HELLE SALT, SeIOKETTE'S S., 
 
 Taetaeised soDAt ; SoDa; taetaeata (B. P.), 
 SoDiE, potassio-taetras (Ph. L.), SoDa: et 
 poTAssa; T4ETEAS (Ph. B. & D.), Soda tae- 
 TAEizATAt, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take 
 of carbonate of sodium, 12 oz. ; boiling water, 
 2 quarts ; dissolve, and add, gradually, of pow- 
 dered bitartrate of potassium, 16 oz. (or q. s.) ; 
 strain, evaporate to a pellicle, and set it aside 
 to crystallise ; dry the resulting crystals, and 
 evaporate the mother liquor that it may yield 
 more of them. The formulse of the other col- 
 leges are nearly similar. 
 
 Prop., S(c. Large, transparent, hard, right 
 rhombic prisms, often occurring in hnlves ; 
 slightly efflorescent ; soluble in 5 parts of water 
 at 60° Fahr. Its " solution neither changes 
 the colour of litmus nor of turmeric. On the 
 addition of sulphuric acid, bitartrate of potas- 
 sium is thrown down ; on adding either nitrate 
 of silver or cliloride of barium nothingis thrown 
 down, or only what is redissolved by the addi- 
 tion of water." (Ph. L.) By heat it yields a 
 mixture of the pure carbonates of potassium 
 and sodium. 
 
 Potassio-tartrate of sodium is a mild and 
 cooling laxative. — Dose, ^ to 1 oz., largely 
 diluted with water. It forms the basis of the 
 popular aperient called seidlitz powdees. 
 
 Sodium, Vale"rianate of. NaCjHjOj. Syn. 
 Sods valeeianas (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph.D.) 
 Dilute oil of vitriol, 65 fl. oz., with water, i 
 pint ; then dissolve of powdered bichromate of 
 potassium, 9 oz., with the aid of heat, in 
 water, 3i pints; when both solutions have 
 cooled, put them into a matrass, and having 
 added of fusel oil (alcohol amylicnm — Ph. D.) 
 4 fl. oz., shake them together repeatedly until 
 the temperature, which first rises to 150°, 
 has fallen to 80° or 90° Fahr. ; a condenser 
 being connected, next apply heat so as to distil 
 over about 4 pints of liquid ; saturate this 
 exactly with a pint, or q. s., of solution of 
 caustic soda, separate the liqu d from the oil 
 which floats upou the surface, and evaporate 
 
SOILS— SOLDERS 
 
 1S19 
 
 it nntn the rcaidaal snlt U partially liqnefled ; 
 the heat bein;; now wltbdrawn, and the salt 
 concreted, this Inst, whilst still warm, is to be 
 divided into frngments, and preserved in well- 
 ■topped bottles. 
 
 Obi. This salt is intended to be used in the 
 preparation of the valebianates of ibon, 
 QDIHIKB, and ZINO. 
 
 SOILS. These are classified by agricultnrists 
 according to their chief ingredients, as loamy, 
 clayey, snndy, chalky, and peaty soils. 01' these 
 the first is the best for most purposes, but the 
 others may be improved by the addition of the 
 mineral constituents of which they are deB- 
 cicnt. Sand and lime or chalk are the proper 
 additions to clayey soils, and clay gypsum, or 
 loam, to sandy and gravelly ones. Clayey soils 
 are expensive to bring into a fertile state ; but 
 when this is once etfected, and they are well 
 manured, they yield immense crops of wheat, 
 oats, beans, clover, and most fruits and flowers 
 of the rosaceoQS kinds. 
 
 The fertilisation of soils is suggested partly 
 by chemical analysis, practical experience, and 
 geological observations. In cases where a 
 barren soil is examined with a view to its 
 improvement it is, when possible, compared 
 with an extremely fertile Boil in the same 
 neighbourhood, and in a similar situation ; the 
 difference given by their annlyses indicates the 
 nature of the manure required, and the most 
 judicious methods of cultivation ; and thus a 
 plan of improvement is suggested, founded 
 upon scientiflc principles. 
 
 The analysis of soils may be briefly and 
 generally described iis follows : — 
 
 1. The general character of the soil, as 
 loamy, sandy, stony, rather stony, &c., being 
 noted, 8 or 4 lbs. of it, fairly selected as an 
 average specimen, m:\y bo taken during a 
 period of ordinary dry weather. Prom this, 
 alter crushing or bruising the lumps with a 
 piece of wood, all stones of a larger size than 
 that of a filbert may be picked out, and their 
 proportion to the whole quantity duly re- 
 gistered. 
 
 2. 1000 grains of the remainder may be next 
 dried by the bent of boiling water, until the 
 mass ceases to lose weight ; and, afterwards, 
 exposed to a moist atmosphere for some time. 
 The loss of weight in the first case, and the in- 
 crease of Height in the second, indicate the 
 absorbent powers of the soil. 
 
 8. The matter from No. 2, freed from sili- 
 ceous stones by garbling, may be gradually 
 heated to dull redness in a shallow open vessel, 
 avoiding waste from decrepitation, &c. The 
 loss of weight, divided by 10, gives the per- 
 centa'je quantity of vegetable or organic 
 matter present (nearly). 
 
 4. Anotlier 1000 grains (see No. 1) may be 
 next washed with successive portions of cold 
 water as long a'* anything is removed. The 
 residuum, alter being dried, indicates the pro- 
 portion of sxnd and gravel (nearly). 
 
 5. Another portion of the soil (100, 200, or 
 
 more gr., according to !t« character) is tested 
 in the manner described under Carbonate 
 and Alkalimetbt. The loss of weight in 
 carbonic acid indicates the quantity of car- 
 bonate of lime present in the sample examined ; 
 22 gr. of the former being equal to 50 gr. of 
 the latter. 
 
 6. Another like portion of the soil may be 
 gently boiled for 4 or 5 hours, iilnug with 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, in a fiask furnished 
 with n long glass tub? piissing through the 
 cork, to prevent loss (see ethek) ; after that 
 time the whole must be thrown upon a filter, 
 and what refuses to pass throuj;h (silica) 
 washed with distilled water, dried, ignited, 
 and weighed. 
 
 7. The filtrate and washings from No. 6 are 
 next successively treated for alumina (pure 
 cbiy), lime, phosphate of lime, phosphoric 
 acid, oxide of iron, alkalies (potassa or ioda), 
 ammonia (both ready formed and latent), 
 6ic. &c., in the manner noticed under Qlass, 
 GCANO, and the names of the respective 
 substances referred to. See Aobicoltuks, 
 Manubeb, &c,. 
 
 SOL'ANINE. St/n. SOLANI, Sola NINA, L. 
 A peculiar basic substance, obtained from the 
 leaves and stem of Solanum Dulcamara or 
 hilter-ameet, and other species ot the So- 
 lanacea, 
 
 SOL'DERING. The onion of metallic sur- 
 faces by means of a more fusible metal fluxed 
 between them. The method of autogenous 
 soldering, invented by .M. De. Richmont, is an 
 exception to this definition. In all the cuses 
 surfaces must be perfectly clean, and in abso- 
 lute coutact, and the air must be excluded, to 
 prevent oxidation. For this last purpose the 
 brazier and silversmith use powdered borax 
 made into a piiate with water; the copper- 
 smith, powdered sal ammoniac; and the tin- 
 man, powdered resin. Tin-foil applied between 
 the joints of fine brass work, first wetted with 
 a strong solution of sal ammoniac, makes an 
 excellent juncture, care beinu' taken to avoid 
 too much heat. See Solction (Soldering), 
 and below, 
 
 SOL'DERS. Prep. 1. (For copper, iron, 
 and dark brass.) From copper and zinc, equal 
 parts; melted together. For pale brass more 
 zinc must be used. 
 
 2. (Fine solder.) From tin, 2 parts ; lead, 
 1 part. Melts at 350° Fahr. Used to tin and 
 solder copper, tin plates, &c. 
 
 3. (For German silver.) From German 
 silver, 6 parts; zinc, 4 parts; melted together, 
 run into thin flakes, and then powdered. Also 
 as No. 7. 
 
 4. (Glazier's.) From lead, 3 parts; tin, 
 1 part. Melts at 500° Fahr. 
 
 5. (B'or gold.) Gold, 12 pennyweights; 
 copper, 4 do. ; silver, 2 do. 
 
 6. (For lead and zinc.) From lead, 2 parts ; 
 tin, 1 part. 
 
 7. (For pewter, Britannia metal, &c.) From 
 
1520 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 tin, 10 parts ; lead, 5 parts j bismuth, 1 to 3 
 parts. 
 
 8. (For silver.) From fine brass, 6 parts ; 
 silver, 5 parts ; zinc, 2 parts. 
 
 9. (For tin plate.) From tin, 2 parts; 
 lead, 1 part. The addition of bismuth, 1 part, 
 renders it fit for pewter. . 
 
 SOIiE. The Solea vulgaris, >• well-known 
 fish. It is perhaps more frequently eaten 
 than any other fiat fish, and, when skilfully 
 cooked, exceeds them all in delicacy, nutri- 
 tiousness, and flavour. 
 
 SOLTJ'TION. Si/n. Soltttio, L. Under the 
 head of solutions (solutiones), in pharmacy, 
 are properly included only those liquids which 
 consist of water, or an aqueous menstruum, in 
 which has been dissolved an appropriate 
 quantity of any soluble substance to impart to 
 the liquor its peculiar properties. When 
 spirit is the menstruum, the liquid receives 
 the name of alcoholic solution, spirit, or tinc- 
 ture. In the B. P. and the Ph. L. & D. 
 aqueous solutions are named liQiroES (li- 
 QUOBEs), whilst in the Ph. B., and in the old 
 pharmacopoeias generally, they are termed 
 WATERS (aqu*). 
 
 The following list embraces all the solutions 
 of the British pharmacopoeias, A^ith a few 
 others likely to be useful to the reader. Some 
 other preparations to which the name has 
 been given will be found under Liquobs, 
 Tinctures, &c. 
 
 Solution of Ac'etate of Ammo"nia. %». 
 
 LiQUOB OF ACETATE OP AMMONIA, WaTEB 
 OP A. OP A., MiNDEBEBira' SPIBIT; Am- 
 MONIiE ACETATI3 LIQUOB (B. P.), LiQUOE AM- 
 
 MONiiE ACETATia (Ph. L. & D.), Ammonia 
 ACETATis AQUA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. 
 L.) From dilute acetic acid, 1 pint ; exactly 
 neutralist d by sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in 
 coarse powder), 9 dr., or q. s. Sp. gr. 1*022. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Distilled vinegar (preferably 
 from French vinegar), sp. gr, 1-005, 24 fl. oz. ; 
 carbonate (sesquicarbonate) of animunia, 1 oz., 
 orq. s. Sp. gr. 1011. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 
 2i oz.j dilute acetic acid, 3 pints. Sp. gr. 
 1-012. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Carbonate of ammonia. Si, or 
 sufficient ; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 10 ; dis- 
 tilled water, 50. Dissolve the carbonate in the 
 acid, and add the water. 
 
 Frop., &fe. Free from colour and odour. 
 It changes the colour neither of litmus nor 
 turmeric. Sulphuretted hydrogen being 
 dropped in, it is not discoloured, neither is 
 anything thrown down on the addition of 
 chloride of barium, What is precipitated by 
 nitrate of silver is soluble in water, but espe- 
 cially so in nitric acid. Potassa being added, 
 it emits ammonia; and sulphuric acid being 
 added, it gives off acetic vapours. The fluid 
 being evaporated, what remains is completely 
 destroyed by heat. 
 
 Uses, ^c. Solution of acetate of ammonia 
 is a very common and excellent febrifuge and 
 
 diaphoretic, and, in large doses, aperient saline 
 liquor. Taken warm, in bed, it generally 
 proves a powerful sudorific ; and as it operates 
 without heat, it is much used in febrile and 
 inflammatory disorders. Its action may like- 
 wise be determined to the kidneys, by walking 
 about in the cold air. — Dose, 2 to 6 dr., 
 twice or thrice daily, either by itself or along 
 with other mefticines. Externally, as a dis- 
 cutient and refrigerant lotion; and diluted 
 (1 oz. to 9 oz. of water), as a coUyrium in 
 chronic ophthalmia. For this last purpose it 
 must be free from excess of ammonia. 
 
 5. (Concentrated.) Saturate acetic acid, 
 sp. gr. 1'038, 4 gall., with carbonate of am- 
 monia (in powder), 2i lbs., or q. s. ; carefully 
 avoiding excess. 
 
 Obs. This article is in great Remand in the 
 wholesale drug trade, under the name of 
 ' concentrated liquor of acetate of ammonia' 
 (liQ. AMMON. AOET. coKc). It is Very con- 
 venient for dispensing. One fl. dr. added to 
 7 fl. dr. of water forms the IICJUOE AWMOKIJE 
 ACETATIS of the Ph. L. 
 
 Solution of Acetate of Lead. See Solttmon 
 
 OP DiACETATE OP LEAD. 
 
 Solution of Acetate of Morphia. Syn. Li- 
 
 QUOE MOEPHI^ ACBTAIIS (B. P., Ph. L., & D.), 
 
 L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Acetate of morphia, 
 4 dr. ; acetic acid, 15 drops ; distilled water, 
 
 1 pint ; proof spirit, \ pint ; mix, and dissolve. 
 Sixty drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of acetate 
 of morphia. — Dose, 5 to 15 or 20 drops. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Acetate of morphia, 4 gr. ; 
 diluted acetic acid, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 
 
 2 dr. ; distilled water, 6 dr. ; dissolve in the 
 mixed liquids. — Dose, 10 to 60 minims. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Acetate of morphia, 82 gr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 5 fi. oz. ; distilled water, 15 
 fl. oz. 120 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of 
 the acetate. — Dose, 10 to 45 or 50 drops, or 
 similar to that of tincture of opium. 
 
 4. (Magendie.) Each fl. dr. contains ligr. 
 of acetate (nearly). — Dose, 5 to 15 drops. 
 Anodyne, hypnotic, and narcotic; in those 
 cases in which opium is inadmissible. See 
 Morphia. 
 
 Solution of Aconitia. Syn. Solutio Aco- 
 vmrn (Dr TurnbuU). Frep. Aconitia, 1 gr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 dr. To be applied externally 
 by means of a sponge in neuralgic and rheu- 
 matic affections. 
 
 SolntionofAl'um (Compound). Syn. Bate's 
 
 ALUM WATEB ; LlQUOB ALUMINIS COMPOSITUS 
 
 (Ph. L.), Aqua alumimosa coMPosiTAf, L. 
 Frep. (Ph. L.) Alum and sulphate of zinc, 
 of each 1 oz. ; boiling water, 3 pints; dissolve, 
 and filter (if necessary). Detergent and 
 astringent. Used as a lotion for old ulcers, 
 chilblains, excoriations, &c. ; and, largely di- 
 luted with water, as an eye-wash and injec- 
 tion. 
 
 Solution of Ammo"nia. See Liquoe op 
 Ammonia. 
 
 Solution of Ammo"nio-ni'trate of Sil'ver. 
 Syn. Hume's test ; Solutio aeoenti am- 
 
SOLUTION 
 
 1521 
 
 KOSUTI (Ph. E.). L. Pr»p. (Ph. E.) Nitrate 
 ofnlver (pure crystallised), 44 gr. ; distilled 
 wkter, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve and add annnonia 
 water, gradually, until the precipitate, at first 
 thrown down, is very nearly, but not entirely, 
 redisaolved. Used as a test for arsenic. 
 
 Solntion of Ainmo"nio-ial'phate of Cop'per. 
 Sya. LiQDOB otifBi aumonio-sulphatis 
 (Ph. L.I, Cci'W AJIUONATI aoftTTio (Ph. E ), 
 C. A. AQtTA, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ainmonio- 
 lalpbate of Clipper, 1 dr. J water, 1 pint; dis- 
 solve, and filter. Stimulant and detergent. 
 Applied t'l indolent ulcers, and, when largely 
 diluted, to remove apeckg on the cornea; also 
 used as a test for arsenic. 
 
 Solution for Anatom'ical Preparations, &c. 
 Syn. Antiseptic solution. Prep. 1. Nearly 
 saturate water with sulphurous acid, and add 
 a little creasute. 
 
 2. Dissolve chloride of tin, 4 parts, in water, 
 100 parts, to which 3^ of hydrochloric acid 
 has been added. 
 
 3. Dissolve corrosive sublimate, 1 part, and 
 chloride of sodium, 3 parts, in water, 100 
 parts, to which 2^ of hydrochloric acid has 
 been added. 
 
 4. Mix liquor of ammonia (strong) with 3 
 times its weight (each) of water and rectified 
 spirit. 
 
 6. Sal ammoninc, 1 part; water, 10 or 11 
 ports. For muscular parts of animals. 
 
 6. Sulphate of zinc, 1 part ; water, 15 to 25 
 parts. For muscles, integumeni g, and cerebral 
 masses. 
 
 7. (Dr Bnbington.) Wood naphtha, 1 pirt; 
 water, 7 parts; or wood naphtha undiluted, as 
 an injection. 
 
 8. (Sir V\'. Burnett.) Concentrated solution 
 of chloride of zinc, 1 lb. ; water, 1 gall. The 
 substances are immersed in the solution for 2 
 to 4 days, and then dried in the air. 
 
 9. (Gannal.) Aluin and culinary salt, of 
 each i lb. ; nitre, i lb. ; water, 1 gull. 
 
 10. (Goadsby.) — a. Prom bay salt, 2 oz. ; 
 alum, 1 oz. ; bichloride of mercury, 1 gr. ; 
 water, 1 pint. Fot- ordinary purposes. 
 
 A. To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 
 1 gr. ; water, 1 pint. For very tender ti^sues, 
 and where there is a tendency to uioukli- 
 ness. 
 
 c. From bay salt, J lb. ; bichloride of mer- 
 cury, 1 gr. ; w iter, 1 pint. For subjects con- 
 taining carbonate of lime. 
 
 d. From bay salt, \ lb. ; arsenious acid, 
 10 gr. ; wat«r, 1 pint; dissolve by heat. For 
 old preparations. 
 
 «. To the last add of bichloride of mercury, 
 
 1 gr. As the last, when there is a tendency to 
 the softening of parts ; and, diluted, for mol- 
 Insra. These solutions are approved of by 
 Prof. Owen. 
 
 11. (M. Ileboulet.) Nitre, 1 part; alum, 
 
 2 parts; chloride of lime, 4 parts; water, 16 
 or 20 parts; to be afterwards diluted accord- 
 ing to circumstances. For pathological speci- 
 mens. 
 
 VOI,. II. 
 
 12. (Dr Stapleton.) Alum, 2} oz. ; nitre, 
 1 dr. ; water, 1 quart. For pathological speci- 
 mens. 
 
 13. (ForFEATHBES — Beasley.) Strychnia, 
 16 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint. 
 
 04*. These fluids are used for preserving 
 ANATOMICAL, PEEPABAIIOXS, OBJECTS OP KA- 
 THEAL HI8T0ET, &c., by immersing them there- 
 in, in close vessels ; or, for temporary purposes, 
 applying them by mc:>ns of a brush or piece 
 of rag. The presence of corrosive sublimate 
 is apt to render animal substances very bard. 
 See P0TEEPAOTION. 
 
 Solntion, Antiseptic. (See above.) 
 Solntion of Arseniate of Ammonia. Syn. 
 
 LlQUOE AHSENIATIS AMMONI.B. (Hosp. of St. 
 Louis.) Prep. Arseniate of ammonia, 4 gr. ; 
 distillid water, 4 oz. ; spirit of angelica, 2 dr. 
 — Dose, 12 to 30 minims. There are other 
 formula) for the solution, differing in strength 
 from the above. 
 
 Dr Neligan gives us Bictt's : — Arseniate of 
 ammonia, IJ gr. ; distilled water, 3 oz. ; spirit 
 of angelica, 6 dr. — Doae, 1 to 3 dr. 
 
 Bouchardat says 6 gr. to 8 oz. of distilled 
 water. — Dose. From 12 drops tn 1 dr. 
 
 Solution of Arseniate of Soda. Si/n. Li- 
 
 QUOE ABSEN1ATI3 SOD.E. PeaESON'S AB- 
 8ENICAL SOIUTION. Prep. Arseniate of soda, 
 1 gr. ; distilled water, 4 oz. — Dose, 12 minims 
 to 30. 
 
 Solution of Arseniate of Soda. (B. P.) 
 
 Sl/n. LlQTTOB 80D.E ARSENIATIS. Prep. 
 
 Dissolve arseniate of soda (rendered anhy- 
 drous by a heat not exceeding 300° Fahr.) 
 4 gr. in distilled water, 1 oz. — Dose, 6 to 
 10 minims. 
 
 Solution, Arsenical. Si/n. Minebal solu- 
 tion ; Solutio aesekicalis, SOLUTIO MINE- 
 BALIS, L. Prep. 1. (Devergie.) As solu- 
 tion OP aesbnitb op potassa. Ph. L., but of 
 only l-50th the strength, and flavoured with 
 compound spirit of balm, and coloured to a 
 deep rose with cochineal. 
 
 2. (Pearson.) Arseniate of soda, 4 gr. ; 
 water, 4 fl. oz. ; dissolve. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 drops during the day. (See below.) 
 
 Solution of Arse"nions Acid. See Drops, 
 Ague, and Aesenious acid. 
 
 Solntion of Ar'senite of Fotas'sa. St/n. 
 Fowlee's mineeal solution; Liquoe po- 
 tassje aesenitis (Ph. L), Liquoe abseni- 
 CALis (B. P., Ph. E., D., & U. S.), L. Prep. 
 (B. P., Ph. L., & E.) Arsenions acid, coarsely 
 powdered, and carbonate of potassa, of each 
 80 gr. ; distilled water, 1 pint ; boil until dis- 
 solved, and add, to the cold solution, compound 
 tincture of lavender, 5 fl. dr. ; water, q. a. to 
 make the whole exactly measure a pint. Tonic, 
 antiperiodic, and alterative. — Dose, 4 or 5 
 drops, gradually and cautiously increased ; in 
 agues and various scaly skin diseases. It is 
 preferably taken soon after a meal. See Ae- 
 8BNI0US ACID, &C. 
 
 Solution of Atropia. Syn. Liquoe ateo- 
 riM (B. P.). Prep. Atropia, 4 gr. ; rectified 
 
 96 
 
1522 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 spirit, 1 dr. ; dissolve, and add water, 7 dr. ; 
 mix. — Dose, 1 minim. 
 Solution of Anro-Chloride of Gold. Syn. 
 
 SOLUTIO AUEI AMMONIO-CHLOEIDI. (Pur- 
 
 nari.) Prep. Aramonio-chloride of gold, 8 
 gr. ; distilled watpr and rectified spirit, of each 
 10 oz. — Dose. A teaspoonfal morning and 
 evening in sugared water for dysmenorrhcea 
 and amenorrhcea. 
 
 Solution of Bimeconate of Horpliiss. Soi^u- 
 Tio MOBPHI^ BIMEOONATIS. There is no 
 standard formula for this preparation. It is 
 made about the same strength as tincture 
 of opium. The following contains 1 gr. in 
 84 minims : — Bimeconate of morphia, 10 
 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 
 13 dr. 
 
 Solution of Bismuth and Citrate of Ammonia. 
 
 Sffn. LlQUOE BISMCTHI BT AMMONIJE 0ITBATI6 
 
 (B. P.). Purified bismuth, 1; nitric acid, 2; 
 citric acid, 2 ; solution of ammonia,asufSciency ; 
 mix the nitric acid with an ounce of distilled 
 water, and add the bismuth in successive por- 
 tions. When effervescence has ceased, apply for 
 ten minutes a heat approaching that of ebulli- 
 tion, and decant the solution from any insoluble 
 matter. Evaporate the solution until it is re- 
 duced to 2, then add the citric acid previously 
 dissolved in 4 of distilled water, and after- 
 wards the solution of ammonia in small quan- 
 tities at a time, until the precipitate formed is 
 redissolved, and the solution is neutral or 
 slightly alkaline to test paper ; dilute with dis- 
 tilled water to the volume of 20. — Dose, i to 
 Idr. 
 
 Solution of Bromine. /Sy«. Liqtjob beo- 
 MiNii. (Poarche.) Prep. Bromine, 1 part; 
 distilled water, 40 parts. — Dose, 5 or 6 drops, 
 3 times a day. A stronger solution (1 part to 
 10) is sometimes used externally. 
 
 Solution of Carbon (Detergent). S^n, Li- 
 QTIOE CABBOms DETEKQENS. This name is 
 applied to an alcoholic solution of coal tar. 
 Properly diluted it is used externally in skin 
 diseases. 
 
 Solntioa, Brandish's. See Solutiok ov 
 
 POTASSA. 
 
 Solution, Burnett's. A solution of chloride 
 of. zinc. See Solutioit foe Anatomical 
 
 PEEPAEATIONS {above), also DlSINPtOIIKO 
 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Solution of Camphor, Carbonated. St/n. 
 SOLUTIO OAMPHOU.E CAEBONIOA. (Swediaur.) 
 Prep. Water saturated with carbonic acid gas, 
 2 lbs. ; powdered camphor, 3 dr. 
 
 Solution of Camphor and Chloroform. Syn. 
 
 SOLUHO CAMPHOE.E ET OHLOEOPOEMI. (Messrs 
 
 Smith.) Prep. Camphor, 3 dr. ; chloroform, 
 1 fl. dr. Dissolve. For exhibiting camphor 
 with yolk of egg in emulsions. 
 
 Solution of Carbolic Acid. Foe the Toi- 
 lETiB. Prep. Crystallised carbolic acid, 10 
 parts; essence of millefleur, 1 part; tincture 
 ■of Quillai Saponaria, 50; water, 1000 parts. 
 Mix. The saponine replaces soap with ad- 
 vantage. The above should be employed 
 
 diluted with 10 times its bulk of water, for 
 disinfecting the skin, for washing the hands, 
 after any risk of contagion, inoculation, 
 &c. 
 
 Solution of Car'bonate of Ammo"nia. Sgn. 
 Solution of sbsquicaebonate of ammonia, 
 Caebonatb of ammonia watbe; Liquoe 
 
 AMMONIJE 8E8QUICABB0NATI9 (Ph. L.), AQUA 
 
 AMMONia: caeSonatis (Ph. E.). Prep. (PL. 
 L. & E.) Sesquicarbonate of ammonia, 4oz. ; 
 distilled water, 1 pint; dissolve. Stimulant 
 and antacid. — X>ose, J to 1 fl. dr., in 
 water. 
 
 Solution of Carbonate of Magnesia. Syn. 
 Liquoe MAGNESiiE caebonatis (B.P.) Prep. 
 Dissolve separately, each in i a pint of distilled 
 water, sulphate of magnesia, 2 oz. ; and car- 
 bonate of soda, 2J oz. Heat the solution of 
 sulphate of magnesia to the boiling point, add 
 the solution of carbonate of soda, and boil toge- 
 ther until carbonic acid ceases to be evolved. 
 Collect the precipitated carbonate of magne- 
 sia, and wash until what passes ceases to give 
 a precipitate with chloride of barium. Mix 
 the precipitate with a pint of distilled 
 water, and in a suitable apparatus, charge 
 with pure washed carbonic acid gas. Ketain 
 excess of carbonic acid under pressure for 
 24 hours. Filter to remove undissolved 
 carbonate, and again pass carbonic acid 
 iuto the solution. Keep in a bottle securely 
 closed. (This contains about 13 gr. of carbo- 
 nate of magnesia in each fiuid ounce.) 
 
 Solution of Carbonate of Fotas'sa. Syn. 
 Oil of taetaeI, Watbe of subcaebonate 
 of poTASHf ; Liquoe poTASSiE caebonatis 
 
 (Ph. L. & D.), L. p. SUBCAEBOHATISt, L. 
 
 Prpp. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of potassa, 20 oz. 
 (10 oz. — Ph. D.) ; water, 1 pint; dissolve and 
 filter (or decant). Sp. gr.— Ph. L., 1-473; 
 Ph. D., 1-310.— Z)o«e, 10 drops to 1 dr., as an 
 antacid, &c. 
 
 Solution of Carbonate of So'da. Syn. Sub- 
 caebonate OF SODA WATEEf ; SODM CAEBO- 
 NATIS LIQUOE (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) 
 Carbonate of soda (in crystals), IJ oz. ; distilled, 
 water, 1 pint. Sp. gr. 1-026.— Dose, i to IJ 
 fl. oz., as an antacid ; in heartburn, dyspepsia, 
 &c. 
 
 Solution of Chloride of Antimony. Syn. 
 Antimonii chloeidi liquoe (B. P.). Prep. 
 Dissolve black sulphide of antimony in boil- 
 ing hydrochloric acid. Used as an eschar- 
 otic, and in the preparation of oxide of 
 antimony. 
 
 Solution of Chlo"ride of Ar'senic. Syn. 
 Liquoe aesenici htdeochloeicus (B. P.), 
 Liquoe aesenici chloeidi (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Arsenionsacid (in coarsepowder), 
 i dr.; hydrochloric acid, IJ fl. dr. ; distilled 
 water, 1 fl. oz. ; boil until the solution of the 
 arsenioiis acid is complete, and, when cold, 
 add enough distilled water to make the 
 whole exactly measure a pint.— Dose, 4 to 
 5 drops. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Arsenlous acid, 80 gr. ; hydro- 
 
SOLUTION 
 
 1623 
 
 chloric acid, 2 dr.; distilled water, 20 oz.; 
 boil tbe two acids witii 4 oz. of the water until 
 a aolntion is effected, then add sufficient dis- 
 tilled water to make up 20 oz. — Doie, 2 to 8 
 minims. 
 Solation of Chloride of Ba"riam. Sgn. So- 
 
 LPTIOH OF MURIATE OP BiEYTA+ J LiQUOB 
 BABir CHLOBIDI (Ph. L. & D.), SOLUTIO BA- 
 
 BTT« Mrm*Ti8(Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Pli. L. 
 k E.) Dissolve chloride of barium, 1 dr. 
 (1 01. — Ph. D.), in water, 1 fl. oz. (8 oz. 
 Ph. D.), and filter the solution. Sp. gr. 
 (Ph. U.) 1-088.— Dose, 5 drops, gradually in- 
 creased to 10 or 12, twice or thrice daily ; in 
 scrofula, scirrhous affections, and worms j ex- 
 Irrnally, largely diluted, as a lotion in scrofu- 
 lous ophthalmia, 
 Solation of Chloride of Cal'cinm. Syn. So- 
 
 ItJTIOK OV MUBIATB OP LIMEf ; CALCII 
 CBLOBIDI LIQUOK (Ph. I).), CAI.018 MtTBIATIS 
 
 soLtTTlo (Ph. E.). Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 t'u'ed chloride of calcium, 4 oz. (crystals, 8 oz. 
 — Ph. E.); water, 12 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and 
 filter. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Fused chloride of calcium, 
 3 oz. J water, 12 oz. Sp. gr. 1'225. — Doae, 
 10 drops to 1 dr., or more ; in scrofulous and 
 glandular diseases, &c. 
 
 Solation of Chloride of Zinc. Syrt. Ltqitob 
 ZINCI ciir.OElDl (B. P.). Prep. Oranulnted 
 zinc, 8 ; hydrochloric acid, 22 ; solution ol 
 chlorine, q. s. ; carbonate of zinc, i j distilled 
 water, 10. Mix the acid and water in a por- 
 celain dish, add the zinc, and apply n gentle 
 heat to promote the action until gas is no 
 longer evolved ; boil for half an hour, sup- 
 plying the water lost by evaporation, and 
 allow the product to cool. Filter it into a 
 bottle, and add solution of chlorine by degrees, 
 with frequent agitation until a brown eedi- 
 raent appears. Filter the liquid into a porce- 
 lain basin, and evaporate until it is reduced to 
 the bulk of 20. 
 
 Solution of Chlo"rinated Lime. Syn. Bleach- 
 ing LiQiTiD, Solution op chlobidk of hmeX, 
 
 S. OP HTPOCHLOttlTE OF LIME; SOLUTIO CALCIS 
 BTPOCHLOBIS, S. CALCIS CHLOBIDI, CALCIS 
 ClILORINATS LIQUOB (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. D.) Chlorluated lime (' chloride of lime'), 
 \ lb. ; water, i gall. ; tritumte them together, 
 then transfer the mixture to a stoppered 
 bottle, and sh.ike it repeatedly for the space 
 of 3 hours; lastly, filter through calico, and 
 preserve it in a well-stopped bottle. 
 
 2 Chloride of lime (dry and good, and 
 rubbed to fine powder), 9 lbs. ; tepid water, 
 6 galls.; mix in a stoneware bottle capable of 
 holding 8 galls, agitate frequently for u day or 
 two, and, after 2 or 3 days' repose, decant the 
 clear portion, and keep it in well-corked 
 bottles, in » cool situation. If filtered, it 
 should be done as rapidly as possible, and only 
 through coarsely powdered glass in a covered 
 vessel. 
 
 3. Liquobc*i,cischlorat;e (B. P.). Prep. 
 Blend well tojrither, by trituration in a large 
 
 mortar, 1 lb. of chlorinated lime with 1 gall. 
 of water, transfer the mixture to a stoppered 
 bottle, and shake it frequently for the space of 
 3 hours ; pour it on a calico filter, and let the 
 solution which passes through he kept in a 
 well-stopp°red bottle. Sp. gr. 1-035. 
 
 Ob>. The last is the usual strength sold in 
 trade, under various attractive names, to give 
 it importance. It is used as a disinfectant, 
 bleacher, and fumigation; and, diluted with 
 water, as a lotion, injection, or collyrinm, in 
 several diseases. See Htpochloeite op Cal- 
 cium. 
 
 Solation of Chlorinated Lime, Spiritnoos. Sun. 
 
 SOLUTIO CALCIS CBLOBIDI, SPIBITU08A. (Che- 
 vallier). Prep. Chloride of lime, 3 dr. ; distilled 
 water, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz. Mix und 
 filter. 
 
 Solation of Chlorinated Fotae'sa. Syn. So- 
 lution OP CHLOKIDE OP POTAaHj:, S. OP HT- 
 POCHLOBITE OF POTA89A, JaVELI,E'8 BLEiCH- 
 INO LIQUID; SOLUTIOPOTASSfi BTPOCHLORia, 
 LiQUOE POTASSiE CHLOBIDI, L. P0TA6S.B 
 CHLOEINAT.*:, L. ; Eau db Javellb, Fr. 
 Prep. 1. Dissolve carbonate of potassa, 1 part, 
 in water, 10 parts, and pass chlorine gas 
 throu'_'li the solution to sataiation. 
 
 2. Chloride of lime (dry and good), 1 part; 
 water, 15 parts; agitate them together (or 
 an hour; next dissolve of carbonate of pota«sn, 
 2 oz., in water, \ pint; mix the two solutions, 
 and after a time either decant or filter. — Uses, 
 Sfc. As tlie last. 
 
 Solution of Chlorinated Soda. Syn. Solu- 
 tion OP CHLOBIDE OF SODaJ, S. OP HTPO- 
 CHLOBITE op SODA, LABABEAQUE'S DISIN- 
 FECTING LIQUID ; SOLUTIO SOD.E HTPO- 
 CHL0BI3, HyPOCHLOEIS 80DICU8 AQUA 80- 
 
 LUTus (P. C"d.), Liquor bod.e cHLOKiNATi; 
 (Ph. L. & D), L. Prp. 1. (Ph. L.), Car- 
 bonate of soda (in crystals), 1 lb. ; water, 1 
 quart ; dissolve, and pass through the solution 
 the chlorine evolved from a mixture of com- 
 mon salt, 4 oz. ; binoxide of maneanese, 3 oz, ; 
 sulpliurie add, 2J fl. oz. (4 oz.— -Ph, L. 1836) ; 
 diluted with water, 3 fl. oz, ; placed in a retort, 
 heat being applied to promote the action, and 
 the gas being purified by passing through 
 5 fl. oz. of water before it enters tlie alkaline 
 solution. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Chlorinated lime, i lb., and 
 water, 3 pints, are triturated together in a 
 m:irhle mortar, alter which the mixture is 
 transferred to a stoppered bottle, agitated fre- 
 quently during three hours, and then filtered 
 through calico; in the mean time carbcmateof 
 soda (cryst.), 7 oz., is dissolved in water, 1 
 pint; the two solutions are next mixed, and, 
 after agitation for about 10 minutes, the whole 
 is filtered as before. The filtrate is to bo 
 preserved in a well-stopped bottle. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Dissolve 12 oz. of carbonate of 
 soda in 36 oz. of distilled water, and put the 
 solution into a glass vessel. Mix hi aik oxide 
 of manganese, 4 oz., and hydrochloric acid, 
 15 fl. oz,, in a glass flask, with a bent tube 
 
1524 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 attached by means of a cork to ita mouth, 
 apply a gentle heat, and with a suitable ar- 
 rangement cause the gas evolved to pass first 
 through a wash-bottle containing 4 oz, of 
 water, and then into the solution of carbonate 
 of soda, regulating heat so that the gas shall 
 be slowly but constantly introduced. When 
 the disengagement of chlorine has ceased, 
 transfer the solution which has absorbed it 
 to a stoppered bottle, and keep in a cool and 
 dark place. Sp. gr. 1'103. 
 
 Ois. This solution is used as an antiseptic, 
 disinfectant, and bleaching liquid. — Dose, 20 
 to 30 drops, in any bland fluid, in scarlet 
 fever, sore throat, &c ; it is also made into a 
 lotion, gargle, injection, and eye-water. Meat 
 in a nearly putrid state, unfit for food, is im- 
 mediately restored by washing or immersion 
 in this liquid. 
 
 Solution of Chlo"rine. Syn. Chloeine 
 
 WATKB; SOLUTIO OHLORINII, LlQITOB CHLO- 
 
 BiNi (Ph. L. & D.), Chlokinei aqua (Ph. E.), 
 L. prep. 1. (Ph. L.) On binoxide of man- 
 ganese (in powder), 2 dr., placed in a retort, 
 pour hydrochloric acid, 1 fl. oz., and pass tlie 
 chlorine in distilled water, i pint, until it 
 ceases to be evolved. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Muriate of soda (common salt), 
 60 gr. ; red oxide of lead, 350 gr. ; triturate 
 them together, and put them into 8 fl. oz. of 
 distilled water, contained in a stoppered bottle ; 
 then add of sulphuric acid, 2 fl. dr. ; and 
 having replaced the stopper, agitate the 
 whole, occasionally, until the oxide of lead 
 turns white; lastly, after subsidence, pour 
 off the clear liquid into another stoppered 
 bottle. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Introduce into a gas bottle 
 peroxide of manganese (in fine powdei*), ^ oz. ; 
 add of hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., (diluted with) 
 water, 2 fl. oz. ; apply a gentle heat, and cause 
 the evolved gas to pass through water, 2 fl. oz., 
 and then into a 3-pint bottle containing dis- 
 tilled water, 20 fl. oz., and whose mouth is 
 loosely plugged with tow; when the air has 
 been entirely displaced by the chlorine, cork 
 the bottle loosely, and shake it until the 
 chlorine is absorbed ; it should now be trans- 
 ferred to a pint stoppered bottle, and preserved 
 in a dark and cool place. 
 
 (B. P.) Liquor chlori. Frep. Put 1 oz. 
 of black oxide of manganese, in fine powder, 
 into a gas bottle, and having poured upon it 
 6 fl. oz. of hydrochloric acid, diluted with 2 oz. 
 of distilled water, apply a gentle heat, and by 
 suitable tubes cause the gas, as it is developed, 
 to pass through 2 oz. of distilled water placed 
 in an intermediate small phial, and thence to 
 the I ottom of a 3-pint bottle containing 30 oz. 
 of distilled water, the mouth of which is 
 loosely plugged with tow. .As soon as the 
 chlorine ceases to he developed, let the bottle 
 ^ be disconnected from the apparatus in which 
 the gas has been generated, corked loosely, 
 and shaken until the chlorine is absorbed. 
 Lastly, introduce the solution into a green 
 
 bottle furnished with a well-fitting stopper, 
 and keep it in a cool and dark place. Sp. gr. 
 1-003. One fluid ounce contains 266 grains 
 of chlorine. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Irritant and acrid, but, when 
 largely diluted, stimnlant and antiseptic. — 
 Dose, ^ to 2 fl. dr., in \ pint of water, sweet- 
 ened with a little sugar, in divided doses, 
 during the day; in scarlatina, malignant sore 
 throat, &c. On the large scale, liquid chlo- 
 rine may be procured by passing the gas ob- 
 tained by any of the methods named under 
 Chlobinb into water, until it will absorb no 
 mora 
 
 Solntion of Cifrate of Ammo"iiia. 8yn. 
 Liquor AMMOHiiE citratis (B. P., Ph. L.), L. 
 Prep. (Ph. L.) Dissolve citric acid, 3 oz., in 
 distilled water, 1 pint; and to the solution add 
 of sesquicarbonate of ammonia (in powder), 2| 
 oz., or q. 8. to exactly neutralise the liquor. 
 —Dose, 2 to 6 fl. dr. 
 
 Solution of Citrate of Magne'sia. Syn. So- 
 
 I.TTTION MA&NESI.S; CITRATIS. See MAGNESIUM, 
 
 Citrate as. 
 
 (B. P.) Carbonate of masnesia, 100 gr. ; 
 citric acid, 200 gr. ; syrup of lemons, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 bicarbonate of potash in crystals, 40 gr. ; wa- 
 ter, q. s. Dissolve the citric acid in 2 oz. of 
 the water, and having added the carbonate of 
 magnesia, stir until it is dissolved. Filter 
 the solution into a strong half-pint bottle, 
 add the syrup and water sufiicicnt to nearly 
 fill the bottle, then introduce the bicar- 
 bonate of potash, and immediately close 
 the bottle with a cork, which should be se- 
 cured with string or wire, afterwards shake 
 till the bicarbonate has dissolved. — Dose, 5 to 
 10 fi. oz. 
 
 Solution of Citrate of Morphia. Syn. 
 Liquor morphia: citratis, Solutio m c, 
 L. Prep. (Magendie.) Pure morphia, 13 gr.; 
 citric acid, 8 or 10 gr. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; tinc- 
 ture of cochineal, 2 fl. dr. — Dose, 3 to 12 
 drops. 
 
 Solution of Citrate of Potash. Syn. Liquor 
 
 POTASS* CITRATIS. NeUTEAL MIXTURE. (Ph. 
 
 U. S.) Prep. Citric acid, J troy oz. j bicar- 
 bonate of potash, 330 gr. ; water, 8 oz. 
 
 Solution of Copai'ba. See Solution, Speci- 
 fic. 
 
 Solntion of Cor'rosive Sub'limate. Syn. 
 Solution oj chloride op mercury ; Liquor 
 
 HTDRAEGTEI BICHLOEIDlf (Ph. L.). Prep. 
 
 1. (Ph. L.) Corrosive sublimate and sal am- 
 moniac, of each 10 gr. ; water, 1 pint, dis- 
 solve. — Dose. As an alterative, 10 to 30 drops ; 
 as an autisyphilitic, ^ to 2 fl. dr., in simple or 
 sweetened water. It must not be allowed to 
 touch anything metallic. It also forms a most 
 useful lotion in various skin diseases. 
 
 2. See Lotion, Mercurial. 
 
 Solution of Cyanide of Potassium. Syn. Li- 
 quor potassii ctanidi. (Laming.) Prep. 
 Cyanide of potassium, 22 gr. ; proof spirit, 9 
 fl. dr. This is the strength of his hydro- 
 cyanic acid, which coutains 1 gr. of real acid 
 
SOLUTION 
 
 1525 
 
 in 1 fl. dr. Ma|;endie's medicinal hydrooyanate 
 of potash consists of cyanide of potassium 
 dissolved in 8 times its weiglit of distilled 
 water. 
 
 SolatioD of Selphlnia. Syn. SotUTio sel- 
 vniviia. (DrTurnbuU.) Dilphinia, 1 scruiilej 
 rectified spirit, 2 oz. For outward use. 
 
 Solntlon of Diac'etate of Lead. See SoLU- 
 
 TIOK OP SCBACETATB OF LeAD. 
 
 Solution, Donovan's, See Solution of 
 Htdkiodatb of Aesbkio and Mebcuey 
 (btloa). 
 
 Solution, Escliarotic (Freyburg's). Syn. 
 SOMJTIO ESCHAHOTICA, L. Prep. From cam- 
 plior, 30 gr. ; corrosive sublimate, 60 to 100 
 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve. In 
 syphilitic vegetations, and specially condy- 
 lumes. It is spread over the diseased surfiice, 
 either ot once or after the application of a 
 ligature. 
 
 Solution of Flints. Syn. Ltquoe of flints ; 
 
 LlQTTAMEN SII-IOUIT, LlQUOB POTABS^E 8ILI- 
 
 OATIS, L. Prep. 1. Soluble glass dissolved in 
 water. 
 
 2. (Bute.) Powdered quartz, 1 part ; dry 
 carbonate of potash, 2 parts (3 parts — Turner) ; 
 triturate thein together, /use the mixture in 
 a Hessian crucil)le, and allow the resulting 
 glass to deliquesce by exposure in a damp 
 situation.— i)o««, 5 or 6 to 30 drops; in 
 goutv concretions, stone, &c. " It resolves the 
 stone, and opens obstructions." See Soluble 
 
 GLASS. 
 
 Solntion, Gannal's. f ^''l So^-^tion for 
 Solution, Goadsby's. \ Anatomical fee- 
 
 Solution, Ghinlard's. See Solution of Sub- 
 acetate OP Lead. 
 Solution, Hahnemann's FTophylac'tic. Syn. 
 
 LiQDOK BELLADONNiB, SOLUTIO PEOPIITLAC- 
 TICA, L. Prep. From extract of belladonna 
 (alcoholic), S gr. j distilled water, 6 fl. dr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr. ; dissolve. Used 
 against scurlet fever. — Dose, 2 or 3 drops 
 lor a child under 12 moutlis; and an addi- 
 tional drop for every year above that age to 
 maturity. 
 Solution of Hartshorn, Snccinated. Syn. 
 
 LlQUOK COENU CEKVI SUCCINATUS. (P. Cod.) 
 
 Neutralise true spirits of liartsliorn (or a solu- 
 ti'in of 1 oz. of salt of hartshorn in 1 oz. of 
 water) witl> acid of amber. 
 
 Solution of Hydri'odate of Ar'senic and 
 Mer'cnry. Syn. Donovan's solution ; Solu- 
 
 TIO AHBENICl BT HYDKAEQTEI lODIDI, AE- 
 SEMCI ET nyUEARGTEI HYDEIODATIS LIQUOB 
 
 (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Donovan.) Triturate 
 uutullic arsenic, 608 gr., mercury, 1538 gr., 
 and iodine, 60 gr., with alcohol, 1 fl. dr., 
 until dry ; to this add, gradually, of distilled 
 water, 8 fl. oz., and again well triturate; next 
 put tlie whole into a flask, add of hydriodic 
 acid, i fl. dr., and boil for a few minutes ; 
 I;'.8tly, when cold, add distilled water, q. s. to 
 make the whole measure exactly 8 fl. oz. 
 2. (Ph. D." Pure arsenic (in fine powder). 
 
 6 gr. ; pure mercury, 16 gr. ; pure iodine, 501 
 gr. ; alcohol, i fl. dr. ; triturate as before, add, 
 gradually, of water, 8 fl. oz., heat the mixture 
 until it begins to boil, and, afterwards, make 
 up the cold and filtered solution to exactly 8 
 fl. oz. 6 fl. dr. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From metallic arsenic, 61 
 g'r. J iodine, 500 gr. ; mercury, 154 gr. ; rec- 
 tified spirit, 1 J fl. oz. ; distilled water, 2 quarts ; 
 hydriodic acid, 5 fl. dr.; as No. 1; the product 
 being made up with distilled water so as to 
 measure exactly 4 pints, or 80 fl. oz., or to 
 weigh 5 lbs. 1| oz. (av.), when cold. 
 
 Oba. Great cure must be taken that the 
 whole of the arsenic be dissolved, which can 
 only be effected by the most careful tritura- 
 tion. Soubeiran recommends the empluymeut 
 of 1 part, each, of the respective iodides, with 
 US parts of water, as furnishing a simpler and 
 equally effective product, proportions which 
 are almost exactly those employed by Mr 
 Donovan. — Dose, 10 to 30 drops, twice or 
 thrice a day, preferable soon after a meal ; in 
 lepra, psoriasis, lupus, and several other scaly 
 skin diseases. It is a most valuable medicine 
 in these affections. 
 
 Solution of HydTochlo"rate of Mor'phia. Syn. 
 Solution of mueiate of iioBmiA ; Liquob 
 
 M0EPHI.fi HYDKOCHLOEATIS (Ph. L.), SoLUTIO 
 HOEI'HI.E MCEIATIS (Ph. E.), MOEFHI.S MU- 
 
 EIATI8 LIQUOE (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. 
 L.) Hydrochlorate ot morphia, 4 dr. ; proof 
 spirit, \ pint ; distilled water, 1 pint ; dis- 
 solve by the aid of a gentle heat. 60 drops 
 (minims) of this solution contain 1 gr. of h\- 
 drochlorate of morphia. — Dose, 5 to 15 or 20 
 drops. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. & D.) Muriate of morphia, 90 
 gr. ; rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. ; distilled vvater, 
 
 15 fl. oz. 107 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. 
 of the hydrochlorate. — Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 
 drops, or nearly as laudanum. 
 
 3. (Apotheciiries'Hall.) Muriate of morphia, 
 
 16 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 fl. dr. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 30 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. — Dose, 3 to 10 
 drops. See Solution of Acbtatb of Mor- 
 phia, &c 
 
 Solution of Hypochlo"rite of Lime. Solu- 
 tion of chlorinated lime. 
 
 Solution of I'odide of Ar'eenic. Syn. Liquob 
 assenjci periodidi, L. Prep. (Wackenro- 
 der.) Each drachm contains \ gr. of teriodide 
 of arsenic; equivalent to ^ gr. of metallic 
 arsenic, and -Jjj gr. (nearly) of iodine. 
 
 Solution of Iodide of Mer'cnry and Fotas'sinm. 
 Syn. LiQUOE iodohydbaegyeatis potassii 
 lODlsi, L. Prep. ^Dr Channing.) Iodide 
 of potassium, 31 gr. ; binoxide of mercury, 
 41 gr.; distilled water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve. — 
 Dose, 2 to 5 or 6 drops, three times a day, 
 much diluted; in dyspepsia, indurations, 
 enlargement of the spleen, dropsy, &c. 
 
 Solntion of Iodide of Fotas'sinm (Componnd). 
 
 Syn. loCUKETIED WATEE, COMPOUND SOLU- 
 TION OF IODINE; LiQUOE POTASSII lODIDI 
 
 COMPOSITUS (Ph. L. & D.), Lkjuoe iodihbi 
 
1526 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 COMPOSITUB (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L. 
 & D.) Iodide of potassium, 10 gr. j iodine, 
 
 5 gr. ; water, 1 pint ; dissolve. — Dose, 1 to 
 
 6 dr. ; in the usual cases where iodine is em- 
 ployed. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Iodide of potassium, 1 oz. ; 
 iodine,2dr.; water, 16 fl. oz. This isSOtimes 
 as strong as the preceding. — Dose, 5 to 20 
 drops. 
 
 Solations of Iodine. Syn. Liqitoe iodi 
 (B. P.). Prep. Dissolve 20 gr. of iodine and 30 
 gr. of iodide of potassium in 1 oz. of distilled 
 water. (Lugol's.) Syn. SOLUTIONES lODiNii 
 TEL iODVB,wiM. Prep. lodureted waters, 
 Nos. I, 2, and 3 ; iodine, IJ gr., 2 gr., and 
 2J gr. ; water, 1 pint. Drops. — Iodine, 
 1 scruple , iodide of potassium, 2 scruples ; 
 water, 9 dr. Lotions, l(c. — Iodine, IJ gr. 
 to 3 gr. i iodide of potassium, 3 gr. to 6 gr. ; 
 water, 1 pint. Rubefacient. — Iodine, 1 pint ; 
 iodide of potassium, 2 parts ; water, 12 parts. 
 Caustic. — Iodine, 1 part ; iodide of potassium, 
 1 part ; water, 2 parts. 
 
 Solution of Iodide of Iron. Syn. Liquob 
 PEBBi loDiDl. (Ph. U. S.). trep. Mix 2 oz. 
 (troy) of iodine with 5 oz. of water, and add 
 1 oz. (troy) of iron tilings, stir frequently, and 
 heat the mixture gently till it assumes a 
 greenish colour ; then filter into a glass bottle 
 containing 12 oz. of powdered sugar, and after 
 it has passed, pour distilled water on the filter, 
 until the filtered liquor, including the sugar, 
 measures 20 oz., last shake the bottle till the 
 sugar is dissolved. — Dose, 15 minims to 1 dr. 
 
 Solution of Iodine with Hemlock. Syn. 
 
 SOLUTIO lODIKII CUM CONIO. Dr SCUDA- 
 mobe's soLiTTioir. For inhaling. Iodine, 6 
 gr. ; iodide of potassium, 6 gr. ; rectified spi- 
 rit, 2 dr. ; water, 5 oz. 6 dr. From \ dr. to 
 5 dr. of this solution, with i dr. of tincture 
 of hemlock to be added to warm water at 120° 
 F. in a glass inhaler, and used twice a day. 
 Two thirds of the ingredients are first put 
 into the inhaler, and the rest added when half 
 the time for inhaling has elapsed. 
 
 Solution of I'ron (Alkaline). Syn. Liquoe 
 FEBEi AiKALiNi, L. Frep. (Ph. L. 1824.) 
 Iron filings, 2i dr.; nitric acid, 2 fi. oz. ; 
 water, 6 fl. oz. ; dissolve, decant, gradually add 
 of solution of carbonate of potash 6 fl. oz. 
 and in 6 hours decant the clear portion. This 
 was intended as an imitation of Stalil's Tinctura 
 Martis Alkalina. It is tonic, emmenagogue, 
 ka.—Dose, 20 to 60 drops. 
 
 Solution of Iron and Alum. Syn. Sonraro 
 PEEEI ALUMINOSA. (Swediaur.) Calcined 
 sulphate of iron, 10 scriijiies ; alum, 5 scruples; 
 water sufficient to dissolve them ; sulphuric 
 acid, 15 drops. — Dose, 10 to 15 drops. Once a 
 celebrated nostrum in Germany, under the 
 name of Tinctura nervosa. 
 
 Solntion, Javelle's. See Soltttion op Chlo- 
 
 EINATED POTASH. 
 
 ^ Solution, labarraqne's. See Solijiion op 
 Chloeinatsd soda. 
 
 Solntion of Lime. Syn. Liio watee; so- 
 
 LUTIO CALCIS HYDEATI8, LiQUOE CALCIS (Ph 
 
 L. & D.), Aqua calms (Ph. E.), L. Prep 
 (Ph. L.) Upon the lime, \ lb., first slaked (by 
 sprinkling it) with a little of the water, pour 
 the remainder of water, 12 pints, and shake 
 them well together (for 5 minutes — Ph. D.); 
 immediately cover the vessel, and set it aside 
 for three hours ; then keep the solution with 
 the remaining lime (equally divided) in stop- 
 pered glass vessels, and, when it is to be used, 
 decant the required portion from the clear 
 solution (replacing it with more water, and 
 agitating briskly, as before — Ph. E.). 
 
 LiQTJOE Calcis (B. P.). Syn, Lime water. 
 Put 2 oz. of slakel lime into a stoppered 
 bottle containing 1 gall, of distilled water, and 
 shake well for two or three minutes. After 
 12 hours the excess of lime will have subsided, 
 and the clear solution may be drawn off with 
 a siphon as it is required for use, or transferred 
 to a green glass bottle furnished with a well- 
 ground stopper. 
 
 Obs. Cold water dissolves more lime than 
 hot water. 1 pint of water at 32° Fabr. dis- 
 solves 13i gr., at 60° it dissolves W\ gr., but 
 at 212° only 6i gr. (Phillips.) 
 
 Uses, ^c. Lime water is antacid, astringent, 
 antilithic, tonic and vermifuge. — Dose. A 
 wine-glassful, or more, 2 or 3 times a day, in 
 milk or broth; in dyspepsia, diarrhoea, calcu- 
 lous affections, &c. ; and, externally, as a 
 detersive and discutient lotion. 
 
 Solntion of Lime (Saccharated). (B. P.) Syn. 
 
 LlQUOB CALCIS BACCHAEATUS. Prep, Slaked 
 lime, 1 ; refined sugar (in powder), 2 ; dis- 
 tilled water, 20 ; digest for some hours and 
 strain. — Dose, 15 to 60 minims in milk. 
 Solntion of Lithia, Effervescing. Syn. Li- 
 
 QTJOE LITHia; EFFEBTBSCENS. (B. P.) Prep. 
 
 Mix 10 gr. of carbonate of lithia and 1 pint of 
 water in a suitable apparatus, and charge with 
 carbonic acid gas under a pressure of 1 at- 
 mospheres. Keep in bottles securely corked. 
 
 Solution, Mackenzie's. Prep. From nitrate 
 of silver, 20 gr., dissolved in distilled water, 
 1 fl. oz. Used to wash the throat and fauce», 
 and to sponge the trachea, in affections of those 
 parts. 
 
 Solntion of Hagne'sia. Syn. Aeeated 
 
 MAQHESIA WATEE, CaEBONATED M. W., FLTTID 
 
 magnesia. Condensed solution op m., Con- 
 centbated s. op m. ; liquoe maonesi^ cab- 
 BONATis, Aqua m. c, L. ; Eau maonesienne, 
 Fr. Prep. (Dinnef ord's.) Water and How- 
 ard's heavy carbonate of magnesia, in the 
 proportion of 174 gr- of the latter to every 
 fl. oz. of the former, are introduced into a 
 cylindrical tinned copper vessel, and carbonic 
 acid, generated by the action of sulphuric 
 acid on whiting, is forced into it by steam 
 power for 5i hours, during the whole of which 
 time the cylinder is kept in motion. Sir J. 
 Murray's is similar. The Paris Codex orders 
 recently precipitated carbonate of magnesia to 
 
SOLUTION 
 
 1527 
 
 bo nscd whUe still inoiiit. Antacid and laxa- 
 tive. See t'LDID MAQNE8U. 
 
 Solntion, Min'eral. See Solction or Ah- 
 
 8ENITK OV POTASSA. 
 
 Solntion of Hor'phia. See Solutions of 
 Acetate, HyOkoculobatb, and Sdlphate. 
 
 Solution of Myrrli, Alkaline. Syn. So- 
 lUTIO MTKUH* ALKALINA. (Swediaur.) 
 Prep. Cnrbonate of Biida, 1 dr. j myrrh, 2 oz. ; 
 boiling water, 8 oz. Digest in a water batli for 
 2 dav8, frequently stiiring, and strain. 
 
 Solution of Nitrate of Mercury (Acid). >S>n. 
 
 LlQUOE HTDRAEOYttl NITBATIS ACIDUS (B. 
 P.). Prep. Mercury, 4 j nitric acid, 5 ; dis- 
 tilled water, li ; mix the nitric acid with the 
 water in a flask, and dissolve the mercury in 
 the mixture without the application of heat, 
 liuil gently for 15 minutes, cool, and preserve 
 the solution in a stoppered bottle. Used alone, 
 as a caustic ; 1 t» 2 minims to 1 oz. of water, 
 as a gargle ; and 1 minim to 2 oz. of water, as 
 an injection in gonorrhoea. 
 Solntion of Nitrate of Uercnry and Ammonia. 
 
 Sj/n. SOITJTIO HTDBAEGTBI ET AMMONIJi; 
 
 MtTBATia. Waed'b WHITE DBOP. Prep. Ni- 
 trate of ainmoniii and mercury in crystals, 1 
 (lart; I'ose water, 3 parts ; digest till dissolved. 
 Solntion of Nitrate of Sil'ver. %». Liquob 
 
 AEQBNTI NITBATIS (Ph. L.), SOLUTIO A. N. 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Nitrate of silver 
 (cryst), 1 dr. (40 gr.— Ph. E.); distilled 
 water, 1 fl. oz. (1600 gr.— Ph. E.); dissolve. 
 Used as nn escharotic, &c. It should be kept 
 from the light. See Lotion, Niteaib of 
 SiLTEB, &c. 
 
 Solution of O'pium (Sed'ative). See LiQroB. 
 
 Solntion of Oxysulpliate of Iron}. Syn. Li- 
 QUOB PEBBI OXTSULTHATIS, L. Prep. From 
 sulphate of iron (iu powder) and nitric acid, of 
 earh 8 dr. ; triturated together for 15 minutes, 
 and then dissolved in distilled water, IJ 11. oz. 
 — Dose, 5 or 6 to 12 drops. 
 
 Solution of Ferchloride of Iron. Syn. Li- 
 
 QUOB FEKBI PEliCilLOEIDI (B. P.). Prep. 
 Stronger solution of perchloride of iron (see 
 below), 1 J distilled w.ittr, 3. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 uiiuinis. 
 
 Solulion of Perchloride of Iron (Stronger). 
 Sj/n. Liquor pehei pebculoeidi pobtiob 
 (B. P.). Prep. Iron wire, 2 oz. ,- hydrochloric 
 acid, 12 oz, ; nitric ncid, 9 dr.; distilled 
 wntcr, 8 gr. Mix 8 of the hydrochloric acid 
 with the water, and pour the mixture ou the 
 iron wire, applying a gentle heat, so that the 
 whole of the uietnl may be dissolved; filter 
 the solution, and add to it the remainder of the 
 hydrochloric and nitric acids ; heat the mix- 
 ture brisk ly, until, on the sudden evolution of 
 red fumes, the liquid becomes of an orange- 
 brown colour, then evaporate by the heat of a 
 «ater bath until it is reduced to 10 fl. oz. 
 Used as an application to diphtheritic patches, 
 for injecting na;vi, as a powerful styptic, and 
 in the preparation of Solution op Pebohlob- 
 IDK of Ibon. (Sop above.) 
 
 Solution of Ferchloride of Uercnry. Syn. 
 
 LiQUOB HTDBABOTM PEECHLOBIDI (B. P.). 
 Prep. Corrosive sublimate, 10 gr. ; chloride 
 of ammonium, 10 gr. ; distilled water, 20 oz. ; 
 dissolve. — Dose, 30 to 120 mmims. 
 
 Solution of Ferchloride of Uercury (Com- 
 pound). S^n. LiQUOB HYDBABGTBI, PeB- 
 CHLOBIDI COMPOSITUS, LlQVOB MBBCUBIEILE 
 KOBMAiE (Mialhe). Prep. Distilled water, 
 16 oz. ; chloride of sodium, 16 f;r. ; chloride of 
 ammonium, 16 gr. ; white of 1 egg, perchloride 
 of mercury, 4 gr. Beat the white of egg with 
 the water, filter, dissolve the salts in the liquid 
 and filter again. 
 
 Solution of Permanganate of Fotassa. Sf/n. 
 
 LlQUOB POTASS.E PEUMANOANATIS (B. P.). 
 
 Prep. Permanganate of potai'^a, 4 gr. ; dis- 
 tilled water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. Diluted with 
 40 parts of water, it is used as a gar;.'le or as a 
 cleansing wash for diseased surface. — Dose, 2 
 to 4 dr. 
 
 Solntion of Ferni'trate of Iron. Syn. Solu- 
 tion OF PEBSESQUINITEATE OF IBON ; FeEKI 
 PEBNITBA8 LIQUOB (Ph. D.), SOLUTIO PEE- 
 SESQUINITBAS FEEKI (Kerr), L. Prep. (Ph. 
 D.). Take of pure nitric acid, 3 fl. oz. ; water, 
 10 fl. oz. ; mix, add fine iron wire, 1 oz. ; liis- 
 sulve, and to the clear solution aild as much 
 water as will make the whole measure 1) pint. 
 Sp. gr. 1-1U7.— Do*e, 5 or 6 to 30 drops, «r 
 more ; in passive hiemorrhage-i, mucous dis- 
 charges, chronic diarrhoea with prostration, 
 iSec. 
 
 Solntion of Fersnlphate of Iron. Syn. Liquob 
 PEBBI PEBSULPHATIS. Prep. Sulphate of iron, 
 8; 8ul|ihuric acid, J; nitric acid, j ; distilled 
 water, 12. Add the sulphuric acid to 10 of the 
 water, and dissolve the sulphate if iron in the 
 mixture with the aid of hciit. Mix the nitric 
 arid with the remaining 2 of the water, and 
 add the dilute acid to the solution of sul|>liate 
 of iron. Concentrate the whole by boiliiij^^ 
 until, by the sudden evolution of ruddy va- 
 pours, the liquid ceases to be black, and acquires 
 a red colour. A drop of the solution is now 
 to be tested with ferricjanide of potassium, 
 and if a blue precipitate be formed, a few ad- 
 ditional drops of nitric acid should be added, 
 and the boiling r^ewed, in order that the 
 whole may be converted into persulphate of 
 iron. When the solution is cold, make up the 
 quantity to 11 by the addition, if necessary, 
 of distilled water. Used in making several 
 preparations of iron ; it is also a good styptic. 
 
 Solntion of Phosphoric Ether. Si/n. Solu- 
 
 TIO PHOSPHOEI .ETHEBEA. Prep. Sliced' 
 phosphorus, 5 gr. ; rectified ether, 1 oz. ; mix, 
 set the bottle in a dark place for 3 or 4 days,, 
 shaking occasionally, and decant. 
 
 Solution for Plate. Si/n. Plate liquob v 
 SOLUTIO PEO ABOENTO, L. Prep. From alum, 
 cream of tartar, and common salt, of each 1 
 oz. ; water, j gall. ; dissolve. Used to increase 
 the lustre and whiteness of silver plate, the 
 article* being boiled in it. 
 
 Solntion of Fotas'sa. Si/n. Solution of 
 
 HYDBATE OP POTASSA, LlQUOE OF POTASSA, 
 
1528 
 
 SOLUTION 
 
 Potash water, CAtrsTio p. w. ; Liqtiob po- 
 
 TASSiE (U. P., Ph. L.), AQ0A POTASS^ (Ph. E.), 
 
 PoTAsea: CAUSTica; hquok (Ph. D.), Aqtta 
 KALI puEif, Lixivium sAPONABUM-f, Aqua 
 
 KALI CAUSTIOUMt, LlXIVHTM CAUSTICUMt, L. 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Lime (recently burnt), 8 
 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 gall.; sprinkle 
 a little of tlie water on the lime in an earthen 
 vessel, and, when it is slaked and fallen to 
 powder, add of carbonate of potassa 15 oz., 
 dissolved in the remainder of the water; bung 
 down, and shake frequently, until the mixture 
 is cold, then allow the whole to settle, and 
 decant the clear supernatant portion into per- 
 fectly clean and well-stoppered green-glass 
 bottles. Sp. gr. 1'063. It contains 6-1% of 
 pure potassa. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Ciirbonate of potassa (dry), 4 
 oz. ; quicklime, 2 oz. ; water, 45 fl. oz. ; boiling 
 briskly for a few minutes after each addition 
 of the milk of lime ; to yield at least 35 fi. oz., 
 by decantation, after 24 hours' repose in a deep^ 
 narrow, glass vessel. Sp. gr. 1"072. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Pure carbonate of potassa, 1 lb. ' 
 distilled water, 1 gall. ; dissolve, heat the solu- 
 tion to the boiling point in a clean iron vessel, 
 gradually add to it of fresh quicklime, 10 oz., 
 previously slaked with water, 7 fl. oz., and con- 
 tinue the ebullition for 10 minutes, with con- 
 stant stirring; next allow it to cool out of 
 contact with the air, and, when perfectly clear, 
 decant it by means of a syphon, and bottle it 
 as before. Sp. gr. 1'068. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Carbonate of potash, 2; slaked 
 lime, li; distilled water, 20; dissolve the car- 
 bonate of potash in the water, and having 
 heated the solution to the boiling point in a 
 clean iron vessel, gradually mix the slaked lime, 
 and continue the ebullition for 10 minutes 
 with constant stirring ; decant the clear liquid. 
 — Dose, 15 to 60 minims 3 times a day in 
 beer, milk, or Misiura Amygdal(B. 
 
 5. (Wohler.) Nitrate of potassa, 1 part, is 
 mixed, in alternate layers, with clippings of 
 sheet copper, 2 or 3 parts, and then heated to 
 moderate redness for about i an hour in a 
 copper or iron crucible; when cold, the po- 
 tassa is washed out with distilled water, and 
 the solution, after repose in a closed vessel, de- 
 canted as before. Not a trace of copper can 
 be detected in the liquid. The clippings may 
 be again used if mixed with a. little fresh 
 metallic copper. 
 
 6. (Wholesale.) From carbonate of potash 
 (kali), 1 lb., and quicklime, \ lb., to each gall, 
 of water. 
 
 7. (BeANDTSH'S ALKALINE SOLUTION ; Ll- 
 
 QUOE POTASsa; BiiANDiSHii.) From American 
 pearlasbes, 6 lbs. ; quicklime and wood ashes 
 (from the ash), of each 2 lbs.; boiling water, 
 6 galls, (old meas.) ; to each gall, of the clear 
 product is added 12 or 15 drops of oil of ju- 
 niper. This ' solution ' is mu{h asked for in 
 trade. Ordinary liquor of potassa is generally 
 sold for it. 
 
 Pur. " Nothing, or scarcely anything, is 
 
 thrown down from this solution on the addi- 
 tion of lime water ; and when it has been first 
 saturated by nitric acid, no precipitate falls on 
 the addition of carbonate of soda, chloride of 
 barium, or nitrate of silver. What is thrown 
 down by bichloride of platinum is yellowish." 
 (Ph. L.) 
 
 Uses, S^e, Liquor of potassa is antacid, diu- 
 retic, resolvent, and lithontriptic. — Dose, 10 
 to 30 or 40 drops, in any bland diluent (not 
 acidulous) ; in heartburn, gout, calculi, indu- 
 rations, scrofula, lepra, psoriasis, &c. 
 
 Obs. Quicklime fails to abstract the car- 
 bonic acid from the alkaline carbonates in 
 solutions much stronger than those above re- 
 ferred to. Weaker solutions may, however, 
 be easily concentrated by evaporation in iron 
 vessels. See Potassium, Htdeatb op, and 
 helow. 
 
 Solution of Potas'sa (Effervescing). Syn. 
 
 LiQUOE P0TASS.2E EFFEEVESCEIfS (B P.); Ef- 
 FEttVESCINa POTASH WATEE, SuPEECAEBO- 
 NATE OF POTASSA W. ; AftUA POTASS^ EFFBE- 
 VESCENS (Ph. E.), a. p. SUPEECAEBONATIS, 
 L. Prep. (Ph.L. & E.) Bicarbonate of potash, 
 1 dr. ; distilled water, 1 pint ; dissolve, force 
 in carbonic acid gas in excess, and keep it in 
 a well-stoppered bottle. Resembles soda water, 
 but sits better on the stomach. It is almost 
 specific in the early stages of >curvy, 
 
 (B. P.) Dissolve 30 gr. of bicarbonate of 
 potash in one pint of distilled water, filter, 
 pass in washed carbonic acid (obtained by the 
 action of sulphuric acid on clialk) up to a 
 pressure of 7 atmospheres. Keep in bottles 
 closely secured. 
 
 Ohs. An excellent substitute for this pre- 
 paration is to pour a bottle of soda water into 
 a tumbler containing 20 gr. of powdered bi- 
 carbonate of potash, and to drink it immedi- 
 ately. 
 
 Solution of Fotas'sio-tar'trate of An'timony. 
 Syn. SoLUTio antimonii potassio taetba- 
 TI3, Antimonii taetaeizati liquoe (Ph. 
 D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Tartarised antimony, 
 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 7 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 
 1 pint ; dissolve. Strength, doses, and uses, 
 similar to those of antimonial wine (which 
 see), than which it keeps better. 
 
 Solution, Prophylac'tic. See Hahnemann's 
 solution. 
 
 Solution of Protonitrate of Mercury. Syn. 
 
 LiQUOK HTDEAB&TBI KITKICI (PEOTO-NITBA- 
 
 Tis) (G. Ph.). Prep. Protonitrate of mer- 
 cury, 1 oz. ; distilled water, 9 oz. ; nitric acid 
 (1-185), 46 gr. Filter.— Z>o«e, 1 to 5 drops. 
 
 Solution of Sesqnicar'bonate of Ammonia. 
 See Solution of Cabbonatb of Ammonia. 
 
 Solution of Sil'icate of Potas'sa. See So- 
 lution of Flints. 
 
 Solution of So'da. Syn. Solution of ht- 
 
 DEATE of soda, LiQUOE OF SOI>A, CaUSTIC 
 
 soda watke ; LiQuoE soDa: (B. P., Ph. L.), 
 Sod* caustice hqdob (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Carbonate of soda, (crj St.), 32 oz. ; 
 lime, 9 oz. ; boiling distilled water, 1 gall, j 
 
SOLUTION 
 
 1529 
 
 propc'fd as for loUition of potassa. " In 100 
 irr. arc contninod 1 gr. of (pure) soda." (Ph. 
 L.) Sp. gr. 1-061 
 
 2. (I'll. D.) C'Hrl>onate of soda (oryst.), 2 
 lbs. i Iregli-bnrned lime, 10 oz. ; water, 1 gall. 
 7 fl. oz. ; ns liqaor of potassn. Sp. gr. 1 056. 
 
 8. (B. P.) Carbouiite of soda, 7 ; slaked 
 lime, 8 ; distilled water, 40; dissolve the car- 
 bonate in the water, boil in a clean iron vessel, 
 gnidually mixing the lime, and stirring con- 
 stantly for ten minutes ; decant into a green- 
 glnss bottle, with air-tight stopper. Sp. gr. 
 1-047.— Zlo.'«, i to 1 dr. 
 
 Solution of boda (Effervescing). Si/n. Soda 
 
 WATKB ; LiQCOB BOD.E EPFEBVEBCENS, AQITA 
 B. B. (Ph. E), A. 8. StrPBBOABBOlfATIB, SoVM 
 
 CABuoNATis AQnAACii)niA,L. Prep. (Ph. E.) 
 Kiearbonate of soda, 1 dr. ; distilled water, 
 
 1 pint; dissolve, and force carbonic acid gas 
 into the solution under pressure. Used aa iin 
 antacid and grateful stimulant, often pi-dving 
 gently laxative. The soda water of the shops 
 cannot be substituted for this preparation, as, 
 in opposition to it-i name, it is usually made 
 without soda. (H. P.) Half the strength. 
 
 Solution, Sol'dering. Pre/i. Dissolve zim- 
 in hydrochloric acid nearly to saturation, add 
 l-5th part of powdered sal ammoniac, and sim- 
 mer for 5 minutes. Used to make solder flow 
 i-asilv and tike well; applied with a feather. 
 SceSolDEBINO. 
 
 Solution, Speci'fic (Frank's). Syn. Specific 
 
 eOLmiON OP COPAIBA; LiQUOB OOPAIB.E 
 ALKALINA, L. Prep. Take of balsam of co- 
 paiba, 2 parts; liquor of potassa (Ph. L), 
 3 parts; water, 7 parts; boll the mixture lor 
 
 2 or 3 minutes, put it into a separator, and 
 allow it to stand for 5 or 6 days ; then draw it 
 off from the bottom, avoiding the upper 
 stratum of oil, and to the clear liquid add of 
 sweet spirit of nitre (perfectly free from acid), 
 1 part; shiiuld it turn foul or milky, a very 
 little liquor of potassa will usually briifhtcn it; 
 if nut, place it in a elean separator, and let it 
 stand, closclv covered, for a few days, andtlien 
 draw it off from the bottom as before, when it 
 will be perfeotly transparent, without filtering. 
 Slime persons add the sweet spirit of nitre 
 whilst the solution is still warm, mix it in as 
 rapidly as possible, and immediately cork or 
 fasten up the vessel. This is a good way when 
 the artiele is wanted in a hurry, but is objec- 
 tionable from the loss of spirit thereby occa- 
 sioneil, and the danger, without care, of burst- 
 ing the sepiirator.' 
 
 06*. A receipt for this article, upon the 
 authority of Battley, has been going the round 
 of the pharmaceutienl works for many years. 
 It is as follows: — Take 12 oz. of balsam of 
 copaiba, and 6 oz. of calcined macnesia ; rub 
 t<igether, add a pint of proof spirit, filter, and 
 then add i oz. of sweet spirits of nitre. 
 (' Gray's Supplement.') The product of this 
 formula, utterly unlike 'Frank's Specific So- 
 lutioti,' is a colourless tincture, scarcely fla 
 voure<l with copaiba, and holding very little 
 
 of the active matter of the balsam in solution, 
 owing to the compound formed with the mag- 
 nesia being insoluble in spirit. Such is the 
 affinity of this earth for copaiba (copaibic 
 acid), that it will even take it trom caustic 
 potast-a. See Copaiba, and its preparations. 
 
 Solution of Strychnia. Si/it. LiQOon 
 STBTCHNI.E (B. P.). Prep, "strychnia, in 
 crystals, 1 gr. j dilute hydrochloric acid 6 
 minims ; rectified spirit, 2 dr. ; distilled 
 water. 6 dr.; mix the hydrochloric acid 
 with 4 dr. of the water, and dissolve the 
 strychnia in it by means of heat; then add 
 the spirit and the remainder of the water. — 
 Dose, 4 to 10 minims. 
 
 Solution of Snbac'etate of lead. Si/n. Li- 
 
 QUOB OF BUBACETATB OF LEill, L. OP DI4CH- 
 TATK OF L.t, GOULAED'B EXTEAOT ; LiQUOH 
 PLUMBI, L. PLUMBI DIACETATIS (Ph. L.), 
 PlUMBI DIACETATIS SOIDTIO (Ph. E.), PlTJMBI 
 
 sciHACETATis LicjroE (Fb. D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Acetate of lead, 27 oz. ; litharge, in 
 fine powder, 16 oz. ; water, 3 quarts; boil for 
 i an hour, constantly stirring, and then add 
 enough distilled water to make the whole mea- 
 sure 3 quarts; lastly, filter, if required, and 
 keep it in a closed vessel. The proportions 
 ordered in the Ph. E. are similar. Sp. gr. 
 1-260. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Acetate of lead, 6 oz. ; litharge, 
 4 oz ; distilled water, 1 quart ; boil, &c., iis 
 before ; to produce 1 quart. Sp. gr. 10G6. 
 (B. P.) the same. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From finely powdered li- 
 tharge, 32 lbs.; distilled vinet;:ir, 32 galls.; 
 boil in a perfectly bright copper pan for 2 
 hours, cool, add water to make up 32 galls., 
 again simmer for 1 minute, cover up the vessel, 
 and in an hour decant the clear portion. Com- 
 mon trade strength. (See below.) 
 
 Solution of Snbacetateof Lead (Dilnte). Sgu. 
 
 GOPLABD, QODLATiDB tiiTlON, G.'S WATEB ; 
 LltHTOB PLUMBI DIACETATIS DILUIUS (Ph. L.), 
 PlUMBI BCBACETATIS LIQ0OE COMPOSIHTS 
 
 (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Liquor of 
 diacetaie of lead, 1^ fl. dr. ; proof-spirit, 2 fl. 
 dr. ; distilled water, 1 pint; mix. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Solutiou of subacetate of lead 
 and proof spirit, of each 2 fl. oz. ; distilled 
 water, i gall. ; mix, filter, and preserve it in a 
 well-stoppered bottle. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Solution of subacetate of lead, 
 2 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. dr.; distilled 
 water. If ^ oz. Filter through paper. 
 
 Obs. Both the above preparations were 
 formerly made with common vinegar, and 
 hence were coloured, but those of the Pharm. 
 are white. If wanted coloured, a little spirit 
 colouring may be added. The stronger liquor 
 is only used diluted; and the dilute solution is 
 now seldom prepared by the wholesale drug- 
 gi-t. The last (diluted solution) is employed 
 as a sedative, refrigerant, and astringent wash, 
 in various affections. Both are poisonous. 
 For the antidotes, see Lead. 
 
 Solutios of Sulphate of Atropia. Sgn. Li- 
 
1530 
 
 SOLVENT— SOUP 
 
 QFOB AIEOPIffii SULPHATIS (B. P.). Prep. 
 Sulphate of atropia, 4 gr. ; distilled water, 
 1 oz. ; dissolve. — I)ose, 1 to 2 minims. 
 Solution of Snlphate of Copper. Syn. Li- 
 
 QITOB CUPEI SULPHATI8 C0MP0SITU8, AQBA 
 
 STYPTIOA. (Ph. L. 1746). Sulphate of copper, 
 3 oz. ; alum, 3 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 oz. ; (by 
 wt.), water, 24 oz. For external use. 
 
 Solution of Sulphate of Indigo. Syn. Li- 
 QOOE INDIOO stTLPHATls. Prep. Digest 1 
 part of powdered indigo in 10 of sulphuric 
 acid ; when dissolved dilute it with water. 
 Used as a test. 
 
 Solution of Sulphate of Mor'pMa. Syn. 
 LlQUOB MOKPHIS SULPHATIS, L. Prep. From 
 sulphate of morphia, as the solution of the 
 acetate or hydrochlorate. The nses, doses, 
 &c., are the same. 
 
 Solution of Snlpliate of Zinc (Compound). 
 See Solution of Alum, Compound. 
 
 Solution of Sul'phuret of Potassium. Syn. 
 Solution op htdeosulphate op potassa ; 
 solutio p0tas9ii sulphubeti, liquob po- 
 
 TA3SJE HTDKOSULPHATIS, AqUA POSASSJE SUL- 
 
 PHUEETI (Ph. D.), L. Prep. Take of washed 
 sublimed sulphur, 1 part i water of caustic 
 potassa, 11 parts : mix, boil for 10 minutes, 
 Klter, and keep the solution in well-closed 
 bottles. Sp.gr. 1"117. The product is a mixed 
 solution of hydrosulphate and hyposulphate of 
 potassa. — Dose, 10 to 60 drops, diluted in 
 water; and, externally, made into a lotion; 
 in itch, and several other eruptive diseases. 
 
 Solution of Tartrate of Magnesia. Syn. Li- 
 QUOE m:a(}nesi.e TAETKATI9. (Airat.) Prep. 
 Tartaric acid, 15i oz. troy ; distilled water, 20 
 pints; fresh calcined magnesia, diffused in 16 
 oz. of distilled water, 3 oz. troy and 1 dr. 
 — Dose. As a purgative, 16 oz. 
 
 Solution of Veratria. Syn. Solutio teea- 
 TEiiE. Prep. Veratrine, 1 gr. ; distilled water, 
 2i oz. Dr Turnbull's solution, for external 
 use, is — veratria, 1 scruple; rectified spirit, 
 2oz. 
 
 Solution, Swan's. Syn. Solutio soBiE 
 HTPQPHOSPHiTis. Prep, Mr. Squire says 
 this contains 3 gr. of the salt in a drachm. 
 
 SOL'VEIIT. Syn. Mensteuum, L. The 
 liquid in which any substance is dissolved. 
 The substance dissolved is, occasionally, called 
 the ' solvend.' (Kirwan.) 
 
 Solvent, Glazier's. Syn. Glaziee's pickle. 
 From soft soap dissolved in thrice its weiglit 
 of strong soapers' lye ; or, from freshly slaked 
 lime made into a thin paste or cream with 
 twice its weight of pearlash dissolved in a 
 little water. Very caustii;. Used to soften 
 old puttv, and to remove old paint. 
 
 SOMH AM BULISM. Children are most snb- 
 jeeted to sleep-walking. When adults are 
 affected with it the cause may generally he 
 traced to mental exhaustion, over-excitement, 
 or emotional feeling. The most preferable 
 method of awakening a somnambulist, if this be 
 desirable, is by dashing cold water on the 
 face. It is well to occasionally administer an 
 
 aperient, and also to rectify any errors of diet, 
 if necessary, and to remove by the exercise of 
 judicious and kindly advice, and change of 
 scene undue excitement or morbid feeling. 
 
 The other precautious, such as securing the 
 feet, &c., during sleep, guarding the exits of 
 the bed-chamber, are so obvious as to need no 
 further allusion to. 
 
 SOOT. Syn. FuilOO. Wood soot was for- 
 merly officinal, and reputed vermifuge and 
 antiseptic. The soot from pit-coal contains, 
 besides empyreumatic matter, sulphate of am- 
 monia; hence it is valnable as a manure, 
 when not too freely applied. It is also em- 
 ployed by erardeners to kill insects. 
 
 SOFOMF'ICS. Hypnotics (which see). 
 
 SOEBITE. A crystalline saccharine sub- 
 stance resembling mannite, obtained by Bous- 
 singaultfrom the berries of the mountain ash. 
 It was obtained from the liquid containing 
 the undecomposed saccharine matter remain- 
 ing after the juice of the berries had been 
 subjected to fermentation. 
 
 SOU'JEE. Syn. Sooj^ee. A species of 
 semolina. Semoletta {semola rarita) is a still 
 smaller variety of pearled wheat, separated 
 from the others by means of a sieve. ' Bister's 
 soojee' is said to be a mixture of ordinary 
 wheat flour and sugar. 
 
 SOUE KROUT. See Sauee-keout. 
 
 SOUP. A strong decoction of flesh, properly 
 seasoned with salts, spices, &c., for the table. 
 The different tastes of people require more or 
 less of the flavour of spices, salt, garlic, butter, 
 &c., which can, therefore, never be ordered by 
 general rules. If the cook has not a good 
 taste, and attention to that of his or her 
 employers, not all the ingredients which nature 
 and art can furnish will give an exquisite 
 flavour to the dishes. The proper articles 
 should be always at hand, and must be pro- 
 portioned until the true zest be obtained. A 
 variety of flavours may be given to different 
 dishes served at the same time, or even to the 
 same soup, by varying the condiments and 
 Apices. At a Parisian restaurant one cauldron 
 is made to produce almost every imaginable 
 variety of soup. 
 
 Soup, Cabbage, Cheap. Wash a large cab- 
 bage and cut it into narrow strips, throwing 
 them into J a gallon of boiling water, contain- 
 ing 2 oz. of butter. Let it boil for an hour 
 and a half; then add half a pint of milk and 
 flavour with pepper and salt. Serve when 
 hot. 
 
 Soup, Carrot. Ingeedients eequieed. — 
 4 quarts of liqnor in which a leg of mutton or 
 beef has been boiled, a few beef bones, 6 large 
 carrrots, 2 large onions, 1 turnip, seasoning of 
 salt and pepper to taste, 3 lumpa of sugar, 
 and cayenne. 
 
 Mode. Put the liqnor, bones, onions, turnips, 
 pepper and salt into a stewpan,and simmer for 
 3 hours. Scrape and cut the carrots thin, strain 
 the soup on them, and stew them till soft 
 enough to pulp through a hair sieve or coarse 
 
SOUP 
 
 1531 
 
 cloth j then boil the pulp with the soup, which 
 ihould b« of the oongittency of pea Boup. 
 Add cayenne. Pulp only the red part of tlie 
 carrot, and make thii soap the day before it is 
 wanted. 
 
 Time. — i\ hnurg. Seasonable from October 
 to March. Sufficient for 8 persona. 
 
 Soup, Celery. Inobedientb. — 9 heads of 
 celery, 1 teaspoonful of salt, nutmeg to taste, 
 
 1 lump <if sugar. \ pint of strong stock, a 
 pint of crexm, and 2 quurts of boiling water. 
 
 Mode. — Cut the celery into small pieces; 
 throw it into the water, seasoned with the 
 uutmeg, salt and sugar. Boil it till sufficiently 
 tender; pass it through a sieve, add the stock 
 and simmer it for half an hour. Now put in 
 the cream, bring it to the boiling point, and 
 serve immediately. 
 
 Time. — 1 hour. 
 
 Soap, Oiblet. Scald and carefully clean 3 
 or i sets of gonre or duck giblets; let them 
 stew well, a pound or two of gravy beef, sciag 
 of mutton, or the bone of a knuckle of veal, 
 an ox-tail, or some shanks of mutton, with 3 
 onions, a large bunch of sweet herbs, a tea- 
 spoonful of white pepper, and a large spoon- 
 ful of salt. Add 6 pints of water and sim- 
 mer till the gizzards (which must be each in 
 four pieces) are quite tender; skim nicely, 
 and add a i pint of cream, 2 teaspoonfuls of 
 mushroom powder, and 1 oz. of butter mixed 
 with a dessert-spoonful of Hour. Let it boil a few 
 minutes, and serve with the giblets. Instead 
 of cream, two glasses of sherry or Madeira, 
 a large spoonful uf ketchup, and some cayenne 
 iHuy be used for the seasoning. Add salt when 
 the soup is in the tureen. 
 
 For the larger part of the above culinary 
 preparations we are indebted to the excellent 
 cooking uiauimls of Miss Acton and Mrs 
 Beeton. 
 
 Soup, a Good Family. Inqbedients. — 
 Remains of a cold tongue, 2 lbs. of shin of 
 beef, any coM pieces of meat or beef bones, 
 
 2 turnips, 2 carrots, 2 onions, 1 parsnip, 1 
 head of celery, 4 quarts of water, \ tearupful 
 uf rice, salt nnd pepper to taste. 
 
 Mode, — Put all the ingredients in a stew- 
 pan, and simmer gently for 4 hours, or until 
 all the goodness is drawn from the meat. 
 Strain off the soup and let it stand till cold. 
 The kernels and soft part of the tongue must 
 be saved. When the soup is wanted for use, 
 skim off all the fat, put in the kernels and 
 soft parts of the tongue, slice in a small 
 quantity of fresh carrot, turnip, and onion ; 
 stew till the vegetables are tender, and serve 
 with toasted bread. 
 
 Tune — 5 hours. Seasonable at any time. 
 Sufficient for S prrnons. 
 
 Soap, Gravy. iNasEDiENis. — 4 lbs. of shin 
 of beef, a piece of the knuckle of veal weigh- 
 ing 4 11)8., a few pieces of trimmings of meat 
 or pooliry, 3 slices of nicely flavoured lean 
 ham, i lb. of butter, 2 onions, 4 carrots, 1 tur- 
 nip, nearly a head of celery, 1 blade of mace. 
 
 6 cloves, a bunch of savoury herbs, seasoning 
 of salt and pepper to taste, 3 lumps of sugur, 
 
 5 quarts of boiling soft water. It can be fla- 
 voured with ketchup, Leamington sauce, or 
 Harvey's sauce and a little soy. 
 
 Mode. — Slightly brown the meat and ham 
 in the butter, but do not let them burn. When 
 this done, pour to it the water, put in the salt, 
 and as the scum rises take it off ; when no 
 more appears, add all the other ingredients, 
 and let the soup simmer slowly by the fire for 
 
 6 hours without stirring it any more from the 
 bottom ; take it off, and pass it through a 
 sieve. When perfectly cold and settled all 
 the fat should be removed, leaving the sedi- 
 ment untouched, which serves nicely for thick 
 gravies, hashes, &c. The flavourings should 
 be added when the soup is heated for table. 
 
 Time. — 7 hours. Seasonable all the jear. 
 Sufficient for 12 persons. 
 
 Soap, Qieen Pea. Inobedients. — 3 pints 
 of green peas, \ lb. of butter, 2 or 3 thin slices 
 of ham, 4 onions sliced, 4 shredded lettuces, the 
 crumb of 2 French rolls, 2 handfuls of spinach, 
 1 lump of sugar, 2 quarts of medium stock. 
 
 Mode. — Put the butter, ham, 1 quart of the 
 peas, onions and lettuces, to a pint of stock 
 and simmer for an hour ; then add the remain- 
 der of the stock, with the crumb of the French 
 rolls, and boil for another hour. Now boil the 
 spinach, squeeze it very dry, and rub it, with 
 the soup, through a sieve, to give the prepara- 
 tion a good colour. Have ready a pint of 
 young peas boiled ; add them to the soup, put 
 in the sugar, give one boil, and serve. 
 
 Time. — 2i hours. Seasonable from June to 
 the end of August. Sulficieut for six per- 
 sons. 
 
 *,* It will be well to add, if the peas are 
 not quite young, a litile more sugar ; where 
 economy is es-ential, water may be used in- 
 stead of stock lor this sonp, boiling in it like- 
 wise the peoshells, and using rather a larger 
 quantity of vegetaldes. 
 
 Soup, Hare. Cut doivn a hare into joints, 
 and put it into a soup-pot or large stewpan, 
 with about b pound of lean h nn, in thick 
 slices, 3 moderately sized miid onions, 3 blades 
 of mace, a fiitrj^ot of thyme, sweet marjoram 
 and parsley, witli about 3 quarts Oi good beef 
 .■toi:k. Lee it stew very gently for full three 
 hours from the time of its fir,-t beginning to 
 boil, and more if the hare be old. Strain the 
 soup, and pound together very fine, the slices 
 of ham and all the flesh of the back, legs, 
 and shoulders of the hare, and put this meat 
 into a stewpan with the liquor, in which it was 
 boiled, the crumb of two French rolls, and hal. 
 a pint of port wine. Set it on the stove to 
 simraei- twenty minutes ; then rub it through 
 a sieve, place it again on the stove till very 
 hot, hut do not let it boil ; season it with salt 
 and cayenne, and send it to table directly. 
 
 Ingkedients. — Hare, 1 ; ham, 12 t'l 16 oz. ; 
 onions, 3 to 6j maee, 3 blades; fiiggot of sa- 
 voury herbs ; beef stock, 3 quarts ; 2 hours. 
 
1532 
 
 SOUP 
 
 Crumb of 2 rolls; port wine, } pint; little 
 Bait and cayenne ; 20 minutes. 
 
 Soup, Hare, a less Expensive. Four on two 
 pounds of neck or shin of beef, and a liare well 
 washed and carved into joints, one gallon of 
 cold water, and when it boils and has been 
 thoroughly skimmed, add 1^ oz. of salt, 2 
 onions, 1 large head of celery, 3 moderate- 
 sized carrots, a tablespoonful black pepper- 
 corns, and 6 cloves. 
 
 Let these stew gently for 3 hours, or longer, 
 should the hare not be perfectly tender. Then 
 take up the principal joints, cut the meat from 
 them, mince, and pound it to fine piiste, with 
 the crumb of 2 penny rolls (or 2 oz. of crumb 
 of household bread), which has been soaked in 
 a little of the boiling soup, and then pressed 
 very dry in a cloth ; strain, and mix smoothly 
 with it the stock from the remainder of the 
 hare; pass the soup through a strainer, season 
 it with cayenne, and serve it when at tlie point 
 of boiling ; if not sufficiently thick, add to it 
 a tablespoonful of arrow-root, moistened with 
 a little broth, and let the soup simmer for an 
 instant afterwards. Two or 3 glasses of port 
 wine, and 2 dozen of small forcemeat balls 
 may be added to this soup with good effect. 
 
 Ingbedients.— Beef, 2 lbs.; hare, 1; wa- 
 ter, 1 gall. ; salt, li oz. ; onions, 2 ; celery, 1 
 head ; carrots, 3 ; bunch of savoury herbs ; 
 peppercorns, 1 tcaspoonful ; cloves, 6; 3 hours 
 or more. Bread, 2 oz. ; cayenne, arrow-root 
 (if needed) 1 tablespoonful. 
 
 Sonp, Haricot Bean. Take a quart of hari- 
 cot beans and let them soak all night in cold 
 water. Then pour on them 2J pints of cold 
 water, add 1 onion, and put on the fire, and 
 when the liquid begins to boil, let them con- 
 tinue to boil for 3 hours. Then remove from 
 the fire and strain through a wire sieve, aftfr 
 which return to the saucepan, and season with 
 pepper and salt ; next add 2 oz. of butter and 
 a little milk. Then just boil up, and serve. 
 An economical and nutritious soup for the 
 poor. 
 
 Soup, Julienne. Ingbedients. — J pint car- 
 rots, 4 pint of turnips, 4 pint of oniuns, 2 or 
 3 leeks, i head of celery, 1 lettuce, a little 
 sorrel and chervil, if liked, 2 oz. butter, 2 
 quarts <if medium stock. 
 
 Mode. — Cut the vegetables into strips about 
 li in. Ion?, and be paiticulav they are all the 
 srtme size, or some will be hard, whilst the 
 others will be done to a pulp. Cut the lettuce, 
 sorrel, and chervil into larger pieces ; fry the 
 carrots in the butter, and pour the stock boil- 
 ing to them. When this is done, add all the 
 other vegetables thereto, and stew gently lor 
 nearly an hour. Skim oft' all the fat, pour the 
 soup over thin slices of bread cut round, about 
 the size of a shilling, and serve. 
 
 Time. — IJ hour. Seasonable all the year. 
 Sufficient for 7 or 8 persons. 
 
 *#*, In summer, green peas, as asparagus 
 tops, French beans, &o., can be added. When 
 the vegetables are very strong, instead of fry- 
 
 ing them in butter at first, they should be 
 blanched, and afterwards simmered in the 
 stock. 
 
 Soup, Macaroni. Throw 4 oz. of fine, fresh, 
 mellow Naples macaroni into a pan of fast- 
 boiling water, with about 1 oz. of fresh but- 
 ter, and a small onion stuck with 3 or 4 cloves 
 (the onion must be omitted for white soups). 
 When it has swelled to its full size, and be- 
 come tender, drain it well, cut it into half- 
 inch lengths, and slip it into a couple of quarts 
 of clear gravy sonp ; let it simmer for a few 
 minutes, when it will be ready for table. Ob- 
 serve that the macaroni should be boiled quite 
 tender ; but it should by no means be allowed 
 to burst, nor to become pulpy. Serve grated 
 Parmesan cheese with it. 
 
 Ingbedients. — Macaroni, 4 oz. ; butter, 1 
 oz. ; J small onion; 5 cloves; J hour, or more. 
 In soup 5 to 10 minutes. 
 
 Soup, Mock Turtle. Ingredients. — Half a 
 calf's head, i lb. butter, i lb. lean ham, 2 ta- 
 blespoonfuls of minced parsley, a little minced 
 lemon thyme, sweet marjoram, basil, 2 onions, 
 a few chopped mushrooms (when obtainable), 
 2 shalots, 2 tablespoonfuls of fiour, 2 glasses 
 of madeira or sherry, forcemeat balls, cayenne, 
 Siilt and mace to taste, the juice of one lemon 
 and 1 Seville orange, 1 dessert-spoonful of 
 pounded sugar, 3 quarts of best strong stock. 
 
 Mode. — Scald the head with the skin on, 
 remove the brain, tie the head up in a cloth, 
 and let it boil for an hour. Then take the 
 meat from the bones, cut it into small square 
 pieces, and throw them into cold water. New 
 take the meat, put it into a stewpan, and 
 cover it with stock; let it b lil gently for an 
 hour, or rather more, if not quite tender, and 
 set it on one side. Melt the butter in another 
 stewpan, and add the ham, cut small, with the 
 herbs, parsley, onions, shalots, mushrooms, and 
 nearly a pint of stock ; let these simmer slowly, 
 fur 2 hours, and then dredge in as much flour 
 as will dry up the butter. Fill up with the 
 remainder of the stock, add the wine, let it 
 stew gently for 10 minutes, rub it through a 
 sieve, and put it to the caU's head ; season 
 with cayenne, and, if required, a little salt; 
 add the juice of the orange and lemon ; and 
 when liked, i teaspoonful of pounded mace, 
 and the sugar. Put in the forcemeat balls, 
 simmer 5 minutes, and serve very hot. 
 
 Time. — 4i hours. Seasonable in winter. 
 Sufficient tor 10 persons. 
 
 *«* The bones of the head should he well 
 stewed in the liquor it was first boiled in, and 
 will make good white stock, flavoured with 
 vegetables. 
 
 Soup, Ox-tail. A very inexpensive and nu- 
 tritious soup may be made of ox-tails, but it 
 will be insipid without the addition of a little 
 ham, knuckle of bacon, or a pound or two of 
 other meat. 
 
 Wash and soak 3 tails, pour on them a gal- 
 lon of cold water, let tliem be brought gra- 
 dually to boil, throw in 1^ oz. of salt, and 
 
SOURING— SPANISH PLIES 
 
 1533 
 
 eirar off the scnin carefully as soon as it forms 
 upon the Burrnci' ; when it ceases to rise, add 
 tour moderate.sizud currott, from 2 to 4 onions, 
 according to the taste, a large faggot of sa- 
 voury herbs, n head of celery, a couple of 
 turnips, 6 or 8 cloves, and ) a teaspoonfiil of 
 peppercorns. Stew these gently from 3 to 3^ 
 hours, if the tails b^ very large; lift them out, 
 strain the liquor, and skim off all the fat; 
 divide the tails into joints, and put them into 
 a couple of quarts or rather more of the stock ; 
 stir in when these begin to boil, u thickening 
 of arrow-root or rice flour, mixed with as much 
 cayenne and salt as may be required to flavour 
 the soup well, and serve it very hot. 
 
 Inouediknts. — On tails, 3 ; water, 1 gall, j 
 salt H oz. ; carrots, 4 ; onions, 2 to 4 ; tur- 
 nips, 2 ; celery, 1 head ; cloves, 8 ; pepper- 
 corns, i ti'uspronf ul ; faggot of savoury herbs ; 
 3 to 3^ hours. For a richer soup, 6 to 6 
 hours. 
 
 Soup, Ordinary Pea. Wash well a quart 
 of good split peas, and float off such as remnin 
 on the Burface of the water j soak them for 
 one night, and boil them with a bit of soda 
 the size of a filbert, in just sufficient water to 
 allow them to break to a mash. Put them 
 into from 3 to 4 quarts of good beef broth, and 
 stew them in it gently for an hour; then work 
 the whole throngh ii sieve, heat afresh as much 
 as may be required for table, season it with 
 salt, or cayenne, or common pepper, clear it 
 perfectly from scum, and send it to table with 
 fried or toasted bread. Celery sliced and 
 stewed in it will be found a great improve- 
 ment, 
 
 Inohbdibnts. — Peas, 1 quart ; soaked one 
 night, boiled in 2 quarts or rather more of 
 water, 2 to 2i hours. Beef broth, 3 to 4 
 quarts; 1 hour. Salt and cuyeune or pepper, 
 as needed ; 3 minutes. 
 
 Soap, Portable. St/n. Qlaze. From skin 
 of beef, or other like part; the soup being 
 gently simmered until reduced to the consist- 
 ence of a thin syrup, and then poured into 
 small upright jelly-pots, with covers, or, upon 
 flat dishes, to lie about ^ inch deep. The 
 latter, when set, is divided into pieces, which 
 are dried. Used to make extemporaneous soup 
 and glazes. A similar article, prepared on the 
 large scale, now generally forms part of every 
 ship's stores. 
 
 Sonp, Potato. Mash to u smooth paste, 3 
 lbs. of good mealy potntoes, which have been 
 steamed, or boiled very dry; mix with them, 
 by degrees, 2 quarts of boiling broth, pass the 
 soup through a strainer, set it again on the 
 fire, add pepper and salt, and let it boil for 
 five minutes. Take off entirely the black 
 scum thiit will rise upon it, and serve it very 
 hot, with fried or toasted bread. Where the 
 flavour is approved, 2 oz. of onions minced 
 and fried a light brown, may be added to the 
 soup, and stewed in it for 10 minutes before it 
 is sent to tlie table. 
 
 iMOBBDiBKis.— Potatoes, 3 lbs. ; broth, 2 
 
 quarts; 5 minutes. (With onions, 2 oz.) 10 
 minutes. 
 
 Sonp, Spanish Onion. Peel two larp:e Spa- 
 nish onions and cnt them into rings; fry 
 them with a little dripping in a stewpan. 
 When the onions have browned, add 2^ pints 
 of boiling water, and let them boil for two 
 hours and a half; add pepper and salt to 
 flavour, and a little vinegar. Thicken with 
 oatmeal or bread crumbs (oatmeal is the 
 more nourishing); let the mixture boil for 
 another half hour, and serve. A good cheap 
 wholesome soup. 
 
 Sonp, Turnip, Cheap. Wash and wipe the 
 tnrnips, pare and weigh them ; allow 1) lb. for 
 every quart of soup, cut them in slices about 
 i inch thick. Melt 4 oz. of butter in a clean 
 stewpan, and put in the turnips before it begins 
 to boil ; stew them gently } hour, taking care 
 that they shall not brown, tlien have the pro- 
 per quantity of sonp ready boiling, pour it on 
 them and let them simmer in it for j hour. 
 Pulp the whole throngh a coarse sieve or soup 
 strainer, put it again on the Are, keep it stirred 
 until it has boiled three or four minutes, take 
 off the scum, add salt or pepper if required, 
 and serve it very hot. 
 
 Ingbbdiekts. — Turnips, 3 lbs. ; butter, 4 
 oz, ; t hour. Soup, 2 quarts ; | hour. Last 
 time, 3 minutes. 
 
 Soup, Vermicelli. Drop very lightly and 
 by degrees 6 oz. of vermicelli, broken rather 
 small, into 3 quarts of boiling bouillon, or 
 clear gravy soup ; let it simmer for half an 
 hour over a gentle fire, and stir it often. 
 
 Inobediknts. — Bouillon or gravy soup, 3 
 quarts, vermicelli, 6 oz. ; 30 minutes. Or soup, 
 3 quarts ; vermicelli, 4 oz, ; blanched in boil- 
 ing water, 5 minutes ; stewed iu soup 10 to 15 
 minutes. 
 
 SOUE'ING. See Malt iiQUOEa and Wines. 
 
 SOT. Genuine soy is a species of thick 
 black sauce, imported from China. Prep. 
 Take of the seeds of Soja hitpida (white 
 haricots or kidney beans may be used for 
 them), 1 gall.; boil them in water, q. s., until 
 soft, add of bruised wheat, 1 gall., and keep 
 the mixture in a warm place for 24 hours ; 
 then add of common salt, 1 gall.; water, 2 
 gall. ; put the whole into a stone jar, and bung 
 it up loosely for two or three months, shaking 
 it very frequently during the whole time ; 
 lastly press out the liquor and bottle it ; the 
 residuum may be treated afresh with water 
 and salt, for soy of an inferior quality. 
 
 Obs. The soy of the shops is, in nine cases 
 out of ten, a spurious article made in this 
 country, by simply saturating molasses or 
 treacle with common salt. A better and a 
 really wholesome imitation is made as follows : 
 —Malt syrup, 1 gall, (or, 13i lbs.) ; treacle, 
 5 lbs.; salt, 4i lbs. ; mushroom juice, 1 quart; 
 mix, with a gentle heat, and stir until the 
 union is complete ; in a fortnight decant the 
 clear portion. 
 
 SPANISH FLIES. See Canthakides. 
 
1534, 
 
 SPAEADBAP— SPECIES 
 
 SPAR'ADEAP. Si/n. Spabadeapum, L. 
 Originally a cerecloth ; now applied to spread 
 plasters ; as gpAKADEAPDM COMMUNE, common 
 strapping or adhesive plaster; 8. tesicato- 
 KIUM, blistering plaster or tissue, &c. 
 
 The following are in occasional demand by 
 the pharmacist: — 
 
 Sparadrap, Opium. Sj/n, Spabadeapum 
 OPii (M. SchcEufelle.) Prep. On a piece of 
 black sarcenet of a close and strong texture, 
 properly stretched ; spread with a brush, 3 
 layersof extract of opium, softened with water, 
 to the consistence of treacle, and mixed with 
 a sixth part of powdered gum. Keep the 
 plaster dry. 
 
 Sparadrap, Thapsian. Si/a. Spabadeapum 
 THAPSI2E. (P. Cod.) Prep. Yellow wax, 4i 
 oz. ; resin, l^oz. ; Burgundy pitch, H oz. ; 
 boiled turpentine, IJ oz. ; Swiss turpentine, i 
 oz.; glycerin, J oz. ; honey, i oz. ; resin of 
 thupsia, J oz. Melt the first five substances 
 togetherand strain through linen. Keep tliem 
 liquefied and add the glycerin, the honey, 
 and the resin. When well mixed, and of a 
 proper consistence, spread on strips of linen 
 cloth. 
 
 Sparadrap, Wax. Spabadeapum cum oeea, 
 ToiLE de mai. (P. Cod.) Frep. White wax, 
 8 oz. ; (by wt.), oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; (by wt.), 
 Swiss turpentine, 1 oz. Melt together and dip 
 into it strips of linen cloth, which are to be 
 passed between wooden rollers, to remove the 
 superfluous plaster. Spread on paper it forms 
 waxed paper. 
 
 SPARTE'IITD. St/n. Spaeteina, L. A 
 volatile oily liquid, piissessing basic properties, 
 obtained from Spartium scoparium, or broom. 
 It is highly poisonous, and resembles couine 
 and nicotine in its general properties. 
 
 SPASMS. Si/n. Ceamp; Spasmus, L. An 
 involuntary contraction of the muscles, gene- 
 rally of the extremities, accompanied with pain 
 more or less severe. Spasms are distinguished 
 into clonic spasms or convulsions, in which 
 the contractiiins and relaxations are alternate, 
 as in epilepsy ; and into tonic spasms, in 
 which there is continued rigidity, as iu locked- 
 jaw. That form which commonly attacks the 
 muscles of the legs and feet, especially after 
 great exertion or exposure to cold, is commonly 
 called cramp. The best treatment for this is 
 immediately to stand upright, and to well rub 
 the part with the hand. The application of 
 strong stiran/ants, as spirits of ammonia, or of 
 anodynes, as opiate liniments, has been recom- 
 mended. When spasm or cramp occurs in the 
 stomach, a tea-spoonful of sal volatile in water, 
 or a teaspoonful of good brandy, may be 
 swallowed immediately. When cramp comes 
 or during cold bathing, the limb should he 
 thrown out as suddenly and violently as pos- 
 sible, which will generally remove it, care 
 being also taken not to become flurried or 
 frightened, as presence of mind is very essen. 
 tial to personal safety on such an occasion. A 
 common cause of spasm is indigestion, and 
 
 the u«e of acescent liquors; these should, 
 therefore, be avoided, and bitters and ab- 
 sorbents had recourse to. See Ahtispasmo- 
 Dics, and the names of the principal spasmodic 
 diseases. 
 
 SPEAE'MINT. See Mint. 
 
 SPE'CIES. (In pharmacy.) Mixtures of 
 dried plants, or parts of plants, in a divided 
 state, which, for convenience, are kept mixed 
 for use. The dry ingredients of pills, con- 
 serves, electuaries, mixtures, &c., that do not 
 keep well when made up, or which are in 
 little demand, may be economically and conve- 
 niently preserved in this state. The word, 
 thus applied, is obsolete out of the pharma- 
 ceutical laboratory. 
 
 Species, Anthelmin'tio. St/n. Species an- 
 THELMiifTl&iE, h. The dried flowering tops of 
 tansy and wormwood, and the flowers of chamo- 
 mile, equal parts; mix, and keep them in a 
 close vessel. (P. Cod.) 
 
 Species, Aperitive. See Species, Diubbtic 
 {below). 
 
 Species, Aiomat'ic. Si/n. Aeomatio pow- 
 dee; Species aeomatice, L. Frep. (Ph. 
 Bor.) Leaves of balm and curled-leaf mint 
 {Mentha crispa), of each 4 oz. ; lavender flow- 
 ers, 2 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; dry them by a gentle 
 heat, and then powder them. 
 
 Species, Astrin'gent.. Sgn. Species astbin- 
 gentes, L. The roots of bistort and tor- 
 mentil, and bark of pomegranate, equal parts. 
 (P. Cod.) 
 
 Species, BecMcse. (P. Cod.) 1. Leaves of 
 Canadian maidenhair, ground ivy, hartstongue, 
 speedwell, hyssop tops and poppy capsules, 
 (freed from seed), of each equal parts. Cut 
 and mix. 2. Dried flowers of mallow, cats- 
 foot, coltsfoot and petals of red poppy, of each 
 1 oz. Mix. The PrucKls Bechici are: — 
 Dates (stored) 1 oz.; jujubes, 1 oz. ; figs, 1 oz. ; 
 raisins, 1 oz. 
 
 Species, Carminative. St/n. Species cab- 
 minativb. (P. Cod.) Frep. Equal parts of 
 aniseeds, caraway seeds, coriander seeds, and 
 fennel seeds. 
 
 Species, Bitter. Sgn. Theee bittbb heebs ; 
 Species amaeje, Ueeb«: amae.e, L. The 
 leaves of germander, aud dried tops of lesser 
 centaury and wormwood, equal parts. (P. 
 Cod.) 
 
 Species, Capillary. Si/n. Five capillabt 
 HEEBS; Heebs: quinqub capillaebs, L. 
 Hartstongue, black maiden hair, white do., 
 golden do., and spleenwort, equal parts. (Ph. 
 L. 1720.) 
 
 Species, Cor'dial. St/n. PouE cobdiai fiow- 
 ees ; Species coediai.es, L. Tne flowers of 
 borage, bugloss, roses, aud violets, equal parts. 
 (Ph. L. 1720.) 
 
 Species for Decoction Woods. Si/n. Species 
 AD Decoctum mquoeum. (G. Ph.) Prep. 
 Rasped guaiacum wood, 4 oz. ; cut burdoek 
 root, 2 oz. ; onouis root, 2 oz. ; cut liquorice, 
 1 oz ; cut sassafras, 1 oz. Mix. 
 
 Species, Biuret'ic. Si/n. Apeeient tooTS, 
 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 1535 
 
 APERITITE BFKCIEa; SPEOIBS DITTBETICS, L. 
 
 1. (Five okkatbe apkbitivk boots — P. Cod., 
 & Ph. E. l?**.) The dried roots of asparngus, 
 butclier's broom, parsley, BDiallage, and sweet 
 fennel, equal piirts. 
 
 2. (Five iessee apebitive boots.) Those 
 of caper, dog-grasa, eryngo, madder, and rest- 
 harrow. 
 
 Speciei, Emollient. Syn. Species ehol- 
 
 LIENTB8, L. 1. (TkBEB EMOLLIENT MEALS ; 
 Fabin£ EM0LLIBNTE8.) The tneal of barley, 
 linseed, aud rye, eqaal parts. (P. Cod.) 
 
 2. (Five emollient hehbs ; Hebb^ quiit- 
 QUE emollienies.) — a. The dried leaves of 
 groundsel, common mallow, marshmallow, 
 groat mullein, and wall pellitory, equal parts. 
 (P. Cod.) 
 
 b. The leaves of mallow, marshmallow, 
 French mercury, pellitory of the wall, aud 
 violet. (Ph. E. 1744.) 
 
 Species for Ene'mas. Sgn. Hebbs fob 
 OLisTEua; Hebb.£ pbo enemate, L. Mallow 
 leaves, 2 purts ; chamomile fluwers, 1 part. 
 
 Species of the five Herbs. Sj/n. Species 
 
 DIET.E QCINQUE HEBBa:. FIVE CAPILLAEY 
 Heubs. (Pli. L. 1720.) Prep. Black and 
 while maidenhair, spleenwort, hartntongue, 
 and golden maidenhair. 
 
 Species for Fomenta'tlons. Syn. Species 
 PUG FOTP, Hkkbj! peo fotu, L. Leaves ot 
 Boutheruwood, tops of sea-wormwood, and 
 flowers of chamomile, of each 2 parts; bay 
 leaves, 1 part. 
 
 Species, Hot. 1. (Foce oeeateb hot 
 SEEUS.) The eeeds of anise, caraway, cumin, 
 aud fennel. 
 
 2. (FouE LESSEE HOT SEEDS.) The seeds of 
 bishop's weed, emallage, stone parsley, and 
 wild carrot. 
 
 Species, Lax'ative. Si/n. St Gebmain lax- 
 ative powder j Species laxantes St Gee- 
 main, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Senna leaves (ex- 
 hausted with spirit), 4 oz. ; elder flowers, 2^ 
 oz. ; aniseed aud fennel seed, of each li oz. ; 
 reduce them to coarse powder, and, when dis- 
 pensing, add of powdered cream of tartar, 
 1 dr., to each li oz. of the mixture. 
 
 Species, Narcotic. Si/n, Foub nabcotic 
 BEBBS; Species iiabcotic£, L. Dried leaves 
 of belladonna, black nightshade, henbiine, and 
 thorn-apple, equal parts. 
 
 Species, Purging. Si/n. Species Pubcian- 
 
 TES. Th^ DE SANTi. Th£ DE St GeBMAIN. 
 (P. Cod.) Senna, 12 dr. ; elder flowers, 5 dr. ; 
 fennel seeds, 3 dr. ; aniseed, 5 dr. ; cream of 
 tartar, 3 dr. Eighty grains in a cup of boiling 
 Water for a dose, said to be very serviceable and 
 largely used in Prance for habitual constipa- 
 tion. 
 Species, Fec'toral. St/n. Species bechics, 
 
 SpECIKS ADINFUSUM PECTOEALES, L, 1. Mal- 
 low root, 4 oz. ; coltsfoot leaves, 2 oz. ;liquorice 
 root, li oz. ; aniseed, great mullein flowers 
 and red-poppy flowers, of each 1 oz. ; orris 
 root, i oz. (Ph. Bnr.) 
 Species, Eefi:i"gerant.— 1. (Foue cold 
 
 SEEDS.) The seeds of cucumber, gourd, melon, 
 and water-melon. 
 
 2. (FouB LESSEB COLD SEEDS.) The seeds 
 of endive, lettuce, purslane, and succory. 
 
 Species, Sesol'vent. ^». FABiirf be- 
 BOLVENTES, L. The meal of the seeds of barley, 
 bean, tare, and white lupin. 
 
 Species, Vulnerary. Syn. Species Vul- 
 NEEABi.fi. The SiussE. Prep. Leaves and 
 tops of wormwood, bctony, bingle, culamint, 
 germander, hyssop, ground ivy, millefoil, 
 origanum, periwinkle, rosemary, self-heat, 
 sage, hartstongue, water-germander, thyme, 
 speedwell, flower of Armea, flower of catsfoot, 
 flower of coltsfoot, of each equal parts. Cut 
 and mixed. 
 
 SPECIFIC GBAVITT is the comparative 
 weights of equal bulks of different substances, 
 tlie assumed standard bein<; 1 and sometimes 
 1000. This standard is pure distilled water 
 for liquids and solids, and atmospheric air for 
 gaseous bodies and vapours.' In England the 
 sp. gr., unless when otherwise expressed, is 
 alway taken at 60° Fahr, ; but in France it is 
 taken at 32° Fahr. (0° C), or the temperature 
 of melting ice. In the ' British Pharmacopoeia,' 
 whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the 
 substance spoken of is suppo-ed to be of the 
 temperature of 60° Falir. In most cases, 
 however, it is sufficient merely to note the 
 temperature, aud to apply a correction, de- 
 pending on the known density of water, or air, 
 lit the different degrees of the thermometric 
 scale. 
 
 To determine the specific gravity as a solid, 
 we weigh it, first in the air, and then in water. 
 In tlie latter case it loses, of its weight, a 
 quantity precisely equal to the weight of its 
 own bulk of water; and hence, by comparing 
 this weight with its total weitrlit, we find its 
 specific gravity. The rule is — Divide the total 
 weight by the loss of weight in water; the 
 quutient is the specific gravity. 
 
 The specific gravity of a snbstiincc lisjhter 
 than water may be determined by attaching it 
 to some substance, as a piece of lead, the sp. 
 gr., cScc, of which is known. In this way, by 
 deducting the loss in weit;ht of the two sub- 
 stances, when weighed in water, from the loss 
 sustained by the lead alone, when so weiiilied, 
 we obtain a difference (a) which, added to the 
 weight of the substance taken in air (4), gives 
 the respective densities. From these the sp. 
 gr. is found by the rule of three : — 
 
 (o + b) : 1 : : b : sp. gr. 
 
 The specific gravities of substances soluble in 
 water are taken in pure oil of turpentine, recti- 
 fied spirit, olive oil, or some other liquid, the 
 density of which is exactly known. Sometimes, 
 for rough purposes, the article is covered with 
 a coating of mastic varnish. This last method 
 answers for mercurial pill. 
 
 1 Bv many modern chemists hjitrfyr/fn, the lightest 
 sulistaiice ill nature, is taken as liie staudard for Uie 
 spccilic gravity of gases and vapours. 
 
153S 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 
 
 The specific gravity of a substance in frag- 
 ments, or in powder, may be found by putting 
 a portion (say 100 gr.) into a sp. gr. bottle, 
 filling the latter with distilled water, and then 
 weighing it. The weight of water which it is 
 found to contain, deducted from 1000 (the 
 weight of the bottle when filled with distilled 
 water), gives a difference (a) which bears the 
 same relation to the sp. gr. of water (I'OOO) 
 as the weight of the powder (6) put into the 
 bottle does to the required sp. gr. Or — 
 
 a : I'COO ::b:sp. gr. 
 
 The specific gravity of alloys and mixtures, 
 when no condensation has occurred, is equal to 
 the sum of the weights divided by the sum of 
 the volumes, comparedto water reckoned as 
 unity ; and is not merely the arithmetical mean 
 between the two numbers denoting the two 
 sp. gr., as is frequently taught. See Beads 
 (Lovl's), Hydkomeieb, Mixtitees (Arithme- 
 tic ot), &c. For the mode of determining the 
 specific gi avity of gases, the reader is referred 
 to the works on chemistry of Miller and 
 Fownes. 
 
 The specific gravity of a liquid is found by 
 weighing it in a pp. gr. bottle, glass flask, or 
 other vessel of known capacity, and dividing 
 that weight by the weight of the same bulk of 
 water ; the quotient is, as before, the speeiflo 
 gravity. A bottle of the capacity of 1000 
 water-grains (specific gravity bottle) gives 
 the density of a liquid at once, by simply 
 filling it to the given mark, and then accu- 
 rately weighing it. 
 
 We reprint from the ' Journal of the Chemi- 
 cal Society '' a new method of determining the 
 specific gravity of liquids, which is snid by Dr 
 H. Sprengel, the chemist who devised it, to 
 be both expeditious and accurate. Dr Sprengel 
 says : 
 
 " The form of my instrument, as shown in 
 the accompanying fig. 1, is that of an elon- 
 
 « /\/' 
 
 gated Utube, the open ends of which termi- 
 1 (2) xi, B77- 
 
 nate in two capillary tubes, which are bent at 
 right angles in opposite directions. The size 
 and weight of this instrument should be 
 adapted to the size and capability of the 
 balance in which it is to be weighed. As our 
 usual balances indicate -^^ milligram when 
 loaded with 50 grams, the U-tube, when 
 charged with the liquid, should not be heavier 
 than 1000 gr. = (64-799 grams). 
 
 The instrument which served for my deter- 
 minations, mentioned below, had a length of 
 177 cm. (7 inches), and was made of a glass 
 tube, the outer diameter of which was 11 
 mm. (-fg of an inch). It need hardly be men- 
 tioned that the U-shape is adopted for the 
 sake of presenting a large surface, and so 
 rendering the instrument sensitive to changes 
 of temperature. The point, however, I wish 
 to notice more particularly (for reasons ex- 
 plained below) is the different calibre of the 
 two capillary tubes. The shorter one is a 
 good deal narrower (at least towards the end) 
 than the longer one, the inner diameter of 
 which is about i mm. The horizontal part of 
 this wider tube is marked near the bend with 
 a delicate line (J). This line, and the extre- 
 mity of the opposite capillary tube (o), are 
 the marks which limit the volume of the liquid 
 to be laid. 
 
 The filling of the instrument is easily 
 effected by suction, provided that the little 
 bulb apparatus (as represented in fig. 2) has 
 previously been attached to the narrow capil- 
 lary tube by means of a perforated stopper, 
 i. e. a bit of an india-rubber tube tightly 
 fitting the conical tubules of the bulb. On 
 dipping the wider and longer capillary tube 
 into a liquid, suction applied to the open end 
 of the india-rubber tube will produce a partial 
 vacuum in the apparatus, causing the liquid 
 to enter th« U-tube. As the partial vacuum 
 maintains itself for some time (on account of 
 the bulb, which acts as an air-chamber), it is 
 not necessary to continue the suction if the 
 end of the india-rubber tube be timely closed 
 by compression between the fingers. When 
 bulb and U-tube have about equal capacity, it 
 is hardly necessary during the filling to repeat 
 the exhaustion more than once. 
 
 Without such a bulb the filling of the 
 U-tube through these fine capillary tubes is 
 found somewhat tiresome ; the emptying the 
 U-tube is effected by reversing the action, and 
 so compressing the air. After the U-tube has 
 been filled, it is detached from the bulb, placed 
 in wiiter of the standard temperature almost 
 up to the bends of the capillary tubes, left 
 there until it has assumed this temperature, 
 and alter a careful adjustment of the volume, 
 is taken out, dried, and weighed. 
 
 Particular care must be taken to ensure the 
 correctness of the standard temperature, for a 
 mistake of 0-1° causes the weight of 10 e.c. of 
 water to be estimated either too high or too 
 low by 0"14 milligram, giving rise to an error 
 in the filth decimal, or making 100,000 parts 
 
S PECTACLES— SPERMACETI 
 
 1537 
 
 100001'4 pKrti. These determinations have 
 been mitde in Dupr^'a apparatns, whicli, wlien 
 lurnishcil wiih a seiieitive tliermometer, nlluws 
 (he fluctuations of temperature to be fixed 
 within the limits of 001°. If many determina- 
 tions had to be made, I should avail myself ol 
 Sclieibler's (' Zeit>clirift fiir Analytiscbe Che- 
 mie,' vol. vii, p. 88, 1868) electro-magnetic 
 rvKiilator for maintaining a constant tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 A pecnliar feature of my instrument is the 
 e»te and precision with which the measure 
 incut of the liquid can be adjusted at the 
 uiomcnt it has t>il<en the standard tempera- 
 ture; for it will be found that the liquid 
 expands and contracts only in the wider 
 capillary tube, viz. in the direction of the 
 least resistance. The narrow capillary tube 
 remains always completely filled. Supposing 
 the liquid reaches beyond the mark b, it mav 
 be reiiuced through capillary force by touch- 
 ing the point a with a little roll of filtering 
 paper. Supposing, however, that in so doin^' 
 too much liquid is abstracted, capillary force 
 will redress the fault if point a be touched 
 with a drop of the liquid under examination ; 
 for this gentle force acts instantly through the 
 whole mass of the liquid, causing it to move 
 forward again to or beyond the mark. 
 
 As the instrument itself possesses the pro- 
 perties of a delicate thermometer, the time 
 when it has reached the standard temperature 
 of the hath may be learned from the stability 
 of the thread of liquid inside the wider tube. 
 The length of this thread remains constant 
 alter the lapse of about ^o« minufea. 
 
 In wiping the instrument (after its re- 
 moval from the bath) care should be taken 
 not to touch point a, as capillarity might 
 extract some of the liquid; otherwise the 
 handling of the liquid requires na especial 
 precaution. 
 
 The capillary tubes need not be closed for 
 the purpose of arresting evaporation, at least 
 that of water. I have learned from the mean 
 of several determinations that the error 
 arising from this source amounts in one hour 
 to ^ of a milligram. 
 
 In cases where the temperature of the 
 balance-room is high, and the expansion co- 
 efficient of the liquid to be examined is con- 
 siderable, it may be found necessary to put a 
 small cap (bead-shaped and open at both ends) 
 over the extremity of the wider capillary 
 tube, for the purpose of retaining the liquid, 
 which during the time of weighing might 
 otherwise be lost, owing to its expansion. 
 When a cap is used the wider capillary tube 
 need not be longer than the narrow one.' 
 
 The 'Compte Kendus'' describes a new 
 specific gravity apparatus, the invention of M. 
 I'isaoi, The apparatus in question consists of 
 a glass vessel about 5 c.c. capacity, closed with 
 
 ■ Thit initniment ia minurartured by E. Cetti & Co., 
 II, Brooke Street, Holbom, London. 
 ' Luivi, 860—36!) (■ Juuni. CUem. SoC) 
 VOL. II 
 
 ft perforated stopper like an ordinary specific 
 gravity bottle. To the side of the veixsel us 
 
 joined a tube, coming off at an angle of about 
 15^ about 26 cm. long, and 4 mm. internal 
 diameter, and graduated at 50ths of a c.c. 
 The vessel is filled with water, the level 
 of which is read off in the tube held vertically, 
 the finger being held over the hole in the 
 stopper; 2 or 3 grains of a mineral are then 
 placed in the flivsk, the stopper is replaced, 
 care being tiikeii to lose no water, and the 
 level is again read off in the graduated tube, 
 held vertically as before. The difference in 
 the two readings gives the volume of the 
 mineral taken. 
 
 SPECTACLES. See Eye, Vision-, &c. 
 
 SPEC'TKOSCOPE. An instrument devised 
 for examining the spectra of flames. (See 
 beloto.) 
 
 SPECTRUM ANAI'YSIS. See Analysis, 
 Specthum. 
 
 SPECULUM MET'Al. Frep. 1. Take of 
 copper, G4 parts ; pure tin, 69 parts ; melt 
 them separately under a little blaik flux ; 
 next incorporate them thoroughly by stirring 
 with a wooden spatula, and run the metal into 
 the moulds, so that the face of the intended 
 mirror may be downwards ; lastly, allow the 
 whole to cool very slowly. 
 
 2. Pure copper, 2 parts; pure tin, 1 part. 
 Used to make the mirrors of reflecting tele- 
 scopes! The addition of a little metallic 
 arsenic renders it whiter. 
 
 SPEL'TEE. See ZiKC. 
 
 SPEEMACE'TI. Sj/n. Cetacettm (B. P., 
 Ph L E., & D.), L. A concretion prepared 
 
 97 
 
1538 
 
 SPHEROIDAL STATE 
 
 from the oily matter of the head of the Phy- 
 seter macrocephalus, or spermaceti whale. It 
 is demulcent and emollient; chiefly used in 
 ointments and cerates. 
 
 SPHEEOID'Al STATE. It is found that 
 water, or any other volatile liquid, thrown on 
 a metallic plate heated to dull redness, is not 
 resolved into vapour, but, assuming a some- 
 what globular form, I'emains intact, until the 
 temperature becomes sufficiently lowered to 
 allow of contact between the liquid and the 
 heated surface. It is then immediately volati- 
 lised. M. Boutigny, who fully investigated 
 this subject, has also shown that the same 
 thing happens when a solid body containing 
 water is substituted for the liquid in the 
 above and similar experiments. Thus, the 
 finger or hand, under certain restrictions, may 
 be thrust, with perfect impunity, into a stream 
 of molten metal, and ice may he produced by 
 throwing water into a red-hot crucible. This 
 last experiment, as performed by MM. Bou- 
 tigny and Prevostaye, is essentially as follows : 
 — A thick platinum crucible, of the capacity 
 of 1 fl. oz., is heated to redness over a powerful 
 spirit lamp, and some liquid anhydrous sul- 
 phurous acid (a very volatile substance) poured 
 into it by means of a pipette ; the acid assumes 
 a spheroidal form, and does not evaporate ; 
 a few drops of water are now introduced into 
 the sulphurous acid in the same way ; the 
 diluted and slightly cooled acid instantly 
 flashes off in vapour, and, robbing the water 
 of its caloric, leaves the latter in a frozen 
 state; and, if the operator seizes the right 
 moment, a solid lump of ice may be thrown 
 out of the red-hot crucible. 
 
 By substituting for anhydrous sulphurous 
 acid a mixture of solid carbonic anhydride 
 and ether, and for water a few grains of quick- 
 silver, this latter may be reduced to the 
 solid condition, and may be turned out of the 
 red-hot crucible in the form of a small frozen 
 mass. 
 
 The spheroidal condition of "liquids is a 
 complicated result of at least four distinct 
 causes. Of these the most influential is the 
 repulsive force which heat exerts between 
 objects which are closely approximated to- 
 wards each other. When the temperature 
 reaches a certain point actual repulsion be- 
 tween the particles ensues. 
 
 " Besides this repulsive action occasioned by 
 heat, the other causes which may be mentioned 
 as tending to produce the assumption of the 
 spheroidal condition by the liquid are these : — 
 
 " 1. The temperature of the plate is so high 
 that it immediately converts any liquid that 
 touches it into vapour, upon which the 
 spheroid rests as on a cushion. 
 
 " 2. This vapour is a bad conductor of heat, 
 and prevents the rapid conduction of heat 
 from the metal to the globule. 
 
 " 3. The evaporation from the entire surface 
 of the liquid carries off the heat as it arrives, 
 and assists in keeping the temperature below 
 the points of ebullition. The drop assumes 
 the spheroidal form as a necessary consequence 
 of the action of cohesion among the particles 
 of the liquid, and the simultaneous action of 
 gravity on the mass."' 
 
 Boutigny found that, when a liquid in a 
 state of ebullition was brought into 
 contact with a surface heated to such a 
 degree as to cause the liquid to assume the 
 spbernidal state, its temperature immediately 
 fell 3° or 4° C. below the boiling point. 
 
 All liquids are capable of assuming the 
 spheroidal condition ; but, as the temperature 
 necessary for this purpose, varies with the 
 boiling point of each liquid (the lower the 
 boiling point the lower the temperature ne- 
 cessary, and vice versa), it follows that the 
 conducting surface requires to be differently 
 heated for each liquid. The exact tempera- 
 ture to which the plate should be heated to 
 produce the spheroidal condition in any 
 liquid, depends partly upon the conducting 
 power of the plate, and partly upon the latent 
 heat of the vapour; the less this is, the more 
 nearly the temperature of the plate approxi- 
 mates to tlie boiling point of the liquid. 
 
 Boutigny believed that the temperature of 
 each liquid, when in the spheroid condition, 
 was as invariable as that of its boiling point; 
 but Boutan has demonstrated that this is a 
 not quite accurate statement, since the tem- 
 perature of the same liquids, when assuming 
 the spheroidal form, is liable to slight diver- 
 gence. 
 
 The following table, showing the lowest 
 temperature of the plate and the temperature 
 of the spheroid for certain liquids, is given by 
 Boutigny : — 
 
 Liquid employed. 
 
 Temperature of Plate. 
 
 Temperature of Spheroid. 
 
 °F. 
 
 »C 
 
 op 
 
 °C. 
 
 Water 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 Ether 
 
 Sulphurous anhydride . 
 
 340 
 273 
 142 
 
 171 
 
 134 
 
 61 
 
 205-7 
 
 167-9 
 
 93-6 
 
 13-1 
 
 96-4 
 75-5 
 34-2 
 10-5 
 
 Solids may also he made to assume the 
 spheroidal condition, as when, for instance, 
 some crystals of iodine are thrown upon a 
 
 red-hot platinum disc, or into a platinum 
 crucible similarly heated. 
 ' Miller. 
 
SPICE— SPIRIT 
 
 1539 
 
 The nature of the plate or crucible em- 
 plnjed appears to be immaterial, provided it is 
 a good conductor. PlntiDum, ailver, copper, 
 and iron answer equally well; indeed, Tom- 
 linson bns shown tlmt one liquid may even be 
 made to assume tbo spheroidal slate, on the 
 surface of another, as when water, alcohol, 
 and ether are placed upon hot oil. If the 
 expi'rinient be conducted with water it must 
 be cnrefully managed, since, if the water be 
 allowed to sink in the oil, it soon becomes 
 converted into steam, with the result of 
 scattering about the hot oil to the danger of 
 the operator. 
 
 Boutigny has advanced the opinion that 
 the property of water to assume the spheroiilal 
 state under the conditions we have specified 
 wi|^ account for certain cases of explosion in 
 steam-boilers. Thus we can imagine a boiler, 
 which has run dry of water, to have become 
 intensely overheated. Under these circum- 
 stances, when fresh water was admitted it 
 would at first assume the spheroidal state ; 
 and OS more cold water flowed into it, the 
 boiler would become thereby reduced in tem- 
 perature until it reached the point at which it.n 
 conversion into steam. would take place; the 
 sudden generiition, large volume, and elastic 
 force of which would lead to the rupture of 
 thcboilpr,accompanicd with explosive violence. 
 
 SPICE. A general name for vegetable sub- 
 itances possessing aromatic and pungent pro- 
 perties, and employed for seasoning or flavour- 
 ing food. 
 
 Spice, Horse. Sj/n. Cow sptce ; Species 
 KCjriNDS, L. Prep. 1. Anisci'd, allspice, 
 cumin seed, ginger, liquorice, and turmeric, 
 equal parts. 
 
 2. Turmeric and cumin seed, of each 5 lbs. ; 
 ginger, 2i lbs. Used by farriers. 
 
 Spice, Kit'chen. Si/n. Mixed Spice, Kit- 
 chen PEPPEB, &c. Frep. From black pepper, 
 2 lbs.; ginger, 1 lb. ; cinnamon, allspice, and 
 nutmegs, of each 8 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; di'v 
 salt, 6 lbs. ; well ground together. Useful to 
 flavour griivies, soup, &c. 
 
 Spice, Mixed. As the last, omitting half 
 the salt. 
 
 Spice, Pease. Sec Povtdeb. 
 
 Spice, Ragout. Prep. From dry salt, 1 lb. ; 
 flour of mustard, black pepper, and grated 
 lemon ppil, of each i lb. ; cayenne pepper, 
 - oz. ; allspice, at^d ginger, of each 1 oz. ; 
 nutnieir, J oz. ; all separately powdered. 
 
 Spice, Sausage (French). Si/n. Efice 
 PINKS, Fr. Prep. From black pepper, 5 lbs. ; 
 ginccr, 2i lbs.; cloves and nutmegs, of each 
 1 lb; aniseed and coriander seeds, of each 
 1 lb. ; powdir and mix them. 
 
 Spice, Sa"voary. Prep. 1. (Kidder's.) 
 From clovc", mare, nutmegs, pepper, and salt, 
 equal pHrt<. Used by cooks. 
 
 2. (Dr Kitchenei's.) See Spice, Ragout 
 {above). 
 
 Spice, Sonp. Sun. Kitchenke's bopp-heeb 
 
 POWDEB, KlTCHEMiU'S VEaii.TABI,E EELISH, 
 
 &e. Prep. From parsley, lemon thyme, sweet 
 marjoram, and winter savoury, of each, drieil, 
 2 oz. ; sweet bazil and yellow peel of lemon 
 of each, dried, 1 oz. ; mix, and powder. 
 
 Spice, Sweet (Kidder's). Prep. From cin- 
 namon, cloves, mace, nutmegs, and sugar, 
 equal parts. Used in pastry. 
 
 SFIGE'LIA. Syn. Caeoliita pink eoot; 
 Spiqelia (Ph. E.), L. The root of Spigelia 
 Marilandica, or worm grass. It is purgative, 
 narcotic, and vermifuge. — Dote, 10 to 40 gr., 
 in powder or infusion, night and mornintr, 
 until the worms are expelled. Rhubarb or 
 calomel is commonly added to it. 
 
 SPIRIT. Syn. Spieitps, L. Under this 
 term are included all the inflammable aiid 
 intoxicating liquors obtained by distillation, 
 and used as beverages, as bbandy, gin, rum, 
 &c., each of which is noticed in its alphabetical 
 order. Spirit may also be obtained by fer- 
 mentation and distillation from all vegetable 
 juices or solutions that contain sugar. 
 
 The spirit used in pharm:icy and chettiistry i^ 
 distinguished by names which li.ive reference 
 to its richness in alcohol. (Sou Tables ) 
 
 Spirituous liquors, like all other fluids at 
 common temperatures, expand when they are 
 heated, and diminish in vulume when they are 
 cooled. It is found that 1000 galls, of proof 
 spirit, measured at the temperature of 50° 
 Fahr., will, if re-measured at 59°, be found to 
 have increased in bulk to full 1004^ galls.; 
 whilst 1000 galls, of the same spirit, measured 
 at 77° F.ihr., will be only equal to 991j galls, 
 at 59°. These changes are still more marked 
 at higher strengths, and at extreme tempera- 
 tures, and, from not being recognisable by the 
 hydrometer, often lead to serious losses in 
 tradi', and to serious fluctuations in ' stock,' 
 which, to those unaware of the action of tem- 
 perMlure, are perfectly unacountable. A gal- 
 lon of proof spirit only weighs 9^ ll>s. at 60° 
 Fttlir. At a higher temperature it will weigh 
 lef-s — lit a lower one more; but as this weight 
 constitutes the standard gallon at the tempera- 
 ture tlie proof is &ilculated for, it is manifest 
 that any variations from it must result in loss 
 either to the buyer or seller. Hence the equity 
 of buying and selling liquors liy weight instead 
 of by measure. The stock-keeper in every 
 wholesale house should be aware of this fact, 
 and on 'taking stock' should as regularly 
 enter the temperature of his liquors in his 
 stock-book as he does the 'dip' or 'wet 
 inches.' See Alcohol, ALCOHOLOMETiT, 
 Specific Geavity, Spieits (Medicinal), 
 Spieits (Perfumed), &c. 
 
 Spirit of Acetic Ether. Syn. Spieitus 
 .ITHEEIS ACETici. (Prus. Ph ) Prep. Acetic 
 ether, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 3 oz. 
 
 Spirit, Alexiterius. Syn. Spieitits alexi- 
 TEEIUS. AQtTA ALEXITEEIA SPIEITUOSA. (Ph. 
 L. 1746). Prep. Mint, \ lb. ; Angelica root, 
 4 oz. ; tops of sea wormwood, 4 oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 pall, (old wine measure) r water, a 
 sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall. 
 
154,0 
 
 SPJKIT 
 
 Spirit, Amy'lio. See Fusel oil. 
 
 Spirit of Angelica. Si/n. Spjeitus anoe- 
 liCjG. Prep. Sliced angelica root, 2 oz. ; 
 sliced valerian, J oz. j bruised juniper berries, 
 i oz, Put into a retort, and pour on 9 oz. of 
 rectified spirit by weight, and 15i oz. of water, 
 and macerate for 24 liours ,- then draw out 12^ 
 
 oz. (by weight), in which dissolve J oz. of 
 camphor. 
 
 Spirit of Ants, Spieitus foemicaeum. (ITi. 
 G.) Frep. Ants freshly collected, and braised, 
 
 2 lbs. ; spirit of wine (at 'SSO), 3 lbs. ; water, 
 
 3 lbs. Macerate for 2 days. Distil 4 lbs, — 
 Dose, 20 to 60 drops, also used outwardly. 
 
 Alcohol, F)i. B. (absolute) 
 „ Ph.E, . 
 
 0-795 f "'"ly 
 
 „ Ph. D. 1836 ... 
 „ Pli. L. 1836 ... 
 Stronger Spirit (Spiritus Fortior), ") n.oio 
 
 Ph. B jUBis 
 
 "Reclified Spirit (Spirit of Wine ;■)„„„„ 
 Spiritu8KectjflcatiiB),B.P. J"»« 
 
 Table of the Pharmacopceial Spirits. 
 Sp- gr. 
 
 Itectified Spirit, Ph. D. . . , 
 Proof Spirit (Spiritus Tenuior), 
 
 Ph. B. 
 Alcohol (absolu), P. Cod. 
 „ (Bt 40°) 
 
 „ (du commerce), P. Cod. 
 „ (raible) 
 
 "■^''^l AfcXoI. 
 
 0-810 or 70g 0. p. 
 815 „ 68S- „ 
 
 66g 
 56* 
 
 Sp.gr. 
 
 0-840 or 54J5 o. p. 
 ] 0-920 „ — 
 
 0-797 , 
 810 , 
 0-863 , 
 0-923 , 
 
 41 1 „ 
 8jau.p. 
 
 * " This spirit can be reduced to the standard of the weaker (or prooO spirit, by adding, to every 5 pints of it 
 3 pints of distUled waier, at 62° Fahr." (Ph. L.) * 
 
 II. Table of the Principal Spiriluoun Liquors sold in England, with their usual 
 
 Strengths, Sfc. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Usual Selling Strength. 
 
 
 Denomiuatiou. 
 
 Revenue 
 Mark. 
 
 Import 
 Strength. 
 
 Legal Limits 
 01 Strength. 
 
 
 
 
 Specific 
 gravity 
 at 60* 
 
 By 
 
 Permit. 
 
 Contains 
 
 Contains 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 absolute 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 
 
 
 
 01 825. 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 
 •Gin {strongest) . 
 
 X (17 u. p.) 
 
 
 Not stronger 
 than 25 o. p- 
 
 17 u. p. 
 
 
 40S 
 
 0-9395 
 
 *Do. {best ordinary) . 
 
 X (23 u. p.) 
 
 
 do. 
 
 2-2 u. p. 
 
 
 374S- 
 
 9445 
 
 tDo. {cordial) . 
 
 X(22u.p) 
 
 
 do. 
 
 32 u. p. 
 
 
 do. 
 
 110- 
 
 tDo 
 
 X (24 n. p.) 
 
 
 do. 
 
 2-tu. p. 
 
 
 36-5§ 
 
 110- 
 
 :[:Peppermint 
 
 X mint. 
 
 
 do. 
 
 60 u. p. 
 
 
 218° 
 
 ||0- 
 
 ID'. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 du. 
 
 64 u. p. 
 
 
 Ibi 
 
 11 0- 
 
 {Cloves . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tUitters . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 illaspberry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JNoyau 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ICituiainon, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^Aniseed . 
 
 X (64 u. p.) 
 
 
 do. 
 
 64 u. p. 
 
 
 do. 
 
 111-065 
 
 JCardM-ay . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iLoveage , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-080 
 
 jU8quebau<;h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 jlOrange Cordial 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tCicrou . . .J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hum .... 
 
 -R. 
 
 About 
 10 0. p. to 
 
 No limit. 
 
 11 u. p. 
 
 
 43g 
 
 0-9329 
 to 
 
 ):Rum Shrub 
 
 R. Sh. 
 
 43 0. p. 
 
 do. 
 
 64 u. p. 
 
 
 181 
 
 859'7 
 
 110- 
 
 tDo 
 
 do. 
 
 
 do. 
 
 60 u. p. 
 
 
 21§ 
 
 BO- 
 
 French Brandy . 
 
 F. 
 
 About 
 5 0. p. to 8 
 or 10 u. p. 
 
 do. 
 
 10 u. p. 
 
 
 41? 
 
 0-9318 
 
 SSpdrit of Wine . 
 
 S.W. 
 
 
 Not less than 
 43 0. p. 
 
 64 to 64 
 0. p. 
 
 
 
 
 0-8415 
 
 to 
 0-8331 
 
 Malt, grain, or mo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lusses spirit {sent 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 out iy British dis- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tillers) . 
 
 P. s. 
 
 
 Not stronger 
 than 25 o. p. 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-8669 to 
 0-9318 
 
 Hollands . 
 
 Geneva. 
 
 
 No limit. 
 
 
 61-603 
 
 40-58 
 
 D-9358 
 
 Whiskey {Irish) . 
 
 P. S. 
 
 :::;;: } 
 
 Not stronger, f 
 
 than 25 o. p. it 
 
 U% 
 
 SOS 
 
 
 Do. {Scotch) 
 
 P. S. 
 
 54-3g 
 
 w-l% 
 
 
 • Frequently retailed at 25 to 35 u. p. 
 + Thimgli 'pernnttetl* st 22 to 24, are generally from 
 2 5 to 35 u. p., or even weaker. 
 
 X Theae, though 'permitted* at 60 or 64 u. p., are 
 generally 75 or 80 u. p. 
 
 § Usual atrengtli 54 to 60 o. p. 
 
 II Tlie specific gravity is no guide when sugar Is pre- 
 sent, as in coriipouuds. 
 
SPIRIT 
 
 1541 
 
 Spirit, Blue. Syn. Spibitus ccEBULsrs. 
 (Hum. Pli.) Prtp. Wormwood, scordium, 
 •H>in, lavender flowers, of each 2i oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 5 piats; distil 2) pints, and add 6 dr. 
 of verdigrii and water of uuimouiii,9 oz. For 
 outward use. 
 
 Spirit of Bryony (Componnd). 8yn. Sfibi- 
 
 ID8 BllYON*; C0MP03ITUS. (Pll. E. 1744.) 
 Prep. Bryony, i lb. ; valerian, 2 oz. ; penny- 
 royal, 8 oz. i rue, 3 oz. ; mugwort feverfew 
 flowers, savin tops, o( eacli 4 dr. ; orange peel, 
 1 oz. ; loveage seeds, 1 oz. ; brandy, 1 gall. 
 Distil. Witlioat the bryony this prepuration 
 is known as Agua hytterUia. — Dose, 1. oz. 
 
 Spirit of Cajepnt. Syn. SriEiTrs oajeputi. 
 (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve 1 fi. oz. of oil of caje- 
 put in 39 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. 
 
 Spirit of Cardamom, Syn. Spibitttb cab- 
 DAUOMI. (Ph. L. 1746.) Prep. Cardamom 
 seed, 6 troy oz. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; water a 
 sufficient quantity. Distil 1 gall. 
 
 Spirit Of Chloroform. Syn. Sfibitus chlo- 
 EOFOBMi. (B. P.) Prep. Dissolve 1 fl. oz. 
 of chloroform in 19 fl. oz. of rectified spirit. 
 8p. (jr. -871. 
 
 Spirit of Clorea. Sya. Spieitus cabto- 
 PBYLLI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Cloves, 10 oz. ; 
 spirit ('864), 80 oz., by weight ; draw over all 
 the spirituous part. 
 
 Spirit of Coriander. Syn. Sfibitus go- 
 EIANDEI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Coriander seed, 
 1 oz. ; spirit (0861), by weight, 8 oz. Distil 
 to dryness. 
 
 Spirit, Dyer's. See Tin mobdants. 
 
 Spirit, Febrifuge, of Cluttou. Syn. Sfibi- 
 TDS FEBBIFPOns CLUTTONI. See Spibit of 
 KYDBOOIILOEIO ETHKB. Prep. The original 
 form is — oil of sulphur by the bell, oil ol 
 vitriol and sea salt, of each 1 oz. ; spirit of 
 wine, 6 oz. Let them digest for a month, then 
 distil tu dryness. 
 
 . Spirit, Fioravanti. Syn. Sfibitus fioba- 
 TANxi. (P. Cod.) Prep. Swiss turpentine, 
 5 oz ; eleme, 1 oz. ; resin of tacamahaca, 1 
 oz.; amber, loz.; liquid styrux, 1 oz. ; galba- 
 num, I oz. ; myrrh, 1 oz. ; aloes, \ oz. ; bay 
 berries, 1 oz. ; gallanga root, ^ oz. ; ginger, 
 ) oz. ; zedoary root, \ oz. ; cinnamon, \ oz. ; 
 cloves, \ oz. ; nutmeg, \ oz. ; leaves of cretum 
 uiuruin, \ oz. Miicerate 6 days and distil over 
 a wster bath till 35 oz. come over. 
 
 Spirit of Flower Sage. Syn. Sfibitus sal- 
 TijE. Prep. Flower sage, 1 lb. ; rectified spirit, 
 3 llj». ; water, 1 lb. Uistil 3 lbs. 
 
 Spirit of French Wine. Syn. Sfibitus 
 
 VINI OALllCI, BEAKDr. 
 
 Spirit of Lemon Feel. Syn. Sfibitus oitbi 
 C0KTICI8. With lemon peel as spirit of orange 
 pcil. 
 
 Spirit of Haijoram. Syn. Sfibitus mab- 
 JORAM£. Prep. Sweet marjoram, 1 lb. ; rec- 
 tified spirit, 3 tb. ; water, 1 lb. ; distil 3 lbs. , 
 
 Spirit of Uastic (Componnd). Syn. Spiki- 
 TDS M4STICHES coMFpsiTUS. Prep. Mastic, 
 1 oz. ; myrrh, 1 oz. ; olibauum, 1 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 1 pint. Distil. 
 
 Spirit, Meth'ylated. Spirit of wine to which 
 one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha 
 ("trength not less than 60° o. p.) has been 
 added, the object of such addition being that 
 of rendering the mixture unpotable through 
 its offensive odour and taste. The purification 
 of this mixed spirit, or the separation of the 
 two alcohols, though often attempted, has 
 always proved a failure. It mi^ht be sup- 
 posed that, owing to the low boiling-point of 
 methylic alcohol, simple distillation wonld 
 effect this ; but experience has shown that both 
 spirits distil over simultaneously. This is, no 
 doubt, due to the difference of their vapour 
 densities. Methylated spirit, being sold duty 
 free, can be employed by the chemical manu- 
 facturer as a solvent in many pioccsses for 
 which, from its greater cost, duty-paid spiiit 
 would be commercially inapplicable. Bnt in 
 the preparation of medicines, containing spirit, 
 as the vehicle or menstruum by which more 
 active substances are administered, the em- 
 ployment of methylated spirit is highly im- 
 proper. The Council of the Pliarmiiccutical 
 Society obtained from the Pharinacopceia 
 Committee of the Medical Council, the decideil 
 opinion that "the substitution of 'methy- 
 lated ' for ' rectified ' spirit in any of the pro- 
 cesses of the Piiarmacopoeia should be strictly 
 prohibited." 
 
 The use of methylated spirit in the prepara- 
 tion of tincture-, sweet spirit of nitre, common 
 ether, or any medicine to be used internally, is 
 now prohibited by law. 
 
 Spirit of Orange Peel. Syn. Sfibitus au- 
 BANiiI. (P. Cod.) Prep. The yellow part 
 of fresh orange peel, 1 lb. ; spirit of wine 
 ('864), 6 lbs. ; macerate tor 2 days, and distil 
 by water bath to dryness. 
 
 Spirit of Origanum. Syn. Sfibitus obioani. 
 Prep. Wild marjoram, I lb. ; rectified spirit, 
 3 lbs.; water, 1 lb. Distil 3 lbs. 
 
 Spirit of Para Cress. Syn. Sfibitus spi- 
 LAKTDI. (Beral.) Prep. Bruised Para cress 
 (Spilanthes oleracea), iu flower, 1 part; spirit 
 ('863), 2 parts. Macerate 2 or 3 days, and 
 distil 2 parts. 
 
 Spirit, Proof. See Alcohol. 
 
 Spirit, Pyroace'tic. Syn. Acetonb ; Sfi- 
 bitus FTBOACBTICUS, L. ; ACETO.NB, EsPBIT 
 FTEOACETIQUE, Fr. An inflammable volatile 
 liquid obtained with carbonic acid and other 
 products when the metallic acetates iu an au- 
 iijdrous state are subjected to destructive dis- 
 tillation. The acetate of lead is the most 
 eligible salt for this purpose. 
 
 Prep. 1. Dried acetate of lead is carefully 
 distilled in a large earthen or coated-glass 
 retort, by a beat gradually raised to redness, 
 the volatile products being passed through a 
 condenser well supplied with cold water. The 
 distillation is continued until nothing but 
 finely divided Itad (lead pyrophorus) remains 
 in the retort The receiver contains crude 
 acetone, which is to be saturated with car- 
 
1513 
 
 SPIKIT 
 
 bonate of potassa, and afterwards rectified in a 
 water bath from chloride of calcium, 
 
 2. By passing the vapour of strong acetic 
 acid through an iron tube heated to dull 
 redness, and condensing the acetone thus 
 formed. 
 
 Ohs. In both of the above processes car- 
 bonic acid and other permanent gases are pro- 
 ' duoed, consequently the receiver must not fit 
 too closely to tlie tube of the condenser. 
 
 Prop. Colourless, limpid, of peculiar odour, 
 and very inflammable, giving a brilliant flame, 
 without smoke ; boiling point 132° f alir. ; 
 sp. gr. °792. It dissolves resins and essential 
 oils. See Musitiloi^ Mesitzl, Miiaceione, 
 &c. 
 
 Spirit, Pyroxyl'ic. Syn. PTEOLi&irEOTis 
 BPiEiT, Wood s., Mediciitai, naphtha, Wood 
 N., Htdbated oxide oe meistl ; Spieitus 
 PYK0XTLICU3 (Ph. D.), L. A light volatile 
 liquid, discovered by P. Taylor, in 1812, among 
 the limpid products of the distillation of dry 
 wood. It has been shown by Dumas and 
 Peligot to be " really a second alcohol, forming 
 an elher, and a series of compounds (mytayl- 
 sebies) exactly corresponding with those of 
 vinous spirit, and, in some points, even more 
 complete than the latter." 
 
 Prep. Crude pyroligneous acid (which con- 
 tains about IJ of the spirit) is subjected to 
 distillation, and the first or more volatile 
 portion which passes over is neutralised with 
 hydrate of lime. After repose the clear liquid 
 is separated from the oil which floats on the 
 surface, and from the sediment at the bottom 
 of the vessel; this, when redistilled, forms the 
 wood spirit of commerce. It may be strength- 
 ened in the same manner as ordinary alcohol, 
 by rectification, and ultimately rendered pure 
 by careful distillation from quicklime by the 
 heat of a water bath. Berzelius recommends 
 the crude spii it to be agitated with a fatty oil, 
 to remove empyreumntic matter, and then to 
 rectify it, first, from recently burnt charcoal, 
 and next with chloride of calcium. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Pure pyroxylic spirit is a trans- 
 parent colourless liquid, having a penetrating 
 ethereal smell, and a hot disagreeable taste; 
 it is very inflammable, burning with a pale 
 blue fliime. It is neutral to test paper ; mixes 
 with water, alcohol, and ether, in all propor- 
 tion 1 and boils at 152° Pahr. ; sp. gr. -798 at 
 68° Pahr. (Eegnault and Iiiebig.) Dr Ure 
 states the sp. gr. to be -824 at 60° ; the Dublin 
 College makes it '846. That of the latter 
 must therefore have contained a little water. 
 It does not dissolve India rubber and gutta 
 percha, like mineral or true naphtha. 
 
 Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from ace- 
 tone or pyroacetic spirit by the character 
 of its flame, and by freely dissolving chloride 
 of calcium, which is quite insoluble in the 
 latter. In a mixture of these two liquids two 
 distinct strata are formed when this sub- 
 stance, either in powder or concentrated solu- 
 tion, is added. 
 
 Pyroxylic spirit is distinguished from vinous 
 spirit by Nessler's test (which see), by its 
 forming a solid crystalline salt (methylic 
 oxalate) when distilled with an oxalate and' 
 sulphuric acid, and by its lower boiling point. 
 The presence of alcohol, in a mixture of the 
 two, is readily detected by distilling the sus- 
 pected sample with sulphuric acid. The for- 
 mation of common ether indicates ethylic 
 alcohol, and from the amount formed the pro- 
 portion of alcohol may be determined. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. Chiefly to dissolve resins and 
 volatile oils, especially shell-lac, and as a sub- 
 stitute for alcohol in spirit lamps. As a medi- 
 cine it is anodyne and sedative ; and has been 
 beneficially employed by Drs Christison, 
 Hastings, and Neligan, to allay the harassing 
 cough, troublesome vomiting, and excessive 
 expectoration, in phthisis and some other 
 aflTections. — Dose, 5 to 30 drops, thrice a day, 
 in water. 
 
 Spirit, Bai'sin. Prep. From raisins fer- 
 mented along with water, and the wash dis- 
 tilled by a quick fire. Used to give a brandy 
 flavour to malt spirit. 1 gall, added to 150 
 gall, of plain spirit, along with some colour- 
 ing, and a little catechu, either with or with- 
 out a little acetic ether, makes a very decent 
 "British brandy." 
 
 Spirit of Easpberries. Syn. Spieittts ettbei 
 IDMI. Prep. Easpberries, 3 lbs. ; rectified 
 spirit, 2 lbs. ; distil 2 lbs. 
 
 Spirit, Bec'tified. See Alcohol, and Table 
 I, under SpiEIT. 
 
 Spirit of Saltf. Hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Spirit of Sassafras. Syn. Spieitus sassa- 
 peas. Prep. Sassafras, troy, 1 lb. ; rectified 
 spirit (°863), 8 lbs. Macerate 4 days, and 
 distil nearly to dryness. 
 
 Spirit of Scurvy Grass. Syn. Spieitus 
 OOCHLEAEIA. (Ph. G.) Prep. Fresh leaves 
 of flowering scurvy grass, 8 lbs.; rectified 
 spirit, 3 lbs.; water, 3 lbs. Distil 4 lbs. 
 
 Spirit of Scurvy Grass (Compound). Syn. 
 Spieitus cochleaei^ compositus. (P. 
 Cod.) Prep. Fresh scurvy grass, 5 lbs.; spirit 
 (•0864), 6 lbs.; horseradish, 104 oz. Distil 
 5 lbs. 
 
 Spirit of Soot. Syn. Spieittts eum&inis. 
 An empyreumatic spirit was formerly distilled 
 from wood soot, in the same manner as harts- 
 horn. An alcoholic spirit is also made from 
 1 part of wood-soot, 5 of proof spirit, 15 of 
 water. Distil 4 parts. 
 
 Spirit of Soup-herbs. As essence of soup- 
 herbs, but substituting 1 quart of brandy or 
 proof spirit for the rectified spirit. 
 
 Spirit of Sweet Flag Boot. Syn. Spieitus 
 calamus. (P. Cod.) Prep. Calamus, 1 lb., 
 troy, spirit of wine (-863), 8 lbs. ; macerate 4 
 days, and distil nearly to dryness. 
 . Spirit of Thyme. Syn. Spieitus thyme. 
 From lime, as spirit of sage. 
 
 Spirit of Turpentine, Jlthereal. Syn. Spi- 
 eitus TEEEBISTHIKiE a:THEBEUS. (Van 
 
 Mons.) Prep. Spirit of nitric ether, with as 
 
SPIRITS 
 
 1543 
 
 mocli rectifiod oil of turpentine as it will dis- 
 solve. Rei'UHed oil of turpentine is also termed 
 " Etlieresl Spirit of Turpentine." 
 
 Spirit of Wine. See Alcoboi., and Table I, 
 under Spirit. 
 
 Spirit of Wormwood (Compound). Si/a. 
 
 SpIBITUS AB8IKTHII COMPOSITUS VBL AQUA. 
 (Ph. L. 1730.) Prep. Dried wormwood, i 
 lb. ; cnrdiimom seed, i oz. ; coriander seed, 1^ 
 uz. ; brandy, 1 gall. Distil. 
 
 Spirit of Vauilla. See Essence op Va- 
 nilla. 
 
 8FIBITS (Medic'inal). 8i/n. Spibitttb ve- 
 DIOIHALES, L. The spirits of pharmacy are 
 either prepared by macerating the braised 
 seeds, flowers, herbs, &c., in the spirit, fnr2or 
 3 days before distillxtion, and then drawing it 
 olf by a gentle heat ; or eztemporaneonsly, by 
 adding a proper proportion of essential oil to 
 pure spirit of the prescribed strength.' This 
 latter plan is very generally adopted in the 
 Ph. D. la the first method, when a naked 
 fire is employeil, a little water is put into the 
 ■till along with the spirit, to prevent empy- 
 reuma. These spirits are principally employed 
 as aromnticB and stimulants, or as iidjuvants 
 in draughts and mixtures. 
 
 The following are the principal medicinal 
 spirits : — 
 
 Spirit of Ammo"nia. Si/n. Spieitus am- 
 uoms (Ph. E.). Frep. 1. (Ph. E.) Take 
 or quicklime, 12 oz. ; shake it with water, 6^ 
 II. oz. ; add of finely powdered chloriile of 
 ammonium, 3 oz ; and distil in a glass retort 
 furnished with a tube reaching nearly to the 
 bottom of a bottle containing rectified spirit, 
 2 pints, and kept well cooled. A sand heat 
 is to be employed, and the distillation con- 
 tinued as long OS anything passes over. The 
 product has a sp. gr. about '845, and should 
 not effervesce with acids. The alkali is here 
 in the caustic stutc, and in this respect it 
 resembles the spirit of ammonia. Ph. U. S., 
 and D^ouil's caustic spirit of ammonia. Ph. 
 Bor. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Chloride of ammonium, 
 10 oz. ; carbonate of potassa, 16 oz. ; rectified 
 spirit and water, of each 3 pints ; mix, and 
 let 3 pints distil. 
 
 3. (Ph. D. 1826.) Dissolve SJ oz. of carbo- 
 nate of ammonia, in rectified spirit, 3 wine 
 pints. 
 
 Ob>. The ammonia in the last two pre- 
 parations exist in the carbonated state. They 
 are chiefly employed to make other prepara- 
 tions. 
 
 4. (ANISATED spirit op ammonia ; LiQUOE 
 AMMONI.E ANISANUa, SPIBITtTS A. A.— Ph. 
 Bor.) Rectified spirit, 12 oz. ; oil of aniseed, 
 3 dr. ; dissolve, and add of caustic solution of 
 ammonia ('QeO), 3 oz. 
 
 5. (ABOMATIO SPIRIT OP AMMONIA, SplEIT 
 OF 8AI. VOLATILE ; Sf IBITUS AMMONIiE ASO- 
 
 * In the British PharfftRRopoeia, for most diBlilled spirits 
 t* niliatitutird a roltitioa of 1 part of voIaiUe oil m 40 oi' 
 ncufled spirit. — ho. 
 
 MATICTTS— B. P., Ph. L., R., & D.)— o. (Ph. 
 L.). Take of hydroehlorate of ammonia, 6 
 oz. ; carbonate of potassa, 10 oz. ; cinaamou 
 and cloves, of each, bruised, 2J dr. j fresh 
 lemon peel, 5 oz. ; rectified spirit and water, 
 of each 2 quarts; mix, and distil 3 quarts. 
 Sp. gr. -918. 
 _ b. (Ph. E.) Spirit of ammonia, 8 fl. oz. ; 
 oil of rosemary, IJ fl. dr.; oil of lemon peel, 
 1 fl. dr. ; mix. 
 
 c. (Ph. D.) Rectified spirit, 3 pints ; oil 
 of lemun, i fl. oz. j oil of nutmeg, 2 fl. dr. ; 
 oil of cinnamon, | fl. dr. ; dissolve and add of 
 stronger solution of ammonia, 6 fl. oz. Sp. gr. 
 •852. 
 
 d. (B. P.). Carbonate of ammonia, 8 oz. ; 
 strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz. ; volatile oil 
 of nutmeg, 4 dr. ; oil of lemon, 6 dr. ; rec- 
 tified spirit, 6 pints ; water, 3 pints; distil 7 
 pints. — Voae, 20 to 60 minims in camphor 
 water. 
 
 Olis. The ammonia exists in the state of 
 nentriil carbonate in the product of the a 
 formula, but in the caustic state in those of 
 the others. — Dose, i to 1 fl. dr., in water or, 
 any bland liquid; as a diffusible stimulant and 
 antacid, in debility, low spirits, dyspepsia, 
 heartburn, flatulent colic, hysteria, &c. The 
 spirit of sal volatile of the shops is generally a 
 spurious compound of little more than half the 
 above strength. 
 
 6. (I'ETID SPIRIT OP AMMONIA; SPIBITrS 
 AM.MOiM.E P(ETIDU8 — B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 
 L. — a. (Ph. E.) Hydroehlorate of ammonia, 
 10 oz. ; carbonate of potai!sa, 16 oz. ; assa- 
 foetida, 5 oz. ; rectified spirit and water, of 
 each 3 pints; mix well, then slowly distil 3 
 pints. Sp. gr. -861. 
 
 4. (Ph. B.) Spirit of ammonia, 10 J fl. oz. ; 
 assafoetida (broken small), i oz.; digest for 12 
 hours, then di.-til 10^ fl. oz., by the beat of a 
 vapour (water) bath. 
 
 c. (Ph. D.) Assafoetida, li oz. ; rectified 
 spirit, li pint; digest for 24 hours, then 
 distil off the whole of the spirit, and mix the 
 product with stronger solution of ammonia, 3 
 fl. oz. Sp. gr. -849. 
 
 d. (B. P.) Strong solution of ammonia, 2 ; 
 assafoetida, in small pieces, H; rectified spirit, 
 sufiiuient; macerate the assafoetida in 15 of the 
 spirit for 24 hours, distil, add the distillate to 
 the ammonia, and make up with spirit to 20. 
 — Dose, J to 1 dr. 
 
 Obs. The dose, &c., are the same as those of 
 the last, but it is preferred for hysterical and 
 spasmodic alfections. 
 
 Spirit, Amyl'ic. Si/n. Alcohol amtlicum 
 (Ph. D.), L. See Fusel oil. 
 
 Spirit of An'iseed. Si/n. Spieitus anisi 
 (Ph. D.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of ani- 
 seed, 3 fl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dissolve. 
 Carminative. — Dose, i fl. dr. to 4 fl. dr. 
 
 2. (Essentia anisi— Ph. D.) Oil of ani- 
 seed, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. ; mix 
 with agitation. Chiefly used to make aniseed 
 water. 
 
1544 
 
 SPIRIT 
 
 3. (Compound spirit op aniseed ; Spi- 
 EiTUS ANisi ooMPOsiTus — Ph. D. 1826.) Ani- 
 seed and angelica seed, of each i lb.; proof 
 spirit, 1 gall.; water, q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. 
 When coloured with satt'ron, or sap green, it 
 closely resembles the Irish usquebaugh. 
 (Montgomery.)— :-2)(Me, 1 to 4 fl. dr. 
 
 Spirit, Arquehusade'. See Vulnebakt 
 SPIKIT Qielow). 
 
 Spirit of Balm (Compound). Syn. Balm 
 
 WATEE, CAEMEniB W. ; AQUA MELISSJB COM- 
 
 posiTA, Spieitus m. compositus, L ; Eaf 
 DEs Caemes, Bait de mehsse des Caemes, 
 Fr. Prep. 1. (P. Cod.) Fresh flowering tops 
 of balm, 24 oz. ; fresh lemon peel, 4 oz. ; cinna- 
 mon, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz. ; 
 coriander seed and dried angelica root, of 
 each 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 lbs. ; macerate 
 for 8 days and distil in a water bath to 
 dryness. The spirit is much esteemed in 
 France as a stomachic, a cosmetic, and a 
 stimulant. 
 
 Spirit, Bath'ing. Soap liniment. 
 
 Spirit of Cam'phor. Syn. Camphoeated 
 SPiEii ; Spieitus camphoes (B. P., Ph. L), 
 TiHCTUEi camphoe^, Spieitus campho- 
 EATUS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 5 
 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Camphor, 1 ; rectified spirit, 9 ; 
 dissolve. — Dose, 10 to 30 minims, in milk or 
 on sugar. Used as an application to chilblains, 
 and iu chronic rheumatism, cholera, &c. See 
 Essence and Tinctubb. 
 
 Spirit of Car'away. Syn. Spieitus caeui 
 (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of 
 caraway, 2 tl. dr.; proof spirit, 1 gall.; dis- 
 solve. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Caraway seeds (bruised), i lb. ; 
 proof spirit, 7 pints ; macerate for 2 days in a 
 covered vessel, then add of water, IJ pint, and 
 distil 7 pints. Aromatic and carminative. — 
 Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. A similar spirit, " sweet- 
 ened with sug.ir," is drunk in Germany as a 
 dram (EiJMEtLIQUEUE; kumelbeandtwein). 
 
 3. (Essentia oaeui— Ph. D.) Oil of cara- 
 way, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. Used 
 to make carawiiy water. 
 
 Spirit of Cas'sia. Syn. Spieitus cassia 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. From coarsely powdered 
 cassia, 1 lb. ; proof spirit, 7 pints ; water, IJ 
 pint, or q. s. ; draw off 7 pints. — Dose, &c., as 
 the last. It is almost universally substituted 
 for spirit of cinnamon. 
 
 Spirit of Cin'namon. Syn. Spieitus cin- 
 NAMOMI (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Oil of cinnamon, 2 fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; 
 dissolve. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) From cinnamon, as spirit of 
 cassia. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. 
 
 3. (Essentia cinnamomi — Ph. D.) Oil of 
 cinnamon, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 fl. oz. 
 Used to make cinnamon water, &c. 
 
 Spirit of E'ther. Syn. Spieit of sulphueio 
 ETUEE, Sweet spieit oe viTBiOLf ; Spieitus 
 jjTHEEis (B. P.), Spieitus «!theeis sul- 
 PHUBIOI (Ph. E.), L. Prep. \.—a. (Ph. E.) 
 
 Sulphuric ether, 1 part; rectified spirit, 2 
 parts. Sp. gr. '809. Obs, This preparation 
 should be neutral to test paper, mix (clear) 
 with water, and, when shaken with twice its 
 volume of concentrated solution of chloride of 
 calcium, 28% of ether should separate. — Dose, 
 i to 2 or 3 fl. dr.; as a stimulant and ano- 
 dyne. 
 
 *. (B. P.) Ether, 1; rectified Spirit, 2; 
 mix. — Dose, 30 to 60 minims. 
 
 2. (Compound spieit op ethbe, Hopf- 
 mann's anodyne liquoe ; Spieitus jetheeis 
 compositus (Ph. L ), S. ^theeis oleosus 
 (Ph. D.), L.— o. (Ph. L.) Ethei-, 8 fl. oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; ethereal oil, 3 fl. dr. ; 
 mix. 
 
 b. (Ph. D.) Mix in a glass matrass, oil of 
 vitriol, IJ pint, with rectified spirit, 1 pint; 
 connect this with a Liebig's condenser, apply 
 lieat, and distil until a black froth begins to 
 rise; then separate the upper stratum of the 
 distilled liquid, and, having exposed it to the 
 air for 24 hours, let the oil be transferred to a 
 moist paper filter, and washed with a little 
 cold water; lastly, dissolve it in a mixture 
 of rectified spirit, \ pint j sulphuric ether, 5 
 fl. oz. 
 
 Obs. This compound is anodyne and anti- 
 spasmodic, and was once held in very great 
 repute. — Dote, i to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 3. (Aeomatic spieit of ethee. A. s. of 
 SULPHUEIO E., Sweet elixie of TiTEioLf; 
 Spieitus mTHEEis aeomaticus, L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L. 1824.) Bruised cinnamon, 3 dr. ; car- 
 dainora*, 1^ dr. ; long pepper and ginger, of 
 each 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 10 fl. oz. ; sulphuric 
 ether, 5 fl. oz. ; mix, and digest 14 days. The 
 last two preparations are also frequently called 
 ' sweet elixir of vitriol.' 
 
 Spirit of Harts'horn. Syn. LiftUOE OE spi- 
 eitus VOLATILIS COBNU OEEVi, L. Originally 
 distilled from hartshorn. Dilute liquor am- 
 monia is now generally sold for spirit of hai'ts- 
 horn. 
 
 Spirit of Horseradish (Compound). Syn. 
 Spieitus abmoeaci;e compositus (B. P., Ph. 
 L.), L. Pre/). 1. (Ph. L.) Sliced horseradish 
 and dried orange peel, of each 20 oz. ; bruised 
 nutmegs, 5 dr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; water, 1 
 quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gall. Stimulant and 
 diuretic. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; in dropsies, when 
 there is much debility. It is usu.illy com- 
 bined with infusion of juniper berries or 
 foxglove. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Fresh root, sliced, 20; dried 
 orange peel, 20; nutmeg, bruised, 4; proof 
 spirit, 160; water, 40; mix, and distil over 
 160.— Z»OM, 1 to 3 dr. 
 
 Spirit of Hydrochlo"ric Ether. Syn. Spieit 
 
 of MUEIATIO ETHEE, CLUTTOn's PEBEIEUGE 
 
 SPIEIT; jEthee hydeochloeicus alcoholi- 
 C0S, Spieitus jstheeis mueiatici, L. Prep. 
 1. Fiom hydrochloric ether and rectified spirit, 
 equal parts, mixed together. 
 
 '2. (Ph. E. 1744.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 part ; 
 rectified spirit, 3 parts ; digest some days, and 
 
SPIKIT 
 
 1545 
 
 dittilin a imnd bath.— Z)o*», } to 3 fl. dr. ; 
 in dyspepsia, liver complaints, hectic fever, 
 Ac. 
 
 Spirit of Jaiil"per. Syn. Spibitus junipem 
 (B. P.). Prep, Enplish oil of juniper, 1 ; 
 rectiAed spirit, 49 ; dissolve. — Vose, SO to 60 
 minims. 
 
 Spirit of Jnniper (Compoand). Si/n. Sfi- 
 
 BITD8JITNIPBHI COMPOSITTIS (Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of juniper, IJ fl. 
 dr. ; oils of earaway and fennel, of each 12 
 drops ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Juniper berries, bruised, 
 15 oz. ; caraway and fennel seed, of each, 
 bruised, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 gall.; water, 1 
 quart, or q. s. ; distil 1 gallon. 
 
 Oht. 'I'his spirit is stimulant and diuretic. 
 —Dote, 2 to 4 fl. dr. Mixed with twice or 
 thrice its weight of proof spirit, and sweetened 
 with a little sugar, it makes no bad substitute 
 for Hollands gin. 
 
 Spirit of Lav'ender. Syn. Spihitfs lavan- 
 BCLJl (B. P.. Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. From fresh 
 lavender, 2i lbs.; rectiSed spirit, 1 gall.; 
 water, 1 quart, or q. s.; distil 1 gallon (7 pints 
 —Ph. E.). 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From Mitcham oil of laven- 
 der, 3 oz. ; rectifled spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve. 
 Cordial nnd fragrant. 
 
 3. (B. P.) English oil of lavender, 1 ; rec- 
 tifii'd spirit, 49; dissolve.— i)o»e, 30 to 60 
 minims. See Spieitb (Perfumed), Tinctobe, 
 &c. 
 
 Spirit of Ni'trlc Ether. Si/n. Spirit op 
 
 NITH0U8 ETHKE, SWBET SPIRIT OF NlrBK, 
 NiTEOUB MTHKBEAL SPIBIT, NiTHE DROPS; 
 SpIBITCS iETHEHIB NITEICI (B. P., Ph. L., & 
 E.J, Spibitus JETHEBIS nitbosus (Ph. 1),), 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) T«ke of rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart ; nitric acid, 3i fl. oz. ; add the 
 acid, by degrees, to the spirit; then mix thorn, 
 and let 28 fl. oz. distil over. An earthenware 
 still and condensing worm should be employed. 
 Sp. gr. -834.. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Pure hyponitrous ether (Ph. 
 E.), 1 part; rectified spirit, 4 parts (both by 
 Toluine); mix. Sp. gr. -847. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Nitrous or hyponitrous ether 
 (which has been washf>d with lialf of its volume 
 of liquor of ammonia), 4 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 "in 42 fl. oz. ; mix, and preserve the com- 
 pound in sujall, strong, and accurately-stopped 
 bottles." 
 
 4. (B. P.) Nitric acid (sp. gr. 1-4.2), 3; 
 sulpliuric acid, 2 ; copper, in fine powder (No. 
 25), 2; rectified spirit, a suflBciency ; to 20 of 
 the spirit add gradually the sulphuric acid, 
 stirring them together ; then add to this, aho 
 gradu«lly, 2t of the nitric acid. Put the mix- 
 ture into a retort or other suitable appnrntus, 
 into which the copper has been introduced, and 
 to which a thermometer is fitted. Attach now 
 an elfieient condenser, and, applying a gentle 
 heat, let the spirit distil at a temperaturp com- 
 mencing at 170'' and rising to 175°, but not 
 cxceoling 180°, until 12 have passed over and 
 
 been collected in a bottle kept cool, if neces- 
 sary, with ice-cold water ; then withdraw the 
 heat, and, having allowed the contents of the 
 retort to cool, introduce the remaining J of 
 nitric acid, and resume the distillation as 
 before, until the increased product has been 
 increased to 15. Mix this with 40 of the 
 rectified spirit, or as much as will make the 
 product correspond to the tests of specific 
 gravity and per-centage of ether separated by 
 chloride of calcium. Preserve it in well-closed 
 vessels. 
 
 Char, and Teeti. Transparent, and nearly 
 colourless, with a very liglit tinge of yellow, 
 mobile, inflammable, of a peculior penetrating 
 apple-like odour, and sweetish, cooling, sharp 
 taste. It effervesces feebly, or not at all, when 
 shaken with a little bicarbonate of soda. When 
 agitated with solution of sulphate of iron and 
 a few drops of sulphuric acid, it becomes deep 
 olive-brown or black. If it be agitated with 
 twice its volume of a saturated solution ot 
 chloride of calcium in a closed tube, 23 of its 
 original volume will sepiinite in the form 
 of nitrous ether, and rise to the surface of 
 the mixture. Sp. gr. -815. — Bote, 1 to 2 
 fl. dr. 
 
 Pur., Sfc. Pnre spirit of nitric ether boils 
 at about 160° F.ihr., scarcely reddens litmus 
 paper, and " gives off no bubbles of carbonic 
 acid ijiis on the aiTdition of carbonate of soda." 
 (Ph. L.) " When asritated with twice its 
 volume of concentrated solution of chloride of 
 calcium, 12f of ether slowly separates." (Ph. 
 E.) — Dose, i to 3 fl. dr., as a fel)rifu},'e, a dia- 
 phoretic, diuretic, antispasmodic, &c; in va- 
 rious affections. 
 
 Obs, The mass of the sweet spirits of nitre 
 of the shops is of very inferior quality, and is 
 scarcely, if ever, made direitly from spirit 
 that has paid the duty. One, and a very huge 
 portion, is obtained Irom Scotland ; another, 
 from the manufacturers of fulminating mer- 
 cury ; and a third, and, in f.iet, the principal 
 part, from certain persons in the neighbour- 
 hood of the metropolis who employ contraband 
 spirit for its preparation, as this article is not 
 under the excise. Recently methylated spirit 
 has been employed for llie purpose. 
 
 Sweet spirits of nitre, sp. gr. '850, is now 
 commonly and publicly sold, in quantity, at a 
 price which is only about 2-3rds that of the 
 spirit in it, if the latter had paid duty. Tlie 
 spirit obtained from the manufacturers of ful- 
 minntin^ mercury frequently contains no in- 
 considerable qnaniity of hydrocyanic acid. 
 
 The mere admixture of nitric or hyponitrous 
 ether with alcohol does not aflbrd an olQcinal 
 SPIB. £THEB. KITR., as this always contains 
 aldehyde, which, according to Prof. Liebig, 
 is an essential constituent of the officinal com- 
 pound. 
 
 Spirit of Nitrous Ether. Si/n. Spiritus 
 
 .ETHEBIS NITEOSI (B. P.). free SpiEIT OP 
 
 Nitric ether. 
 Spirit of Kut'meg. Si/n. Spibitus my- 
 
1546 
 
 BISTIC« (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), S. BUOIS M08- 
 CHAT^, L. Pref. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Bruised 
 nutmegs, 2ioz.; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; water, 
 
 1 pint, or q. s. ; distil a gallon. Cordial and 
 carminative. — I>oae, 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; chiefly used 
 to flavour mixtures and draughts. 
 
 a. (Essentia mtbistic* moschate — Ph. 
 D.) Oil of nutmegs, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 9 fl. oz. Uaud in dispensing. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Volatile oil of nutmeg, 1 ; rec- 
 tified spiiit, 49; dissolve. — Dose, 30 to 60 
 minims. 
 
 Spirit of Pennyroy'al. Syn. Spieitus pn- 
 
 lEGII (Ph. L.), S. MBNTHJE PULEail, L. 
 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of pennyroyal, 3 fl. dr. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve. Stimulant, an- 
 tispasmodic, and carminative. — Dose, J to 2 
 fl. dr. 
 
 2. (Essentia MENTHiE puleoii — Ph. D.) 
 Oil of pennyroyal, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 
 fl. oz. Used cliiefly in dispensing. 
 
 Spirit of Pep'permint. Syn. Spibitus 
 
 MENTHiE PIPEEII.S; (B. P., Ph. L.), S. MEN- 
 THA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Oil of 
 peppermint, 3 fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; 
 dissolve. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Green peppermint, 1\ lb. ; 
 proof spiiit, 7 pints; macerate 2 days ; add of 
 water, q. s., and distil 7 pints. — Dose, J to 
 
 2 dr. 
 
 3. (Essentia menth^e pipeeitjs — Ph. D.) 
 Oil of peppernnnt, 1 fl. oz. ; rectified spirit, 9 
 fl. oz. See Essence op Peppeemint. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Eni^lish oil of peppermint, 1 ; 
 rectified spirit, 49 ; dissolve. — Dose, 30 to 60 
 minims, or, for children under five years, 1 to 3 
 minims. 
 
 Spirit of Pimen'to. Syn. (Spibit op all- 
 spice; SpiErnrs pimento — Ph. L. & E.), L. 
 Frep. 1 (Ph. L.) Oil of pimento, 2 fl. dr. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) From pimento, bruised, \ lb. ; 
 and proof spirit, 7 pints ; as spirit of caraway. 
 Carminative and stomachic. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. 
 dr. j in flatulent colic, dyspepsia, &c. 
 
 3. (ESSENTLE PiMBNTa;— Ph. D.) Oil of 
 pimento, 1 fl. oz. ; rectififtd spirit, 9 fl. oz. 
 Used to make pimento water, and in dis- 
 pensing. 
 
 Spirit of Pine-tops. Syn. Spibitus ttteio- 
 NUM piNi, L. See Balsam, Riga. 
 
 Spirit of Eose'mary. Syn. Spibitus bos- 
 MAEiNi (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. Prep. 1. 
 
 (Ph. L.) As SPIEIT OP PIMENTO. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Rosemary tops 2^ lbs. ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 gull. ; as SPIKIT OF LAVENDEE. Fra- 
 grant and stimulant. 
 
 3. (Essentia bosmaeini — Ph. D.) As 
 
 ESSENCE OP PIMENTO. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Oil of rosemary, 1 ; rectified 
 spirit, 49; dissolve. — Dose, 10 to 30 minims. 
 
 Spirit of Spear'mint. Syn. Spieittts men- 
 
 TUM VIEIDIS (Pll. L.), S. MENTHA; SATIVa), 
 
 L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) As spieit Op pep- 
 peemint — Ph. L. 
 2. (Essentia menths; tieidis — Ph, D.) 
 
 SPIRITS (PERFUMED) 
 
 As essence op peppeemint — Ph. D. The uses 
 and doses are also tlie same. 
 
 Spirit of Sulphu'ric E'ther. See Spieit op 
 Ethee {ah'jve). 
 
 Spirit of Vitriol (Sweet). See Aeomatic 
 Spieit op Ethee (above). 
 
 Spirit, Vnl'nerary. Syn. Vwlneeaet watee, 
 Aequebusade ; Spieitus vulneeaeius, L. ; 
 Eait d'aequeeusabb, Fr. Prep. 1. Dried 
 tops of sage, wormwood, fennel, hyssop, mar- 
 joram, savory, thyme, rosmary, calamint, balm, 
 peppermint, and scordium, fresh leaves of an- 
 gelica and basil, and lavender flowers, of each 
 ioz. ; proof spirit, 2 galls.; digest for 14 days, 
 and distil over li gall. 
 
 2. Rosemary leaves, li lb. ; leaves of thyme 
 and summits of millefoil, of each i lb. ; juniper 
 berries, 3 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 galls. ; distil over 
 5 quarts. 
 
 Obs. This preparation is stimulant and vul- 
 nerary, and is in great repute on the Con- 
 tinent RS a cosmetic and cordial. 
 
 SPIRITS (Perfumed). Syn. Spibitus odo- 
 BiPEBi, Odoees spieituosi, L. The odo- 
 riferous spirits of the perfumer are, for the 
 most part, prepared from various aromatic and 
 odorous substances, by a similar process to that 
 described under Essences and Spieits (Medi- 
 cinal) ; but in this case a perfectly pure, fla- 
 vourless, and scentless spirit must be employed. 
 The distillation should also be preferably con- 
 ducted by steam, or the heat of a water bath, 
 and the distilled spirit should be kept fur 
 some time in a cellar, or other cold situation, 
 previously to being used. When simple solu- 
 tion of an essential oil in the spirit is adopted, 
 care should be taken that the oil is pale and 
 new ; or, at least, has not been much exposed 
 to the air ; as in that case it would contain 
 resin, which would make the perfumed spirit, 
 or essence, liable to stain delicate articles of 
 clothing to which it may be applied. Most of 
 the *eaux* and *esprits'of the perfumers 
 are prepared by one or other of the above 
 luetViods. It is found, however, that the per- 
 fumed spirits of some of the more delicate 
 flowers cannot be well obtained by either in- 
 fusion or distillation, or by the simple solution 
 of their essential oils in spirit ; or, at least, 
 they are not usually so prepared by the foreign 
 perfumers. The spirits of orange flowers, 
 jasmin, tuberose, jonquille, roses, and of 
 some other flowers, and of cassia, vanilla, 
 &c., are commonly prepared by digesting pure 
 rectified spirit for 3 or 4 days on half its 
 weight of the respective pommades or oils, ob- 
 tained by infusion or contact. The operation 
 is performed in a closed vessel placed in a 
 water bath, and frequent agitation is employed 
 for 3 or 4 days, when the perfumed spirit is 
 decanted into a second digester, containing a 
 like quantity of oil to the first. The whole 
 process is repeated a second and a third time, 
 after which the spirit is allowed to settle and 
 is then decanted. It now forms the most fra- 
 grant and perfect odoriferous spirit (extrait) 
 
SPIRITS (PERFUMED) 
 
 1517 
 
 of the Cuntiiivntnl perfamer. The product is 
 called 'esprit' or ' extrait of the first in- 
 fusion.' The three portions of oil are then 
 trt'ttted again with fresh spirit in tlie same 
 manner, and thus spirits or essences of iitf erior 
 quality are obtained, which arc distinguished 
 by the perfumers as No. 2, 3, 4, &c., or 
 'esprits' or 'extraits of the first, second, 
 third,' Ac, operation or infusion. In some, 
 though only a very few eases, the spirits are 
 afterwards distilled. 
 
 'I'he strength of the spirit for the concen- 
 trated essences should not be less than 56 
 0. p. (sp. gr. 'SSyS); that for eanx, esprits, 
 »nd extraits, not less than 33 o. p. (sp. gr. 
 •8723). The strength of the second quality of 
 the last three must be fully proof (ap. g. -920). 
 See Alcohol, Distillation, Essence, Oils, 
 FoMUADB, &c., and below. 
 
 £aa d'Ambre Boyale. [Fr.] From essences 
 of ambergris and musk, of each 1 il. oz. ; spirit 
 of ambrette and orange-flower water, of each 
 1 pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix. 
 
 £aa d'Ange. fFr.] From flowering tops of 
 myrtle (bruised), 1} lb.; rectified spirit, 7 
 pints ; water, 3 pints ; digest a week, add of 
 common salt, 2 lbs., and distil 1 gall, 
 
 Eau d'Arquebnsade. [Fr.] See Vulneeakt 
 sriBiT (back). 
 
 Ean de Bouquet. [Fr.] From spirits of rose- 
 mary and essence of violets, of each 1 fl. oz, ; 
 I'ssences of bergamot and jasmin, of each 1 fl. 
 dr. ; oils of verbena and lavender, of each i 
 fl dr.; orHuge-flower water, 1 fl. oz. ; eou de 
 ri>se, i pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; mix. 
 
 Ean de Bouquet de Flore. [Fr ] From 
 spirits of rnsemury and roses and essence of 
 violets, of each i H. oz. ; oil of cedra and 
 I'ssence of amborgris, of earh 1 fl. dr. ; orange- 
 flower water, 5 fl. oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint. 
 
 Ean des Carmes. [Fr.] See Sfibit of 
 Balh (Compound). 
 
 Ean de Cologne. [Fr.] Sj/a. CotooNS 
 WATEE; Aqua Colonibnsis, A. o. spiRiTtr- 
 OSA, SpiBlTUS CoLONiENBis, li. For the pro- 
 duction of good eau de Cologne it is abso- 
 lutely t'ssoutial that the spirit be of the purest 
 description, both tasteless and scentless, and 
 that the oils be not only genuine, but recently 
 distilled, as old oils are less odorous, and con- 
 tain a considerable quantity of resin and cam- 
 phor, which prove injurious. When flowers 
 and the flowering tops of plants are ordered, 
 it is also necessary that they be either fresh 
 gathered or well preserved, without drying 
 tbem. To produce an article of the fine.»t 
 quality, distillation should be had recourse to. 
 A very excellent eau de Cologne may, how- 
 ever, be produced by simple solution of the 
 oils or essences in the spirit, provided they be 
 new, pnle coloured, and pure. The mass of the 
 eau de Cologne prepared in Enghind, some of 
 which possess the most delicate fragrance, and 
 is nearly equal to the best imported, is made 
 without di'tiliation. In the shops two kinds 
 of this article are generally kept— French and 
 
 Qerman. That prepared by Farina of Cologne 
 i< esteemed the best, and is preferred in the 
 fashionable world. 
 
 Prep. 1. From essences of bergamot and 
 lemon, of each 1 fl. dr. ; oil of orange, J dr. 
 oil of neroli, 20 drops ; oil of rosemary, 10 
 drops ; essence of ami ergris and musk, of each 
 1 drop ; rectified spirit, i pint ; mix. 
 
 2. Essence of bergamot, 3 fl. oz. ; essence of 
 lemon, 3 fl. dr. ; essence of cedrat, 2 fl. dr. ; 
 oils of neroli and rosemary, of each It fl. dr.; 
 oil of balm, t fl. dr.; rectified spirit, li gall.; 
 mix. 
 
 3. (Cadet Gassincourt.) Take of pure neroli, 
 essences (oils) of cedrat, orange, lemon, berga- 
 mot, and rosemary, of each 24 drops ; lesser 
 cardamom seeds, i oz. ; spirit at 32° Baume 
 (sp. gr. -869), 1 quart ; digest a few days and 
 then distil 1} pint. 
 
 4. (Farina.) Take of rectified spirit, 5 galls. ; 
 calamus nromaticus, sage, and thyme, of each 
 i dr. ; balm-mint and spearmint, of each 1 oz. ; 
 angelica root, 10 gr. ; camphor, 1 5 gr. ; petals 
 of roses and violets, of each 3 dr. ; laven- 
 derflowers,li dr.; orange flowers, 1 dr.; worm- 
 wood, nutmeg, cloves, cassia lignea, and mace, 
 of each 20 gr. ; oranges and lemons, sliced, of 
 each 2 in no. ; bruise or slice the solids, ma- 
 cerate, with agitation, for 48 hours, then distil 
 off 2-3rds, and add to the product — essences of 
 lemon, cedrat, balm-mint,and lavender, of each 
 
 I fl. dr.; pure neroli and essence of the seeds 
 of anthos, of each 20 drops ; es-ences of jas- 
 min and bergamot, of each 1 fl. oz. ; mix well 
 and filter, if necessary. 
 
 5. (P. Cod.) Oils of bergamot, lemon, and 
 cedrat, of each 3 oz. ; oils of rosemary, laven- 
 der, and neroli, of each 1} oz. ; oil of cinna- 
 mon, f oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 1 quart; com- 
 pound spirit of balm (eau de melisse des 
 Carmes), 3 pints ; rectified spirit, 3 galls. ; 
 digest for 8 days, then distil 3 gulls. 
 
 6. (Dr A. T." Thomson.) Oils of' bergamot, 
 orange, anil rosemary, of each 1 fl. dr. ; car- 
 damom seeds, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit and orange- 
 riower water, of each 1 pint; mix, digest for 
 
 II day, and then distd a pint. 
 
 7. (Troramsdorff.) Oils of neroli, citron, 
 beri:aniot, orange, and rosemary, of each l:i 
 drops ; Malabar cardamoms, bruised, 1 dr. ; 
 rectified spirit of wine, 1 quart; mix, and, 
 after standing 2 or 3 days, distil a quart. 
 
 Obs. Eau de Cologne is principally used 
 as a perfume, but a very laige quantity is 
 consumed by fashionable ladies as a cordial 
 and stimulant. For tliis purpose it is dulcified 
 with sugar. A piece of linen dipped in Cologne 
 water, and laid across the forehead, is a 
 fashionable remedy for headache. 
 
 Eau d'Elegance. [Fr.] From spirit of jes- 
 samine, 1 pint; rectified spirit and spirits of 
 hyacinth and storax, of each j pint; tinctures 
 of star-anise and tolu, of each 2 fl. oz. ; tinc- 
 ture of vanilla, 1 fl. oz. ; e-sence of amber- 
 gris, i dr. ; mix, and in a week decant the clear 
 portion. 
 
1543 
 
 SPIRITS (PERFUMED) 
 
 Eau de Framboises. [Fr.] From straw- 
 berries, brnised, 16 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall.; 
 digest, and distil to dryness in a salt-water or 
 steam bath. 
 
 Ean d'Heliotrope. [Pr] Prom essence of 
 ambergris, J fl. dr. ; vanilla, i oz. ; orange- 
 flower water, i pint; rectified spirit, 1 quart; 
 digest a week, and filter. 
 
 Eau d'Hongrie. [Fr.] Si/n. Hunoaet 
 WATEB ; Aqua Hun&abica, Spibitus eos- 
 
 IIAEINI COMPOSIinS, L. ; EaU DE LA ReINE 
 d'Hongeie, Fr. A fragrant stimulant and 
 cosmetic. Sweetened with sugar it is also 
 used as a liqueur. 
 
 Prep. 1. Rosemary tops, in blossom, 4 lbs, ; 
 fresh sage, J lb. ; bruised ginger, 2 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, IJ gall.; water, J gall. ; macerate 
 for 10 days, add of common salt, 3 lbs., and 
 then distil 11 pints. 
 
 2. From oil of rosemary (genuine), IJ fl. 
 dr. ; oil of lavender, i dr. ; orange flower water, 
 ipint; rectitied spirit, 1^ pint; mix, Spieit 
 OF BOSBMAET (see above) is now commonly 
 sold for it. 
 
 Ean d'lspalian. [Fr.] From oil of the 
 bitter orange, 2 fl. oz. ; oil of rosemary, 2 dr. ; 
 oils of cloves and neroli, of each 1 fl. dr. ; oil 
 of spearmint, J fl. dr.; eau de rose, 1 pint; 
 rectified spirit, 7 pints ; mix. It is better for 
 distillaliou. Used as Eau de Cologne. 
 
 Eau de Jasmin. [Fr.] See Espeit de 
 Jasmin odoeante (beloio). 
 
 Eau de Lavande. [t>.] Si/n. Lavbndee 
 WATEB, Double distilled l. w.; Aqua la- 
 
 VANDDLa;, A. L,. ODOKIFEBA, SPIEITUS I., L. 
 
 JPrep. 1. From the flowering tops of lavender 
 (freshly and carefully picbed), 7 lbs. ; recti Red 
 spirit, 2 gall. ; macerate for a week, add of 
 water, \ gall. ; (holding in solution) common 
 salt, 3 lbs. ; and distil 2 gallons. 
 
 2. From Mitcham oil of lavender, 8 oz. ; 
 essence of musk, 4 oz. ; essence of auibergi is 
 and oil of bergamot, of each 1^ oz. ; rectified 
 spirit, 2 gall.; mix well. Very fine. 
 
 3. (Brande.) Oil of lavender, 20 oz. ; oil 
 of bergamot, 5 oz. ; essence of ambergris 
 (finest), \ oz. ; rectified spirit, 5 gall. ; mix. 
 
 Ohi. Tlie products of the last two formulse 
 are better for distillation ; but in that case 
 the essences of ambergris and musk should 
 be added to the distilled spirit. The oils 
 should be of the best quality, and newly dis- 
 tilled, and the spirit should be perfectly scent- 
 less. 
 
 It may be useful to observe here, that the 
 common lavender water, double distilled laven- 
 der water, or spirit of lavender of the shops, 
 is made with spirit at proof, or even weaker; 
 hence its inferior quality to that of the more 
 celebrated peif umers. One ounce of true Eng- 
 lish oil of liivender is all that will properly 
 combine with 1 gall, of proof spirit, without 
 rendering it muddy or cloudy. 
 
 Eau de lavande is a most agreeable and 
 fashionable perl'ume. The article produced 
 by the second formula has received the com- 
 
 mendation of Her Majesty and many of the 
 nobility. 
 
 Eau de Lavande de Milleflenrs. To each 
 quart of the ordinary eau de lavande (No. 2 
 or 3), add of oil of cloves, IJ fl, dr. ; essence 
 of ambergris, 4 fl. dr, 
 
 Ean de Lavauge (Ammoniacal), 1. To 
 lavender water, 1 pint; add of liquor of am- 
 monia, \ fl. oz. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) English oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; 
 spirit of ammonia, 2 lbs. ; dissolve. Used as a 
 stimulating scent in fainting. See Perfumes 
 (Aramoniated). 
 
 Eau de luce, [Fr.] See Tinctueb op 
 Ammonia, Compound. 
 
 Eau de Marechale. [Fr.] Syn. Exteait 
 DB MAB^CHALE, Fr, 1, From ambergris and 
 grain musk, of each 20 gr. ; oils of bergamot, 
 lavender, and cloves, of each 1 oz. ; oils of sas- 
 safras and origanum, of each \ fl. dr. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 2 quarts ; macerate with agitation 
 for a week. 
 
 2. Rectified spirit, 1 pint ; essence of 
 violets, 1 oz. ; essences of bergamot and oeil- 
 lets, of each i oz. ; orange-flower water, \ piut ; 
 luix. 
 
 Eau de Melisse. [Fr.] See Spieit of 
 Balm, Compound. 
 
 Eau de Miel. [Fr.] Siin. Honey watee. 
 Sweet-scented h. w.; Aqua mellis, A. m. 
 ODOEiFEEA, L. Prep. 1. Take of spirit of 
 roses (No. 3 — see above), 2 quarts ; spirit of 
 jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 1 quart; 
 essence of Portugal, 1 fl. oz. ; essences of va- 
 nilla and musk, of each (No, 3) 4 11. oz. ; flowers 
 of benzoin, 1^ dr. ; mix, agititte, and add 
 of eau de Heurs d'oranges, 1 quart. Delight- 
 fully fragrant. 
 
 2. Honey (finest), \ lb. ; essence of bergamot, 
 4 oz. ; essence of lemon, i oz. ; oil of cloves, 
 12 drops ; musk, 12 gr. ; ambergris, 6 gr. ; 
 oransre-flower and rose water, of each 1 quart; 
 rectified spirit, 1 gall. ; macerate for 14 days, 
 with frequent agitation, and filter. 
 
 Obs. The last is often coloured with 20 or 
 30 gr. of saffron, and made into a ratafia with 
 sugar. Honey watee fob the haib is a 
 different article to the above. It is obtained 
 by the dry distillation of honey, mix'd with 
 an equal weight of clean sand, a gentle heat 
 only being employed. The product is yel- 
 lowish and acidulous, from the presence of 
 acetic acid. This last is used to promote the 
 growth of the hair. 
 
 Eau de Millefleurs. [Fr.] Si/n. Exteait 
 DB mlllefleues, Fr. Prep. 1. From grain 
 musk, 12 gr. ; ambergris, 20 gr. ; essence of 
 lemon, IJ oz. ; oils of cloves and lavender 
 (English), of each 1 oz. ; neroli and oil of ver- 
 bena, of each J dr. ; rectified spirits, 2 quarts ; 
 macerate in a closed vessel, and a warm situa- 
 tion for a fortnight, 
 
 2. Balsam of Peru (genuine) and essence of 
 cloves, of each 1 oz. ; essences of bergamot 
 and musk, of each 2 oz. ;, essences of neroli and 
 thyme, of each i oz. ; eau de fleurs d'orauges, 
 
SPITTING OP BLOOD— SPLINT 
 
 1549 
 
 1 qnart) rectified aplrit, 9 pints; mix well. 
 Very fine. 
 
 S. Essence of berj;>imot, i oz. ; eau de la- 
 vande and essence of jasmin, of each 1 oz. ; 
 omnce-Howrr w.iter, 8 U. oz. ; rectitied spirit, 
 
 1 pint ; mix, 
 
 £aa de Uonaselline. [Fr.] From enu de 
 fleurs d'oraiiges and spirit of clove-gillyflower, 
 of eaoli 1 quart; spirit of roses (No. 3 — see 
 above), spirit of jnsmin (No. 4), and spirit of 
 orange flnwers (No. 4), of each 2 quarts ; 
 essences of vanilla and musk, of each (No. 3), 
 
 2 fl. oz. i Sanders wood, f oz. Very fine. 
 Ean de Naplie. [Fr.] See Watebb (Per- 
 
 fuineil). 
 
 Ban sans Fareille. [Fr.] 1. Prom essence 
 of bergumot, 5 dr. ; essence of lemon, 8 dr. ; 
 essence of citron, 4 dr. ; Hungary water, 1 
 pint ; rectified spirit, 6 quarts ; mix, and 
 distil. 
 
 2. Grain mnsk, 20 gr. ; ambergris, 25 gr. ; 
 oils of lavender and cloves, of each 1 oz. ; 
 essence of bergamot, i oz. ; oils of sassafras 
 and origanum, of each 20 drops ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 gall. ; macerate tur 14 days. 
 
 Ean, Bomain. [Fr.] From essence of am- 
 bergris, 1 tl. oz. ; tincture of benzoin, 4 fl. oz. ; 
 spirit of tuberose, i pint; spirit of acacia 
 riowers and tincture of vanilla, of each 1 pint ; 
 spirit of jasmin, 3 pints ; mix. 
 
 Eau de KosUres. [Fr.] From spirit of 
 roses, 1 pint; spirits of cucumber, angelica 
 root, and celery seeds, of each | pint ; spirits 
 of jasmin and orange flowers, of each i pint; 
 tincture of benzoin, 2 fl. oz. ; mix, 
 
 Ean de Vlolette. [Fr.] See Esfbit de 
 ViOLETTES {beloui). 
 
 Esprit d'Ambrette. [Fr.] See Esskncb. 
 
 Esprit de Bergamotte. [Fr.] From essence 
 (oil) of bergamut (best), 6 oz, ; essence of am- 
 bergris (pale), 2 fl, oz. ; essence of musk, i 
 fl. oz. ; oil of verbena, 2 11. dr. ; rectified spirit, 
 1 gall. ; mix. 
 
 Esprit de Bonqnet. [Fr.] From Ihlitcham 
 oil of lavender, 1 oz. ; oils of cloves and ber- 
 gamot, of each 3 fl. dr. ; essence of musk, 1 
 fl. dr. ; otto of roses, 10 drops ; rectified spirit, 
 1 quart. 
 
 Esprit de Fleurs. [Fr.] See Spirit op 
 THE Flowers of Italy {below). 
 
 Eiprit de Jasmin. [Fr.] Sgn. Eau de jas- 
 MIK. Fr. 
 
 Esprit de Jasmin Odorante. [Fr.] From 
 spirit of jasmin and rectified spirit, of each 
 1 pint ; essence of ambergris, 1 tl. dr. 
 
 Esprit de Jonqnille. [Fr.] 
 
 Esprit de la Keine. [Fr.] From oil of 
 bergamot, 1 fl. oz. ; essence of ambergris, 2 
 fl. dr. ; otto of roses, 1 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 
 1 qnart. 
 
 Esprit deRondeletia. [Fr.] Si/n. Extbait 
 DE BOXDSLETIA, Fr. From Mitcham oil of 
 lavender, 3 oz.; oil of cloveo, li oz. ; oil of 
 bergamot, 1 oz. ; essences of musk and am- 
 
 bergris, of each 2 fl. dr. ; rectified spirit, 3 
 pints. 
 
 Esprit de Eose. [Fr.] L From spirit of 
 roses (sec general directions, page 1547), 1 
 pint ; essence of ambergris and oil of rose- 
 geranium, of each J fl. dr. 
 
 2. Prom otto of roses, 2 dr. ; neroli, 1 dr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 gall. ; dissolve, add of chlo- 
 ride of calcium (well dried and in powder), 
 li lb.; agitate well, and distil 7 pints. Very 
 fine. 
 
 Esprit de Suave. [Pr.] From the essences 
 of cloves and bergamot, of each IJ fl. dr.; 
 neroli, i fl. dr.; essence of musk, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 spirit of tuberose and rectified spirit, of each 
 1 pint ; spirits of jasmin and cassia, of each 
 1 quart; dissolve, then add of eau de rose, 
 1 pint, and mix well. 
 
 Esprit de Tain. [Fr.] Syn. Spirit op leuoh 
 THYME ; SpiBiTrs THYMI, L. From tops of 
 lemun thyme, 2 lbs.; proof spirit, 1 gall. ; distil 
 7 pints. 
 
 Esprit de Violettes. [Fr.] Sj/n. Spirit op 
 VIOLETS, Essence op v., E. op orris. From 
 Florentine orris root, reduced to coarse pow- 
 der, i lb.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; by simple 
 maceration for a fortnight. A stronger and 
 finer article (essence op violets) is prepared 
 from orris root, 5 lbs., to rectified spirit, 1 
 gall. ; by percolation. 
 
 Extrait de Bouquet. [Fr.] Extract of nose- 
 gay. 
 
 Extrait de Marechale. [Fr.] Sue Eatt de 
 Mab^CHALE {above). 
 
 Extrait de Milleflenrs. [Pr.] See Eait de 
 Millepledbs {above. 
 
 Extrait de Bondeletia. [Fr.] See Esprit 
 {above), 
 
 Odeur, S^ectable. [Fr.] From oils of 
 lavender, bergamot, rose-geranium, and cloves, 
 of each 1 fi. dr. ; eaux de rose and fleurs 
 d'orange, of each i pint; rectified spirit, li 
 pint. 
 
 Odenr Snave. [Fr.] See Esprit {above). 
 
 Spirit of Cytherea. Prom the spirits of 
 violets, tuberose, clove-gillyflower, jasmin 
 (No. 2 — see above), roses (No. 2), and Portu- 
 gal, of each 1 pint ; orange-flower water, 1 
 quart; mix. 
 
 Spirit of the Flowers of Italy. %». Esprit 
 de fleurs, Pr. From the spirits of roses 
 (No. 1 — see above), jasmin (No. 2), oranges 
 (No. 3), and cassia (No. 2), of each 4 pints ; 
 orange-flower water, 3 pints; mix. 
 
 Victoria Perfume. See Esprit de la reine 
 {above). 
 
 SPIT'TIHS OF BLOOD. See Hemoptysis. 
 
 SPLINT. This is the common name given 
 to an enlargement of the bone in horses; 
 which generally occurs \)elow the knee, between 
 the large and small splint bones, usually on 
 the inside of the limb. It mostly results from 
 fast driving or riding, or from the animal 
 having been much worked while young, or 
 made to unduly traverse hard or paved roads. 
 
1550 
 
 SPONGE— SPOTS AND STAINS 
 
 The splint is a frequent cause of lameness if 
 it develops just under tlie knee, since it inter- 
 feres with and circumscribes tlie free move- 
 ment of thejuint. Ic is very essential to have 
 recourse to prompt measures directly this 
 affection shows itself. 
 
 The treatment usually prescribed is the 
 constant application to the part of cold water, 
 if the splint be accompanied by much tender- 
 ness or inflammation. This may be accom- 
 plished by bandages soaked in cold water, 
 taking care to renew the cold water as soon 
 as it becomes warm. Mr Finlay Dun advises 
 the horse, where practicable, to stand for an 
 hour several times a day up to the knees in a 
 stream or pool of water. In addition he pre- 
 scribes rest for ten days or a fortnight, and 
 when the heat and tenderness have been 
 subdued the application of a blister, or of 
 biniodide of mercury ointment, or the hot 
 iron. 
 
 SFONQE. Syn, Sponoia, S. oppicinalis, 
 L. Sponge is a cellular fibrous structure, 
 produced by marine animals of the humblest 
 type, belonging to the subkingdom Protozoa. 
 The finest quality is imported from Smyrna, 
 and is known as Tceket sponge ; another, 
 called West Indian or Bahama SPONaE, is 
 much less esteemed, being coarse, dark co- 
 loured, and very rotten. 
 
 Sponge, as collected, and also as generally 
 imported, contains many impurities, more 
 especially sand, most of which may be re- 
 moved by belting it, and by washing it in 
 water. Amusing disputes often arise between 
 the smaller importers and the wholesale pur- 
 chasers on this subject — the privilege of 
 beating it before weighing it, the number of 
 minutes so employed, and even the size of the 
 stick, being often made important matters in 
 the ' hagaling.* 
 
 1. Bleached sponge (white sponge ; 
 BPONQIA DEAIBATA) is prepared by soaking 
 ordinary sponge in very dilute hydrochloric 
 acid, to remove calcareous matter, then in 
 cold water, changing it frequently, and 
 squeezing the sponge out each time, and next, 
 in water holding a litile sulphuric or sulphu- 
 rous acid, or, still better, a very little chlo- 
 rine, in solution j the sponge is, lastly, 
 repeatedly washed and soaked in clean water 
 scented with rose or orange-flower water, and 
 dried. 
 
 2. The sponges are first soaked in hydro- 
 chloric acid to remove the lime, they are then 
 washed in water, and afterwards placed for 
 ten minutes in a 2 per cent, solution of per- 
 maiig.inate of pota-^sium. When taken out 
 they have a brown appearance; this is owing 
 to the deposition of manganous oxide, and 
 may be removed by steeping the sponge for 
 about two minutes in a 2 per cent, solution of 
 oxalic acid, to which a little sulplinric acid 
 has been added. As soon as tlie sponges 
 appear white they are well washed out in 
 water to remove the acid. Strongly diluted 
 
 sulphuric acid may he used instead of oxalic 
 acid. 
 
 3. Sponges can be bleached by fir^t soaking 
 them in hydrochloric acid, diluted with li 
 parts of water, until no more carbonic acid is 
 given oft'; then wash in pure water, and 
 afterwards leave in a bath composed of 2 lbs. 
 of hyposulphite of soda, 12 lbs. of water, and 
 2 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. If the sponge be 
 afterwards dipped in glycerin and well pressed, 
 to remove excess of liquid, it remains elastic, 
 and can be used for mattresses, cushions, and 
 general upholstery. Sponge mattresses pre- 
 pared in this way are now finding great 
 favour. It is, of course, not necessary to 
 bleach the sponge where it is intended to be 
 used for such purposes.' 
 
 BuENT sponge (spongia trsTA — Ph. D.) is 
 prepared by heating the cuttings and unsale- 
 able pieces in a closed iron crucible until they 
 become black and friable, avoiding too much 
 heat, and allowing the whole to cool before 
 exposing it to the air. It was formerly in 
 great repute in bronchocele and scrofulous 
 complaints. — Dose, 1 to 3 dr., in water, or 
 made into an electuary or lozenges. When 
 good burnt sponge evolves violet fumes of 
 iodine on being heated in a fiask along with 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 Compressed or waxed sponge (spongia 
 CEEATA, s. compeebsa) is spotige which has 
 been dipped into melted wax and then com- 
 pressed between two iron plates until cold. 
 When cut into pieces it forms ' sponge 
 TENTS,' which are used by surgeons to dilate 
 wounds. 
 
 Sponge, To Clean a. There is nothing more 
 pleasant for washing the skin than a fresh 
 good sponge, or the reverse when not kept 
 thoroughly clean. Without the greatest care, 
 a sponge is apt to get slimy long before it is 
 worn out. It may be made almost as good as, 
 in fact often better than, new, by the follow- 
 ing process : — Take about 2 or 3 oz. of carbo- 
 nate of soda, or of potash; dissolve in 2^ 
 pints of water ; soak the sponge in it for 24 
 hours, then wash and rinse it in pure water. 
 Then put it for some hours in a mixture, 1 
 glassful of muriatic acid to 3 pints of water ; 
 fiually, rinse in cold water, and dry thoroughly. 
 A sponge should always be dried, if possible, 
 in the sun every time it has been used. 
 
 SPONGES Employed in Washing Wounds, 
 Purification of. M. Leriche advises the sponge 
 to be first saturated with a solution of 4 parts 
 of permanganate of potassium in 100 parts of 
 water; then passed through a solution of 
 sulphurous acid, and finally washed thoroughly 
 with water. The sponges are said to become 
 perfectly disinfected and deodorised, whilst 
 the tissue is not affected by the treatment. 
 
 SPOROKTON. See Sulphurous anhydride. 
 
 SPOTS and STAINS. 1. Oil and Ukease 
 spots on boards, marble, &c., when recent, 
 may be removed by covering them with a 
 * ' Pharmacist.* 
 
SPRAIN— SQUILL 
 
 paatc made of fallora earth and hot water, 
 and the next day, when the mixture has be- 
 coinfl perfectly dry, acouriog^ it off with hot 
 iosp-and-water. For old spots, a mixture of 
 fulleni earth and soft soap, or a paste made of 
 freih-slaked lime and pearlash, will be better; 
 observing not to touch the last with the 
 fin|;ers. 
 
 2. RSCENT SPOTS of Olt, GBEA8E, or WAX, 
 
 on woollen cloth or silk, may be removed with 
 a little clean oil of turpeutine or benzol ; or 
 with a little fullers earth or scraped French 
 chalk, made into a paste with water, and 
 allowed to dry on them. They may also be 
 irenerally removed by means of a rather hot 
 fiut-iron and blotting-paper or spongy brown 
 paper, more especially if the cloth, or one of 
 the pieces of paper, be first slightly damped. 
 Old oil and geeasb spots require to be 
 treated with ox -gall or yolk of egg, made into 
 a paste with fullers earth or soap. Paint 
 SPOTS, when recent, generally yield to the last 
 treatment. Old ones, however, are more ob- 
 etinrite, and require some fullers earth and 
 ■oft snap made into a paste with either ox-gall 
 or spirit of turpentine. 
 
 The ' American Chemist ' gives the follow- 
 ing method for extracting grease-spots from 
 books or paper : — Gently warm the greased or 
 spotted part of the book or puper, and then 
 press upon it pieces of blotting paper one after 
 unother, so as to absorb as much of the grease 
 as possible. Have ready some fine, clear, 
 essential oil of turpeutine heated almost to a 
 boiling state j' warm tlie greased leaf a little, 
 ond then with u soft, clean brush, wet with 
 the heated turpentine both sides of the 
 spotted part. By repeating this application 
 the grease will be extracted. Lastly, with 
 another brush dipped in rectified spirits of 
 wine go over the place, and the grease will 
 no longer appear, neither will the paper be 
 discoloured. 
 
 Feoit and wine stains, on linen, commonly 
 yield easily to hot soap-and- water. If not, 
 they must be treated as those below. 
 
 Ink SPOTS and keobnt iron moulds on 
 washable fabrics may be removed by dropping 
 on the part a little melted tallow from a coni- 
 inon candle, before washing the articles j or, 
 by the application of a little lemon juice, or of 
 ft little powdered cream of tartJir made into a 
 paite with hot water. Old ink spots and 
 iron moulds will be found to yield almost 
 immediately to a very little powdered oxalic 
 acid, which must be well rubbed upon the 
 spot previously moistened with boilins water, 
 and kept hut over a basin filled with the 
 same. 
 
 BoettgfT recommends the use of pyrophos- 
 phate of sodo for the removal of ink stains 
 from cnlciured woven tissues, to be applied 
 in the form of a concentrated solution. The 
 recent ink stains arc readily removed, but older 
 
 ^ This ftpcrHtum otijrht to be very carefully iircom- 
 phiheil, aa llie lurpeiilme is a liiglily iuAauimitlile biidy. 
 
 1551 
 
 stains require washing and rubbing with the 
 solution for a long time. 
 
 Stains arising from alkalies and alka- 
 line LIQUOES, when the colours are not 
 destroyed, give way before the application of 
 a little lemon juice; whilst those arising 
 from the weaker acids and acidulous liquids 
 yield to the fnmes of ammonia, or the appli- 
 cation of a little spirit of hartshorn or sal 
 volatile. 
 
 Stains op kabkino ink may be removed 
 by soaking the part in asolution of chloride of 
 lime, and afterwards rinsing it in a bttlc 
 solution of ammonia or of hvposulpbate of 
 soda ; or they may be rubbed with the tincture 
 of iodine, and then rinsed as before. 
 
 NlTEIO ACID STAINS, TO BB.MOVE. The 
 
 yellow stain left by nitric acid c;iu be removed 
 either fiom the skin or from brown or black 
 woollen garments by moistening the spots for 
 awhile with permanganate of potash, and 
 rinsing with water. A brownish stain of 
 manganese remains, which may be removed 
 from the skin by washing with aqueous solu- 
 tion of sulphurous acid. If the spots are 
 old they cannot be entirely removed. See 
 Balls, Clothes, Hands, Scoueino, Stains, 
 iStc. 
 
 SPRAIN'. S)/n. StJBLUXATio, L. An injury 
 of a joint, in which it has been strained or 
 twisted in an unnatural manner, without 
 actual dislocation. Pain, swelling, and in- 
 flammation, are the common consequences, 
 wliich must be combated by purgatives, repose, 
 and a low diet, with refrigerant loti<jns, or 
 warm fomentations, according to circum- 
 stances. In extreme cases, blood should be 
 taken. Where there is simple stiffness and 
 weakness, exercise is often serviceable. 
 
 Treatment for the Horse and other Ani- 
 maU. Foment. Apply lead lotion and refrige- 
 rants. 
 
 If for Ct'RB use counter-irritants, or red 
 iodide of mercury ointment, or the firing iron ; 
 and if for a horse a high-heeled shoe. 
 
 SPRAT. The Clupea SpratlM (Linn.), a 
 small Ksli of the herring family, abounding on 
 our coasts. Outted, coloured, and pickled, it 
 is sold for anchovies, or as British ancho- 
 vies, and much used to make the sauce of that 
 name. Sprats contain about 6 per cent, of 
 fat. 
 
 SPRENGEL'S PUMP. See AlE pitmp. 
 
 SPRINKLES. See Bookbinding. 
 
 SPRUCE. See Beee, Essesce, and Pow- 
 
 DEK3. 
 
 SPUNK. See Amadou. 
 
 SftUILL. Syn. Scilla (B. P., Ph. L., E., & 
 D.), L. The bulb of " Urginea Scilla," sliced 
 and dried. In small doses, .squill acts as a 
 stimulating expectorant and diuretic; in larger 
 oues, as an emetic and purgative. With the 
 first intentioD it is generally given in substance 
 (powder), in doses of 1 to 3 or 4 gr. ; with 
 the latter, either made into vinegar or oxymel 
 (which see). It is an excellent remedy in 
 
1552 
 
 STAGGERS— STAMMERING 
 
 coughs, &c., after the inflammatory symptoms 
 have subsided, 
 
 STA6GE2S. There are two varieties of 
 the disease known under this name hy which 
 horses are affected, viz. stomach staggers, and 
 grass or sleepy staggers. The first, which 
 occasionally kills the horse in twelve or fifteen 
 hours after the attack, is generally induced 
 by an overladen stomach and improper food. 
 The animal has perhaps partaken largely and 
 rapidly, and after too long a fast, of some diet 
 to which it is unaccustomed, such as vetches, 
 clover, or grass. These undergo decomposition 
 within the stomach and intestines, and give 
 rise to such an evolution of gas, as either to 
 set up inflammation of the stomach and intes- 
 tines, or to lead to their rupture, in which 
 latter case the result is, of coarse, fatal. The 
 symptoms are a quick and feeble pulse, 
 attempts at vomiting, a staggering gait, 
 whilst very frequently the animal sits on its 
 haunches like a dog. Sleepy staggers, which 
 is a more chronic manifestation of the disease, 
 is most common during the summer and 
 autumn months, and generally occurs amongst 
 horses fed on tough and indigestible food, 
 such as vetches or rye grass, from which 
 circumstances the complaint has been called 
 ' grass staggers.' Both kinds of the disease 
 require tiie same treatment. 
 
 Mr Fiulay Dun prescribes a brisk purge, 
 consisting of 6 dr. of aloes in solution, with a 
 dr. of calomel and 2 oz. of oil of turpen- 
 tine ; also the injection every hour of clysters, 
 consisting of suit, soap, or tobacco smoke, 
 the abdomen being at the same time dili- 
 gently rubbed and fomented with water 
 nearly boiling. To ward off stupor he recom- 
 mends the frequent administration of 2 or 3 
 dr. of carbonate of ammonia, with an ounce or 
 two of spirit of nitrous ether, or of strong 
 whiskey toddy, combined with plenty of 
 ginger. To guard against a return of the 
 attack light and easily digestible food should 
 be administered every four or five hours, and 
 occasional mild purgatives should be given. 
 
 Horses are also subject to another form of 
 staggers called ' mad staggers.' This disease 
 origiilates, however, in causes wholly dissimilar 
 from those just stated, being the result of 
 phrenitis or inflammation of the brain. The 
 animal is frequently very furious and excited, 
 and seems wholly unable to control itself, 
 throwing itself madly about, and attempting 
 to run down anybody that comes in its way ; 
 it is also frequently unable to keep on its 
 legs, and when it falls, plunges, and struggles 
 violently. 
 
 The treatment recommended is prompt and 
 copious bloodletting, combined with active 
 purges and enemas, with refrigerant lotions to 
 the head, 
 
 STAINED GLASS. The art of painting or 
 staining glass resembles enamel painting, in 
 the effect being produced by fluxing certain 
 metallic substances, as oxides or chlorides, on 
 
 its surface, by means of heat applied in a 
 suitnble furnace. The operations it embraces 
 are difficult, and require great promptitude 
 and experience to prove successful. The 
 colours or compounds employed are, for the 
 most part, similar to those noticed under 
 Enamel and Paste. 
 
 STAINS. Discolorations from foreign mat- 
 ters. Liquid dyes are also frequently termed 
 ' stains.' See Spots, &c., and below. 
 
 Stains, Blood. Spots of dried blood on wood, 
 linen, &c., however old, are easily recognised 
 by the microscope ; but simple stains or marks 
 of blood of a slight character, especially those 
 occurring on iron or steel, are recognised with 
 greater difficulty. To obviate this, H. Zolli- 
 kofer adopts the following plan : — The spot is 
 removed, by scraping, from the surface of the 
 metal, and the resulting powder is digested in 
 tepid water, when a liquid is obtained which 
 exhibits the following reactions : 
 
 1. The liquid is neutralised with acid, 
 and heated to ebullition, when opalisation 
 occurs, or a dirty red coagulum forms. 
 
 2. The coagulum is dissolved in hot liquor 
 of potassa ; the solution, if blood (hsematin) 
 be present, is diachromatic, or appears green 
 by transmitted light and red by reflected 
 light. 
 
 3. By the addition of concentrated chlorine 
 water, in excess, to either solution, white flocks 
 of albumen and chlorheematin separate, which 
 are free from iron, as tested by sulphocyanide 
 of potassium. 
 
 Obs. The last two reactions are said to 
 be charactei'istic. Very old spots must be 
 boiled in water containing a little liquor of 
 potassa. See Dr Taylor's 'Medical Jurispru- 
 dence,' and Blood. 
 
 Stains, Bookbinder's. See Leathzb, Mas- 
 BLING, &c. 
 
 Stains, Confectioner's. These are similar to 
 those noticed under Liqueub. Mineral colours, 
 especially mineral blues, greens, and yellows, 
 must on no account be used, as they are nearly 
 all dangerous poisons ; nor is there any induce- 
 ment to use them, since the vegetable sub- 
 stances referred to afford, by proper manage- 
 ment, every shade that can be possibly 
 required. These stains are also used for cakes 
 and pastry. 
 
 Stains, Liqnenr, See Liqueur, 
 
 Stains, Map. See Maps, Veltet coloues, 
 &c. 
 
 STAM'MEEING. Syn. Bljesitas, L. Oc- 
 casionally this depends on some organic affec- 
 tion, or slight malformation of the parts of 
 the mouth or throat immediately connected 
 with the utterance of vocal sounds ; but, much 
 more frequently, it is a habit resulting from 
 carelessness, or acquired from example or imi- 
 tation. When the latter is the case, it may 
 be generally removed by perseveringly adopt- 
 ing the plan of never speaking without having 
 the chSst moderately filled with air, and then 
 only slowly and deliberately. Hasty and rapid 
 
STANNIC ACID— STARCH 
 
 1553 
 
 appakine muat not be attempted until the 
 habit of statninering i^ completely subdaed. 
 Nfrvons excitement and confusion must be 
 avoided oa much as possible, and the general 
 health attended to, as circumstances may direct. 
 This variety of stammering is commonly distin- 
 guished by the person being able to sing with- 
 out hesitatinn. Stammering depending on 
 elongation of the uvula, and other like causes, 
 may be generally removed by a simple surgical 
 operation. 
 
 STAS'NIC ACID. Peroxide of tin. 
 
 STARCH. CjHiqO,. Si/n. Amtlacbous 
 KODLAj Amylum, L. One of the most 
 important and widely diffused of the proximate 
 principles of vegetables being found, in greater 
 or less quantity, in every plant. The mealy 
 and farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, and the 
 stem-pith of certain trees, consist chiefly of 
 starch in a nearly pure state. Wheat contains 
 about 75J and potatoes about 15g of this 
 substance. From these sources the fecula is 
 obtained by rasping or grinding to pulp the 
 vegetable structure, and wasliing the muss 
 upon a sieve, by which the torn cellular tissue 
 is retained, whilst the Btar<^h passes through 
 with the liquid, and eventually settles down 
 from the latter us a suft, white, insoluble 
 powder, which, after being thoroughly washed 
 with cold water, is dried in the air, or with a 
 very gentle heat. 
 
 Wheat siahoh (amtlum, B. P., Ph. L., E., 
 & D.) is commonly prepared by steeping the 
 Hour in water for a week, or a fortnight, during 
 which time the saccharine portion ferments 
 and the starch granules become freed, for the 
 most part, from the glutinous matter which 
 envelops them, by the disintegrating and sol- 
 vent action of the lactic acid generated by the 
 fermentation. The sour liquor is then drawn 
 off, and the f eculous residue washed on a sieve ; 
 what passes through is allowed to settle, when 
 the liquid is again drawn off, and the starch 
 
 thoroughly washed from the slimy matter; it 
 is then drained in perforated boxes, cut up 
 into square lumps, placed on porous bricks to 
 absorb the moisture, and, lastly, air- or stove- 
 dried. 
 
 In the preparation of starch from potatoes 
 (potato starch) and other like vegetable sub- 
 stances, the roots or tubers, after being washed 
 and peeled, either by hand-labour or by ma- 
 chinery, are rasped by a revolving grater, and 
 the pulp washed on hair sieves until freed 
 from feculous matter. Successive portions of 
 the pulp are thus treated untHthe vessel over 
 whicli the sieves are placed, or into which the 
 washings run, is sufficiently full. The starch 
 held in suspension in the water having sub- 
 sided to the bottom, the water is drawn off, 
 and the starch stirred up with fresh water, 
 and again alloned to subside. This operation 
 is repeated several times, with fresh water, 
 until the starch is rendertd sufficiently pure 
 for commercial purposes, when it is washed 
 and dried as before. The waste fibres and 
 the washing waters are used as manure. 
 
 The starch manufactory at Uohenziatz 
 treated 1216 tons of potatoes for starch be- 
 tween the 4tb October, ls71, and the 6th 
 February, 1875. The waste water after pass- 
 ing through precipitating vats, &c., for the 
 purpose of collecting all the particles of starch, 
 was conducted into a reservoir and mixed with 
 spring water. This water was conducted over 
 a meadow of 185 acres, and then passed to a 
 meadow of 4'95 aero-', and from this to the third 
 and last, which contain 619 acres. The 29'64 
 acres received the water from 1061 tons of 
 potatoes, or for each acre 4'38 cwt. of potash, 
 1'26 cwt. of phosphoric acid and 1'27 of 
 nitrogen. 
 
 The following table shows analysis (1) of 
 potato water; (2) of the same diluted; (3) of 
 water from the first meadow ; (4) water from 
 the second meadow ; 1 litre contained — 
 
 1. 2. S. 
 
 Whole solid matter 
 Organic matter 
 Inorganic matter 
 Potash 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 Nitrogen . . 
 Ammonia . . 
 Nitric acid 
 
 3. S. 4. 
 
 niof. mp. niff. mg. 
 
 1857-8 . 323-8 . 322-8 . 262-0 
 
 1134-2 . 101-8 . 380 . 788 
 
 723-8 . 2220 . 3-18-8 . 183-2 
 
 212-5 . 55-0 . 41-2 . 8-2 
 
 56-6 . 5-5 . trace . trace 
 
 140-7 . 12-0 . 4-0 . 9-1 
 
 37-4 . . . 
 
 3-8 . trace . trace . trace 
 
 The disappearance of ammonia and phos- 
 phoric acid in 2 is accounted for by the pre- 
 cipitation of phosphate of magnesium and 
 ammonium on the addition of the spring 
 water. 
 
 The harvest in hay before the use of potato 
 water was 19"13 cwt. per acre, and afterwards 
 81-88 cwt. The composition of the hay is 
 better than before, as will be seen by the fol- 
 owing comparative table : — 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Moisture 
 
 . 15-00 
 
 15-00 
 
 Woody matter 
 
 23-66 
 
 22-83 
 
 Mineral matter 
 
 . 764 
 
 8-69 
 
 Sol. in ether . 
 
 2-00 
 
 2-30 
 
 Albumen 
 
 10-89 
 
 15-85 
 
 Extractablemat-' 
 
 
 
 ter not contain- 
 ing nitrogen . 
 
 41-81 
 
 35-34 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 • 'Dingl. Polyt. Jour,,' ccxxv, 894—390 (■ Journ. Clicm. Soc"). 
 
 100-00 100001 
 
 98 
 
1554 
 
 STARCHING 
 
 In the manufacture of starch from rice and 
 Indian corn (rice starch, maize starch), a 
 very dilute solution of caustic soda, contain- 
 ing about 200 gr. of alkali to each gallon of 
 liquid, is employed to facilitate the disinte- 
 gration and separation of the gluten and 
 other nitrogenised matters. A weak solution 
 of ammonia, or sesquicarbonate of ammonia, is 
 also similarly employed with advantage. The 
 gluten may be recovered by saturating the 
 alkali with dilate sulphuric acid. Such starch 
 does not require boiling, and is less apt than 
 wheat starch to attract moisture from the 
 atmosphere. Host of the so-called ' wheaten 
 starch' of commerce used by laundresses is 
 now prepared from rice. 
 
 To whiten the starches made from damaged 
 roots and grains, and the coarser portions of 
 those from sound ones, a little solution of 
 chloride of lime is occasionally added to the 
 water, followed by another water containing 
 a very little dilute sulphuric acid; every trace 
 of the last being afterwards removed by the 
 copious use of pure soft or spring water. 
 
 The bluish-white starch used by laundresses 
 is coloured with a mixture of smalts and alum 
 in water, and is regarded as unfit for medi- 
 cinal purposes. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Starch is insoluble in cold 
 water, and in alcohol and most other liquids, 
 but it readily forms a gelatinous compound 
 (amidin) with water at about 175° Fahr. ; alco- 
 hol and most of the astringent salts precipitate 
 it from its solutions; infusion of galls throws 
 down a copious yellowish precipitate, con- 
 taining tannic acid, which is redissolved by 
 beating the liquid ; heat and dilate acids con- 
 vei't it into dextrin and grape sugar ; strong 
 alkaline lyes dissolve it, and ultimately decom- 
 pose it. Sp. gr. 1-53. 
 
 To the naked eye it presents the appearance 
 of a soft, white, and. often glistening pow- 
 der ; under the microscope it is seen to be 
 altogether destitute of crystalline structure, 
 but to possess, on the contrary, a kind of or- 
 ganisation, being made of multitudes of 
 little rounded transparent bodies, upon each 
 of which a series of depressed parallel rings, 
 surrounding a central spot or hilum, may be 
 traced. The starch granules from different 
 plants vary both in magnitude and form. 
 Those of potato starch and canna starch 
 (tons les mois) are the largest, and those of 
 rice and millet starch the smallest, the 
 dimensions ranging from -^i^ to the ^„^,)p of 
 an inch. The granules of arrow-root and 
 tous les mois are ovoid, those of potato 
 starch both oblong and circular, those of ta- 
 pioca muUer-shaped, and those of wheat 
 starch circular. 
 
 Identif. One of the commonest frauds 
 practised upon the profession and the public 
 is the admixture of the cheaper kinds of 
 starch, chitfly potato farina, with arrow-root, 
 and vending manufactured for genuine ta- 
 pioca, sago, and other articles of diet, used 
 
 for invalids and children. These sophistic 
 cations are most easily detected with a good 
 microscope.' 
 
 Starch, I'odide of. Syn. Amtli iodidum, 
 Amtli iodatum, L. Prep. (Ph. Castr. Eu- 
 tbena.) Iodine, 24 gr. j rectified spirit, a 
 few drops J rub them to a powder; then add 
 of starch, 1 oz., and again triturate, until 
 the mass assumes a uniform colour. Recom- 
 mended by Dr A. Buchanan, of Glasgow, as 
 producing the alterative effects of iodine, 
 without the usual irritant action of that medi- 
 cine. — Dose. A teaspoonful, ormore, in water- 
 gruel, or any bland liquid, twice or thrice a 
 day. 
 
 Starch, Soluble Iodide of. (Petit.) Frep. 
 Iodine, 12 grammes; starch, 100 grammes; 
 ether, q. s. Dissolve the iodine in the ether, 
 pour the resulting solution over the starch, 
 and triturate until the ether has sufficiently 
 evaporated. Put the product in a porcelain 
 capsule and expose it to the heat of a boiling 
 water bath for half an hour, with occasional 
 stirring. This treatment is sufficient to render 
 it entirely soluble in hot water. 
 
 Dr Bellini strongly recommends iodide of 
 starch as a valuable antidote in cases of poison- 
 ing by caustic alkalies, alkaline, or earthy sul- 
 phides, and vegetable alkaloids. The advan- 
 tages attending its employment, he says, are : 
 that it may be administered in large doses; 
 that it does not possess the irritating proper- 
 ties of free iodine ; and that it readily forms 
 harmless compounds with the substances 
 named. To avoid the subsequent decomposi- 
 tion of the latter, he advises its administra- 
 tion to he followed by an emetic. As an anti- 
 dote to alkaline and earthy sulphides, the 
 author thinks it preferable to all others. In 
 cases of poisoning by ammonia, caustic potash, 
 or soda, it is applicable when acid drinks are 
 not on hand. 
 
 STARCHING (Clear). Muslins, &c., are 
 ' clear-starched ' or ' got-up ' by laundresses 
 in the following manner: — Rinse the articles 
 in three waters, dry them, and dip them into 
 thick made-starch, which has been previously 
 strained through a piece of muslin ; squeeze 
 them, shake them gently, and again hang 
 them up to dry ; when they are dry, dip them 
 twice or thrice into clear water, squeeze them, 
 spread them on a linen cloth, roll them up in 
 it, and let them lie an hour before ironing 
 them. Some persons put a morsel of sugar 
 into the starch, to prevent its sticking whilst 
 ironing, and others stir the starch with a 
 candle to effect the same end; both these 
 practices are as injurious as unnecessary. The 
 best plan to prevent sticking is simply to use 
 the best starch, and to make it well, and to 
 have the irons quite clean and highly polished. 
 Mr W. B. Tegetmeier recommends the addi- 
 tion of a small piece of paraffin (a piece of 
 
 ' Drnwiiigs of the principal starches will be found 
 under the Eubstaucea from which they are ohtaiued, as 
 " arrow-root," Su;. 
 
STARS— STEAM 
 
 1555 
 
 pnrefBn candle-end) to the atarcli, to increase 
 the K'OBiiinesa of the ironeJ fabric. 
 
 STABS. (In pyrotechny.) Prop. 1. (Bril- 
 liunt — March.) Nitrate, 52 J parts; sulphur 
 and black antimony, of each 13 parts ; reduce 
 tliciu to powder, make them into a stiff paste 
 with iKinglass, li parts, dissolved in a mix- 
 ture of vinegar, 6^ parts; and spirits of wine, 
 13 parts ; lastly, form this into small pieces, 
 aud whilst moist, roll them iu meal gun- 
 powder. 
 
 2. (White— Rnggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts; 
 sulphur, 7 parts j gunpowder, 4 parts; as the 
 last. 
 
 3. (GOLBBN BAIN.)— o. (Ruggicri.) Nitre 
 and gunpowder, of each 16 parts ; sulphur, 10 
 parts; charcoal, 4 parts; lampblack, 2 parts; 
 mix, and pack it into small paper tubes. 
 
 b. (Riiggieri.) Nitre, 16 parts ; sulphur 
 and gunpowder, of each 8 parts ; charcoal and 
 lampblack, of each 2 parts; as the last, 
 
 c. (Marsh.) Mealed gunpowder, 66| parts; 
 sulphur, 11 ports; charcoal, 22^ parts; as 
 before. Used for the ' garniture ' of rockets, 
 &c. See PyHOTBOHNY. 
 
 STAVES'ACKE. Syn. Stavesache seeds ; 
 
 STAPHISAGBIJi; BEMINA, SlAPHISAOBlA (Ph. 
 L. & D.), L. " Tlie seed of Delphinium Sta- 
 phimgria, Linn." (Ph. L.) This article is 
 powerfully emetic and cathartic, but is now 
 scarcely ever used internally. Mixed with 
 hair powder, it is used to kill lice. An infu- 
 sion nr ointment made with it is said to be 
 infallible in itch, but its use rcquirt's some 
 caution. 
 
 STAYS. Syn. Coeset. Stnys, "before 
 womanhood, are instruments of barbarity and 
 torture, and then they are needed only to give 
 beauty to the chest. It is the duty of every 
 mother, and every guardian of cijildren, to 
 inquire the purpose for which stays were in- 
 troduced into female attire. Was it for 
 wormth? If so, they certainly fulfil the in- 
 tention very badly, and are niucli inferior to 
 an elastic woollen habit, or one of silk quilted 
 with wool. Was it to force the ribs, while 
 yet soft and pliable, into the place of tlif 
 liver and stomach, and tlie two latter into the 
 space allotted for other parts, to engender 
 disease and deformity to the sufferer and her 
 children for generations ? Truly, if this were 
 the object, the device is most successful, and 
 the intention most ingeniously fulfilled." 
 (Eras. Wilson.) 
 
 "Only ob-erye," exclaimed Dr John Hun- 
 ter—" only observe, if the statue of the Medi- 
 cean Vtnus were to be dressed in stays, and 
 her beautiful feet compressed into a pair of 
 eiecrobly tight shoes, it would extort a smile 
 from an Heraclitus, and a horse-laugh from a 
 Cjnic." 
 
 " The Turkish ladies express horror at see- 
 ing Englishwomen so tijrhtly laced." (Lady 
 M. W. MontuLMie.) See Distortions. 
 
 STEAM. The application of steam of the 
 laboratory, us a mhicb of heat, is commonly 
 
 effected by means of donhle pans, to the space 
 between which steam, at a moderate pressure, 
 is introduced, the arrangements being such as 
 to permit of the condensed sieam, or distilled 
 water, being removed, by means of a cock, 
 nearly as soon as formed, or as may be de- 
 sirable. Another plan is to place coils of 
 metal pipe along the bottom of cisterns, vats, 
 &c., formed either of wood or metal, and to 
 keep them supplied with hlgh-pressure steam. 
 " It is quite susceptible cf positive proof 
 that "by no arrangement yet discovered, can 
 more than two thirds of the heat generated 
 by a given quantity of coal, during combus- 
 tion, be fairly absorbed and utilised in any of 
 our manufactories ; and, moreover, there are 
 undeniable facts, which demonstrate that sel- 
 dom, in the burning of coal, are more than 
 three fourths of the total heat, which might 
 be eliminated, actually obtained ; thus justi- 
 fying the supposition that one half of all the 
 coal now consumed is virtually wasted and lost 
 to society." To lessen, as much as possible, 
 this loss various improvements have been 
 made, " which, for the most part, have con- 
 sisted in lengthening the flues, ami exposing a 
 larger surface of the boiler to the action of 
 the heated air passing from the furnace to the 
 chimney." " Rimembering that air is an ex- 
 tremely bad conductor of heat, and that water 
 aliout to be converted into steam is also a bad 
 conductor, it is evident that time must form 
 an important element in the perfect trans- 
 mission of heat from one of tliese to the other ; 
 and hence, with a great velocity of current 
 existing in the flues, very little heat would pass 
 from air, however high its temperature, to 
 water containt^d in a boiler, aud so circum- 
 stanced with respi ct to its all but gaseous eon- 
 diticm." The results of the experiments on 
 fuel made at the Museum of Practical Geology 
 by Sir H. de la liiLho and Dr Lyon Playfair 
 go clearly to show tliat '• to open the damper 
 of a steam-boiler furnace is pretty generally 
 to diniinisli the elTectiye power of the fuel." 
 "Great >yaste of coal now arises from this 
 simple circumstance ; and much of the heat of 
 the fire, which ought to go to the boiler, is 
 lost by its (too) hasty transmission up the 
 chimney. If, however, there be thus far room 
 for improvement in the direction just indi- 
 cateil, still wider is the vacant space, caused 
 by imperfect combustion, or, in technical 
 phrase, 'bad stoking,' merely because the 
 stoker, to economise his labour, and to avoid 
 trouble, throws on to the bars of hi* furnace 
 a thick layer of fuel, by which loss is caused 
 in two or three directions." These are, prin- 
 cipally, imperfect comb)istion, and the volatili- 
 sation of (uel, as smoke, &c., from an iu-uffi- 
 cient supply of air, aud Irom a mass of mere 
 red-hot coke or cinder, two or three inches 
 thick, lying between the boilt-r and the hot- 
 test part of the furnace ; which last, accord- 
 ing, to Dr Kennedy, is about one inch above 
 the firebars. Besides which, " in passingover 
 
1556 
 
 STEARIC ACID 
 
 this red-hot coke, the carhonic acid would be 
 converted into carbonic oxide, and thus not 
 only remove a quantity of carbon equal to its 
 own, without yielding any additional beat, but 
 actuiiUy with tlie production of cold, or, in 
 other words, the absorption of heat." ('Diet. 
 Arts, Manuf , and Mines.') This points to the 
 evident policy of using a smoke-consuming 
 furnace, as noticed elsewhere. 
 
 Another matter worthy of remai'k is the 
 constant waste of heat, and, consequently, of 
 fuel, in laboratories and manufactories in which 
 steam is employed, owing to the exposed con- 
 dition of the pipes, boilers, and pans. All of 
 these should be well * clothed' or covered by 
 some non-conducting medium, to prevent loss 
 of iieat by radiation, and by contact with the 
 atmosphere. Not only does economy dictate 
 such a course, but the health and comfort of 
 the workpeople demand that the atmosphere 
 in which they labour should be as little heated 
 and poisoned as possible. 
 
 Table of corresponding Fresstire and Tem- 
 peratures of Steam. By Abaqo and Dn- 
 
 10H&. 
 
 Pressure 
 ID Atmn- 
 splieres.i 
 
 Temperature, 
 i'uhr. 
 
 Pressure 
 in Atmo- 
 BpUercfl.i 
 
 Temperature, 
 I'ahr. 
 
 
 Deirrees. j 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 1 
 
 212- 
 
 13 
 
 380-66 
 
 li 
 
 234- 
 
 14 
 
 386-94 
 
 2 
 
 250-5 
 
 15 
 
 392-86 
 
 2i 
 
 26.3-8 
 
 16 
 
 398-48 
 
 3 
 
 275-2 
 
 17 
 
 403-83 
 
 3i 
 
 285- 
 
 18 
 
 40S-92 
 
 4 
 
 293-7 
 
 19 
 
 413-78 
 
 4i 
 
 300-3 
 
 20 
 
 418-46 
 
 5 
 
 307-5 
 
 21 
 
 422-96 
 
 5i 
 
 314-24 
 
 22 
 
 427-28 
 
 6 
 
 320-36 
 
 23 
 
 431-42 
 
 6i 
 
 326-26 
 
 24 
 
 435-56 
 
 7 
 
 331-7 
 
 25 
 
 439-34 
 
 Vi 
 
 336-86 
 
 30 
 
 457-16 
 
 8 
 
 341-78 
 
 35 
 
 472-73 
 
 9 
 
 350-78 
 
 40 
 
 486-59 
 
 10 
 
 358-88 
 
 45 
 
 499-14 
 
 11 
 
 366-85 
 
 50 
 
 510-6 
 
 12 
 
 374- 
 
 
 
 A cubic inch of water, during its conversion 
 into steam, under the ordinary pressure of the 
 atmosphere, expands into 1696 cubic inches, 
 or nearly a cubic foot. 
 
 One part, by weight, of steam, at 212° Pahr., 
 whcTi condensed into cold water, is found to be 
 capable of raising 5-6 parts of the latter from 
 the freezing to the boiling point. See Fuel, 
 PiT-ooiL, Smoke, &c. 
 
 STEARIC ACID. HC,8H3,02. Si/n. Steaein 
 (Commercial). This is obtained from stearin 
 (see below), by saponification. 
 
 Prep. 1. Repeatedly dissolve and crystal- 
 ' EstiiDuting 14-6 lbs. =; 1 atmosphere. 
 
 Use commercial stearic acid in hot alcohol, 
 until its melting point becomes constant at 
 not less than 158° Fahr. Pure. 
 
 2. (Chevrenl.) Saponify mutton suet with 
 caustic potassa, and dissolve the newly formed 
 soap in 6 times its weight of hot water ; to the 
 solution add 40 or 50 parts of cold water, and 
 set the mixture aside in a temperature of about 
 52° Fahr.; after a time separate the pearly 
 matter (stearate and margarate of potassa) 
 which falls, drain and wash it on a filter, and 
 dissolve it in 24 parts of hot alcohol of sp. gr. 
 •820; collect the stearate of potassa which falls 
 as the liquid cools, recrystallise it in alcohol, 
 and decompose it, in boiling water, with hy- 
 drochloric acid; lastly, wash the disengaged 
 stearic acid in hot water, and dry it. 
 
 3. (Commercial.) Ordinary tallow is boiled 
 in large wooden vessels, by means of high 
 pressure steam, with about 16§ of hydrate of 
 lime (equiv. to 11§ of pure lime), for 8 or 4 
 hours, or until the combination is complete, 
 and an earthy soap is formed, when the whole 
 is allowed to cool ; the product (stearate of 
 lime) is then transferred to another wooden 
 vessel, and decomposed by adding to it 4 parts 
 of oil of vitriol (diluted with water) for every 
 3 parts of slaked lime previously employed, the 
 action being promoted by steam heat and 
 brisk agitation ; after repose, the liberated fat 
 is decanted from the sediment (sulphate of 
 lime) and water, and is then well washed with 
 water, and by blowing steam into it ; it is next 
 allowed to cool, when it is reduced to shavings 
 by means of a number of knives worked by 
 machinery, and in this divided state is placed 
 in canvas bags and submitted to the action of 
 a powerful hydraulic press, by which a large 
 portion of the oleic acid which it contains is 
 expelled ; the pressed cakes are then a second 
 time exposed to the action of steam and water, 
 again cooled, and coarsely powdered, and again 
 submitted to the joint action of steam and 
 pressure ; they are, lastly, melted, and cast into 
 blocks for sale. 
 
 Obs. This product is a more or less impure 
 mixture of stearic acid and other fatty bodies, 
 particularly the so-called margaric acid, now 
 generally regarded as a mixture of palmitic 
 and stearic acids. The hard, fatty acids of 
 vegetable origin (palmitic, cociuic, myristic, 
 &c.), now so extensively used as candle 
 materials, are obtained from the natural oils 
 and butters by the pi-ocess known as ' sul- 
 phuric acid saponification,' which consists in 
 treating the fatty bodies with 5 or 6 J of con- 
 centrated sulphuric acid at a high temperature 
 (about 350° Fahr., produced by superheated 
 steam), and distilling the resulting mass by 
 the aid of steam heated to about 560° Fahr. 
 Frequently the operations of hot and cold 
 pressing are resorted to in order to free the 
 product from the softer fats. 
 
 By a patent process employed at Price's 
 candle v;orks the natural vegetable fats are 
 decomposed into their constituents (fatty acids 
 
STEARIC ACID 
 
 1667 
 
 «nd glycerin) by the action of superheated 
 Btruia alone, without previous* sapouitication ' 
 witii lime or sulphuric acid. 
 
 Another metliod for the preparation of 
 commercial straric acid is that of Messrs 
 Uoinier and Buati);ny. This process is thug 
 described in the ' Cliemical Technology ' of 
 Me»8r« KoiiHlds and Ilicliiirdson : — Two tons 
 of tallow and 900 gall, of water are introduced 
 into ft lurge rccLaiigular Vat of about 2!70 feet 
 capacity. 
 
 The t:dlow is melted by means of steam ad- 
 mitted through a pipe coiled round tlie bottom, 
 and the vihole kept at the boiling heat for an 
 hour, during which a current of sulphurous 
 acid is forced in. At the end of this period 
 6 cwt. of lime, made into milk with 350 gall. 
 of water, are added. The mixture soon 
 acquires consistence, and becomes frothy and 
 viaiid. The whnle is now agitated iu order to 
 regulate the ebullitions, and prevent the sudden 
 swelling up of the soapy uiaterials. The pasty 
 appearance of the lime soap succeeds, and it 
 then agglomerates into small nodular musses. 
 
 The admission of sulphurous acid is now 
 stopped; but the injeetiim of the steam is 
 ciiutinued until the small masses become biird 
 and homogeneous. The whole period occupies 
 eight hours, hut the admission of the sul- 
 phurous acid is discontinued at the end of 
 about three hours. Tlie water contuining the 
 glycerin is run off through a tube into cis- 
 terns prepared to receive it. 
 
 The arrangements for preparing sulphurous 
 acids are retorts, into which are put sulphuric 
 acid and pieces of wood; upon the application 
 of heat the sulphurous acid passes off, and is 
 conveyed by leaden pipes into the vessels eon- 
 tainiug the tallow. The lime soap formed is 
 then moistened with 12 cwt. of sulphuric acid, 
 at 150° I'ahr., diluted with 50 gall, of water. 
 The whole is thoroughly agitated and the 
 steam cautiously admitted, so as not t" 
 dilute the acid too much nutil the decomposi- 
 tiiin is fieneral at all points. This occupies 
 about 3 hojrs, and iu ^ or 3 hours more the 
 sulphate of lime has collected at the bottom, 
 while the fattv acids are floating on the suifuce 
 of the solution of the bisulphtite of lime. 
 Several processes of washing with steam and 
 water are necessary to ensure the removal ol 
 the sulphate of lime, &c., and after settling for 
 4 hours the fatty acids are forced througli a 
 fixed siphon, into a vat, where they are again 
 n ashed with water; they are then siphoned 
 at last into a trough lined with lead, on the 
 bottom of which are placed leaden gutters, 
 pierced below by long pegs of wood. The 
 fatly acids are then pluced in clothes and 
 •ulijccted to pressure in the stearin cold press. 
 
 In 1M71 Professor Boek of Copenhagen, after 
 » careful microscopic and chemical iuvesti- 
 gatinu, discovered that the neutral fats were 
 composed of a congeries of little glubules 
 enclosed in albuminous envelopes. To the 
 preseuee of these latter substances in the fat 
 
 he attributed the difficulty of eliminating the 
 fatty acids from it by means cither of sul- 
 phuric acid, except in excess, or of alkali, except 
 ufldcr t:reat pressure; conceiving that both 
 these agents as employed under the usual 
 methods were expended in rupturing, and de- 
 stroyine the albuminous coverings. 
 
 The inconveniences arising from the above 
 processes are, in the case of the excess of the 
 sulphuric acid, a. considerable destruction of 
 the fatty acid, as will as the necessity of its 
 distillation, and the consequent danger of 
 confliigration ; whilst in the case of the 
 alkali, this must either be used in quantities 
 much greater than theory requires, or else be 
 heated under great pressure, at the risk of 
 giving rise to an explosion. 
 
 In Professor Boek's process these oangers, 
 together with the waste of material, are 
 avoided. By submitting the fat for a limited 
 time and at a given temperature to the action 
 of a small quantity of sulphuric acid, the 
 albumiimus envelcipes are Ijrokcn ond partly 
 destroyed. The neutral fat tlius liberated is 
 then placed in open tanks in water, by which, 
 after the expiration of several ht>urs,itbecomes 
 decomposed. When this is completely effected 
 the glycerin, dissolved in the water used fur the 
 decomposition, is removed ; the fatty acids 
 which remain behind, and which amount to 
 9i per cent, of the original fat, being at this 
 "tage of the operation dark brown or blackish 
 in colour. 
 
 In this condition they are placed in open 
 tanks, and dilute solutions of certain agents 
 are poured upon them, whereby the albuminous 
 debris as well as the colouring matters with 
 which they are associated become oxidised, 
 whilst the specific gravity of these latter is in 
 consequence so increased as to ciuse them 
 to subside to the bottom of the tank, leaving 
 tlie fiitty acids, now greatly whitened, on the 
 upper part of the liquid. 
 
 The acids after beinj washed 2 or 3 times 
 with dilute a''id and wiiter are then cooled, 
 and hot-pressi d in the usual manner, and the 
 sicmic acid thus obtiiineil is said to have a 
 higher melting point, and to be larger in 
 yield than that obtiined by any other method, 
 an oleic acid of excellent quality being at the 
 same time produced. 
 
 In 1874 a French patent was taken out 
 for an improvement in the manufacture of 
 stearic acid. The patentee employs carbon 
 disniphide to increase the fluidity of the oleic 
 acid, so that the warm pressure of the crude 
 stearic acid is avoided. The addition of the 
 carbon disulphide may be made either before 
 or after the cold pressing of the stearic acid. 
 The crude fat acid is melted in a special 
 apparatus, and 20 per cent, nt the disulphide 
 is mi.Yed with it whilst in the fluid stute. It 
 is then left to cool and subjected to cold pres- 
 sure. The stearic acid thus obtained should 
 be free from oleic acid. 
 
 Prop., ifr. Pure stearic acid crystallises in 
 
16SS 
 
 STEARIN— STEEL 
 
 milk-white needles, which are soluble in ether 
 and in cold alcohol, and forms salts with, the 
 bases, called stearates. The commercial acid 
 is made into candles. See Candles, Fat, 
 OiM (Fixed), and Taliow. 
 
 STE'AKIN. CjjHiioO,. The solid portion 
 of fats which is insoluble in cold alcohol. 
 
 Prep. Pure strained mutton suet is melted 
 in a glass flask along with 7 or 8 times its 
 weight of ether, and the solution allowed to 
 cool J the soft, pasty, semi-crystalline mass is 
 then transferred to a cloth and is strongly 
 pressed as rapidly as possible, in order to avoid 
 unnecessary evaporation ; the solid portion is 
 then redissolved in ether, and the solution al- 
 lowed to crystallise, as before. The product 
 is nearly pure. 
 
 Frop., Sfc. White; semi-crystalline; inso- 
 luble in water and cold alcohol ; soluble in 
 225 parts of cold ether, and freely so in boil- 
 ing ether. It melts at 130° Fahr. The stearin 
 of commerce is stearic acid. 
 
 STBAEOP'TEIT. The name given by Her- 
 berger to the concrete portion or camphor of 
 volatile oils. Bizio calls it stereusin. 
 
 STEEL. This important material may be 
 defined as iron chemically combined with suf- 
 ficient carbon to give it extreme toughness 
 and hardness without brittleness. According 
 to one of our greatest authorities on metal- 
 lurgy, steel should contain from -SSSg to 1'67§ 
 of carbon, these numbers referring respectively 
 to the softest and the hardest varieties. 
 
 By some authorities silicon in small quanti- 
 ties is supposed to be a useful ingredient in 
 steel, and to increase its capacity for being 
 hardened ; an opinion dissented from by 
 others, who hold that its presence has a ten- 
 dency to interfere with the welding of the 
 metal. Faraday and Stodart believed that 
 the addition of small quantities of chromium 
 and iridium to steel served to improve its 
 quality, and the same has been asserted of 
 tungsten and titanium; but on these points 
 there is still a divergence of opinion, and no 
 satisfactory decision has yet been arrived at 
 cortcerning them. 
 
 Manganese has also been credited with the 
 property of improving steel, but as it has 
 been found that only a very minute quantity 
 of the manganese is taken up by the steel, 
 an indirect influence may possibly be exer- 
 cised by it, viz. its power of uniting with the 
 stage, and of earring away any prejudicial 
 excess of sulphur and phosphorus with it ; 
 and in tliis mannerit may contribute to the in- 
 creased purity of the metal. The addition of 
 manganese to cast steel constitutes Mr Heath's 
 patent, the chief advantage of which is ttiat 
 blistered steel made from British bar iron 
 can be substituted for the much more expen- 
 sive Swedish and Russian iron, in certain 
 branches of iron manufacture. 
 
 " Among tlje various substances wliich are 
 frequently present in malleable iron and in 
 cast iron, those which are more prejudicial to 
 
 the quality of steel are sulphur, phosphorus, 
 and copper. The amount of sulphur in steel 
 of the best quality rarely exceeds -012; within 
 the limit of ■! per cent, it is considered to 
 render the metal more capable of being 
 welded at a moderate heat, but to make it 
 red short. Phosphorus also renders steel more 
 capable of being welded, and at the sftme time 
 makes its cold short when it amounts to 'Iper 
 cent. The best steel rarely contains so much. 
 Copper renders steel decidedly red short when 
 present in very small amount, and for this 
 reason iron smelted from ores containing copper 
 pyrites is not suitable for making steel."' 
 
 Within the last few years great attention has 
 been paid to the investigation of the chemistry 
 of steel. The researches of Despretz and 
 Premy tend to the conclusion that nitrogen 
 exercises a very important influence over the 
 phenomena of steeling,' and that carbon plays 
 a less necessary part ; while those of Caron and 
 Deville still refer the formation of steel to the 
 chemical combination of iron with carbon. 
 There is no test of the value of steel beyond 
 its elasticity and temper, and the fineness, 
 equality, and smoothness of its grain. 
 
 Cast iron, wrought iron, and steel are all 
 combinations of iron and carbon, differing 
 in the amount they contain of the latter 
 element. As cast iron contai ns a larger and 
 wrought iron a smaller proportion of carbon 
 than steel, it follows that to convert the cast 
 iron into steel, its excess of carbon must be 
 removed; whilst conversely, to make the 
 wrought iron into steel, the requisite amount 
 of carbon must be added to it. 
 
 Thus it is that the various processes for the 
 manufacture of steel (with the exception of 
 those which propose to obtain it direct from the 
 ores) are directed to one or other of these ends, 
 viz. the decarburation of cast or pig iron, and 
 the carburation of wrought or malleable iron. 
 1. In the first, or decarbnration method, 
 the oxygen of the air plays an important 
 part. Best carbon is heated with coal or 
 charcoal, in some works on the refining hearth, 
 in others upon the bed of the puddling fur- 
 nace. The oxygen burnt off the excess of 
 carbon from the iron and steel is left. Payen 
 says that when the iron contains slag, the 
 ferrous silicate present in this takes part in 
 the reaction. 
 
 The steel obtained by this method is called 
 natural steel. It is afterwards subjected to 
 forging, and being of inferior quality is em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of springs for 
 machinery, railway carriages, wheel tyres, 
 ploughs, and other farming implements. 
 
 Krupp's cast steel, manufactured at Essen, 
 near Cologne, is a natural steel, being made 
 on the bed of a puddling furnace. It is ob- 
 tained from hsematite and spathic ore, coke 
 being used for the smelting. The proportion 
 of carbon in Krupp's steel is about i"2 per 
 cent. When required for ordnance it is fused 
 ^ Payea. 
 
STEEL 
 
 1559 
 
 Thefollomng Table, from ' Pai/en't Industrial Chemistry,' givei the Composition of aeveral 
 
 kinds of Steel. 
 
 Kind er Steel. 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Fe. 
 
 Mn. 
 
 Cu. 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 M. 
 
 S. 
 
 P. 
 
 Authority. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Com- 
 
 Graphi- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bined. 
 
 tic. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Natural Steel 
 
 Sieften 
 
 
 ■S79 
 
 1698 
 
 
 ■nns 
 
 1 
 
 Karsten. 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Sulineeo 
 
 
 
 1670 
 
 
 ■oiO 
 
 
 
 Puddled Steel 
 
 Har'Z 
 
 
 vu 
 
 
 1380 
 
 
 ■C1I6 
 
 (at i;. ! trace 
 
 Briiiiiis. 
 
 Cement Stvol . 
 
 EiiKlish 
 
 
 
 
 1607 
 
 
 •100 
 
 
 
 Hfrlliicr. 
 
 Di'to 
 
 Gentian 
 
 
 
 
 •416 
 
 •080 
 
 
 
 
 
 Caet SUcl . 
 
 Slicffleld 
 
 
 
 
 •950 
 
 •220 
 
 
 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 
 
 1768 
 
 
 
 
 Karslen. 
 
 IlltlO 
 
 I'rench 
 
 
 
 
 ■65 
 
 •040 
 
 
 
 
 Sword steel . 
 
 Damascai 
 
 
 ■1170 
 
 
 1089 
 
 
 (Xi 117 Wo ■01) 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 
 trace 
 
 
 •776 
 
 
 (^l 21 Co trace 
 
 
 Wooli . 
 
 Indian 
 
 
 
 
 1600 
 
 ■60O 
 
 
 ' c; 
 
 
 Uitio . 
 
 Ditto 
 
 98-0«2 
 
 
 
 1333 313 
 
 ■045 
 
 (»s 037 1 
 
 
 Ilcnry. 
 
 Cait Steel . 
 
 German 
 
 
 truce 
 
 ■3111) 
 
 1180 
 
 •831) 
 
 Ni Vl\ 
 
 •020 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Dniilish 
 
 
 ■Uii 
 
 0(i« 
 
 1276 
 
 ■213 
 
 (as 1107) 
 
 
 
 Uememer Steel . 
 
 Du« luia 
 
 
 
 ■678 
 
 Uio 
 
 •490 
 
 •009 
 
 ■0(13 
 
 ■o:(0 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 trace 
 
 
 •085 
 
 ■008 
 
 trace 
 
 ■023 
 
 Drusewiti. 
 
 D.tto . 
 
 
 
 ■179 
 
 
 •800 
 
 •044 
 
 do. 
 
 0a3 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 '266 
 
 
 
 •700 
 
 ■0:t2 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 ■468 
 
 
 •960 
 
 ■'•17 
 
 do. 
 
 ■032 
 
 llitio. 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 ■:i.",i 
 
 
 lIloO 
 
 ■067 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Wired . . . 
 
 Barrow-jn- 
 KurnMa 
 
 
 ■214 
 
 
 ■200 
 
 17U 
 
 •030 
 
 026 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Rail Headi . . 
 
 Geriiiuu 
 
 
 ■S8B 
 
 
 •138 
 
 ■306 
 
 •040 
 
 ■034 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 lUlllB . . . 
 
 
 
 ■264 
 
 
 •160 
 
 091 
 
 ■Oi5 
 
 ■0:.2 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 •6.18 
 
 
 •('46 
 
 •6S4 
 
 Oi5 
 
 ■(,93 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Boiler Flatci . 
 
 
 
 ■i:i6 
 
 
 ■250 
 
 ■016 
 
 ■010 
 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto . . . 
 
 
 
 ■273 
 
 
 ■300 
 
 ■066 
 
 ■040 
 
 •(_4l 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 with a little bar iron in pots, each of which 
 holda 30 lbs. It sometimes happens that in tlie 
 manufacture of a huge gun or cannon the con- 
 tents of 09 many as 1200 of these pots are re 
 qaiieti. When this is the case the pots are 
 emptied of their molten contents siinnlta- 
 neouily into a channel leading to the cast, 
 400 well-drilled men being required to carry 
 out the opertttion. 
 
 It is very eseential that castings of such 
 magnitude should be allowed to cool very 
 gradually. Tliey are therefore enveloped in 
 hot cinders for two or three months, after 
 which they are ready for the forging. 
 
 2. The carhuration method. This is gene- 
 rally effected by the process known as ' cemen- 
 tation,' which is carried out as follows : — 
 Two chests, made of fire-brick or stone, one 
 narrow end of each of which is shown in the 
 accompanying plate, are so fixed in a doiiie- 
 ■haped furnace, so that the flames from the 
 hearth beneath can effectually play around 
 them. 
 
 The process renders it necessary that the 
 temperature of the furnace should be ste'adily 
 maintained forsomedays; and this is achieved 
 by inrrounding the furnace with a conical 
 wall of brick-work, as shown in the cut. 
 The chests are usually about 10 or 12 feet in 
 length, 3 feet in height, and 3 feet in depth. 
 A layer of charcoal of a fineness to pnss 
 through a sieve of a i inch mesh, or of soot, is 
 placed on the bottom of each chest, and upon 
 
 this the barsof wroughtiron which are intended 
 for conversion into steel. The bars inside 
 must be of iron of the best quality, and gene- 
 rally about 3 inches broad and } of an inch 
 thick. When arranged regularly a little dis- 
 tance aport, the interstices between them are 
 filled up with charcoal, with which they are 
 then covered to a depth of abnut an inch. 
 Similar layers of bars, similarly arranged, 
 succeed to this first one, until the chests 
 are filled. 
 
 They are then covered in to a depth of 6 
 inches with a luting of damp clay or sand. 
 Each chest when thus filled contains from 5 
 to 6 tons of iron. One of the bars projects 
 through an opening at the end of the chest, 
 to facilitate an inspection of it from time to 
 lime by a workman, so that he may be en- 
 abled to judge of the progress of the operation. 
 The materials of which the chests are com- 
 posed render it important that the tempera- 
 ture of the furnace should be carefully and 
 gradually increased, as a too sudden accession 
 of heat would lead to the splitting of the 
 chests. The temperature necessary to effect 
 the carhuration of the iron has been found to 
 be that required for the raeltiuij of copper, 
 viz. 1906° Fahr. When this temperature is 
 reached it is maintained for eight or ten days, 
 or even longer, the period depending upon 
 the thickness of the iron, and the degree of 
 hardness it is desired it shall possess. Six 
 or eight days are sufficient to yield steel of a 
 
1560 
 
 STEEL 
 
 moderate degree of hardness. At the end of 1 
 the requisite time the fire is p;radually put | 
 out, and the chests as gradually cooled, a I 
 process which occupies about another ten days. | 
 
 The efEect of the treatment to which the 
 iron bars have been subjected has been, in the 
 first place, to entirely alter their interior struc- 
 ture ; for if they are broken asunder at any 
 
 part, instead of showing the fibrous an-ange- 
 inent observable in bar iron, they present a 
 closely granular one. In the second place, 
 chemical analyses demonstrate that the iron 
 has combined with about 1 per cent, of car- 
 bon, and that this combination has not only 
 taken place on the surface of the bar, but has 
 extended throughout its whole suVstance. It 
 is because of this perfect impregnation of 
 the iron by the solid carbon that the process 
 by which it has thus been converted into steel 
 is called * cementation.' 
 
 Two sugsestions have been offered in ex- 
 planation of the blistered surface presented by 
 the steel. One of these, the theory of Mr 
 T. H. Henry, is that part of the carbon in 
 penetrating into the body of the bar iron 
 had combined with the small quantity of 
 sulphur present in the iron, and that the 
 bisulphide of carbon thus formed becoming 
 vaporised by the elevated temperature, in 
 escaping through the soft surface of the 
 metal, has caused its blistered condition. 
 The second conjecture is that the blebs have 
 arisen from the extrication of carbonic oxide, 
 which had been formed in the bar by the 
 union of the carbon with the small quantity 
 of oxide of iron or slag accidentally remaining 
 in it. 
 
 Graham has shown that soft iron has the 
 power of absorbing or occluding at a low red 
 heat 4'15 times its volume of carbolic oxide, 
 which the metal, when it becomes cold, re- 
 tains, but which it parts with when sub- 
 jected to a temperature such as that which 
 prevailed in the cementation box. This fact 
 seems to offer a reasonable confirmation of the 
 reaction it has been surmised takes place 
 during the cementation process, and which is 
 supposed to be as follows : 
 
 The small quantity of atmospheric oxyffen 
 remaining in the chest unites with the carbon 
 
 to form carbonic oxide. This carbonic oxide 
 gives up half its carbon to the iron (wliich 
 thereby becomes converted into steel), and in 
 doing so changes to carbonic acid, which be- 
 comes reduced to carbonic oxide by the absorp- 
 tion of more carbon from the charcoal, which 
 carbon the carbonic oxide again transfers to 
 the iron. 
 
 The above reaction may not improbably 
 occur throughout the substance of the bar. 
 By some chemists, cyanogen compounds are 
 supposed to be present in the cementation 
 powder, and the cyanogen contained in these 
 is supposed to be the carrier of the carbon 
 to the iron, 
 
 " The blistered steel obtained by this process 
 is, as would be expected, far from uniform, 
 either in composition or texture; some por- 
 tions of the bar contain more carbon than 
 others, and the interior contains numerous 
 cavities. In order to improve its quality it 
 is subjected to a process of fagotting similar 
 to that employed in the ease of bar iron ; the 
 bars of blistered steel, being cut into short 
 lengths are made up into bundles, which are 
 raised to a welding heat, and placed under a 
 tilt hammer weighing about 2 cwt., which 
 strikes 200 or 300 blows in a minufe; in 
 this way, the several bars are consolidated 
 into one compound bar, which is then ex- 
 tended under the hammer till of the required 
 dimensions. 
 
 " The bars, before being hammered, are 
 sprinkled with sand, which combines with the 
 oxide of iron upon the suifaie, and forms a 
 vitreous layer which protects the bar from oxi- 
 dation. The steel which has been thus ham- 
 mered is much denser and more uniform in 
 compiisition; its tenacity, malleability, and 
 ductibility are greatly increased, and it is 
 fitted for the manufacture of shears, files, and 
 other tools. It is commonly known as shear steel. 
 
STEEL 
 
 1561 
 
 Donble ibear steel it obtnined by breaking the 
 tilted bara in two, and welding these into a 
 componiid bar. The best variety of steel, how- 
 erer, which i« perfectly bomogeneoas iu com- 
 position, is tliut known as cast steel, to obtain 
 which about 30 lbs. of blistered steel are 
 brolcen into fragments, and fused in a fire- 
 clay or plumbago crucible, lieated in a wind 
 furnnce, the surface of the metal being pro- 
 tected from oxidation by a little glass melted 
 upon it. The fused steel is cast into ingots, 
 Bt'vernl crucibles being emptied simultaneously 
 iuto the same mould. Cast steel is far superior 
 in density and hardness to shear steel, but, 
 since it is exceedingly brittle at a red heat, 
 great care is necessary in forging it. It has 
 been found that, in addition to 100 parts of 
 the cast steel, of one part of a mixture of char- 
 coal and oxide of manganese, produces a very 
 fine grained titeel, which admits of being cast 
 on to a bar of wrought iron in the ingot 
 mould, so thiit the tenacity of the latter may 
 compeusate for the brittlencss of the steel ; 
 when the compound bur is forged, the 
 wrought iron ibrming the back of the imple- 
 ment, and the steel its cutting edge."' 
 
 Another distinct method fmm the cemen- 
 tation one, by which tliu carburation of iron 
 is affected, is that in which scrap or malleable 
 iron is mixed with pig or cast iron, this 
 latter being fused with the scrap iron in quan- 
 tity sufficient to afford such an amount of 
 carbon as is necessary to convert the mixture 
 into steel. Steel made by this operation is en- 
 tirely homogeneous, the tilting process which 
 precedes the casting of the steel obtained by 
 cementation is therefore unnecessary. The 
 pig iron is placed on the bed (made of refrac- 
 tory sand) of one of Siemens' regenerative 
 furnaces, heated by gaseous fuel. The tem- 
 perature iu this furnace is so intense that the 
 pig iron becomes perfectly liquid, and, when 
 in this condition, the scrap iron, which has 
 been previously heated to redness in an adjoin- 
 ing refractory furnace, is added, it becomes 
 dissolved by it. Iron miiy also be carburetted 
 by heating wrought iron bars in carburetted 
 hydrogen. Tliis process, however, is seldom 
 had recourse to. 
 
 In the manufacture of Bessemer steel both 
 the carburation and decarburation processes 
 are practised. From 1 to 5 tons of pig or 
 oast iron in a molten state are run from a 
 contiguous blast, cupola, or reverberatory 
 furnace, with an ■ apparatus known as a 
 converter, which is previously heated up to 
 redness by means of coke. The converter 
 is figured under two aspects in the annexed 
 engraving. 
 
 This vessel, which is generally made of boiler 
 plates of sheet iron, has an inside lining, con- 
 sisting of a siliceous fireproof material, and is 
 perforated at the bottom with a number of con- 
 centric little openings, which arc the orifices 
 of as many little tubes or tuyeres, that lead into 
 
 * BluxHm'i ' CtieiuiBtry loorganic aad Orguuic' 
 
 an outside main tube, us shown in the plate. 
 By means of these tubes condensed air is 
 
 forced into the mass of melted metal, which is 
 soon thrown into violent commotion, and 
 sends out a shower of ignited sparks. The 
 oxide of iron formed at the same time being 
 set into active movement by the incoming blast 
 of air, is brou;.'ht into intimate contact with 
 every particleof the carbonandsilicon contained 
 in the cast iron, and converts the former into 
 carbonic oxide, which burns with its character- 
 istic flame at the mouth of the converter, and 
 the silica into silicic acid, which enters into 
 the slag, and floats, in the form of foam, on 
 the top of the heavier molten iron. 
 
 The removal of the carbon (which is known 
 by the discontinuance of the carbonic oxide 
 flume) being thus accomplished, the iron has 
 next to be submitted to the carburetting 
 operation. This is performed by running into 
 the liquid iron in the converter such a quantity 
 of molten pig or cast iron as contaius the re- 
 quired proportion of carbon. 
 
 The pig iron used for this purpose generally 
 contains, in addition to a large amount of car- 
 bon, a very perceptible quantity of manga- 
 nese. The converter (as sliown in the plate) 
 is tlien by means of tlie trunnion tilted, so 
 that its contents can be run into a ladle and 
 transferred to the necessary moulds. The time 
 of conversion occupies from ten to twenty 
 minutes. 
 
 By Bessemer's process the sulphur present 
 in the pig iron is almost entirely eliminated; 
 the greater part of the silicon is also sepa- 
 rated, together with the carbon, and almost 
 in the same proportion ; but the phosphorus 
 is not removed, and, owing to the oxidation 
 of some iron, the amount is actually greater 
 in the finished steel than in the pig irou.' 
 
 Bessemer's steel is in large demand, and is 
 excellently suited for rails Ibrrailroads, cannon, 
 boiler plates, armour plates, and similar heavy 
 material, for the manufacture of which it has 
 largely supplanted wrought iron, but not at 
 all adapted for the manufacture of knives, 
 razors, lancets, or similar instruments, in which 
 a sharp or keen edge is desirable. 
 
 The Bessemer process, which is largely 
 adopted by the manufacturers of steel 
 
 ■ Paven's 'ludustha] Chtmiatry,' edited l)y B H. 
 Paul, PU.D. 
 
1562 
 
 STEEL 
 
 throughout Em-ope and America, has proved 
 a soui ce of princely income to its inventor, 
 who obtains a bounty of a shilling on every 
 ton of steel made by it. In Europe alone in 
 1859 5i million cwts. Seventy per cent, 
 of this quantity was the produce of British 
 industry. 
 
 Latterly, attempts have been made to obtain 
 steel direct from the ores. The efforts made 
 in this direction have been greatly stimulated 
 by the invention of the regenerating furnace 
 of Siemens. In these furnaces, in which an 
 intense temperature is obtained by means of 
 the combustion of inflammable gases (chiefly 
 consisting of carbonic oxide, hydrogen, and 
 carburetted hydrogen), the ore after (in one 
 process) being melted in hoppers by means of 
 the burning gases, runs down, and is gradually 
 dissolved in some melted pig iron placed on 
 the hearth of the furnace. When this latter 
 has been sufficiently diluted with the decar- 
 bonised iron the operation is complete. 
 
 Properties of Steel. The effects of tempera- 
 ture upon steel are remarkable, and a know- 
 ledge of them has proved of great practical 
 utility in the manufacture of the various 
 steel-ware articles that are so indispensable to 
 our every-day wants and needs. If forged 
 and solt steel is heated, and then suddenly 
 cooled, it becomes hard, the hardness varying 
 with the temperature and the rapidity with 
 which this has been reduced. The higher the 
 temperature and the more rapidly it is cooled, 
 the greater will be its harduess. Steel, which 
 has been heated until white-hot, and then 
 suddenly plunged into a bath of cold mercury, 
 acquires a hardness nearly equalling that of 
 the diamond. That, however, which the steel 
 gains in hardness, it loses in pliancy and 
 elasticity, besides becoming so brittle as to 
 be of no possible use. 
 
 Soft steel, which has been made hard by 
 heating it to redness, and by subsequent 
 sudden immersion in cold water, may be re- 
 converted into soft steel by again heating it 
 to redness and allowing it to cool suddenly. 
 
 By stopping short, however, of heating it to 
 redness, its hardness may be propoi-tionally 
 modified. 
 
 Hence steel articles, varying as much in the 
 qualities of hardness and elasticity as a lancet 
 and watch-spring, are made either by ' heating 
 down ' hard steel to requisite temperature 
 and allowing it to cool, or by 'heating up' 
 soft steel to the necessary point and also 
 letting it gradually cool. When steel is so 
 treated it is said to be tempered or annealed. 
 If polished steel be heated over a flame to a 
 temperature of 430° F. its surface becomes of 
 a very pale yellow colour ; the colour passes 
 throngh different shades of yellow and blue 
 with each successive increase of temperature, 
 until when raised to 600° P. it becomes blackish 
 blue. 
 
 These effects are due to the formation on 
 the surface of the steel of films of oxide of 
 different degrees of thickness, and to the 
 action of the light on these. They are precisely 
 analogous to those which are caused when a 
 ray of refiected light falls upon any other 
 body, the surface of which is composed of thin 
 layers, which are continually changing in 
 thickness, such as a soap-bubble, or a thin 
 coating of tar or oil swimming on water, and 
 which are exemplified' in Newton's rings. 
 
 As each shade of colour is an index of the 
 temperature of the steel, and as this deter- 
 mines its adaptability for various purposes, all 
 that the workman has to do, when he requires 
 it for any special object, is to heat it by the 
 proper methods (such as a bath of oil, or tallow, 
 or melted metal) until it acquires the desired 
 colour, and then to allow it to gradually 
 cool. 
 
 The following table, exhibiting the different 
 melting points of steel when employed in the 
 manufacture of different kinds of works, 
 together with the corresponding colours, the 
 composition of the metallic baths, &c., is 
 from Dr Wagner's 'Handbook of Chemical 
 Technology,' edited by W. Crookes, Esq., 
 F.E.S. 
 
 Composition of 
 Metallic Mixture. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 7 
 8 
 8i 
 14 
 
 43 
 
 Tin. 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Lancets . . . 
 
 Bazors 
 
 Penknives 
 
 Pairs of scissors 
 
 Clasp-knives, joiners' and l , „ 
 
 carpenters' tools . J 
 
 Swords, cutlasses, watch- 1 
 
 springs . . . J 
 Stilettos, boring tools, and 1 ,.« „ 
 
 fine saws . . .J * * 
 
 Ordinary saws. . .{^^^f^M. 
 
 Melting 
 Point. 
 
 . 220° C. 
 
 . 228° „ 
 
 . 232° „ 
 
 . 254° „ 
 
 . 265° „ 
 
 . 288° „ 
 
 . 292° „ 
 
 . 316° „ 
 
 Temperature. 
 Hardly pale yellow. 
 Pale yellow to straw yellow. 
 Straw yellow. 
 Brown. 
 
 Purplish colour. 
 Bright blue. 
 Deep blue. 
 Blackish blue. 
 
 Steel is of a greyish-wliite colour, and has i hardening the sp. gr. becomes reduced from 
 a sp. gr. varying from 7-66 to 793. During | 7-93 to 7-66, whilst it experiences a slight 
 
STEREOCHROMY— STEWING 
 
 1563 
 
 increme of volume. The property (already 
 pointed out) that ateel poasesses of becomiDg 
 bard after being heated to redness, and 
 suddenly chilled, does not belong to pure iron, 
 sucli as may be obtained by electrolysis. 
 Unlike pore iron, too, steel presents a granular 
 iDsto^d of a fibrous structure when broken ; 
 the best samples cloaely resembling silver in 
 this respect. The cbcmiciil ditTerenoe between 
 h.ird and soft steel appears to consist in the 
 much more intimate combination of the 
 larbon with the iron in the hard variety than 
 in the soft. In this latter kind the carbon 
 seems to be only mechanically mixed, for if it 
 be immersed in hydrochloric acid the iron is 
 dissolved, and leaves the carbon behind. 
 Steel is the most tenacious of all the metals, 
 being greater than that of cither cast or 
 malleable iron. 
 
 What is termed case-hardening (which tee) 
 is H process by which small articles of iron, 
 such as keys, gun-locks, &c., are superficially 
 converted into steel. It is pertonned by 
 heating the articles in contact with iron 
 filings or powdered charcoal. Another method 
 is to make the iron substance red hot, and 
 then to sprinkle powdered potassic I'erro- 
 cyanide all over it. 
 
 SIEBEOCHROUT. This is a branch of the 
 pictorial art confined to the embellishment of 
 walls and monuments. In the operations by 
 which it i^ accomplished it will be seen that 
 the soluble silicates (water glass) play au 
 important part. 
 
 The foundation for the future picture or 
 coloured design must be of some durable 
 stone or imperishable rement. Over this is 
 first placed a layer of lime mortar, to which 
 is applied w.hen it is dry and lias become 
 sufiioiontly hard, a solution of water glass, by 
 which all the interstices of the mortar are tilled 
 up. Another coating of uiortar made of sharp 
 siiiid and a lye of chalk is next laid on, and 
 this, after it has been carefully smoothed, 
 properly levelled on the surface, and become 
 quite dry, is washed over and thoroughly 
 impregnated with water-glass solution. When 
 this last layer has become dry it is ready 
 to receive the painting, which must be exe- 
 cuted in water colours. After laying on 
 these colours may be permanently fixed by 
 covering them with water glass. The follow- 
 ing are the colours used : — Zinc white, chrome 
 green, chrome oxide, cobalt green, chrome 
 red, zinc yellow, oxide of iron, sulphide of 
 cadmium, ultramarine, ochre, &c. Vermil- 
 lion is inadmissible, since, in fixing, it turns 
 froui red to brown. Cobalt ultramarine, on 
 the contrary, increases greatly in brilliancy 
 upon the application of the fixing solution. 
 Stereochromntic paintings are fonnd to be 
 very durable, and impervious to damp, smoke, 
 or voriations of temperature. 
 
 STE'EEOTYPE METAL. Scp Type metal. 
 
 STER'LINO. The truth of the old proverb, 
 that " all is nut gold which glitters," is often j 
 
 painfully experienced by the purchaser of mo- 
 dern jewellery. Tiie following table will, there- 
 fore, prove highly uaefnl to the reader in de- 
 termining the value of articles in gold, pro- 
 vided be ascertain the ' fineness ' of the 
 metal, either by examination or written war- 
 ranty : — 
 
 Sterling 
 
 value of 
 
 Gold of different degrees of 
 
 
 
 ' Fineness.' 
 
 
 C-irats. 
 
 
 
 Viilue per 
 
 Fine. 
 
 
 
 01 Troy. 
 £ s. d. 
 
 24 carats 
 
 • • . 
 
 i 4 Hi 
 
 23 
 
 , 
 
 ... 
 
 4 1 5 
 
 22 
 
 „ (British standard) . 
 
 3 17 lOi 
 
 21 
 
 , 
 
 • • 
 
 3 U 4 
 
 20 
 
 , , 
 
 • ■ . 
 
 3 10 Oi 
 
 19 
 
 , . 
 
 • 
 
 3 7 8 
 
 18 
 
 , {lowest Hall-mark) . 
 
 3 8 8i 
 
 17 
 
 , 
 
 
 3 2 
 
 16 
 
 > • 
 
 
 2 16 74 
 
 15 
 
 , 
 
 
 2 13 1 
 
 14 
 
 , 
 
 
 2 9 6i 
 
 13 
 
 , 
 
 
 2 6 
 
 12 
 
 , 
 
 
 2 2 6i 
 
 11 
 
 , 
 
 
 1 18 11 
 
 10 
 
 , 
 
 
 1 15 4i 
 
 9 
 
 , 
 
 
 1 11 10 
 
 8 
 
 , 
 
 
 1 8 3i 
 
 7 , 
 
 , 
 
 
 14 9 
 
 6 , 
 
 
 
 1 1 2i 
 
 5 , 
 
 
 
 17 8 
 
 4 , 
 
 
 
 M 2 
 
 3 , 
 
 
 
 10 7i 
 
 2 , 
 
 , , 
 
 
 7 1 
 
 1 , 
 
 , . 
 
 
 3 6 
 
 STEREO-METAL. A remarkable alloy re- 
 cently invented by Baron de Rosthorn, ol 
 Vienna, and used in place of ordinary gun- 
 metal. It consists of copper and spelter, with 
 small proportions of iron and tin, and to these 
 latter its peculiar hardness, tensile strength, 
 and elasticity, are attributed. 
 
 STETH'OSCOPE. An instrument employed 
 in auscultation. It consists of a tube (usually 
 made of wood, sometimes of gutta perchu) 
 widening considerably at one end, and but 
 slightly at the other. The wide end isapphed 
 to the chest or other part of the patient, the 
 physician putting his ear at the other end; 
 and from thesounds emitted by the heart.lungs, 
 &c., the state of these parts is a^certilined. 
 
 STEWING. A method of cooking food 
 intermediate to frying and boiling, performed 
 by simmering it in a saucepan or stcwpun, 
 with merely sufficient water to prevent burn- 
 ing, and to effect the object in view; the 
 whole being served up to form the ' dish.' It 
 is undoubtedly the most simple and economi- 
 cal, and, when skilfully conducted, one ot those 
 best calculated to develop the flavour and na- 
 tritious qualities of animal food. The follow- 
 ing is one of the most popular stews : — 
 
 Stew, Irish. Prep. (Soycr.) Take about 
 2 lbs. of scrag or neck of mutton j divide it 
 
1564 
 
 STILL 
 
 into ten or twelve pieces, and lay them in the 
 pan ; add 8 large potatoes and 4 onions cut 
 into slices, season with IJ teaspoonful of pep- 
 per, and 3 do. of salt ; cover all with water, 
 put it into a slow oven, or on a stove, for two 
 hours, then stir it all up well, and serve it up 
 in deep dishes. If a little more woter is added 
 at the commencement, you can take out, when 
 half done, a nice cup of hroth. 
 
 STILL. A vessel or apparatus employed for 
 the distillation of liquids on the large scale. 
 The forms of stills, and the materials of which 
 they are made, vary according to the pur- 
 poses for wliich they are intended, some being 
 exceedingly simple, whilst others are equally 
 elahorate and complicated. The engr. repre- 
 sents the most common and useful apparatus 
 of this kind, and the one almost exclusively 
 employed in the laboratory. It is used as 
 follows : — After the fluid and other matters (if 
 any) are put into the still, the head is placed 
 on and connected with the worm-tub or refri- 
 gerator, and the joints are all securely luted. 
 For ordinary liquids, a stiff paste made with 
 linseed meal and water, to which a little chalk 
 may be added, answers well for this purpose. 
 For corrosive liquids, nothing is better than 
 elastic bands or rings interposed between the 
 joints, which are then ' brought home,' as it is 
 called, with screws or clamps. Heat is next 
 applied, and the worm-tub is supplied with 
 cold water in sufficient quantity to preserve its 
 contents at a proper temperature ; the applica- 
 tion of the heat being so regulated that the 
 liquid may drop from the end of the refrige- 
 rator quite cold and unaccompanied with va- 
 pour. For highly volatile liquids a closed 
 receiver should be provided. 
 
 (t. Body of still, which may be either placed iu a eleam 
 
 jacktt or in a brick fiLiuacc. 
 h. Still head or capital. 
 
 c. Worm-tub. 
 
 d. Pewter-M'orm or refrigerator. 
 
 e. Cold-water pipe. 
 /. Waste-pipe. 
 
 y. Eeceivei-. 
 
 Of the various forms of distillatory appa- 
 ratus that patented by Coffey in 1832 is the 
 one almost universally employed in this 
 country. It yields the strongest spirits ob- 
 tainable on a large scale. CufEee's still (of 
 which a drawing is given ou the next page) 
 effects a great economy in the expenditure 
 of heat, by causing the liquid to be exposed 
 
 to a very extended heated service; whilst 
 it effects the evaporation of the alcohol 
 from the wash by passing a current of steam 
 through it. 
 
 The wash is pumped from the ' wash 
 charger' into the worm-tub, which passes 
 from top to bottom of the rectifier. In cir- 
 culating through this tube it experiences a 
 slight elevation of temperature. Arrived at 
 the last convolution of the tube in the recti- 
 fier, the wash passes by the tube M in at 
 the top of the 'analyser.' It falls, and collects 
 on the top shelf till this overflows, whence it 
 falls on the second shelf, and so on to the 
 bottom. All the time this operation is going 
 on steam is passed up from the steam boiler 
 through fine holes in the shelves, and through 
 valves opening upwards. As the wash gra- 
 dually descends in the analyser it becomes 
 rapidly weaker in alcohol, partly from con- 
 densation of steam which is passed into it, and 
 partly from loss of alcohol, either evaporated 
 or expelled by the steam, till when it arrives 
 at the bottom it has parted with the last 
 traces of spirits. 
 
 At the same time the vapour, as it rises 
 through each shelf of the analyser, becomes 
 constantly richer in alcohol, and contains less 
 and less water because of its condensation; it 
 then passes from the top of the analyser in at 
 the bottom of the lower compartment of the 
 rectifier. Here it ascends in a similar way, 
 bubbling through the descending wash, until 
 it arrives at P, above which it merely circu- 
 l.ites round the earlier windings of the wash 
 pipe; the low temperature of which condenses 
 the spirits; which, collecting on the shelf at F, 
 flows off by the tube into the finished spirit 
 condenser. 
 
 To still further effect a saving of heat, the 
 water for supplying the boiler is made to pass 
 through a long coil of pipe, immersed in boiling 
 spent WHsh, by which means its temperature is 
 raisedjbefore it enters the boiler. 
 
 Another variety of distillatory apparatus is 
 that of Siemens' (see page 1567), much em- 
 pliiyed in the distillation of brandy. 
 
 It consists of two mash stills set in a boiler, 
 and capable of being alternately used by meaus 
 of the three cocks (a, J, and c). L is the boiler ; 
 p one of the mash retorts ; K is the low wine 
 receiver ; R the fore warmer, a reservoir in 
 which the condensed water intended as feed 
 water of the boiler is collected; c is the de- 
 phleginator ; B a reservoir for the vapours con- 
 densed in o. 
 
 From the dephlegmator the vaponr passes to 
 a condenser, not shown in the engraving. 
 
 The ma«h warmer consists of a cylindrical 
 portion (j i), the lower part of which has an 
 indentation (e ). In the cylinder is placed a 
 narrower portion (oio) of the real mash, con- 
 taining a vessel, fitted with the heading tube 
 (/»). The upper part of the fiire wanner is 
 fitted to the lower part by means of the flange 
 (A A) ; r is a stirring apparatus, which is fre- 
 
STILL 
 
 Ifi 
 
 jap 
 
 Coffey'3 Still. 
 
1506 
 
 STILIi 
 
 quently set in operation during the process of 
 distillation. The vapours from the second 
 still are carried into the depression (c) under 
 the fore warmer, which, in order that the va- 
 pours may come into contact with the phlegma, 
 is covered with a sieve. 
 
 The vapours surround the under part of the 
 mash reservoir, and enter into the tube (/), 
 through which they pass to the lower cylinder 
 of the dephlegmator. The condensed water 
 of the dephlegmator is conducted into the re- 
 servoir (a). The upper and under part of the 
 fore warmer are njade of cast iron, but the 
 interior bottom and heating surfaces are made 
 of copper. This kind of fore warmer has the 
 advantage of uniformly distributing the heat, 
 while it can be easily cleansed. 
 
 The dephlegmator (c) is so contrived that 
 the rectified vapour can be conveyed to the con- 
 denser by two separate pipes placed in an 
 opposite direction to each other, which are 
 joined again in close proximity to the con- 
 denser. 
 
 The remainder of the details will be seen by 
 studying tlie engraving. 
 
 Another distilling apparatus is that known 
 as Derosne's, which is an improvement upon 
 one invented by Cellier-Blumenthal. This 
 apparatus is only designed for the distillation 
 
 .s!.ass!®»»\\\^„,„ „, 
 
 ■m^«^m\>smlWi!lliilliMllii^'iii^gsm\'^m^ 
 
 Siemens' Distillatory Apparatus. 
 
 of wine, and not, like the previous ones, of 
 mash. 
 
 The engraving on page 1568 gives a repre- 
 sentation of it. 
 
 It consists of two stills (a and a') j the first 
 rectifier (b); the second rectificator (o); the 
 wine warmer and dephlegmator (d) ; the con- 
 denser (p) ; the regulator (e) j a contrivance 
 for regulating the flow of the fluid wine from 
 the cistern (o). 
 
 The still a', which, as well as the still A, is 
 filled with wine, acts as a steam boiler. The 
 low wine vapours evolved come, when they 
 have arrived in the rectifiers, in contact with an 
 uninterrupted stream of wine, whereby de- 
 phlegmation is effected j the vapour, thus en- 
 riched in alcohol, becomes stronger in the 
 vessel (d), and thus arrives at the cooling 
 apparatus (f). In order that a real rectifica- 
 tion should take place in, the rectificators the 
 stream of wine should be heated to a certain 
 temperature, which is imparted to it by the 
 heating of the condensed water. The steam 
 from the still a' is carried by means of the pipe 
 (z) to the bottom of the still A. 
 
 Both stills are heated by the fire of the 
 same furnace. By means of the tube b' the 
 liquid contained in the still A can be run into the 
 still a'. The first rectificator (b) containing a 
 
STILL 
 
 1669 
 
 Derosne's Distillatory Appnratus. 
 
 nnmber of semicircular discs of unequal size, 
 placed one above tlie other, and whicli are so 
 fastened tu a vertical centre rod that they can 
 be easily removed and cleansed. The larger 
 discs, perforated in the manner of sieves, 
 are placed with their concave surfaces up- 
 wards. 
 
 In consequence of this arrangement the 
 vapours ascending from the stills meet with 
 l»i^ surlaces moistened with wine, which, 
 moreover, trickles downward in the manner 
 of a cascade from the discs, and comes, there- 
 
 fore, into very intimate contact with the 
 vapours. The second rectiflcator (c) is fitted 
 with six compartments ; in the centre of each 
 of the partition walls (iron or copper plates) 
 a hole is cut, and over this bole, by means of 
 a vertical bar, is fastened an inverted cup, 
 which nearly reaches to the bottom of the 
 compartment wherein it is placed. As a por- 
 tion of the vapours nre condensed in tbese 
 compartments, the vapours are necessarily 
 forced through a layer of low wine, and luive 
 to overcome a pressure of a column of liquid 
 
1568 
 
 STILL 
 
 two centimetres high. The fore warmer and 
 dephlegmator (d) is a. horizontal cylinder 
 made of copper fitted with a worm, the con- 
 volutions of which are placed vertically. The 
 tube (m) communicates with this worm, the 
 other end of which passes to o. A phlegma 
 collects in the convolutions of this tube, which 
 is richer in alcohol in the formost windings, 
 and weaker in those more remote; this fluid, 
 collecting in the lower part of the spirals, 
 may be drawn off by means of small tubes, 
 thence to be transferred, at the operator's 
 pleasure, either all or in part, by the aid of 
 another tube and stopcocks, to the tube (o), 
 or into the rectiticator. 
 
 By means of the tube (l) the previously 
 warmed wine of the dephlegmator can be run 
 into the recfcificator. The condenser (f) is a 
 cylindrical vessel closed on all sides, and con- 
 taining a worm communicating with the 
 tube (o). 
 
 The other end of the condensing tube car- 
 ries the distillate away. On the top of this 
 portion of the apparatus the tube (k) is placed, 
 by means of which wine is run into the de- 
 phlegmator. The cold wine flows into the 
 cooling vessel by the tube (i). 
 
 Another variety of distillatory apparatus, 
 invented by Langicr, is that represented in 
 the accompanying cut. 
 
 The fluid intended for distillation flows 
 from the tube (s) into the funnel {p)t thence 
 into the vessel (a), entering its lower part, 
 and serving to condense the alcoholic vapour. 
 From this vessel the warmed fluid passes by 
 means of the tube (r) into the lower part of 
 the second vessel (b), where dephlegmation 
 takes place by means of a condensing tube. 
 From B the fluid flows through the tube (o) 
 into the second still (c), which is heated by 
 the hot gases evolved from the fire, kept burn- 
 ing under the first still (d) ; in the still (o) the 
 fluid undergoes a rectification, and the vinasse 
 flows by the tube (e) into the still (d); m Is 
 the pipe for conveying the hot vapour from D 
 into c ; the tube (6) carries the alcoholic 
 vapours into the dephlegmator. The tube (d) 
 
 conveys the phlegma into the still (c) ; g and h 
 are glass gauging-tubes lor indicating the 
 height of the fluid in the interior of the stills ; 
 the tube {I) conveys the uncondensed vapours 
 from the dephlegmator into the condensing ap- 
 paratus, while i carries the vapours formed in 
 the vessel (b) into the condensing apparatus. 
 The alcohol condensed in the cooling appa- 
 ratus flows, as shown in the cut, into the vessel 
 (o), provided with a hydrometer, which shows 
 the strength of the liquid. The cooling appa- 
 ratus of the vessel (b) consists of seven com- 
 partments or sections formed by wide spirals, 
 to each of which, at its lower level, is attached 
 a narrow tube, all of which tubes are connected 
 to the tube (d), which latter conveys the con- 
 densed fluids back into the still. 
 
STILL 
 
 1569 
 
 A very 
 tktt ' 
 
 simple form of apparatus in nse is 
 below. 
 
 A is a cylinder made of cast iron or copper, 
 in which tl)e fluid to be distilled is heated by 
 a spiral tube made of copper. The inlet of 
 this tube is shown at i and the outlet at a. ; 
 c serves to carry off the vinasse ; D is the de- 
 phlegmatcr, through which the fluid to be 
 distilled continually flows in a downward 
 direction, while the vapour of the low wine 
 evolved in A ascends uninterruptedly. 
 
 The dephlegmator is so constructed as to 
 have as large a surface and as many points of 
 contact as possible. The vapour ascends to 
 the reservoir (e), and pahses into the rectifier 
 (c) by the tube (f). The condensed portion 
 returns through the tube (h) to the de- 
 phlegmator, whilst the uncondensed vapour 
 passes on to the condpiiser of the vessel (d), 
 where it becomes condensed, and is carried off 
 through M. The liquid intended for distilla- 
 tion is kept in a tank (not thown in the en- 
 graving), placed above the apparatus, and is 
 conveyed to the latter by the tube (l l), fitted 
 with the stop-cock (k), so thnt the liquid 
 arrives first in D, is next conveyed to 0, thence 
 through G into the dephlegmator, and finally 
 into the cylinder. 
 
 Divers adaptations for heating by stenm 
 hftve been arranged, in a very convenient 
 form, by Mr Coffey. His so-called EscuLA- 
 PIAN BTILL affords the pharmaceutical che- 
 mist the means of conducting the processes of 
 ebullition, di^tillation, evaporation, desicca- 
 tion, &c., on the small scale. The following 
 cut represents his apparatus. 
 
 B, 8 burner supplied with gas by ,. flexible i tube ; c, the boiler or still ; I, an evaporatTg 
 VOL. U " ^^ 
 
1570 
 
 STIMULANTS— STOPPERS 
 
 pan fixed over the boilor, and forming the top 
 of the still head ; £, a valve for shutting off 
 the steam from i, when it passes through the 
 tube (m), otherwise it would pass through li, 
 and communicate heat to the drying closet 
 (O o), and from thence to the condenser (t t). 
 o is a second evaporating pan over the drying 
 closet. 
 
 For farther information on the subject of 
 stills consult ' lire's Dictionary,' ' Illus- 
 trated Chemistry,' and Wagner's ' Chemical 
 Technology,' 
 
 STIM'uiiAlTTS. %». Stimulantia, L. 
 Medicines or agents which possess the power 
 of exciting vital action. They are divided 
 in general stimulants, or those which affect 
 the whole system, as mercury or bark; and 
 local or topical stimulants, or those which 
 affect a particular organ or part only, as mus- 
 tard applied as ■<, poultice. Diffusible stimu- 
 lants are general stimulants the effects of 
 which are rapid but fugacious, as ether or 
 alcohol. " Much discrimination and caution 
 are required in the administration of articles 
 of this class, because, if given when inflamma- 
 tion is present, they are liable to create more 
 mischief than benefit; but they are called for 
 when, on the decline of that condition of an 
 organ or organs, a state of relaxation or tor- 
 pidity exists. In this state of things a gentle 
 stimulation materially assists the functions, 
 and is productive of much benefit." 
 
 STINGS. See Bites. 
 
 STIK-ABOUT. Thick gruel formed of oat- 
 meal and water boiled together. When eaten 
 with cold milk, it forms the porridge of the 
 Scotch; and when mixed with the liquor in 
 which meat or vegetables have been boiled, it 
 is called beef brose, kale brose, &c. 
 
 STOCK. Among cooks, is condensed sonp or 
 jelly, used to make extemporaneous soup, 
 broth, cfcc. 
 
 STOM'ACH AFFECTIONS. Those of a 
 character to admit of being usefully noticed in 
 a popular work are referred to under the heads 
 Appetite, Dyspepsia, Sickness, &e. 
 
 Dr Budd recommends small doses of ipe- 
 cacuanha as a remedy for those cases of indi- 
 gestion in which digestion is slow, and the food 
 lies heavily on the stomach, and there is an 
 inability for mental or bodily exertion for 
 some time after meals. He says it should be 
 given in the morning, fasting, and in q\iantity 
 barely sufficient to occasion a slight feeling of 
 vermiculating motion in the stomach, but 
 without causing any sensation of pain or 
 nausea. The dose to produce this effect varies 
 from i to 2 gr. He thinks there is no other 
 medicine which appears so effectual in remov- 
 ing the affections in question. Small doses of 
 rhubarb, ginger, and cayenne pepper, have a 
 similar kind of action, and may be given 
 singly or together for tlie same purpose. " I 
 generally prescribe from J to 1 gr. of ipecacu- 
 anha, in a pill, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. 
 With many, a favourite remedy for the discom- 
 
 fort resulting from slow digestion is a grain 
 of cayenne pepper, with 3 or 4 gr. of rhubarb. 
 The best time for giving these medicines is 
 shortly " (say i an hour) " before any meal 
 after which a sense of oppression is usually 
 felt." 
 
 STOPP'EES, when obstinately immoveable 
 in bottles, are the most safely treated by 
 patiently hitting them upwards alternately on 
 opposite sides with a piece of wood. When 
 this fails the part may be dipped into hot 
 water. 
 
 "Another method of removing a bottle- 
 stopper is to insert its head into a chink, and 
 then endeavouring to turn the bottle with 
 both hands. If the neck of the stopper break, 
 the hand is out of the way of danger. An 
 upright board, such an one as supports the 
 ends of a set of shelve.s should be selected in 
 a convenient situation in the laboratory, and a 
 vertical slit cut through it about a foot in 
 length, an inch in width above, but gradually 
 decreasing in size, so as to be about one third 
 of an inch at the bottom. The top of the 
 hole may be about the height of the breast. 
 This aperture will in one part or another 
 receive and retain the head of almost any 
 stopper, and prevent its turning with the 
 bottle. Then by wiapping' a cloth about the 
 bottle and grasping it with both hands, the 
 attempt to torn it round so as to move the 
 stopper may be made witli any degree of 
 force which it may be thought safe to exert. 
 The force employed should never be carried so 
 far as to cause fracture anywhere, but the 
 attempts, if unavailing witli the application of 
 a moderate degree, should be desisted. 
 Another and very successful method of re- 
 moving a stopper is to turn the bottle round 
 when held horizontally over the small flame of 
 a spirit lamp or candle applied to the neck. 
 The heat should be applied only to the part 
 ronnd the plug of the stopper, and in a few 
 moments, when that has become warm, the 
 stopper should be tapped with the piece of 
 wood as before stated. As soon as the stopper 
 moves by tapping it is to be taken out, and 
 must not be replaced till the glass is cold, 
 
 " The application of heat in this manner 
 must be short and the operation altogether, to 
 be successful, must be a quick one. If the 
 contents of the bottle are fluid, it should be so 
 inclined that they must not become heated; if 
 they are volatile this method should be tried 
 very care%illy, lest the vapour formed within 
 should burst the bottle. 
 
 ** It is often advantageous to put a little olive 
 oil round the edge of the stopper at its in- 
 sertion, allowing it to soak in for a day or two. 
 If this be done before the heat be applied, it 
 frequently penetrates by increased facility; by 
 oil, heat, and tapping very obstinate stoppers 
 may be removed. 
 
 " When a stopper has been fixed by crystallis- 
 ation from solution, water will sometimes set 
 it free, and it is more efficacious in such cases 
 
STORM-GLASS— STOVES 
 
 1571 
 
 than oil, because it d'lKBolvea the cement. 
 When the cementing matter is u metallic 
 oiiile or Bub-salt, a little muriatic acid may be 
 useful if there be no objection to its applica- 
 tion arising from the nature of the substance 
 within."' 
 
 A writer in ' New Bemedica ' suggests that, 
 in attempting to extricate the fixed stopper by 
 rnenns of knocking with a piece of wood, the 
 motion given to it when putting it in should 
 be reversed, that is, the stopper should be 
 knocked from right to left, 
 
 STOSU-GIiASS. A philosophical toy, con- 
 ■iating of a thin glass tube about 12 inches 
 long and } inch in diameter, about three 
 fourths filled with the following liquid, and 
 covered with a brass car hiiving an almost 
 capillary hole through it, or else tied over with 
 bladder. 
 
 The solution. Take of camphor, 2 dr. ; nitre 
 1 ^ dr. ; sal ammoniac, 1 dr. ; proof spirit 2\ 
 fl. oz. ; dissolve, and place it in the tube above 
 nferrod to. Used to foretell changes of the 
 weather. 
 
 STOVES. In England the open grate or fire- 
 place, because of its cheerful appearance and 
 the sense of comfort it suggests when filled 
 with glowing coul, is the favorite and general 
 receptAcle for the fuel with which we warm 
 oar apartments. The cozy appearance, how- 
 ever, of our old-fashioned English grate, con- 
 stitutes its chief, if not its only merit ; for it 
 not only fails in uniformly warming and 
 effectively ventilating our apartments, but it 
 more or less sets into circulation a number of 
 draughts of cold air, and besides occasionally 
 6Hing our rooms with smoke and spoiling our 
 furniture by the deposition of soot and dust, 
 wastes our fuel, by allowing it to escape un- 
 consuuied in the shape of smoke, and thus pol- 
 lutes the atmosphere of our cities and towns. 
 
 In France, Qermany, Belgium, Russia, and 
 other European conntries, as well as in Ame- 
 rica and Canada, the stove or closed fireplace 
 is used. The domestic stove of tliese countries 
 is made either of sheet or cast-iron, or fire- 
 clay. The iron stoves, being mostly composed 
 of thin plates, soon absorb and radiate the 
 heat; and although this property enables them 
 to rapidly warm an apartment, it has the dis- 
 advantage, if the stove becomes red-hot, of 
 allowing the escape through the heated metal 
 into the surrounding air of the carbonic acid 
 generated in the stove; and furthermore, in 
 ita immediate vicinity converts a portion of 
 it into carbonic oxide. Such stoves must 
 necessarily be unsafe unless used in well- 
 ventilated apartments.' Another effect of the 
 over heating of the stove is to desiccate or 
 parch the air, and to render it irritating when 
 breathed. The fire-clay stoves are free from 
 these drawbacks, and continue to radiate from 
 their surfaces a large amount of heat, even 
 
 ' Farnilay. 
 
 ' Dr Buriil liM lu^pntteil coating tliem vfitL solubln 
 suit, t> s remedy for tliis. 
 
 when the fuel with which they have been sup- 
 plied is consumed. But although we exclude 
 the close stove from our sitting rooms and 
 dormitories, it is in frequent requisition in 
 halls, picture-galleries, churches, theatres, 
 leelure-iooms, and the like. 
 
 " Stove literature," if such a term may be 
 applied to the various treatises descriptive of 
 the multitude of patterns in use, which have 
 emanated alike from inventors and their critics, 
 is so voluminous that it is impossible for ns to 
 attempt to give even a list of the numberless 
 stoves in use, to say nothing of a commentary 
 on their relative value. Of close stoves suitable 
 f'lr heating spaces other than dwelling or 
 sleeping-rooms, mention may be made of 
 Arnott's stove, and one known «•< "The 
 Belfast." These stoves are serviceable when 
 it is desirable to keep up a fire for some time, 
 as in heating a lobby. They h»ve the advan- 
 tii^e of requiring little, if any, attention after 
 the fuel has been placed in them and ignited. 
 
 Of late ye.iis, gisstoves, both for heating 
 and conking purposes, have. come largely into 
 use. One of those for the former purpose is 
 called the " I'yropneumatic." The inner part 
 of this apparatus is formed of lumps of fiie- 
 clay traversed by vertical air-passages which 
 cnmmunicate with the external air by a special 
 channel. The air becomes heated as it passes 
 through the lumps of fire-clay, and rising to 
 the top of the stove, escapes therefrom by an 
 "utiet into tho room. Another so-called 
 "ventilating" warming gas-stove is Mr 
 George's " Culirogen." It consists if a stove 
 made of thin-rolled iron, inside of which is a 
 coil of wroughtiron tubing open at the top of 
 tho stove. The lower end of this tubing i» in 
 connection with an iron pipe which is carried 
 through the wall of the apartment, and fed 
 with air from without. Gas Is the fuel gene- 
 rally used to heat the inside of the stove. The 
 continuous current of air as it rushes into the 
 iron pipe from without, thus becomes warmed 
 as it ascends into the coil, which it leaves to 
 become dilTnsed into the surrounding apart- 
 ment, whilst the products of combustion 
 of the gas used as fuel are, by means of a pipe 
 attached to the stove, carried into the chimney, 
 as with coiil fire. 
 
 A gas-cooking apparatus possesses many 
 advantages over an ordinary coal fire. In the 
 first place, it is more cleanly ; in the second, 
 it affords a much more uniform and equable 
 temperature ; in the third, it forms no smoke, 
 and in the fourth it is more economical as well 
 as expeditious. 
 
 Mr Eassle gives the following practical 
 suggestions to intending purchasers of gas- 
 stoves: — 
 
 " It is not necessary here to enter into a 
 description of any of the numberless common 
 patterns extant, but it might be well to record 
 tlic opinion of the best engineers, that the 
 simplest gas-stove is tlic best. They should 
 not be surrounded by a non-conducting mate- 
 
1572 
 
 STRABISMUS— STRYCHNINE 
 
 rial, as that affords no advantage, but the 
 contrary. An Argand or fish-tail burner 
 should also be nsed instead of rings pierced for 
 so many separate jets, and where practicable, 
 the Bunsen-burner should be employed, as the 
 mixture of common air with the gas not only 
 prevents the formation of soot, but also inten- 
 
 AlnPA ^nP VlPflt 
 
 STEABIS'MUS. Syn. Squinting. This 
 need not be described. When one eye only is 
 affected, an excellent plan is to blindfold the 
 sound eye during several hours each day, until 
 the affection be removed. When both eyes are 
 affected, a projecting piece of pasteboard, in 
 the line of the nose, may be worn as much as 
 possible with the same object. In bad cases 
 of squinting inwards, as it is called, the 
 division of the internal rectus muscle of the 
 eyeball by a skilful surgeon, is said to often 
 relieve the deformity. 
 
 STEANGULATIOlf. See Hansing. 
 
 STEAP'PING. Spread adhesive plaster. 
 Used to dress wounds, &c. 
 
 STRASS. See^NAMEL. 
 
 STEAWBEEEY. Syn. Feagabia,L. The 
 fruit of Fragaria vesca (Linn.), or strawberry 
 plant. Strawberries are, perhaps, the mildest 
 of all the cultivated fruits ; they are cooling, 
 and slightly laxative and diuretic ; rubbed on 
 the teetli, they dissolve the tartar, and whiten 
 tliem. They were formerly in repute in gout, 
 stone, and consumption. The root of the 
 plant is aperient. 
 
 Strawberry essence, factitious. Nitric ether, 
 
 1 part; acetate of ethyl, 5 parts; forminate 
 of ethyl, 5 parts ; butyrate of ethyl, 5 parts ; 
 salicylate of methyl, 1 part ; acetate of amyl, 
 3 parts ; butyrate of amyl, 2 parts ; glycerin, 
 
 2 parts ; alcohol, 100 parts.' 
 
 STEAW PLAIT, and the articles made of it, 
 are bleached by exposing them to the fumes of 
 burning sulphur in a close chest or box ; or, by 
 immersing them in a weak solution of chloride 
 of lime, and afterwards well washing them in 
 water. Water acidulated with oil of vitriol or 
 oxalic acid is also used for the same purpose. 
 Straw plait may be dyed with any of the 
 simple liquid dyes. 
 
 STErtTGHALT. The same as Choeea, 
 which see. 
 
 STEON'TIUm. Sr. The metallic base of 
 the earth strontia. It was discovered by Sir 
 H. Davy, in 1808. It closely resembles barium, 
 but is less lustrous. With chlorine it com- 
 bines to form a chloride of strontium, a some- 
 what deliquescent salt, soluble in 2 parts of 
 cold and in less of boiling water, and freely 
 soluble in alcohol. With oxygen it forms an 
 oxide. 
 
 Test. Strontium salts are precipitated by 
 sulphuric acid and alkaline carbonates and 
 sulphate. They are distinguished from barium 
 by not giving such a decided precipitate with 
 sulphates, and by not being; precipitated by 
 bichromate of potassium. From calcium, by 
 * ' Fliarm. Jouru,' 
 
 sulphates of calcium solution giving a precipi- 
 tate, and by concentrated solutions giving a 
 precipitate with chromate of potassium. It is 
 distinguished from magnesium by the insolu- 
 bility of its sulphate. 
 
 Strontium, Oxide of. SrO. Syn. Pkot- 
 
 OXIEB OP STEONTItTM, SlEONTIA. Frep. 
 Quite pure crystalline nitrate of strontium. 
 Prop. Greyish-white powder, uniting with 
 water to form a white, somewhat soluble sub- 
 stance, the hydrate of strontium, Sr(H0)2. 
 
 With acids it forms various salts, of which 
 the carbonate is a white insoluble powder, and 
 the nitrate a white crystaltine salt, soluble 
 in 5 parts of cold water, and in alcohol ; com- 
 municating a brilliant red colour to flame. 
 
 STROPH'ULXIS. A papular eruption pecu- 
 liar to infants. There are several varieties : — 
 In strophulus intertinctus, red gum, or red 
 gown, the pimples rise sensibly above the 
 level of the cuticle, possess a vivid red colour, 
 and are usually distinct from each other; 
 they commonly attack the cheeks, forearm, 
 and back of the hand, and, occasionally, other 
 parts of the body. — In strophulus albidus, or 
 white gum, there are a number of minute 
 whitish specks, which are, sometimes, sur- 
 sounded by a slight redness. The two pre- 
 ceding varieties commonly occur during the 
 first two or three months of lactation. — In 
 strophulus confertus, rank red gum, or tooth 
 rash, which usually appears about the fourth 
 or fifth month, the pimples usually occur on 
 the cheeks and sides of the nose, sometimes 
 on the forehead and arms, and stiU less fre- 
 quently on the loins. They are smaller, set 
 closer together, and less vivid, but more per- 
 manent than in the common red gum. — In 
 strophulus volaticus small circular pntcbes or 
 clusters of pimples, each containing from 6 to 
 12, appear successively on different parts of 
 the body, acdompanied with redness ; and as 
 one patch declines another springs up near it, 
 by which the efflorescence often spreads gra- 
 dually over the whole face and body. — In 
 strophulus candidus the pimples are larger 
 than in the preceding, and are pale, smooth, 
 and shining ; it principally attacks tiie upper 
 parts of the arms, the shoulders, and the loins. 
 The last two varieties commonly appear between 
 the third and ninth month. 
 
 The treatment of the above affections con- 
 sists chiefly in removing acidity and indigestion, 
 and duly regulating the bowels by an occasional 
 dose of magnesia or rhubarb, or both combined. 
 Diarrhoea may be met by the warm bath and 
 the daily use of arrowroot (genuine), to which 
 a teaspoonf ul or two of pure port wine has been 
 added ; and itching and irritation may be alle- 
 viated by the use of a lotion consisting of water, 
 to which a little milk, lemon juice, borax, or 
 glycerin, has been added. 
 
 STEYCHTJIHE. C^Yi^f)^. Syn. Stetch- 
 NINA, Stktchkia (B" p.. Ph. L., E.,.& D.), L. 
 Prep. 1. Dissolve hydrochlorate or sulphate of 
 
STRYCHNINE 
 
 1573 
 
 strvchnino in distilled wntcr, and throw down 
 the alkaloid with ammonia, ciirefully avoiding^ 
 ricest ; redisaolve tlie precipitate in hot recti- 
 tted npirit, and collect the crystals which form 
 u the liquid cools. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Nnx vomica (in powder), 1 lb., is 
 digested for 24 hours in i gall, of water acidu- 
 lated with 2 &. dr. of sulphuric acid, after 
 which it is boiled for half and hour, and the de- 
 coction decanted; the residuum is boiled a 
 second and a third time with a fresh i gnW. of 
 water acidulated with 1 fl. dr. of the acid, and 
 the undissolved matter is finally submitted to 
 strong expression ; the decoctions are next fil- 
 teri-d and concentrated to the consistence of a 
 tyrup, u'liioh is boiled with rectiA^d spirit, 3 
 pints, for about 20 minutes, hydrate of calcium, 
 1 02., or q. 8., being added in successive portions 
 during ibeebullition, until the solution becomes 
 distinctly alkaline ; the liquid is then filtered, 
 the spirit distilled off, and the residuum dis- 
 solved in diluted sulphuric acid, q. s. ; am- 
 monia, in slight excess, is added to tiie Kltered 
 solution, and the precipitate which falls is 
 collected upon a paper filter, and dried ; it is 
 next redissolved in a minimum of boiling rec- 
 tified spirit, and digested with i oz. of animal 
 charcoal for 20 minutes ; the filtered liquid, 
 as it cools, deposits strychnine, in crystals. 
 
 3. (Ph. B.) Nux vomica 1 lb., acetate of 
 lead IHO gr,, solution of ammonia q. a., recti- 
 fied spirit q. ts., distilled water q. s. Subject 
 the nux vomica for two hours to steam in any 
 convenient VHtsel ; chop or slice it; dry it in 
 a water buth or hot-air chamber, and imme- 
 diately grind it in a coffee mill. Digest the 
 powder at a gentle heat for 12 hours with two 
 pints of the spiritand 1 pint of the wiiter, strain 
 through linun, express strongly, and repeat 
 the procet'S twice. Distil off the spirit from 
 the mixed fluid, evaporate the watery i e-idue 
 to about 16 oz., and filter when cold. Add 
 now the acetate of lead, previously dissolved 
 in distilled water, so long !is it occasions any 
 precipitate ; filter ; wash the precipitate witli 
 10 oz. of cold water, adding the washings to 
 the filtrate; evaporate the clear fluid to 8 oz., 
 and when it hus cooled add the ammonia in 
 slight excess, stirring thoroughly. Let the 
 mixture stand at the ordinary temperature for 
 12 hours ; collect the precipitate on a filter, 
 w«sh it once with a few ounces of cold dis- 
 tilled water, dry it in a water-bath or hot-air 
 chamber, and boil it with successive portions 
 of rectified spirit, till the fluid scarcely tastes 
 bitter. Uistil off most of the spirit, evaporate 
 the residue to the bulk of about i oz., and set 
 it asiiie to cool. Cautiously pour off the yel- 
 lowi.li mother-liquor (which contains the 
 brucia of the seeds) from the white crust of 
 strychnia which adheres to the vessel. Throw 
 the crust on a paper filter, wash it with a 
 mixture of two piirt- of rectified spiritand one 
 of water, till the washings cease to become red 
 on the addition of nitric acid ; finally, dissolve 
 it, by boilinjf it with 1 oz. of rectified spirit. 
 
 and set it aside to crystallise. More crystals 
 may be obtained by evaporating the mother- 
 liquor. [Strychnine is more readily obtained, 
 and in greater purity, from St lo-iMtinss 
 Bean.] The usual dose of stryclini;i and its 
 salts to commence with is from f\,th to -^th 
 of a grain, to be very slowly increased, care- 
 fully watching its effects. Mageudie says the 
 salts are more active than their base. 
 
 Prop. A white, inodorous, infusible powder; 
 or small, but exceedingly brilliant, transparent, 
 colourless, octahedral crystals; soluble in about 
 7000 parts of water at 60°, and in 2.^00 parts 
 at 212° Fahr. j freebly soluble in hot rectified 
 spirit ; insoluble in absolute alcohol, ether, and 
 solutions of the caustic alkalies ; imparts a dis- 
 tinctly bitter taste to 600,000 times its weight 
 of water (I part in 1,000,000 parts of water is 
 still perceptible — Fownes); exhiliits an alka- 
 line reaction ; and forms salts with the acids, 
 which are easily prepared, are crystallisable, 
 and well defined. 
 
 Te»t». — 1. Potassium hydrate and the car- 
 bonate produce, in solutions of the salts of 
 strychnia, white precipitates, which are inso- 
 luble in excess of the precfpitant, and which, 
 when viewed through a lens magnifying 100 
 times, appear as aggregates of small crystalline 
 needles, in weak solutions the precipitate only 
 separates after some time, in the form of 
 crystalline needles, which are, however, in this 
 case, perfectly visible to the naked eye.— 2. 
 Ammonia gives a similar precipitate, which is 
 soluble in excess of the precipitant.— 3. Bi- 
 carbonate of sodium produces, in neutral 
 solutions, a like white precipitate, which is 
 insoluble in excess, but which redissolves on 
 the addition of a siniile drop of acid ; iu acid 
 solutions no precipitate occurs for some time 
 in the cold, but immediately on boiling the 
 liquid. — i. Nitric acid dissolves pure strychnia 
 and its suits to culourless fluids, which become 
 yellow when heated. Commercial stiyclininc, 
 from containing a little brucine, is reddened 
 by this test. — 5. A minute quantity of str\ch- 
 nine beini; mixed with a small drop of con- 
 centrated sulphuric acid, placed on a white 
 capsule or slip of glass, forms a colourless 
 solution, but yields, on the addition of a very 
 small cr\ still of bichromate of potassium, or a 
 verv minute portion of chromic acid, a rich 
 vioFet colour, which gradually changes to red 
 and yellow, and disappears after some time. 
 The T-nVrj''' "^ " grain yields very distinct 
 indicHtions. — 6. Pure oxide or peroxide of lead 
 produces a similar reaction to the la>t, pro- 
 vided the sulphuric acid contain about Ig of 
 nitric acid. 
 
 Pof». The characteristic symptom is the 
 special influence exerted upon the nervous 
 system, which is manifested by a general con- 
 traction of all the muscles of the body, with 
 rigidity of the spinal column. A profound 
 calm soon succeeds, which is followed by a 
 new tetanic seizure, longer than the first; 
 during which the respiration is suspended. 
 
1574 
 
 STllYCHNOS— STURDY 
 
 These symptoms then cease, the breathing 
 becomes easy, and there is stupor, followed by 
 another general contraction. In fatal cases 
 these attacks are renewed, at intervals, with 
 increasing violence, until death ensues. One 
 phenomenon which is only found in poisonings 
 by snbstances containing strychnine is, that 
 touching any part of the body, or even threat- 
 ening to do so, instantly produces the tetanic 
 spasm. 
 
 Treat. The stomach should be immediately 
 cleared by means of an emetic, tickling the 
 fauces, &c. To counteract the asphyicia from 
 tetanus, &c., artificial respiration should be 
 practised with diligence and care. " If the 
 poison has been applied externally, we ought 
 immediately to cauterise the part, and apply 
 a ligature tightly above the wound. If the 
 poison has been swallowed for some time, we 
 should give a purgative clyster, and administer 
 draughts containing sulphuric ether or oil of 
 turpentine, which in most cases produce a 
 salutary effect. Lastly, injections of chlorine 
 and decoction of tannin are of value." 
 
 According to Ch. Gunther, the greatest 
 reliance may be placed on full doses of opium, 
 assisted by venesection, in eases of poisoning 
 by strychnia or nux vomica. His plan is to 
 administer this drug in the form of solution 
 or mixture, in combination with a saline 
 aperient. 
 
 TJses, S(c., It is a most frightful poison, pro- 
 ducing tetanus and death in very small doses. 
 Even ^j gr. will sometimes occasion tetanic 
 twitchings in persons of delicate temperament, 
 i gr. blown into the throat of a small dog 
 produced death in 6 minutes. In very minute 
 doses it acts as a useful tonic in various nervous 
 diseases, chronic diarrhoea, leucorrhcea, &c. ; 
 in slightly larger ones, it has been advan- 
 tageously employed in certain forms of para- 
 lysis, in tic douloureux, impotence, &c. — Dose, 
 ^1 to -j^g- gr. (dissolved in water by means of a 
 drop of acetic or hydrochloric acid), gradually 
 and cautiously increased until it slightly affects 
 the muscular system. Externally, ^ to i gr. at 
 a time. 
 
 The Edinburgh College ordered the nux 
 vomica to he exposed for two hours to steam, 
 to soften it, then to chop or slice it, next to 
 dry it by the heat of a vapour bath or hot uir, 
 and, lastly, to grind it in a coffee-mill. In the 
 process of the Ph. L. 1836 magnesia was em- 
 ployed to effect the precipitation. In the last 
 Ph. L. strychnine appears in the M.teria Me- 
 dica. Most of that of commerce is now ob- 
 t£^ined from St Ignatius's bean, which, ac- 
 cording to Geiseler, yields li ^ of it; whereas 
 3 lbs. of nux vomica produce little more than 
 1 4r. Commercial strychnine may be freed 
 !fi;om brucine by digesting the powder in dilute 
 alcohol. 
 
 The salts of strychnine,wliich are occasionally 
 asked for in trade, are the acetate (strych- 
 nise acetas), hydrochlorate or muriate (s. 
 ipurias — Ph. I).), hydriudate (s. hydriodas). 
 
 nitrate (s. nitras), phosphate (s. phosphas), 
 and sulphate (s. sulphas). All of these may be 
 easily formed by simply neutralising the acid 
 previously diluted with 2 or 3 parts of water, 
 with the alkaloid, assisting the solution with 
 heat J crystals are deposited as the liquid cools, 
 and more may be obtained by evaporating the 
 motber-liqnor. 
 
 STEYCHNOS. See Ntrx vomica and Bean, 
 St Ionatius's. 
 
 STUCCO. The name of several calcareous 
 cements or mortars. Fine stucco is the third 
 or last coat of three-coat plaster, and consists 
 of a mixture of fine lime and quartzose sand, 
 which, in application, is " twice hand floated 
 and well trowelled." See Cements. 
 
 STUFFING. Seasoning, placed in meat, 
 poultry, game, &c., before dressing them, to 
 give them an increased relish. The same 
 materials formed into balls, are added to 
 soups, gravies, &c., under the name of Fobce- 
 
 MEAT. 
 
 Frep. 1. (For fowls, &c.) Shred a little 
 ham or gammon, some cold veal or fowl, some 
 beef suet, a small quantity of onion, some 
 parsley, a very little lemon peel, salt, nutmeg, 
 or pounded mace, and either white pepper or 
 cayenne, and bread crumbs, pound them in a 
 mortar, and bind it with 1 or 2 eggs. 
 
 2. (For hare, or anything in imitation of it. 
 — Mrs Eundell.) The scalded liver, an anchovy, 
 some fat bacon, a little suet, some parsley, 
 thyme, knotted marjoram, a little shalot, and 
 either onion or chives, all chopped fine, with 
 some crumbs of bread, pepper, and nutmeg, 
 beaten in a mortar with an egg. 
 
 3. (For goose.) From sage, onion, suet, and 
 crumb of bread. Geese are now, however, 
 more commonly stuffed with veal stuffing. 
 
 4. (For veal — Soyer.) Chop i lb. of suet, 
 put it into a basin with ^ lb. of bread crumbs, 
 a teaspoonf ul of salt, a i do. of pepjier, a little 
 thyme or lemon peel chopped, and 3 whole 
 eggs; mix well. 
 
 Obs. 1 lb. of bread crumbs and one more 
 egg may be used ; they will make it cut firmer. 
 This, as well as No. 1, is now commonly em- 
 ployed for poultry and meat. Ude, a great 
 authority in these matters, observes that " it 
 would not be aujiss to add a piece of butter, 
 and to pound the whole in a mortar." 
 " Grated ham or tongue may be added to this 
 stufiBng." (Rundell.) This is also used for 
 turkeys, and for * forcemeat patties.' 
 
 STUFFIMG (Birds, &c.). The skins are 
 commonly dusted over with a mixture of 
 camphor, alum, and sulphur, in about equal 
 quantities; or, they are smeared with B^coeur's 
 arsenical soap, noticed under Soap. Accord- 
 ing to Crace Calvert, carbolic acid, which is 
 worth only about 2s. per gal , is superior to 
 all other substancesforpreserving the skins of 
 birds and animals, as well as corpses. See 
 Taxidermy, Practical. 
 
 STURDY. This disease, known also by the 
 name of Gad, which attacks cattle and sheep. 
 
STUKGEON— SUCCINIC ACID 
 
 1575 
 
 bat more p;uucularly the latter, is caused by 
 the prei-oniu in tlio bruin of tlie animal, I'f a 
 hydatid — n rreatnre oncloaed in a sac of serous 
 Snid. This hyilutiil develops from the ova of 
 the tape worm, in the aiiiiiiul's body, whence 
 it has gained an entrance, with the grass 
 which constitutes the cattle or sheep's food 
 upon which it had been voided by dogs and 
 other animals. 
 
 It is most common in sheep of from fi to 
 8 months old, and, as might be expected, with 
 those which feed in damp meadows. The 
 iinimals attacked by it turn round and round 
 in one position, lose their gregarious habits, 
 seem dazed, and refuse their food ; which 
 latter circumstance frequently causes death by 
 inducing starvation. 
 
 As rcgurils the treatment of this disease 
 Mr Finlay Dun writes : " A stout stocking 
 wire thrust up the nostrils has long been used 
 with occasional success, to get rid of the hy- 
 datid; but the use of tlie trocar and canula 
 now sold by most surgical instrument makers 
 is much safer and better. The slieep is placed 
 with its feet tied upon a table or bench, and 
 the head carefully examined, when a soft place 
 may often be detected, indicating that the hy- 
 datid lies nndernontb. A portion of the skin 
 is dissected back and the trocar and canula 
 introduced, wlion the hydatid will olten come 
 away as the trocar is withdrawn." Mr Dun 
 anys " that, should the trocar fail to extract 
 it, it must be drawn to the surface by a small 
 syringe nirwle for the purpose. Furthermore, 
 the wound, after the removal of the hydatid, 
 must be treated with a cold water dressing." 
 
 All cattle similarly affected should be treated 
 at above. 
 
 SinR'GEON. Several species of Acipenser 
 pass under this name. The common sturgeon 
 is the Acipenser sturio (Linn.). The roe is 
 made into 'caviare,' the swimming-bladder 
 iuto ' isinglass,' 
 
 STY. 5y«. Stye, Stian ; Hoedbolum, L. 
 A small inflamed tumour, or boil, at the edge 
 of the eyelid, somewhat resembling a barley- 
 corn. It is usually recommended to promote 
 its maturation by warm applications, since 
 "the stye, like other furunculous infliimraa- 
 tions, forms an exception to the general rule, 
 that the best mode in which inflammatory 
 swcUinps can end is resolution." 
 
 mrTICS. Si/n. Styptica, L. Substances 
 which arrest local bleeding. Creasote, tannic 
 acid, alcohol, alum, and most of the astringent 
 salts, belong to this class. 
 
 Styptic, Brocchieri'a. A nostrum consisting 
 of the water distilled from pine tops. 
 
 Styptic, Eaton's. A solution of sulphate 
 disguised by the addition of some unim- 
 portant substances. " Helvetius's styptic was 
 for a long time employed under this title." 
 (Paris.) 
 
 Styptic, Helvetins'g. Syn. Stypticum hbl- 
 TKTii, L. Iron filings (fine), and cream of 
 
 tartar, mixed to a proper consistence with 
 French brandy. See Poweek, Helvetius's. 
 
 STY'BAX. Sgn. Stobax, Stoeax baisam ; 
 Stteax (Ph. L., &, E.), L. " The liquid balsam 
 of an uncertain plant." (Ph. L.) The "bal- 
 samic exudation of Styrax officinale, Linn." 
 (Ph. E.), or cane storax tree. Two or three 
 varieties are known in commerce : — Liquid 
 storax {atyrax liquida), lump of rid storax 
 (*. in massie), wbicli is generally very im- 
 pure ; storax in tears (s. in lachrymis), and 
 storax in reeds (s. calamita). The last ure 
 now seldom met with in trade. 
 
 Peepaked stoeax (styrax colala ; ». pra- 
 parata, B. P., Ph. L.) i-. clitiiincd by dis- 
 solving storax, 1 lb., in rectitiid spirit, Ipints, 
 by a gentle heat, strainiu); the solution through 
 linen, distilling oft greater part of the spirit, 
 and evaporating what is left to a proper con- 
 sistence by the heat "f a water bath. It is less 
 fragrant than the raw drug. 
 
 Storax is stimulant, expectorant, and ner- 
 vine. It was formerly much used in menstnial 
 obstruction", phthisis, coughs, asthmas, and 
 other breath diseases. It is now oliiefiy used 
 as a perfume. — Dose, 6 to 20 or 30 gr. (10 to 
 20 gr twice a day, B. P.). 
 
 A factitious strained Storax is made as fol- 
 lows : — 1. Balsam of Peru, 1 lb. ; balsam of 
 tolu, 4 lbs.; mix. 
 
 2. Qum benzoin, 8 lbs. ; liquid storax, 6 lbs.; 
 balsam of tolu and Socotrine aloes, of each 
 3 lbs. ; balsam of Peru, 2 lbs. ; N. S. W. yillow 
 gum, 7 lbs.; rectified spirit, 7 gall.; (ligest, 
 with frequent agitation, for a fortnight, strain 
 and distil off the spirit (about 5) galls.) until 
 the residuum has a proper consistence. Prod. 
 28 lbs. 
 
 3. Liq\iid storax, 1 oz. ; Socotrine aloes, } lb.; 
 balsam of tolu, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit, q. s. 
 
 SUB-. See Nomknclatueb and Salts. 
 
 SUBERIC ACID. Obtained by boiling 
 rasped cork for some time in nitric acid. 
 
 SUBLIMA'TION. The process by which 
 volatile substances are reduced to the state of 
 vapour by heat, and again condensed in the 
 solid form. It differs from ordinary distilla- 
 tion in being confined to dry solid substances, 
 and in the heat employed beiug, in general, 
 much greater. 
 
 SUB'STANTITE COLOURS, in the art of 
 dyeing, are such as impart their tints to cloth 
 and yarns without the intervention of a mor- 
 dant; in contradistinction to adjective co- 
 lours, which require to be fixed by certain 
 * iutermedes,' or substances which have a joint 
 affinity for the colouring matter and the ma- 
 terial to be dyed. 
 
 SUCCINIC ACID. C,H,04Hj. Syn. Aci- 
 DUM SUCCINIcril. Frep. From amber, in 
 coar.-e powder, mixed with an equal weight of 
 sand, and distilled by a gradually increased 
 heat ; or from the impure acid obtained dur- 
 ing the distillation of oil of amber; the pro- 
 duct in both cases being purified by wrapping 
 it in bibulous paper, and submitting it to 
 
1576 
 
 SUCCORY— SUGAR 
 
 strong pressure, to remove the oil, and then 
 resubliming it. 
 
 From malic acid, by fermentation, or by 
 digestion with hydriodic acid in sealed tubes. 
 
 Prop., S{c. Colourless; inodorous (when 
 pure) ; crystallises in oblique rhombic prisms ; 
 soluble in 5 parts of cold and in 2^ parts of 
 boiling water ; fusible and volatile, without 
 decomposition. Its salts are called ' succi- 
 nates,' most of which are soluble. Succinate 
 of ammonium is used as a test for iron. 
 Succinic acid ia distinguished from benzoic 
 acid by its greater solubility, and by giving a 
 brownish or pale red bulky precipitate with 
 ferric chloride in neutral solutions; whereas 
 that with benzoic scid is paler and yellower. 
 
 Uses, Sf-B. Succinic acid is antispasmodic, 
 stimulant, and diuretic, but is now seldom 
 used. — Dose, 5 to 15 gr. 
 
 SUCCORY. Chicory, or wild endive. (See 
 Chicoby.) 
 
 SUDOEIF'ICS. See Diaphobetics. 
 
 SU'ET. Syn. Sevum, Sebum, L. This is 
 prepared from the fat of the loins of the 
 sheep or bullock by melting it by a gentle 
 heat, and straining the liquid fat. In this 
 state it forma the ADEPS oviLLUS (Ph. D.), 
 SETUM (Ph. L. & E.), BBTUM OVILLTTM, or 
 SEVUM PREPAEATUM, employed in medicine 
 and perfumery, as the basis of ointments, 
 cerates, plasters, pommades, &c. 
 
 Snet, Mel'ilot. Si/n. Sevum meliloti, L. 
 Prep. From suet, 8 lb. ; melilot leaves, 2 lb. ; 
 boil ' until the leaves are crisp, strain, and 
 allow it to cool very slowly, so that it may 
 ' grain well.' Used by farriers, and to make 
 melilot plaster. 
 
 SUTFOCA'TION. The treatment varies 
 with the cause. See Asphyxia, Chaeooal, 
 Deowhino, Hanoing, Sulphuebtted Hy- 
 
 DEO&EN, &C. 
 
 SUG'AR. CijHjaO,,. St/n. Cane suoae; 
 Sacchaeum, L. ; SucEE, Fr. This well-known 
 and most useful substance is found in the 
 juice of many of the canes or grasses, in the 
 sap of several forest trees, and in the roots of 
 various plants. lu tropical climates it is 
 extracted from the sugar-cane {Saccharum 
 officinarum), in China from the sweet sorgho 
 (Sorghum saccharatum), in North America 
 from the sugar-maple {Acer saccharinum), and 
 in France, Germany, Russia, and Belgium, 
 from white beet-root {Beta vulgaris, var. 
 ^alba). 
 
 Until of late years the ordinary sugar con- 
 sumed in this country was that chiefly sent 
 if rom .the West Indian Islands, South America, 
 ithe Mauritius, &c., and was the produce of the 
 sugar cane ; recently, however, large and in- 
 creasing quantities of beet-root sugar have 
 found their way into the English markets 
 .from thetContinental factories. 
 
 The Saccharum qfftoinarum, of which there 
 are several varieties, the sugar-cane ranges in 
 height from 6 to 15 feet, and in diameter 
 from 1 to 2 inches. In order to obtain the 
 saccharine juice contained in it, the cane, 
 stripi)ed of its leaves, is cut just before the 
 commencement of inflorescence, the period in 
 which it is richest in juice. As this sap or 
 juice is found to abound most in sugar, when 
 taken from the lower part of the stem, the 
 cane is cut off nearly close to the ground. 
 
 The stomp which remains develops into a 
 fresh plant, and one plant thus treated will 
 last several years, not, however, without a 
 gradual diminution in the size of the succes- 
 sive crops. 
 
 In South America and the West Indies a 
 variety known as the Otaheita cane is ex- 
 tensively cultivated, since it is very productive 
 and yields a large amount of juice. 
 
 The annual average produce in raw sugar 
 for a hectare (about 2^ English statute acres) 
 of land is in 
 
 Martinique 
 Guadaloupe 
 Mauritius 
 Brazil . 
 
 2000 kilos.' 
 3400 „ 
 4000 „ 
 6000 „ 
 
 Sugar-cane growing in the below-men- 
 tioned places has, according to the analysis of 
 the three chemists whose names are appended, 
 the following composition : — 
 
 («.) (i.) (c.) 
 
 Peligot. Diipuy. leery. 
 
 Sugar. . 18-0 178 200 
 
 Water . 721 72-0 69-0 
 
 Cellulose . 9-9 9-8 lO'O 
 
 Salts . . — 0'4 0-7— 1-2 
 
 The cane, therefore, may Ue said to yield 90 
 per cent, of juice, which latter contains from 
 18 to 20 parts of pure sugar. However, the 
 actual quantity obtained is rarely if ever more 
 than 1 lb. of sugar to a gallon of juice, or 10 
 per cent. ; and much more frequently only 8 
 per ceiit. 
 
 A large part of this loss is due to the pro- 
 longed exposure of the cane juice during its 
 repeated boilings to beat, whereby a large 
 proportion of its crystallisable sugar is con- 
 verted into the uncrystallisable variety which 
 passes away in the form of molasses and 
 treacle. Another important cause of loss is 
 the retention of a large amount of juice by 
 the cane. 
 
 The following figures will convey an idea of 
 the enormous quantities of cane sugar pro- 
 duced and consumed yearly throughout the 
 globe. It is taken from ' British Manufac- 
 turing Industries,' one of a series of excellent 
 industrial manuals published by Mr Sand- 
 ford, of Charing Cross : — 
 
 1 A kilo = 2'3046 1bs. 
 
SUGAR 
 
 1577 
 
 Cuba ..... 
 The other West Indian colonies . 
 
 Java and Sumatra 
 
 China ..... 
 Frencb colonies in America and Africa 
 Brazil ..... 
 Manritiua .... 
 Britiah Guiana 
 
 Porto Rico .... 
 Manilla .... 
 llexico .... 
 Egypt 
 
 600,000 tons. 
 
 250,000 „ 
 
 170,000 „ 
 
 140,000 „ 
 
 120,000 „ 
 
 100,000 „ 
 
 80,000 „ 
 
 80,000 „ 
 
 90,000 „ 
 
 60,000 „ 
 
 35,000 „ 
 
 Large and growing. 
 
 The late Dr Edward Smith fonnd that 98 
 percent, of indoor operatives partool: of 7i 
 oz. of Bugar per adult weekl;; that 96 per 
 cent, of Scotch labourers use it ; and 80 per 
 cent, of Irish. He further states that in 
 Wales sugar is commonly used to an average 
 extent of 6 oz. per adult weekly; but that 
 there is a marked difference in tlie rate of 
 consumption in the northern and southern 
 portions of the principality. In Korth Wales, 
 for example, the average amount per head is 
 Hi oz. ; wliereaa in South Wales it is only 
 3oz. 
 
 The manufacture of sugar is exclusively 
 
 conducted on the large scale. The recent 
 canes are crushed between rollers, and the 
 expressed juice is suffered to flow into a soit- 
 able vessel, where it is slowly heated to nearly 
 the boiling-point, to coagulate albuminous 
 matter. The crushed canes generally supply 
 the fuel needed for this purpose. The ashes 
 left after the combustion of the canes are 
 carefully collected and nsed as a manure for 
 future crops of sugar cane. 
 
 The cut below represents a press for the 
 extraction of the juice from the canes. By 
 means of the screws (i »), the rollers are ad- 
 justed to the proper diiitance apart ; the upper 
 
 roller is half the size of the two lower ones, 
 and all are moved by cogged wheels fitting on 
 to the axes of the rollers. The sugar-canes 
 are transferred from the slate gutter (d d) to 
 the rollers (a c), which press them a little ; and 
 from thence they are carried over the arched 
 plate (») to the rollers (o 6). The pressed sugar- 
 canes fall over the gutter (/), the expressed 
 juice collecting ingg, and running off through 
 i. A small quantity of milk of lime is then 
 added to the juice to remove mechanical im- 
 pnritiea, and the skimmed and clarified juice, 
 after being sufficiently concentrated by rapid 
 evaporation in open pans, is transferred to 
 
 coolers, and thence into upright casks per- 
 forated at the bottom, and so placed that the 
 syrup, or uncrystallisable portion, may drain 
 off into a tank or cistern from the newly 
 formed sugar. During the period of crystal- 
 lisation it is frequently agitated, in order to 
 hasten the change, and to prevent the forma- 
 tion of large crystals. The solid portion of 
 the product forms moist, raw, or muscovado 
 sugar ; the uncrystallisahlo syrup, molasses or 
 treacle.' 
 
 ' The term * molasses ' is usually restricted to the drain- 
 ings from raw suear, and 'treacle' to tlie tliicker syrup 
 which has drained from refined sugar in the moulds. 
 
1578 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 Raw sugar is refined by redissolving it in 
 water, adding to the solution albumen, under 
 tbe form of serum of blood or white of egg, 
 and, sometimes, a little lime-water, and heat- 
 ing the whole to the boiling-point; the im- 
 purities are then removed by careful skimming, 
 and the syrup is decoloured by filtratiou 
 through recently burnt animal charcoal ; the 
 clear decolorised syrup is next evaporated to 
 the crystallising-point in vacuo, and at once 
 transferred into conical earthern moulds, where 
 it solidifies, after some time, to a confusedly 
 crystallised mass ; this, when drained, washed 
 with a little cleitn syrup, and dried in a stove, 
 constitutes ordinary loaf, lump, or refined 
 sugar. Sometimes in washing the crystallised 
 mass for tlie purpose of removing the coloured 
 syrup wliich is mingled with it, the process 
 known as ' claying' is followed. 
 
 In this case, instead of white syrup being 
 used, a layer of thin mud or » paste of thin 
 pipe-clay is poured into tbe mould on to the 
 base of the inverted sugar cone, through 
 which the water escaping from the mud or 
 pipe-clay permeates, and carries with it the 
 coloured syrup. Neither the mud nor the 
 
 pipe-clay mix with the sugar, but remaining 
 on the top soon become hard, when they are 
 removed. As the syrup running from the 
 moulds still contains a lai-ge quantity of crys- 
 talline cane sugar, this is recovered as fol- 
 lows: 
 
 The syrup, after being suiBciently concen- 
 trated by boiling in the vacuum pan, is 
 removed and allowed to cool, when it assumes 
 the appearance of a crystalline magma known 
 as ' crushed sugar.' 
 
 Crushed sugar is a mixture of a large 
 quantity of sugar crystals with uncrystal- 
 lisable syrup. To get rid of tliis latter from 
 the crystals, the mass is placed in quan- 
 tities of 3 or 4 cwts. at a time in a ' centri- 
 fugal machine.' This, of which an engraving 
 is given below, consists, as will be seen, of a 
 drum fixed on a vertical axis. The walls of 
 the drum are made of perforated metal, or 
 are formed of meshed wire work, and the drum 
 itself enclosed in an outer metal cylinder, 
 which is fixed, and, of course, unperforated. 
 When the drum is made to revolve on its axis 
 at the rate of 1000 or 1200 revolutions in a 
 minute, the syrup flying off by centrifugal 
 
 action, and escaping through the perforation 
 at the sides of the drum, is received into 
 the outer cylinder, whence it escapes by 
 a trough into a proper receptacle, leaving 
 behind the crystals in the interior of the 
 drum. 
 
 a is an open drum of fine meshed wire- 
 work, caused to revolve in the cast-iron vessel 
 (A 6), by means of the bevel wheels (c d), gear- 
 ing with a motive power. The motion of the 
 drum can be stopped by means of the brake 
 (e), and regulated by the weights placed 
 at 0. 
 
 When the crystallisation of sugar is allowed 
 to take place quietly and slowly, the product 
 is sugar candy. "The evaporation at a low 
 temperature in vacuum pans has the effect of 
 diminishing the yield of treacle. 
 
 Prop. Sugar requires for its solution only 
 l-3rd of its weight of cold and still less of 
 boiling water; it is slowly dissolved by cold 
 rectified spirit ; it dissolves in 4 parts of boil- 
 ing rectified spirit and in 80 parts of boiling 
 absolute alcohol ; it melts by heat, and cools 
 to a glassy amorphous mass (barley sugar) ; at 
 about 400° Pahr. it suffers rapid decompo- 
 
SUGAR 
 
 1579 
 
 sition, and fuses to a brown, UDcrystiiUis^vble 
 inosa (ciiraiiiel) ; long boiling with water in- 
 creases its colour, and le!*8cns its tendency to 
 cr\ stall isu; its aqueous solution dissolves 
 alkalies, enrtha, and many metallic oxides, 
 with facility. The presence of cane sugar in 
 solutions containing certain metallic salts 
 jircveiits tlie precipitation of their oxides by 
 alkalies. The oxides of copper and iron are 
 amongst those thus kept in solution. Sugar 
 also possciises the power of effecting the par- 
 tiiil or coinplite reduction of many metallic 
 oxides, if boiled with their salts; the first 
 results is exemplified in the case of the chro- 
 luates ; lor if a cbroinate be added to a solu- 
 tion of sugar, and to the mixture a few drops 
 of free acid, the chromic acid suffers reduction 
 to chromic oxide, which, dissolving in the 
 excess of acid, imparts a green colour to the 
 liquid. Mercuric salts become reduced to 
 uiercur(jus, whilst the salts of gold throw 
 down a precipitate of the metal in fine powder. 
 The action of strong oil of vitriol on cane 
 sugar is very energetic. The sugar is instantly 
 reduced to a black charred mass, whilst car- 
 bonic and formic acids are given off. The 
 same effects are produced by exposing it to 
 dry chlorine at a temperature of 212° h\ By 
 nitric acid of sp. gr. 1'25, cane sugar is con- 
 verted into saccharic acid ; if a stronger acid 
 be employed, oxalic acid is produced. When 
 a mixture uf concentrated nitric and sulphuric 
 acids is poui'ed on to cane sugar, an explosive 
 compound, resembling gun cotton, is produced. 
 This body is known as 'nitro-sugar.' Weak 
 syrups take up about half as much hydrate of 
 calcium us they contain sugar; when slowly 
 crystallised, it assumes the form of oblique 4- 
 siJed prisms, terminated by 2-sided summits. 
 Sp. gr. 1-60 (1-577— Ure). 
 
 Pur. Moist or muscovado sugar and 
 crushed lump sugar ure occasionally adulterated 
 with chalk, plaster, sand, potato-flonr, and 
 other fecula ; but frequently, and in certain 
 neighbourhoods constantly, with starch sugar 
 or potato-sugar.' These frauds may be detected 
 OS follows : 
 
 Teals. — 1. Pure cane sugar dissolves freely 
 and entirely in both water and proof spirit, 
 forming transparent colourless solutions, which 
 are unufFeoted by either sulphuretted hydro- 
 sen or dilute sulphuric acid. — 2. Its solution 
 bends the luminous rays in circumpolarisation 
 to the right, whereas grape and fecula sugars 
 bend it to the lelt.^— 3. (Chevallier.) Boiled 
 for a short time in water containing 2 or Sgof 
 causiic potassa, the liquid remains colourless; 
 hut it turns brown, which is more or less 
 intense, according to the quantity, if starch 
 sugar is present. Even 2 or 3% of starch sugar 
 may be thus detected. — i. (B. Krantz.) A 
 filtered solution of 33 gr. of cane or beet sugar 
 
 * See further on. 
 
 ' Of late ycnrs, owing: to tlie little difference in price 
 lictwetn llie l«o, tins form of adulteration lias been 
 nbanduDtd. — Ed. 
 
 in 1 fl. oz. of water, mixed with 3 gr. of pnrc 
 hydrate of potassium, and then agitated with 
 11 gr. of sulphate of copper in an air-tight 
 bottle, remains clear, even after the lapse of 
 several days ; but if starch sugar be present, a 
 red precipitate is formed after some time ; and 
 if it is present in considerable quantity, the 
 copper will be wholly converted into oxide 
 within 24 hours, the solution turning first 
 blue or green, and then entirely losing its 
 colour. — 5. (Trommer's test.) A solution of 
 cane sugar is mixed with a solution of sulphate 
 of copper, and hydrate of potassium added in 
 excess; a blue liquid is obtained, which, on 
 being heated, is at first but little altered ; a 
 smoU quantity of red powder falls after a time, 
 but the liquid long retains its blue tint. When 
 grape sugar or fecula sugar is thus treated, 
 the first application of heat throws down a 
 copious greenish precipitate, which rapidly 
 changes to scarlet, and eventually to dark red, 
 leaving a nearly colourless solution. This is 
 un excellent te^t for distinguishing the two 
 varieties of sugar, or discovering an admixture 
 of grape sugar with cane sugar. The xn'sn"' 
 part of grape sugar may bo thus detected. 
 The proportion of oxide of copper produced 
 affords a good criterion, not only of the purity 
 of the sugar, but also of the extent of the 
 adulteration. — 6. (Ure.) Dissolve a little sul- 
 phate of copper (say 20 gr.) in a measured 
 quantity of water, aud add to it, in the cold, a 
 solution of hydrate of potassium, until, by 
 testing with turmeric paper, the liquid appears 
 faintly alkaline, shown by the paper becoming 
 slightly brown. If a small quantity of this 
 test-liquor (previously well shaken) be added 
 to an aqueous solution of the sugar, and the 
 whole boiled, the solution becomes at first 
 green, and then olive-green, if dextrin is 
 present; but if it contain grape sugar, the salt 
 of copper is immediately reduced into the state 
 of orange and oxide; whilst a solution of pure 
 sugar undergoes no change, or is scarcely 
 altered. — 7. M. Riffard," taking advantage 
 of the fact that sugar, like tartaric, malic, 
 citric acid, and albumen, prevents the pre- 
 cipitation of iron by ammonia, employs iron 
 as a means for estimating sugar. A solution 
 containing sugar and iron in u certain pro- 
 portion, when saturated with ammonia, will 
 form a compunnd of a fine red colour, which 
 remains clear if no alkaline earthy metals are 
 present. M. Riffard has applied to sugar the 
 method proposed by M. Juette for the estima- 
 tion of tartaric acid. He observed that a neutral 
 or acid solution of crystallised perchloride of 
 iron, when heated for a considerable time to 
 100° C, requires 2-710 grams of sugar, if 100 
 milligrams of iron are to remain in solution in 
 the presence of ammonia. If, on the other 
 hand, the solution is prepared simply by dis- 
 solving crystallised perchloride of iron in pure 
 water, without the addition of an acid, 100 
 
 > ' Jourii. de Pharm. et de Chimie," 1874, 49 (' Piiarm 
 Year Book,' 1874). 
 
1580 
 
 SUGAE 
 
 milligrams of iron only require 2'587 grammes 
 of sugar to vemaiu dissolved. In this case the 
 liquid is perfectly clear, and remains so ; but 
 if a smaller quantity of sugar be added, it is 
 turbid, and deposits peroxide of iron. To 
 estimate the sugar by this process, 25'870 
 grammes of the substance to be tested are 
 dissolved, the solution mixed with a few 
 drops of oxalate of ammonia to precipitate the 
 lime, filtered and made up with water to 
 250 c. c, 25 c. c. of this mixture require the 
 addition of as many milligrams of iron as 
 there are per cents, of pure sugar in the 
 sample under examination, and by two tests 
 the following results will be arrived at: — 
 With A milligrams of iron the solution is 
 clear. With « + 1 milligrams of iron the solu- 
 tion is precipitated, n representing the num- 
 ber of per cents, of sugar contained in the 
 sample. — 8. M. Perrot's method for the deter- 
 mination of sugars by means of normal solutions 
 is as follows : — He prepares a standard solution 
 of copper by dissolving 39'275 grams of sul- 
 phate of copper, very pure, and dried between 
 several folds of filtering paper, and makes it 
 up with distilled water to 1000 c. u. Each 
 c. c. of this solution contains 001 grams of 
 copper. On the other hand, he dissolves about 
 25' grams of pure cyanide of potassium in 
 1 litre of distilled water. Of this solution 
 10 c. c. are taken and put in a flask, to which 
 about 20 c. c. of ammonia are added, and the 
 liquid is kept at a temperature of 60° or M°. 
 He pours in the copper solution drop by drop 
 by means of a burette graduated into tenths 
 of a c. c, until there appears the blue tint 
 characteristic of salts of copper in an ammonia- 
 cal solution. The number of degrees of the 
 burette are then read ofF, and indicate the 
 quantity of copper which has been required to 
 produce the reaction. The solution of the 
 sugar in question (previously inverted if it is 
 required to determine crystalline sugar) is 
 then placed in contact with an excess of 
 Pehling's liquor, and reduced in the water- 
 bath. The whole is filtered in order to collect 
 the precipitate of suboxide, which is first well 
 washed with hot water, and dissolved in nitric 
 acid, diluted with an equal volume of water, 
 and a few fragments of chlorate of potassa are 
 added. This solution is effected on the filter, 
 which is then carefully washed in acidulated 
 water. The filtrate to which the washings are 
 added is then mixed with water enough to 
 make up 100 or 150 c. c, and is then poured 
 by means of the burette into 10 c. c. of cyanide, 
 mixed with 20 c. c. of ammonia as above, 
 stopping when the blue colour appears, and 
 reading off the quantity of copper employed. 
 From the former experiment it is known 
 how much copper 10 c. c. of the cyanide solu- 
 tion require. Hence it is easy to calculate the 
 total amount of copper which has been present 
 as suboxide. The amount of sugar is then 
 found from the data that 9298 parts of copper 
 equal 5000 of crjstalline sugar, or 5263 of 
 
 glucose.' — 9. The specific gravities and crys- 
 talline forms offer other means of distinguish? 
 ing the varieties of sugar. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. Refined sugar (SAC- 
 OHAEUM — Ph. L., S. PUEUM— Ph. E., S. PU- 
 EIFICATUM — Ph. D.), raw sugar (s. commtjite 
 — Ph. E.), and molasses or treacle (sacchabi 
 'BMS. — Ph. L. & E.), were officinal. 
 
 The relative sweetening power of cane sugar 
 is estimated at 100 ; that of pure grape sugar, 
 at 60; that of fecula or starch sugar, at 30 
 to 40. 
 
 According to Messrs Oxland's method 
 (patented 1849) of defecating and bleaching 
 the juice of beet-root, cane, &c., acetate of 
 aluminium, formed by dissolving 4 lbs. of that 
 earth in acetic acid, is boiled with each ton of 
 sugar, and as soon as the acetic acid is nearly 
 all driven off, a solution of tannin, formed from 
 1 lb. of bruised valonia and 2 galls, of hot 
 water, is added to the boiling syrup,; thp excess 
 of aluminium is afterwards separated by lime, 
 and the usual method of further procedure 
 adopted. By their second patent (1851), super- 
 phosphate of aluminium or of calcium is sub- 
 stituted for acetate of aluminium, in the 
 proportion of about 6 lbs. of aluminium, dis- 
 solved in phosphoric acid, for each ton of 
 sugar. 
 
 The presence of certain saline bodies in a 
 solution of cane sugar, exercises a very preju- 
 dicial effect upon it, since these, by combining 
 with the sugar, give rise to compounds which 
 contribute to the more or less reduction of the 
 sugar to the uncrystallisable condition, and to 
 a consequent increase of the molasses. 
 
 Of one of the chief constituents of the 
 sugar-cane that possesses this objectionable 
 property is potash in combination with acids, 
 both organic and inorganic. Last year a 
 patent for the removal of these potash salts 
 was taken out by the Messrs Newlands. The 
 patentees proceed upon the facts that the 
 solubility of alum in water is very trifling, 
 and that it contains only j'gth part of its 
 weight of potash. They add to a concentrated 
 syrup a strong solution of sulphate of alumina 
 (having by a previous examination of the syrup 
 determined the quantity required). Sulphate 
 of potash is thereby formed, and this, uniting 
 with the sulphate of alumina, the resulting 
 alum after a time deposits in a crystalline 
 form at the bottom of the vessel containing 
 the sugar solution. This being run off into 
 another receptacle, the free acid, of which it 
 now contains a large quantity, is neutralised 
 with lime or chalk, boiled, filtered, and passed 
 through charcoal. 
 
 The addition of the lime has also thrown 
 down the alumina liberated by the reaction, 
 which has carried with it and removed certain 
 iirjurious nitrogenous principles previously 
 present in the saccharine liquid. 
 
 Some few years back Messrs Dubrunfaut 
 
 ^ ' Comptes Rcndus Hebdomadaire dea Sciences ' 
 ('Ch^m. News'), January 6th, 1877. 
 
SUGAR, 
 
 1581 
 
 tnd Pfligot being cognisant of the fact of the dissolving the precipitated sugar lime in water, 
 intolability, in boiling water, of the compounds and separating the lime by passing into the 
 of sugar with lime, based upon it a method of mixture a stream of carbonic acid. 
 
 aeparatiug crystallisable sugar from treacle. 
 P^ligot has obtained from common treacle one 
 fourth of its weight of crystallised sugar, by 
 
 Sugar may be obtained from nearly all sweet 
 vegetable substances, by a process essentially 
 similar to that described above. 
 
 Table showing the Specific Weight of Sugar Solutions with the corresponding percentage of 
 Cane Sugar at 17'5° C. — GEELiCH. 
 
 Percentage, 
 
 Specific 
 
 Porcentnee, 
 
 S|ict-i5c 
 
 Percentape, 
 
 Spreiflo 
 
 Caue 8u)iur. 
 
 Weiglit of Sol. 
 
 Cai\e Sugar, 
 
 Weiglit of SoL 
 
 Canu Suj£ar. 
 
 Weiglit of Sol. 
 
 75 . 
 
 1-383,342 
 
 49 . 
 
 1-227,241 
 
 21 . 
 
 . 1-101,377 
 
 74 . 
 
 1-376,822 
 
 48 . 
 
 1-221,771 
 
 23 . 
 
 . 1-096,792 
 
 73 . 
 
 1-370,345 
 
 47 . 
 
 1-216,839 
 
 22 . 
 
 . 1-092,240 
 
 72 . 
 
 1-363,910 
 
 46 . 
 
 1-210,945 
 
 21 . 
 
 . 1-087,721 
 
 71 . 
 
 1-357,518 
 
 45 . 
 
 1-205,589 
 
 20 . 
 
 . 1-083,234 
 
 70 . 
 
 1-351,168 
 
 44 . 
 
 1-200,269 
 
 19 . 
 
 . 1078,779 
 
 69 . 
 
 1-344,860 
 
 43 . 
 
 1-194,986 
 
 1« . 
 
 . 1-074,350 
 
 68 . 
 
 1-338,694 
 
 42 . 
 
 1-189,740 
 
 17 . 
 
 . 1-069,9IJ5 
 
 67 . 
 
 1-332,370 
 
 41 . 
 
 1184.531 
 
 16 . 
 
 . 1-065,606 
 
 66 . 
 
 1-326,188 
 
 40 . 
 
 1-179,358 
 
 15 . 
 
 . 1-061,278 
 
 65 . 
 
 1-320,046 
 
 39 . 
 
 1174,221 
 
 14 . 
 
 . 1-056,982 
 
 64 . 
 
 1-313,946 
 
 38 . 
 
 1-169,121 
 
 13 . 
 
 . l-0o2.716 
 
 63 . 
 
 1-307,887 
 
 37 . 
 
 1-164,056 
 
 12 . 
 
 . 1048,482 
 
 62 . 
 
 1-301,868 
 
 36 . 
 
 1-159,026 
 
 11 . 
 
 . 1-044,278 
 
 61 . 
 
 1-295,890 
 
 35 . 
 
 1-154,032 
 
 10 . 
 
 . 1040,101 
 
 60 . 
 
 1-289,952 
 
 34 . 
 
 1-149,073 
 
 9 . 
 
 . 1035,961 
 
 59 . 
 
 1-284,054 
 
 33 . 
 
 1-144,150 
 
 8 . 
 
 . 1-031,848 
 
 68 . 
 
 1-278,197 
 
 32 . 
 
 1-139,261 
 
 7 . 
 
 . 1-027,704 
 
 57 . 
 
 1272,379 
 
 81 . 
 
 1-134,406 
 
 6 . 
 
 . l()2:i,710 
 
 66 . 
 
 . 1-266,600 
 
 30 . 
 
 . 1-129,586 
 
 5 . 
 
 . 1019,686 
 
 65 . 
 
 1-260,861 
 
 29 . 
 
 1- 124,800 
 
 4 . 
 
 . 1015,691 
 
 64 . 
 
 1-256,161. 
 
 28 . 
 
 1-120,048 
 
 3 . 
 
 . 1011,725 
 
 58 . 
 
 1-249,500 
 
 27 . 
 
 1-115,330 
 
 2 . 
 
 . 1007,788 
 
 62 . 
 
 1-243,877 
 
 26 . 
 
 1-110,646 
 
 1 . 
 
 . 1003,880 
 
 61 . 
 
 1-238,293 
 
 25 . 
 
 1105,995 
 
 . 
 
 . 1-000,000 
 
 50 . 
 
 1-232,748 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sugar, Al'nm. Sgn. Sacchakum alitmi- 
 NATtiir, Alumen sacchabinum, L. From 
 alum and white sugar, in fine powder, equal 
 parts, formed into minute sugar-loaf shaped 
 lumps with mucilage of gum Arabic made witli 
 rose water. Used to make astringent lotions 
 aud eye-waters. 
 
 Sugar, Barley. Sgn. SACCHAEtrM hoeee- 
 ATUM, Penididm, Saochaeum penidium, L. 
 Frep. Take of saffron, 12 gr. ; hot water, q. s. ; 
 sugar, 1 lb. ; boil to a full ' candy height,' or 
 that state called ' crack,' or • crackled sugar,' 
 when 2 or 3 drops ot clear lemon juice or white 
 vinegar must be added, and the pan removed 
 from the fire and set for a single minute in 
 cold water, to prevent its burning ; the sugar 
 must he then at onco poured out on an oiled 
 marble slab, and either cut into pieces or 
 rolled into cylinders and twisted in the usual 
 manner. One drop of oil of citron, orange, or 
 lemon, will flavour a considerable quantity. 
 White barley sugar is made with a strained 
 decoction of barley instead of water, or starch 
 is added to whiten it. 
 
 Sugar, Beet-root. Sgn. Sacchaeum bst.e, 
 L. Sugar obtained from the white beet. 
 
 In the following table the names of th(> 
 countries in which this plant is cuUivated aj e 
 given, together with the amount of sugar 
 annually produced in each : 
 
 France 
 
 Germany . 
 
 Austria and Hungary 
 
 Russia and Poland 
 
 Belgium .... 
 
 H oUaud and other countries 
 
 280,000 tons.' 
 260,000 „ 
 180,000 „ 
 130,000 „ 
 50,000 „ 
 17,000 „ 
 
 - The white beet is used in preference to the 
 red varieties, not only because of the colour of 
 its juice, but also in consequence of its being 
 richer in sugar. The roots vary in their yield 
 of sugar according to quality and the season of 
 the year. They are generally in best condition 
 in October. The root is made up of a series of 
 small cells, which are filled with the saccharine 
 fluid. According to Wagner the constituents 
 of the sugar-beet are as follows : 
 
 I British Manufacturing Industries, Glauford. 
 
1582 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 Water 827 
 
 Sugar 11'3 
 
 Cellulose 0-8 
 
 Albumen, casein, and other bodies • .15 
 
 Patty matter O'l 
 
 Organic substances, citric acid, pectin, and pectic acid. Asparagin, aspartio 
 acid, and betain, a substance having, according to Sehiebler, the formula 
 
 C15H33N3O6 ■ • 
 
 Organic salts, oxalate and pectate of calcium, oxalate and pectate 0! potassium and 
 
 sodium .....'. 
 
 Inorganic salts, nitrate and sulphate of potash, phosphate of lime and magnesia . 
 
 Twelve and a half hundred weight of beet yield on an average 1 cwt. of raw sugar, or 
 8 per cent. 
 
 37 
 
 The first operation in the manufacture of 
 beet-root sugar after washing and cleansing 
 the roots (an operation which sometimes 
 reduces their weight 10 or 20 per cent.) is the 
 extraction from them of the juice. This may 
 be effected either by : 
 
 1. Pressure. 
 
 2. Centrifugal power. 
 
 3. Dialysis. 
 
 1. Pressure. The roots being put into a 
 proper crushing machine are soon reduced to 
 an uniform pulp, which in some manufactories 
 is subjected to pressure wrapped iu linen cloths 
 under stone or iron rollers, and in others is 
 placed in bags and placed under the Bramah 
 or hydraulic press, the resulting juice being 
 collected in proper receptacles. 
 
 2. Centrifugal power. This method is that 
 generally employed for separating the juice 
 from the pulp, which thus yields between i50 or 
 60 per cent, of juice. A weak saccharine 
 solution, also used in sugar manufacture, is 
 afterwards obtained by mixing the residue of 
 the pulp with water, and subjecting it to the 
 same process. 
 
 3. Dialysis. The application of the prin- 
 ciple of diffusion for the extraction of the sugar 
 from the beet-root originated with M. Robert. 
 The fresh roots, cut into thin slices, are 
 immersed iu a little more than their own 
 weight of water heated to about 120° P. The 
 crystalloid sugar thus diffuses out through 
 the cell membrane which encloses it into the 
 surrounding water, leaving the pectous and 
 colloid matters, such as albumen, gum, &c., 
 behind. The operation which is so managed 
 as to bring the same water into contact with 
 succes^ive quantities of root, yields a saccha- 
 rine solution of nearly the same strength as 
 the natural juice. The solution so obtained is, 
 after concentration and the usual methods, 
 converted into sugar. The same process is 
 said to have been tried with cane sugar, and 
 with equally satisfactory results. 
 
 The succeeding stages of the manufacture of 
 beet sugar, such as refining, liming, decoloris- 
 ing, &c., are the same as those already described 
 under cane sugar. 
 
 Beet sugar is in every respect identical with 
 cane. It was discovered iu 1747 by Marg- 
 graf, of Berlin, but it did not come into use 
 until about tlie beginning of the present 
 
 century, its manufacture at this period in 
 France being necessitated by an edict of 
 the first Napoleon's, which prohibited the 
 importation of cane sugar into that country. 
 
 The engraving represents a vacuum pan 
 much used in the French sugar refineries. 
 
 Fig. 1 gives a perspective, and fig. 2 a 
 sectional view of this evaporating pan. 
 
 The boiling-pan (b) consists of two air-tight 
 hemispheres, surmounted by a funnel, con- 
 nected by the tube {I) with the condenser (a). 
 The apparatus is supplied by steam by {r s) 
 the steam circulating in the boiling-pan by 
 means of the pipes {g), fig. 2. By opening the 
 lever valves (/) the juice can be run by means 
 of the pipe (0) into the pan (p). When the 
 pan, after continued boiling, requires to be 
 refitted, the pipes {I and w) are connected to 
 an air-pump. The manometer (A) shows the 
 state of the air pressure, which can be regu- 
 lated by opening the pipes connected to the 
 vacuum chamber. By means of the gauge 
 cylinder (o) the quantity of syrup in the boil- 
 ing-pan can be ascertained, the gauge cylinder 
 being connected to the boiling-pan by the 
 pipes (a and i), and the height read off from 
 the gauge tube (»). The syrup can be re- 
 moved, for the purpose of ascertaining its 
 consistency, from the gauge cylinder by means 
 of either of the three pipes (J, e, d). By « 
 steam can be admitted to the boiling-pan and 
 condenser, e is generally of stout glass, and 
 enables the state of the juice to be seen, g is 
 the grease cock, f the manhole. The con- 
 denser consists of the jacket (b), arranged to 
 prevent the mixing of the juice with the water 
 used for condensation, x is the gauge. The 
 pipe (m) conveying water to the condenser 
 terminates in a rose, a is a tlierniometer 
 showing the interior temperature of the 
 boiling- pan. 
 
 The air-pump being set in operation the 
 tube (c) is opened, and the gauge cylinder 
 filled by the juice rising from g. By closing 
 ■m and opening z the juice is admitied to the 
 boiling-pan. When this is half full the steam 
 pipe («) is opened, the steam quickly heating 
 the contents of the pan to the boiling point. 
 The condenser is then placed in working ; by 
 opening the pipe (I) the steam of the juice 
 passes into the condenser, wljere it is speedily 
 condensed, passing with the water through /3. 
 
1683 
 
 i'lG. 2. 
 
1584. 
 
 SUGAR 
 
 Sngar, Diabet'io. Grape sugai- found in the 
 urine of persons labouring under diabetes. In 
 diabetes insipidus, a substance having the 
 general properties of a sugar, hut destitute 
 of a sweet taste, appears to he produced. 
 (Th^nard.) 
 
 Sugar, Gel'atin. See Gltcooine. 
 
 Sugar, Grape, CbHijOj.HjO. S^n. Glucose, 
 
 FBTTIT SUQAB ; SiiOCHAEUM UV«, S. lEUOTlTS, 
 L. This substance is found in the juice of 
 grapes and other fruit, in the urine of diabetic 
 patients, and in the liquid formed by acting on 
 starch and woody fibre with dilute sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Frep. 1. From the juice of ripe grapes or 
 an infusion of the ripe fruit (raisins), by satu- 
 rating the acid with chalk, decanting the clear 
 liquid, evaporating to a syrup, clarifying with 
 white of egg or bullock's blood, and then care- 
 fully evaporating to dryness ; it may be 
 purified for chemical purposes by solution and 
 
 crystallisation in either water or boiling 
 alcohol. Like other sugar, it may he deco- 
 loured by animal charcoal. 
 
 2. From honey, by washing with cold alcohol, 
 which dissolves the fluid syrup and leaves the 
 solid crystalliaahle portion. 
 
 Prop. It is less sweet and less soluble than 
 cane sugar, requiring IJ part of cold water 
 for its solution; instead of hold crystals, it 
 forms granular warty masses, without distinct 
 crystalline faces; it does not easily combine 
 with either oxide of calcium or oxide of lead.; 
 with heat, caustic alkaline solutions turn it 
 brown or black, but it dissolves in oil of vitriol 
 without blackening, the reverse being the case 
 with cane sugar ; with chloride of sodium it 
 forms a soluble salt, which yields large, 
 regular, and beautiful crystals. Sp. gr. 
 1-400. 
 
 The various fruits contain grape sugar in 
 the following proportions : 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Peach 1-57 
 
 Apricot 1-80 
 
 Plum 212 
 
 Kaspberry 4'00 
 
 Blackberry 4'44 
 
 Strawberry 5"73 
 
 Bilberry 5-78 
 
 Currant ... .... 610 
 
 Plum 6-26 
 
 Gooseberry 7'16 
 
 Cranberrv 7"45 (according to Fresenius). 
 
 Pear ". 8-02 to 108 (E. Wolff). 
 
 Apple 8'37 (Fresenius). 
 
 „ 7-28 to 8'04 (E. Wolff). 
 
 Sour cherry 877 
 
 Mulberry 9-19 
 
 Sweet cherry 1079 
 
 Grape 1493 
 
 Obs. Cane sugar is converted into grape 
 sugar during the process of fermentation, and 
 by the action of acids. See SuGAE, and 
 SUGAB, STAECH (fieloto). 
 
 Sugar, Maple. Syn. Sacohaeum aceeinum, 
 L. From the juice of the sugar maple. It is 
 identical with cane sugar. 
 
 In the United States and the British Colo- 
 nies of North America considerable quantities 
 of this sugar are made. The juice is obtained 
 by boring through the bark of the tree to a 
 depth of about a quarter or half an inch. 
 Each tree has generally two perforations made 
 in it, and they are always made on that side 
 of the tree which faces towards the south, 
 and at a distance of about 20 inches from tlie 
 ground. The juice flows into suitable vessels, 
 into which it is conducted by reeds placed 
 under the perforations. The period chosen 
 for tapping the trees is that during which it 
 is known the sap is ascending, from March to 
 May. Sometimes the tree undergoes a second 
 tapping in the autumn, but this is not generally 
 practised, inasmuch as it is injurious to the tree. 
 A daily yield of 6 galls, of juice from each 
 
 incision is looked upon as a 'good run,* and if 
 this 6 gall, be the produce of an old tree 
 or 'old bush' they will yield 1 lb. of 
 sugar. In a young tree or ' young bush ' the 
 yield of sugar from the same quantity of sap 
 is only half. By proper care the same tree 
 may be tapped 20 or 30 years following. Un- 
 like the sugar-cane the juice in the maple is 
 the richest in sugar the higher it is found from 
 the ground. The concentrated saccharine 
 liquid is concentrated every 24 hours. The 
 raw crystallised sugar undergoes no refining, 
 and being made into blocks is then sent to 
 market. 
 
 Sugar, Milk. CijHjPn.HjO. Syn. Sugae 
 OP MILK, Lactin; Sacohaeum IiAotis (Ph. 
 D.), L. Prep. Gently evaporate clarified 
 whey until it crystallises on cooling, and purify 
 the crystals by digestion with animal charcoal 
 and repeated crystallisations. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. White, translucent, very hard 
 cylindrical masses or four-sided prisms ; solu- 
 ble in about 6 parts of cold and in 2 parts of 
 boiling water ; nearly insoluble in alcohol and 
 ether ; ammoniacal plumbic acetate precipi- 
 
SUGAR 
 
 1585 
 
 tiites it from its aolntioni. When an alkaline 
 tulution of )(i'>ipc Btigar is boiled with tbe salts 
 of coppt-r, silver, or mercury, it redaces tliem ; 
 it produces right-bunded relation of a ruy of 
 polarised light ; by boiling with dilute acid it 
 it converted into galactose (CjHijOj) ; treated 
 with nitric acid it yields mucic acid, with 
 small quantities of saccharic, oxalic, and 
 tartaric acid. Milk sugar is unsusceptible of 
 the vinous fermentation, except under tbe 
 action of dilute acids, which convert it into 
 grape sugar ; in solution, it is converted into 
 lurtic or butyric acid by the action of caseine 
 and albuminous matter. Milk cuutaius about 
 6;; of it. (Boussingault.) 
 
 Oba. Sugar of milk is chiefly imported from 
 Switzerland. In this country it is chiefly used 
 m u vehicle for more active medicines, espe- 
 cially among tlie homoeopatbists, 
 
 Siigar, Starch. Sgn. Potato suOAE,F.ECntA 
 B. This is grape sugar obtained by the action 
 of diastase on starch, in the manner noticed 
 under GcM (British), or by the action of 
 dilute sulphuric acid on starch, or of the 
 strong acid on liguin, or on substances con- 
 taining it. 
 
 Prep. 1. From corn. The corn is first steeped 
 in soda lye; it is then ground wet and passed 
 through revolving sieves to separate the husks 
 and gluten. The starch is carried through 
 long troughs, in which are placed transverse 
 pieces of wood, against which the solid parti- 
 cles of starch lodge, and are thus separated 
 from the washing waters. These wash waters 
 run into a large cistern, where it undergoes 
 fermentation into weak vinegar. The starch 
 in the wet state is then put into n mash tub 
 and treated for from 3 to 8 hours with 1 per 
 cent, of sulphuric acid. The acid liquor is 
 neutralised with chalk and evaporated in 
 vacuum pans ; and after being separated from 
 the snlphate of lime it is run into barrels and 
 allowed to crystallise. The grape sugar is 
 sometimes manufactured in blocks 6 inches 
 squ.ire, and dried on plaster plates in a current 
 of dry air, as hot air would decolorise it. 
 Large quantities of grape sugar manufactured 
 as above are now produced in the United 
 States, particularly in New Orleans, Buffalo, 
 and Brooklyn. A considerable amount Irom 
 the same source reaches this country from the 
 Continent, and is employed in our breweries. 
 When specially prepared for the use of the 
 latter the blocks are crushed into small pieces 
 about the size of malt grains. Our excise 
 authorities prohibit the entrance of glucose 
 iiito a brewer's premises in the liquid state. 
 In the brewing of pale sparkling ales grape 
 is esteemed more than either cane sugar or malt, 
 and is said to yield a more sound and whole- 
 some liquor, and one free from the acidity, 
 impurity, iind treacly sweetness frequently 
 louud in beers brewed from raw or inferior 
 sugars. Glucose may also be obtained from 
 cellulose, but the pro<e?s is too expensive to 
 admit of being practically worked. 
 VOL. II 
 
 2. Potato starch, 100 parts; water, 400 
 parts; sulphuric acid, 6 parts; mix, boil for 
 35 or 40 hours, adding water, to make up for 
 evaporation ; then saturate the acid with lime 
 or chalk, decant or filter, and evaporate the 
 clear liquor. Under pressure the conversion 
 is more rapid. Prod. 105g. 
 
 3. " J he stnrch of potatoes can be converted 
 into glucose by digestion for a lew hours with 
 parings of the potato. This operation is 
 largely practised by German farmers in tbe 
 preparation of food for fattening hogs. An 
 excellent starch sugar can be prepared from 
 Indian corn, which will yield alcohol one 
 eighth cheaper, and quite as pure as that from 
 cane sugar."' 
 
 4. Shreds of linen or paper, 12 parts ; strong 
 sulphuric acid, 17 parts (Braconnot; 5 of 
 acid, and 1 of water — Vogel) ; mix in the 
 cold ; in 24 hours dilute with water, and boil 
 it for 10 hours; then neutralise with chalk, 
 filter, evaporate to a syrup, and set the vessel 
 aside to crystallife. Prod. Ill;;, t^uwdust. 
 glue, &c., also yield grape sugar by like treat- 
 ment. See LiONiN. 
 
 Sugar from other Sources. Considerable 
 quantities of East Indian cane sugar arc 
 yielded by certain Indian palms, the principal 
 of which are the Arenga gaccharij'era and the 
 Phanix sylvestrit or wild date. Another source 
 whence large quantities of cane sugar are 
 procured is tbe Sorghuvt aaccharaium or sugar 
 gra.^s. This plant is exclusively grown in 
 Ohio, and yields annually more than 15,000,000 
 gall, of juice, which is made into sugar. 
 
 Meleziloae (CioHjjOh). From larch mnnna. 
 
 Ml/cote or trehaloae (S^u^a^ii). From 
 Turkish manna. 
 
 Melilose {C^^^^'^^^. From the eucalyptus. 
 
 Maltose (C|2H240u). From malt. 
 
 Evcalen (CjHijUj). By fermentation of 
 melitose. 
 
 Sorbin (CoHijOg). From the berries of tl^e 
 service tree. 
 
 Effects of the varieties of Sugar on Polar- 
 ised Light. Both sucrose, or cane sugar, and 
 dextrose produce rotation upon a ray of 
 polarised light. The plane of rotation is 
 rotated to the right by sucrose rather more 
 powerfully than by dextrose. It is remark- 
 able that the uncrystallisable sugar of fruits 
 produces an opposite rotation, viz. to the left. 
 Since the degree of rotation is proportionate 
 in columns of equal length to the quantity of 
 sugar present, it has been proposed to employ 
 this property in order to determine the 
 quantity of sugar present in syrups.' The 
 following, accordins to Berthelot, are the 
 rotatory powers of tbe different varieties of 
 sugar, if equal weights of each are dissolved 
 in an equal bulk of water ; the quantities of 
 each sugar are calculated for tue formulae 
 annexed : 
 
 ' •Joum. of Applied CliemiBtry.' 
 » Miller. 
 
 100 
 
1586 
 
 SUGAR-BOILING— SUGAR PLUMS 
 
 
 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 Variety. 
 
 Pormula. 
 
 Rotation. 
 
 ' ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ° I'ahr. 
 
 " Cent. 
 
 Sucrose (cane sugar) 
 
 (C,,HaO„) 
 
 Eight ys-S" 
 
 
 
 Melezitose 
 
 
 (CijHseOn) 
 
 ., 94-1° 
 
 
 
 Mycose . 
 
 
 (CijHssO,,) 
 
 „ 193° 
 
 
 
 Melitose . 
 
 
 (CjjHjjOjs) 
 
 „ 102° 
 
 
 
 Dextrose (grape sugar) 
 
 
 (CeHiA) 
 
 „ 57-4° 
 
 
 
 Malt sugar 
 
 
 (CsH^Oe) 
 
 „ 172° 
 
 
 
 Loevulose (fruit sugar 
 
 
 (CeHiA) 
 (CeH.A) 
 
 Left 106° 
 
 56 
 
 13-3 
 
 Eucalin . 
 
 
 Right 80° 
 
 
 
 Sorbin 
 
 
 (CeHiA) 
 
 Left 4fi-9° 
 
 
 
 Lactose (milk sugar) 
 
 
 (CeHiA) 
 
 Right 56-4° 
 
 
 
 Glucose of ditto (galactose) 
 
 (CeH,A) 
 
 „ 83-3° 
 
 
 
 Inverted cane sugar .... 
 
 {C,n,,o,) 
 
 Left 28° 
 
 57 
 
 13-9 
 
 SUGAR-BOILIIIG. The art or business of 
 the confectioner or sugar-baker; the candying 
 of sugar. The stages are as follow: — Well 
 clarified and perfectly transparent syrup is 
 boiled until a ' skimmer ' dipped into it, and a 
 portion * touched ' between the forefinger and 
 thumb, on opening them, is drawn into a small 
 thread, which crystallises and breaks. This 
 is called a ' weak candy height.' If boiled again, 
 it will draw into a larger string, and if l^lad- 
 ders may be blown through the 'drippings * 
 from the ladle, with the mouth, it has acquired 
 the second degree, and is now called ' bloom 
 sugar.* After still further hoiling, it arrives at 
 the state called ' feathered sugar.' To deter- 
 mine this re-dip the skimmer, and shake it 
 over the pan, then give it a sudden flirt 
 behind, and the sugar will fly off like feathers. 
 The next degree is that of ' crackled sugar,' in 
 which state the sugar that hangs to a stick 
 dipped into it, and put directly into a pan of 
 cold water, is not dissolved off, but turns hard 
 jand snaps. The last stage of refining this 
 auticle reduces it to what is called ' carmel 
 -sugar,' proved by dipping a stick first into the 
 ■flugar, and then into cold water, when, on the 
 moment it touches the latter, it will, if ma- 
 luKed, snap like glass. It has now arrived at 
 a 'full candy height.' Care must be taken 
 throiighout that the fire is not too fierce, as, 
 by 'flaming np against the sides of the pan, it 
 will Ibiurn and discolour the sugar ; hence the 
 boifing is best conducted by steam heat. 
 
 Any flavour or colour may be given to the 
 candy by adding the colouring matter to the 
 syrup before boiling it, or the flavouring 
 essences when the process is nearly complete. 
 See Stains, &o. 
 
 StrGAE CAH'DY. Sj/n. Saochaeum can 
 
 DIDUM, S. CBYSTALLIKUM, S. CBTSTAILI- 
 
 ZATUiH, L. Sugar crystallised by leaving the 
 saturated syrup in a warm place (90 to 100' 
 I'ahr.), the shooting being promoted by planing 
 slicks, er threads, at small distances from each 
 other in tlie liquor ; it is also deposited from 
 cou|pound syrups, and does not seem to retain 
 
 much of the foreign substances with which 
 they are loaded. Brown sugar cjindy is pre- 
 pared in this way from raw sugar ; white do., 
 from refined sugar ; and red do., from a syrup 
 of refined sugar which has been coloured red 
 by means of cochineal. 
 
 Sugar candy is chiefly used as a sweetmeat ; 
 and, being longer in dissolving than sugar, 
 in coughs, to keep the throat moist ; reduced 
 to powder, it is also blown into the eye, as 
 a mild escharotic in films or dimness of that 
 organ, 
 
 SUGAE OF LEAD. Acetate of lead. 
 SUGAE PLUMS. Si/n. Bon-bons, Dea- 
 GEES, Fr. These are made by various methods, 
 among which are those noticed under Deops 
 (Confectionery), Lozenges, and Pastils, to 
 which may be added the following: — Take a 
 quantity of sugar syrup, in the proportion to 
 their size, in that state called a ' blow ' (which 
 may be known by dipping the skimmer into 
 the sugar, shaking it, and blowing through the 
 holes, when parts of light niay be seen), and 
 add a drop or two of any esteemed flavouring 
 essence. If the ' bon-bons ' are preferred white, 
 when the sugar has cooled a little, stir it 
 round the pan till it grains and shines on the 
 surface. When all is ready, pour it through a 
 funnel into little clean, bright, leaden moulds, 
 which must be of various shapes, and be pre- 
 viously slightly moistened with oil of sweet- 
 almonds; it will tlieu take a proper form and 
 harden. As soon as the plnms are cold, take 
 them from the moulds ; dry them for two or 
 three days in the air, and put them upon paper. 
 If the bon-bons are required to be coloured, 
 add the colour just as the sugar is ready to be 
 taken oflT the fire, 
 
 Ckystallised bon-bons are prepared by 
 dusting them with powdered double-refined 
 lump sugar before drying them. 
 
 Liqueur bon-bons, miw so beautifully got 
 up by the Parisian confectioners, are obtained 
 by pressing pieces of polished bone or metal into 
 finely powdered sugar, filling the hollow spaces 
 so formed with saturated solutions of sugar in 
 
SUGAUS-SULPHOCARBOLIC ACID 
 
 1587 
 
 the re<pective Ilqueiira, Rnd then tprending 
 over the whnle an ample layer of powdered 
 mifrar' I" the course of three or four days the 
 boii-bon« may be remnved, and tinted by the 
 art'St at will. Instead of white powdered 
 lugur ordered above, coloured sugar may be 
 used. These bon-bons are found to be hol- 
 low spheres, containing a small quantity of 
 the spirit or liqueur employed, and will 
 bcnr keeping for many mouths. See Sweet- 
 UXATS, &c. 
 
 SnOABS (Medicated). Sfin. Sacchabides ; 
 
 SiCCHAEA MKDIOATA, L. ; SaCCHAEOLES, SaO- 
 CHAB0BES, Kr. Some of these are prepared by 
 moistetiiiig white sugar with the medicinal 
 substance, then gently drying it, and rubbing 
 it to powder ; in other cases they are obtained 
 in the manner notic^ed under Pulverulent 
 EXTBACTB, or Oleosaochaeum. The most 
 valuable preparation of this class in British 
 pharmacy is the saccharated carbonate of 
 iron (VBERI OAEBONAS cum 8ACCHAE0 — 
 
 Ph. L.). 
 
 SUINt, Gas fl:om. By this is understood a 
 gns prepared from the fatty mnteiials present 
 in the soap-suds used in wnshini? raw wool 
 and spun yarns. The water containing the 
 Buint and soap-suds is run into cisterns, and 
 is there mixed with milk of lime, and left to 
 stand for twelve hours. A thin precipitate is 
 formed, which, after the snpermitant clear 
 liquor has been run off, i« put upon coarse 
 canvas for the purpose of driiining off any 
 impurities, sand, hair, &c., while the mass 
 which runs through the filter is jiut into a 
 tank, in which it forms, after six or eij^ht 
 days, a pasty mass, which, having been du^ 
 out and moulded into bricks, is dried in open 
 iiir. At Rheiras the first wash-water of the 
 wool is used for making both gas and potash, 
 became the water contains no soap and only 
 suintalo of potash. Havrez, at Verviers, has 
 recently proposed to employ suiiit — which, 
 by-the-bye, is very rich in nitrogen — for 
 the purpose of making ferrocyanide of potas- 
 ainm. 
 
 Tlie dried brick-shaped lumps are submitted 
 to distillation, yielding a gas which does not 
 require purification, and which possesses an 
 Illuminating power three times that of good 
 coal gas. The wash-water of a wool-spinnini.' 
 mill with 20,000 spindles yields daily, when 
 treatuil us described, about 500 kilos of dried 
 suinter, as the substance is technically called. 
 One kilo of this substance yields 210 litres of 
 gas. Annually about 150,000 kilos of suinter 
 arc obtained, and this quantity will yield 
 31,500,000 litre8 = l,112,485 cubic feet of gas. 
 Every burner consuming 35 litres of gas per 
 hour, and taking the time of burning at 1200 
 hours, the quantity of gas will suffice for 750 
 burners, and as a spinning mill of 20,000 
 •pindles only requires 500 burners, there is an 
 excess of gas supply available for 250 other 
 burners, or the owner may dispose of 5000 
 kilos of Buiuter, which is valued at Augs- 
 
 bnrgh at about 3s. per 50 kilos, and at about 
 48. at Mnlhouse. ' 
 
 BUL'PHATE. Sgn. Sulphas, L. A salt of 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 SUL'FHIDE. A salt consisting of sulphur 
 and a metal or other basic radical. See Sul- 
 
 PHUEETTED HTDEOGEN. 
 
 SULPHINDTL'IC ACID. Sun. SriPHlJt- 
 DiGOTic ACID. An inteusely blue pasty mass, 
 formed by dissolving 1 part of indigo in about 
 15 parts of concentrated sulphuric acid. See 
 Sulphate of Indioo. 
 
 SUL'PHITE. A salt of snlphnrous acid. 
 
 SULPHOCAEBOLIC ACID. (StripHOCAB- 
 BOLATES.) Carbolic acid, when acted upon by 
 bases, yields a class of salts termed carbolates. 
 These compounds are very unstable j they 
 readily absorb water from the air, which sets 
 free carbolic acid ; they usually have the power- 
 ful odour of the latter. When, however, equiva- 
 lent weights of carbolic and sulphuric acids are 
 mixed, union takes place, a definite double acid 
 (sulphocarbolic) results, and the salts formed by 
 this double acid with the various bases are 
 entirely dilfcrent from the simple salts of 
 carbidic acid. Tliey are very stable, very 
 soluble, possess neither odour nor taste of 
 carbolic acid, and aie singularly beautiful in 
 crystalline Ibrm. 
 
 Sulphocarbolic Acid (HC^HjSO^) is ob- 
 tained by the crystalli-ation in long colourless 
 needles; unlike carbolic acid, it is soluble in 
 water, alcohol, and ether, in any propor- 
 tions. 
 
 Sulphocarbolate of Calcium [Ca(CjH5S()jt., 
 -t-Aq.] is obtained in very long, fine, limsely 
 interlacing crystal*, which foim in bulk, by 
 their interlacement, a porous mass. Unlike 
 the usual limo-salts, this is exceidingly soluble. 
 This fact overcomes the great difficulty of 
 treatment when in disease there is a deficiency 
 of lime in the body, espei-ially in ricliets, in 
 which disease the want of lime in the bones 
 gives rise to distortions. The sulphocarbolate 
 of magnesium crystallises in large, clear, rhom- 
 bic prisms, easily soluble in water. 
 
 Snlphocarbolate of Copper [CurCjHjSOj^J 
 forms fine prismatic crystals of a blue colour. 
 It is used as the zinc sulphocarbolate, chiefly 
 as a lotion and dressing, in the proportion 
 of 8 to 10 grains to the ounce of distilled 
 water. 
 
 Sulphocarbolate of Iron [FeCCsHsSOJj] is 
 in colourless or pale green rhombic plates. It 
 is readily administered, and seems in some 
 instances to be preferred to other salts of iron. 
 It seems to have been of especial use in the 
 skin diseases of children, wherein there is 
 much formation of matter. 
 
 Sulphocarbolate of Sodium [ITa(C«H5)S04.Aq] 
 is in brilliant, clear, rhombic prisms. The 
 salt is very soluble in water. This salt can 
 be administered as a medicine in doses of 
 20 to 60 gr. ; it is slowly decomposed in the 
 textures, carbolic acid being evolved. It thus 
 1 Wa;;nT's 'Chen.icrtl Techuolofy.' 
 
1588 
 
 SULPHOCYANOGEN— SULPHUll 
 
 becomes a very simple means of obtaining the 
 beneficial effeits of the ailministration of this 
 antiseptic without the difficulties and dangers 
 which attend it in its uncombined irritant, 
 and caustic form. It has proved of great 
 service in the treatment of infectious dis- 
 eases. Administered in the severest cases of 
 diphtheria, malignant scarlet fever, typhoid, 
 erysipelas, &c., the remedy has proved of ex- 
 treme value. 
 
 Snlphocarbolate of Zinc [Zn(CeH5S04)2] is 
 chiefly employed in solution as a lotion. By 
 high surgical authorities it is considered to 
 answer all the purposes of the antiseptic dress- 
 ing of carbolic acid. It is inodorous, and has 
 very slight irritating action. 
 
 The Snlphocarbolates of Fotassixim 
 [KCjHsSOi] and Ammoninm [NH4CeH5S04] 
 are also brilliant crystals; they are freely 
 soluble, administered with the greatest ease, 
 and have been used with success as remedial 
 agents. 
 
 SULPHOCYAN'OGEH. A well-defined salt 
 radical, containing sulphur united to the ele- 
 ments of cyanogen. Its compounds are the 
 sulphocyanides, most of which may be formed 
 by directly saturating hydrosulphocyanic acid 
 with the oxide or hydrate of the base ; or, from 
 the sutphocyanide of potassium and a soluble 
 salt of the base, by double decomposition. 
 
 SULPHOFOSM. Syn. Sulpopobmum. An 
 oily liquid obtained by distilling one part of 
 iodoform with three of sulphide of mercury. 
 
 SULPHOPHE'NIC ACID. A synonym of 
 sulphocarbolic acid. See Sulphocaebol- 
 
 ATEa. 
 
 STriPHOVINlC ACID. CjHsHSOi. Si/n. 
 
 SULPHETHYLIO ACID; ACIDUM SULPHOVINI- 
 
 CUM, L. This substance is formed by the 
 action of heat on a mixture of alcohol and sul- 
 phuric acid; it is the intermediate product 
 which is developed in the preparation of ether. 
 The salts are called snlphovinates or sulpiio- 
 thylates. 
 
 SUL'PHUE. [Eng., L.] Syn. Beimstone ; 
 SouFKE, Fr. An elementary substance. That 
 of commerce is chiefly imported from Sicily 
 and Italy, and is a volcanic production. 
 Var. The principal of these are : 
 Amobphous sttlphub, Beowit s. ; Sulphur 
 amoephum, s. luscttm, s. ikpobme, s. ett 
 BKDM, L. Prepared from sublimed sulphur, 
 by melting it, increasing the heat to from 
 320' to 350° Pahr., and continuing it at that 
 temperature for about half an hour, or until 
 it becomes brown and viscid, and then pouring 
 it into.water. In this state it is ductile, like 
 wax, may be ca-ily moulded in any form, is 
 much heavier than usual, and when it has 
 cooled dogs not ngain become fluid until heated 
 to above 600° Falir. The same effect is pro- 
 duced more rapidly by at once raising the 
 ten)perature of the melted mass to from 430° 
 to 480° Fahr. 
 
 Peboipitated sttlphub, Hydbate op sul- 
 PHUE, Milk op s. ; Sulphueis htdbab, Lac 
 
 SULPHUBI8, SULPHUE PE.ECIPITATUM (Ph. L.). 
 
 Prep. 1. Vrom sublimed sulphur, 1 part; dry 
 and recently slaked lime, 2 parts ; water, 25 
 parts, or q. 8. ; boil for 2 or 3 hours, dilute with 
 25 parts more of water, filter, and precipitate 
 with dilute hydrochloric acid ; drain, and well 
 wash the precipitate, and dry it by a gentle 
 heat. Kesembles sublimed sulphur in its 
 general properties, but is much paler, and in a 
 finer state of division. 
 
 2. (B. Ph.) Sublimed sulphur, 5 oz. ; slaked 
 lime, 3 oz. ; hydrochloric acid, 3 fl. oz., 
 or q. s. ; distilled water, q. s. Heat the sul- 
 phur and lime, previously well mixed, in 
 1 pint of water, stirring diligently with a 
 wooden spatula, boil for 15 minutes and filter. 
 Boil the residue again in J pint of water and 
 filter. Let the united filtrates cool, dilute 
 with 2 pints of water, and in an open place, or 
 under a chimney, add in successive quantities 
 the hydrochloric acid previously diluted with 1 
 pint of water until effervescence ceases, and 
 the mixture acquires an acid reaction. Allow 
 the precipitate to settle, decant oflT the super- 
 natant liquid, pour on fresh distilled water, 
 and continue the purification by affusion of 
 distilled water and subsidence, until the 
 fluid ceases to have an acid reaction, and to 
 precipitate with oxalate of ammonia. Collect 
 the precipitated sulphur on a calico filter, 
 wash it once with distilled water, and dry 
 it at a temperature not exceeding 120° 
 Fahr. 
 
 Prop. A greyish-yellow powder free from 
 grittiness, and with no smell of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Obs. Many pharmacists regard Lao sul- 
 PHUBis and Sulphub peecipitatum as dis- 
 tinct substances, and assume that by milk of 
 sulphur is intended a preparation made by an 
 old pharmacopceial process, in which sulphuric 
 acid being employed, the sulphur so precipi- 
 tated contains from 50 to 75 per cent, of 
 sulphate of lime. Pareira, Royle, Atfield, and 
 some other authorities, hold that Lac sul- 
 PHUEI3 and Sulphub peecipitatum are 
 synonymous; whilst others, including Professor 
 Redwood (one of the compilers of the B. P.) 
 entertain a contrary opinion. 
 
 Eoli sulphub, Cane s., Stick s. ; Sul- 
 phub IN BACCULIS, S. IN EOIULIS, S. EOTUN- 
 DUM, L. This is crude sulphur, purified by 
 melting and skimming it, and then pouring it 
 into moulds. That obtained during the roast- 
 ing of copper pyrites, and which forms the 
 common roll sulphur of England, frequently 
 contains from 3 to 7^ of yellow arsenic. 
 
 Sublimed sulphub, Flowees op sulphub ; 
 Floees sulphubis, Sulphub (Ph. L.), Sul- 
 phub sublimatum (B. p.. Ph. E. & D.), L. 
 Prepared by subliming sulphur in iron vessels. 
 For medical purposes, it is ordered to be well 
 washed with water, and dried by a gentle 
 heat. " A slightly gritty powder, of a fine 
 
SULPHUE 
 
 1689 
 
 (freeni»h-jellnw colour, without taste and 
 wiihout odour till heated." (U. P.) 
 
 SCLPnCB TITtTM, BLACK 8PLPHUB, CeTTDB 
 
 1., House beimstonb j Sdiphub fiiasuu, S. 
 CABALiiNDM, 8. Qbiseum, L. This is crude 
 Mtive inlphar. It ia a grey or numse-coloared 
 powder. The residuum in the subliming pots 
 from the preparation of flowers of sulphur is 
 uow commonly substituted f^r it. It gene- 
 rallv contains much arsenic, and is conse- 
 quently very poisonous. 
 
 Pur. The sublimed sulphur of the shops 
 is now, in general, of respectable quality, but 
 the precipitated sulphur frequently contains 
 about I of its weight of sulphate of lime 
 (plaster of Paris), owing to the substitution of 
 sulphuric acid for hydrochloric acid in its 
 manulacture.' This is readily detected by 
 strunitly heating a little of the suspected 
 sample in an iron spoon or shovel, when the 
 sulphur is burnt or volatilised, and leaves be- 
 hind the sulphate of lime as a white ash ; thin, 
 when mixed with water, and gently dried, 
 gives the amount of the adulteration. A still 
 simpler plan is to dissolve out the sulphur in 
 tbc xample with a little hot oil of turpentine 
 or liquor of potassa; the undissolved portion 
 is foreign matter. 
 
 Prop. Sulphur melts to a clear thin fluid, 
 and volatilises at about 232" Fahr., and in 
 open vessels rapidly takes Are, burning with a 
 bluish flame. It is insoluble in both water 
 and alcoliol ; it is soluble in oil of turpentine 
 and the fatty oils, and freely so in bisulphide 
 of carbon and hot liquor of potassa. With 
 oxygen it unites to form sulphurous anhydride, 
 and with the metals to form sulphides, Sp. 
 gr. 1-982 to 2-016. 
 
 Etlim. The determination of the quantity 
 of sulphur, phosphorus, and chlorine, in a state 
 of combination, especially in organic mixtures, 
 is often rather troublesome. The proportion 
 o{ sulphur is best determined by oxidising 
 a known weight of the substances by strong 
 nitric acid, or by fusing it in a silver vessel 
 with 10 or 12 times its weight of pure hydrate 
 of potassa and about half as much nitre. The 
 sulphur is thus cx>nverted into sulphuric acid, 
 the quantity of which can be determined by 
 dissolving the fused mass in water, acidulatiug 
 the solution with nitric acid, adding a salt of 
 baryta, and weighing the resulting sulphate. 
 I'hosphorus is, in like manner, oxidised to 
 phosphoric acid, the quantity of which is de- 
 termined by precipitation in combination with 
 sesquioxide of iron, or otherwise. The chlo- 
 rine is lorreotly determined by placing a 
 small weighed portion in » combustion-tube, 
 which is afterwards filled with fragments of 
 pore quicklime. The lime is then brought to 
 a red heat, and the vapour of the liquid driven 
 over it, when chloride of calcium is formed. 
 The ccmtents of the tube, when cold, are dis- 
 solved in dilute nitric acid, filtered, the chlo- 
 riue precipitated by nitrate of silver, and the 
 > SecFREciriTATED SuLPiiux, above. 
 
 chlorine weighed under the form of chloride of 
 silver, S.e Oboanic substances. 
 
 Ute», i^c. Sulphur is extensively used in 
 the manufacture of gunpowder, in bleaching, 
 &c., &c. When swallowed, it acts as a mild 
 laxative and stimulating diaphoretic ; and has 
 hence been long taken in various chronic skin 
 diseases, in pulmonary, rheumatic, and gouty 
 affections, and as a mild pnrgative in pUes, 
 prolapsus ani, &c. Externally, it is exten- 
 sively used in skin diseases, especially the 
 itch, for which it appears to be a specific. — 
 Doie, 20 to 63 gr., in sugar, honey, treacle, or 
 milk. 
 
 Sulphur, Clila"ridea of. Several of these 
 compounds exist but the following are the 
 most important. 1. (Dichlobide, SjCI,.) 
 Prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over the 
 surface of sulphur melted in a bulbed-tnbe or 
 small retort connected with a well-cooled 
 receiver. The product is a deep orange-yellow 
 and very mobile liquid, which possesses a 
 disagreeable odour, and boils at 280° Fahr. It 
 is soluble in bisulphide of carbon, and in 
 benzol, without decomposing. It dissolves 
 sulphur in large quantities, especially when 
 heated. A solution of the dichloride with 
 excess of sulphur in crude benzol is used fur 
 vulcanising caoutchouc. 
 
 2. (Chloeidb, Hypochloeide, or Hypo- 
 
 CHLOBITE of the shops; SCLPBUUIS OHLO- 
 EIDUM, S. HTPOCHLOEIDtJM, S. HYPOCHLO- 
 EITI8, L.) This is prepared by spreading 
 washed sulphur thinly on the bottom of a 
 wooden box, or other chamber, and passing 
 chlorine gas slowly over until it ceases to be 
 absorbed. 
 
 Obt. This last compound is of variable and 
 undetermined constitution. It has been re- 
 commended for internal use, by Derksengi, in 
 old gouty affections, combined with pains in 
 the stomach, and in severe nervous fever. — 
 Doae, i to 2 gr. ; dissolved in ether, and taken 
 with old Hungary wine. It is also used ex- 
 ternally in psoriasis inveteraia^ and other skin 
 diseases. 
 
 Sulphur, I'odide of. Sjlj. Sgn. Biniodide 
 
 OF StTLPnUE; SPLPHITEIS lODIDOM (Ph. L.), 
 
 SuLPHUE lODATCM (Ph. D ), L. Frep. Into 
 a glass flask put 1 part of sublimed sulphur, 
 and over it place 4 parts of iodine ; insert the 
 cork loosely, and place the flask in a water 
 hath; as soon as its contents melt, stir them 
 with a glass rod, replace the cork, remove the 
 bath from the fire, and let the whole cool toge- 
 ther. When cold, break the iodide into pieces, 
 and place it in a wide-monthed stoppered 
 bottle. In this way a beautiful semi-crystal- 
 line, dark grey mass, resembling antimony, 
 is obtained. The formulae of the B. P., Ph. L., 
 E., & D., Ph. U. S., & P. Cod., are essentially 
 similar. The Ph. D. orders the two substances 
 to be powdered and mixed before heating 
 them. 
 
 Uses, if-c. It is stimulant and alterative. 
 An ointment uiade of it has been recom- 
 
1590 
 
 SULPHUEATION— SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN 
 
 mended by Biett and others in tuberculous 
 affections of the skin, in lepra, psoriasis, lupus, 
 porrigo, &c. 
 
 Iodide of sulphur stains the skin like iodine, 
 and is readily decomposed by contact with 
 organic substances. 
 
 SULPHUEA'TION. The process by which 
 silk, cotton, and woollen goods, straw plait, 
 Ac, are subjected to the fumes of burning 
 sulphur, or sulphurous acid, for the purpose 
 of bleaching or decolouring them. On the 
 large scale, this is effected in closed apart- 
 ments, called 'sulphuring rooms,' to which 
 sufficient air only is admitted to keep up the 
 slow combustion of the sulphur. On the 
 small scale, as for straw hats, bonnets, &c., a 
 large wooden chest is frequently employed in 
 the same way. 
 
 SDL'PHUBET. Sy». Sulphide ; Sulphf- 
 
 EETUM, SULPHIBTTM, L. See SULPHIDE. 
 
 STJLPHURET'TED HY'DEOGElf (HjS). 
 Syn. Htdeo&en^ sulphide, Dihydeio sul- 
 phide, Htdbio sulphide ; Htdeosulphu- 
 Eio acid. Sulphuretted hydrogeu occurs 
 in nature amongst the gaseous products 
 given off by volcanoes, as well as in many 
 mineral waters, amongst which may be in- 
 stanced those of Harrogate, in England, of 
 Moffat, in Scotland, and of Barfeges, Eanx 
 Bonnes, St. Sauveur, &c., in the Pyrenees. It 
 is also evolved from decaying animal matter 
 containing albumen, such as white-of-egg, as 
 well as from putrisable animal and vegetable 
 substances, when in contact with a soluble 
 sulphate, and is always one of the gases pre- 
 sent in tlie air of drains and sewers. Sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen may be procured by the 
 direct union of hydrogen and sulphur, as by 
 passing hydrogen into boiling sulphur. But 
 this method of procuring it is rarely, if 
 ever, adopted. The much readier process of 
 acting upon a metallic sulphide by an acid 
 constitutes the means by which the chemist 
 almost invariably obtains this gas. 
 
 The details of the process are as follows : 
 
 1. About an ounce of ferrous sulphide, pre- 
 viously reduced to small pieces, is placed in a 
 bottle, and then there is poured on to it a fluid 
 ounce of sulphuric acid diluted with 8 times 
 its bulk of water, when the following reaction 
 ensues :— FkS -V H2S04= HjS + FeSOj. 
 
 The gas which is immediately and copiously 
 given»ffi may be collected in an apparatus, a 
 drawing and description of which are given 
 below. 
 
 The diluted acid, having become cool, is 
 poured through the bulb-shaped aperture 
 down the glass tube upon the ferrous sulphide, 
 and the evolved gas passing through the 
 small intermediate wash-boctle into the bottle 
 at the reader's right hand, is absorbed by the 
 water therein contained, the operation being 
 continued until the water hasbecomesaturated 
 with the gas. The glass tubes are connected 
 with vulcanised India rubber, as shown in the 
 above plate. Diluted hydrochloric acid is 
 frequently substituted for sulphuric, 
 
 2. In the above process, the gas obtained, 
 owing to the contamination of the iron sul- 
 phide, is more or less impure. When sulphur- 
 etted hydrogen is required in a state of 
 purity, 1 oz. of antimouions sulphide must be 
 employed instead of the iron sulphide, and 
 instead of sulphuric 3 or 4 parts of hydro- 
 chloric acid. As beat must be applied to the 
 mixture, it will be necessary to substitute a 
 flask for the larger bottle, and to support it on 
 a retort stand. In other respects the apparatus 
 needs no alteration. 
 
 3. Sulphuretted hydrogen is also obtainable 
 wheu paraffin is heated at a moderately ele- 
 vated temperature with sulphur, the reaction 
 being attended with an abundant evolution of 
 the gas, and a simultaneous separation of 
 carbon. 
 
 *#* The solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 which is so indispensable to the chemist, and 
 consequently in such constant requisition in 
 the laboratory, unfortunately very quickly de- 
 composes into water, and sulphur, which de- 
 posits at the bottom of the vessel containing 
 it. To diminish as much as possible the 
 tendency to deterioration, the solution should 
 be made either with boiled water, or with the 
 clear spoilt solution. 
 
 Qualities, SfC. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a 
 colourless inflammable gas, somewhat heavier 
 than air, its specific gravity being 1'174. 
 When ignited, it burns with a bluish flame, to 
 water and sulphurous anhydride if the com- 
 bustion take place in a sufficient quantity of 
 air, but if the supply of air he too limited, 
 sulphur is deposited. Under a pressure of 17 
 atmospheres it is condensed to a colourless 
 and very mobile fluid, which boils at 79-6° F., 
 and freezes at 728° P. to a transparent solid. 
 Botlkthe gas and its aqueous solution exer- 
 cise a feebly acid reaction on litmus. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen is highly poisonous ; 
 when inhaled in any quantity it causes faint- 
 ing ; and in smaller quantities, even when 
 considerably diluted by air, ifbreathedforany 
 length of time, it acts as a dangerous depres- 
 sant and insiduons poison. Upon the lower 
 animals it acts with fatal rapidity, even if 
 diluted with 800 or 1000 parts of atmospheric 
 air. Transmitted through tubes heated to 
 redness, sulphuretted hydrogeu becomes par- 
 tially decomposed into its elements, hydrogen 
 and sulphur. Water at 32° F. takes up 4-37 
 times its bulk of this gas, and at 59, 3-23 
 
SULPHURETTED HYDEOGEN 
 
 1591 
 
 timea its 1>ulk, bence the importance of col- 
 lucting it, uver warm water, if rrquircd in tlie 
 gaseoui^ form. 
 
 In the prtfencc of moisture, sulphurous 
 anhydride and sulphuretted hydrogen, if 
 equivalent quantities of each react upon each 
 otbir, become decomposed into sulphur, water, 
 and pentathroiiio acid ; hence the value of 
 sulphurous acid as a disinfectant. The depo- 
 sited sulphur is found always to occur in the 
 electro-positive condition. Chlorine, bromine, 
 aud iodine, also decompose sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen with deposition of sulphur, and formation 
 of hydrochloric, hydrobroraic, and hydi iodic 
 acids. 
 
 Hydroiulphates or Sulphides. Sulphuret- 
 ted hydrogeu or hydrosulphuric acid, as it is 
 sometimi'S called, when brought into contact 
 with bases in solution, gives rise to compounds, 
 which liy some chemists are regarded us hydro- 
 sulphates, or combinations ol the base with 
 hydrosulphuric acid; and by others as sul- 
 phides or combinations of the metal with 
 sulphur, the Intier reaction being attended 
 with the clinunation of water, as when a base 
 is acted upon by hydrochloric acid. By those 
 who hold the former view the reaction would 
 be as follows : 
 
 KjO-hH3S = KjO,H5S. 
 
 In the latter case it would be thus repre- 
 sented : 
 
 KJO-^H2S = K2S-H-IJO. 
 
 The latter is the more general opinion, and 
 it receives support from the fact that when 
 sulphuretted hydrogen is passed into the solu- 
 tion of a metallic salt, an insoluble precipitate 
 of a sulphide of the metal is thrown down. 
 Thus, when the gas is passed into a solution of 
 cupric sulphate, the precipitatie consists of 
 bydrated cupric sulphide, the liberated sul- 
 phuric acid renders the liquid which was before 
 neutral, acid. Tlje larger number of sulphides 
 so formed, combiuing with water at the in- 
 stance of their precipitatiou, occur as hydrates. 
 
 There is also a class of sulphides known us 
 hydrosulphidi's, sulphydrates, or double sul- 
 phides, in which an equivalent of the metal is 
 replaced by an equivalent of hydrogen. Ex- 
 amples of these are the potassic hydrosulphide 
 (KHS), aodic hydrosulphide (NaHS), and am- 
 inouic hydrosulphide (H^NHS). No such com- 
 binations occur with liydrogen and the metals 
 of the earth proper, and of the iron group. 
 
 TetU. Miiny of the hydrosulphates or sul- 
 phides may be detected, by dropping on them 
 some hydrochloric acid, when the cha- 
 raoteristic smell of sulphuretted hydrogen will 
 he Immediately evolved from them. Very 
 small quantities of a sulphide may be detected 
 as follows : — Place the suspected sulphide in a 
 •mall test tube, on the upper part of which is 
 inserted a piece of blotting paper moistened 
 with a solution of plumbic acetate, then 
 carefully pour some hydrochloric acid on to 
 the substance, when, if it be a sulphide, the 
 
 paper will become immediately browned or 
 blackened. 
 
 Many small quantities of the soluble sul- 
 phides are revealed in neutral or alkaline 
 solutions by the rich purple colour which they 
 form on the addition of a solution of sodic 
 nitro-prusside. Most of them, «hen heated 
 before the blow-pipe, give o£E the smell of 
 sulphurous acid. 
 
 The quantitative determination of free sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, or of a soluble sulphide 
 in any sulution, i» conducted as follows : — The 
 liquid to be tested is mixed with H small quan- 
 tiiy of a cold solution of starch, made slightly 
 acid with acetic acid. A solution of iodine of 
 known strength, dissolved in potassic iodide is 
 then added, until the liquid just begins to 
 turn blue from the action of the excess of 
 iodine on the starch. In this process the sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen converts the iodine into 
 hydriodic acid, whilst sulphur is liberated. 
 
 Of course the quantity of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen ia calculated from the quantity of 
 iodine employed. The reaction is — 
 
 2H,,S-^2I„=4HI-I-SJ. 
 
 The value of suljihuretted hydrogen as u 
 reagent has already been alluded to. itthrons 
 down most of the metals from solutions of 
 their salts in the foi-m of insoluble sulphides ; 
 and each of the sulphides so produced in many 
 cases being distinguished from the others by a 
 special and cliaraeteristic colour. The sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen thus presents the metal in 
 a form in which it can, in msuy instances, be 
 easily and with certainty recognised. Thus 
 sulphide of lead is blatk, of arsenic yellow, of 
 antimony orange, of manganese salmon colour, 
 and of zinc white. By means of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, also, the chemist is enabled to sepa- 
 rate tile metals into groups. 
 
 Forinstanee, from solutions containingccrtnin 
 metallic salts, sulphuretted hydrogen throws 
 down the metals as sulphides, provided the 
 solution has been previously made slightly 
 acid. Copper, arsenic, tin, and cadmium, are 
 some of the metals thrown down under these 
 conditions. 
 
 The salts of iron, nickel, cobalt, and certain 
 others, although they do not yield precipitates 
 under like circumstances, are found to do so if 
 their solutions are made alkaline instead of 
 acid. Again, tliere are other salts, those of 
 the alkalies and alkaline e^irths, which, when 
 sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through these 
 solutions, give no precipitates either in acid or 
 alkaline solutions. The chemist, therefore, in 
 the course of an analysis, frequently avails 
 himself of a knowledge of these facts to sepa- 
 rate certain metals from each other. 
 
 Hydrogen, Persnlphide of. Syn. Htdeic 
 
 PKKSULPHIDE, HTDKOGBN DIBULPHIDE. T* 
 
 procure this substance, calcium disulphide 
 (CaS.2) in solutiou is poured into by drochloric 
 acid diluted with twice its bulk of water. The 
 solution being gently warmed, the pcrsulphide 
 
1592 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 subsides at tVie bottom as an oily fluid. Hydrin 
 persulphide has a great resemblance to hydric 
 peroxide in' qualities. It bleaches, and is de- 
 composed, with violence, when brought into 
 contact with tho oxides of manganese and 
 silver. It easily decomposes into sulphur and 
 sulphuretted hvdiosren. 
 
 SULPHU'Ri'C ACID. H2SO4. St/n. Oil op 
 VITRIOL, British o. oft., Viteiolic acid+; 
 AOIDUM BULPHUEIOUM ( B. P., Ph. L. & E.), 
 ACIDrM SULPHUBICUM VENALB (Ph. D.), 
 AciDUM TlTBiOLlcuMf, L. This acid, in a con- 
 centrated fortn, was discovered by Basil Valen- 
 tine towards the end of the 15th century. At 
 flrst it was obtained by the distillation of green 
 
 vitriol, but is now made by the oxidation of 
 sulphurous anhydride, obtained by the com- 
 bustion either of sulphur or of certain sul- 
 phides. In consequence of the growing 
 demand for sulphur in the manufacture of 
 gunpowder, ultra-marine, and for the de- 
 struction of the vipe parasites in the vine- 
 yards of France, Italy, and Spain, sulphuric 
 acid is now seldom made by burning sulphur, 
 but, with few exceptions, by roasting iron 
 pyrites, or bisulphide of iron. 
 
 The following table will convey an idea of 
 the enormous consumption of this mineral in 
 vitriol making in England alone. The quan- 
 tities given represent tons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyrites from* 
 
 Sum Total. 
 
 Date. 
 
 1- 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 NorwHy. 
 
 Grermuny. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 Spain. [ Italy. 
 
 Sundry Places. 
 
 
 1862 
 
 4,975 
 
 6,817 
 
 9,860 
 
 53,296 
 
 33,717 
 
 
 2.187 
 
 110,852 
 
 18K3 
 
 6,7a6 
 
 15,409 
 
 12,059 
 
 109,180 
 
 33,213 
 
 
 2,628 
 
 179,225 
 
 1864 
 
 16,087 
 
 12,751 
 
 7,069 
 
 118,489 
 
 15,529 
 
 
 1,065 
 
 170,990 
 
 1865 
 
 212,229 
 
 14,727 
 
 2,121 
 
 137,787 
 
 16,393 
 
 ... 
 
 869 
 
 193,626 
 
 1866 
 
 38,262 
 
 21,574 
 
 4,006 
 
 165,993 
 
 11,910 
 
 
 1,625 
 
 244.596 
 
 1867 
 
 77,895 
 
 34,592 
 
 2,299 
 
 105,556 
 
 50,223 
 
 
 2,134 
 
 272,698 
 
 1868 
 
 63,007 
 
 41,559 
 
 
 75,883 
 
 47,458 
 
 794 
 
 1,019 
 
 229,720 
 
 1869 
 
 63,091 
 
 13,983 
 
 
 140,805 
 
 99,648 
 
 
 2,420 
 
 319.947 
 
 1870 
 
 67,464 
 
 14,914 
 
 
 174,459 
 
 150,990 
 
 
 3,676 
 
 411,512 
 
 1871 
 
 74,416 
 
 12,809 
 
 
 120,573 
 
 242,163 
 
 
 4,581 
 
 454,542 
 
 1872 
 
 71,665 
 
 5,682 
 
 
 180,329 
 
 257,429 
 
 
 2,521 
 
 517,626 
 
 Of the other sulphides employed in vitriol 
 making may be mentioned galena, or native 
 sulphide of lead, which, when roasted, is made 
 to give up half its sulphur. The chief con- 
 sumption of this mineral is in the Harz. Cop- 
 per pyrites is also used in the Harz, as well as 
 in Swansea and Glasgow. Blende, or native 
 sulphide of zinc, is also occasionally had re- 
 course to. 
 
 In addition to the above sulphides, the 
 vitriol maker in England, France, and Ger- 
 niHuy has lately largely availed himself of a 
 compound known as 'Laming's mixture,' 
 which is an impure oxide of iron that has been 
 used in gas manufacture for the removal from 
 the gas of the sulphur. Laming's mixture is 
 consequently ricli in this last element. 
 
 Associated with the pyrites in small quan- 
 tities are various substances, some of which, 
 becoming volatilised when the ore is burnt, 
 enter the chambers with the mixed gases, 
 and thus find their entrance into the acid, 
 whilst others remain behind in the iron residue 
 of impure ferric oxide, left on the hearth of 
 the furnace after roasting. The former of 
 these foreign bodies, which are found in most 
 commercial acids, are described below under 
 the section " Purification." Amongst the solid 
 non-volatile matters, the extraction of which 
 
 ^ " Development of tlie Cliemical Arts during the last 
 Ten Years,'* by Dr A. W. Hofman (* Chemical News,' vol. 
 X1I^, 1879). 
 
 from the burnt iron has been found in many 
 works to yield a profit, are zinc, copper, silver 
 and thallium. 
 
 At Wolcrum, in Germany, the zinc which 
 exists in the residue in the form of sulphate is 
 extracted by lixiviation, and then treated with 
 common salt, the reaction giving rise to the 
 production of sulphate nf soda and chloride of 
 zinc. The soda obtained is sufficient to pay for 
 the working of the operation, whilst a good 
 profit is made by the sale of the large 
 quantities of chloride of zinc which are thus 
 yielded.'^ 
 
 The copper, which in some residues is met 
 with to the amount of 4 per cent., also pays 
 for extraction, and is sold to the smelter. It 
 is first converted into chloride, and then pre- 
 cipitated by iron. The silver is recovered by 
 Claudet's process, which consists in precipitat- 
 ing it from a saline solution in which it is in 
 the st,Hte of a soluble chloride, by iodide of 
 potassium. 
 
 In the Widnes Copper Works the silver so 
 extracted yields an annual profit of £3000.' 
 
 Thallium is found in the fine dust caused by 
 the combustion of the pyrites, which dust 
 deposits in the flues between the furnace 
 and the chambers. The metal is extracted 
 from the dust by treating this latter with 
 dilute sulphuric acid. The resulting sulphate 
 is converted into chloride, and again recou- 
 » Ibid. « Ibid. 
 
SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 1593 
 
 verted «ltOTiiiit*ly into anlplmte and chloride 
 Kveral tiiiicn, the sulpliHte last obtained being 
 reduced by metallic zinc' 
 
 Selenium ia hUo a frequent constituent in 
 the flue du«t. Some ores, after being sub- 
 jected to roasting, yield iron capable of being 
 worked. This is more particularly the case 
 with the Spanish and Portuguese pyrites. 
 - The following is an outline of the process by 
 which snlphiiric acid is obtained, and of the 
 chemical changes which occur during its 
 manufacture ; 
 
 The sulphur or sulphide being placed on 
 tlie hearth of the furnace, shown at A in the 
 accompanying cut, when heated from below, 
 soon takes fire, and combining with the oxygen 
 if the atmospheric air, the admission of which 
 into the furnace is regulated by an experienced 
 workman, by the door shown in the plate, 
 lorms sulphurous anhydride. An iron pot, 
 standing on the hearth of the furnace, contains 
 n mixture of nitrate of soda and oil of vitriol, 
 and this becoming heated by the burning 
 Fulpbur, decomposition of the salt enanea, and 
 fumes of nitric acid are given off. The sul- 
 phurous anhydride and nitric acid gases thus 
 formed together with air are carried into large 
 leaden chambers, standing on, and supported 
 by, miissive frameworks of stout timber. 
 Steiim is admitted continuously by several 
 jetii (see plate) into these chambers, which are 
 covered at the bottom with water to a depth 
 of about three inches. 
 
 As soon as the mixed gases enter the cham- 
 ber and come into cimtact with the steam, the 
 sulphurous anhydride acts on the nitric acid, 
 forming sulphuric acid, which falls into and is 
 absorbed by the water on the Hoor of the 
 chamber, and nitric oxide, which is liberated in 
 the chamber. 
 
 The following equation will illustrate the 
 reaction : 
 
 2HN0j + 3S0j f 2HjO =3HaS04 + 2N0. 
 
 170 parts by weight of nitrate of soda are 
 required to oxidise to sulphuric acid 96 parts 
 of sulphur, whereas rarely more.nnd frequently 
 less, than 6 parts of soda are required by the 
 vitriol maker. This saving of material is 
 effected by the function performed in the 
 chamber by the nitric oxide resulting from the 
 decomposition of the nitric acid. 
 
 The nitric oxide reacting upon the air in the 
 chamber abstracts oxygen from it and becomes 
 converted into nitric peroxide, thus : 
 2NO + Oj=2NOj. 
 
 Nitric peroxide is a very unstable compound, 
 and directly it comes into contact with the 
 fresh sulphurous anhydride entering the 
 chamber. It oxidises it in the presence of water 
 to sulphuric acid, thus : 
 
 2N0, + 2S0j + 2HjO = 2H3S04 -I- 2N0. 
 
 This deportment of the nitric oxide being 
 ' Iiiid. 
 
 continaons, it will be seen it acts the part of a 
 carrier of oxygen from the atmospheric air 
 contained in the chamber to the sulphurous 
 acid, and by so doing (theoretically) renders 
 any further supply of nitrate of soda than 
 that required to start the process unneces- 
 sary. 
 
 As soon as the water, or rather liquid acid 
 on the floor of the leaden chambers, has 
 acquired the sp. gr. of 1-35 to 1'50, it is drawn 
 off, and concentrated by boiling in shallow 
 leaden pans to the density of about 1-72, after 
 which it is further concentrated in green-glass 
 or platinum retorts, until the sp. gr. reaches 
 1-842 to 1-846. When of sp. ,ir. from 135 
 to 1'50 it is called chamber aciil, and when 
 of the last strength, is used in the n:anulac- 
 ture of salt-cake, sulphate of ammonia, some 
 kinds of manure, and nitric acid. Sulphuric 
 acid of sp. gr. l°720is mostly employed in the 
 preparation of superphosphate of lime. After 
 concentration to 1'842 or 1*846, the clear acid 
 is put into large globular bottles of green 
 glass (carboys), surrounded with straw and 
 basket-work, and is sent into the market under 
 the name of * oil of vitriol.' 
 
 The leaden chambers in which the chemical 
 changes tike place, that result in the formation 
 of the acid, vary greatly in dimensions iu 
 different works, being sometimes as much as 
 12 or 15 feet high, 15 or 20 wide, and from 
 150 to 300 feet long. They are mostly par- 
 tially divided by incomplete leaden partitions, 
 known as curtains, so arranged u« the roof and 
 the floor as to cause the currents of mixed 
 gases to come into collision, and thus cause 
 their admixture. Where there are a number 
 of smrfU separate chambers they are connected 
 by means of leaden tubes. A chamber having 
 a capacity of 25,000 cubic feet will yield 10 
 tons of acid weekly. 
 
 The sheets of lead used in the construction 
 of the chambers are united by fusion, or 
 melting together of tbcir edges. If cement 
 were used it would be speedily attiicked 
 and destroyed by the acid and gaseous 
 products. 
 
 The process for the manufacture of sul- 
 phuric acid above described, was devised in 
 1774 by a calico printer of Rouen, and im- 
 proved by Chaptal. 
 
 In 1776 the first vitriol factory was set 
 up at Prestonpans, by Dr Roebuck, of Bir- 
 mingham, with whom originated the idea of 
 the leaden chambers. 
 
 Various attempts have been at different 
 times unsuccessfully made to supersede the 
 old process. Of these we may mention : 
 
 1. The proposal to oxidise sulphurous 
 acid by means of chlorine in the presence 
 of steam. 
 
 2. Persoz's method to oxidise sulphurous 
 acid by means of nitric acid, and to regene- 
 rate the nitric oxide resulting from the re- 
 duction of the acid by the oxygen of the air 
 in the presence of steam. 
 
1594 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 3. a, by the decoirtposition of gypsum by 
 superheated steam at a red heat; or J, by 
 decomposing' the gypsum by chloride of 
 lead. 
 
 The failure of the above and other efforts 
 has led to the chemist turning his attention to 
 the elaboration and perfection of the old 
 process, in the working of which considerable 
 improvements liave been introduced within the 
 Irtst ten or fifteen years ; improvements re- 
 sulting not only in a diminished cost of pro- 
 duction, but in the manufacture of a purer, 
 and therefore better acid. 
 
 The proper construction of the furnaces, 
 ovens, and grates on which the firing of the 
 sulphur or pyrites takes place, together with 
 the flues, is an important condition in the 
 manufacture of the acid ; and to this end a 
 great deal of scientific knowledge and experi- 
 ence have lately been applied with excellent 
 effect. Of the many improvements in this di- 
 rection for burning poor ores of pyrites is a 
 contrivance much used in Germany, where the 
 furnace on which it is carried out is known as 
 Oerstenlioler's oven. It is shown in the accom- 
 p.mying drawing. 
 
 d 
 
 <% f^;^. ,^< -*. :^ 1^ 
 
 The furnace is fitted inside with a number 
 of little fire-clay projections, arranged as 
 shown in the plate, in banks or terraces, the 
 function of which is to prolong the exposure 
 of the pyrites to heat. The furnace having 
 been previously raised to a red heat, by means 
 of a coal or wood fire (which is then extin- 
 guished), the pyrites are admitted into it 
 through the hoppers (a). At the base of the 
 hoppers are grooved iron rollers, which crush 
 the lumps of ore as they enter the chambers, 
 and by thus reducing their size, expose a 
 larger amount of surface to the action of heat. 
 The greater part of the sulphur of the pyrites 
 is thus burnt off, as the lumps pass from ter- 
 race to terrace, the heat at the same time 
 generated by their combustion being sufficient 
 to keep up that of the furnace. A modejate 
 blast of air is admitted at v, whilst the sul- 
 phurous acid formed ascends through d into 
 
 the leaden chambers, the spent pyrites falling 
 out through the apertures at c. 
 
 Another improved furnace is Ferret's, which 
 is largely used in France. In this, small lumps 
 of pyrites are placed on hoijzontal plates, and 
 exposed to the hot gases generated in kilns 
 below. The gases, on their way to the cham- 
 bers, sweep over the pyritts and rob theip of 
 their sulphur. 
 
 The most important and noticeable improve- 
 ment, however, of late years in sulphuric acid 
 manufacture is that resulting from the addition 
 to the plant of a contrivance of Gay-Lussac. 
 Frevious to this invention, the sulphuric acid 
 of commerce, amongst other impurities, always 
 contained appreciable quantities of certain 
 oxides of nitrogen, the results of which were 
 not only the contamination of the acid, but 
 a waste of substances, which, properly utilised, 
 are essential for the conversion of the sul- 
 phurous and sulphuric acid, and the loss 
 of which leads to an increased consumption of 
 nitrate of soda. Under the old method, these 
 valuable oxides of nitrogen, which, with a 
 large amount of nitrogen and a small quantity 
 of oxygen, constituted the spent air of the last; 
 leaden chamber, were carried off into the air, 
 and consequently lost. Now, instead of being 
 allowed to diffuse info the atmosphere, they 
 are made to pass through a tower or chaml)er 
 (shown at c) filled with coke, through which 
 a thin stream of sulphuric acid is made to 
 trickle. In passing through the coke, there- 
 fore, the expiring spent gases come into con- 
 tact with the sulphuric acid, to which they 
 give up their oxides of nitrogen. Prom the 
 tower (o) the acid flows into a cistern (r), 
 whence it is pumped up to the top of another 
 tower (e), either filled with coke, or arranged 
 with inclined shelves, as sbowu in the plate. In 
 this tower the acid meets with a current of 
 hot sulphurous acid and air coming up from 
 the furnace, which deprive it of the oxides of 
 nitrogen, and the gaseous mixture enters the 
 chambers, whilst the denitrafied acid flows off 
 into a suitable reservoir. 
 
 Since the introduction of the above, the 
 consumption of nitrate of soda is sometimes 
 lessened by more than half. 
 
 Another very recent improvement, the in- 
 vention of a German chemist mimed Sprengel, 
 is the substitution of water spray, blown in 
 by steam, for steam jets, in the leaden cham- 
 bers. By this method a saving of coal to the 
 extent of one third is said to be effected. 
 
 In theory, 1 molecule of sulphur requires 
 only 3 molecules of oxygen to convert it into 
 sulphuric acid, viz. 2 to form sulphurous anhy- 
 dride, and 1 to convert the latter into sulphuric 
 anhydride, which combines with 1 molecule of 
 water to form the acid. Thus, 1 kilogram of 
 sulphur requires 1500 grams or 1055 litres of 
 oxygen, which is equivalent to 5275 litres of 
 air containing 4220 litres of nitrogen j when 
 pyrites is used, a far larger quantity of air 
 is required, for the obvious reason that the 
 
SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 1595 
 
 pyrilcs bpcnmi's converteJ into ferric peroxide. 
 1 kili>gnnn of pyritcn requires for its com- 
 bustion marly C600 litres ot air. 
 
 In well-regnlated works the spent nnd 
 escapinp gases should not contain more than 
 2 per cent, of oxygen. If from 100 kilograms 
 
 J -ri M A rt A^ M ^ i^_g 
 
 
 i/^'/y//w-v^//-M'f.:j..i^„:^ 
 
 (if snlphnr 306 kilograms of strong acid of 
 sp. gr. 1'84 be obtained, the result is regarded 
 08 very siitisfactory ; more frequently the 
 jTiiduct from 100 kilngrams of siilphur does 
 not exceed 280 or 290 kilograms. 
 
 furlf. Commercial sulphuric acid fre- 
 qneiitly contains nitrous acid and other oxides 
 of nitrogen, araenic, lead, and saline matter. 
 The nitrous acid may be removed by adding 
 a little sulphate of ammonia, and heating the 
 acid to ebullition for a few minntcs. Both 
 nitric and nitrous acid are thus entirely 
 decomposed into water and nitrogen gas. 
 The arsenic may be got rid of by adding a little 
 sulphide of biirium to the acid, agitating the 
 mixture well, and, after repose, decanting and 
 distilling it. Lend, which exists as sulphate, 
 may be separated as a white precipitate by 
 simply diluting the acid with water. Saline 
 matter may be removed by simple rectification. 
 A good way of purifying oil of vitriol is to heat 
 it nearly to the boiling point, and pass a cur- 
 rent of hydrochloric acid through it ; the 
 
 arsenic is thus carried over as the volntile 
 chloride of arsenic, while the nitrous and nitric 
 acids are expelled almost completely. To ob- 
 tain a perfectly pure acid, it should be distilled 
 afti r the removal of the nitrous acid and 
 arsenic by the methods indicated above. " The 
 distillation is most conveniently eondncted, on 
 the small scale, in a glass retort, containing a 
 few platinum chips, and heated by a sand bath 
 or gas-flame, rejecting the first J fl. oz. that 
 comes over." (Ph. E.) In the Ph. D. the 
 first tenth of the distillate is ordered to be 
 rejected, and the process to be stopped when 
 no more than about 1 fl. oz. is left in the 
 retort. 
 
 According to Dr Ure, the capacity of the 
 retort should be from 4 to 8 times as great as 
 the volume of the acid, and connected with a 
 large tubular receiver by a loosely fitting glass 
 tube, 4 feet long and 1 to 2 inches in diameter. 
 " The receiver should not be surrounded with 
 cold water." We find that fragments of glass, 
 or of rock crystals, may be advantageously 
 
1596 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 substituted for platinum foil, to lessen the 
 explosive violence of the ebullition. Sulphuric 
 acid which has become brown by exposure may 
 be decolorised by heating it gently, the carbon 
 of the orgauic substances being thus con- 
 verted into carbonic acid. 
 
 Prop. Commercial sulphuric acid (oil of 
 vitriol) is a colourless, odourless, and highly 
 corrosive liquid, the general properties of 
 which are well known. Its sp. gr. at 60° 
 should never be greater than 1'848, or less 
 than 1-840. (Miller and Odling give the sp. 
 gr. of the pure and concentrated acid as 1'842 ; 
 Abel and Blozam, as 1-848 j Apjohn gives it 
 as 1-846, and Hardwich about 1-845.) It is 
 immediately coloured by contact with organic 
 matter. It attracts water so rapidly from the 
 
 atmosphere when freely exposed to it, as to 
 absorb l-3rd of its weight in 24 hours, and 6 
 times its weight in a few months. When 3 
 volumes are suddenly mixed with 2 of water, 
 the temperature of the mixture rises more 
 than 180° Fahr. Its freezing point appears to 
 be about 60° below that of water (Miller and 
 Odling give that of the rectified acid as — 30° 
 Fahr.; Apjohn and Abel and Bloxam, — 29°j. 
 It boils at about 620° Fahr. (620-6°, Odling ; 
 620°, Hardwick and Fownes; 617°, Apjohn; 
 590-6°, Abel and Bloxam). It exhibits all the 
 properties of the acids in an exalted degree. 
 Its salts are called sulphates. 
 
 In the following table is given the quantity 
 of anhydrous sulphuric acid contained in 
 sulphuric acid at 60°F. (15-5°C.). 
 
 Hycliated 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 Aniiydrous 
 Acid. 
 
 Hvdrated 
 Suipuiiric Acid. 
 
 Sp. Gr. 
 
 Alihydrous 
 Arid. 
 
 100 . 
 
 . 1-8485 . 
 
 . 81-54 
 
 76 . 
 
 . 1-6630 . 
 
 . 61-97 
 
 99 . 
 
 . 1-8475 . 
 
 . 80-72 
 
 75 . 
 
 . 1-6520 . 
 
 . 61-15 
 
 98 . 
 
 . 1-8460 . 
 
 . 79-90 
 
 74 . 
 
 • 1-6415 . 
 
 . 60-34 
 
 97 . 
 
 . 1-8439 . 
 
 . 79-09 
 
 73 . 
 
 . 1-6321 . 
 
 . 59-55 
 
 96 . 
 
 . 1-8410 . 
 
 . 78-28 
 
 72 . 
 
 . 1-6204 . 
 
 . 58-71 
 
 95 . 
 
 . 1-8376 . 
 
 . 77-40 
 
 71 . 
 
 . 1-6090 . 
 
 . 57-89 
 
 94 . 
 
 . 1-8336 . 
 
 . 76-65 
 
 70 . 
 
 . 1-5975 . 
 
 . 57-08 
 
 93 . 
 
 . 1-8290 . 
 
 . 75-83 
 
 69 . 
 
 . 1-5868 . 
 
 . 5626 
 
 92 . 
 
 . 1 8233 . 
 
 . 75-02 
 
 68 . 
 
 . 1-5760 . 
 
 . 55-45 
 
 91 . 
 
 . 1-8179 . 
 
 . 74-20 
 
 67 . 
 
 . 1-5648 . 
 
 . 5463 
 
 90 . 
 
 . 1-8115 . 
 
 . 73-39 
 
 66 . 
 
 . 1-5503 . 
 
 . 53-82 
 
 89 . 
 
 . 1-8043 . 
 
 . 72-57 
 
 65 . 
 
 . 1-5390 . 
 
 . 53-00 
 
 88 . 
 
 . 1-7962 . 
 
 . 71-75 
 
 64 . 
 
 . 1-5280 . 
 
 . 52-18 
 
 87 . 
 
 . 1-7870 . 
 
 . 70-94 
 
 63 . 
 
 . 1-5170 . 
 
 . 51-37 
 
 86 . 
 
 . 1-7774 . 
 
 . 70-12 
 
 62 . 
 
 . 1-5066 . 
 
 . 50-55 
 
 85 . 
 
 . 1-7673 . 
 
 . 69-31 
 
 61 . 
 
 . 1-4960 . 
 
 . 49-74 
 
 84 . 
 
 . 1-7570 . 
 
 . 68-49 
 
 60 . 
 
 . 1-4860 . 
 
 . 48-92 
 
 83 . 
 
 . 1-7465 . 
 
 . 67-68 
 
 59 . 
 
 . 1-4760 . 
 
 . 48-11 
 
 82 . 
 
 . 1-7360 . 
 
 . 66-86 
 
 58 . 
 
 . 1-4660 . 
 
 . 47-29 
 
 81 . 
 
 . 1-7245 . 
 
 . 66-05 
 
 57 . 
 
 . 1-4560 . 
 
 . 46-58 
 
 80 . 
 
 . 1-7120 . 
 
 . 65-23 
 
 56 . 
 
 . 1-4460 . 
 
 . 45-68 
 
 79 . 
 
 . 1-6993 . 
 
 . 64-42 
 
 55 . 
 
 . 1-4360 . 
 
 . 44-85 
 
 78 . 
 
 . 1-6870 . 
 
 . 63-60 
 
 54 . 
 
 . 1-4265 . 
 
 . 4503 
 
 77 . 
 
 . 1-6750 . 
 
 . 62-78 
 
 53 . 
 
 . 1-4170 . 
 
 . 43-22 
 
 Pur. " Free from colour and odour. Sp. 
 gr. 1-843. 100 gr. are saturated by 285 gr. 
 of crystallised carbonate of soda." (Ph. L.) 
 " What remains after the acid is distilled to 
 dryness does not exceed ^^th pai-t of its 
 weight. Diluted sulphuric acid is not dis- 
 coloured by sulphuretted hydrogen." (Ph. L. 
 1836.) " Diluted with its own volume of 
 water, only a scanty muddiness arises, and no 
 orange fumes escape. Sp. gr. 1-840." (Ph. 
 E.) " The rectified acid (aoidum sulphubi- 
 CffM PUEDM — Ph. E. & D.) is colourless j dilu- 
 tion causes no muddiness ; solution of sulphate 
 of iron shows no reddening at the line of con- 
 tact when poured over it. Sp. gr. 1-845." 
 (Ph. B.) Sp. gr. 1-846— Ph. D. ; 1-843— B. P. ; 
 1-842— Ure. 
 
 Tests. — See Sulphate. 
 
 Uses, iSfc. " The uses of sulphuric acid are 
 so numerous that it would be impossible to 
 
 mention all of them, sulphuric acid being to 
 chemical industry what iron is to the mecha- 
 nical. Sulphuric acid is employed in preparing 
 a great many other acids — among them, nitric, 
 hydrochloric, sulphurous, carbonic, tartaric, 
 citric, phosphoric, stearic, oleic, and palmitic. 
 Further, sulphuric acid is used in making 
 superphosphates, soda, sulphate of ammonia, 
 alum, sulphates of copper and iron, in paraffin 
 and petroleum refining, silver refining, manu- 
 facture of garacine, garanceux, and other 
 madder preparations, manufacture of glucose 
 from starch, to dissolve indigo, &c.' In the 
 diluted state it is used in medicine. When 
 swallowed, it acts as a violent corrosive poison. 
 The antidotes ai-e chalk, whiting, magnesia, 
 carbonate of soda, or carbonate of potash, 
 mixed with water, or any bland diluent, and 
 taken freely, an emetic being also administered. 
 ^ X^uguer. 
 
SULPHURIC ACID 
 
 1597 
 
 E'tim. The gtrength of aiilplinric acid is 
 most correctly asrertnined l>y its power of 
 •iituratiu); b;i8e8. In commerce, it is usually 
 ilDtenainud Irom its sp, gr. The quantity of 
 •ulpburic acid present in a compound may be 
 determined by weigliing it under the form of 
 sulphate, as explained in a former part of this 
 volume. See AcisiMETBY. 
 
 Concluding Remarka. According to most of 
 our standard works on chemistry, British oil 
 ol vitriol, when purified and brought to its 
 maximum strength by distillation, is a definite 
 chemical compound, having the formula H^SO^, 
 and designated normal sulphuric acid by 
 Odlin^. Marignac, however, asserts that the 
 distilled acid always contains an excess of 
 water, and that the true monohydrate cnn only 
 be obtained by submitting fuming sulphuric 
 acid (' Nordhausen s. a.') to congelation. Ac- 
 cording to this chemist, the true monoliydrate 
 readily freezes in cold weather, and remains 
 solid np to 51° Fahr. Two other definite 
 liydrntes of sulphuric acid are generally re- 
 cognised by chemists, viz. — Bihydrated sul- 
 phuric acid (' glacial s. a.'), having a sp. gr. 
 of 1-78; freezing at about 40° Fahr. (47°, 
 Miller); and boiling at about 435° (Apjohn ; 
 401° to 410°, Odling) : Terhydrated sulphuric 
 acid, having a sp. gr. of 1'632, and the boiling- 
 point 348° Fahr. See also SoiiPHumo Aois, 
 
 NOBDUACBBN {below). 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, Al'coholised. Syn. Acmuu 
 
 BULPHUEIODM ALCOHOLISATUM, L. ; EaU DE 
 
 EABSi, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) To rectified 
 spirit, 3 parts, add, very gradually, sulphuric 
 acid, 1 part. It is generally coloured by 
 letting it stand over a little cochineal. Itefri- 
 gcrent, and, externally, escharotlc. — Dose, ^fl. 
 dr. to water, 1 pint ; as a cooling drink in 
 fevers, &c. 
 
 Solphnric Acid, Anhy'drona. SO,. Syn. 
 
 SULPHUBIO ANHTDKIDE, DrT SCLPHUHIO 
 AOIDi AOIorM BULPHUBICITM SINS AQuA, L. 
 iVffp. 1. By heating Nordhausen acid to about 
 100 Fahr. in a glass retort connected with n 
 well-cooled receiver. 
 
 2. Bydistillinganhydrousbisulphateof soda, 
 which has previously been raised to a low red 
 beat in an earthen retort, to which a receiver 
 is fitted without the aid of corks. 
 
 3. (Barreswill.) 2 parts of the strongest 
 oil of vitriol are gradually added to 3 parts of 
 anhydrous phosphoric acid, contained in a 
 retort surrounded by a freezing mixture ; when 
 the cooipouud has assumed a brown colour, 
 the retort is removed from the bath, and con- 
 nected with u receiver which is set there in 
 its place ; n gentle heat is now applied to it, 
 when white vapours pass over into the receiver, 
 and condense there under the form of beautiful 
 silky crystals. The product equals in weight 
 that of the phosphorus originally employed. 
 " if a few drops of water be added, a dangerous 
 explosion ensues." 
 
 Prop. White, silky, asbestos-like crystals. 
 
 deliquescing rapidly, and fuming in the air j 
 put into water, it hisses like a red-hot iron ; it 
 melts at 77°, and rapidly volatilises at 86° 
 Fahr. ; it does not redden dry litmus paper ; 
 sp. gr. 1-97 at 78° Fahr. 
 
 Snlphnric Acid, Aromat'ic. 8gn. Elixie op 
 viTBroL, Acid e. op t. ; Acidum bulphit- 
 
 BICUM ABOMATICUM (B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E. 4 D.) Oil of vitriol, 3i fl. 
 oz. ; rectified spirit, \\ pint ; mix, add of pow. 
 dered cinnamon, 1^ oz. ; powdered ginger, 1 
 oz. ; digest for 6 days (7 davs— Ph. D.), and 
 filter. Sp. gr. -974— Ph. D. " 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From compound tincture of 
 cinnamon, 1 gall.; oil of vitriol, 1 lb.; mix, 
 and in a week filter — Dote, 10 to 30 drops, in 
 the same case as the dilute acid. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3 ; rectified spirit, 
 40; cinnamon, in powder, 2; ginger, in pow- 
 der, 1 j ; mix the acid gradually with the spirit, 
 add the powders, macerate for7 days, and filter. 
 — Dose, 5 to 30 minims. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, Dilute'. Sitn. Spibit op 
 
 VITBIOL; ACIDUH BFLPHUBICCM DIirxUM 
 (B. p., Ph. L., E.. 4 D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. 
 L.) Take of snlphnric acid, 15 fl. dr., and 
 dilute it gradually with distilled water, q. s. to 
 make the whole exactly measure a pint. Sp. 
 gr. 1'103. " 1 fl. 02. of this acid is exactly 
 saturated by 216 gr. of crystallised carbonate 
 of soda." 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 
 13 fl. oz. Sp. gr. 1090. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Pure sulphuric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 distilled water, 13 oz. Sp. gr. 1'084. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Sulphuric acid, 3 ; distilled water, 
 q. s. to measure 35J ; mix by adding the acid 
 gradually to the water. — Dose, 4 to 20 
 minims. 
 
 Prop.,l(c. Antiseptic, tonic, and refrigerant. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 drops, largely diluted with 
 water, several times daily ; in low typhoid 
 fevers, passive bcemorrhages, proluse perapi- 
 ration, in various skin diseases to relieve the 
 itching, in dyspepsia, &c. It is also used 
 externally. 
 
 Snlphnric Acid, Nordhausen. Syn. FcviNa 
 
 SITLPHITEIC ACID; ACIDUM SULPHUBICUJI 
 PUMANS, L. Prep, By distilling calcined fer- 
 rous sulphate ('green vitriol') in earthen retorts. 
 The retorts, which are shown at A in the 
 plate after the 'green vitriol* has been put 
 into them, are placed in a galley-lurnace, as 
 shown below, the necks passing through the 
 wall of the furnace, and being properly 
 secured to the necks of the receivers (b B.). Into 
 each of the flasks i\ lbs. of green vitriol are 
 put; on the first application of heat only 
 sulphurous acid and weak hydrated snlphuric 
 acid come over, and are usually allowed to 
 escape, the receivers not being securely luted 
 until white vapours of anhydrous snlphnric 
 acid are seen. Into each of the receiving 
 flasks 30 grams of water are poured, and the 
 distillation continued for 24 to 36 hours. The 
 
1598 
 
 SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE- SULPHUKOUS ACID 
 
 re(ort flasks are thin again filled with raw 
 material, and the operation repeated four 
 times before the oil of vitriol is deemed strong: 
 enough. Tlie residue in the retorts is red 
 (peroxide) of iron, still retaining some sul- 
 phuric acid. The product is a brown oily 
 liquid, which fumes in the air, is intensely 
 corrosive, and has a sp. gr. about 1'900. AVhen 
 htated to about 100° I'ahr., the anhydrous 
 
 acid is given off, and ordinary oil of vitriol is 
 left. According to Marignac, crystals of nor- 
 mal sulphuric acid (HjSOj) are formed in this 
 acid when it is submitted to a low tempera- 
 ture. Nordhausen acid is so called from the 
 place of its manufacture in Saxony. It may 
 be regarded as a mixture or compound of 
 H2SO4 and SO3. It is chiefly used for dis- 
 solving indigo. 
 
 SULPHTJEIC AHHYDRIDE. SeeSuLPHUEic 
 
 ACID, AHHYDBOUS. 
 
 SULPHtJEIC E'THEE. See Ether. 
 SUL'PHUEOUS ACID. SO2. Syn. SuL- 
 
 PHUKOUS AWHTDEIDE; ACIDDM SULPHUKO- 
 
 BUM, B. P. This compound is freely evolved in 
 the gaseous form when sulphur is burnt in air 
 or oxygen, and when the metals are digested 
 in hot sulphuric acid ; and, mixed with car- 
 bonic acid, when charcoal, chips of wood, cork, 
 and sawdust, are treated in the same way. 
 
 Prep. 1. By heating together sulphur and 
 strong sulphuric acid. 
 
 2. By the action of sulphuric acid on chip- 
 pings of copper or mercury at a gentle heat. 
 Pure. 
 
 3. (Berthier.) By heating, in a glass retort, 
 a mixture of black oxide of manganese, 100 
 parts, and sulphur, 12 or Imparts. Pure. The 
 
 gas evolved should be collected over mercury, 
 or received into water. 
 
 4. (Redwood.) Pounded cliarcoal, J oz. j oil 
 of vitriol, 4 fi. oz. ; mix in a retort, apply the 
 heat of a spirit lamp, and conduct the evolved 
 gases by means of a bent tube into a bottle 
 containing water. The sulphurous acid is ab- 
 sorbed, whilst the carbonic acid gas passes off. 
 
 5. (13. P.) Distilled water, saturated with 
 
 sulphurous anhydride. It is colour- 
 less and emits a pungent odour. 
 Used as a deoxidiser, disinfectant, 
 and antiseptic. Diluted with from 
 1 to 2 parts of water it is employed 
 a< a lotion for wounds, cuts, ulcers, 
 bed-sores, scalds, and burns ; with 
 from 1 to 5 of water it is used as a 
 gargle, also as a lotion in parasitic 
 skin diseases ; from ^ to 1 dr., in a 
 wine-glassful of water, 3 times a 
 day, relieves constant sickness. 
 
 Prop., ^c. Water absorbs 30 
 times its volume of this gas. Pure 
 liquid sulphurous acid can only be 
 obtained by passing the pure dry 
 gus through a glass tube surrounded 
 by a powerful freezing mixture. Its 
 sp. gr. is 1"45 ; boiling point, 14° 
 Fahr. ; it causes intense cold by its 
 evaporation. Sulphurous acid forms 
 salts called sulphites. 
 
 Uses. To bleach silks, woollens, 
 straw, &c., and to remove vegetable 
 stains and iron-moulds from linen. 
 For these purposes it is prepared 
 from sawdust or any other refuse 
 carbonaceous matter. 
 
 Several preparations containing 
 I sulphurous acid have recently been invented by 
 the Editor and introduced to the public as 
 agents in sanitation under the name of Sporoh- 
 ton (germ-killer). To understand the nature 
 and merits of these preparations it is desirable 
 to explain the true and individual meanings of 
 ' Deodoriser,' ' Antiseptic,' and * Disinfectant,' 
 — words which are too often improperly em- 
 ployed as if they had the same signlScation, 
 and as if, in fact, they were convertible 
 terms. 
 
 A deodoriser is a substance which will ab- 
 sorb or destroy bad smells ; an antiseptic is an 
 agent which will prevent or retard putrefac- 
 tion ; and a disinfectant is au agent which 
 will render harmless the virus of small-pox, 
 scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, influenza, 
 pleuro-pneumonia, cattle plague, glanders, 
 distemper in dogs, and other infectious or con- 
 tagious diseases. 
 
 Now, medical authorities and sanitarians 
 are of opinion that the most potent disin- 
 fectant with which we are acquainted is sul- 
 phurous acid, a gas which has been used for 
 ages, as a fumigator. Sulphurous acid has 
 not, however, been so generally employed for 
 disinfecting purposes as one might from tljese 
 circumstances have expected, on account of the 
 
SUMACH— SUPPOSITORY 
 
 1599 
 
 diflicn1t!es and inponvonienccs which formerly 
 attended its generation. 
 
 To remove theee drawbacks, and to render 
 ■olphnrons acid, both as a gas and in aolntion, 
 easily and cheaply available for the above- 
 nnmod and many other application!, sporokton 
 lins been invented. Several varieties are made ; 
 tliey are an follows : 
 
 Liquid Xo. 1. — This preparation conaista of 
 a colourless solution of a non-volatile antisep- 
 tir, asually a salt of zinc, impregnated with 
 cifrhty times its bnlk of sulphurous acid gas ; 
 in otlier words, one pint of the liquid contains 
 ten gallons of gaa. Liquid sporokton is, in 
 fact, a combination of one of the most power- 
 ful antiseptics with the disinfectant ; the for- 
 mer ingredient will effectually prevent the 
 putrefaction of any solid or liquid animal or 
 vegetable matter with which it may come in 
 contact, while the sulphurous ncid will rapidly 
 pass off in the gaseous state into the surround- 
 iug air and act as an energetic destroyer of 
 noxious atmospheric impurities. 
 
 Liquid sporokton absorbs ammonia and sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, destroys bad smells, and 
 prevents the spre^id of infectious diseases ; it 
 is, consequently, a valuable agent for the dco- 
 doriKation and disinfection of wards of hos- 
 pitals, sick rooms, dairies, larders, ship, stables, 
 cow-houses, kennels, piggeries, slaughter- 
 bnuses, urinals, water-closets, privius, cess- 
 pools, sewers, drains, and other similar build- 
 ings and places. 
 
 Alter it has parted with the whole of 
 its sulphurous acid gas, liquid sporokton 
 leaves an odourless, non-volatile antiseptic 
 mid absorber of ammonia and sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. 
 
 Liquid sporokton evolves its sulphurous 
 acid by simple exposure to air, without the 
 "id of heat, so that no risk of Krc attends 
 its use, as is the case when rooms, buildings, 
 holds of ships, &c., arc fumigated with this 
 gas by the old plan ; it will not stain or in 
 any other way injure undyed woollen, linen, 
 or cotton goods. It is consequently well 
 adapted for the disinfection of underclothing, 
 sheets, blankets, bed-lurniture, &o. 
 
 Liquid sporokton may be employed for the 
 instantaneous preparation of a bath or lotion 
 of sulphurous acid, to be used, under medical 
 direction, in the treatment of itch, ring- 
 worm, chronic eczema, lepra, psoriasis, im- 
 petigo, pityriasis, &c., in man, as well as 
 msnpe, scab, and other skin affections in the 
 lower animals. 
 
 Liquid sporokton is clean, it requires no 
 skill in using it, and its action is perfectly 
 controllable. 
 
 Liquid No. 2. — This preparation is specially 
 made for the disinfection and purification of 
 old beer barrels, wine casksi and the like. It 
 is similar in composition to, and may be used 
 for the same purpose as, No. 1 ; except, how- 
 ever, that as No. 2, unlike No. 1, is liable. 
 
 from its containing iron instead of zinc, 
 to stain linen, wood, &e., it should not 
 be employed for disinfecting clothing or 
 sprinkling over floors, decks of ships, and the 
 like. 
 
 Solids — This is a powder, nsnally a mixture 
 of calcium sulphite and ferric chloride, which, 
 by simple expose to air, will slowly and 
 steadily, or when sprinkled with water, rapidly 
 give out 25 per cent, of its weight of sul- 
 phurous acid and leave no unpleasant smell 
 behind it. 
 
 Sulphurous acid gas, unlike non- volatile dis- 
 infectants, quickly mingles with the air; and 
 seeks out, as it were, the noxious atmospheric 
 impurities it is capable of destroying. 
 
 Solid sporokton, in addition to evolving sul- 
 phurous acid, contains an excess of ferric 
 chloride wliich, together with this ga«, 
 renders it a most useful and efficient anti- 
 septic. 
 
 Sulphnroas Anhydride. See Sulphubous 
 
 ACID. 
 
 SU'UACH. This dye stuff is chiefly used as 
 a substitute for galls. With a mordant of 
 acetate of iron, it gives grey or black ; with 
 tin or acetate of alumina, yellow j and with 
 sulphate of zinc, a yellowish-brown ; alone, it 
 gives a ?reenish-fawn colour. 
 
 SUM'BUL. Sgn. MusK boot, Jatamansi, 
 
 SUMBITL BOOT; SrMBDL KADIX (B. P.). A 
 substance introduced to British medicine by 
 l)r A. B. Granville, in 1850. It occurs in 
 circnlir pieces varying from 1 to 3 or 4 inches 
 in diameter; has a mnsk-like odour, and a 
 sweet balsamic taste. It acts ns a powerful 
 stimulant, especially of the nervous system. 
 In India and Persia it has long been used us a 
 medicine, a perfume, and as incense. — iJusf, 
 15 gr. to 1 dr., either masticated, or made 
 into an infnsion, electuary, or tincture; in 
 cholera, hysteria, neuralf;i;i, epilepsy, low 
 fevers, and various other spasmodic and ner- 
 vous disorders. 
 
 SUMMER DRINKS. SeeLEMO.VADK, SnEB- 
 
 BET, &.C. 
 
 SU'PEE-. See Nomenclaiceb. 
 
 SUP'PER. Tho evening meal ; the last 
 meal of the day. Supper is generally an 
 unnecessary meal, and, when either heavy, or 
 taken at a period not long before that of 
 retiring to rest, proves nearly always injurions, 
 prevehting sound and refreshing sleep, and 
 occasioning unpleasant dreams, nightmare, 
 biliousness, and all the worst symptoms of 
 imperfect digestion. The last meal of the day 
 should be taken at least three hours before 
 bedtime. Even when it consi-tsnf some 'trifle,' 
 as a sandwich or biscuit, an interval of at least 
 an hour should elap-e before retiring to rest. 
 In this way restlessness and unpleasant dreams 
 will become rare. 
 
 SUPPOSITORY. Syn. SxjpposiTOBitrif, L. 
 A medicine placed in the rectum for the pur- 
 pose of afiecting the lower intestine, or, by 
 
1600 
 
 SUPPOSITOEY 
 
 absorption, the system generally. Supposi- 
 tories are rounded, usually elongated masses, 
 having the active medicine combined with 
 some substance which will retain the proper 
 shape, as soap, spermaceti cerate, or cacao- 
 butter. The latter substance is, perhaps, the 
 best vehicle for remedies prescribed in this 
 form. It is, however, rather too soft to be 
 used without admixture. According to Dor- 
 vault, the addition of one eighth part by 
 weight of wax imparts the pruper hard- 
 ness. 
 
 All difficulty of removing suppositories 
 from the mould may be obviated by having 
 the moulds previously dusted with lycopo- 
 dium. 
 
 The mode of proportioning the doses of 
 active iu^'redieuts has been noticed in the 
 article Enema. 
 
 Suppository, Astringent. Sgn. Strpposi- 
 TOEIUM ASTEINGENS (Reuss). iVep. Pow- 
 dered oak bark, 2 dr. ; tormentil, 2 dr. ; honey, 
 q. s. For 8 suppositories. 
 
 Suppository of Carbolic Acid. Si/n. Strp- 
 
 POSITOEIOM ACIDI CAEBOLICI (Ph. U. S.). 
 
 Frep. Carbolic acid, 12 gr. ; oil of theobroma, 
 348 gr. ; water, q. s. Dissolve the acid in a 
 few drops of water, and mix it with 1 dr. of 
 oil of theobroma ; then add it to the remainder 
 of the theobroma previously melted, and cooled 
 to the temperature of 95° P., and pour the 
 whole immediately into moulds of 30 gr. each, 
 standing in iced water. 
 
 Suppository of Copaiba. St/n. Stjpposito- 
 BiiTM COPAIBA (Colombat). Frep. Solidified 
 copaiba, 1 dr. ; butter of cacao, 1 dr. ; extract 
 of opium, i gr. 
 
 Suppository of Elaterium. Syn. Sttpposi- 
 TOEIUM ELATEKII (St B. H.). Prep. Extract 
 of elaterium, 2 gr. ; hard soap, 10 gr.; water, 
 q. s. Mix. 
 
 Suppository, Emollient. Sj/n, Supposi- 
 TOBTOM EMOLLIENS. Frep. Butter of cacao 
 and spermaceti in equal parts; melted to- 
 gether. 
 
 Suppository of Iodide of Potassium. Si/n. 
 SrpposiTOEiuii POTAssii lODiDii (Mr Staf- 
 ibrd). Frep. Iodide of potassium, 1 gr. to 
 4 gi'. ! extract of henbane, 6 gr. ; extract of 
 hemlock, 6 gr. In enlarged prostate. 
 
 Suppository, Irritajit. %». Supposito- 
 EIUM IRKITANS (Richard). Frep. Butter of 
 cacao, 2 dr. ; alues, 4 gr. ; tartarised anti- 
 mony, 1 gr. To restore the hemorrhoidal 
 dux. 
 
 Suppository of Lead (Compound). 5y». Sup- 
 
 POSITOEIUM PLUMBI COMPOSITUM (B. P.). 
 Frep. Acetate of lead, in powder, 36; opium, 
 in powder, 12 ; benzoated lard, 42 ; white wax, 
 10 ; oil of theobroma, 80 ; melt the wax and 
 oil of theobroma with a gentle heat, then add 
 the other ingredients, previously rubbi'd toge- 
 ther in a mortar, and, having mixed them 
 thoroughly, pour the mixture while it is fluid 
 into suitable moulds of the capacity of 15 gr. 
 The above makes 12 suppositories. 
 
 Suppository of Mercury. St/n. Sttpposito- 
 EIUM HTDEAEGiyEi (B. P.). Frep.' Ointment 
 of mercury, 60 gr. ; benzoated lard, 20 gr. ; 
 white wax, 20 gr. ; oil of theobroma, 80 gr. ; 
 melt all but the mercurial ointment together, 
 then add the ointment of mercury, stir till well 
 mixed, and immediately pour into moulds of 
 the capacity of 15 gr. The above makes 12 
 suppositories. 
 
 Suppository of Korphia. S^n. Supposiio- 
 EIUM MORPHIA (B. P.). Frep. Hydrochlorate 
 of morphia, 6 gr.; oil of theobroma, 90 gr.; 
 benzoated lard, 64 gr. ; white wax, 20 gr. ; 
 melt the wax and oil of theobroma with a 
 gentle heat, then add the hydrochlorate of 
 morphia and benzoated lard, previously rubbed 
 together in a mortar, and mix all the ingre- 
 dients thoroughly ; pour the mixture, while it 
 is fluid, into suitable moulds of the capacity 
 of 15 gr., or the fluid mixture may be allowed 
 to cool, and then be divided into 12 equal parts, 
 each of which should be made into a conical 
 form. 
 
 Suppository of Opium. S^n. Sttpposito- 
 BIUM OPII (Ph. U. S.). Frep. Extract of 
 opium, 12 gr. ; oil of theobroma, 848 gr. ; 
 water, q. s. Proceed as for carbolic acid sup- 
 positiiry. 
 
 Suppository for Files. Sgn. SirpposiTOEirM 
 
 HiEMOEEHOIDALE, S. SEDATrffTTM:, L. Frep. 
 
 1. Powdered opium, 2 gr. ; finely powdered 
 galls, 10 gr. ; spermaceti cerate, 1 dr. 
 
 2. (Ellis.) Powdered opium, 2 gr. ; soap, 
 10 gr. ; mix. 
 
 3. ( Richard.) Extracts of opium and stra- 
 monium, of each 1 gr. ; cacao-butter, 2 dr. 
 Used when the piles are very painful. 
 
 Suppository, Pnr'gative. Si/n. SrpposiTO- 
 EITJM OATHAETICUM, L. Frep. 1. Soap, 1 dr. ; 
 elaterium, 1 to 2 gr. ; mix. As a strong 
 purge. 
 
 2. (Ifiemann.) Soap, 2 dr. ; common salt, 
 1 dr. ; honey, q. s. ; mix. As a mild ca- 
 thartic. 
 
 Suppository of Quinine. &/». Scppobito- 
 EITIM QriN^E (Boudin). Frep. Sulphate of 
 quinine, 15 gr. ; butter of cacao, li dr. 
 Mix. 
 
 Suppository, Besol'vent. Si/n. Supposito- 
 EIUM EESOLVBNS, L. Frep. (Stafford.) Io- 
 dide of potassium, 3 to 4 gr. ; extracts of 
 henbane and hemlock, of each 6 gr. In en- 
 largeuient or induration of the prostate 
 gland. 
 
 Suppository of Shatany. St/n. Stjpposito- 
 EIUM EHATANI.E (P. Cod). Frep. Butter of 
 cacao, 1 dr. ; extract of rhatany, 15 gr., for 1 
 suppository. 
 
 Suppository, Sed'ative. See above. 
 
 Suppository of Sulphate of Soda. St/n. 
 
 SlTPPOSITORIUM SOD.E SITLPHATIS (Phoebus). 
 Frep. Dried sulphate of soda, 2 dr. ; pow- 
 dered soap, 4 dr. ; honey, q. s. For 4 sup- 
 positories. To be smeared over with oil when 
 applied. 
 
 Suppository of Tannic Acid. Si/n. Supposi- 
 
SURGEKY 
 
 1601 
 
 tomrii AciDiTANXici (B. p.). Prep. Tannio 
 acid, 36 gr. ; benzouwd lard, 44 gr. ; white 
 wai, 10 gr. ; oil of tlieobroiua, 90 gr. ; melt 
 the wiix and oil with a gentle heat, then add 
 the tannic acid and benzoated lard, previoasly 
 rubbed tngetlier, and mix thoroughly. Pour 
 the inixturo while it is fluid into suitable 
 uioulda of tlie laparity of 15 gr. The above 
 makes 12 suppositories. 
 Suppository, Ver'miftige. Si/n. Supposito- 
 
 HIUM ANTIIKLMINTICUM, S.iVEHMlFtTOOM, L. 
 Prep. (Swediaur.) Aloes, 4 dr.; common 
 salt, 3 dr. ; flour, 2 dr.; honey, q. s. to make 
 a ttitf mass ; divide into proper-shaped pieces, 
 weighing about 16 gr. each. One to be used 
 after each motion. 
 
 Suppositories of Aloes. Syn. Svfpobitorta 
 AlOKS (B. P.). Prep. Aloes in 6ne powder. 
 1 dr. ; oil of theobroma, 300 gr. Procteed as 
 for carbolic acid suppository, omitting the 
 wiiter. 
 
 Suppositories of Assafcetida. Sun. Stippo- 
 
 BITOBIA ASSAFCETIDjE (Ph. U. S.). Prep. 
 Tincture of assat'oetida, 1 oz. ; oil of theobroma, 
 320 gr. Let tlie tincture evaporate by expo- 
 sure to the air until of the consistence of a 
 thick syrup, and proceed as for suppositories 
 of carbolic acid. 
 
 Suppositories of Belladonna. S^|n. Sttpfo- 
 SITOEIA BELLADONN/E (Ph. U. S.). Prep. 
 Alcoholic extract of belladonna, 6 gr. ; oil of 
 theobroma, 354. gr. Proceed as for carbolic 
 acid suppositories. 
 
 Suppositories of Carbolic Acid with Soap. 
 Siin. Sirppo8iTORiA aiidi cabbolici ctjm 
 6AP0NE (B. P.). Prep. Carbolic acid, 12 gr. ; 
 curd snap, in powder, 180 gr. ; starch, q. s. ; 
 mix the ciirbolic acid with the soap, and add 
 starch, q. s., to make of a suitable consistency ; 
 divide into 12 equal parts, and make each 
 suppository into u conical or other convenient 
 form. 
 
 Suppositories of Colocynth. Si/n. Supposi- 
 
 TOEIA C0L0CTNIHIDI8 (Sp. Pll.). Prep. 
 Colocynth, 30 gr.; salt, 1 dr. Evaporate to a 
 due consistence. 
 Suppositories of UorpMa with Soap. Syn. 
 
 SdpPOSIIOEIA MOEPHIJB CUM SAPONE (B. P.). 
 Prep. Hydroclilorate of morphia, 6 gr. j 
 glycerin of starch, 50 gr. ; curd soap in pow- 
 der, 100 gr. ; starch, q. s. Mix tlie lijdro- 
 chlorate with the glycerin of starch iuul soap, 
 and add starch q. s. to form a paste of suitable 
 consistence. Divide into 12 equal parts, each 
 of which is to be made into a conical or other 
 convenient form of suppository. 
 
 Suppositories of Tannic Acid with Soap. 
 Syn. SupposiTOEiA acidi tankici cum ba- 
 POK« (B.P.), Prep. Tannic acid, 36 gr. ; 
 glycerin of starch, 50 gr.; curd soap in 
 piiwder, 100 gr. ; starch, q. s. Mix the tannic 
 acid with the glycerin of starch and soap, and 
 add starch q. s. to form ii paste of suitable 
 consistence, divide into 12 equal parts, each of 
 TOL. n 
 
 which is to be maile into a conical or other 
 convenient form of suppository. 
 
 Suppositories, VBginal. Si/n. Suppositobia 
 VAOINALE (Guadrint). Prep. Liquiil chloride 
 of zinc, 5 minims ; sulphate of morphia, \ gr. ; 
 mix vN ith 2 dr. of the following paste : — I'hick 
 mnciliigeof trngacauth, 6 parts; white sugar, 
 3 parts ; starcli, U parts. Mr Druitt prescribes 
 in leucorrlioea : — Tannin, 10 gr., with niuci- 
 lajze of trasracanth, q. s. 
 
 SURGERY. " This word," fays Brande, " in 
 its joodern acceptation, may be defined as the 
 practical nppl cation of science, in the \ise of 
 all mechanical and in^ti-umentalraeims. for the 
 removal of diseisei and the reliif of human 
 suffering." 
 
 One ol the earliest professors of the ancient 
 art of surgery, of whom history affords a 
 reliable ricciril, vias Hippocrates, a Greek, who 
 lived in the lifth century of our era, and who 
 seems to have been a man of considerable skill 
 for the period in which he tiouri-hed, since he 
 could set fractures, reduce dislocations, and 
 perform other important opciations. About 
 two centuries after Hippocrates the studies of 
 surgery, anatomy, and medicine were prose- 
 cuted with evident success at Alexandria. The 
 Alexandrian school produced some able sur- 
 geons, one of whom, Animiauus, invented an 
 instrument for crushing the stone in the 
 blailder, and was thus the first to practise the 
 now important surgical operation known as 
 lithotrity. At the beginning of the Christian 
 era Celsns practised tlie ait of surgery in 
 Rome ; he appears to have been the first to 
 operate for cataract, and to apply ligatures to 
 arteries alter operations. It is curious to note 
 that so practical a people as the Komans held 
 the art of surgery in compaiative contempt, 
 and banished its professors, whose services 
 they discarded, for the practice of spells, incan- 
 tations, and charms. 
 
 In the sixth century lived Oitins, who con- 
 ceived the idea of dissolving urinary calculi by 
 the administration of internal remedies ; and in 
 the tenth, Avicenna, who, it has been conjec- 
 tured, invented thefiexiblecatbeter.andwas the 
 inventor of the instrument now known as Hey's 
 saw. In 1:;71 the Paris College of Surgeons 
 was founded, and the College of Surgeons of 
 London in 1460, and the Edinburgh Culleu-e 
 in 1505. 
 
 The most prominent figure in the aunals of 
 surgery of the 16th century was Pare, a man of 
 great originality of thought, whose works 
 exercised a considerable influence over his own 
 contemporaries, and for many years subi-e- 
 quentl.v. Towards the end of the 17th century 
 lived Wiseman, Serjeant Burgeon to Cluirh's 
 II. Wiseman was a man ofcon^iderable ability, 
 and was the first to demonstrate that gun-shot 
 wounds were not of a poisonous nature ; and 
 that therefore the old practiie of applyiii:: pain- 
 ful and caustic dressings to them might most 
 advantageously be abandoned. A conteni. 
 of \Vifem;»n was Vouus, of Plvmoi.tn, 
 101 
 
 pom 
 
1602 
 
 SUSPENDED ANIMATION— SYMBOLS 
 
 who merits notice as being tlie flist who per- 
 formed the flap-operation in amputation. 
 
 In the 17th century also lived Prere St 
 Cosme, a French monk, who obtained consider- 
 able fame as an operator for lithotomy, for the 
 performance of which he regarded himself as 
 especially chosen by Heaven. In the 18th 
 century lived in England Cheselden and Dou- 
 glas, two eminent lithotomists; John Hunter, 
 Pott and Ley ; in Scotland, Benjamin and John 
 Bell and Monro; and in Ireland, O'Halloran 
 and Deases ; whilst in France flourished Petit, 
 celebrated for his treatise on diseases of the 
 bones ; from Germany, Rechter and Haller. 
 
 In this century (1784) was founded the 
 Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. In the 
 present century there are few branches of 
 science in which greaterprogresshasbeenmade 
 than that of surgery. From amongst the most 
 eminent of the English surgeons of the present 
 century we may select the following names : — 
 Abernethy, Blizard, Astley Cooper, Brodie, 
 Dnlrymple, Guthrie, Aston Key, Liston, 
 Stanley, Travers, Arnott, Bowman, Ei-ichsen, 
 Fergusson, Prescott Hewett, Hilton, Lane, 
 Lawrence, Paget, Spencer Wells, Mar-hall, 
 Christopher Heath, Durham, Bryant, Nunn, 
 Lee, H. Smith, Mason, and Pollock. 
 
 SUSPENDED ANIMATION. SeeAsPHYXiA. 
 
 SWAL'LOW. Three or four species of 
 hirundo (Linn.) pass under this name. It 
 was once held in great repute in medicine. 
 Kven the excrement was included among the 
 simples of the Ph. L. 1618. The swallow is an 
 insectivorous bird, but, like the sparrow and 
 rook, is much persecuted for its good services. 
 It has been calculated that, directly and indi- 
 rectly, a single swallow is the humble means of 
 lessening the race of one kind of insect alone 
 ro the extent of 560,970,489,000,000,000 of 
 its race in one year. 
 
 SWEEPING. Before commencing to sweep, 
 the floor sliould be strewed with a good 
 amount of damp tea-leaves, saved for the 
 purpose ; these collect the dust and thereby save 
 the furniture, which as far as practicable should 
 be covered up during the process. Tea-leaves 
 may also be advantageously used upon drug- 
 gets and short-piled carpets. Light sweeping 
 and soft brooms are desirable if these latter are 
 to be operated upon. Many a carpet is prema- 
 turely worn out by over-violent sweeping. 
 
 In sweeping thick-piled carpets, such as 
 Axminster and Turkey carpets, the servant 
 ■should always be Instructed to brush the 
 way of the pile ; by following this advice the 
 curpets may be kept clean for years ; but if the 
 broom is used in a contrary direction, all the 
 dust will be forced into the carpet, and soon 
 spml it. 
 
 SWEET BALLS. Prep. Take of Florentine 
 "■orris root, 3 oz. ; cassia, 1 oz. ; cloves, rhodium 
 wood, and lavender flowers, of each ^ oz. ; 
 ambergris and musk, of each 6 gr. ; oil of 
 verbena, 10 or 12 drops; beat them to a paste, 
 .farai this into balls with mucilage of gum 
 
 tragacanth made with rose water, pierce them, 
 whilst soft, with a need4e, and, when they are 
 quite dry and hard, polish them. Worn in 
 the pocket as a peirfume. Some persons varnish 
 them, but that keeps in the smell. 
 
 SWEET BAY. Syn. Laitebi,; Lattetjs 
 NOBiLis (Linn.), L. The fruit (laubi BACca: ; 
 LATTKUS — Ph. L.), as well as the leaves (latjbi 
 FOLIA), are reputed aromatic, stimulant, and 
 narcotic. They were formerly very popular 
 in coughs, colic, bysteiia, suppressions, &c. ; 
 and externally, in sprains, bruises, &c. 
 
 SWEET'BREAD. The thymus gland of the 
 calf. When boiled, it is light and digestible ; 
 but when highly dressed and seasoned it is 
 improper both for dyspeptics and invalids. 
 (Pereira.) 
 
 SWEET FLAG. Syn. ACOETTS CALAMUS, L. 
 A plant of the natural order Orontiacece. The 
 rhizone ('root') is an aromatic stimulant, and 
 is regarded by some as a valuable medicine in 
 agues, and as a useful adjunct to other stimu- 
 lants and bitter tonics. It is sometimes em- 
 ployed by the rectifiers of gin. The volatile 
 oil obtained from it by distillation is employed 
 for scenting snuff and in the preparation of 
 aromatic vinegar. 
 
 SWEET'MEATS. Under this head are pro- 
 perly included confections, candies, and pre- 
 serves, in sngar ; but, as generally employed, 
 the word embraces all the sweet compounds of 
 the confectioner. 
 
 Sweetmeats, as well as cakes, blancmange, 
 and jellies, are not unfrequently coloured with 
 deleterious substances, the consequences of 
 which are always pernicious, and in many 
 instances have proved fatal. Gamboge, a 
 drastic cathartic ; chrome yellow, red lead, 
 orpiment, emerald green, and various other 
 pigments containing lead, arsenic, copper, or 
 other poisons, have been thus employed. The 
 whole of these may be readily detected by the 
 tests and characteristics appended to "their 
 respective names. 
 
 The colours and stains which may be 
 safely employed to increase the beauty of 
 these articles are noticed under Staiks and 
 Liqueur. 
 
 SWEETS. Home-made wines; British wines. 
 
 SWINE-POX. See Poz. 
 
 SYDENHAM'S LENITIVE. Prep. Take of 
 rhubarb (recently grated or powdered), 3 dr. ; 
 tamarinds, 2 oz. ; senna, f oz. ; coriander seeds 
 (bruised), 2 dr.; boiling water, Ipint; mace- 
 rate for 3 hours in a covered vessel, and strain. 
 An excellent stomachic and laxative. — Dose, 
 ^ to 1 wine-glassful. 
 
 SYL'VIC ACID. St/n. SiLvic acid. The 
 portion of common resin or colophony which is 
 the least soluble in cold and somewhat dilute 
 alcohol. 
 
 SYMBOLS. In chemistry are representa- 
 tions of one atom of each of the elementary 
 bodies, by the capital initial letter with or 
 without the addition of a small letter of their 
 
SYMBOLS 
 
 1603 
 
 Latin names. AsC, for carhon ; Fe {ferrum), 
 iron ; 0, oxt^gen^ Ac. 
 Symbols, Alchemical' — 
 
 Acetum . 
 
 Acptuni (It^Btillattim 
 Acidum . 
 At-r 
 
 Acrui^o . 
 Alumcn . 
 Alemhic . 
 £ther . 
 
 Ammonium 
 Aqua 
 
 Aqua fortis 
 Aqua pluvialis 
 Aqua reifia 
 Arena . 
 Argentum 
 Arsenicum 
 Auripigmentui 
 Aurum . 
 Aurantium 
 Bain, aronee 
 
 Bain, miiritc 
 
 Buln. vnporis 
 
 Baryta . 
 
 Biamutli 
 
 Borax . 
 
 Caloiria . 
 
 Calcaria usta 
 
 Camphora 
 
 Cancer . 
 
 Caput mortuum 
 
 Carbo . 
 
 Carbouicum 
 
 Card una beued ictus 
 
 Card, mariaiius 
 
 Cera 
 
 Cini3 clavelatum 
 
 Cinis 
 
 + 
 
 © 
 O 
 XX 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 D 
 
 0-0 
 0=0 
 
 © 
 
 ©rant. 
 
 B .:•. 
 
 BM 
 BV 
 
 V 
 
 + 
 
 V 
 
 n 
 
 69 
 Q 
 
 A 
 A 
 
 C-B- 
 C-M- 
 
 1 This list of alchemical and botanical symliols and 
 abbreviations is a reprint of that contained in the 
 'Lexicon of Terms used in Medicine and tlie Allied 
 Sciences,' nriw beinjf published by (he New Sydenham 
 Society, under the Editorship of Henry Power, M.B., 
 iud LeoDurd W. Sedgwick, M.U. 
 
 Cinnabar 
 
 C^^rnu ceni 
 
 Crislalli 
 
 Crucibulum 
 
 Cuprum . 
 
 Distiilure 
 
 Ferrum . 
 
 Fictile 
 
 Fixum . 
 
 Florcs . 
 
 Gumini , 
 
 Hora 
 
 Hydrargyrum 
 
 Hydr. cliloridum 
 
 Hjdr. corrosivum 
 
 Ignis 
 
 Kali 
 
 Lapis 
 
 Litiiargynim 
 
 Magnet . 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Menstruum 
 
 Natrum , 
 
 Nitrum . 
 
 Oleum . 
 
 Oxidatum 
 
 Oxidulatum 
 
 Per deliquium 
 
 Plumbum 
 
 Precipitare 
 
 Preparare 
 
 Pulvis . 
 Regulua . 
 Kesina . 
 Ketorta . 
 Saccharum 
 Sal . 
 Sal kali . 
 Sal ammoniac 
 Sal medius 
 Sapo 
 Spiritus . 
 
 ^DTT 
 
 C.C 
 
 XII6 
 
 P 
 ? 
 aire 
 
 d 
 Fict. 
 
 Y 
 FI- 
 
 Y^alcor. 
 A 
 
 V 
 
 o o 
 
 Xdal: 
 Xdul- 
 Pd- 
 
 69 
 A 
 
 // 
 
 □ 
 
04 
 
 
 SYMBOLS 
 
 Symbols, A\chemic3i.\— Continued. 
 
 S J-U 
 
 Spiritus villi . . . . V V 
 Spiritus reciificatissimus . ^^SS. 
 Spii-itus rectificatua . ^ *' 
 
 
 T, 
 
 SUnnum 
 
 . H 
 
 
 
 Stibium ■. 
 
 Stratum super stratum 
 
 . S,S,S. 
 
 
 Sublimare 
 
 =Q= 
 
 
 
 Succinum 
 
 ® 
 
 
 
 Sulphur . 
 
 . ^ 
 
 
 
 Tartarus 
 
 . g 
 
 
 
 Terra . 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 Terra foliata . 
 
 . \f 
 
 
 
 Tinctura 
 
 . "E 
 
 
 
 Vitriolum. 
 
 . (&< 
 
 
 
 Vitrum 
 
 • XX 
 
 
 
 Volatile . 
 
 . A 
 
 
 c?- 
 
 Urina 
 
 CD 
 
 
 
 U stare . 
 Zincum 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 <?: 
 
 A,© 
 B, ® 
 
 P 
 
 Symbols and Abbreviations, Botanical. 
 /7\ Monocarp. A plant which produces 
 ^ aeed only once during its life. The 
 
 symbol representing the sun. 
 
 A.nnual. A monocarp which dies in 
 the same year that it germinated, 
 e. g. Mustard. 
 
 Biennial. A monocarp which pro- 
 duces leaves only the first year and 
 perfects its seed the next, e.g. Mul- 
 lein. 
 
 Perennial. A plant which produces 
 seed for an indefinite number of 
 years, e. g. Apple, 
 
 Mhizocarp. A perennial the stems 
 of which die down to the ground 
 every year, e. g. Rhubarb, Mint. 
 The symbol representing Jupiter, 
 which has a period of revolution 
 round the sun of 12 years. 
 
 Oauhcarp. A perennial, the stems 
 of which are persistent throughout 
 the whole of its life, e. g. Apple. 
 The symbol representing Saturn, 
 the period of revolution of which 
 round the sun is 30 years. 
 
 Serb. A plant, the stems of which 
 remain soft or succulent, e. g. Mhtt 
 or Rhubarb. 
 
 Q O Shrub. A plant in which the stems 
 •* -^ are woody, and which usually divide 
 
 near the ground into numerous 
 branches and twigs, e. g. Lilac. 
 
 X> Under shrub. A small shrub; one 
 
 * that does not grow more than 3 feet 
 
 in height, e. g. Gooseberry 
 
 H 
 
 c 
 
 6 
 P 
 
 ? 
 
 7 
 P 
 
 o = 
 
 Oil 
 
 o> 
 
 oil II 
 
 O lllll 
 
 Tree. A plant which grows to 20feet 
 or more in height, having a woody 
 stem forming a distinct trunk, e. g. 
 Oak. 
 
 A climbing plant which follows the 
 sun, e. g. Sop. 
 
 A climbing plant which moves against 
 the sun, e. g. Scarlet-runner. 
 
 Flowers having stamens only (uni- 
 sexual, fctaminiferous, or male), 
 e. g. male flowers of Box. The sym- 
 bol representing Mars, the period 
 of revolution of which is 2 years. 
 
 Flowers having pistils only (uni- 
 sexual, pistillate, or female), e. g. 
 female flowers of ^03;. The symbol 
 representing Venus. 
 
 Flowers having both stamens and 
 pistils (bisexual or hermaphrodite), 
 e. ff. Buttercup. 
 
 Abortive staminiferous flowers (neu- 
 ter). 
 
 Abortive pistillate flowers (neuter), 
 e. g. the florets of the ray in Daisy. 
 
 MoncecioTis plants, producing male 
 and female flowers upon the same 
 individual, e.g. Box. 
 
 Dioecious plants, producing male and 
 female flowers, but upon separate 
 individuals, e. g. Willow. 
 
 Polygamous plants, which produce 
 hermaphrodite and un isexual flowers 
 upon the same or difi'erent indi- 
 viduals, e.g. Atriplex. 
 
 Indefinite in number ; applied to 
 stamens and other parts of flowers. 
 
 Cotyledons accumbent, radicle lateral. 
 
 incumbent, 
 conduplicate, 
 twice folded, 
 thrice folded, 
 
 dorsal. 
 
 V 
 V 
 
 Tiimerous, applied to flowers when 
 the whorls of the flower are mul- 
 tiples of three, as in most endogens, 
 
 Pentamerous, applied to flowers when, 
 the whorls of the flower are mul- 
 ti pies of five, as iu exogens generally* 
 
 Bab., Babinglon. 
 
 Berk., Berkeley. 
 
 Br., Brown. 
 
 Cal., calyx. 
 
 Caul, caulis, stem. 
 
 CI., Classis, class. 
 
 Cor., corolla. 
 
 Cuv., Cuvier. 
 
 -D. C, or De Cand., De Candolle. 
 
 Endl., Endlicher. 
 
 Fam., family. 
 
 Fr., fructus, fruit. 
 
 Gen., genus, genus. 
 
 Hook., Hooker. 
 
 Juss., Jussieu. 
 
 D. or Linn., LinneeuB. 
 
 Lindl., Lindley. 
 
 Nat. Ord., Natural order. 
 
SYMPATHETIC INK— SYKUP 
 
 1605 
 
 0. or Ord., orJo, order. 
 
 Per., pcrinnthus, perianth. 
 
 Rod., radix, root. 
 
 Kick., Kichnrd. 
 
 Sp. or Spec, epecies, species. 
 
 Bubord., Subunler. 
 
 Subk., Subkingdom. 
 
 Var., varietas, rariety, 
 
 V. 8. c, vidi siccam cultam, a dry cultivated plant 
 
 seen. 
 V. ». s., Tidi giocam spontancain, a dried specimen 
 
 seen. 
 V. V. c, vidi vivara cultam, a living cultivjited 
 
 plant seen. 
 V. v. s., vidi vivam spontaneam, a living wild 
 
 plant seen, 
 Wmd., WiUdenow. 
 With., Withering. 
 
 SYMPATHET'IC INK. See Ikk. 
 
 SYN'APTASE. Sgn. Emdlbin. The nnme 
 given by llobi<|UPt to the Emdisin, a nitro- 
 genixed or albuminoiil principle existing in 
 both the bitter and sweet almond. It possesses 
 the remarkable property of converting amyg- 
 dalin, in the presence of water, into hydro- 
 cyanic acid and the essentiiil oil of bitter 
 almonds. 100 gr. of amygdalin yield, under 
 the influence of eynaptase and water, 47 gr. 
 of raw oil, and 59 gr. of anhydrous hydro- 
 cyanic acid. (Liebig.) 
 
 SYN'COPE. See Fainting. 
 
 SYR'UP. St/n. SiKUP, Sirop ; STiwpns, 
 L. A saturated, or nearly saturated, solution 
 of sngar in water, either simple, flavoured, or 
 medicated. 
 
 In the preparation of syrups care should be 
 taken to employ the best refined sugar, and 
 either distilled water or filtered rain water ; by 
 which they will be rendered much less liable 
 to spontaneous decomposition, and will bo per- 
 fectly tranparent, without the trouble of cla- 
 rification. When inferior sugar is employed, 
 clarification is always necessary. This is best 
 done by dissolving the sugar In the water, or 
 other aqueous menstruum, in the cold, and 
 then beating up a little of the cold syrup with 
 some white of egg, and an ounce or two of 
 cold water, until the mixture froths well ; thU 
 must be added to the syrup in the boiler, and 
 the whole ' whisked up ' to a good froth j heat 
 shonld now he applied, and the scum which 
 forms removed from time to time with a clean 
 'skimmer.' As soon as the syrup begins to 
 ■lightly simmer it must be removed from the 
 fire, and allowed to stand until it has cooled 
 a little, when it should be again skimmed, if 
 necess.iry.and then passed through clean flan- 
 nel. When vegetable infusions or solutions 
 enter into tlie composition of syrups, they 
 should \)e rendered perfectly transparent by 
 filtration or clarification, before being added 
 to the sugar. 
 
 M. XIagnes-Lahens' describes below a pro- 
 cess fir the clarification of syrups, the origi- 
 nator of which was JI. Demarest, a pbarnia- 
 
 ' ' Germ. Pharm. Chem.,' 4th Series, xv, 1« (' Year 
 Book, Phar.,' 1672). 
 
 cien. The process is as follows : — White 
 unsized paper is beaten np into a pulp with a 
 portion of the syrup, and then mixed with the 
 bulk. The proportion of paper should be one 
 gram to every litre of syrup ; and the latter 
 should be maintained at a temperature of 35° 
 to 40° C. 
 
 A filter of moleskin capable of holding about 
 one third of the volume of the syrup, and hav- 
 ing the form of an inverted sugor-loaf, is sup- 
 ported over a suitable receptacle; the syrup 
 with the pulp is poured rapidly into it, so as 
 to fill it as quickly as possible ; and the filter 
 is keptfuU so long as any of thesyrup remains. 
 When the greater part has run through, and 
 but little remains in the filter, and conse- 
 quently the 'felting' of the paper pulp is 
 complete, the syrup which has already run 
 through, is again poured into the filter. The 
 liquid which now passes is perfectly bright, 
 and may be collected. In pouring the syrup 
 into the filter, the stream should be directed 
 into the middle, and not upon the sides, so as 
 to avoid disarranging the felt, wiiich would 
 interfere with the success of the operation. 
 
 The author very strongly recoimnends this 
 method for the clarification of all kinds of 
 syrups; its advantages being that it results in 
 a perfectly limpid liquid, and that it involves 
 neither trouble nor loss of time or material. 
 He states that in 4 or 6 hours, with a filter of 
 8 litres iu capacity, 24 litres of syrup may be 
 clarified. 
 
 The small quantity of syrup retained in the 
 filter and pulp, may be recovered by pouring 
 ou a sufficient quantity of warm water, press- 
 ing strongly, evaporating the liquid to a 
 syrupy consistence, heating up with a little 
 paper pulp, and passing it again through 
 a small filter. 
 
 The proper quantity of sugar for syrups will, 
 in general, be found to be 2 lbs. (avoir.) to 
 every imperial pint of water or thin aqueous 
 fluid. These proportions, allowing for the 
 water that is lost by evaporation during the 
 process, are those bi'st calculated to produce a 
 syrup of the proper consistence, and pos- 
 sessing good 'keeping qualities.' They closely 
 correspond to those recommended by Guibourt 
 for the production of a perfect syrup, which, 
 he says, cousists of 30 parts of sugar to 16 
 parts of water. 
 
 In the preparation of syrups it is of great 
 importance to employ as little heat as possible, 
 as a soliiti<in of sugar, even when kept at the 
 temperature of boiling water, undergoes slow 
 decomposition. The plan which we adopt is 
 to pour the water (cold) over the sugar, and 
 to allow the two to lie together for a few 
 hours, in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, 
 and then to apply a gentle heat (preferably 
 that of steam or water bath) to finish the 
 solution. Some persons (falsely) deem a syrup 
 ill prepared unless it has been allowed to boil 
 well; but if this method be adopted, the 
 ebullition shonld be only of the gentlest kind 
 
1606 
 
 SYRUP 
 
 ('simmerir.g'), and should be checked after 
 the lapse of 1 or 2 minutes. 
 
 Mr Orynski recommends the preparation of 
 all syrups without the application of heat, as 
 follows : 
 
 Introduce 30 or 32 oz. of sugar (according 
 to the temperature) into a percolator, in which 
 has been previously introduced a piece of lint 
 or sponge, well adjusted, and gradually pour 
 on 16 ounces of liquid, so as to make the per- 
 colate (syrup) pass drop by drop. If the first 
 liquid is turbid pour it back into the perco- 
 lator till the syrup passes dear. 
 
 The advantages claimed for this process 
 are: First, the syrups are clear; and there 
 is no necessity for purifying them. 
 
 Secondly, they possess their medicinal pro- 
 perties unaltered; since many drugs may be 
 injured by heat, more especially aromatics, 
 and those containing readily volatile sub- 
 stances ; and — 
 
 Thirdly, the syrups will neither crystallise 
 nor ferment ; and may be prepared in large 
 quantity, provided tbe vessels or bottles are 
 clean before filling them with syrup. 
 
 When it is necessary to thicken u syrnp 
 by boiling, a few fragments of glass should 
 be introduced, in order to lower the boiling 
 point. 
 
 To make highly transparent syrups, the 
 sugar should be in a single lump, and, by 
 preference, taken from the bottom or broad 
 end of the loaf, as, when taken from the 
 smaller end, or if it be powdered or bruised, 
 the syrup will be more or less cloudy. 
 
 Syrups are judged, by the laboratory man, 
 to be sufficiently boiled when some taken up in 
 a spoon, pours out like oil, or a drop cooled 
 on the thumb-nail gives a proper 'thread' 
 when touched. When a thin skin appears on 
 blowing upon the syrup, it is judged, by the 
 same party, to be completely saturated. These 
 rude tests often lead to errors, which might 
 be easily prevented by employing the proper 
 proportions, or determining the sp. gr. 
 
 A fluid ounce of SATURATED SYEUP weighs 
 677i gr. ; a gallon weighs 13J lbs. (avoir.) ; 
 iis sp. gr. is 1'319 to 1'321, or 35° of Baumes 
 iierometer ; its boiling-point is 221° Pahr., and 
 its density at the temperature of 212° is 1'260 
 to 1*261, or 30' Baume. The syrups pre- 
 pared with the- juices of fruits, or which 
 contain much extractive matter, as those of sar- 
 saparilla, poppies, &c., mark about 2° or 3° more 
 on Baum^'s scale than the other syrups. 
 
 In most pharmaceutical works directions 
 are given to completely saturate the water 
 with sugar. Our own experience, which is 
 extensive, leads us to disapprove of such a 
 practice, since we find that, under all ordinary 
 circumstances, a syrup with a very slight ex- 
 cess of water keeps better than one fully satu- 
 rated. In the latter case a portion of sugar 
 generally crystallises out on standing, and 
 thus, by abstracting sugar from the remainder 
 of the syrup, so weakens it, that it rapidly 
 
 ferments and spoils. This change proceeds at 
 a rapidity proportionate to the temperature. 
 Saturated syrup kept in a vessel that is fre- 
 quently uncorked or exposed to the air soon 
 loses sufficient water, by evaporation from its 
 surface, to cause the formation of minute 
 crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom 
 of the vessel, continue to increase in size at 
 the expense of the sugar in the solution. We 
 have seen a single 6-gallon stone bottle, in 
 which syrup has been kept for some time, the 
 inside of which, when broken, has been found 
 to be entirely cased with sugar candy, amount- 
 ing in weight to 16 or 18 lbs. On the other 
 hand, syrups containing too much water also 
 rapidly ferment, and become ascescent ; but 
 of the two this is the less evil, and may be 
 more easily prevented. The proportions of 
 sugar and water given above will form an ex- 
 cellent syrup, provided care be taken that an 
 undue quantity be not lost by evaporation. 
 
 The decimal part of the number denoting 
 the sp. gr. of a syrup, multiplied by 26, gives 
 the number of pounds of sugar it contains 
 per gallon, very nearly. (Ure.) 
 
 In boiling syrups, if they appear likely to 
 boil over, a little oil, or rubbing the edges of 
 the pan with soap, will prevent it. 
 
 Syrups may be decoloured by agitation with, 
 or filtration through, recently burnt animal 
 charcoal. Medicated syrups should not, how- 
 ever, be treated in this way. 
 
 The preservation of syrups, as well as of all 
 other saccharine solutions, is best promoted by 
 keeping them in a moderately cool, but not a 
 very cold, place. " Let syrups be kept in ves- 
 sels well closed, and in a situation where the 
 temperature never rises above 55° Fahr." 
 (Ph. L.) They are better kept in smaller 
 rather than in large bottles, as the longer a 
 bottle lasts the more frequently it will be 
 opened, and, consequently, the more it will be 
 exposed to the air. By bottling syrups whilst 
 boiling hot, and immediately corking down 
 and tying the bottles over with bladder per- 
 fectly air-tight, they may be preserved, even 
 at a summer heat, for years, without ferment- 
 ing or losing their transparency. 
 
 The 'candying,' or crystallisation, of syrup, 
 unless it be oversaturated with sugar, may be 
 prevented by the addition of a little acetic or 
 citric acid (2 or 3 dr. per gall.). 
 
 The fermentation of syrups may be effec- 
 tually prevented by the addition of a little 
 sulphite of potassa or of limes. Chlorate of 
 potassa has been proposed for this purpose by 
 Dr Macculloch, on theoretical grounds. M. 
 Chereau recommends the addition of some 
 (about 3 to 43) sugar of milk, with the same 
 intention. Dr Durand asserts that by adding 
 about 1 fl. dr. of ' Hof mann's anodyne ' to each 
 pint of syrup, the accession of fermentation 
 may not only be prevented, but arrested when 
 it occurs. Fermenting syrups may be imme- 
 diately restored by exposing the vessel con- 
 taining them to the temperature of boiling 
 
SYEUP 
 
 1607 
 
 wiiter. The ttddition of a little npirit is or- 
 dtri'il in tlie new ' Loiidoii I'liarniucopoela.' 
 
 la lU'ikinij; the above additions to syrup, 
 care must be hud not to mix incompatible 
 eabstances. i'lius, in general the two'methods 
 referred to cannot lie practised together. 
 
 Sjrrup is, periiaps, the worst possible form of 
 medicine, owing to tlie difficulty of accurately 
 saturating it witli active medicinals, and its 
 liability to change. Few persons think that 
 *' sweetness renders a nauHeuus drug more 
 palatable." See also Squire's ' Companion to 
 the Ijritish FharmacopoDia.' 
 
 8yrnp of Ac'etate of Hor'pUa. Si/n. Sr- 
 
 KCPUS MOliPUIjE ACETATIS, L. I'np. (Ph. 
 
 D.) Solution of iietetute of morphia, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 simple syrup, 15 fl. oz. ; mix. Eiich H. oz. 
 contains ^ gr. of acetate. — Dose, J to 2 tea- 
 spooul'uls. 
 
 Syrup of Al'mond. Si/n. Barley svkup, 
 Oeokat; SYunpos amyodalje. L. ; Siuop 
 u'oBaBAT, Fr. Frep. 1. Sweet almonds, 1 lb. ; 
 bitter almonds, 1 oz, ; blanch, beat them to a 
 smooth paste, and make an emulsion with 
 barley water, 1 quart ; strain, to each pint add 
 of sugar, 2 lbs., and u table-spoonful or two 
 of orango-Hower water; put the mixture into 
 small buttles, and preserve it in a cool place. 
 Suiue persons add a little brandy. 
 
 2. (Ph. Bar.) Sweet almonds, 8 oz. ; bitter 
 almuuils, 2 oz. ; blanch them, after cold ma- 
 ceration, then beat them in a marble mortar, 
 with a wooden pestle, to a paste, adding, gra- 
 dually, of water, 16 fl. oz. ; orange-flower 
 water, 3 fl. oz. ; alter straining through 
 tlannol, dissolve 3 lbs. of sugar in each pint 
 of the emulsion. An agreeable pectoral and 
 demulcent. 
 
 Syrup of Aniseed. Syn. Sybupus anisi. 
 Prep. Infuse ^ oz. of bruised aniseed in 4 oz. 
 of hot water, strain, and add 2 dr. of sugai-. 
 
 Syrup, Antiscorbutic. Sya. Sybupus an- 
 TIscOBBUriCDS (P. Cod.) Prep. Scurvy- 
 gross, watercressus, horseradish, ail fresh, of 
 each 10 oz.; buckbean, 1 oz. ; bitter orange 
 peel, 2 oz. ; cinnamon, i oz. ; white wine, 40 
 oz. (by weight) ; macerate 2 days and distil off 
 10 oz. (by weight) ; then add to the distillate, 
 sugar, 25 oz. ; strain the residue left in the 
 retort, decant and make into a syrup with 
 another 25 oz. of sugar ; clarify with white of 
 eij'g, and when cold, add to it the former 
 syrup. — Dose, 4 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Balsam of Peru. S>/n. Sybupus 
 BiisAMi PEUuviANi. (Ph. G.) Prep. Bal- 
 ssin of Peru, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 11 oz. ; 
 digest with frequent agitation till cold, and 
 form 10 oz. of the filtered liquid into a syrup, 
 with 18 oz. of sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Bark. Syu. Sybupus ciNCHOsa;. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. Calisaya bark, 1 oz. ; perco- 
 lote, with 10 oz. of proof spirits (-996), and 
 then with water, so as to yield 10 oz. of 
 liquid; distil off spirit, filter, and add 10 oz. 
 of sugar ; reduce by a gentle heat, so as to 
 obtain 15i oz. (by weight) of product. 
 
 Syrup of Bark, Vinous. Sy». SYEUPrs 
 cinchona; vinoscs. (1^. Cod.) Prep, ^oit 
 extract of bark, 1 oz. ; white wine, 2 pints 3 
 oz. ; dissolve, filter, add 3i lbs. of white sugar, 
 and dissolve by a water bath. 
 
 Syrnp of Belladonna. Si/n. Sviirrrs bel- 
 ladonna;. (P. Cod.) Tincture of belladonna 
 (P. Cod), J- oz. (by weight); syrup, 10 oz. (by 
 weight). 
 
 Syrup, Boyle's. See Syeup, Symphttio. 
 Syrup of Buck'thorn. Si/n. Sybupus bhamni 
 
 (B. P., Ph. L. &E.), S. BHAMNI CATIIABTICI, 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Juice of Buckthrn, 
 defecated by 3 davs' repose, 2 quarts; ginger 
 and allspice, of eacli (bruised) 6 dr. ; mace- 
 rate the spice in 1 jiiiit of the juice, at a gen- 
 tle heat, for 4 hours, and filter; boil the re- 
 mainder of the juice to IJ pint, mix the 
 liquors, dissolve therein of white sugar, 6 
 lbs.; and add to the (nearly cold) syiup (i 
 H. oz. of rectified spirit. In the Ph. E. the 
 spirit is omitted. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Buckthorn juice, 97 ; ginger, 
 sliced, 1 ; pimento, bruised, 1 ; refined sugar, 
 97; rectified spirit, 8 oz. ; evaporate the juice 
 to nearly half (|); add the ginger aud pimento, 
 digest at a gentle heat for tour hours, and 
 strain ; when cold add the spirit, let the mix- 
 ture st md for two days, then decant off the 
 clear liquor, and in this dissolve the sugar at 
 a gentle heat; sp. gr. 1-32. — Dose, 1 dr. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.)— a. Take of buckthorn juice, 
 3 gall.; bruised pimento and gin^'cr (sifted 
 from the dust), of each i lb.; simmer for 1.3 
 minutes, strain, and add of sugar, 41 lbs. 
 
 b. Take of buckthorn juice, 3 galls. ; boil to 
 2 gall. ; add of bruised pimento and ginirer 
 grnll's (free from dust), of each J lb. ; boil to 
 1 gall., strain, add molasses, 72 lbs., and finish 
 the boiling. 
 
 Obs. Syrup of buckthorn is a brisk but 
 unpleasant cathartic. It is now chiefly used 
 in veterinary practice. — Dose, i fl. oz. to 1 
 fl. oz. Should the colour be dull, i lie addition 
 of a few grains of citric or taitaric aeul will 
 brighten it. 
 
 Syrup of Cabbage-tree Bark. Sj/a. Sy- 
 bupus OEOFFEOYJE. (Dr Wright.) Prep. 
 Decoction of cabbage-tree bark made into a 
 syrup with twice its weight of sugar. Vermi- 
 fuge. — Dose, 1 to 4 tablespoonfuls. 
 
 Syrup of Cahinca. Si/n. Sybupus cahinc^. 
 (Soubeiran.) Prep. Alcoholic extract of 
 cahinca, 64 gr.; syrup, 16 oz. ; dissolve the 
 extract in a little water, and add the solution 
 to the boiling syrup. — Dose, 1 oz. daily. 
 
 Syrnp of Cap'illaire. Si/n. Sykup of 
 
 MAIDENHAIB; SyEUPUS ADIANTHI, SvKUPUS 
 CAPILLOBUM VENEEia, L. ; CaPILLAIBE, SiEOP 
 
 DE CAPILLAIBE, Pr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Cana- 
 dian maidenhair (Adiantum pedaitim—lj'wm.), 
 4 oz. ; boiling water, 2^ pints; infuse, strain, 
 add of white sugar, 5 lbs., and pour the boil- 
 ing clarified syiup over 2 oz. more of maiden- 
 hair; re-infuse for 2 hours, and again strain. 
 
1608 
 
 SYRUP 
 
 Ois. Demulcent. Clarified syrup flavoured 
 with orange-flower water or cura^oa is now 
 commonly sold for capillaibe. It is usually 
 ' put up ' in small bottles of a peculiar shape, 
 liuowu in the trade as ' capillaires.' It Is now 
 chiefly used to sweeten and flavour grog. See 
 Capillaike. 
 
 Syrup of Car'rageen. Syn. Stbup of Ice- 
 land MOSS. I'rep. Boil horehound, 1 oz., 
 liverwort, 6 dr., in water, 4 pints, for 15 mi- 
 nutes ; express and strain ; then add carrageen 
 (previously softened with cold water). 6 dr. ; 
 again boil for 15 minutes, strain through 
 flannel, and add sugar, 1 lb., to each pint. 
 An agreeal>le demulcent iu coughs. 
 
 Syrup of Castor, Compound. Syn. STEUPtrs 
 castomi composittjs. (Lebron.) Prep. 
 Valerian water, 5 oz. ; cherry laurel water, 
 2^ oz. ; castor (dissolved in a suflicieiit quantity 
 of spirit), 3 dr. ; white sugar, 15 oz. In spas- 
 modic asthma. 
 
 Syrup of Catechu. Syra. Strupus catechtt. 
 (P. Cod.) I'rep. Extract catechu, 2i oz. ; 
 syrup, 6 lbs. ; dissolve the extract in double 
 its weight of water, and add to the syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Chamomile. Syn. Strupits an- 
 THEMIuis. (P. Cod.) Prep. CI}amomile 
 flowers, dried, 1 lb. ; biiiling water, 10 lbs. ; 
 macerate, strain with expression, and form the 
 infusion into a syrup with twice its weight of 
 sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Chloral Hydrate. Siin. Strupus 
 CHLORALIS HYDRATIS. (B. Ph.) Prep. Hy- 
 drate of chloral, 80 gr.; distilled water, 4- fl. 
 dr. 'Syrup to measure, 1 fl. oz. — Dose, ^ fl. dr. 
 to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Syrup of Chloride of Lime. Syn. Syeupus 
 cutORIDI CAL0I3. (Dr Rfid.) Prep. Liquid 
 chloride of lime, 1 dr.; mucilage, 2 dr. ; sj rup 
 of orange peel, 10 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Cinchonine. Syn. Strupus cin- 
 CHONIN*. (P. Cod.) Prep. Sulphate cin- 
 chonine, 20 gr. ; syrup, 16 oz. (by weight). 
 
 Syrup of Citrate of Caffeine. Syn. Syrupus 
 CAPPEiKa; ciTKATis. (Hannon.) Prep. Ci- 
 trate of caffeine, 1 scruple ; syrup, 1 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Ammonia. Syn. 
 Syrupus ferri et ammoni.s: citeaiib. 
 (Beral.) Prep. Amuionio-citrate of iron, J 
 oz. ; syrup , 9i oz. (by weight) ; cinnamon 
 water, i oz. 
 
 Syrup of Citrate of Iron and Quinine. Syn. 
 Syrupus ferei et QuiKia; oitratib. A syrup 
 is prepared by Mr Bullock under this name, 
 but its composition has not been made known. 
 Another form is citrate of iron and quinine, 
 1 oz. ; syrup of orange peel, 1 pint. (Beas- 
 
 ley.) 
 
 Syrup of Cit'ric Acid. Syn. Steupus acidi 
 ciTEioi (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph.D.) Take of 
 citric acid (in powder) and distilled water, of 
 each, 2i oz.; dissolve, add the solution, toge- 
 ther with tincture of lemon peel, 5 fl, di-., to 
 simple syrup, 3 pints, and mix with agitation. 
 An agreeable refrigerant. Used for sweetening 
 barley water, &c., and for flavouring water to 
 
 be used as a beverage in fevers and other in- 
 flammatory diseases. 
 
 Syrup of Cloves. Sijn. Steupus caeto- 
 PHTiLi. (Ph. E.) Prep. Clove, July 
 flowers, 1 troy oz. ; boiling water, 4 oz. ; ma- 
 cerate for 12 hours, strain, and add sugar, 7 
 oz. ; make a syrap. Used for its colour and 
 flavour. 
 
 Syrup of Cochineal. Syn. Strupus cooci- 
 NELLiE, Syrupus cocci (Ph. L.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L.) Take of cochineal (bruised), 80 gr. ; 
 boiling distilled water, 1 pint; boil for 15 
 minutes in a closed vessel, strain, and add of 
 sugar, 3 lbs., or twice that of the strained 
 liquor; lastly, wiien the syrup has cooled, add 
 of rectified spirit, 2i fl. oz., or i fl. dr. to 
 each fl. oz. of syrup. Used as a colouring 
 syrup, and often sold for 6YHUP OF CLOTE- 
 
 PINKS. 
 
 Syrup of Cochineal, Alkaline. Syn. Strupus 
 COCCI AiKALiNUS. Prep. Cochineal in powder, 
 2 scruples ; carbonate of potash in powder, 4 
 scruples ; triturate, and add boiling distilled 
 water, 16 oz. ; strain, and add 4 oz. of sugar 
 candy. A p ipular domestic remedy for hoop- 
 ing cough. — Dose. From a teispoonful to a 
 tablespoonful, according to the age of the 
 child, 3 or 4 times a day. 
 
 Syrup of Cod-liver Oil. Syn. Strupus 
 OLEi MOREHua;. (Duclos.) Prep. Mix 5 
 parts of powdered gum with 4 of simple 
 syrup; add 8 parts of <;od-liver oil, triturate 
 till perfectly mixed, gradually adding 12 parts 
 of water; lastly, dissolve in the emulsion, 24 
 oz. of sugar by means of a gentle heat. In 
 the same manner may be prepared syrups 
 from the oil of skate, castor oil, &c. 
 
 Syrup of Coffee. Syn. Strupus caffe.e. 
 Prep. Concentrated infusion of fresh-roasted 
 coffee, 4 oz. ; refined sugar, 8 oz.; dissolved 
 in a closed vessel by a gentle heat. 
 
 Syrup of Colchicum. Syn. Strupus col- 
 OHici. (Ph. E., 1817.) Prep. Fresh colchi- 
 cum, 1 oz.; vinegar, 16 oz. ; macerate for 2 
 days, and strain with gentle expression; add 
 to the clear liquor 26 oz. of sugar, and boil. 
 
 Syrup of Colts'foot. Syn. Steupus tussi- 
 laginis, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Flowers of colts- 
 foot, 1 lb. (or dried flowers, 2 oz.); boiling 
 water, 2 lbs. ; macerate for 12 hours ; strain, 
 press, filter, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. A 
 popular remedy in coughs, colds, &c. — Dose, 1 
 to 2 table-spoonfuls, ad libitum. 
 
 Syrup of Copaiba. Syn. Steupus copaiba. 
 (Puche.) Prep. Triturate 2 oz. of copaiba 
 with i oz. of powdered gum and IJ oz. of 
 watt'r; add 32 drops of essence of pepper- 
 mint, and 12 oz. of simple syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Corsican ffloss. Syn. Steupus 
 HELMINTHOOORTI. (P. Cod.) Macerate 1 lb. 
 of cleansed Corsican moss in 24 lbs. of boiling 
 water; in six hours strain. Macerate the 
 residue in snflScient boiling water, so as to 
 obtain, including the product of the first 
 maceration, 2J lbs., in which dissolve 5 lbs. of 
 sugar. 
 
SYRUP 
 
 1609 
 
 Syrup of Cream. Finely ponrdered lump 
 sagur mixed with an eqnni weight of fresh 
 cream. It will keep for a, long time if put into 
 bottles, and closely corked and seuled over. It 
 ii commonly pluced in 2-oz. wide-monthed 
 phials, and taken on long voyngcs, a fresh 
 phial being opened at every meal. 
 
 Symp of Cyanide of Fotassiam. 8i/n. Sy- 
 
 BUPP8 P0TAS8II OYANIDI; SYEOP DE HYDRO- 
 CYAifATE DK POTASBE. Frep. Clarified syrup, 
 16 oz. ; medicinal liydrocyanatc of potash (a 
 solution of 1 piirt of cyanide of potassium in 8 
 of water), 1 dr. 
 
 Symp of Dittany. Syn. Syeupus dio- 
 TAMNi. From Diitany of Crete, as Syeup op 
 Hyssop. 
 
 Syrup of Dulcamara. Syn. Syeup of bittee 
 
 8WKET, SyBCPUS DtTLCAMAKJJ. As SyEUP OF 
 COBSIOAK MOaS. 
 
 Symp, Easton's. This preparation is said 
 to contain in each fluid drachm — 1 gr. of 
 phospliate of iron, 1 gr. of phosphate of 
 qninia, and n j^ gr. of strychnia. The dose is 
 1 dr. A precipitate, which consists of phos- 
 phate of quinine, sometimes forms in this 
 syrup. This may bo obviated by avoiding as 
 much as possible exposure of the symp to the 
 air, caused by filtration of the quinine solution 
 into the syrup. 
 
 Symp of Eggs. Syn. SYEUPtrs ovoeum. 
 (Fuller.) Prep. Beat the whites of 3 eggs 
 with G oz. of plantain water, and work it in a 
 mortar with 6 oz. of powdered sugar till they 
 form a syrup. 
 
 Symp of Emetina. SYnuptTa emitin^. 
 (P. Cod.) Frep. Coloured emetine, 12 gr.; 
 syrup, 17i oz. (by weight) ; mix. 
 
 Syrup, Empyreumat'ic. Treacle. 
 
 Symp of Ergotine. Syn. Syeuptjs ergo- 
 TiN^. (Honji'un.) Ergotine (watery c.\tract 
 of ergot), 2 dr. ; orange-flower water, 1 oz. ; 
 dissolve, and add the solution to 16 oz. (Iiy 
 weight) of boiling syrup. — Dose, 2 to -l spoon- 
 fuls in the day. 
 
 Symp of E'ther. St/n. Syrupus a:THERi8, 
 
 S. M. SrLPHURICI, Ij. ; SlEOP d'ethek, 
 Kr, Prep. (R C"d.) Sulphuric ether, 1 part; 
 white (simple) syrup, 16 parts ; place them in a 
 glass vessel liavinj; a tap at the bottom, shake 
 them frequently for 5 or 6 days, and then draw 
 off the clear syrup into small bottles. — Dose, J 
 to 8 fl. dr. 
 
 Syrup of Eucalyptus. Sj/n. Syeupus euca- 
 lYPTi GLOBULi. Prep. 1. 100 gr. of the chop- 
 ped leaves are infused for 6 hours in 1 litre of 
 boiling water, the liquid expressed, and after 
 allowing it to deposit, it is made into a syrup 
 by the addition of 190 grams of sugar, for 100 
 grams of tlie clear liquid. 
 
 2. (Dorvault.) Di-tiUed water of eucalyp- 
 tus, 50 parts ; sugar, 95 parts ; dissolve. 
 
 Symp, Easton's. See Strfp of Phosphate 
 
 OP lBO!f, WITH QDININE AND BTHYCHNIA. 
 
 Symp of Fennel. Si/n. Syhtjpus F(SNICUI.i. 
 (Ph. G.) Prep. Infuse bruised fennel seed, 2 
 01., in 12 oz. of boiling water for three hours ; 
 
 strain off 10 oz., and dissolve it in 18 oz. 
 sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Foxglove. Si/a. Syeupus dioi- 
 TAtis. (P. a id.) Pre;?. Tincture of foxglove 
 (P. Cod), i oz. (by weight) ; syrup, 20 oz. (by 
 weight). 
 
 Syrup of Fumitory. Si/n. SrRurrs fu- 
 MAUia;. (P. C>d.) Clarified juic- of fumi- 
 tory, 1 llx; white sugar, 2 lbs.; boil to a, 
 syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Garlic. Si/n. SrEFPFS alui. 
 (Ph. U. S.) Prep. Garlic, 6 oz. troy ; distilled 
 vinegar, 16 oz. (o. m.) ; macerate for 4 days ; 
 express, and form a svrup with the clear liquor 
 and sugar, 2 troy lbs. 
 
 Symp of Garlic, Compound. .S'v". SYBrrrs 
 ALLII COMPOSITUS. Dr WiLLH SvRUP. Prep. 
 Garlic, cut small, i oz. ; bruised aniseeii, i oz. ; 
 elecampane root, 3 dr. ; liquorice rout, 2 dr. ; 
 brandy, 24 oz. ; digest for 2 or 3 days, strain, 
 and form a syrup with IJ lb. of suj^ar. 
 
 Syrup of Gin'ger. Si/n. SYEtrpcs zinoibk- 
 EI8 (B. P., Ph. L., E., & O.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (Ph. L.) Bruised gin|,'t'r, 2^ oz. ; boiling 
 water, 1 pint; macerate for 1- hours, strain, 
 and add of white sugar, 2ilbs., or q. s. ; and 
 rectified spirit, as directed for syrup of cochi- 
 neal. The Ph. E. omits the spirit. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Tincture of ginger, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 simple syrup, 7 fl. oz. ; mix. Stimulant and 
 carminative. Chiefly used as an adjuvant, in 
 mixtures. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Strong tincture of ginger, 1 j 
 syrup, 25 ; mix. — Dose, 1 to 4 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Gold. Si/». Syurprs auei. (P. 
 Cod.) Prep. Powdered gold, 20 gr.; syrup, 
 1 oz. As a local application. 
 
 Symp of Guaiacnm Wood. Si/n. SYBUPrs 
 GOAIACI LIQNI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil 
 rasped guaiacnm wond, 3 oz. twice, and for an 
 hour each time, in 30 oz. of water ; strain 
 through a thick cloth ; mix the two liquids, 
 and concentrate until they are reduced to 6 oz. 
 (Iiy weight) ; let cool, filtLr through paper, and 
 add 10 oz. of sugar. 
 
 Symp of Gnarana. Si/n. SvECPug Paitl- 
 LTNIE, SYEirpns onABAN*. Prep. Extract of 
 guarana, 2J dr. ; syrup, 32 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Gum. Si/n. Syeupits acacia;, L. ; 
 .SIUOP UE GOSIME, Pr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Dis- 
 solve pale and picked gum Arabic in an equal 
 weight of water, by a geutle heat, add the 
 solution to four times its weight of s-imple 
 syrup, simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, remove the 
 scum, and cool. A pleasant demulcent. The 
 addition of 1 or 2 fl. oz. of orange-flower water 
 to each pint greatly improves it. 
 
 Syrup of Gum Ammoniacnm. Sya. STHnprs 
 GUMMI AMMONIACI. (Wurt. Ph.) Prep. 
 Di>solve 2 oz. of gum amnioniacum in 8 oz. of 
 white wine, by the heat of a water-bath, and 
 add sugar, 16 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Gum Tragacanth. Syefpus 
 GFMMI TEAOACANTH^. (M luchon.) Prep. 
 Gum tragacanth, 1 oz. ; water. 32 oz. ; mace- 
 rate for 48 hours, press through a linen cloth, 
 
1610 
 
 SYEUP 
 
 and mix the mucilage with 8 lbs. of syrup, 
 heated to 176° P., and strain through coarse 
 cloth. 
 
 Syrup of Hedge Mustard. Syn. Steupus 
 EBXSIMI. Prep. From the expressed juice 
 of hedge mustard (clarified), 1 lb. ; sugiir, 2 
 lbs. ; make into a syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Hedge Mustard, Compound. Syn. 
 Syeupus eetsimi oompositus, Sieop de 
 
 VELAE, SlEOP DE CHANTEE. (P. Cod.) Frep. 
 
 Pearl barley, raisins, liquorice root, of each | 
 oz. ; cut and dried leaves of borage and elii- 
 cory, of each 1 oz. ; fresh hedge mustard, 15 
 oz. ; dried elecampane root, 1 oz. ; maidenhair, 
 \ oz.; dried lavender and rosemary tops, of 
 each \ oz. ; green aniseeds, \ oz. ; sugar, 20 
 oz. ; honey, 5 oz. Boil the pearl barley in the 
 water until it bursts, add tiie raisins and the 
 sliced liquorice, tlie borage and the chicory, 
 and after just boiling strain and press. Then 
 pour the strained liquid on to the other sub- 
 stances properly bruised and cut, and let the 
 mixture digest for 24 hours over a water bath ; 
 then distil, drawing over 2\ oz. liquid (by 
 weight) ; on the other hand, press and strain 
 the liquor that remains in the retort, clarify 
 with white of egg, add the sugar and honey, 
 and make into a syrup that, when boiling, 
 shall have a sp. gr. of 1-29 ; when nearly cold 
 add the 2} oz. of distilled liquid, and strain. 
 — Dose, i to 2 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Henbane. Syn. Steupus HTOa- 
 CTAMi (P. Cod.). From the tincture (P. Cod.) 
 as syrup of belladonna. 
 
 Syrup, Hive. Compound syrup of squills. 
 
 Syrup of Horehound. Syn, Steupus ma- 
 EUBii, L. ; Sieop de peassio, Fr. JPrep. 1. 
 (P. Cod.) Dried horehound, 1 oz.; horehound 
 water, 2 lbs. ; digest in a water bath for 2 hours, 
 stiain, and add of white sugar, 4 lbs. 
 
 2. White horehound (Iresh), 1 lb. ; boiling 
 water, 1 gall. ; infuse for 2 hours, press out the 
 liquor, filter, and add of sugar, q. s. 
 
 Obs. A popular remedy in coughs and 
 diseases of the lungs. — Dose. A table-spoonful, 
 ad libitum, " It is sold for any syrup of herbs 
 that is demanded, and which is not in the 
 shop." (Gray.) 
 
 Syrnp, Horseradish. Syn. Steupus aemo- 
 EA0IJ3. (Dr CuUen.) Frep, Scraped horse- 
 radish, 1 oz. ; hot water, 8 oz. ; digest, strain, 
 and dissolve in the liquor twice its weight of 
 sugar. — Dose, 1 dr. frequently in hoarseness 
 from relaxation. 
 
 Syrup of Houndstongue. Syn. STEUPrs 
 CTSOGLOSSI. (Fuller.) Frep. Clarified juice 
 of houndstongue boiled, with its weight of 
 sugar, to a syrup. In catarrhous hu- 
 mours. 
 
 Syrnp of Hydrochlo"rate of Mor'phiue. Syn. 
 
 StEUP OP MUEIATE OF MOEPHINE ; StEUPUS 
 MOEPHIiE MUEIATIS (Ph. D.), L. Frep. (Pll. 
 D.) Solution of muriate of morphia, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 simple syrup, 17 fl. oz. ; mix. Each fl. oz. con- 
 tains i gr. of the muriate. — Dose, -J to 2 tea- 
 spoonfuls. 
 
 Syrnp of Hydrocyanic Acid. Syn, Steupus 
 ACIDI HYDEOOTANICI. The Paris Codex orders 
 a syrup, in which 200 parts (by weight) contain 
 1 part (by weight) of ofi&cinal medicinal hydro- 
 cyanic acid, containing 10 per cent, of anhy- 
 drous acid. 
 
 Syrnp of Hypophosphate of Iron. Syn. 
 Steupus peeei htpophosphitis. (Wood.) 
 Frep. Granulated sulphate of iron, 480 gr. ; 
 hypophosphite of lime, 326 gr. ; diluted phos- 
 phoric acid, 1 fl. oz. ; water, 1 J oz. ; syrup, 
 
 3 dr. Dissolve without heat the iron in the 
 acid, mixed with the water; rub the hypo- 
 phosphite to fine powder, and pour on it the 
 solution of sulphate of iron ; rub together for 
 two or three minutes; then pour the mixture 
 on a piece of damp calico, and squeeze out the 
 liquid; filter the solution so obtained, and add 
 to it seven times its volume of syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Hypophosphite of Lime. Syn. St- 
 eupus CALCis HTPOPHOSPHITIS. (Churchill.) 
 Frep. Hypophosphite of lime, 1 part ; syrup, 
 100 pjrts. 
 
 Syrup of Hypophosphite of Potash. See 
 StEUP OP THE Htpophosphites. 
 
 Syrnp of Hypophosphite of Soda. See 
 Steup OF THE Htpophosphites. 
 
 Syrup of Hyposulphite of Soda. Syn. 
 Steupus sod^ htposuiphitis. (Mouehon.) 
 Frep. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 oz. ; water, 12 
 oz. ; sugar, 33 oz. Dissolve with a gentle 
 heat, and filter. 
 
 Syrup of the Hypophosphites. Syn. St- 
 eupus htpophosphiticus. Frep. Hypo- 
 phosphite of lime, potash, and soda, 1 part 
 each, dissolved with heat in sjrup, 100 parts. 
 — Dose, 1 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Hyssop. Syn. Steupus htssopi. 
 (P. Cod.) Frep. As syrnp of coltsfoot. 
 
 Syrup of Iceland Moss. Syn. Steupus 
 LiOHENis. Iceland mossdepiived of its bitter- 
 ness, 1 oz.; syrnp, 82 oz. Make a concen- 
 trated decoction of the moss, strain and add 
 the syrup, and boil to a proper consistence. 
 
 Syrup of Indian Sarsaparil'la. Syn. St- 
 eupus HEMIDESMI (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Frep. 
 1. (Ph. D.) Indian sarsaparilia (Semidesmus 
 Indicus — Brown), bruised, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 
 1 pint; infuse for 4 hours, and to the strained 
 and defecated infusion add twice its weight of 
 sugar. Tonic, diuretic, &c. — Dose, 2 to 4 fl. 
 dr.; in nephritic complaints, and in some 
 others, instead of sarsaparilia. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Hemidesmus, bruised, 1; re- 
 fined sugar, 7; boiling distilled water, 5; in- 
 fuse 4 hours, strain, add the sugar, and dis- 
 solve. The product sVionld weigh X0\ oz., 
 and measure 8. Sp. gr. 1-335.— Z)o»e, 1 to 
 
 4 dr. 
 
 Syrup of I'odide of Iron. Syn. Steupus 
 FEEEi lODiDi (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Mix iodine, 1 oz., and iron 
 wine 3 dr., with distilled water, 8 fl. oz., and 
 heat the solution until it assumes a greenish 
 colour; then strain it, evaporate it to about 4 
 fl. oz., and add to it of white sugar, 10 oz. ; 
 
SYRUP 
 
 1611 
 
 lutly, when the syrup haa cooled, add as much 
 » liter as may he necessiiry, that it may mea- 
 sure exactly 15 fl. oz., and keep it in a well- 
 stopporeil black glasa bottle. The formulss of 
 the Ph. E. & U. are nearly similar, a fl. dr. of 
 each containing about 6 gr. of the pare dry 
 iodide. This syrup is tonic and resolvent, and 
 btematinic. — Dose, 15 or 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. ; 
 in aniBinia, debility, scrofula, &c. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Iron wire, 1 ; iodine, 2 ; refined 
 sugar, 28; distilled water, 13. Mnke a 
 iiyrup with the sugar and 10 of the water, and 
 keep it hot. Put into a strong soda-water 
 bottle, covered with a cloth, the iron wire, the 
 iodine, and .3 of the water, shake them together 
 until the froth of the mixture becomt-s white, 
 filter whilst still hot into the syrup. The 
 product should be made up by water to weigh 
 43 or to measure 31^- Sp. gr. 1385. — Dose, 
 20 to 60 minims. 
 
 Syrup of Iodide of Iron, Compound. Si/n. 
 Sybopcs fehei iodidi ooMPOsiTtrs. (llicord.) 
 Prep. This miiy be made by adding 1 oz. of 
 the syrap to 9 oz. of compound syrup of sar- 
 auparillo, both by weight. 
 
 Syrup of Iodide of Iron and Quinine. St/n. 
 
 SYEtirrB FEKBI BT dVlVIM IODIDI. (Bou- 
 
 ehaidat.) Prep. Digest 1 dr. of iodine with 
 i dr. of iron filings and 4 dr. of water, with a 
 gentle heat and frequent agitation, till the 
 solution is colourless. Filter it rapidly into a 
 vessel containing 28 oz. of simple syrup. 
 Dissolve also 12 gr. of sulphate of quinine in 
 2 dr. of water acidulated with sulphuric acid, 
 and add to the former. 
 
 Syrup of Iodide of Manganese. St/n. Steu- 
 pns MAjfOANBSll IODIDI. (M. Hannon.) 
 Pure hjdrated carbonnte of manganese, 1 dr. ; 
 concentrated hydriodic acid, q. f. to dissolve it. 
 Mix this solution with 16i oz. of sudorific 
 syrup. — Dose. From 2 to 6 tablespoonfuls 
 daily. 
 
 Syrup of Iodide of Potassium. St/n. St- 
 HUPII8 P0TA8SII IODIDI. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Iodide of potassium, i oz. ; water, J oz. ; syrup, 
 9i oz. (by weiglit). 
 
 Syrup of Iodine. Syn. Sthupus iodinii. 
 (Foy.) Prep. Compound tincture of iodine, 
 i dr. ; mint water, 4 oz. ; syrup, 16 oz. 
 
 Syrup of lodohydrargyrate of Potassium. 
 
 Sl/n. StEUPDS lODOHTDBAEQTKATIS POTASSII 
 (Puche). Prep. lodohydnirgyrate of potiis- 
 sium, 16 gr. ; tincture of saffron, 2i dn ; 
 syrup, 16 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Ipecacuaslia. Syn. Sybfpub ipe- 
 CACUAKH.?!, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Ipeca- 
 cuanha (in course powder), 4 oz. ; rectified 
 spirit, 15 fl. oz. ; digest for 24 hours at a 
 gentle heat, and strain ; add of proof spirit, 
 14 fl. oz., and again digest and strain, and 
 repeat the process with water, 14 fl. oz. ; distil 
 ofi^the spirit from the mixed liquors, evaporate 
 to 12 tl. oz., and filter; next add to the re- 
 siduum rei-tified spirit, 5 fl. oz., and simple 
 s\rup, 7 pint*, and mix well. — Dose. As an 
 emetic for infants, i teaspoonful; for adults, 
 
 1 to li fl. oz. ; as nn expectorant, 1 to 3 tea- 
 spoonfuls. 
 
 Syrup of Iron and Iodide of FotasBinm. Si/n. 
 
 StEUFUS FEBBI ET POTASSII IODIDI. Prep. 
 Dissolve 1 oz. of iodide of potassium in 6 oz. 
 of hot water, add 12i oz. (fl.) of syrup of 
 iodide of iron, and sufficient simple syrup to 
 make up H pint. 
 
 Syrup of Jalap. Syn. Steupus jalapinus. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. Jalap, 10 dr. ; coriander, i 
 dr. ; fennel seed, J dr. ; water, 12 oz. ; heat to 
 212° F. for twenty minutes, let it stand 24 
 hours ; strain, and make a syrup with 2-1 oz.'of 
 sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Kermes. Si/n. SrEUPrs kebhb- 
 Tis, SyEUPUa ANTIMONIATCS. Prep. Kermes 
 mineral, 20 gr. ; syrup of squills, IJ oz. ; syrup 
 of marshmallow, IJ oz. Mix. 
 
 Syrnp of Lactate of Iron. Syn. SYsrprs 
 FEBBI LACTATIS. (Cap.) Prep. Liictiite of 
 iron, 1 dr.; boiling distilled water, 6 oz, ; 
 pure sugar, 12 oz. — Dose, 2 to 4 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Lacto-phosphate of Lime. Si/n. 
 
 SYKUPUS CALCIS LACTO-PHOSPUATIS. (P. 
 
 Vincent.') Prep. Burnt bones, 155 gr. ; 
 hydrochloric acid, 310 ;.'r. ; liquid ammonia, 
 200 gr. ; concentrated lactic acid, distilled 
 water, of each q. s. ; sup;ar, 18i oz. ; leave to- 
 gether for some time the bone ash and the 
 acid until efferve-tcLMicu ceases, then add dis- 
 tilled water, 500 gr. ; precipitate with the 
 ammonia, filter, and well wash the prfcipitate 
 with distilled water, until the washings cease 
 to i;ive a precipitate with nitrate of silver. 
 Leave to drain tor 12 hours, after gently heit 
 in a porcelain capsule, and add sufficient Lutie 
 acid to dissolve the precipitate; add sufliuient 
 distilled water to make the product wei^h 
 9i oz.; filter, and adil the sugar; make dis- 
 solve with a gentle heat. 
 
 Syrnp of Lactncariom. St/n. Srsurrs 
 Lactdcaeii. (U. S.) Prep. Lactucariuiii, 
 1 troy oz.; syrup, 14 oz. (o. m.) ; proof spirit, 
 q. 8.; rub the lactucariura with the proof 
 spirit to a syrupy consistence, transfer to a 
 percolator and percolate with proof spirit 
 until 8 oz. (o. m.) of tincture have been 
 obtained. Evaporate this portion in a water 
 bath at 160° P. to 2 oz. (o. m.). Mix it with 
 the syrup made hot, and strain immediately. 
 
 Syrup of Le'mon. St/n. Steupus limonis 
 (B. P.), Steupus limonum (Ph. L. & E.), 
 Sykupus citei medice. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Lemon juice (strained or defecated), 1 pint; 
 white su.'ar, 24 lbs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat, 
 and set it aside ; in 24 hours remove the scum, 
 decant the clear portion, and add of rectified 
 spirit, 2i fl. oz. The Edinburgh College omits 
 the spirit. A pleasant refrigerant syrup in 
 fevers, &c. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr., in any diluent. 
 With water it forms an excellent extempora- 
 neous lemonade. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Fresh lemon peel, 2; lemon 
 jnioe, strained, 20; refined sugar, 36. Heat 
 the lemon juice to the boiling point, and having 
 ' ' Pliurm. Jourtt.* 
 
1612 
 
 SYKUP 
 
 put it into a covered vessel with the lemon 
 peel, let tliem stand until they are cold, then 
 filter and dissolve the sugar in the filtered 
 liquid with a gentle heat. The product 
 should weigh 56 and measure 41. — Dose, 1 to 
 2 dr. 
 
 Syrup of lettuce. Syn. Sibupus laotuo^. 
 
 P. Cod.) Dissolve 2 oz. of extract of lettuce 
 
 in 8 times its weight of cold water, filter, and 
 
 add 6 lbs. 2 oz. of syrup, which, when boiling, 
 
 has a specific gravity of 1'26. 
 
 Syrup of Lime. Syn. Syeupus calois. 
 (Trousseau.) Prep. Slake, 2J dr. of quick- 
 lime, with 3 oz. of water, and add it to 32 
 fl. oz. of simple syrup ; boil 10 minutes and 
 filter. This is usually diluted with 4 parts of 
 syrup. Given in diarrhoea. 
 
 Syrup of Liquorice. Syn. Stettpub gly- 
 OYEBuiz^. Prep. Liquorice root, 4 oz. j 
 boiling water, 16 oz. ; digest, strain, and make 
 a syrup with sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Lobelia. Syn. Syeupus lobelije. 
 (Mr Proctor.) Prep, Vinegar of lobelia, 
 6 oz. ; sugar, 12 oz. Dissolve in a gentle 
 heat. 
 
 Syrup of Malate of Manganese. Syn. 
 Syeupus manoanesii malatis. (M. Hannon.) 
 Prep. Malate of maUijauese, 1 oz. ; simple 
 syrup, 16 oz. ; spirit of lemon peel, 2 dr. — 
 Dose, i dr. to 1 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Manna. Syn. Syeupus mannjb. 
 Ph. G.) Prep. Dissolve 3 oz. of manna in 
 12 oz. of water, strain and filter ; then add 
 16 oz. of sugar, and make it into a syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Mercury. Syn. Syeupus hydeae- 
 GYEi. Prep. " There are several forms for 
 mercurial syrups,, but they all appear liable to 
 serious objection. Plenk : — Quicksilver, 1 dr ; 
 powdered gum Arabic, 3 dr. ; syrup, 2 oz. ; 
 triturate and gradually add 1 oz. of water. 
 Larrey : — Sudorific syrup, 1 pint; bichloride of 
 mercury, 5 gr. ; muriate of ammonia, 5 gr. ; 
 extract of opium, 5 gr. ; Hofman's anodyne 
 liquor, J dr. — Dose, i oz. to 1 oz. Creron's 
 syrup consists of mercurial ether (4 gr. of 
 sublimate to 2 dr. of ether), 2 dr. ; syrup, 
 8 oz." (Beasley.) 
 
 Syrup of Marshmallow. Syn. Syeupus 
 ALTH.EJS (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) 
 Marshmallow root, fresh and sliced, 1 j oz. ; 
 distilled water (cold), 1 pint; macerate lor 12 
 hours, press out the liquor, strain it through 
 linen, and add to the strained liquor twice its 
 weight of white sugar (about 3 lbs.) ; dissolve 
 by a gentle heat, and, when cold, add of recti- 
 fied spirit, 2^ fl. oz., or q. s. See Syeup of 
 Cochineal. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) Take of fresh marshmal- 
 low root, bruised, 8 oz. ; water, 4 pints; boil 
 down to one half, and express the liquor when 
 it is cold ; set it aside for 24 hours, that the 
 fieoes may subside, then decant off the clear 
 liquid, and, having added to it of sugar, 2i lbs., 
 boil the whole to a proper consistence. The 
 formula of the Ph. E. is similar. 
 
 Obs. This is a popular demulcent and pec- 
 
 toral. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. j in coughs, &c.» 
 either alone or added to mixtures. 
 
 Syrup of Milk. Syn. Syeupus lactis. 
 Reduce skimmed milk by gentle evaporation 
 to one half, and add twice its weight of sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Monosnlphide of Sodium. %n. 
 Syeupus sodii monosulphidi. (P. Cod.) 
 Crystallised monosnlphide of sodium, 44 gr. ; 
 distilled water, 1 oz. ; syrup, 94 oz. (by 
 weight). 
 
 Syrup of Mugwort. Syn. Syeupus aete- 
 
 MJSI.E. As SYRUP op WOBMWOOD. 
 
 Syrup of Mugwort, Compound. Syn. 
 Syeupus AETEMisi.aE compositus. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Take of fresh tops of mugwort, penny- 
 royal, catmint, and savine, of each 2 oz. ; fresh 
 roots of elecampane, lovage, and fennel, of 
 each 88 gr. ; fresh tops of wild marjoram, 
 hyssop, feverfew, rue, and basil, of each 1 oz. ; 
 aniseed, i oz. ; cinnamon, i oz. ; all properly 
 divided ; rectified spirit, 2i oz. (by weight) ; 
 water, 30 oz. ; syrup of honey, 12i oz. (by 
 weight). Put the plants in a vessel over a 
 water bath, pour on the water mixed with the 
 spirit, let it stand 24 hours, and then distil 
 over 3J oz. (by weight). On the other hand, 
 press the residue of the distillation, clarify 
 with white of egg, and add sugar, 25 oz. ; 
 then make into a syrup, which, when boiling, 
 has the sp. gr. 1-26. Take the weight and 
 evaporate until it has lost weight, equal to 
 that of the distilled liquid, then add the 
 syrup of honey, and lastly, when nearly cold, 
 the distilled liquid, and strain. — Dose, 2 to 
 12 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Mul'berrieB. Syn. Syeupus moei 
 (B. P., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Juice 
 of mulberries, strained, 1 pint; sugar, 2^ lbs.; 
 dissolve by a gentle heat, and set the solution 
 by for 24 hours ; then remove the scum, de- 
 cant the clear liquid, and add of rectified spirit, 
 24 fi. oz. Used as a colouring and flavouring, 
 when alkalies and earths are not present. 
 Syrup of red poppies (rhceados), slightly acidu- 
 lated with tartaric or dilute sulphuric acid, is 
 very generally sold for it. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Mulberry juice, 20; refined sugar, 
 32; rectified spirit, 2^; heat the juice to the 
 boiling point, and, when it has cooled, filter it; 
 dissolve the sugar in the filtered liquid by a 
 gentle beat, and add the spirit. Tiie product 
 should weigh 54. Sp. gr. 1-33. — Dose, 1 to 
 2 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Mn"riate of Morphia. See Syeup 
 OP Hyeeoohlokate of Moephine. 
 
 Syrup of Opium. Syn. Syeupus opii. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. Extract of opium, 874 g'"-. 
 dissolve in 6 dr. of cold water, and mix with 
 sufficient syrup to make up Gi lbs. (1 in 
 500). 
 
 Syrup of Orange Flowers. Syn. Syeupus 
 AUEANTii PLORIS (B. P.) Prep. Orange- 
 fiower water, 8; refined sugar, 48; distilled 
 water, 16, or a sufficiency ; heat the sugar and 
 water together, strain, and when nearly cold 
 add the orange-flower water. When finished 
 
SYKUP 
 
 1613 
 
 iliould weif^li 72 and measure 5 1. Sp. gr. 1'33. 
 —Bote, 1 to 2 ilr. 
 
 Syrnp of Orange Juice. Si/n. 8 bitfvs e 
 Bocco AUSANiiOBUM. (Ph. K., 1744.) Prep. 
 Orange juice, 1 lb.; sugar, 2 lbs. Uissolvu by 
 heat. 
 
 Syrnp of Or'ange Peel. Si/n. Stbupub av- 
 
 BANTII (B. p.. Ph. h., E., & D.), S. OITBI AU- 
 BANTII, S. K OOBIICIBDS AUBANIIOBUU, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried orauge peel, 2J oz. ; 
 boiling distilled water, 1 pint; macerate tor 12 
 hours in a covered vessel, press out the liquor, 
 Biinnicr it for 10 minutes, and tlien complete 
 the process as directed for bieup of ooojii- 
 NUI.. In the Ph. E. & D., and Ph. h. 1836, 
 no spirit is ordered. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Tincture of orange peel, 1 ; 
 ■jrup, 7 ; mix. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) — a. From fresh orange peel, 
 18 oz. (or dried, | lb.) ; sugar, 18 lbs. ; water, 
 q.s. 
 
 b. From tincture of orange peel, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 simple syrup, 19 fl. oz. ; mix. An agreeable 
 fluvouring and stomachic. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. 
 
 Syrnp, Pectoral. S^n. Sibupus fecto- 
 BALI8. (Pli. L. 1746.) Black maidenhair, 
 5oz.; liquorice root, 4 oz. ; boiling water, 4 
 pints; macerate for some hours, strain, add to 
 the infusion twice its weight of sugar, and 
 make a syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Fepsine. Sj/n. Steupus pkp- 
 aiVM, (Corvisart.) Prep. 6 parts of pepsin 
 in 20 parts ol' cold water, and added to 70 
 parts of acidulated syrup of cherries. 
 
 Syrup of Fersulphuret of Iron. Stbufus 
 FBKBI PEESDIPHUBETI. (Bouchardat.) Prep. 
 lUtduue 10 oz. of syrup by evaporation to 9 
 oz., and add 2 oz. hydrated persulphuret of 
 iron in a gelatinous state; mix, and keep in a 
 cluse bottle. — Dose. A teaspoonf ul two or 
 three times a day in scrofulous and cutaneous 
 alfections. As an antidote for poisoning by 
 the salts of lead, mercury and copper. Give 
 a teaspoonful frequently. 
 
 Syrup of Phosphate of Iron. Sft». Sybupvs 
 PKKEI PHOSPHATis. (B. P.) Prep. Granu- 
 Inted sulphate of iron, 221 gr. ; phosphate of 
 soda, 200 gr. ; acetate of soda, 74 gr. ; dilute 
 phosplioric acid, 5 i oz.; refined sugar, 8 oz.; 
 distilled water, 8 oz. Dissolve the sulphate of 
 iron in 4 oz. of the water, and the pliosphate 
 aud acetate of soda in the remainder; mix the 
 two solutions, and, after careful stirring, 
 transfir the precipitate to a calico filter, and 
 wash it with distilled water till the filtrate 
 cea-es to be affected with chloride of barium. 
 Then pre<s the precipitate strongly between 
 folds of bibulous paper, and add to it the 
 dilute phosphoric acid. As soon as the pre- 
 cipitate has dissolved, filter the solution, add 
 the sugar, and dissolve without heat. The 
 product should measure exactly 12 fluid 
 ounces. One fluid drachm contains 1 grain of 
 phosphate of iron. 
 
 In the preparation of this syrup as much 
 expedition as possible should be used in 
 
 washing and pressing the precipitate of 
 phosphate of iron formed. It is best washed 
 by decantation. The water employed should 
 be just previously boiled to expel oxygen; 
 the protosulphate of iron should be entirely 
 free from persulphate, and clear crystals of 
 phosphate of soda should be chosen. Mr 
 Howie (whose suggestions tlie previous ones 
 are in substance) proposes the u<e of bi- 
 carbonate of soda instead of acetate, the 
 phosphate of iron being soluble to a con- 
 siderable extent in the acetic acid liberated, if 
 acetate of soda be employed. Mr W. H. Jones' 
 gives a process for the preparation of this 
 syrup, which consists in dissolving metallic 
 iron in phosphoric acid and water, and then 
 adding the solution to syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Phosphate of Iron, Compound. 
 %». SYBUPtra febbi phosphatis oom- 
 
 POSITUS; PaBBISH's chemical POOD; BIEUP 
 OF THE COMPOUND PHOSPHATES; STBUPrS 
 
 PH0SPHATICT3S. (Mr E. Pnrrish, U.S.) Dis- 
 solve sulphate of iron, 10 dr., in boiling water, 
 2 oz.; and phosphate of soda, 12 dr., in boiling 
 wiiter, 4 oz. Mix, and wash the precipitated 
 phosphate of iron. Dissolve phosphate of 
 lime, 12 dr., in 4 oz. of boiling water, with 
 enough hydrochloric acid to make a clear 
 solution; precipitate with liquid ammonia, 
 and wash precipitate. Add to the fre<h pre- 
 cipitates glacial phosphoric acid, 20 dr., dis- 
 solved in 4 dr. of water; when clear, add 
 carbonate of soda, 2 scruples, and carbonate of 
 potassa, 1 dr., and then sufficient hydrochloric 
 acid to dissolve the precipitate. Now add water 
 to make the solution measure 22 oz. old 
 measure, and add powdered cochineal, 2 dr. ; 
 mixed sugar, 32 troy oz.; apply heat, and, 
 when the syrup is formed, strain it and add 
 orange-flower water, 1 oz. — Dose. A tea- 
 spoonful. In addition to phosfihate of iron 
 and phosphate of lime this syrup contains 
 smaller quantities of the alkaline phosphates. 
 Ilr Howie points out that Parrish is iucornct 
 in stating that this syrup contains 1 gr. of 
 phosphate of iron and 2^ gr. phosphate of 
 lime in the fluid drachm, if this statement be 
 compared with bis formula, which by cal- 
 culation will be found to give "715 gr. of 
 phosphate of iron and 2 gr. of phosphate of 
 lime for the fluid drachm, even if none of the 
 former were wasted in the process. Mr Howie 
 deprecates the use of hydrochloric acid some- 
 times had recourse to in preparing the syrup, 
 aud he adds that the purest sugar only should 
 be used, and that made from beet-root should 
 be carefully avoided. See a valuable paper by 
 Mr Howie on this subject, ' Pharm. Joum.,' 
 3rd series, vol. vi, p. 804. 
 
 Syrnp of Phosphate of Iron and Manganese. 
 
 Syn. SYBtrPTia PEEEIFHOaPHATIS ET MAN- 
 
 QANESII. Prep. Dissolve 6 dr. of glacial 
 phosphoric acid in a small quantity of water, 
 add 72 gr. of phosphate of iron, and 48 gr. of 
 phosphate of manganese; apply heat to dis- 
 1 • Pharm. Joum.,* 3rd seneB, vol. v, p. 541. 
 
1614 
 
 SYRtTP 
 
 solve, then add sugar, 10 oz., and water up to 
 measure of 12 oz. — Dose, 1 to 4 dr. 
 
 Syrnp of Phosphate of Iron, with Qainine 
 and Strychnia. Syn. STEUPtra feeei phos- 
 
 PHATIS, CUM QUINIA BT STETOHNIA. 
 
 Syrnp of Phosphate of Manganese. Syn. 
 
 SYBUPrS MANOANESII PHOSPHATIS. (M. 
 
 Hunnon.) Prep. Phosphate of manganese, 
 ^ dr. ; spirit of tola, 3 oz. 3 dr ; syrup of 
 bark, 5 oz. ; spirit of lemon peel, \\ dr.; 
 powder of tiagnciinth, 10 gr. Mix quickly 
 and preserve in a well-stoppered bottle. 
 
 Syrup of Phosphate of dninine. Syn. Stext- 
 pus QuiNiNis PHOSPHATIS. Frep. Phosphate 
 of quinine, 96 gr. ; water, 13i fl. dr. ; syrupy 
 phosphoric acid (sp. gr. 1'500), 2i fl. dr. ; 
 syrup, 10 fl. dr. Mix the acid with the water, 
 add the quinine, and filter into the syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Phosphate of Zinc. Syn. Syeuptjs 
 ziNOi PHOSPHATIS. Prep. Phosphate of zinc, 
 192 gr. ; water, 11 fl. dr. ; syrupy phosphoric 
 acid (sp. gr. 1-500), 5 fl. dr. j syrnp, 10 fl. oz. 
 Bub the phosphate with the water, add the 
 acid and filter into the syrnp. 
 
 Syrnp of Phosphoric Acid. Syn. Syeuptts 
 AOIDI PHOSPHOEIOI. Frep. Phosphoric acid 
 (sp. gr. 1'454), \ oz. ; syrup, 32j oz. (both by 
 weight). Syrup of raspberries may be sub- 
 stituted for simple symp. 
 
 Syrnp of Pomegranate-root Eark. Syn. 
 Syeupus coetiois eadicis oeanati. (Gui- 
 bort.) Prep. Obtain from 1 lb. of powdered 
 bark of pomegranate root 4 lbs. of infusion 
 by percolation. Boil this with 28i oz. of 
 syrup till reduced to 2 lbs. 
 
 Syrnp of Pop'ples. Syn. Steup of white 
 poppies ; Syeupus papateeis (B. p.. Ph. L. 
 & E.), S. p. SOMKIFEEI, L. Frep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Poppy capsules, coarsely powdered, free from 
 seeds, 36; rectified spirit, 16; refined sugar, 
 64 ; boiling distilled water, a sufficiency ; 
 macerate the poppy capsules in 80 of the water. 
 Infuse for 24 hours, tlien pack in a percolator, 
 and, adding more of the water, allow the 
 liquor slowly to pass until 320 have been col- 
 lected or the poppies are exhausted ; evaporate 
 the liquor by a water bath until it is reduced 
 to 60 i when quite cold add the spirit; let the 
 mixture stand for 12 hours and filter. Distil 
 off the spirit, evaporate the remaining liquor 
 to 40, and then add the sugar. The product 
 should weigh 104 and measure 78|. Sp. gr. 
 VZ2.—Dose, 1 dr.; 10 to 20 minims for 
 children, increasing cautiously. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Poppy-heads, dried, bruised, 
 and without the seed, 3 lbs.; boiling water, 5 
 galls. ; boil down to 2 galls., press out the 
 liquor, evaporate the expressed liquid to 2 
 quarts, strain it whilst hot, and set it aside for 
 12 hours ; next decant the clear portion from 
 the faeces, boil this down to 1 quart, and dis- 
 solve in it sugar, 5 lbs. ; lastly, when cold, add 
 of rectified spirit, 5 fl. oz. " Each fl. oz. is 
 equivalent to 1 gr. of dry extract." In the 
 Ph. E. & Ph. D. 1826 no spirit is ordered. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Extract of poppies, 1^ lb. ; 
 
 boiling water, 2i galls. ; dissolve, clarify, or 
 filter, so that it may be perfectly transparent 
 when cold, then add of white sugar, 44 lbs., 
 and dissolve. 
 
 Obs. Syrup of poppies is anodyne and so- 
 porific. — Dose, For an infant, i to j tea- 
 spoonful ; for an adult, 2 to 4 fl. dr. According 
 to M. Chereau, its tendency to fermentation 
 is prevented by the addition of 32 parts of 
 sugar of milk to every 1000 parts of the 
 syrup. 
 
 Syrnp of Fotassio-tartrate of Iron. Syn. 
 Steupus feeei potassio-taeteatis. Prep. 
 Dissolve 4 dr. of potassio- tartrate of iron in 
 4 dr. 0^' cinnamon water, and mix the solution 
 with 16 oz. of syrup. 
 
 Syrnp of Pyrophosphate of Iron. Syn. 
 Syeupus feeei pyeophosphatis. (Parrish.) 
 Prep. Pyrophosphate of iron in scales, 16 gr.; 
 syrup, 1 fl. oz. 
 
 Syrup of Pyrophosphate of Iron and Am- 
 monia. Syn. Steupus feeei pyeophos- 
 phatis ET AMMONIJS. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Pyrophosphate of iron with citrate of am- 
 monia, 1 dr. ; water, 2 dr. ; syrup, 12 oz. 
 
 Syrup of ftuinine with Coffee. Syn. St- 
 eupus QUiNi^ CUM CAFFEA. Prep. Prepare 
 1^ pint of clear infusion from 4 oz. of roasted 
 coffee; dissolve it in 5 lbs. of refined sugar, 
 and add to the syrup 1^ dr. of sulphate of 
 quinine dissolved in a little water, with the 
 addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid. 
 
 Syrnp of Raspberry. Syn. Syeupus aoeti 
 EUBi ID(KA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Raspberry 
 vinegar, 10 oz. (by weight) ; sugar, 17i oz. ; 
 boil them together. 
 
 Syrnp of Red Fop'pies. Syn. Syeupus 
 
 EHCEADOS (Ph. L. & E.), S. PAPATEEIS 
 
 EHCBADOS, L. Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Petals of 
 the red poppy, 1 lb. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; 
 mix in a water bath, remove the vessel, mace- 
 rate for 12 hours, press out the liquor, and, 
 after defecation or filtering, complete the pro- 
 cess as directed for steup of cochineal. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) Prom dried red-poppy 
 petals, 3 lbs,; boiling water, q. s. ; white 
 sugar, 44 lbs. ; as the last. 
 
 Obs. Syrup of red poppies is chiefly em- 
 ployed for its fine red colour. A little acid 
 brightens it. The colour is injured by con- 
 tact with iron, copper, and all the common 
 metals. 
 
 Syrup of Red Roses. Syn. Steupus Eosa; 
 (B. P.), Steupus Eosa) gailick (Ph. E. & 
 D.), L. Frep. 1. (Ph. E.) Dried petals of 
 the red rose, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; 
 pure sugar, 20 oz. ; as the last. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Dried petals of the gallic rose, 
 2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint ; boil in a glass or 
 porcelain vessel until the colour is extracted, 
 strain with expression, and, after defecation, 
 add to the clear decanted liquor twice its 
 weight of white sugar. Astringent and sto- 
 machic ; chiefly used as an adjunct in mixtures, 
 &c. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Dried rose petals, 1 ; refined 
 
SYRUP 
 
 1615 
 
 •n^ir, 15 ; boilirg distilled water, 10 ; infuse 
 the petals in the water 2 boars, squeeze 
 throng^h rnlirn, beat the liquor to the boiling 
 point, and filter j add the ^uga^ and dissolve 
 with hittt. The product should weigh 23 and 
 measure 17i. 8p. gr. 1-335. — Do»e, 1 to 2 
 dr. 
 
 Syrnp of Ehatany. Syn. .SlTBUFtrg sba- 
 JIBBIA. (P. Cod.) As syrup of catechu. 
 
 Syrnp of Shu'barb. Syn. Stbupus ehbi 
 (B. P.). Prep. 1. (B. P.). Rhubarb, in coarse 
 powder, 2 ; coriander fruit, in powder, 2 ; re- 
 linod sugar, 2t; rectified spirit, 8; distilled 
 water, 24 j mix the rhubarb and coriander, 
 pack them in a percolator, pass the spirit and 
 water, previously mixed, slowly through them, 
 evaporate the liquid that has passed until it is 
 reduced to 13, and in this, after it has been 
 filtered, dissolve the sugar with a gentle heat. 
 — Dose, 1 to 4 dr. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Bruised rhub irb, 3 oz. ; cold 
 water, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 12 hours, filter, 
 and add of white sugar, 32 oz. 
 
 8. (Ph. U. S.) Take of rectified spirit, 8 fl. 
 oz. ; water, 24 fl. oz. ; rhubarb (coarsely pow- 
 dered), 2 oz. J (mixed with) sand, an equal 
 bulk, or q. s. ; make a tincture by percolation, 
 evaporate this, over a water bath, to 13 fl. oz., 
 and dissolve it in 2 lbs. of white sugiir. An 
 excellent formula. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) Rhubarb (bruised), 1 J lb. ; 
 cold water, q. s.; sugar, 20 lbs.; as No. 1. 
 Stomachic and purgative. — -Dose. For an in- 
 fant, J to 1 teaspoonf ul ; for an adult, \ to 
 i fl. oz., or more. 
 
 Byrup of Rhabarb and Senna. Syn. Sy- 
 
 BUPUS BUEI BT SENNjE. (Ph. E., 1745.) 
 Prep. Rliuliarb, 1 oz. ; senna, 2 oz. ; fennel 
 seed, 2 dr. j cinnamon, 2 dr. j boiling water, 2J 
 pints; macerate for 12 hours, strain, and boil 
 with 3 lbs. of sugar to a syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Rhubarb (Spliced). Syn. SYBUPtrs 
 nuEi ABOMATicns, L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) 
 Uhubarb, 2i oz. j cloves and cinnamon, of 
 each i oz. j nutmeg, i oz. (all bruised); 
 jroof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; macerate for 14 days 
 or percohite), strain, gently evaporate to 16 
 oz., Alter whilst hot, and mix the liquid 
 with simple syrup (gently warmed), 4j pints. 
 A cordial laxative. — Dose, J to 1 teaspoouful ; 
 in infantile constipation, diarrhosa, &c. 
 
 Syrnp of Ros"es. Syn. Stbupus Eosa: 
 (Ph. L.), Sybupus bos^ centifolije (Ph. 
 K), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried petals of 
 damask roses (Mom centifolia), 7 oz. ; boiling 
 water, 8 pints; macerate for 12 hours, filter, 
 evaporate in a water bath to 1 quart, and 
 add of white sugar, 6 lbs. ; and, when cold, 
 rectified spirit, h\ fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From rose leaves, 1 lb.; 
 sugar, 19 lbs.; water, q. s. ; as the last. 
 Gently laxative. — Dose, i to 1 fl. oz. It is 
 usual to add a few drops of dilute sulphuric 
 acid, to brighten the colour. Alkalies turn it 
 green. 
 Byrup of Rue. Syn. Sybttpus ErT.E, L. 
 
 Prep. Take of oil of rue, 12 to 15 drops; rec- 
 tified spirit, i fl. oz. ; dissolve, and add it to 
 simple syrup, 1 pint. — Dose, i to 1 teaspoou- 
 ful ; in the flatulent colic of children. An 
 infusion of J oz. of the herb is sometimes 
 substituted for the solution of the essential 
 oil. 
 
 Syrnp of Saffron. Syn. Sybupus cboci 
 (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Hay 
 salfron, 6 dr. (10 dr.— Ph. E ; \ oz.— Ph. 
 D.); boiling water, 1 pint; macerate in a 
 covered vessel for 12 hours, then strain the 
 liquor, and add of white sugar, 3 lbs., q. s., 
 and rectified spirit, 2^ fl. oz., or q. s. in the 
 manner directed under stbup op cochisbal. 
 The Ph. E. & D. omit the spirit. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) Hay saflron, 6 oz. ; boiling 
 water, 6 quarts ; white suj;ar, 21 lbs. ; as the 
 last. Used for its colour and fljvour ; the first 
 is very beautiful. 
 
 Syrup of Sallcin. Syn. Sybupus SALiciNt. 
 Prep. Salicin, 1 dr. ; boiling water, 1 oz. ; 
 sugar, 2 nz. 
 
 Syrup of Santonate of Soda. Syn. Sybupus 
 BOVM SANTONATIB. This formula is recom- 
 mended because of the adaptability of its admi- 
 nistration to children ; the syrup being of 
 very pleasant taste. It is made as follows : — 
 Powdered santonate of soda, 5 grams; simple 
 syrup, 90O grams ; syrup of orange flower, 
 100 grams. Suspend the santonate in 250 
 grams of the syrup, and heat it over a spirit- 
 lamp until dissolved; add the remainder of 
 the syrup, then the syrup of orange flower, 
 and mix carefully. A tublespnoTiful or 20 
 grams of this syrup will contain 10 centi- 
 grams of santonate, or the etpiivalent of 5 
 centigrams of santotiin. For adults the dose 
 might be double, or a syrup made containing 
 20 centigrams to the tablespoonfnl. 
 
 Syrnp of Sarsaparil'la. Sun. Sybupus sae- 
 ZM (Ph. L. & E.), Sybupus saesapabilis;, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Pli. L.) Take of sarsnparilla 
 (sliced), 35 lbs. ; boil it in water, 2 galls., down 
 to one half; ponr ofl" the liquor, and strain 
 it whilst hot; again boil the sarsaparilla in 
 another gall, of water down to one half, and 
 strain ; evaporate the mixed liquors to 1 quart, 
 and in these dissolve of white sugar, 8 oz. ; 
 lastly, when the syrup has cooled, add to it of 
 rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. 
 
 2. (Ph. E. & Ph. L. 1836.) Sarsaparilla 
 (sliced), 15 oz. ; boiling wiiter, 1 gail. j mace- 
 rate for 24 hours, boil to 2 quarts, strain, add 
 of sugar, 15 oz., and boil to a syrup. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Take of extract of sarsa- 
 parilla. 3 lbs. ; boiling water, 3 quarts ; dis- 
 solve, strain, and add of white sugar, 12 lbs. 
 Alterative and tonic. — Dose, 2 to 4 dr. See 
 Sabsapaeilla. 
 
 Syrup of Sarsaparilla, Compound. Syn. 
 Sybupus sabz.s; compositus, L. ; Sybop db 
 CUISINIBR, Fr. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) SarM-pa- 
 rilla (bruised), 2 lbs. ; guaiacum wood, rasped, 
 3 oz. ; damask roses, senna, and liquorice root, 
 bruised, of each 2 oz. ; diluted alcohol (proof 
 
1616 
 
 SYRUP 
 
 spirit), 10 wine pints (1 gall, imperial) ; mace- 
 rate for 14 days, express, filter through paper, 
 and evaporate in a water bath to 4 wine pints 
 (3i pints, imperial) ; then add of white sugar, 
 8 lbs. ; and, when cold, further add of oils of 
 sassafras and aniseed, of each 5 drops, and 
 oil of partridge berry {GauUheria procum- 
 hens), 3 drops, previously triturated with a 
 little of the syrup. 
 
 Obs. This is an excellent preparation; but 
 the rose leaves might be well omitted. — I>ose, 
 i fl. oz. 3 or 4 times a day, as an alterative, 
 tonic, and restorative. The syrup of the P. 
 Cod, is made with water instead of spirit, and 
 is inferior as a remedy to the preceding. 
 
 Syrup of Sarsaparilla, lodnretted. Si/n. 
 Steupus SAEsa; lODUEETi. (Ricord.) Prep. 
 Syrup of sarsaparilla, 31 parts ; iodide of 
 potassium, 1 part. 
 
 Syrup of Senega. Sy». Stbupus senega. 
 (U. S.) Prep. Senega in moderately fine 
 powder, 4 troy oz. ; sugar, 15 troy oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 2 pints (o. m.) Introduce the senega 
 into a percolator and pour on the proof spirit ; 
 when finished, evaporate the percolate by a 
 water bath at 160° F. to 8 oz. (o. m.); filter, 
 add the sugar, dissolve by a gentle heat, and 
 strain whilst hot. 
 
 Syrup of Sen'na. Syn. Steitpus SENNiE 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Take of senna, 3i oz. ; fennel seed (bruised), 
 10 dr.; boiling water, 1 pint; macerate for 6 
 hours, with a gentle heat ; then strongly press 
 out the liquid through linen, and dissolve in it 
 of manna, 3 oz. ; next add this solution to 
 treacle, 3 lbs., previously evaporated over a 
 water bath until a little of it, on being cooled, 
 almost concretes, and stir them well together. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Senna, 4 oz.; boiling water, 
 24 fi. oz. ; infuse, strain, add of treacle, 48 oz., 
 and evaporate to a proper consistence. Ape- 
 rient. — Dose, 1 to 4 dr. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Senna, broken small, 8 oz. ; oil 
 of coriander, 4J minims; refined sugar, 12 
 oz. ; distilled water, 50 oz. ; or a sufficiency ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 oz. ; digest the senna in | of 
 the water twenty-four hours at a temperature 
 of 120°, press, and strain ; digest the marc in 
 the remainder of the water six hours, press, 
 and strain ; evaporate the mixed liquors to 5 
 oz.; when cold add the rectified spirit con- 
 taining the oil of coriander; filter, and wash 
 the filter with water to make up to 8 oz. ; add 
 the sugar, and dissolve with gentle heat. The 
 product should weigh 21 oz., and measure 16 
 oz. Sp. gr. 1-310.— Zlo*e, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 Syrup of Senna with Manna. Syn. Sy- 
 
 EUPUS BENNiE CUM MAKlfA. (Ph. G.) Prep. 
 
 Infuse 10 oz. of senna leaves and 1 oz. of 
 bruised fennel seeds for some hours in 205 
 pints of hot water; strain, and dissolve in the 
 strained liquor 15 oz. of manna. Pour off 5i 
 oz. (by weight) of liquid from the sediment, 
 and dissolve it in 3 lbs. 2 oz. of sugar. 
 
 Syrnp, Simple. St/n. STEUptrs (B. P., Ph. 
 L.), SlETJPDS SIMPLEX (Ph. E. & D.), L. 
 
 1. (Ph. L.) White sugar, 3 lbs. ; distilled 
 water, 1 pint; dissolve by a gentle heat. 
 
 2. (Ph. B. & Ph. L. 1836.) Pure sugar, 
 10 lbs. ; boiling water, 3 pints. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Refined sugar (in powder — 
 crushed), 5 lbs. ; distilled water, 1 quart. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Refinedsugar, 6; distilled water, 
 3; dissolve the sugar in the water with the 
 aid of heat, and when cool add water to make 
 the product weigh 9 and measure very nearly 
 7. Sp. gr. 1-33. 
 
 5. (Wholesale.) Finest double refined sugar, 
 44 lbs.; distilled water, 2f gall.; make a 
 syrup. 
 
 Ohs. This preparation should be as white 
 and transparent as water. Used as capillaire, 
 &c., and to give cohesiveness and consistence 
 to pulverulent substances in the preparation 
 of electuaries, pills, &c. 
 
 Syrup of Snails. Syn. Stetjpus limaci- 
 BDS. (P. Cod.) Prep. Vine snails, deprived 
 of their shells and of the black portions, and 
 cut up, 2 oz. ; wash in cold water and then 
 boil with 10 oz. of water to 7 oz ; then add 10 
 oz. of sugar. 
 
 Syrnp of Soap Wort. %». Steuptts sapo- 
 NAEis. From the root, the same as syrup of 
 coltsfoot. 
 
 Syrup of Squills. Syn. Steupus sciile 
 (B. H., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) 
 Vinegar of squills, 3 pints ; white sugar (in 
 powder), 7 lbs. ; dissolve by a gentle heat. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Vinegar of squills, 8 fl. oz. ; 
 refined sugar (in powder), 1 lb. ; dissolve. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Vinegar of squills, 20; refined 
 sugar, 40; dissolve with the aid of heat. — 
 Dose, i to 1 dr. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) Take of vinegar of squills 
 (perfectly transparent), 1 4 lbs.; double refined 
 sugar, 28 lbs. ; dissolve in a stoneware vessel, 
 in the cold, or at most by a very gentle heat. 
 
 Obs. This syrup, like the last, should be as 
 clear as water, and nearly colourless. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an expectorant; in chronic 
 coughs and asthma. In large doses it proves 
 emetic. 
 
 Syrnp of Squills, Compound. Syn. Hive 
 
 SYEUP ; SykUPUS SCILL^ COMPOSITUS, L. 
 
 Prep. (Ph. U. S.) Squills and senega, of 
 each, bruised, 5 oz. ; water, 4 gall- ; boil to 
 a quart ; add of sugar, 4J lbs. ; evaporate to 
 3 pints, or a proper consistence, and dissolve 
 in it, whilst hot, of potassio- tartrate of anti- 
 mony (in powder), 1 dr. 
 
 Obs. This syrup is a popular expectorant in 
 the U.S., where it is known as hive syrup. — 
 Dose. As an expectorant, 20 to 30 drops, for 
 adults; for children, 5 to 10 drops; in 
 croup, 10 drops to J fl. dr., repeated until it 
 vomits. 
 
 Syrnp of Stinking Hellebore. Syn. St- 
 eupus helleboei ECEiiDi. Prep. Sprinkle 
 the fresh leaves of bear's foot with vinegar, 
 and express the juice. Boil this with twice its 
 weight of sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Stramonium. Sj/n. Steupus 
 
SYRUP 
 
 1617 
 
 aTHAMOMil. From the tincture as synii> of 
 bellitlonmi. 
 
 S^rap of Strychnia. St/n. Syhuptts btetch- 
 yix. (1". Cod.) The Paris Codex orduis a 
 ■trup contaiuiug i gr, of sulphate of 
 •trjcliniu in 1000 gr. of syrnp. 
 
 Symp, Sadorific. Syn. SrEUPUa stjdoei- 
 ncv». (F'A.) Sarsaparilltt, 6 oz. ; guiiiaciim 
 ninpini^s, 6 oz. ; water, 3 pints. Macerate for 
 H hours, evaporate to 1^ pint; strain, and 
 umke into a syrup with 2^ lbs. of su):ar. 
 
 Syrup of Sulphate of Iron. Syn. Ssmnptrs 
 ;bbbi bulphatis. (Willis.) Prep. Sulpljate 
 of iron, 1 dr. ; water, 2 clr.j syrup, 16 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Sulphate of Quinine. St/n. 8y- 
 
 EirPCfl (JOININiE 8DLPHATI8. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 
 Dissolve 30 gr. of sulphate uf quinine in 4 dr. 
 of water, with i dr. of dilute sulphuric acid, 
 and mix the solution witli 13 oz. of white 
 syrup. 
 
 Syrup of Snlphuret of Fotassinm. San. 
 Sybupcs potassii sulphtjekti. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Liver of sulphur, 8 gr. ; watur, 16 gr.j 
 syrup, 1 oz. 
 
 Symp of Superphosphate of Iron. St/n. 
 
 StBCPCS PEUBI-BUPEEPH03PHATI3. (Mr 
 
 Greenish.) Prep. Superphosphate of iron, 2 
 scruples ; simple syrup, 1 fl. oz. 
 Syrup, Symphytic. Sgn. Steupus stm- 
 
 PBYTI; BoiLE'a BYEUP. (Pll. E. 1715.) 
 Frep. Flesh coinfrey root, 4 lb. ; plantain 
 leaves, i lb. ; bruise, express the juice, boil to 
 half, and make a syrup with nn equal weight 
 of sugar. 
 
 Syrup of Tannin. Si/n. SYEUPtra tannini. 
 (Poy.) Prep, Tannin, 2 oz.; water, 16 oz.; 
 sugar, 32 oz. 
 
 Syrup of Tar. Sya. SYEUPUa Picia. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. Tnr water, 5ioz. ; sugar, 
 10 oz. Dissolve by water bath, and filter 
 through paper. 
 
 Syrup of Tartaric Acid. Sffn. Sykitpits 
 ACIDI TAHTAEICI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Tartaric 
 acid, 1 oz. ; water, -2 oz. ; sugar, 6 lbs. 1 oz. 
 Dissolve in the cold. 
 
 Syrup of Tartrate of Uanganese. Si/n. 
 
 SVBnPOS MANOANESII TAETEATI3. Made with 
 tartrate of manganese, as syrup of maUite of 
 manganese. 
 
 Syrup of Toln'. Syn. Balbamic syeup ; 
 Sybfpub TOLUTANUS (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 10 
 dr. (1 oz.— Ph. D.) ; boiling distilled water, 
 1 pint ; boil in a covered vessel for i an hour, 
 frequently stirring, then cool, strain, and dis- 
 solve in the liquor sugar, 2^ lbs. 
 
 ^. (Ph. E.) Simple syrup (warm), 2 lbs.; 
 tihctnre of Tolu, 1 oz. ; mix by degrees, and 
 agitate them briskly together in a closed 
 vessel. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Bnlsam of Tolu, li; sugar, 32; 
 water, 20; boil the balsam half an hour, add- 
 ing water when required ; when cold make up 
 to 16, Hlter, add the sugar, and dissolve. The 
 product weighs 48 and measures 36. Sp. gr. 
 1-33.— Dote, 1 to 2 dr. 
 VOL. 11 
 
 _ 4. (Wliolesale.) To warm water, 23 lbs., add 
 tincture of Tolu, gradually, until it will bear 
 no more without becoming opaque; then cork 
 down the bottle, and occasionally agitate until 
 cold ; when quite cold, filter it through paper, 
 and add of the finest double-refined sugar, 44 
 lbs. ; lastly, promote the solution, in a closed 
 vessel, by a gentle heat, in a water bath. 
 
 Oba. This ^yrnp should be clear and colour- 
 less as watnr ; but, as met with in the shops, 
 it is u,uall.v milky. It is stransie that the 
 London College should have omitted from 
 their formula the usual addition of rectified 
 spirit, although this syrup, perhaps more thin 
 any otiier, would be lienefiied by it. 
 
 Syrup of Tolu is pectoral and baloaiiiic. 
 
 Syrnp of Valerian. Si/n. Sykcpus vale- 
 EIAN.E. (P. Cod.) Prep. Infuse 1 Ih. of 
 bruised valerian in 4 lbs. of boiling water for 
 six hours ; strain, and press ; then pour upon 
 the marc 2 lbs. more of boiling water, or q. 8. 
 sij as to obtain 4i lbs. of infusion, including 
 the product of the first infusion; filter, and 
 add 1 lb. of valerian water, and then dissolve 
 in it, by the aid of a water bath, 10 lbs. of 
 su^'ar. 
 
 Syrup of Vanilla. 5y». SYEUPtis vanilla. 
 Prep. Vanilla, 2 oz. ; white sugar, 18 oz. ; 
 wattr, 9 i)Z. Beat the vanilla with a few 
 drops of spirit, then with part of the sugar, 
 and water, q. s. to form a soft paste; add the 
 rest of the sugar and water, and digest for 18 
 or 20 hours in a glass vessel placed in a water 
 bath. Strain and clarify with white of egg if 
 required. 
 
 Syrup, Velno's Vegetable. According to Dr 
 Paris and Sir B. Brodie, this celebrated nos- 
 trum is prepared as follows ; — Young and 
 fresh burdock root, sliced, 2 oz. ; dandelion 
 root, 1 oz. ; fresh spearmint, senna, ooriander 
 seed, and bruised liquorice root, of each I^ dr. ; 
 water, 11 pint; bull down gently to a pint, 
 strain, add of lump sugar, 1 lb., boil to a 
 syrup; and, lastly, add a small quaniity of 
 corrosive sublimate, previously dissolved in a 
 little spirit. Used as an alterative and puii- 
 fier of the blood. 
 
 Syrnp of Vin'egar. Si/n. Syeupub acbti, 
 L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Take of vinegar (French, 
 in preference), 11 fl. oz. ; white sugar, 14 oz. ; 
 and make a syrup. — Dose, 1 dr. to 1 fl. oz. ; 
 as an expectorant, in coughs and colds, or dif- 
 fused through any mild diluent, as a drink in 
 fevers. A more agreeable preparation is that 
 of the P. Cod., made by dissolving 30 parts of 
 sugar in 16 parts of raspberry vinegar. 
 
 Syrup of Vi'olets. Syn. SYECPtia viola- 
 EUM, SYEUPUa VIOL^ (Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 
 1. (Ph. L.) Macerate violet flowers, 9 oz., in 
 boiling water, 1 pint, for twelve hours, then 
 press, strain, and set aside the liquid, that the 
 faeces may subside; afterwards complete the 
 process with sugar, 3 lbs., and rectified spirit, 
 2i fl. oz. (or as much of each a» may be neces- 
 sary), in the way which has been ordered con- 
 cerning syrup of cochineal. 
 
 102 
 
1618 
 
 TABASHEER— TABLETTES 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Fresh violets, 1 lb.; boiling 
 water, 2i pints ; ir.fuse for 24 hours in a co- 
 vered vessel of glass or earthenware, strain off 
 the liquor (with gentle pressure), filter, and 
 dissolve in the liquid white sugar, 7i lbs. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From double-refined white 
 sugar, 66 lbs.,- 'anthokyan,'' 11 lbs. ; water, 
 22 lbs., or q. s. ; dissolve in earthenware. 
 
 Uses. Syrup of violets is gently laxative. — 
 Dose, For an infant, a teaspoonful. 
 
 Ohs. Genuine syrup of violet has a lively 
 violet-blue colour, is reddened by acids, turned 
 green by alkalies, and both smells and tastes 
 of the flov^ers. It is frequently used as a test. 
 A spurious sort is met with in the shops, which 
 is coloured with litmus, and slightly scented 
 with orris root. The purest sugar, perfectly 
 fiee from either acid or alkaline contamina- 
 tion, should alone be used in the rasinufacture 
 of this syrup. The Ph. E. orders the infusion 
 to be strained without pressure; and the P. 
 Cod., and some other Ph., direct the flowers to 
 be first washed in cold water. 
 
 Syrup of Wild Cherry Bark. Syn. Syettptts 
 PKIMI VIKGINIAN^. (U. S.) Prep. Moisten 
 5 troy. oz. of coarsely powdered bark of wild 
 cherry and water; let it stand 24 hoars, then 
 put it into a percolator, adding water till 16 
 oz. (o. m.) of liquid are obtained. To this add 
 2^ troy lbs. of sugar in a bottle and agitate 
 until it is dissolved. 
 
 Syrup, Wilks'. See Stkup op Gaelic, 
 Compound. 
 
 Syrup of Worm'wood. Syn. Stbtiptts ab- 
 SINTHII, L. ; SiBOP d'aesinthe, Fr. Frep. 
 (P. Cod.) Tops of wormwood (dried), 1 part; 
 boiling water, 8 parts ; infuse for 12 hours, 
 strain, with expression, and dissolve in the 
 liquor twice its weight of sugar. Bitter, 
 tonic, and stomachic. — Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr. 
 
 Syrups for Aerated Waters. 1. a. Lemon 
 Syrup. — Dissolve 1 oz. of citric acid in 4 oz. 
 of water, and add to 9 pints of simple syrup ; 
 also add 4 fl. oz. of mucilage of acacia and 
 half a fluid ounce of tincture of lemon. 
 
 b. Grate off the yellow rind of lemons and 
 beat it up with a sufiicient quantity of granu- 
 lated sugar. Express the lemon-juice; add to 
 each pint of juice 1 pint of water and 3J lbs. 
 of granulated sugar, including that rubbed 
 up by the rind. Warm until the sugar is 
 dissolved, and strain. 
 
 t. Dissolve 6 dr. of tartaric acid and 1 oz. 
 of gum Arabic in pieces in 1 gallon of simple 
 syrup, then flavour with 1^ fl. dr. of best oil 
 of lemon. Or flavour with the saturated 
 tincture of the peel in Cologne spirits. 
 
 2. a. Orange Syrup. To be prepared 
 from the fruit in tiie same manner as h, 
 Jjemon Syrup. 
 
 b. Dissolve 6 dr. of citric acid in 1 gall, of 
 simple syrup, and add 2 fl. dr. of fresh oil of 
 
 1 The expressed juice of violets, (lerecated, gently heated 
 -in earthenware to 192° Falir., then sivimmed, rooled, and 
 hltered; a little spirit is next added, and tlie next day the 
 'Campound is again filtered. 
 
 orange in 2 oz. of alcohol, or, instead of the 
 alcohol solution of the oil, use the saturated 
 tincture, obtained by macerating the fresh 
 peel for ten days in sufficient Cologne spirits 
 to cover. The lemon and orange syrups made 
 from the fruit, after being strained, may be 
 diluted with an equal bulk of simple syrup. 
 One dozen of the fruit is sufficient to make 1 
 gallon of finished syrup. 
 
 3. Vanilla Syrap. See Stettp. 
 
 4. Syrnp of Coffee. See Syetjp. 
 
 5. Strawberry and Raspberry Syrupt 
 Mash the fresh fruit, express the juice, and to 
 each quart add 3^ lbs. of granulated sugar. 
 The juice, heated to 180° Fahr. and strained 
 or filtered previous to dissolving the sugar, 
 will keep for an indefinite time. See also 
 Steavpbeeet essence. Factitious. 
 
 6. Pine-apple Syrup. Expressed juice of 
 pine-apple, 1 pint ; sugar, 2 lbs. Boil gently, 
 and when cold, filter. 
 
 7. Nectar Syrup. Mix 8 parts of vanilla 
 syrup with leach of pine-apple and lemon syrup. 
 
 8. Sherbet Syrup. Mix equal parta of 
 orange, pine-apple, and vanilla syrup. 
 
 9. Orape Syrup. Mix i pint of brandy, \ 
 oz. of tincture of lemon, and sufiicient tincture 
 of red Sanders, with 1 gall, of syrup. 
 
 10. Cream Syrup. Coudensedmilk, 1 pint; 
 water, 1 pint ; sugar, 1 J lb. Heat to boiling, 
 and strain. 
 
 11. Orgent Syrup. Cream syrnp and 
 vanilla syrup, of each 1 pint; oil of bitter 
 almonds, 4 minims. 
 
 12. Ginger Syrup. Syrup, 1\ fl. oz. ; 
 essence of ginger (1 part of ginger to 4 of 
 spirit), \ oz. 
 
 13. Syrup of Chocolate. Chocolate, 8 oz.; 
 syrup, sufiicient; water, i pint; white of 
 1 egg. Grate the chocolate and rub it in a 
 mortar with the egg. When thoroughly 
 mixed, add the water gradually, and triturate 
 till a uniform mixture is obtained. Finally, 
 add syrup to 4 pints, and strain. 
 
 TABASHEEE. A deposit chiefly composed of 
 silica, found in the joints of the bamboo. 
 When dry it is opaque, but possesses the pro- 
 perty of becoming transparent when placed in 
 water. Its deposition in the nodes and joints 
 of the bamboo appears to be due to a dis- 
 eased condition of these parts. Tabasheer is 
 much and unduly prized by the natives of 
 India as a tonic and constitutional restorative, 
 and is chewed mixed with betel. It has the least 
 refractive power on light of any body known. 
 
 TABES DORSAIiIS. Adiseaseof theposterior 
 column of the spinal cord, resulting in inco- 
 ordination of the movements of the legs, 
 sometimes spreading to the upper limbs, so 
 that the patient in walking throws out the legs 
 with a jerk, and brings them down violently 
 upon the heels. Such patients are popularly 
 called " Stampers " 
 
 TABLETTES. [Fr.] See LozESaES and 
 Savonbttes. 
 
TACAMAHACA- TALLOW 
 
 1619 
 
 TACAHAHACA. The resinous substance 
 InowLi by thU name, is believed to be obtained 
 from the Fngaraootaadra (of Linn!eu8),a large 
 tree growing in the inland of Curafjo* and in 
 Vene/.ncla. The juice, which exudes from the 
 tree spontaneously, becouies hard upon ex- 
 posure. The cominercinl article varies greatly 
 in size, sometimes occurring in irregular-shaped 
 pieces of one or two inches in diameter, whilst 
 ut others it is met with no larger than a 
 mustard sciii. The piiees are usually of a 
 rcildish-brown or light yellow colour. They 
 have a resinous agreeable odour, with a bal- 
 samic, bitter, slightly acrid taste. Tacamahaca 
 dissolves partially in alcohol, and entirely so in 
 ether and fixed oils. It is composed of resin 
 and a little volntile oil. There are several 
 varieties of this substance. At one time Taca- 
 mahiica enjoyed a high reputation as an in- 
 tcrn;il reme'iy for urinary and scorbutic affec- 
 tions. It is now only occasionally employed 
 ill medicine as an ingredient in ointments and 
 plaster. Sometimes it enters into the compo- 
 sition of incense. In properties it is very 
 similar to the turpentines. 
 
 TAf'FETAS. Plasters on silk are occa- 
 gitinnlly so called. For Taffbtas Anolicdm, 
 see Court plaster; for Taffetas vesicans, 
 
 see VB9I0ANT9. 
 
 TALC. 8i/n. Foliated talc; Udhuc. A 
 transparent, foliated, siliceous magnesian 
 mineral, flexible, but not elastic, found in 
 Scotland, the Tyrol, and elsewhere, II is used 
 II.S a cosmetic, to impart a silky whiteness to 
 the skin; also in the oomposition of rouge 
 rigital, and to give a flesh-like polish to ala- 
 baster figures. A second and harder species 
 of this mineral (French chalk, soafstone, 
 steatite ; GRETA Gallioa) is employed as a 
 crayon by carpenters, glaziers, and tailors, 
 and forms the boot-powderof the boot-makers. 
 Writing executed with it on glass, even afier 
 bring apparently removed by friction, becomes 
 again visible when breathed upon. 
 
 TAIi'LOW and other fats are commonly 
 purified by melting them along with water, 
 passing the mixed fluids through a sieve, and 
 letting the whole cool slowly, when a cake of 
 cleansed fat is obtained. — Another plan is to 
 keep the tallow melted for some time, along 
 with about 2% of oil of vitriol, largely diluted 
 with water, employing constant agitation, and 
 allowing the whole to cool slowly ; then to re- 
 melt the cake with a large quantity of hot 
 water, and to wash it well. — Another method 
 ii to blow steam for some time through the 
 melted fat. By either this or the preceding 
 process a white hard tallow may he obtained. — 
 Some persons add a little nitre to the melted 
 fst, and, afterwards, a little dilute nitric or 
 sulphuric acid, or a solution of bisolphate of 
 potash. Others boil the fat along with water 
 and a little dilute nitric or chromic acid, or a 
 miitureof bicliromateof potash and sulphuric 
 acid ; and afterwards wash it thoroughly with 
 «a'er. These methods answer well for the 
 
 tallow or mixed fats of which ordinary candles 
 are made. 
 
 Tallow converted into stearic acid by saponi- 
 fication is readily hardened and bleached, if 
 moderately pure. A mixture composed of 1 
 part of oxalic acid and 20iX) parts of water 
 is sufficient to bleach 1000 parts of stearic 
 acid. Tlie mode of operating is as follows : — 
 Throw the stearic acid, cut into small pieces, 
 into a vessel of cold water, and turn on steam ; 
 as soon as it has melted and assumed a turbid 
 appearance, add the solution of oxalic acid, 
 and boil the mixture. Alter boiling for j hour, 
 long threads appear in the liquid;, the liquid 
 itself, which previously was of a greyish colour, 
 becomes black, and the threads unite together. 
 The boiling must now be discontinued, and 
 the contents of the vessel, having been allowed 
 to settle for three or four hours, must be 
 drawn off into the coolers. 
 
 As commercial stearic acid Cniiuently con- 
 tains uudccouiposed tallow, as well as various 
 foreign matter-), this process is occasionally 
 unsuccessful. To obviate the inconveniences 
 connected with the use of this impure material, 
 the candle may be run at two operations, as 
 follows : — " The stearic acid, treated as above, 
 is exposed for a month to the sun, liy which 
 means the foreign matters are oxidised, and 
 the bleached stearic acid acquires a dirty yel- 
 low colour; the oxidised blocks are then melted 
 in water containing a little sulphuric acid, at 
 about 150° Falir. ; an addition of about 10 per 
 cent, of good white wax (or spermaceti) is next 
 made, and the whole boiled lor hall' an hour; 
 the white of an egg, previously beaten up in a 
 quart of water, is then added to each 1 cwt. of 
 stearic acid, the temperature of the mass 
 having been reduced to 100", or at most 120° 
 Fahr., after which the mixture is again well 
 stirred and boiled, when the liquid soon be- 
 comes clear, wliich is seen by the dark colour 
 it assumes. 
 
 "This mixture of stearic acid and wax or 
 spermaceti is very suitable for forming the 
 exterior coating of the candle ; it is trans- 
 parent, and of perfect whiteness, and, as it is 
 devoid of oxalic acid, it does not injure the 
 moulds ; whilst at the same time, as it is less 
 fusible than pure stearic acid, candles made 
 with it do not run. The first coating may 
 be run hot without crystallising; the interior 
 of the candle, being protected from without 
 against too sudden a cooling, may also be run 
 somewhat hot ; by this means tlie candle ac- 
 quires a whiteness and a trausp;ireucy which 
 cannot be realised by other processes." (' Le 
 Jioniteur Industrie! ') 
 
 The sulphuric acid saponification of inferior 
 tallow and other solid or semi-solid tatty bodies 
 is now carried out on a verv large scale for 
 producing the cheaper varieties of ' stearine 
 candles.' For this purpose, the tallow or fat 
 is mixed with 5 or 6^ of concentrated sulphuric 
 acid, and exposed to a steain heat of 350° to 
 3C0° Fahr. Alter cooling, the black mnss thus 
 
1620 
 
 TAMARA— TANKS 
 
 obtained crystallises to a tolerably solid fat, 
 wliich is well washed once or twice with water, 
 or high-pressure steam, and is then submitted 
 to distillHtion by the aid of steam heated to 
 about 560° Fahr. The product of the distilla- 
 t'on is beautiiuUy wliite, and may be at once 
 used for making caudles. It is better, how- 
 ever, to first submit it to the processes of cold 
 and hot pressing, whereby a much more solid 
 fat is obtained. 
 
 According to M. Pohl, palm oil or palm 
 trtUow is most easily purified by simple ex- 
 posure to a high temperature, provided it has 
 been first well defecated. When quickly heated 
 to about 465° Fahr., and kept at that tem- 
 perature for from 5 to 15 minutes, it is com- 
 pl.jtely decoloured. The product lias a slight 
 empyreumatic odour, but this disappears by 
 age, exposure, or saponification, and tlie natural 
 violet odour of the oil returns. Cast-iron pans 
 should be employed in the process, and should 
 be only 2-3rds filled, and well covered during 
 tlie operation. 
 
 By the distillation of sulphurated palm oil 
 in closed vessels, at a heat ranging from 570° 
 to 600° Falir., from 68g to 75g of a mixture of 
 palmitic and palm-oleic acid passes over, of 
 which 25^ to 30g is colourless, hard, and 
 crystalline, and the rest darker and softer. 
 (Pohl.) The residuum in the still is a fine 
 hard pitch. See Candles, Fat, Gltcebin, 
 Oils (Fixed), Steabic acid, &c. 
 
 TAMAS'A. A mixed spice used in Italian 
 cookery, consisting of cinnamon, cloves, and 
 corianders, of each 2 parts; aniseed and fennel 
 seed, of each 1 part. 
 
 TAm'AEIND. A</i>. Tamaeinditb (B. P., Ph. 
 L., E., & D.), L. Tlie pulp or preserved fruit or 
 pod of the Tamarindus Indicator tamarind tree. 
 
 Tamarind pulp is refrigerant and gently 
 laxative. Mixed with water, it forms a grate- 
 ful acidulous drink in fevers. — Dose, \ oz. and 
 upwards. 
 
 Composition of the Tamarind. — Vanquelin. 
 Citric acid . . 9'40 per cent. 
 Tartiiric „ . 155 „ 
 
 Malic „ . . 0-45 „ 
 Bitartrate of potash 3'25 . „ 
 Sugar . . . 12-50 „ 
 Besides gum, vegetable jelly, parenchyma, 
 and water. 
 
 TAMKS. The difference between water-tanks 
 and cisterns is not very obvious. Perhaps the 
 definition the most nearly representing the 
 general idea respecting them would be, that 
 whilst both were receptacles for water, in 
 tanks water would be stored for a longer 
 period than in cisterns, which supplying the 
 constantly recurring needs of a house or a 
 buildino; of any kind would be more fre- 
 quentiy filled and emptied; although in many 
 instances there might be no such distinction 
 between tliem, and they might be regarded as 
 synonymous. In whatever sense the terms 
 may be understood, the reuiarks that follow as 
 
 to their construction and management have a 
 common application. 
 
 The materials for tanks and cisterns for the 
 reception of water consist of stone, cement, 
 brick, slate, iron, zinc, and lead. Of these 
 materials, the best, although the dearest, is 
 slate. The slate cistern, however, is occa- 
 sionally liable to leakage, a defect mostly 
 arising from the employment of mortar instead 
 of cement for joining the slabs. 
 
 Wrought-iron cisterns and tanks as well as 
 the pipes i» connection with them are in very 
 general use. The tendency of both to cor- 
 rosion by the action of the water is consider- 
 ably reduced by coating the insides with Port- 
 land cement or a vitreous glaze. 
 
 Mr Burn advocates the employment of a 
 compound of tar, which, he says, most effec- 
 tually protects them. Zinc, although cheap, 
 and little acted upon by water, is seldom em- 
 ployed for cisterns. Dr Osborne says he has 
 seen several cases of zinc poisoning, caused by 
 drinking water that had passed through zinc 
 pipes, or had stood in zinc pails. Equal, if 
 not greater risk is incurred when drinking- 
 water is kept in lead cisterns, or is made to 
 run through lead pipes. In setting up cisterns 
 or tanks made of stone or cement, common 
 mortar must not be used, as lime is taken up 
 and the water is rendered hard in consequence. 
 
 In seasons of drought it is by no means an 
 unusual occurrence for many rural districts to 
 lack a saiBciency of water, the limited supply 
 of which entails considerable suffering, some- 
 times terminating iatally upon farm stock, 
 with frequent loss to the owners. Few per- 
 sons, perhaps, can form a correct ide.a of the 
 immense quantity of water that in the shape 
 of rain falls even iu the least humid por- 
 tions of our islands. If this rain, which is 
 now allowed to run waste, were properly col- 
 lected and stored, it would form a valuable 
 resource in times and at places where there 
 was a dearth or scarcity of this necessary 
 element. 
 
 Mr Bayley Denton, writing on this subject, 
 says: — "Take an ordinary middle-class house 
 in a village with stabling and outbuildings, the 
 space of ground covered by the roofs will fre- 
 quently reach 10 poles, while the space covered 
 by a farm-labourer's cottage and outbuildings 
 will be 2i poles. 
 
 Assuming that the roof is slate and the 
 water dripping from it is properly caught by 
 eave-troughing, and conducted by down-pipes 
 and Impervious drain-pipes into a water-tight 
 tank sufficiently capacious to prevent overflow 
 under any circumstances, and that by this 
 method 20 inches of water from rain and 
 dew are collected in the course of the year, 
 the private houses will have the command of 
 28,280 gallons, and the cottage 7070 gallons 
 
 in a year A tank 16 feet long, and 
 
 ten feet wide, will hold 1000 gallons in every 
 foot of depth, and where the water is not 
 wanted for drinking, it need not be covered. 
 
TANNATE— TANNIC ACID 
 
 1621 
 
 rxcept with a common boarded floating roof 
 of half-'iDCh boards lastened together. This 
 Boaliiig roof keeps the water clean, and pre- 
 vents evaporation." ' 
 
 Leakage of pipes of any kind into a cis- 
 tirn or tank should be particularly guarded 
 against. Another important precaution claim- 
 ing adoption is to see that the overflow-pipe 
 is not directly connected with the sewer, for 
 ifil be, the sewer gases will rise through it, and 
 being prevented escaping from the cistern 
 because of its covering, will become absurbed 
 by the water. To obviate this, the overflow- 
 pipe is curved, so as to form a syphon trap; 
 but this device conduces to a sense of false 
 •c'curity, since it mostly fails owing to the 
 evaporation of the water in it, or to the gases 
 forcing their way through it. The overflow- 
 pipe, therefore, should never have direct com- 
 iijunication with the sewer, but should always 
 end above ground, and discharge over a 
 trapped grating into it. For similar reasons 
 the same tanks nr cisterus should never supply 
 the water used for culinary or drinking pur- 
 poses and iilso the water-closets. 
 
 To the water in the tanks attached to 
 these latter, some disinfectant substance should 
 from time to time be added; more particularly 
 during hot weather. 
 
 Unless a cistern be efficiently protected, 
 particularly if it be placed in an exposed 
 situation, various disgusting and flithy sub- 
 stances, such as the ordure of birds, oats, rats, 
 and dead insects, &c., will be liable to fall 
 into it, and fiiul its couteuts. This must not 
 only be guarded against by the proper means, 
 but even where the contamination may not be 
 suspected, or likely to occur, the cistern should 
 be Ireqiiently examined and periodically cleans- 
 ed; part of the proper carrying out of which 
 shouU cousist in always runuing off the water 
 remaining in it and renewinir it with fcesh. 
 
 The London and General Water Purifying 
 Company have adopted an excellent idea in 
 connection with tanks and cisterns ; they fit 
 them with filters, so that the water drawn 
 from the pipes shall have been submitted to 
 filtration previous to delivery. 
 
 lAN'NATE. A salt of tannic acid. 
 
 lAH'NEE'S BAKK. The best of this is oak 
 hark; but tlio bark of the chestnut, willow, 
 and larch, and other trees which abound in 
 tannin, are also used for preparing leather. 
 
 TAH'SIC ACID. CjtHjjO,,. Syn. Tan, 
 Tannin, Gallo-tannio AciDf; Tannintjm, 
 
 ACIDDM TANNICCM (B. P., Ph. L., D., & U. S.), 
 L. A peculiar vegetiible principle, remarkable 
 tor its astringency and its power of converting 
 the skins of animals into leather. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Pelouze.) Prom galls, in mode- 
 rately fine powder, by percolation, in a closed 
 vessel, with sulphuric ether that has been 
 previously agitated with water. After some 
 time the percolated liquid will be found divided 
 into two distinct portions, the lower and 
 ' ' Oa the Storage of Water," by BayUy Denton, 
 
 heavier one being a watery solution of tannic 
 acid, and the upper one an ethereal solution 
 of gallic acid and colouring matter. Fresh 
 ether must be passed through the powder as 
 long as the lower stratum of liquid continues 
 to augmenc. The two fluids are now carefully 
 separated, and after the heavier one has been 
 well washed with ether, it is gently evaporated 
 to dryness, preferably under the receiver of 
 an air pump, or over sulphuric acid. The 
 ether may be recovered unaltered from the 
 ethereal solution, by cautious distillation in 
 a retort connected with a Liebig's condenser 
 supplied with ice-cold water. Prod. About 40g. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) From galls, in tolerably fine 
 powder, 8 oz., and a mixture of sulphuric 
 ether, 3 pints, with water, 5 II. oz. ; by per- 
 colation, in successive portions, like the last; 
 the aqueous solution of tannic acid being 
 evaporated, and finally dried at a beat not 
 exceeding 212° Fahr. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Pure tannic acid is perfectly 
 white, but as ordinarily met with it has n 
 slight yellowish colour, owing to the action of 
 the air ; it is uncryst.illisable ; possesses n 
 powerful and purely astringent; taste, without 
 bitterness; is freely soluble in water, less so 
 in alcohol, and only very slightly in ether; it 
 reddens vegetable blues; when boiled with 
 acids, it assimilates water and splits into gal- 
 lic acid and grape sugar; when heated in 
 the dry state, it sufpers decomposition, meta- 
 gallic and pyrogallic acids being formed ; 
 it unites with the bases, forming sHlt'< called 
 tannates, which are characterised by striking 
 a deep black with the persalts of iron (ink), 
 and forming a white precipitate with gelatin. 
 
 E. Schmidt' gives the following comparative 
 method of determining tanning materials, 
 stating, preliminarily, " that the question to 
 he solved is, knowing that a certain weight 
 of pure tannin is required to obtain a cei tain 
 result, how much of another tanning body, 
 e.g. the extract of a wood, is required to pro- 
 duce the same result P None of the published 
 methods for the determination of tannin is 
 sufficiently precise, easy, and rapid for indus- 
 trial purposes." 
 
 The author proposes a modification of 
 Pibiam's method with sugar of lead, the 
 modification being as follows : 
 
 A. Preparation of the Test Liquor. Fifty 
 errams neutral acetate of lead are dissolved in 
 400 grams of alcohol, of 92 per cent., and 
 distilled water is added to make up 1 litre. 
 
 On the other hand, 1 gram of tannin is dis- 
 solved in 40 grams of alcohol of the same 
 strength, and the solution is made up with 
 water to the bulk of 100 c. c. This being 
 done, 10 c. i:. of the tannin solution are mixed 
 with 20 c. c. of water, and heated to 60°. The 
 lead liquor is then run into the hot solution 
 from a burette, graduated to tenths of a c. c, 
 so long as » precipitate is formed. At this 
 temperature, and with these alcoholised liquids, 
 > Chem. News, from ' Bull, de la Soc. CUem. de faris.' 
 
1622 
 
 TANNIN— TANNING 
 
 the precipitate forms and settles rapidly. 
 Iodide of potassium may be used as an indi- 
 cator to show excess of lead, proceeding in the 
 sanae manner as is done with ferrocyanide in 
 titrating phosphates with nitrale of uranium. 
 If we suppose that to precipitate 10 u. c. of 
 the tannin solution 28° of the lead liquor have 
 been required, then 28 c. c. of the latter=010 
 gram of tannin. 
 
 B. Freparation of the Sample to he tested. 
 Suppose that chestnut bark is to be exiimiiied. 
 It is coarsely powdered, and 10 grams are 
 mixed with an equal volume of washed sand, 
 and exhausted with water at 50° or 60° C. The 
 filtered liquid is evaporated to dryness in a 
 water bath in a tarred porcelain capsule. After 
 evaporation the capsule is weighed, which 
 shows the yield of the bark in aqueous extract. 
 Tliis is taken up in 40 grams of alcohol at 92°, 
 and water is added to make up 100° c. c. The 
 liquid is filtered if needful. In this manner 
 t)ie resinous, albuminoid, pectic, and gummy 
 matters are got rid of. 
 
 c. Titration. The liquid thus prepared is 
 divided into two parts. The first, one tliird of 
 the entire volume, serves for direct determina- 
 tion of the acetate of lead. Suppose that a 
 gram of the dry extract of chestnut has re- 
 quired, for 10 c. c. of the tannin liquor, in 
 three successive experiments, 16°, 17°, and 16° 
 of the burette, which corresponds to 57 per 
 cent, of tannin. Thus figure 57 represents not 
 only tannin, but every other substance capable 
 of precipitating acetate of lead. 
 
 The tannin is then absorbed with hone black, 
 previously washed with hydrochloric acid, and' 
 dried at 100° C. in the following manner : — 
 We act with bone black upon the tannin 
 liquor, and on a solution of pure tannic, pre- 
 pared at a standard somewhat lower than that 
 indicated for the extract by the first direct 
 titration. In the present case this solution of 
 tannin should be prepared at 55 per cent. 
 
 From one and the same glass tube, about 1 
 centimetre in diameter, we cut ofE two lengths 
 of 20 centimetres each, and we draw out each 
 at one of its ends. The two tubes are fixed 
 perpendicularly with the points downwards, 
 and pluLTged w ith a little carded cotton. Into 
 each is put 10 irrams of the bone black, pour- 
 ing into one of them the second part of the 
 tannin liquor under examination, and into the 
 other the same volume of the puie solution of 
 pure tannin at 55 per cent. 
 
 Twenty c. c. of the tannin liquor (which will 
 be found to have retained its orio;inal brown 
 colour in spite of the bone black) are now 
 heated to 60° C, and the standard lead liquor 
 is added from the burette as before. Two 
 successive trials show 16° =8° for 10 c. c. 
 in place of the 16° found for 10 c. u. on direct 
 titration. On the other hand, 20 c.c. of the sohi- 
 tion of pure tannin require 14°, or 7° for 10 c. c. 
 Thus we see that in the tannin liquor (chest- 
 nut extract) there is a certain quantity of 
 matter which acts upon the standard lead solu- 
 
 tion like tannin, corresponding to 1° of the 
 lead liquor, i. c. to 357 thousandths of a cen- 
 tigram of tannin; 28°, therefore, correspond 
 to 10 centigrams. The figure 57, obtained by 
 direct titration, is, therefore, too high by 3'57 
 per cent., and the extract contains 57 — 3"57= 
 53'43 per cent, of tannin. 
 
 Uses, ^c. The value of substances containing 
 tannin in the preparation of leather is well 
 known. In its pure form it is used as an 
 astringent in medicine; internally, in diar- 
 rhoea, hsemorrhages, as a tonic in dyspepsia, 
 &c. ; externally, made into a gargle, injection, 
 or ointment. — Dose, 1 to 10 gr., in the form 
 of pills or solution. See Gallic acid, &c. 
 
 TAH'NIIT. See Tannic acid. 
 
 TAN'lflNG. When the skin of an animal, 
 carefully deprived of hair, fat, and other im- 
 purities, is immersed in a dilute solution of 
 tannic acid, the gelatin gradually combines 
 with that substance as it penetrates inwards, 
 forming a perfectly insoluble compound, which 
 resists putrefaction completely ; this is tanned 
 leather. In practice, lime water is used 
 for cleansing and preparing the skin, water 
 acidulated with oil of vitriol for ' raising' 
 or opening the pores, and an infusion of oak 
 bark, or sometimes of catechu, or other astrin- 
 gent matter, as the source of tannic acid. The 
 process itself is necessarily a slow one, as dilute 
 solutions only can be safely used. Skins in- 
 tended for the curriers, to be dressed for 
 'uppers,' commonly require about 3 weeks; 
 and 'thick hides,' from \z to 18 months. 
 
 Of late years various ingenious contrivances 
 have been adopted, with more or lees success, 
 to hasten the process of tanning skins and 
 hides. Among these may be mentioned the 
 employment of stronger tan solutions, the ap- 
 plication of a gentle heat, puncturing the skins 
 to afford more ready access for the liquid to 
 their interior parts, and maceration in the tan 
 liquor under piessure, either at once or after 
 the vessel containing them has been exhausted 
 of air by means of an air-pump. On the merit 
 of these several metht)ds it has been remarked 
 " that the saturated infusions of astringent 
 barks contain much less extractive matter, in 
 proportion to their tannin, than the weak in- 
 fusions ; and when the skins are q iiickly tanned 
 in the former, common experience sliows that 
 it produces leather which is less durable than 
 leather slowly formed." (Sir H. Davy.) " 100 
 lbs. of skin, quickly tanned in a strong infusion 
 of bark, produce 137 lbs. of leather; while 
 100 lbs., slowly tanned in a weak infusion, 
 produce only 117^ lbs." " Leather thus highly 
 (and hastily) charged with tannin is, more- 
 over, so spongy as to allow moisture to pass 
 readily through. its pores, to the great dis- 
 comfort and danger of persons wearing shoes 
 made of it." (Ure.) 
 
 AocordinsT to Mr G. Lee, much of the ori- 
 ginal srelatin of the skin is wasted in the 
 preliniinaiy processes to which they are sub- 
 jected, more e'^pecially the 'liming" and 'bating.' 
 
TANTALIC ACID— TAPIOCA 
 
 1623 
 
 He «ay8, that 100 lbs. of perfectly dry hide, 
 cleaned froin extraneous matter, should, on 
 chemical principlea, afEurd at least 180 lbs. of 
 leather. 
 
 MoBOCCO tSATHBB is prepared from goat or 
 iheep akiu', which, after the action of lime 
 water and a dun^ bath, are slightly tanned in 
 a bath of sumach. They are subsequently 
 grained, polished, &c. 
 
 BtrsBiA I.EAT1IEB IS generally tanned with a 
 decoction of willow bark, after which it is dyed, 
 and curried with the empyreumatic oil of the 
 birch tree. It U the la»t substance which im- 
 part! to this leather its peculiar odour and 
 power of resisting mould and damp. See 
 Lbatheb, Tannic acid, Tawin&, &c. 
 
 TANTALIC ACID. Syn. Tantalio anut- 
 SKIDE ; CoLDMBlO ACID. Rose believed this 
 aubbtance to be a dioxide, to which he gave the 
 formula TaOj ; but the subsequent researches 
 of Jlarignac, and the crystalline form of po- 
 tassic tantalic fluoride 2KF, TaF^, seem to 
 show that it is to be regarded rather as Ta^Os- 
 
 TAN'TAIUM. Ta. 8t/n. Columbium. A 
 rare metal discovered by Mr Hatchett, in 1801, 
 In a mineral from Massachusetts ; and by M. 
 Kkeherg, in 1803, in tantalite, a mineral 
 foinid in Sweden, It exists in most of its ores 
 iu oombination with oxygen. 
 
 TAPEWORM. See Wobms. 
 
 TAPEWORM CURE (Bloch, Vienna). 
 Coarsely powdered pomegranate root bark, 
 12S grammes, boiled for half an hour in 800 
 grammes water. To this add solution of am- 
 monia, 5 grammes ; boil again for u. quarter 
 of an hour. Add kousso flowers 25 grammes. 
 A^aln boil for a few minutes, and when cold 
 iidd citric acid, 1 gramme ; and alcohol, 30 
 grammes. Piess, filter, and set aside. The 
 product should weigh about 500 grammes. 
 Klinger fays this remedy is merely a concen- 
 trated essence of pomegranate root biirk, and 
 contains neither ammonia nor citric acid. 
 
 Tapevorm Cure (Jacoby, Berlin). A box 
 rontaining 20 grammes of kousso powder and 
 directions for use. (Hager.) 
 
 Tapeworm Cure (iUix). (o) A mixture con- 
 taining 3 dec'iu;rammes of sulphate of quinine, 
 with a few dri p-i of hydrochloric acid to dis- 
 solve it in 200 jjrammes water. To be taken 
 in the course of three days, (b) A box witli 
 12 grammes kousso powder. A teaspuonful 
 to be taken each morning in black coffee. 
 (Schftdler.) 
 
 Tapeworm Cure (Richard Mohi-raann, 
 Frankenberg, Saxony). This Mohrmann tra- 
 vels about in the fashion of the old charlatans, 
 to sell his medicini's. Tliese consist of two 
 varieties, the first being 10 grammes of ex- 
 tract of male fern, the second a mixture of S 
 grammes e;u'h of raspberry juice and castor 
 oil. These remedies have been used for tape- 
 worm tor almnst 100 years. The doctor's 
 directions for use are to mix 30 griimmes of 
 the extract h ith the castor oil and rii-pbcrry 
 
 compound, and 30 drops of the mixture to be 
 taken every quarter of an hour, until purging 
 occurs. 
 
 Tapeworm Care (Mork, Berlin). A decoc- 
 tion of about 110 grammes of pomegranate 
 root bark, yielding 400 grammes of liquid, 
 and mixed 1 gramme of extract of male fern. 
 The directions order that on one day one or 
 two tablespoonfuls of castor oil should be 
 taken, a herring salad In the evenin?, and the 
 following morning, after coffee, a third of the 
 contents of the bottle, another third half an 
 hour later, and the remainder in yet another 
 half hour. (Hager.) 
 
 Tapeworm Cure for Children and Adults 
 (E. Karig, Berlin). Burned oxide of copper, 
 1 gramme; cassia imwilfr, 1^ (.-niiiime; suirur 
 of milk, 10 grammes. Divide in 21 powders. 
 (Sehailler.) 
 
 Tapeworm PiUs, Laffon's, are compounded 
 of the ethereal extrait of the root of .ixjinliuui 
 Lonchilis, Asp. Jleloiticuiit, and Asp. Filix- 
 mas, together with tlie alcohcilic extract of 
 the flowers of Achillea mutelliaa and mas- 
 chata, and the pnnilur of tlie flowers of Arnica 
 Doronicum. (Wittstein.) 
 
 Tapeworm Pills, PescMer's. — Ethereal ex- 
 tract and powder of the rhizome of male fern, 
 of each gramme I'd make 20 pills. Take ten 
 at night and ten in the mornincr. 
 
 TAPIO'CA. Syn. Tapioca (Ph. E. i D.), L. 
 The fecnla of the rootof»/ani;?Aa m'tnihot {J<t- 
 tropha manihot — Linn.), which has been well 
 washed in water, and drioil on lint plates, bv 
 which it assumes the appearance of wurty- 
 looking granules. 
 
 Pure tapioca is insipid, inodorous, only 
 slijihtly soluble in cold water, but entirely 
 soluble in boiling' water, forming a translu- 
 cent and hi'.'hlv nutritious jelly. Its granules 
 are muller-shaped, about f^^;^ of an inch in 
 
 ^^'■:r>'^-^^^ 
 
 MicruBcrpic uppeamnce of tapioca. 
 diameter, and display very marked hilums. It 
 
1624 
 
 TAPS, WOODEN— TAR COLOURS 
 
 is used in a similar manner to Bago and arrow- 
 root. See Cassava. 
 
 TAPS, WOODEN (to prevent their cracking). 
 The taps are placed in mother paraffin, heated 
 to from 110° to 120° ; by this means the water 
 is eliminated from tha wood, and the wood 
 becomes thoroughly impregnated with paraffin. 
 The taps are heated in this bath until all the 
 aqueous vapour has been expelled, and are left 
 in it, after the removal of the vessel from the 
 fire, up to the very moment the paraffin begins 
 to solidify. "Wooden taps thus prepared are 
 very durable, do not become soaked with 
 liquids, keep very tight, and are not liahle to 
 become mouldy. The excess of paraffin is 
 wiped off with care, and the taps are next 
 rulibed clean with a piece of flannel, (Dr E. 
 Kopp.)i 
 
 TAK. Si/n. Pix LIQUIDA (B. P., Ph. L., E , 
 & D.), L. A liquid bitumen prepared from 
 the wood of Pinus si/lvestris, and other species, 
 by heat. The chemical constitution of tar is 
 very complicated. Its uses in the arts are 
 well known. As a medicine it is stimulant, 
 diuretic, sudorific, and vermifuge. — Dose, 20 
 to 60 minims, made into pills with flour; in 
 ichthyosis, &c. Externally, in lepra, psoriasis, 
 foul ulcers, &c. See Ointment and Infusion. 
 
 Tar, Barbadoes. St/n. Pix liquida Bab- 
 
 BADENSIS, PeTEOLEUM BARBADENSE, PeTEO- 
 
 LEUM (Pli. L. and E.), L. " Black liquid bitu- 
 men, exuding spontaneously from tlie earth." 
 (Ph. L.) Its properties for the most part 
 resemble those of the last. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 drops ; in asthma, chronic coughs, tapeworm, 
 &c. Externally, in chilblains, chronic and 
 rheumatic pains, &c. See PETEOLEintc. 
 
 Tar, Coal. Produced during the distillation 
 of bituminous coal for gas. See Naphtha, 
 &c. 
 
 TAEAX'ACUM. See Dandelion. 
 
 TAR COLOURS. Si/n. Coal tae colours. 
 Aniline coloueb, &c. CohI tar, the source 
 of the aniline colours, consists of the oily fluid 
 obtained in the destiuctive distillation of coal, 
 during the manufacture of ordinary illumi- 
 nating gas, and collected in a tank from the 
 hydraulic main and condensers. 
 
 The composition of coal tar is highly com- 
 plex, the most important constituents being, 
 however, a series of homologous hydrocarbons 
 obtained by distilling coal tar, and known as 
 'coal naphtha.' Naphtha, by rectification 
 between 180° and 250° Pahr. (82 and 121 
 Cent.), yields a light yellow oily liquid, of sp. 
 gr. '88, the benzol of commerce. 
 
 By tile action of a mixture of nitric and 
 sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy 
 oily liquid with an odour of oil of bitter 
 almonds is obtained. In commerce this sub- 
 stance is made in large cast-iron pots, fitted 
 with tight covers, and provided with stirrers 
 worked by steam power. By means of pipes 
 the reagents are admitted and the nitrous 
 fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol 
 * * Cheniical News.' 
 
 and the spent reagents are drawn off from the 
 bottom. The entire charge of benzol is first 
 placed info the vessels, and the mixed acids 
 are, as the reaction is very energetic, cautiously 
 run in, the whole being well stirred through- 
 out. When finished, the contents are drawn 
 off, and the nitro-benzol collected, washed with 
 water, and, if necessary, neutralised with a 
 solution of soda. See Benzol. 
 
 Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a 
 similar apparatus, only provided with means of 
 admitting a current of superheated steam, and 
 condensing the aniline as it distils over. Into 
 the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic 
 acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as 
 the reduction is violent, stirring well all the 
 time. A current of superheated steam is 
 pnssed through, and the aniline collected as it 
 distils over as a pale, sherry-coloured o ly 
 liquid, boiling at 360° Fahr. (182 Cent.), anil 
 of sp. gr. 102. See Aniline. 
 
 Mauve,. Indisine, Violine, Phenamink, 
 the first-discoverrd coal tar, or aniline cnlour, 
 was olitained by Mr Perkins during some ex- 
 periments directed towards the artificial 
 formation of quinine, and was also first prac- 
 tically manufactured by Mr Perkins. Com- 
 mercially, mauve is made as follows : 
 
 Aniline and sulphuric acid in proper pro- 
 portions are dissolved in water in a vat by 
 aid of heat, and when cold a solution of 
 bichromate of potassium added, and the whole 
 allowed to stand a day or two, when a black 
 precipitate is obtained, which, after collecting 
 on shallow filters, is washed and well dried. 
 Tliis black resinous substance is digested with 
 dilute methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus, 
 to dissolve out the mauve, and the major 
 portion of the spirit distilled off. The mauve 
 is precipitated from the aqueous solution left 
 behind by hydrate of sodium, and after washing 
 is either drained to a paste or dried. 
 
 The amount of mauve thus obtained is but 
 small in comparison with the raw material, 
 coal tar, ns 100 lbs. of coal yield 10 lbs. 12 
 oz. of coal tar ; Si oz. of mineral naphtha, 2J 
 oz. of benzol ; 4i oz. of nitro-benzol, 2^ oz. of 
 aniline, and i oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually 
 sent into the market in paste or solution, the 
 exiien.=e of the crystals being heavy, and 
 offering no corresponding aflvantages. 
 
 Othir salts than the bichromate of potassium 
 have been employed to convert aniline into 
 iTiaiive, as chloride of copper, permanganate of 
 potassium, &c.; but experience has shown 
 none to possess the same advantages as the 
 bichromate of potassium. 
 
 Mauveine, the organic base of mauve or 
 aniline purple, is a black crystalline powder, of 
 the formula Cj^Hj^Ng, yielding a dull violet 
 solutinn. Tlie moment, however, mauveine is 
 brought in contact with an acid. It turns a 
 magnificent purple colour. The salts of mau- 
 veine form beautiful crystals possessing a 
 splendid green metallic lustre, suluble very 
 readily in alcohol, and less so in water. The 
 
TAR COLOURS 
 
 162i 
 
 commcrciHl taU, or manve, is the acetate, or 
 ■oiiietiniei the hydroc-hl'iriitc. 
 
 Maoknta. Si/n. Aniline bed, Roseine, 
 FrcasiHB, Azileinf, !solfekino, Ttbaline. 
 Various processes huve been proposed and pa- 
 tented for the prepar^ition of tins commercially 
 important coal-tar culour. Amongst these 
 processes are — 
 
 1. Gerher-Keller's, patented in France, Oc- 
 tober 29tl), 1859. By this the aniline is 
 treated with mercuric nitrate. 
 
 2. Lauth and Depouilly used nitric acid. 
 
 3. Medlock (patent dated January, 1860), 
 Nicholson, and Messrs Girard and De Laire, all 
 Id 1860, neparatel^' patented the use of arsenic 
 acid. This proresi", being the one now almost 
 exclusively employed, is thus described in 
 Grace Calvert's work, ' Oyeing and Calico 
 Printing,' editi-d by Messrs Stenbouse and 
 Grove. " The manufacture of magenta, ns it 
 isijow conducted in the huge colour works, is 
 a compiiratively simple process, the apparatus 
 employed consisting of a large cast-iron pot 
 ■et in a furnace, provided with means of ciiri'- 
 fully regulating the heat. It is furnished 
 with a stirrer, which con be worked by hand 
 or by mechanical means, the gearing for the 
 stirrer being Kxed to the lid, so that by means 
 of a crane the lid may be removed, together 
 with the stirrer and geariu);. There is also a 
 bent tube passing through the lid for the exit 
 of the vapours, which can be easily connected 
 or disconnected with a worm at pleasure ; 
 lastly, there are large openings at the bottom 
 of tlie pot, closed by suitable stoppers, so that 
 the charge can be removed with facility as 
 sooti as the reaction is complete. Into thi> 
 apparatus, which is capable of holding about 
 600 gallons, a charge of 2740 lbs. of a concen- 
 trated soluiion of arsenic acid, containing 72j 
 of the onhydrous acid, is introduced, together 
 with 1600 lbs. of commercial aniline. The 
 nniline seloered for this purpose should con- 
 tiin about 25^ of the tolnidine. 
 
 "After tlie materials have been thoroughly 
 mixed by tlie stirrer the fire is lighted, and 
 tlie tera|ierature gradually raised to about 
 SfiO" P. In a short time water begins to 
 distil, then aniline makes its appearance along 
 with the water, and, lastly, aniline alone comes 
 over, which is nearly pure, containing, as it 
 docs, but a very small per centageof toluiitine. 
 The operation usually lasts about eight or ten 
 liours, during which time about 170 gallons of 
 liquid pass over, and are condensed in the 
 worm attached to the apparatus ; of this about 
 150 lbs. are aniline. The temperature should 
 not exceed 380° F. at any period during the 
 operation. When this is complete steam is 
 blown in through a tube, in order to sweep out 
 the last traces of the free aniline, and boiling 
 witer is gradually introduced in quantity 
 sufficient to convert the contents into a homo- 
 genous liquid. When this occurs the liquid 
 is run out of the openings at the boitom into 
 cisterns provided with agitators j here more 
 
 boiling water is added, in the proportion of 300 
 galls, to every 600 lbs. of crude magenta, and 
 also 6 lbs. of hydrochloric acid. The mass is 
 then boiled for four or five hours by means of 
 steam pipes, the agitators being kept in con- 
 stant motion. The solution of hydrochloride, 
 arsenite, and arseniate of rosaniline thus ob- 
 tained is filtered through woollen cloth, and 
 720 lbs. of common salt adiled to the liquid 
 (which is kept boiling) fur e;icb 600 lbs. of 
 crude magenta. By this means the whole of 
 the rosauiline is converted into hydrochloride, 
 which, being nearly insoluble in the strong 
 solution of arseniate and arsenite of sodium 
 produced in the double decomposition, sepa- 
 rates and rises to the surface; a further quan- 
 tity is deposited from toe saline solution on 
 allowing it to cool and staud for some time. 
 In order to purify the crude rosaniline hydro- 
 chloride it is washed with a small quantity nf 
 water, redissolved in boiling water slightly 
 acidulated with hydrochloric acid, filtered, and 
 allowed to crystallise." 
 
 If in the treatment of nniline with arsenic 
 acid the latter be considerably lipyond the pro- 
 portion of aniline employed, vidlet and blue 
 dyes may he formed. The production of such 
 has been patented by Girard and De L;iire. 
 
 4. Laurent and Castb^laz have obtained ani- 
 line red direct from benzol, without the pre- 
 liminary isolation of aniline. Nitrohenzol is 
 truatod with twice its weight of iron finely 
 divided, and half its weiglit of concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter ob- 
 tained by this process is said to be inferior in 
 beauty to that (irocured from aniline. 
 
 5. Messrs Kenard Brothers include in their 
 patent the ebullition of aniline with stannous, 
 stannic, mercurous, and mercuric sulphates, 
 with ferric and uranic nitnites And nitrate 
 of silver, and with stannic and mercuric 
 bromidts. 
 
 6. Messrs Dale and Curo's (patent dated 
 1860) consists in the treatment of aniline or 
 hydrochlorate of auiline with nitrate of 
 lead. 
 
 7. Mr Smith claims the ebnilition of aniline 
 with perchloride of antimony, or the action of 
 antioionic acid, peroxide of bismuth, stannic, 
 ferric, mercuric, and cupric oxides, upon hy- 
 drochlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the tem- 
 perature of 180°. 
 
 Coupler's process for the manufnetore of 
 magenta without the use of arsenic acid is as 
 follows: — He heats together pure aniline, 
 nitrotoluene, hydrochloric acid, and a small 
 quantity of finely-divided metallic iron, to a 
 temperature of about 400° F. for several hours. 
 The pasty mixture soon solidifies to a friable 
 mass resembling crude aniline red — ordinary 
 commercial aniline. The above processes are 
 for the preparation of crude aniline red only. 
 The crude colours contain some undecomposed 
 aniline, mostly in the form of salt*. They are 
 also contaminated with tarry matters, some 
 insoluble in water and dilute acids ; others 
 
1626 
 
 TAR COLOURS 
 
 soluble in bisulphide of carbon, naphtha, or in 
 caustic or carbonated alkalies. If, therefore, 
 the crude red be boiled with an excess of 
 alkali the undecomposed aniline is expelled, 
 the acid which exists in the product being 
 fixed. On treating the residue with acidu- 
 lated boiling water the red is dissolved, while 
 certain tarry matters remain insoluble. If 
 now the boiling solution be filtered, and then 
 saturated with an alkali, the colouring matter 
 is precipitated in a tolerable state of purity. 
 By redissolviug the precipitated red in an 
 acid, not employed in excess, a solution is ob- 
 tained which frequently crystallises, or from 
 which a pure red may be thrown down by a 
 new addition of chloride of sodium or other 
 alkaline salt. 
 
 Dr Hofmnnn and Mr Nicholson have de- 
 monstrated that pure aniline, from whatever 
 source obtained, is incapable of furnishing a 
 red dye, but that it does so when mixed with 
 its homologue toluidine — toluidine by itself 
 being equally incapable of yielding it. From 
 this it will be evident that an aniline rich in 
 toluidine is an essential condition for obtaining 
 aniline red. 
 
 Magenta consists of brilliant large crystals, 
 having a beautiful golden-green metallic 
 lustre, and soluble in water to an intense 
 purplish-red solution. It is a salt of a colour- 
 less base, rosaniline, which is prepared from 
 magenta by boiling with hydrate of potas- 
 sium, and allowing the solution to cool, when 
 it crystallises out in culourless crystals, having 
 the formula CjuHigNjHjO. All the salts of 
 rosaniline have a splendid purple-red colour, 
 and that usually met with as magenta is the 
 hydrochlorate, although the nitrate, oxalate, 
 and acetate are also to be obtained. 
 
 Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is 
 sometimes used as an adulterant of crystallised 
 magenta. If present, the larger crystals of 
 dyed sugar may be readily detected by their 
 colour being paler at the edges, when the sus- 
 pected sample is spread out on a sheet of 
 white paper in the sunshine. One of the best 
 methods of testing magenta is to make a com- 
 parative dyeing experiment with the sample 
 under examination, and with one of known 
 purity, using white woollen yarn. 
 
 From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline 
 a large number of colouring matters are pro- 
 duced, the most important of which will be 
 briefly described below. 
 
 Aniline Black. " Dissolve 20 parts of 
 potassium chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of 
 copper, 16 parts of chloride of ammonium, and 
 40 parts of aniline hydrochloride, in 500 parts 
 of water, warming the liquid to about 60°, and 
 then removing it from the water bath. In 
 about three minutes the solution froths up and 
 gives off vapours which strongly attack the 
 breathinsr organs. If the mass does not be- 
 come quite black after the lapse of a few hours 
 it is again heated to 60°, and then exposed in 
 an open place for a day or two, and afterwards 
 
 carefully washed out till no salts are found in 
 the filtrate. For use in printing, the black 
 paste is mixed with a somewhat large quantity 
 of albumen, and the goods after printing are 
 strongly steamed. The paste can be pressed 
 into moulds, and used as a substitute for 
 Indian ink." (A. Miiller.) " Mix equal weights 
 of aniline (containing toluidine), hydrochloric 
 acid, and potassium chlorate, with a minute 
 quantity of cupric chloride and a sufiicient 
 quantity of water, and leave the mixture to 
 evaporate spontaneously, when a black powder 
 will be obtained." (Rheineck.) 
 
 Aniline Blub, or Bleu be Lyons. This 
 dye is prepared by heating a mixture of 
 magenta, acetate of sodium, and aniline in iron 
 pots, provided with stirrers, &c., in an oil bath, 
 to 370° Fahr. (190° C), and the excess of 
 aniline distilled over. When a good blue has 
 been obtained the heat is removed, and the 
 thick treacly fluid purified. This is effected 
 for the commoner varieties by treating the 
 crude product with hydrochloric acid, to dis- 
 solve all the excess of aniline, and the various 
 red and purple impurities; but for the better 
 qualities by mixing the crude product with 
 methylated spirit, and pouring the whole 
 into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
 and then thoroughly washing the colouring 
 matter that is precipitated, with water and 
 drying. 
 
 This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a colour- 
 less base, which has been named Triphenyl- 
 rosaniline. CasHsjNj, or C2oH,5(C6H5)3N3. 
 Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into the 
 market either as a coarse powder of a coppery 
 lustre, or in alcoholic solution ; as it is insoluble 
 in water, which necessitates it being added to 
 the dye bath in solution in spirit, a great 
 drawback. 
 
 Mr Nicholson, by treating Lyons blue in 
 the same manner as indigo is converted into 
 sulpindigotic acid, has succeeded in rendering 
 it soluble J dissolving in alkalies to form 
 colourless salts, and decomposed by acids into 
 its original blue colour. 
 
 By a modification of this method ' Nichol- 
 son's blue' is prepared,a fine soluble bluedye. 
 Another colouring matter called Paris blue or 
 bleu de Paris was obtained by heating stannic 
 chloride with aniline for 30 honrs at a tem- 
 perature of 356° Fahr. (180 C). It is a fine 
 pure blue, soluble in water, and crystallising 
 in large blue needles with a coppery lustre. 
 
 Another method pursued in manufacture 
 of this colour on a largo scale is carried out 
 by allowing a mixture of a salt of rosaniline, 
 with an excess of aniline, to digest at a tem- 
 perature of 150° to 160° for a considerable 
 time. If a mixture of 2 kilogrammes of dry 
 hydrochlorate of rosaniline, and 4 kilogrammes 
 of aniline be em[iloyed, the operation is com- 
 pleted in four hours. The crude blue is puri- 
 fied by treating it successively with boiling 
 water, acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and 
 with pure water, until it is of the purest blue 
 
TAR COLOURS 
 
 1627 
 
 colour. • Nicbolson's blue ' ii obtained by 
 dii;e>tinGrtriphenylrO'itiiiiline — tnono-sulphonic 
 arid (made by disKolviug triphenyl rosnniline 
 hydroi'liloride in strong sulphuric acid, and 
 hinting the Bolution for five or six hours. On 
 tlir addition of water, the acid is obtained as 
 a durlc blue precipitate, and dried at 100^), 
 with a quantity of soda-lye not quite sufficient 
 fur saturation, filtering the solution and eva- 
 porating. It is dried at 100°. Wool dipped 
 into a hot aqueous solution of Nicliulson's 
 blue, especially if borax or water-glass be 
 added, extracts it in a colourless state, and 
 holds it so fust that it cannot be washed out 
 with water, but on dipping the wool thus pre- 
 pared into an acid the salt is decomposed, and 
 the colouring matter, is set free. 
 
 Aniline Blijk foe Feinting. Blumer- 
 Zweefel gives the following process: — "Mix 
 100 parts of starch with 1000 parts of water, 
 and add to it while warm 40 parts of potas- 
 siuin chlorate, 3 to 4 parts of ferrous sulphate, 
 and 10 parts of sal ammonine. The well- 
 mixed paste, when quite cold. Is mixed with 
 70 parts of aniline hydrochloride, or an equi- 
 valent quantity of tartrate, and immediately 
 used. The printed goods are oxidiseil, then 
 piissed through warm or faintly alkaline 
 watiT, whereby the blue colour is developed." 
 
 Violet Iupebial. If the action of the 
 aniline and magenta in the process of manu- 
 facturing aniline bine be stopped before it is 
 <iiiishcd,and the resulting product treated with 
 dilute acid, a colouring matter called violet 
 imperial is obtiiined. It is now, however, re- 
 placed by the Hofmann violets. 
 
 Mr Nicholson obtains another violet from 
 imiline red, by heating it in a suitable appa- 
 ratus to a temperature between 200° and 215° 
 C. The ri'sulting mass is exhausted with 
 acetic acid, and the deep-violet solution diluted 
 with enough alcohol to give the dye a con- 
 venient strength. Aniline violet, although it 
 resists the action of light to a very consider- 
 able extent, has been shown by Chcvrenl to be 
 inferior in this particular than either madder, 
 coclnneal, or indigo. 
 
 HoFMANN Violets. On a large scale these 
 violets are produced in deep cast-iron pots, sur- 
 rounded by a steam jacket, and provided with 
 a lid, having a perforation for distilling over 
 the excess of reagents. 
 
 These vessels are charged with a solution of 
 maeenta in methylated or wood spirit, and 
 iodide of ethyl or methyl, in proportions ac- 
 cording to the shade required, and the whole 
 liCHted by steam for five or six hours, when 
 the excess of alcohol and Iodide of ethyl la dis- 
 tilled over. The resnltini; product is dissolved 
 In water, filtered, precipitated with common 
 Biilt, and Well washed. 
 
 Like most of the other colours, Hofmann 
 violets are salts of colourless bases. That of a 
 red shade has a formula of Cjj^IjsNs, or C;(|Hig 
 (CjHjjNj; of n true violet' shade Cn^HjjN:,, 
 or t'a,H,y(C'3ll5l,Xji and of a blue snade of 
 
 violet, of CjeHaiNs, or C.^\{u{C^n,\S,. They 
 are all moderately fast on wool and silk, 
 although less so on cotton, and, as they can be 
 produced In nearly every shade of violet, are 
 In great use, having replaced most of the other 
 violets. 
 
 The following processes have also been pro- 
 posed for the production of aniline violet : 
 
 1. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means 
 of a solution of permanganate of potassium. 
 (Williams.) 
 
 2. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a 
 solution off erricyanide of potHSsium. (Smith.) 
 
 3. Oxidation of a cold and dilute solution of 
 hydrochlorate of aniline, by means of a dilute 
 solution of chloride of lime. (IloUey, Beale, 
 and Kirkmann.) 
 
 4. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by means 
 of peroxide of lead under the inUuence of an 
 acid. (I'rice.) 
 
 5. Oxidation of a salt of aniline in an 
 aqneous solution of peroxide of manganese. 
 (Kay.) ' ^ 
 
 It, Oxidation of a salt of aniline by free 
 chlorine or free hypochlorous acid. (Smith.) 
 
 Dahlia. This is prepared from m.mve and 
 iodide of ethyl, in the same minner as the 
 Hol'mann violets, and is a purple-red violet. 
 It is a good colour, but the expense precludes 
 its general use. 
 
 Bbitannia Violet. This is obtained in 
 the same manner as the Hofmann violets, by 
 acting on an alcoholic solution of magenta, 
 with a thick, viscid, oily flniil of the formula 
 CioHijBrj, obtained by cautiously acting with 
 brojoiue on oil of tuipeniine. It is a beauti- 
 ful violet, cap.ible of being manufactured of 
 every shade, from purple to blue, and most 
 extensively used. 
 
 Aldehyde Geeen. Prepared by dissolving 
 one ptirt of magenta In three parts of sulphuric 
 acid, diluted with one p:irt of water, adding 
 by degrees one and a half part of aldehyde, and 
 heating the whole ou a water bath until a drop 
 put in water turns a fine blue. It is thuu 
 poured into a large quantity o( hot water con- 
 taining three parts ot hyposulphite of sodium, 
 boiled and filtered. The filtrate routains the 
 green, which can either be kept in solution or 
 be precipitated by means of tannic acid or 
 acetate of sodium. Like the other colours, 
 this green is a salt of a colourless base, con- 
 tainlug sulphur, the formula of which Is not 
 known, and Is principally used for dyeing 
 silk, being very brilliant in both day and arti- 
 ficial lights. 
 
 Iodide Geeen. Produced during the manu- 
 facture of the Hofmann colouis, and is now 
 used for dyeing cotton and silk ; its colour 
 being bluer than that of aldehyde green, it is 
 more useful. Iodide green, not being precipi- 
 tated by carbonate of sodium, is ujually sold 
 in alcoholic solution. 
 
 Peekiks Geeen. This is also a magenta 
 derivative, and a salt of a powerful colourless 
 base. It resembles the iodide green, but Is 
 
1628 
 
 TARPAULIN— TARTAR 
 
 precipitated by alkaline carbonates and picric 
 acid. This colour is used chiefly for calico 
 printing, and is quite as fast as the Hof manu 
 colours. 
 
 Aniline Geeen. When treated with 
 chlorate of potassium, to which a quantity of 
 hydrochloric acid has been added, aniline 
 assumes a rich indigo-blue colour. The same 
 result occurs if the aniline be treated with a 
 solution of chlorous acid. Similar blues have 
 been obtained by Messrs Grace Calvert, Lowe, 
 and Clif t. Most of these blues possess the pro- 
 perty, when subjected to the action of acids, 
 of acquiring a green tint, called Emebaldine. 
 Dr Calvert obtained this colour directly upon 
 cloth, by printing with a mixture of an 
 aniline salt and chlorate of potassium, and 
 allowing it to dry. In about twelve hours the 
 green colour is developed. This colour may 
 be converted into blue by being passed through 
 a hot dilute alkaline solution, or through a 
 bath of boiling soap. 
 
 Aniline Yellow. Amongst the secondary 
 products obtained during the preparation of 
 aniline red, there occurs a well-defined base of 
 a splendid yellow colour, to which the name 
 chrysanlline has been given. It is prepared 
 by submitting the residue, from which the 
 rosauiline has been extracted, to a current 
 of steam for some time, when a quantity of 
 the clirysaniline passes into solution. By 
 adding nitric acid to the solution, the chrys- 
 anlline is thrown down in the form of a diffi- 
 cultly soluble nitrate. The intimate relation 
 between chrysanlline, rosaniline, and leucani- 
 line has been shown by Hofmaun. 
 
 Chrysaniline CjoHiyNj. 
 
 Rosaniline CjoHijNj. 
 
 Leucaiiiline C20H21K3. 
 Saffbanine. This dye stuff is of a bright 
 red-rose colour. Mene says it may be pre- 
 pared commercially by treatment of heavy ani- 
 line oils successively with nitrous and arsenic 
 acids; or two parts of the aniline may be 
 heated with one of arsenic acid, and one of an 
 alkaline nitrate for a short time, to 200° or 
 212° F. The product is extracted with boiling 
 water, neutralised with an alkali, filtered, and 
 the colour thrown down by common salt. 
 
 Besides the above products obtained from 
 aniline, a series of colours have been obtained 
 from phenol, or carbolic acid, another sub- 
 stance obtained from coal tar. 
 
 PiCEic Acid. This is obtained by treating 
 in a suitable apparatus, with proper precautions, 
 carbolic acid with nitric acid. It is a pale 
 yellow crystalline acid, forming dark orange 
 explosive salt-s, and dyeing silk a fine yellow. 
 
 IsOPtTEPUBATE OF POTASSIUM. GeENAIE 
 
 BttOWN. Oeenate Soluble. By treating 
 picric acid with cyanide of potassium a very 
 explosive salt is obtained, used to dye wool a 
 dark n:cioi)n colour. 
 
 AuEiNE, or KosoLic Acid. This is ob- 
 tained by heating a mixture of sulphuric, 
 oxalic, and carbolic acids, and purifying the 
 
 products. It is a beautiful reddish, resinous 
 substance, with a pale green lustre, and yield- 
 ing an orange coloured solution, changed by 
 alkalies to a splendid crimson. Owing to the 
 difficulty in using it, however, it is not very 
 extensively employed. 
 
 Peonine, or CoEALLlNE. This dye is formed 
 when rosolie acid and ammonia are heated to 
 between 248° and 284° Pahr. (120° to 140° C). 
 It is a fine crimson dye, forming shades simi- 
 lar to safflower on silk, but, owing to the bad 
 effects of acids, not much used. 
 
 AzULiNE. Prepared by heating coralline 
 and aniline together. A coppery coloured re- 
 sinous substance, soluble in alcohol, and with 
 difficulty in water, and dyeing silk a blue 
 colour. The aniline blues, however, have su- 
 perseded it to a great extent. 
 
 There are other substances obtained from 
 coal tar that have been employed to form dyes, 
 but of which we shall only refer to one — 
 naphthaline. By treating this in exactly the 
 same manner as benzol is converted into ani- 
 line, a solid crystalline white base, termed 
 naphthylamine, is produced. From this sub- 
 stance is obtained the following dye. 
 
 DiNITEONAPHTHAL, Or MANCHESTER YEL- 
 LOW. Naphthylamine is converted into diazy- 
 naphthol by treatment with nitrate of potas- 
 sium, and the latter, when heated with nitric 
 acid, yields the colour. It is a weak acid, and 
 the salt employed in commerce is the beautiful 
 yellow crystalline calcium salt which dyes 
 silk and wool a magnificent golden-yellow 
 colour. 
 
 TARPAU'LIN. Syn. Taepawlino. Canvas 
 covered with tar or any composition to render 
 it waterproiif. 
 
 TAE'EAS. Syn. Teeeas. A volcanic pro- 
 duct resembling puzzolano, that imparts to 
 mortar the property of hardening under water. 
 Several otlperargillo-ferruginous minerals pos- 
 sess the same power, and are used under this 
 term. 
 
 TAE'TAE. Syn. Absal, Oeqol; Tae- 
 TABUM, Taetabus, L. Impure bitartrate of 
 potassa. Crude tartar is the concrete de- 
 posit formed upon the sides of the casks and 
 vats during the fermentation of grape juice. 
 That obtained from white wine is white arirol ; 
 that from red wine, red argol. After purifica- 
 tion it forii!s cream of tartar. 
 
 Tartar, Ammo"niated. Syn. Ammonio-tab- 
 teate of potassa. Soluble taetae (Ammo- 
 niated) ; Taetaeus ammoniatus, Taetabum 
 solubile ammoniatum, L. Prep. Neutralise 
 a solution of cream of tartar with ammonia in 
 sliglit excess, then evaporate, and crystallise. 
 Very soluble in water, A favourite laxative 
 on the Continent. 
 
 Tartar, Bo"raxated. Syn. Soluble cbeam 
 OF tabtab, Boeo-tabteate of potassa and 
 soda ; Tabtabum boeaxatum, Ckemoe tab- 
 tabi solubilis, potass^ et bodjs tabtea9 
 boeaxata, L. Prep. From borax, 2 lbs; cream 
 of tartar, 5 lbs. (both in powder) ; dissolved 
 
TARTAUIC ACID— TARTS 
 
 1629 
 
 in WBter, evnporatcd, and crystallised. See 
 POTABSIUH BOHOTAKTBATE. 
 
 Tartar, Chalybea'ted. Potassio-tartrate of 
 iron, 
 
 Tartar, Cream of. Bitartrate of potassa. 
 
 Tartar, Emet'ic. Potasaio- tartrate of anti- 
 mony. 
 
 Tartar, Oil of. Deliquesced carbonate of 
 
 pOtllhHU, 
 
 Tartar, Bednced. %n. Ceeuobtabtabi be- 
 DI7CTU8, L. An article is sold, under the name 
 of ' British cream of tartar,' which contains 
 { its weight or more nf bisulphate of potassa. 
 
 Tartar, Salt of. Carbonate of potassa. 
 
 Tartar, Sol'nble. Neutral tartrate of potassa. 
 
 Tartar, Spirit of. Pyrotartaric acid. 
 
 TAETAE'IC ACID. H^C^HA- Syn. Acid 
 0? tabtab. Essential salt of t.+ j Aoibum 
 tastabicum (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D), Sal 
 
 B88ENTIALE TABTABlf, L. Prep. 1. (Pll. L. 
 1836.) Talte of cream of tartar, 4 lbs; 
 boiling water, 2 gall.; dissolve by boiling; 
 add, gradually, of prepared chalk, 12 oz. 7 dr. 
 (made into a milk with water), and, when the 
 effervescence ceases, add another like portion 
 of prepared chalk, dissolved iu hydrochloric 
 acid, 26i fl. oz., or q. o.. diluted with water, 
 4 pints; collect the precipitate ('tartrate of 
 liino '), and, after well washing it with water, 
 boll it f(ir 15 minuter in dilute sulphuric acid, 
 7 pints and 17 ft. oz. ; next filter, evaporate 
 the filtrate (to the density of 1°S8), and set it 
 a«ide to crystallise ; redissolve the crystals in 
 water, concentrate the solution by evaporation, 
 and recrystallise n second and a third time. 
 The Edinbnrcfh formula is nearly similar. In 
 the Ph. L. & D. tartaric acid is placed iu the 
 Materia Medica. 
 
 2. (Gatty.) The solution of argol or tar- 
 tar is fir>t neutralised with carbonate of potassa, 
 and to every 300 gall, of the clear liquid, at 5° 
 Twaddell, 31 gall, of milk of lime (1 lb. of 
 lime por gall.) are added ; carbonic acid gas is 
 then forced in, with agitation; decomposition 
 ensues, with the formation of ' bicarbonate of 
 potassa' and 'tartrate of lime;' the hist is 
 converted into tartaric acid in the usual 
 manner, and the former is evaporated in iron 
 pans, and roasted in a reverberatory furnace 
 for its potassa. 
 
 Prop. Tartaric acid forms inodorous, 
 scarcely transparent, oblique rhombic prisms, 
 niore or less modified, which are permanent 
 in the air; it possesses a purely sour taste, 
 dissolves in about 2 parts of water at 60° Fahr., 
 and in about its own weight of boiling water ; 
 it is slightly si>luble in alcohol ; the aqueous 
 solution exhibits right-handed polarisation, 
 and suffers gnidnal decomposition by aije. 
 
 It is free from colour; is entirely, or 
 almost entirely, dissipated by ignition; and is 
 entirely soluble in water. 
 
 Te»tt. 1. Tartaric acid is known to be such 
 by its solution giving white precipitates with 
 Bolntious of caustic lime, baryta, and strontia, 
 which dissolve in excess of the acid. — 
 
 2. A solution of potassa canses a white 
 granular precipitate of cream of tartar, 
 soluble by agitatiun in excess of the precipi- 
 tant. — 3. Nitrate of silver and acetate of lead 
 give white precipitates, which, when heated, 
 fume, and yield the pure metal. — 4. If to a 
 solution of tartaric acid, or a tartrate, solution 
 of a ferric or aluminum salt be added, and 
 subsequently ammonia or pota'^sa, no precipi- 
 tate is formed. — 5. At about 570° Falir. all 
 the tartrates are blackened, and yield a pecu- 
 liar and characteristic odour. 
 
 Use), (J-c. Tartaric acid is chiefly employed 
 in calico printing, and, in medicine, as .i 
 substitute for citric acid and lemon juice 
 in the preparation of cooling drinks and 
 saline draughts. For the latter purpose, 
 bicrarbonate of soda is the alkaline salt com- 
 monly employed. — Dote, 10 to 30 grains. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. On the large scale 
 the decomposition of the tartar is usually 
 effected in a copper boiler, and that of the 
 tartrate of lime in a leaden cistern. This 
 part of the process is often performed by mere 
 digestion for a few days, without the appliua- 
 tion of heat. Leaden or stoneware vessels 
 are used as crystalliser-i. Good cream of tar- 
 tar requires 26^ of chalk and 28-5J of dry 
 chloride of calcium for its perfect decomposi- 
 tion. Dry tartrate of lime requires 75o of oil 
 of vitriol to liberate the whole of its tartaric 
 acid. A very slight excess of sulphuric acid 
 may be safely, nay, advantageously, employed. 
 Some manufacturers bleach the coloured solu- 
 tion of the first crystals by treating it with 
 animal charcoal; but for this purpose the 
 latter substance should be first purified by 
 digesting it in hydrochloric acid, and after- 
 wards by edulcorating it with vvater, and ex- 
 posing it to a dull red heat in a covered 
 vessel. The general management of this 
 manufacture resembles that of citric acid. To 
 obtain a large product, care must be taken 
 that the whole of the tartrate of lime be tli'i- 
 roughly decomposed, a matter not always 
 elTeeteil by clumsy manipul.itors, who do n^t 
 adapt their quantities or practice to the cir- 
 cumstances before them. 
 
 TAR'TRATE. A salt of tartaric acid. 
 
 TABTS. These may be regarded aa minia- 
 ture pies, consisting of fruit, either fresh or 
 preserved, baked or spread on puff-paste. 
 
 TARTS. To make an apple tart take about 
 2 lbs. of apples, peel them, cut each into four 
 pieces, and remove the cores ; then let each of 
 the quarters be subdivided into two or three 
 pieces, according to the size of the apple. 
 Having done this, put half the pieces into a 
 pie-dish, press them evenly down, and sprinkle 
 over them two ounces of brown sugar ; then 
 add the remaining apples, and alterwards 
 another 2 oz. of sugar, so that the apples shall 
 form a kind of dome, the centre of which is 
 about two inches above the sides, new add a 
 wineglassful of water, and cover the top over 
 with short paste. Let bake in a moderately 
 
1630 
 
 TAURIN— TAXIDERMY 
 
 heated oven from half to three qaarters of an 
 hour. 
 
 The quantity of sugar must depend upon 
 the quality, and the degree of sweetness, or 
 the reverse, of the apples used. If they are of 
 the sweet kind or very ripe, use less sugar, 
 but a double quantity of water; in the latter 
 case a little of the juice of lemon will improve 
 the flavour. Chopped lemon-peel, or cinnamon, 
 or cloves, may also bo added to the tart 
 with advantage. 
 
 On making green rhubarb or greengage 
 tarts it will be necessary to use a little more 
 sugar, and to proceed as for apple tart, taking 
 care, however, to omit the lemon juice and 
 peel, cinnamon, or cloves. 'I'arts of ripe 
 currants, raspberries, cherries, damsons, and 
 mulberries, may be made in the same 
 manner as rhubarb tart. Pink rhubarb does 
 not require peelinpr. 
 
 TAU'BIN. CjH^NSOa. Obtained when 
 purified bile is boiled for some hours with 
 an excess of hydrochloric acid. By filtration, 
 evaporation, and dissolving the dry residuum 
 in about 6 parts of boiling alcohol, nearly 
 pure taurin crystallises out as the solution 
 cools. It forms with crystalline needles, which 
 are soluble in water, and sparingly soluble in 
 alcohol. It is remarkable for containing fully 
 2oJ of sulphur. 
 
 TAUEOCHOLAL'IC ACID. See Choleio 
 
 ACID. 
 
 TAWING. In the preparation of the 
 TAWED LEATHBE used (or gloves, housings, 
 &c., the skins are first soaked, scraped, and 
 hung in a warm room until they begin to ex- 
 hale an ammoniacal odour, and the wool readily 
 comes off ; they are then de-haired, and soaked 
 in water with some quicklime for several weeks, 
 the water being changed two or three times 
 during that period; they are then again 
 beamed, smoothed, and trimmed, after which 
 they are rinsed, and resoaked in a vat of bran- 
 and-water, where they are kept in a state of 
 gentle fermentation for some weeks (in this 
 state they are called ' pelts ') ; the skins are 
 next well worked about in a warm solution of 
 alum and salt, again fermented in bran-aud- 
 water for a short time, and are then stretched 
 on hooks, and dried in a stove-room ; they 
 are, lastly, again soaked in water and trodden 
 or worked in a pail or tub containing some 
 yolks of eggs beaten to a froth with water, 
 after which they are stretched and dried in 
 a loft, and are smoothed with a warm smooth- 
 ing-iron. Sometimes the process is shortened 
 by soaking the skins in the following mixtui'e 
 after the first steep with bran : — Common 
 salt, 3i lbs. ; alum, 8 lbs. ; boiling water, q. s. ; 
 dissolve, add of wheaten flour, 21 lbs. ; yolks 
 of 9 dozen eggs ; make a paste. For use, a 
 portion is to be largely diluted with water. 
 
 Chamois or shammy leather is generally 
 prepared from either sheep or doe-skins, which, 
 after dressing, liming, &c., are well oiled on the 
 grain side, then rolled into balls, and thrown 
 
 into the trough of the falling-mill, where they 
 are beaten for 2, 3, or 4 hours. They are 
 next aired, and again oiled and fulled, and this 
 is repeated a third time, or oftener, as circum- 
 stances may direct. The oiled skins are then 
 exposed to a fermenting process, or heating in 
 a close chamber, and are afterwards freed from 
 redundant oil by being scoured in a weak 
 alkaline lye. They are, lastly, rinsed in clean 
 water, wrung at the peg, dried, and ' finished ' 
 at the stretcher-iron. 
 
 Tawed ieatheb differs from tanned 
 LEATHER in yielding size or glue nnder the 
 influence of heat and moisture, in nearly the 
 same way as the raw skins. 
 
 TAXIDERMY, Practical. The following 
 review on the excellent work on this subject 
 is from 'The Bazaar:' 'Practical Taxidermy; 
 a manual of instruction to the amateur in col- 
 lecting, preserving, and setting up Natural 
 History Specimens of all kinds. By Montagu 
 Browne.' 
 
 " The author of this little book begins at the 
 beginning, and, before detailing the process 
 of skinning, preserving, and mounting any 
 given vertebrate, he starts with a chapter on 
 ' Trapping and Decoying Birds and Animals.' 
 In this chapter descriptions are given of 
 various forms of springs, snare, 'figure-4 trap,' 
 clap-net, glade-net, bow-net, and box trap ; 
 and some wrinkles are imparted which may 
 be useful to wildfowl shooters, to say nothing 
 of gamekeepers, whose livelihood depends on 
 their success in destroying what they are 
 pleased to regard as ' vermin.' Chapter 3 is 
 devoted to 'Necessary Tools,' of which not 
 only descriptions, hut figures are given, and 
 those who have no knowledge of taxidermy 
 will probably be surprised to learn how few 
 tools are really necessary for the purpose. 
 
 " On the subject of preservative soaps and 
 powders, Mr Browne has a good deal to say, 
 and gives no less than seventeen different 
 receipts. Many of these, however, are only 
 noticed to be condemned, for the author has 
 been a great experimentalist, and has tested the 
 efficiency or otherwise of all the preparations 
 be names, with a view of ascertaining the 
 best, and at the same time that which is 
 most harmless to the operator. For the pre- 
 servation of birds he pins his faith to the 
 fourth formula (p. 46), which is a preservative 
 soap for the inside of the skin, composed of 
 IJ lb. whiting or chalk, 1 lb. of soft soap, 
 and 2 oz. of chloride of lime, finely pounded. 
 These ingredients are boiled together in a 
 pint of water, and the mixture, when pro- 
 perly applied, is said to be so efficacious as 
 to completely supersede arsenical paste or 
 soap. Presuming that it is used only for such 
 specimens as are to be immediately cased up in 
 air-tight cases, nothing further is needed; 
 but as regards such specimens as p.re left ex- 
 posed or uncased, 'a wash of benzol ine libe- 
 rally applied from time ^o time- — say twice a 
 year — to the outside,' is recommended. 
 
TAXINE-TEA 
 
 1631 
 
 " We hHve Ion? since proved the efficacy 
 of this fluiil, not only in repelling the attacks 
 of inothe, and the larviB of destructive beetles 
 such as Dermeatet lardariut, but in killing 
 them in skins that have been already attacked 
 by them. We can therefore indorse Mr 
 Brnwnu'e remarks, and may supplement them 
 by a ' wrinkle ' which he has probiibly dis- 
 covered by this time, although he di>es not 
 refer to it. It is this. If the amateur in 
 search of benzoline applies to the nenrext che- 
 mist for it, he will be served with the ' recti- 
 fled ' fluid, and will be asked three shillings 
 or three and sixpence lor an ordinary medi- 
 cine bottlefull. If he proceeds, however, to 
 an oil and colour shop, and asks for it as sup- 
 plied for burning in the sponge lamps, he may 
 get a pint for about a tithe of the cost. 
 
 " The best way to apply it is to pour some 
 out in a saucer, saturate a pinch of cotton 
 wool with it, and dab it on all over the fur or 
 feathers. The great advantage about it is 
 tliat, while killing or repelling insects, it does 
 not in the least injure tlie specimen to which 
 it is applied. We have seen a mounted speci- 
 men of a bird almost saturated with it, so 
 that the feathers looked quite draggled ; but 
 as soon as the moisture had evaporated, the 
 feathers all resumed their former shape and 
 flossy appearance. Care should be taken not 
 to use it by caudle light, as the vapour is in- 
 llammable. 
 
 "Amongst the seventeen i-eceipts for 'pre- 
 «ervatives' of different kinds, we do not see 
 a very simple powder which wo have used 
 with success for very small bird skins, which 
 were almost too delicate to stand the appli- 
 cution of a brush and p:i8te, or soap. It is 
 composed of burnt alum and sugar of lead, 
 and mixed in the proportion of two thirds of 
 tile former to one third of the latter. The 
 alum dries, the sugar of lead preserves, and 
 , if thespecimen while being skinned be dusted 
 with this mixture, it will absorb all moisture 
 as it arises, for which purpose plaster of Paris 
 is usually employed. A very little goes a long 
 way, and it is desirable not to apply too much, 
 lest the astriugeut nature of the alum should 
 cause the skin to become brittle and crack. 
 
 " Possibly Mr Browne has not referred to 
 this mixture on account of the poisonous 
 nature of the sugar of lead. He jnstly re- 
 marks that too much care cannot be exercised 
 in the employment of poisonous preservatives, 
 and we fully agree with him. 
 
 "On the subject of his instructions for 
 skinning birds we have not much criticism 
 to offer, except perhaps as regards his mode 
 of filling out the skin after the preservative 
 has been applied, and before the skin is sewn 
 up. We have found by experience that, 
 afler the artificial neck of tow or cotton 
 wool has been inserted, and the wing bones 
 tied inside, the skin is much better filled by 
 degrees with little bits of cotton wool inserted 
 piecemeal, instead of with an artificiul body 
 
 ' as nearly as possible shaped to the ori;inal 
 body of the bird.' The advantage of the 
 former plan is that it is much more quickly 
 executed, and a nice soft skin is the result, 
 instead of a comparatively hard one. By in- 
 troducing the wool pieceme:il, too, scarcely 
 any portion of the skin is left without sup- 
 port on the inside, as is often the case when 
 a ' made body ' is inserted. This is material ; 
 for if there be any want of inside support at 
 a given point, pressure upon that point from 
 the outside will cause the skin to crack. These 
 remarks, however, must be taken to apply only 
 to such specimens as are intended to be pre- 
 served as skins, and are not to be set up. 
 
 " Few amateurs, probably, give much time 
 to mounting their specimens, for they can 
 get them so well done by professional taxi- 
 dermists, at prices varying to suit all purses. 
 The art of skinning wild animals and birds, 
 however, and curing or dressing animal hides, 
 should be acquired by every sportsman and 
 naturalist who intends to travel and collect 
 and bring home trophies. To such a one we 
 may specially recommend the chapters which 
 are devoted to this portion of the subject. 
 In this, as in other respects, Mr Browne's 
 book is a ' practical' manual of taxidermy." 
 
 TAXIIfE. A poisonous alkaloid present in the 
 leaves and seeds of the yew {Taxus Jaccata). 
 
 TEA. %». Thea, L. The dried leaves of 
 the Chinese tea plants {Thea Bohea and Thea 
 viridis). 
 
 It was formerly supposed that black teas 
 could only be obtained from T. Bohea, and 
 GREEN TEAS from T. viridis, but Fortune and 
 others have proved that both sorts may be 
 made from either species, and that the differ- 
 ences in colour and flavour depend chiefly on 
 the age of the leaves and the treatment they 
 undergo in the drying process. Another 
 species, named Thea Assamica, furnishes 
 Assam tea. 
 
 Mulder gives the following as the coojijosi- 
 
 tion of tea : 
 
 Black Green 
 Tea. Tea. 
 
 Essential oil . . • 060 079 
 Chlorophyll . . . 1-81, 2T2 
 
 Wax 000 0-28 
 
 Eesiu . . . .3-61 2-22 
 
 Gum .... 7-28 S-56 
 
 Tannin .... 12-88 17!-0 
 Theiue .... 0-46 0-43 
 E-vtractive matter . . 2136 22-80 
 Cohmriug substances . . 19-19 23-60 
 Albumen .... 280 3-00 
 Fibre .... 2833 17-80 
 
 Ash (mineral substances) . 5'24 5-66 
 Dr Walter Blyth, commenting upon the 
 above, says, the amount of theine is certainly 
 understated. 
 
 Pur. The chief adulteration of tea which 
 is extensively pr.ictised at the present day is 
 mixing it with a certain portion of exhausted 
 tea-leaves, which have been redi ied and curled. 
 
1632 
 
 TEA 
 
 The collection and preparation of these occupy 
 several hundred personSt chiefly women and 
 children, in and about London. The leaves 
 which have been found in the possession of the 
 manufacturers of imitation tea are those of 
 the sloe tree, ash tree, elder bush, and white 
 thorn. According to Mr Warrington, a most 
 extensive system of adulterating tea is prac- 
 tised in China. Many samples directly im- 
 ported from that country, examined by him, 
 did not contain a single grain of tea, being 
 made up entirely of other leaves. The ordi- 
 nary green teas he found, for the most part, 
 spurious, being manufactured out of the 
 cheaper black teas. These are ' faced up ' or 
 'painted' with various colouring substances, 
 powdered porcelain, clay, &c., which are readily 
 perceived under the microscope, and even admit 
 of being separated, and chemically examined. 
 
 It is a general practice among the grocers 
 in this country to impart what they call a 
 * bloom' to their green teas by 'rouncing' them 
 up with 11 little calcined magnesin, or finely 
 powdered talc or Pi euch chalk. The quantity 
 that adheres to the tea is very trifling, but it 
 greatly improves its appearance, iilack teas 
 are * faced,' in a similar manner, with finely 
 powdered plumbago or black-lead. 
 
 Pure Cliina tea is not turned black by being 
 put into water impregnated with sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gas, nor does it tinge a solution of 
 ammouia blue. The infusion is amber-coloured, 
 and is not reddened by the addition of an acid. 
 The ashes left from the combustion of genuine 
 tea are white, and do not exceed 5 to SJJ. 
 If they exceed this they may be chemically 
 examined witli the usual tests for alumina, 
 chromate of lead, copper, cyanide of potas- 
 sium, gypsum, lime, magnesia, &c. Many of 
 these substances may be detected by simply 
 agitating the tea with a little cold water, 
 when they will be detached from its surface, 
 and render the water turbid, or, by their 
 gravity, sink to the bottom. 
 
 Mr A. H. AUeni arranges the adulteration 
 of tea under four heads, giving at the same 
 time directions for their detection : 
 
 1. Mineral additions for increasing weight 
 or bulk : {a) Magnetic matter. Detected by 
 drawing a magnet under a weighted poi tion 
 of the tea spread upon paper, whereby the 
 magnetic matter is separated from the tea 
 and may be weighed. 
 
 (6) Siliceous matter. The ash must be esti- 
 mated by igniting a weighed portion of the 
 tea. The ash of genuine tea varies from 5'24 
 to 6'0 per cent. The ash is then boiled with 
 water, the insoluble part again treated with 
 hydrochloric acid, and the silica collected and 
 weighed. Genuine tea does not contain, on an 
 average, more than 030 per cent, of ash in- 
 soluble in acid ; adulterated teas sometimes 
 contain as much as 10 per cent. 
 
 3. Organic adulterations for increasing 
 
 weight or bulk: (a) Exhausted tea leaves. 
 
 1 ' Chemical Kews," xxix, 123, 167, 189, 321 ; and xxx, 3. 
 
 Best detected by estimating the tannin, gum, 
 soluble ash, insoluble matter, &c. 
 
 a. Tannin. 5 gr. of lead acetate are dis- 
 solved in 1 litre of water, and the solution 
 lilfcered after standing ; 5 mgms. of pure po- 
 tassium ferricyanide are dissolved in 5 c.c. of 
 water, and an equal bulk of strong ammonia 
 solution is added. The lead solution is stand- 
 ardised by diluting 10 c.c. to 100 c.c. with 
 hailing water, and adding to it from a burette 
 a solution of O'l pure tannin in 100 c.c. of 
 watei-, until a few drops, wlien allowed to fall 
 through a filter on to a drop of the ferricy- 
 anide solution, spotted on a slab, produce a 
 pink colour. A solution of the tea is made by 
 repeatedly boiling about 2 grams of the finely- 
 powdered sample with 80 c.c. of water, until 
 it is completely exhausted. The solution is 
 filtered and made up to 250 c.c, and used as 
 already described. 
 
 The amount of tannin in genuine black tea 
 averages about 10 per cent. . A small quantity 
 of tannin, about 2 per cent., remains in the ex- 
 hausted leaves. The percentage of exhausted 
 leaves, E, in a sample may be estimated, when 
 the per cent, of tannin, T, is known by the 
 equation: j, _ (10 — T) 10 0. 
 8 
 
 /3. Insoluble matter is best estimated by 
 boiling the pounded sample repeatedly with 
 water, and drying the residue at 120 C, until 
 the weight is constant. The insoluble matter 
 in black tea varies from 46'7 to 53'6 per cent., 
 while in previously infused leaves it varies 
 between 72 to 75 per cent. 
 
 y. Gum. The aqueous decoction is evapor- 
 ated nearly to dryness, the residue treated with 
 methylated spirit, filtered, washed with spirit, 
 rinsed off the filter with hot water, the liquid 
 evaporated at a steam heat, weighed, ignited, 
 and weighed again. The loss represents gum. 
 
 S. Soluble ash. The aqueous solution of 
 the ash is evaporated, gently ignited, and . 
 weighed. Genuine tea contains not less than 
 3 per cent, of soluble ash, while in exhausted 
 le'dves this item falls as low as 0'52 per cent. 
 If S represents the percentage of soluble ash, 
 the percentage of exhausted leaves E may he 
 approximately found in the absence of foreign 
 leaves by the equation : 
 
 E = (6— 2S) 20. 
 
 (J) Foreign leaves. The presence of leaves, 
 other than those of the tea plant, may be de- 
 tected with some accuracy by estimating the 
 insoluble matter, tannin, gum, and ash ; but 
 the microscope must decide this question. ' 
 
 3. Adulterants for imparting a fictitious 
 strength, (a) Extraneous tannin matters, 
 such as catechu, &c., are detected by an un- 
 usually high percentage of tannin, as indi- 
 cated by the lead process. Tea, adulterated 
 with catechu, gives an infusion which quickly 
 becomes muddy on cooling. 1 gram of the sam- 
 ple and 1 gram of pure tea are each infused in 
 100 c.c. of water, and the solutions poured 
 
I£A 
 
 1033 
 
 /a E) 
 
 Leaves tmH Btnlks of best tea brought from Cbinit (1861) by private band. Nntural size. 
 
 Generally in commercial tea tbe leaves are much larfrer and tliicker, and often are cut transversely ioto two or 
 three parts. Some stalks and remains of flowers are found in all tea, even the best. 
 
 WILLOW 
 
 WILLO tv 
 
 TOl. 11 
 
 103 
 
.634 
 
 TEA 
 
 CAMELLIA 
 
 INCONSPICUUS. 
 
 Leaves used in tlie adulteration of tea — the sloe, willow, oak, beech, elder, and hawthorn, have been nature- 
 printed and then lithogra.phed. The drawings of the clilorandms inconspicuus and the camellia sasanqua, wliich 
 fire said to be used by the Chinese, are co^jied from Hassall. The leaves of the elm, poplar, find plane are said to 
 be sometimes used in England. Falsification with any kind of leaf is, however, now decidedly uncommon in this 
 country. 
 
TEA 
 
 1G35 
 
 ofT fmm tlie leaves are precipitated, while 
 boiling, with a sli|;ht excess of neutral lead 
 acetate, filtered, and tested as follows : — About 
 20 CO. o( the pure tea infusion, when gently 
 heated with a few drops of silver nitrate, gives 
 a slight cloudiness only ; while tea, containing 
 catechu, givi's a copious browiiUh precipitate, 
 and the liquid acquires a distinct yellow tinge. 
 One drop of ferric chloride gives a light green 
 colour if catechu is present, and a greyish- 
 green precipitate on standing; the solution 
 from pure tea gives a reddish colour with 
 ferric chloride, due to acetate, and no precipi- 
 tate on standing. These tests are applicable 
 only when catechu is present in tolerably large 
 qunutities. 
 
 (b) Lie tea, when thrown into hot water, 
 falls to powder, because the gum or starch 
 used to keep it in a compact form is dissolved. 
 The liquid may be acidified with sulphuric 
 acid, decolourised with permanganate, and 
 ti'sti'il lor starch. The ash of lie tea is often 
 as high as 30 or 40 per cent. 
 
 (c) Caper tea is made into little glossy 
 masses by the aid of gum or starch ; it is usu- 
 ally much adulterated. The insoluble matter 
 is usually much less than in genuine tea ; the 
 gum amounts to 15 or 20 per cent. The solu- 
 ble ash often falls below 2 per cent. 
 
 {d) Soluble iron salts are added to give an 
 appearance of strength by the formation of 
 tunnate of iron. They are detected by shak- 
 ing the powdered leaves with cold dilute 
 acetic acid, filtering, and testing for iron, iu 
 the filtrate. 
 
 (<) Alkaline carbonates are sometimes added 
 to tea. The soluble ash gives the yelluw 
 sodium flame, if sodium salts have been added ; 
 the alkalinity may also be determined in the 
 wlulile ash. The average amount of potash 
 (KgO) in tea is about 1'62 per cent. 
 
 4. Facing and colouring materials. These 
 may be detected under the microscope, or the 
 leaves may be washed with warm water, the 
 colouring matter collected and examined. 
 Indigo is best detected by the microscope ; 
 Prussian blue, by boiling with caustic alkali, 
 filtering, and testing for terrocyanide by ferric 
 chloride. The residue, insuluble in alkali, is 
 fused with alkaline carbonate, evaporated to 
 dryness with hydrochloric acid ; the residue 
 tested for silica, and the filtrate tested for lime 
 and uiHgnesia. 
 
 Moisture varies from 6 to 8 per cent. 
 
 Among domestic substitutes for tea are 
 — the leaves of speedwell, wild germander, 
 black currant, syringa or mock orange, purple- 
 spiked willow herb, winter green, sweetbriar, 
 cherry tree, sloe, Ac, all of which are used for 
 tea, either singly or mixed. The addition of 
 a single bud of the black currant to the infu- 
 sion of ordinary black tea imparts to it a flavour 
 closely resembling that of green tea. 
 
 The browuish-colonred powder vended under 
 the nauio of ' la veno beno ' is a mixture of 
 2 parts of tea-dust with 5 parts of powdered 
 
 catechu or terra japonica. A few grains of this 
 substance thrown into the teapot are described 
 in the advertisementi as being capable of more 
 than doubling the strength of the beverage. 
 
 Tea, Lie. Of this compound, Dr Hassall, 
 says : — " It is so called because it is a spurious 
 article and not tea at all. It consists of dust 
 of tea leaves, sometimes of foreign leaves and 
 SJind made up by means of starch or gum 
 into little masses, which are afterwards painted 
 and coloured, so as to resemble either black or 
 green gunpowder. The skill exhibited in the 
 fabrication of this spurious article is very 
 great, and we have met with at least a dozen 
 varieties of it, differing from each other in the 
 size and colouring of the little musses." 
 
 The once notorious ' Pabaqday plant,' 
 sold in packets, was simply new meadow-bay 
 that had been wetted with a strong infusion of 
 catechu, then dried, chopped small, and strongly 
 compressed. See Thkink and Cafpeinb. 
 
 Tea. " The tea is not a meal ; when it is 
 properly used, it should not be a meal ; but it 
 has a special purpose to folfll, which I will 
 now explain. Tea — and under the generic 
 term tea 1 include coffee — tea is usually taken 
 three hours alter dinner. This is the moment 
 which corresponds with the completion of di- 
 gestion, when, the food having been conveyed 
 away from the stomach, nothing remains be- 
 hind but the excess of the acid juices em- 
 ployed in digestion, these acid juices create 
 an uneasy sensation at the stomach, and a call 
 is made for something to relieve the uneasi- 
 ness ; tea fulfils that object." " On the 
 same principle, after the business of the din- 
 ing-room, the antacid and refreshing beverage, 
 either in the shape of tea or coffee, is prepared 
 in the drawing-room. Iu tuking either, the 
 nearer they approach to the simple infusion 
 the better; little milk or crentn, and less sugar, 
 should be the principle. But, seeing the pur- 
 pose of tea, bow unreasonable to make it the 
 excuse for a meal, to conjoin with it toast, 
 mufHns. bread and butter, and id genut omne.*' 
 " Three meals a day may be taken as the stan- 
 dard of habit and custom; tea and coffee 
 having a specific place and purpose as a beve- 
 rage, but none as a meal." (Eras. Wilson.) 
 See Meals, &c. 
 
 Althongh tea is undoubtedly prejudicial to 
 children and to adults of nervous and irritable 
 temperament, there can be no question that, if 
 its use be not abused, it possesses valuable 
 physiological properties. On the nervous 
 system it acts as a pleasant stimulant and 
 restorative, its moderate use not being fol- 
 lowed by depression. Dr Farkes says these 
 efi'ects are in some measure due to the warmth 
 of the infusion. According to the same 
 authority its nse is followed by very little 
 quickening of the pulse, whilst there is an 
 increase in the amount of perspiration, and a 
 slightly diminished action on the bowels. 
 Cases, however, are not uncommon in which 
 this latter effect is reversed. 
 
1C36 
 
 TEA 
 
 Dr Edward Sinitli says that tea increases 
 the excretion of pulmonary carbonic acid. 
 The contention that the elimination of urea 
 is lessened, does seem to have been not satis- 
 factorily established. If so, the diminution is 
 very trifling. Sir Ranald Martin says tea is 
 most useful against excessive fatigue, espe- 
 cially in hot climates. The traveller in the 
 Australian bush speaks highly of its reno- 
 vating effects at the end of a long day passed 
 in the saddle. 
 
 A cup of strong green tea without milk or 
 sugar is a popular and frequently by no means 
 inefficient remedy for a severe nervous head- 
 ache. According to Liebig, tea and coffee 
 resemble soup in their effect on the system. 
 Lehmann's experiments seem to show that 
 they lessen the waste of tissue in the human 
 body. Tea taken too continuously, or in 
 excess, produces indigestion, flatulence, and 
 constipation, besides rendering its votaries 
 anaemic and depressed in spirits. 
 
 It is a fallacy to sappose that soft water 
 makes the best tea. It certainly yields a 
 darker infusion than that made from mode- 
 rately hard water, but this is owing to the 
 soft water taking up u large quantity of 
 bitter, physiologically inert, extractive matter 
 from the tea, the delicate flavour of which 
 bpcomes thereby greatly impaired. Tliis is 
 why connoisseurs object to an infusion of 
 too dark a colour. Moderately hard hailing 
 water, on the contrary, fails to dissolve this 
 objectionable ingredient, and hence produces a 
 beverage in which the characteristic taste of 
 the pleasant aromatic principle of the tea is 
 nut masked by the bitter substance. London 
 water, which, when boiled, has a hardness of 
 about 5 degrees (equal to 5 grains of lime 
 salts to the gallon), makes excellent tea — better, 
 in fact, than a water of half the hardness, the 
 latter yielding a slightly bitter infusion. In 
 the use of moderately hard water, it is essen- 
 tial that it should be allowed to remain on the 
 tea sufficiently long. The Chinese never 
 employ either very soft or immoderately hard 
 water, but a water of 'medium hardtiess, 
 
 " Experimentally it is found that infusions 
 of tea and coffee are strong enough when the 
 former contains 0'6 per cent, of extractive 
 matter, and the latter 3 per cent., so that a 
 moderate-sized cup (5 oz.) should contain 
 about 13 grains of the extract of tea, or 66 
 grains of coffee. These proportions will be 
 obtained when 263 grains of tea (about '2,\ 
 teaspoonfuls) or 2 oz. of freshly-roasted coffee 
 are infused in a pint of boiling water; and 
 the amounts of the several constituents dis- 
 solved are about as follows : — 
 
 „„ ... ^ Tea. Coffee. 
 
 ConstituentB. ^^, ^^ 
 
 Nitrogenous matters . 17'2 440 
 
 Patty matter ... — 3'0 
 
 Gum, sugar, and extractive . 31'7 103'2 
 
 Mineral matters . . 9-1 22-8 
 
 Total extracted 
 
 58-8 173 
 
 So that tea yields, to a pint of fresh water, 
 about 22 per cent, of its weight, and coffee 
 about 20 per cent. Lehmann found that only 
 15J per cent, of tea was dissolved by water, 
 whereas Sir Humphry Davy estimated it at 
 334 per cent. No doubt the quality of the 
 water, as well as that of the tea, affects the 
 results, for cold distilled water will extract 
 from 40 to 44 per cent, of black tea, and 
 nearly 50 per cent, of green ; but, for all this, 
 about 22 per cent, is a good average with 
 boiling water."* 
 
 Dr Edward Smith has shown in the fol- 
 lowing table that, when the usual custom of 
 measuring tea into the teapot by the spoonful 
 is followed, very varying weights of tea are 
 employed. Thus he found that the weight of 
 a spoonful of tea was for — 
 
 BlacTc Teas. 
 Oolong , , . .39 grains. 
 Congou (inferior) . , 52 „ 
 Flowery Pekoe . . . 62 „ 
 Souchong . . , . 70 „ 
 
 Congou (fine) . . . 87 „ 
 
 Green Teas. 
 
 
 Hyson 
 
 
 66 grains 
 
 Twankay . • 
 
 
 70 „ 
 
 Pine Imperial . 
 
 
 . 90 „ 
 
 Scented Caper . 
 
 
 103 „ 
 
 Fine Gunpowder 
 
 
 123 „ 
 
 The attempt to make good tea will prove a 
 failure unless the water employed is boiling. 
 Previously to making the infusion, the teapot 
 should always be warmed up by means of 
 boiling water. The kettle should be filled 
 from the tap, and not the boiler. It should 
 also be borne in mind that neither good tea 
 nor colFee can be obtained if they are made 
 with water that has been in the kettle for many 
 hours. The tea is ready to be drank after 
 the boiling water has stood on it for five 
 minutes. 
 
 Tea, Beef. Syn. Inpitsttm cabnis bubul^, 
 
 JUSCULUM CUM CAKNB B0T18, L. This is 
 merely a very concentrated soup formed of 
 lean beef. According to the common plan, 
 lean beef, 1 lb., is gently simmered in water, 
 1 quart, for about i an hour, when spices, 
 salt, &c., are added, and in a few minutes the 
 whole is strained for use. The following are 
 other formulas : 
 
 1. (Dr A. T. Thomson.) Take good rump 
 steak, i lb. ; cut it into thin slices, spread 
 these over a hollow dish, sprinkle a little salt 
 on them, add a pint of boiling water, and 
 place the dish (covered) near the fire for i an 
 hour J then remove the whole to a saucepan, 
 and boil it gently for 15 minutes; lastly, strain 
 through a hair sieve. 
 
 2. (Prof. Liebig.) Beef, free from fat, 1 
 lb., is to be minced very small, mixed with an 
 equal weight of cold water, and, after diges- 
 
 1 Letlieby, 'Lectures on rood.' Lougmaus. 
 
TEETH— TELEPHONE 
 
 1637 
 
 tion and agit.it ion in the cold for about i an 
 hour, heated slowly to boiling ; when it has 
 b iled for a minute or two, strain it through 
 a cloth. It may be coloured with roasted onion 
 or burnt sugar,' and spiced and salted to 
 Uiste. 
 
 Obi, Similar preparations are ordered in 
 some foreign Fhurmacopoelas from calves' lights, 
 crayfiiih, frogs, mutton, pullets, snails, tortoise, 
 veal. Sic. la the Ph. L. 1746 a form was 
 given for viper broth (jrsoirnjM vipeeinum). 
 See EssEMCK ov Beef, Exisact of uea.t, 
 ic. 
 
 TEETH (The). %». Dentes, L. An 
 object very subservient to health, and which 
 merits due attention, is the preservation ol the 
 teeth ; the care of which, considering their 
 importance in preparing the food for diges- 
 tion, is, in general, far from being sufficiently 
 appreciated. Comparatively very few persons 
 wash their mouth and clean their teeth even 
 once a day; a feat which ought always to be 
 practised at the conclusion of a meal, when 
 either animal food or vcgetaliles are eaten ; 
 for the first is apt to leave behind it a rancid 
 acrimony, and the other an acidity, both of 
 them hurtful to the teeth. Those who abhor 
 a fetid breath, rotten teeth, and the tooth- 
 ache, would do well to invariably cleiiu their 
 teeth before retiring to rest. With smokers, 
 this practice is almost obligatory. Washing 
 the mouth frequently with cold water is not 
 only servicealile in keeping the teeth clciiii, 
 but iu strengthening the gums, the tirm adhe- 
 sion of which to the teeth is of the greatest 
 importance in preserving them sound and 
 secure. Some persons think it serviceable to 
 add a few drops of spirit or essence of cam- 
 phor to the water thus employed, a plan we 
 certainly approve of. See Biibath, Denti- 
 frices, Pastes, Powdees, Tooth cements, 
 Washes, &a. 
 
 Teeth, Stoppings for. See Dentistkt. 
 
 TEETH'INO. Si/n. Dentition. Children 
 are sometimes born with one or more teeth ; 
 but, in general, the teeth, at birth, consist ot 
 mere pulpy rudiments buried in the gum. 
 Their development is gradual. About the 
 third or fourth month they begin to assume 
 shape and hardness. At this period children 
 become fretful, the saliva flows copiously, the 
 gums grow turgid, and there is a fondness 
 of biting hard cold objects. In nearly all 
 oases there is more or less fever, frequently a 
 cough or diarrhoea, and a rash commonly 
 appears, which is called by nurses the ' red 
 gum.' These symptoms generally abate after 
 a fortnight or three weeks, and the child 
 remains undisturbed until the seventh or eighth 
 month. About this period the gums again 
 become red, tender, and swollen, and often 
 extremely sensitive, and painful. The upper 
 part of the gum gradually becomes attenuated 
 and pale, and, just before the tooth appears, 
 even covered with a blister. These changes 
 are usually attended by an increased flow of 
 
 saliva, or ' drivelling,' and a lax state of the 
 bonuls, both of wbieh are regarded as favor- 
 able symptoms. Simetimes, however, the 
 diaiThcea is excessive.wlien it may be cautiously 
 restrained by a dose or Uvn of rhnbarb-and- 
 magnesiu, with a little d 11 or peppermint 
 water ; or, better, by the dnily use of a little 
 arrow-root, to which a few dro]>< of pure port 
 wine may be added. Sometimes the local 
 irritation is considerable, or there are spasni-; 
 or convulsions, in which c c:.e the practice is 
 to lance the gums. When there is drowsines-, 
 stupor, or oppressed respiration, one or two 
 leeches may be applied to the temples, and a 
 small blister to the back of the neck, or behind 
 the ear. SluggishnesH of the bnwels may be 
 removed by a little castor oil; or, when there 
 is actual constipation, by a little calomel or 
 mercurial powder and rhubarb. Excessive 
 irritability, without other marked symptoms, 
 is best comhatcd by a drop or two ot tincture 
 of hops in sweetened water. Throughout the 
 whole period of dentition the use of warm dry 
 clothing, freedom from tight band.ifj;es, with 
 thorou..;h ventilation, good nursing, exercise, 
 fresh air without undue exposure, abundance 
 of ciawling on the carpet, and frequent warm 
 bath", will be found most advantageous. In- 
 deed, the last, without other treatment, are 
 often sufficient to subdue the most distressing 
 convulsions aud the most obstinate diarrhcea, 
 and in no case can th^y do harm. See NUBB- 
 ING, Sthophtjlus, &c. 
 
 TELEPHONE. Within the memory of the 
 present generation Sir Charles Whcatstone 
 made some experiments on the transmi>sion 
 of sound, which were subsequently repeated 
 and enlarged npon by Professor Henry in 
 America. Coimecting together by means of 
 a bar of wood the sounding boards of two 
 pianos placed iu houses on opposite sides of 
 the street, Henry found that when the piano 
 on one side of the street was plaved upon 
 the musical sounds it gave out were repro- 
 duced by that on the other side. The next 
 research in this direction was tiiat of Page, in 
 1837, who, setting up vibrations in bars of 
 iron, by rapidly magnetising and demagnet- 
 ising them elicited from them mnsicul notes 
 corresponding with the velocity of the vibra- 
 tion. Similar effects, but more marked in 
 character, were produced by De la Kive, in 
 1843, by means cf a succession of electric 
 currents transmitted through a copper wire 
 stretched through a cylinder made of insulated 
 copper wire. 
 
 In 1861 Eeiss, of Freidrichsdorf, perfected 
 an instrument which, by means of the vibra- 
 tions of a diaphragm alternately completing 
 and breaking the continuity of a galvanic 
 circuit, reproduced musical sounds in an iron 
 bar at a distance. 
 
 Varley, in 1870, obtained similar results to 
 Reii-s by the rapid charging and discharging 
 of a roudenser. 
 
 In the first of these experiments— viz. 
 
1638 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 Henry's — the sound was mechanically con- 
 ducted along the bar of wood from the strings 
 of one piano to those of the other, which, 
 being thrown into similar vibratoi'y move- 
 ments gave rise to similar sounds. 
 
 In the other experiments, on the contrary, 
 the sounds were not due to the chemical con- 
 duction at all, but to currents of electricity. 
 It has been explained that Keiss' instrument 
 was capable of reproducing musical sounds at 
 a distance from their origin. Reiss' may, 
 therefore, be regarded as the original tele- 
 phone. But, although able to reproduce a 
 musical note or sound originating at a dis- 
 tance, this instrnment failed altogether in the 
 case of a word or a sentence, for the simple 
 reason that the current o)' electricity which 
 passes through the wires is an intermittent 
 one. Musical sounds diifer in tone, in inten- 
 sity, and quiility. The tone depends upon the 
 number of vibrations produced in the air per 
 second ; when these are less than sixteen no 
 sound is produced. The intensity is due to the 
 extent or amplitude of the vibrations ; and 
 the quality or timbre, to the form of the un- 
 dulations made by the vibrating particles of 
 the atmosphere. Now, of all these qualities 
 or varieties of sound, the first only, or the 
 tune, can be reproduced by a current of in- 
 termittent electricity, so that Beiss' is u tone 
 telephone, and as such is only capable of re- 
 delivering a number of musical notes. To 
 Professor A. Graham Bell alone belongs the 
 merit of having invented an articulating or 
 speaking telephone, or an apparatus by means 
 of which not only tone, but intensity and 
 timbre of sound — in short, speech in its en- 
 tirety can be electrically conveyed from one 
 point to another, no matter how distant. The 
 practical result of this is that a conversation 
 can be carried on, the distance by which the 
 speakers may be separated being of no import. 
 'Jo the particular species of electricity by 
 which this is accomplished Professor Bell has 
 given the name * undulatory,' in contradis- 
 tinction to ' intermittent ' or ' pulsatory.' 
 The annexed plate, which is half the actual 
 size of Bell's articulating telephone, represents 
 that instrument in section. 
 
 m m is a permanent bar-magnet, to the 
 upper end of which is attached a soft iron 
 core, which becomes magnetised by the per- 
 manent magnet. Surrounding the iron core 
 is a coil of very fine insulated copper wire (6), 
 the two ends of which are carried to the ter- 
 minals (t t), by means of which one is connected 
 with the line wire, and the other with the 
 earth, <2 is a disc of thin iron plate, either 
 tmned or japanned, about the size of a crown 
 piece, and o ^s the cavity or mouth-piece. 
 Upon applying the lips to this and spealiing 
 into it, the iron disci(t2) vibrates towards the 
 soft iron core, the result being that a current 
 of induced electricity is set ,up in the coil (4), 
 which, being in connection by means of the 
 telegraph wire wjth a precisely similar ar- 
 
 rangement at the other end of the line, re- 
 produces there the spoken words by means of 
 a corresponding disc. The magnet with its 
 attachments are enclosed in a wooden case 
 {aa,aa,aa);nn are screws which secure the 
 iron disk (J) ; « is a screw for adjusting the 
 distance between the pole of the magnet and 
 the disk (i). 
 
 The extreme simplicity of Professor Bell's 
 telephone was the outcome of several antece- 
 dent experiments, worked out by forms of 
 apparatus gradually diminishing in com- 
 plexity. 
 
 The German physicist Helmholtz had pre- 
 viously shown that by the agency of a current 
 of intermittent electricity passed through a 
 tuning-fork, he could produce simultaneous 
 vibrations in a, number of other forks con- 
 nected with the first by a wire, and that by 
 varying the loudness of these vibrations by 
 means of resonators, so as to combine the 
 musical notes in different proportions, the 
 resulting sound was an imitation of certain 
 vowel sounds, or a copy of the timbre of 
 sound. 
 
 Professor Bell's first telephone was an ex- 
 tension of Helmholtz's device for producing 
 vpwel or composite sounds. A number of 
 steel wires of different pitch were made into 
 a harp, and connected by a powerful perma- 
 nent magnet, the same arrangement being 
 repeated at the other end of the circuit. In 
 the magnetic field of the permanent magnet 
 was an electro-magnet. When a permanent 
 magnet is vibrated in the neighbourhood of 
 an eAectro-magnet, this latter will have a 
 
TELEPHONE 
 
 1639 
 
 current of electricity generated in it, the 
 intensity of which will vary with the velocity 
 of the vibrationa in the permanent magnet, 
 whilst it will be either positive or negative 
 according to the direction of these same vi- 
 brations. So that a vowel sound, if prodaoed 
 by causing a number of the rods of the harp 
 to vibrate at tlie same time, can be trans- 
 mitted by a current of electricity, and will be 
 reproduced by the harp at tlie other end of 
 the connecting wire. If a piano were sung 
 into whilst the pedal wns down, not only 
 would the pitch of the voice be echoed back, 
 but an approach to the quality of the vowel 
 would also be obtained. And theory teaches 
 that if the piano hud a very much larger 
 number of strings to the octave, we should 
 get not only an approximation to, but an 
 exact vocal reproduction of the vowel. If, 
 tlierefore, in the harp there were a large 
 number of steel rods to the octave, and you 
 were to speak in the neighbourhood of such 
 a harp, the rods would he thrown into vibra- 
 tion with diOerent degrees of amplitude, pro- 
 ducing currents of electricity, and would 
 throw into vibration the rods at the other 
 end with the same relative amplitude, and 
 tlie Umbre of the voice would be reproduced. 
 
 The effect when you vilirate more than one 
 of these rods simultaneously is to change the 
 shape of the electrical undulation, and a 
 similur effect is produced when a battery is 
 included in the circuit. In this case the battery 
 current is thrown into waves by the action of 
 the permanent magnets. Hence you will see 
 that tlie resultant elfect on the current of a 
 number of musical tones, is to produce a 
 vibration which corresponds in every degree 
 to the moving velocity of the air. Suppose, 
 for instance, you vibrate two rods in the 
 harp, you have two musical notes produced, 
 but of course if you pay attention to a, par- 
 ticle of air, it is impossible that any particle 
 of air can vibrate in two directions at the 
 same time ; it follows the resultant form of 
 vibration. One curve would show the vibra- 
 tion of a particle of air for one musical tone, 
 the next one for another, and the third the 
 resulting motion of a particle of air when 
 both musical tones are sounded simultaneously. 
 You have by the harp apparatus the resultant 
 effect produced by a current of electricity, 
 but the same resultant effect could be pro- 
 duced in the air. There is an instrument 
 called the phonantograph. It consists of a 
 cone which, when spoken into, condenses the 
 air from the voice. At the small end of the 
 cone there is a stretched membrane which 
 vibrates when a sound is produced, and in the 
 course of its vibration it controls the move- 
 ment of a long style of wood, about one foot 
 in length. If a piece of glass with a smoked 
 surface is rapidly drawn before the style 
 during its movement, a series of curves will 
 bo drawn upon the glass. I myself uttered 
 the vowels e, ay, eh, ah, aah. These vowels 
 
 were sang at the same pitch and the same 
 force, but each is characterised on the glass 
 by a shape of vibration of its own. In fact, 
 when yott come to examine the motion of a 
 particle of air, there can be no doubt that 
 every sound is characterised by a particular 
 motion. It struck me that if, instead of using 
 that complicated harp, and vibrating a num- 
 ber of rods tuned to different pitches, and 
 thus creating on the line of wire a re-nltant 
 effect, we were at once to vibrate a piece of 
 iron, to give to that piece of iron not the 
 vibration of a musical tone, but to give it the 
 resultant vibration of a vowel sound, we could 
 have an undulatory current produced directly, 
 not indirectly, which would correspond to the 
 motion of the air in the production of a sound. 
 
 The difficulty, however, was how to vibrate 
 a piece of iron in the way required. 
 
 The following apparatus gave me the clue 
 to the solution of tlie problem in the attempt 
 to improve the phonantograph. I attempted 
 to construct one modelled as nearly as pos- 
 sible on the mechanism of the human ear, 
 but on going to a friend in Boston, Dr 
 Clarence J. Blake, an aurist, he suggested the 
 novel idea of using the human ear itself as a 
 phonantograph, and this apparatus we con- 
 structed together. It is a human ear. The 
 interior mechanism is exposed, and to a p^irt 
 of it is attached a long »tyle of Iriy. Upon 
 moistening the membrane and the little bones 
 with a mixture of glycerin and water, the 
 mobility of the parts was restored, and on 
 speaking into the external artificial ear a 
 vibration was observed, and afler many ex- 
 periments we were enabled to obtain tracings 
 of the vibration on a sheet of smoked glass 
 drawn rapidly along. This apparatus gave 
 me-the clue to the present form of the tele- 
 phone. What I wanted was an apparatus 
 that should be able to move a piece of iron in 
 the way that a particle of air is moved by the 
 voice.' 
 
 We need not follow Professor Ball through 
 the various stages by which he arrived at his 
 most successful solution of this problem 
 further than to state that the simplicity of 
 construction exhibited in the present form of 
 instrument did not characterise the earlier 
 articulatory telephones. Amongst the causes 
 contributing to this simplicity may be men- 
 tioned the abandonment of an animal mem- 
 brane attached to the iron plate, the diminu- 
 tion of the coil of insulated wire, and the 
 substitution for the galvanic battery which 
 formerly formed part of the circuit, of the 
 permanent magnet. 
 
 Professor Bell records the cnrions fact that 
 hardly any difference isobservable in the results 
 by varying the size, thickness, and force of 
 the permanent magnet, and that beyond a 
 remarkable effect in the quality of the voice, 
 
 ' From Professor Ball's Lecture at the Society of 
 Arts, Nov. 28th, 1877, published in the Journal of Ihe 
 Society, vol. 26, p. 17. 
 
1640 
 
 TELEPHONE 
 
 distinct articnlations might be obtained from 
 iron plates of from 1 inch to 2 feet in dia- 
 meter and from ^'^th to ith inch in tliicknees. 
 With plates of uniform thickness, but of 
 varying diameter, he obtained the following 
 results. With a plate of small diameter the 
 articulation was perfectly distinct, but the 
 sound emitted was as if a person were speak- 
 ing through the nose. By gradually enlarging 
 the diameter of the plate this nasal effect as 
 gradually disappeared, until when a certain 
 diameter was attained a very good quality of 
 voice manifested itself. 
 
 By continning to enlarge the diameter, a 
 coarse, hollow, drum-like effect was pro- 
 duced, until when the diameter became very 
 large, the sound resembled that one hears 
 when the head is inside a barrel,, and was 
 accompanied with a reverberating sound. By 
 reversing the above conditions — that is, by 
 keeping the diameter constant, and varying 
 the thickness — it was found that with a very 
 thin plate the drum-like sound was produced ; 
 by gradually increasing the thickness this 
 effect passed off; then followed distinct ar- 
 ticulation, until at a certain increase of thick- 
 ness the peculiar nasal quality again developed 
 itself. 
 
 In practice it has been found desirable, in 
 establishing speaking communication between 
 two distant places, to employ two telephones 
 instead of a single one ; one being applied to 
 the mouth and the other to the ear during a 
 conversation. 
 
 With one telephone it was no unusual 
 occurrence for confusion to arise in conse- 
 quence of tlie two speakers talking or listen- 
 ing at the same time. 
 
 So faithful is the transmission by the tele- 
 phone of every variety of sound, that Mr Prfiece 
 states, when in telephonic communication with 
 Prof. Bell, through a quarter of a mile he 
 has heard him "laugh, sneeze, congh, and, in 
 fact, make any sound the human voice can 
 produce." It must be borne in mind, how- 
 ever, that the transmitted speech can only be 
 distinctly heard in the immediate vicinity of 
 the receiving apparatus ; the keenest hearing 
 fails to detect it at the distance of little more 
 than a foot away. Hence, when a message is 
 expected, the recipient has to place his ear to 
 the mouthpiece of the instrument, and use it as 
 an ear-trumpet. 
 
 A circumstance tending to impair the satis- 
 factory working of Bell's telephone is, that the 
 line wire to which the ends of the coil are 
 attached becomes inductively affected by the 
 •currents of electricity passing through the 
 parallel and contiguous telegraph wires, the 
 effect, on a line where there is an active 
 transmission of telegraphic messages, being 
 that the telephone " emits sounds that are 
 ■very like the pattering of hail against a 
 window, and which are so loud as to over- 
 ;power the effects of the human voice."' 
 1 Freece. 
 
 This inconvenience can, however, it is 
 stated, be remedied. 
 
 If all the arrangements of the instrument 
 were perfect, there should be no limits to the 
 distance through which speech could be con- 
 veyed by the telephone. Professor Bell says 
 that in laboratory experiments " no diflicnlty 
 has been found in using an apparatus of this 
 construction through a circuit of 6000 miles;" 
 and that he had found it act efficiently be- 
 tween New York and Boston, a distance of 
 258 miles, aubject to the condition that the 
 neighbouring telegraph wires were not in 
 action. 
 
 Mr Preece has carried on conversations 
 between Dublin and Holyhead, a distance of 
 100 miles. 
 
 Two useful applications of the telephone 
 are recorded by Professor Bell, the one its 
 employment in connection with the diving 
 bell ; the other as a means of communication 
 between those above and below ground in 
 mines. It has been largely adopted in ex- 
 tensive factories and in commercial houses 
 both in America and in this country, supple- 
 menting, because of its much greater sim- 
 plicity and easy application, the electric 
 telegraphs previously in use in such establish- 
 ments. 
 
 We extract the following from the ' Journal 
 of the Society of Arts -.'^ 
 
 " The Teiephokb akd the Toepbdo. 
 
 "A novel application of the Bell telephone 
 is one which has been made in connection 
 with torpedoes by Captain C. A. M'Evoy, of 
 18, Adam Street, Adelphi. The torpedoes to 
 which the telephone has been applied are 
 those of the buoyant contact class — that is, 
 floating torpedoes, which are used for the 
 protection of rivers and harbours. These 
 torpedoes are held in position beneath the 
 surface of the water by mooring lines and 
 anchors, and it is necessary to ascertain from 
 time to time that these deadly agents are in 
 active working order. They are, of^ course, 
 connected to the shore by electric wires by 
 which they may be exploded. They are also 
 arranged so that they may be exploded 
 electrically by contact with passing vessels. 
 For this latter purpose they are fitted with 
 what is known as a circuit closer, which is 
 placed in the middle of the charge within the 
 torpedo. The testing is ordinarily performed 
 by sending a current of electricity through 
 the torpedo and fuse ; but, in order that tfie 
 fuse may not be fired, and the torpedo con- 
 sequently exploded during the process of 
 testing, an extremely weak current has to be 
 used in connection with a sensitive galvano- 
 meter. The consequence is that the indica- 
 tions received are so very delicate that they 
 are not always to be relied on. Now, what 
 Captain M'Evoy does is to supplement the 
 electrical test by the test of sounds, and to 
 this end he encloses an ordinary Bell tele- 
 ' Vol. 26, p. 887. 
 
TELLURIUM— TEMPERATURE 
 
 1641 
 
 phone in cacti torpedo. The telephone is so 
 placed tlmt the vibrating diaphragm is in a 
 iiorizontal plane, and upon it are laid a few 
 shot or partii'les of metal, and these are boxed 
 in. Every motion of the torpedo causes the 
 shot to shift their position upon the face of 
 the diaphragm and to cause a slight noise, 
 which is distinctly beard in the receiving 
 telephone on shore. Thus each torpedo two 
 or three miles away, in the restless waters of a 
 channel, is continually telling the operator on 
 shore of its own condition in language some- 
 times excited, according to the state of calm- 
 ness or agitation of the water at the time. 
 Should the torpedoes be sunk, they would lie 
 motionless on the bottom, and the silence of 
 the telephone would indicate the fact of their 
 inoperativeness. The telephones are con- 
 nected to the ordinary electric wires of the 
 torpedoes, but this does not prevent them from 
 being tested in the usual way from the battery 
 on shore." 
 
 TELLU'EIUM. A rare greyish-white ele- 
 mentary substance, found only in small quan- 
 tities, associated with gold, silver, lend, and 
 bismuth, in the gold mines of Transylvania. 
 It has often been described as a metal, but is 
 now commonly classed with the non-metals. 
 
 1. Tellurium may be obtained from the bis- 
 muth ore (the telluride of bismuth) by strongly 
 heating the ore with a mixture of carbonate of 
 potash and charcoal. A potassium telluride is 
 formed which dissolves in water, forming a 
 solution of a purplish-red colour, from which 
 the tellurium di'posits on exposure of the 
 liquid to thentmosplieio. 
 
 2. SchrOtter gives the following method for 
 the obtainment of metallic tellurium: — The raw 
 material is treated with dilute hydrochloric 
 acid OS long as carbon dioxide is evolved, then 
 « ith strong acid until all sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen is driven ofl'. 
 
 The liquid is decanted from the residue, 
 which is washed with hydrochloric acid and 
 hot water, then boiled with aqua regis until 
 the insoluble matter is white. From the aqua 
 regia solution any gold that may be present is 
 precipitated by means of ferrous sulphate, 
 and afterwards zinc is added to precipitate the 
 tellurium. The precipitate on the zinc is 
 washed, dried, and heated to redness, treated 
 with 8ul{)huric acid to remove any silver, and 
 the remaining tellurium is then collected. 
 
 Tellurium bears a great resemblance to 
 bismuth in appearance, having a pinkish 
 metallic lustre; it further resembles bismuth 
 in being crystalline and brittle. 
 
 Below a red heat it enters into a state of 
 fusion; at a high temperature it becomes con- 
 verted into a yellow vapour. It burns in air, 
 when strongly heated, with a blue flame having 
 a green rim, and giving off white fumes that 
 have a peculiar odour. When taken inter- 
 nally, even in very minute quantities, tel- 
 lurium imparts to the breath an oflensively 
 powerful odour of garlic. Tellurium dissolves 
 
 in cold concentrated sulphuric acid, to which it 
 imparts a rich purple-red colour. If tlie acid 
 solution be diluted with water the tellurium 
 precipitates unchanged. There are two oxides 
 of tellurium: the dioxide (TeOj) and the tri- 
 oxide (TeOj), the first of whicli corresponds to 
 sulphurous, and the second to sulphuric an- 
 hydride. 
 
 Tellurout acid (HjTeOj) is obtained by 
 pouring a solution of tellurium on nitric acid 
 of r25 into water, when the tellnrous acid is 
 precipitated as a bulky hydrate. This hydrate 
 is slightly soluble in water and reddens litmus. 
 It forms salts called tellurites. 
 
 Telluric acid (HjTeO^). When tellurium or 
 tellurous acid is gently heated with nitre a 
 potassic tellurate is formed, this being decom- 
 posed by a salt of barium, whilst the resulting 
 barium tellurate is in its turn decomposed, 
 and the telluric acid separated by sulphuric 
 acid. The telluric acid occurs in hexagonal 
 prismatic crystals, which, when lieatcd usually 
 to redness, becoming converted into telluric 
 anhydride, which then assumes an orance- 
 yellow coloar. This telluric anhydride ( TeOj) 
 is entirely insoluble in water, nitric and lijdro- 
 chloric acids, and alkaline solutiuns. Althonu'h 
 it has but a feeble attraction for bases, telluric 
 acid forms salts which are called tellurates. 
 There are two chlorides of tellurium: the di- 
 chloride (TeClj) and the tetrachloride (TeClj). 
 They may both be obtained by the direct 
 action of chlorine on tellurium. 
 
 Telluretted hydrogen, or dihydric telluride. 
 (H2Te). This compound presents a striking 
 analogy to seleniuretted and sulphuretted 
 hydrogen. Like both of these it is gaseous, 
 but resembles the latter in smell more tlian the 
 former. It burns with a blue flame, reddens 
 litmus, and when fused into water forms a 
 colourless solntion, which becomes brown by 
 exposure to the air, owing to the oxidation of 
 hydrogen and the deposition of tellurmin. 
 The salts of most of the metals are decomposed 
 when a current of telluretted hydrogen is 
 passed through these solutions, Irom »hich the 
 metals are then thrown down as tellurides. 
 These tellurides present a close resemblance to 
 the corresponding sulphides. The tellurides of 
 the alkali metals, like the sulphides, are 
 soluble in water. 
 
 Tests. The most distinctive character of 
 tellurium compounds is the reddish-purple 
 solution of potassium telluride they furnish 
 when fused with potassic carbonate and char- 
 coal and treated with water. 
 
 TEM'PERATUEE. In English pharmacy it 
 is customary to measure the degree of heat by 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer. When a boiling 
 heat is directed, 212° is meant. A fjentle heat 
 is that which is denoted by any degree be- 
 tween 90" and 100' Fahr. 
 
 Whenever specific gravity is mentioned, the 
 substance spoken of is supposed to be of the 
 temperature of 62° Fahr. (Ph. L.) 
 
 In the B. P., Ph. E., & U., and in chemical 
 
1642 
 
 TEMPERATUEE 
 
 works in this country generally, the specific I the temperature of 60° Fahr. See Thee- 
 gravities of bodies are taken at, or referred to, | mometees. 
 
 The following data 
 Degree of fahr. 
 
 2786 . 
 
 2016 . 
 
 1996 . 
 
 1873 . 
 
 1750 . 
 
 1000 , 
 
 980 . 
 
 941 . 
 
 773 . 
 
 644 , 
 
 640 . 
 
 630 . 
 
 617 . 
 
 600 . 
 
 518 . 
 
 442 . 
 
 380 . 
 
 356 . 
 
 315 . 
 
 302 . 
 
 257 . 
 
 256 . 
 
 239 . 
 
 238 . 
 
 221 . 
 
 220 . 
 
 218 . 
 
 216 . 
 
 214 . 
 213 or (213 
 
 212 . 
 
 211 . 
 
 201 . 
 
 207 . 
 
 145 . 
 
 185 . 
 180 (about) 
 
 176 . 
 
 173 . 
 
 151 . 
 
 150 . 
 141-8 
 
 44-5 , 
 
 132 . 
 
 122 . 
 
 116 . 
 
 115 . 
 
 112 . 
 
 Ill . 
 
 98 . 
 
 95 , 
 
 95 . 
 
 88 . 
 
 77 . 
 
 64-4 , 
 
 59 . 
 
 55 . 
 
 30 (about) 
 
 32 , 
 
 5 . 
 
 —37-9 , 
 
 5) 
 
 may be of use to the pharmacist : 
 
 . Cast iron melts (Daniell). 
 
 . Gold melts (Daniell). 
 
 . Copper melts (Daniell). 
 
 . Silver melts (Daniell). 
 
 . Brass (containing 25g of zinc) melts (Daniell). 
 
 . Iron, bright cherry red (Poillet). 
 
 . Red heat, visible in daylight (Daniell). 
 
 . Zinc begins to burn (Daniell). 
 
 . Zinc melts (Daniell). 
 
 . Mercury boils (Daniell), 662 (Graham). 
 
 , Sulphuric acid boils (Magrignac), 620 (Graham). 
 
 . Whale oil boils (Graham). 
 
 . Pure lead.melts (Eudberg). 
 
 . Linseed oil boils. 
 
 , Bismuth melts (Gmelin). 
 
 . Tin melts (Cricbton). 
 
 . Arsenious acid volatilises. 
 
 . Metallic arsenic sublimes. 
 
 . Oil of turpentine boils (Kaure). 
 
 , Etherification ends. 
 
 . Saturated sol. of sal ammoniac boils (Taylor). 
 
 „ „ acetate of soda boils. 
 
 . Sulphur melts (Miller), 226 (Fownes). 
 . Saturated sol. of nitre boils. 
 
 „ „ salt boils (Paris Codex). 
 
 „ „ alum, carb. soda, and sulph. zinc, boil. 
 
 „ „ chlorate and prussiate potash, boil. ' 
 
 „ „ sulph. iron, sulph. copper, nitrate of lead, boil. 
 
 „ „ acetate lead, sulph. and bitartrate potash, boil. 
 
 „ „ water begins to boil in glass. 
 
 Water boils in metal, barometer at 30°. 
 
 AUuy of 5 bismuth, 3 tin, 2 lead, melts. 
 
 „ 8 bismuth, 5 lead, 3 tin, melts (Kane). 
 
 Sodium melts (Regnault). 
 
 White of egg begins to coagulate. 
 
 Nitric acid 1'52 begins to boil. 
 
 Starch forms a gelatinous compound with water. 
 
 Rectified spirit boils, benzol distils. 
 
 Alcohol (sp. gr. -796 to -800) boils. 
 
 Beeswax melts (Kane), 142 (Lepage). 
 
 Pjroxylic spirit boils (Scanlan). 
 
 Chloroform, and ammonia of •945, boil. 
 
 Potassium melts (Bunsen). 
 
 Acetone (pyroacetic spirit) boils (Kane). 
 
 Mutton suet and styracin melt, 
 
 Bisulphuret of carbon boils (Graham). 
 
 Pure tallow melts (Lepage), 92 (Thomson). 
 
 Spermaceti and stearin of lard melt. 
 
 Phosphorus melts (Miller). 
 
 Temperature of the blood. 
 
 Ether (-720) boils. 
 
 Carbolic acid crystals become an oily liquid. 
 
 Acetous fermentation ceases, water boils t» vacuo. 
 
 Vinous ferin. ends, acetous ferm. begins. 
 
 Oil of anise liquefies. 
 
 Gay Lussac's Alcoometre graduated at. 
 
 Syrups to be kept at (P. L.). 
 
 Olive oil becomes partially solid. 
 
 Water freezes. 
 
 Cold produced by snow 2 parts and salt 1 part. 
 
 Mercury freezes. 
 
TENT— TEST SOLUTIONS 
 
 1643 
 
 TENT. A piece of lint, or compressed 
 sponee, used to dilate opeiiini^K, wounds, Ac. 
 
 TEBBIUH. A rare metal found by Prof. 
 Mosiiuder, ussooiated with erbium and 
 yttrium in ordinary yttria. See Ebbiuu 
 and Yttbium. 
 
 TEK'BA. [L.] Earth. Tebha JAPoyiCA, 
 catechu; TXBBA P0BCEB09A, sulphate of 
 baryta, &c. 
 
 TEE'RA COrTA. Literally, baked clay; 
 a term applied to statues, architectural orna- 
 ments, &c., made of pure white clay, fine sand, 
 and powdered potsherds, slowly dried, and 
 balced to a strong hardness. 
 
 TEST. Si/n, Beaoent. Any substance 
 employed to determine the name or character 
 of any other substance, or to detect its pre- 
 sence in compounds. 
 
 TEST SOLUTIONS. The test solutions here 
 given are those of the British Pharmacopceia, 
 which are used for determining the strength 
 of various Pharmacopoeial preparations by 
 volumetric analysis. In the Pharmacopoeia 
 it is stated : The processes for volumetric esti- 
 mutions may be performed either with British 
 or with metrical weights and measures, and the 
 solutions are so arranged that they will be of 
 tlie same strength, and the same indications will 
 be obtained in using them, whichever system 
 is employed, without the necessity of altering 
 any of the figures by which the quantities of 
 the substances tested or of the test solutions 
 required in the process nre expressed. 
 
 According to the British system, the qnanti- 
 ties of the substances to be tested are ex- 
 pressed in grains by weight, whilst the quanti- 
 ties of the test solutions employed in testing 
 are expressed in grain-measures, the grain- 
 measure being the volume of a grain of 
 distilled water. 
 
 According to the metrical system, the 
 quantities of the substances to be tested arc 
 expressed in grammes by weight, whilst the 
 quantities of the test solutions employed in 
 testing are employed in cubic centimetres, the 
 cubic centimetre being the volume of a gramme 
 of distilled water. 
 
 As the cubic centimetre bears the same 
 relation to the gramme that the grain-measure 
 bears to the grain, the one system may be sub- 
 stituted for the other, with no difference in the 
 results excepting that, by the metrical system, 
 all the quantities will be expressed in relation 
 to a weight (the gramme) which is more than 
 fifteen times as great as the British grain. 
 
 In practice it will be found convenient in 
 substituting metrical for British weights and 
 measures, to reduce the values of all numbers 
 to one-tenth by moving the decimal points, 
 nnd this has been done in the tables appended 
 to the descriptions of the volumetric solutions. 
 The quantities indicated in the Pharmacopoeia, 
 which in grains and grain-measures can be 
 conveniently used, would be found incon- 
 veniently large if the same numbers of 
 grammes and cubic centimetres were employed. 
 
 The following apparatus is required in the 
 preparation and use of these solutions. 
 For British weights and measures : 
 
 1. A flask, which, when filled to a mark on 
 the neck, contains exactly 10,000 grains of 
 distilled water at 60°. The capacity of the 
 flask is therefore 10,000 grain-measnres. 
 
 2. A graduated cylindrical j ir which, when 
 filled to O, holds 10,000 grains of distilled 
 water, and is divided into 100 equal parts. 
 
 3. A burette. A graduated glass tube which, 
 when filled to 0, holds 1000 grains of distilled 
 water, and is divided into 100 eqna 1 parts. Each 
 part therefore corresponds to 10 grain-measures. 
 
 For metrical weights and measures : 
 
 1. A gla.ss flask which, when filled to a mark 
 on the neck, contains 1 litre, or 1000 cubic 
 centimetres. 
 
 2. A graduated cylindrical jar which, when 
 filled to O, contains 1 litre (1000 cubic centi- 
 metres), and is divided into 100 equal parts. 
 
 3. A burette. A graduated tube which, 
 when filled to O, holds 100 cubic centi- 
 metres, and is divided into 100 equal parts. 
 
 (One cubic centimetre is the volume of one 
 gramme of distilled water at 4° C; 1000 
 cubic centimetres equal 1 litre). 
 
 Volumetric solutions, before being used, 
 should be shaken in order that they may be 
 throughout of uniform strength. They should 
 also be preserved in stoppered bottles. All 
 measurements should be made at 60°. 
 
 VOLUMBTEIC SOLCTION OF BiCHBOUATB 
 
 OF Potash (Bichromate of potash, KO,2CrOa 
 = 147-5, or K3Cr307 = 295). 
 
 Take of— 
 
 Bichromate of potash . 147'5 grains. 
 
 Distilled water . . , a sufiiciency. 
 
 Put the bichromate of potash into the 
 10,000 grain flask, and, having half filled the 
 flask with water, allow the salt to dissolve ; 
 then dilute the solution with more water, 
 until it has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain- 
 measures: 1000 grain-measures of this solu- 
 tion contain 14'75 grains of the bichromate 
 (Vsth of KjCrOs, or ^"jth of K,Ct.JO, in 
 grains), and, when added to a solution of a 
 protosalt of iron, acidulated with hydrochloric 
 acid, are capable of converting 16'8 grains 
 (j^jth of 6Pe, or ,\th of 6Fe in grains) from 
 the state of protosalt to that of persalt 
 grammes, and cubic centimetres may be em- 
 ployed instead of grains and grain-measnres ; 
 but for convenience j^th of the numbers 
 should be taken. Thus, 14-75 grammes of 
 bichromate of potash should be made to form 
 1000 cubic centimetres of solution. 100 cubic 
 centimetres of this solution contain 1-475 
 grammesof the bichi'omate(YiT,th of KO,2Cr03, 
 or -j^^th of KjCr^O; in grammes), and, when 
 added to a solution of protosalt of iron acidu- 
 lated with hydrochloric acid, are capable of 
 converting 1-68 grammes of iron (xnot'^ "^ 
 
 1 It is customary to make the measurements with 
 metrical apparatus at 60° Fahr. 
 
1644 
 
 TEST SOLUTIONS 
 
 6Fe, or ^T^th of 6Fe, in grammeg) from the 
 state of protosalt to that of persalt. 
 
 This solution is used for determining the 
 proportion of protoxide of iron in tlie following 
 preparations. It is known that the whole of 
 
 the protosalt has been converted into a persalt 
 when a minute drop of the liquid, placed in 
 contact with a solution of red prussiate of 
 potash on a white plate, ceases to strike with 
 it a blue colour. 
 
 British Weights and Measures. 
 
 , .— -_ , 
 
 Grains weight of _ Grain measures 
 
 Metrical Weights and Measures. 
 
 Ferri arsenias 
 „ carb. sacch. 
 „ oxid. magn. 
 „ Phosphas . 
 
 Buhstauce. 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 20 
 
 of vol. sol. 
 
 170 
 
 330 
 
 83 
 
 250 
 
 Grams weight of 
 substance. 
 2-0 
 20 
 2-0 
 20 
 
 . C. of tol. 
 sol. 
 170 
 330 
 83 
 25 
 
 VoLUMETEio Solution op Htposuiphite 
 OF Soda (hyposulphite of soda crvstallised, 
 NaO,SijOj + 5HO = 124, or ^!kfi^^\. 40,0= 
 248). 
 
 Take of— 
 Hyposulphiteofsoda,in crystals . 280 grains. 
 Distilled water . . . , a sufficiency. 
 
 Dissolve the hyposulphite of soda in 10,000 
 grain-measures of water. Fill a burette with 
 this solution and drop it cautiously in 1000 
 grain-measures of the volumetric solution of 
 iodine until the brown colour is just dis- 
 charged. Note the number of grain-measures 
 («) required to produce this effect ; then put 
 8000 grain-measures of the same solution into 
 a graduated jar, and augment this quantity by 
 the addition of distilled water until it amounts 
 
 to 8000 X 1000 . ,„ , 
 
 gram-measures. Ir, for ex- 
 ample, «=950, the 8000 grain-measures of 
 solution should be diluted to the bulk of 
 
 8000X 1000=8'421 grain-measures. 1000 
 
 950 
 grain-measures of this solution contains 24*8 
 grains of the hyposulphite (xoth of 2(NaO,S302 
 -fSHO), or fs^h of lIa2H2S504,4HjO in 
 grains), and therefore corresponds to 127 
 grains of iodine (i^th of an equivalent). 
 
 Grammes and cubic ceutimfetres may be 
 employed instead of grains and grain-measures, 
 but for convenience to''' "' *^* numbers 
 should be taken. 100 cubic centimetres of 
 this solution contain 2-48 grammes of the 
 hyposulphite G^th of 2(NaO,SA + 5HO),or 
 yi^th of 'Sa^'K^Sji^. 4H2O in grammes), and 
 therefore corresponds to 1'27 grains of iodine 
 (jijith of an equivalent). 
 
 This solution is used for testing the follow- 
 ing substances. In each case, except that of 
 iodine, a solution of iodide of potassium and 
 hydrochloric acid are added to the substance, 
 and the amount of iodine so liberated is indi- 
 cated by this solution : 
 
 British Weights and Measures. 
 
 Metrical Weights and Measures. 
 
 
 
 — , Ul 
 
 
 .... _y_.. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Grains weight of 
 
 
 Grams weight of 
 
 C. C. of vol. 
 
 
 substance. 
 
 of vol. sol. 
 
 
 substanre. 
 
 sol. 
 
 Calx chlorata . 
 
 100 
 
 850 or 
 
 
 100 = 
 
 85-0 
 
 lodum 
 
 12-7 = 
 
 1000 
 
 
 1-27 
 
 100-0 
 
 Liq. calc. chlorataa . 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 
 
 6-00 = 
 
 50-0 
 
 „ chlori 
 
 . 4390 
 
 750 
 
 
 43-90 = 
 
 750 
 
 „ Sodas chloratse . 
 
 70-0 
 
 500 
 
 
 7-00 
 
 50-0 
 
 VOLTJMETBIO SOLTTTIOK OP lODINE (Iodine, 
 1=127, or 1 = 127). 
 
 Take of iodine . . 127 grains. 
 Iodide of potassium . 180 „ 
 Distilled water . . a sufficiency. 
 Put the iodide of potassium and the iodine 
 into the 10,000 grain flask, fill the flask to 
 about two thirds its bulk with distilled water, 
 gently agitate until solution is complete, and 
 then dilute the solution with more water, until 
 it has the exact volume of 10,000 grain- 
 measures. 1000 grain-measures of this solu- 
 tion contain -(^th of an equivalent in grains 
 (12-7 grains) of iodine, and therefore corre- 
 
 spond to 1'7 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 3-2 grains of sulphurous acid, and 4-95 grains 
 of arsenlous acid. 
 
 Grammes and cubic centimetres may be 
 employed instead of grains and grain-measures, 
 but for convenience -njth of the numbers 
 should be taken. 100 cubic centimfetres con- 
 tain 1-27 grammes of iodine, and correspond to 
 0'17 grammes of sulphuretted hydrogen, 0-32 
 grammes of sulphurous, and 0-495 grammes of 
 arsenlous acid. This solution Is for testing 
 the following substances. It is dropped fi-om 
 the burette into the liquid to be tested, until 
 free iodine begins to appear in the solution. 
 
TEST SOLUTIONS 
 
 1645 
 
 Britiili Weights and Meosurei, 
 
 I ' -* 1 
 
 Grains weight of ^ Grain-meHBtires 
 auljitancB. of vol- sol. 
 
 Metrical Weights and Measures. 
 
 Acid, ar^cnioa . , , 40 
 
 „ aulphurosum . . 34i'7 = 
 
 Liquor arsenicalia . . 441-5 = 
 
 „ arseuici hydro- "1 ^., , 
 
 chloricuB . / ^^'^ 
 
 VOLUMETBIO SOLUTIOK OP NiTEATB OP 
 SavKB(nitrate of silver, AgO, NO5 = 170, or 
 AgH0,» = 17O). 
 
 'i'alit! of nitrate of silver . 170 grains. 
 
 Distilled water ... a euHiciency. 
 
 Put tbe nitrate of silver into the 10,000 
 gmin flask, and having filled half the flask 
 with water, allow the salt to dissolve ; then 
 dilute the solution with more water until it 
 has the exact bulk of 10,000 grain-measures. 
 
 The solution should be kept in an opaque 
 
 British Weights and Measures. 
 
 808 
 1000 
 
 808 
 
 810 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 Grams weight of 
 
 
 C.C. of vol. 
 
 Bubstiinre. 
 
 
 sol. 
 
 0-40 
 
 = 
 
 80-8 
 
 3-47 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 44'li 
 
 = 
 
 80-8 
 
 44-15 
 
 810 
 
 stoppered bottle. 1000 grain-measures of 
 this solution contain jLth of an equivalent 
 in grains of nitrate of silver (or 1-70 grains). 
 Grammes and cubic centimetres may be em- 
 ployed instead of grains and grain-measures, 
 but for convenience -^th of the numbers 
 should be taken. 100 cubic centimetres con- 
 t-tiin I'^th of an equivalent in grammes of 
 nitrate of silver (or 1-7 grammes). 
 
 It is used in testing the following snb- 
 stances. 
 
 Metricul '^^'eights and Messures. 
 
 Gruins weight of ^^ Grain-measures 
 suljstance. of vol. sol. 
 
 Acid, hydrocynn. . 270 ■ = 1000 
 
 Potass, hromid. . . 10 •= 840 
 
 Sodffl arsenias (dry) . 10 = 1613 
 
 VOLCMETBIO SOLUTIOir OF OxALIO AOID 
 (crystallised oxalic acid, 2H0, C4Hj-(-4H0 = 
 126, or H,C5042HsO = 126). Take of — 
 I'uritied oxiilic acid inl 
 ci'ystiils, quite dry, but 1-630 gruins, 
 not effloresced . . J 
 Distilled water . . a sufficiency. 
 Put the oxalic acid into the 10,000 grain 
 flask, fill the fliii-k to about two thirds »f its 
 bulk with water, allow the acid to dissolve, 
 and then dilute the solution with more water 
 until it has the exact volume of 10,000 
 grain-measures. 1000 grain-measures of 
 
 British Weights and Measures. 
 
 Grams weight of 
 substance. 
 
 270 
 10 
 10 
 
 C. C. of vol. 
 sol. 
 
 100-0 
 
 840 
 
 161-3 
 
 this solution contain half an equivalent in 
 grains (63 gr.) of oxilio acid, and are there- 
 fore capable of neutralising an equivalent in 
 grains of an alkali or alkaline carbonate. 
 Grammes and cubic ceutiuj^tres may be em- 
 ployed instead of grains and grain-measures, 
 but for convenience ^^jth of the numbers 
 should be taken. 100 cubic centimetres con- 
 tain ^'ijth of an equivalent in grammes (6-3 
 grammes) of oxalic acid, and will neutralise 
 y^th of an equivalent in grammes of an alkali. 
 i'lie folluwing substances are tested with this 
 solution : 
 
 Metrical Weights and Measures. 
 
 
 r- 
 
 
 \ 
 
 ux- 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grains weight of 
 
 
 Grain-measures 
 
 
 Grams » eight of 
 
 
 C.C. of vol. 
 
 
 8u))Stance. 
 
 — 
 
 of vol. sol. 
 
 
 substance. 
 
 
 sol. 
 
 Ammonise carb. 
 
 . 690 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 or 
 
 5-90 
 
 =: 
 
 1000 
 
 lloriix . . • 
 
 . 1910 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 »i 
 
 1910 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 Liq. ammon. 
 
 . 85-0 
 
 ^ 
 
 500 
 
 
 8-50 
 
 = 
 
 500 
 
 „ „ fort. 
 
 . 52-3 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 »» 
 
 5-23 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 „ calcis 
 
 . 43800 
 
 = 
 
 200 
 
 *> 
 
 438-00 
 
 = 
 
 20-0 
 
 „ „ sacchar . 
 
 . 460-2 
 
 = 
 
 254 
 
 n 
 
 4602 
 
 = 
 
 25-4 
 
 „ plumbi subacet. 
 
 . 413-3 
 
 = 
 
 810 
 
 ,, 
 
 41-33 
 
 = 
 
 81-0 
 
 „ potussai 
 
 . 462-9 
 
 = 
 
 4h3 
 
 „ 
 
 46-29 
 
 = 
 
 48-2 
 
 „ „ efferves. 
 
 . 4380-0 
 
 = 
 
 150 
 
 *j 
 
 438-00 
 
 = 
 
 15-0 
 
 „ sodiB . 
 
 . 4580 
 
 = 
 
 470 
 
 »* 
 
 45-80 
 
 = 
 
 470 
 
 „ efFerves. . 
 
 . 4380 
 
 = 
 
 178 
 
 » 
 
 43800 
 
 = 
 
 17-8 
 
 Plumbi acetas . 
 
 . 380 
 
 = 
 
 200 
 
 If 
 
 3-80 
 
 = 
 
 20-0 
 
 Potassa caustica 
 
 . 56-0 
 
 =: 
 
 900 
 
 
 5-60 
 
 = 
 
 90-0 
 
 Potassas bicarb. 
 
 . 500 
 
 s= 
 
 500 
 
 » 
 
 5-00 
 
 = 
 
 500 
 
 „ carb. . 
 
 . 83-0 
 
 =, 
 
 980 
 
 
 8-30 
 
 = 
 
 98-0 
 
 citras . 
 
 . 1020 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 ,j 
 
 10-20 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 „ tartras . 
 
 . 1130 
 
 =i 
 
 1000 
 
 M 
 
 11-30 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 » „ acida 
 
 . 1880 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 W 
 
 18-80 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 Soda caustica . 
 
 . 400 
 
 = 
 
 900 
 
 » 
 
 4-00 
 
 = 
 
 900 
 
 „ turturata . 
 
 . 141-0 
 
 — 
 
 1000 
 
 »» 
 
 14-10 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 Soda) bicarb. , , 
 
 . 840 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 » 
 
 8-40 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 „ carb. . 
 
 . 143-0 
 
 = 
 
 960 
 
 
 1430 
 
 = 
 
 96-0 
 
1646 
 
 TETANUS-THALLIUM 
 
 VoiirMBTMC SoiuTioN OP SoDA (hydrate 
 of soda, NaO, HO=40, or NaH0 = 40). 
 Take of eolution of soda a sufficiency. 
 Distilled water ... a sufficiency. 
 
 Fill a burette with the solution of soda, and 
 cautiously drop this into 63 gr. of purified 
 oxalic acid, dissolved in about 2 oz. of water, 
 uutil the acid is exactly neutralised as indi- 
 cated by litmus. 
 
 Note the number of grain-measures (n) of 
 
 the solution used, and having then introduced 
 
 9000 grain-measures of the solution of soda in 
 
 a graduated jar, augment this quantity by the 
 
 addition of water until it becomes 
 
 9000 X 1000 
 
 grain-measures = 
 
 If, for example, « = 930, the 9000 grain- 
 measures should be augmented to 
 
 British Weiglits and MeasureB. 
 
 9000 X 1000 
 930 
 
 9,677 grain-measures. 
 
 One thousand grain-measures of this solution 
 contain one equivalent in grains (40 gr.) of 
 hydrate of soda, and will therefore neutralise 
 one equivalent in grains of any monobasic 
 acid 
 
 Grammes and cubic centimetres may be 
 employed, instead of grains and grain-mea- 
 sures ; but for convenience -j^jth of the num- 
 bers should be taken. 1000 cubic centimetres 
 contain -Jgth of an equivalent in grammes (4 
 grammes) of hydrate of soda, and will neutra- 
 lise ^th of an equivalent in grammes of an 
 acid. 
 
 This solution is nsed for testing the fol- 
 lowing substances : 
 
 Metrical Weights and Measures. 
 
 
 
 Grains weight of 
 
 
 ■ • — , or 
 Grain-measures 
 
 Grams weight of 
 
 
 C. U. of vol. 
 
 
 
 
 substance. 
 
 
 of vol. sol. 
 
 substance. 
 
 ~ 
 
 sol. 
 
 Acetum . 
 
 
 
 445-4 
 
 := 
 
 402 or 
 
 44-54 
 
 = 
 
 40-2 
 
 Acid. acet. 
 
 
 
 1820 
 
 =s 
 
 1000 
 
 18-20 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 » ). dil. . 
 
 
 
 440-0 
 
 =: 
 
 313 
 
 44-40 
 
 = 
 
 31-3 
 
 „ _„ glac. 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 = 
 
 990 
 
 6-00 
 
 = 
 
 99-0 
 
 „ citric 
 
 
 
 70-0 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 7-00 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 „ hydrochloric 
 
 
 
 114-8 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 14-48 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 » » 
 
 dii. 
 
 
 345-0 
 
 =: 
 
 1000 
 
 34-50 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 „ nitric 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 9-00 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 „ „ dil. 
 
 
 
 361-3 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 36-13 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 „ nitro-hydroehlor. 
 
 dil.* 
 
 352-4 
 
 = 
 
 920 
 
 35-24 
 
 = 
 
 92-0 
 
 ,, sulph. 
 
 , 
 
 
 50-6 
 
 =3 
 
 1000 
 
 506 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 „ „ arom. 
 
 , 
 
 
 304-2 
 
 = 
 
 830 
 
 30-42 
 
 = 
 
 830 
 
 „ „ dil. 
 
 , 
 
 
 3590 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 35-90 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 „ tart. . 
 
 • 
 
 
 75-0 
 
 = 
 
 1000 
 
 7-50 
 
 = 
 
 100-0 
 
 TE'TANUS. Spasm with rigidity. When 
 it affects tlie under jaw, it is called teismub, 
 or locked-jaw ; when the body is drawn back- 
 ward by the contraction of the muscles, it is 
 called OPISTHOTONOS ; when the body is bent 
 forward, empeosthotonos ; and when the 
 body is drawn to one side, pletjeosthotonos. 
 
 The cause of tetanus, iu temperate climates, 
 is generally irritation of the nerves, arising 
 from local injuries, especially punctured or 
 lacerated wounds. Of these the most trivial 
 are occasionally sufficient to produce locked- 
 jaw. In hot climates the disease is occasionally 
 produced by exposure to cold, or by suddenly 
 suppressed perspiration. The last variety is 
 curable ; the former one scarcely ever so. The 
 proper treatment is a matter still undeter- 
 mined. Sedatives, antispasmodics, and power- 
 ful stimulants, have each had their advocates. 
 Large doses of wine and spirits, in conjunction 
 with opium, have occasionally been adminis- 
 tered with success. Electricity and the vapour 
 bath have also proved useful. In all cases tlie 
 bowels should be moved by active aperients, 
 either by the mouth or per anum. Dr 
 Shrimpton ' reiwmmends the Chinese mode 
 of treating tetanus, which is as follows : — 
 From four to five grains of solid opium are 
 1 ' Lancet,' Hi71i vol. ii, page 647. 
 
 mixed with tea-leaves, or dried roses, and 
 carefully beaten together with molas>es. The 
 patient smokes this mixture, und endeavours 
 to draw the smoke into the lungs, leaving off 
 when the narcotic effects are produced. These 
 last generally from three to four hours. The 
 sume operation should be repeated whenever 
 there are any signs of returning spasms. 
 
 TET'TEES. The popular name of several 
 cutaneous diseases, the treatment of which 
 can only be properly undertaken by the expe- 
 rienced medical man. 
 
 THAL'LIUM. Tl. [Eng.,L.] Aheavy metal, 
 belonging to the mercury, silver, and lead 
 group, discovered by Crookes in the early part 
 of 1861, and displayed by him as " a new me- 
 tallic element" at the opening of the Inter- 
 national Exhibition, on the 1st of May, 1862. 
 Thallinm is a widely-diffused metal, being 
 found in many minerals, particularly iu iron- 
 and copper-pyrites and native sulphirr. It 
 has recently been obtained in comparatively 
 large quantities from the dust of the flues 
 leading to sulphuric acid chambers. The 
 spectrum of thallium consists of a single 
 most characteristic line of a beautiful green 
 colour. The spectrum produced when the 
 metal is burnt in the electric arc is, however. 
 
THALLOGENS- THETXE 
 
 1647 
 
 irnre complirated, mid eonsints of several 
 green, blae, and other lines 
 
 TluilUuia melts at 550° Fahr., and at n 
 le« heat may be readily welded, a property 
 that has hitherto been regarded ns peculiar 
 to iron and platinum. Its Bpcciftc gravity 
 varieD from 11'8 to 11'9, according to the mode 
 of preparation. When freshly cut it lias a 
 dull wliite colonr, destitute of the brilliancy 
 of polished silver. Exposed to the air, it tar- 
 nishes rapidly, a straw-coloured oxide making 
 its appearance on the surface. The oxide is 
 alkaline and caustic to the taste, and much 
 more soluble than the oxides of silver and 
 lend. The metal is remarkable for Its strongly 
 marked diamagnetic characters, resembling 
 bismuth in this respect. The alloys of thal- 
 lium are very remarkable. Copper, alloyed 
 with only one half per cent, of thallium, be- 
 comes quite brittle; but the alloy with tin is 
 malleable. Mr Crookes has prepared a great 
 number of the salts of this interesting metal. 
 These need not be described here, as they 
 have not yet bocn applied to any use in the 
 arts. See Sulphcbio acid. 
 
 THALLOQENS. Thallogens or Thalloge- 
 nous plants arc structurally tho simplest of 
 the acotyledonous, or flowerless plants, con- 
 sisting simply of a collection of cellular tissue, 
 culled a thalltu. They are entirely destitute 
 of woody fibre. The Alga, Characece, Fungi, 
 aud Lichens are thallogonous plants. 
 
 THEBA'INE. CjaHjiNOj. Sgn. Thebaia, 
 Paramohfhia. a crystalline substance ob- 
 tained by Thibourm^ry from an infusion of 
 opium that has had its morphia extracted by 
 acting on it by an excess of lime. 
 
 THE'INE. CgHioN^aj. Si/n. Theina. An 
 alkaloid extracted from tea. It is identical with 
 caffeine, and may be obtained from tea in the 
 rnme manner as that substance is from coffee, 
 Tlie best ' gunpowder tea ' contains fully 6^ 
 of tbeine, about one half of which is lost in 
 the present careless mode of making infusion 
 ol tea for the table. 
 
 Mr Lewis Tiiompson, M.B.C.S., in a contri- 
 bution to the 'Medical Times and Gazette' 
 for 1871, directs attention to the value of 
 theine as a therapeutic agent, as well as gives 
 an easy method for its preparation. He writes 
 as follow(s:— "I wish to direct the attention 
 of the medical profession to a valuable agent 
 which has hitherto escaped notice, although 
 its powers are most unquestionable, and its 
 cost price very trivial. The article to which 
 I allude is theine, a substance existing in tea 
 and coffee, and, as I believe, in many other 
 vegetable products. 
 
 " As a medicine, theine is powerfully tonic 
 and stimulant, and appears to possess the 
 tonic virtues of the disulpbate of quinia 
 united to the stimulating power of wine, but 
 with this difference, that the stimulus from 
 theine is not followed by depression, as in the 
 case of wine and alcohol. 
 
 " Tbeine seems to act chiefly on the great 
 
 fympatbetic or ganglionic »\ stem of nerves, 
 and but slightly on the brain. I have used it 
 :n doses of from 1 to 5 grams, with very 
 marked advantage, in the low stage of typhoid 
 fevers, confluent smallpox, and that form of 
 mortificati<in of the toes which is so singularly 
 fatal to old people. But, in addition to this, 
 different medical friends of mine have found 
 it useful in bemicrania, neuralgia, and what 
 has been called relapsing fever; and in the 
 case of an overdose of opium, it appeared to 
 relieve the narcotic symptoms speedily. 
 
 " With regard to the cost of this medicine, 
 I have discovered that in the ordinary process 
 of roasting coffee, the whole of the theine is 
 driven off before the torrefaction of the coffee 
 is completed; and thus theine may be cheaply 
 collected by making the axis of the coff. e 
 roaster tubular. If, instead of a solid axis, we 
 employ at one end of the roasters a tube 
 passing away to the distance of about three 
 feet, the theine is condensed in this tube by 
 the refrigerating power of the atmosphere, 
 and may afterwards be easily dissolved out by 
 a little water, and purified in the manner 
 about to bo indicated. 
 
 " As the result of much experience, I have 
 obtained on an average, 75 grains of theine 
 from the roasting of 1 lb. of raw coffee; and 
 when wo reflect that in Great Britain alone, 
 there are more than 13,000 tons of coffee 
 roasted annually, we see that about 140 tons 
 of theine are wasted and lost every year by 
 sheer ignorance. It may, perhaps, be thooght 
 that the saving of the theine will damage the 
 flavour of the coffee, but from experience I 
 know that it has no such effect; iiiiil, in point 
 of fact, it is an advantage to tlie flavour of the 
 coffee to make both the iixes of the roaster 
 tubular, and to cause a gentle current of air to 
 pass through the apparatus during the roast- 
 ing of the coffee, so as to expel the enipyrcu- 
 matic products that are formed. 1 will now 
 relate the fact upon which the purification of 
 tbeine depend;*, and when this is once clearly 
 uuderstood, the manuiacture of theine from 
 either tea or coffee becomes an extremely 
 simple matter. Theine is absolutely insoluble 
 in a concentrated solution of tlie carbonate of 
 potash, and thus we may precipitate it from 
 its admixture with sugar, mucilage, and vcfre- 
 table extract. If, then, by means of the suIju- 
 cetate of lead, we have removed from a vege- 
 table infusion the tannin, malic acid, &c., we 
 have only to evaporate the filtered solution to 
 a small bulk, and add to it its own weight of 
 dry carbonate of potash, and the whole of the 
 theine becomes at once insoluble ; so that 
 having collected this insoluble product, and 
 boiled it in rectified spirits of wine, we have a 
 solution of pure theine, which, after distilling 
 off the spirit, furnishes crystals fit for imme- 
 diate use. In conclusion, I will merely men- 
 tion a distinctive t«st for theine, sufficiently 
 delicate to detect the one thousandth of a 
 grain of that substance. Dissolve the theine 
 
1648 
 
 THENARD'S BLUE— THKOAT AFFECTIONS 
 
 in a small quantitj of water, ftnd pass through 
 this a stream of eiichlorine, then allow the 
 fluid to evaporate at a steam heat; a blood- 
 coloured substance will remain, which, on the 
 application of a few drops of cold water, forms 
 a beautiful scarlet solution like red ink. It is, I 
 apprehend, almost unnecessary for me to say 
 that euchlorine gas is formed by the action 
 of hydrochloricaclduponthechlorate of potash. 
 
 " I ought, perhaps, to add that theine col- 
 lected as a waste product of coifee, and 
 puriRed by myself, has cost me less than 
 threepence per ounce troy." 
 
 THENAKD'S BLUE. See Uiteamabiite 
 (Cobaltic). 
 
 XHEOBEOMiB OLEUM. Si/n. Cacao but- 
 ter. A concrete oil, obtained by expression 
 and heat from the ground seeds of Theobroma 
 Cacao. Occurs in cakes of a yellowish colour, 
 of a pleasant cacao odour. Does not become 
 rancid from exposure to air. Contained in all 
 the suppositories. 
 
 Not official. — The following form good 
 bases for suppositories: — Theobroma oil, when 
 melted, begins to solidity at 72° Fahr.; stearine 
 of cocoa-nut oil at 75° Fahr. ; 4 of stearine and 
 2 of mutton fat at 77° Fahr. ; 4 of stearine 
 and 1 spermaceti at 80° Fahr. Stearine alone 
 is, perhaps, a better substance than cacao 
 butter for making suppositories. It begins 
 to solidify at 78° Fabr., but there is stearine 
 that solidifies at 120° Fahr. ; this will not 
 answer for suppositories. 
 
 THEOBEO'MINE. A peculiar principle, 
 closely resembling caffeine or tlieine, found by 
 Woskresensky in the seed of the Theobroma 
 Cacao, or the nuts from which chocolate is 
 prepared. Its form is that of a light, white, 
 crystalline powder, whicli is rather less soluble 
 than caffeine. It is obtained like caffeine. 
 See Cocoa. 
 
 THESI'ACA. A name given in ancient 
 pharmacy to various compound medicines, 
 chiefly electuaries or confections, employed as 
 antidotes to poisons or infection. The Thk- 
 EIACA Andbomachi, Ph. L. 1746, contained 
 above 60 ingredients. Mitlnidate and 
 Venice treacle are examples of this class. 
 See Treacle. 
 
 THEEMOM'ETEES. Faheenheit's scale 
 is the one generally employed in England. 
 , while that of CELSirs, or the Centiokaue 
 scale, is principally used on the Continent. 
 Rbaumue's is another scale occasionally em- 
 ployed. De Lislb's thermometer was for- 
 merly used in Russia, and some other parts of 
 the north of Europe. As references to these 
 scales are frequently met with in books, it is 
 useful to know their relative value, and the 
 method of reducing the one to the other. The 
 boiling point of water is indicated by 212° 
 on Fahrenheit's scale, 100° on the Centigrade 
 scale, 80° on that of Reaumur, and 0° on that 
 of De Lisle; the freezing point of water 
 marks 32° Fahrenheit, and 0°, or zero, on the 
 Centigrade and Reaumur, and 150° on the scale 
 
 of De Lisle. The 0°, or zero of Fahrenheit, is 
 32° below the freezing point of water. 
 
 1. To reduce Centigrade degrees to those 
 
 of Fahrenheit, multiply them by 9, divide the 
 
 product by 5, and to the quotient add 32; 
 
 that is — 
 
 Cent.° X 9 „„ ^ ^ „ 
 
 — s -f 32= Fahr .° 
 
 a 
 
 2. To reduce Fahrenheit's degrees to Cen- 
 tigrade : 
 
 Fahr.°-32x5 
 q = Cent. 
 
 3. To reduce Reaumur's to Fahrenheit's : 
 
 Reau." X 9 „ , „ 
 
 J— -H32 = Fahr.° 
 
 4 
 
 4. To convert Fahrenheit's to Reaumur's : — 
 
 Fahr.°-32x4 
 
 9 
 
 -= Reaumur." 
 
 Thermometers intended to register extreme 
 degrees of heat are called pyeometees (which 
 see) 
 
 THIBANT'S BAISAM. Foe wounds. Di- 
 gest flowers of St John's wort, one handful 
 in J pint of rectified spirit; then express the 
 liquor, and dissolve in it myrrh, aloes, and 
 dragon's blood, of each 1 dr., with Canada 
 balsam, i oz. 
 
 THO'KIUM. Th. St/n. Thoeincm. A 
 very rare element, belonging to the group of 
 earthy metals. Metallic base of thoria. It is 
 obtained by the action of potassium on the 
 chloride of thorium, and washing the resulting 
 mass in water. 
 
 THOEN-APPLE. See Datuba. 
 
 THEOAT AFFECTIONS. We intend here 
 only to allude to those arising from exposure 
 or cold. The list is, therefore, » short one. 
 Cbouf, one of the most important, has been 
 already briefly noticed. 
 
 Quinsy, or inpiammatoey sobe theoat, 
 commonly commences with stiffness and pain 
 on one side of the throat, and swelling of the 
 tonsils, attended by febrile symptoms, which 
 increase as tumefaction advances, and some- 
 times become extreme. There is great rest- 
 lessness and anxiety, considerable difficulty in 
 swallowing even liquids, the respiration is 
 painful and laborious, and the speech ob- 
 structed. When the inflammation is not re- 
 solved, these symptoms rapidly increase in se- 
 verity, the patient suffers the greatest misery, 
 the tumour suppurates rapidly, the abscess 
 bursts, and with the rupture comes almost 
 immediate relief. It occasionally happens that 
 the other side of the throat then becomes af- 
 fected, and goes through the same stages ; but 
 in general this is not the case, and the patient 
 rapidly recovers, a few detergent gargles and 
 a light nutritious diet being all that is required. 
 Sometimes, at the very commencement of the 
 attack, the inflammation may be resolved by 
 the patient sucking a lozenge or powder, every 
 hour or two, containing J or i grain of tarta- 
 rised antimony carefully triturated with about 
 
THRUSH— THYMOL 
 
 1649 
 
 20 gr. of lump suf^ar, lo as to keep up a con- 
 stanl itnto of UHUseii or vomiting for hours. 
 
 M ALIGN ANT BOBB THBOAT U marked b; 
 the inflnmmatioii of the ton>ils being more 
 saperficial ; but no sooner does it occur than 
 it passes into small ulcers of varied colours 
 and appearance, extending to the pharynx, 
 and spreading over tho whole fauces into the 
 nostrils, and even around the glottis and 
 down tho oesophagus. These ulcers rapidly 
 slough, and tlie febrile symptoms of n typlioid 
 character, which are present throughout, be- 
 come more or less severe. In this way the 
 disease often hastens to a fatal terminatinn, 
 and, being highly contagions, often extends 
 itself to all, or nearly all, tlie members of a 
 lamily. The treatment must be similar to thut 
 adoptcil for typhus fever. Stimulating gargles, 
 containing capsicum, the mineral acids, or port 
 wine, are useful local remedies. See Diph- 
 
 THEBIA. 
 
 THRUSH. Sya. Aphtha, L. A disease 
 of infancy, which, in its common form, is 
 marked by small white ulcers upon the tongue, 
 palate, and gumg. In some cases it extends 
 through the whole course of the alimentary 
 canal, and, assuming a malignant form, proves 
 fatal. The treatment consists of a gentle 
 emetic of ipeciicuanha wine, followed by an 
 occasional dose of rhubarb and magnesia, to 
 keep tlie bowels clear, and to arrest diarrhoea. 
 The ulcerations may be touched with a little 
 honey or borax ; and if they assume a dark 
 colour, or there be much debility, astringents 
 and tonics should be had recourse to. In all 
 cases the diet should be light, but supporting, 
 as imperfect nutrition is a common cause of 
 the disease. 
 
 In Animals. Topical applications of alum 
 or borax, glycerine, Condy's fluid; laxatives. 
 The food should be cooling and dij?estible. 
 
 THYMOL. Syn. TnVMic ACID, C,„Hi40. This 
 substance is the oxygenated constituent of the 
 essential oils of thyme ( Thymus vulgaris), horse 
 mint [Monarda punctata), and {Ptychotis ajo- 
 trail) a common umbelliferous plant growing 
 in India. Thymol is isomeric with eymiiic 
 alcohol, and homologous with phenyl. 
 
 Thymol may be procured from either of 
 tho above sources by treatment with caustic 
 potash or soda, as described below, or by sub- 
 mitting the essential oils to alow temperature 
 for some days. When prepared by the first 
 process thymol occurs as an oily fluid ; and 
 when by the second, as a crystalline solid. 
 
 The following are the details of the prepa- 
 ration of the liquid variety of thymol as 
 given by tlie Paris Pharmaceutical Society in 
 tlicir formuIiB for new remedies published in 
 1877 :— 
 
 " Treat essential oil of thyme with an equal 
 volume of an aqueous solution of potash or 
 soda, and shake several times to facilitate 
 combination. The thymol dissolves, forming 
 > soluble compound, whilst the thymene, a 
 carbide of hydrogen, that accompanies it in the 
 VOL. II I 
 
 essence, does not combine with the alkali and 
 separates. Filter the solution obtained and 
 treat with an acid — hydrochloric aciil,for ex- 
 ample—which sets free the thymol. The pro- 
 duct should be purified by washing, dried, and 
 distilled. Thymol wns obtained in fine tubu- 
 lar crystals by Fliickiger and Hanbury, who 
 exposed oil of ajowan to a temperature of 
 0°C. ; the oil so treated yielJel 35 per cent. 
 of its weight of crystallised thymol. Mr 
 Gerravd says it is stated that oil of thyme 
 yields as much as 50 per cent. 
 
 " As found in commerce, thymol consists of 
 irregular broken crystals, nearly transparent 
 and colourless; the taste is burning and aro- 
 matic, sp. gr. 1028, but lighter than water 
 when fused; its melting point is about 41° C. 
 When once completely fu-^ed and aliened to 
 cool to the ordinary temperature, it will main- 
 tain itself in the fluid condition for several 
 days, hut the contact of a crystal will at once 
 cause it to crystallise. It is freely soluble 
 in alc(jhnl, ether, chluroforin, henzol, ciirbon, 
 bisulphide, fats and oils, and but spariii:.'ly in 
 water and glycerin. The alkaline hydrates 
 of potash and soda are powerful solvents of 
 thymol; ammonia dissolves it but sparingly. 
 
 " The potash and soda solutions are spoken of 
 by some authors as chemical combinations ; 
 but the following test will demonstrate them 
 otherwise. When shaken with ether the thy- 
 mol can be entirely removed, and obtained as 
 a neutral volatile residue." 
 
 With sulphuric acid thymol forms crys- 
 tallisable colugated acid, the thymol sul- 
 phuric having the formula HCmHisSO,. Un- 
 diluted thymol is an energetic caustic. Accord- 
 ing to Bucholz, thymol possesses ten times 
 the septic power of carboic acid, over which 
 it also has the advantage of being non-poison- 
 ous, and of giving otf an agreeable odour. 
 Although considerably dearer than carbolic 
 acid, the much smaller quantity required to 
 produce an equivalent effect nearly eqmiHses it 
 in point of cost. It is s^iiil to have been success- 
 fully employed in the antiseptic treatment of 
 wounds in destroying the foetor arising from 
 ulcerated surfaces and carious bones ; in the 
 form of spray during surgical applications, as 
 well as for certain throat affiections, and as an 
 ointment and lotion in psoriasis and other skin 
 diseases. When thymol is to be used for lotions, 
 injections, inhalations, or spray solutitms, the 
 Paris Pharmaceutical Society recommends 1 
 pai t of thymol to be dissolved in 4 parts of 
 alcohol at 90°, and this to be added to 995 
 parts of distilled water. 
 
 Dr Crocker, of University College Hospital, 
 strongly recommends thymol lotion to be pre- 
 pared with glycerin, which, he says, obviates 
 the drying effect upon the skin produced by 
 aqueous or spirituous solutions of the thymol 
 alone. According to Mr Gerrard, this lotion 
 is prepared by dissolving 1 part of thymol in 
 
 ' "Thvmol and its Phnimncy," by A. W. Geirard, 
 FC S.. 'til. Journ.,' vol. viii, Srd aeries, 646. 
 
 104 
 
1650 
 
 TIC DOULOUREUX— TIN 
 
 120 parts of glycerin, anil reducing by water 
 to 600 parts. Dr Symes says lie finds milli to 
 be an excellent solvent for thymol, of which; 
 it will take up readily to nearly 10 per cent, 
 of its weight. In cases, therefore, in which 
 solutions are required of greater strength than 
 aqueous ones, he recommends the employment 
 of the fluid. 
 
 An ointment varying in strength from 1 to 
 5 parts of thymol to 100 of lard, is said by 
 Mr Gerrard to be employed in our hospitals. 
 In the preparation of this ointment, it is of 
 importance to first dissolve the thymol in a 
 few drops of spirits, and then to mix it with 
 the lard. The neglect of this precaution causes 
 the undissolved particles of thymol present in 
 the ointment to act as a caustic irritant on the 
 skin, and to eat little holes in it. Mr Gerrard 
 found vaseline an unsuitable and objectionable 
 vehicle for the application of thymol, since, 
 after a few days, an ointment prepared with 
 it had its surface covered with minute crys- 
 tals of thymol. 
 
 The ' Medical Times ' contains the following 
 formula for the preparation of thymol gauze 
 for dressing wounds : — " Bleached gauze, 1000 
 parts ; spermaceti, 500; resin, 50 ; thymol, 16 
 parts." This is said to yield an extremely soft 
 and pliant preparation, excellently adapted for 
 wounds, fittingaccurately to them, and absorb- 
 ing at the same time the blood and secretions 
 from them likea sponge woulddo. Dr Rankehas 
 pointed out that, in consequence of the great 
 reduction in the amount of secretion from 
 wounds caused by the use of thymol, the 
 consequent consumption of bandages becomes 
 so much less as to more than compensate for 
 the great difference in price between thymol 
 and carbolic acid. 
 
 Another advantage possessed by thymol 
 over carbolic acid is that the redness, vesica- 
 tion, and eczema, frequently induced when 
 dressings of the latter agent are used, 
 does not follow the application of thymol 
 dressings. 
 
 Mr Squire prepares an antiseptic adhesive 
 plaster, containing 1 part of thymol to a 
 1000 of plaster. 
 
 Mr Gerrard in operating upon nine different 
 samples of commercial oil of thyme (so-called 
 oil of origanum) by means both of caustic soda 
 and refrigeration, states, that except in one 
 doubtful case, he was unable to obtain the 
 slightest trace of thymol. From this circum- 
 stance Mr Gerrard infers that thymol is not 
 present in the English oils of thyme of com- 
 merce, from which it must have been removed 
 in the countries where it is produced, the 
 residual cymene and thymene being sent us as 
 an oil of thyme. 
 
 Large quantities of thymol are prepared in 
 Germany, principally from the seeds of the 
 Ptycliotis ajowan. One firm of chemical 
 manufacturers residing in Leipzig is re- 
 T>orted to have sent out during the months of 
 September and November last year more than 
 
 a ton of it. Thymol wadding is also in ex- 
 tensive demand. 
 
 TIC DOULODEEUX'. [Fr.] According to 
 a writer in one of the medical periodicals, a 
 solution of atropia, 2 gr., in wati'r, 1 fl. dr., to 
 which nitric acid, 1 drop (minim), has been 
 previously added, applied as a paint, by means 
 of a camel-hair pencil, to the part of the face 
 over the spot affected, immediately and com- 
 pletely subdues the pain, or, at all events, 
 within 3 to 5 minutes, in all accidental cases, 
 and affords considerable relief in others. The 
 application is to be continued until some relief 
 is experienced. The solution, being very 
 poisonous, must not be taken internally, nor 
 applied to the skin when broken. See Ateo- 
 PIA and Nbuealgia. 
 
 TIN. Sn. Syn. STANlfUM(Ph. E. & D.), 
 L. This metal has been known from the most 
 remote antiquity, being mentioned in the 
 books of Moses (Numb, xxxi, 22), and by Homer 
 (' Iliad,' X, 25), and other early writers. The 
 ancients obtained it principally, if not solely, 
 from Cornwall. The Phoenicians traded with 
 England for this metal at least 1000 years 
 before the birth of Christ. 
 
 Tin occurs in nature in the state of oxide, 
 and, more rarely, as sulphide (tin pyrites). 
 In Cornwall it is found under the form of 
 peroxide (mine-tiit, tin-btoke), associated 
 with copper ore, in the slate and granite rocks, 
 and as an alluvial deposit (sieeam-tin) in the 
 beds of rivers. 
 
 Prep., <^e. The ore is first reduced to 
 powder in stamping-mills, washed to remove 
 earthy matter, and then roasted to expel ar- 
 senic and sulphur ; it is next deoxidised or 
 reduced by smelting it with about l-6th of 
 its weight of powdered culm, and a little slaked 
 lime; it is, lastly, refined by 'liquation,' fol- 
 lowed by a second smelting of the purer por- 
 tion, which, after being treated in a state of 
 fusion, for some time with billets of green wood, 
 or ' tossed,' as the workmen call it, is allowed 
 to settle, and is then cast into large blocks, 
 which, after being assayed, receive the stamp 
 of the duchy. Two varieties of commercial 
 tin are known, called respectively graintin and 
 bar tin. The first is the best, and is prepared 
 from the stream ore. 
 
 Prop. Tin approaches silver in whiteness 
 and lustre; in hardness it is intermediate 
 between gold and lead ; it is very malleable 
 when pure, but the presence of a very email 
 quantity of any other metal, particularly lead, 
 deprives it of this property ; when rubbed it 
 evolves a peculiar odour, and when bent back- 
 wards and forwards it emits a peculiar crack- 
 ling noise; it melts at 442° Fahr.; volatilises 
 at a white heat ; and when heated above its 
 melting-point, with free access of air, is 
 speedily converted into a yellowish -white 
 powder, which is the peroxide, or the ' putty 
 powder' of polishers. Sp. gr. 729 to 7-31. 
 
 Pur. It is almost entirely dissolved by 
 hydrochloric acid, yielding a colourless solu- 
 
TIN 
 
 1651 
 
 tion ; thi! prccipitiite thrown down by hydrate 
 cif potasaium is wbit«. und soluble In excess of 
 the priapitant. If it contain arsenic, brown- 
 ish-black flocks will be aepuratcd during the 
 solution, and arseniurettcd hydrogen evolved, 
 which may be inflamed and ti'sted in the usual 
 manner. The presence of other metals in tin 
 may be detected by treating the hydrochloric 
 Folntion with nitric acid, ap. gr, 1-16, first in 
 thu cold, and afterwards with lieat, until all 
 the tin is thrown down in the state of insoluble 
 stannic oxide. The decanted acid solution 
 from pure tin leaves no residuum on evapora- 
 tion. If, after all the acid has been dissipated 
 liy heat, dilution with water occasion a heavy 
 nliite precipitate, tlie sample contained bis- 
 muth J if, after dilution, a solution of sulphate 
 of ammonium or of sodium produce a similar 
 white precipitiite (sulphate of lead), it con- 
 tained lead ; if ammonia, added in excess, 
 occasion reddi8h-brownflocks,or if ferricyanide 
 of potassium give a blue precipitate, it con- 
 tained iron ; and, if the clear supernatant 
 liquid leave a residuum on evaporation, 
 copper. 
 
 Tetls. The stannous salts are characterised 
 as follows : — 1. Hydrate of potassium gives a 
 bulky white precipitate, readily soluble in 
 excess of the precipitant; on concentrating the 
 solution, the precipitate is changed from htan- 
 U0U9 hydrate into stannic hydrate, which 
 remains in solution, and metallic tin, which 
 separates in brown flakes. — 2. Ammonia, and 
 the carbonates of potas>ium, sodium, and am- 
 monium, give white precipitates, insoluble in 
 excess.— 3. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in 
 neutral and aeid solutions, a dark brown pre- 
 cipitate, which is soluble in hydrate of potas- 
 sium, in the alkaline sulpliides (especially 
 when they contain an excess of sulphur), and in 
 strong hot hydrochloric acid ; and insoluble in 
 nitric acid, even when boiling. — 4. Sulphide 
 of araniouiura produces a like brown precipi- 
 tate, soluble in excess of the precipitant, pro- 
 vided the latter contains an excess of sulphur. 
 — 5. Terchloride of gold gives, in the cold, on 
 the addition of a little nitric acid, a precipitate 
 of the purple of Cassius. — 6. Mercuric chloride 
 gives a black precipitate, but in excess it pro- 
 duces a white one. 
 
 Stannous Chloride. SnClj. Si/n. Pno- 
 
 TOCHLOBIDE OP TIN. Prep. (AnHYDHOUS.) 
 Distil a mixture of tin and mercuric chloride. 
 Grey, resin-like, solid, fusible, and volatile. 
 
 (Hidrated; Tin salt.) Boil an excess of 
 tin in hydrochloric acid, A powerful deoxidis- 
 ing as-'ent. It is somewhat extensively used 
 as a mordant in dyeing. 
 
 Stannoas Hydrate. Sn(H0)2. St/n. Ht- 
 DBATKD OXIDE OP TIN. Prep. Precipitate 
 stannous chloride with carbonate of potassium, 
 well wash, and dry under 196°. Greyish-white 
 powder, soluble in acids and alkaline hydrates, 
 except ammonia. 
 
 Stannoas Iodide. Snij. Si/n. Peotiodide 
 op TIM. Heat tin and iodine together. A 
 
 fusible brownish-red, translucent substance, 
 soluble in water. 
 
 Stannous Oxide. SnO. Si/n. Peotoxidb op 
 TIN. Prrp. Ignite the hydrate in an atniospherr- 
 of carbonic anhydride. BUck ponder, inflam- 
 mable in ar, and insoluble in acids. 
 
 Stannous Sulphide. SnS. .Syn. Pboto- 
 stJLPHiDB OP TIN. A brittle bluish-grey sub- 
 stance, obtained by heating tin and sulphur. 
 
 The stannous salts behave with reagents as 
 follows : — 1. Hydr.ite of potassium, ammonia 
 and alkaline carbonates, give a white precipi- 
 tate, which is freely soluble in an excess of 
 hydrate of potassium and in acids, sparingly 
 soluble in excess of ammonia, only very slightly 
 soluble in excess of carbonate of potHssium, 
 and insoluble in excess of carbonate of am- 
 monium. — 2. Sulphuretted hydrogen gives, in 
 acid neutral solutions, a golden-yellow pre- 
 cipitate, either at imce or on heating the liquid, 
 which is readily soluble in pure hydrate of 
 potassium, the alkaline sulphides, and boiling 
 hydrochloric acid; less soluble in ammonia, 
 and insoluble in nitric acid. — 3. A plate of 
 metallic zinc throws down nietillic tin, under 
 the form of grey scales or a sponi:y mass, from 
 solutions free from nitric acid ; and from those 
 containing trie nitric acid, white stannic 
 hydrate. — 4. Mermric chloride gives a white 
 precipitate. — 5. Fcrrncynuide of potassium 
 gives no precipitate at flrst, but after a time 
 the whole forms a thick jelly. 
 
 Assay. Each grain of srannic oxide (see 
 above), after being washed and gently ignited, 
 is equivalent to '78365 gr. of pure tin. The 
 loss of weiglit represents the impurities. Each 
 gr. of sulphate of lead, so treated, is equiv. to 
 683 gr. of metallic lead (nearly). 
 
 Uses. The uses of tin in the arts are well 
 known. In mediiine, 1 to 3 dr. of the fil- 
 ings or powder, made into an electuary with 
 treacle, are sometimes given in tapewinm, for 
 2 or 3 successive mornings, followed by an 
 aperient. 
 
 Stannic Chloride. SnCl^. Sj/n. Bicmo- 
 EIDE OP tin, TbTHOCHLOEIDE op TIN, Pee- 
 CHLOHIDB OP TIN. PeEMUBIATE OF T.f; 
 StANNI BICHLOKIDtIM, STANNI PEEMUEIAg, 
 
 L. Fiej). 1. (Liebig.) By dissolving grain 
 tin in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, 2 parts; 
 nitric acid and water, of each 1 part (all by 
 volume) J observing to add the tin by degree^, 
 and to allow one portion to dissolve before 
 adding another, as without this precaution the 
 action is apt to become violent, and stannic 
 oxide of tin to be depo^ited. 
 
 2. (Anhtdeous; Libatifs'S fuming li- 
 QUOE.) By heating stannous chloride in chlo- 
 rine gas; or, by distiUing a mixture of pow- 
 dered tin, 1 part, with corrosive sublimate, 3 
 parts (5 parts— Fownes). A very volatile, 
 colourless, mobile liquid, which fumes in the 
 air, and boils at 248° Fahr. ; when mixed with 
 l-3rd of its weight of water, it solidifies to a 
 crystalline mass. 
 
 Obs. Solution of stannic chloride is much 
 
1652 
 
 TIN FILINGS— TIN-PLATE 
 
 used by dyers, under the names of ' SPIEITB 
 
 OE TIN,' ' DYEES' Sl'IBITS,' ' TIN MOBDANT,' 
 
 &o.,the proportions of the ingredients and the 
 state of dilution being various, according to 
 circumstances or the caprice of the manu- 
 facturer. A process, which has been liighly 
 recommended, and which seems preferable to 
 all others, is to prepare a simple solution of 
 the stannous chloride, and to convert it into a 
 solution of the stannic chloi-ide, either by the 
 addition of nitric acid and a gentle heat, or by 
 passing chlorine through it. See Tin mob- 
 
 DANTS. 
 
 Stannic Hydrate. Sn(H0)4. Syn. Hydeated 
 
 PEEOXIDE OF TIN, SlANNIO ACID. Prep. 
 
 By - adding hydrate of potassium or an 
 alkaline carbonate to a solution of stanuic 
 chloride. Soluble in acids and pure alkalies. 
 Its compound with the latter are sometimes 
 called STANNATES. 
 
 Stannic Iodide. Snl^.v By dissolving stan- 
 nic hydrate in hydriodic teid. Yellow, silky 
 crystals. 
 
 Stannic Oxide. SnOj. Syn. Binoxide of 
 TIN, Peeoxideoftin. Frep. By the action 
 of nitric acid on metallic tin, the resulting 
 white powder being well washed with water ; 
 or, by heating metallic tin above its melting- 
 point, in the air. Yellow j anhydrous ; in- 
 soluble. 
 
 Obs. Fr^my has given the name of Metas- 
 tannio acid to the oxide prepared by the 
 action of nitric acid on metallic tin ; the 
 hydrate he calls STANNIC ACID. See Polish- 
 ers' putty. 
 
 Stannic Sulphide. SiiSj. Syn. Bisitlphide of 
 TIN, Bbonzb powdeb, Mosaic gold ; Aueum 
 MusiTUM, Aueum mosaicum, Stanni bisul- 
 PHUEETUM, L. Frep. 1. To pure tin, 12 oz., 
 melted by a gentle heat, add of mercury, 6 02. ; 
 to the powdered mass, when cold, add of chlo- 
 ride of ammonium, 6 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, 
 7 oz ; and after thorough admixture place 
 the compound in a glass flask or matrass, and 
 gradually heat it, imbedded in sand, to low 
 redness, and continue the heat for several 
 hours, or until white fumes cease to be disen- 
 gaged ; the ' aurum musivum' remains at tlie 
 bottom of the vessel, under the form of soft 
 and very brilliant gold-coloured flakes. 
 
 2. (Berzelius.) Stannic oxide and sulphur, 
 of each 2 -parts ; chloride of ammonium, 1 
 part; mix, and expose it to a low red heat, in 
 a gla?s or earthenware retort, until sulphurous 
 fumes cease to be evolved. 
 
 Used as a metallic gold colour, or substitute 
 for powdered gold, in bronzes, varnish work, 
 sealing-wax, &c. 
 
 TIN FI'LINGS. See Tin powdee {below). 
 
 TINFOIL, Lead in. Tinfoil very rarely con- 
 sists of pure tin ; generally it contains more 
 or less lead. According to the recent analysis 
 of August Vogel, who has examined a, great 
 number of samples from very different sources, 
 it contains from 1 to 19 per cent, of lead. 
 There are, however, specimens of tinfoil which 
 
 contain so little lead that it hardly gives a 
 reaction with the appropriate tests. 
 
 Since tinfoil is so much used for covering 
 articles of diet, or of confectionery, or of 
 perfumery, it was a matter of some interest to 
 determine whether or not there was any 
 danger of transference of lead from the 
 wrapper to the contents. A number of experi- 
 ments upon soap, chocolate, and different 
 kinds of dry sugar, which bad been enveloped 
 in tinfoil very highly charged with lead, 
 showed that there was no contamination with 
 lead. Cheese, on the other hand, on account 
 of its being moist, and being closely in con- 
 tact with the foil, did take up lead. 
 
 Of course the lactic acid of the cheese would 
 also favour the taking up of the metal. A 
 point worthy of being recorded in connection 
 with this matter is the rapid diminution of 
 the lead toward the centre of the cheese. 
 Often plenty of lead was found in the rind, 
 and none a little way in the cheese.' 
 
 TIN GLASSf. See Bismuth. 
 
 TIN mOE'DANTS. Syn. Dtebs' Spieit, 
 Solution op tin, Spieit of t., Niteomit- 
 itiATE OF T.+ These, as noticed above, vary 
 greatly in their composition and character. 
 
 Frep. 1. Take of aquafortis, 8 parts; sal 
 ammoniac or common salt, 1 part ; dissolve, 
 and add, veiy gradually, of grain tin, 1 part; 
 and, when dissolved, preserve it in stoppered 
 bottles from the air. This is the common 
 ' SPIEIT OF TIN ' of the dyers. 
 
 2. (Berthollet.) Nitric acid, at 30° Baume, 
 8 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part; dissolve, then 
 add by degrees, of tin, 1 part ; and when dis- 
 solved, dilute the solution with l-4th of its 
 weight of water. 
 
 3. (Dambonrney.) Hydrochloric acid, at 
 17° Baume, 4 parts ; nitric acid, at 30° Baume, 
 1 part; mix, and add by degrees, of Molucca' 
 tin, 1 part. 
 
 4. (Hellot.) Nitric acid and water, of each 
 
 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; nitre, i oz. ; dis- 
 solve, then add, by degrees, of granulated tin, 
 
 2 oz. 
 
 5. (Poerner.) Nitric acid an^ water, of 
 each 1 lb.; sal ammoniac, 1^ oz. ; dissolve, 
 then add, by very slow degrees, of pure tin 
 beaten into ribands, 2 oz. 
 
 6. (Schoefler.) Nitric acid and water, of 
 each 2 lbs. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; pure tin, 4^ 
 oz. ; as last. All the above are used chiefly for 
 dyeingscarlet,more particularly with cochineal. 
 
 7. (lac spieit.) From grain tin, 1 lb., 
 slowly dissolved in hydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 
 1'19), 20 lbs. Recommended as a solvent for 
 lac dye. For use, J to 1 lb. of the liquid is 
 digested on each lb. of the dye for 5 or 6 houi^, 
 before adding it to the dye bath. 
 
 8. Hydrochloric acid, 6| lbs. ; aquafortis, 
 i lb. ; grain tin, gradually added, 1 lb. Ee- 
 commended for lac dye. 
 
 TIN-PLATE. Iron-plate covered with a 
 
 ' * Kepertoriuni fiir Pharmacie,' Vpn Buchnee. 
 
TIN POWDER— TINCTURE 
 
 1653 
 
 routing of tin, by dipping it into n bath of that 
 metal. 
 
 TIH POWDEE. St/n. Tin filings. Tin 
 DC8T; Stanm pdlvis (Ph. E 4 D.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Melt t,'r.iin tin in an iron 
 vessel, poar it into an eartheuwurc mortar 
 heated a little above ita melting-poiut, and 
 triturate briskly as the metal cuols ; lastly, 
 sift (he priiduct, and repeat the process with 
 what remains in the sieve. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Melt grain-tin in a black-lead 
 crneible, and, whilst it is cooling, stir it with 
 a rod of iron until it is reduced to powder ; 
 let the finer particles be separated by means 
 of a sieve, and when, after having been several 
 times in succession shaken with distilled water, 
 till' decanted liquor appears quite clear, let 
 the product be dried for use. 
 
 Ob», Powdered tin is also prepaved by 
 filing and rasping. — Dose, 2 to 4 dr., as a 
 vermifuge. Polishers' puitv, coloured with 
 ivory black, is frequently substituti'd for this 
 powder, and heiico arises the ill effects that 
 sometimes follow its use. 
 
 TIN'NING. Proe. 1. Plates or vessels of 
 brass or copper, boiled with a solution ot 
 etannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of 
 tin, become, in the course of a few minutes, 
 covered with « fii miy attached layer of pure tin. 
 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling 
 the articles with tin filings and caustic iilkali 
 or cream of tartar. 
 
 Obi. By either of the above methods chemi- 
 cal vessels made of copper or brass may he 
 easily and perfectly tinned. 
 
 8. The following method for tinning coppir, 
 bras", and iron in the cold, and without appa- 
 nitus, is by F. Stolba.' 
 
 The requisites for accomplishing this object 
 nre : — 1st. The object to be coated with tin 
 must be entirely free from oxide. It must be 
 carefully cleaned and care be taken that no 
 grease spots are leftj it makes no difference 
 whether the object be cleaned mechanically 
 or chemically. 2nd. Zinc powder; the best is 
 that prepaied artificially by melting zinc, and 
 pouring it into an iron mortar. It can be 
 easily pulverised immediately after solidifica- 
 tion ; it should be about as tine as writing 
 sand. 3i d. A solution of protochloride of tin 
 containing 5 or 10 per cent., to which as 
 much pulverised cream of tartar must be 
 added as will go on to the point of a knife. 
 The objeit to be tinned is moistened wit;h the 
 tinned solution, after which it is rubbed hard 
 with the zinc powder. The tinning appears at 
 once. The tin-salt is decomposed by the zinc, 
 metallic tin being deposited. When the ob- 
 ject tinned is polished brass or copper, it 
 appears as beautiful as if silvered, and retains 
 its lustre for a long time. 4th. (C. Paul.)' 
 The zinc or iron articles are immersed in a 
 niiitnre of 1 part sulphuric or nitric acid with 
 10 parts of water ; a soluticm of copper sul- 
 
 ' ' Tlic Pharmaci«t.' iv, 86. 
 
 • Diiigl, Poljt. J , ccviii, 47—49, ' Journ. Cliem. Soc' 
 
 phate or acetate is then slowly added. After 
 the dep'isition of a thin hiver of copper, the 
 articles nre removed, washed, moistened with 
 a solution of 1 part 'tin crystals,' in 2 parts 
 water and 2 parts hydrochloric acid, and then 
 shaken up with a mixture of fine chalk and 
 copper. Ammonium sulphate, which is pre- 
 pared by dissolving 1 part of copper sulphate 
 in 16 parts of water, and a<lding ammonia 
 until a clear dark blue liquid is obtained. 
 
 The articles may now be tinned by immer- 
 sion in a solution of 1 part of tin crystals with 
 3 parts white argol in water. Brass, copper, 
 or nickel goods, also iron and zinc articles 
 which have been copper-plated, may be silvered 
 by treatment (after thorough cleansin-), with 
 a solution of 14 grams silver in 26 grams of 
 nitric acid, to which is added a solution of 
 120 grams of potassium cyanide in 1 litre 
 water, and also 28 grams of finely powdered 
 ehalk. 
 
 TINS, To Clean. All kinds of tins, moulds, 
 measures, &i., may be cleaned by being well 
 rubbed with a |iiisto made of whiting and 
 water. Ihey should tlien be rubbed with a 
 leather, and any dust retnainiu^ on them 
 should be removed by means of a soft brush. 
 Finally, they must be polished with another 
 leather. Always let the inside of any vessel 
 be cleaned first, since in cleanina; the inside 
 the outside always becomes soiled. For very 
 dirty or jrro;isy tins, grated bath-brick and 
 water must be used. 
 
 TINCTURE. Svn. TiNCTtiiiA. L. ; Tein- 
 TtTHE, Fr. Tinctures (TiNCTUEa; ; aloooles, 
 ALCOOLATUEEs) are solutions of the active 
 principles of bodies, obtiiued by digesting 
 them in alcohol more or less dilute. Ethe- 
 
 BEALTINCTDnES(TINOTUE.E .ETHKUEJE ; ETHfi- 
 
 I10LE9, ELII^BOLATUBES) are similar solutious 
 prepared with ether. 
 
 Prep. " Tinctures are usually prepared by 
 reducing the solid ingredients to small frag- 
 ments, coarse powder, or fine powder, maee- 
 ratinij: them for 7 day", or longer, in proof 
 spirit or rectified spirit, straining the solution 
 through linen or calico (or paper), and finally 
 expressing the residuum strongly, to obtain 
 what fiuid is still retained in the mass. They 
 are also advantageously prepared by the method 
 of displacement or percolation." (Ph. E.) 
 "All tinctures should be prepared in closed 
 glass (or stoneware) vessels, and be shaken 
 frequently during the process of maceration." 
 (Ph. L.) Cooper's patent jars are very con- 
 venient for the preparation of tinctures, as 
 they are made with wide mouths large enough 
 to admit the hand, and yet may be closed in an 
 instant, with as much ease and certainty as an 
 ordinary stoppered bottle. 
 
 Tinctures are better clarified by repose than 
 by filtniti.in, as in the latter case a considerable 
 portion is retained by the filtering medium, 
 and lost by evaporation. The waste in this 
 way is never less than lOg of spirit. In all 
 ordinary cases, it is sufficient to allow the 
 
1654 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 tincture to settle for a few days, and then to 
 pour off the clear supernatant portion through 
 a funnel loosely choked with a piece of spong-e 
 or tow ; after which the remaining foul por- 
 tion of the liquid may be filtered through 
 bibulous paper in a covered funnel. The fil- 
 tration should he conducted as rapidly as 
 possible, for the double purpose of lessening 
 the amount lost by evaporation and the action 
 of the air on the fluid. Tinctures which have 
 been long exposed to the air frequently lose 
 their transparency within a few days after 
 being filtered, owing to the oxidisement and 
 precipitation of some portion of the matter 
 previously held in solution, a change which 
 occurs even in stoppered bottles. Kesinous 
 and oily tinctures, as those of myrrh, tolu, and 
 lavender (comp.), may be generally restored to 
 their former brightness by the addition of a 
 quantity of rectified spirit, equal to that which 
 they have lost by evaporation ; but many tinc- 
 tures resist this mode of treatment, and require 
 refiltering. 
 
 Ethereal tinctures are best prepared by per- 
 colation, and should be both made and kept in 
 stoppered bottles. 
 
 Mr Umney says : — It must always be remem- 
 bered that the quantity of spirit required to 
 make the measure of tinctures to a given bulk, 
 will only be strictly uniform, in so far as the 
 operators proceed under precisely the same 
 circumstances. 
 
 No causes will be found to influence results 
 more than the manufacture of tinctures upon 
 a small, as compared with a large, scale, and 
 the use of the screw as compared with the 
 hydraulic press, in the final removal of the 
 spirit from the marc ; even the temperature 
 of summer and winter may cause a variation 
 in the results. 
 
 QuaL The tinctures of the shops are usually 
 very uncertain and inferior preparations, 
 owing to their manufacture being carelessly 
 conducted, and refuse drugs and an insufficient 
 quantity of spirit being employed in their pro- 
 duction. It is a general practice among the 
 druggists to sul)stitute a mixture of eq\ial 
 parts of rectified spirit and water, or a spirit of 
 about 26 u. p., for proof spirit ; and a mixture 
 of 2 galls, of water with 5 galls, of rectified 
 spirit, for rectified spirit. In some wholesale 
 drug-houses all the simple tinctures (except 
 those that are of a very active or valuable 
 kind, as Laudanum, for instance) are made 
 with 1 lb. of the dry ingredient to the gall, of 
 spirit, irrespective of the instructions in the 
 Pharmacopoiia. Appearance is the object which 
 is alone aimed at, without reference to quality. 
 If the tincture be perfectly transparent, and 
 has a good colour, the conscience of the seller 
 and the stomach of the consumer are alike 
 satisfied. 
 
 Assay. 1. The EIOHNESS in AIOOHOI may be 
 readily determined by Brando's method of al- 
 coholometry ; but more accurately by the me- 
 thod of M. Gay-Lussac (see Alooholometbx). 
 
 That of tinctures containing simple extractive, 
 saccharine, or like organic matter, in solution, 
 may be approximately found from the boiling- 
 point, or from the temperature of the vapour 
 of the boiling liquid. 
 
 2. 'I'he QUASTITT of SOHD M ATTEE per cent, 
 may be ascertained by evaporating to dryness 
 100 grains-measure, in a weighed capsule, by 
 the heat of boiling water. 
 
 3. The QUANTITY of the ingeediekts used 
 in the preparation of tinctures may be inferred 
 from the weight last found, reference being 
 had to the known per-centage of extract 
 which the substances employed yield to spirit 
 of the strength under examination. When 
 the ingredients contain alkaloids, or consist of 
 saline or mineral matter, an assay may be made 
 for them. 
 
 Uses, (^c. Tinctures, from the quantity of 
 alcohol which they contain, are necessarily 
 administered in small doses, unless in cases 
 where stimulants are indicated. The most 
 important and useful of them are those that 
 contain very active ingredients, such as the 
 tincture of opium, foxglove, hemlock, 
 henbane, &c. In many instances the solvent, 
 even in doses of a few fluid drachms, acts 
 more powerfully on the living system than 
 the principles it holds in solution ; and, when 
 continued for some time, produces the same 
 deleterious effects as the habitual use of 
 ardent spirits. When the action of a sub- 
 stance is the reverse of stimulant, it cannot 
 "ith propriety he exhibited in this form, 
 unless the dose he so small that the operation 
 of the spirit cannot be taken into account, 
 as with the narcotic tinctures. Hence, this 
 class of remedies are in less frequent use than 
 formerly. 
 
 The following list embraces all the formulae 
 of the tineturse of the London, Edinburgh, 
 Dublin, and British Pharmacopoeias, with a 
 few others likely to be useful to the reader. 
 These will furnish examples for the prepara- 
 tion of others in less general use, care being 
 had to proportionate the ingredients with due 
 reference to the proper or usual dose of tinc- 
 tures of that class. 
 
 Tincture of Ac'etate of I'ron. Spn. Tinc- 
 
 TUBA PEKKI ACETATIS (B. P., Ph. D.), L. 
 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Solution of persulphate of 
 iron, 5 ; acetate of potash, 4 ; rectified spirit, 
 q. s. J dissolve the acetate of potash in 20 of 
 water and add 16 of spirit to the solution of 
 iron ; mix the two liquids, and shake well 
 occasionally for an hour, then filter, and add 
 to the filtered liquid sufficient rectified spirit 
 to make up 40. — Dose, 5 to 30 minims. 
 
 2, (Ph. D.) To water, 9 fl. oz., add of pure 
 sulphuric acid, 6 fi. dr. ; and in the mixture, 
 with the aid of a gentle heat, dissolve sul- 
 phate of iron, 8 oz. ; next add of pure nitric 
 acid, i fl. oz., previously diluted with water, 
 1 fl. oz., and evaporate the resulting solution 
 to the consistence of a thick syrup ; dissolve 
 this in rectified spirit, 1 quart ; also dissolve 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1655 
 
 of acetate of potasli, 8 oz., in another quart 
 of reciilu'il spirit; and having thoroughly 
 mixed the solotioiis, by frequent agitation in 
 a liirge bottle, filter the whole, with expres- 
 sion, lirAt through calico, and then through 
 paper. 8p. gr. '891. — Dote, 15 to 60 drops, 
 in water, in the same cases as in the other 
 chalybeates. 
 
 Tincture of Acetate of Zinc. Syn. Ttirc- 
 TCEA ZINCI ACKTATIS, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 
 1826.) Acetate of potash and sulphate of 
 zinc, of each 1 oz. ; rub them together, then 
 add of rectified spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 
 u week, and filter. Astringent. Diluted with 
 Hater, it is used a'< a collyrium and injection. 
 
 Tincture of Ac'onite. Si/n. Tinctitba 
 
 ACONITI (Ph. L.), TlNOT. ACONITI EADI0I8 
 (B. p., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pow- 
 dered root, 1 ; rectified spirit to percolate, 8 ; 
 mHcerato t'ur 48 hours with three fourths of 
 the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a 
 percolator and let it drain, then pour on the 
 remaining spirit ; when it ceases to drop, press 
 the mure and add spirit to make up 8. — base, 
 5 to 15 minims, twice or thrice a day. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Take of aconite root, coarsely 
 powdered, 15 oz. (20 oz. — Ph. D.) ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart i macerate for 7 days, press, and 
 Biter. 
 
 Obt. These tinctures differ materially in 
 strength.— i)o«e. Of the Ph. L., 5 to 10 
 drops; of the Ph. D,, 3 to 6 drops, two or 
 three times daily (carefully watching its 
 effects); in rheumatism, gout, syphilis, &c., 
 where a narcotic sedative is indicated. Diluted 
 with water, it forms an excellent embrocation 
 in rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. It should be 
 applied by means of a small sponge, tied to 
 the end of » stick or glass rod. The Ph. D. 
 formula is nearly the same as that for Dr 
 TornbuU's concentrated tincture of aconite 
 root, and that given by Dr Pertii'a. The 
 TraOTDBA ACONITI rOHOEUM of the Ph. U. S. 
 is made with 1 oz. of the dried leiivcs to 8 fl. 
 oz. of rectified spirit. 
 
 Tincture of Aconite, Ethereal. Syn. Tinc- 
 
 TORA ACONITI .KTHEEEA. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 
 Powdered aconite, 4 oz. ; sulphuric ether, 16 
 oz. (by weight). It is best prepared by perco- 
 lation. 
 Tinctare of Ailanthus Bark. Syn. TiNC- 
 
 TUKA AILANTIII COETICIS. Prep. Take of 
 ailanthus hark, bruised, li oz. ; proof spirit, 
 1 pint ; macerate for seven days in a closed 
 vpssel with occasional agitation, then strain, 
 press, filter, and add sufficient spirit to make 
 1 pint. — Dote. From J to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Al'oes. Syn. Tinctuea aloes 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Socotrine aloes, 1 ; extract of liquorice, 3 ; 
 proof spirit, 40 ; macerate seven days, press, 
 and wash the marc with spirit to make 40. — 
 Dow, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Socotrine or hepatic aloes, 
 coarsely powdered, 1 oz. ; extract of liquorice, 
 Soz.; water, li pint; rectified spirit, \ pint; 
 
 macenite for 7 days, and filter. The formula 
 of the Ph. E. is nearly similar. Purgative 
 and stomachic. — Dote, i to fi. oz. 
 
 Tincture of Aloes, Alkaline. Syn. TiNC- 
 TOEA ALOES ALKALiNA. (Swediaur.) Prep. 
 Aloes, i oz. ; extract of liquorice, l\ dr. ; 
 cinnamon water, 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 8 oz. ; 
 carbonate of soda, 1 oz. Digest, and strain. 
 — Dote, 1 dr. to 4 dr. 
 
 Tincture of AIoe» (Compound). Syn. TiNC- 
 
 TUEE OP ALOES AND MTBBII ; TlNCTURA 
 ALOBS COMPOSITA (I'h. L), TlNCTUEA ALOES 
 ET MYEBH£ (Ph. E.), ElIXIB ALOEBf, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L. & E.) Socotrine or hepatic 
 aloes, coarsely powdered, 4 oz. ; hay saffron, 
 2oz. ; tincture of myrrh, l(iuuiti macerate 
 for 7 days, with oii;v<ion:il ii;,ntation, and 
 strain. The Dublin College (1826) omits the 
 saffron. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From aloes, 1 lb.; myrrh, 
 ° lb.; hay saffron, 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 5 
 pints; water, 3 pints ; as the last. Purgative, 
 stomachic, and emmeniigogue. — Dose, J to 2 
 fl. dr. 
 
 Tinctnrs of Amber. Syn. Tiitotuba sue 
 ciNi. (P. Cod.) Prep. Amber, in line powder, 
 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 6 oz. Digest for 6 days 
 and filter. — Dote, 20 to 30 drops. 
 
 Tincture of Amber, Alkaline. Syn. TtNC- 
 
 TttEA SCCCINI ALKALINA. (Ph. E. 17U.) 
 
 Pr'ep. Kiib 2 oz. of amber with a sufljcieut 
 quantity of carbonate of potash to form ii suCt 
 paste; dry this, and digest it in 16 oz. of 
 rectified spirit for 8 days. 
 
 Tincture of Ambergris. Syn. Tinctuea 
 AMBEEGEI8E.K. (P. Cod.) Prep. Ambergris, 
 1 piirt; rectified spirit, 10 parts. Miicerate 
 10 days. 
 
 Tincture of Ainmo"nia (Componnd.) Syn. 
 
 TiNCTOBA A1IM0NI.E COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), L. 
 
 Pri-p. 1. (Ph. L.) Mastic, 2 dr.; rectified 
 spirit, 9 fl. dr.; digest until dissolved, de- 
 cant, add, of oil of lavender, 14 drops ; 
 stronger solution of ammonia, 1 pint ; and 
 mix well. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836; Aqua itrci.s ; Eau db 
 LUCE.) As the hist, but adding 4 drops of oil 
 of amber along with the oil of lavender. 
 
 Obt. This preparation is reputed antacid, 
 nntispiismodic, and stimulant. — Dose, 10 to 
 20 drops, in water; in hysteria, low spirits, 
 &c. In the East Indies, eau de luce is re- 
 garded almost as a specific for the bite of 
 the cobra di eapello and other venomous 
 reptiles. 
 
 Tincture of Ammo"nia-clilo"ride of I'ron. 
 
 Syn. AMMONIATED TINCTOItE OF lEON, Myn- 
 
 sioht's a. t. OF I. ; Tinctuea feeri ammo- 
 Nio-CHLOHiDi (Ph. L.). Tinctuea peebi am- 
 MONIATI, L. Prep. (Ph. L.) Ammonio-chlo- 
 ride of iron, 4 oz. ; proof spirit and distilled 
 water, of each 1 pint; dissolve. — Dote, 20 
 to 60 drops, or more; as a stimulant, chaly- 
 beate tonic. " A fl. oz. of this, on potassa 
 being added, yields 58 gr. of sesquioxide of 
 iron." (Ph. L.) 
 
1656 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 Tincture of Ammoniacum. Syn. Tinctuka 
 GDMMI AMMONIACI. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Gum ammoniacum, 4 oz. ; rectiKed spirit, 
 20 oz. (by weight). Digest 10 days, and 
 strain. 
 
 Tincture of Angelica. Syn. Tinctcea AN- 
 GEiiCA. (Aust. Ph.) Frep. Dried angelica 
 root, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 6 oz. Digest, and 
 filter. — Dose, 1 dr. 
 
 Tincture of Angustu'ra. Tincture of cus- 
 paria. 
 
 Tincture, Antiscorlautic. Syn. Tinctuea 
 
 ANTISCOEBUTICA, TiNOTtTEA AEMOEAOOE 
 
 C0MP03IIA. (P. Cod.) Frep. Fresh horse- 
 radish root, 8 oz. ; black mustard seed, 4 oz. ; 
 muriate of ammonia, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 
 oz. (by weight) ; compound spirit of scurvy 
 grass, 16 oz. (I>y weight). Macerate 10 days. 
 
 Tincture of Ants. Syn. Tinoiuka foemi- 
 CAEUM. (Ph. G.) Frep. Ants recently col- 
 lected, cleaned, and braised, 2 oz.; rectified 
 spirit, 3 oz. (by weight). Digest 8 days. 
 
 Tincture of Ar'uica. Syn. Tinctoea ae- 
 Nic^, T. A. FLOEUM, L. Frep. (Ph. Bor. 
 aud Hamb. Cod.) Flowers of .4»-»8co montana, 
 li oz. ; spirit, sp. gr. "900 (15^ 0. p.), 1 lb. ; 
 digest fur 8 days, and strain, with expression. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 drops j in diarrhcea, dysen- 
 tery, gout, rheuma'isin, paralysis &c. 
 
 Tincture of Arnica Boot. Syn. Tikoixtea 
 
 AENICE (B. P.), TlHCTUEA AENICJE EADICIS, 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised root, 1 ; recti- 
 fied spirit to percolate, 20; macerate foriy- 
 eight hours with 15 of the spirit, agitating 
 occasionally; pack in a percolator, and, when 
 it ceases td drop, pour on the remaining spirit, 
 let it drain, wusli the marc, press, tilter, and 
 make up to 20 — Dose, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. From arnica root, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 pint; as the last. 
 
 Tincture, Aromatic. Syn Tikotuea aeo- 
 HATICA. (G. Ph.) Frep. Cinnamon, 4 oz. ; 
 cardamoms, 1 oz. ; cloves, 1 oz. ; galangal 
 root, 1 oz. ; ginger, 1 oz. ; all in coarse pow- 
 der; proof .-pirit, 3 lbs. 2 oz. (by weight). 
 Macerate 8 days, and strain. 
 
 Tincture, Aiomafic. Compound tincture of 
 cinnamon. 
 
 Tincture of Artichoke. Syn. Tinctuea 
 CTNAE^. Frep, Fresh artichoke leaves, 
 bruised, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit, 1 lb. Digest 
 tor 7 days, express and filter. 
 
 Tincture of Assafoetida. Syn. Tincujea 
 ASSAFOsrina; (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (B. P.) Assat'cetida (small fragments), 1 ; rec- 
 tified spirit, 8 ; macerate seven days, strain, 
 filter, and add spirit to make 8. — Dose, \ dr. 
 to 1 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Assafoetida (small), 5 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 
 days — Ph. D ), and filter. "It cannot be 
 made by percolation with delay." (Ph. E.) 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Assafoetida, 2^ lbs. ; boiling 
 wHter, 2 quarts; dissolve, add of rectified 
 spirit, li gall. ; agitate well for 3 or 4 days, 
 then let it settle, and decant the clear por- 
 
 tion. — Dose, J to 2 fl. dr. ; in hysteria, flatu- 
 lent colic, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Assafcetida (Ammo"niated). See 
 Fetid Spieit of Ammonia. 
 
 Tinctnre of Assafoetida, Ethereal. Syn. 
 Tinctuea assaf(etid« etheeea. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Assafoetida, 1 part; alcoholised ether, 
 5 parts (by weight). Macerate for 10 days. 
 The ether is made by mixing equal weights of 
 ether and rectified spirit. 
 
 Tincture, Asthiuat'ic. Compound tincture 
 of camphor. 
 
 Tincture, Astringent. Syn. Tinctuba A8- 
 TEiNGENa. (Dr Copland.) Frep. Catechu, 
 i oz. ; myrrh, ^ oz. ; Peruvian bark, 2 dr. ; 
 balsam of Peru, li dr. ; spirit of horseradi-ib. 
 It oz. ; rectified spirit, li oz. Digest. For 
 sponginess of the gums. 
 
 Tincture, Balsamic. Syn. Tii'CTUEA bal- 
 SAMIOA. (P. E. 1744.) Prep. Copaiba, 1 oz. ; 
 balsam of Peru, 3 dr.; balsam of Tolu, 2 dr-. ; 
 bunzoin, i dr. ; saffron, 1 scruple ; rect. spirit, 
 16 oz. ; digest 4 days in a sand bath, and 
 strain. 
 
 Tincture, Balsam of Copaiba. Syn. Tinc- 
 tuea BALSAMi coPAiB.ffi. (Guibourt.) Prep. 
 One part of copaiba to 8 of alcohol. Digest 
 and filter. 
 
 Tincture of Balsam of Gilead. Syn. Tinc- 
 tuea BAISAMI QiLEADENSis. (Guiboiirt.) Prep. 
 One part of balsam to 8 of rectified spirit. 
 
 Tincture of Bal'sam of Peru. Syn. Tinc- 
 tuea BALSAMI Peeuviani, L. Frep. (Ph. L. 
 178S.) B.ilsam of Peru, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 16 H. oz. ; dissolve. Pectoral, stimulant, and 
 fragrant. — Dose, 10 to 30 drops. 
 
 Tincture of Balsam of Tolu. Tincture of 
 Tolu. 
 
 Tincture of Bark. Tincture of cinchona. 
 
 Tincture of Belladon'na. Syn. Tinctuea 
 BELLADONNA (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), L. Frep. 
 1. (B. P.) The dried leaves in coarse powder, 
 1; proof spirit, 20; macerate forty-eight 
 hours in 15 of the spirit, agitating occasion- 
 ally ; pack in a percolator, and when it ceases 
 to drop, add the remaining spirit, let it drain, 
 wash and press the marc ; filter and make 
 up 20. — Dose, f [om 5 to 20 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of balladonna, 4 
 oz. (5 oz. in coarse powder — Ph. D.l; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 — 
 Ph. D.), press, and filter 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From the dried leaves, 1 lb. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 gall. ; macerate 14 days. — Dose, 
 
 5 to 10 drops, gradually increased; also ex- 
 ternally, diluted with water. 
 
 Tincture of Benzoin. Syn. Tinctuea bbn- 
 zoiNi. (Ph. G.) Frep. Benzoin, 2 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest for 8 
 days, frequently shaking; then filter. 
 
 Tincture of Ben'zoin (Compound.) Syn. 
 Feiae's balsam, Teaumatic b.. Balsam fob 
 cuts, Commandke's balsam, Vektain's b.. 
 Wound b., Jesuits' deops. Wade's d.; 
 Tinctuea benzoini compostta (B P., Ph. L. 
 
 6 E.), TiNCT. BENZOES COMP., BaLSAMUM 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 165? 
 
 TRATTMlTlorM, L. Prep. 1. (B. p.) Benzoin, 
 8 ; prepared storat, 6 ; bnlsnni of Tcilii, 2 ; 
 •oootrine aloes, 1^; rectiHed spirit, 80; ma- 
 cerate seven days, filter, and wash the marc 
 wilh spirit to make up 80. — Do»e, i to 1 dr., 
 triturated with mucilage or yollc of egg. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Gum benzoin, coarsely pow- 
 dered, 3t oz. j prepared storax, 2\; balsam of 
 Tola, 10 dr. ; Socotrine or hepatic aloes, iu 
 coarse powder, 5 dr. j rectified spirit, 1 quart ; 
 macerate, with frequent agitation, for 7 days, 
 and strain. 
 
 3. (I'h. E.) Benzoin, 4 oz. ; balsam of 
 Pern, 2k oz. ; East Indian (hepatic) aloes, 
 J 02. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart. 
 
 04*. Either of the above formulas produces 
 a most beautiful tincture, truly balsamic. Tlie 
 following is, however, very generally employed 
 by the wholesale druggists, and the product, 
 though possessing a very rich colour, is thin 
 and watery. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) From gum benzoin, 4 lbs. ; 
 aloes (lively coloured), li lb. ; liquid storax, 
 1 lb. ; balsam of Tolu, i lb. ; powdered tur- 
 meric (best), 9 oz. J rectified spirit, 5i galls. ; 
 digest with Irequent agitation for 10 days, 
 then add of hot water, X\ gall., again dige-t 
 for i days, and, after 24 hours' repose, decant 
 the clear portion. 
 
 Voae, 10 drops to 2 fl. dr. ; as a stimulating 
 expectorant, in chronic coughs, and various 
 breath affections. It is also employed to stop 
 the bleeding from cuts, &c., and promote 
 their healing. 
 
 Tincture, Bitter. Syn. Tinctcra amaea 
 (Ph. G.) Prep. Unripe oranges, 2 oz. ; cen- 
 taury, 2 oz. ; gentian root, 2 oz. ; zedoary 
 root, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 35 oz. (by weight). 
 Digest 8 days, and strain. 
 
 Tincture, Bitter StomacVic. Tincture of 
 gentian. 
 
 Tincture of Black Sna^e-root. 8t/n. TrNC- 
 
 lUEA CIMICIFnOiE, TlNOTUEA ACTyEiE HACE- 
 H03£. Prep. Bruised root of black snake- 
 root, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz. — Dose, 1 dr. 
 to 2 dr. 
 
 Tinctnre of Blessed Tliistle. Syn. Trsc- 
 TUBACARDUI BENBDICTI. (Ph. Bruns ) Prep. 
 Blessed thistle, 6 oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 pints. 
 
 Tincture of Blood Root. Syn. Tinctcba 
 BANOUiNAEi^. (Ph. U. S.) Pre;). Blood root 
 in moderately fine powder, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 
 32 oz. ; made by percolation. — Dose. As a 
 stimulant and alterative, 30 to 60 drops ; as 
 an emetic, 3 to 4 dr. 
 
 Tincture, Braudish's. Alkaline tincture o^ 
 rhubarb. 
 
 Tincture of Bncha. Syn. TiNCinBA di- 
 OSMfi, T. DCCKU (Ph. E.), T. BUOHC (B. P., 
 Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1, (B. P.) Bachu bruised, 
 1 ! proof spirit, 8 ; macerate for forty-eii;ht 
 hours with J of the spirit, pack in a perco- 
 lator and let it drain, then pour on the rest of 
 the spirit ; when it *eases to drop, pre.'^s and 
 wash the marc, filter and make up to 8. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Buchn leaves, 5 oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart ; macerate 7 days (14 days — 
 Ph. D.) ; or proceed by the method of perco- 
 lation. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr.; as a tonic, 
 sudorific, and diuretic. It is inferior to the 
 fresh infusion. 
 
 Tincture of Calnm'ba. Syn. Tiwctitba ca- 
 
 LUKB.E (B. P., Ph. L. &. E. ), T. COLOMBO (Ph. 
 D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Bruised calumba, 
 1; proof spirit, 8 ; macerate firty-eight hours 
 with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally ; 
 pack in a percolator, and let it diain, then 
 pour on the remaining spirit; when it ceases 
 to drop, press, and wash the marc with spirit 
 to make np 8. — Dose, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Calumba root, finely sliced, 3 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate a week (14 
 days — Ph. D.), press, and filter. " Or, more 
 conveniently, by percolation, allowing the ka- 
 lumba, in moderately fine powder, to Hist soak 
 in a little spirit for 6 hours." (Ph. E.) 
 
 Obs. This tincture is commonly made with 
 1 lb, of calumba root to the gallon of a mix- 
 ture of equal parts of rectified spirit and 
 water. — Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. ; as a stomachic 
 bitter and tonie, usually joined with suda or 
 chalybeates. 
 
 Tinctnre of Cam'phor. Syn. Spirit of 
 •WINE and camphor, Camphorated spirit; 
 S'lNCTURA CAMPnoES (Ph. E. & D), Spi- 
 HITrs CAMPHOBJC (Ph. L.), Spiuitub cam- 
 PHOBATUB, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Camphor, 
 2\ oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dissolve. 
 This is only one half as strong as the Ph. L, 
 preparation. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Camplior, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 8 H. oz. Stimulant and unculvue. — Dose, 10 
 to 60 drops. Also as a liniment for sprains, 
 bruises, chronic rheumatism, &c. Ft the 
 Ph. L. formula, see Spirit. 
 
 Tincture of Camphor (Compound). Syn. 
 Camphorated tincture op opium Asth- 
 matic elixir, Paeeqorio e., Asthmatic 
 tincture; tinctura camphors co.mp08ita 
 
 (B. P., Ph. L.), TlNOTUEA CPU CAMPnOEATA 
 
 (Ph. E. & D.), Elixir pabegoricum, L. 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, 
 10 gr. ; benzoic acid, 40 gr. ; camphor, 30 
 gr. ; oil of anise, i dr. ; proof spirit, 20 oz. ; 
 macerate seven days, strain, wash the marc 
 w ith spirit, and filter 20 oz. — Dose, 15 to 60 
 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Camphor, 50 gr. ; powdered 
 opium and benzoic acid, of each 72 gr. ; 
 oil of aniseed, 1 fl. dr.; proof spirit,! quart; 
 macerate for 7 days, and filter. The formulse 
 of the Ph. E. & D. are nearly similar. The 
 oil of aniseed, probably one of the most 
 useful and characteristic of the ingredients, 
 was omitted in the Ph. L. 1824, but was 
 restored in that of 1836. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From powdered opium, 3 
 oz. ; benzoic acid, camphor, and oil ot aniseed, 
 of each 2 oz.; rectified spirit and water, of 
 each 3 galls. ; as before. 
 
 Obs. This tincture is a popular and excel- 
 
1658 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 lent pectoral and anodyne, where there are 
 no inflammatory symptoms. — Dose, ^ to 2 
 fl. dr. ; in troublesome coughs, &c. ^ fl. oz. 
 contvins about 1 gr. of opium. 
 
 Tincture of Canthar'ides. Sgn. Tinotuea 
 Canthahidis (B. p., Pb. L.,E., & D.), Tino- 
 tuea LTTTJ3, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Can- 
 tharides, in coarse powder, 1 ; proof spirit, 
 80 ; macerate, agitating occasionally, for seven 
 (lays, in a closed vessel, strain, press, filter, and 
 add sufficient proof spirit to make up 80. — 
 Dose, 5 to 20 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Powdered cantharides, 4 dr. 
 a oz. — Ph. D.), and strain, with expression. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Prom powdered cantharides, 
 2i oz. ; rectified spirit aud water, of each J 
 gall. ; as the last. — Dose, 10 drops, gradually 
 raised to 1 ft. dr., in any bland liquid ; in fluor 
 albus, gleets, incontinence of urine, lepra, &c. 
 It should be used with caution. The Ed. 
 College recommends it to be prepared by dis- 
 placement. 
 
 Tincture of Cantharides (Ethereal). Syn. 
 Tinotuea canthaeidis ethekea. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Powdered cantharides, 1 oz. ; acetic 
 ether,' 10 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 10 
 days in a stoppered bottle, express, and filter. 
 
 Tincture of Capsicum. Syn. Tinotuee oe 
 
 CATENHE PEPPEE; TiNOTUEA CAPSIOl (B. P., 
 
 Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Capsi- 
 cum, bruised, 1 ; rectified spirit, 27 ; macerate 
 48 hours with three fourths of the spirit, 
 agitating occasionally, paclc in a percolator, 
 and let it drain, then pour on the remaining 
 spirit ; as soon as it ceases to drop, wash the 
 marc with spirit to make up 27. — Dose, 10 to 
 20 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) C.-.psicum, bruised, 10 dr. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; digrst 14 days (or per- 
 colate,— Ph. 'B.).—Dose, 10 to 60 drops; in 
 atonic dyspepsia, scarlet fever, ulcerated sore 
 throat, &c. It is also made into a gargle. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Cayenne pods, bruised, 1 J- oz. ; 
 proof spiiit, 1 pint; macerate for 14 days. 
 This is of fully twice the strength of the pre- 
 ceding. 
 
 Tincture of Capsicum (Concentrated). See 
 Essences. 
 Tincture of Capsicum with Veratria. St/n. 
 
 TiNOTUEA OAPSICI CUM VEEATEIA. (Dr Turn- 
 bull.) Prep. Dissolve 4 gr. of veratria in 1 
 oz. of concentrated tincture of capsicum. 
 Tincture of Card'amoms. Si/n. Tinotura 
 
 CAKDAMOMI (Ph. E.), TiNCT. AMOMI EEPEN- 
 
 Tis, L. Prep. (Ph. L. 1836.) Cardamom 
 seeds, 3i oz. (4^ oz — Ph. E.) ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart; digest for 14 daj s (or percolate — Ph. 
 E.). 
 
 Ohs. The shells should be sifted from the 
 seeds before maceration, and the latter are 
 preferably ground in a pepper-mill instead of 
 being bruised in a mortar. Aromatic and 
 carminative. — Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr., as an ad- 
 junct to purgative mixtures. 
 
 Tincture of Cardamoms (Compound). Si/n. 
 Stomachic tinotube j Tikctuba caeea- 
 
 MOMI COMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 i'lNCTUEA stomachica, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Cardamom seeds, freed from their, pericarps, 
 bruised, 1 ; caraway, bruised, 1 ; raisins, freed 
 from their seeds, 8j bruised cinnamon, 2; 
 cochineal, in powder, i ; proof spirit, 80 ; 
 macerate 48 hours with f of the spirit, agi- 
 tating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and 
 let it drain, pour upon it the remainder of 
 the spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, press, 
 wash the marc with spirit to make up 80.— 
 Dose, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (P. L.) Cardamoms (without the shells), 
 caraways, and cochineal, of each, bruised, 2^ 
 dr.; cinnamon, bruised, 5dr. ; raisins, stoned, 
 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate 7 days, 
 then strain, with expression. 
 
 3. (Ph. E., and Ph. L. 1836.) As the last, 
 but using only 1 dr. of cochineal, and mace- 
 rating 14 days ; or, " it may be prepared by 
 the method of displacement." (Ph. E.) 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) From cardamoms and cara- 
 way seeds, of each 4 oz. ; cochineal (s. g.), 6 
 oz. ; cassia, 8 oz. ; sultana raisins, 5 lbs. ; proof 
 spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, of 
 each, 2 galls.) ; macerate, &c., as before. 
 
 Obs. Tlie Dublin College omitted the co- 
 chineal and raisins in their Ph. of 1826, but 
 have restored them in their new one. The 
 order of the London College to stone the 
 raisins is seldom adopted in practice j by 
 which the tincture is rendered unfit to be em- 
 ployed in dispensing prescriptions containing 
 quinine or other alkaloids. When pharma- 
 ceutists are too lazy to follow the instructions 
 in their Pharmacopoeia, they had better use 
 sultana raisins, which have no stones, — Dose, 
 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; as a cordial and stomachic, but 
 chiefly as an adjunct, for its 'colour and 
 flavour. 
 
 Tincture of Cascaril'Ia. Si/n. Tinctuea 
 OASCAEiLLiE (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Cascarilla, bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 
 8; macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, 
 agitating occasionally; pack in a percolator, 
 let it drain, and pour on the remainder of the 
 spirit, and, when it ceases to drop, wash the 
 marc, press, filter, and make up 8. — Dose, 
 J to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Cascarilla, bruised, 5 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days 
 (14 days— Ph. D. j or percolate— Ph. E.). 
 An excellent tonic and stomachic ; chiefly 
 employed as an adjunct to mixtures, &c. — 
 Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Cas'sla. St/n. Tinctuee oas- 
 SMJ (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Cassi?, 3i 
 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 
 days, or percolate. Stomachic and carmina- 
 tive. — Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Castor. Si/n. Tinotuea cas- 
 toeei (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), Tinct. castoeei 
 Rossici, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Castor, in coarse 
 powder, 1; rectified spirit, 20; macerate seven 
 days, strain, and wash the marc with spirit 
 sufficient to make up to 20. — Dose, J to 1 dr. 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1659 
 
 2. (Pli. L.) Castor, braUed, 2i oz.; rectified 
 spirit, 1 quart; macerate fur 7 days (or per- 
 colate— Ph. E.). 
 
 Oh*. The Dublin Colleen ordered Russian 
 castor in their Ph. of 1826 ; but the scarcity 
 and high price of that variety, we fear, too 
 often precludes its use. The tincture of the 
 shops is usually made with only 8 oz. of castor 
 to the gall, of proof spirit. Nervine and anti- 
 (pasmodio. — J)o»e, 20 drops to 2 fi. dr. ; in 
 liy^teriH, epilepsy, &c.. 
 
 linctnra of Castor (Ainmo"niated). %n. 
 Elixib pcktidum, Tinctdba. castouei com- 
 
 P03ITA, T. 0. AMMONIiTA (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 
 (Hh. £.) Castor, bruised, 2^ oz. ; assafoetida, in 
 email fragments, 10 dr. ; spirit of ammonia, 1 
 quart; digest 7 days in a well closed vessel. 
 Stimulant and antispasmodic. — Dose and uses, 
 as the last. With the addition of ) oz. of 
 opium, it forma the Elixir Uterinum, or Elixir 
 Ca^torei Thebaiciim of foreign PharmocopceiaB. 
 
 Tincture of Castor (Ethereal). Syn. Tmc- 
 TPllA 0A8T0BEI a;THBBEA. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Cnstur, in powder, 1 oz. ; alcclioU^ed ether 
 (<ce Ethkbeal TiirCT. ot Assafcetida), 10 
 oz. (by weight). 
 
 Tinctnre of Castor Oil Seeds. Syn. Tine- 
 TUUA UIOINI. Castor oil se^ds bruised are 
 digested with five times their weight of rec- 
 tified spirit. This tincture is stated to be 4 
 times the strcn'.:th of the oil. 
 
 Tincture of Cat'eohn. Syn. Compound 
 
 TINCIDEE OP OATEOnU ; TlNCTtTBA OATECnU 
 COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. OATEOUU (B. P., Ph. 
 E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Pale catechu, 
 in coarse powder, 2} ; cinnamon, bruised, 1 ; 
 proof spirit, 20 : macerate for seven days with 
 ai,'itatiou, strain, press, and filter, and add 
 spirit to make up 20. — Dose, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Catechu, in powder, 3J oz. (4 
 oz — Ph. D.); cinnamon, bruised, 2i oz. (2 oz. 
 — Ph. U.) J proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate 
 for 7 days (or percolate — Ph. E.). 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Prom catechu, 2 lbs. ; oil of 
 ca^-ia, A H. dr. ; rectified spirit and water, of 
 eucli 1 gall. ; macerate for 10 days. — Dose, 1 
 to 2 fl. dr., as a warm astringent ; in diar- 
 rhoea, &c., either alone, or combined with 
 ch.ilk. 
 
 Tincture of Cevadilla. Syn. Tincttjea 
 SASAWLLjs. (Dr TurnbuU.) Prep. Digest 
 the seeds of cevadilla (freed from their cap- 
 sules), and bruised, for ten days in as much 
 rectified spirit as will cover them ; express and 
 filter. For external use only in rheumatism. 
 
 Tinctnre of Chamomile. Syn. Tinctoea 
 iSTUEMiDis. (Au»t. Ph.) Dried chamomile 
 fiowers, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint. 
 
 Tinctnre of Chiret'ta. Syn. Tinctuea 
 
 CHIKAYT* (B. P.), TiNCTPEA CHIEATTA, T. 
 CHIEETT.B (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (B. P.) Chiretta, 
 cut small and bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 ; 
 raaccriite 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agi- 
 tating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and 
 let it drain, then pour on the remaining spirit ; 
 when it ceases to drop, press, and wash the 
 
 marc with spirit to make op 8. — Dose, 15 to 
 60 minims; B. Ph. dose J to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Chiretta or chirayta (bruised), 
 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14 
 days. Tonic and stomachic. — Dose, i to 2 
 a. dr. 
 
 Tinctnre of Chloroform (Compound). Syn. 
 
 TiNCTUEA CHLOEOPOEMI COMPOSITA. (B. P.) 
 
 Prep. Mix 2 fl. oz. of chloroform with 8 fl. oz. 
 oi' rectified spirit and 10 fl. oz. of compound 
 tincture of cardamoms. — Dose, 20 to 40 
 minims. 
 
 Tinctnre of Cinchona. Syn. Tinctitrk op 
 
 BABK ; TiNCTUEA CINCHOXJ: (B. P., Ph. L., 
 
 B., <fc D.), T. C0BTICI8 Pebittiani, T. c. p. 
 SIMPLEX, Ii. Prep. 1. (B. p.) Vellow cin- 
 chona bark, in coarse powder, 4 ; proof spirit, 
 20; macerate 48 bour.i with 15 of the spirit, 
 agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator 
 and let it drain, then pour on the remaining 
 spirit, and when it ceases to drop, prts^. and 
 wash the marc with spirit to make 30. — Dose, 
 
 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Pli. L.) Yellow cinchona bark (bruised), 
 8oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 
 days (or percolate — Ph. E.). 
 
 Obs. Tlie Dublin College orders pale bark, 
 and the Edinburgh either species, accordiug 
 to prescription. — Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr. ; as n 
 tonic, stomachic, and febrifuge. 
 
 Tinctnre of Cinchona (Ammoniati'd). Syn. 
 
 TiNCTUEA cinchona; AMMONIAT.S. (Ph. L. 
 
 1824.) Prep. Peruvian bark, 4 oz. ; aromatic 
 spirit of ammonia, 32 fl. oz. Macerate for 10 
 days. — Dose, \ dr. to 1 dr. 
 
 Tinctnre of Cinchona (Componnd). Syn. 
 Compound tinctukk op bauk, Huxham's 
 T. OP b., Fevee tinctuke; Tinctuea ci>- 
 
 CHONJB COMPOSITJE (B. P.), TiNCTUEA CIN- 
 
 OBON.K couPOSiTiE (Ph. L., E., & D.), TiNi r. 
 COBTICIS PeBUVIANI COMPOSITA, L. Prep. 
 1. (B. p.) Pale cinchona bark, in coar-^e 
 powders ; bitter orange peel, cnt smnll and 
 bruised, 2 ; serpentary, bruised, 1 ; saff'ron, i ; 
 cochineal, \ ; proof spirit, 40 : macerate 48 
 hours with 30 of spirit, agitating occasionally, 
 pack in a percolator and let it drain, then 
 pour on the remainder of the spirit; when it 
 ceases to drop, press, and wash the marc with 
 spirit to make up iO.— Dose, J to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Pale bark, bruised, 4 oz. ; dried 
 bitter orange-peel, 3 oz. (2 oz. — Ph. D.) ; ser- 
 pentary root, bruised, 6 dr.; hny saffron, 
 
 2 dr. ; cochineal, in powder, 1 dr. ; macerate 
 for 7 days (14 days — Ph. D.; or percolate— 
 Ph. E.) ; press, and filter. 
 
 3. ^ Wholesale.) From pale bark, Z\ lbs.; 
 dried orange peel, 2 lbs.; serpentary root, 4 "Z; 
 hay safi'ron, 1 oz.; cochineal, \ oz. ; proof spi- 
 rit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and water, (if 
 each 2 galls.) ; macerate for 14 d;i_vs. 
 
 Obs. In the Ph. E. yellow bark is ordered. 
 — Dose and use, as the last. 
 
 Tinctnre of Cinchona (Pale). Syn. Tjnc- 
 
 TUEE OF PALE BABK; TiNCTUEA CLNCHONa; 
 
16fiO 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 s^hZlDM (Ph. L.), L. Prep. From pale bark, 
 as the last. 
 
 Tincture of Cinna'mon. Si/n. Tinctuba 
 CINNAMOMI (B. p.. Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Cinnamon, in course powder, 1 j 
 liroof spirit, 8 ; macerate 48 hours with 6 of 
 the spirit, agitating occasioDally, pack in a 
 percolator and let it drain, then pour on the 
 remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, 
 press, and wash the marc with spirit to make 
 up 8. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 3i oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (or 
 percolate — Ph. E). In the shops cassia is 
 usually substituted for cinnamon, and spirit 
 26 u. p. for proof spirit. — Dose, 1 to 4 fl. dr. ; 
 as a cordial, aromatic, and stomachic. 
 
 Tincture of Cinnamon (Compound). Si/n. 
 Aromatic tinctube; Tinotuba cinnamomi 
 COMPOSITA (Ph. L., E., & D.), T. abomatioa, 
 L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon, bruised, 
 1 oz. ; cardamoms(bruised, without the shells), 
 i oz. ; long pepper and ginger, of each 2i dr. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days (or 
 percolate— Ph. E.). The Ph. E. omits the 
 ginger, and uses J oz. more cardamoms. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Cinnamon, 2 oz. ; cardamoms, 
 loz. ; ginger, J- oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; 
 macerate for 14 days. The following form is 
 curient in the wholesale houses. 
 
 3. Cassia, 1 lb. ; cardamoms, 6 oz. ; long 
 pepper and ginger, of each i lb. ; oil of cassia, 
 li fl. dr. ; proof spirit, 4 galls, (or rectified 
 spirit and water, of each 2 galls.). Cordial, 
 aromatic, stoftiachic. — Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr.; in 
 atonic gout, debilityj flatulence, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Cloves. Si/n. Tinctcea oabto- 
 PHTILI. (Guibourt.) Prep. Cloves, 2 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 16 oz. Macerate 10 days. 
 
 Tincture of Coch'ineal. Syn. Tinotuba 
 COCCI CACTI (Ph. !>.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Cochineal, in powder, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 : 
 macerate 7 days ; strain, and wash the marc 
 with spirit to make up 8. — Dose, 30 to 90 
 minims twice a day. Used chiefly for colour- 
 ing medicines. 
 
 2 (Ph. D.) Cochineal, in fine powder, 2 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 pint. Antispasmodic and seda- 
 tive ; but chieHy employed for its colour. — 
 Dose, i to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Cochineal (Ammoniated). ffi/n. 
 
 TlNCTCEA COCCI AMMONIATA. (Dr Eberle.) 
 Prep. Cochineal, i oz. ; water of ammonia, 
 i oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. — Dose, 5 drops 
 in liooping-cough. 
 
 Tincture of Corchicum. %». Goitt tinc- 
 
 TUBE, TlNOTUKE OP MEADOW BAPFEON ; TlNC- 
 T0KA COLCHICI SEMINUM (B. P.); TlNCTUEA 
 COLOHICI (Ph. L., & E.), T. SEMINUM COLCHICI 
 
 (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. Colchicum seed, 
 bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 : macerate 48 hours 
 with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, 
 pack in a percolator, and let it drain, then 
 pour on the remainder of the spii it ; when it 
 ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to 
 make up 8. — Dose, 15 to 30 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Seeds of meadow saffron (Col- 
 chicum autumnale), bruised (finely ground in 
 a cofPee-mill— Ph. E.), 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days — Ph. 
 D. ; or percolate — Ph. E.) ; then press, and 
 filter.— Z»o«e, 15 to 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. ; in 
 gout, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Colchicum Bulhs. Syn. Tino- 
 
 TtTBA COLCHICI E BADICE. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 
 Macerate 1 part of the bulbs in 5 parts (by 
 weight) of proof spirit, for 10 days. 
 
 Tincture of Colchicum (Compound). Syn. 
 TllfCTtrEA COLCHICI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), Spi- 
 EITUS COLOHICI AMMONIATtTS, L. Prep. (Ph. 
 L.) Colchicum seeds, bruised, 5 oz. ; aromatic 
 spirit of ammonia, 1 quart ; digest for 7 days, 
 then press, and filter. — Dose, 20 drops to 1 
 fl. dr.; in gout, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Colchicum Flowers. Syn. Tinc- 
 
 TTJBA FLOBUM COLCHICI; EaU MEEIOIlfALE 
 
 D'HuasoN. (Ur Wilson.) Prep. Take of the 
 fresh juice of colchicum flowers, 2 parts ; 
 French brandy (or proof spirit), 1 part ; mix, 
 and in a few days decant, or filter, and preserve 
 it in small bottles in a cool place. 
 
 Tincture of Colocynth. Syn. Tinctuea 
 coLOcrNTHiDis. (Ph. G.) Colocy nth, 1 part; 
 rectified spirit, 10 parts. Dose, 6 to 20 drops. 
 
 Tincture of Contrayerva. Syn. Tinotuea 
 conteayeev^. (1^. Cod.) Prep. Contra- 
 yerva root, 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint. 
 
 Tincture of Copai'ba (Alkaline). Syn. 
 
 TlNCTUEA COPAIBi) ALKALINE, L. Prep. 
 
 (Lewis Thompson.) Dissolve carbonate of po- 
 tassa, 2 oz., in water, 1 pint, and add to this 
 balsam of capaiba, in a thin stream, constantly 
 stirring, until the mixture, at first white and 
 milky, becomes clear, like jelly or amber, which 
 will generally take place when about a pint of 
 balsam has been added; set the mixture aside 
 for two or three hours, then pour in of rec- 
 tified spirit, 1 quart, and mix the whole to- 
 gether. Sweet spirit of nitre may be substi- 
 tuted for spirit of wine, provided it does not 
 contain free acid. — Dose, 1 to 2 teaspoonfals. 
 
 Tincture of Croton. Syn. Tinctuba ceo- 
 TONis. Prep. Croton seed, 1 part; recti- 
 fied spirit, 5 parts. (Beasley.) 
 
 Tincture of Cu'bebs. Syn. Essence op 
 CUBEBS; TlNCTUEA OUBEBi; (B. P., Ph. L. & 
 D.), TlNCTUEA PiPEEia cUBEBi), L. Prep. 1. 
 (B. P.) Cubebs, in powder, 1; rectified spirit, 8; 
 macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agita- 
 ting occasionally, pack in a percolator and let 
 it drain; pour on the remaining spirit, and 
 when it ceases to drop, wash the marc with 
 spirit to make up 8. — Dose, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Cubebs (bruised or ground in 
 a pepper-mill), 1 lb. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; 
 macerate for 7 days, press out the liquor, and 
 filter. — Dose, i to 1 fi. dr., three or four times 
 a day ; in gonorrhoea, &c. 
 
 3. (Ph. D., & Ph. L. 1836.) Cubebs, 5 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 quart (proof spirit — Ph. D. 
 1826) ; macerate for 14 days. — Dose, 1 to 2 
 fl. dr. 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1661 
 
 Tinctnre of dupa'ria. Sj/n, Tisctuba 
 CVirJiRlX (Pll. E.)i T' ANGOSTDB^E, L. Prep. 
 (Pli. E.) Augosluru bark or cuBparia, 4^ oz.j 
 prouf tpirit, 1 quart; digest or percolate. 
 Tonic, stimulant, aud stomachic. — Dose, 1 to 
 2 tl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Deadly Niglitshade. Tincture of 
 bKlladoimu. 
 
 Tincture, Se Coetlogou's. Haffenden's tinc- 
 ture. 
 
 Tinctnre of Digitalis. Tincture of fox-glove. 
 
 Tincture of Elateriam. Syn. Tinciuba 
 EUATEBii. Prep. Extract of elaterium, 8 
 gr. ; rectified spirit, 8 11. oz. — Dote, i dr. to 
 2 dr. 
 
 Tinctnre of Elecampane'. Syn. Tinotuba 
 l>FL^, T. Helenii, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Pow- 
 dered elecampane, 4oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint; 
 macerate for 16 daNs. Tonic, deobstruent, 
 and expi'tturant. — Dose, j to 2 fl. dr. ; in 
 dyspepsia, pulsy, dropsies, uterine obstruc- 
 tions, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Er'got. Syn. Tinotuba secalii 
 
 COUNDTI, TiNOTDBA EBOOT^ (B. P., Ph. D.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Ergot, bruised, 1 ; proof 
 spirit, 4; macerate 48 hours with 3 of the 
 spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in a perco- 
 lator, let it drain, then pour on the remaining 
 spirit ; when it ceases to drop, wash the marc 
 with the spirit to make up 4, — Dose, 15 to 60 
 minims. 
 
 2. (Apothecaries' Hall.) Ergot (ground in 
 fl coffee-mill), 2^ oz. ; proof spirit, 1 pint; 
 digest for 7 days. — Dose. A teaspoonf ul ; to 
 (fxcite the action of the uterus in labour. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Ergot, 8 oz.; proof spirit, 1 
 quart; macerate tor 14 days, and strain, with 
 cxpressiun. — Dose, 20 drops to 1 il. dr. ; as 
 the last. 
 
 Tincture of Ergot (Ammoniated). Syn. 
 TmCTUEA BEQOTa; AMMONIATA. (Gore.) 
 Prep. Bruised ergot, 4 oz. ; aromatic spirit 
 of ammonia, 10 oz. ; macerate for a montli, 
 express, and filter. — Dose, 30 drops every 10 
 minutes till it excites uterine contractions. 
 
 Tincture of Ergot (Ethereal). Syn. Tinc- 
 TUEA KSOOIJi: ^THBEEA (Ph. Jli.), L. Prep. 
 (Ph. L.) Ergot, bruised, 15 oz.; ether, 1 
 quart ; iiiarciate for 7 days, press, and filter. 
 — Dose, 10 drops to 1 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Eucalyptus. Syn. Tinctdea 
 EUCALYPTI OLOBULI. (Dorvault.) Prep. Eu- 
 calyptus (globulus) leaves, cut, 1 part ; alcohol 
 (80 per cent.), 5 parts. Digest 5 days, and 
 tilter.— 2)o«f, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 Tincture of EnphoThium. Syn. Tinctuea 
 EUPHOBDii. (Ph. G.) Prep. Euphorbium, 1 
 oz.; rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). Digest 
 8 days. 
 
 Tincture, Febriftage. Syn. Tinoiuea pe- 
 BRiFUQA. (Dr Clutton.) Prep. Febrifuge 
 spirit, i pint; angelica root, 11 dr, ; serpentary, 
 li dr.; cardamom seeds, 1^ dr. Digest and 
 filter. 
 
 Tincture of Flea-bane. Syn. Tinotuba 
 Ebioebonis. Prep. Dried Canada flea-bane 
 
 (Erigeron Canadense), 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 
 oz. Macerate, express, and filter. 
 
 Tincture of Foxglove. Syn. Tinotuba digi- 
 TALIB (Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Dried foxglove leaves, 4 oz. (5 oz. — Ph. D.) ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (11 
 days — Ph. D. ; or percolate— Ph. E.); then 
 press, and strain. 
 
 2. (B. P.) Digitalis leaves in coarse pow- 
 der, 2 J oz. ; proof spirit, 1 part. Proceed as 
 for tincture of aconite. (B. P.) 
 
 Obs. This tincture is a powerful sedative, 
 diuretic, and narcotic. The commencing dose 
 should be 10 drops, gradually and cautioosly 
 increased to 30, or even 40; in asthmas, drop- 
 sies, fevers, phthisis, &c. " If 40 fl. oz. of 
 spirit be allowed to pass (percolate) through 
 the sp. gr. will be '944; and the solid contents 
 of 1 fl. oz. will amount to 24 gr." (Ph. E.) 
 
 Tinctnre of Galangal. Syn. Tinotuba 
 GALANOJi. (Ph. Amst.) Prep. Galangal root, 
 
 1 oz.; proof spirit, 6 oz. — Dose, 30 to 60 
 drops. 
 
 Tincture of Garbanum. Syn, Tinotuba 
 QALBANi, L. Prep. (Ph. D. 1826.) Galbanum, 
 
 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 32 fl. oz.; digest 7 days. 
 Stimulant and antispasmodic. — Dose, 1 to 3 
 fl. dr. " If less nauseous than tincture of assa- 
 foetida, it is also less powerful." (Dr A. T. 
 Thomson.) 
 
 Tinctnre of Galls. Syn. Tinotuba oai.l£ 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & D.), Tinotuba gallabum 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1 (B. P.) Galls, bruised, 
 1 ; proof spirit, 8 ; macerate for 48 hours with 
 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in 
 a percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the 
 remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, was)) 
 the marc with spirit to make up 8. — Dose, \ 
 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Galls, in powder, 5 oz.; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days 
 — Ph. D. ; or percolate — Ph. E.) ; then ex- 
 press the liquid, and filter it. Astringent and 
 styptic. — Dose, ^ to 2 fl. dr. It is cliiefly 
 used as a test for iron. 
 
 Tincture of Garden Marigold. Syn. Tino- 
 tuba CALENDULA. Prep. A saturated tinc- 
 ture of the leaves and flowers of the garden 
 marigold is prepared with whisky, and is re- 
 puted to be of service as an application for 
 lacerated wounds. 
 
 Tincture of Garden Nightshade (Ethereal). 
 Syn. Tinotuba solani ^theeea. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Powdered leaves of garden nightshade, 
 i oz. ; sulphuric ether, 16 oz. (by weight). 
 Make by percolation. 
 
 Tincture of Gentian (Ammo"niated). Syn. 
 Tinotuba OBKTiANa: AMMONiATa:, L. ; Elixib 
 ANTISCEOFULEUX, Fr. Prep. (P. Cod.) Gen- 
 tian, 1 oz. ; sesquicarbonate of ammonia, i oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 32 fl. oz. As the last ; but pre- 
 ferred in acidity and low spirits. 
 
 Tincture of Gen'tian (Compound). Syn. 
 
 BiTTEE STOMACHIC TINCTUBE; TiNCTUEA 
 GBNTIAN.E OOMPOSITA (B. P., Ph. L., E., & I).), 
 
 Tinotuba amaba, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 
1662 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 Gentian, bruised, IJj bitter orange peel, 
 bruised, J; (•ardiimom seeds, bruised, i ; proof 
 spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours witli 15 of 
 tlie spirit, agitating^ occasionally, pack in a 
 percolator, let it drain, and then pour on the 
 remaining spirit ; when it ceases to drop, wash 
 the marc with spirit to make up 20. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Pli. L.) Gentian root, sliced and bruised, 
 2i oz. ; dried orange peel, 10 dr. ; cardamoms, 
 bruised, 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; mace- 
 rate for 7 days (or percolate — Ph. E.). The 
 Eilinburgh College substitiites canella for car- 
 damoms, and adds of cochineal, ^ dr. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Gentian root, 3 oz. ; dried 
 bitter orange peel, 14 oz. ; cardamoms, i oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days. 
 
 4. (Wholesale.) Gentian, 2^ lbs. ; dried 
 orange peel, li lb. ; bruised cardamoms,2i lbs.; 
 proof spiiit, 4 galls, (or rectified spirit and 
 water, of each 2 galls.) ; digest as last. 
 
 Obs. This is an excellent and popular sto- 
 machic bitter and tonic— 2)o«e, 1 to 2 fl dr. ; 
 in dyspepsia, loss of appetite, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Geraniom. Syn. Tinctitba 
 OEBANJI. Frep. Dried roots of Geranium 
 maculatum, 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 pints. 
 Astringent. Used chiefly in gargles. 
 
 Tinc'tnre of Gin'ger. Syn, Tinciuea ziN- 
 GlBEEis (B. P., Ph. L., E,, & D.). Prep. 1. 
 (B. P.) Ginger, bruised, 1; rectified spirit, 
 8 ; macerate the ginger 48 hours in 6 of the 
 spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack in a perco- 
 lator, let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, 
 and when it ceases to drop press, filter, and 
 add spirit to make 8. — Dose, 10 to 30 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Ginger, bruised, 24 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (or 
 percolate — Ph. E.). 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) Coarsely powdered un- 
 bleached Jamaica ginger, 1^ lb.; rectified spirit 
 (or spirit distilled from the essence), IJ gall. ; 
 water, ^ gall.; digest as above. Stimulant and 
 carminative. — Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Obs. The formula of the Ph. D. 1826 re- 
 sembles the above; that of the last Ph. D. 
 orders 8 oz. of ginger to 1 quart of rectified 
 spirit. The product is, consequently, of fully 
 3 times the strength of that of the others, 
 and is similar to the common essence op 
 GIK&EE of the shops. 
 
 Tincture of Ginger (Stronger). St/n. TiNO- 
 
 TUKA EINGIBEEIS EOBTIOB. (B. P.) Pack 
 
 tightly in a percolator, ginger in fine powder, 
 10 oz., and pour over it carefully J pint of 
 rectified spirit. After two hours more add 
 more spirit, and let it percolate slowly until 1 
 pint of tincture has been collected. — Dose, 5 to 
 20 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Gold-Thread. Syn. Tinctuea 
 COPTIS. (Dr Wood.) Prep. Gold-thread, 1 
 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz.—Dose, 1 dr. Tonic. 
 
 Tincture, Gout. Syn. Tincttiea ahtae- 
 THEITICA, L. Prep. 1. (Dr. Graves's.) Take 
 of dried orange peel and powder of aloes and 
 cauella, of each 2 oz. ; rhubarb, 1 oz. ; French 
 
 brandy (or proof spirit), 1' quart; digest a 
 week, and strain, with e:ipression. — Dose, 1 to 
 2 teaspoonfnls night and morning. 
 
 2. (Dr Wilson's.) Tincture of colchicum 
 flowers. 
 
 3. Tincture of colchicum. 
 
 Tincture of Green Hellebore Eoot. Syn. 
 
 TlNCTUEA TEEATEI TIBIDIS. (B. P.) Prep. 
 
 Green hellebore root, in coarse powder, 4 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture 
 of aconite. (B. P.) 
 
 Tincture of Gna'iacum. Syn. Tinotttea 
 OTTAIACI (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. (Ph. E. & 
 Ph. L. 1836.) Guaiacum resin (powdered), 7 
 oz. (8 oz. — Ph. D.); rectified spirit, 1 quart; 
 digest for 14 days, and filter. An excellent 
 sudorific ; in chronic gout and rheumatism. — 
 Dose, 1 to 3 fl. dr., taken in milk. 
 
 Tincture of Gnaiacnm (Alkaline). Syn. 
 TlNCTUEA GUAIAOI AlKAiiNi. (Dr Dewees.) 
 Prep. Guaiacum, 5 oz. ; carbonate of potash 
 or of soda, 3 dr. ; pimento, 2 oz. ; proof spirit, 
 2 pints. — Dose. A teaspoonful 3 times a day 
 in dysmenorrhoea. 
 
 Tincture of Gnaiacnm (Componnd.) Syn. 
 
 AmMONIATED TINCTUEE OE GUAIACUM, VO- 
 LATILE T. OP a.. Rheumatic deops ; Tinc- 
 
 TUEA GUAIACI COMPOSITA (Ph. L.), T. O. AM- 
 MONIATA (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Guaiac resin, in fine powder, 4; aromatic 
 spirit of ammonia, 20; macerate 7 days, filter, 
 and wash the filter with the spirit to make up 
 20. — Dose, J to 1 dr., with 1 dr. of mucilage 
 or yolk of egg, to form an emulsion. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Guaiacum, in coarse powder, 7 
 oz. ; aromatic spirit of ammonia (spirit of am- 
 monia — Ph. E.), 1 quart; digest for 7 days, 
 and decant or filter. A powerful, stimulating 
 sudorific and emmenagogue; in chronic rheu- 
 matism, gout, amenorrhcea, &c. — Dose, 1 to 2 
 fl. dr. in milk, or some viscid liquid. 
 
 Tinctnre of Guaiacum Wood. Si/n. Tinc- 
 TUEA GUAIACI LIGNI. (P. Cod.) Prep. Oae 
 part of the rasped wood to 5 parts by weight 
 of proof spirit. Digest 10 days and strain. 
 
 Tinctnre of Guarana. Syn. 'fiNCTUEA paul- 
 JjYSIM. (Dorvault.) Prep. Alcoholic extract 
 of guarana, 1 oz. ; proof spirit, 16 oz. Dis- 
 solve. 
 
 Tinctnre, Haffenden's Ealsam'ic. Syn. Db 
 Coetlogon's balsamji tinctuee. This is a 
 nostrum, of many virtues, prepared from tinc- 
 ture of serpentary (of double strength), IJ fl. 
 oz. ; compound of tinctnre of benzoin, 1 fl. oz. ; 
 tinctures of Tolu and opium, of each f fl. oz.; 
 with rectified spirits, q. s. to render the mix- 
 ture ' bright,' should it turn milky. (' Anat. of 
 Quackery.') 
 
 Tincture, Hatfield's. ' Prep. From gura 
 guaiacum and soap, of each 2 dr.; rectified 
 spirit, 1 pint; digest for a week. Used as 
 TiKCTUBB OP guaiacum ; also externally. 
 
 Tinctnre of Hedge-Hyssop. Syn. Tinc- 
 iuea GEATiOLiE. (Reece.) Prep. Dried 
 hedge-hyssop, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 32 oz. 
 
 Tincture of Hel'lebore. Syn. Tinctuee op 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1663 
 
 BUCK HELLEBOnE ; TiKCTUKA HELLBBOBI 
 (Hh. L.), L. TlNL'TUUA BELLEBOBI NIOBI. 
 Pref. (Ph. L.) Black hellebore root, bruised, 
 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart j macerate 7 days, 
 then strain, with expression. 
 
 Oht. This tinctare is a powerful etnme- 
 nngogue, and was a favourite remedy with Dr 
 Mc'ud in uterine obstructions and certain cuta- 
 neous affections. — Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. 
 See TiNCTCBB op Vebatbum. 
 
 Tincture of Hem'lock. Syn. Tikctuba 
 
 CICDI.B, T. CONII (Ph. L. k E.), T. CONII MACU- 
 LATI, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Dried hemlock 
 leaves, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest a 
 week, press, and tilter. In the Ph. L. 1836, 
 cardamom seeds, 1 oz., was added. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Fresh hemlock leaves, 12 oz. ; 
 express the juice, bruise the residuum, and 
 treat it, by percolation, first with tincture of 
 cnrdamnnjs, 10 fl. oz., and next with rectified 
 spirit, 1^ pint; mix the liquids, and filter. 
 IJcobatrucnt and narcotic. — Dose of the Ph. L., 
 20 to 60 drops; that of the Ph. E. tinctare is 
 less, it bein^ a much stronger and certain pre- 
 paration. See Hemlock. 
 
 3. (U. P.) Hemlock fruit, bruised, 2\ oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 pint. Proceed as tor tincture 
 of aconite (B. P.). 
 
 Tincture of Hemp. Tincture of Indian 
 Hemp. 
 
 Tincture of Hen'bane. Sifn. Tinotuea 
 HTOSOYAMl(U. P.,Ph. L., E.,&D.). Prep. 1. 
 (R. P.) Hyoscyamus leaves, dried and bruised, 
 1; proof spirit, 8; macerate 4-8 hours with 6 
 of the spirit, pack in a percolator, anil when it 
 has drained pour on the remaining spirit, and 
 when it ceasus to drop, piess, and wash tlie 
 marc with spirit to make up 8. — Lose, 15 to 
 60 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Dried leaves of henbane, 5 oz.; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 7 davs 
 (14 days— Ph. D. ; or percolate — Ph. E.), 
 then press, and filter. Anodyne, sedative, 
 soporific, and narcutic. — Dose, 20 drops to 
 :; fl. dr. 
 
 Ohs. This, as well as tho TINOTUBSS of 
 poxolove, hemlock, hops, jalap, lobelia 
 ikplata, buatany, savine, squills, senna, 
 TALEKIAH WOKMWOOD, &c., is usually pre- 
 pared by the druggists with 1 lb. of the dried 
 leaves (or dried drugs) to each gall, of a mix- 
 ture of equal pai Ls of rectified spirit and 
 water. 
 
 Tincture of Hops. Syn. Tinctttea lupuli 
 
 (B. P., Ph.. L. & E.), TiNCTUBA HUMULI, L. 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Hop, 1; proof spirit, 8; 
 macerate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating 
 occasionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, 
 add the remaining spirit, and when fluid 
 ceases to drop, wash the marc, filter, and make 
 up 8. — Dose, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Hops, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart; digest 7 days, then press, and filter. 
 Anodyne, fedativc, and soporific. — Dose, \ to 
 2 fl. dr. For the formula of the Ph. E. and 
 U., see TiNCTCBE of Lcfuliit. 
 
 Tincture of Hops (Compound). Syn. TlNC- 
 
 TT7nA LUPCLI COMP03ITA, LlQUEUB DBS 
 TKIGNEUX. (P. Cod.) Prep. Hops 1 oz. ; 
 smaller centaury, 1 oz. ; orange peel, 2 dr. ; 
 carbonate of potash, 12 gr. ; proof spirit, 18 
 oz. (by weight). 
 
 Tinctare of Horse-Chestnnt. Syn. Tinotubi 
 HIPP0CA8TANEI. Prep. Horse-chcstnut bark, 
 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 2 pints. Macerate fur 10 
 days, and filter. 
 
 Tincture, Hndson'g. Tooth tincture. 
 
 Tincture, Huxham'B, Compound tincture of 
 cinchona. 
 
 Tinctare of Indian Hemp. Syn. TiNCTnEA 
 
 CANNABIS IndICB (B. P.), TiNCTtrBA CANNA- 
 BIS, T. c. Indic* (Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. B. 
 P.) Extract of Indian hemp, 1; rectified spirit, 
 20; dissolve. — Dose, 5 to 20 minims with 1 
 dr. of mucilage, adding 1 oz. of water. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Purified extract of Indian hemp, 
 \ oz. ; rectified spirit, i pint ; dissolve. 21 drops 
 (minims) contain 1 gr. of the extract. 
 
 Obt. The formula of O'Sliaughnessy and 
 the Bengal Ph. arc similar. — Dose, 10 drops 
 every \ hour in cholera; 1 fl. dr. every i hour 
 in tetanus till the paroxysms cease, or cata- 
 lepsy is induced. 
 
 Tinctare of Indian Toboc'co. Tincture of 
 lobelia. 
 
 Tincture of I'odine. Syn. Tinctuha 
 
 IODINEI (Ph. E.^, TiNCTCKA lODINII, L. 
 
 Prep. (Ph. E.) Iodine, 2i oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 1 quart; dissolve, and preserve it in well- 
 closed bottles. — Dote, 5 to 30 drops, twice or 
 thrice daily, where the use of iodine is indi- 
 cated. Externally, as o paint, &c. 
 
 Obs. The formulce of Magendie, the Ph. U. 
 S., and the Paris Codex, are similar. 
 
 Tincture of Iodine (Colourless). Syn. TiNC- 
 
 TUEA lODI DECOIOEATA. (Ph. G.) Prep. 
 
 Iodine, 10 oz. ; hyposulphite of soda, 10 oz. ; 
 distilled water, 10 oz. Digest with gentle 
 heat, occasionally shaking; and, when tho 
 solution is completed, add li({Uor ammoniac 
 (■960), 16 oz. (by weight), shake together, and 
 add rectified spirit, 75 oz. (by weight). 
 
 Tincture of Iodine (Compound). Syn. 
 Antisoeofulous deops; Tinctcea iodi (B. 
 1^.), Tinctuha iodinii composita (Ph. L. & 
 D.), L. Prep. 1. Iodine, 4 ; iodide of potas- 
 sium, i; rectified spirit, 20; dissolve. — Dose, 
 5 to 20 minims. Also an excellent application 
 to the throat in diphtheria. 
 
 2. (Ph. L. &, D.) Iodine, 1 oz.; iodide of 
 potassium, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 quart; dis- 
 solve. — Dose, &c., as the last. 
 
 Tincture of Iodine (Ethereal). Syn. Tinc- 
 tuha IODINII ^THEBEA. Prep. Iodine, 2 
 scruples, snlphuric ether, \\ fl. oz. 
 
 Tincture, Iodoform (Ethereal). Syn. Ting- 
 tuba lODOEOBMI ^THEEEA. (Odin & Lemaire.) 
 Prep. Crystallised iodoform, 15 gr.; ether at 
 60° Baume, 1 dr. (by weight). 
 
 Tincture of Ipecacnan'ha. Sim. Tinctuba 
 ipecacuanha, L. Prep. (Ph. Bor.) Ipeca- 
 cuanha (coarsely powdered), 1 oz.; siint, sp. 
 
1664 
 
 TINCTUEE 
 
 gr. -897 to -900 (16 to 17 o. p.), 8 ot.; mace- 
 rate for 8 days. The tincture of the P. Cod. 
 has twice its strength. — Dose, 10 or 12 
 drops to 2 fl. dr., according to the inten- 
 tion. 
 
 Tincture of Jaljorandi. Syn. Tinctuba 
 JABOBANDI. ('Ph. Journ.') Prep. Powdered 
 jaborandi leaves, 10 oz. ; rectified spirit, q. s. 
 Percolate until a pint of tincture is obtained. 
 — Dose, 10 minims to 1 or 2 dr. 
 
 Mr Shuttleworth, the Editor of the 'Ca- 
 nadian Pharmaceutical Journal,' thus utilises 
 the residue left after malting tincture of 
 myrrh. He says " that, from fifty-two pounds 
 of the residue of percolation, dissolved in 
 boiling water, strained and allowed to deposit, 
 he obtained twelve gallons of mucilage, 
 forming an excellent substitute for paste, and 
 possessing unlimited keeping qualities. Al- 
 though scarcely so adhesive as gum Arabic, 
 this latter property may be obtained by the 
 addition of a little molasses." 
 
 Tinctnreof Jal'ap. Syn. TlNOTUEA JALiPiE 
 (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Jalap, in coarse powder, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 ; 
 macerate for 48 hours in six of the spirit, 
 agitating occasionally, pack in a percolator, 
 and when the fluid ceases to pass, pour on the 
 remaining spirit, press, filter, and add spirit to 
 make 8. — Dose, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) J>ilap, coarsely powdered, 
 5 oz. (lOoz.— Ph. L. 1836; 7 oz.— Ph. E.); 
 proof spirit, 1 quart (IJ pint — Ph. D.) ; 
 macerate for 7 days (or percolate — Ph. E.), 
 then press, and filter. Cathartic. — Dose, 1 to 
 4 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Jalap (Compound). Syn. TiNC- 
 TUEA JALAPa: COMPOSITA. (Ph. E. 1744.) 
 Prep. Jalap root, 6 dr. ; black hellibore root, 
 3 dr. J juniper berries, ^ oz. ; guaiacum shav- 
 ings, i oz. ; French brandy, 24 oz. ; digest for 
 3 days, and strain. The Man de Vie Alle- 
 mande of the Paris Codex is : Jalap, 8 oz. ; 
 turpeth root, 1 oz. ; scainmony, 2 oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 96 oz. (by weight). — Dose, 4 dr. 
 
 Tincture of Ei'no. Syn. Tikctura kino 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Kino, in powder, 1 ; rectified spirit, 10; mace- 
 rate 7 days, filter, and miike up 10. — Doie, i 
 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Powdered kino, 34 oz. J rectified 
 spirit, 1 quiirt; macerate for 7 days (or perco- 
 late — Ph. E.), and filter. Astringent. — Dose, 
 1 to 2 fl. dr., combined with chalk mixture; in 
 diarrhoea, &o. 
 
 , A writer in the ' American Journal of Phar- 
 macy ' says the following formula will yield a 
 tincture which has no tendency to gelatinise 
 like the simple tincture of the B.P. : 
 
 Kino, in fine powder, 1 J oz. ; rectified spirit, 
 8 fl. oz. ; water, 4 oz. ; glycerin, 4 fl. oz. 
 Mix the alcohol, water, and glycerin together, 
 and having mixed the kino with an equal 
 bulk of clean sand, introduce in a percolator, 
 and pour on the menstruum. 
 Mr Haselden says, that for some years past 
 
 he has preserved tincture of kino from gelatin- 
 ising by keeping it in bottles holding 2 oz. 
 only. 
 
 Tincture of Lactn"carinm. Syn. Tinctttea 
 LACTTJCAUil, L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Powdered 
 liictncarium, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; 
 digest or percolate. Anodyne, soporific, anti- 
 spasmodic, and sedative. — Dose, 20 to 60 
 drops; in cases for which opium is unsuited, 
 10 drops (minims) contain 1 gr. of lactu- 
 carium. 
 
 Tincture of larch. Syn. Tinctuea ia- 
 Bicia. (B. P.) Prep. Larch bark, in coarse 
 powder, 2i oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint. Ma- 
 cerate the bark for 48 hours in 15 oz. of the 
 spirit in a closed vessel, agitating occasionally; 
 then transfer to a percolator, and when the 
 fluid ceases to pass, continue tlie percolation 
 with the remaining 5 oz. of spirit. Afterwards 
 subject the contents of the percolator to pres- 
 sure, filter the product, mix the liquid, and 
 add rectified spirit, q. b. to make 1 pint. — 
 Dose, 20 to 30 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Lav'ender (Compound). Syn. 
 Red la vendee. Bed datendee drops. Red 
 haetshoen ; tinottjea lavenddl« com- 
 POSITA (B. P., Ph. L. & D.),.SPiEiTns Lavan- 
 dula OOMPOSIT0S (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. 
 P.) English oil of lavender, 90 minims ; Eng- 
 lish oil of rosemary, 10 minims; cinnamon, 
 bruised, 150 gr. ; nutmeg, bruised, 150 gr. ; 
 red sandal wood, 300 gr. ; rectified spirit, 40 
 oz. ; macerate the cinnamon, nutmeg, and red 
 sandal wood in the spirit for 7 days, then press 
 out and strain ; dissolve the oils in the straine'l 
 tincture, and add sufilcient rectified spirit to 
 make 40 oz. — Dose, ^ to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Cinnamon and nutmegs, of each, 
 bruised, 25 dr. ; red Sanders wood, sliced, 5 
 dr. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 7 
 diiys, then strain, with expression, and dissolve 
 in the strained liquid, oil of lavender, 14 fl. 
 dr., oil of rosemary, 10 drops, 
 
 3. (Ph. L. 1836.) Spirit of lavender, li 
 pint; spirit of rosemary, ^pint; red sanders 
 wood (rasped), 5 dr. ; cinnamon and nutmegs 
 (bruised), of each 2i dr. ; macerate for 14 
 days. 
 
 4. (Ph. E.) Spirit of lavender, 1 quart; 
 spirit of rosemary, 12 fl. oz. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; 
 nutmeg, i oz.; red sanders, 3 dr.; cloves, 2 
 dr. ; as No. 1. 
 
 5. (Ph. D.) Oil of lavender, 3 fl. dr.; oil of 
 rosemary, 1 fl. dr. ; cinnamon, 1 oz. ; nutmegs, 
 J oz. ; cloves and cochineal, of each J oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 
 days. 
 
 6. (Wholesale.) From oil of cassia, f fl. oz. ; 
 oil of nutmeg, 1 fl. oz. ; oils of lavender and 
 rosemary, of each 4i fl. oz. ; red sanders 
 (rasped), 3 lbs. ; proof spirit, 6 galls, (or recti- 
 fied spirit and water, of each 3 galls.) ; diges-t 
 14 days. Should it be cloudy, add a little 
 more proof spirit. 
 
 Ots. Compound tincture of lavender is a 
 popular stimulant, cordial, and stomachic. — 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1665 
 
 Don, 1 to 8 teuspoonfuls (i to 2 fl. dr.); 
 in lowiieaa of Bpirits, faintncss, flatulence, 
 hysteria, &c. 
 
 Tinctare of Lem'ons. 8yn. Tinctuba xi- 
 MOfiCM (Ph. h.), Tincthea lihonis (B. p., 
 Fh. D., Ph. L.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fresh 
 lemon peel, sliced thin, Ij proof spirit, 8; 
 lUHcerate for 7 days in a closed vessel 
 with occasional agitation, striiin, press, filter, 
 and make up with spirit to 8. — Boae, ) to 2 
 dr. 
 
 2. Fresh lemon peel, 3i oz. (cut thin, 5 oz. 
 — Ph. D.); proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 
 7 days (14 days — Ph. D.), then express the 
 liquid, and filter it. An aromatic bitter and 
 stomachic. — Dose, J to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Lobe"li8. Syn. Tinctube op 
 Indian tobacco; Tinotuba lobklije in- 
 
 PLATiE, TlKOTCBA LOBELIA (B. P., Ph. L., E., 
 & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Lobelia, dried 
 und bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 ; mace- 
 rate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agi- 
 tating occasionally, pack in a percolator, and 
 let it drain, pour on the remaining spirit, 
 and when it ceases to drop, press and wash 
 the mare with sjiirit to make up 8. — Doae, 
 10 to 30 minims, but 1 dr. may be given for 
 dyspnoDa ; 4 dr. as an emetic. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Drii'd and powdered lobelia in- 
 flnta, 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate 
 for 7 days (14 days — Ph. D. ; or percolate — 
 Ph. E.), press, and filter. — Dose. As an ex- 
 pectorant, 10 to 60 drops;' as an emetic and 
 antispasmodic, 1 to 2 fl. dr., repeated every 
 third hour until it causes vomiting. It is 
 principally employed in spasmodic asthma, 
 und some other pulmonary affections. 
 
 Tincture of Lobelia (Ethereal). Syn. Tinc- 
 
 TCBA LOBELIA iETHEBEA (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), 
 
 L. Prep. 1. Lobelia, dried and bruised, 1 ; 
 spirit of ether, 8; macerate 7 days, press, 
 and sti-ain 8. — Dose, 10 to SO minims as an 
 antispasmodic. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Indian tobacco, powdered, 5 
 oz. ; ether, 14 fl. oz. j rectified spirit, 26 fl. 
 oz. ; macerate 7 days, press, and filter. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Dry lobelia, 6oz. ; spirit of sul- 
 phuric ether, 1 quart ; by digestion lor 7 days, 
 or bv percolation. — Dose, 6 or 8 drops to 1 
 fl. dr. 
 
 4. (Whitlaw's.) From lobelia, 1 lb. ; recti- 
 fied spirit and spirit of nitrons ether, of each 
 4 pints ; sulphuric ether, 4 oz. — Dose, &c., as 
 the last. 
 
 Tincture of Ln'paiin. Syn. Tinctube op 
 
 HOPS ; TlNCTUBA LrPULI (Ph. E.), TlNCTTrB.B 
 
 LDPCLiNi: (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) 
 Lupulin (the yellowish-brown powder at- 
 tached to the scales of hops, separated by 
 friction and sifting), 6 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 
 quart; macerate f«r 14 days (or proceed by 
 ilisplacement — Ph. E.), press, and filter. — 
 Dole, t to 2 fl. dr. See Tinctube op Hops. 
 Tinctare of Halate of Iron. Syn. Tinctuba 
 
 PEEBI MALAT18; TiNCTUBA PEBHI POMATA. 
 
 (Ph. G.) Prep. Extract of malate of iron 
 
 TOL. II 
 
 (see Extract op Applbs), 2 oz. ; spirituous cin- 
 namon water, 18 oz. Dissolve and filter. — 
 Dose, 15 to 30 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Uastic. Syn. Tinctuba MAa- 
 TICHES. Prep. Mastic, 2 oz.; rectified spirit, 
 9 fl. oz. Used in making Eau de Luce. If 
 required for stopping hollow teeth, double 
 the quantity of mastic must be used. 
 
 Tincture of Mat'ico. Syn. Tinctuka ma- 
 tico (Ph. D.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) JIatico 
 leaves, in coarse powder, 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart ; macerate for 14 days, and strain, with 
 exprcs^ion. — Dose, 1 to 2 H.dr., as an internal 
 astringent or hsemostatic. It is a very leeble 
 remedy, as matico leaves are destitute of either 
 tannin or gallic acid, and derive their power 
 of stopping local bleeding from the peculiar 
 mechanical construction of their surface. 
 
 Tinctare of Uea'dow Saffron. Tincture of 
 colchicum. 
 
 Tinctare of Mone'sia. Syn. Tinctuba 
 MONESif, L. Prep. From monesia, 2t oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 pint; macerate a week. Astrin- 
 gent.— ZIose, i to 2 fl. dr. 
 
 Tinctare of Musk. Syn. Tinotuba mos- 
 OHi, L. Pr^. (Ph. D. 1826.) Musk, 2 dr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 16 fi. oz. ; digest 7 days. An- 
 tispasmodic; but principally used as a per- 
 fume, being too weak for medical use. 
 
 Tinctare of Mask (Artificial). Syn. Tino- 
 tuba MOSOHI AETIFICIALIS. (Van Mons.) 
 Prep. Artificial musk, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 
 2oz. 
 
 Tincture of Musk Seed. Syn. Tinotuba 
 ABBLMOBCHI SEMINUM. (Dr Rt-oce.) Prep. 
 Musk seed, 2 oz, ; proof spirit, 16 oz. Digest 
 seven days, and strain. — Dose, 1 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh. Siin. Golden tooth- 
 DE0P3 ; Tinctoej; (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Myrrh, in coarse pow- 
 der, 1 ; rectified spirit, 8 ; macerate 48 hours 
 with 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, 
 pack in a percolator, and when it ceases to 
 drop, pour on the remaining spirit, wash the 
 marc, press, and make up to 8. — Dose, t to 1 
 dr. More frequently used mixed with water 
 to form a gargle. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Myrrh, in powder, 3 oz. (3i 
 oz.. Ph. E. ; 4 oz. — Ph. D.) ; rectified spirit, 
 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days, — 
 Ph. D. ; or by displacement— Ph. E.), and 
 filter. 
 
 3. (Wliolesale.) Myrrh (in coarse powder), 
 2i lbs. ; rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; water, 1 gall. ; 
 as the last. 
 
 Ohs. Tincture of myrrh is tonic and stimu- 
 lant. — Dose, J to 1 fl. dr., as an adjuvant in 
 mixtures, gargles, &c. Chiefly used diluted 
 with water,as a dentifrice or wash for ulcerated 
 and spongy gums. 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh (Alialine). Syn. Tino- 
 tuba MTEEH.iB AXKALIZ.E. (Ph. E. 1744.) 
 Prep. Powdered myrrh, IJ oz. ; solution of 
 carbonate of potash, a sufiScient quantity; 
 mix into a soft paste, dry it, and add rectified 
 spirit, 1 pint. Digest for 6 days, and strain. 
 
 105 
 
1666 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 Tincture of Myrrh (Componnd). St/n. Tinc- 
 
 TTTKi MTEBHJE COMPOBITA, L. Frep. FrOm 
 
 myrrh and socotriiie aloes, of each 2 lbs. ; 
 rectified spirit, 3 galls. ; water, 2 galls, j digest 
 for 14 days. This is frequently substituted 
 for ' coMrouND tinctttbb of aloes ' in the 
 wholesale trade. 
 
 Tincture of Nnx Tflmi'ca. S^n. Tinctuea 
 NUCIB VOMICJE, L. Prep. 1. Nux vomica, 1 ; 
 rectified spirit, 10; soften the nux vomica 
 by steam, dry rapidly, and reduce to fine 
 powder. Macerate 48 hours in three fourths 
 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in 
 a percolator, let it drain, pour on the re- 
 maining spirit, and when it ceases to drop, 
 press, filter, and make up to 10. — Dose, 10 to 
 30 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. D. 1826.) Nux vomica (ground in 
 a coffee-mill), 2 oz. ; rectified spirit, 8 fl. oz. ; 
 macerate 7 (14) days. — Dose, 5 to 30 drops ; 
 in paralysis, &c. It is poisonous. 
 
 Tincture of Ifnx Vomica (Ethereal). St/n. 
 Tinctuba kttcis vomica .etheeea. (Ph. 
 G.) Prep. Coarsely powdered nux vomica, 
 1 oz.; spirits of ether, 10 oz. (by weight). 
 Macerate for 8 days. 
 
 Tincture, Odoutal'gic. St/n. Toothache 
 
 TINOTUEE ; TlNCTTTEA ODONTALGICA, L. Prep. 
 
 1. Tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. ; ether, 2 fl. dr. ; 
 oil of cloves, 15 drops. 
 
 2. BectiHed spirit, 3 fl. dr. ; chloroform, 2 
 dr. ; creasote, 1 dr. ; mix. 
 
 3. (Collier.) Pellitory of Spain, 4 dr. ; cam- 
 phor, 3 dr. ; opium, 1 dr. ; oil of cloves, 2 fl. 
 dr. ; rectifled spirit, 16 fl. oz. ; digest for a 
 week. 
 
 4. (Niemann.) Digest 60 or 80 common 
 ladj-birds(OocciMeiia septempunctata — Linn.) 
 in rectifled spirit, 1 fl. oz. for 8 days, and 
 strain. 
 
 Obs. The above are commonly applied, on 
 a small piece of lint, in toothache. For other 
 formulae see Deoes, Tinotoees oe Myeeh 
 and Pellitoet, &c. 
 
 Tincture of O'pinm. St/n. LAUDAirnM, Li- 
 quid, L., Anodyne tinctubb, Thebaic t. ; 
 Tinctuba opii (B. P., Pii. L., E., & D.), 
 Thebaioa, Laudanum hquidum, L. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Opium, in coarse powder, IJ ; proof 
 spirit, 20 ; macerate 7 days, strain, express, 
 filter, and add spirit to make 20. — Dose, 10 
 to 30 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Powdered opium, 3 oz. (3 oz. — 
 Ph. D.) ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 
 7 days (14 days — Ph. D.), and strain, with 
 expression. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Opium, sliced, 3 oz. ; boiling 
 water, 13^ fl. oz. j digest, with heat, for 2 
 hours, break down the opium with the hand, 
 strain, and express the infusion ; then macerate 
 the residuum for about 20 hours in rectified 
 spirit, 1 pint 7 fl. oz. ; next strain, press, 
 mix the watery and spirituous infusions, and 
 filter. 
 
 Obs. This preparation has a deep brownish- 
 Ted colour, and the characteristic odour and 
 
 taste of opium. 14 minims or measured drops 
 of the London, and about 15 minims of the 
 Edinburgh and Dublin tinctures, are equiva- 
 lent to 1 gr. of dry opium, or 1'13 gr. of 
 ordinary opium. 14 minims of this tincture 
 are equal to about 25 drops of it poured from 
 a bottle. Its sp. gr. is '952 (Phillips). — 
 Dose, 10 to 60 drops ; as an anodyne, sedative, 
 or hypnotic. The following form is substi- 
 tuted for that of the Pharmacopoeia by many 
 of the wholesale drug houses : — Take of Tur- 
 key opium, 2^ lbs. ; boiling water, 9 quarts ; 
 digest till dissolved or disintegrated, cool; 
 add of rectified spirit, 2 galls. ; and, after re- 
 pose for 24 hours, decant the clear portion. 
 Prod. 4 galls. 
 
 Tincture of Opium (Ammo'^niated). Si/n. 
 Ammoniated tjnotuee of opium, Scotch 
 PAEEOOBic; Tinctuba opii ammoniata 
 (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Opium, 
 in powder, 100 gr. ; saffron, cut small, 180 
 gr. ; benzoic acid, 180 gr. ; oil of anise, 60 
 minims; strong solution of ammonia, 4 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 16 oz. ; macerate 7 days in 
 a closed vessel, with occasional agitation, 
 strain, and add sufficient rectified spirit to 
 make up 20 oz. — Dose, J to 1 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Benzoic acid and hay saffron, 
 of each 6 dr.; opium, sliced, 4 dr.; oil of 
 aniseed, 1 dr. ; spirit of ammonia (Ph. E.), 1 
 quart ; digest for a week, and filter. Stimu- 
 lant, antispasmodic, and anodyne. — Dose, 20 
 to 80 drops ; in hysteria, hooping-cough, &c. 
 
 Obs. This preparation is called ' PAEE- 
 OOEIC,' or ' PAEEOOBIC ELixiB,' in Scotland, 
 but should be carefully distinguished from the 
 compound tincture of camphor, which passes 
 under the same names in England; as the 
 former contains about 4 times as much opium 
 as the latter. 80 minims, or 145 poured 
 drops, contain about 1 gr. of opium. 
 
 Tincture of Opium (Cam'phorated), Com- 
 pound tincture of camphor. 
 
 Tincture of Opium (Ecard's, or Bamberg's). 
 Sgn. Tinctuea opii Ecaedi, Ecaed's or 
 Bambebg's THEBAIC TINCTUEE. Prep. Opium, 
 2 oz. ; cloves, 1 dr.; cinnamon water, 8 oz. ; 
 rectified spirit, 4 oz. Digest in a warm room 
 for 6 days, and strain. 
 
 Tincture of Opium (Eetid). St/n. Tinctuea 
 OPII FCETIDA. (Ph. Fulda.) Prep. Castor oil, 
 4 oz. ; assafcetida, 2 oz. ; salt of hartshorn, 1 
 oz. ; dry opium, 4 dr. ; rectified spirit, 32 oz. 
 — Dose, 15 minims to 1 dr. 
 
 Tincture of Opium (Odourless). St/n. Tinc- 
 tuba OPII deodoeata. (Ph. U. S.) Prep. 
 Opium dried, and in moderately fine powder, 
 2i troy oz. ; ether, rectified spirit, of each 8 
 oz. (o. m.) ; water, a sufficient quantity. Ma- 
 cerate the opium with J pint of the water for 
 24 hours, and express. Repeat this operation 
 twice with the same quantity of water, mix the 
 express liquids and evaporate to 4 oz. (o. m.) ; 
 let cool, and shake repeatedly in a bottle with 
 the ether. When it has separated by standing, 
 pour ofi^ the ethereal solution, and evaporate 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1667 
 
 the remaining liquid till all the ether has dis- 
 appeared. Mix the residue with 20 oz. (o.m.) 
 of water, and filter. When the liquid has 
 ceased to pass, add enough water to make the 
 filtrate ineasuru li pint (o.m.). Lastly, mil 
 in the spirit. 
 Tincture of Or'ange Peel. &/n. Tinotuea 
 
 AITRiNTlI (B. p., Ph. L., E., & D.), T. COETICIB 
 
 ACBANTII, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried hitter 
 orange peel, cut small and bruised, 1 ; proof 
 spirit, 10 ; macerate for 7 days in a closed 
 vessel with occasional agitation, then strain, 
 press, and filter, add sufficient proof spirit 
 to make 10. — Dote, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 8. (Ph. L.) Dried orange peel, 3} oz. (4 oz. 
 — Pli. D.) J proof spirit, 1 quart j digest for 
 7 days (14 days —Ph. D. ; or by percolation 
 — Ph. E.), press, and filter. A grateful bitter 
 stomachic— 2)o«e, 1 to 3 fl. dr. ; chiefly as an 
 adjuvant in mixtures, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Orange Peel (Fresh). St/n. Tino- 
 
 TCBA ACBANTII EBCBNTI8. (B. P.) Prep, 
 Bitter orange, rectified spirit, of each a suffi- 
 cient quantity. Carefully cut from the orange 
 the coloured part of tlie rind in thin slices, and 
 macerate 6 oz. of this in 1 pint of spirit for a 
 week, with frequent agitation ; then pour off 
 the liquid, press the dregs, mix the liquid pro- 
 ducts, and filter ; finally, ndd sufilcient spirit 
 to make 1 pint.— 2)o«e, 1 dr. to 2 dr. 
 
 Tincture of Orange, with Iron. Si/n. Tino- 
 TCIIA PBBEI ATTEASTIAOA. (Ph. Wurt.) Prep. 
 Iron filings, 4 oz.; Seville oranges deprived of 
 their seeds, no. 4. Beat them together, leave 
 them for 2 days; then ndd Madeira wine, 10 
 oz, ; spirits of orange peel, 2 oz. Digest, 
 express, and lilter. 
 
 Tincture of Orris Koot. Si/n. Tinotitea 
 IBIDI9. Prep, Freshly powdered orris root, 
 1 part ; proof spirit, 6 parts. Sold as Esprit 
 de Fiolette. 
 
 Tincture of Ox-gall, Si/n. Tinctuea fellis 
 BOVINI. Prep. Inspissated ox-gall, 2 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 pint. Digest until dissolved. 
 
 Tincture of Faracress. S^a. Tinotuea 
 6PIL4NIHI COMPOSITA. Prep. Paracress, 
 dried and bruised, 2 oz.; pyretbrum root in 
 coarse powder, 2 oz. ; spirit, 10 oz. (by weight). 
 Digest 8 days. Sialagngue. 
 
 Tincture of PareiraBrava. >S^n. Tinctitea 
 Paheib*: BEAViB. (Brodie). Prep. Pareira 
 brava root, 2 oz. ; French brandy, 1 pint. Di- 
 gest for 7 days. 
 
 Tincture of Pel'litory. Syn. Toothache 
 
 TINCTUBF; TiNCTUEA PTEETHBI (B. P.) Prep. 
 
 1. (B. p.) Pellitory root, in coarse jiovvder, 4; 
 rectified spirit, 20 ; macerate for 48 hours 
 with 15 ot the spirit, agitating occasionally, 
 then pack it in a percolator, let it drain, and 
 pour on the remaining spirit ; When it ceases 
 to drop, press, filter, and make up to 20. 
 
 2. Pellitory of Spain (bruised), 1 oz. ; recti- 
 fied spirit, i pint ; digest a week. In the P. 
 Cod. a tincture is ordered prepared with spirit 
 about 41 0. p., and another prepared with 
 spirit of sulphuric ether. 
 
 3. (Compound.— Brande.) Pellitory root, 
 
 4 dr.; camphor, 3 dr.; oil of cloves, 2 dr.; 
 opium, 1 dr. ; rectified spirit, 6 fl. oz. ; digest 
 for eight days. Both the above are used for 
 the toothache. See Tinctuee, Odostaloio. 
 
 Tincture of Pepper (Stomachic). Syn. Tinc- 
 
 TtTEA PIPEEIS STOMACHICA; ESSENTIA BTO- 
 MACHICA POLTCHBEBTA (Spielinan.) Prep. 
 Capsicum, 1 oz.; black pepper, 2 dr.; long 
 pepper, 2 dr. ; white pepper, 2 dr. ; solution of 
 acetate of potash, 6 oz. ; spirit of ammonia, 1 
 oz. Digest and filter. 
 Tincture of Perchloride of Iron. Sgn. TiNC- 
 
 TUBA FBKEI PEBCHLOEIDI. (B. P.) Prep. 
 
 Mix 5 fl. oz. of strong solution of perchloride 
 of iron with 15 fl. oz. of rectified spirit.— 
 Dose, 10 to 30 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Fbos'phoms (Ethereal). Syn. 
 
 JEtBSa PHOSPHOEATUS, TiNCTUEA PHOS- 
 PHOEl .ETHEBBA, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. Hann. 
 1831.) Pliosphorns (powdered by agitation 
 with rectified spirit), 16 gr. ; ether, 2 oz.; 
 macerate, with agitation, for 4 days, then 
 decant the clear portion, and preserve it in a 
 stoppered bottle, in a cool dark situation. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Phosphorus, cut small, 1 part; 
 ether, 5ii parts ; digest with occasional agita- 
 tion (or 1 month, and decant the clenr. — Dose, 
 
 5 to 15 drops, in any bland vehicle, thrice 
 daily ; in impotency, low sinking conditions 
 of the system, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Poplar Buds. St/n. Tinctitea 
 POPDH. (Van Monc.) Prep. Poplar buds, 4 
 oz. ; rectified spirit, 24 oz. Macer.ite and 
 filter. 
 
 Tincture of ttuas'sia. Syn. TiNorcEA 
 QnAssijE (B. P., Ph. E), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Quassia in chips, } ; proof spirit, 20 j digest 
 7 days, filter, and make up to 20. — Dose, 1 to 
 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Quassia, in chips, 10 dr. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart; digest 7 days. Bitter, tonic. 
 — Dose, ^ to 2 fl. dr. ; in dyspepsia, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Quassia (Compound). Si/n. 
 
 TiNCTUEA QTTASSIJJ COMPOSITA (Ph. E.), L. 
 
 Prep. (I'll. E.) Cardamoms and cochineal, of 
 each, bruised, \ oz. ; powdered cinnamon and 
 quassia chips, of each 6 dr.; raisins, 7oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 quart; digest for 7 days 
 (or by percolation), then press, and filter. 
 Aromatic and tonic. — Dose and use, as the 
 last. 
 
 Tincture of Quinine (Ammoniated). St/n. 
 
 TlNCTCBA QUINIXiE AMMONIATA. (B. P.) 
 
 Prep. Sulphate of quinine, 160 gr. ; solution 
 of ammonia, 2J fl. oz. ; proof spirit, 17i oz. ; 
 dissolve the quinine in the spirit with a gentle 
 heat, and add the solution of ammonia. — Dose, 
 J dr. to 2 dr. 
 
 Tincture of Quinine (Compound). Si/n. 
 FeTEB DEOPS; TlNCTTJEA Quix^ (B. P.) ; 
 TiNCTUEA QF1N.E COMPOSITA (Ph. L.) Prep. 
 I. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinia, 1 ; tincture of 
 orange peel, 60 ; dissolve with a gentle heat, 
 digest for 3 days with occasional agitation 
 and str.iin. — Dose, 1 to IJ dr. 
 
1668 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of quinine, 5 dr. 1 
 scrup. (or 320 gr.) ; tincture of orange peel, 
 1 quart; digest, with agitation, for 7 days, 
 or until solution is complete. 
 
 Ohs. Unless the tincture employed as the 
 solvent be of the full strength, some of the 
 disulphate remains undissolved. It is an ex- 
 cellent medicine when faithfully prepared. — 
 Dose, ^ to 2 fi, dr.; in debility, dyspepsia, 
 &c. 
 
 Tincture of Bed Gum. Syn. Tinctuba 
 QUMMIECBEI. (Mr Squire.) Prep. Red gum, 
 1 part; rectified spirit, 4. Digest and strain. 
 — Dose, 20 to 40 minims. 
 
 Tincture of Bed Lav'ender. Compound 
 tincture of lavender. 
 
 Tincture of Ehat'any. Syn. Tinctuea 
 KEAMEEia; (B. P., Ph. D.), L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) 
 Rhatany, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; mace- 
 rate 48 hours in 6 of the spirit, agitating 
 occasionally, pack in a percolator ; when it 
 ceases to drop, pour on the remaining spirit, 
 and wash the marc with spirit to make up 
 8.— Dose, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Rhatany root, in coarse powder, 
 8 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 
 davs, then press, and filter. Astringent. — 
 Dose, 1 to 2 fl. dr. The formula of the Ph. 
 U. S. is similar. 
 
 Tincture of Ehododendron. Syn. Tinotuee 
 EHODODBNDEI. (Niemann.) Prep. Leaves, of 
 Rhododendron Chrysanthum, 2 oz. ; French 
 brandy, \ lb. ; sherry, ^ lb. Digest for 15 days. 
 
 Tincture of Ehu'barb. Syn. Tihotdea 
 EHEI (B. P., Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Rhubarb, bruised, 2; cardamom seeds, bruised, 
 i ; coriander, bruised, \ ; saffron, \ ; proof 
 spirit, 20; macerate for 48 hours with 
 15 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack 
 in a percolator, and when it ceasfes to drop 
 pour on the remaining spirit, press and wash 
 the marc, and add spirit to make up 20. — 
 Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 2 dr.; as a purga- 
 tive, i to 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Powdered rhubarb, 3 i oz.; car- 
 damom seeds, bruised, J oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart ; digest, or proceed by the method of 
 displacement. 
 
 3. (Ph. L. 1824.) Rhubarb, 2 oz. ; carda- 
 moms, 4 dr. ; saffron, 2 dr.; jDroof spirit, 32 
 fl. oz. Both the above are cordial, stomachic, 
 and laxative. — Dose, 1 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz. 
 
 Tincture of Ehubarb (Aqueous). Syn. Tinc- 
 tuea EHEI AQU03A. (Ph. G.) Prep. Rhubarb, 
 10 oz. ; borax, 1 oz. ; carbonate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
 boiling water, 85 oz. Infuse for i hour, then 
 add rectified spirit, 10 oz. (by weight); let 
 stand 2^ hours, and add cinnamon water, 
 15 oz. 
 
 Tincture of Rhubarb (Compound). Syn. 
 Tinctuea ehei comj^osita (Ph. L. & D ). 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Rhubarb, sliced, 2J oz, ; 
 liquorice root, bruised, 6 dr. ; ginger (bruised) 
 and hay .saffron, of each 3 dr. ; proof spirit. 
 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days, tlien press, and 
 filter. 
 
 2. (Ph.) Rhubarb, 3 oz., cardamoms, 1 
 oz. ; liquorice root, J oz. ; saffron, i oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days. 
 
 3. (Ph. L.) 1824. Rhubarb, 2 oz. ; liquorice 
 root, 4 dr. ; ginger and safli"On, of each 2 dr. ; 
 proof spirit, 16 fl- oz. ; water, 12 fl. oz. 
 
 Obs. This tincture is a popular remedy in 
 diarrhoea and colic, and is an especial favourite 
 with drunkards. — Dose, as a stomachic, 1 to 3 
 fl. dr. ; as a purgative, i to li fl. oz. The 
 tincture of rhubarb of the shops is mostly 
 inferior, being generally deficient both in 
 rhubarb and spirit. The following forms we 
 have seen extensively employed in the whole- 
 sale trade : — East Indian rhubarb, 201bs. ; boil- 
 ing WHter, q.s. to cover it ; infuse for 24 hours, 
 then slice the rhubarb, and put it into a cask 
 with mtist sugar, 14 lbs. ; ginger, bruised, 3i 
 lbs. i bay saffron, 1 lb. ; carbonate of potash, J 
 lb.; bruised nutmegs, ^ lb.; rectified spirit, 
 19 galls.; water, 21 galls. ; macerate with fre- 
 quent agitation for 14 days, decant the clear 
 portion, and press and filter the bottoms. 
 Those houses that adhere to the Ph. L. for 
 1824 substitute cardamom seeds, 5 lbs., for the 
 ginger. For the corresponding Ph. E. formula 
 see the last article. 
 
 Tincture of Rhubarb (Brandisi's Al'ka- 
 line). Syn. Tinctuea ehei alkaliha 
 BEANDisnii, L. Prep. Prom rhubarb, in 
 coarse powder, 1^ oz. ; Brandish's alkaline 
 solution, 1 quart ; macerate for a week. In 
 the original formula only ^ oz. of rhubarb is 
 ordered. — Dose, 20 drops to 2 fl. dr., in any 
 bland liquid, nut acidulous; in acidities, dys- 
 pepsia, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Ehubarb and Aloes. %«. 
 Saoeed ELixiEt; Tinctuea ehei et aloes 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, in powder, 
 I5 oz. ; Socotrine or East Indian aloes, 6 dr. ; 
 cardamom seeds, bruised, 5 dr. ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart ; macerate 7 days, or percoliite. A warm 
 stomachic purgative. — Dose, J il. oz. to 1 
 fl. oz. 
 
 Tincture of Ehubarb and Gen'tian. Tinc- 
 tuea EHEI AMAEA, TiNCTUEA EHEI ET GEN- 
 TIANS (Ph. E.), L. Prep. (Pli. E.) Rhu- 
 barb, 2 oz. ; gentian, J oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart; proceed as for the last. Stomachic, 
 tonic, and purgative. — Dose, 1 fl. dr. to 1 
 fl. oz. 
 
 Tincture of Ehubarb and Sen'na. Si/n. 
 Waeneb's gout coediai; Tinctuea ehei 
 ET SENNJE (Ph. U. S.), L. Prep. (Ph. U. S.) 
 Rhubarb, 1 oz. ; senna and red sanders wood, 
 of each 2 dr. ; coriander and fennel seed, of 
 each 1 dr. ; saffron and extract of liquorice, 
 ot each i dr. ; stoned raisins, 6 oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 2J pints; macerate for 14 days. A 
 popular stomachic and laxative. — Dose, ^ to 
 U fl. oz. 
 
 Tincture (Eiemer'a Nervous). Prep. From 
 oil of juniper, 1 part ; volatile liquor of harts- 
 horn, 4 parts ; rectified spirit, 16 parts. — Dose, 
 1 teaspoonf ul in water. 
 Tincture of Eose. Si/n. Tinctuea eos.e. 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1669 
 
 Prep. Dried red rose, 4 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 
 pint. Uig. St for 10 days. 
 
 Tinctoie of Kosemary. Sgn. Tinctuba ros- 
 HABIMI. (Ph. Bruiis.) Prep. Flowering tops 
 of rosemary, It oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 6 oz. 
 Diftt'nt, express, and filter. 
 
 Tincture, Snspini'i. See Tinctpes, Tooth. 
 
 Tincture of Saffron. Syn. Tinctuba orooi 
 (B. P., Pli. E. & D.), T. c. BATiva;, L. Prep. 
 1. (B. P.) Saffron, 1; proof spirit, 20 ; macerate 
 48 hours witli 15 of tlie spirit, agitating occa- 
 sionally, pack in a percolator, let it drain, and 
 then pour on the remaining spirit; when it 
 ceases to drop, wash the marc with spirit to 
 make up 20. — Dote, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Hay saffron, 2 oz. (2oz.-Ph. 
 D.); proof spirit, 1 quart (1 pint — Ph. D.) ; 
 proceed either by maceration (for 14 days — 
 Ph. D.) or by displacemeut. Stimulant, and 
 cmmenagogue. — Doae, 1 to 2 fl. dr. Chiefly 
 used for itii colour and flavour. 
 
 Tincture of Saponin. Syn. Tinotura sa- 
 PONINI. Prep. Bark of Quillai Saponaria, 
 1 part ; alcohol (90 per cent.), 4 parts. Heat 
 to ebullition and filter. 
 
 Tincture of SarsapariUa (Compound). Si/n. 
 Tinotura sabzjs oomposita, Liqukub nb- 
 rCEATIVK. (Franijois.) Prep, SarsapariUa, 
 guaiacum, china root, sassafras, of each 1 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 16 oz. 
 
 Tincture of Savine. Syn. Tinotitra 6A- 
 BIN2E. (B. P.) Prep. Saviue tops, dried, and 
 coarsely powdered, 2i oz. j proof spirit, 1 pint. 
 Proceed us for tincture of acouite. 
 
 Tincture of Scammony. Syn. Tinctuba 
 SCAMMONir. (P. Cod.j Prep. Scammony, 4 oz. ; 
 rect. spirit, 20 oz. (by weight). 
 
 Tincture of Senega Syn. Tinctuba se- 
 MEGiE. (B. P.) Prep. Senega, bruised, 2i oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 1 pint. Prepared as tincture of 
 aconite. 
 
 Tincture of Senna (Compound). Syn. Tinc- 
 ture OF senna, ElIXIB of HBALTHt; TlKC- 
 
 tdha SENKiE (B. P.), Tinctuba senn-e com- 
 posites (Pli. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Senna, bjoken small, 5; raisins, freed from 
 seeds, 4 ; caraway, bruised, 1 ; coriander, 
 bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 40 ; macerate the 
 ingredients 48 hours in three fourths of the 
 spirit, agitating occasionally ; pack in a per- 
 colator, and when it ceases to drop, pour on 
 the remaining spirit ; press, filter, and make 
 up 40.— i)o»f, 2 to 8 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Senna, 3i oz. ; caraway seeds, 
 bruised, 3i dr. ; cardamom seeds, bruised, 
 1 dr. ; stoned raisins, 5 oz. j proof spirit, 
 1 quart; macerate for 7 days, press, and 
 filter. 
 
 3. (Ph. E.) Senna and stoned raisins, of 
 each 4 oz. ; sugar, 2\ oz. ; corianders, 1 oz. ; 
 jalap, 6 dr. ; caraways and cardamoms, ol 
 each 5 dr.; proof spirit, 1 quart; digest, or 
 proceed by percolation. 
 
 4. (Ph. D.) Senna, 4 oz. ; caraway and car- 
 damom seeds, of each, bruised, \ oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart; macerate for 14 days. 
 
 5. (Wholesale.) Prom senna, 6 lbs. ; treacle, 
 2 lbs.; caraways, } lb.; cardamoms, i lb.; 
 rectified spirit and water, of each 4 galls. ; as 
 before. Carminative, stomachic, and purga- 
 tive.— ilo»e, i to 1 fl. oz. 
 
 Obs. " If Alexandrian senna he used for this 
 preparation, it must be fr eed from rynanchum 
 (argol) leaves, by picking." (Ph. E.) 
 
 Tincture of Ser'pentary. Syn. Tincture 
 OF Virginian snake boot; Tinctuba 
 SERPEKTARIH (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Serpentary, bruised, 1; 
 proof spirit, 8; macerate 48 hours, with 
 
 6 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack 
 in a percolator and let it drain; pour on 
 the remaining spirit, and when it ceases to 
 drop, press, and wash the marc to make up 
 S.—Dose, i to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Serpentary, bruised, 3J oz. 
 (cochineal, 1 dr. — Ph. E.) ; proof spirit, 1 
 quart ; macerate for 7 days (or by percolation 
 — Ph. E.), strain, and filter. Stimulant, tonic, 
 and diaphoretic. — Dote, 1 t > 3 fl. dr. 
 
 Tincture of Sesquichloride of Iron. Syn. 
 Tincture of mubiatb of iron, Tinctubb of 
 STEEL, Steel dbops i I'inctuea febri peb- 
 OHioBiDi (B. p.), Tinctuba febri sesqui- 
 
 OULORIDI (Ph. L. & D.), T. FBURI MUBIATIS 
 
 (Ph. E.), Kerki muriatis liquor, L. J'rep. 
 1. (B. P.) Strong solution of perrhloride of 
 iron, 1 ; rectified spirit, 3 ; mix. — Dose, 10 to 
 30 minims in water. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Sesquioxide of iron, 6 oz. ; 
 hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; mix, and digest in 
 a sand bath, frequently shaking (with a gentle 
 heat, for a day — Ph. E.), until solution is 
 complete, then add, when cold, of rectified 
 spirit, 3 pints, nud (in a short time) filter. 
 Sp. gr. '992. " 1 tl. oz., potash being added, 
 di'po>its nearly 30 gr. of sesquioxide of iron." 
 (Ph. h.) 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Iron wire, 8oz.; pure hydro- 
 chloric acid, 1 quart; distilled water, 1 pint; 
 mix, and dissolve by a gentle heat ; next add, 
 iu successive portions, of pure nitric acid, 18 fl. 
 dr.; evaporate by a gentle heat toa pint, and, 
 when cold, mix this iu a bottle with rectified 
 spirit. It pint; lastly, after 12 hours, filter. 
 Sp. gr. 1-237. 
 
 Obs. This tincture is an active ferru- 
 ginous tonic. — Dose, 10 to 30 drops, gradually 
 increased, taken iu water, ale, or wine. In the 
 old tiuctura martis. Ph. L., iron filings, and 
 in the T. ferri muriatis, Ph. E. 1817, black 
 oxide of iron, were used instead of the sesqui- 
 oxide or carbonate. ' Bestuchef 's nervine 
 tincture of the P. Cod. is prepared by dis- 
 solving 1 dr. of dry sesqnichloride of iron in 
 
 7 dr. of spirit of sulphuric ether. See Golden 
 
 DROPS. 
 
 Tincture of Sesquini'trate of Iron|. Syn. 
 Tinctuba ferri sesquinitratis, L. Prep. 
 (Onion.) Iron filings, 4 oz. ; nitric acid (15), 
 2i oz. ; dissolve, add of hydrochloric acid (1T6), 
 6 dr., simmer for 2 or 3 minutes, cool, add of 
 rectified spiiit, 8 oz., and filter. Proposed 
 
1670 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 as a substitute for the last preparatloo, but 
 the name misrepresents its chemical consti- 
 tution. 
 
 Tincture of Soap. Si/n. Tinctuea saponis. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. White soap, 3 oz. ; carbonate 
 of potash, 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 5 oz. (by 
 weight). Dissolve. 
 
 Tincture of Soap with Turpentine. Syn. 
 
 TlNCTUBA SAPONIS TBBEBINTHINATA. BAUME 
 
 DE VIE EXTEENK. Prep. White soap, 3 oz. ; 
 oil of turpentine, 3 oz. ; spirit of wild thyme, 
 2 lb.; white of ammonia, 2oz. 
 
 Tincture of Squills. Syn, Tincttjeabechi- 
 
 CA, TlKCTTIEA SCILLiE (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 
 L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Dried squill, bruised, 1 ; 
 proof spirit, 8 ; macerate for 48 hours with 6 
 of the spirit, agitating occasionally, pack in 
 a percolator, let it drain, and pour on the 
 remaining spirit; when it ceases to drop, 
 press, filter, and make up to 8. — Dose, 15 to 
 30 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Squills, recently dried and 
 sliced (or in coarse powder), 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 
 1 quart ; macerate for 7 days (14 days — Ph. 
 D. ; or by percolation— Pli. E.), press and 
 filter. A stimulating expectorant and diuretic. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 drops; in chronic coughs, 
 and other bronchial affections. 
 
 Tincture of Squills (Alkaline). Syn. TiNC- 
 
 TIJEA SCILliE AlKALIWi. (Ph. (i.) Prep. 
 
 Squill, 8 parts; caustic potash, X part; recti- 
 fied spirit, 50 parts ; macerate, 8 days. 
 Tincture of Stavesacre (Concentrated). Syn. 
 
 TlNOTtJEA STAPHISAGEIJ3 CONCENTBATA. 
 
 (Dr TurnbuU.) Prep, Digest stavesacre 
 seeds in twice their weight of rectified spirit. 
 For external use in neuralgic and rheumatic 
 affections, as a substitute for solution of del- 
 phinia. 
 
 Tincture, Stomach'ic. Compound tincture of 
 cardamoms. Compound tincture of gentian is 
 also, occasionally, so called. 
 
 Tincture of Stramo"nium. Syn. Tinotubb 
 
 OF THOBN-APPLB ; TiNOTUEA aTBAMONIl(B.P., 
 
 Ph. D. & U. S.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Stra- 
 monium seeds, bruised, 1; proof spirit, 8; 
 macerate 48 hours with 6 of the spirit, agi- 
 tating occasionally ; pack in a percolator, let 
 it drain, and pour on the remaining spirit. 
 When it ceases to drop, press, filter, and add 
 spirit to make 8.— Dose, 10 to 20 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Stramonium or thorn-apple 
 seeds (bruised), 5 oz. ; proof spirit, 1 quart ; 
 macerate for 14 days (or by displacement — 
 Ph. U. S.), then press, and filter. Anodyne. 
 — Dose, 10 to 20 drops; in neuralgia, 
 rheumatism, &c. Said to be superior to 
 laudanum. 
 
 Tincture, Styptic. Syn. Tinctuea btyp- 
 TIOA. (Ph. L. 1746.) Prep. Calcined sul- 
 phate of iron, 1 dr. ; French brandy, coloured 
 by the cask, 2 lbs. 
 
 Tincture, Sudorific. Syn. Tinctuea sud- 
 Oeifica. (Ph. E. 1744.) Prep. Serpentary 
 root, 5 dr. ; cochineal, 4 dr. ; castor oil, 1 dr. ; 
 saflron, 2 scruples ; opium, 1 scruple ; spirit 
 
 of lUindererus, 16 oz. Digest for 3 days and 
 strain. 
 
 Tincture of Snm'bul. Syn. Tinctuea sum- 
 bum (B. P.) Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sumbul, bruised 
 fine, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 ; digest 7 days and 
 filter. — Dose, 15 to 30 minims. 
 
 2. From sumbul, bruised, 5 oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 quart; macerate for a week, and 
 strain, with expression. Stimulant and tonic. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 or 40 drops. 
 
 Tincture of Tartrated Iron. Syn. Tinctuea 
 MAETis taetaeizata. Prep. Pure iron 
 filings, 100 parts; cream of tartar, 250, recti- 
 fied spirit, 50 parts (by weight). Put the 
 filings and tartar into an iron kettle with suf- 
 ficient water to form a paste, leave them for 
 24 hours, add 3000 parts of soft water and 
 boil for 2 hours, stirring constantly and sup- 
 plying the waste of water. Decant and filter 
 the liquor, and evaporate it till it has the 
 density of 1'286, and add the spirit. — Dose, 3 
 to 6 drops. 
 
 Tincture of Thorn-apple. Tincture of stra- 
 monium. 
 
 Tincture of Thuja. Syn. Tinctuea thu- 
 JM, Fresh leaves of thuja, 1 part ; spirit 
 (90 per cent.), 10 parts. Macerate for 10 days, 
 and filter. — Dose, 10 drops in water. The 
 leaves of thuja are collected in June and July. 
 Those of the T, orientalis and T. occidentalis, 
 have the reputation in Belgium of curing 
 smallpox. 
 
 Tincture of Tobac'co. Syn. Tinctuea Nico- 
 TiAHiE, Tinctuea tabaci, L. Prep, From 
 pure manufactured tobacco, li oz. ; proof 
 spirit, 1 pint ; macerate for 7 days. Compound 
 spirit of juniper is often used instead of proof 
 spirit. Sedative and narcotic. — Dose, 10 to 
 30 drops. A tincture is also made from tlm 
 fresh leaves. See Vegetable juices and 
 TiNOTUHES (Ethereal). 
 
 Tincture of Tol'u. Syn. Tinctuea toiu- 
 TANUS (B. P.), Tinctuea tolutana (Ph. L. & 
 D.), T. BALSAMi Tolutani, T. Toiumebe 
 BA18AMI, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Balsam of 
 Tolu, 1 ; rectified spirit, 8 ; dissolve, filter, and 
 make up to 8. — Dose, 15 to 30 minims, mixed 
 with mucilage or syrup. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Balsam of Tolu, 2 oz. (3i oz.— 
 Ph. E.); rectified spirit, 1 quart (1 pint— Ph. 
 D.) ; dissolve (by the aid of a gentle heat— 
 Ph. E. & D.), and filter. 
 
 Obs. This tincture is reputed pectoral and 
 expectorant; but it is chiefly used as an adju- 
 vant in mixtures, on account of its flavour. — 
 Dose, 10 to 60 drops. 
 
 Tincture, Tooth. Prep. 1. (Greenhongh's.) 
 From bitter almonds, 2 oz. ; Brazil wood, cin- 
 namon, and orris root, of each i oz. ; alum, 
 cochineal, and salt of sorrel, of each 1 dr. ; 
 spirit of scurvy grass, 2 fl. oz.; proof spirit, \\ 
 pint; macerate a week. 
 
 2. (Hudson's.) From the tinctures of 
 myrrh and cinShona, and cinnamon water, 
 equal parts, with a little arquebusade and gum 
 Arabic, 
 
TINCTURE 
 
 1671 
 
 8. (Ruspiiii's.) From orris root, 8 oz. ; 
 clovps, 1 01. ; ambergris, 20 gr. ; rectified 
 ipirit, 1 quiirt ; digested for 14 days. The 
 above are used as cosmetics for the teeth and 
 gams. The last has long been a popular 
 dentifrice. 
 
 Tincture, Toothache. Odontalgic tincture. 
 See also Daops, Essenob, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Turmeric. Sy». TiNCTUBi 
 CTBcniiji. (Dr Wood.) Prep. Turmeric, 1 
 oz. ; proof spirit, 6 oz. 
 
 Tincture of Turpentine. Si/n. Tinotpba 
 TBEBBINTHIN^. (P. Cod.) Prep. Venice tur- 
 pentine, 4 oz. ! rectified spirit, 1 pint. 
 
 Tincture of Tuyaya. St/n. Tinctobje tu- 
 TAYi;. Prep. Tujaja root, in powder, 12 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, 36 oz. ; macerate for 14 days. If 
 tor internal use it must be diluted with four 
 times its volume of spirit. — Dose, 1 to 10 
 minims. In syphilis. 
 
 Tincture of Vale'rian. %». Tinotcba 
 VALEBIANJJ (B. p., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. 
 1. (B.P.) Valerian bruised, 1 ; proof spirit, 8 ; 
 macerate the valerian 48 hours with 6 of the 
 spirit, agitating occasionally; paclc in a per- 
 colator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of 
 the spirit; when it ceases to drop, press and 
 filter, washing' the marc with spirit to make up 
 8.— Dose, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz. ; 
 proof spirit, Iquart; macerate 7 days (14diiys 
 — Ph. D.; or by percolation — Pli. E.), press, 
 and filter. Tonic and antispasmodic. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 ft. dr. ; in hysteria, epilepsy, &c. 
 
 Tincture of Valerian (Compound). St/n. 
 Ammoniatbd tinotcee op talbeian, Vola- 
 tile r. OP T. ; TiNOTURA VALEEIANiB COM- 
 POSITA (Ph. L.), T. T. AMMONLAIA (B. P., Ph. 
 E.),L. Prep. 1. (B.P.) Valerian, bruised, 1 ; 
 aromatic spirit of ammonia, 8 ; macerate the 
 valerian 7 days, press, filter, and add spirit to 
 make up 8. — Dose, 4 to 1 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Valerian root, bruised, 5 oz. ; 
 aromatic spirit of ammonia (simple — Ph. E.), 
 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (or by per- 
 colation — Ph. E ), then press, and filter. Sti- 
 mulant, tonic, and antispasmodic. — Dose and 
 use, same as those of the simple tincture, than 
 which it is thought to be more powerful. The 
 tincture of the shops is generally made with 
 only 1 lb. of the root to the gallon. 
 
 Tincture of Vanilla. Si/». Tinotuea tan- 
 ILLK. (Ph. G.) Prep. Vanilla pods, 1 part ; 
 rectified spirit, 5 parts. Macerate 8 days. 
 
 Tincture of Veratria. Sj/n. Tikctuea vee- 
 ATV.IM, (Magendie.) Prep, Veratria, 4 gr. ; 
 rectified spirit, 1 dr. 
 
 Tincture of Vera'trnm. Syn. Tinctuee or 
 
 WHITB HELLBBOEB ; TlNCTU^A VBBATBI VIBI- 
 BIS; TlXCTUKA HELLEBOEI ALBI, T. TBEATBI 
 
 (Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Green hellebore 
 root, in coarse powder, 4; rectified spirit, 20; 
 macerate the powder with 15 of the spirit 48 
 hours, agitating occasionally, pack it in a per- 
 colator, let it drain, pour on the remainder of 
 the spirit, when it ceases to drop, press, filter, 
 
 wash the marc with spirit to make up 20. — 
 Dose, 5 to 20 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) White hellcbore,4oz.; proof spirit, 
 
 1 pint; digest or percolate. — Dose, 10 drops, 
 
 2 or 3 times a day, gradually increased; in 
 gout, rheumatism, &r., as a substitute for 
 colchicum ; also, externally. 
 
 Tincture of Virginian Snake Boot. Tincture 
 of serpentary. 
 
 Tincture of Vittie-vayr. Si/n. Tinctuba 
 TKTiVEBii:, L. Prep. From vittie-viiyr (roots 
 of Andropogon muricatis), 2i oz. ; proof spirit, 
 1 pint; macerate a week. Stimulint, tonic, 
 and sudorific. — Dose, 15 to 30 drops. 
 
 Tincture, Vulnerary. St/u. TiNcirEi vul- 
 NEEABIA. (P. Cod.) Prep. Pre»li leaves of 
 wormwood, angelica, basil, calamint, fennel, 
 hyssop, marjoram, balm peppermint, origanum, 
 rosemary, rue, savory, sage, wild thyme, St 
 John's wort tops, lavender tops, of each 1 oz. 
 (all cut up) ; rectified spirit, 20 oz. (b_v weight). 
 Digest 10 days. 
 
 Tincture of 'Walnuts. Si/n. Tinctuea in- 
 OLANDIS. (Ph. Dan.) Prep. Green shells of 
 walnut, 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 'Zi oz. Digest for 
 6 days. 
 
 Tincture of Walnut leaves. Sun. Ting- 
 tuba iNGLANDis FOLiOEUM. (ilr Ince.) 
 Prep. Dried walnut leaves, 16 oz. ; macerated 
 for 7 days in a gallon of proof s]V\rtt.— Dose, 
 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. To prevent sickness, 
 or to cover tlie taste of cod-liver oil. 
 
 Tincture, Warburg's Fever. Sj/n. '1'inctcba 
 FEBEIFtlGA Waebheoii. According to M. 
 Fuchs, this tincture may he exactly imitated 
 as follows : — Take of hepatic aloes and zedoary 
 root, of each 1 dr.; saffron, 3 gr. ; angelica 
 root and camphor, of each 2 gr. ; spirit ("SQ?, 
 or about 18 o. p.), 3 oz. ; make a tinctnre 
 (which should be 2j dr.), and dissolve in it (by 
 the aid of a gentle heat), 30 gr. of sulphate of 
 quinine. It is put up in 5-dr. bottles, each of 
 which contains a dose, and is sold at about 6s. 
 English. If the spirit be weaker than 18 or 
 20 0. p., some of the sulphate remains undis- 
 solved. 
 
 Tincture of Wild Cherry Bark. Si/n. Tino- 
 tuea PEUNI VIEGINIAB.E. Prep. Wild 
 cherry bark, bruised, 2 oz. ; pniof spirit, 1 
 pint. Digest 14 days, press, and filter. May 
 also be made by percolation. 
 
 Tincture of Winter Cherry. St/n. Tinciitea 
 PHT8ALI3 alkikeng^. Prep. , Take of the 
 whole plant, dried, 4 oz. ; rectifieii spirit, 1 
 pint. Digest for 10 days, strain, and filter. 
 Diuretic and febrifuge. — Dose, i dr. to 1 dr. 
 
 Tinctnre of Wormwood. Si/n. Tinctuea 
 ABSINTHII. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dried wormwood,, 
 6 oz. ; proof spirit, 30 oz. (by weight.) ; ma- 
 cerate for 8 days, and strain. — Dose, 1 dr. 
 
 Tinctnre of Wormwood (Compound). Si/n. 
 Tinotuea absinthii composita. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Dried wormwood tops, 1 oz. ; gentian, 
 hitter orange peel, of each 1 oz. ; srermander, 
 
 1 oz. ; rhubarb, | oz. ; aloes, 2 dr. ; cascariUa, 
 
 2 dr. ; proof spirit, 2 pints. 
 
1672 
 
 TINCTURE 
 
 Loss of Spirit in maTcing Tinctures hy the British Pharmacopeeia.^ — Mr Umnbt gives the 
 following table, as embodying the result of his experience : — 
 
 
 Quantity 
 made. 
 
 Alcohol -838 
 
 to make 
 up measure. 
 
 Alcoliol -920 
 
 to make 
 up measure. 
 
 LosB p. c. by 
 volume. 
 
 Gain p. c. by 
 volume. 
 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 Pints. 
 
 
 
 Tinct. aconit 
 
 4 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 7^9 
 
 
 „ arniea3 . 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 3-0 
 
 ... 
 
 3-8 
 
 
 „ aurantii . 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 50 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 „ belladonnse 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 •7 
 
 4-1 
 
 
 „ benz. couip. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 „ baehu . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 i'-'o 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 „ calumbee . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 7^1 
 
 
 „ camphor, com; 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 • •• 
 
 •5 
 
 •7 
 
 
 „ cantharid. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 *•• 
 
 •6 
 
 1-9 
 
 
 „ capsici . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1-0 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 „ cardam. co. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 £•5 
 
 „ cascarillae 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 2'o 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 „ castor 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 "•5 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 „ catechu . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ... 
 
 No loss. 
 
 
 
 „ chirettae . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 2-0 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 „ ciuchonse 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ... 
 
 12-0 
 
 150 
 
 
 „ „ CO. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 >.* 
 
 90 
 
 11-3 
 
 
 „ cinnam. . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 4'0 
 
 100 
 
 
 „ cocci 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •25 
 
 31 
 
 
 „ colchici sem. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1-5 
 
 9-4 
 
 
 „ conii 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 •75 
 
 4^6 
 
 
 „ croci 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •60 
 
 7-5 
 
 
 „ cubebse . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 "•5 
 
 
 3-2 
 
 
 „ digitatis . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 7-5 
 
 
 ergotse . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 20 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 „ ferri acet. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 „ gallas 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •4 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 gent. CO. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 7-0 
 
 8-7 
 
 
 hyoscyami 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 *■• 
 
 6-0 
 
 7^5 
 
 
 jalapsB . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 20 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 „ kino 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 No loss. 
 
 
 
 
 „ kramerisB 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ... 
 
 20 
 
 5-'o 
 
 
 „ lavand. comp. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 2-0 
 
 
 1-3 
 
 
 „ limonis . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ... 
 
 i-5 
 
 94 
 
 
 „ lobelise . 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2^5 
 
 10-5 
 
 
 „ „ aether. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 3-52 
 
 ... 
 
 14-5 
 
 
 „ Inpuli 
 
 
 
 5- 
 
 
 4-'o 
 
 100 
 
 
 „ myrrhse . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 2-'5 
 
 
 6-2 
 
 
 „ nuc. vom. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 ■0 
 
 
 6-2 
 
 
 „ opii 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 "■75 
 
 10 
 
 
 „ „ ammon. 
 
 
 
 2-5 
 
 •5 
 
 
 2^5 
 
 
 pyrethri . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1-0 
 
 
 12-5 
 
 
 „ quassias . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 >.* 
 
 "•7 
 
 8-7 
 
 
 „ rhei 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 >.* 
 
 4^0 
 
 50 
 
 
 „ sabinae . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 •8 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 „ scillae 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 7-5 
 
 
 „ senegas . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ... 
 
 •75 
 
 9-3 
 
 
 „ sennae , , 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 2-0 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 „ serpeutar. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •9 
 
 10'9 
 
 
 „ stramon. . 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 •5 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 „ sambul . 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 10 
 
 4-2 
 
 
 „ valer. ammon. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 s's' 
 
 
 4-4 
 
 
 „ valerian . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 2-'3 
 
 5-7 
 
 
 „ veratri virid. . 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 156 
 
 
 , zingiber . 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 2-5 
 
 
 6-3 
 
 
 „ fort. . 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 3-6 
 
 ■ •• 
 
 37-5 
 
 
 1 * Pbarm. Joum.,* Srd series, 1, 321—379. 
 
 ' Sp. tether, eulpb. 
 
 * Sp. ammon. aromat. 
 
TINCTURES-TISANE 
 
 1673 
 
 nnetnre of Tellow Jasmine. %n. Tinc- 
 
 TTBA OELSEHII 8EHPK11VIBEK8. Prep. 
 Yellow jaiinine, 1 oz. ; rectlHed Bpirit, 1 pint. 
 — Hon, 20 to -U) minims. 
 
 Tinctare of Zedoary. Syn. Tinotuba 
 zssoabIjG. (Ph. A met.) Fref. Zcdoary 
 root, I piirt ; rectified spirit, 8 parts. Digest 
 and filter. 
 
 Tincture of Zedoary (Compound). Syn. 
 
 TiNCTtJBA ZBDOAEH C0MP08ITA ; WEDEL'S 
 
 Ebsbktia Cabminativa. Prep. Zedoary, 4 
 oz. ; caliinius, galangal, of each 2 oz. ; chamo- 
 mile, aniseed, caraway seed, of each 1 oz. ; 
 bay-berries and cloves, of each 6 dr. ; orange- 
 peel anil muce, of each 4 dr.; peppermint 
 water and rectified spirit, of each 24 dr. In 6 
 days strain, .tvA add hydrochloric etiier, 4 oz. 
 
 TIHCTURES (Concentrated). Syn. Tinc- 
 TUE« concknteat^ Haenli, L. Prep. (Ph. 
 Baden.) Digest 8 parts of the vegetable pow- 
 der in 16 of iplrit of the sp. gr. '857 (45 o. p.), 
 for 4 days, at 72° Fahr., with occasional agi- 
 tation, then press, and filter; to the marc or 
 residuum add as much spirit as it has absorbed, 
 and again press, and filter; the wciglit of the 
 mixed liquors should be 16 parts. In this way 
 lire prepared concentrated tinctures of aconite 
 loaves ; arnica and chamomile flowers ; bellii- 
 douua, digitalis, hemlock, henbane, pepper- 
 mint, and saviue leaves; ipecacuanha and 
 valerian roots, &c. 
 
 TINCTURES (Cu'linary). See Kssbnoes, 
 Spibits, &o. , 
 
 TINCTURES (Ethe"reBl). Syn. Iiscyv&b. 
 ^THEBE^, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) From the 
 vegetable substance, 1 oz. ; sulphuric ether, 
 4 oz. (or 6 fl. oz.) ; by maceration, loi- 4 days, 
 in a well-closed vessel; or, preferably, by per- 
 colation in a cylindrical ghis.4 vessel furnished 
 with a stopper, and terminating at the lower 
 end in a funnel, obstructed with a little cotton. 
 The powder being introduced over the cotton, 
 pour on enough ether to moisten it, put in 
 the stopper, fix tlie tube into the neck of a 
 bottle, and leave it for 48 hours; then add, 
 gradually, the remaining portion of tlie etiier, 
 and, lastly, enough water to displace the ether 
 absorbed. In this manner are prepared the 
 ethereal tinctures of aconite leaves, arnica 
 flowers, belladonna, hemlock, foxglove, to- 
 bacco, pellitory, solanum, valerian, strauionium, 
 &c., of the Piiris Codex. 
 
 The ethereal tinctures of amber, ambergris, 
 assareetida, cantharldes (acetic ether), castor, 
 musk, tolu, &c., are prepared by maceration 
 only. 
 
 TINCTURES (Odoriferous). These are pre- 
 pared from odoriferous substances by the usual 
 processes of digestion or percolation. See 
 Spibits. 
 
 TINCTURES from Recent Vegetables. See 
 Veoetable juices. 
 
 TIN'DER (German). See Amadou. 
 
 TISANE. [Fr.] Syn. PilSiN; Ptisana, 
 I'. This form of medicine is much used in 
 France. Tisaues may be readily prepared by 
 
 slightly medicating barley, rice, or tamarind 
 water, lemonade, &c. !<ce Decoction, Ikfu- 
 8I0N, Julep, PTisAif, Ac, and below. 
 
 Tisane, Antimonial. (Brera.) Lemonade, 
 2 pints; tartar emetic, 2 gr. ; sugar, q. a. 
 
 Tisane, Antiscorbutic. An infusion of 
 buckbeiin and the fresh roots of horseradish. 
 
 Tisane, Antivenereal. Various compound 
 decoctions of sarsaparilla are known by this 
 name. 
 
 Tisane of Arnica. (P. Cod.) As elder 
 flower tisane. 
 
 Tisane of Arnica Flowers. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Arnica flowers, \ oz. ; boiling water, 6 pints. 
 Infuse half to an hour and filter through paper. 
 Prepare in the same manner satl'ron tisane. 
 
 Tisane of Asparagus. (P. Cod.) Asparagus 
 root, f oz. ; )H>iling water, 2 pints. Infuse 2 
 hours, and strain. Tisanes are prepared in 
 the same way from the roots of elecampane, 
 comlrey, strawberries, rhatany, soap. wort, 
 spruce. fir buds, l^eruvian bark, dulcamara and 
 burdock root. 
 
 Tisane of Bread. Syn. Decoctuu album. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. Prepared hartshorn, 1 oz. ; 
 bread crumb, 2 oz. ; gum Arabic, 1 oz. ; water, 
 sufficient quantity to yield 5 pints; boil for \ 
 hour, strain through a coarse sieve, and add 
 wliite sugar, 6 oz. ; orange-flower water, 1 oz. 
 
 Tisane of Cassia. (P. Cud.) Prep. Ex- 
 tract of cassia, 1 oz. ; dissolve in 6 pints of 
 water at 140° P. 
 
 Tisane, Common. A decoction of pearl- 
 barley and couch-grass, flavoured with liquo- 
 rice root. 
 
 Tisane of Conch Grass. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Root of couch grass, sliced, 6 dr. Boil for \ 
 hour with water suffiiiont to yield 2 pints. 
 
 Tisane of Elder Flowers. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Elder flowers, 1 dr.; boiling water, li pint. 
 Maceruto for \ hour, and strain. 
 
 Tisane of Gentian. (P. Cod.) Prep, (ien- 
 tian, sliced, i oz. ; cold v\ater, 5 pints. Infuse 
 4 hours, and strain. In the same manner 
 prepare tisanes of quassia, sinmruba, and 
 rhubarb. 
 
 Tisane of Groats. From groats, as tisane of 
 pearl barley. 
 
 Tisane of Gnaiacum Wood. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Gnaiacum shavings, IJ oz. Boil for 
 1 hour with sntficient water to yield :i pints, 
 and strain. 
 
 Tisane of Gnm. Syn. Eau de oomme. 
 Prep. Bruised gum Arabic, 1 oz. ; water, 2^ 
 pints. Dissolve without heat, and strain. 
 
 Tisane of Iceland Moss. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Just boil 2J dr. of Iceland moss in a little 
 water and throw away the first decoction, 
 then wash the remaining moss with cold 
 water; then add a fresh quantity of water, 
 and boil lor i hour, so as to obtain 2 pints. 
 
 Tisane of Irish Moss. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Wash 90 gr. of carrwgeen in cold water; 
 then, after boiling ten minutes, add water in 
 sufficient quantity so as to yield 2 pints. 
 
 Tisane of Liqnorice. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 
1674 
 
 TISSUE— TOBACCO 
 
 Sliced liquorice. 1 oz. ; boiling water, 5 pints. 
 Infuse 2 hoars, and strain. Prepare in tlie 
 same manner (but infusing for J hour) tisanes 
 from the dried leaves of borage, wormwood, 
 holy thistle, chicory, fumitory, ground ivy, 
 pellitory, wild pansy, soapwort, scabious, from 
 the cones of the hop, aniseed, red-rose leaves, 
 lesser centanry tops, and linseed. 
 
 Tisane of Mezereon. (P. Cod.) Frep. 
 Mezereon bark, 2 dr.; water, 2 i pints; boil 
 to 1| pint, and strain. 
 
 Tisane of Orange Leaves. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Leaves of the orange tree, \ oz. ; boiling water, 
 5 pints; infuse J hour, and strain. Prepare 
 in the same manner tisanes from the leaves of 
 wormwood, maiden-hair, hyssop, balm, mint, 
 and sage ; and from the flowers of white mul- 
 lein, chamomile, red poppy, mallow, marsh- 
 mallow, lime, coltsfoot, and violet. 
 
 Tisane of Pearl Barley. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Wa>h f oz. of pearl barley in cold water; 
 strain off water, and boil in a sufficient quan- 
 tity of water, so as to yield 2 pints. Tisanes 
 of groats and rice are made in the same 
 manner. 
 
 Tisane, Pectoral. An infusion of the roots 
 of liquorice and marsh mallow, Canadian 
 maidenhair, and the flowers of the red poppy 
 and coltsfoot, in a decoction of rice. 
 
 Tisane of Kice. (P. Cod.) Prepared in the 
 same manner as tisane of pearl barley. 
 
 Tisane of Bice, with Lemon. (Augustin.) 
 Prep. Washed rice, 1 oz. ; water, 4 lbs. ; 
 boil, strain, add barley sugar, \ dr.; lemon 
 juice, 1 oz. 
 
 Tisane of Eoses with Milk. (P. Cod.) 
 Prep. Conserve of roses, 1 oz. ; new milk, 1 
 pint. Rub together, and strain. 
 
 Tisane, Koyal. From senna, fresh chervil, 
 and sulphate of soda, of each 4 dr. ; aniseed 
 and cinnamon, of each 1 dr. ; 1 lemon, sliced; 
 cold water, If pint; macerate for 24 hours, 
 stirring occasionally, then press and filter. 
 Aperient. — Dose, A wineglassful, or more, 
 repeated every half-hour, until it operates. 
 
 Tisane of Salep. (P. Cod.) Prep. Boil 1 
 dr. of salep in 16 oz. of water, and strain. 
 
 Tisane of Senega. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Senega, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 5 pints. Infuse 
 for 2 hours, and strain. Prepare in the same 
 manner tisanes of the roots of marshmallow 
 and valerian. 
 
 Tisane of Snlphnric Acid. (P. Cod.) Li- 
 MONADE BULFUEiQUE. Prep. Sulphuric 
 acid (1'84), 72 minims ; water, 4^ pints ; 
 syrup, 10 oz. (by weight) ; mix s. a. Prepare 
 in the same manner nitric and phosphoric 
 acid lemonade; the first with acid of sp. gr. 
 1'42; the second with acid of sp. gr. 1-45. 
 
 Tisane of Tamarinds. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 Pulp of tamarind, 1 oz. ; boiling water, 2 
 pints. Infuse \ hour. 
 
 Tisane, Tartaric. (P. Cod.) Frep, Svrup 
 of tartaric acid, 2 oz. ; water, 18 oz. Prepare in 
 the same manner with their respective syrups. 
 
 lemonades of citric acid, gooseberries, cherries, 
 and raspberries. 
 TIS'SXJE (Blis'tering). See Vesicantb. 
 TITA'IflUM. A rare metal, discovered by 
 Klaproth in 1794, and examined by Wollaston 
 in 1822. It is occasionally found at the 
 bottom of the smelting furnaces of iron works, 
 in combination with nitrogen and cyanogen, 
 under the form of minute crystals, having a 
 coppery lustre. 
 
 TOAD-IN-THE-HOLE. One to six ounces of 
 flour, break the contents of one egg, and stir in 
 by degrees one pint of milk, falsing care to 
 keep the mixture free from lumpiness. Place 
 meat or ox kidney cut in slices in a greased 
 pie dish or tin ; then pour the batter over the 
 meat after adding a pinch of salt, and let it 
 bake for an hour to an hour and a quarter. 
 The batter should be allowed to stand before 
 being cooked. 
 
 TOAST (Essence of). This is liquid burnt 
 suirar or spirit colouring. Used to make 
 extemporaneous toast-and-water (3 or 4 drops 
 to the glass), and to flavour soups, gravies, 
 &c. 
 
 TOAST AND WATES. Toast a crust of 
 bread, taking care not to char it, and put it 
 into a pint of cold water, in a covered vessel. 
 After standing lialf an hour it will be ready 
 for use. 
 
 TOBACCO. Syn. TABACfJM (Ph. L., E., & D.), 
 L. ; Tabao, Fr. The prepared leaf of Nico- 
 iiana Tabaimm (Linn.), or other species of the 
 same genus. The name was given to this 
 herb by the Spaniards, because it was flrst 
 seen by them at Tabasco, or Tabaco, a province 
 of Yucatan, in Mexico. 
 
 The tobacco of commerce is chiefly obtained 
 from Virginia, and other parts of the United 
 States, and recently from Japan and California, 
 but the fiiiest varieties are imported from 
 Havannah and from the East. The plants are 
 grttbered when mature, during hot diy weather, 
 and are hung up in pairs, in sheds, to dry. 
 When sufficiently dry, the leaves are separated 
 from the stems, bound up in bundles, and 
 these are formed into bales, or packed iu hogs- 
 heads, for exportation. 
 
 Prep. To impart to the dried leaves the 
 characteristic odour and flavour of tobacco, 
 and to render them agreeable to smokers and 
 snuffers, it is necessary that they should 
 undergo a certain preparation, or kind of fer- 
 mentation. If a fresh green leaf of tobacco 
 be crushed between the fingers, it emits 
 merely the herbaceous smell common to most 
 plants; but if it be triturated in a mortar 
 along with a very small quantity of quicklime 
 or caustic alkali, it will immediately exhale 
 the peculiar odour of manufactured tobacco. 
 Tliis arises from the active and volatile ingre- 
 dients being liberated from their previoas 
 combination, by the ammonia developed by 
 fermentation, or the action of a stronger base. 
 Tobacco contains a considerable quantity of 
 
TOBACCO 
 
 1676 
 
 chloride of animonium, and this substance, 
 n ia well known, when pluced in contact with 
 lime or potassa, immediately evolves free am- 
 monia, if we reverse the case, and saturate 
 the excess of alkali in prepared tobacco by the 
 addition of any mild acid, its characteristic 
 o<loiir entirely disappears. In the preparation 
 of tobacco previously to its manufacture for 
 side, these changes are effected by u species of 
 fermentation. Pure water, without any addi- 
 tion, is quite sulBiicnt to promote and main- 
 tain the perfect fermentation of tobacco. The 
 leaves soon become hot and evolve ammonia j 
 during this time the heaps require to be occa- 
 sionally opened up and turned over, lest they 
 become too hot, take fire, or run into the 
 putrefactive fermentation. The extent to 
 which the process is allowed to proceed varies, 
 for difTerent kinds of snuff or tobacco, from 
 one to three months. 
 
 Qual., ife. Tobacco is a powerful nnrrotic, 
 sedative, and emetic ; and is also cathartic and 
 diuretic; but the last in a weaker degree than 
 either squills or foxglove. Its action is vio- 
 lently depressing and relaxing, producing 
 fainting, and even death, in comparatively 
 
 small quantities. Toxicologists rank it among 
 the more active narcotico-acrid poisons; and 
 physicians, when they wish to prmluce sadden 
 physical prostration, in accidents or spasmodic 
 diseases, order an enema of the infusion or 
 smoke of tobacco. Its deleterious properties 
 depend on the presence of narcotine, one of 
 the most frightful vegetable poisons known, of 
 which ordinary Virginia tobacco contains from 
 6 to 72. 
 
 " The chief sources of tobacco in Europe are 
 Germany, Holland, Salonica, Hungary, and 
 Russia; in Asia, the principal are China, 
 Japan, the East Indies, Latakia, and other 
 parts of Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Java, Syria, 
 and Manilla; in Africa, Algiers; in South 
 America, Varinas, Bjazil, Uruguay, New 
 Grenada, Paraguay, Cumana, and other fields 
 are most productive ; while the great tobacco 
 districts of North America are the United 
 States, Mexico, Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico. 
 The extent to which these and others are 
 severally laid under contribution by the 
 manufacturers of this country is shown by 
 the following partial analysis of the imports 
 of 1873 and 1874 :" 
 
 Frnm , 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 
 Ill 
 
 lb. 
 
 Germany 
 
 687,720 
 
 856,646 
 
 Holland 
 
 5,t29,.511 
 
 7,356,798 
 
 France 
 
 1,436,985 
 
 1,712,839 
 
 Gieeco 
 
 330,712 
 
 84,161 
 
 Turkey 
 
 l,4;)i),r,72 
 
 696,132 
 
 Biitisti India 
 
 3,068,109 
 
 2,3.5ii,tiH7 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 171,803 
 
 7S(i,(iii8 
 
 China 
 
 2,136,637 
 
 ],3:i.s,4(;7 
 
 Japan 
 
 4,846,892 
 
 2,948,036 
 
 Spanish West India Islands .... 
 
 295,654 
 
 242. 3(U 
 
 New Grenada (United States of Columbia) 
 
 2,199,885 
 
 1,(;17,573 
 
 Aigentiiie Republic 
 
 340.787 
 
 i;i;3.940 
 
 United States of America .... 
 
 57,593,826 
 
 53..'>i;7,5.",.j 
 
 Other countries 
 
 1,404,640 
 
 l,N'Jti.(i79 
 
 81,382,733 
 
 70,175,215 
 
 Most of the so-called Havannah cigars 
 which arrive in England are shipped fiom 
 German ports. It appears that a higher price 
 is obtainable for dark than for light-coloured 
 cigars, the demand for the former being about 
 three times as large as for the latter. Unfortu- 
 nately, however, owing in a great measure to 
 the partial failure of the tobacco crops of late 
 years, light-coloured tobacco is much more 
 common than dark. In order, therefore, to 
 render the cigars made of light-coloured to- 
 bacco saleable at a higher price, and also to 
 improve the appearance of old and faded 
 cigars, if we are to believe a pamphlet re- 
 cently published at Bremen, where there are 
 several of these manufactories, various infu- 
 
 sions have of late been prepare d and largely 
 sold, under the name of " Havanna brown," 
 " sap brown," and " condensed sauce." All 
 these preparations are now openly advertised, 
 and directions given for using them. None 
 of these infusions contain anything particu- 
 larly injurious, most of them consisting of 
 brown vegetable dyes; nevertheless, they en- 
 able the manufacturer to give to cigars made 
 of old and faded leaves the appearance of 
 good Havannah cigars. A German paper 
 states that if a piece of white blotting paper, 
 saturated with diluted sal ammoniac, is passed 
 a few times liglitly over the eigar, the cjlour- 
 ing matter, if any has been used, will come 
 > 'Bi'itisli Manufacturing Industries,' Sandford. 
 
1676 
 
 TODDY— TORMENTIL 
 
 off on it, whereas the natural brown of the 
 tobacco leaf will remain. 
 
 Tobacco Adulteration, — The popular 
 belief that bad cigars are made of cabbage 
 leaves is not justified by the last official 
 report on tobacco adulteration. This 
 document contains a tabulated account of the 
 seizures of spurious tobacco made in the 
 Dnited Kingdom since 1864; and in the 
 whole paper there is no mention whatever of 
 the much-suspected vegetable. Its place in 
 the black list is supplied by a variety of in- 
 gredients large enough to rejoice the heart of 
 any member of the Anti-Tobacco League. 
 The dishonest dealer In things smokeable is 
 shown by the report to make use of three 
 different sorts of materials besides that which 
 he professes to employ. The first sort is re- 
 quired for the actual substance of the cigar ; 
 the second for improving its outward appear- 
 ance ; and the third for imparting to it what 
 is supposed to be a better taste. In the 
 former category the favourite substances 
 seem to be the leaves of the lime tree, the 
 husks of wheat and oats, cotton, yarn, and 
 tonquin bean. But there are numerous cases 
 where the ingredients have been much more 
 curiously selected, and have included cocoa- 
 nut fibre, small seeds, cotton, wood, and bread. 
 At one establishment 50 lbs. of ' tobacco dust ' 
 were found and analysed, when it was shown 
 to contain string, wood, nails, grindings of 
 tobacco-pipe, dirt, and all sorts of refuse. 
 Another large class of materials is apparently 
 used for securing the adhesion and consistency 
 of the cigar when made. Amongst these 
 starch is the most prominent ; but it includes 
 gum and amidiue, blue, gum Arabic, glue, 
 glycerin, and essential oils. The colour of 
 the fabrication is the next thing to be attended 
 to, and for thi-s purpose resort is had to yellow 
 ochre, red sandalwood, logwood, lampblack, 
 and Venetian red. As for the flavour of the 
 cigar, It is varied to suit the most diverse 
 tastes ; but the usual object seems to be to 
 impart to it a pleasing sweetness of tone. 
 Accordingly saccharine matter, and especially 
 treacle, is very largely pressed into the ser- 
 vice. For those who like a rather more de- 
 cided taste, liquorice, salt, logwood, glycerin, 
 and aniseed are used. It is in Dublin where 
 the latter ingredient is most fashionable, 
 while Edinburgh is fondest of treacle and 
 sugar, and East London is addicted to liquo- 
 rice. (' Pall Mall Gazette.') 
 
 Tobacco, British. Syn. Heeb tobacco; 
 Tabacum Angliciw, Species bteenutokije, 
 L. Prep. Take of thyme, marjoram, and 
 hyssop, of each 2 oz. ; betony and e.Kbright, 
 3 oz. ; rosemary and lavender, of each 4 oz. ; 
 coltsfoot, 1 lb. ; mix, press them together, and 
 cut the mass in imitation of manufactured 
 foreign tobacco. Some asthmatic subjects add 
 5 or 6 oz. of stramonium or thorn-apple 
 leaves; and others add ^ lb. of genuine 
 tobacco. 
 
 Tobacco, Indian. See Lobelia. 
 TOD'DY. Obtained from various species of 
 palms, by cutting off the end of the flowering 
 bud, and collecting the sap. Used, fresh, as 
 a cooling beverage ; and, after fermentation, 
 as an intoxicating one. Sweetened grog is so 
 called in Cornwall, and in some other parts of 
 England. 
 
 TOf'FT. Stfti. Ev£BTON TOFFY. A sweet- 
 meat prepared by heating brown sugar, in a 
 saucepan or skillet, with about one half its 
 weight of fresh butter, for 15 to 20 minutes, 
 or until a 'little of it dropped into cold water 
 forms a lump that breaks crisply;' it is then 
 poured into a little buttered tin mould. 
 
 TOM'BAC. An alloy consisting of copper, 
 16 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. ; zinc, 1 lb. Bed tombac is 
 composed of copper, 10 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 
 
 TON'ICS. Medicines that increase the tone 
 of the muscular fibre, and impart vigour to 
 the system. . 
 
 TON'aUIlT EEMEDY. Syn. PuLVls Tbck- 
 CHINEKSIS, P. alexiphaemicps Sikensis, L. 
 Prep. Prom valerian, 20 gr. ; musk, 16 gr. ; 
 camphor, 6 gr. ; mix. Antispasmodic and 
 alexiterial, in doses of 6 to 12 gr., in hooping- 
 cough, &c. ; 1 dr., in hydrophobia, exanthe- 
 mata, and mania. 
 
 TOOTH'ACHE. Syn. Odontaloia, L. This 
 annoying affection frequently arises from sym- 
 pathy with a disordered stomach. In such 
 cases a saline purgative should be administered, 
 and an emetic, if required. When cold is the 
 cause, an excellent remedy is a hot embrocation 
 of poppy-heads, followed by the use of flannel 
 and di iphoretics. When it arises from a hollow 
 or decayed tooth, the best application is a piece 
 of lint moistened with creasote, or a strong 
 spirituous solution of creasote, and closely 
 rammed into the cavity of the tooth. Lau- 
 danum, the essential oils of cloves, caraway, 
 and cajeput, and essence or tincture of pelli- 
 tory of Spain, are also used in the same way. 
 To prevent the recurrence of the latter kind of 
 toothache, the cavity should be filled with an 
 amalgam of gold, or with mineral marmora- 
 tum, or some other good cement. In many 
 cases, chewing a piece of good ginger, or, still 
 better, a small piece of pellitory, will alford 
 relief in a few minutes. The celebrated John 
 Wesley recommended a ' few whiffs ' at a pipe 
 containing a little caraway seed mixed with 
 the tobacco. A slight ' shock' from a voltaic 
 battery will often instantly remove the tooth- 
 ache after all other means have failed. See 
 Deops, Essence, Tinotuee, &c. 
 
 TOOTH CEMENTS. See Dentistey. 
 Obs. It is absolutely neces-ary for success 
 that the teeth be well cleaned out, and wiped 
 dry, before applying any of the above stop- 
 pings or cements. 
 TO'PAZ. See Gems. 
 
 TOE'MENTIL. Syn. ToEMKNTILLiB BADIX ; 
 Toementilla (Ph. L. & E.), L. The root or 
 rhizome of Potentilla Tormentilla. It is 
 astringent and febrifuge, without being stimu- 
 
TORTOISE-SHELL— TRAPS 
 
 1677 
 
 lint— I>o*<. 20 to 60 gr. j in agaea, diar- 
 rboea, 4c. ; also, formerly, in ayphilis. 
 
 TOBTOISE-BHELL, to Folish. Dip a soft 
 linen rag into rouge powder, and rub the tor- 
 toise-ahell with it, and finish off with the 
 hand. Tortoise-ahell combs will not lose their 
 polish if they are rubbed with the hand, after 
 removal from the hair. 
 
 TOUCH-NEEDLES. See Assatinq. 
 
 TOUCH-WOOD. See AMADOtr. 
 
 TOUS-LES-MOIS. The fecnia of the roots 
 of Canna edulis (Ph. D.) ; intended as a sub- 
 atitute for arrow-root. To the naked eye, it 
 closely reaemblea tlie finest quality of potato- 
 atarch, but under the microscope its granules 
 ore found to be oblong, oval, with a concentric 
 structure, and larger than those ul the potato 
 tuber. 
 
 Microscopic appearance of TouB-lca-mnis. 
 
 TOXICOL'OGY. See Poison. 
 
 TBAG'ACANTH. See Guu. 
 
 TRANSPA"EENCIES. Water-colour pic- 
 tures on paper, linen, or calico, if executed in 
 non-opaque or glazing colours, may be con- 
 verted into transparencies by simply brushing 
 over their bricks with Canada balsam, thinned 
 down, when necessary, with a little oil of tur- 
 pentine. For coarse work, boiled oil may be 
 employed. 
 
 TRAPS, HOUSE. With few exceptions, the 
 endless varieties of traps advertised for house- 
 drains are all modifications of the older forms 
 of the ayphon, the midfeather and the ball- 
 trap. The syphon trap consists of a bent 
 tube with a deep curve, in which the water 
 lies and acts as an hydraulic valve. 
 
 The following conditions are essential for 
 its proper action. The curve must be of such 
 a depth as to ensure a height of not less than 
 i inch of water always standing above the 
 highest level of the water in the curve. The 
 
 outlet pipe attached to the trap should not be 
 too small nor have too sudden i> full as it 
 leaves the trap, otherwise when ' running 
 full' of water, all the water will be sucked 
 out of it by the pipe beyond, owing to the 
 too narrow bore and too perpendicular inclina- 
 tion of this latter. 
 
 The midfeather trap conaists of a round or 
 square box or receptacle, into the upper part 
 of which, on one side, an inlet pipe dis- 
 charges, whilst at a corresponding height on 
 the opposite side there is an outlet pipe. The 
 upper part of the box is divided by a partition, 
 which dips at least { inch below the surface 
 of the water, always standing in the receptacle, 
 at the level of the outlet pipe. The principlf, 
 therefore, of the midfeather is similar to the 
 syphon trap. The receptacle is so arranged 
 that any heavy substances collected at tlie 
 bottom can- from time to time be removi-d. 
 A useful variety of the midfeather is ' Dean's 
 patent drain-trap,' manufactured by Edwards, 
 of RuaboD. 
 
 The ball-trap is not in very general u«c. 
 By this arrangement the drain i" trapped by 
 means of a hollow ball, which rises with the 
 water in the drain until it is carried against 
 and closes an orifice. 
 
 The common ball-trap is stated to be in- 
 efficient and unsatisfactory. The facility with 
 which it can be removed or placed out of 
 gear often leads, in the hands of careless ser- 
 vants, to the untrapping of tlie drain alto- 
 gether. A good description of common sink 
 trap is Antel and Lock's, shown in the accom- 
 panying engraving, which explains itself. 
 
 Amongst the circumstances that impair the 
 efficiency of honse-traps may be included the 
 neglect to allow the passage of water through 
 them sufficiently often, and with force enough 
 to flush and cleanse the trap, and renew the 
 water in it. The results are, that tlie water 
 becomes saturated with sewage exhalations, 
 which escape into and contaminate the air in 
 the house ; and that the trap becomes either 
 dry or choked op. 
 
 Another contingency to which house-trnps 
 are exposed when the drains are made to form 
 a continuous and disconnected system with 
 the sewers, is that of the water being sucked 
 out of the trap, owing to the combined etlect 
 of the pressure of sewer air and the aspirating 
 power of the house, into which the sewer-gas 
 would then pass unchecked. 
 
 In our articles Dkainaob and Sinks, we 
 have pointed out the peril attaching to the 
 
1678 
 
 TRAUMATIC BALSAM— TROUT 
 
 intimate connection between the house-drains 
 and sewers, and given in the former practical 
 directions for its avoidance. 
 
 To rest in the belief that the danger can be 
 removed (although the risk may be slightly 
 diminished) by the use of traps alone, is to 
 entertain a very false sense of security. 
 
 TEAUMAT'IC BALSAM. Compound tinc- 
 ture of benzoin is known by this name. See 
 TiNOTUEB. 
 
 TEAUMAT'ICIlfE. This article, as manu- 
 factured by the Gutta Percha Company, is 
 simply a solution of white and dry unmanu- 
 factured gutta percha in bisulphuret of carbon. 
 A small portion dropped on a wound, or raw 
 surface, almost mstantly forms a pliable, water- 
 proof, and air-tight defensive covering to the 
 part. The only objection to the preparation 
 is the fetid odour of the menstruum, which, 
 however, is lost in a few seconds, or may be 
 obviated by employing chloroform as the 
 solvent. 
 
 TEEA'CLE. Syn. MoiASSBS; Theeiaoa 
 (B. P.), Theeiaca, Sacchaei -bms. (Ph. L. & 
 E.), L. The viscid, brown, uncrystallisable 
 syrup which drains from moist sugar during 
 its formation (molasses), and from the sugar- 
 refining moulds (sugar-house molasses). The 
 last, according to Dr Ure, has generally the 
 sp. gr. 1'4, and contains about 75§ of solid 
 matter. 
 
 Treacle is more laxative than sugar, and 
 always contains more or less free acid. It is 
 used as the vehiculum in some of the pill- 
 masses of the Ph. L. See Suoae. 
 
 Treacle, German. Syn. Thehiaca Gee- 
 MANi^, L. An evaporated infusion or decoc- 
 tion of juniper berries. It is sweet-tasted, 
 ai'omatic, and diuretic. 
 
 Treacle, Venice. Syn. London teeacli! ; 
 Theeiaca, T. andeochi, L. The theriaca 
 of the Ph. L. 1746 consists of 61 ingredients, 
 and contains 1 gr. of opium in 75 gr. ; that 
 of the Paris Codex consists of 72 ingredients, 
 and contains 1 gr. of opium in 72 gr. ; that 
 of the Ph. E. 1744 consists of 10 ingredients, 
 and contains 1 gr. of opium in every 100 gr. 
 It is prepared as follows : — Take of serpentary 
 root, 6 oz. ; valerian and contrayerva roots, of 
 each 4 oz. ; aromatic powder, 3 oz. ; guaiacum 
 resin, castor, and nutmeg, of each 2 oz. j 
 saffron and opium (dissolved in a little wine), 
 of each 1 oz. ; clarified honey, 75 oz. ; reduce 
 all the dry ingredients to fine powder, then 
 mix them. The confections or electuaries of 
 catechu and opium are the representatives of 
 the above polypharmic compounds in the 
 modern British Pharmacopooias. 
 
 TEI-, TEIS-. See Nomenoiatueb. 
 
 TEIBASIC PHOSPHATE OF LIME. Syn. 
 Teicalcio phosphate. (Ca3(P04)2.) Tri- 
 ealcic phosphate occurs nearly pure in the 
 mineral known as osibolitb. See Calcium 
 PHOSPHATE for its artificial preparation. 
 
 TKIMETHYLAMINE. Syn. Teimethtlia. 
 
 CjHgN, or 
 
 "si 
 HsJ 
 
 CH. 
 CHi 
 C 
 
 An ammonia found in 
 
 large quantities in the roe of the herring. It 
 also occurs in putrefying flour and urine, and 
 is the ingredient which gives to the Chenopo- 
 dium vulvdria its peculiar asd disagreeable 
 odour. It may also be obtained by distilling 
 ergot of rye with caustic potash. Trimetbylia 
 is a volatile fluid, with a very pungent and un- 
 pleasant fishy smell. It boils at about 41° F. 
 It is metameric with propylamine. 
 
 TEIFE. This is the paunch, or first portion 
 of the ruminant stomach of the ox. It is nutri- 
 tious and easy of digestion, except when very fat. 
 Letheby gives the following as its composition ; 
 Nitrogenous matter , 13'2 
 P it .... 16-4 
 Saline matter • . 2*4 
 Water . . . 680 
 
 100-0 
 
 Tripe, Pried in Batter. "Tripe is cut into 
 piecus about three inches square, and dipped 
 into a batter made of six ounces of flour, one 
 tablespoonful of oil, or one ounce of butteri 
 and half a pint of tepid water. Mix the oil 
 with the flour, add the water by degrees, whip 
 the whites of two eggs to a stiff froth, stir 
 into the batter, dip the tripe in, throw it into 
 a saucepan of boiling fat, let it fry three or 
 four minutes, take it out, and drain. "^ 
 
 TEIP'OLI. Syn. Rotten stone; Alana, 
 Teeea cakiosa, L. a mineral employed as a 
 polishing powder, originally imported from 
 Tripoli, in Barbary. It consists almost en- 
 tirely of silica, and is composed of the skele- 
 tons of minute infusoria, the precise character 
 of which is readily distinguishable under the 
 microscope. 
 
 TRIS'MUS. See Tetanus. 
 
 TRITUEA'TION. Syn. Teittjea, Teitit- 
 EATIO, L. The act of rubbing a solid body to 
 powder. See Pulveeisation. 
 
 TEO'CHES. See Lozenges. 
 
 TEO'NA. A native carbonate of soda, found 
 on the banks of the soda-lakes of Sokena, in 
 Africa. 
 
 TEOPH'AZOME. A concentrated infusion 
 of minced lean meat mixed with the fluid ob- 
 tained from the residuum after being heatod 
 for 20 minutes in a water bath, and flavoured 
 with salt and spices, the whole being, lastly, 
 simmered for a few minutes. Excellent for 
 convalescents. 
 
 TROUT. The Salmo fuHo of Linnaeus, a 
 highly-esteemed fish, found in most of the 
 rivers and lakes of this country. Other mem- 
 bers of the genus saCmo are also so called, as, S. 
 eriox, the bull or grey trout; <S. ferox, the 
 great grey or lake trout ; S. truUa, the salmon 
 trout, &c. All of these varieties are in the 
 finest condition from the end of May to late in 
 September. 
 
 1 Teffetmeier's • Scholar's Handbook of Cookery, &c.' 
 Macmillan & Co. 
 
TRUSSING— TUNGSTEN 
 
 1679 
 
 The tront containa aboat 6 per cent, of fat. 
 It is desirable to cook tliU fish a» soon as con- 
 venient after takinii; it, 
 
 TRUSSING. This is a well-known opera- 
 tion perlomied on poultry or gnme previous to 
 their beiug roasted or boiled. It simply con- 
 sists in drawing or removing the intestines 
 and otlier objectionable parts. In doing this, 
 care must be taken to avoid rupturing the 
 gall-vessel, wiiich, if broken, would impart a 
 very bitter flavour to the poultry.&c, extremely 
 difficult of removal. 
 
 The cook should never take for granted that 
 poultry or game, when it corner from the 
 dealer, has been thoroughly cleansed inside, 
 but, in order to be safe in this matter, should 
 always make a point of cleansing it herself. 
 
 TULUOLE. %».TnLUOLj HENzoBNECCjHaO 
 One of the hydrocarbons homologous with ben- 
 zol, with which it occurs associated with xylol 
 and isocumole, in the light oil obtained I'roiii the 
 distillation of coal tar. It is also one of the 
 products of distillation of balsam of Tulu, and 
 would seem to be identical with the retinaptha 
 obtained by Pelletier and Walter from the 
 distillation of rosin. If oxidised by means ol 
 cbroinic acid it yields benzoic acid. Its boiling 
 point is 230° F., and its sp. gr. 0"87. 
 
 TUMOUKS. Tumours, of which there are 
 a great variety, are abnormal growths, occur- 
 ring in differuut parts of the body. Sir Jas. 
 Paget describes them as belonging to the class 
 of overgrowtlis or hypertrophies, their most 
 constant distinctive characters being — 1. 
 Their deviations, both in respect to size and 
 shape, from the normal type of the body in 
 which they are found. 2. Their apparently 
 inherent power and method of growth. 3. 
 Their development and growth being indepen- 
 dent of those of the rest of the body, and 
 continuing with no evident purpose, when the 
 reat of the body is only being maintained in 
 its normal type. 
 
 Tumours are divided by pathologists into 
 malignant and innocent or benign* 
 
 In the former division is included cancer. 
 The most common varieties belonging to the 
 second division are cutaneous cysts, faity tu- 
 moura, and fibro-cellular tumours. Cutaneous 
 cvsta, which may occur under any part of the 
 skin, are most frequently met with in the 
 scalp. They mostly arise from "the morbid 
 growth of natural duets or follicles, or by the 
 enormous growth of elementary structures, 
 which increa-c from the form of cells or 
 nuclei, and become closed sacs with organised 
 walls capable of producing other growths."' 
 
 The most commonly occurring tumour is 
 the fatty one. It usually develops itself on 
 the bodies of persons of from forty to firty 
 years of age. It seldom occasions inconveni- 
 ence, and appears to be in no way prejudicial 
 to health; occasionally, however, these tu- 
 mours are very unsightly and unpleasant to 
 look upon. The f.it of which they are com- 
 ^ 'Clianibcra' Cycjopffidii.* 
 
 posed appears to differ in no respect from ordi- 
 nary human fat. The uterus is the principal 
 seat of the fibro-cellular tumour. It occurs 
 also in the scrotum, the bones and the sub- 
 cutaneous tissue. These tumours sometimes 
 attain great size, and grow very rapidly. They 
 are sometimes met with exceeding 40 lbs. in 
 weight. Certain polypi belong to this class of 
 tumonr. 
 
 A pseudo tumour is occasionally met with in 
 surgical practice, which may often be mis- 
 taken for a real one, by the unwary or in- 
 experienced practitioner. This, which is known 
 as a phantom tumour, appears to be caused by 
 muscular contraction. Sir Jas. Paget, writing 
 on this subject, says : " The abdominal musclea 
 of hysterical women are most often affected, 
 sometimes with intentional fraud. The imita- 
 tion of a tumour may be so close as to require 
 great tact for its detection ; but chloroform, 
 by relaxing the muscles, dis-ipates the swell- 
 ing. Occnsionally the apparent tumours move. 
 
 TUNG'STEN. W. Syn. '1'c.nqstencm. 
 WoLFBAMiCM, L. A heavy, grey, brittle metal, 
 discovered by Delhuyart. 
 
 The word tungsten, in Swedish, signifies 
 ' heavy stone ' {tungsten), the name being 
 applied to the element because the source from 
 which it is obtained is a heavy mineral called 
 Wolfram, Wolfram may be regarded as a 
 variable double tungstate of iron and man- 
 ganes-'e, and the tungsten occurs in this. A 
 native tungstate of copper has been discovered 
 in Chili. Tungsten is also found in the mine- 
 ral scheelite, a tungstate of lime. From this 
 latter compound it may be procured by digest- 
 ing finely-powdered scheelite in hydrochloric 
 acid. Chloride of calcium is formed, together 
 with insoluble tungstic acid. Upon heating 
 the acid to bright redness in a stream of hydro- 
 gen gas, the metal is left behind. When thus 
 procured it is of a dark-grey colour, but under 
 the burnisher it may be made to assume a 
 metallic lustre. Metallic tungsten may also 
 be obtained by the reductior. of tungstic acid, 
 by means of charcoal at a white heat. When 
 procured by this method it is unaffected by 
 hydrochloric or diluted sulphuric acid,although 
 it becomes reconverted iuto tungstic by the 
 action of nitric acid. 
 
 When tungsten occurs in the pulverulent 
 form, it burns easily into tungstic anhydride, 
 when heated in the air ; and is oxidised and 
 dissolved when boiled with the caustic alka- 
 lies or their carbonates in solution. An alloy, 
 possessed of extreme hardness, may be pro- 
 cured when tungsten is combined with steel, 
 in the proportion of 1 part of tungsten to 10 
 parts of steel. 
 
 There are two known oxides of tungsten, 
 viz. a dioxide (WO.) and a trioxi.le (U'O,). 
 According to Wohler there is a third oxide, 
 having the composition (WOjWOj). 
 
 Dioxide, or Binoxide of Tungsten. (WO.j.) 
 This is an indifferent oxide, and is obt:\ined by 
 treating tungstic acid with hydrogen at a low 
 
1680 
 
 T0NGSTATE OF SODIUM— TURNBULL'S BLUE 
 
 red heat. It occnra as a brown powder, whieli 
 absorbs oxygen greedily from the air, and is 
 dissolved by boiling with solution of caustic 
 potash, hydrogen being evolved and potaa.-ium 
 tungstate being formed. 
 
 Trioxide of Tungsten. (WOs.) Syn. Tvsa- 
 STIC ANHTDKIDE. This may be obtained by 
 decomposing wolfram with aqua regia, and 
 evaporating to di'yness. The resulting tuiig- 
 stic acid is dissolved in ammonia, and the am- 
 mouic tungstate purified by crystallisation. 
 When this ammonic tungstate is heated in the 
 air, it loses ammonia and water, pure tungstic 
 trioxide being left behind. 
 
 Tnngstic Acid. (H^WOj.) This compound 
 may be procured by adding an excess of hydro- 
 chloric acid to a boiling solution of the trioxide 
 ia any of the alkalies. It occurs as a yellow 
 powder. 
 
 Tungstic Chloride. (WCle.) This may be ob- 
 tained by heating tungsten in chlorine, when 
 it sublimes in bronze-coloured needles, which 
 are decomposed by water. When gently 
 lieated in hydrogen, this chloride becomes 
 converted into tetrachloride (WCI4), 
 
 Bisulphide of Tungsten, (WSj.) By heating 
 a mixture of bitungstate of potash with sul- 
 phur, and washing the product with hot water, 
 a black crystalline substance, having the above 
 composition, may be obtained, resembling 
 plumbago in appearance. 
 
 Of the salts of tungsten, tungstate of baryta 
 has been used as a substitute for white lead in 
 painting; but the most important of these is 
 tlie tungstate of soda, described below. See 
 also Tttnostic gltje, 
 
 TUNGSTATE OF SODIUM. NajWOj. This 
 salt is used for rendering linen, cotton, and 
 other fabrics uninflammable ; also as a substi- 
 tute for staimate of sodium as a mordant in 
 dyeing. It may be prepared by adding 9 parts 
 of finely-powdered tungsten to 8 parts of fused 
 carbonate of sodium, and continuing the heat 
 for some time ; on boiling the cooled and pul- 
 verised mass with water, evaporating the fil- 
 trate to dryness, and treating the residue with 
 luke-warm water, the salt dissolves out. Mus- 
 lin steeped in a 202 solution of this salt is per- 
 fectly uninflammable when dry, and the saline 
 film left upon its surface is so smooth that the 
 muslin may be ironed without difficulty. 
 
 TUNGSTIC GLUE. Tungstic glue has been 
 sufrgested as a substitute for hard India rubber, 
 as it can be used for all the purposes to which 
 this latter is applied. It is thus prepared : — 
 Mix together a thick solution of glue with 
 tungstate of soda and hydrochloric acid. A 
 compound of tungstic acid and glue is preci- 
 pitated, which, at a temperature of 86° to 
 lOl" F., is sufficiently elastic to be drawn out 
 into very thin sheets, 
 
 TUNNY FISH, a la Parisienne. As a rule 
 tunny fish is very indigestible, and may be 
 described as ;' neither fish, flesh, fowl, nor 
 good red herring ;" nevertheless, some of our 
 readers may come across this fish, and will be 
 
 glad to hear of a way in which to make it 
 palatable and digestible, 3^ake three or 
 four pounds of fresh tunny flsh, lard it 
 with bacon as you would veal; cook it 
 gently in its own gravy for three hours, with 
 salt, pepper, sweet herbs, little onions, and a 
 small quantity of water. When well cooked, 
 tunny fish makes a nice dish cold for breakfast, 
 TUE'BOT, The Bhombus maximus (Cu- 
 vier), said to be the best, and excepting the 
 halibut, the largest of our flat fishes, Dutch 
 turbots are the most esteemed, 
 Convposition of the turbot : 
 
 Nitrogenous matter IS'l per cent. 
 
 Fat . . . 2-9 
 
 Saline matter . I'O „ 
 
 Water . . . 780 
 
 100- 
 
 TUE'KET. See Poultet, 
 
 TUR'MEEIC, Syn. Cceouma (Ph, L. & 
 D.), L. The rhizome of Curcuma longa. The 
 best is imported from Ceylon, It is stimulant 
 and carminative, but is chiefly used in dyeing 
 yellow, and as an ingredient in curry powder; 
 also as a test for alkalies. It gives a fugi- 
 tive golden yellow with wold, and an orange 
 titige to scarlet. It dies wool and silk, 
 mordanted with common salt, or sal ammo- 
 niac, a fugitive yellow. — Dose, 10 to 30 gr. 
 See CnECUMiNB, 
 
 Composition of 
 
 an average 
 
 sample of Cur 
 
 cuma longa 1 
 
 
 
 
 Water . 
 
 • • 
 
 
 14,-249 
 
 Curcumin 
 
 • • 
 
 
 
 11000 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 
 
 
 
 12075 
 
 Volatile oil . 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-000 
 
 Gum 
 
 
 
 
 
 8113 
 
 Starch . 
 
 
 
 
 
 3-627 
 
 Extractive 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 388 
 
 Woody fibre . 
 
 
 
 
 
 46-548 
 
 Ash, included in 
 
 above w 
 
 ie\ 
 
 gli 
 
 s 
 
 [5-463] 
 
 100 000 
 Under the microscope turmeric presents a 
 very characteristic structure, viz, " a cellular 
 tissue containing large, loose, yellow cells, with 
 here and there small, but very distinct, starch 
 granules, similar in shape and size to those of 
 Curcuma arrowroot, and some woody fibre and 
 dotted ducts. The yellow granular cells can 
 readily be identified whenever they occur,' 
 TURNBULL'S BLUE. Syn. FEKRiCYAiflDB 
 
 OP IRON ; FEEEI lEEEIDCYAlTIDirM, L. Prep. 
 
 Precipitate a solution of protosulphate of iron 
 with another of red prussiate of potash (ferri- 
 cyanide of potassium. 
 
 Obs. This is a variety of Prussian blue, re- 
 markable for its beautiful colour, and may be 
 distinguished from the ordinary Prussian blue 
 of commerce by its action on the yellow prus- 
 siate of potash. When boiled in a solution of 
 the latter it is decomposed, u portion is dis- 
 solved, and a grey residue remains. 
 ' Dr Wmter Blytli, 
 
TURNER'S YELLOW— TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 1681 
 
 TUBNEK'8 YELLOW. See Ykllow pio- 
 
 MK>t3. 
 
 TURNIP. Tbe Srassica napus. This 
 vei;etable pofiBesses but little nutritive value, 
 as will be inferred from the annexed descrip- 
 tion of its composition given by Letbeby : 
 
 1-2 
 
 Nitrogenous mutter 
 
 iStiirch 
 
 .Sugar . 
 
 Suit . 
 
 Water 
 
 51 
 2'1 
 0-6 
 91- 
 
 1000 
 
 Turnips should always be thoroughly cooked, 
 otherwise they are very liable to produce iudi- 
 gcation. 
 
 TUBN'SOLE. See Litmus. 
 
 TUE'PENTINE. Sgn. Tubpentin ; Teeb- 
 DINTHINA (Ph. L., E., D.), L. "An oleo-resin 
 flowing Irom the trunk, the bark being re- 
 moved, of Pinua paluatria (pitch or swainp 
 pine) and Finus Toeda (loblolly or old field 
 pine)." (Ph. L.) " From Pinua aylveairia (the 
 Scotch fir)." (Ph. D.) " Prom various species 
 of Pinua iind Abiea." (Ph. E.) It is viscid, of 
 the consistence of honey, and transparent ; by 
 distillation it is resolved into oil of turpentine, 
 which passes over into the receiver; and into 
 resin, which remains in the still. 
 
 Tarpentiae, Sordeaax. Syn. Fbench tur- 
 PBNTJNK. Prom the Pinua maritima, or cluster 
 pine. Solidifies with magnesia. (Lindley.) 
 
 Turpentine, Chian. Sgn. Chio tukpen- 
 TIKE, Cyprus t., Scio t.; TeeebikthinaChia 
 (Ph. L. & E.), L. " An oleo-resin flowing from 
 the incised trunk of Piatachia terehinthua " 
 (Linn.). (Ph. L.) It is pale, aromatic, frag- 
 rant, and has a warm taste, devoid of acriiiiony 
 or bittiirness. It is much adulterated. A fac- 
 titious article (terebintbina Chia factitia), 
 made as follows, is also very generally sold for 
 it: — Black resin, 7 lbs.; melt, remove the heat, 
 and stir in of balsam of Canada, 7 lb.<. ; oils of 
 fennel and juniper, of each 1 fl. dr. 
 
 Turpentine, Venice. Syn. TEEEBiNTniNA 
 VBNSTA (Ph. E.), L. Liquid resinous exuda- 
 tion from the Abies Larix, or larch tree. It is 
 sweeter and less resinous-tasted than common 
 turpentine, but is now scarcely ever met with 
 in trade. That of the shops is wholly a facti- 
 tious article, made as follows : — Black resin, 
 48 lbs. ; melt, remove the heat, and add of oil 
 of turpentine, 2 galls. 
 
 TUK'FETH MINEKAL. Basic sulphate of 
 mercury. 
 
 TUEBET of chestnuts, a ' Turret of 
 Chestnuts ' {Tourelle de Marrona) is the name 
 of a most toothsome dish. Take rather over 
 two pounds of chestnuts, peel, and cook them 
 in water, with a pinch of salt therein, then 
 put them, whilst hot, into a colander. Beat 
 into a paste, with a little milk, sugar, and 
 vanille. Put the mixture into a mould in the 
 form of a tuiTot, about an inch thick ; when 
 quite firm, open the mould and turn out the 
 
 VOL II 
 
 contents carefully, glaze with syrnp. Fill the 
 middle with whipped cream, flavoured with 
 chocolate or vanille. 
 
 TUE'TLE. Sgn. Geebn tubtih. The 
 Teatuda midaa (Linn.), a chelooian reptile, 
 highly esteemt^d for its flesh, eg;r>, and fat. 
 
 TUSSILA'GO. See Coltsfoot. 
 
 TU'TENAG. A name sometimis applied to 
 German silver; at others, to pale brass and 
 bell metal. " In India zinc sumetimes goes 
 under this name." (Brande.) 
 
 TUrTY. Syn. TuTIA, TUTHIA, Impubb 
 OXIDE OP ZINC. The sublimate that collects 
 in the chimneys of the furnaces in which the 
 ores of zinc are smelting. Drying ; astringent. 
 Used in eye.waters and ointmi-nts. 
 
 TYPE METAL. An alloy formed of anti- 
 mony, 1 part; lead, 3 parts; melted together. 
 iSmall types areusually made of a harder com- 
 position than large ones. A good stereotype 
 metal is said to be made of lead, 9 parts ; 
 antimony, -J, parts; bismuth, I part. This alloy 
 expands as it cools, and, consequently, brings 
 out a fine impression. 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER. Syn. Gastric pevkk, 
 Entekic or Intestinal peveb. Low peter. 
 Common co.vtinukd peveb, Infantile rk- 
 MiTTENT, Endemic pevbe, PvTnooE.vio pe- 
 veb. Although the term 'typhoid ' expresses 
 the fact that this particular form of fever re- 
 sembles typhus, the researches of later patho- 
 logists, including Perry, Lombard, Stewart, 
 and Jenner, have satisfactorily demonstrated 
 that the two diseases are altogether distinct. 
 
 " Typhus and typhoiil fevers differ," says 
 Sir Thomas Watson, " notably and constantly 
 in their symptoms and coiu'se, in their dura- 
 tion, in their comparative fatality, in the 
 superficial markings which rosDectively belong 
 to thi'm, and which warrant our classing them 
 among the exanthemata, in the internal or- 
 ganic changes with which they are severally 
 attended, and (what is the most important and 
 the most conclusive) in their exciting causes." 
 
 About the beginning of the present century, 
 the French practitioners, after several poat- 
 mortem examinations, were the first to point 
 out that the specifically distinguishing feature 
 of this disease was an internal exanthema. 
 This salient characteristic, coupled with the 
 highly infectious nature of typhoid fever, 
 have (MUsed it to be defined by pathologists 
 as ** a contagious eruptive fever occurring on 
 the mucous membrane of the intestines, and 
 therefore removed from view." 
 
 The morbid appearance presented by the 
 intestinal mucous membrane, varies with the 
 time that elapses between the period of sei- 
 zure and death. If the patient dies within the 
 week, the follicles on the membrane present a 
 thickened appearance, and are raised above it, 
 whilst they are seen to be filled with a yel- 
 lowish, cheesy-looking substance. The result 
 of these details is to give the bowels the ap- 
 pearance of being covered with pustules. 
 
 When death has occurred at a later period 
 106 
 
1682 
 
 TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 ulceration more or less extensive has been 
 observed to have set in. 
 
 The influence of age in predisposing to ty- 
 phoid fever is forcibly illustrated in the fol- 
 lowing table extracted from Dr Walter Blyth's 
 ' Dictionary of Practical Hygiene ' : 
 Years 
 
 of A 
 
 ae. 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Under 5 
 
 • • • 
 
 98 
 
 From 5 to 9 
 
 9-44 
 
 jj 
 
 10 „ 
 
 14 . 
 
 1816 
 
 j^ 
 
 15 „ 
 
 19 . 
 
 26-86 
 
 >» 
 
 20 „ 
 
 24 . 
 
 19-69 
 
 » 
 
 25 „ 
 
 29 . 
 
 10-15 
 
 
 30 „ 
 
 34 . 
 
 536 
 
 i> 
 
 35 „ 
 
 39 . 
 
 3-40 
 
 
 40 „ 
 
 44 . 
 
 2-09 
 
 
 45 „ 
 
 49 . 
 
 1-08 
 
 
 50 ,. 
 
 54 . 
 
 0-60 
 
 
 55 „ 
 
 59 . 
 
 0-33 
 
 
 60 .. 
 
 64 . 
 
 0-33 
 
 
 65 „ 
 
 69 . 
 
 0-08 
 
 
 70 „ 
 
 79 . 
 
 1-33 
 
 Dr Murchison asserts that those under thirty 
 are more than four times as liable to be at- 
 tacked by typhoid fever as persons over that 
 age. The practical bearing of the above figures 
 is obvious. Typhoid patients should only be 
 nursed by the middle aged. 
 
 The season of the year also exercises an in- 
 fluence over the development and spread of 
 this disease. In most countries it prevails with 
 the greatest violence, and is most general, in 
 Autumn, and much more frequently follows a 
 very hot and dry summer than a damp one. 
 The carriers of the typhoid poison are the al- 
 vine and possibly the cutaneous and other 
 excretions. The disease may therefore be con- 
 veyed by contact with the hands or slsin of an 
 infected patient, by his urine, by his body 
 linen, the bed clothes, or by dissemination 
 from these into the surrounding air. But the 
 most fertile and unquestionable cause of pro- 
 pagation is the contamination of drinking 
 water by matter derived from the fcecal dis- 
 charges of typhoid patients, which having 
 soaked into the soil from the privy into which 
 they had found their way, filtered from thence 
 into a neighbouring well, or by means of drains 
 proceeding from a privy or cesspool, into a 
 stream. We can easily understand that the 
 disease when traced to potable water, should 
 always assume so virulent and frequently fatal 
 a character. The fever poison is thus directly 
 conveyed into the stomach, and hence easily 
 reaches the intestines, whence the disease 
 originates. This will also account for the 
 very small quantity of infected water which 
 it has found communicates the disease. 
 
 The outbreak of typhoid fever in Maryle- 
 bone, in 1874, which attacked some 500 per- 
 sons, was traced to the milk vended by a cer- 
 tain company ; this milk having been placed 
 in cans that had merely been washed out and 
 -cooled with water obtained from a well into 
 which it was discovered the excreta from a 
 
 typhoid patient had percolated from an ad- 
 joining privy. After the statement of these 
 facts, the thorough and efficient disinfection 
 of all the excretions, immediately they leave 
 the body of the patient, as well as of his 
 body and bed linen, mattresses, &c., and also 
 of the eick apartment, will be obvious. 
 
 The best method of effecting this will be 
 to follow the instructions given by Dr William 
 Budd, for the prevention of the propagation 
 of this disease, which are as follows : 
 
 " The means by which typhoid fever may be 
 prevented from spreading are very simple, 
 very sure, and their cost, next to nothing. 
 
 " They are founded on the discovery that 
 the poison by which this fever spreads is al- 
 most entirely contained In the discharges from 
 the bowels. 
 
 " These discharges infect (1) the air of the 
 sick room ; (2) the bed and body linen of the 
 patient; (3) privy and the cesspool, or the 
 drains proceeding from them. 
 
 *' In these various ways, Including the con- 
 tamination of drinking water, already de- 
 scribed, the infection proceeding from the 
 bowel discharges often spreads the fever 
 far and wide. The one great thing to aim at, 
 therefore, is to disinfect these discharges on 
 their very escape from the body, and before 
 they are carried from the sickroom. This may 
 be perfectly done by the use of disinfectants. 
 One of the best is made of green copperas. 
 
 "This substance, which is used by all shoe- 
 makers, is very cheap, and may be had every- 
 where. A pound and a half of green copperas 
 to a gallon of water is the proper strength. 
 A teacupful of this liquid put into the night- 
 pan every time before it is used by the patient 
 renders the bowel discharge perfectly harm- 
 less. One part of Calvert's liquid carbolic 
 acid in fifty parts of water is equally efiica- 
 cious. 
 
 " To disinfect the bed and body linen, and 
 bedding generally, chloride of lime, or Mac- 
 dougal's, or Calvert's powder is more conve- 
 nient. 
 
 " These powders should be sprinkled by 
 means of a common dredger on soiled spots 
 on the linen, and about the room to purify 
 the air. 
 
 " All articles of bed and body linen should be 
 plunged.immediately on their removal from the 
 bed. Into a bucket of water containing a table- 
 spoonful of chloride of lime, or Macdougal's 
 or Calvert's powder, and should be boiled before 
 being washed; a yard of thin white gutta 
 percha, placed beneath the blanket, under the 
 breech of the patient, by effectually prevent- 
 ing the discharges from soaking into the bed 
 is a great additional safeguard. The privy or 
 closet, and all drains communicating with it, 
 should be fluslied twice daily with the green 
 copperas liquid, or with carbolic acid diluted 
 with water. ^ 
 
 " In towns and villages where the fever is 
 ' See Spoeoktgn. 
 
TYPHOID FEVER 
 
 1683 
 
 »lrea(ly prevalent, the last rule should be put 
 ill force for all the houses, whether there be 
 fever ill tliuin or not, and for all public 
 dniins. 
 
 " lu the event of death, the body should be 
 placed as souii as possible in a coffin sprinkleil 
 with disinfectants. Early burial is on all 
 ncL'Ounts desirable. 
 
 "As the bands of those attending on the 
 .sii?k often become unavoidably soiled by tlie 
 discharges from the bowels, they should be 
 frequently washed. 
 
 "The sick room should be kept well venti- 
 lated day and night. 
 
 " The greatest possible care should be tnken 
 with regard to the drinking water. When 
 there is the slightest risk of its having become 
 tainted with fever pnison, water should be ^ot 
 from a pure source, or should at least be boiled 
 before being drunk. 
 
 " Immediately after the illness is over, 
 whether ending in death or recovery, the 
 dresses worn by the nurses should bo washed 
 or destroyed, and the bed and room occupied 
 by the sick should be thoroughly disinfected. 
 These ure golden rules. 
 
 " Where they are neglected the fever may 
 bu;ome a deadly scourge ; where they are 
 strictly carried out it seldom spreads beyond 
 the person first attacked." 
 
 No part of the globe appears to be exempt 
 from the visitations of typhoid fever, since it 
 occurs not only in all the older countries ot 
 Europe and Asia and Africa, but in those also 
 included in the North and South American 
 Continents, as well as in Australia, Tasmania, 
 iiiid New Zeiiland. It would appear also to 
 have prevailed in the earliest ages, since it is 
 evidently alluded to in the works of Hippo- 
 crates, Galen, and otliers. Later writers, in- 
 cludingSydonliam and Hofifmau, also constantly 
 refer to it under a different name. 
 
 Pathologists differ as to the time that this 
 disease lies dormant in the system before 
 developing itself. Some practitioners contend 
 tliat tlie usual period is from tun to fourteen 
 days, whilst others think it is much less than 
 this, and, in some instances, that it way not 
 exceed one or two days. 
 
 The late Dr ilurchison entertained the latter 
 opinion. The symptoms, when they show 
 tlicmselves, are as follows : — An irritable con- 
 dition of the stomach, accompanied by sickness 
 or vomiting ; pain, with more or less tender- 
 ness, about tlio abdomen; sometimes the 
 patient suffers from great constipation, at 
 others fjom diarrhoea; he also experiences 
 great prostration of strength, has a feeble 
 pulse, and a brown furred tinigne ; he is ex- 
 tremely restless, and at night frequently deli- 
 rioas ; the lower limbs are frequently cold ; 
 he passes but little urine, and that of an 
 offensive smell ; the stools are dark, offensive, 
 and very frequently bloody, this latter being 
 a very characteristic accompaniment of typhoid 
 tevLT. Bleeding from the nose sometimes 
 
 occurs. The perspiration has a sour and fetid 
 odour. After seven or eight dajs, small rose- 
 coloured spots or petechiiB make their appear- 
 ance on the skin. 
 
 Treatment. — The abdomen fhouldbe leeched, 
 and mustard poultices applied. If not too 
 prostrated, the patient should be given a hot 
 bath ; but if he be not sufficiently strong to 
 venture upon this, ablution of the whole of the 
 body with hot water and soap should be had 
 recourse to, the operation being performed by 
 means either of a sponge or a flannel. 
 
 An efl'ervescing draught, consisting of 
 twenty grains of carbonate of ammonia, dis- 
 solved in water, to which a tablespoonful of 
 lemon-juice should be added, ought to be ad- 
 ininistered,anddrunk whilst iffervescing, every 
 three or four hours. The diet should consist 
 of beef tea, nutritious broth, milk, and eggs. 
 
 The necessity of thorough ventihitioii of 
 the patient's apiirtment, together with the 
 methods of disinfection of the bodily dis- 
 chiirgcs, the linen, &c., have been already 
 emphu-«ised in the directinns given by Dr 
 Budil for the prevention of the propagation of 
 this fever. 
 
 It is, perhaps, needless to state that the 
 outline of treatment given above is intended 
 only for adoption by the emigrant, or of any 
 one so unfortunately situated with regard to 
 locality as to be unable to secure the services 
 of a medical practitioner. Where these are 
 obtainable the patient or his friends should use 
 all s))eed in procuring them. 
 
 Horses. — Horses are occasionally attacked 
 with t\phoid fever, the symptoms of which 
 bear a general nscinblance to those which 
 characterise the disease in the human subject. 
 The appearances presented aiter death are 
 also very similar, piirticularly in the lesions 
 observable in the mucous membrane of the 
 intestines. As in man, the disease is greatly 
 aggravated by insanitary surroundings and 
 depressing external agencies, and by the ani- 
 mals partaking of water containing decaying 
 organic matters. 
 
 Upon the commencement of the attack give 
 a few doses of calomel or laudanum, or of 
 tincture of aconite, and if the bowels are cos- 
 tive two or three drachms of aloes, afterwards 
 keepin.r up the laxative effect by mild clysters 
 and mashes. Afterwards administer, three or 
 four times a day, a drachm each of chlorate of 
 potash and chloride of ammonium, adding to 
 these an ounce of oil of turpentine or ether, 
 or sweet spirit of nitre, if the animal exhibit 
 dulness or weakness. If there is tenderness 
 or pain about the abdomen, apply hot fomen- 
 tations constantly, and should there be much 
 flatulence give occasional drenches of ammonia, 
 carbonate of ammonia, or whiskey and water. 
 
 The food of the animal must be nutritive 
 and generous. He should be kept in a loose 
 box, his legs should be bandaged in flannel, 
 and warm rugs should envelop his body. _Rest 
 and quiet are essential. During convalescence 
 
1684 
 
 TYPHUS FEVER 
 
 let him have small closes of gentian, chloride 
 of iron, with ale.^ 
 
 TYPHUS FEVEE. This fever is known nnder 
 various names, such as Spotted ttphtjs, Jail 
 PETBE, Ship pkveb, Camp peter, Mihtaet 
 
 PEVBE, IKISH ague, FAMINE PETEB, BSAIN 
 
 FEVEE, Pestilential fetee. Malignant 
 
 FEVEE, OOJILOTIC FEVER, TtPHO-EUBEOLOID. 
 
 ■' 1. Typhus prevails for the most part in 
 great and wide-spread epidemics. 
 ' " 2. The epidemics appear during seasons 
 of general scarcity and wants, or amidst 
 hardships and privations arising from local 
 causes, such as warfare, commercial failures, 
 and strikes among the labouring population. 
 The statement that they always last for three 
 years and then subside is erroneous. 
 
 " 3. During the intervals of epidemics, spo- 
 radic cases of typhus occur, particularly in 
 Ireland, and in the large manufacturing 
 towns of Si;otland and England. 
 
 " 4. Although some of the great epidemics 
 of this country have commenced in Ireland, 
 and spread thence to Britain, appearing first 
 in those towns on the west coast of Britain 
 where there was the freest intercourse with 
 Ireland, it is wrong to imagine that all epi- 
 demics have commenced in Ireland, or that 
 typhus is a disease essentially Irish. The 
 disease appears wherever circumstances favor- 
 able to its development are present. 
 
 " 5. In many epidemics typhus has been 
 associated with relapsing fever, and the rela- 
 tive proportion of the two fevers has varied 
 greatly. 
 
 " 6. From the earliest times, tvphus has been 
 regarded as a disease of debility, forbidding 
 depletion, and demanding support and stimu- 
 lation. 
 
 "7. The chief exception to the last state- 
 ment originated in the erroneous doctrines 
 taught in the early part of this century, 
 according to which the disease was looked 
 upon as symptomatic of inflammation or con- 
 gestion of internal organs. 
 
 "8. The success believed at one time to 
 follow the practice of venesection was only 
 apparent. It was due to the practice, for the 
 most part, having been resorted to in cases of 
 relapsing fever and acute inflammations, and 
 to the result having been compared with 
 those of the treatment by stimulation of the 
 much more mortal typhus. 
 
 "9. Although typhus fever varies in its 
 severity and duration at different times, and 
 under different circumstances, there is no evi- 
 dence of any change in its type or essential 
 characters. The typhus of modern times is 
 the same as that described by Fracastorius 
 and Cordames. The period during which 
 epidemic fever was said to present an inflam- 
 matory type was that in which relapsing fever 
 was most prevalent, and the times in which 
 the type has been described as adynamic 
 
 ^ Fiulay Dun. 
 
 have been those in which relapsing fever has 
 been scarce or absent." (Murchison.) 
 
 In the article ' Typhoid fever ' it has been 
 stated thatits propagation was mainly due,and 
 had been very clearly traced, to the drinking 
 of water contaminated by the alvine dis- 
 charges of typhoid patients ; in the dissemi- 
 nation of typhns. on the contrary, the air in 
 the neighbourhood of the infected person 
 appears to be the great medium for the con- 
 veyance 'of the disease, the poison, it is con- 
 ceived, being disseminated into the sur- 
 rounding atmosphere from the surface of the 
 body or the lungs of the patient, or from the 
 cloths, body linen, &c., worn and discarded 
 by him. Hence it is we find, as we should 
 expect, in the past no less than in the present, 
 that the spread and degree of virulence of the 
 malady have always been associated with 
 overcrowding and bad ventilation. Although 
 amongst the causes that predispose and induce 
 susceptibility to its attacks, as shown above, 
 are poverty and consequent deficiency of food 
 and clothing, and squalor, it has been demon- 
 strated that, with all these unfavorable con- 
 ditions, patients may often recover from 
 typhus provided they are supplied with a 
 sufficiency of fresh air. 
 
 The fact that of late years typhus has rarely 
 visited the inmates of our prisons, barracks, 
 or shops, and that their comparative immu- 
 nity from it has been coincident with improved 
 ventilation and the avoidance of overcrowding, 
 can lead to no other deduction than that pre- 
 vious to this reform these sanitary conditions 
 were altogether neglected. We may narrate 
 some of these outbreaks of typhus that have 
 taken place previous to the application of hy- 
 gienic principles totlietreatraentof the disease. 
 During an assize held at Cambridge in 1522, 
 the disease which had broken out amongst 
 the prisoners, spread to the justices, the 
 bailiffs, and othtr officers, as well as to many 
 people frequenting the conrt-house, with the 
 result that many of those so seized died. 
 
 Another outbreak of a very malignant 
 character occurred at Exeter in 1586. Some 
 Portuguese were captured at sea, and (the 
 words of the old historian who records the 
 fact clearly indicate the cause of the virulent 
 nature of the malady) were "east into the 
 deep pit and stinking dungeon " When 
 brought into court they imparted the con- 
 tagion to those around them. The judge 
 and eleven out of the twelve jurymen who were 
 thus attacked died, whilst the disease spread 
 through and devastated the whole country. 
 
 A fourth case is recorded by Howard " at 
 the Lent assizes in Taunton in 1730. Some 
 prisoners who were brought there from 
 Ivilchester Jail infected the court, and Lord 
 Chief Baron Pengelly, Sir James Shepherd, 
 serjaant,. John Pigot, Esq., sheriff, and some 
 hundreds besides, died of the jail distemper." 
 
 Another eruption, which broke out during 
 an assize held at the Old Bailey in 1750, 
 
TYPHUS FEVER 
 
 1685 
 
 malted in the contraction of the disease by 
 tbe Judi;e, the Lord Mayor, and the Alder- 
 man, and caused the death of forty persons 
 who were present in the close and narrow 
 court-house during the judicial proceedin^i<. 
 One circumstance recorded in connection with 
 tliia last attack needs no comment. It is to 
 tbe eBei t tliat " a hundred prisoners were put 
 into two rooms measuring fourteen feet by 
 eleven feet, and seven feet high." The 
 instances tibove quoted explain wliy it was 
 this d sease acquired the name of jail 
 fever. 
 
 During the present century six different 
 epidemics of typhus have broken out amongst 
 tile convicts on board the Toulon Qalleys. 
 They occurred In 1820, 1829, 1833, 1845, 
 1855, and 1856. Although the above state- 
 jiicut ot facts indisputably points to the inti- 
 mate connection existing between the pre- 
 valence and violent character of typhus and 
 overcrowding, and consequent contumination 
 and vitiation of tlie oir breathed by the 
 patient. It is still a moot point with patho- 
 logists whetlier the disease can be generated 
 de novo by these conditions, or whether they 
 merely assist to disseminate and intensify it. 
 Dr Parkes, writing on this subject, says : — 
 "With reference to the particulnr kind of 
 fever in Metz, it may be noticed that an im- 
 portant argument against the production of 
 exanthematic typhus from simple overcrowd- 
 ing has been drawn from the experience both 
 of Metz and Paris. In both places during the 
 sieges there was overcrowding, wretchedness, 
 and famine, partienlarly at Metz; yet, as 
 pointed out by Professor Chaullard to the 
 Acad^inie de Medicine, there was scarcely any 
 or uo typhus, as there had been in the wars of 
 the tirst Napoleon. There was typhus in the 
 German besieging force, but so strict was the 
 blockade that it was not imported into Metz, 
 and v^as not generated there."' 
 
 The mortality which bus been caused in 
 large armies by the ravages of typhus has 
 been enormous. During the 'thirty years* 
 warfare that desolated Germany from 1619 to 
 1648, innumerable soldiers fell victims to it, 
 tile Bavarian army alone havim; lost 20,000 
 men from this cause. Typhutalso committed 
 appalling havoc among the legions of the first 
 Napoleon, the Bavarian contingent of the 
 French army in the Campaign in 1812, lo<t 
 iiearlj 26,000 men from this cause ; whilst in 
 Mavence 25,000 of Napoleon's soldiers in 
 garrison perished from the same cause in six 
 months. More lately, viz. during the Crimean 
 campaign (in 1856), typhus slew more than 
 17,000 French soldiers. 
 
 It frequently infested the German armies 
 during the Franco-German war of 1869-70, 
 and comnitted great havoc both amongst the 
 host" of Russia and Turkey in the late war 
 between those oountrieSk 
 
 When we turn to the civil population, we 
 > BIyth. 
 
 find that typhus has been no less rnlhlesB, and 
 has slain its myriads of these also. Confining 
 our attention to our own country, we find it 
 to have especially devastated Ireland, which 
 has Buftered from no less than eleven violent 
 outbreaks of typhus within the last 130 
 years. 
 
 In one of these visitations, viz. that of 1840, 
 80,000 people are estimated to have died from 
 the disease. The largest recorded epidemic of 
 typhus within our islands during the present 
 century was that of 1846. It extended over 
 the whole of the British islands, and the 
 number of persons attacked by it were nearlv 
 1,400,000, out of which 1,000,000 occurred in 
 Ireland. "The Irish flocked to England in 
 thousands, bringing the pestilence with them. 
 It therefore was extremely prevalent in Liver- 
 pool, no less than 10,000 persons dying of 
 typhus in that city."' The latest ontbreaks 
 in England have been in 1862 and 1869 j they 
 were principally confined to London. 
 
 Dr Murchlson says that 14,000 persons were 
 admitted to the London Fever Hospital daring 
 the two epidemics, and that amongst them a 
 small number only were Irish. 
 
 All European conntries, as well as North 
 America and some parts of Asia, suffer from 
 the ravages of this alarming disease. Africa, 
 however, as well as Aastralia and New Zea- 
 land, are said to be exempt from it. 
 
 Symptoms, — The symptoms of typhus are 
 thus described by Dr Murchlson : — " More or 
 less sudden invasion, marked by rigors or chil- 
 liness; frequent compressible pulse; tongue 
 furred, and ultimately dry and brown ; bowels 
 In most cases constipated ; skin warm and 
 dry ; a rubeloid rash appearing between the 
 fourth and seventh days, the spots never ap- 
 pearing in successive crops, at first slightly 
 elevated, and disappearing on pressure, but 
 after the second day persistent, and often be- 
 coming converted Into true petechise; great 
 and early prostration ; heavy flushed counte- 
 nnnce; injected conjunctiva) ; wakefulness and 
 obtaseness of the mental faculties, followed, at 
 the end of the first week, by delirium, which 
 is sometimes acute and noisy, but oftener low 
 and wandering ; tendency to stupor and coma, 
 tremors, subsnltus, and involuntary evacna- 
 tions, with contracted pupils. Duration of 
 the fever from ten to twenty-one days, usually 
 fourteen. In the dead body no specific lesion, 
 but hyperseniia of all the Internal organs, 
 softening and disintegration of the heart and 
 voluntary muscles, hypostatic congestion of 
 the lungs, atrophy of the brain, and cedema 
 of the pia mater, are common." 
 
 Treatment. — The following remarks, bearing 
 on this branch of the subject, are suggested 
 for adoption by the non-medical reader, in the 
 event of his being precluded by circumstances 
 from calling in the aid of the medical prac- 
 titioner. The most important points to be 
 observed are the isolation of the patient and 
 • Bljth. 
 
1686 
 
 UDDER— ULCERS 
 
 the thorough ventilation of his apartment hy 
 the continuous admission into it of fresh air 
 without stint or hindrance. Dr Parkes re- 
 commends the patient to be put in the top 
 room of the house or hospital, since there is 
 strong evidence to show that the contagious 
 virus is volatile and ascends through the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 The forms of disinfection hest suited for 
 adoption in this disease, together with the 
 method of employing them, will be found fully 
 described in the article ' Disinfectants.' 
 
 The body of the patient should also be fre- 
 quently sponged with Condy's fluid, properly 
 diluted, or covered with olive oil, to which has 
 been added a small quantity of carbolic acid. 
 
 As interual remedies, dilute hydrochloric 
 or nitro-hydrochloric acids have been highly 
 commended. Chlorate of potash, in large 
 doses, was formerly much employed. 
 
 These remedies may be supplemented by 
 the use of saline medicines, sudoriflcs, and 
 moderate purgatives. The diet should consist 
 largely of milk and water, beef tea, broth, and 
 such like digestible and nutritious food. 
 
 UDDEE, Inflammation of. Syn. Gaeget 
 MAMMITIB. Amongst domestic animals, cows 
 are the most frequently subject to this affec- 
 tion. It is most common amongst those 
 cows that have lately calved or have been 
 thoroughly milked. Heifers and even young 
 cows that have never had a calf, however, 
 are not exempt from it, and occasionally suffer 
 from its attacks. The inflammation varies in 
 intensity, in some cases only showing itself in 
 a dryness, tenseness, heat and tenderness of 
 the skin of the udder, whilst in others It is 
 much more serious, and extends to the in- 
 terior parts and vessels; in the latter case, 
 giving rise to hard lumps amongst the softer 
 texture of the udder. 
 
 Inflammation of the udder appears to result 
 from various causes — indigestion, over driv- 
 ing, the too long retention of the milk in the 
 udder, and cold ; it is also very frequently 
 associated with murrain, rheumatism, and 
 swelling of the joints. 
 
 Treatment. — If the disease be constitu- 
 tional, as indicated by the suddenness of the 
 attack, the best course will be to administer 
 at once a good dose of Epsom or Glauber salts 
 combined witli a little ginger, and to give 
 copious doses of nitre. A modified form of 
 this treatment should be kept up for some 
 little time by means of gentle aperients, and 
 ^mailer doses of nitre. In the milder form 
 of inflammation, viz. in that confined to the 
 exterior of the udder, it will be best to have 
 recourse to spirit lotions or refrigerant appli- 
 cations, such as ice water, or a mixture of 
 chloride of ammonium and nitre applied im- 
 mediately after mixing with water. The 
 udder should be kept constantly cool by means 
 of these. When the inflammation is deeper 
 seated, as evidenced by the presence of lumps 
 
 in the udder, the continuous application of 
 warm water is advisable. Whether the cold 
 or hot treatment be indicated, it should be 
 diligently kept up for a day at least. In 
 the adoption of either the cold or hot local 
 remedies, above specified, they should be 
 combined with some means of support (by 
 the agency of a proper bandage) to the 
 udder. It is also important to have the 
 milk removed every three or four hours; if 
 the milking operation cause pain, a syphon 
 should be used. The hard lumps will be found 
 to disperse best under gentle friction applied 
 by the hand twice a day, for an hour each 
 time, the hand being previously anointed 
 with lard. When the surface pits or becomes 
 soft, and very hot, it may be assumed that 
 suppuration has set in, in which case the con- 
 fined pus must be liberated by means of the 
 lancet. 
 
 ULCERATED SORE THROAT. This form of 
 sore throat, in which ulcers develop themselves 
 upon the tonsils, is a very frequent accompani- 
 ment of scarlatina, syphilis, and other diseases, 
 in which cases to prescribe the method of 
 treatment would be beyond our province. 
 For ordinary ulcerated sore throat arising 
 from cold, chronic inflammation of the part, 
 or a low state of health, the best course will 
 be to gargle the throat four or five times daily 
 with either of the following gargles : 1. Alum, 
 30 gr. ; infusion of rose, 6 oz. 2. Sulphate of 
 zinc, 30 gr. ; distilled water, 6 oz. 3. Hydro- 
 chloric acid, 1 dr. ; water, 6 oz. Should these 
 fail, touch the ulcers every morning with a 
 solution of nitrate of silver, containing ten 
 grains of the nitrate to an ounce of distilled 
 water. 
 
 ULCERS. These are open sores, mostly 
 accompanied by a discharge of pus, or serous 
 matter. They differ from ordinary wounds by 
 the edges showing no disposition to unite. 
 When they extend or deepen, it is by a pro- 
 cess of absorption ; while they heal by granu- 
 lation, whereby they become filled up with 
 little granular growths of flesh. Ulcers may 
 appear on all parts of the body, but they most 
 frequently attack the legs and arms. 
 
 In enfeebled states of the body, wounds, 
 boils, and abscesses may degenerate into 
 ulcers ; they are also a consequence of en- 
 larged or varicose veins, or the result of some 
 specific poison in the system. 
 
 Ulcers may be classed into simple, irritable, 
 indolent, and specific. 
 
 Treatment. — When an ordinary wound or 
 sore shows a disinclination to heal, but on 
 the contrary, extends or deepens, it should be 
 poulticed with bread and water or linseed 
 meal. Should these remedies be ineffectual, 
 an old fashioned but useful one, viz. a carrot 
 poultice, may be applied. When the ulcera- 
 tion is irritable or painful, the poultices may 
 be supplemented by the frequent use of a 
 lotion consisting of four parts of water to one 
 of tincture of opium, or of a warm decoction 
 
ULMIN-ULTRAMARINE 
 
 1687 
 
 of poppy licflds applied b; means of a linen 
 raf^. Filling the cavity with prepared chalk 
 has l)cen recoininendcd. 
 
 It Boinetimes happens that during poultic- 
 ing, proud ^e»A may form in au ulcer. When 
 this is the case, a little sugar in powder may 
 be sprinkled ovtr the unhealthy excrescence, or 
 Home red precipitate ointment be applied to it. 
 Taking cnre not to use too much of either. 
 Wlien the ulcer has a bad or fetid odour, it 
 should be waslieil with a lotion composed of 
 one part of solution of chlorinated soda to 
 sixteen parts of water ; or it may be sprinkled 
 over with churconl powder; or with a mix- 
 ture of starch and salicylic acid. The best 
 ap|)licatiou to hud smelling ulcers caused by 
 varicose veins is a lotion consisting of nitric 
 acid considerably diluted with water. Direc- 
 tions are given tor the treatment of varicose 
 veins, under Vauix, further on. If the veins 
 be ulcerated, the ulcers should be dressed with 
 acetate of lead ointment previiius to the 
 applicatiiin of the bandage. Very irritable 
 ulcers are often greatly relieved by the gentle 
 application to them of lunar caustic, and 
 indolent ones by dressing with yellow basili- 
 con ointment, or by the judicious use of bliick 
 wash. The general health should be attended 
 toby the aduiinistration of tonics consisting 
 of the mineral acids, gentle aperients, and a 
 digestible and nourishing diet. Small ulcers 
 on the mucous membrane of the mouth or on 
 the gums may be made to disappear instiintly 
 upon touching them with a piece of lumir 
 caustic. Where any difficulty i^i experienced 
 in the healing of an ulcer, or if it be at all 
 of a serious nature, the medical practitioner 
 should be consulted. 
 
 UL'MIN, ULMIC ACID. By boiling sugar 
 in dilute sulphuric acid for a long time, a 
 brownish-bliick substance is produced. Boiil- 
 lay and Malnguti state that this is a mix- 
 ture of two distinct bodies — ulmin (sacchul- 
 min — Liobig) and ulmio acid (sacchulmic acid 
 — Liebig). The first is insoluble io solutions 
 of the alkalies ; the latter dissolves iu them 
 freely. A number of black uncrystallisahle 
 substances, produced by the action of power- 
 ful cheniic;d agents upon vegetable matter, 
 have been conlbunded under these names. 
 
 ULTRAMAEINE'. Si/a. Lapis-lazuli 
 
 BLUB, UlTEAMAUINE D. ; CiEEULEUM ULTKA- 
 MOKTANDM, L. This beautiful pigment is ob- 
 tained from the blue minenil azure stone, lazu • 
 lite, or lapis lazuli, the finest specimens of 
 which are brought from China, Persia, and 
 Great Bucharia. 
 
 Prep. Pure lapis lazuli (reduced to friig- 
 ments about the size of a pea, and the colour- 
 less pieces rejected), 1 lb., is heated to red- 
 ness, quenched in water, and ground to an 
 impalpable powder; to this is added, of yellow 
 resin, 6 oz. ; turpentine, beeswax, and linseed 
 oil, of each 2 oz. ; previously melted together; 
 the whole is next made into a mass, which is 
 kneaded in successive portions of warm water, 
 
 as long as it colours it bine; from these it is 
 deposited on repose, and is then collected, 
 well washed with clean water, dried, and 
 sorted according to its qualities. The first 
 water, which is usually dirty, is thrown away ; 
 the second gives a blue of the fir.st quality; 
 and the third, and following ones, yield sam- 
 ples of less value. The process is founded on 
 the property which the colouring matter .r 
 azure-stone has of adhering less firmly to the 
 resinous cement than the foreign matter with 
 which it is assueimed. When azure-stone h.n, 
 its colour altered by a moderate heat, it is 
 reckoned bad or factitious. 
 
 Obs. Ultramarine is the most costly, but 
 at the same time the mn-t splendid and per- 
 manent, of our blue pigments, aud works 
 well in oil. 
 
 Ultramarine, Artificial. Si/n. AzriiEBtrE, 
 IWeissnee ultkamarinb, Paris h., Vienna 
 
 B. ; CiEBULEUM rLTEAMDNTANUM FACTITIl'M, 
 L. From the researches of Clement, Dcsormes. 
 and Robiquot, it has been inferred that the 
 colour of ultramarine depends on the presence 
 of snlphnret of sodium in a peculiar state of 
 combiuation with the silicates of snda and alu- 
 mina; but, according to Eisner and Tirnmon, 
 a minute quantity of snlphnret of iron is al«" 
 au essential inirredient. It is by heating miv- 
 tures of this kind that the artiticial ultri- 
 mnrine of commerce is prepared. The finer 
 specimens, thus obtained, iii'e quite equal in 
 durability and beauty of colour to those pr. - 
 pared from lazulite, while they are very much 
 less expensive. 
 
 Prep. 1. Kaolin, 37 parts; sulphate of soda, 
 15; carbonate of soda, -12 ; sulj>bur, 18; chai- 
 coal, 8 ; intimately mixed and heated from 
 21 to 30 hours, iu large crneihles; the product 
 is then heated again in cast-iron boxes, at a 
 moderate temperature, till the required tint 
 is obtained; it is, finally, pulverised, washed, 
 and dried. 
 
 2. (Gmelin.) Sulphur, 2 parts; dry car- 
 bonate of soda, 1 part; mix well; gradually 
 heat them in a covered crucible to redness, or 
 till the mixture fuses, then sprinkle in, hy 
 degrees, another mixture of silicate of soda and 
 ' aluminate of soda ' (containing 72 parts of 
 silica and 70 parts of alumina), and continue 
 the heat for au hour. The product contains 
 a little free sulphur, which may be separated 
 by water. 
 
 3. (Riib'quet.) By exposing to a low red 
 heat, in a covered crucible, as long as fum( s 
 are given off, a mixture of pure kaolin, 2- 
 parts; anhydrous carbonate of soda and sul- 
 phur, of each 3 parts. Some niiinufacturers- 
 who adopt this process use l-3j'd less car- 
 bonate of soda. 
 
 4. (Tirnmon.) Take of crystallised carbo- 
 nate of soda, 1075 gr. ; apply a gentle heat, 
 and, when fused in its water of crystallisation, 
 shake iu of finely pulverised orpiment, 5 gr., 
 and, when partly decomposed, add as much 
 gelatinous hydrate of alumina as contains 7 
 
1688 
 
 UPAS— UREA 
 
 gr. of anhydrous alumina j finely sifted clay, 
 100 gr., and flowers of sulphur, 221 gr., are 
 next to be added, and tlie whole placed in a 
 covered crucible, and at first gently heated, 
 to drive otf the water; but as soon as tliis is 
 effected, raised to redness, the heat being so 
 regulated that the ingredients only 'sinter' 
 together, without actunlly fusing; the mass 
 is then to be cooled, finely pulverised, sus- 
 pended in river water, and brought upon a 
 filter; the product has now a very beautiful 
 delicate green or bluish colour, but on being 
 heated in a covered dish, and stirred about 
 from time to time, until the temperature 
 reaches that of dull redness, at which it 
 must be kept for 1 or 2 hours, it changes to a 
 rich blue. If the heat of the first calcina- 
 tion has been properly regulated, the whole 
 of the mass taken from the crucible will have 
 uniform colour ; but if too little heat has been 
 used, and the ingredients have not been pro- 
 perly mixed, there will be colourless parts, 
 which should be rejected; if too much heat 
 has been used, or tiie mass allowed to fuse, 
 brown parts will appear, especially if the 
 crucible is of a bad ki id, or easily destroyed ; 
 these must also be rejected. (' Compt. Rend.,' 
 1842.) 
 
 Ultramarine Ashes. Syn. Saundee's bute. 
 Obtained from the resinous mass from making 
 ultramarine, by melting it with fresh oil, and 
 kneading it In ivater containing a little potash 
 or soda ; or, by burning away the wax and oil 
 of the mass and well grinding and washing 
 the residue with water. Very permanent, but 
 much less brilliant than ultramarine. 
 
 Ultramarine, Cobal'tic. Syn-. Chinese blub. 
 Cobalt b., Louisa b., Hoeeneb's js., Th^- 
 hakd's b. a very rich blue pigment, with 
 many synonymes, prepared by slowly drying 
 and heating to dull redness a mixture of 
 freshly precipitated alumina (freed from water 
 as much as possible), 8 to 10 parts ; arseniate 
 or phosphate of coliialt, 1 part. By daylight 
 it is of a pure blue, but by artificial light the 
 colour turbs on the violet. JTor other formute 
 see Blue pigments. 
 
 U'PAS. The Javan name for several deadly 
 poisons. 'Bohun upas' is a gum-resin ob- 
 tained from the bark of the Antiaris toxi- 
 carta. (See Antiarine.) The ' upas tieute ' 
 is obtained from the Stryohnos Tieute, and 
 owes its fatal power to strychnine. They are 
 both used to poison arrows and other deadly 
 weapons. 
 
 URA"1IITJM. U. A rare metal, discovered 
 by Klaproth in 1789. It occurs in the pitch- 
 blende of Saxony, and the uranite of Cornwall. 
 The chief oxides of uranium are the prot- 
 oxide and the sesquioxide, or uranic oxide. 
 
 Urauic Oxide (UoOj) may be obtained 
 in the anhydrous state by heating the hy- 
 drated sesquioxide to a temperature of 572= 
 Pahr. The sesquioxide is capable of acting 
 both as an acid and a base. The uranic salts 
 are yellow. 
 
 Uranons Oxide. (UO.) This may be 
 procured by igniting uranium oxalate in a 
 closed ve.ssel, or in a stream of hydrogen 
 gas. Acids are without action upon this oxide. 
 When, however, it is obtained as an hydrate 
 (which it may be by treatment of its chloride 
 with ammonia) this latter is easily acted upon 
 by acids, and gives rise to salts having a green 
 colour, which rapidly absorb oxygen. Peligot 
 proposed to call this oxide Uranyl (UO.), 
 from the tendency it showed to follow the 
 deportment of a metal when it combined 
 with elementary bodies. 
 
 Chlorides of Uranium. Uranium forms two 
 chlorides, U2CI3 and UCl^. 
 
 Uses. Its ores and oxides are occasionally 
 used to colour glass and enamels. 
 
 U'KATES. Salts of uric acid. 
 
 U'KEA. COH4N2. Syn. Ctanate oe am- 
 MONIUM (Anomalous). A crystalline, colour- 
 less, transparent substance, discovered by 
 Fourcroy and Vauquelin in urine, and by 
 Wohler as the first organic compound artifi- 
 cially produced. 
 
 Urea generally occurs in slender, striated, 
 colourless prisms, as shown on next page. It 
 is slightly deliquescent. It has a neutral re- 
 action and a bitterish taste. It is extremely 
 soluble in water and in hot alcohol, but very 
 slightly so in ether. At about 248° Fahr. it 
 melts. At a little higher temperature it 
 becomes decomposed into ammonia, carbo- 
 nate, cyanateof ammonium, and cyanuric 
 acid ; this latter being left in the retort. 
 
 The ammoniacal odour acquired by urine 
 after a few days is due to the conversion of 
 the urea into carbonate of ammonia, as shown 
 by the following equation : 
 
 Urea. Water. Carb. ilmmonia. 
 CH4ON3 -H 2H2O = (NHjjjCOs. 
 
 This change is effected by the mucus of 
 the bladder present in the urine. A solution 
 of pure urea may be kept at ordinary tem- 
 perature, or even boiled, without undergoing 
 alteration. 
 
 Urea occurs as an essential component of 
 the urine of man and animals, being more 
 particularly abundant in the urinary excre- 
 tion of the flesh-eating mammalia ; nor is it 
 altogether absent from the cirine of birds and 
 ampliibia. According to Bisclioft' and Volt, 
 urea is the result of tissue metamorphosis. 
 The greater number of inquirers, however, 
 hold an opposite opinion, and believe tliatit is 
 derived from the albuminous constituents of 
 the food, when these preponderate over the 
 quantity required for the nutrition of the body. 
 Dr Lionel Beale says his " own researches 
 render it probable that all pabulum entering 
 the system must, before its elements can be 
 applied to the nutrition of the tissues, or 
 removed by the organs of respiration or se- 
 cretion, be first of all taken up by cells 
 (ch J le-corpuscles, white blood-corpuscles), and 
 
TREA 
 
 16S9 
 
 Urea crystallised from 
 urine. 
 
 Urcu crya'allised rrom 
 water. 
 
 Nitrate of uren crystallised from 
 water. 
 
 Nitrate of nrea formed 
 in urine. 
 
 The whole of the cuts illustrating "Urea," " Urinary diseases," and '* Urine " are talten 
 from Dr Beale's work on * Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, and Calculous Deposits/ by that 
 gentlemnn's kind permission. 
 
1690 
 
 URIC ACID— URINARY DISEASES 
 
 become living or germinal matter ^ which, after 
 passing through certain definite stages of 
 existence, becomes serum of the blood, and the 
 formed matter of the red blood-corpuscles. 
 
 " The products resulting from the disintegra- 
 tion of this formed matter may be taken up 
 by the germinal matter of the tissues, and at 
 length become tissue, or by that of secreting 
 cells, in which case it is removed in the form 
 of the constituents of various excretions from 
 the body altogether." About an ounce and a 
 quarter of urea is daily excreted by a healthy 
 man, although of course there will be a varia- 
 tion in this amount principally depending 
 upon the quantity of animal food and active 
 exercise taken during the twenty-four hours. 
 As might be anticipated a smaller quantity of 
 urea is excreted by women than by men, since 
 they are unable to indulge to the same extent 
 in muscular exercise. A diminished quantity 
 also results from breathing impure air, and 
 from a diseased and unhealthy condition of 
 the lungs or of the circulation, and also, as 
 mig;ht be expected, from an insufficiency of 
 food. 
 
 Prep. (Tlienard.) Fresh urine, gently eva- 
 porated to I he consistence of a syrup, is treated 
 with its own volume of nitric acid of sp. gr. 
 119; the mixture is shaken and immersed in 
 an ice bath, to solidify the crystals of nitrate 
 of urea (p. 1689) ; these are washed with ice- 
 C'lld water, drained, and pressed between sheets 
 of blotting paper; they are next dissolved in 
 water, and the solution is decomposed and pre- 
 cipitated with carbonate of potassium (or car- 
 bonate of barium) ; the whole is then gently 
 evaporated nearly to dryness, and the residuum 
 is exhausted with pure alcohol, which dissolves 
 tlie urea, which crystallises out as the solution 
 cools. 
 
 Urea, Factitious. Mix 28 parts of well-dried 
 ferrocyanide of potassium with 14 of black 
 oxide of manganese (both in fine powder), and 
 heat them to dull redness on an iron plate. 
 Lixivinte with cold water, add 22^ parts of 
 dry sulphate of ammonia, concentrate by eva- 
 poration with a heat not exceeding 212° F., 
 decant the concentrated liquid, treat it with 
 rectified spirit, and crystallise. This is 
 intended as a cleanly substitute for the 
 preceding. 
 
 Urea, Ni'trate of. Si/n. Uee^ niteas, L. 
 Frep. From urine, as described above ; or it 
 may be prepared by saturating artificial urea 
 with nitric acid. Diuretic. — Dose, 2 to 5 gr. 
 twice or thrice daily ; in dropsy. 
 
 U'RIC ACID. C5H4]Sr403. Syn. LiTiiic 
 
 AOID ; ACIDUM LITHICUM, A. TJKIOUM, L. 
 
 A substance discovered by Scheele, and pecu- 
 liar to the urine of certain animals, and the 
 excrement of serpents and several birds. The 
 lEBces of the boa constrictor consist of little 
 else than urate of ammonium. It constitutes 
 one of the commonest varieties of urinary 
 calculi, and of the red gravel or sand which 
 is voided in certain morbid states of the urine. 
 
 Guano derives its principal value as a manure 
 from the presence of urate of ammonium. 
 The gouty concretions of the joints, popularly 
 known as chalk-stones, consist chiefly of urate 
 of sodium. 
 
 Prep. Dissolve the chalk-like excrement of 
 serpents, reduced to fine powder, in a solu- 
 tion of caustic potassa, by boiling; then add 
 hydrochloric acid in excess, again boil for 15 
 minutes, and well wash the precipitate with 
 water. 
 
 Prop., S(c. Brilliant, very minute, white 
 and silky scales, which are tasteless, inodo- 
 rous, slightly soluble in boiling water, and 
 dissolve in strong sulphuric acid, but are 
 again pi'ecipitated by water. It forms salts 
 with the bases called urates, all of which are 
 very sparingly soluble. The characteristic re- 
 action of uric acid is, that when moistened 
 with nitric acid and heated, it dissolves, and 
 by evaporation yields a red compound, which, 
 upon the addition of a drop or two of solution 
 of ammonia, assumes a magnificent crimson 
 colour, being converted into murexide. 
 
 Uric acid is a constituent of healthy human 
 urine, in which it exists combined with bases 
 in the form of urates, which, being in small 
 quantity, are soluble in the urine. 1000 grains 
 of the urine contain from ^ grain to 1 grain 
 of the acid. Drs Beale and Thudichum respec- 
 tively estimate the amount of uric acid ex- 
 creted in twenty-four 'hours by a healthy 
 adult man at from 5 to 8 grains. To deter- 
 mine the amount of uric acid in urine proceed 
 as follows : — To a certain weight of the urine, 
 hydrochloric or nitric acid is added, and the 
 urine set aside for some hours, at the end of 
 which time, the insoluble crystals of uric acid 
 which are formed, are washed, dried, and 
 weighed. 
 
 With the exception of the urates, uric acid 
 is one of the deposits most frequently met 
 with in abnormal urine, wherein it occurs as a 
 small reddisli powder adhering to the bottom 
 or sides of the containing vessel. As a 
 urinary deposit, uric acid assumes a great 
 variety of forms, that of most frequent occur- 
 I'ence being the rhombic, modified in many of 
 the crystals by the rounding of two of the 
 angles, as shown in the engraving on next 
 page. 
 
 URINAEY DISEASES. This class of dis- 
 orders, which in general terms may be said to 
 embrace affections of the kidneys, bladder, 
 ureters, &c., comprises diseases of these parts 
 varying greatly in character and pathological 
 importance. 
 
 The most serious forms of kidney disease 
 are cokoestion of the kidney, a very fre- 
 quent accompaniment of heart or lung disease ; 
 PYELITIS, or inflammation of the pelvis of the 
 kidney ; suppueatite nepheitis, or inflam- 
 mation of the substance of the kidney, which 
 ends in suppuration ; acute nepheitis, or 
 ACUTE Beight's DISEASE, acute inflammation 
 of the kidney, frequently arising from scarla- 
 
URINARY DISEASES 
 
 1G91 
 
 Uric acid. (Bcale.) 
 
 tin» or cold; ohbonio nephritis, or cnROUio 
 JiniaHl's DISEASE, a formidiible and incurable 
 variety of Isiduey affection, giving rise to 
 dropsy, and, owing to the disintegration o( the 
 organ, to poiiioning of the blood by urea. In 
 advanced cases of this disease the nrine con- 
 tains a large qunntity of albumen and casts 
 of the urinary tubes. 
 
 Caioulusofthk Kidney. The most dan- 
 gerous diseases of the bladder are those 
 caused by the deposition in it of earthy and 
 other concretions, known as uiilNABy calcoli, 
 which are described in tlie present work under 
 Calculus. The presence of these calculi is 
 indicated by acute pain in the bladder and 
 urinary passages, extending to the adjacent 
 parts, the pain being excruciating immediately 
 after passing the mine. Sometimes during 
 the act of e-xcretion the stream of water is 
 suddenly stopped. 
 
 Inflammation is another dangerous disease 
 of the bladder, calling for the prompt sum- 
 moning of the medical practitioner wherever 
 possible. 
 
 The following particulars as to its sym- 
 ptoms and treatment are offered for adoption 
 to emigrants and others so placed as to be 
 beyond the means of medical succour. 
 
 Inflammation of the bladder commences 
 with pain in the region of that organ, the 
 pain becoming continuous and increasing in 
 violence, and being accompanied with a sense 
 of burning heat and of tenderness on pressure. 
 The urine is frequently voided. The inflam- 
 mation is sometimes so acute as to give rise 
 to suppuration and the consequent discharge 
 of pus with the urine. Sometimes the disease 
 assumes a chronic character. 
 
 In the acute form of the disease recourse 
 should be had to leeches, hot fomentations, 
 and Harm baths ; a dose of calomel, to bo 
 
 followed by a brisk dose of castor oil, should 
 likewise bo administered. Alcoholic drinks of 
 any kind must be carefully avoided, tliu patient 
 being allowed to drink only cool demul- 
 cent beverages. With these should be com- 
 bined efftrvescing draughts, frequently re- 
 peated, and small doses of Dover's powder. 
 Great relief will also be derived from the 
 use of enemas of gruel containing laudanum. 
 Where inflammation of the bladder arises 
 from gout or rheumatism, it must be treated 
 as for these diseases. A suppository, con- 
 sisting of two grains of opium, combined with 
 twenty grains of soap, is frequently of great 
 benefit. 
 
 Should the disease become chronic, the 
 best method of treatment will be the re- 
 peated use of mild aiioriei.ts, the combined 
 employment of uva ursi in infusion or powder, 
 witli either tincture of perchh>rideof iron, or 
 tlie mineral acids. Spirituous liquors of any 
 kind must be avoided. Demulcent drinks 
 form the best beverage, and a farinaceous or 
 milk diet the most desirable food. 
 
 Nkukalgia of the Bladdbb. The pain 
 which attends tliis disease is unaccompanied 
 either by inflammation or irritation, and is 
 recurrent in character. It may generally be 
 arrested by tincture of perchloride of iron, or 
 of iron and quinine, administered three times 
 a day. 
 
 Irritation of the Bladdkk. Tlie patient 
 affected with this disorder gratifies the fre- 
 quent desire be has to pass his nrine, the 
 operation being accompanied with pain and 
 forcing, the most severe pain being experienced 
 after the excretion has taken place. The 
 tincture of perchloride of iron will also be 
 found the best remedy for this disorder. It 
 should be given in conjunction w ith the infu- 
 sions of uva ursi, Pareira brava, or buchu. 
 
1692 
 
 UKINE 
 
 Mucilaginous drinlcs should also be had re- 
 course to. 
 
 Cataeeh or THE Bladdee. The symptoms 
 of this disease are irritation, and the presence 
 of much mucus in the urine. Tlie same 
 treatment may he adopted as recommended 
 for irritation of the bladder. If there be an 
 absence of pain, spirits of nitre and copaiba 
 balsam in moderate doses frequently afford 
 relief. 
 
 Steanguet. Constant micturition, only a 
 few drops of urine passing at the time, occa- 
 sioning burning and cutting pains around the 
 parts. Strangury is generally due to some 
 irritating cause, which should, if possible, be 
 discovered and removed. Cantharides taken 
 either internally, or applied externally, as in 
 the form of a blister, will sometimes give rise 
 to it. The patient should drink copiously of 
 mucilaginous beverages, such as Unseed tea, 
 slippery elm bark, barley water, with gum 
 Arabic dissolved in it. An injection consisting 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 of thirty or forty drops of laudanum in a 
 spoonful of gruel will be found to afford im- 
 mediate relief. If the above means fail, a pill 
 containing a grain of camphor in five grains 
 of extract of henbane shonld be given, and a 
 warm bath taken. See Geatel. 
 
 U'EINB. The density of the urine varies 
 from 1-005 to 1'030 ;' the average, in health, 
 being 1"020, when it contains about 380 gr. 
 of solid matter in the pint. According to 
 Berzelius, the proportion is about 6f §, the 
 rest being pure water. It exhibits a decidedly 
 acid reaction, and is never alkaline, except 
 during disease, or the use of large quantities 
 of alkaline salts of the vegetable acids. The 
 average quantity secreted during 24 hours 
 may be taken at 2 pints to 3 pints; as 
 might be supposed, a larger quantity is 
 passed during the summer than in the winter 
 months. 
 
 Miller gives the following as the composition 
 of healthy urine : — 
 
 1-020 
 
 Water 
 
 C Urea . 
 
 Uric acid 
 Organic matters, 29'79 ■{ Alcoholic extract . 
 I Watery extract . 
 [^ Vesical mucus 
 ^ Sodic chloride 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride 
 
 Sulphuric anhydride 
 
 Lime . 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Potash 
 ^ Soda . 
 
 Loss . . 
 
 S 
 
 Fixed salts, 13*35 
 
 In 
 
 100 parts of 
 
 solid matter. 
 
 956-80 
 
 
 14,-23 . 
 
 33-00 
 
 0-37 . 
 
 0-86 
 
 12-53 . 
 
 2903 
 
 2-50 . 
 
 5-80 
 
 016 . 
 
 037 
 
 722 . 
 
 16-73 
 
 212 . 
 
 491 
 
 1-70 . 
 
 3-94 
 
 021 . 
 
 0-49 
 
 0-21 . 
 
 0-28 
 
 1-93 . 
 
 4-47 
 
 0-09 . 
 
 0-12 
 
 003 
 
 
 1000-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 The presence of bile in urine, or other like 
 fluids, may be detected as follows: — Put a 
 small quantity of the suspected liquid into a 
 test-tube, and add to it, drop by drop, strong 
 sulphuric acid, until it becomes warm, taking 
 care not to raise tlie temperature above 122° 
 Fahr. ; then add from 2 to 5 drops of syrup 
 (made with 5 parts of sugar to 4 of water), 
 and shake the mixture. If the liquid contain 
 bile, a violet coloration is observed. Acetic 
 acid may be suh-tituted for sugar. 
 
 Another test for bile consists in pouring a 
 little of the suspected urine into a test tube, 
 and adding to it a few drops of tincture of 
 iodine, when if bile be present the fl.uid be- 
 comes distinctly green. Rosenbach says that 
 urine containing bile, when passed through 
 white filtering paper, imparts a yellow or 
 brown colour to the paper. On allowing one 
 drop of strong nitric acid to run down the 
 side of the moist filter it leaves a yellow streak, 
 soon changing to orange, with a violet border, 
 on the outside of which blue and emerald-green 
 zones may be observed. These colours remain 
 visible for some time. 
 
 Dark-coloured urine, owing to substances 
 other than bile, does not produce this play of 
 colours. 
 
 The reagents most generally employed for 
 detecting the presence of sugar in urine are 
 Trommer's (see Sugab) and Fehling's solu- 
 tions. For the effective application of Fehl- 
 ing's test, Dr Roberts' advises the following 
 method of procedure : — Pour some of the 
 Fehling's solution into a narrow test tube to 
 the depth of | of an inch; heat until it begins 
 to boil ; then add 2 or 3 diops of the suspected 
 urine. If the sugar be abundant, a thick 
 yellow opacity or deposit of yellow suboxide 
 are produced (and this changes to a brick-red 
 at once if the blue colour of the test remains 
 dominant). If no such reaction ensue, go on 
 adding the mine until a bulk nearly equal to 
 the test employed has been poured in; heat 
 Hgain to ebullition, and no change occurring, 
 set aside without further boiling. If no 
 milkiness is produced as the mixture cools, the 
 urine may confidently be pronounced free from 
 
 1 IVom 1016 to 1025, Bcale. 
 
 * ' Urinary and Renal DiBeases,' by Dr W. Koberts. 
 
URINE 
 
 1693 
 
 ■agar, or, at any rate, it contains less tlian 
 ^th per cent. 
 
 If tlie quantity of suprnr is very small, viz. 
 from a ) to :^,,tli per cent., the precipitation 
 of the yellow or cuprous oxide does not lake 
 place immediately, but occurs after some time 
 as the liquid cools, and the manner of the 
 change is peculiar. First, the mixture loses 
 its transparency, and passes from a clear bluish 
 green to a light greenish opacity, just as if 
 some drops of milk had fallen into the tube. 
 This green milky appearance is quite character- 
 istic of sugar. 
 
 Before u^ing the Fehling's solution it 
 should be always examined previously to 
 the addition of the urine, by being first 
 boiled alone, when if it remains clear it may 
 be pronounced in fit condition. On the con- 
 trary, should the preliminary boiling give a 
 deposit, the solution must be discarded, and 
 some freshly made employed instead. 
 
 BSttgor has proposed tlie following quan- 
 titative test fur the presence of sugar in 
 urine : 
 
 He first adds some potash to the sample of 
 urine, and tlien a small quantity of snbnitratc 
 of bismuth, and boils the mixture. If sugar is 
 present, the suboxide is reduced, and metallic 
 bismuth being liberated is precipitated as a 
 black powder. 
 
 Another method of applying the bismuth 
 test is as follows : — One part of crys- 
 tallised carbonate of soda is dissolved in 
 three parts of water, and added to an equal 
 quantity of the urine. A small quantity of 
 basic nitrate of bismuth is then added to the 
 mixture, which is then heated to the boiling 
 point. A black precipitate is formed if the 
 urine contains sugar. 
 
 Horsley's test consists in boiling with the 
 suspected urine a mixture of equal parts of 
 neutral chromate of potash and solution of 
 potash, when, if sugar be present, a green colour 
 will be produced, owing to the formation of the 
 sesquioxide of chromium. 
 
 M. Luton's, which is a modification 
 of Horsley's test, a solution of bichro- 
 mate of potash is decomposed by excess of 
 sulphuric acid, and upon the urine being 
 boiled with the mixture, a splendid green 
 colour is imparted to it. Urea, albumin, and 
 the urates do not interfei-e with this re- 
 action, 
 
 Vidau has observed that a mixture of equal 
 parts of hydrochloric acid and oil of brune 
 (oil of sesame), either in the cold, or when 
 slightly heated, assumes a distinct rose colour 
 in the presence of cane or grape sugar, pro- 
 vided O'OOl gramme of sugar is present for 
 every c.c. of mixture. 
 
 One of the best methods for the accurate and 
 quick estimation of the amount of sugar in 
 urine is, perhaps, the volumetric, devised by 
 Fehling, who Employed a standard copper 
 solution, known as ' Fehling's solution,' of the 
 lollowing composition : 
 
 Sulphate of copper . . 90|^ grains. 
 Neutral tartrate of potash . 3tJl „ 
 Solution of caustic soda, sp. 
 
 gr. 112 . . . . 4 fl. oz. 
 Add water to make up exactly 6 „ 
 
 Of this solution 200 grains are exactly decom- 
 posed by one grain of sugar. 
 
 The following is the mode of performing the 
 analysis given by Dr Roberts' : — ITeiisnre off 
 200 grains of the obove standard solution in 
 a 200-grain tube, pour this into a flask, and 
 add about twice its volume of water ; then place 
 over a spirit lamp to boil. While the copper 
 solution is being heated the urine to be ana- 
 lysed should be diluted with water to a known 
 degree. In the case of ordinary diabetic 
 urines the best dilution is one in ten. This is 
 obtained by carefully filling a 6-ounce mea- 
 sure with water to the depth of I J onnces, and 
 then adding urine so as to make up exactly 
 5 ounces. The mixture will then contain 
 exactly one tenth of urine (when the quantity 
 of sugar in the urine is very smiiU, a dilution 
 of one in five, or even the undiluted urine 
 may be employed). Tlie next step is to fill 
 a burette (which must be graduated to grains) 
 with the diluted urine to O. Then proceed 
 to add it in successive small portions to the 
 boiling copper solution until the blue colour 
 has entirely disappeared. After each fresh 
 addition from the burette, the mixture 
 should be raised to the boiling point, and 
 then allowed to stand a few seconds, so that 
 the precipitated copper may subside, and the 
 observer may see, by holding the flask between 
 the eye and the light, whether the mixture 
 still retains any blue colour. 
 
 As soon as the blue colour has disappeared 
 the analysis is complete, and the quantity of 
 diluted urine may be read oil'. The per- 
 centage of sugar in the urine can now be 
 readily calculated. Suppose 125 grains had 
 been added from the burette, this represents 
 one tenth, or 125 grains of undiluted urine, 
 and contains exactly one grain of sugar; by 
 dividing 12-5 into 100 the per-centage of 
 
 . , 100 „ ^, 
 sugar IS obtained, or rp;;^ = 8; the urine con- 
 tains 8 per cent, of sugar. 
 
 Another process for the quantitative deter- 
 mination of sugar in urine, called by its 
 author, Dr Roberts, " the differential density 
 method," is based upon the loss of density, 
 experienced by diabetic urine, after all the 
 sugar has been removed by fermentation. Dr 
 Ro'berts says repeated examples derived from 
 diabetic urine so treated, together with cor- 
 responding experiments made with solutions 
 of sugar of known strength in normal urine, 
 and in pure water, as well as theoretical cal- 
 culation have warranted the conclusion, that 
 the number of degrees of density so lost indi- 
 cates as many grains of suyar per fluid 
 ounce, 
 
 1 ■ Urinary andKenal Diseases," by Dr W. Roberts. 
 
1694 
 
 URINE 
 
 The method, which is extremely simple, is 
 thus perl'ormed :---Into a 12-ounce bottle 
 measure 4 fluid ounces ot' the diabetic urine, 
 and drop into it a piece of fresh German 
 yeast, about as large as a cobnut or walnut; 
 insert a cork in the bottle, and let the cork have 
 a, nick cut in tlie side, to allow of the escape 
 of the carbonic acid. Then fill an ordinary 
 4-ounce bottle with the same sample of urine, 
 omitting to add any yeast, and cork it iu the 
 ordinary manner. Place both bottles in a warm 
 situation, where the temperature is about 80° 
 or 90° Pahr., for twenty or twenty-four hours ; 
 at the end of which time, the fermentation 
 being over, the scum will either have cleared 
 off or subsided. The fermented urine is then 
 poured into a proper urine-glass, and its specific 
 gravity ascertained. 
 
 The specific gravity of the nnfermcnted 
 companion portion is also taken, and by com- 
 paring the two results the loss of density is 
 thus arrived at. Before the respective densi- 
 ties are taken it is best to remove the two 
 samples to a cool place, where they should re- 
 main for two or tliree hours, in order that they 
 may acquire the temperature of the surround- 
 ing air. 
 
 The two following examples may serve as 
 illustrations of the method. 
 
 Density before fermentation 
 Density after fermentation 
 Degrees of density lost . 
 
 Grains of sugar per fluid ounce 49 . 25 
 
 If it be desired to bring out the result as so 
 much per cent., this is accomplished by multi- 
 plying the number indicating the "density 
 lost" by the coeflicient 0-23. Thus, in the 
 first of the above examples, 49 x 0'23 = 11'27 ; 
 and in the second 25 x 0'23^5'69, which are 
 amounts of sugar respectively per 100 parts.' 
 
 In taking the densities Dr Roberts advises 
 the operator to employ a urinometer having a 
 long scale, since the degrees are much further 
 apart than in the scales of the short-stemmed 
 instruments, and are therefore more distinct 
 and can be more easily read off. 
 
 The following are examples of diabetic 
 urine: 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 1053 
 
 1038 
 
 1004 
 
 1013 
 
 49 
 
 25 
 
 No. 1 (Simon). 
 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 1018- 
 
 Water . . . 
 
 957-00 
 
 Solid constituents . 
 
 43-00 
 
 Urea .... 
 
 Traces. 
 
 Uric acid 
 
 Traces. 
 
 Sugar .... 
 
 39-80 
 
 Extractive matter andl 
 
 soluble salts . j' 
 
 2-10 
 
 Earthy phosphates . 
 
 0-52 
 
 Albumen 
 
 Traces. 
 
 1 Roberts. 
 
 
 No. 2 (Dr Percy). 
 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 
 1042- 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 894-50 
 
 Solid constituents . 
 
 
 105-50 
 
 Urea 
 
 
 12-16 
 
 Uric acid 
 
 
 016 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 40-12 
 
 Extractive matter, and 
 soluble salts. 
 
 }: 
 
 5306 
 
 No. 3 (Bouchardat) 
 
 
 Water . 
 
 
 837-58 
 
 Solid constituents . 
 
 
 162-42 
 
 Urea 
 
 
 8-27 
 
 Uric acid 
 
 
 Not isolated. 
 
 Sugar 
 
 
 134-32 
 
 Extractive matters, ant 
 soluble salts 
 
 } 
 
 20-34 
 
 Earthy phosphates . 
 
 
 0-38 
 
 " Diabetic urine usually possesses a peculiar 
 smell, which has been compared with that of 
 violets, apples, new hay, whey, horses' urine, 
 musk, and sour milk. Such comparisons serve 
 only to show how difficult it is to give by 
 description a correct idea of a particular 
 odour. The colour of diabetic urine is gener- 
 ally pale. Sometimes, but not usually until 
 after two or three days, the surface becomes 
 coloured with a whitish film, owing to the 
 development of the sugar fungus, and the 
 penicilUum glaucum, and gradually the urine 
 becomes opalescent in consequence of these 
 fungi multiplying in great numbers in every 
 part of the fluid. See UaiifAKT deposits 
 (funqi). 
 
 " Diabetic urine has a sweet taste, and often 
 numbers of flies are attracted to it, which fact 
 sometimes leads the patient to suspect that the 
 urine is not healthy."^ 
 
 White merino, that has been wet with a 
 solution of bichloride of tin, is also said to 
 form a ready test for sugar in urine. 
 
 Albumen in urine may be detected by the 
 nitric acid, or by the heat test. The nitric acid 
 test is performed as follows : — Pill a test tube 
 to about an inch with the urine, then incline 
 the tube and pour in strong nitric acid down 
 the side of the tube, so that the acid sinks to 
 the bottom and displaces the urine, which by 
 reason of its smaller specific gravity rests 
 above it. Let the acid be added till it forms 
 a stratum about a quarter of an inch thick at 
 the bottom. 
 
 If the urine contain albumen three layers 
 will be perceptible — one, perfectly colourless, 
 of nitric acid at the bottom; immediately 
 above this an opalescent zone of the coagulated 
 albumen ; and, on the top, the unaltered 
 urine. 
 
 In his work, ' Kidney Diseases and Urinary 
 Deposits,' Dr Lionel Beale directs attention to 
 the very important fact that " two or three 
 
 * ' Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits,' fcc, Dr Lionel 
 Beale. 
 
URINE 
 
 1695 
 
 drops of nitric acid to about a drachm of al- 
 buminous urino in a test tube will produce a 
 prot-ipitate of albumen wliicb will be dissolved 
 on agitation, wliile, on the other hand, about 
 half as much strong nitric acid as there is of 
 urine will redissolve the precipitateof albumen, 
 unless the quantity present be excessive. Al- 
 bumen precipitated by nitric acid is soluble in 
 weak nitric acid, and in a considerable excess 
 of urine, and it is also soluble in strong nitric 
 acid. It is therefore necessary in employing 
 the nitric acid test to add from ten to fifteen 
 drops of the strong acid to about a drachm 
 of the urine suspected to contain albumen." 
 
 Dr Roberts gives tiie following directions 
 for applying the heat test : — If the urine have 
 Its Dsuai acid reaction it becomes turbid on 
 boiling when it contains albumen, and this 
 turbidity persists after the addition of an acid. 
 There are two points to be remembered on 
 using heat alone as a test for albumen. First, 
 that albumen is not coagulated by heat when 
 the urine is alkaline; in such cases, therefore, 
 it is necessary before boiling to restore the 
 acidity by a few drops of acetic acid (carefully 
 avoiding excess). Secondly, when the urine ib 
 neutral or very feebly acid, it may become 
 turbid on heating, from precipitation of the 
 earthy phosphates, but turbidity from this 
 CHuse is easily distinguished from albumen 
 by a drop of nitric or acetic acid, wliiub 
 instantly causes the phosphates to disappear. 
 It may sometimes happen that the p;itient 
 wlio<o uriue is to be submitted to examination 
 for albumen may be taking large doses of nitric 
 or hydrochloric acid. Under these circum- 
 stances Dr Bence Jones recommends tlie addi- 
 tion of ammonia to the urine, nearly to the 
 point of neutralisation. 
 
 Mr Louis Siebold proposes a modification of 
 Dr Roberts's method of applying the heat test 
 ill iicid states of tlie urine, which is as follows : 
 — Add solution of ammonia to the urine until 
 just perceptibly alkaline, filter, and add 
 diluted acetic acid very cautiously until the 
 uriue acquires a faint acid reaction, avoiding 
 tiie use of a single drop more than is necessary. 
 Now place equal quantities of this mixture 
 into two test tubes of equal size, heat one of 
 them to ebullition, and compare it with the 
 cold sample contained in the other test tube. 
 Tlie least turbidity is thus distinctly observed, 
 and gives absolute proof of the presence of 
 albumen, the error of confounding phosphates 
 with albumen being out of the question, as 
 tliey are precipitated by the ammonia and re- 
 muved by filtration. 
 
 M. Galipe' says the following is a delicate 
 as well as trustworthy test for albuminous 
 urine. A few drops of the urine are care- 
 fully added to a solution of picric acid con- 
 tained in a small conical test glass. It 
 albumen be present a well-marked turbidity 
 will be produced at the point of contact 
 
 * 'Pliarin. Zcituag for Kusslund,' xiv, 48 ('Pharm. 
 Joum.'J. 
 
 between the two liquids. On applying beat 
 the albumen agglutinates, and rises to the 
 surface. Phosphates and urates are said not 
 to interfere with this test. 
 
 In order to determine the quantity of albu- 
 men in urine proceed as follows : — Add a little 
 acetic acid to the urine, and then heat it in 
 a water bath until it boils. Or the albu- 
 minous urine may be dropped into boiling , 
 water acidulated with acetic acid. In either 
 case collect the precipitate on a weighed filter, 
 wash it well, dry it, and weigh it. The albu- 
 men must afterwards be incinerated, and the 
 resulting residue, which consists of earthy 
 salts, must be deducted from the dried pre- 
 cipitate. 
 
 Stolnikow' adopts the following method for 
 the quantitative estimation of albumen in 
 urine : — The urine is diluted with water until 
 a sample poured upon some nitric acid con- 
 tained in a test tube produces still a faint 
 white ring at the point of contact after the 
 lapse of forty seconds. The number of 
 volumes of water added to the volume of 
 urine (which may be taken as one) is divided 
 by 1200, and the quotient will be t^e percentage 
 of albumen in the urine. This rehition has 
 been established and confirmed by gravimetric 
 determinations. 
 
 It is sometimes desirable to remove the albu- 
 men from the urine before proceeding to 
 search for other substances. There are several 
 methods of accomplishing this. If the urine 
 be boiled the albumen will become coagulated, 
 but in many cases it may happen, owing to the 
 urine being slightly alkaline or neutral, that 
 a small quantity may remain in solution. 
 Hence it will be advisable to add a httle 
 acetic acid to the urine before applying heat 
 to it, to remove the precipitated matters by 
 filtration, and to exactly neutralise the acid 
 in the filtrate. If a few crystals of sulphate 
 of soda be heated with albuminous uriue, the 
 albumen and allied matters may be entirely 
 removed without injury to other organic 
 matters dissolved, and witbout interfering 
 with the employment of other reagents. 
 When it is desirable to free the urine from 
 albumen previous to testing tor sugar, this 
 latter method will be found the best and most 
 convenient. 
 
 The following analyses represent the 
 amount of albumen present in the urine of 
 two p.itients suffering from Bright's disease: 
 
 No. 1 (Simon). 
 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 1014- 
 
 Water .... 
 
 966-10 
 
 Solid constituents . 
 
 3390 
 
 Urea .... 
 
 477 
 
 Uric acid 
 
 0-40 
 
 Fixed salts 
 
 804 
 
 Extractive matters . 
 
 2-40 
 
 Albumen 
 
 1800 
 
 » 'Cliem. Centralb.' ('Phnrm. Journ.'). 
 
1696 
 
 URINE 
 
 No. 2 (Dr Percy). 
 
 
 Specific gravity 
 
 1020- 
 
 Water .... 
 
 946 82 
 
 Solid constituents . 
 
 5318 
 
 Urea .... 
 
 7-68 
 
 Uiic acid, and indeterini- \ 
 nate animal matter J 
 
 17-52 
 
 Fixed soluble salts . 
 
 5-20 
 
 Earthy phosphates , 
 
 0-14 
 
 Albumen • . • 
 
 22-64, 
 
 Dr Partes records the case of a patient 
 suffering from albuminuria, who excreted 
 545 grains of albumen in twenty.fuur hours. 
 See Ueates. 
 
 Urine frequently contains an abnormally 
 large quantity of urea. Such urine is of high 
 specific gravity — 1-030 or more. When pre- 
 sent in large excess the urea becomes deposited 
 in 'sparkling crystalline lamellag * of the 
 nitrate, if it be mixed with an equal quantity 
 of strong nitric acid in the cold. 
 
 The crystals vary slightly in character, 
 according to the amount of nitric acid em- 
 ployed and the degree of concentration of the 
 urine. Urine which thus yields, without 
 previous concentration, the nitrate, is said 
 to contain an excess of urea. See page 
 1689. 
 
 The quantity of urea present in urine is 
 best determined by a process invented by 
 Liebig. When a solution of pernitrate of 
 mercury is added to one of pure urea the 
 urea and mercuric salt unite and form an 
 Insoluble compound, of undetermined con- 
 stitution. If, however, the chlorides of 
 the alkalies and alkaline earths are pre- 
 sent, this combination does not take place, 
 owing to the decomposition of the mercuric 
 nitrate, and the formation of bichloride of 
 mercury, and a nitrate of the alkali or alka- 
 line earth, both of whii-h are soluble. When, 
 however, the decomposition of the cliloride has 
 been completed, the urea may be entirely pre- 
 cipitated, provided a sufficieiit quantity of 
 mercuric nitrate be added to the solution. In 
 estimating the amount of urea in urine, there- 
 fore, it is only necessary to add to the urine a 
 solution of the mercuric salt of known strength, 
 since from the quantity of this latter which 
 h'ls been employed in throwing down the urea, 
 this can easily be calculated. 
 
 In performing this analysis, three special 
 solutions are requisite : 
 
 1. A solution consisting of oue part by 
 measure of a cold saturated solution of barium 
 nitrate with two parts (also by measure) of 
 saturated baryta water. This serves for the 
 removal of the phosphates and sulphates, the 
 presence of which in the urine would interfere 
 with the analysis. 
 
 2. The standard solution of mercuric ni- 
 trate, which is made as follows : — 772 grains 
 of red oxide of mercury placed in a beaker 
 arc dissolved in a sufficient quantity of nitric 
 acid (sp. gr. 1-20) by a gentle heat, and eva- 
 
 porated over a water bath until all excess of 
 free acid is driven off. This may be known by 
 the liquid becoming dense and syrupy in 
 appearance. It is then poured into a properly 
 graduated vessel and diluted to 10,000 grain- 
 measures. Of this solution, 10 grain-measures 
 =0-1 grain of urea. 
 
 3. A solution of carbonate of soda in dis- 
 tilled water, 20 grains to the ounce. This 
 solution is employed to indicate when the 
 titration is complete, and to show the oper- 
 ator that all the urea has been precipitated 
 by the mercuric salt. 
 
 The operation is thus performed : 
 (a.) 400 grain-measures of the clear urine 
 are mixed with 200 grain-measures of the 
 baryta solution. No. 1. The mixture is poured 
 into a filter, and of the clear filtrate which 
 passes through 150 grain-measures are care- 
 fully measured off, and poured into a small 
 beaker. This quantity of course contains two 
 thirds, or 100 grain-measures of wine. 
 
 (4.) A graduated burette (each division of 
 which equals a grain-measure of water) is next 
 filled with the solution (No. 2) of mercuric 
 nitrate, which is then dropped into the beaker 
 containing the filtered urine, until the mixture 
 becomes turbid. The quantity of solution that 
 has been required to just reach the point of 
 turbidity is then noted down ; it shows that 
 all the chloride of sodium has been decom- 
 posed, and that the urea is now beginning to 
 precipitate. 
 
 (e.) The solution (No. 2) is now added more 
 liberally, and thoroughly mixed with the con- 
 tents of the bealier by means of a glass rod ; a 
 copious white precipitate is being formed. 
 The operation is completed, when, of course, 
 no more precipitate is thrown down. 
 
 (d.) This point is ascertained by means of 
 the solution of carbonate of soda (No. 3), to 
 a few isolated drops of which dotted about a 
 white plate, or slab, or placed on a watch 
 glass, give, when mixed by means of the 
 stirring rod with a drop of the turbid mixture 
 from the beaker, a yellow tinge, owing to the 
 formation of hydrated oxide of mercury. 
 
 (e.) The quantity of solution of mercuric 
 nitrate that it has taken to produce the above 
 reaction is then noted down, and from this 
 the portion used before the occurrence of the 
 turbidity is deducted, the remainder, of course, 
 being the amount required to precipitate the 
 urea. By bearing in mind the statement 
 already made that 10 grain-measures of the 
 mercurial solution indicate 0-1 grain of urea, 
 the quantity excreted in 24 hours may be 
 arrived at by a very easy and obvious calcu- 
 lation. 
 
 Dr Davy's method of estimating Xfrea. This 
 consists in the decomposition of a known 
 quantity of urine by sodium hypochlorite, 
 the amount of urea being calculated from 
 the resulting nitrogen. A glass tube, 12 or 14 
 inches in height, and graduated to tenths 
 and hundredths of a cubic inch, is filled to 
 
URINE 
 
 1697 
 
 more thnn a third of its length with mr'r<Miry ; 
 » taeiisureii quantity of urine, varying Irom a 
 quarter of a drachm to a draclini, is next 
 poured into llie tube, which is then filled up 
 with a solution of aodium hypochlorite (the 
 liquor sodiB chlorinattB of the Dublin Phanna- 
 copccla). This latti-r must be poured in 
 quickly, and the open end of the tube im- 
 mediately closed with the thumb. The tube 
 Is then shaken to ensure admixture between 
 the urine and hypochlorite, and stood with 
 the open end downwards in a cup filled with 
 a saturated solution of common salt; the 
 mercury escapes Into the tube, its place being 
 tilled by the solution of suit, which being 
 heavier than the mixture of urine and hypo- 
 chlorite, retiilips them in the upper part of 
 tlie tube. The urine becomes soon decom- 
 posed, the carbonic acid, which is one of tlie 
 products of its decomposition, being absorbid 
 by the excess of chloride of sodium present, 
 whilst the liberated nitrogen bubbles up to 
 the top of the tube. When no more evolu- 
 tion of gas takes place, the volume of nitro- 
 gen is read off, and from its amount the 
 quantity of urea present in the amount of 
 urine experimented upon is calculated : one- 
 fifth of a grain of urine=0'3098 parts of a 
 cubic inch of nitrogen at 60° Fahr. and 30' 
 barometrh; pressure. 
 
 Havghton's method of estimating Urea from 
 the tpecific gravity of the Urine. After having 
 meusnnci tliR urine voided during 24 hours, 
 and determined the specific gravity of the 
 whole collected amount, and then consulting 
 the accompanying table, compiled by Pro- 
 fessor Haughton, the number of grains of 
 urea excreted per diem is immediately ascer- 
 tnineii. This quantity will be shown by the 
 figures which stand at the points where the 
 lines running respeetively from the number 
 of fluid ounces and the ' specific gravity ' 
 Intersect each other. Thus, suppose the daily 
 amount of urine to have been 80 ounces, and the 
 specific gravity 1006, the number of grains 
 of urea contained In it will be 85. This 
 method is inserted for urines containing sugar 
 and albumen. 
 
 Determination of the Water. The amount 
 of water in any sample of urine may be 
 determined by weighing 1000 grains of the 
 recently excreted urine into a counterpoised 
 platinum or porcelain dish, and ascertaining 
 the loss it has undergone after evaporation to 
 dryness. The operation should be performed 
 as speedily as possible. The best plan is to 
 concentrate the urine in a water bath, the 
 evaporation should be continued t» vacuo over 
 BtnJng sulphuric acid, until the weight of the 
 residue remains constant. By way of control, 
 another sample of the same urine, consisting 
 of 500 grains, may be operated upon at the 
 same time, and under the same conditions. 
 
 Ueihaet Deposits, &c. These differ from 
 the albumen, sugar, bile, &c., previously de- 
 •cribod, in being insoluble in abuormal 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 urine. Sometimes they are dilTused throueh- 
 out the wljole body of the urine, when they 
 give it an opaque appearance. Suirietimes 
 thi y may be met with floating on Its -urface ; 
 at others they are only partially diffused 
 throu;,'h the fluid, frequently in the form of 
 a transparent or opaque cloud, when they 
 occupy a considerable space; whilst very often 
 they occur in a crystalline or grannlar form, 
 deposited sometimes at the bottom ami some- 
 titnes at the sides of the vessel holding the 
 urine. 
 
 Of the numberless insoluble substances 
 met with in urine, both in health and disease, 
 our limits will only permit us to notice those 
 which are most important, and of frequent 
 occurrence. 
 
 For the detection of the generality of these 
 the microscope is indispensable. An instru- 
 ment magnifying 200 to 2M diameters (J of 
 inch objective) will generally be found sufii- 
 ciently powerful, and in souje instances an 
 inch objective, magnifying 40 diameters (as in 
 the larger forms of cry»talliue deposit) will 
 answer ail the purposes. 
 
 Some of the varieties of these deposits 
 admit of a double examination, viz. a micro- 
 scopical and chemical one. When this is the 
 case, the particulars applying to each kind of 
 investigation will be given. 
 
 Mucus. Mucus is al»vays present in small 
 quantity in healthy urine, in which it shows 
 itself within a few hours after the urine has 
 been excreted in the shape of a tran'^jiarent 
 cloud towards the bottom of the vessel coii- 
 tuining the urine. 
 
 Put. The presence of pus in urine is indi- 
 cated by an opaque, more or less bulky, cream- 
 like deposit at the bottom of the vessel hold- 
 ing the urine, to which some separated pus 
 globules, finding their way to the supernatant 
 liquid, give an appearance of slight tur- 
 bidity. By shaking the vessel the whole of 
 the liquid becomes turbid, owing to the 
 equal dissemination through it of the pus 
 globules. The pus again deposits on stand- 
 ing. A small quantity of albumen is always 
 met with in the clear part of urine which 
 contains pus; the albumen being derived from 
 the liquor puris, the liquid by which the pus- 
 corpuscles are surrounded. 
 
 Whenever it can be obtained in sufficient 
 quantity, pus should always be examined 
 chemically, as follows : — The supernatant 
 urine being decanted, the suspected sediment 
 is shaken up with liquor potassse, when if it 
 become converted into a gelatinous, viscid 
 substance, incapable of being dropped from 
 the tube, and when poured from it running 
 as a slimy and almost continuous mass, it 
 may be pronounced pus. This same gelatinous 
 viscid mass is met with in alkaline urines 
 containing pus, adhering to the sides of the 
 vessel in which the urine is placed, where it 
 has been formed by the action of the car- 
 bonate of ammonia (caused by the dccompo- 
 
 107 
 
1698 
 
 UREA 
 
 S5 
 
 e 
 
 
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 1 
 
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 §S^SSSS^?gS§^5^?SSSSSSSS8§ggggS§ 
 
URINE 
 
 1699 
 
 •ition of the nrea) upon the pus. Tlie re- 
 action upon the pu9 Is tlie same as that which 
 takes place when liquor potassa) is em- 
 ployed. The Btrinfty viscid substance due to 
 the last cauoe is frequently, but erroneously, 
 termed muciis. 
 
 In urines containing pus, the clear portion 
 should always be examined for albumen, since 
 where this is fonnd, except in small amount, 
 some form of kidney disease may be sus- 
 pected. 
 
 But it sometimes happens that the pns is 
 present in such small quantity in the urine 
 as to preclude its chemical examination. 
 Under these circumstances, recourse must be 
 had to the microscope. Dr Lionel Beale says, 
 " Pus-globules, which have beeu long removed 
 from the body, always have a granulated 
 appearance in the microscope, and, when fresh, 
 do not always exhibit a well-defined nucUus; 
 the outline is usually distinct and circular, but 
 it is finely crenatcd. Upon the addition of acetic 
 acid the globule increases somewhat in size, 
 becomes spherical, with a smooth, faint outline, 
 and from one to four neiirly circular bodies arc 
 developed in the centre of each. If the pus- 
 corpuscles have lain some days in the urine 
 they will have undergone complete disinte- 
 gnition." 
 
 Epithelium. A great many varieties of 
 epithelium, derived from different parts of the 
 kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra, vagina, &c., 
 are more or less present in urine. A few of 
 these are given in the accompanying engrav- 
 ing. In the various diseases peculiar to the 
 urinary and genito-urinary organs the quan 
 tity of epithelium present in the nriiie is 
 frequently considerable, and as in some cases 
 it presents itself in an imperfect or disinte- 
 grated form, its identification, except to the 
 CKperienced mioroscopist and physiologist, 
 becomes a matter of great difficulty. 
 
 Casta, Casta or moulds which have been 
 formed in the tubes of the kidneys, or in the 
 uterus and vagina, are constantly finding their 
 way into the urine of persons affeotert with 
 acute or chronic renal diseases and uterine aifec- 
 tions. They are very varied both in character 
 and appearance, and difficult of recognition, 
 except by the skilled microscopist and patho- 
 logist. 
 
 Blood-corpuscles. These, when present in 
 quiescent urine, occur as u sediment at the 
 bottom of the vessel. Some few globules, 
 however, are difl'used throughout the super- 
 natant urine, and impart to it a smoky 
 appearance, if the fluid have a marked acid 
 reaction ; whereas if the reaction be al- 
 kaline the corpuscles assume u bright red 
 colour. 
 
 In the accompanying plate the three upper 
 groups represent blood-corpuscles taken from 
 the human body j the three lower those found 
 in urine. Of these latter some will be seen 
 to have lost their circular outline, and to have 
 become jagged or crenatcd. In some cases. 
 
 on the contrary, they swell and become much 
 enlarged. These changes in appearance take 
 place when the blood has remained for some 
 time in the urine, and appear to be due to the 
 forces of endosmosc and exosmose. 
 
 XM 
 
 (Beule.) 
 
 Fungi. The chief vegetable organisms 
 foutul in urine are the sugar fungus and the 
 Penicillium glaucum. The sugar fungus is 
 precisely the same as the yeast plant (the 
 Torula cerivlsia). The Penicillium is very 
 frequently present in albuminous urine, with 
 an acid reaction, as well as in. diabetic. 
 
 Uric acid. See back. 
 
 Urates. — According to Bence Jones the 
 soluble urates met with in healthy urine con- 
 sist of uric acid, potassium, ammouium, and 
 sodinm. 
 
 In abnormal urine the urates of ammonium 
 and sodium sometimes occur, the latter, which 
 are the more general, presenting under the 
 microscope the appearance shown below. 
 
 (Beale.) 
 
 Urate of sodium is, however, much more com- 
 mon in the urine of children than of adults, 
 when it presents itself in the form of spherical 
 crystals. 
 
 In both cases the urates are associated with 
 uric acid (resulting from their partial decompo- 
 sition), represented by the small spiked crystals 
 
1700 
 
 URINE 
 
 protruding from the spheres in the form of 
 needle-shaped crystals. Urate of sodium 
 occurs as the concretions known as ' challc 
 stones' in gout. But by far the most aV)und- 
 ant liind of urates met with in abnormal urine 
 is that known as amorphoiis urates, which 
 
 Urate of soda in a globular form cnmmonly found in 
 the urine of cliUdren. 
 
 constitute the most common variety of urinary 
 deposits. 
 
 Heintz states that they are a mixture of 
 urate of sodium with small quantities of the 
 urates of ammonium, lime, and magnesium. 
 They are very frequently seen in the urine ot 
 persons in excellent health, in which, owing 
 perhaps to too abundant or nitrogenous diet 
 and an insufficiency of muscular exercise, being 
 in excess, they are thrown down when the 
 urine cools. 
 
 An excess of the amorphous urates in urine, 
 like the presence of pus and phosphates, is 
 indicated by the bulky precipitate more or 
 less diffused throughout the vessel containing 
 the urine. A very easy test will decide as to 
 which of the three classes of substances (if 
 only one of them be present) the precipitate 
 belongs. The supernatant fluid being de- 
 canted from the deposit, about an equal bulk 
 of liquor potassse is added to the latter, when 
 one of three results will ensue : 
 
 1. If it be pus, and become viscid, it 
 will exhibit the qualities already mentioned 
 .under the description of that substance. 
 
 2. It phosphates, no alteration will ensue. 
 
 3. If amorphous urate, it will at once dis- 
 solve. 
 
 When amorphous urates are uniformly dis- 
 tributed throughout the urine they give it 
 a milky appearance, which may sometimes 
 lead to its being mistaken for chylous urine, 
 or urine througliout which fatty particles of 
 chyle are diifnsed. This latter doubt, however, 
 may be easily set at rest by gently heating it. 
 If the turbidity is owing to the urate it 
 will disappear; if to chyle it will remain. 
 
 If the amorphous urate be decomposed by 
 a little hydrochloiic acid, it will yield uric 
 acid, easily recognised by its characteristic 
 form under the microscope, or when treated 
 with nitric acid and ammonia, will answer to 
 the murexed test. 
 
 It sometimes happens that in testing an 
 acid urine suspected to contain albumen, the 
 urine may contain so large an amount of uric 
 acid in solution that, upon adding a drop of 
 nitric acid to it, a bulky precipitate of uric 
 acid, exactly resembling albumen, is thrown 
 down, and it may be erroneously regarded as 
 this substance if examined under the micro- 
 scope immediately upon its formation. Upon 
 being allowed, however, to stand some time, 
 and then placed under the microscope, the 
 well-known crystals of the acid will reveal 
 themselves. 
 
 In such urine no precipitate takes place 
 when the liquid is heated, another essential 
 feature in which it diverges from albumen. 
 
 Phosphates. — Tlie urinary earthy phos- 
 phates occur under two varieties, viz. the 
 phosphate of ammonia and magnesia, known 
 as the triple phosphate, and the phosphate of 
 lime. 
 
 In the engravings on next page the princi- 
 pal crystalline forms of the triple phosphate 
 are shown. 
 
 Of these the triangular prismatic, with the 
 truncated extremities, is the most common. In 
 some cases the prisms are so much reduced in 
 length as to resemble the octahedral crystals of 
 oxalate of lime, for which they are sometimes 
 mistaken by the inexperienced. When any 
 doubt exists on this point it must be set at 
 rest by having recourse to the chemical tests 
 given further on. The triple phosphate is 
 rarely met with alone, urate of ammonia, and 
 sometimes uric acid and oxalate of lime, 
 being present, although generally occurring 
 in neutral or alkaline urine. The triple 
 acid is sometimes found in that which is 
 acid. 
 
 When ammonia is added to fresh urine the 
 triple phosphate is precipitated, and if it be 
 then examined by the microscope it will be 
 found to consist of beautiful stellate crystals, 
 and to form a most attractive object. The 
 presence of phosphoric acid can be demon- 
 strated by the ordinary reagents. 
 
 Phosphate of lime dissolves in strong acids 
 without effervescence. The presence of lime, 
 as well as of phosphoric acid, can easily be 
 verified by the usual tests. 
 
 Oxalate of lime. The principal crystalline 
 forms of oxalate of lime, when it occurs as a 
 urinary deposit, are the octahedral and the 
 dumb-bell. Of these the most common is the 
 octahedral. These octahedra (which have 
 one axis much shorter than the other two) 
 vary considerably in size, but there is reason 
 to believe that the diversity in appearance 
 which they exhibit is due to crystals of pre- 
 cisely the same shape occupying different 
 
URINE 
 
 1701 
 
 positions ns to the direction of their axes, | are a great many diversities of the dnmb-bell 
 when exa.nined by the microscope. There | form of oxalate of lime, which 'seem to be 
 
 ' * ///{'_ a 9 ■ '...VMI/I • »r ttr 
 
 Cr}'Bt.als of triple phoapliate with splierulcB of urate of sudu. (Beale.) 
 
 Fl&. 2. 
 
 Cijstals of triple plioBpliatc with triangular prisms, with truncated extremities. (Beale.) 
 
1702 
 
 URINOMETEE— UVA URSI 
 
 derived from eircular and oval crystals. The 
 subjoined ciits illustrate the varieties of crys- 
 talline oxalates the most gener.iUy mot with. 
 
 Q 
 
 
 o 
 
 © 
 
 o 
 
 ® 
 
 O 
 
 Oxalate of lime. (Beale.) 
 
 When the crystals of oxalate are extremely 
 minute, they are very liable to be overlooked. 
 
 since they then appear as almost opaque cubes, 
 and may not unnaturally be taken for urate of 
 soda, to which they bear no slight resemblance ; 
 but from which they differ by being insoluble 
 in potash or acetic acid, and not dissolving on 
 the application of heat. "We have already 
 alluded to their resemblance to the dumb- 
 hells of the earthy phosphates. Another dis- 
 tinctive feature is that the oxalates rarely 
 sink to the bottom of the vessel, but are dif- 
 fused through the mucous cloud, which forms 
 in urine after a short time. 
 
 Cystine. Cystine is an occasional ingredient 
 in urine, when it occurs as a whitish precipi- 
 tate crystallised in hexagonal plates. At other 
 times, but not so frequently, it is met with 
 dissolved in the urine. It may be separated 
 from the urine holding it in solution by the 
 addition of an excess of acetic acid. Under 
 the microacupe cystine bears somewhat of a 
 resemblance to uric acid, from which, however, 
 it differs when under treatment with ammonia. 
 When ammonia is added to cystine the cys- 
 tine dissolves, hut by the spontaneous evapora- 
 tion of the ammonia remains behind in its 
 original form ; whilst, if the ammonia be 
 allowed to escape under the same circum- 
 sta.nce from the urate of ammonia which has 
 been formed, this remains behind as an amor- 
 phous mass. Ammonia, therefore, dissolves 
 the cystine without entering into chemical 
 union with it. Potash also readily dis.-olves 
 
 cystine, as do also oxalic acid and the strong 
 mineral acids. It is, however, insoluble in 
 boiling water, in weak hydrochloric acid, and, 
 as we have seen, in acetic acid. 
 
 Oha. In the examination of urine it is im- 
 portant that the investigation should be con- 
 ducted upon a portion taken from the whole of 
 the urine excreted durivg twenty-four Tiours^ 
 and not on an isolated quantity voided at any 
 particular time. 
 
 The compiler of the present article has to 
 acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr Lionel 
 Scale's very valuahle and exhaustive work, 
 ' Kidney Diseases, Urinary Deposits, &c.,' as 
 well as to Dr W. Roberts's excellent book, 'Uri- 
 nary and Rennl Diseases,' to both of which 
 volumes the reader, desirous of further and 
 more explicit information on the subject, is 
 referred. 
 
 UEHfOM'ETEE. An hydrometer adapted 
 to determining the density of urine. That of 
 Dr Front is the simplest and best. Urino- 
 meters should always be tested by placing 
 them in distilled water at 60° Pahr. from 
 1 015 to 1025 Beale. 
 
 TTEN POWDEE. Crocus martis, or jeweller's 
 rouge. 
 
 UETICAE'IA. See Rash. 
 
 US'fttTEBATJGH. Sfin. ESCTBAC. Literally, 
 mad water, the Irish name of which, 'whisky,* 
 is a corruption. At the present time it is 
 applied to a strong cordial spirit, much drunk 
 in Ireland, and made in the greatest perfection 
 at Drogheda. 
 
 Prep. 1. Brandy or proof spirit, 3 galls. ; 
 dates (without their kernels) and raisins, of 
 each, hruised, \ lb. ; juniper berries, bruised, 
 1 oz. ; mace and cloves, of each \ oz. ; cori- 
 ander and aniseed, of each \ oz. ; cinnamon, 
 ioz. ; macerate, with frequent agitation, for 
 14 days, then filter, and add of capillaire or 
 simple syrnp, 1 gall. 
 
 2. Pimento and caraways, of each 3 oz. ; 
 mace, cloves, and nutmegs, of each 2 oz ; 
 aniseed, corianders, and angelica root, of each 
 8 oz. ; raisins, stoned and bruised, 14 lbs. ; 
 proof spirit, 9 galls. ; digest as before, then 
 press, filter, or clarify, and add of simple 
 syrup, q. s. Should it turn milky, add a little 
 strong spirit, or clarify it with alum, or filter 
 through magnesia. 
 
 04s. Usquebaugh is either coloured yellow 
 with saffron (about J oz. per gall.), or green 
 with sap-green (about \ oz. per gall.); either 
 being added to the other ingredients before 
 maceration in the spirit. 
 
 UVA UESI. The Arctostaphylus TTva Vrsi 
 (the Bearberry) is an indigenous plant, the 
 leaves of which are employed in medicine. 
 Bearberry leaves contain a large percentage 
 of tannic acid, with a small quantity of gallic 
 acid, some resin, and a little volatile oil and 
 extractive, together with a crystallisable prin- 
 cip'e named arbutin, which is said to bo a 
 
VACCINATION— VANADIC ACID 
 
 1703 
 
 very powerful diuretic. Another cryatallig- 
 able resinous body uamed urbutin has also 
 been lii-coveroil in them. Boarberry leaves 
 either in the form of powder, infusion, 
 or extract, are chiefly used in chronic dis- 
 eases of the bladder, in which tliere is an 
 alinornixl Bccntiim of mucus, such as fatar- 
 rkua veticm, but neither acute nor active 
 inflammaliun. 
 
 VACCINA'TIOH. See Cow-pox. (Pox.) 
 
 VACCINE MATTEE. Sy». Ltmpha vac- 
 cinia, L. Thii is collected either upon the 
 points ol lancet-like pieces of ivory, or by 
 opening the pustule, and applying a small 
 glass ball and tube (like tlio^e called by the 
 boys in London caiidle-pops, or fire-pops) to 
 the orifice, expelling part of the air in the 
 ball by bringing a lighted taper near it; then, 
 withdrawing the taper, the matter is sucked 
 into the ball, in which it may be sealed up 
 hermetically or cemented, and thus kept for a 
 length of time. It i-", however, now generally 
 preserved between two small pieces of glass, 
 or in straight capillary glass tubes. It is said 
 that cotton thread is a cunvenieut and effi- 
 cient vehicle. The matter may be liquefied 
 with a little clean water before application, 
 A degree of heat scarcely higher than that of 
 the blood lessens its efficacy. 
 
 VAC'DUM. Empty space; a portion of space 
 void of matter. Tor experimental and manu- 
 facturing purposes, a sufficient vacuum is 
 produced either by meUns of the air-pump, or 
 by filling iin inclosed space by steam, which 
 is then condensed by the application of cold. 
 Evaporation proceeds much more rapidly, and 
 liquids boil at much lower temperatures in an 
 exhausted receiver than when exposed to the 
 air. Thus, under ordinary circumstances, in 
 the air, ether boils at 9!J^ alcohol at 177', and 
 water at 212° Falir.; but in vacuo water boils 
 at about 8b°, alcohol at 56°, and ether at 
 — 20° Fahr. In the best vacuum obtainable 
 by a powerful Hir-pump, water placed over oil 
 of vitriol, to absorb the aqueous vapour as it 
 forms, will often enter into violent ebullition 
 whilst ice is in the act of formation on its sur- 
 face. The reduction of the boiling-point with 
 reduced pressure is practically taken advantajje 
 of by the pharmaceutist in the preparation 
 of extracts, by the sugar refiner in the eva- 
 poration of his syrups, by the distiller in the 
 production of certain liqueurs, and by the 
 chemist in a variety of processes of interest 
 or utility. See Extbacts, Evapoeatiok, 
 
 liEPBIOEBATION, &.C. 
 
 VAL£"SIAH. Sya. Vaiebiaitje eadix 
 (B. P.), Valeeiax.e badix, Valebiana (Ph. 
 L. E. & D ), L. " The root of the wild plant 
 Valeriana officinalis (Linn.), or wild valerian.'' 
 (Ph. L.) An excitant, antispasmodic, tonic, 
 and emmenagogue, not only acting on the 
 secretions, but I xcrcisin;j a specific influence 
 over the cerebro-spiual system, and in large 
 
 quantities producing agitation, mental exalta- 
 tion, and even intoxication. — Dote, 10 to 30 
 or 40 gr., thrice daily ; in hy-t-ria, epilepsy, 
 headache (affecting only one siiie), morbid 
 nervous sensibility, &c. Even the odour 
 of it exerts a species of fascination over 
 cats. 
 
 VALEEUNIC ACID. HC,H,Oy Syn. Va- 
 
 LEBIC ACID; ACIDUM VALEBIANICUM, A. TAXB- 
 EICUM, L. Prep. 1. A mixture of potato oil or 
 corn-spirit oil (hydrated oxide of amyl) with 
 about 10 times its weight of quicklime and 
 hydrate of potassa in equal proportions, 
 placed in a glass flask, is kept heated to about 
 400° Fahr., for 10 or 12 hours, by means of 
 a bath of oil or fusible metal; the ue irly 
 white solid residuum is mixed with water, an 
 excess of sulphuric acid added to the mix- 
 ture, and the whole sulijeclcd to distillation ; 
 the distillate is supersaturated with potassii, 
 evaporated nearly to dryness, to dissipate any 
 undecomposed potato oil, and then mixed 
 with weak sulphuric acid in excess; a lii^ht 
 oily liquid (terbydrated valerianic acid) sep.ir- 
 ates. which by cautious rectification, yields 
 at flr-t water containing a little acid, and 
 »fterwards pure monobydrated valerianic acid, 
 which is perfectly identical with that pre- 
 pared from valerian root. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) See Valeeianate of Sodium. 
 This is a most economical process. 
 
 Prop., Jfc. A limpid oily liquid, smelling 
 strongly of valerian root; it has an acid liiste 
 and reaction, and leaves a sensation of sweet- 
 ness and a white spot on the tongue ; is in- 
 flammable; boils at 347°; is (Vccly sohiiile in 
 alcohol and ether; dissolves in 30 paits of 
 water, and forms salts called valeriainiti-s, 
 most of which have a sweetish taste, are 
 soluble, and unerystallisable; sp. gr. 037; 
 l>laced iu contact with water, it absorbs a 
 portion of it, and is converted into the ter- 
 bydrated acid, with increase of sp. gr., and 
 reduction of the boiling point. 
 
 VALE"RIC ACID. See VALEBlAyio acid. 
 VALO'NIA. The cup of a large s|iecies of 
 acorn, imported from the Levant. Used in 
 tanning leather. 
 
 VANAD'IC ACID. V.O.,. Si/n. Vjxadtc an- 
 
 HTDEIDE, TeKOXIDE OF V. ; ACIDDSl VANADI- 
 
 CU.M. L. Prep. (Johnston.) From the native 
 vanadate of lead, by dissolving it iu nitric 
 acid, passing sulphuretted hydrogen through 
 the solution, to throw down lead and arsenic, 
 filtering, and evaporating the resulting blue 
 liquid to dryness; the residuum is then dis- 
 solved in a solution of ammonia, and a piece 
 of sal ammoniac, considerably larger than can 
 be dissolved, introduced ; .is the latter dis- 
 solves, .1 pulverulent precipitate of vanadate 
 of ammonium is formed, which must be- 
 washed, first in a solution of sal ammoniac, 
 and then in alcohol of -860; by exposing this 
 salt, in an open platinum crucible, to a heat 
 a little below redness, and keeping it con- 
 
1704 
 
 VANADIUM— VANILLA 
 
 stantly stirred, until it acquires a dark red 
 colour, pure vaiiadic acid is obtained. 
 
 Frep., S;e. Vanadie acid is orange coloured, 
 scarcely soluble In water, and forms, with tlie 
 ali^aliue bases, soluble salts called vanadates ; 
 and with the other bases sparingly soluble 
 salts. All of these have an orange or yellow 
 colour." "Vanadate of ammonia mixed with 
 solution of galU forms a black fluid, which is 
 the best writing ink hitherto known. The 
 quantity of salt required for this purpose 
 is very small ; the writing is perfectly black, 
 and not obliterated by alkalies, acids, chlorine, 
 or other reagents." (Ure.) 
 
 VANA'DIUM. V. A rare metal discovered 
 by Sefstom, in 1830, in some Swedish iron 
 extriicted from an iron mine near Jonkoping. 
 It has since been found in a Vnnadinite lead 
 ore met with in Scotland, Zimpanan in 
 Mexico, and Chili, and in the iron slag of 
 StafEordsliire. Of late years a more abundant 
 source of Vanadium has been discovered by 
 Professor Rosooe in the cupriferous stratum 
 of the New Eed Sandstone at Alderley Edire. 
 iu Cheshire. There are four, and possibly five 
 oxides of this element. 
 
 Vanadie oxyohloride. Syn. Vanamc oxy- 
 TBICHLOBIDE. (VOCI3.) Roscoe states there 
 are several oxychlorides of vanadium, which, 
 however, have not been studied. The most 
 interesting of them is the oxytrichloride, 
 which corresponds to the phosphorous oxy- 
 ohloride. This oxytrichloride is a yellow 
 fuming liquid, which is instantly decomposed 
 by water into vanadie and hydrochloric acids. 
 The oxytrichloride may be obtained by heat- 
 ing vanadie anhydride and charcoal (mixed 
 together) in a current of hydrogen, after 
 which it is heated in a current of dry chlorine. 
 An easier method is by passing dry chlorine 
 over the sesquioxlile of vanadium. 
 
 Vanadie pentoxide. Syn. Vanadic Andt- 
 deide(V205.). At a red hot heat this oxide fuses, 
 and on cooling, crystallises in rhombic prisms. 
 It is but little soluble in water ; the aqueous 
 solution, which is of a yellow tint, is strongly 
 acid, and produc'cs a marked reddening effect 
 on litmns. Vanadic anhydride forms both 
 normal and acid salts. The amraonic vana- 
 diate (Roscoe's meta vanadiate) is the chief 
 source of the acid. This salt may be obtained 
 by adding pieces of sal ammoniac to a crude 
 solution of potassio vanadiate, the resulting 
 amnionic vanadiate being insoluble in a sa- 
 turated solution of sal ammoniac, is deposited 
 in small crystalline grains. 'I'he vanadic an- 
 hydride may he obtained from the animonic 
 vanadiate by heating an aqueous solution of 
 the salt in the open air, when the ammonia 
 is driven off, and the vanadic anhydride is left 
 beliind. The acid ammonic vanadiate, mixed 
 H-ilh tincture of galls, makes a very durable 
 writing ink, unacted upon either by alkalies 
 or chlorine. Acids turn such blue without, 
 however, destroying it. 
 
 Vanadic trlox'ide. (VjO^.), is the Vanadyl 
 
 of Rosooe, who obtained it in the form of a grey 
 metallic-looking powder, by the transmission 
 of a current of dry hydrogen charged with 
 the vapours of oxychloride of Vanadium, 
 through a tube containing ignited charcoal. 
 It dissolves in dilute acids, with evolution of 
 hydrogen. Solutions of its salts are lavender 
 coloured. Berzelius regarded this oxide as a 
 metal. 
 
 Tests. The vanadiates mostly occur of a 
 red or yellow colour. When treated with 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, they yield a solution 
 of a fine blue colour, a reaction that dis- 
 tinguishes them from the chromates, which, 
 under similar treatment, would give a green 
 liquid. When mixed with borax and exposed 
 to the reducing flame of the blowpipe, com- 
 pounds containing vanadium give a green 
 glass, which turns to yellow in the oxidizing 
 flame. Professor Roscoe, to whose researches 
 we are indebted for all the chemical know- 
 ledge we possess respecting vanadium, eays: — ■ 
 " All the main facts now established in con- 
 nection with the chemical department of this 
 element proved it to bear a strong analogy to 
 the elements phosphorus and ar»enic; in 
 fact, it occupied a previously vacant place in 
 a well-defined group of triad, or, as some 
 chemists prefer to consider them, pentad 
 elements. There was a property of vanadium 
 in virtue of which it might ultiuiately obtain 
 considerable importance in the arts, though 
 in the present infancy of the history of the 
 metal it was difficult to foretell this with any 
 certainty. This property was the power of 
 forming a permanent black for dyeing pur- 
 poses. The black produced by the action of 
 vanadium had the advantage over copper and 
 aniline blacks, viz. that it was permanent, 
 whereas the latter were liable to turn green. 
 This application of an element that was first 
 Introduced into notice as a chemical curiosity 
 furnished one more example of the import- 
 ance of original scientific investigation. 
 However far a newly discovered substance 
 might seem to be removed from purposes of 
 practical utility, we never know at what 
 moment it might be turned to account for 
 the benefit of the human race." 
 
 VAHIL'LA. Syn,. Vanille, Pr. The dried 
 pods of various species of Vanilla, a genus of 
 the natural order OrchidacecB. It is chiefly 
 used in the manufacture of chocolate and per- 
 fumery. As a medicine it is much employed 
 on the Continent as an aromatic stimulant 
 and neurotic. — Dose, 6 to 12 gr. ; in asthe- 
 nic fevers, hysteria, hypochondriasis, impo- 
 tency, &c. 
 
 Vanilla is reduced to powder (pitltis ta- 
 NiLL^; poiTDEE DE vanillb) by slicing it, 
 and triturating the fragments with twice or 
 thrice their weight of well-dried lump sugar. 
 For sucKE DB VANILLE, 11 parts of sugar are 
 employed. 
 
 The following table given by Messrs Tieman 
 and Harmann, in the Journal of the Berlin 
 
VANILLIN— VAPOUR 
 
 1705 
 
 Citmical Society, repreients tho quantities of 
 Vanillin (the aromatic principle of Vanilla) 
 contained in that substaaee, us obtained from 
 difierent ftotirces : — 
 
 Vanillin 
 P'-r Ceut. 
 
 Mexican Vanilla (1873, harvest) . 1-69 
 „ „ (1874, harvest) . ISfci 
 
 ,. „ Medium quality , 1-32 
 
 Uuurlion, bfst quality (1874-75) . 191 
 
 (1874-75) 1-97 
 
 2b0 
 
 „ Small medium (1874-75) 1'55 
 
 Java, be-t quality (1873) . . . 275 
 (1874) . . . 1-56 
 
 VANILLIN. A crystallised substance ob- 
 tained from pine juice by Messrs Tiemann and 
 Harmann. It has been i^howii to be identical 
 Hitlithc aromatic principle of Vanilla. 
 
 In a paper read before the Royal Society 
 the authors have described the process by 
 which vanillin was artificially prepared by 
 them. They state that the sap of the cam- 
 biuin of coniferous trees contains a beautiful 
 crystalline (.-lucoaide coniferinp, which was 
 (lincovered by Kartip:, and examined some 
 jears ago by Rubel, who arrived at the 
 formula C24H32O12-I- 3 Aq. A minute sLudy 
 of this coinpuuud leads us to represent the 
 iiiolecnlc of coniferine by the expression, 
 Cii,H2.j03 X 2 Aq., the per centages of which 
 nearly coincide with the theoretical values ol 
 Kiihel's formula. 
 
 Submitted to fermentation with emulsine, 
 coniferine Hplits inr.o sug^ir, and u splendid 
 compound, crvstnllising in prisms, wliicli 
 fuse at 73°. This body is easily soluble in 
 ether, lets so in alcohol, almost insoluble iu 
 water; its composition is represented by the 
 formula CigHijOg. The change is represented 
 by the equation — 
 
 Cii)H.j.jOn -I- H3O = 0511,205 -I- CioHijOj. 
 
 Under tlie iiiHuencc of oxiilisinj; agents, the 
 pniductof fermentation undergoes a reniaik- 
 alile metamorphosis. On boiling it with a 
 mixture of potassium bichromate and sul- 
 phuric acid, thei-e passes with the vapour of 
 water in the Kr-t place ethylic aldehyd, anil 
 subsequently an acid compound soluble in 
 water, from which it may be removed by 
 ether. On evaporating the ethereal solution, 
 crystals in stellar groups are left behind, 
 which fuse at 81°. These crystals have the 
 taste and oiluur of vanilla. 
 
 An accurate comparative examination has 
 proved them to be identical with the crystal- 
 line substance which constitutes the aroma of 
 vanilla, and which is often seen covering the 
 surface of vnnilla pods. 
 
 On analysis, the crystals we obtained were 
 found to contain CgHnOs. This is exactly the 
 composition which recent researches of Cnrle!- 
 have established fur the aromatic principle of 
 vanilla. The trunsformation of the crystal- 
 line product of fermentation into vanillin is 
 represented by the following equation : 
 
 C10H12O3 -1-0 = QMfl + CsHjOj. 
 
 To remove all doubt reg.irdiiig the identity 
 of artificial vanillin with tho natural com- 
 pound, we have transformed the former into 
 a series of salts, which have the general 
 formula, CsH^MO,, and into two substitution 
 products, L'jH^BrOj,, and CjH/rOj. both of 
 which had previously been prepared by Carles 
 from the natural compound. 
 
 VAN SWIETEN'S SOLUTION. Contains 
 WsTr'h part of its weight of corrosive sub- 
 limate ; or i gr. per fl. oz. 
 
 VAPOUE. Vapours are really ir isis, and ame- 
 nable to substantiiiUy the same physi -al law s ; 
 as ordinarily understood, however, the differ- 
 ence between a gas aad a vapour is the follow- 
 iti!,' : — A gas is a form of matter which exists, 
 at ordinary temperatures and pressures, in a 
 state of vapour ; whilst a vapour has been 
 formed by the application of heat to a body 
 usually existing in the solid or liquid form ; 
 g ises, therefore, dirt'er from vapours only in 
 being derived from bodies which, in the s.djil 
 or liquid form, boil at veiy much lower 
 temperatures. 
 
 Vapour of Ammonia. Si/n. Vapob am- 
 monias. (St Th. Hosp.) Solution of ammonia 
 (•959), water, equal parts. A teaspoonful in 
 a pint of water at 80° F. (or each inhalation. 
 In chronic laryngitis and functional aphonia. 
 
 Vapour of Benzoin. Syn. Vapob benzoini. 
 (StTli. Hosp.) Compound tincture of benzoin, 
 1 oz A teaspoonful to 1 pint of water at 
 140° F. In acute inflammation of the pharynx 
 and larynx. 
 
 Vapour of Carbolic Acid. Syn. Vafob 
 iciDi OAEDOLici. (>t Th. Hosp.) Carbolic acid, 
 l-:iU gr. ; water, 1 dr. ; 20 diops ol this in 1 
 pint of water, at 140° F., for each inhalation. 
 For syphilitic and carcinomatous nfceraiions. 
 
 Vapour of Chlorine. Syn. Vafob chloei. 
 (U. P.) Put chlorinated lime, 2 oz., into a 
 suitable apparatus, moisten it with cold water, 
 and let the vapour that arises be inhaled. 
 
 Vapour of Conia. ><ya. Vapob coni^e. 
 (B. P.) Mix extract of hemlock, 60 gr. ; 
 solution of potash, 1 di. j and di^tilled water, 
 9 dr. Put 20 minims of the mixture on a 
 sponge, iu a suitable apparatus, that the 
 vapour of hot water passed over it may be 
 inhaled. 
 
 Vapour of Creosote. Syn. Vapor cheo- 
 SOTI. (B. P.) Mix creosote, 12 minims, and 
 boiling water, 8 oz., in an apparatus so ar- 
 ranged that air may be inhaled through the 
 solution. 
 
 Vapour of Hop. Syn. Vapob lupttli. 
 (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of hops, 6 minims; light 
 carbonate of magnesia, 10 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
 A teaspoonful in 1 pint of water, at 140° P., 
 for each inhalation. Sedative. 
 
 Vapour of Hydrocyanic Acid. Syn. Vapor 
 acidi hydeocyanici. (B. P.) Mix from 10 
 to 15 minims of diluted hydrocyanic acid with 
 1 dr. of cold water in a suitable apparatus, aud 
 let the vapour that arises be inhaled. 
 
1706 
 
 VARICOSE VEINS— VAENISH 
 
 Vapour, of Iodine. Syn. Vapor iodi. Mix 
 tincture of iodine, 1 ii. dr., and water, 1 oz., 
 and, Iiaving applied a gentle beat, let the 
 vapour that arises be inlialed. 
 
 Vapour of Lactic Acid. Syn. Vapoe acidi 
 LAOTici. (St Tb. Hosp.) Lactic acid, 20 
 minims; distilled water, 1 oz. ; mix. For 
 spray inlialation. Dissolves the membranous 
 exudation iu diphtheria. 
 
 Vapour of Oil of Juniper. Syn. Vapob olei 
 JUNIPERI. (St Th. Husp.) English oil of juni- 
 per, 20 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 
 10 gr. ; wiiter, 1 oz. A teaspoonf ul to 1 pint 
 of water at 140° P. for each inhalation. For 
 vocal weakness. 
 
 Vapour of Oil of Mountain Pine. Syn. 
 Vapor pini plttmilionis. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil 
 of mountain pine, \ dr.; light carbonate of 
 mai^utsa, 15 gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; 1 dr. to 1 
 pint of water at 140° F. for each inhalation. 
 In chronic laryngitis. 
 
 Vapour of Oil of Myrtle. Syn. Vapobolei 
 MTKTi. (St Th. Hosp.) Oil of myrtle, 6 
 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 6 gr. ; 
 water, 1 oa. A teaspoonful in a pint of 
 water at 140° F. for each inhalation. In 
 acute tonsillitis. 
 
 Vapour of Nitrite of Amyl. Syn. Vapoe 
 AMTL NiTEiTis. (St Th. Hosp.) Nitrite of 
 amyl, 8 minims; rectified spirit, 1 oz. Atea- 
 spoonfnl in a pint of water at 100° P. for 
 each inlialation. In asthma and spasm of 
 the glottis. 
 
 Vapour of Scotch Pine. Si)n. Vapoe pini 
 Stivesteis. Oil of Scotch pine (fir-wood oil), 
 40 minims; light carbonate of magnesia, 20 
 gr. ; water, 1 oz. ; 1 dr. to 1 pint of water 
 at 140° F. for each inhalation. In chronic 
 laryngitis. 
 
 Vapour of Sulphurous Acid. Syn. Vapoe 
 ACIDI SULPHUEOSI. (St Th. Hnsp.) Sulphnr- 
 ous acid, 15 minims ; water, 1 oz. For spray 
 inhalation. Stimulant and antiseptic. 
 
 Vapour of Thymol. Syn. Vapoe thtmolis. 
 Th\mol, 6 gr. ; rectified spirit, 1 dr.; light 
 carbonate of magnesia, 3 gr. ; water, 1 oz. 
 1 dr. to 1 pint of water at 140° F. for each 
 inhalation. In pharyngitis and laryngitis 
 when associated with extntheraata. 
 
 VARICOSE VEINS. See Vaeix. 
 
 VARIX. The permanent unequal dilation 
 of a vein or veins, which are then said to be 
 ' varicose.' It is known by the presence of 
 a soft tumour, -which d"es not pulsate, and 
 often assumes a serpentine figure. Varicose 
 veins of tlie groin and scrotum generally form 
 a collection of knots. The treatment consists 
 of cold applications, and pressure from ban- 
 dages. Some cases are relieved by ligature. 
 When occurring in the legs, much standing or 
 walking should be avoided, and the use of the 
 elastic stockings made for the purpose will he 
 proper. 
 
 VAE'NISH. Syn. Veenis, Fr. Any liquid 
 matter, which, when applied to the surface 
 of a solid body, becomes dry, and forms a 
 
 bard glossy coating, impervious to air and 
 moisture. 
 
 Varnishes are <'ommonly divided into two 
 classes — pat or oil vaekishes and spieit 
 VAENISHES. The fixed or volatile oils, or mix- 
 tures of them, are used as vehicles or solvents 
 in the former, and concentrated alcohol iu the 
 latter.' The sp. gr. of alcohol for the purpose 
 of makinsT varnishes should not be more than 
 ■8156 ( = 67 o. p.), and it should be preferably 
 chosen of even greater strength. A little 
 camphor is often dissolved in it, to increase its 
 solvent power. The oil of turpentine, which 
 is the essential oil chiefiy employed for var- 
 nishes, should be pure and colourless. Pale 
 drying linseed oil is the fixed oil generally 
 used ; but poppy oil and nut oil are also occa- 
 sionally employed. Among the substances 
 whicli are dissolved in the above menstrua are 
 — amber, anime, copal, elemi, lac, mastic, and 
 sandarach, to impart body and lustre; 
 benzoin, on account of its agreeable odour; 
 annotta, gamboge, saffron, socotrine aloes, and 
 turmeric, to give a yellow colour ; dragon's 
 blood and red sandal wood, to give a red tinge ; 
 asphaltum, to give a black colour and body; 
 and caoutchouc to impart toughness aud 
 elasticity. 
 
 In the preparation of spirit varnishes care 
 should be taken to prevent the evaporation of 
 the alcohol as much as possible, and also ti) 
 preserve the portion that evaporates. On the 
 large scale, a common still may be advan- 
 tageously employed; the head being furnished 
 wi th a stuffing-box, to permit of the passage of 
 a vertical rod, connected with a stirrer at one 
 end and a working handle at the other. The 
 gum and spirit being introduced, the head of 
 the still closely fitted on and luted, and the 
 connection made with a proper refrigerator, 
 heat (preferably that of steatn or a water bath) 
 should be applied, and the spirit brought tn a 
 gentle boil, after which it should be partially 
 withdrawn, and agitation continued until the 
 gum is dissolved. The spirit which has distilled 
 over should be then added to the varnish, and 
 after thorough admixture the whole should be 
 run ofl', as rapidly as possible, through a silk- 
 gauze sieve, into stone jars, which should be 
 immediately corked down, and set aside to 
 clarify. On the small scale, spirit varnishes 
 are best made by maceration in closed bottles 
 or tin cans, either in the cold or by the heat 
 of a water bath. In order to prevent the 
 agglutination of the resin, it is often advan- 
 tageously mixed with clean siliceous sand or 
 pounded glass, by which the surface is much 
 increased, and the solvent power of the men- 
 struum greatly promoted. 
 
 To ensure the excellence of oil varnishes, one 
 of the most important points is the use of good 
 drying oil. Linseed oil for this purpose should 
 he very pale, perfectly limpid or transparent, 
 scarcely odorous, and mellow and sweet to the 
 
 1 Metliylated spirit is now generally used for making 
 spirit vui'hislies, in place of dut^-paid alooliui. 
 
VABNISH 
 
 1707 
 
 taste. — 100 galU. of snch an oil is put Into an 
 iron or copper boiler, capable of holding fully 
 150 c»11'<.. gradnally heated to a gentle simmer, 
 end kept near that point for abuut 2 hours, to 
 eipel moisture ; the scum is then carefully re- 
 moved, and 14 lbs. of finely pulverised scale 
 litliHrj^e, 12 Ib-t. of red lend, and 8 lbs. of pow- 
 dered uinber(all carefully dried and free from 
 moisture), are gradually sprinkled in ; the 
 whole is then kept well stirred, to prevent the 
 driers sinking to the bottom, iii.d the boiling 
 is continued at a gentle heat for about 3 hours 
 longer; the fire is next withdrawn, and, after 
 30 to 40 hours' repose, the scum is carefully 
 removed, and the clear supernatint oil de- 
 canted from the 'bottoms.' — The product 
 forms the best boiled or drying oil of the 
 varnish maker. — Another metliod is to heat 
 a hogshead of the oil gradually for 2 hours, 
 then to gently simmer it for ubuut 3 hours 
 longer, and, after removing the scum, to add, 
 gradually, 1 lb. of the best calcined magnesia, 
 observing to mi.<[ it up well with the oil, and, 
 afterwards to continue the boiling pretty 
 briskly for at least an hour, with constant 
 agitation. The iire is then allowed to die 
 away, and, after 24 hours, the oil is decanted 
 as before. The product is called ' clarified 
 oil,' and requires to be used with driers. It 
 should be allowed to lay in the cistern for 2 
 or 3 months to cliirify. 
 
 In the prepanilion of oil varnishes, the gnm 
 is melted as rapidly as possible, without dis- 
 colouring or burning it ; and wlnu completely 
 fused, the oil, also heated to nearly the boiling 
 point, is poured in, after which the mixture 
 is boiled until it appears perfectly homo- 
 geneous and clear, like oil, when the heat is 
 raised, the driers (if any are to be used) 
 gradually and cautiously sprinkled in, and 
 the boiling continued, with constant stirring', 
 lor 3 or 4 hours, or until a little, when cooled 
 ou » palette knife, feels strong and stringy 
 between the fingers. The mixture is next 
 allowed to cool considerably, but wliilc still 
 qnite fluid, the turpentine, previously made 
 moderately hot, is cautiously added, and tlic 
 whole thoroughly incorporated. The varnish 
 is then ruii through a filter or sieve into stone 
 jars, ons, or other vessels, and set aside to 
 clarify itself by subsidence. When no driers 
 are used, the mixture of oil and gum is boiled 
 until it runs perfectly clear, when it is removed 
 from the fire, and, after it has cooled a little, 
 the turpentine is added as before. 
 
 It is generally conceived that the more 
 perfectly the gum is fused, or run, as it is 
 called, the larger and stronger will be the 
 product J and the longer the boiling of the 
 'gum' and oil is continued, within moderation, 
 the (reer the resulting varnish will work and 
 cover. An excesji of heat renders the varnish 
 stringy, and injures its flowing qualities. 
 For pule varnishes as little heat as possible 
 should bo employed throughout the whole 
 process. Good body varuishes should coutaiu 
 
 IJ lb. ; carriage, wainscot, and mahogauy var- 
 nish, fully 1 lb.; and gold size and black japan, 
 I'ully I lb. of gum per gall., besides the 
 asphaltum in the latter. Spirit varnishes 
 should contain about 2} lbs. of cum per gall. 
 The use of too much driers is found to injure 
 the brilliancy and transparency of the varnish. 
 Copperas does not combine with varnish, but 
 only hardens it; sugar of lead, however, dis- 
 solves in it to a greater or less extent. Boiling 
 oil of turpentine combines very readily with 
 melted copal, and it is an improvement on the 
 common process, to use it either before or in 
 conjunction with the oil, in the preparation of 
 copal varnish that it is desired should be vtry 
 white. Gums of difficult solubility are ren- 
 dered more soluble by being exposed, in the 
 state of powder, for some time to the air. 
 
 Varnishes, like wines, improve by age ; and 
 should always be kept as long as possible 
 before use. 
 
 From the inflammable natureof the materials 
 of which varuishes are composed, their manu- 
 facture should be only carried on in some 
 detached building of little value, und built of 
 uninflanimable materials. When a pot of 
 varnisli, gum, or turpentine catehes fire, it is 
 most readily extinguished by closely covering 
 it with u piece of stout woollen carpeting, 
 which should be always kept at hand, ready 
 for the purpose. 
 
 An excellent paper, by Mr J. W. NIel, on 
 the monufacture of varnishes, will be found in 
 the ' Trans, of the Soc. of Arts,' vol. xlix. See 
 also the articles Alcohol, Ambeb, Copal, 
 Oils, &c., in this work. 
 
 Varnish, Am'ber. Frep. 1. Take of amber 
 (cleur and pule), 6 lbs. ; fuse it, add of hot 
 clarified linseed oil, 2 galls. ; boil until it 
 ' striujfs well,' then let it cool a little, and 
 add of^oil of turpentine 4 galls, (jr q. n. Nearly 
 as pale as copal varnish ; it soon becomes 
 very hard, and is the most durahle of the oil 
 varnishes; but it requires some time before it 
 is fit for polishing, unless the articles are 
 ' stoved.' When required to dry .md harden 
 quicker, dryin;; oil may be substituted for 
 the linseed oil, or ' driers' may be added during 
 the boiling. 
 
 2. Amber, 4 oz. j pale boiled oil, 1 quart ; 
 proceed as last. Very hard. 
 
 3. Pale transparent amber, 5 oz. ; clarified 
 linseed oil or pale boiled oil, ai'd oil of tur- 
 pentine, of each 1 pint; as before. 
 
 Ohs. A'liber varnish is suited for all pur- 
 poses where a very hard and durable oil var- 
 uisli is required. The paler kind is superior 
 to copal vainish, and is often mixed with 
 the latter to increase its hardness and dura- 
 bility. The only objection to it is the diffi- 
 culty of preparing it of a very pale colour. It 
 may, however, be easily bleached with some 
 frish-slakedlime. 
 
 Varnish, Balloon. See Vaenish, Flexible 
 {below). 
 
 Varnish, Bessemer's. This consists of a pale 
 
1708 
 
 VARNISH 
 
 oil copal varnish, diluted with about 6 times 
 its volume of oil of turpentine, the mixture 
 being subsequently agitated with about l-30th 
 part of dry slaked lime, and decanted after a 
 few days' repose. Five parts of the product 
 mixed with 4 parts of bronze powder forms 
 ' Besaemer's gold paint.' 
 
 Varnish, Black. Frep. 1. (Black amber 
 TAENISH.) From amber, 1 lb. ; fuse, add, of 
 hot drying oil, i pint; powdered black resin, 
 
 3 01. ; asphaltum (Naples), 4 oz. ; when pro- 
 perly incorporated and considerably cooled, 
 add of oil of turpentine, 1 pint. This is the 
 beautiful black varnish of the coachmakers. 
 
 2. (Ieonwoek black.) Prom asphaltum, 
 48 lbs. ; fuse, iidd of boiled oil, 10 galls. ; red 
 lead and litharge, of each 1 lbs. ; dried and 
 powdered white copperas, 3 lbs. ; boil for 2 
 hours, then add of dark gum amber (fused), 
 8 lbs. ; hot linseed oil, 2 galls. ; boil for 2 hours 
 longer, or until a little of the mass, when 
 cooled, may be rolled into pills, then with- 
 draw the heat, and afterwards thin it down 
 with oil of turpentine, 30 galls. Used for 
 the ironwork of carriages, and other nice 
 purposes. 
 
 (3. Black japan, Bitumikous tabnibh.) 
 — a. From Naples asphaltum, 50 lbs.; daik 
 gum aniin^, 8 lbs. ; fuse, add of linseed oil, 12 
 galls. ; boil as before, then add of dark gum 
 amber, 10 Ib^, previously fused and boiled with 
 linseed oil, 2 galls. ; next add of driers q. s., and 
 further proceed as ordered in No. 2. Excel- 
 lent for either wood or metals. 
 
 b. From burnt umber, 8 oz. ; true asphaltum, 
 
 4 oz. ; boiled linseed oil, 1 gall. ; grind the 
 umber with a little of the oil ; add it to the 
 asphaltum, previously dissolved in a small 
 quantity of the oil by heat ; mix, add the 
 remainder of the oil, boil, cool, and thin with 
 a sufficient quantity of oil of turpentine. 
 Flexible. 
 
 4. (Beun-swick black.) — a. To asphalt, 
 2 lbs., fused in an iron pot, add of hot boiled 
 oil, 1 pint ; mix well, remove the pot from 
 the fire, and, when cooled a little, add of oil 
 of turpentine, 2 quarts. Used to blacken and 
 polish grates and ironwork. Some makers 
 add driers. 
 
 ft. From black pitch and gas-tar asphaltum, 
 of each 25 lbs. ; boil gently for 5 hours, then 
 add, of linseed oil, 8 galls. ; litharge and red 
 load, of each 10 lbs. ; boil as before, and thin 
 with oil of turpentine, 20 galls. Inferior to 
 the last, but cheaper. 
 
 Varnish, Body. Prep. 1. From the finest 
 African copal, 8 lbs. ; drying oil, 2 galls. ; oil 
 of turpentine, 34 galls. ; proceed as for AMBEe 
 TAENISH. Very hard and durable. 
 
 2. Pale gum copal, 8 lbs. ; clai ified oil, 2 galls.; 
 dried sugar of lead, J lb.; oil of turpentine, 
 3i galls.; proceed as before, and mix the 
 product, whilst still hot, with the following 
 varnish : — Piile gum nninie, 8 lbs. ; linseed oil, 
 2 galls.; dried white copperas, | lb.; oil of tur- 
 pentine, 3i galls. ; the mixed varnishes are to 
 
 be immediately strained into the cans or 
 cistern. Dries in about 6 hours in winter, and 
 in about 4 hours in summer. Used for the 
 bodies of coaches and other vehicles. 
 
 Varnish, Bookbinder's. Prep. Take of pale 
 gum sandarach, 3 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint ; 
 dissolve by cold digestion and fiequent agi- 
 tation. Used by binders to varnish morocco 
 leather book-covers. A similar varnish is also 
 prepared from very pale shell-lac and wood 
 naphtha. 
 
 Vamish for Boots and Shoes.. See Boots 
 and Shoes. 
 
 Varnish, Cabinet-maker's, French polish is 
 occasionally so called. 
 
 Varnish, Carriage. Prep. 1. (Spieit.) Take 
 of gum sandarach, li lb. ; very pale shell-lac, 
 f lb. ; very pale transparent resin, J lb. ; rec- 
 tified spirit of -8221 (64 o. p.), 3 quarts; 
 dissolve, and add of pure Canadian balsam, 
 Ij lb. Used for the internal parts of carriages, 
 &c. Dries in 10 minutes or less. 
 
 2. (Oil.)— a. (Best pale.) Take of pale 
 African copal, 8 lbs. ; fuse, add of clarified 
 linseed oil, 2J galls.; boil until very stringy, 
 then add of dried copperas and litharge, of 
 each i lb.; again boil, thin with oU of tur- 
 pentine, 5i galls. ; mix, whilst both are hot, 
 with the following varnish, and immediately 
 strain the mixture into a covered vessel :^ 
 Gum anime, 8 lbs.; clarified linseed oil, 2^ ga'ls.; 
 dried su^iar of lead and litharge, of each \ lb.; 
 boil as before, thin with oil of turpentine, 
 54 galls. Dries in 4 hours in summer, and 6 
 in winter. Used for the wheels, springs, and 
 carriage parts of coaches, and other vehicles, 
 and by house painters, decorators, &c., who 
 want a strong, quick-drying, and durable 
 varnish. 
 
 ft. (Second quality.) From frum anime 
 (' sorts '), 8 lbs. ; clarified oil, 3 galls. ; litharge, 
 5 oz. ; dried and powdered sugar of lead and 
 white copperas, of each 4 oz. ; bnil as last, 
 and thin with oil of turpentine, 63 galls. Used 
 as the last. 
 
 Varnish, Chinese. Prep. From mastic and 
 sandarach, of each 2 oz. ; reitified spirit 
 (64 0. p.). 1 pint; dissolve. Dries in 6 
 minutes. Very tough and brilliant. 
 
 Varnish, Copal. Prep. l.(OiL.)— o. From 
 pale hard copal, 2 lbs. ; fuse, add of hot drying 
 oil, 1 pint; boil as before directed, and thin 
 with oil of turpentine, 3 pints, or q. a. Dries 
 hard in 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 b. From clear and pale African copal, 8 lbs.; 
 pale drying oil, 2 galls.; rectified oil of tur- 
 pentine, 3 galls. ; proceed as before and imme- 
 diately strain it into the store can or cistern. 
 Very tine, hard, and durable. 
 
 2. (SPlEiT.) — a. From coarsely powdered 
 copal and glass, of each 4 oz. ; alcohol of yOjj 
 (64 o. p.), 1 pint; camphor, J pz. ; heat the 
 mixture, with frequent stirring, in a water 
 bath, so that the bubbles may be counted as 
 they rise until solution is complete, and, when 
 cold, decant the clear portion. 
 
VARNISH 
 
 1709 
 
 J. From copnl (whicli haa bocu melted, 
 dropped into water, and then dried and pow- 
 dered), 4 01.; gum aandnraclit 6 oz. ; mastic, 
 2 01.; pure Chio turpentine, 3 oz.; powdered 
 glsM, 5 oz.; spirit of 90^, 1 quart; dissolve by 
 a l^entle heut. Dr'.es rapidly. 
 
 '6. (Ttiepentink.) To oil of turpentine, 
 1 pint, heated in a water bath, add, in small 
 portions at a time, of powdered copal (pre- 
 pared as above), 3 to 4 oz. ; dissolve, &c., as 
 before. Dries slowly, but is very pale and 
 durable. 
 
 4. (Japanneh's copal tabnish.) From 
 pale African copal, 7 lbs. ; pale drying oil, i 
 gall. ; oil of turpentine, 3 galls. ; proceed as in 
 No. 1. Dries in 20 to 60 minutes, and may be 
 polished as soon as hard, particularly if stoved. 
 See Japanning. 
 
 Obi. All copal varnishes, when properly 
 madi', are very hard and durable, though less 
 so than those of amber; but they have the 
 advantage over the latter of being paler. 
 They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished 
 metal, wood, and other objects requiring a good 
 durable varnish. Anim^ is frequently sub- 
 stituted for copal in the copal varnishes of the 
 shops. See Vabnibhes, Body, Cabbiaoe, 
 and COFAL, &c. 
 
 Tarnish, Crystal. Prep. 1. From genuine 
 pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpen- 
 tine, equal parts. Used for maps, prints, 
 drawings, and other articles of paper, and also 
 to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer 
 engravings. 
 
 2, Mastic, 3 oz.; rectified spirit, 1 pint; 
 dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings. 
 
 Tarnish, Drying. Spirit copal varnish. 
 
 Tarnish, Dutch. Lac and toy varnishes are 
 often so called. 
 
 Tarnish, Etch'ing. See Etchins. 
 
 Tarnish, Pat. See Oil tabnish. 
 
 Tarnish, Flexible. Syn. Balloon tabnish, 
 Caoutcuouo t., India-bdbbek t. Prep. 1. 
 From India rubber (cut small), li oz. ; chlo- 
 roform, ether (washed), or bisulphuret of 
 carbon, 1 pint; digest in the cold uutil solu- 
 tion is complete. Dries as soon »s it is laid 
 on. Pure gotta percha may be substituted 
 for in lia rubber. 
 
 2. India rubber, in shavings, 1 oz. ; rectified 
 mineral naphtha or benzol, 1 pint; digest at 
 a gentle heat in a closed vessel, and strain. 
 Dries very badly, and never gets perfectly 
 hard. 
 
 3. India rubber, 1 oz. ; drying oil, 1 qnart ; 
 dissolve by heat. Very tough ; dries in about 
 48 hours. 
 
 4. Linseed oil, 1 gall. ; dried white copperas 
 and sugar of lead, of each 3 oz. ; litharge, 
 8 oz. ; boil, with constant agitation, until it 
 strings well, then cool slowly, and decant the 
 clear portion. If too thick, thin it down with 
 quick-drying linseed oil. The above are used 
 for balloons, gas bags, &c. See Balloon, 
 
 CAOOTCHOrC, &.C. 
 
 Tarnish, Pnrniture. A solution of pure white 
 
 wax, 1 part, in rectified oil of turpentine, 
 4 parts, frequently p.iss-'s under this name. 
 See Vaknisbes, Body, Cabbiaqe, and Copal, 
 &c. 
 
 Tarnish, Gilder's. Prep. (Watin.) Pale 
 gum-lac in grains, gamboge, dragon's blood, 
 and annotta, of each 12^ oz. ; sallron, 31 oz. ; 
 dissolve each resin separately in 5 pints of 
 alcohol of 90g, and make two separate tinc- 
 tures of the drdgon's blood and annuttn, with a 
 like quantity of spirit ; then mix the solutions 
 in the proper proportions to produce the 
 required shade. Used for gilded articles, &c. 
 
 Tarnish, Glass. , A solution of soluble glass. 
 Used to render wood, 4c., fire-|)roof. 
 
 Tarnish, Gnn-harrel. Prep. Prom shell-lac, 
 li oz. ; dragon's blood, 3 dr. ; rectified spirit, 
 1 quart. Applied after the barrels are 
 ' browned.' 
 
 Tarnish, Hair. Prep. From hug's bristles 
 (chapped small), 1 part; drying oil, 10 parts; 
 dissolve by heut. Said to be used to give 
 cotton or linen cloth the appearance of horse- 
 hair. 
 
 Tarnish, India-rubber. Vabnish. Sec 
 Flexible {above). 
 
 Tarnish, Italian. Prep. Boil Scio turpen- 
 tine until brittle, powder it, and dissolve 
 this in oil of turpentine. Used for prints, 
 &c. 
 
 Tarnish, Japan. Pale amber or copol var- 
 nish. Used for japanning tin, papier m&ch£, 
 &c. 
 
 Tarnish, Lac. Prep. 1. Pale seed-lac (or 
 shell-lac), 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; dis- 
 solve. 
 
 2. Substitute lac bleached with chlorine for 
 seed-lac. Both are very tougli, hard, and 
 durable, but quite inflexible. Wood naplitha 
 may be substituted for spirit. Used for pic- 
 tures, metal, wood, or leather, and particu- 
 larly for toys. 
 
 Tarnish, Lac (Aqueous). Prep. From pale 
 shell-lac, 5 oz.; borax, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint; 
 digest at nearly the boiling point until dis- 
 solved ; then strain. Equal to the more <:■ stly 
 spirit varnish for many purposes; it is an 
 excellent vehicle for water colours, inks, &c. ; 
 when dry, it is waterproof. 
 
 Varnish, Lac (Coloured). Syn. Lacquer, 
 Bbasswoek tabnish. Prep. 1. Take of 
 turmeric (ground), 1 lb. ; rectifieii spirit, 2 
 galls.; macerate for a week, strain, with ex- 
 pression, and add to the tincture, gamboge, 
 IJ oz. ; pale shell-lac, i lb.; gum sandarach, 
 3i lbs.; when dissolved, strain, and further 
 add of good turpentine varnish, 1 quart. Gold 
 coloured. 
 
 2. Seed-lac, 3 oz. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; dragon's 
 blood, i oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint; digest 
 for a week, frequently shaking^, then decant 
 the clear portion. Deep gold coloured. 
 
 3. Spanish annotta, 3 lbs. ; dragon's blood, 
 
 1 lb.; gum sandarach, 3^ lbs.; rectified spirit, 
 
 2 galls. ! turpentine varnish, 1 quart ; as before. 
 Bed coloured. 
 
1710 
 
 VARNISH 
 
 4. Gambopre, 1 oz. ; Cape aloes, 3 oz. ; pale 
 sliell-lae, 1 lb.; rectified spirit, 2 galls. j as 
 before. Pale brass coloured. 
 
 5. Seed-lac, dragon's blood, annotta, and 
 gamboge, of each i lb. ; gum saudarach, 2 oz.; 
 safFron, 1 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 gall. Be- 
 setnbles the last. 
 
 Obs. Lacquers are used upon polished 
 metals and wood, to impart to them the 
 appearance of gold. Articles in brass, tin 
 plate, and pewter, or which are covered with 
 tinfoil, are more especially so treated. As 
 lacquers are required of different depths and 
 shades of colour, it is best'to keep a concen- 
 trated solution of each of the colouring ingre- 
 dients ready, so that it may be added, at any 
 time, to produce any desired tint. 
 
 Varnish, Mahogany. Prep. From gum 
 anim£ (' sorts '), 8 lbs. ; clarified oil, 3 galls, i 
 litharge and powdered dried sugar of lead, of 
 each i lb. ; proceed as for body varnish, and 
 thin with oil of turpentine, 5 galls., or q. s. 
 
 Varnish, Mastic. Syn. Picture vaehish. 
 Turpentine v., Tingrt's essence t. Prep. 
 1. Take of pale and picked gum mastic, 5 lbs.; 
 glass (pounded as small as barley, and well 
 washed and dried), 3 lbs. ; finest newly recti- 
 fied oil of turpentine (lukewarm), 2 galls. ; put 
 them into a clean 4-gall. tin bottle or can, 
 bung down securely, and keep rolling it back- 
 wards and forwards pretty smartly on a 
 counter, or any other solid place, for at least 
 4 hours, when, if the gum is all dissolved, 
 the varnish may be decanted, strained through 
 muslin into another bottle, and allowed to 
 settle ; if the solution is still incomplete, the 
 agitation must be continued for some time 
 longer, or the gentle warmth applied as well. 
 Very fine. 
 
 2. (Second quality.) From mastic, 4 lbs. ; 
 oil of turpentine, 2 galls.; dissolve with heat. 
 
 Obs. Mastic varnish is much used for pic- 
 tures, &c.; when good, it is tough, hard, 
 brilliant, and colourless. It greatly improves 
 by age, and, when possible, should never be 
 used before it has been made at least a twelve- 
 month. Should it get ' chilled,' 1 lb. of well- 
 washed siliceous sand should be made mode- 
 rately hot and added to each gallon, which 
 must then be well agitated for 5 minutes, and 
 afterwards allowed to settle. 
 
 Varnish, Oak. Sj/n. Wainscot tarnish. 
 Common turpentine v. Prep. 1. Clear 
 pale resin, 3i lbs. ; oil of turpentine, 1 gall. ; 
 dissolve. 
 
 2. To the last add of Canada balsam, 1 pint. 
 Both are cheap and excellent common var- 
 nishes for wood or metal. 
 
 Varnish, Oil. The finer qualities are noticed 
 under Amber, Body, Carriage, and Copal 
 Varnish ; the following prciduces the ordinary 
 oil varnish of the shops': — Take of good clear 
 resin, 3 lbs. ; drying oil, § gall. ; melt, and thin 
 with oil of turpentine, 2 quarts. A good and 
 durable varnish tor common work. 
 
 Varnish, Painter's. See Carriage, Copal, 
 
 Mahogany, Oak, Oil, and other varnishes; 
 ^tbe selection depending greatly on the colour 
 and quality of the work. 
 
 Varnish, Patent Leather. This is carefully 
 prepared drying oil. The sldns being stretched 
 on a board, and every trace of grease being 
 removed from them by means of a mixture of 
 fullers earth and water, they are ready to 
 receive the varnish, which is then spread 
 upon them, very thinly, by means of a species 
 of scraper. Tiie first coat varnish consists of 
 pale Prussian blue (that containing some 
 alumina), 5 oz. ; drying oil, 1 ga'.I. ; boiled to 
 the consistence of single size, and, when cold, 
 ground with a little vegetable black ; it is 
 stoved and afterwards polished with fine- 
 grained pumice — the second coating resembles 
 the first, excepting in having a little pure 
 Prussian blue mixed with it; — the third coat 
 varnish consists of a similar mixture, but the 
 oil is boiled until it strings well, and a little 
 more pure Prussian blue and vegetable black 
 are added ; — the last coat varnish, or finish, is 
 the same as the third, but must contain 4 lb. 
 of pure dark-coloured Prussian blue, and J lb. 
 of pure vegetable black per gall., to which a 
 little oil copal or amber varnish is often added; 
 each coat being duly stoved and pumiced 
 before the next is applied. The heat of the 
 stove or oven is commonly 120° Pahr. for 
 ' enamelled skins,' as those of the calf and seal, 
 intended for 'uppers;' and 175° to 180° for 
 stout 'japan leather;' the exposure in the 
 stove is commonly for 6 to 10 hours. The skins 
 are next oiled and grained. The ' graining ' 
 of the ' enamelled skins ' is done by holding 
 the skin in one hand, and with a curved board 
 lined with cork (graining stick), lightly pressed 
 upon the fleshy side, working it up and down 
 until the proper effect is produced. 
 
 Varnish, Picture. Several varnishes, especi- 
 ally mastic varnish, are called by this name. 
 Pale copal or mastic varnish is generally used 
 for oil paintings, and crystal, white hard 
 spirit, or mastic varnish, for water-coloured 
 drawings on paper. 
 
 Varnish, Printer's. Diluted with twice its 
 volume of oil of turpentine, it forms a good 
 common varnish. 
 
 Varnish, Sealing-wax. Black, red, or any 
 coloured sealing-wax, broken small, with 
 enou>5h rectified spirit (or methylated spirit) to 
 cover it, digested till dissolved. A most useful 
 varnish for wood-work of electrical or chemical 
 apparatus, for tops of corks, &c. 
 
 Varnish, Spirit. Prep. 1. (Brown hard.) 
 — a. Prom gum sandarach, 3 lbs. ; pale seed- 
 lac or shell-lac, 2 lbs. ; rectified spirit (65 o. p.), 
 2 galls. ; dissolve, and add of turpentine 
 varnish, 1 quart; agitate well, strain (quickly) 
 tlirough gauze, and in a month decant the clear 
 portion from the sediment. Very fine. 
 
 b. From seed-lac and yellow resin, of each 
 IJ lb.; rectified spirit, 5 quarts; oil of tur- 
 pentine, li pint; dissolve. Inferior to the 
 last. 
 
VARNISHING— VEGETABLES 
 
 1711 
 
 2. (Whitk nARD.) — 1. From gum sandarach 
 (picked), 5 lbs.; camfihor, 2 n?,. ; washed and 
 dried conrsely |iiiunded glass, 3 lbs.; rectified 
 spirit (63 0. p.), 7 quartn; proceed »8 in 
 making maxtie varnish ; wlien strained, add of 
 pure Canada halsam, 1 quart. Very pale, 
 durable, and brilliant. 
 
 b. From gum sandarach and gum mastic, 
 of each, pii ked, 4 oz. ; coarsely pondered 
 gla^s, 8 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; dissolve, 
 and add of pure Strasburg turpentine, 3 oz. 
 Very fine. 
 
 8. (Soft BultLlANT.) From sandarach, 6 
 oz. ; elemi (genuine), 4 oz. ; anime, 1 oz. ; 
 camphor, i oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart ; as 
 before. 
 
 4. (SOBNTED.) To the preceding add some 
 gum benzoin, balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolii, 
 oil of lavender, or the essence of musk or am- 
 bergris. The first two can only be employed 
 for dark varnishes. . 
 
 Oh». The above varnishes are chiefly applied 
 to articles of the toilette, as work-boxes, card- 
 oises, &c. ; but are also suitable to other 
 articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or 
 metal, thatrequire a brilliant and quick-drying 
 varnish. Thov dry almost as soon as applied, 
 and are usually hard enough to polish in 
 24 hours. They are, however, much less 
 durnble, and more liuble to crack, than oil 
 varnishes. 
 
 Varnish, Stopping-out. Syn. Petit tehnis, 
 i'"r. From lampblack, made into a paste with 
 turpentine. Used by engravers. See Etch- 
 INO. 
 
 Varnish, Tingry's. Mastio taknish. 
 
 Varnish, Toy. Simihir to common spirit 
 varnish, but using carefully rectified wood 
 naphtha as the solvent. See Vabnisues, Lac 
 and Sf IBIT. 
 
 Varnish, Transfer. Syn. Mokdant vab- 
 iriSH. Prep. From mastic (in tears) and 
 sandarach, of each 4 oz. ; rectified spirit, li 
 pint; dissolve, and add of pure Canadu baUam, 
 i pint. Used for trHusferring and fixing en- 
 gravings or lithographs on wood, and for 
 gilding, silvering, &c. See Vaenish, CKysTAL. 
 
 Varnish, Turpentine. See Vaknishes, Mas- 
 tic, and Oak. 
 
 Varnish, Wainscot. See Varnish, Oak. 
 
 Varnish, Wax. Syn. Milk of wax ; Emitl- 
 BIO CKR.E SPIRITUOSA, L. Prep. 1. Take of 
 white wax (pure), 1 lb. ; melt it with as gentle 
 a heataspo-sihie, add of warm rectified spirit, 
 sp. gr. -830 (60 o. p.), 1 pint; mix perfectly, 
 and pour the liquid out upon a cold porphyry 
 slab ; next grind it with a muUer to a perf ect'y 
 smooth paste, adding more spirit as required ; 
 put the paste into a marble mortar, miike an 
 emulsion with water, 31 pints, gradually 
 added, and strain it through muslin. Used as 
 a Tarnish fur paintings ; when dry, a hot iron 
 is passed over it, or heat is otherwise evenly 
 applied, so as to fuse it, and render it trans- 
 parent, alter which, when quite cold, it is 
 
 polished with a clean linen cloth. The most 
 protective of all varnishes. 
 
 2. Wax (pure), 5 oz. ; oil of turpentine, 1 
 quart ; dissolve. Used for furniture. See 
 Varnish, Sealino-wax. 
 
 Varuish, White. See Varnish, Spirit, 2, 
 a and b. 
 
 VAE'NISHING. To give the highest degree 
 of lustre to varnish after it is laid on, as well 
 as to remove the marks of the bru.'h, it under- 
 goes the operation of polishinij. Tliis is per- 
 formed by first rubbing it with very finely 
 powdered pumice stone and water, and after- 
 wards with an oiled rag and tripi>li, until the 
 required polish is produced. The surface is, 
 lust of all, cleaned with soft linen cloths, 
 cleared of all greasiness with powdered starch, 
 and then rubUd bright with the palm of the 
 hand. 
 
 In varnishing great care must be taken that 
 the surface is free from grease or smoke; as, 
 unless this be the case, the best oil or turpen- 
 tine varnish in the world will nut dry and 
 harden. Old articles are usually washed with 
 soap and water, by the painters, before being 
 varnished, to prevent any misadventure of the 
 kind alluded to. 
 
 VASELINE. See Cosmolinb. 
 
 VEAIi. " The grain should be close, firm, 
 and white, and the fat of a pinkish white, not 
 a dead white, and the kidneys well covered 
 with a thick wliite fat." (Soyer.) 
 
 Vf al, like pork, requires to be well dressed, 
 to develop its nutritive qualities. It should 
 also be eaten fresh, as a peculiar principle is 
 generated in it when improperly kept, which 
 Hcts as a malignant poison. Ste Roastiko, 
 &c. 
 
 VEG'ETABLE AL'KALIf. Potassa. 
 
 VEGETABLE JUICES. See below. 
 
 VEGETABLES. Vegefcibles are organic 
 beings, which are distinguished from animals 
 by a number of characteristics, but, like them, 
 are composed of ceitiiin proximate primiples, 
 or compounds, which possess a hi;_'h degree of 
 scientific interest, and in many casts are in- 
 valuable to man. Among the most important 
 of these are — albumen, gluten, gum, lignin, 
 starch, sugar, tannin, wax, the fixed and volatile 
 oils, the resins, and gum-resins, the alkaloids, 
 and innumerable forms of extractive matter. 
 Several of tlie»e substances are niticed under 
 their respective names. 
 
 The method of propagating plants from 
 their seeds, depending on their simple expo- 
 sure, at the proper season, to warmth and 
 moisture, under the protection of the soil, is 
 well known ; that by propagution from 'slips ' 
 and 'cuttinps,' which will douVitless prove 
 interesting to the amateur gardener, are noticed 
 below. 
 
 The choice of slips and cuttings should be 
 made from the side shoots of trees and plants, 
 and, when possible, from such as recline 
 towards the grounds, observing, when they are 
 removed by the knife, to leave a little wood of 
 
1712 
 
 VEGETABLES 
 
 a former year or season's growth attached to 
 them, as such are found to take root more 
 readily than when they are wholly composed 
 of new wood. The time to take slips or cut- 
 tings is as soon as the sup gets into full 
 motion. Before setting tliem the latter should 
 be cut aeross.just below nn eye or joint, with 
 as smooth a section as possible, observing not 
 to injure the bud. The superfluous leaves may 
 be removed, but a sufficient number should be 
 left on for the purposes of vegetation. The 
 common practice of removing all or nearly all 
 the leaves of cuttings is injudicious. In some 
 cases leaves alone will strike root. When 
 cuttings are set in pots, they should be so 
 placed as to reach to the bottom and touch the 
 sides throughout their whole length, when 
 they will seldom fail to become rooted plants. 
 In the case of tubular-stalked plants it is said 
 to be advantageous to insert both ends into 
 the soil, each ot which will take root, and may 
 then be divided, when two plants will be pro- 
 duced instead of one. An equable temperature, 
 a moist atmosphere, a shady situation, and a 
 moderate supply of water, are the principil 
 requisites to induce speedy rooting. Excess of 
 any of these is prejudicial. When the size of 
 the cuttings admit, it is better to place them 
 under a hand- or bell-glass, which will preserve 
 a constant degree of heat, and prevent evapo- 
 ration trom the surface of the leaves, which is 
 the mojt commou cause of their dying, espe- 
 cially in hot, dry weather. 
 
 Qual. The vegetable kingdom furnishes by 
 far the larger portion of the food of man, and 
 indirectly, perhaps, the whole of it. The great 
 value of culinary vegetables and fruit in a 
 mixed diet need not be insisted on, since it is 
 a fact which is almost universally known and 
 appreciated. 
 
 In the choice of culinary vegetables observe, 
 that if they are stiff and break freely and 
 crisply, they are fresh, and fit for food ; if, on 
 the contrary, they have a flabby appearance, or 
 are soft or discoloured, they are stale, and 
 should be rejected. 
 
 The dose of the generality of vegetable sub- 
 stances that exercise no very marked action 
 on the human frame is about i to 1 dr. of the 
 powder, night and morning ; or 1 oz., or q. s. 
 to impart a moderately strong colour or taste, 
 may be infused or boiled in 1 pint of water, 
 and a wine-glassful or thereabouts taken 2 or 3 
 times a day. 
 
 Collection and Pres. The following general 
 directions are given in the London Pharma- 
 copceia for the collection and preservation of 
 vegetable substances — (vegetabilia. Ph. L.) : — 
 
 " Vegetables are to be collected iu dry 
 weather, and when neither wet with rain nor 
 dew ; they are to be collected aunually, and are 
 not to be kept beyond a year. 
 
 " Barks are to be collected at that season in 
 which they can be most easily separated 
 from the wood." Spring is the season here 
 alluded to; as at this time, after the sap begins 
 
 to ascend, the bark is, in general, very easily 
 separated. 
 
 " Flowers are to be collected recently blown." 
 The red rose, however, must be gathered before 
 the buds are expanded. 
 
 " Fruits and seeds are to be collected when 
 ripe. 
 
 " Herbs and leaves are to be gathered after 
 the flowers have expanded, and before the seeds 
 are mature. 
 
 " Hoots and rhizomes (underground stems), 
 for the most part, are to be dug up after the 
 old leaves and stalks have fallen, and before 
 the new ones appear." (" Roots, which are 
 required to be preserved f lesh, should be buried 
 in dry sand."— Ph. L. 1836.) 
 
 " Seeds are to be collected when they are ripe, 
 and before they drop from the plant." ("They 
 ought to be preserved in their seed ve sels." — 
 Ph. L. 1836.) 
 
 "The diti'erent parts of vegetables are to be 
 kept dried for use, except where we shall 
 otherwise direct. Expose those you wish to 
 dry, within a short time after they have been 
 gathered, in shallow wicker baskets, to a gentle 
 heat, in a dark place, and where there is a 
 current of air. Then, the moisture being driven 
 off, gradually increase the heat to 150° Fahr., 
 in order that they may be dried. Fiually, pre- 
 serve the more delicate parts, viz. flowers and 
 leaves, in black glass vessels, well closed, and 
 keep the rest in proper vessels, preventing the 
 access of light and moisture." 
 
 Fruits, culinary vegetitbles, and vegetable 
 juice, of every class, maybe preserved for any 
 length of time by several of the methods de- 
 scribed under Putkefaction. On the small 
 scale the following method is often adopted : 
 — The substances to be preserved are put into 
 strong glass or stoneware bottles, with necks 
 of a proper size, which are then corked with 
 the greatest care, tied or wired, and luted with 
 a mixture of lime and soft cheese, or with a 
 paste formed of linseed meal and water, spread 
 on rags; or tin cases are employed, and are 
 soldered up instead of being corked. The 
 bottles are then placed in an oven, the tem- 
 perature of which is cautiously raised to fully 
 212° Fahr. ; or they are enclosed, separately, 
 in canvas bags, and put into a copper ot 
 water to which some salt has been added, 
 wliich is then gradually heated until it boils, 
 and thus kept for 15 or 20 minutes; the whole 
 is next left to cool, when the bottles are taken 
 out and carefully examined before being laid 
 by, lest they should have cracked or the lute 
 have given way. 
 
 Herbs and flowers are now generally pre- 
 served for distillation by means of common 
 salt. The objection which is raised against .the 
 use of fresh aromatic plants is thus obviated, 
 whilst the odours of the distilled products are 
 rendered superior to those obtained from either 
 the recent or dried plant, fruit, or flower, With- 
 out the great loss, inconvenience, or trouble 
 attending the common methods. Besides, 
 
VEGETABLES 
 
 1713 
 
 many aromatic and odorons RubBtnnces almost 
 entirely lose tlieir properties by drying; while 
 moat uf them yield more oil, anl that of a 
 finer quality, in the fresh than in the dried 
 state. The odours of roses, elder flowers, and 
 a variety of others are vastly improved by 
 this treatment, and these fl'jwers may thus be 
 preserved with ease and safety from season to 
 season, or even longer, if required. The pro- 
 cess simply consists in intinjutely mixing the 
 flowei'8 or other vegetables, soon after being 
 gathered, with about i their weight, or less, 
 of good dry salt, and ramming down the mix- 
 ture as tightly as possible in strong casks. 
 The casks are then placed in a cold cellar, and 
 covered with boards, on which heavy weights 
 are put, to keep the mass tight and close. See 
 FBOITS, PnTBEFACTION, &C. 
 
 Vegetables, Juices of, 1. (Ezpbessed 7£0e- 
 
 TABLE JTTICE, SiMFLE V. J. ; SlTOOI EX- 
 FBESSI, L.) These are obtained by bruising 
 the fresh leaves, or other vegetable matter, in a 
 marble mortar, or in a mill, and expressing the 
 liquid portion by means of a powerful screw 
 press. After defecation for 12 or 14 hours in 
 n cold situation, the juice is either dciauted or 
 filtered from the feculous sediment, and is 
 next heated for some minutes to about 185° 
 Fahr., to coagulate albuminous matter. The 
 clear portion is subsequently separated as be- 
 fore, and the prodnct preserved for use in well- 
 closed and well-tilled bottles, in a cool situation. 
 Some plants, as borage, cabbage, &c., require the 
 addition of i of water before being pressed. 
 The expression of the juice of lemons, oranges, 
 quinces, &e., is facilitated by previously mixing 
 the pulp witli clean chopped straw. linck- 
 thorn berries, mulberries, &c., alter bein^^ 
 crushed between the hands, are commonly leit 
 for 3 or 4 days to undergo a slight fermenta- 
 tion before pressing them. 
 
 The expression of the juices of the nar- 
 cotic plants, and of some other vegetables, has 
 lately assumed considerable interest, from these 
 juices being now extensively used in pharmacy 
 for the preparation of extracts and the pre- 
 served juices, noticed below. It appears that 
 the juice of young plants just coming into 
 tlower yield only i the amount of extract 
 which may be obtained from the same quantity 
 of juice expressed from the matured plant, or 
 when the flowers are fully blown, and the 
 strength of the product is also inferior; the 
 case appears to be best met by selecting the 
 plants when more than half the flowers are 
 fully blown. The leaves alone should be pre- 
 ferably employed, and should be exclu^ively of 
 the second year's i^owth, when the plants are 
 biennials. (Squire.) The homoeopathists com- 
 monly employ the while flowering herb. 
 
 The IKSPISSATED VEGETABLE JUICES (SITC- 
 
 CITB 8PI88AI1S) are now included among the 
 extracts. 
 
 The principal simple vegetable juices of com- 
 merce are — ■ 
 
 Bdcktuoen juice (arccca ehamni — Ph. 
 
 TOL. II 
 
 L.), from the fruit of Shamnus catharlicu*, or 
 buckthorn berries. 
 
 CiTBON JUICE (suocus ciTBi), chiefly im- 
 ported from Italy in large casks. 
 
 Lemon juice (succus limonum), Ph. L. 
 from lemons that spoil before they can be 
 sold ; also imported. 
 
 MULBEBBY juice (sUCCUS MOBI — Ph. L.), 
 from the fruit of the mulberry. 
 
 Obanoe juice (succus aubantii), ob- 
 tained from the same source as that of 
 lemons. 
 
 CONCENTBATED OBANOE JUICB (sUCCUS 
 
 si'issATis AUBANTII vel ArBANTioBrsi) and 
 
 CONCBNTBATED LEMON JUICK (sUCCUS SPIS- 
 8ATU3 limonum) ore prepared by evaporating 
 the fresh juices of oranges and lemons, either 
 alone or mixed with sugar, and are employed 
 as substitutes for the fruit, where the latter 
 cannot be obtained. 
 2. (Alcoholised vegetable jricr.3, Pbe- 
 
 8EBVED V. J. ; TiNCTUBES OF BECENT PLAST8 ; 
 SUCCI ALCOHOLATI, L. ; ALlOOLATUBES, Fr.) 
 Frep. u,. The juice, obtained by powerful 
 pressure, in the manner noticed above, is al- 
 lowed to remain for 24 hours in a cold place, 
 when the clear portion is decanted from the 
 feculous matter which has subsided, and is then 
 agitated with one half its volume of rectified 
 spirit (56 o. p.) ; alter another '2. 1 hours ihe 
 clear portion is again decanted and, if neces- 
 sory, filtered through bibulous paper or linen. 
 In this way are now generally prepared 
 the preserved juices of aconite, belladonna, ool- 
 chicum (corms), hemlock, henbane, foxglove, 
 elutirium, lactuca virosn, taraxacum, &e., sold 
 in this country. 
 
 4. (P. Cod.) To the fresh leaves, bruised in a 
 marble UKirtar, is added an equal weight of 
 rectified spirit, and after maceration for 15 
 days the whole is pressed, and the resulting 
 tincture filtered. In this manner are pre- 
 pared tinctures of the fresh leaves of aconite 
 (tinctura aconiti cum foliis recentihus), bella- 
 donna, fnxijlove, hemlock, henbane, strong- 
 scented lettuce (LaelUQa I'irosa), stramonium, 
 trailing poison ouk (/fAi« toxicodendron), mug- 
 wort (Artemisia vulgaris), colchicum (corms), 
 squirting cucumber, white poppy, taraxacum, 
 &c., of the Paris Codex. 
 
 Obs. These tinctures are much more power- 
 ful, and more certain in their operation, than 
 those prepared from the dried plants. The 
 commencing dose is from 2 to 5 drops, the 
 effects of which should be carefully watched. 
 The products of the first of the above formulae 
 keep as well as the ordinary tinctures, and 
 there is less waste of spirit than with the 
 second. That of the P. Cod. is, however, pre- 
 ferred by M. Sonbeiran, as affording more 
 unifiirm products; an opinion which is ques- 
 tionable. B^ral orders equal weights of juice 
 and spirit; Mr Squire recommends i part; 
 Messrs Bentley & Davenport i part (both by 
 volume), and Mr Gieseke only ^ part (by 
 weieht), of spirit to 1 part of the expressed 
 * ' 103 
 
17U 
 
 VEGETATION 
 
 juice. The liomoeopathists generally go with 
 M. B^ral. "Our own experience, which has 
 heen very considerable, and extends over 
 upwards of 16 years, leads us to prefer the pro- 
 portions given in formula a, which are similar 
 to those of Mr Squire. If less spirit be em- 
 ployed, the product is apt to suffer rapid de- 
 terioration when kept in a warm shop or 
 surgery." (Cooley.) 
 
 3. (Etherized tegetabii! juices; Sncci 
 
 iETHEEIZATI,— >L. ; ElHEROLATtTEES, SuCS 
 
 ETHERE3, Fr.) For these we are indebted to 
 M. Bouchardat. They are prepared as fol- 
 lows : Ether is gradually added to the depu- 
 rated freshly expressed Juice, until, after active 
 agitation, a thin layer of it rises to the surface 
 on the mixture being allowed to repose for a 
 minute or two ; the whole is then set aside for 
 24 hours, when the supernatant ether is ex- 
 pertly removed by means of a pipette or 
 syringe, and the juice is filtered; lastly, the 
 decanted ether is returned to the filtrate, and 
 the etherised juice is at once put into well- 
 stoppered bottles. For use, one of the bottles 
 is reversed, and the dose taken from the lower 
 part, so that the ether remains behind. We 
 find, in practice, that decantation, carefully 
 conducted, may be substituted jfor filtra- 
 tion ; thus not only rendering the process less 
 costly, but ensuring a more uniform pro- 
 duct. 
 
 The etherised juices are said to retain their 
 active properties for an indefinite period. The 
 method has been successfully applied to the 
 juices of aconite, anemone, black hellebore, 
 and hemlock, and is probably applicable to 
 many others; but, we think, not to the juices 
 of all the narcotic plants, as has been as- 
 serted. 
 
 Vegetable Fibres. The following method 
 for the identification of vegetable fibres is 
 intended to supplement the information pre- 
 viously given on this subject. Its originator, 
 M. Vetillard, applies it for distinguishing the 
 fibres of linen, hemp, cotton, jute, China grass, 
 and New Zealand flax. The following extract 
 descriptive of the process is from the * Journal 
 of Applied Chemistry': — 
 
 " If a woven or spun fibre is to be examined 
 it must first be disintegrated into the single 
 fibres, and any colour or finish must be re- 
 moved as completely as possible. Vertical 
 and longitudinal microscopic sections are next 
 made. These are rendered transparent by 
 glycerin or chloride of calcium, and treated 
 with tincture of iodine, mafle by simply dis- 
 solving iodine in- a solution of iodide of potas- 
 sium. The excess of this tincture is removed, 
 a "drop of dilute sulphuric acid added, and the 
 sections examined by the aid of the niicro- 
 iscope. 
 
 Linen Fibre. — Bundles of similar fibres, 
 with a fine canal in the centre, long, uni- 
 formly thick, and pointed at the ends. Lon- 
 gitudinal section ; the fibres are coloured blue, 
 'the canal yellow. 'Cross section: regular 
 
 polygons, loosely connected, coloured blue; 
 centres yellow. 
 
 Hemp. — Fibres aggravated; each fibre 
 covered with a thin skin; coloured yellow. 
 They are thick and less uniform than the 
 linen fibres. The ends are thick and of the 
 shape of spatulas, and become blue or greenish 
 blue with iodine. Cross section : irregular 
 polygons, firmly connected; rim yellow, the 
 mass blue, the centre colourless. 
 
 Cotton, — Longitudinal section : single 
 fibres, spirally wound on their own axis, with 
 a central canal and broad ends; coloured blue 
 by iodine. The cross sections are rounded in 
 the shape of kidneys, and coloured blue, with 
 yellow spots interspersed. 
 
 China Grass. — Longitudinal section : 
 fibres separated lengthwise, of varying thick- 
 ness. The interior canal is often filled with a 
 yellow granular substance, which is coloured 
 brown by iodine. The fibre is turned blue by 
 iodine. Cross section : irregular, with re- 
 entrant angles, and little cohesion. The 
 fibres are stouter than all other fibres, and are 
 turned blue by iodine. 
 
 Jute. — Fibres strongly coherent, the ends 
 undulating and difficult to separate. Central 
 canal wide, empty, and gently rounded at the 
 ends; coloured yellow. Cross section: poly- 
 gons strongly coherent and regular, much like 
 those of hemp, but the central opening is 
 larger ; coloured yellow, darker at the rim. 
 
 iVew Zealand Fl<zx. — Bundles of cells of the 
 leaves, easily separated with a needle into 
 stiff little fibres, provided with a canal of 
 uniform width. The sides are rolled inwards, 
 coloured yellow. The cross section resembles 
 that of jute, but the corners of the polygons 
 are rounded off. They are coloured yellow by 
 iodine tincture, 
 
 VEGETA'TIOir. Vegetation (which is hero 
 employed in the sense of plants in general) is 
 very unequally distributed over the earth's 
 surface. Thus, towards the poles plants are 
 found, not only in diminished numbers com- 
 pared to their occurrence in warmer and more 
 temperate regions, but also of much smaller 
 size or stunted growth. No plants at all are 
 met in the regions of eternal frost and snow, 
 whilst in equatorial climes they attain to the 
 most gigantic proportions, and are possessed 
 of the most exquisite colours and perfumes, 
 and yield the finest fruits. The habitat of a 
 plant will, of course, be that on which it finds 
 the conditions favorable to its existence and 
 growth, in the shape of soil, climate, moisture, 
 geogrnphical position, &c. 
 
 VEGETATION (Metallic). This name has 
 been fancifully applied to the following : — 
 
 Lead tree; Aebob Satubni. Take of 
 sugar of lead, 1 oz. ; distilled water, li pint; 
 acetic acid, a few drops; dissolve, place the 
 liquid in a clear white glass bottle, and sus- 
 pend a piece of zinc in it, by means of a fine 
 thread. 
 
 Silver tree ; Arbor Dian^. Fi om nitrate 
 
VEGETO-ALKALI— VENOM 
 
 1716 
 
 of silver, 20 gr. ; water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve 
 in ii phial, and add aboat | dr. of pure mer- 
 cury. 
 
 TlK TBBBj AitBOE Jovis. From chloride 
 of tin, 3 ilr. ; nitric acid, 10 to 15 drops; dis- 
 tilled or rain water, 1 pint ; dissolve in a white 
 glass bottle, and hang in it, by a thread, a 
 small rod of zinc. 
 
 Obs. In the above experiments the metals 
 are precipitated in a very beautiful arbores- 
 cent form. It is curious to observe the laminse 
 shoot out, as it were, from nuthing, assuming 
 forms resembling real vegetation. Tliis phe- 
 nomenon results from voltaic action being set 
 up between the liquid and the metal. 
 VEGETO-AL'KALI. See Alealois. 
 VEL'LUM. A fine kind of parchment pre- 
 pared from the skins of calves, kids, and 
 Iambs. The skins are limed, shaved, washed, 
 and stretched in hoops or other I'rnmes, where 
 they are scraped and trimmed with the cur- 
 rier's fleshing-knit'e, and next carefully rubbed 
 down with pnmice stone ; they are, lastly, 
 polished with finely powdered clialk or fresh- 
 slaked lime, and tlien dried. A green colour 
 is given with a solution of crystallised verdi- 
 gris, to which a little cream ot tartnr and 
 nitric acid has been added ; and a blue colour, 
 with a solution of indigo. The surface is 
 often finished off with white of egg, and sub- 
 sequent friction. 
 
 The skins of sheep are commonly used for 
 parchment; those of he-goats and wolves for 
 drum-heuds ; and those of the ass for battle- 
 dores. The species of vellum usi d for church 
 services by binders is s»id to be prepared from 
 pig-skins. See PorNCE. 
 
 VEL'VET COLOURS. S^n. Map stains, 
 Paper s. ; Lacoa pluida, L. Frep. 1. 
 (Blue.) — a. Dissolve litmus in water, and 
 add J of spirit of wine. — i. Dilute Saxon blue 
 or sulphate of indigo with water. If re- 
 quired for delicate work, neutralise the ncid 
 with chalk. — c. To an aqueous infusion ol 
 litmus add a few drops ot vinegar, until it 
 turns of a full blue. 
 
 2. (Green.) — a. Dissolve crystallised ver- 
 digris in water. — b. Dissolve sup green in 
 water, and add a little alum. — c. Add a little 
 salt of tartar to a blu9 or purple solution of 
 litmus, until it turns green. — d. Dissolve equal 
 parts of cr\ !-tallised verdigris and cream of 
 tartar in water. 
 
 3. (PCEPLE.) — a. Steep litmus in water, 
 and strain the solution. — 4. Add a little alum 
 to a strained decoction of logwood. — c. Add a 
 solution of cnrmiue (red) to a little blue 
 solution of litmus or Saxon blue. 
 
 4. (Red.) — a. Macerate ground Brazil wood 
 in vinegar, boil a few minutes, strain, and add 
 a little aluin and gum. — b. Add vinegar to an 
 infusion of litmus until it turns red. — c. Boil 
 or infuse powdered cochineal in water con- 
 tiiining; a little ammonia or sal volatile. — d. 
 Dissulvc carmine in liquor of ammonia, or in 
 
 weiik carbonate of potash water; the former 
 is superb. 
 
 5. (Yellow.) — o. Dissolve gambrgc in water, 
 and add a little alum. — b. Dissolve gaml>oge in 
 equal parts of proof spirit and water. Golden 
 coloured. — c. Steep French berries in boiling 
 water, fctraio, and add a little alum. — d. Steep 
 turmeric, round zedoary, gamboge, or annottii, 
 in a weak ley of subcarbonate of soda ur pot- 
 ash. 
 
 Obi. The preceding, thickened with a little 
 gum, arc used as inks for writing, as colours 
 to tint maps, foils, paper, artificial flowers, 
 &':., and to paint on velvet, t^ome of them 
 are very beautiful. Those containing litmus 
 are, however, fugitive. It must be observed 
 that those made with strong spirit do not mix 
 well with gum water, unless somewhat diluted 
 with water. Any other transparent eolouraor 
 stains may be employed for painting on velvet, 
 as well as the above. 
 
 VELVET LEAF. Svn. Paeeiea bhata, 
 Paeeiea (Ph. L., E., & D.) L. " The root of 
 CUsampelos Pareira" (Ph. L.), white pareira 
 or velvet leaf. It is tonic, aperient, and diu- 
 retic. — Dose, 20 to 60 grains ; in chronic and 
 purulent inflammation and extreme irritability 
 of the bladder; in leucorrhcea, dropsy, ulcera- 
 tion of the kldnev, &c. 
 
 VENESECTION. The practice of vensection, 
 bloodletting, or phlebotomy, as it is variously 
 denominated, has within the last thirty or 
 forty years been nearly banished from medical 
 practice. It seems very evident that prior to the 
 above period medical practitioners were iu 
 the habit of resorting to venesection to an un- 
 wise extent, and in cases which the progress 
 of miidern pathology has shown it to be 
 wholly inapplicable. 
 
 There are, we believe, some practitio:iers 
 who, whilst admitting the evils arising from 
 its misapplication and abuse, still advocate 
 its occasional and judicious employment. 
 
 Because of the dangers tliat beset the opera- 
 tion when performed by a tyro, we forbear 
 to give any particulars as to the method of 
 carrying it out. The veins of the arm are 
 those always invariably opened in venesec- 
 tion, although the operation may be per- 
 formed on many other superfleiaf veins. 
 
 VEN'ISON. The flesh of several species of 
 deer. That from good land, killed at the 
 proper season, and eaten in a moderately fresh 
 state, is most easily digestible, and, perhaps, 
 the most wholesome, of all the red meats ; but 
 when it is ' high,' or in a state ot incipient 
 putrefaction, it is far from wholesome, and 
 often poisonous. 
 
 VENO BENO (la). See Tea. 
 
 VEHOM. Drs Brunton and F lyrer, who 
 have devoted many years to the study of tlie 
 nature and physiolo^'ical action of snake 
 poisons, state that there appears to be some 
 resemblance in the action of the venom or 
 virus of the cobra, Xoja tripudians, and of 
 curara, the an'ow-poison of the Indians ; both 
 
1716 
 
 VENTILATION— VERATRINE 
 
 poisons causing death by paralysing the re- 
 spiratory organs. 
 
 Dr Armstrong, who has analysed the cobra 
 poison, has not bfen enabled to isolate from it 
 any crystalline principle. From its reactions 
 he concludes that its chief ingredient is an 
 albuminoid substance. 
 
 Dr Armstrong obtained a white precipitate 
 from the poison by treating it with absolute 
 alcohol, and also prepared an alcoholic extract 
 from it. 
 
 He gives the following as the composition 
 of the tliree substances. The albumen is 
 appended for comparison : — 
 
 Crude Alcoholic Alcobolic Albumen. 
 PoiROO. Precipitate. exti-Hct. 
 Carbon . 43-55 45-76 43-04 y 535 
 Nitrogen. 43-30 14-30 1245 15-7 
 Hydrogen ... 660 700 7-1 
 
 Stilphur . ... 2-50 
 
 Ash . . ... Traces. 
 
 " But although there is little difference 
 between the composition of the alcoholic pre- 
 cipitate and extract, there is an immense 
 difference between their physiological action, 
 the extract being a virulent poison, the pre- 
 cipitate almost inert. This is notably different 
 from what has been stated by Dr Weir 
 Mitchell respecting the poison of the rattle- 
 suake, viz., that the alcoholic precipitiite is 
 active, whilst the extract is inert."' 
 
 VENTILA'TION. The proper ventilation of 
 our habitations, as well as of other buildings 
 in which we puss any considerable portion of 
 our time, is quite as necessary to health as 
 food and clothiug. Ijavoisier, writing in the 
 middle of the last century, remarks — " It is 
 certain that mankind degenerate when em- 
 ployed in sedentary manufactures, or living 
 in crowded bouses, or in the narrow lanes of 
 large cities; whereas they improve in their 
 nature and constitution in most of the country 
 labours which are cai ried on in the open air." 
 Yet many persons, by the care which they 
 take to sliut out fresh air, and to prevent the 
 escape of that which their own bodies, by 
 pulmonary and surfaeial respiration, hiive con- 
 taminated, would seem to hug to themselves 
 the discomfort of breathing over and over 
 again an impure and unref resiling atmosphere, 
 and to be anxious to finish their career by 
 lingering suicide. The almost universal indif- 
 ference to !the subject, considering its import- 
 ance, is unaccountable. 
 
 The first step tow.nrds effecting and main- 
 taiurng a liberal supply of fresh air is either 
 by means of ventilators or by regularly open- 
 in*^ the windows for stated periods daily. 
 During the colder portions of the year, when 
 fires are kept burning, and there is an up- 
 current in the chimney, nothing is so simple 
 and effective as the well-known chimney-valve 
 of Dr Arnott; and, indeed, without tl)is, open 
 fires are powerful instruments of ventilation. 
 In cold weather, where expense is not an 
 
 1 " Uoyai Society's Proceedings," ' Pharm. Joum.* 
 
 object, tie apartments may be supplied witli 
 air that has been previously warmed by pass- 
 ing through a heated chamber, on the prin- 
 ciple recommended by Dr Reid; but care 
 must be taken that, in warming the air, we 
 do not overheat it, nor contaminate it. 
 
 A sufficient supply of light, another power- 
 ful sanitary agent, is now regarded as nearly 
 as essential as thorough ventilation, and the 
 two are commonly treated of together. Ac- 
 cording to Palladio, the opening of windows 
 should not exceed a fourth, nor be less than a 
 fifth, of the length of the side of a room, 
 and should be in height two and one sixth 
 times the width. Mr Gwilt, another high 
 authority on this subject, has given as a 
 definite rule, that we should allow 1 square 
 foot of glass to every 100 cubic feet of space 
 iu any apartment or inclosure. A great deal 
 must, however, depend on the shape of the 
 apartment ; but, in all cases, care should be 
 taken that the windows are placed at the 
 longest side of the room, and not at the 
 narrowest, or the end of it. A southern aspect 
 affords the most light and heat ; a northern 
 one the most diffused and least variable light, 
 and is hence usually chosen by artists for their 
 studio-i. 
 
 VERA'TKIWE. CsjHsjNjOa. Syn. Veha- 
 TEiA, Veeathina, Sabadiiline ; Veeateia 
 (B. P., Ph. L., & E.), L. An alkaloid dis- 
 covered by Pelletier and Caventou, in the 
 seeds of Aaagrea officinalis (sabadilla), and 
 in the rhizomes of Veratrum album (white 
 hellebore). 
 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. E.) Digest sabadilla seeds 
 in boiling water for 24 hours, then sqeeze 
 them, dry them thoroughly by a gentle heat, 
 beat them in a mortar, and separate the 
 seeds from the capsules by agitation in a 
 deep and narrow vessel ; next grind the seeds 
 in a coffee-mill, and exhaust them by perco- 
 lation with rectified spirit; concentrate the 
 resulting tincture by distillation, so long as 
 no deposit forms, and pour the residuum, 
 whilst still hot, into 12 times its volume of 
 cold water; then filterthrough calico, and wash 
 the residuum on the filter as long as the wash- 
 ings yield a precipitate with ammonia; unite 
 the filtered liquid with the washings, add 
 ammonia in excess, collect the precipitate on 
 a filter, wash it slightly with cold water, and 
 dry it first by imbibition with filtering paper, 
 and then in the vapour bath. " The product 
 is not pure, but sufficiently so for medical 
 use. From this coloured substance it may 
 be obtained white, but at considerable loss, 
 by solution in very weak hydrochloric acid, 
 decolorisation with animal charcoal, and re- 
 precipitation with ammonia." 
 
 2. (Ph. L. 1836.) This is the same in prin- 
 ciple as the last; a tinctnre is formed by 
 boiling the seeds in rectified spirit, which is 
 then evaporated to a syrup, dissolved in very 
 dilute sulphuric acid, the veratrine precipi- 
 tated with magnesia, redissolved in very dilute 
 
VERATRUM— VERDIGRIS 
 
 1717 
 
 acid, treated with animal charcoal, the fil- 
 tratt^ again evaporated to a s^rap, and pre- 
 cipitated with ammonia ; it is, lastly, washed 
 and dried. 
 
 8. B.v means of ether, as noticed under 
 Alkaloid Hnd Aconiiine. This is hy far 
 the be>t method. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Ctvadilla, 2 Ihs. ; distilled water, 
 q.B.; rrctilied spirit, q.e.; solution of ammonia, 
 q.s. ; hydrochloric acid, q.B.; purified animal 
 charcoal, 60 gr. Macerate the cevadilla 
 with hiilf its weight of boiling distilled water 
 in a covered vessel for 24 hours. Remove the 
 cevadilla, squeeze it, and dry it thoroughly 
 with a gentle heat. Beat it now in a murtar 
 and separate the seeds from the capsules by 
 bribk agitation in a deep narrow vessel, or by 
 winnowing it gently on a table with a sheet 
 of paper. 
 
 Qrind the seeds in a cc.ffee mill, and form 
 them into a thick paste with red ified spirit. 
 
 Hack thi^ iiruily in a percolator, and pass 
 rectified spirit through it till the spirit ceasei 
 to be coloured. Concentrate the spirituous 
 solatinn by distillation, so long as uo deposit 
 forms, and pour the residue, wliile hot, into 
 12 times its volume of cold distilled water. 
 Filter through calico, and wash the residue 
 on the filter with distilled water, till the fluid 
 ceases to precipitate with ammonia. To the 
 united filtered liquid add the ammonia in 
 slight excels, let the precipitate completely 
 subside, pour ol]C the supernatant fluid, collect 
 the precipitate on a filter, and wash it with 
 distilled water till the fluid passes colourless. 
 Uilluse the moist precipitate through 12 oz. 
 of distilled water, and add gradually, with 
 diligent stirring, suflicient hydrochloric acid 
 to make the fluid feebly but persistently 
 acid. 
 
 Then add the animal charcoal, digest at a 
 gentle heat for 20 minutes, filter, and allow 
 the liquid to cool. Add ammonia in slight 
 excess, and wlien the precipitate has com- 
 pletely subsided, pour off the supernatant 
 liquid, collect the precipitate on a filter, and 
 wash it with cold distilled water till the 
 washings cense to be affected by nitrate of 
 silver accidental with nitric acid. Lastly, 
 dry the precipitate, first by irabibit on, with 
 filtering paper, and then by the application of 
 a geutle he; it. 
 
 Frop, Pure veratrine is perfectly white ; 
 but as usually met with, it is a yflloivish or 
 greenish-white powder; it is highly acrid; 
 uncrystallisable ; scarcely soluble in water, 
 ■olnble in ether, and freely soluble in hot 
 alcohol; heated to about 125° Fahr., it fuses 
 like w.ix, and solidifies, upon cooling, to a 
 transparent yellow mass. With the dilute acid 
 it forms salts, which are either amorphous 
 or difficulty iTystallisable. The smallest pos- 
 sible portion of its powder causes violent 
 sneezing. 
 
 Tests. 1. Potassa, ammonia, and their car- 
 bonates, give flocculent white precipitates 
 
 which at first are not crystalline under the 
 microscope, but which, after some minutes, 
 assume the appearance of small scattered 
 clusters of short prismatic crystals; they are 
 insoluble in excess of potassa and its car- 
 bonate, and only very slightly so in excess 
 of ammonia. — 2. With sulphuric acid it 
 iitrikes an intense red colour, changing after- 
 wards to crimson, and finmly to violet. — 
 3. A dilute acetic solution of veratrine is 
 turned to a superb red by strong sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Veratrine is distinguished from brncine 
 and the other alkaloids by its fusibility — 
 by the crystalline form of its precipitate 
 with potassa, and — by its reaction with oil 
 of vitriol. 
 
 Uses, Sfc. " As an exteronl application, it 
 has been efficaciously employed by Miigendio 
 in France, and by Dr Turnbull in this 
 country; but the extravagant eulogiei of the 
 latter have not tended to confirm the repu- 
 tation of this remedy." (Dr A. T. Thomson.) 
 From 6 to 12 gr., dissolved in 1 fl. oz. of 
 rectified spirit, as a liniment; or 30 gr., 
 mixed with 1 dr. of olive oil, and 1 oz. of 
 lard, as an ointment, have been occasionally 
 found very serviceable in neuralgia, and other 
 like painful aflections, and in gouty and 
 rheumatic paralysis. As an internal remedy 
 it possesses no advantage, as it merely acts 
 as a violent and depressing catlmrtic. — Dose, 
 ^ to ^'j gr. In larger doses it acts as a 
 powerfnl irritant poison. For antidotes, Ac, 
 see Alkaloid. 
 
 VERA'TRUM. See Whitb hellebobb. 
 
 VER'DIGRIS. Si/n. Mhvqo, L. ; Veet-dk- 
 OSis, Fr. This is a mixture of several basic 
 acetates of copper which have a green or 
 blue colour. It is obtained in the wine 
 districts of the south of Europe, by the action 
 of refuse grapes, from which the juice has 
 been expressed, on thin sheets of copper. 
 When pure it should dissolve, almo-t entirely, 
 and without etfervescenee, in dilute sulphuric 
 acid. It is very poisonous ; for autidotes, sec 
 
 COPPEE. 
 
 An inferior quality of verdigris is now 
 prepared from pommage, or apple marc, in 
 the cider districts of England. 
 
 Verdigris, Distilled. Si/it. Ceystallised 
 VEEDIOEIS. This name is applied to the 
 normal acetate of copper, which is prepared in 
 the « ine districts by dissolving ordinary verdi- 
 gris, 1 part, in good distilled vinegar, 2 parts; 
 the operation being performed in a copper 
 vessel by the aid of a geutle heat and agitation; 
 the solution is afterwards slowly evaporated 
 until a pedicle begins to form on the surface, 
 when it is transferred into glazed earthen pans 
 (' oulas'), in each of which are placed 2 or 3 
 cleft sticks, and it is then lelt in a warm 
 apartment for 14 or 15 days to crystallise. 
 
 A spurious article is often prepared by add- 
 ing a solution of sulphate of copper, 12i lbs. 
 to a solution of sugar of lead, 19 lbs., or q. s.. 
 
1718 
 
 VERDirER— VERMILION 
 
 and filtering, evaporating, and crystillising 
 the mixture. 
 
 There ia an acetate of copper and lime wliich 
 resembles distilled verdigris in colour. It was 
 manufactured pretty extensively in Scotland 
 some years ago, and fetched a high price, till 
 Dr Ure published an analysis of it in the 
 ' Edin. Phil. Trans.' It is much inferior for 
 all uses in the arts. 
 
 Pure distilled verdigris is entirely soluble in 
 water, and is not precipitated on the addition 
 of sulphuric acid or of ammonia in excess. 
 
 Verdigris, English. Prep. Blue vitriol, 
 24 lbs. ; white vitriol, 16 lbs. ; sugar of lead, 
 12 lbs. ; alum, 2 lbs. (all coarsely powdered) ; 
 mix, and heat them in a pot over the fire until 
 they unite into a mass. Sold by fraudulent 
 dealers for foreign verdigris. 
 
 VER'DITEB. Syn. Blue tekbitee, Re- 
 
 JINBE'S VEEDITER; CeNDEES ELEDES, Fr. A 
 
 blue pigment, obtained by adding chalk, whit- 
 ing, or milk of lime, to a solution of copper in 
 nitric acid ; or, by triturating recently preci- 
 pitated and still moist carbonate of oxide of 
 copper with hydrate of lime. 
 
 Prep, A quantity of whiting or milk of 
 lime is put into a tub, and upon tliis the solu- 
 tion of copper is poured ; the mixture is stirred 
 every day for some hours together, until the 
 liquor loses its colour; it is then poured off, 
 and more solution of copper added; this is 
 repeated until the whiting or lime has acquired 
 the proper colour; the whole is then washed 
 with water, drained, spread on chalk stones, 
 and dried in the sun. 
 
 Obs. The cupreous solution employed in 
 the above process is made by neutralising the 
 nitric solution obtained from the refiners of 
 gold and silver, by heating it along with me- 
 tallic copper. For the finer qualities of ver- 
 diter the lime should be of the purest kind, 
 and the cupreous precipitate should be care- 
 fully triturated with it, after it is nearly dry, 
 by which a fine velvety appearance is produced. 
 Tlie 'eendres blenes en pdtes' of the French 
 differ from the above mainly in a solution 
 of chloride of copper being employed, and in 
 the resulting green precipitate being turned 
 blue by the action of carbonate of potassa. 
 Verditer is made into crayons whilst moist, or 
 dried into a powder, or it is used as a water 
 colour in the moist state. 
 
 Verditer, Green. Syn. Bremen oeben. The 
 process for refiner's verditer frequently mis- 
 carries, and a green colour is proiiuced instead 
 of a blue one. It may also be obtained directly 
 by omitting the 'blueing up' with carbonate 
 of potassa, mentioned above. 
 
 VER'JDICE. ' Syn. AOEESTA, Omphacium, 
 h. The expi'essed juice of unripe grapes. The 
 term is also often extended to the expressed 
 juice of the wild or crab apple. It was for- 
 merly nsed as an astringent and refrigerant 
 in medicine ; but it is now principally employed 
 as an ineredient in sauces, ragouts, &c. 
 
 VEKMICEL'II. This, like macaroni, is 
 
 prepared from a stiff paste made of a peculiar 
 fine kind of granular wheat flour, called se- 
 moule, which is mixed up with hot water, and, 
 after being well kneaded, is formed into small 
 ribands, cylinders, or tubes, by being placed 
 in a vertical cylinder press, the bottom of 
 which is filled with proper-shaped holes, 
 through which it is driven by an iron plate or 
 ' follower' being forced down by a powerful 
 screw. The pieces that protrude are broken 
 off, twisted into any desired shape upon paper, 
 and dried. Those in the form of fillets or 
 ribands are called ' lazagnes.' Vermicelli con- 
 tains a large amount of gluten, and is ex- 
 tremely nutritious, although slightly less 
 digestible than the ordinary wheaten foods. 
 See Macaeoni. 
 VEE'MIFUGES. Syn. Antheimintics j 
 
 AnTHELMINTICA, HELMIHTHAGOaA, Vebmi- 
 FlTGA, L. Medicines employed to destroy or 
 expel intestinal worms. Some of these, as 
 coarsely powdered tin and iron filings and 
 cowhage, act as mechanical agents, by irri- 
 tating the worms; others have a specific action 
 upon wiirms, as male fern, kousso, santonin, 
 &c. ; others, again, owe their power to their 
 action as purgatives, as calomel, gamboge, 
 jalap, &c. See Woems. 
 
 VEBMIL'IOH'. Syn. Factitious cinna- 
 bae. Red sulphide op meecuet. Red sul- 
 PHUEET OP MEECUET. This article may be 
 prepared both in the moist and dry way ; that 
 of commerce is almost entirely obtained by the 
 latter. 
 
 Prep. 1. By sublimation. Take of pure 
 mercury, 202 parts ; pure sulphur, 33 parts ; 
 fuse them together by a gentle heat, observing 
 not to allow the mass to take fire; when 
 fused, cover over the vessel, and, when the 
 whole has become cold, powder the mass, and 
 sublime it in a closed vessel, so placed in a 
 furnace that the fiame may freely circulate 
 and play upon it to about half its height, the 
 heat being at first gradually applied, and 
 afterwards augmented until the lower part of 
 the subliming vessel becomes red hot; the 
 cold sublimate is broken into pieces, ground 
 along with water to a fine powder, elutriated, 
 passed through a sieve, and dried. Prod. 
 Fully 112g of the weight of the mercury 
 employed. 
 
 2. In the humid way. (Brunner.) Take of 
 pure quicksilver, 300 parts ; pure sublimed sul- 
 phur, 114 parts ; triturate them together for 
 several hours, until a perfect 'ethinps' is 
 formed, add gradually of caustic potassa, 75 
 parts, (dissolved in) water, 450 parts; con- 
 tinue the trituration for some time longer, 
 then gently heat the mixture in an iron vessel, 
 at first constantly stirring, but afterwards only 
 from time to time, observing to keep the beat 
 at about 113°, or, at all events, under 122° 
 Fahr., and to add fresh water, to compensate 
 for the portion evaporated. When the colour 
 begins to redden, great caution is requisite to 
 preserve the mixture at the lower tempera- 
 
VERMIN— VESICANT 
 
 1719 
 
 tarp, nnd to keep the sulphuret of mercury 
 prrfectly pulvernlentj as soon a3 the colour 
 becomes nearly ' line,' the process must be 
 conducted with increased caution, and at a 
 lower lieat for some hours, or until a rich 
 colour is produced, when the newly-formed ver- 
 milion must he elutriHted with water, to sepa- 
 rate any particles of metallic mercury, and 
 carefully dried. Frod. 332 parts of vermilion, 
 equal in brilliancy to the finest Chinese. 
 
 Ohi. It has b-en said that the rich tone of 
 Chinese vermilion may be imitated by adding 
 to the materials 1^ of sulphuret of antimony, 
 and by digesting the ground sublimate, first 
 in a solution or sulphuret of potassium, and 
 next in diluted hydrochloric acid, alter which 
 it must be well edulcorated with water, and 
 dried. Our own belief is, that the finer quali- 
 ties of vermilion owe their superiority of shade 
 more to the care bestowed on their sublima- 
 tion, and tlie extent to which their division is 
 carried, than to anything else. 
 
 Vermilion is ii beautiful and permanent red 
 pigment, and works and covers well both in oil 
 and water. 
 
 VERMIN. This term has rather a large 
 application, since, although it is generally un- 
 derstood to be applied to rats, mice, and cer- 
 tain parasitic insects infesting the dweUin}.'s 
 and sometimes the bodies of men, it i-i extended 
 by the farmer, the gardener, and the breeder 
 of game, to those creatures from the depreila- 
 tions of which these three clas-es suffer pecu- 
 niary loss. Hence it embraces not only foxes 
 and polecat^, but weasles, stoats, hedgehogs, 
 owls, hawks, kites, carrion crow.?, masrpies, 
 wood-pigeons, hares, rabbits, rooks, moles, 
 and small birds. 
 
 Whilst the attempted partial destruction of 
 any of the classes of animals or birds above 
 specified may be regarded as of doubtful 
 value, there can be no question about the 
 practice when it is carried to the verge of 
 extermination. 
 
 In this latter case the balance of nature is 
 interfered with, and the system of eliecks 
 which slie has established for the prevention 
 of the undue preponderance of one tribe of 
 the animal kingdom over the other being in- 
 terfered with, the result will be the undue 
 propagation of particular species inimical to 
 the operations of the husbandman, &c. 
 
 As illustrating this, we may mention the 
 destructiim to various crops in France caused 
 some years ago by the ravages of certain 
 grubs and insects, the unusual increase in the 
 numbers of which was clearly traced to the 
 foolish practice, amon<rst French farners, of 
 shooting all the small birds. See BtiG, Louse, 
 Rats. 
 
 VERT'IGO. Dizziness and swimming of the 
 head. In its more acr ous forms there is more 
 or less mental confusion, the objects around 
 the patient appear in motion, the ears are op- 
 pressed with strange sounds, and visible illu- 
 sions are experienced, whether tiie eyes be 
 
 closed or open, and in darkness as well as in 
 the light. The causes are fulness of the ves- 
 sels of the head, nervous derangement, general 
 del)ility, haimorrhage, the use of narcotics, an 
 overloaded stomach, and, in some cases, an 
 empty one. It is also frequently symptomatic 
 of fevers and inflammations, and of a cundition 
 threatening apoplexy. The treatment must be 
 varied, according to the cause and the peculiar 
 habit or condition of the patient. 
 
 VESICANTS. Syn. EpisPASTICS; EpiS- 
 PA8T1CA, VbSICANTIA, L. -Siib-tances which 
 vesicate or raise Idisters. Among these are 
 the cantharis or blistering fly, mezereon, rroton 
 oil, boiling water, &c.; the first only of which 
 is now in common use in England. 
 
 " It is a principle sufficiently established 
 with regard to the living system, that, where 
 a morbid action exists, it may often he re- 
 moved by inducing an action of a different 
 kind, in the same or a nci^'Ubouring part. On 
 this principle is explained the utility ot blis- 
 ters in local inflammation and spasmodic 
 action, and it rcjjulates their application in 
 pneumonia, gastritis, hepatitis, phrenilis, an- 
 gina, rheumatism, colic, and spasmodic affec'- 
 tions of the stomach — diseases in which they 
 are employed with the most marked advantage. 
 A similar principle exists with respect to pain ; 
 exciting one pain often relieves another. 
 Hence blisters often give relief in toothache, 
 and some other painful aflectious. Lastly, 
 blisters, by their operation, communicate a 
 stimulus to the whole system, and raise the 
 vignur of the circulation. Hcnc e, in part, 
 their utility in fevers of the typhoid kind, 
 though in such cases they are used with ^tiil 
 more advantiige to obviate or remove locil 
 infl immation." ('Med. Lex.') 
 
 Blisters are commonly prepared witli can- 
 tharides plaster, or with some other prepara- 
 tion of cantharides; and, in the former case, 
 are usually lightly covered with the powdered 
 fly. In order to prevent the action of the can- 
 tharides upon the mucous membrane of the 
 bladder, blistering plasters arc often sprinkled 
 with a little powdered camphor, or, better 
 still, are moistened with camphorated ether,, 
 which leaves a thin layer of camphoi-. In all. 
 these cases the layer should not be too thick, 
 for in that case the plaster would not take 
 effect. 
 
 When it is not wished to maintain a dis- 
 charge from the blistered piirt, it is sufficient 
 to make a puncture in the vesicle, to let out; 
 the fluid; but when the case requires the 
 blister to be ' kept open,' as it is called, the 
 whole of the detached cuticle is carefully re- 
 moved with a pair of scissors, and the part is- 
 dressed with either the ointment of cantliaridea 
 or of savine, at fir-t more or less diluted with 
 lard, or simple ointment, with an occasional 
 dressing of resin cerate. According to Mr 
 Crowtlier, the blistered eurface is best kept 
 clean by daily fomentation with warm water. 
 
 Of late years, to obviate the unpleasant 
 
1720 
 
 VESICATION— VESICATOKIN 
 
 effects occasionally arising from the common 
 blister, various compounds having cantharides 
 for their base have been wrought bei'ore the 
 public. Oi' these, the vesicating collodion 
 noticed under Collodion is the most conve- 
 nient and effective. The followiug also deserve 
 notice : — 
 
 1. Take of cantharides, in fine powder, 2 
 parts; spermaceti, 2 parts; olive oil, 4 parts; 
 white wax, 8 parts ; water, 10 parts ; simmer, 
 witli constant agitation, for 2 hours, strain 
 throujh flannel, separate the plaster from the 
 water, gently remelt it with common tuipen- 
 tiue, 1 part, and spread the mass whilst still 
 fluid. This nearly resembles the form recom- 
 mended by MM. Henry and Guibourt. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Distil off the ether from a 
 concentrated ethereal tincture of cantharides, 
 melt the oily residue with twice its weight of 
 white wax, and spread the mixture on thin 
 oiled silk, or on cloth prepared with wax 
 plaster. 
 
 3. (Oettinger.) Cantharidal ether (pre- 
 pared troin cantliarides, 1 part ; ether 2 parts), 
 and sulphuric ether, of each 10 dr. j turpen- 
 tine and black resin, of each 2i dr. ; mix, 
 dissolve, and apply it to the surface of 
 stretched silk or tafpeta which has been pre- 
 viously prepared with two coatings of a solu- 
 tion of isinglass. 
 
 4. (Chabta Epispastica, B.P.). Digest 
 4 oz. of white wax, 1^ oz. spermaceti, 2 oz. 
 fluid of olive oil, 3 oz. of resin, 1 oz. of can- 
 tliarides in powder, and distilled water 6 oz., 
 in a water bath for two houis, stirring con- 
 stantly, strain, and separa te the plaster from the 
 watery liquid. Mix i oz. fl. of Canada balsam 
 with the plaster, melted in a shallow vessel, 
 and pass strips of paper over the hot liquid, so 
 that one surface of the paper shall receive a 
 thin coating of plaster. It may be convenient 
 to employ paper, ruled in square inches. 
 
 5. (Chakta Sinapis, B.P.) Black mus- 
 tard seeds, in powder, 1 oz; ; solution of gutta 
 percha, 2 oz., or q. s. Mix so as to make a 
 semi-fluid, and having poured this into a shal- 
 low flat-bottom vessel, such as a dinner plnte, 
 pass strips of cartridge paper over its surface, 
 so that one side of the paper shall receive a 
 thin coating of the mixture. Then lay the 
 paper on a table, with the coated side up- 
 wards, and let it remain exposed to the air 
 until the dating has hardened. Before being 
 applied let the mustard paper be immersed for 
 a few seconds in tepid water. 
 
 6. (VESiCATiNa Spabaerap, p. Cod.) Gum 
 eliui, 1 oz. ; olive oil, i oz. ; basilicon ointment, 
 2i oz. ; resin, 1 oz. ; yellow wax, 3f oz. ; can- 
 tharides, in fine powder, 4i oz. Melt the first 
 five substauces together, and stir in the can- 
 tharides ; when sufliciently cold, and well 
 mixed, spread on waxed strips of linen. 
 
 Obs. The above compounds are spread on 
 leather, linen, paper, silk, oiled silk, taffeta, 
 &c., and then form the numerous compounds 
 vended under the names of — blistering tissue. 
 
 rannusvesicatorius, papier epispastique, spara- 
 drapnm vesioatorium, tafletas vesicans, tela 
 vesicatoria, &c. 
 
 Acetic extract of cantharides, croton oil, or 
 extract of mezereon, is sometimes substituted 
 for the ethereal extract ordered in the above 
 formula. 
 
 The • papier epispastiqne ' of Vee is pre. 
 pared of tiiree strengths, which are respec- 
 tively disiiuguished by the colours white, 
 green, and red. The composition is made by 
 boiling powdered cantharides for an hour with 
 wHtei-, lard, and green ointment, or with lard 
 coloured with alkanet root, adding wliite wax 
 to the strained tats, and spreading the mix- 
 ture whilst fluid: — No. 1 is made with 10 oz. 
 of cantharides to 4 lbs. of lard ; No. 2 of 1 lb. 
 of cantharides to 8 lbs. of green ointment ; 
 and No. 3, of 14 lb. of flies to 8 lbs of red- 
 dened lard. To each are added 2 lbs. of white 
 wax. (I)orvault.) 
 
 The magistral blister of Valleix is a revival 
 of the vesicating epithem. See Blisteb, 
 Canthaeides, Collodion, &c., nnd below. 
 
 VESICA'TION. The formation of a blister 
 is a vital process, and its success may be taken 
 as a proof of the presence of lil'e. Hence a 
 French physician, Dr Mandl, has suggested 
 such a stimulation of the skin as would or- 
 dinarily cause a blister as a test of life, in 
 those cases of long-continued trance which we 
 occasionally hear of, where all the functions of 
 life seem to be extinct. Dr Mandl's plan is 
 to apply a stick of lunar caustic. The appli- 
 cation of a little strong vinegar of cantharides, 
 or other cantharidal blister, of the size of a six- 
 penny piece, or of two or three spoonfuls of 
 boiling water by means of a bent tube of like 
 diameter, is however, more certain and satis- 
 factory. 
 
 YESICA'TORIlil. Sj/n. Canthaeidin, Can- 
 THAKiDiNA, Canthaeides camphor. The 
 blistering principle of Spanish flies, discovered 
 by M. Robiquet. 
 
 Frep. 1. (P. Cod.) Exhaust powdered 
 cantharides with concentrated alcohol by per- 
 colation ; distil off the spirit from the filtered 
 tincture, and leave the residuum to deposit 
 crystals ; these may be purified by dissolving 
 them in boiling alcohol, digestion with animal 
 charcoal, filtration whilst hot, and crystallising 
 by refrigeration. 
 
 2. (Thierry.) Macerate cantharides (in 
 coarse powder) for several days in ether, in a 
 closed displacement apparatus ; then, after the 
 whole of the soluble matter has been extracted 
 by the addition of fresh portions of ether, 
 pour on sufficient water to displace the re- 
 tained ether; next distil off the ether, dis- 
 solve the remaining extract in boiling alcohol, 
 filter while hot, and abandon the filtrate to 
 spontaneous evaporation. Prod. 0%. 
 
 3. Digest the aqueous extract of cantharides 
 in hot alcohol, filter, evaporate to dryness, 
 digest the residuum in sulphuric ether, evapo- 
 
VETCH— VINEGAR 
 
 1721 
 
 rate, nnd (lightly wash the resulting crystals 
 with cold Hlcohoi. 
 
 Prop., l(e. Micaceous plates resembling 
 spennoceti ; fusible ; vaporisable ; insoluble in 
 water ; soluble in ether, oils, acetic acid, and 
 hot alcohol ; powerfully vesicant and poisonous. 
 Its vapour, even at ordinary temperatures, fre- 
 quently produces temporary blindness. The 
 1-lOOtli part of a grain, placed on a piece of 
 p:iper, and applied to the edge of the lower 
 lip, ctiusfd small blisters in 15 minutes, which, 
 when rubbed with a little simple cerate, ex- 
 tended over a large surface, and covered both 
 lips with blisters. (Kobiquet.) 
 
 V£TCH. The common name of various le- 
 guminous plants of the genera Vicia and Er- 
 Dum, now much cultivated as green fodder for 
 milch cows and working stock. The seeds 
 (tares) were formerly reputed detersive and 
 astringent. Those of " the Canadian variety 
 make good bread." (Lindley.) 
 
 TET'EBINART MEDICINES. The common 
 form of medicine for horses is that popularly 
 known as horse balls. Tliey are usually pre- 
 pared by mixing the dry ingredient.'!, in the 
 state of powder, with a sufficient quantity ot 
 treacle, or syrup bottoms, to give tlie mass a 
 proper consisieucefor rolling into balU ; add- 
 ing, when necessary. Unseed meal, or any other 
 simple powder, to increase the bulk. The 
 usual practice among the veterinary druggists 
 is to keep a compound known in the trade as 
 ' bttll-maas,' or ' common mass,' ready pre- 
 pared to give form and bulk to more active 
 ingredients. This is usually made of about 
 equal parts of linseed meal and treacle, to- 
 gether with a liitle palm or lard, thoroughly 
 incorporated by kneading with the hands ; aud 
 it is kept in a cool situation, tied over to pre- 
 vent it drying and hardening. For use, the 
 ball-masses are either rolled or moulded into 
 small cylinders of about li to 1 J oz. ia weight ; 
 and in size, from 2 to 2} inches long, and 
 from about i to ^ of an inch in diameter ; 
 and they are wrapped in soft paper, which is 
 administered with them. Those for dogs are 
 commonly formed into large boluses or nut- 
 like pieces. The coniniou practice in some 
 bouses of adding a little salt of tartar or ace- 
 tate of potussa to ball-masses kept in stock, tor 
 the purpose of preserving them in a soft state, 
 is not to be commended, since these articles 
 decompose many of the saline and mineral 
 compounds which are subsequently added to 
 them. 
 
 Medicines for neat cattle are always ad- 
 ministered in a liquid form, popularly called 
 drenches. A similar plan is adopted with 
 small cattle, as sheep and goats. For these, 
 however, the quantity should seldom exceed 
 \ pint. In all cases, drenches should be very 
 slowly administered. 
 
 The following are a few useful borse- 
 balls: 
 
 AiTEBATiTE BALLS. — 1. Levigated sul- 
 phide of antimony, sulphur, and linseed meal. 
 
 of each 3 oz. ; nitre, 4 nz. ; palm oil, q. s. to 
 form a mass; for 1;^ balU. Uue to be taken 
 every d ly, or every other day. 
 
 2. (Bell.) Sulphide of antimony, nitre, 
 sulphur, and .£tbiops mineral, of e ich 3 oz. ; 
 soft soiip, 10 oz. ; oil of junij>er, \ oz.; for 12 
 b.ills. As the last. 
 
 3. (White.) Sulphide of antimony, cara- 
 ways, and treacle, of each ^ oz. ; for one ball. 
 As the lost. 
 
 CoBDiAL Balls. — 1. (Blaine). Coriander 
 seed, caraway, and gentian, of each 8 oz. ; 
 ginger, 4 oz. ; oil of aniseed, \ oz. ; honey or 
 palm oil, q. s. to form a mass. Cordial, 
 warming, and stomachic. — Dote, \\ oz. 
 
 2. (Hill.) Anise, caraway, and cumin seed, 
 of each 4 lbs.; ginj^er, 2 lbs. ; treacle, q. b. ; 
 divide into 1} oz. balls. Prod. 21 lbs. 
 
 CotTQH Balls. — 1. (Blaine.) Ipecacuanha, 
 1 dr. ; camphor 2 dr. ; honey, q. s. to form a 
 ball. Oue night and morning. 
 
 2. (B. Clark.) Emetic tartar nnd benzoin, 
 of each 2 dr. ; squills, 4 dr. ; spermaceti and 
 balsam of copaiba, of each 1 oz. ; elecampane 
 and sulphur, of each 2 oz, ; syrup of poppies, 
 q. s. to mix ; for 8 balls. As the last. 
 
 DitTEBTio balls. — 1. (Braey Clark.) Nitre 
 and common turpentine, of e.ich 1 lb. ; Castile 
 soap, i lb. ; barley meal, '2,\ lbs., or q. s. For 
 common-sized balls. 
 
 2. (Morton.) Digitalis 1 oz. ; aloes, 2 oz. ; 
 liquorice, 13 oz. ; honey or Bub ido> s tar, q. s. 
 to mix ; for 1-oz. balls. One, twice a day 
 with care. 
 
 PliySIC balls, PCBOIHO B., CAXnABTIO L. 
 
 — 1. Aloes aud hard soap, of each 5 oz. ; salt 
 of tartar and cayenne pepper, of each 1 oz. ; 
 melt together. For 8 balls. 
 
 2. (Vet. Coll.) — a. (Common physic ball.) 
 Aloes, 8 oz. ; treacle, 3 oz. ; olive oil, 1 oz. ; 
 melted together. — Dose. 1 to li oz. 
 
 4. (Stronger ball.) To each dose of the 
 last, add of croton oil, 4 to 8 drops. 
 
 Obs. The dose of the above is 1 bill, fasting 
 in the morning, preceded by a bran mash, on 
 one or two successive nigiits, and followed 
 by gentle exercise until the ball begins to 
 operate. 
 
 WoEM Balls. — 1. Barbadoes aloes, 5 dr. ; 
 calomel and ginger, of each 2 dr. ; oil of cloves, 
 12 drops ; treacle, q. s. for a ball. 
 
 2. (J. Bell & Co.) Barbadoes aloes, 5 to 8 
 dr. ; powdered tin, .£thiops mineral, and gin- 
 ger, of each 2 dr. ; ods of aniseed and savine, 
 of each 20 drops ; treacle, q. ». for a ball. 
 
 3. (Clater.) Sulphur and emetic tartar, of 
 each 1 dr.; linseed meal, 4 dr.; palm oil, q. s. 
 to form a ball. One every morning, having 
 prepared the animal with a phy.^ic ball con- 
 taining 1 dr. of calomel. See Balls ; also 
 Tuson's 'Veterinary Pharmacopoeia.' 
 
 VIN'EGAR. Syn. Acbtum, L. ; Vikaigek, 
 Fr. Dilute acetic acid, more or less contami- 
 nated with gum, sugar and vegetable matter. 
 
 1. Malt Vinegar ; Acetum, Bbitish 
 
 TINEGAE (B. p.); ACEinM BeITTANHICUM 
 
1722 
 
 VINEGAR 
 
 (Ph. L. & E.), L. Thi3 is the ordinary 
 coloured vinegar consumed in tiiis country, 
 iind is correctly described in the Ph. L. as 
 " impure (dilute) acetic acid, prepared by 
 fermentation from an infusion of malt (malt- 
 wort)." 
 
 In the manufacture of MALT vinegae a mix- 
 ture of malt and barley is mashed with hot 
 water, and the resulting wort fermented, as 
 in the common process of brewing. The liquor 
 is then run into barrels, placed endways, tied 
 over with coarse canva«, and arranged side by 
 side in darkened chambers, moderately heated 
 by a stove, and freely supplied with air. Here 
 it remains till the acetous fermentation is 
 nearly complete, which usually occupies several 
 weeks, or even months. The newly formed 
 vinegar is next run off into two Im'ge tuns, 
 furnished with false bottoms, on which some 
 ' rape ' (the pressed cake from making domestic 
 wines, or the green twigs or cuttings of vines) 
 is placed. One of these vessels is wholly, and 
 the other oHly about 3-4ths, filled. The fer- 
 mentation recommences, and the acetifieation 
 proceeds more rapidly in the latter than in 
 the former tun, and the liquor it contains con- 
 sequently matures the sooner. When fit for 
 sale, a portion of the vinegar is withdrawn 
 from the smaller quantity, and its place sup- 
 plied with a like quantity from the full tun, 
 and this in its turn is refilled from the barrels 
 before noticed. This process is carried on with 
 a number of tuns at once, which are all 
 worked in pairs. 
 
 Prof, Sfc, The general properties of malt 
 vinegar are well known. Its pleasant and re- 
 freshing odour is chiefly derived from acetic 
 acid and acetic ether. Its strength is distin- 
 guished by the makers as Nos. 18, 20, 22, and 
 24 ; the last of which, also called ' proof 
 vinegar,' is the strongest, and usually con- 
 tains about 4'6g of real or about 5g of glacial 
 acetic acid. Its density varies according to 
 the quantity of foreign matter which it con- 
 tains. Sp. gr. 1017 to 1-019— B. P. This 
 vinegar usually contains a small quantity of 
 sulphuric acid. The presence of 1-lOOOth 
 part of this acid is allowed by law. 
 
 Fnr. " Brownish ; of a peculiar odour. Its 
 sp. gr. is 1"019. 1 fl. oz. of the acid is satu- 
 rated by 1 dr. nf the crystals of carbonate of 
 soda. If, alter 10 minims of solution of chlo- 
 ride of barium have been q,dded to the same 
 quantity, more of the chloride be poured into 
 the filtered acid, nothing further is thrown 
 down. The colour is not changed by the ad- 
 dition of hydrosulphuric acid." (Ph. L.) 
 
 2. Wine tinegae, PEENon v.; Acetum 
 Galliodm (Ph. E. & D.), A. tini, L. ; Vinai- 
 6EE d'Oeleans, Fr. This is prepared, in 
 wine countries, from grape juice and inferior 
 new wines, worked up with wine-lees, by a 
 nearly similar process to that adopted for malt 
 vinegar. That prepared from white wine 
 (wHii'E-wiSE vinegae) is the most esteemed. 
 It is purer and pleasanter than malt vinegar. 
 
 Sp.gr. 1-014 to 1-022— Ph. E. ; 1-016— Phillips. 
 It usually contains from 5 to 6§ of acetic acid. 
 " 100 parts of good Orleans vinegar should 
 require 10 parts of dry carbonate of potassa 
 for saturation." (Soubeiran.) 
 
 3. Geeman, oe quick -method of making 
 VINEGAE; Peocess or Ham. This method is 
 based upon the fact, that acetifieation is the 
 mere oxidation of alcohol in contact with 
 organic matter. Hence, by employing dilute 
 alcohol, or liquors containing it, and by vastly 
 enlarging the surface of the liquid exposed 
 to the air at a proper temperature, we may 
 reduce the period occupied in acetifieation 
 from weeks to as many hours. In practice 
 this is effected by causing the dilute spirit, 
 previously mixed with 1-lOOOth part of sugar 
 or malt extract, or the fermented and clarified 
 malt-wort, to slowly trickle down through a 
 mass of beech shavings steeped in vinegar, and 
 contained in a vessel called a vinegar generator 
 (essigbilder), or graduation vessel. This is an 
 oaken tub, narrower at the bottom than at the 
 tip, furnished with a loose lid or cover, below 
 which is a peiforated shelf (colander or false 
 bottom), having a number of small holes, 
 which are loosely filled with packthread about 
 6 inches long, and prevented from falling 
 through by a knot at the upper end. The 
 shelf is also perforated with four open glass 
 tubes, as air-vents, each having its ends pro- 
 jecting above and below the shelf. Tiiis 
 arrangement is repeated a second and a third 
 time, or even oftener, according to the size of 
 the vessel. The tube or graduator at its lower 
 part is pierced with a horizontal row of eight 
 equidistant round holes, to admit atmospheric 
 air. One inch above the bottom is a syphon- 
 formed discharge pipe, whose upper curvature 
 stands one inch below the level ui the air-holes 
 in the side of the tub. The floors or partitions 
 of the tub or generator being covered with 
 birch twigs or beech chips to the depth of a few 
 inches, the alcoholic liquor (first heated to 
 between 75° and 83° Fahr,) is introduced at 
 the upper part of the apparatus. This im- 
 mediately commences trickling blowly down 
 through the holes by means of the packthreads, 
 diffuses itself over the chips or twigs forming 
 the respective strata, slowly collects at the 
 bottom of the tub, and tiien runs off by the 
 syphon-pipe. The air enters by the circum- 
 ferential holes, circulates freely through the 
 tub, and escapes by the glass tubes. As 
 the acetifieation proceeds, the temperature of 
 the liquid rises to 100° or 105° Pahr., and 
 remains stationary at that point while the 
 action goes on favorably. The alcoholic solu- 
 tion or wort requires to be passed three or four 
 times through the cask before acetifieation 
 is complete, which i^, in general, effected in 
 from 24 to 36 hours. 
 
 Ohs, For the production of a superior 
 vinegar by this process, it is necessary that the 
 spirit employed be sufficiently pure nr.t to con- 
 taminate the product with its flavour or 
 
VINEGAR 
 
 1723 
 
 odonr, and tlint the malt-wort should be 
 fenueuted uiid treutcd with nil the care 
 u'ually empl'\\ed in the prodnc-tion of beer. 
 Tlie liest kiiglish manufacturers who have 
 adupted iIiIh process are in the huliit of filter- 
 ing or clarifying their fermented wnsh, and also 
 nf storing it away for several montlts before 
 they subject it to acetifieation in the graduator. 
 The mo->t favorable temperature for the pro- 
 cess is about 9U° Falir., and this should be 
 preserved, ax inu(;h as possible, by artificial 
 means. Prod. A malt-wort of tlie sp. gr. 
 1'072, or, iu " technical lan^^uage, weighing 
 ahout 26 lbs. per barrel, afforded a vinegar 
 containing 5'4{{ of pure acetic acid, and a 
 residuary extract of 10 lbs., for 36 trails. The 
 former of tliese would indicate 35 lbs. nf sugar, 
 or 13'7 lbs. per barrel of gravity ; whilst tlie 
 latter shows 3'8 lbs. per barrel ; the two united 
 being only 17'5 lbs., instead ol 26, the original 
 weight. The loss, therefore, 1ms liceii 8-5 lb<., 
 or from a sp. gr. of 1'072 to less than 1050." 
 (Ure.) Thus, about one third of all the 
 extractive matter of the malt is lost or dis- 
 sipated during the processes of fermentation 
 and acetification. According to Knapp, a 
 mixture of about 80 galls, of water, 9 galls, 
 of spirit of from 44 to 45§ Tralles (18 or 
 20 u. p.), and 3 galls, of vinegar cnntaining 
 3'5J of real acid, forming together 92 galls., 
 yield, on an average, an almost equal quan- 
 tity of vinegar, or about from 90 to 91 galls, of 
 tlje abiive stated strength. 
 4. Wood vinboau. See Pvbolionbous 
 
 ACID. 
 
 6. OlHBB VAEIETIES OF VINEOAB, of 
 minor importance ; chiefly domestic, and 
 commonly 'worked' as mult vinegar, — Ale 
 
 VINEGAR, ALEOAB; AOETPM CBEEVISliE. From 
 
 strong pale ale which has soured. — Argol 
 tinegab; acetdm bx iaetaeo. From white 
 argol or crenni of tartar, 1 lb. ; dissolved in 
 boiling water, 2 galls. ; with the addition, 
 when cold, of proof spirit of whiskey, 3 pints. 
 — Cbtstal vineoab. Pickling vinejjar, dis- 
 coloured with Ircah burnt animal charcoal.— 
 ClOEB VINBGAB. From cider, worked as 
 malt vinegar. — German household vine- 
 gab. From soft water, 7i galls. ; honey or 
 brown sugar, 2 lbs. ; cream of tartar, 2 oz. ; 
 cum spirit or whiskey, 1 gall. — Goosebeebt 
 TINEGAB. From bruised gooseberiies and 
 brown sugar, of each li lb.; water, 1 gall. 
 Other fruits may be substituted for goose- 
 berries. — I'ICKLINO viNEGAB. The strongest 
 pale malt vinegar — Raisin VINEGAB. From 
 tlie marc left f'om making raisin wine, 1 
 cwt. to every 12 or 15 galls, of water, along 
 with a little v east. — Spoae vinegab. From 
 brown sui^ar. 4 Uis. to each gallon of water. 
 — Whiskey tineoae. From whiskey. 1 pint ; 
 sugar, 2 oz. ; yeast, a dessert-spoonful. 
 
 Pur., Te»t», and Aasai/. These are, for the 
 most part, rather fully noticed under Acetic 
 Acid, Aoedimetby, and above. The tollow- 
 ing additional tests, &c., may, however, be 
 
 useful : — 1, Paper written on or smeared with 
 pnre vinegar is not charred when strongly 
 warmed before the fire ; if it is, the sample 
 examined contained fully 2g of oil of vitriol. 
 —2. A small porcelain capsule, or china cup, 
 dippid into a solution of sugar in 30 times 
 its weight of water, and then heated to a 
 temperature equal to that of boiling water, 
 is not materially discoloured when a diop nf 
 pure vinegar is poured on it ; but a spot of 
 an intensely brown or black colour is formed 
 if the sample contains only l-300th part of 
 sulphuric acid ; if it contains only 1-lOOOth 
 pnrt, the sp'it is olive green ; and if a 1. ss 
 quantity, then only of a pale green colour. 
 — 3. The heavy white precipitate given with 
 chloride of barium (sec above) shows the pre- 
 sence of sulphuric acid ; each grain, after 
 being dried, and gently ignited, represents 
 ■344 gr. of dry sulphuric acid. If the pre- 
 cipitate from 1000 gr. of the vinegar ix- 
 eeeds 2} i:r., it contains an illepral quantity 
 of this acid. — 4. If a solution of nitrate of 
 silver gives a cloudy white precipit.itc, hy- 
 drochloric acid is present. — 5. If, after the 
 addition of 2 or 3 gr. of carbonate of 
 potash, and evaporation of the sample 
 to dryne-s, the residuum deflagrates when 
 ignited, the sample under examination con- 
 tains nitric acid. — 0. If the vinegar be 
 blackened by sulphuretted hydrogen or hy 
 drosulphuret of ammonia, it contains either 
 lead or copper. If it gives a yellow preciiii- 
 tate with iodide of potassium or chroinate of 
 potash, the metal is lend. If ferrocyanide 
 of potassium gives a bronze-brown coloured 
 precipitate, or a little olive oil, when agitated 
 with some of the vinegar, be turned green, 
 the metal is copper. — 7. If a small sample, 
 gently evaporated to drynn-s, leaves more 
 than 1° of residuum, and this has a sweet 
 taste, it is uudecomposed sugar. The pre- 
 sence of acrid substances, as < apsicum, chillies, 
 grains of paradise, mustard seed, pellitnry of 
 ripiiin, pepper, &c., may in' detected b\ neu- 
 tralising the acidity of the vinegar with car- 
 bonate of soda, when the acrid taste of tlie 
 ailulterant will be readily pirceived. 
 
 Vinegar, Anti'hysteric. Syn. Acetfm an- 
 Ti'HTSlEEicrsi. Prep. Castor, 2 dr.; gal- 
 barium, 4 dr. ; rue, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 3 lbs. ; 
 macerate and strain. 
 
 Vinegar, Aiomat'ic Si/n. Acetum aboma- 
 TICUM, L. Prep. 1. Glacial acetic acid, 
 1 lb.; oil of cloves, IJ dr.; oil of rosemary, 
 1 dr. ; oils of ber;;amot, cinnamon, pimento, 
 and lavender, of each J dr. ; neroli, 20 
 drops; camphor, 2^ oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. 
 oz. ; mix. Very fine. 
 
 2. (Henry's.) From glacial acetic acid, 
 strongly scented with the oils of cloves, la- 
 vender, rosemary, and Calamus aromatieus to 
 which the usual quantity of camphor is added. 
 This is the formula adopted at Apothecaries' 
 Hall. 
 
 3. (Extemporaneous.) From acetate of 
 
1724. 
 
 VINEGAR 
 
 potash (dry), 1 dr. ; oil of vitriol, 20 drops ; 
 oils of lemon and cloves, of each 8 drops. 
 
 Obs. Aromatic vinegar is used as a pun- 
 gent and refreshing perfume, in faintness, 
 &c. For this purpose it is generally dropped 
 on a small piece of sponge placed in a stop- 
 pered bottle or a vinaigrette. It is highly 
 corrosive, and should therefore be kept from 
 contact with the sliin and clothes. 
 
 Vinegar, Camp. Prep. Take of sliced garlic, 
 8 oz. ; Cayenne pepper, soy, and walnut 
 ketchup, of each 4 oz. ; 36 chopped ancho- 
 vies; vinegar, 1 gall.; powdered cochineal, 
 § oz. ; macerate for a month, strain, and bottle. 
 
 Vinegar, Cam'phorated. 
 
 Vinegar of Canthar'ides. Syn. Blistbeino 
 
 TINEGAB; ACETUM CANTHAEIDIS (B. P., Ph., 
 
 L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L ) Cantha- 
 rides, in powder, 2 oz. ; acetic acid, 1 pint j 
 macerate, with agitation, for 8 days, then 
 press, and strain. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Cantharides, 3 oz. ; euphorbium, 
 J oz. ; acetic acid, 5 fl. oz. ; pyroligneous acid, 
 15 fl. oz. ; macerate a week. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Spanish flies, 4 oz. ; strong 
 acetic acid, 4 fl. oz. ; commercial acetic acid 
 (sp. gr. 1'044), 16 fl. oz. ; macerate, as before, 
 for 14 days. 
 
 4. (B. P.) Cantharides, in powder, 2 ; gla- 
 cial acetic acid, 2; acetic acid (28 per cent.), 
 18, or a sufficiency : aiid the glacial acetic 
 acid to 13 of acetic acid, and in this mixture 
 digest the cantharides for two hours at a 
 temperature of 200° P.; when cold, place 
 them in a percolator, and when the liquid 
 ceases to drop, pour over the residuum the 
 remaining 5 of acetic acid, and when the 
 percolation is finished, press and make the 
 whole liquid up to 20. 
 
 Uses, SfB. As a counter-irritant, and to 
 raise bisters. For the last purpose it is 
 applied on a piece of lint, evaporation being 
 prevented with a piece of oiled skin or thin 
 sheet gutta percha. The last is the best, and, 
 indeed, the only effective form ; the others 
 being too weak. " If the acetic acid be 
 strong, a blister will be as rapidly raised 
 without the cantharides as witli them." (Dr 
 A. T. Thomson.) 
 
 Vinegar of Capsi'cum. Syn. Aoetttm cap- 
 SIOE. Prep. Capsicum, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 24 oz. 
 Used as gargle. 
 
 Vinegar of Col'chicnm. Syn. Acetxtm col- 
 CHici (Ph. L. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. L ) 
 Dried conns of colchicum or meadow satt'rou, 
 34 dr. ; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate 
 for 3 days, then press out the liquor, and, 
 after defecation, add to the strained liquid 
 proof spirit, IJ fl. oz. 
 
 Vinegar, Cur'rie. Prep. From currie pow. 
 dor, \ lb. ; vinegar, 1 gall. ; infuse for a week. 
 Used as a flavouring. Other like vinegars 
 may be made in the same way. 
 
 Vinegar of Gar'lic. Syn. Aoetum allii. 
 Prep. Fresh garlic, 1 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 
 12 oz. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Fresh colchicum hulbs (dried), 1 
 oz. ; distilled vinegar, 16 fl. oz. ; proof spirit,! 
 fl. oz. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Dried colchicum bulbs, 1 oz. ; 
 acetic acid (1'044), 4 fl. oz. ; distilled water, 
 12 fl. oz. ; as before, but prolonging the 
 maceration for 7 days. 
 
 Ohs. Vinegar of colchicnin is chiefly med 
 in gout. Dose, 20 drops to 1 fl. dr. The 
 Dublin preparation is about three times as 
 strong as the others, and the dose must there- 
 fore be proportionately less. 
 
 Vinegar, Sistil'led, Syn. Acetum destil- 
 LATUM (Ph. L. k E., and Ph. D. 1826), L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph.L.) Vinegar, 1 gall.; distil in a 
 sand bath, 7 pints. Sp. gr. 1-0065. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Vinegar (preferably French), 
 8 parts; distil over with a gentle heat, 7 
 parts; and dilute the product, if necessary, 
 with distilled water, until the sp. gr. is 1'005. 
 
 Pur., S(o. " 1 fluid oz. is saturated by 57 gr. 
 of crystallised carbonate of soda." (Ph. L.) 
 100 gr. are saturated by 13 gr. of crystallised 
 carbonate of soda. It contains about 4'6g of 
 real acetic acid. If a pewter worm is used, a 
 portion of lead is dissolved, and the product 
 becomes cloudy and poisonous. Distilled vine- 
 gar is more agreeable than pure dilute acetic 
 acid of the same strength. 
 
 Vinegar of Fox'glove. Syn. AoETrin digi- 
 talis. (Ph. G.) Prep. Dried foxglove, 1 oz.j 
 vinegar, 9 oz. (by weight) ; rectified spirit, 
 1 oz. (by weight). Macerate for 8 days, press 
 and filter. — Dose, 30 minims. 
 
 Vinegar of Lav'ender. Syn. Acetum lat- 
 ANDULa;. (P. Cod.) Prep. Digest 1 troy oz. 
 of dried lavender flowers with 12 oz. of 
 vinegar for 10 days. The vinegars of other 
 flowers are made in the same manner. 
 
 Vinegar of Lobelia. Syn. Acetum lobe- 
 LiiE. Prep. Lobelia in moderately coarse 
 powder, 4 troy oz. Diluted acetic acid, 2 
 pints (o. m.). Macerate for 7 days. 
 
 Vinegar, Marseilles. Syn. Vinesabopthe 
 
 FOUE THIEVES, PeOPHTLACTIC VINEGAE ; 
 
 Acetum pbophtlacticum, A. antisepti- 
 
 CUM, A. THEEIACALE, A. QUATUOE PUEUM, 
 L. ; ViNAIGEE DES QUATEE TOLEUBS, Fr. 
 
 Prep. Take of the summits of rosemary and 
 flowers of sage (dried), of each 4 oz.; dried 
 lavender flowers, 2 oz, ; cloves, 1 dr.; distilled 
 vinegar, 1 gall.; digest for 7 days, press, and 
 filter. Used as a corrector of bad smells, and 
 formerly as a prophylactic against the plague, 
 and other contagious diseases. It is said to 
 have been a favourite preventive with Cardinal 
 Wolsey, who always carried some with him. 
 The oiiginal formula also contained, of garlic, 
 } oz. ; fresh rue, li oz. ; and camphor, dis- 
 solved in spirit, 1 oz. 
 
 Vinegar of Mus'tard. Syn. Acetum sina- 
 PI8 (Beral). Prep. Mustard, 1 oz. ; vinegar, 
 12 oz. ; distil 8 oz. For outward use, as a 
 counter-irritant. 
 
 Vinegar of 0"pinm. Syn. Acetum opii 
 (Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. (Ph. E.) Opium, 
 
VINOUS FERMENTATION 
 
 1725 
 
 sliced, 4 oz. ; distilled vinpgor, 16 fl. oz. ; 
 maei-rate for 7 days, press, and filter. — Dose, 5 
 to 20 drops. 
 
 8. (Ph. D.) Opium, in coarse powder, IJ 
 01.; dilute acetic acid, 1 pint; macerate fuT 7 
 days. — Doae, 10 or 12 to 60 drops. 
 
 0.1*. These were intended to supersede the 
 old ' black drop,' which they closely resemble 
 in their action. 
 
 Tinegai, EaspTjerry. Syn. Acetum bubi 
 IDJBI, L. i ViNilOKB FEAMBOIBE, Fr. Prep. 
 1. Bruised ripe raupberriis and white wine 
 vinegar, of each 3 pints ; macerate for 3 (lays, 
 pre8<, strain, and to each pint add of white 
 suf^r, 1 lb. ; boil, skim, cool, and at once 
 bottle. Some persons add 2 fl. oz. of brandy 
 to each pint. 
 
 2. (P. Cod.) Fresh raspberries, picked from 
 their calices, 3 Ibs.j (1 lb. — Ph. Bor.); good 
 vinegar, 2 lbs. \ macerate, in glass, for a fort- 
 night, then strain, without pressure. 
 
 Obi. In a similar manner may be made 
 cherry vinegor, strawberry v., and the vinegars 
 of all other like fruits. 
 
 Vinegar of Bne. Syn. AcsTru bttt^. (Ed. 
 Ph. 1744). Brep. llue, 1 lb, troy ; vinegar, 
 
 1 g»u. 
 
 Vinegar of Squills, Syn. Acetum: bcill£ 
 
 (Ph. L. E. & D.), ACBUM SCILIITICUM, L. 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) Take of squills, recently 
 dried and bruised, 2i uz. ; dilute acetic acid, 
 1 pint ; macerate with a gentle heat in a 
 covered vcssi 1 for 3 days, then presis out the 
 liquor, anil, alter defecation, add to the 
 strained liquid, proof spirit, li fl. oz. The 
 Edinbur>;li and Dublin Colleges direct cold 
 maceration for 7 days in a glass vessel, and 
 the Dublin omits the spirit. 
 
 2. (Wholesale.) From squills, 7 lbs. ; dis- 
 tilled vinegar, 6 galls. ; macerate m the cold lor 
 10 days, press, and filter. Expectorant and 
 diuretic. — Dose, \ to li fl. dr.; in chronic 
 pulmonary affections, dropsies, &c. 
 
 Vinegars (Cul'inary). Prep. 1. Black pbppeb 
 
 TIKKOAE, CAPEB V., CAPSICDM V., CBLEHy-SEED 
 v., OHILLIE v., CEESS-SEED T., OABLIO V., 
 OINOEE v., HOBSEEADISH V., ONION V., BED- 
 BOSS v., SBVILLl-0BAN0B-PE3iI.V., SHALLOT T., 
 TUDFFLE v., WHITE PBPPEB V., with Several 
 Others of a like kind, are made by steeping 
 about an oz. of the respective articles in a pint 
 of good vinegar for 14 days, and straining. 
 
 2. Basil vineoab, buenbt t., celebt v., 
 cheetillh v., eldee-plowee t., qeebn-mint 
 T., tabbaoon v., with several others f'roui like 
 Bubstaiiccs, are prepared from 2 to 3 oz. of the 
 leaves to each pint of vinegar; the whole 
 being frequently shaken for 14 days, then 
 strained and bottled. They are used in 
 cookery. The culinary vinegars may also be 
 prepared in the same manner as the ' culinary 
 spirits ' and ' tinctures,' by simply substituting 
 strong pickling vinegar for the spirit. 
 
 Vinegars (Ferfamed). Syn. Acbta odobi- 
 PEBA, L. Prep. From the dried flowers, 1 to 
 
 2 oz., or the fresh flowers, 2 to 4 oz. ; strongest 
 
 distilled vinegar, 1 pint; digest for a week, 
 strain witli pressure, and repeat the process 
 with fresh flowers if necessary. They may 
 also be made by adding 15 to 20 drnps, or q. s., 
 of the respective essential oils to the vinegar. 
 In a similar way arc prepared the vinegars of 
 clove-gilly flowers, elder flowers, lavender f. 
 (vinaigre diitille de lavande), musk roses, 
 orange flowers (fresh), Provins roses, red roses 
 (vinaigre de rose ; acetum rosatuui), rosemary 
 flowers (vinaigre de rosmarin; acetum antho- 
 sat urn), tarragon flowers, &c. &c. Another ex- 
 cellent plan is to add 1 fl. oz. of glacial acetic 
 acid to each pint of the respective perfumed 
 spirits. This answers admirably for acetic eau 
 de Cologne and like pei fumes. 
 
 VI'NOUS FEEMEMTA'TION. .s>n. Al- 
 coholic FEEMBNTATION. The peculiar change 
 by which sugar, in solution, is converted into 
 carbonic acid, which is eliminated, and into 
 alcohol, which remains in solution in tlie fer- 
 mented liquor. 
 
 The presence of a ' ferment ' is essential to 
 excite the vinous fermentation, as a snlution 
 of absolutely pure sugar remains \inaltered, 
 even though exposed to the conditions most 
 favourable to its accession. In the juices of 
 the sweet fruits.and in those vegetable solutions 
 that spontaneously run into a state of fermen- 
 tation, the ferment is supplied by nature, and 
 is intimately associated with the sacchiirine 
 matter. In the juice of those grapes which 
 produce the more perfect wines, the relative 
 proportions of the exciters of fermentation 
 and the sugar arc so accurately apportioned, 
 that the whole of the former are decomposed, 
 and nearly the whole of the latter is converted 
 into alcohol; so that the liquid (wine) is left 
 in a state but little liable to future change. 
 An infusion of malt, however, in which the 
 nitrogenised matters (gluten, vefietable albu- 
 men, &c.) are absent, or at least present in too 
 small quantities to vigorously excite the 
 vinous fermentation, undergoes a mixed species 
 of decoTiposition, with the formation of pro- 
 ducts widely different from those that rc.-ult 
 from the true vinous fermentation ; or, in 
 other words, the liquid becomes spoiled. But 
 if a ferment (yeast) be added to this infusion 
 of malt under the above circumstances, and 
 in the proper proportion to the s n^ar present, 
 the true vinous fermentation speedily com- 
 mences, and the liquid becomes converted 
 into beer. This is what actually takes place 
 in the process of brewing, and the scientific 
 brewer endeavours to employ a proper qnantity 
 of ferment to decompose the whole of the sac- 
 charine matter of his wort; bnt, at the snme 
 time, as equally endeavours to avoid the use of 
 
 an excess. 
 
 The chief product of the vinous fermentation 
 is alcohol, bnt there are oiher substances 
 simultaneously produced, and which remain 
 associated with the fermented liquor. Among 
 the principal of these are oenanthic acid, cenan- 
 thic ether, fusel oil (oil of potato spirit, oil 
 
1726 
 
 VINOUS FKRMENTATION 
 
 of grain), &c.; none of which exist previously 
 to fiinneiitation, and are generally supposed 
 to result from the action of the nitrogenised 
 matters of the solution on the sugar. Under 
 certain circumstances these extraneous pro- 
 ducts are formed in much larger quantities 
 than under others; and as these substances 
 injure the value of the alcohol with which 
 tliey are associated, a knowledge of the pecu- 
 liar circumstances favourable and unfavourable 
 to their production is a desideratum to the 
 brewer and distiller. 
 
 According to MM. Colin and Tlienard, 
 Fremy, Rousseau, and others, the essential con- 
 dition of a ferment, to be able to excite the 
 pure vinous fermentation, is to be sufficiently 
 acidulous to act on coloured test-paper; and 
 this acidity should arise from tlie presence of 
 certain vegetable acids and salts, capable of 
 conversion into carbonic acid and carbonates 
 by their spontimeous decomposition. Those 
 acids and salts which are found to pre-exist in 
 fermentable fruits and liquors, as tlie tartaric, 
 citric, malic, and lactic acids, and their salts 
 should be chosen for this purpose ; preference 
 being given to the bitartrate of pota^sa, on 
 account of its presence in the grape. The ad- 
 dition of any of these substances to a sac- 
 charine solution renders its fermentation both 
 more active and complete. The favorable 
 influeiice of cream of tartar on fermentation 
 was first pointed out by Thenard and Colin, 
 and the addition of a little of this article has 
 been adopted in practice, with manifest ad- 
 vantage, by the manufacturers of British wine. 
 
 There is good reason for supposing that 
 each variety of sugar which is susceptible of 
 the alcoholic fermentation is first converted 
 into grape sugar by contact with the ferment, 
 and that this variety of sugar is alone capable 
 of yielding carbonic acid and alcohol. 
 
 The circumstances most favorable to thi-* 
 fermentation are, a certain degree of warmth, 
 a sufficient quantity of active ferment, and 
 its due distribution through the liquor. The 
 temperature of from 68° to 77° Fahr. is usually 
 regarded as the most propitious for the com- 
 mencement and progress of fermentation; but 
 it has been ably shown by Liebig that, at 
 this temperature, the newly formed alcohol 
 slowly undergoes the 'acetous fermentation,' 
 forming vinegar, by which the vinous character 
 of the liquor is lessened. This conversion of 
 alcohol into vinegar proceeds most rapidly at 
 a temperature of 95° Fahr., and gradually be- 
 comes more languid, uutil, at about 46° to 
 50° Fahr. (8 to 10 Cent.), it ceases altogether, 
 while the tendency of the nitrogenous sub- 
 stances to abs04'b oxygen at this low tempera- 
 ture is scarcely diminished in a perceptible 
 degree. '* It is therefore evident that if wort 
 (or any other saccharine solution) is fermented 
 in wide, open, shallow vessels, as is done in 
 Bavaria, which afford free and uuliraited 
 access to the atmospheric oxygen, and this in 
 a situation where the temperature does no 
 
 exceed 46° to 50° Fahr., a separation of the 
 nitrogenous constituents, i. e. the exciters of 
 acidification, takes place simultaneously on the 
 surface, and within the whole body of the 
 liquid." (Liebig.) By this method wine or 
 beer is obtained, which is invariably far 
 superior in quality to that fermented in the 
 usual manner. See Fermentation. 
 
 The symptoms of a perfect fermentation of 
 malt wort, according to the usual Eu^^lish 
 system with top yeast (oberhefe), have been 
 thus described by a well-known practical 
 writer on brewing: 1. A cream- like substance 
 forms round the edges of the gyle tun, which 
 gradually extends itself, and ultimately covers 
 the whole surface of the liquor. 2. A fine 
 curly or cauliflower head in a similar way 
 extends itself over the surface, and indicates 
 to the experienced brewer the probable quality 
 of the fermentation. 3. The 'stomach,' or 
 vinous odour,* is next evolved, and continues to 
 increase with the attenuation of the wort. 
 The peculiar nature of this odour is also an 
 indication of the state of the fermentation. — 
 4. The cauliflower head changes, or ri^es to a 
 fine 'rocky' or 'yeasty' head, and ultimately 
 falls down. — 5. In this stage the head assumes 
 a peculiar yeasty' appearance,called by brewers 
 ' close-yeasty,' and the gas is evolved in suffi- 
 cient quantity to blow up little bells or 
 bubbles, which immediately burst, and are 
 followed bj others, at intervals depending on 
 the activity and forwardness of the fermen- 
 tation. These bells should be bright and clear ; 
 as, if they appear opaque or dirty, there is 
 something the matter with the wort. (Black.) 
 
 It is often of the utmost importance to 
 brewers, wine merchants, sugar refiners, drug- 
 gists, &c., to be able to lessen the activity of 
 the vinous fermentation, or to stop it altogether, 
 or to prevent its accession to syrtips and other 
 saccharine and vegetable solutions. Whatever 
 will still the motion of the molecules of the 
 nitrogenous matter forming the ferment will 
 render them inopei'ative as exciters of fermen- 
 tation. Among the simplest means of effecting 
 this object, and such as admit of easy practical 
 application, may be mentioned exposure to 
 either cold or heat. At a temperature below 
 about 50° Fahr., the acetous fermentation is 
 suspended, and the alcoholic fermentation pro- 
 ceeds with diminished activity as the tem- 
 perature falls, until at about 38° Fahr. it 
 ceases altogether. In like manner, the rapid 
 increase of the temperature of a fermenting 
 liquid arrests its fermentation, and is prefeijable 
 to the action of cold, as it is of easier appli- 
 cation, and perfectly precipitates the ferment 
 in an inert state. For this purpose a heat of 
 about 180° Fahr. is sufficient : but even that 
 of boiling water may be employed with advan- 
 tage. In practice fluids are commonly raised 
 to their boiling point for this purpose, or they 
 are submitted to the heat of a water bath 
 (207j° Fahr.). In this way the fermentation 
 of syrups and vegetable solutions and juices 
 
VIOLET— VISCOUS FERMENTATION 
 
 1727 
 
 ia commonly arrested in the pharmaceutical 
 laborutory. 
 
 Among substances that may be added to 
 liquids tu arrest fermentation the nio-t active 
 are — the volatile oil of mustard, coar-elv pow- 
 dered mustard seed, or pure flour of mustard, 
 sulphurous Huid or the fumes of burning sul- 
 pliur, sulphuric acid, sulphite of lime, tincture 
 nf catrclin, strong spirit, strong acetic acid, 
 chlorate of potassa.sugarul milk, bruised horse- 
 radish, garlic, iind cloves, »nd their essetitial 
 oils, and all the other volatile oils that contain 
 sulphur, and most of the suits that readily part 
 with their oxygen. These substances arrest 
 fermentation by rendering the yeast inopera- 
 tive, and they possess this power nearly in 
 the order in which they stand above. In 
 practice, mustard, the fumes of burning sul- 
 phur, sulphite of lime, and chlorate of potassa, 
 are those most adapted for beer, cider, wines, 
 syrups, &c. ; but some of the others are occa- 
 sionally used, though less active. For arrest- 
 ing or preventing the fermentation of the 
 vegetable juices and solutions, and the medi- 
 cated syrups employed in pharmacy, mustard 
 seed, either alone or combined with a Utile 
 bruised cloves, may be safely used, as the addi- 
 tion of acida or salts would lead to the decom- 
 position of their active principles. For this 
 reason such liquids should be kept in a suffi- 
 ciently low temperature to prevent fermenta- 
 tion; and should they pass into that state 
 it should be preferably arrested by the applica- 
 tion of heat nr cold, as above explained. Sugar 
 of milk is also very effective for certain syrups, 
 if not all of them. 
 
 To prevent, or rather to lessen, the produc- 
 tion of fusel oil, it has been proposed to add a 
 certain quantity of t:irtaric acid or bitartrnte 
 of potassa to the wort, or to arrest the fer- 
 mentative process somewhat before the liquid 
 has reached its utmost degree of attenuation. 
 The best means of depriving tlie spirit of this 
 and other substances of a similar nature is to 
 largely dilute it with water, and to redistil it 
 at a gentle heat. A}2:itation with olive oil, 
 decantation, dilution with a large quantity of 
 water, and redistillation, have also been recom- 
 mended. An excellent method is filtration 
 through newly burnt and coarsely powdered 
 charcoal. This plan succeeds perfectly with 
 moderately diluted spirit. On the Continent, 
 the addition of about lOg of common vinegar, 
 aud a very little sulphuric acid, followed by 
 agitation, repose for a few days, and redistil- 
 lation is a liivouritc method. A solution of 
 chloride of lime is also employed for the same 
 purpose, and in the same way. In both these 
 cases a species of ether is formed, which pos- 
 sesses a very apreeable odour. In the first, 
 acetate of oxide of amyl (essence of jargonelle) 
 is produced ; and in the other, chloride of 
 amyl, which also possesses a pleasant ethereal 
 smell and taste. The affinity of the hydrated 
 oxide of amvl (fusel oil) for acetic acid is so 
 great, that they readily unite without the 
 
 intervention of a mineral acid. (Doebereiner). 
 Thus, the oil of vitriol mentioned above, 
 though always used in practice, might be 
 omitted without any disadvantage. 
 
 According to Messrs Bowerbank, the dis- 
 tillers quoted by Dr Pereira, 500 galls, of 
 corn-spirit yield about one gall, of corn-spirit 
 oil. See Acktipication, Alcohol, BKRWiNa, 
 Distillation, Febmentation, Fusel Oil, 
 Spirit, Vixeoae, Viscous Feementatiow, 
 Yeast, &c. 
 
 VI'OLET. Sun. Ptteple violbt, Sweet v. ; 
 Viola (Ph. L. & E.), L. " The recent petals of 
 Tiola odorata,hhm." (Ph. L.) It is chiefly 
 used on account of its colour. See SVBtJP. 
 
 VIOLET DYE. Violet, like purpl.', is pro- 
 duced by a mixture of red and blue colouring 
 matter, applied either together or in succes- 
 sion. The ' aniline colours' are now almost ex- 
 clusively used for obtaining violet on silk and 
 wool (see Aniline, Pduple, and Tab co looks). 
 With the old dye stufEs, violet may thus bo 
 obtained : — A good violet may be given to silk 
 or wool by passing it first through a solution 
 of verdigris, then through a decoction of log- 
 wood, and, lastly, through alum water, A fast 
 violet may b.' given hy first dyeing the goods 
 a crimson with cochineal, without alum or 
 tartar, and, after rinsing, passing them throoL'h 
 the indigo vat.— Linens and cottons are first 
 galled with about 18§ of gall-nuts, next passed 
 through a mixed mordant of alum, Iron liquor, 
 and sulphate of copper, working them well, 
 then through a madder bath made with an 
 equal weight of root, and, lastl> , brightened 
 with soap or spda. Another fruod method is to 
 pass cloth, previously dyed Turkey red, through 
 the blue vat. Wool, silk, cotton, or linen, 
 mordanted with alum and dyed in a logwood 
 bath, ora mixed bath of archil and Brazil, takes 
 a pretty, but false, violet. 
 
 VIS'COUS FERMENTATION. St/n. Mroi- 
 
 LAGINOU8 FEBMENTATION, M dCOUS P. The 
 
 peculiar cliange l)y which sugar, in solution, is 
 converted into gummy matters, and other pro- 
 ducts, instead of into alcohol. 
 
 When the expressed juice of the beet is ex- 
 posed to a temperature of 90° to 100° Fahr., 
 for a considerable time, the sugar it contains 
 suli'ers tills peculiar kind of fermentation. 
 Gases are evolved which are rich in hydrogen, 
 instead of being exclusively carbonic acid, and 
 when the sugar has, for the most part, dis- 
 appeared, mere traces of alcohol are found in 
 the liquid, but, in place of that substance, a 
 quantity of lactic acid, mannite, and a muci- 
 laginous substance, resembling gumArabic, and 
 said to be identical with gum in composition. 
 By boiling yeast or the gluten of wheat in 
 water, dissolving sugar in the filtered solution, 
 and exposing it to a tolerably high tempera- 
 ture, the viscous fermentation is set np, and a 
 large quantity of the gummy principle gene- 
 rated, along with a ferment of a globular 
 texture, like that of yeast, but which is capable 
 
1728 
 
 VISION— VOLTAIC ELECTBICITY 
 
 of producing only the viscous fermentation in 
 saccharine solutions. 
 
 The peculiar cloudy, stringy, oily appearance 
 of wine and beer, called by the French ' gruisse,' 
 and the Ejigliah 'ropiness,' depends on the 
 accession of the viscous fermentation. The 
 mineral acids »nd astringent substances, espe- 
 cially the sulphuric and sulphurous acids, and 
 tannin, precipitate the viscous ferment, and 
 are, hence, the best cures for this maUdy of 
 fermented liquors. It is the large amount of 
 tannic acid in the red wines and well-hopped 
 beer which is the cause of their never being 
 attacked with ' graisse,' or ' ropiness.' See 
 ViHons Febmentation, Wiwes, Slc. 
 
 VI"SI01f . The following menns of preserv- 
 ing and restoring the sight may be appro- 
 priately inserted here; — 
 
 For NEAK-siGHTEDHEsa. — Close the eyes 
 and press the fingers very gently, from the 
 nose outward, across the eyes. This flattens 
 the pupil, and thus lengthens or extends the 
 angle of vision. This should be done several 
 times a day, or at least always after washing 
 the face, until short-sightedness is overcome. 
 
 For LOSS OF SIGHT BY ABB, such as require 
 magnifying glasses, pass the fingers or towel 
 from the outer corners of the eyes inwardly, 
 above and below the eyeballs, pressing very 
 gently against them. This rounds them up, 
 and preserves or restores the sight. 
 
 It is said that many persons, by this last 
 means, have preserved their sight so as to read 
 fiue print at 80 years of age ; others, whose 
 sight has been impaired by age, by carefully 
 miinipulating the eyes with their fingers, 
 from their external angles inwardly, have re- 
 stored their sight, and been able to dispense 
 with glasses, and have since preserved it by a 
 continuance of the practice. To be successful, 
 or safe, these practices must be applied with 
 great gentleness and caution. Many per- 
 sons seriously damage their eyes by forcibly 
 rubbing them when drowsy, especially on 
 awaking in the morning. 
 
 The ' Lancet' remarks, that " there is good 
 reason to believe that chicory (the coffee of the 
 Londoners), from its narcotic character, exerts 
 an injurious effect on the nervous system. So 
 convinced of this is Professor Beer, of Vienna, 
 a most celebrated German oculist, that he has 
 enumerated chicoried coffee among the causes 
 of amaurotic blindness." 
 
 To strengthen the eyes, to relieve them when 
 swollen or congested, and to remove chronic 
 ophtlialmia, purulent discharges, &c., nothing 
 is equal to frequently bathing them with 
 water, at first tepid, but afterwards lowered 
 in temperature to absolute coldness. 
 
 VIT'EIOIi. A common name for sulphuric 
 acid and for several of its salts. (See below.) 
 
 Vitriol, Blue. Syn. Roman viteiol. Com- 
 mercial sulphate of copper. 
 
 Vitriol, Green. Commercial sulphate of 
 
 Vitriol, White. Cemmercial sulphate of 
 zinc. 
 
 VITTIE VAYB. Syn. Vetitee. The Ta- 
 mool name of the odorous and fibrous roots 
 of the Andropogon muricatus sold by the per- 
 fumers. 
 
 VOLTAIC ELECTEICITY. Syn. Galvanic 
 E., Galvanism, Voltaism. That branch of 
 electrical science which has reference to the 
 plienomena attendant on the development of 
 electricity by chemical action. Electricity 
 thus developed may be made to show itself in 
 the ' static' condition, so as to produce the 
 effects of frictional electricity, but it is much 
 more easily obtained in the 'dynamic' con- 
 dition — in other words, as a ' voltaic currenf 
 — when it is especially remarkable for its 
 chemical and magnetic effects. If a plate of 
 zinc and a plate of platinum be immersed in 
 dilute sulphuric acid, and connected outside 
 the liquid by a wire, a current of electricity 
 will immediately be set up, and will continue 
 as long as the conducting circuit is complete 
 and the action of the acid on the zinc goes on. 
 The current of 'positive' electricity passes 
 from the zinc, through the liquid, to the 
 platinum, and thence through the wire to the 
 zinc. The arrangement of two dissimilar 
 metals immersed in a liquid which acts upon 
 one of them is called a voltaic couple. By 
 uniting a number of couples together in regular 
 order, a voltaic pile or battery is formed. 
 
 The older forms of the voltaic battery, viz., 
 VoLTA's PILE, Cettikshank's teough, and 
 WoLLASTON's BATIEET, are now but little 
 used. They all consist of a series of couples 
 of zinc and copper, excited by an acid liquid, 
 generally a mixture of water with j\;th of its 
 bulk of sulphuric acid, and ^^th of nitric acid. 
 
 One of the most useful forms of the voltaic 
 battery is that proposed by the late Prof. 
 Danicll, and commonly known by his name. Its 
 peculiar advantages arise from its action con- 
 
 A. A copper cylinder, filled with a saturated solution of 
 
 sulphate of copper. 
 
 B. A smalli-r porous cylinder (earthenware or membrane), 
 
 containing a mixture of 1 measure of strong sul- 
 phuric acid, and about 8 measures of water. 
 
 C. A rod of amalgamated zhic, supported in the smaller 
 
 cylinder bv the cross-piece (i). 
 
 D. A shelf full of small boles, for supporting crystals of 
 
 sulphate of copper, to keep up the strength of tlie 
 
 solution. 
 e and/. Screws and caps to connect the wires g and A 
 
 with the battery. 
 g. The negative wire, connected with the zinc. 
 k. The positive wire, connected with the copper. 
 
VOLCMETEIC ANALYSIS— WAFERS 
 
 1729 
 
 tinuin^; wilhout interruption for a long time ; 
 hence tlie nHine of ' constnnt battery ' tlmt has 
 been applied to it. The furogoing figure will 
 explain the construction of each couple. 
 
 One of these couples is sufficient for electro- 
 typing ; (.ix of them form a circle of consider- 
 able power, and about 20 produce one sulli- 
 ciently strung lor most experiments ol demon- 
 stration and research. 
 
 In arranging these, as well as other bat- 
 teries, when intensity, or travelling power, is 
 desired, the metallic communication is made 
 liftween the opposite metals (the zinc of one 
 couple being united with the copper of another); 
 but when simple quantity without intensity is 
 required, the zinc of one battery is united with 
 the zinc of the other, and the copper of the 
 one with the copper of the other — an effect 
 which is equally attainable with a single bat- 
 tery of enlarged dimensions. 
 
 Another useful apparatus is Gbove's bat- 
 THET, in which the positive metal consists of 
 amalgamated zinc immersed in sulphuric acid, 
 diluted with 10 times its bulk of water ; and 
 the negative metal of platinum immersed in 
 strong nitric acid. The two liquids are kept 
 separate by the use of porous vessels, as in 
 ' Daniell's battery.' This is an extremely 
 powerful arrangement, but not so cnnstunt as 
 Daniell's, owing to the reduction of the nitric 
 acid to lower oxides of nitrogen. Alter this 
 battery has been in action for about an hour, 
 copious red nitrous fumes arc given off, which 
 cause great annoyance. 
 
 In place of platinum, compact charcoal or 
 coke, prepared by a rather troublesome pro- 
 cess, may be used, and t^e arrangement then 
 constitutes a Bdnsen's battkby. Other sub- 
 stitutes for the costly platinum have been pro- 
 posed, as lead coated with gold or platinum, 
 and iron renderi'd * passive ' by immersioa in 
 strong nitric acid. Callan has obtained very 
 Cood results with amalgamated zinc Hnd cast 
 iron immersed in diluted sulphuric acid, witli- 
 out tliB nse of nitric acid (Maynooxu bat- 
 tbbt). 
 
 In Smeb's batteet, which is much used in 
 the iirts, pairs of amalgamated zinc and plati- 
 nised silver (or platinised platinum) are im- 
 mersed in dilute sulphuric acid (1 part acid to 
 7 parts water). The plates of zinc are usually 
 bent double, and the platinised plates inter- 
 posed between the two surfaces formed by the 
 bend. See Platinisino (p. 1337). 
 
 In every voltaic combination the passage of 
 the electricity (t. e. the pos tive modification 
 ot the force) in the liquid is from the active 
 element to the inactive element ; in the case of 
 a simple zinc-and copper couple, for instance, 
 it is fror.i the zinc to the copper. If this 
 simple f.ict be borne in mind, it will decide in 
 evi rv ca-e the question which confuses so 
 many, namely, which is the positive, and 
 which the negative end of a battery ? The 
 positive is the end where the electricity leaves 
 the battery; the negative where it re-enters 
 
 TOL. II 
 
 it. For further information connected with 
 the sulijfct of voltaic electricity, see articles ou 
 Electeicitt, EiKciBOLisis, Electboiype, 
 Etchimo, &c. 
 
 VOLUME'TEIC ABALYSIS. Quantitative 
 chemical analysis by measure. This method 
 of analysis " consists in submitting the sub- 
 stance to be estimated to certain chiiracteristie 
 reactions, employ ing for such reactions liquids 
 of known strength, and from the quantity of 
 the liquid employed determining the weight 
 of the substance to be estimated by means of 
 the known laws of equivalence." As an ex- 
 ample of this method we give the following 
 from the Introduction in Mr Sutton's excel- 
 lent 'Handbook of Vdlumctric Analysis:'— 
 " Suppose that it is desirable to know the 
 quantity of pure silver contained in a shilliui;. 
 The coin is first dissolved in nitric acid, by 
 which means a bluish solution, containing 
 silver, copper, and probably other metals, is 
 obtained. It is a known fact that chlorine 
 combines with silver in the presence of other 
 metals to form chloride of silver, which is in- 
 soluble in nitric acid. The proportions in 
 which the combination takes place are 35-lfi, 
 of chlorine to every 108 of silver; conse- 
 quently, if a standard solution of pure chlo- 
 ride of sodium is prepared by dissolving 58'46 
 grains of the salt (i. e. 1 equiv. sodium = 23. 
 1 eq. clilorine = i)j'46 = 1 eq. chloride of 
 sodium 68'46) in so much distilled water as 
 will make up exactly 1000 grains by measure ; 
 every single grain ot this solution will combine 
 with '108 grain of pure silver to form chlo- 
 ride of silver, wh'ch precipitates to the bottom 
 of the vessel in which the mixture is made. 
 In the process of adding the salt solution to 
 the silver, drop by drop, a point is at last 
 reached when the precipitate ceases to form. 
 Here the process must stop.- On looking care- 
 fully at the graduated vessel from which the 
 standard solution has been used, the operator 
 sees at once the number of grains which 
 have been necessary to produce the complete 
 decomposition. For example, suppose the 
 quantity used was 5:^0 grains ; all that is ne- 
 cessary to be done is to multiply '108 grain 
 by 520, which shows the amount of pufe silver 
 present to be 56' 16 grains." The volumetric 
 method is much less troublesome than the or- 
 dinary method of analysis (by separating the 
 constituents of a mixture and weighing them), 
 and is admirably adapted for the examination 
 of substances used in arts and manufactures. 
 Most of the processes described under AciEl- 
 metby and Alealiuetby are examples of this 
 method. See those articles, also EQtJlVA- 
 LEKTS, Test solutions, &c. 
 
 WADE'S I>£OFS. Compound tincture of 
 benzoin. 
 
 WA'PEE PAPEE. See Wafebs, in Cookery 
 (below). 
 
 WA'FEKS. Thin adhesive discs, used for 
 securing letters or sticking papers together. 
 
 109 
 
1730 
 
 WALNUT— WARTS 
 
 Prep. 1. (Wafbeb, Flotjr w.) The finest 
 wlipaten flour is mixed with water, either pure 
 or coloured, to a smooth pap or batter, which, 
 after being passed through a sieve, to remove 
 clots or lumps, is poured into the ' wafer-irons ' 
 (previously warmed and greased with butter 
 or olive oil), and in this state exposed to the 
 heat of a clear charcoal fire ; the whole is 
 then allowed to cool, when the irons are opened, 
 and the thin cake, which has become hard and 
 brittle, is cut into wafers by means of sharp 
 annular steel punches made exclusively for 
 the purpose. 
 
 2. (Gelatine wapees, Tbanspahent w.) 
 Good gelatine or glue is dissolved, by the heat 
 of a water bath, in just sufiicient water to form 
 a consistent mass on cooling ; it is then poured, 
 whilst hot, upon the surface of a warm plate 
 or mirror glass, slightly oiled, and surrounded 
 with a border of card paper (laid flat) ; a 
 similar plate, also warmed and oiled, is next 
 laid upon the gelatine, and the two plates 
 pressed into as close contact as is permitted by 
 the (ard paper; when quite cold the thin 
 sheet of gelatine is removed, and cut into 
 wafers with punches, as before. 1 to 2 oz. 
 of sngar is commonly added to each lb. of 
 gelatine. 
 
 3. (Medallion WAPEES.) Asheet of metal 
 or glass, having designs sunk in it correspond- 
 ing to the raised part of seals, being provided, 
 the hollows are filled up with a mixture formed 
 of any appropriate coloured powder, made into 
 a paste with gum water or size, leaving the flat 
 part clear ; melted coloured glue is then poured 
 on the plate, and the process is otherwise con- 
 ducted as before. For use, the paper is wetted 
 where the wafer is to be applied. 
 
 Ohs. Care must be taken that no poisonous 
 colours be employed. For gelatine wafers, 
 transparent coloui% only can be used. Those 
 noticed under Liqueues and Stains (Confec- 
 tioner's are appropriate. To these may be 
 added plumbago, sesquioxide of iron (crocus 
 martis), smalts, levigated vegetable charcoal, 
 and vermilion. 
 
 Wafers. (In Cookery.) Prep. Make fine 
 flour, dried and sifted, into a smooth thin 
 batter with good milk, or a little cream-and- 
 water; add about as much white wine as will 
 make it thick enough for pancakes, sweeten 
 it with a little loaf sugar, and flavour it with 
 powdered cinnamon. When thus prepared 
 have the wafer-irons made ready, by being 
 heated over a charcoal fire ; rub them with a 
 piece of linen cloth dipped in butter ; then 
 pour a spoonful of the batter upon them, and 
 close them almost immediately ; turn them 
 upon the fire, and pare the edges with a knife, 
 if any of the hatter oozes out. A short time 
 ^vill bake them, when the irons are perfectly 
 heated. The wafers must be curled round 
 whilst warm when they are for ornaments. 
 ' Wafer paper ' is prepared in a similar way 
 to the above; but when intended to be kept 
 for some time, the milk must be omitted. 
 
 Used by cooks, &c. ; and, recently, as an en- 
 velope for nauseous medicines. 
 
 ■Wafers, Da Silva's. These nostrums were 
 introduced to the public some time ago, as 
 though they were prepared from the formulas 
 of a celebrated physician whose name was 
 affixed to them.' There are three varieties, 
 which are said to be prepared as follows : 
 
 1. Apeeient oe antibiliotts wapbes. 
 Prom sugar and extract of liquorice (Spanish 
 juice), equal parts ; senna and julap, of each 
 in fine powder, about i dr. to every oz. of 
 sugar employed ; made into a mass with a 
 concentrated infusion of senna, and divided 
 into 12-gr. lozenges or squares with the cor- 
 ners rounded off. 
 
 2. Female wapees. From sugar, horehound 
 candy (or honey), and aperient wafer mass, 
 equal parts; beaten to a proper consistence 
 with weak gum water, to which a little orange- 
 flower water has been added, and divided into 
 8 gr. tabellsB, as before. 
 
 3. Pplmonio wapeeS. From lump sugar 
 and starch, of each in powder, 2 parts ; pow- 
 dered gum, 1 part ; made into a lozeuire-mass 
 with vinegar of squills, oxymel of squills, and 
 ipecacuanha wine, equal parts, gently evapo- 
 rated to l-6th their weight, with the addition 
 of lactucarium in the proportion of 20 to 30 
 gr, to every oz. of the dry powders, the mass 
 being divided into half-inch squares, weighing 
 about 74 gr. each (when dry), as before. 
 
 WAL'mjT. The Juglans regia, a tree of 
 the natural order Juglandacece. The sap 
 yields sugar; the fruit is the walnnt; 
 the kernels of the latter are eaten and 
 pressed for their oil; the peel or husks are 
 used for 'rooting' or dyeing brown; the 
 unripe fruit is pickled, and its juice is 
 used as a hair dye; the leaves are reputed 
 diaphoretic and antisyphilitic ; and the wood 
 is esteemed for cabinet work. 
 
 WARBUEG'S FEVEE DEOPS. See TiNC- 
 
 TUEE, WAEBUEa'S FeVEE. 
 
 WAED'S RED DEOP. A strong solution of 
 emetic tartar in wine. 
 
 WAETS. Syn. Veeeuc^, L. These chiefly 
 attack the hands, and may be removed by the 
 daily use of a little nitrate of silver, nitric 
 acid, or aromatic vinegar, as directed under 
 CoENS. The first of the above applications 
 produces a blick stain, and the second a yellow 
 one ; both of which, however, wear oft' after 
 the lapse of some days. Acetic acid scarcely 
 discolours the skin. Erasmus Wilson, the 
 eminent surgeon and talented author of se- 
 veral works on the skin, mentions the case of 
 a gentleman who removed an entire crop of 
 warts from his knuckles and fingers by sub- 
 jecting them to a succession of sparks from 
 one of the poles of an electrical machine. 
 " He was in the habit, as is usual, of trying 
 the amount of electric fluid collected in his 
 
 ^ For an exposition of the Da Silva qaackerv, with Dr 
 Locock'B letter oil the subject, seethe 'Aaut. of 6uacl\ery,' 
 or the ' Med. Cir..' ii, 1(16-126. 
 
WASH— WASHES 
 
 1731 
 
 machine by placing his knuckle near the brass 
 knob, and I'vceivi II,; n spark. Observing that 
 »n odd aeuHHtion was produced whenever the 
 spark struck a wart, he was tempted for amuse- 
 ment to give them a round of dischargis. 
 When his attention was next directed to hi^ 
 hands he found, to his surprise and satisfac- 
 tion, that all the warts bud disappeared." 
 Dr Peez, of Wiesbaden, recommends the in- 
 ternsl use of carbonate of magnesia in cates 
 of warts. 
 
 The papular eruption which covers the 
 hatidg of some persons, and which is occa- 
 sioniiUy called ' soft warts,' is best removed by 
 the daily use of Gowlard's lotion. 
 
 WASH. The fermented wort of the distiller. 
 WASH-BALLS. See Savokettes. 
 
 WASH-BOTTLE. The principle of this very 
 common and indispensable laboratory utensil, 
 by which precipitates are washed, will be 
 readily understood by reference to No. 1 of 
 the engravings below. 
 
 The bottle being two thirds filled with dis- 
 tilled waters by blowing into the shorter tube, 
 b, a small jet of water is forced through the 
 nozzle of the longer tube, c. We give the 
 following directions for the construction of a 
 WASH-BOTTIE, from Mr Clowes' excellent 
 little manual, entiled ' An Elementary Treatise 
 on Practical Chemistry:'' — "A tliin, flat- 
 bottomed flask is chosen, of 16 or 18 ounces 
 capacity i the neck must not be less than an 
 inch in diameter. Procure a sound cork, 
 which is slightly too large to enter the neck, 
 soften the cork by placing it upon the floor 
 and rolling it backwards and forwards under 
 the foot with gentle pressure ; when thus 
 softened the cork must fit tightly into the 
 fl&sk." Two pieces of glass tubing rather 
 longer thari would be required for the tubes a 
 
 Fib. 1. 
 
 and b are then bent into the form shown in 
 Fig. 1. The ends of the tubes are, if necessary, 
 cut off to the right length, and their sharp 
 edges rounded b_v holding them in the Bunsen 
 flame, or the tip of the blowpipe flame. 
 
 T»o parallel holes are then bored in the 
 cork by means of a rouud file, or by a proper 
 size cork-borer: the holes must be rather 
 smaller than the glass tubes, and must not 
 run into one another, or to the outside of the 
 cork. They are slightly enlargcil, if neces- 
 sary, by tie round file. Into the -e holes the 
 tubes a and 4 are then pushed with a twisting 
 motion; if the holes have been made of the 
 proper size the tubes mu-t enter somewhat 
 stiffly, but without requiring much pressure. 
 Upon the upper end of a is fitted a small piece 
 of india-rubber tubing, about an inch and a 
 half in length, and into the other end of this 
 is a finished short jet (c) made by drawing out 
 a piece of glass tubing in the flame ; its nozzle 
 may be constructed, if necessary, by holding 
 it perfectly dry in the flame for some time. 
 The neck of the bottle should then be bound 
 round "ith twine, like the handle of a cricket- 
 bat, or ti^;htly covered with a piece of flannel. 
 This linvouts the fingers from being burnt 
 when the bo'tle contains boiling water." 
 
 We append below some varieties of washing 
 bottles. The round-bottomed are in more 
 general requisition than the flit-bottomed 
 description ; although this latter presents the 
 advantage of standing more firmly, and, if 
 boiling water be required, of furnishing it 
 mure quickly than the bottle with the round 
 base. 
 
 In some laboratories earthenware bottles 
 are in use. These are not so easily broken as 
 those made of gliss, but, unlike tnese latter, 
 water cannot be boiled in 'them, neither can 
 we see whether they be full or empty. 
 
 I'lo. 2. 
 
 Fio. S. 
 
 WASHEEWOMAN'S SCALL. See Psoeiasis. 
 
 ' J. aud A. Cliorcliill, New Bar lingtou Street. 
 
 * "A mlcBiiized india-rubber etupper is much more 
 durable fer this and most other chemical processes, li 
 ii perforated bv a sharp, well- wetted coik bore, or by a 
 welted ruuud tile " 
 
 WASHES. The familiar name of lotions, 
 more especially of those employed as cos- 
 metics. See Freckles, Lotion, Milk of 
 Roses, Skin cosmetics, &c., and the follow- 
 ing page. 
 
1732 
 
 WASHES 
 
 ■Washes, Hair. Frep. 1. From rosemary 
 tops, 2 oz. ; boiling water, 1 pint; infused to- 
 gether in a teapot or jug, eitiier with or 
 without the addition ol'reciifled spirit, 1 fl. oz. 
 (or rum, 2 fl. oz.) to the cold strained liquor. 
 
 2. Box leaves.asnmll handful; boiling water, 
 
 1 pint ; digest f >i an hour, simmer 10 miiiutes, 
 and strain. Both are used to improve the 
 growth of and to strengthen the hair. 
 
 3. To clean the ' partings,' remove scurf, 
 &c. — a. (Antipityeienne.) From sesquicar- 
 bonate of ammonia, 1 oz. ; spirit of rosemary, 
 i pint; rose of elder-flower water, li pint. 
 
 A. (Deteeoent essence.) From honey, 
 
 2 07.; borax, 1 oz.; cochineal (bruised), i oz.; 
 camphor, 1 dr. ; (dissolved in) rectified spirit, 
 2 fl. oz. ; soft water, f pint; oil of rosemary, 
 20 drops. 
 
 c. (Vegetable exteact.) Take of Rait of 
 tartar, 1 oz. ; rosemary water, 1 pint; burnt 
 sugar, q. s. to tinge it brown ; dissolve, filter, 
 and add of essence of musk, 10 drops. 
 
 4. To darken the hair. — a. From pyrogallic 
 acid, i oz. ; distilled water,orange-fiower water, 
 and rectified spirit, of each H fl. oz. 
 
 h. (La Foeest's cosmetic lotioit or 
 LIQUID HAIR DYE.) Biiil, for a few nvinutes, 
 chloride of sodium, 1 dr., and sulphate of 
 iron, 3 dr., in red wine, 1 lb.; then add of 
 verdigris, 1 dr. ; in 2 or 3 minutes remove it 
 from the fire, and further add of powdered 
 gall.s, 2 dr.; the next day filter. For use, 
 moisten the hair with the liquid; in a, few 
 minutes dry it with a cloth, and afterwards 
 wash the skin with water. 
 
 5. To prevent tlie hair falling off. — a. (Ame- 
 EIOAN SHAMPOO LIQUID.) Take of carbonate 
 of ammonia, J oz. ; carbonate of potash, 1 oz. ; 
 water, 1 pint; dissolve, and add the solution 
 to a mixture of tincture of cantharides, 5 fl. 
 oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 pint ; good rum, 3 quarts. 
 U ed to strengthen the hair and to remove 
 dandruff, by moistening it with the mixture, 
 rubbing so as to form a lather, and then wash- 
 ing with cold water. 
 
 b. (Balm OP Columbia.) As the last, omit- 
 ting the potash, quadrupling the carbonate of 
 ammonia, and adding some perfume. 
 
 c. (Eras. Wilson.) Eau de Cologne (strongest), 
 8 fl. oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 fl. oz. ; oils 
 of rosemarv and lavender, of each i fl. dr. 
 
 d. (Ur Locock's lotion.) From expressed 
 oil of mace (nutmeg), 1 oz., liquefied, at a 
 gentle htat, with olive oil, i oz. ; and, when 
 i-old, formeil into an emulsion by agitation, 
 with rose water, ^ pint; spii-it of rosemary, 
 2i fl. oz. ; stronger liquor of ammonia, 1^ fl. dr. 
 For other formulae, see Baldness, Haie dyes, 
 
 liOTION, &c. 
 
 Washes, Medicinal. See Lotion, &c. 
 
 Washes, Mouth. S^n. Tooth washes ; 
 CoLLUTOUiA, L. Prep. 1. Take of camphor 
 (cut small), i oz. ; rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz ; 
 dissolve. A lew drops to be added to a wine- 
 glassful of water, to sweeten the breath and 
 preserve the teeth. 
 
 2. Chloride of lime, i oz.; water, 2 fl oz. ; 
 agitate well together in a phial for i an hour, 
 filter, and add, of rectified spirit, 2 fl. oz. ; rose 
 or orange-flower water, 1 fl. oz. Used, highly 
 diluted with water, as the last, by smokers 
 and persons having a foul breath. 
 
 3. Mastic (in powder), 2 dr.; balsam of 
 Peru, i dr. ; gum, 2 dr., or q. s. ; orange- 
 flower water, 6 fl. oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 
 2 fl. dr. ; for an emulsion. In loose teeth, 
 &c. 
 
 4. Tannin, i dr. ; tincture of tolu, 2 fl. dr. ; 
 tincture of myrrh, 6 fl. dr. ; spirit of horse- 
 radish, 2 fl. oz. ; mix. In spongy gums, 
 scurvy, &c. ; diluted with tepid water. 
 
 5. (Swediaur.) Borax, i oz. ; water and 
 tincture of myrrh, of each 1 fl. oz. ; honey of 
 roses, 2 oz. In tender or ulcerated gums. 
 
 6. Balsam of Peru, 2 dr. ; camphor, i dr. ; 
 essence of musk and liquor of ammonia, of 
 each i fl. dr. ; tincture of myrrh, 3 fl. dr ; 
 spirit of horseradish, IJ fl. oz. To sweeten 
 and perfume the breath ; a teaspoonful in i 
 wineglassful of tepid water to rinse the mouth 
 with. 
 
 Washes for the Nose. Si/n. Nasal douches. 
 Collunaeia. The following formulse medi- 
 cinally employed for the purpose of washing or 
 rinsing out the nostrils are from the ' Pharma- 
 copoeia of the Throat Hospital.' 
 
 In applying them it is directed that "not 
 more than twenty ounces of fluid should ever 
 be used for a nasal douche, and ten ounces are 
 generally sufficient. If an apparatus on the 
 syphon principle be applied, it shimld be placed 
 only just above the level of the patient's head, 
 in order to avoid too great force of current. 
 The temperature of the fluid should be about 
 90° F." 
 
 Nasal Douche op Tannic Acid. Si/n. 
 CoLLUNAEiUM AOIDI TANNioi. Prep. Tan- 
 nic acid, 3 grams ; water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. — 
 Z/xe. Astringeiit 
 
 Nasal Douche op Alum. Si/n. Collu- 
 NAHICM ALUMiNis. Prep. Alum, 4 grams; 
 water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. — Use. As a mild astrin- 
 gent. 
 
 Nasal Douche of Peemanganate op 
 Potash. Si/n. Collunaeium potass*; pee- 
 MANSANATis. Prep. Solution of permanganate 
 of potash (B. P.), 6 minims.' Water to 1 oz.; 
 njix. — Use. Detergent. 
 
 Nasal Douche of Quinine. Syn. Col- 
 lunaeium QUINIJE. Prep. Sidphate of 
 quinine, i grain ; water, 1 oz. Dissolve by 
 the aid of a gentle heat. 
 
 This solution is occasionally useful in hay- 
 fever. It is generally sufficient to place a little 
 in the palm of the hand and draw it up through 
 the nose. 
 
 Nasal Douche op Sulpho-oaebolate op 
 ZINC. Si/n. Collunaeium zinoi sulpho- 
 caebolatis. Prep, Sulpho-carbolate of 
 zinc, 2 grains ; water, 1 oz. ; dissolve. — Use. 
 Antiseptic. 
 
 Washes, Tooth. See above. 
 
WASHING— WATCHFULNESS 
 
 1733 
 
 WASHING (aa appUed in Chemistry). In 
 
 the cluiiiiciil luboratury the wasliiii>4 "f pie- 
 ci|'itAte8 is an oprnttion of constnut occur- 
 rence, and tts llie nccnrnte result ol' the quan- 
 titative Hualjsis in which the process of pre- 
 cipitatioTi is had recourse to, esst-ntiiilly de- 
 pends upon the manner in which the washin); 
 hits been carried out, we have thought it 
 desirable in the interest of the worker cora- 
 moMcing practical chemistry to amplify under 
 tlie present seition the reinaiks which ocrur 
 under the article ' Precipitation.' In wa^hiIl^5 
 a precipitate the object is, of course, to en- 
 tirely free it from all extraneous matter, so as 
 ti) ensure, after proper drifting, its being 
 weighe.l in an absolutely pure and uncon- 
 taininated state. To arrive at a correct know- 
 ledge "9 to when a precipitate has been 
 projierly washed, the operator iiiu>t never trust 
 lo gnt-savvork, but to ocular demonstration^ by 
 testing » minute portion, such as a drop or so 
 of the washings, trom time to time. 
 
 Tliis may be done, eitiier by adding — 1. A 
 very minute quantity of the proper precipi- 
 tant' to the washings; or — 2. By evaporating 
 a drop of the latter on a platinum knife, or a 
 piece of platinum foil j when, if in the Ibrmer 
 case uo turbidity is caused and in the latter no 
 fixed residue remain, the precipitate may be 
 pronounced perfectly washed. The operator, 
 however, instead of not sufficiently washing 
 his precipitate, is frequently liable to fall into 
 anotlier dilemma, which consists not so ranch 
 in overwashing it as in washing it with an un- 
 suitable liquid, or ouu in whicii the precipitate 
 is, to a greater or leaser extent, soluble. 
 
 It may not unfrequently happen that the 
 best available precipitant may be one in 
 which the precipitate is soluble to some small 
 extent. Under these circumstances, before 
 tlinnv ng down the precipitate, the liquid 
 sliuuld, :is far as practicable, be removed by 
 evaporation. 
 
 Many precipitates which are not altogether 
 insoluble in water may, by the addition of 
 some other liquid to the water, be rendered 
 much less so. Thus, the double chloride of 
 platinum and ammonium which is incompletely 
 thrown down in water is perfectly precipi- 
 tated if alcohol be added to the water, as are 
 also chloride of lead and sulphate of lime, 
 whilst the basic phosphate of magnesinm and 
 ammonium may be rendered insoluble in w.iter 
 by the addition of ammonia to the water. 
 The precipitate having subsided to the bottom 
 of the fluid in which it was suspended, the 
 supernatant liquid may be removed from it 
 either by filtration or decantation. In some 
 cases both processes are had recourse to. To 
 wash a precipitate which has been separated 
 by filtration, and which in a moist condition 
 niore or less fills the paper-filter mserted in a 
 proper funnel, the wash-bottle described below 
 is employed. In using this apparatus the jet 
 of water that is made to issue from the bottle 
 
 ' See PBtCIPlTATIS. 
 
 should be denoted upon the sides of the filter, 
 and never in the centre, since this would cause 
 a splashing and a consequent loss of the pre- 
 cipitate. The same contingency would be 
 liable to follow il the waters were propelled 
 too violently from the bottle. On no account 
 must the wash-water be allowed to reach to 
 the top of the filter. Another precaution to 
 be guarded against is the formation in the 
 precipitate of ti<8ures or channels; it' these are 
 not preventi'd, the water will not permeate all 
 the parts of the precipitate, and it will be only 
 very insufficieutly washed. When such 
 clianneN form, it will bo best to stir up the 
 precipitates with a glass rod or a platinum 
 spatula, taking care, however, to avoid tearing 
 or maklTig a hole in the filter. 
 
 Precipitates th;it aie vvashed by decantation 
 ought to consist of such substances as readily 
 bubside from the liquid in which they are sus- 
 pended and are practically insoluble in water, 
 since a very much l.irger quantity of this 
 menstruum has to be employed than when 
 filtration is had recourse to. The process is 
 generally carried out in deep vessels. The 
 supernatant liquid being removed, the vessel 
 is filled up with water, and the precipitate 
 well stirred up with u glass rod; after it has 
 again (alien down fiesli water is added, and 
 the process is continued until the washiu^rs 
 cease to show the presence of any soluMe 
 matter. The several wa'-hinijs being collected, 
 are let stand some 12 or 2t himrs ; after whuli 
 time, should no precipitate show itself, tliey 
 are thrown away. Sliouhi any deposits form 
 in the washing, it is carefully removed either 
 by filtration or decantation, and its nmouut 
 being determined, the result is added to that 
 obtained from the bulk 'f the precipitate. 
 Where the nature of the precipitate is iu no 
 way influenced t)y hot water, this latter should 
 always be used in washing precipitates, as it 
 greatly facilitates and expedites the operation. 
 Many precipitates require to stand a long 
 time before they entir.ly subside from the 
 fluid in which they are suspended. Mo-t 
 gelatinous, pulverulent, and crystalline pre- 
 cipitates are of this nature. The separation oi 
 the precipitate should not be attempted until 
 after the liquid containing the precipitate has 
 stood several hours. 
 
 WASHIHG FLU'IDS. Solutions of carbo- 
 nate of soda, rendered caustic with quicklime. 
 
 WASHING POW DERS. See PowDRES. 
 
 WATCH'FULNESS. .s>n. .SLEEPLESSNESS. 
 Agetpnia, L. The common causes of watch- 
 fulness are thoughtfulness or grief, disordered 
 stomach or bowels, heavy and late suppers, 
 and a deficiency of outdoor exercise. The 
 best treatment, in ordinary cases, -imply con- 
 sists in an attention to these points. The 
 method of producing sleep recommended by a 
 late celebrated hypnotist consists in merely 
 adopting an easy recumbent position, inclining 
 the head toward the chest, shutting the eyes, 
 and taking several deep inspirations with the 
 
1734 
 
 WATCHFULNESS 
 
 mouth dosed. Another method, recommended 
 by an eminent surgeon, and which appears in- 
 fallible if persevered in with propcT confidence, 
 and which is suitable either to the sitting or 
 recumbent posture, consists in tying a decanter 
 cork with a bright metallic top, a pencil-case,- 
 or any other bright object on the forehead, in 
 such a position that the eyes must be distorted 
 or struined to be capable of seeing it. By 
 resolutely gazing in this way for a short time, 
 without winking, with the mind fully absorbed 
 in the efifort, the muscles of the eyes gradu- 
 ally relax, and the experimenter falls asleep. 
 Gazing in a similar manner on any imaginary 
 bright spot in the dark, as at night, exerts a 
 like effect. A tumblerful of cold spring water, 
 either with or without a few grains of bicar- 
 bonate of potash in it, taken just before Ijlng 
 down, will frequently succeed with the dys- 
 peptic and nervous, when all other means 
 fail. 
 
 The following valuable advice to those who 
 suffer from unnatural wakefulness is abridged 
 from the late Dr Tanner's valuable work on 
 the ' Piactice of Medicine.'' 
 
 As his starting point Dr Tanner enjoins 
 the practice of taking a proper amount of 
 exercise daily. A digestible diet, such as is 
 not liable to cause acidity or flatulence, must 
 also be adopted, and tea and coffee must be 
 abstained from in the after part of the day. 
 Early dinners and light suppers are also re- 
 commended. The reading of any thrilling 
 work of fiction previous to retiring to rest is 
 also prohibited. The patient is advised to 
 seek his bed at an early and regular hour, and 
 it is desirable to have his sleeping chamber 
 well ventilated, and if the weather be chilly 
 the bedroom fire should be lighted. Feather 
 beds should be abandoned for mattresses ; 
 there should not be too mxny blankets on tlie 
 bed, the pillows should be fi'-m and high, and 
 no curtains or hangings should be allowed. 
 Should the above means fail to produce the 
 required sleep, before going to bed the patient 
 is advised to try a tumbler of port-wine 
 negus, or of mulled claret, or of white-wine 
 whey, the last thing. The aged are recom- 
 mended (should the above methods be unsuc- 
 cessful) to imbibe a glass of spirit and water, 
 which is said to be all the more effective if 
 drunk when in bed. In some cases, attended 
 by a hot or dry skin, a glass of cold water has 
 been found useful. Another remedy is the use 
 of a bath, for about three or five minutes, just 
 before getting into bed, at a temperature vary- 
 ing from 90° to 96° F. 
 
 Rapid sponging of the body with tepid 
 water is also recommended, as also the use of 
 a warm foot bath, at a temperature of 100° F., 
 or of a hot-water bottle in the bed, or putting 
 the feet in cold water for a minute, and then 
 vigorously rubbing them. 
 
 For those whose sleeplessness is caused by 
 
 ' 'The Eracticeof Medicine,' bjThos. Hawkes Taimer 
 M.D. Reushaw, London. ' 
 
 their prosecuting literary work till a late hour 
 a short brisk walk, just before retiring to bed, 
 is recommended. 
 
 If the wakefulness can be traced to any 
 bodily ailment, this, of course, must be removed 
 by the proper means. Constipation, which is 
 not at all an unfrequent cause of insomnia, 
 must be combated by the methods described 
 under that article. If there be headache it 
 will be best removed by applying a r;ig dipped 
 in cold water to the scalp, or a bladder con- 
 taining ice. 
 
 Should the adoption of any of the above 
 suggestions fail all kinds of mental labour and 
 excitement during the day must be greatly 
 diminished, and physical exercise must replace 
 them. Sedatives should be had recourse to 
 with great caution, and under medical super- 
 vision only. Because of the hazard attending 
 their use, and of the ready tendency their 
 adoption has to degenerate into a pernicious 
 ineradicable habit, we have forehore to specify 
 the medicinal agents Dr Tanner prescribes for 
 sleeplessness, strongly recommending the pa- 
 tient, before he has recourse to them, to ex- 
 haust the category of suggestions given by 
 Dr Tanner, and, should these unhappily be 
 found to fail, and he is drawn to soporifics, 
 we again reiterate, let him take them only 
 under medical supervision. 
 
 Another method, adopted by professional 
 hypnotists, consists in gently moving, in op- 
 posite directions, a finger of each hand over 
 the forehead, just above the eyebrows. A 
 soothing and drowsy effect is said to be thereby 
 produced, which ends in tranquil slumber. 
 
 Dr Ainslie HoUis contributes some excellent 
 hints on the treatment of wakefulness to the 
 practitioner. He classifies the treatment un- 
 der two heads — first, the induction of natural 
 sleep, and, secondly, the production of narcosis 
 or artificial rest. The application of mustard 
 plasters to the abdomen generally brings about 
 the first result, producing, according to Schu- 
 ler, first dilatation, and subsequently contrac- 
 tion of the vessels of the pia mater. Dr 
 Pleyer, of Jena, on the supposition that sleep 
 may be induced by the introduction of the 
 fatigue products of the body, advocates the 
 administration of a solution of lactate of soda. 
 When sleeplessness is the result of brain ex- 
 haustion Dr Hollis advocates a tumbler of hot 
 claret negus. The alkalies and alkaline earths, 
 says the ' Boston Journal of Chemistry,' are 
 useful when acid dyspepsia is associated with 
 the insomnia. In hot weather, sprinkling the 
 floor of the sleeping apartment with water 
 lessens the irritant properties of the air, add- 
 ing much to the comfort of the sleepers ; pos- 
 sibly the quantity of ozone is at the same time 
 increased. When sleep is broken by severe 
 pain, opium or morphia is of value, bringing 
 not only relief, but producing anajmia of the 
 cerebral vessels j when neuralgia is the cause 
 an injection of morphia under the skin, near 
 the branch of the affected nerve, will have 
 
WATER 
 
 1735 
 
 tnnro elFcMt than by administering it by the 
 mouth. Again, when wakefulness is due to 
 defective cardiac power, digitalis may be use- 
 ful. Chloral hydrate is supposed to owe its 
 hypnotic effect to its power of diminishing 
 the amount of blood in the brain, and there- 
 tore it inny be nsed when sleeplessness arises 
 from the puiiis of muscular spasm. The bro- 
 mides, although undoubtedly sedatives, possess 
 very duubtlul hypnotic properties. See 
 Spi'vfr, &c. 
 
 WA'TEE. HjO. Syn. Oxide op nTDBOOEir, 
 Peotoxidb op H. ; Aqua, L. ; Eatt, Fr. ; 
 Wasbkb, Ger. ; Cf tup, Gr. The ancients regarded 
 water as a simple substance, and as convertible 
 into various mineral and organic products. 
 Earth, air, fire, and water were at one time 
 conceived to be the elementary principles or 
 essences of matter from which all form and 
 substance derived their existence. The true 
 constitution of water was not discovered until 
 about the year 1781, when Cavendish and 
 James Watt, independently and nearly simul- 
 taneously, showed it to be a compound of hy- 
 drogen and oxygen. Five years, however, 
 before this time (1776), the celebrated Mac- 
 quer, assisted by Sigaud de la Fond, obtained 
 pure water by ihe combustion of hydrogen in 
 tlie air. It has since been sHtisfactorily de- 
 monstrated that hydrogen and oxygen exist in 
 water in the proportion of 1 to 8 by weight, or 
 2 to 1 by volume; the sp. gr. of hydrogen be- 
 ing to that of oxygen as 1 to 16. One cubic 
 inch of perfectly pure water at 62° Fahr., and 
 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252'458 gr.; 
 by which it will be seen that it is 770 times 
 heavier than atmospheric air. Its sp. gr. is 
 I'O, it being made the standard by which the 
 densities of all solid and liquid bodies are esti- 
 
 miited. The sp. gr. of frozen water (ice) is 
 •9175, water being 1-0 (l)ufour); that of 
 aqueous vapour (steam), 625:;, air liini; 1-0. 
 \\ater changes its volume with the tempera- 
 ture ; its greatest density is about 39J° Falir., 
 and its sp. gr. decreases from that point, either 
 way. Water is nearly incompressible. By sub- 
 jecting water to a pressure of 705 atmospheres, 
 Cailletet found the compressibility to beat the 
 rate of -0004451 for each atmosphere. Water 
 evaporates at all temperatures ; but at 212°, 
 under ordinary circumstances, this takes place 
 so rapidly that it boil-;, and is converted into 
 vapour (steam), whose bulk is nearly 1700 
 times greater than that of water. 
 
 riir. Of these the following arc the prin- 
 cipal ; 
 
 Distilled water; Aqfa destillata (B.P., 
 Ph. L,, E.. & D.), L. Obtained by the dis- 
 tillation of common water through a block-tin 
 worm, rejecting' the first and last portions that 
 come over. The still employed for this operation 
 should be used for no other purpose ; and when 
 great nicety is required, the distillation should 
 be performed in glass or earthenware. It re- 
 mains limpid on the addition of limi' water, 
 chlotide of barium, nitrate of silver, oxalate nf 
 ammonium, or hjdrosulphurio acid. It is the 
 only kind of water that shuuld be em]iloyid in 
 chemical and pharmaceutical operai ions. When 
 distilled water is not at hand, clean filtered or 
 clarified ruin water is the only kind that can 
 be successfully substituted. 
 
 Natural waters. In respect of whole- 
 someness, palatability, and general fitness for 
 drinking and cooking, natural waters may bo 
 classified in orders of excellence as follows 
 (' Rivers Pollution Commissioners' Sixth Re- 
 port') : — 
 
 Wholesome 
 Suspicious 
 Dangerous 
 
 ^. 
 
 > Very palatable. 
 
 Spring water 
 
 Deep-well water 
 
 Upland surface water 1 Moderately palatable. 
 
 Stored rain water J •" "^ 
 
 r4. sti 
 
 1_ 5. Surface water from cultivated lands 
 f 6. River water to which sewage gains 
 
 17. 
 
 access 
 Shallow well water 
 
 Palatable. 
 
 The average composition of the four classes 
 of unpolluted waters is given by the same au- 
 thorities as follows. Their estimations are in 
 
 parts per 100,000, bnt may be converted in 
 grains per gallon by multiplying by 7 and 
 dividing by 10 : 
 
 
 Total 
 
 solid im- 
 purity. 
 
 Organic 
 Cai'UOD. 
 
 Organic 
 Nitrogen 
 
 Ammo- 
 nia. 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 BB 
 
 nitrates 
 
 and 
 nitrites. 
 
 If 
 
 Previous 
 scwiige 
 or ani- 
 
 nml coii- 
 tumina- 
 
 Clilo- 
 rine. 
 
 Hardness. 
 
 Tempo- 
 
 Permn- Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 )3 
 
 tion. 
 
 
 rary. 
 
 mnt. 
 
 Rain water . 
 
 2-95 
 
 •070 
 
 •015 
 
 -029 
 
 •003 
 
 ■042 
 
 •42 
 
 -22 
 
 ■4 
 
 •5 1 -3 
 
 Upland sur- 
 face water 
 
 9-67 
 
 •322 
 
 •032 
 
 •002 
 
 •009 
 
 -042 
 
 •10 
 
 1-13 
 
 1-5 
 
 4-3 5-i 
 
 Deep - well 
 water . . 
 
 43-78 
 
 •061 
 
 •018 
 
 •012 
 
 •495 
 
 -522 
 
 474 
 
 511 
 
 15-8 
 
 9-2 
 
 25- 
 
 Spring water 
 
 28-20 
 
 •056 
 
 -013 
 
 •001 
 
 •383 
 
 -396 
 
 3559 
 
 2-49 
 
 11-0 
 
 75 
 
 18-5 
 
1736 
 
 WATER 
 
 Eain wateb contains, among natural 
 waters, the smallest amount of solid matter in 
 solution. From the columns headed " Organic 
 Carbon" and "Organic Nitrogen" it will be 
 seen that even rain collected with special pre- 
 cautions, away from any large town, is by no 
 means free from organic matter. Rain water 
 collected from roofs and stored in underground 
 tanks is often very impure. 
 . Surface waters form the main supply of 
 rivers. If collected from high uncultivated 
 districts they are usually unpolluted with 
 animal matter. The organic matter is usually 
 peaty, is sometimes very small, but is liable 
 to considerable variations with the season, 
 and is occasionally present in exces-ive 
 quantities, discolouring the water and render- 
 ing it unpalatahle. Prom their softness these 
 waters are admirably adapted for manufac- 
 turing purposes. The amount of solid matter 
 in solution ranges from 2 to 7 grains per 
 gallon. 
 
 SUEFACE WATEB, from cultivated land, con- 
 tains on an aver:ige less organic matter than 
 upland surface water, but the pollution, being 
 derived from manure and other objectionable 
 matter, is more harmful. 
 
 RiVEE WATEE consists of the above, aided 
 by springs, and most frequently the drainage 
 of towns on its banks. The amount of solid 
 matter varies from 10 to 30 gr.iins per gallon. 
 In Thames water there are on the average 
 about 20 grains. 
 
 Wells, if shallow, are usually a most un- 
 desirable supply. Unless far from any house 
 tliey are contaminated by drainage, and some- 
 timi-3, from proximity to cesspools, contain 
 more animal matter than ordinary town sewage. 
 They are, as a class, hard waters, the polluted 
 ones excessively so. 
 
 Wells of 100 feet deep and upwards are, as 
 a class, very superior waters, the filtration 
 and oxidation of so great a depth of soil having 
 removed the greater part of the organic matter. 
 'JMie hardness varies with the strata, but, as a 
 class, the deep wells are softer than the 
 shallow. 
 
 Speing tvatee greatly resemhles deep well 
 water, possessing all its good qualities in a 
 higher degree. Spring and deep well water 
 are very uniform in qualit}', and little affected 
 by climatic changes. 
 
 Sea WATEE. The characteristic of this 
 variety is its saltness. Its density is about 
 10274, and the average quantity of saline 
 matter which it contains is about 3 J per cent., 
 of which ahout |y ai-e chloride of sodium, and 
 the remainder chiefly chloride of magnesium 
 and sulphate of magnesium. 
 
 The average proportion of organic carbon 
 and nitrogen in 23 samples of sea water was 
 '278 carbon, '16b nitrogen, as compared with 
 Thames water averages of "203 parts carbon, 
 •033 nitrogen, in 100,000 parts of water. 
 
 Analysis of sea water (British Channel), by 
 Dr Schweitzer, of Brighton :— 
 
 1000 gr. contained — Grains 
 
 Water • . . . 963-745 
 
 Chloride of sodium . . 28059 
 
 „ of potassium . 766 
 
 „ of magnesium , 3'666 
 
 Bromide of magnesium . 0029 
 
 Sulphate of magnesium , 2296 
 
 „ of calcium . . 1'406 
 
 Carbonate of calcium , 0033 
 
 1000- 
 Fur. Pure water is perfectly transparent, 
 odourless, and colourless, and evaporates with- 
 out residue, or even leaving a stain behind. 
 The purest natural water is that obtained by 
 melting snow or frozen rain, that has fallen 
 at some distance from any town. Absolutely 
 pure water can only be obtained by the nn'on 
 of its gaseous constituents; but water sulTi- 
 ciently pure for all purposes may be procured 
 by the careful distillation of common water. 
 
 Among the methods adopted for improving 
 the quality of water are : 
 
 (a) For reducing the amount of organic 
 and suspended matter. — 1. Filtration through 
 or agitation with coarsely powdered, freshly 
 burnt charcoal, either animal or vegetable, 
 but preferably the former. When in good 
 condition a filter of animal charcoal will 
 not only remove suspended matter in water, 
 but will considerably reduce the amount 
 of organic matter, and also the calcareous 
 and gaseous impurities held in solution ; but it, 
 however, loses its power of removing lime in 
 a week or two, and of abstracting the organic 
 matter in about three to four mouths, and then 
 becomes foul, and requires to be recharged. 
 Spongy metallic iron is more energetic in its 
 action than charcoal, and remains serviceable 
 for a twelvemonth. 2. Free exposure to the 
 action of the air, by which the organic matters 
 become oxidised and insoluble, and speedily 
 subside. This may be easily effected by agi- 
 tating the water in contact with fresh air, or 
 by forcing air through it by means of bellows. 
 
 3. The addition of a little sulphuric acid has 
 a like effect; 15 or 20 drops are usually suffi- 
 cient for a gallon. This addition may be 
 advantageously made to water intended for 
 filtration through charcoal, by which plan at 
 least f of the latter may he saved. (Lowitz.) 
 
 4. An ounce of powdered alum (dissolved), well 
 agitated with a hogshead or more of foul 
 water, will purify it in the course of a few 
 hours, when the clear portion may be de- 
 canted. When the water is very putrid about 
 i dr. (or even 1 dr. per gall.) may be employed ; 
 any alum that may be left in solution may be 
 precipitated by the cautious addition of an 
 equivalent proportion of carbonate of sodium. 
 
 5. A solution ot ferric sulphate acts in the same 
 way as alum; a few drops are sufficient for a 
 gallon. 6. Agitation with about ^ to 1 per cent. 
 of finely puwdertd black oxide ot manganese has 
 
WATER 
 
 1737 
 
 ft Himikr effect to tlie last. 7. The addition of a 
 littio aqueouii chlorine, or chlmine gas, to fotil 
 water, cleaiiaes it immediately. This method 
 bag the advantage of the water beiu^' perfectly 
 freed from any excess of the prucipitant by 
 beat. 
 
 (i) For reducing amount of inorganic 
 matter.— \. Uisiillatiori separates all nun- 
 volatile matter, Ineludiiig organised bodies. Ii 
 is lined to obtain a potable wiitcr from sea 
 water. The waste heat of the cook's galley is 
 amply suflicient for this purpose. Tliere are 
 several patent contrivances for the distillation 
 ol water on shipboard. 2. Hard water may be 
 softened by adding carbonate of soda to the 
 water so long as it turns milky. The precipi- 
 tation of the burdening ingredients, lime and 
 niiignesia, is modt rapid when the water is 
 heated. The water cannot be used for drinking 
 purposes, from the unpleasant flavour of the 
 carbonute ol' soda. When used on » hard 
 water intended for washing, it effects a saving 
 of soap equiil to about fifteen times its own 
 cost. Sea water can be made tit for wiisliing 
 by this means. It removes both the " tem- 
 porary" hardness, due to carbonates of calcium 
 and magnesium, and the '* permanent,*' due to 
 the sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of 
 these metals. 3. Hard water may be both 
 aerated ami softened by the addition of a few 
 grains of bicarbonate of potassium per gallon, 
 Ibllowed by halt as much lime juice or tartaric 
 acid us is suHicient to saturate the alkali in tlie 
 carbonate thus added. 4. The "temporary" 
 hardness may be nearly removed by ebullition, 
 or, as reeoimneuded by Professor Clarke, by 
 mixing the hard water with lime water, when 
 the calcium combines with the excess uf car- 
 bonic acid, which previously rendered the car- 
 bouato of calcium soluble, and is precipitated 
 as carhouiite (clialk), together with the car- 
 bonate originally present. This method re- 
 moves, at tne same time, much of the organic 
 matter, and carries down suspended matter. 
 The water is often made more palatable 
 than before. The direitions are: — For 
 every degree of hardness on Clarke's scale 
 each 1000 gull.ns of water to be softened 
 requires one ounce of quicklime. Slake the 
 lime and work up to a thin cream with water 
 and pour into the cistern, which already con- 
 tains at least 60 gallons of water to be 
 aoltened. Then add the remainder of the 1000 
 gallons in such a way as to stir up and mix 
 uniformly witli the contents of the cistern. 
 In about three hours the milky water is 
 clear enough for washing. After twelve 
 hours' rest the water is fit to drink. If 
 tlie exact hardness of the water is not 
 known, water may be added to the milk of 
 lime till, on adding a drop of nitrate of silver 
 to a cupful of the ci.-tern water, the brown tint 
 indicative of an excess of lime is replaced by a 
 very faint yellow. 5, To save boilers from 
 sealing, water intended for steam purposes 
 is sometimes treated with lime to remove 
 
 carbonates, and then the sulphate of cal- 
 cium (which forms a very tenacious seali-) 
 is decomposed with baric chloride tHaen's 
 process). The precipitated mineral matter 
 may also be prevented from forming a 
 scale or fur by adding organic substances, 
 such as potatoes, sound or otherwise, swedes, 
 mangolds, or other vegetable. Oak bark, 
 spent tan, sawdust, and their decoctions are 
 efBcacious on account of the tannic acid they 
 contain, but they attack the boiler plates at 
 the same time. Zinc su^ipended in the water 
 is said to answer well. It has bi'cn recom- 
 mended to polish the inside of the hoili'r 
 plates with black lead or coat it with linseed 
 oil and dis-,olved india rubber. Numerous 
 chemical preparations, mo-t of which do more 
 harm than good, are also sold. 
 
 Tetta {Phytical). — 1. To ol si'rve colour, 
 stand in iaW colourless glass cylinder on white 
 ground. If very turbid allow to settle, and 
 examine sediment by microscope fur eviclence 
 of sewace contamination (linen fibres, hairs, 
 epithelium) and fur moving organisms. Sli^'ht 
 turbidity is best noted by filling a clean quart 
 tiask and holding it towaids the li^'ht with 
 some dark object as a window pane between. 
 Taste and odour most marked when the water 
 is made lukewarm. 2. For poisonous metals 
 add one drop of strong colourless ammonium 
 sulphide to about lOHO grains of water in 
 glass CN Under, and observe if liquid darkens. 
 If the coloration or precipitate disappears 
 ouadding acid, it is iron; if it remains, lead or 
 capper is present, either nf iihich condemns the 
 water. 3. For clilorine add couple of drops of 
 nitric acid to a little of the water and acrvstul 
 or drop of solution of nitrate of silver. If the 
 water turns very milky it is a had sign ; make, 
 if possible, a comparative experiment with 
 water of known compos. tion. 4. The resi- 
 duum, if any, of evaporation is impurity ; if it 
 be organic matter, smoke and n peculiar odour 
 will be evolved, as the residue becomes dry 
 and charred. 5. Keither litmus, svriiii of 
 violets, nor turmeric ai e discoloured or affecttal 
 wheu moistened with pure water; if the first 
 two are reddened it indicates an acid ; it the 
 litmus is turned blue or the turmeric is 
 turned brown, an alkali is present. 6. If a 
 precipitate is formed or a lur or crust deposited 
 on the vessel during ebullition it iudicatis the 
 presence of carbonates of calcium, magne- 
 sium, or iron, 7. Calcium salts produce a 
 white precipitate with oxalate of amnion um. 
 8. I'he liquid filtered off from 7, on standing 
 with phosphate of sodium and ammonium 
 (inicrocosmic salt), gives a white precipitate 
 if maguesium be present. 10. Tincture or 
 infu-ion of galls turns water containing iron 
 black. When this takes place both before 
 and after the water has been boiled, the 
 metal is present under the form of sulphate j 
 but if it only occurs before boiling, then 
 ferrous carhonate may be suspecter", and it 
 will be precipitated as a reddish powder by 
 
1738 
 
 WATEE 
 
 exposure to air and heat. 11. Ferrocyanide of 
 potassium gives a dark blue precipitate in 
 water containing a ferric salt; and a white 
 one, turning blue by exposure to the air. 
 in water containing a ferrous salt. 12. If 
 sulphuric acid be run into water and 
 allowed to cool, and a crystal of sulphate 
 of iron dropped into the water, a dark brown 
 cloud round the crystal indicates nitrates ; 
 the bleaching of indigo added to the hot 
 mixture of equal parts water and pure oil 
 of vitriol also indicates the presence of these 
 salts. 13. Sulphuric acid or sulphates is 
 indicated by a soluble salt of barium throw- 
 ing: down a white precipitate insoluble in 
 nitric acid. 
 
 Water, Quantifative Analysis of. — The 
 quantitative analysis of potable water is con- 
 fined to the following : total residue, hardness 
 temporary and permanent, chlorine, ammonia, 
 nitrates and nitrites, and organic matter. 
 
 Of tliese, all but the first two are intended to 
 throw light on the organic contamination of 
 the water. Chlorine, ammonia, and nitrates 
 and nitrites are in themselves innocaous sub- 
 stances, but are estimated because they sup- 
 plement the somewhat imperfect information 
 obtained from the organic matter itself. A 
 sewage-polluted supply being an agent in 
 propagating zymotic diseases, a knowledge of 
 the source of the organic matter in a water is 
 of tlie higliest importance. 
 
 Before passing to the mode of estimating 
 the above items it may be desirable to explain 
 the object of each analysis and the interpreta- 
 tion which may be placed on the results. 
 
 Total solid residue includes all the sub- 
 stance, organic or mineral, dissolved in the 
 water. Everything beyond the two gases 
 which enter into the combination of the water 
 being useless, the 'residue' of a water is 
 sometimes called the 'total solid impurity.' 
 The less residue left by a water on evaporation 
 the better, but a water need not be objected to 
 for drinking purposes till the residue reaches 
 40 grains per gallon. For raising steam a 
 water should not contain more than 20 grains, 
 and should be, if possible, much less. 
 
 The hardness, or soap-wasting power of a 
 water, is chiefly determined on economic 
 grounds. Unless the hardness is very exces- 
 sive, the hardness or softness of the water does 
 not appear to materially afiect the health of 
 the consumer. Hardness is caused by salts of 
 lime and magnesia. If the property of hard- 
 ness be caused by the presence of bicarbonates 
 of the above substances, the water is said to be 
 ' temporarily ' hard, for by boiling or adding 
 lime as above described, the hardness may be 
 reduced without affecting the potability of 
 the supply ; but when the hardness is due to 
 calcium or magnesium sulphates it is called 
 permanent ' hardness, for it is not then 
 practicable to remove the hardening ingre- 
 dients without adding some more objection- 
 able substance. The average hardness of the 
 
 four classes of pure water is shown in the 
 analyses given above. Thames water has a 
 total hardness of 15°, Loch Katrine water, 
 as supplied to Glasgow, 070, on Clarke's 
 scale. 
 
 Chlorine. — Except in places near the sea, or 
 in salt-bearing strata, an unpolluted water 
 does not contain more than the merest trace of 
 chlorine. Sewage, however, contains a large 
 quantity of chlorine as sodic chloride (common 
 salt) derived from the salt used in cooking, &c. 
 Heuce a mixture of sewage with water be- 
 comes known by the quantity of chlorine 
 present. It is not safe to drink a water con- 
 taining such an excessive quantity of chlorine 
 as 4 grains per gallon. The chlorine in Ulls- 
 water and Thames water is "7 and I'l grains 
 per gallon respectively. Sewage has about 8 
 grains on the average. 
 
 Ammonia. — This determination acquires 
 signiticance because it is one of the early sub- 
 stanees produced by the decomposition of 
 animal matter. It therefore indicates, when 
 present in large quantities, recent contamina- 
 tion by sewage. Rain always contains a small 
 amount of ammonia, and deep wells occa- 
 sionally show ammonia derived from the 
 reduction of nitrates by the oxygen-seeking 
 organic matter. The above inferences must, 
 therefore, be applied with caution. 
 
 Nitrates and Nitrites result from the oxida- 
 tion of animal matter. Vegetable substances, 
 under like conditions, yield none or but mere 
 traces of these compounds. The presence of 
 nitrates is a most unfavorable sign in a shallow 
 well or river water, because tlie conditions to 
 which these waters are subjected are so variable 
 that there is a constant liability of the puri- 
 fying processes diminishing, and allowing the 
 sewage, now only represented by innoxious 
 nitrates, to appear in its dangerous, unoxidised 
 condition. 
 
 Dr Frankland takes the sum of the nitrogen 
 existing in the water as ammonia and as 
 nitrites and nitrates, as a sort of measure 
 of the minimum amount of animal or sewage 
 matter destroyed. The amount due to sewage 
 or animal matter is considered to be all over 
 •032 part per 100,000 (or -022 gr. per gallon), 
 which is the average of 'inorganic nitrogen' 
 natural to unpolluted rain water. Dr Frank- 
 land also expresses this ' previous sewage or 
 animal contamination,' in terms of London 
 sewage containing 10 parts of nitrogen in 
 100,000 parts of liquid, by multiplying the 
 above-named corrected sum by 10,000. Thus, 
 a water containing 1 part per 100,000 ("7 gr. 
 per gall.) of 'inorganic nitrogen' would have 
 a ' previous sewage or animal contamination ' 
 of 9680 parts per 100,000, for it would have 
 required 100,000 (1— -032) = 9680 parts of 
 
 10 
 London sewage to produce an amount of 
 nitrogen equal to that found by analysis. 
 A water which contains over 20,000 parts of 
 previous sewage contamination (1'5 grains of 
 
WATER 
 
 1739 
 
 inor^nic nitropen) is Bnid to be dangerous. 
 AU other waters eoiitiiinirig more iiiorgitnic 
 nitrogen than in rnin nre bhicI to be ' doubtlul ' 
 except Bpringg ami deep well waters contain- 
 ing less than 10,000 parts of previous sewage 
 contamination per 100,000, and siicb shallow 
 wjUb and running w.iter whicli from their 
 source may be taken to be free from sewage. 
 
 Organic matter. — Tiicre is no method by 
 which the actual weight of organic matter 
 can be determined, still less is it passible to 
 say how much is likely to be actually iu- 
 jurious organic matter, but there are several 
 means of measuring the proportionate amount 
 of organic contamination. 
 
 Ur Frankland determines the amount of 
 carbon and nitrogen in the organic matter 
 The smaller the amount of these elements the 
 better the witter, and the Ic^s the amount of 
 nitropi n, OS lecially in proportion to organic 
 carbon, t e ess chance of animal matter. A 
 good dniiKing water will not have more than 
 •2 parts in 100,000 ('14 gr. per gall.) of carbon, 
 or "03 part of organic nitr-ogen in 100,000 
 parts (-02 gr. per gall.) of the water. The 
 amount of putrescent matter may be estimated 
 by the amount of oxygen consumed in destroy- 
 ing it. Dr Tidy ('Chem. Soc. Jour.,' J.inuiirv, 
 1879) considers that, speaking generally, waters 
 requiring 'Oo part per 100,000 ('035 gr. per 
 pall.) to be of great organic purity ; '15 part 
 (•1 gr. per gall.) waters of medium purity j 
 waters of doubtful purity, from '15 to '21 
 part per 100,000 ('15 gr. per gallon). Impure 
 waters, all above '16 gr. per gall. 
 
 The proportion of albuminous substances 
 present is measured by Mr Wanklyn by the 
 amount of ammonia set free by alkaline per- 
 m.inganate. A water containing over °15 
 part per million albuminoid ammoni:^ con- 
 demns a water absolutely (' Wanklyn's Water 
 Analysis,' 4tli edit., p. 54) ; '10 part per mil- 
 lion with little free ammonia, or '05 part 
 albuminoid ammonia with much free ammonia, 
 is ' suspicious.' A water with less tliau 05 part 
 albuminoid ammonia belongs to the cl.iss of 
 very pure waters. 
 
 Of course the above data are not hard and 
 fast lines, but serve as aid to a judgment 
 which may be modified by other circumstances 
 connected with the analysis, and the source of 
 the water. 
 
 Methodf of Analysis. Total solid residue. 
 — 1000 grains are evaporated to dryness 
 in a platinum dish over a water bath and 
 residue dried in an oveu at 212° F. for an 
 hour, or until the weight is constant. The 
 increase in weight of the platinum vessel 
 multiplied by 70 gives the number of grains 
 of total solid residue per gallon. 
 
 Hardness is determined by a solution of 
 soap of which 320 grain-measnre will soften a 
 water of 16° of hardness. Kach degree of 
 hardness represents an amount of soap-de- 
 stroying matter equivalent to 1 grain of chalk 
 per gallon. 1000 measured grains of the 
 
 water are measured into a narrow-mouthed 
 six or eight ounce stoppered bottle, then well 
 shaken, and the air sucked out by means or' a 
 piece of glass tube. The standard soap solu- 
 tion is now run in 10 grains at a time, shaking 
 well between each addition until there is formed 
 over the whole surface a lather which, when the 
 boitle is placed upon its side, shall last just 
 five minutes. The number of grain-measures 
 used will indicate the hardness of the water 
 by reference to Table A. Should, however, the 
 permanent lather not be formed before 320 
 measures of soap solution have been added, a 
 second trial must be made, in which only 500 
 griiii-measures of the water are taken, to 
 which a like amouift of recently-boiled dis- 
 tilled water is added. The degree of hardness 
 now obtained must be multiplied by 2. With 
 very hard waters it is necessary to dilute still 
 further, say 250 grains to 750 of distilled, and 
 miiltipljing the result by 4. If the number 
 of soap-measures does not correspond with any 
 degree on the table, observe which number it 
 falls between. The degree corresponding to 
 the lower of these soap volumes will be the 
 whole number in the answer; the fraction will 
 be the difi'erence between the observed uumher 
 of measures and the next lower on the table, 
 divided by the diffierence (given in column 3) 
 between the figure above and below it. Thus, 
 if 14 measures were used the hardness would bo 
 (f'2'',13'6 measures beingequivalent to 6 degrees, 
 and the fraction being 14- 1S'6_4_.., 
 13 6—116 20 
 The hardness of the water in the natural 
 stdte is the 'total hardness.' Bv boiling for 
 an hour and making up loss by evaporation 
 with boiled distilled water and :igain deter- 
 mining the hardness, the 'permanent hi-.rd- 
 ness' is found. That which has been removed 
 by the boiling is the temporary hardness. 
 
 Table A. 
 Soap test measures corresponding to one 
 thous md measures of water of each decree of 
 hardness. 
 
 Degree of 
 
 Soap test 
 
 Differ eDce 
 
 lianiuess. 
 
 meHiures. 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 ?2 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 76 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 03 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 116 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 VM 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 i:a; 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 175 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 194 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 213 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 231 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 2J9 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 267 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 
 285 
 
 18 
 
 15 
 
 303 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 220 
 
 — 
 
1740 
 
 WATER 
 
 The standard water of 16° of hardness is thus 
 made : — Pare carbonate of calcium (Iceland 
 spar) is weighed out into a porcelain or platinum 
 dish in the proportion of 16 grains for a gallon 
 of solution. It is dissolved in weak hydrochloric 
 acid, and the whole cautiously evaporated to 
 dryness over a water bath, then re.dissolved in 
 water and again evaporated to drive off any 
 excess of acid. The dish is covered with a 
 glass during the operation to prevent loss by 
 spirting. The resulting neutral chloride of 
 calcium is dissolved in a gallon of pure dis- 
 tilled water if 16 grains were weighed out, or a 
 proportionate quantity in other cases. The 
 soap solution can be made by dissolving good 
 curd soap in weak meraylated spirit in the 
 proportion of one ounce of soap to the gallon. 
 A potash soap made as follows if, however, 
 less liable to change : 150 grains of lead 
 plaster (Emplastrnm plumbi, B. P.) ami 40 
 grains of dry potassic carbonate are rubbed to- 
 gether in a mortar and repeatedly extracted 
 with small portions of methylated spirit, tri- 
 turating the mass meanwhile, till about a 
 pint of spirit has been used ; filter and add an 
 equal bulk of recently boiled distilled water. 
 Whichever method is followed the clear solu- 
 tion has now to be standardised by the * water 
 of 16° of hardness.' 1000 grains of the water 
 of 16° of hardness are placed into a bottle, 
 and this soap solution is run in from a burette 
 until a permanent lather is formed. The soap 
 solution must be fortified by strong soap 
 solution or diluted with alcohol till 320 
 measures produce a lather permanent for five 
 minutes in 1000 grain-measures of water of 
 16° of hardness. 
 
 Chlorine. To 1000 grains of the water 
 add a drop or two of neutral cliromate 
 of sodium, so as to tinge the water yellow ; 
 run in standard nitrate of silver till the 
 liquid acquires a very faint red tinge, show- 
 ing that all the chlorine has been precipitated 
 and that red silver chromate is beginning to be 
 formed. The number of grains of standard 
 solution divided by 100 will give the grains 
 of chlorine in one gallon of the water. 
 
 The standard solution is prepared by dis- 
 solving pure nitrate of silver in the jiroportion 
 of 47'90 grains to one gallon of distilled water. 
 
 Ammonia is always carried out as de- 
 scribed in the account of Messrs Wanklyn and 
 Chapman's process. 
 
 mtrate and Nitrites. — These substances 
 can be most expeditiously estimated by the 
 indigo process as follows : 200 grain-measures 
 of the water are placed in a flask and a little 
 of a standard solution of indigo added thereto ; 
 twice the volume of pure sulphuric acid is 
 then suddenly poured in from a measuring 
 cylinder, and the whole shaken. The tem- 
 perature rises immediately to about 270° 
 Ji'ahr., and the blue colour will probably be 
 immediately discharged ; more indigo, there- 
 fore, must be rapidly run in till a brown-green 
 tint shows itself. This gives the trial esti- 
 
 mation, but the maximum amount of indigo 
 is only used up when all the indigo is added 
 previous to the addition of acid ; hence a 
 second experiment is now started, and an 
 amount equal to that previously used run in 
 at once, and on it is poured exactly twice as 
 much sulphuric acid as there is water and 
 indigo in solution. The second result will be 
 somewhat higher than the first. If the so- 
 lutions below mentioned be used, the amount 
 of indigo required by the 200 trrains of water 
 divided by the number of grains of indigo re- 
 quired to bleach 200 c. c. of standard nitre 
 represents the grains per gallon of nitrogen as 
 nitrates and nitrites. The standardising of 
 the indigo with the nitrate solution is per- 
 formed exactly as for an actual water. The 
 requisites are a solution of pure potassium 
 nitrate of known strength, say 14'442 gr. of 
 nitre (equivalent to 2 gr. of nitrogen or 9 
 gr. of nitric acid) in a gallon of distilled water. 
 2. A solution of indigo made by dissolving 
 soluble indigo carmine in distilled water in 
 such a proportion that 200 gr. is about equal 
 to 200 gr. of nitre solution. 3. Strong pure 
 oil of vitriol ; it must be free from nitrous 
 compounds, not become turbid when diluted, 
 and its specific gravity not be less than 1'84. It 
 is important to maintain the same proportion 
 of acid, and not to allow the temperature to 
 fall below 250° P. throughout the experiment. 
 
 Messrs Wanklyn and Chapman's alumin- 
 ium method is also a very convenient pro- 
 cess. 2000 grains of the water are jilaced in 
 a retort and half as much of a solution of 
 10 per cent, soda added. The soda solution is 
 made from sodium soda and the absence of 
 nitrates is secured by boiling the liquid with 
 a piece of aluminium. Half the contents of 
 the retort are distilled over and the residue 
 cooled. A piece of aluminium foil of about 
 six square inches area is tied to a piece of 
 clean glass rod and sunk in the liquid. The 
 neck of the retort is guarded by a tube con- 
 taining fragments of glass moistened with hy- 
 drochloric acid i it is sloped, so that any liquid 
 spurted into the neck will flow back into the 
 retort. After resting several hours the neck 
 of the retort is washed down with pure water, 
 the contents of the tube are transferred to the 
 retort, and the contents distilled over, down 
 to about an ounce in two or three ounces 
 water placed as a receiver. The contents of 
 the receiver are made up to 200 grains and the 
 ammonia is estimated in one half by Nessler's 
 test as below described. 
 
 An exceedingly accurate eud'ometric me- 
 thod has also been devised by Dr Frankland, 
 based on Crum's observations, that a highly 
 concentrated solution of nitrates, when vigor- 
 ously agitated with mercury and an excess of 
 concentrated pure sulphuric acid, yields all 
 its nitrogen from the nitrates and nitrites, as 
 nitric oxide, a compound occupying twice the 
 volume of the nitrogen as nitrates. The 
 weight of gas is easily calculated from the 
 
WATER 
 
 1741 
 
 volume measured (' Journal Chem.SocV March, 
 1868). 
 
 Organic Contamination ; meant of ettimat- 
 ing. — MeuTs Wankljn iind Chapman's method 
 is most generally employed. It depends on 
 the cunvei'siou of the nitrogen of the or- 
 ganic mutter into ammonia and the employ- 
 ment of iS'esaler's test to estimate this am- 
 monia. 
 
 Netiler'f Test. 500 gr. of iodide of potas- 
 sium are dissolved in a small quantity of hot 
 distilled water, and to this is gradually added 
 a cold saturated solution of mercuric chloride 
 till the precipitate produced ceases to be dis- 
 solved upon stirring. To render this alkaline, 
 add 2000 gr. of potassic hydrate and dilute 
 the volume to 10,000 grain measures. A little 
 more saturated mercuric chloride is added, 
 and the whole allowed to settle, and the clear 
 liquid decanted off. The test should have a 
 slightly yellowish tint. If colourless, it is 
 not sensitive, and more mercuric chloride 
 must be added. 
 
 Standard Ammonia Solution, — Dissolve 
 27'164 gr. of pure sulphate of ammonium in 
 1 gall, of distilled water. For use dilute 100 gr. 
 to 1000 gr. It will then contain 1 gr. of am- 
 niouin in 100,000 of water. 
 
 In order to estimate ammonia several six- 
 ounce tall glass cylinders, free from colour, 
 are graduated at 1000 grains. One of these is 
 filled up to the graduation mark with the am- 
 monia to be estimated, and about 30 gr. of 
 Nessler's reagent added from a pipette. The 
 coloration produced is noted, a second cylin- 
 der is filled nearly to the mark with distilled 
 water, and what is thought sufficient ammonia 
 to produce a similar colour to the first run in, 
 and the whole made up to 1000 gr., and 30gr. of 
 Nessler added; if after standing five minutes 
 the colour in the second is the same as in the 
 water examined, the quantity of ammonia 
 they contain will be equal ; but if this is not 
 the case a second trial must be made, using 
 more or less standard ammonia as the in- 
 tensity of colour is greater or less than the 
 first. Alter a little experience, more than 
 two trials are rarely necessary. 
 
 Examination, (a) Free Ammonia. 7000 
 grains (a deci-gallon) of the water to be 
 analysed is placed in a tiibnlated retort, 
 and to it is added half an ounce of a super- 
 saturated solution of carbonate of soda, made 
 by dissolving ignited carbonate of soda in 
 water free from ammonia. The contents are 
 distilled over in two portions of 1000 grains 
 each, and the second Nesslerised ; if it con- 
 tains no ammonia, the distillation may be 
 stopped ; if it does, the distillation must 
 be continued and tested in portions of 
 500 grains till the ammonia no longer can be 
 detected. If there is much ammonia in the 
 cylinder of thesecond 1000 grains the first will 
 probably contain too much to be conveniently 
 estimated, and therefore an aliquot part diluted 
 to 1000 grains with distilled water free from 
 
 ammonia should be used. The sum of the 
 ammonia in these different portions multi- 
 plied by 10 gives grains per gallon. 
 
 (i) Albuminoid Ammonia. To the retort, 
 after all the free ammonia has been driven 
 off, one ounce of a solution (if hydrate and 
 permanganate of potassium of a strength of 
 2000 gr. of hydrate of potassium and 80 gr. of 
 permanganate to 10,000 gr. of water is added, 
 and the distillation continued until no more 
 ammonia comes over, collecting the distillate 
 in portions of 1000 c.c. as before. The sum 
 is the albnroinoid ammonia derived from the 
 nitrogenous organic matter. 
 
 It is of course estfeutial that the utmost 
 care be taken to remove by rinsing or distil- 
 lation all traces of ammonia from apparatus 
 employed. Water which has been di..tilled 
 till free from ammonia should alone be used 
 in estimations and preparations of solu- 
 tions, and the alkaline permanganate sliould he 
 boiled lor » short time when made to expel 
 ammonia. 
 
 " Oxygen " Process. This is a useful pro- 
 cess when comparing waters i>f similar origin. 
 It is probably a more reliahle measure of the 
 putrescent matter present than the total or- 
 ganic contamination. It is essential that the 
 oxidizing agent potassium permanganate be 
 added in excess and allowed to stand three 
 hours. The following method is very delicate 
 (vide Dr Tidy on Potable Waters, ' Chem. 
 Soc. Journ.,' January, 1879.) 
 
 Clean-e with sulphuric acid and with tap 
 water two flasks and place in one 500 septems 
 (l\s S"^') °^ ''•* water, in the other an equal 
 quantil^y of distilled water. Add to each 20 
 septems (140 gr.) of sulphuric acid (1 part 
 pure acid to 8 of distilled water) and 20 sep- 
 tems of potassium permanganate and allow 
 to rest for 3 hours. Then add to each flask 
 a couple of drops of an aqueoas solution of 
 pota^sic iodide (1 in 10) when iodine is liber- 
 ated equivalent to the amount of perman- 
 ganate unacted on by the waters. Observe the 
 amount of a sodic hyposulphite solution 
 (5-4 gr. in 7000 gr.) which must be added 
 to each to remove this free iodine (judging 
 of the exact spot by adding towards the ei.d 
 of the experiment a few drops of starch). 
 
 The strength of the potassic permanganate 
 solution is 2 gr. of the salt in 7000 gi-. 
 to-L gall.; therefore the 20 si-ptems will 
 contain "Ol gr. permanganate, equivalent to 
 •01 of available oxyyen. The experiment (a) 
 with the amount of hyposulphite used up for 
 the blank distilled water shows the amount of 
 hytiosulphite equivalent to 20 septems or -01 
 gr. of oxygen. Therefore the amouiit of 
 oxygen unconsumed in the water (b) to be 
 
 examined was - x "01 and the amount (c) 
 
 A— B 
 actually used up was —^ ^ '01 for 500 sep- 
 
 tems (5\jth gall). Then the oxygen con- 
 
1742 
 
 WATER 
 
 sumed per gallon would be 
 
 A— B X -2. 
 
 It is 
 
 necessary to perform this standardising 
 of hyposulphite with every series of experi- 
 ment on account of its tendency to change. 
 Dr Tidy recommends that in addition to the 
 three hours' experiment one of a single hour 
 duration be executed. The higher the pro- 
 portion of oxygen consumed in one hour to the 
 oxygen consumed in three hours the worse the 
 water. 
 
 Nitrites, sulphuretted hydrogen, and fer- 
 rous salts interfere with this test, and there 
 appears to be a different ratio between the 
 oxygen consumed and the amount of organic 
 matter according to the amount of oxidation 
 that has already taken place. The organic 
 matter of deep wells is proportionately least 
 acted npon. , 
 
 Combustion methods. — The " Frankland and 
 Armstrong process '* consists in burning with 
 oxide of copper in vacuo the residue left on 
 evaporating the water, and collecting and 
 measuring in a suitalde gas apparatus the 
 carbonic acid, and nitrogen, and nitric oxide 
 proceeding from the organic matter. From 
 these estimations are calculated the organic 
 carbon and nitrogen. 
 
 Tliis method, though forming the most 
 accurate means of measuring organic Con- 
 tamination, is not in general use in conse- 
 quence of the difficulties attending Dr Frank- 
 land's method of analysis. Professor Dittmar 
 and Drs Dnpre and Hake have lately intro- 
 duced processes by which the same results 
 may be obtained without necessitating the use 
 of expensive gas apparatus. 
 
 Dittmar's Carbon. — Concentrate a suitable 
 quantity (say 10,000 gr.) in a pear-shaped flask, 
 and, after addmg some sjiturated solution 
 of sulphurous acid to expel carbonates and 
 nitrates, evaporate to dryness in a glass dish 
 on a water bath. Transfer the residue from the 
 dish to a porcelain or platinum boat, and 
 introduce it into the tail end of a combustion 
 tube, filled three fourths of its length with 
 oxide of copper, and having a roll of silver 
 gauze in the front part of the tube. Previous 
 to the boat being put in, this tube is heated to 
 redness, and astream of air, freed from carbonic 
 acid, passed through it till the gas which 
 comes out no longer renders clear baryta 
 water turbid. The combustion tube has at- 
 tached iu front a small V-shaped tube charged 
 with chromic acid, dissolved in 60 per cent, 
 suiphuric acid. To it is permanently fixed a 
 small tube filled with calcic chloride, and in 
 front of all is a small-weighed U"'"'^^' 'he 
 first three fourths of which is filled with soda 
 lime, and the other fourth with calcic chloride. 
 On turning the gas on gradually from the front 
 to the tail the residue is at last reached, and 
 burnt in the stream of pure air. The carbonic 
 acid given off, after being freed from sul- 
 phurous anhydride by passing through the 
 chromic aeid solution and of moisture by the 
 
 calcic chloride, passes into the soda lime tube 
 and is absorbed. The increase in weight 
 multiplied by -5^ gives the amount of carbon 
 in the amount of water taken. 
 
 Dittmar's Nitrogen. An amount of water, 
 about half that taken for the carbon, is evapo- 
 rated in a similar way. The residue is trans- 
 ferred to a large copper or silver boat, and 
 mixed with about 50 grains of soda made 
 from pure sodium, or with a mixture of soda 
 and baryta, and burnt in a stream of hydrogen 
 in a short combustion tube, which is closed in 
 front by a nitrogen absorption bulb charged 
 with exceedingly weak acidulated water. 
 The amount of ammonia given off is estimated 
 by the Nessler test as described under " Am- 
 monia." Subtracting the amount of inor- 
 ganic ammonia the residue multiplied by if 
 yields the quantity of organic nitrogen in that 
 volume of water. 
 
 A few blank experiments roust be made to 
 observe and allow correction for the amount of 
 experimental error. 
 
 Carbon method of Drs Dwpre and SaJce.^ — • 
 This method appears to be very accurate, but 
 it necessitates a number of minute precautions, 
 which cannot here be particularised. A residue 
 is obtained by evaporating the water either in 
 the ordinary hemispherical glass dish, or in an 
 exceedingly thin silver one, which after being 
 ignited is supported in a platinum hemisphere 
 of convenient size. At the close of the evapo- 
 ration this dish is crumpled up without being 
 handled and introduced into a combustion 
 tube, similar to that described under Ditt- 
 mar's process. The carbonic acid is absorbed 
 in bright baric hydrate solution, and the pre- 
 cipitated baric carbonate is, with suitable pre- 
 cautions to prevent access of impure air, 
 collected on a filter and washed. It is dried 
 and weighed. The result divided by 19'4 gives 
 the weight of organic carbon. As another 
 method of estimating the carbon the authors 
 propose to compare the turbidity produced by 
 the carbonic acid evolved from the combustion 
 of the residue in solutions of basic acetate of 
 lead with that produced by known quantity of 
 caibonic acid. 
 
 Pres. The preservation of rain water in a 
 state of purity necessitates the greatest care 
 in constructing the tanks, especially if the 
 latter are underground. Of eight samples of 
 stored rain water examined by the River Com- 
 missioners only one was fit for domestic use, 
 the others were all polluted by animal mattter. 
 Storage room sufficient to hold 120 days' 
 supply will be found snflRcient for the driest 
 district. The small cisterns for service water 
 should not he placed in positions where it can 
 receive the emanation of water closets or 
 sleeping apartments. They should be fre- 
 quently cleaned out. The best are made of 
 enamelled slate or properly painted iron. 
 Wherever possible a water service should be 
 on the constant supply system. 
 
 1 * Cliem. Soc. Jouin.,' March, 18T9. 
 
WATERS 
 
 1743 
 
 For wells the chief precantion necessary 
 id to keep out surface and drainage water by 
 mHintaiDing tlie walls water-proof for a con- 
 siderable depth. On shipboard water is pre- 
 served in iron tanks or in caxks well charred 
 on the inside. \\ atcr cannot bo safely kept 
 in copper or leaden vessels, and it receives a 
 calcareous impregnation by contact with lime, 
 mortar, slute, or stone containing lime. The 
 addition of i to 1 per cent, of finely powdered 
 binoxide of manganese materially promotes 
 preservation, especially at sea, where the 
 motion of the vessel and the subsequent 
 agitation of the water increases the points of 
 contact. Water never putrefies in iron vessels 
 or when some fragments of metallic iron are 
 immersed in it. Distilled water should be 
 preserved in glass bottles or carboys. .See 
 Lotion, Spirits, Watee, Distilled Eye 
 WATBB, Febfdmeo wateb, flud the articles 
 below. 
 
 Water, Soda. Each bottle of this liquid 
 should contain at least 15 gi'ains of carbonate 
 of sodium, but that of the shops is usually 
 nothing else but water highly charged witli 
 carbonic anhydride. Not a particle of soda 
 enters into its composition, on which account 
 it cannot be substituted for the preparation 
 of the Pharmacopoeias. 
 
 To produce a superior article of soda water, 
 tlif possession of a powerful aerating and 
 bottling macliine is absolutely necessary. Tlie 
 water employed must also be of the purest qua- 
 lity, the 'carbonic anhydride well washed with 
 water, and the corks so prepared that they 
 will not impart their peculiar flavour to the 
 beverage. See Powders, Solution, Wines, 
 and Lead in Aerated water. 
 
 Water, Tar. See Infusion of Tab. 
 
 WATERS (Distilled). Syn. Aromatic 
 waters. Odoriferous w.. Perfumed w. ; 
 AQUiK (Pli. L.), AqUjE destillatj: (Ph. E. & 
 D.), L. Pure water, charged, by distillation, 
 with the volatile, odorous, and aromatic 
 principles of plants. 
 
 Prep. 1. (Ph. L.) —a. 2 galls, of water are 
 put into the still along with the vegetable 
 matter (bruised, if necessary), but only 1 gall, 
 is drawn over. In the Ph. L. 1836, 7 tl. oz. 
 of proof spirit were added before distillation. 
 
 b. Take of the essential oil of the plant, 
 2 fl. dr. ; powdered silex, 2 dr. ; triturate 
 them diligently together, and then with dis- 
 tilled water, 1 gall , gradually added ; lastly 
 (after briskly agitating the whole for some 
 time), strain the solution. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) As 1, ci(, but adding of rectified 
 spirit, 3 fl. oz., before distillation. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.). From the respective essences 
 (Ph. D), 1 fl. oz. ! distilled water, 2 quarts ; 
 agitated well together, and then filtered 
 through paper. 
 
 The foUowinff are the Aqvm DE8TILLAT.E of 
 the British Colleires, with some others, the 
 quantities relerring to a product of 1 gall-, to 
 
 be prepared as above when not otherwise 
 directed. 
 
 Angelica Water; Aqua angelic* (P. 
 Cod), Bruised seed, 1 lb. ; water, q. s., distil 
 4 lbs. 
 
 Aniseed Water; Aqua anisi (P. Cod.). 
 Prom seeds, as Aqua anoklice. 
 
 Balm Water ; Aqua ueli8s.e (P. Cod.), L. 
 Fresh tops, 12 lbs. 
 
 Beroauot Water; Aqua beeoamii (L. 
 174(3). Berj;nmot peel, 5 oz, 
 
 BiTTKB-ALMOND WaTEB ; AQr.E AMTO- 
 
 DAL£ AMAH^, Aqua amyodalahvm ama- 
 bauum (P. Co<l.), L. Bitter-almond cake 
 (from which the oil has been expresseil), 5 lbs. ; 
 macerate for 24 hours, and filter the distilled 
 product through paper previously wetted with 
 pure distilled water. Poisonous. — Dose, 10 to 
 60 drops, as a substitute for hydrocyanic acid. 
 
 Black mustard-seed Watru; Aqua sin- 
 apis NIGH* (Ouibourt). Mix 1 part of ground 
 Idiick mustard seed with 8 of water ; mace- 
 rate for 12 hour-, and distil 4 parts, by means 
 of steam conducted by u. tube from a boiler to 
 the bottom of the still. Filter through 
 moistened paper to separate the oil. Used 
 externally us a rubefacient. 
 
 Borage Water; Aqua boraoinis (P. 
 Cod.), L. Fresh leaves, 12 lbs. 
 
 Camphor Water ; Aqua c*MpnonJE (B.P.) 
 MiSTUBA CAMPnORS. Enclose j o«. of cam- 
 phor, broken into pieces, in a muslin bag, 
 and attach this to one end of a glass rod, to 
 keep it at the bottom of a bottle containing 1 
 gall, of distilled water. Macerate (or 2 days, 
 then pour off the solution as required. 
 
 Caraway Waieb; Aqua cahiii(B. P., Ph. 
 L. & D.). Caraway, bruised, 1 ; water, 20 ; 
 distil 10. 
 
 Cascaeilla Wateb; Aqua cobticis cas- 
 CARlLLiE (P. Cod.), L. Cascarilla, bruised, 3 lbs. 
 
 Cassia Wateb ; Aquacassi.e (Ph. E.), L. 
 Cassia, bruised, IJ lb. 
 
 Castor Water; Aqua castorei. Castor, 
 4 oz. 
 
 Chamomile Water ; Aqua antiienidis 
 (Ph. G.). Dried chamomile flower, 2 lbs.; 
 water, q. s. ; distil 20 lbs. 
 
 Cherry- LAUREL Water ; Aqua lauro- 
 CERASI |,B. P., Ph. E. & D.), L. Prep. 1. 
 (B. p.) Fresh leaves of common laurel, 16, 
 water, 50; chop the leaves, crush them in a 
 mortar, and macerate them in the water for 
 twenty-four hours ; distil 20 of the liquid, 
 shake the product, filter through paper, and 
 preserve in a stoppered bottle — 2. (Ph. E.) 
 Fresh leaves, chopped, lOlbs. (lOlbs.— Ph. D.). 
 To the product add of compound spirit of 
 lavender, 8 fl. oz. ; agitate well, and, if milky, 
 filter it (through wet paper— Ph. D.& P. Cod.). 
 
 Z>ose, 10 to 60 drops, as « subsiitute for 
 
 hydrocyanic acid. It is commonly imitated in 
 trade by dissolving 75 drops (minims) of the 
 oil of bitter almonds in 24 fl. oz. of rectified 
 spirit, agitating the mixture with warm dis- 
 tilled watei-, 1 gall., and filtering. 
 
1744 
 
 WATERS (DISTILLED) 
 
 Cinnamon Wateb; Aqita oinnamomi (B. 
 P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 1. Ciunamon, bruised, 
 18 oz. ; or oil, 2 fl. dr.— 2. (B. P.) Cinnamon, 
 bruised, 1 ; wRter, 16 ; distil 8. 
 
 Ci/OVE Wateb; Aqtta CAEYOPHTtLi (P. 
 Cod), L. Cloves, bruised, 3 lbs. 
 
 Co WANDER Water ; Aqda coriandbi. As 
 Aiitjelica water. 
 
 Dill Water; Aqua anethi (B. P., Ph. L. 
 & E ), L. 1. Bruised seed, 1^ lb. ; or essential 
 oil, 2 fl. dr.— 2. (B. P.) Bruised fruit, 1 ; 
 water, 20 ; distil 10. 
 
 Distilled Water ; Aqua destillata (B. 
 P.). Take of water, 10 galls, ; distil from a 
 copper state, connected with a block-tin worm ; 
 reject the first i gall., and preserve the next 
 8 galls. It should remain clear on the addi- 
 tion of either lime water, chloride of barium, 
 nitrate of silver, oxalate of ammonia, or hydro- 
 sulphuric acid (sulphuretted hydrogen). 
 
 Eldee-tloweii Water : Aqua bambuci 
 (B. P., Ph. L. & E.), L. 1. Fresh elder flowers, 
 10 lbs.— 2. (B. P ) Fresh elder flowers, sepa- 
 rated from the stalks, 1 ; water 2 ; distil 1. 
 
 Fennel Watee; Aqua pceniouli (B. P., 
 Ph. L., E., & U.). L. As dill water. 
 
 Hybsop Wateb ; Aqua hissopi (P. Cod.), 
 L. Fresh tops, 12 lbs. 
 
 Eucalyptus Water. Syn. Aqua eu- 
 calypti. Prep. Dry leaves, 1 part; add 
 tiuflicient water to yield 4 parts of product. 
 
 Hysteric Water ; Aqua hysterica. Com- 
 pound of spirit of bryony, omitting the 
 bryony. 
 
 Juniper Water; Aqua baccjE Junipebi 
 (P. Cod), L. Berries, bruised, 3 lbs. 
 
 Lavender Water; Aqua latendul* (P. 
 Cod.), L. Flowering tops, 3 lbs. 
 
 Lemon-peel Water; Aqua limonis (E., 
 1817). Fresh lemou peel, 2 lbs. ; water, q. s. ; 
 distil 10 lbs. 
 
 Lettuce Water ; Aqua lactucs; (P. 
 Cod.), L. Fresh lettuces, bruised, 12 lbs. 
 
 LiME-TEEE-PLOWEB WaTEE ; AQUA TILLI^I. 
 
 From lime flowers, as melilot water. 
 
 Lily Wateb ; Aqua liliobum conval- 
 LIUM (Ph. 'Bruns.). Flowers of lily of the 
 valley, 1 lb. ; water, 4 lbs. ; distil 2 lbs. 
 
 Melilot Watee; Aqua mellioti (P. Cod.), 
 L. Dried flower, 3 lbs. 
 
 Mint Water, Spearmint w. ; Aqua men- 
 th;e tieidis (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D). L. 
 1. Diiecl herb, 2 lbs. ; or fresh herb, 4 lbs. ; or 
 essential oil, 2 fl. dr.— 2. (B. V.) English oil 
 of spearmint, IJ dr.; water, 1^ gall. ; distil 
 1 gall. 
 
 Myrtle-ploweb Wateb ; Aqua myeti. 
 Myrtle flowers,- 3 lbs. ; water, q. s. ; distil 1 
 gall. 
 
 Opium Wateb ; Aqua opii (Ph. G). 
 Opium, sliced and dried, 1 oz. Put into a glass 
 relort with 10 oz. of water, and distil 5 oz. 
 
 Obanoe-ploweb Water; Aqua aubantii 
 
 FLOEIS (B. P., Ph. L.), A. PLORUM AURANTII, 
 
 L. " Water distilled from the flowers of Citrus 
 Bigaradia, Kisso, and Citrus Aurantium, 
 
 D. C." (Ph. L.) Orange flowers, 10 lbs.; 
 proof spirit, 7 fl. oz. (Ph. L. 1836.) 
 
 Oeange-peel Water ; Aqua coeticis 
 AURANTII (L. 1746). Kind of oranges. 5 oz. 
 
 ORiaANUM Water; Aqua oeioani (P. 
 Cod.), L. Dried flowers, 3 lbs. 
 
 Peach Water; Aqua peesio2e (P. Cod.), 
 L. Fresh leaves, chopped small, 12 lbs. ; as 
 oheeey-laueel water. 
 
 Peaoh-lbap Water; Aqua peesicb (P. 
 Cod.). Fresh peach loaves, cut small, 2 lbs. ; 
 water, 4 lbs. Distil gently 3 lbs. 
 
 Paesley-seed Wateb ; Aqua peteoselini 
 (P. Cod.). Prom parsley seed, as angelica 
 water. 
 
 Pennyeoyal Wateb ; Aqua puleoii (Ph. 
 L. & E.), Aqua menth^ pulbgii (Ph. D.), 
 L. As Mint wateb (above). 
 
 Peppermint Water ; Aqua Mentha! pi- 
 peeit^ (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), L. As mint 
 watee (above). 
 
 Pimento Water; Aqua pimento (B. P., 
 Ph. L., E., & D.). L. 1. Pimento, bruised, 1 
 lb.; or oil, 2 fl. dr.— 2. (B. P.) Pimento, 
 bruised, 1 ; water, 23, nearly ; distil one half. 
 
 Plantain-leaf Water ; Aqua planta- 
 GiNis (P. Cod.). From fresh plantain leaves, 
 as lettuce water. 
 
 Raspbeeey Watee. Fresh raspberries, 
 6 lbs. 
 
 Red-ant Watee ; Aqua fobmicaeum. 
 Distilled from red ants with water, q. s. 
 
 Rhodium Wateb ; Aqua ehodii. Rho- 
 dium wood, 1 part ; water, 8 ; macerate, and 
 distil 4 parts. 
 
 RosEMABY Wateb ; Aqua eosmabini. 
 Aqua anthos. Rosemary, in flower, 1 lb. ; 
 infuse 24 hours; distil 1 gall. 
 
 Rose Wateb ; AQUABOSiE (B. P., Ph. L., E., 
 & D.), L. Damask or hundred-leaved rose, 10 
 lbs. (Ph. L. & E.).— Otto 40 drops. (Ph. D.) 
 — Fresh cabbage-rose petals, 1 ; water, 2 ; 
 distil 1 (B. P.). 
 
 Rue Watee; Aqua TiVTM. Fresh rue, 
 1 lb.; macerate 24 hours; distil 1 gall. 
 
 Sage Wateb; Aqua SALViiE (P. Cod.), L. 
 As Lavender wateb {above). 
 
 Sassafras Watee ; Aqua ligni sassafbas 
 (P. Cod.), L. Sassafras chips, 3 lbs. 
 
 Sassafbas Wateb; Aqua sassapeas (P. 
 Cod.). From sassafras, as melilot water. 
 
 Scuevy-grass Wateb ; Aqua cochleaei^ 
 (P. Cod.). Fresh scurvy grass, 8 lbs. 
 
 Speaemint Wateb. See Mint water. 
 
 Spirituous Watees. Many of the distilled 
 spirits were formerly termed waters. 
 
 Spruce Fib Wateb; Aqua abirtis (P. 
 Cod.). Bruised buds of spruce fir, 2 lbs. 
 
 Stinking Goose-foot Watee; Aqua 
 CHENOPODII VALTAEIiE. Stinking goose-foot, 
 1 lb. ; water, 6 lbs. ; distil 3 lbs. ; 1 to 2 oz. in 
 hysteria. 
 
 Steawbeeby Wateb ; Aqua feagari.e 
 Strawberries, 3 lbs. ; water, q. s. ; distil 3 lbs. 
 
 Tansy Water; Aqua tanaceti (P. Cod.), 
 L. Flowering tops, 6 lbs. 
 
WATERS (EYE) 
 
 1745 
 
 TllTMK WaTKB ; AQUA THTMI (P. Cod.), L. 
 At the \nit, 
 
 VAiKHiAif Watbe ; Aqua talebian^s, A. 
 BADicia y. (P. Cod.), L. Kjut bruised, 
 3)b9. 
 
 Vanilla Watbb j Aqua vanills, L. Va- 
 nilla, coarsely powdered, 1 lb. ; salt, 5 lbs. ; 
 water 2i galls. ; macerate for 24 huurn in a 
 covered vessel, then distil 1 gall. 
 
 Violet Watkh j Aqua vioLjE. Violets, 1 
 part; water, i; after 6 hours distil 2 parts. 
 
 WOBMWOOD WaTEB ; AQUA AB3INTUII ( P. 
 Cod.). Wormwood tops, 4 lbs. 
 
 Uses, ifo. Uistilled wnters are mostly em- 
 ployed as vehicles or perfumes. A few, as 
 bitter-almond, clierry-laurel, and peach water, 
 are poisonous in doses larger than a few drops. 
 The dose of the aromatic or carminative 
 waters, as those of dill, caraway, peppermint, 
 pennyroyal, &c., is a wine-glassful, ad libitum. 
 Concluding Remarks. In the preparation of 
 distilled WHiurs lor medical purposes the 
 utmost care should be taken to prevent con- 
 tamination from contact with either copper, 
 lead, or zinc, since these metals are gradually 
 oxidised and dissolved by them. In preparing 
 them from the essential oils, silica, in impal- 
 pable powder, is the best substance that can 
 be employed to promote the divis'on and dill'U' 
 sion of the oil, as directed in the Pli. L, Mag- 
 nesia and sugar, formerly used for the purpose; 
 are objectionable ; &^ the first not only decom- 
 poses a portion of the oil, but tlie water is apt 
 to dissolve a little of it, and is hence rendered 
 unlit to be used as a solvent for metallic salts, 
 more especially for corrosive, sublimate and 
 nitrate of silver ; wliilit the other causes the 
 water to fi-rmiut and acetify. 
 
 In the distillation of waters intended for 
 perfumery the utmost care is requisite to 
 produce a hiffhly fragrant article. The still 
 should be furnished with a high and narrow 
 neck, and the heat of steam, or a salt-watt'r 
 bath, should alone be employed. The first 2, 
 or 8 fl. oz. of the runnings should be rejected, 
 except when spirit is used, and the remainder 
 collected until the proper quantity be ob- 
 tained, when the whole product should be 
 mixed together, as distilled waters pro- 
 gressively decrease in strength the longer the 
 process is continued. When a very superior 
 article is desired, the waters may be re- 
 distilled by a gentle heat, the first two thirds 
 only being preserved. The herbaceous odour 
 of recently distilled waters is removed by 
 keeping them for some months, loosely covered 
 in a cold cellar. 
 
 When distilled waters have been carefully 
 prepared, so that none of the liquor in the 
 ■till has 'spirted' over into the condensing 
 worm, they keep well, and are not liable to 
 change ; but when the reverse is the case, they 
 frequently become ropy and viscid. The best 
 remedy for this is to redistil them. Watere 
 which have luquired a burnt smell in the 
 ' stilling' lose it by freezing. Distilled waters 
 TOL. II 
 
 may be prevented from turning sour by adding 
 a little calcined magnesia to them, and those 
 which have begun to spoil maybe recovered by 
 adding 1 gr. each of borax and alum to the 
 p lit. The doctoring is not, however, to be 
 recommended, and should never be adopted 
 for those used in medicine. A drop of solution 
 of terchloride of gold added to these waters 
 shows whether they contain any uncombined 
 essential oil, by loriniuK, in that case, a fine 
 metallic film on the surface. After distilled 
 waters have acquired their full odour, tliey 
 should be carefully preserved in well-stopped 
 bottles. Such houses keep a separate still for 
 each of the more delicate perfumed waters, as 
 it is extremely difficult to remove any odour 
 that adheres to the body of the siill and worm. 
 The addition of the small quantity of spirit 
 ordered in the Pli. E. and Ph. L. 1«36, in the 
 preparation of thfir watnr.-j, in no way tends 
 to promote their preservation. 
 
 In general, the druggist draws off 2 galls., or 
 more, of water from the quantities of the 
 herbs, barks, .'ieeds, or flowers, ordered in the 
 Pharmacopceias ; hence the inferior quality of 
 the waters of tlio shops. Thev do, however, 
 very well for vehicles. Thr peifumers, on the 
 contrary, use an excess of flowers, or at least 
 reserve only the first and stronger portion of 
 the water that distils over, the remainder 
 being collected and used for a second distil- 
 lation of fresh flowers. 
 
 The most beautiful distilled waters are those 
 prepared in the south of Prance, and which 
 are imported into England under the French 
 names. Thus eau de rose, e^u de fleurs 
 d'oranges, &c., are immensely superior to the 
 best English rose or orange-flower water, &c. 
 The water that distils over in the preparation 
 of the essential oils is usually of the strongest 
 and finest class. See Essence, Oils (Vola- 
 tile), Spirits (Perfumed), Vegetables, &c. 
 
 WATERS (Eye). Sj/n. Collyeia, L. Prep. ^ 
 1. From distilled vinegar, 1 fl. oz. ; distilled 
 water ^ pint. Haifa fl. oz. of rectified spirit, 
 or 1 fl. oz. of brandy, is often added. In simple 
 chronic ophthalmia, blear eyes, &c., also to re- 
 move particles of lime from the t^yes. 
 
 2. Sugar of lead, 10 gr. ; pure vinegar, i 
 teaspoonf ul ; distilled water, i pint. In oph- 
 thalmia, as soon as active inflammation ceases ; 
 also as the last. 
 
 3. Wine of opium, 2 fl. dr. ; sulphate of 
 zinc, 20 gr. ; distilled watc r, \ pint. Astrin- 
 gent and anodyne ; in painful ophthalmia and 
 extreme irritability. 
 
 4. Opium, 15 gr.; boiling water, 8 fl. oz. ; 
 when cold, add of solution of acetate of ammo- 
 nia, 2i fl. oz., and filter. As the list. 
 
 5. Sulphate of zinc, 20 gr. ; distilled water, 
 \ pint ; dissolve. An excellent astringent water 
 in chronic ophthalmia, weak and irritable 
 eyes, &c. 
 
 6. Sulphate of copper, 10 gr. ; camphor 
 mixture (julep), i pint; Dissolve. In the 
 purulent ophthalmia of iufaiits. 
 
 " 110 
 
16 
 
 WATEES (MINERAL) 
 
 S to 
 
 ^ .5 
 
 I 2 
 
 •o .a 
 
 5" a 
 
 a 'S 
 
 ^ o 
 o 
 
 Hi 
 
 n 
 -I 
 
 i 
 
 Bergman. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 Klaproth. 
 Hasaenlratz. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 III 
 
 Bergman. 
 
 Parkes&Brande. 
 
 Carrick. 
 
 Pearson. 
 
 PhUlips. 
 
 Saunders. 
 
 Ditto. 
 Yanquelin. 
 Schmeisser. 
 Lam be. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 d 
 
 i: 
 
 ..s3 
 
 •S2 S £ 
 
 JS — .« 
 
 ii 
 
 
 c-86 
 
 73-8 
 9.29 
 
 0DU3 OOCO OCAOCiO 
 
 U3 01 
 OS 0*SD 
 
 Cold 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 165° 
 Cold 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 ditlo 
 ditto 
 74° 
 82° 
 116° 
 Cold 
 120° 
 
 P 
 Cold 
 ditto 
 ditto 
 
 ditlo 
 ditto 
 143° 
 Cold 
 
 1 
 
 . . .«ua . 
 
 : : :co : 
 
 . .3 
 
 : :o 
 
 1 : : IS • ;§ 1 • 1 
 
 
 II 
 
 06 
 
 06 
 
 a trace 
 
 2^6 
 
 00 
 
 O O.H 
 
 6"03 
 a trace 
 ditto 
 
 a trace 
 0-8 
 
 . . .tc 
 : : :o 
 
 Chloride 
 of cal- 
 cium in 
 grains. 
 
 :.:.:. 
 
 1 M 
 
 •:••;:•;§:; 
 
 la . . . 
 
 Chloride 
 
 of mag- 
 nesium 
 
 ill 
 grains. 
 
 
 0-03 
 075 
 
 w uaio . 
 
 ^ :,ii : : : : :i,^ : 
 
 i: • • = 
 
 Chloride 
 
 of 
 
 sodium 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 
 °3" 
 
 . >no»M .loinua 
 :oo6m :6^5*w^ 
 
 t- ^ ."n in 
 
 t^ CO 
 
 Sulphate 
 
 of 
 calcium 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 .to . . . 
 
 
 in •* i-< o 04 3s ^ Ita-^co 
 
 . . .f-i 
 
 Sulphate 
 ot mag- 
 nesium 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 ■IS : 1 : : 
 
 : <D I 
 
 |s • = ••••& -^ 
 
 
 Sulphate 
 
 of 
 sodium 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 . . ,1*9 • ■ 
 
 : : :do : ; 
 
 ''^'■ 
 
 
 . . .in 
 
 Car- 
 bonate of 
 calcium 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 ininio lo 
 
 i M 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-5 
 1-8 
 0-8 
 a trace 
 ditto 
 0-3 
 1- 
 
 
 Car- 
 bonate of 
 
 sium in 
 grains. 
 
 to .dm 
 
 
 U3 U3 . . 
 
 e* :::::: :o : : 
 
 t^ . . . 
 
 o : : : 
 
 Car- 
 bonate ol 
 sodium 
 
 in 
 grains. 
 
 .in _ _ . 
 
 ■^ if^iiso : 
 
 . U3 . 
 
 : 6 : 
 
 in(N . . . 
 
 : : ; : : :ot<n : : : 
 
 ::<?*: 
 
 III 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 uncertain 
 
 8-54? 
 a trace 
 
 COM m.n 
 
 Carbonic 
 anhy. 
 
 dridein 
 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 b-winiAOet 
 ^oi^ com 
 
 inc« 
 
 S-5 
 
 a trace 
 ditto 
 
 »^6 1 : 
 
 Ill 
 
 
 in : ; 
 
 o • • 
 
 :;:«:::: :•*« 
 * • •© OO 
 
 ooin : : 
 OO • ■ 
 
 WATERS. 
 
 CARBONATED. 
 
 Seltzer .... 
 Pyrmont, 
 
 Spa 
 
 Carlsbad .... 
 Pouges .... 
 Saint Parize . 
 
 CHALTBBATE. 
 
 Tunbridge 
 
 Chelteuham Chalybeate 
 Brighton. . . • 
 
 
 SULPHUROUS. 
 
 Harrogate 
 
 Moffat .... 
 
 iix-la-Chapelle 
 
 C b eltenham S ul ph . Spring 
 
 SALINE. 
 
 Scidlitz . 
 
 Clielteiiham Pure Saline 
 
 Bristol . 
 
 Buxton . 
 
 Batli 
 
 Scarborough 
 
 Bari^es . 
 
 Plomoiferea 
 
 Kilburn . . 
 
 Leamington IVew Biith 
 
 Leamington Old Bath 
 
WATERS (MINERAL) 
 
 
 *«J3»PS 
 
 00 3* Xi -^ O -O 0» (» 
 
 ■ -^ •* to XI « O "? -■ 
 ~ - - - -a S = ,- 
 
 
 • 3 00 
 
 5o6> : 
 
 o = 1 r; 
 
 '2)ni(3tpt9^ 
 
 •ziiiijaqO 
 
 'Snudg 
 
 ')Uouii<Cj 
 
 
 :o» I ^ o 
 
 3 e« 
 
 O -f <D V«0 O to 
 
 : : c >n to o o I • « u3 
 
 O r-t f^ O O O OT 
 
 0672 
 8631 
 1135 
 
 0202 
 0173 
 
 J I: 
 
 
 o«a ^00 
 
 
 66A6. 
 
 CO «D'-4 r-i r-< A U O U? QO 
 
 '^ 00 oo>^ou3odi 
 
 i^ i 
 
 17-t7 
 
 •«niinj 
 
 
 una itt 
 
 • 10 go • ;C 
 
 IS g !S 
 5 in .10 ,—• . 
 
 00 n o 00 A 
 »» coffin 
 lo 55 CT 00 : 
 
 ib o c m di 01 o 
 
 
 3 S 
 
 to g 
 
 •uazija 
 'qauuziwj^ 
 
 ua _n~ OS 
 6rH6o 
 
 r~lr~'r« » 
 
 
 OdO QOCN o» _ vi 
 
 :^ 00 EC ^ -^ ! '9^ 
 
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1748 
 
 WATERS (MINEBAL) 
 
 7. Camphor julep, 5 fl. oz. ; solution of ace- 
 tate of ammonia and rose water, of each 2i fl. 
 oz. ; mix. For weak or swollen eyes, particu- 
 larly after ophthalmia. 
 
 8. Chloride of barium, 30 gr. ; distilled 
 water, ^ pint. In the ophthalmia of scrofulous 
 and syphylitic habits. 
 
 9. (Bate's.) From blue vitriol, 15 gr. ; 
 camphor, 4 gr. ; hot water, J pint ; agitate in 
 a corked bottle, and, when cold, make it up 
 to 4 pints, and filter. In purulent ophthalmia 
 and blear eyes. 
 
 10. (Goulard's.) Prom solution of diacetate 
 of lead, 16 drops; distilled water, i pint; 
 mix. As No. 2. 
 
 11. (Krimer.) Hydrochloric acid, 20 drops ; 
 mucilage, 1 dr. j water, 2 fl. oz. To remove 
 particles of iron or lime from the eye. 
 
 12. (Marshall's ' ete-deop8.') Nitrate of 
 silver, 2 gr. ; dilute nitric acid, 2 drops ; pure 
 soft or distilled water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolve ; add 
 powdered gum, 15 gr. ; agitate until dissolved, 
 and the next day decant the clear portion. 
 
 13. (P. Cod.) Extract of opium, 4 gr. ; 
 rose water, 1 fl. oz. ; dissolved. In painful 
 ophthalmia. 
 
 WATERS (Mine'ral). St/n. Saitne 
 
 WATEBS ; AQUa; MINERALES, L. Our Space 
 will not permit a description of these individu- 
 ally. The tables given on pages 1746-7, ex- 
 hibiting their composition, will, however, 
 enable the reader, with a little attention, to 
 produce artificial waters more closely re- 
 sembling the natural ones than can be done 
 by adopting any of the numerous formulie 
 published for the purpose. The 'aerated 
 waters ' are charged with 5 or 6 times their 
 volume of carbonic acid gas, by means of the 
 apparatus employed by the soda-water manu- 
 facturers. On the small scale the gas is often 
 produced by the reaction of the ingredients 
 on each other, in which case, on the intro- 
 duction of the latter, the bottle must be in- 
 stantly closed and inverted. Distilled water, 
 or filtered rain water, should alone be em- 
 ployed in their composition ; and for the clialy- 
 beated and sulphuretted waters it should be 
 first boiled, and allowed to cool out of contact 
 with the air. 
 
 In addition to the tables it may be re- 
 marked that traces of iodine have been found 
 in the water of Cheltenham (old well), traces 
 of bromine in the water of E^isom, and traces 
 of both bromine and iodine in that of 
 iLeamington (royal pump). Manganese has 
 been found in the waters of Tunbiidge, Carls- 
 bad, Spa, Pyrmont, Marienbad, Saidschiits, &c. 
 ■Traces of phosphoric and fluoric acid have 
 also been found in some mineral waters. It is 
 the opinion of many high authorities that the 
 medicinal virtues of these waters depend more 
 on the minute quantities of the above sub- 
 stances, and the high state of dilution in 
 which they are held, than on their 'more abun- 
 dant saline ingredients. 
 
 WATER (Perfumed'). -Syn. AQUiE ODO- 
 
 BiFEBS, L. The simple distilled waters of the 
 peifumer have been already noticed (see page 
 1745). They may be prepared from any 
 substances which imparts its fragrance to water 
 by distillation. The compound waters (eaux) 
 employed as perfumes consist of very pure 
 rectified spirit, holding in solution essential 
 oils, or other odorous matter, and resemble the 
 esprits, essences, and spirits, before noticed. 
 They differ from extraits in being mostly 
 colourless, or nearly so, and in being generally 
 prepared by distillation, or by the addition of 
 the pure essential oils or essences to carefully 
 rectified and perfectly scentless spirit ; whereas 
 the extraits are mostly and preferably pre- 
 pared by macerating the flowers, &c., in the 
 spirit, or by digesting the spirit with the oils, 
 in the manner noticed under Sfibits (Per- 
 fumed). Extraits are preferred to eaux and 
 esprits as the basis of good perfumery, where 
 the colour is not objectionable. 
 
 The following are a few additional formulae 
 and remarks ; — 
 
 Anoel Wateb, Poetu&al w. From orange- 
 flower and rose water, of each 1 pint ; myrtle 
 water, i pint; essence of ambergris, i fl. oz. ; 
 essence of musk, i fl. oz.; shake them well 
 together for some hours, then filter the mix- 
 ture through paper. 
 
 Eau d'Ange, Fr. ; Aqtia mteti, L. From 
 myrtle flowers, 3i lbs. ; water, 2 galls. ; distil 
 a gallon. A pleasant perfume. 
 
 Eau d'Ange BonilLEE, Fr. Prom rose 
 water and orange-flower water, of each 3 
 pints; benzoin, ^ lb. ; storax, ^Ib. ; cinnamon, 
 1 oz. ; cloves, J oz. ; 3 fresh-emptied musk 
 bags ; digest in a securely covered vessel, at 
 nearly the boiling heat, for 2 hours, then 
 allow it to cool ; strain off the clear, press 
 the remainder, and filter for use. Very Ira- 
 grant. 
 
 Eau u'AiTffE distill^e, Fr. From ben- 
 zoin, 4 oz. ; storax, 2 oz. ; cloves, i oz. ; cala- 
 mus and cinnamon, of each i oz.; coriander 
 seeds, 1 dr. (all bruised) ; water, 3 quarts ; 
 distil 2 quarts. Eau d'Ange distillee et mus- 
 quee is made by adding a little essence of 
 musk to the distilled product. Both are 
 highly fragrant. 
 
 Eau de Latande, Latandee Wateb. See 
 Spirits (Perfumed). 
 
 Eau de Naphbe, Eau ie Naphe, Fr.; 
 Aqua savsx, L. This article is distilled in 
 Languedoc from the leaves of the bigarade, or 
 bitter-orange tree, but the preparation sold in 
 England under this name is often prepared as 
 follows : — Orange flowers, 7 lbs. ; fresh yellow 
 peel of the bigarade or Seville orange, i lb. ; 
 water, 2 galls. ; macerate 24 hours, and distil 
 1 gall. In many cases ordinary orange-flower 
 water is sold for eau de naphe. 
 
 Rose Water. From otto of roses, 3 dr. ; 
 rectified spirit (warm), 1 pint; dissolve, add 
 of hot water, 10 galls. ; mix in a 12-gallon 
 carboy, cork, and well agitate the whole until 
 quite cold. This makes the ordinary rose 
 
WATERBRASH— WATER-CLOSET 
 
 1749 
 
 wnterof the iliopi, nnd ia really excellent, but 
 it is better for distillation. See Watbks 
 (Diitilled). 
 
 UNPABALLKtED WaTBB ; .EaU IlfCOMPAHA- 
 BLB, Fr, From oil of lemon, 4 dr. ; oil of 
 bergamot, 2i dr. ; oil of cedrat, 2 dr. ; rec- 
 tified spirit, 34 pints ; Hungary water, i pint; 
 mix, and distil all but 9 oz. (Gnibourt.) 
 
 SCFPLBHENTABT TaBLB OP MiNEKAL 
 
 Watebs. 
 
 ApOLLINAEIS BEUUBlf. 
 
 Carbonate of soda 
 „ ofmagneBia, 
 
 „ of lime 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 Siilpliate of soda 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 Alumina . . 
 
 Silica . , 
 
 9'65 grains. 
 
 8-39 „ 
 
 0-45 „ 
 
 3-57 „ 
 
 2-30 „ 
 
 ■15 „ 
 
 006 „ 
 
 }" 
 
 19-59 
 Carbonic acid . . 47'04 
 
 The above are the contents of 16 oz. Temp. 
 Fahr. 70°. (BiSH.) 
 
 Basbn-Basen. 
 
 In 16 oz. 
 
 Chloride of sodium . 
 
 . 16-520 gr 
 
 Bicarbonate of lime . 
 
 . 1-273 „ 
 
 Bicarbiinate of magnesia 
 
 . 042 „ 
 
 Bi('arlionate of protoxide 
 
 of iron. 0-087 „ 
 
 Bicarbonate of protoxide 
 
 of man- 
 
 ganese . 
 
 . traces 
 
 Bicarbonate of ammonia 
 
 . 0-050 „ 
 
 Sulphate uf lime 
 
 . 1-556 „ 
 
 Sulphate of potash . 
 
 . 0017 „ 
 
 Phosphate of lime . 
 
 . 0-021 „ 
 
 Arseniate of iron 
 
 . traces 
 
 Chloride of magnesium 
 
 . 0-097 „ 
 
 Chloride of potassium 
 
 . 1-258 „ 
 
 Bromide of sodium . 
 
 . traces 
 
 Silica 
 
 . 0-914 „ 
 
 Alumina . 
 
 . 0008 „ 
 
 Mtrates . 
 
 . truces 
 
 
 22093 gr. 
 
 Free carbonic acid 
 
 . 0-299 ,. 
 
 
 (BlTNSEN.) 
 
 Feiedbichshall. 
 
 In 16 oz. 
 
 Sulphate of soda 
 
 . 46-51 gr. 
 
 Sulphate of mHKneeia 
 
 . 89-55 „ 
 
 Chloride of sudium . 
 
 . . 61 10 „ 
 
 Chloride of magnesium 
 
 . 30-25 „ 
 
 Bromide of magnesium 
 
 .. 37 „ 
 
 Sulphate of potash . 
 
 . . 1-53 „ 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 . 10-84 „ 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 . 0-11 „ 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 
 . , 1-16 „ 
 
 SiUca 
 
 . 0-33 „ 
 
 
 190-25 gr. 
 
 Carbonic acid , . 
 
 , 5-32 c. i. 
 
 
 (LlEBIO.) 
 
 ToEPLiTz. In 16 oz. Temp., 
 Sulpliate of potash . 
 
 Sulphate of soda . 
 Carbonate of soda . 
 Phosphate of soda . 
 Ploride of siliciura . 
 Chloride of sodium . 
 Carbonate of lime , 
 Carbonate of strontia 
 Carbonate of magnesia . 
 Carbonate of protoxide of iron 
 Carbonate of protoxide of man- 
 ganese .... 
 Sulphate of alumina 
 
 Silica 
 
 Crenic acid .... 
 
 14° Fahr. 
 0-098 gi. 
 0-290 „ 
 2-635 „ 
 0-014 „ 
 0-351 „ 
 0-433 „ 
 330 „ 
 0-027 „ 
 088 „ 
 0019 „ 
 
 0-021 „ 
 
 0-020 „ 
 
 0-U3 „ 
 
 0-034 „ 
 
 4-804 
 (WoiP.) 
 ViCHT (Grand Grille). 
 Temp. 106° Fahr. In a litre. 
 Carbonic acid .... 0908 
 Bicarbonate of soda . . . 4-883 
 Bicarbonate of potash . , 0352 
 
 Bicarbonate of magnesia . . 0303 
 Bicarbonate of strontia . . 0003 
 Bicarbonate of lime . . . 0-434 
 Bicarbonate of protoxide of iron . 0'004 
 Bicarbonate of protoxide of mau- 
 
 ganese a trace 
 
 Sulphate of soda . . . 0-291 
 
 Phosphate of soda . . . 130 
 Arseniate of soda . . . 0002 
 
 Borate of soda . . , .a trace 
 Chloride of sodium . . . 0-534 
 
 Silica 0070 
 
 Organic matter, bituminous . a trace 
 
 grammes 7-914 
 WoODHAlL (Lancashire). 
 
 Iodine and bromine, with chlorides of caU 
 cium, magnesium, potassium ; more than ^ 
 grain of bromide of sodium and i grain of 
 iodine of sodium. 
 
 190 grains in 20 oz. Strongly impregnated 
 with carbonic acid. 
 
 WATERBEASH. See Pyeosis. 
 
 WATER-CLOSET. There are a number cf 
 conditions necessary to be observed in the 
 construction and arrangement of the water- 
 closet if we wish to prevent its becoming a 
 nuisance and a source of danger to the health 
 of the Inmates of a dwelling-house. 1. As 
 regards situation there can be no doubt that, 
 upon strict sanitary principles, the closet, 
 instead of forming part of the house, should, 
 whilst within easy access to it, be entirely 
 detached. Owing to various causes, however, 
 this isolation ia frequently impossible. 
 
 Under such circumstances the closet, whilst 
 forming part of the dwelling, should be built 
 out from it, so as to have as little connection 
 as possible with the rooms, corridors, &c. To 
 still further accomplish this end the approach 
 to the closet should be through a small veati- 
 
1750 
 
 WATER-CLOSET 
 
 bule or passage connecting the closet with the 
 corridor, and opening into the latter by means 
 of a door. Wliere there are more than one 
 closet, they should be built upon the plan just 
 proposed, and one over the other. Tlie base- 
 ment of a house is a particularly objectionable 
 locality for a water-closet, since the warm 
 house acts as an aspirator, and thus draws 
 any fetid and poisonous gases there may 
 be in the closet into the house, and causes 
 them to be diffused throughout it. The 
 water-closet should, therefore, always be 
 placed in the higher parts of a building. 
 2. As regards construction, &c., it would be 
 impossible for us to attempt to canvass the 
 merits or the reverse of the numerous designs, 
 patents, &e., that relate to this part of our 
 subject. We shall indicate, therefore, onl}' 
 the more important desiderata, which are — 
 That the pan should be nearly cone-shaped, 
 and not round, like a half-circle. It is mostly 
 made of earthenware, sometimes of metal and 
 occasionally of enamelled iron. The prefer- 
 able substance is earthenware : the pan should 
 always be ventilated, and there should like- 
 wise be a sufficient flow and force of water to 
 sweep everj'thing out of it, and thoroughly 
 cleanse it. 
 
 The cistern supplying the closet should be 
 kept solely for this purpose, and not, as is 
 sometimes the case, be taken from the house 
 cistern, as this latter practice may lead to the 
 contamination of the drinking water, owing to 
 the gases rising from the closet. 
 
 The bottom of the pan is attached to the 
 soil-pipe which discharges into the drain. The 
 soil-pipe is mostly trapped by means of a 
 syphon valve; and it is important that the 
 points of junction between tiie pipe and the 
 syphon valve and the pipe and the main drain 
 should be thoroughly secure and air-tight. 
 Furthermore it is imperative, if we wish to 
 prevent an influx into the pan of the gases 
 and foul air which rise through the syphon as 
 the water runs off, that the soil-pipe should 
 be ventilated. This may be effected by at- 
 taching a small pipe having connection with 
 the outer air to the discharge- pipe just below 
 the syphon, and carrying it up to the top of 
 the house. Another advantage arising from 
 ventilating the soil-pipe, besides the pre- 
 vention of the escape of sewer-gas into the 
 house, is that there is no danger of its cor- 
 rosion (if it be of lead) by the action of the 
 pent-up sulphuretted vapours. The seat, which 
 is mostly of wood, should be so arranged as to 
 be easily movable, and thus allow of easy 
 inspection of the different parts should they 
 get out of order. 
 
 The seat as well as the closet should always 
 be ventilated. A good and simple method for 
 the ventilation of the latter is to carry a tube 
 from the top of the closet into the outer air. 
 " If the closet is in a bad situation it should 
 be heated by a gas jet."' 
 1 Farkes. 
 
 The lid attached to the seat should have a 
 hole cut in it, so as to allow of the handle 
 being pulled np when the pan is covered, 
 which, strange to say, in perhaps ninety-nine 
 cases out of every hundred it never is, after 
 being used. Of course, in the absence of the 
 ventilation of the pan and soil-pipe, the result 
 of keeping the seat covered over would only 
 be to fill the pan with malodorous and more or 
 less dangerous gases, which would escape into 
 the closet when the lid was again raised. 
 
 3. Precautions. — The use of unduly large 
 pieces of paper, such as cause stoppage and 
 obstruction in the discharge-pipe, should be 
 particularly avoided. Any defect or impedi- 
 ment in the working of the closet should be 
 remedied at once. As a general rule, servants 
 are very careless in all matters connected with 
 the water-closet; so much so that the masters' 
 of many houses are themselves compelled to 
 exercise supervision over it. 
 
 During very hot weather, or the prevalence 
 of an infectious disease in a dwelling-house or 
 in in the neighbourhood of the house, some 
 disinfectant should be added to the water that 
 supplies the closet, A substance that will 
 very satisfactorily answer this purpose is the 
 commercial sulphate of iron known as green 
 vitriol. A pound of it should be put into the 
 tank when filled with water. 
 
 The same disregard of sanitary obligations 
 so frequently shown in the construction, site, 
 &c., of water-closets is more obvious in the 
 case of privies. The Public Health Act not 
 only renders unlawful the erection or re- 
 building of any dwelling-house without "a 
 sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, or privy 
 and an ash-pit, furnished with proper doors 
 and coverings;" but also requires that, ." If a 
 house withiu the district of a local authority 
 appears to such authority by the report of 
 their surveyor or inspector of nuisances to be 
 without a sufficient water-closet, earth-closet, 
 or privy and ashpit, furnished with proper 
 doors and coverings, the local authority shall, 
 by written notice, require the owner or 
 occupier of the house within a reasonable time 
 therein specified, to provide a sufficient water- 
 closet, earth-closet, or priVy and an ashpit 
 furnished as aforesaid, or either of them, as 
 the case may require." 
 
 Although in many large towns and cities a 
 more or less effectual supervision may be 
 exercised by the sanitary inspector in the 
 above direction, as every one's experience of 
 the usual outdoor privy of a small English 
 country town or village, will suggest to them 
 the extreme toleration prevailing amongst the 
 sanitary authorities in many provincial and 
 rural districts in this particular. Ventilation 
 is as essential for the privy as the water-closet, 
 so also is the thorough trapping of thfe exit- 
 pipe from the pan, as well as the cleansing 
 and flushing of this latter by water directly 
 after it has been used. Yet how rarely do we 
 find not only all, but not even one of these 
 
WATER-COLOUR CAKES— WATERPROOFING 
 
 1751 
 
 conditions fulftlli^d in the arrangement of the 
 ordinary privi j but instead an antrapped, im- 
 movfible pitii (imd in some cases even this is 
 wanting') covered with tilth, and no contrivMnci' 
 of any kind for a constant water sapply. 
 
 No wonder, therefore, that the atmosphere 
 of an ordinary privy should he so foul and 
 noi>ome as it invariably is. 
 
 The tDllowing specitication for a useful de- 
 scription of privy i'* published by Messrs 
 Knight & Co., 90, Fleet Street, London :— 
 
 Specification. — The privy and dusl-hin to 
 be built of 4i-inch brickwork, in well-ground 
 mortar of approved quality. Two rows of 4i 
 and 3-inch bond timber to he built in at back 
 of privy for securing ventilating-shafts. Tne 
 ventilating-shafts to be 7 by 4J inches, in«idi- 
 measurement, of best red deal biiards 1 inch 
 thick, closely put together with strong white 
 lead paint, and well nailed and carefully 
 seamed to the 4i inch and 3 inch bond timber. 
 These shafts to have coats of boiled tar both 
 inside and out. 
 
 The lid of refuse-bin to be of best 1-inch 
 red deal boards, with two strong ledges or 
 battens across them; to be hung with three 
 strong band-hinges to the sides of the venti- 
 lating-shafts, and the making-up piece be- 
 tween the same. A circular orifice to be made 
 in centre of lid, between the battens 10 inchei 
 wide. The lid to have two coats of boiled tar 
 both inside nnd out. A 4i-inch and Sinch 
 frame of red deal to be securely fixed on top of 
 the dust-bin, as n seat for the lid. A lid over 
 the privy seat to be hinged on at the back, 
 with a child's seat over centre of large one. 
 The larger seat to he provided with an 
 earthenwaie circular rim beneath. The enrth- 
 compartment to be without lid, and provided 
 with a pint scoop for each occupaut to throw 
 in a pint of the stored dry earth or dry ashes 
 through the seat into the galvanised iron pail, 
 the contents of which must be scattered over 
 the garden or put in the dust-bin before the 
 pail becomes full. A loose foot-block may be 
 furnished where there are young children.' 
 
 The dust-bin may be placed at side of the 
 privy if required. The floor of dust-bin to he 
 at the ground level, slightly inclined out- 
 wards, and paved with brick. See Sewage, 
 Removal and Disposal op. Dbaiks, 
 Tauks, Cesspools. 
 
 WATEE-CCLOUR CAKES. These are pre- 
 pared from any of the ordinary pigments that 
 work well in water, made into a stitf and 
 perfectly smooth paste with gum water, or 
 isinglass size, or a mixture of the two, and 
 then compressed in polished steel moulds, 
 and dried. See Paintino, and the respective 
 pigments. 
 
 WATfiBCKESS. The Nasturtium officinale, 
 a well-known plant of the natural order 
 Crueifera. It is alterative and antiscorbutic, 
 and was formerly used in medicine, but now 
 
 > Tlie Earth-cloiet ia deiciibed under "Sewage Re- 
 mos al of." 
 
 chiefly as a salad, or a refreshing relish at 
 breakfast. 
 
 VATEK-GAS. By forcing steam through 
 fireclay, or iron retorts filled with red-hot 
 charcoal or coke, the steam is decomposed 
 into a mixture of hydrogen, carbonic oxide, 
 and carbonic anhydride.' 
 
 To this mixture, after it has been purified, 
 the name of ** water-ga.s," owing to the source 
 from whence it has been derived, has beeu 
 given. 
 
 According to some chemists the purified gas 
 (obtained by passing the crude gaseous product 
 sometiuies over lime, sometimes ovt-r crystal- 
 lised carbonate of soda) consists solely ot hy- 
 drogen gas. Langlois' analysis, however, has led 
 to the conclusion that it is a compound of hy- 
 rogen and carbonic oxide gases. Water gas, 
 obtained as above, possoscs no illuminating 
 power. This is imparted to it, by impregnating 
 the gas with the vapour of certain h>drocar- 
 hons, a plan suggested by Jubbard,(>f Brussels, 
 in 1832. Another, but less usual method, ori- 
 ginating with Gengembre and Gillard, is to 
 place oil the burners whicli consume the gas 
 small platinum cylinders. When these become 
 white hot a strong and brilliant light is pro- 
 duced. See 1'lati.num qas. 
 
 WATEK-POX. See (Pox). Chicken-pox. 
 
 WATEKFROOf 'IMO. Cloth is' waterproofed ' 
 as follows : — 
 
 1. Moisten the cloth, on the wrong side, 
 first with a weak sulutiou of isinglass, and, 
 when dry, with an infusion of uuti;alls. 
 
 2. As the last, but substitute a solution of 
 soap for isinglass, and anotlier of alum for 
 galls. 
 
 3. (Hancock's Patent,) By spreading the 
 liquid juice of the caoutchouc tree upon the 
 inner surface of the goods, aud allowing them 
 to dry in the air. Absolutely chimerical. 
 
 4. (Potter's Patent.) The cloth is first 
 imbued on the wrung side with a solution of 
 isinglass, ulurn, and soap, by means ef a 
 brush ; when dry, it is brushed on the same 
 side against the grain, and then gone over 
 with a brush dipped in water. Impervious to 
 water, hut not to air. 
 
 5. (Sievier's Patent.) By applying first a 
 solution of India rubber in oil or turpentine, 
 and afterwards another india rubber varnish, 
 rendered very dry by the use of driers. 
 On this, wool or other material of which the 
 fabric is made, cut into proper lengths, is 
 spread, and the whole passed tlirough a press,, 
 whereby the surface acquires a nap or pile. 
 
 6. A simple method of rendering cloth 
 waterproof, without being airproof, is tO' 
 spread it on any smooth surface, and to rub 
 the wrong side with a lump of bees was 
 (perfectly pure and free from grease), until 
 it presents a light, but even, white or greyish 
 appearance; a hot iron is then to he passed 
 over it, and the cloth being brushed whilst 
 
 ' Possibly a sniall quantity of marsli gas ia also 
 present. — En. 
 
1752 
 
 WATEEPEOOP LIQUID 
 
 warm, the process is complete. When the 
 operation has been skilfully performed, a 
 CHudle may be blown out through the cloth, 
 if coarse, and yet a piece of the same, placed 
 across an inverted hat, may have several 
 glassfuls of water poured into the hollow 
 termed by it, without any of the liquid pass- 
 ing through. Pressure or friction will alone 
 make it do so. " We have shown this to 
 numerous cloth-manufacturers, waterproofers, 
 tailors, and others, several of whom have 
 adopted the method very extensively, and 
 with perfect success. (Cooley.) 
 
 7. About the year 1862 a patent was taken 
 out by Dr Stenhouse for employing paraffin 
 as a means of rendering leather waterproof, 
 . as well as the various textile and felted 
 fabrics; ani in August, 1861, an additional 
 patent wns granted to him for an extension 
 of and improvement on the previous one, 
 which consisted chiefly in combining the 
 paraffin with various proportions of dry- 
 ing oils, it having been found that paraffin 
 alone, especially when applied to fabrics, 
 became to a considerable extent detached 
 from the fibre of the cloth after a short 
 time, owing to its great tendency to crystal- 
 lise. The presence, however, of even a small 
 quantity of drying oil causes the paraf&o to 
 adhere much more firmly to the texture of 
 the cloth, from the oil gradually becoming 
 converted into a tenacious resin by absorption 
 ol oxygen. 
 
 In the application of paraffin for water- 
 proofing purposes it is first melted along with 
 the requisite quantity of drying oil and cast 
 into blocks. This composition can then be 
 applied to fabrics by rubbing them over with 
 a block of it, either cold or gently warmed, 
 or the mixture may be melted and laid on 
 with a brush, the complete impregnation being 
 effected by subsequently passing it between 
 hot rollers. When this paraffin mixture has 
 been applied to cloth such as that employed 
 for blinds or tents, it renders it very repel- 
 lant to water, although still pervi')us to air. 
 
 Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an 
 excellent basis for such articles as capes, tar- 
 paulins, &c., which require to be rendered 
 quite impervious by subsequently coating 
 them with drying oil, the parafiin in a great 
 measure preventing the well-known injurious 
 effect of drying oil on the fibre of the cloth. 
 The paraffin mixture can also be advantage- 
 ously applied to the various kinds of leather. 
 One of the most convenient ways of effecting 
 this is to coat the skins or manufactured 
 articles, such as boots, shoes, harness, pump- 
 buckets, &c., with the melted composition, and 
 then to gently heat the articles until it is en- 
 tirely absorbed. When leather is impregnated 
 with the mixture, it is not only rendered per- 
 fectly waterproof, but also stronger and more 
 durable. The beneficial effects of this process 
 are peculiarly observable in the case of boots 
 and shoes, which it renders very firm without 
 
 destroying their elasticity. It therefore not 
 only makes them exceedingly durable, but 
 possesses an advantage over ordinary dubbing 
 in not interfering with the polish of these ar- 
 ticles, which, on the whole, it rather improves. 
 
 The superiority of paraffin over most other 
 materials for some kiifds of waterproofing 
 consists in its comparative cheapness, in 
 being easily applied, and in not materially 
 altering the colour of fabrics, which in the 
 case of light shades and white cloth is of 
 very considerable importance. 
 
 8. A waterproof packing cloth which does 
 not break may be made by covering the 
 fabric with, the following varnish : — 2 lbs. of 
 soft (potash) soap is dissolved in water and 
 mixed with an aqueous solution of sulphate 
 of iron. The washed and dried soap is dis- 
 solved in 3 lbs. of linseed oil, in which ^ lb. 
 of caoutchouc has been previouslv dissolved. 
 
 WATERPROOF LlftUID. Prep. 1. India 
 rubber, in fragments, 1 oz. ; boiled oil, 1 pint j 
 dissolve by heat, carefully applied, then stir 
 in of hot bailed oil, 1 pint, and remove the 
 vessel from the fire. 
 
 2. Boiled oil, 1 pint ; beeswax and yellow 
 resin, of each 2 oz. ; melt them together. 
 
 3. Salad oil, 1 pint; mutton suet, i lb.; 
 white wax and spermaceti, of each 1 oz. ; as 
 the last. For ' ladies' work.' 
 
 4. Bisulphide of carbon, 2 oz. ; gutta 
 percha, i oz. ; asphaltum, 2 oz. ; brown 
 amber, i oz. ; linseed oil, 1 oz. Mix. Dis- 
 solve the gutta percha in the bisulphide ot 
 carbon, the asphalte and amber in the oil, 
 and mix well. 
 
 Obs. The above are used for boots, shoes, 
 harness, leather straps, leather trunks, &c., 
 applied wa.rm before the fire. 
 
 WAX. Si/n. Beeswax, Yellow w. ; 
 Ceba (Ph. L.), Ceea flava (B. P., Ph. E. 
 & D.), L. The substance which forms the 
 cells of bees ; obtained by melting the comb 
 in water, after the honey has been removed, 
 straining the liquid mass, remelting the 
 defecated portion, and casting it into cakes. 
 
 Pure beeswax has a pleasant ceraceous 
 odour, a pale yellowish-brown colour, and the 
 sp. gr. -960 to -965. It is brittle at 32°, 
 softens and becomes plastic at 88 or 90°, and 
 melts at 154 to 155° Fahr. "It becomes 
 kneadable at about 85°, and its behaviour 
 while worked between finger and thumb is 
 characteristic. A piece the size of a pea 
 being worked in the hand till tough with 
 the warmth, then placed upon the thumb, 
 and forcibly stroked down with the fore- 
 finger, curls up, following the finger, and is 
 marked by it with longitudinal streaks." 
 (B. S. Proctor.) It is very frequently adul- 
 terated with farina, resin, and mutton suet or 
 stearin. Dr Normandy met with a sample 
 containing 23 J of effloresced sulphate of soda. 
 The first may be detected by oil of turpen- 
 tine, which dissolves only the wax, — the 
 ' 'Ciicm. Ceutral.,' 1672, Mo. 29. 
 
WAX 
 
 1758 
 
 second, by iti solnbility in cold alcohol, and 
 by its terebiiithiiiate taste, — the tliird and 
 fourth, even when formiii|f less than 2^ of 
 the wax, may be detected by it affording 
 sebacio acid on distillation. When greasy 
 matter is present in any considerable quan- 
 tity, it may also be detected by the suspected 
 sample having an unctuous feel and a dis- 
 agreeible tiiste. A spurious beeswax met 
 with in the American markets, is descril]ed in 
 ' New Remedies ' for 1877, and is said to have 
 been a very clever imitation externally of the 
 genuine substance, which it closely resembled 
 in appearance, colour, fracture, bitterness, 
 pliability, and odour. Upon analysis it was 
 found to be composed of 60 parts of paraffin 
 and 40 parts of yellow resin covered with a 
 thin coating nf true beeswax. The specific 
 quantity of the counterfeit article was iden- 
 tical with that of muny samples of genuine 
 beeswax. Saline matter may be detected by 
 the loss of weight, when a weighe<l quantity 
 of the wax is boiled in water. Heavy sub- 
 stances, as chalk, plaster of Paris, white lead, 
 oxide of zino, &c., may also be thus sepa- 
 rated, since they subside, owing to their supe- 
 rior gravity, to the bottom of the vessel. Thu 
 rough mealy fracture of pure wax is rendered 
 finer grained, smoother, and duller, by the 
 addition of lard or spermaceti, and becomes 
 sparkling and more granular by the addition 
 of resin. (Proctor.) 
 Wax, Bleached. See Wax, Whitb (below). 
 
 Wax, Cainanba.' The leaves of the Cnr- 
 nanba tree {Oopernicia cerifera), a South 
 American palm, have lately become a very 
 important source for the supply of large 
 quantities of vegetable wax. Carnanba wax 
 is extensively used in the manufacture of 
 candles. Mr Consul Morgan, in a paper laid 
 before Parliament in 1876, on the trade and 
 commerce of Brazil, states " that the expor- 
 tation of this wax is calculated at 871,400 
 kilos ; exceeding in value reis 1,500,000, or 
 £162,500." 
 
 Wax, Etching. See EicniNO GnouND and 
 Varnish. 
 
 Wax, Factl"tloiia. Syn. Cbka flava pac- 
 TITIA, L. A spurious compound, sold by tlie 
 farners' drngpists for veterinary purposes. 
 
 Prep. 1. From yellow resin, 16 lbs. ; hard 
 mutton suet or stearin, 8 lbs. ; palm oil, 2^ 
 lbs.; melted together. 
 
 2. As last, but substituting turmeric, 1 lb., 
 for the palm oil. 
 
 3. B.'st annotta, 6 oz., or q. s. ; water, 1 
 gal. ; boil ; add, of hard mutton suet or 
 stearin, 35 lbs. ; yellow resin, 70 lbs. ; again 
 boil, with constant agitation, until perfectly 
 mixed and of a proper colour, and, as soon as 
 it betiins to thicken, pour it out into basins 
 to cool. When cold, rub each,cake over with 
 a little potato starch. 
 
 ' • Ph. Journal,' vol. vi, Srd leries, p. 7M. 
 
 Wax, Oilder'a. See Gildino. 
 
 Wax, U od'eling. Prep, Take of beeswax, 
 lead plaster, olive oil, and yellow resin, equal 
 parts; whiting, q. s. to form a paste; mix 
 well, and roll it into sticks. Colours may be 
 added at will. 
 
 Wax, Kefined. Crude wax, especially that 
 imparted, is generally loaded with dirt, bees, 
 and other foreign matter. To free it from 
 these substances, it undergoes the operation 
 of 'refining.' This is done by melting ihe 
 wax along with about 4 or 6§ of water in a 
 bright copper or stone-ware boiler, preferably 
 heated by steam, and, after the whole is 
 perfectly liquid, and has boiled for some 
 minutes, withdrawing the heat, and sprink- 
 ling over its surface a little oil of vitriol, in 
 the proportion of about 5 or 6 fl. oz. to every 
 cwt. of wax. This operation should be con- 
 ducted with great care and circnnispeclioii; 
 as, when done carelessly, the n:elted wax 
 froths up, and boils over the siiles of the 
 pan. The acid should also be well scattered 
 over the whole surface. The melted wax is 
 next covered over, and left for some hours to 
 settle, or until it becomes sufficiently cool to 
 be drawn off for • moulding.' It is then very 
 gently skimmed with a hot ladle, baled or 
 decanted into hot tin 'jacks,* and by means 
 of these poured into basins, where it is left 
 to cool. Great care must be taken not to 
 disturb the sediment. When no more clear 
 wax can be drawn off, the remainder in the 
 melting-pan is allowed to coot, and the cake, 
 or ' foot,' as it culled, is taken out, and the 
 impurities (mostly bees) scraped from its 
 under surface. The scraped cake is usually 
 reserved for a second operation ; hut if re- 
 quired, it may be at once reraelted, and 
 strained through canvas into a mould. 
 
 Much of the foreign wax has a pale, dirty 
 colonr, which renders it, no matter however 
 pure, objectionable to the retail purchaser. 
 Such wax undergoes the operation of * colour- 
 ing ' as well as 'refining.' A small quantity 
 of the best roll annotta, cut into slices (i lb., 
 more or less, to wax, 1 cwt.. depending on the 
 paleness of the latter), is put into a clean 
 boiler with about a gallon of water, and 
 boiled for some time, or until it is perfectly 
 dissolved, when a few ladlefnls of the melted 
 wax are added, and the boiling continued 
 until the wax has taken up all the colour, 
 or until the water is mostly evaporated. The 
 portion of wax thus treated has now a deep 
 orange colour, and is added, in quantity as 
 required, to the remainder of the melted 
 wax in the larger boiler until the proper 
 shade of colour is produced when cold ; the 
 whole being well mixed, and a sample of it 
 cooled now and then, to ascertain when 
 CLiough has been added. The copper is next 
 brought to a boil, and treated with oil of 
 vitriol, &c., as before. Some persons add 
 palm oil (bright) to the wax, until it gets 
 sufficient colour, but this plan is objectionable 
 
1754 
 
 WEATHER 
 
 from the quHBtity required for tVie purpose 
 bein^ often so large as to injure the quality 
 of the product ; besides which the colour 
 produced is inferior, and less transparent and 
 permanent than that given by annotta. 
 
 Another method of refining crude wax, and 
 which produces a very bright article, is to 
 melt it in a large earthen or stoneware 
 vessel, heated by steam or a salt-water bath, 
 then to cautiously add to it about 1^ of con- 
 centrated nitric acid, and to continue the 
 boiling until nitrous fumes cease to be 
 evolved, after which the whole is allowed 
 to settle, and is treated as before. 
 
 Obs. The great art in the above process ,is 
 to produce a wax which shall at once be 
 'bright,' or semi-translucent in thin places, 
 and good coloured. The former is best en- 
 sured by allowing the melted mags to settle 
 well, and by carefully skimming and decanting 
 the clear portion without disturbing the sedi- 
 ment. It should not be poured into the 
 moulds too warm, as, in that case, it is, apt 
 to * separate,' and the resulting calies to be 
 ' streaky,' or of different shades of colour. 
 Again, it should be allowed to cool very 
 slowly. When cooled rapidly, especially if a 
 current of air fall upon its surface, it is apt 
 to crack, and to form cakes full of fissures. 
 Some persons, who are very nice about their 
 wax, have the cakes polished with a stiff 
 brush when quite cold and hard. It is 
 absolutely necessary that the 'jacks' or cans, 
 ladles, and skimmers, used in the above pro- 
 cess, be kept pretty hot, as without this 
 precaution the wax cools, and accumulates 
 upon them in such quantity as to render 
 them inconvenient, and often quite useless, 
 without being constantly scraped out. 
 
 Wax, Seal'ing. JPrep. 1. (Red.) — a. Take 
 of shell -lac (very pale), 4 oz. ; cautiously 
 melt it in a bright copper pan over a clear 
 charcoal fire, and when fused, add of Venice 
 turpentine, IJ oz. ; mix, and further add of 
 vermilion, 3 oz. ; remove the pan from the 
 fire , cool a little, weigh it into pieces, and 
 roll them into circular sticks on a warm 
 marble slab by means of a polished wooden 
 block ; or it may be poured into moulds 
 whilst in a state of fusion . Some persons 
 pulish the sticks with a rag until quite cold. 
 — i. From shell-lac, 3 lbs. ; Venice turpen- 
 tine, li lb.; finest cinnabar, 2 lbs.; mix as 
 before Both the above are ' fine.' — c. As the 
 last, but using J less of vermillion. Inferior. 
 — d. Resin, 4 lbs.; shell-lac, 2 lbs.; Venice 
 turpentine and red lead, of each IJ lb. ; as 
 before. Common. 
 
 3. (Black.) — a. From shell-lac, 60 parts ; 
 finest ivory black, reduced to an impalpable 
 powder, 30 parts ; Venice turpentine, 20 parts. 
 Fine. — b. Resin, 6 lbs. ; sbell-lac and Venice 
 turpentine, of each 2 lbs. ; lampblack, q^. s. 
 Inferior. 
 
 3. (GoLD-coiorEED.) By stirring gold- 
 coloured mica spangles or talc, or aurum 
 
 musivum, into the melted resins just before 
 they begin to cool. Fine. 
 
 4. (Makbled.) By mixing 2 or 3 dif- 
 ferent coloured kinds just as they begin to 
 grow solid. 
 
 5. (Soft.) — a. (Red.) Take of beeswax, 
 8 parts ; olive oil, 5 parts ; melt, and add, of 
 Venice turpentine, 15 parts ; red lead, to 
 colour. — b. (Green.) As the last, but substi- 
 tuting powdered verdigris for red lead. Both 
 are used for sealing official documents kept 
 in tin boxes ; also as a cement. 
 
 6. (Bottle wax.) — a. (Black.) From 
 black resin, 6i lbs.; beeswax, i lb.; finely 
 powdered ivory black, IJ lb. ; melted tegether. 
 — 4. (Red.) As the last, but substitute 
 Venetian red or red lead for ivory black. 
 
 Obs. All the above forms for 'fine' wax 
 produce 'superfine' by employing the best 
 qualities of the ingredients ; and ' extra super- 
 fine,' or • scented,* by adding 1^ of balsam 
 of Peru or liquid storax to the ingredients 
 when considerably cooled. The ' variegated ' 
 and ' fancy coloured kinds,' are commonly 
 scented with a little essence of musk or am- 
 bergris, or any of the more fragrant essential 
 oils. The addition of a little camphor, or 
 spirit of wine, makes sealing-wax burn easier. 
 Sealing-wax containing resin, or too much 
 turpentine, runs into thin drops at the flame 
 of a candle. 
 
 Wax, White. %». Bleached wax; Ceea 
 ALBA (B. p.. Ph. L., E., & D.), L. Prep. From 
 pure beeswax, by exposing it in thin fiakes 
 to the action of the snn, wind, and rain, fre- 
 quently changing the surface thus exposed, by 
 remelting it, and reducing it again to thin 
 Hakes. Used in making candles, and in white 
 ointments, pommades, &c., fur the sake of its 
 colour. Block white wax (ceba alba in 
 MASSis) is the above when cast into blocks ; 
 the best foreign is always in this form. Virgin 
 
 wax (OAKE WHITE WAX; OKEA ALBA IN OEMS) 
 
 should be the last made into round fliit cakes ; 
 but this is seldom the case, the mixture sold 
 under the name generally containing from 
 l-3rd to l-2nd its weight of spermaceti. The 
 'white wax' supplied by certain wholesale 
 druggists to their customers is often totally 
 unfit for the purposes to which it is applied. 
 Spermaceti is constantly added to the white 
 wax of commerce, to improve its colour. Mr 
 B. S. Proctor states that wholesale houses of 
 the highest reputation supply an article, as 
 white cake wax, which is in many cases half 
 spermaceti, and in some as much as two thirds 
 spermaceti to one of wax.' 
 
 WEATHER, Effects of, on Health. The 
 ■Medical Press and Circular' says: — "We are 
 in the midst of a severe winter (1878), and as 
 hygiene is the order of the day, we cannot be 
 too particular in impressing upon the public 
 
 1 SeeaTticleaon " Adulterntiou of Wax," and "Sub- 
 stitutes for Wux," iu 'Chemist aiid Druggist,' vol. iv, 
 1863. 
 
WEIGHT 
 
 1755 
 
 certain facts which are too often disregarded. 
 Few are iiwnre of the killing powers of iuteoBe 
 cold and ^eat heat, even in this comparatively 
 temperate climate. Those who have been in 
 the habit, as we have, of watching the returns 
 of the Registrar-General, well know how 
 quickly the death-rate rises during even a 
 short continuance of cold weather. Now that 
 the increase in the mortality affects chiefly the 
 young and the old, as well as those who are 
 either suffering from, or are predisposed to, 
 affections of the chest and throat, indicates the 
 class of people who should be especially careful 
 to protect themselves against the inclemency 
 of the weather. With regard to children, the 
 system of ' hardening ' them, by allowing them 
 to go thinly clad, and exposing them to all 
 sorts of weather, is a delusion from which the 
 minds of some parents are even now not al- 
 together free. It is thought that if their 
 chest is kept warm, there is no need of caring 
 about their aims and legs. But that is a 
 great mistake. In proportion as the upper 
 and lower extremities are well clothed will the 
 birculation be kept up and determined to the 
 surface of those parts, and in proportion to the 
 quickness and equable distribution of the cir- 
 culation will bo the protection against those 
 internal congestions which are but the first 
 stage of the most fatal diseases of infancy and 
 childhood. The samfe observation holds good 
 with respect to grown-up people who are pre- 
 disposed to pulmonary complaints. There is 
 no exaggeration in saying that the mortality 
 from these and other affections would be con- 
 siderably diminislied were people to avoid that 
 ' catching ci Id,' of which they so often and so 
 lightly speak ; and it is a matter of surprise 
 to us that tliis fact, of which most of us are 
 aware, does not lead to more precautions being 
 taken by those who are anxious about either 
 their own health or that of others. To take 
 care that the body is thoroughly warm and 
 well-clothed just before going out in very wet 
 or very cold weather — to keep up the cir- 
 culation and warmth of the body rather by 
 exercise of some kind than by sitting over 
 great fires or in overheated rooms — to be sure 
 that the temperature of the sleeping apart- 
 ments is not ever so many degrees below that 
 of the sitting-room— these are three golden 
 maxims, attention to which would prevent 
 thousands from catching that ' chill ' or ' cold ' 
 to the results of which so many valuable lives 
 have been prematurely sacrificed." 
 
 WEIGHT. The quantity of a body deter- 
 
 mined by means of a balance, and expressed in 
 terms having reference to some known stand- 
 ard ; the measure of the force of gravity, from 
 which the relutive quantity of a body is in- 
 ferred. The relation between the weight and 
 volume of a body, compared to a given stand- 
 ard taken as unity, constitutes its specific 
 gravity. 
 
 For the purpose of weighing, a balance or 
 lever is required, which, when accurately sus- 
 pended in a state of equilibrium, will be 
 affected, in precisely an equal mauner, by like 
 weights applied to its extremities. Hence, 
 the construction of such an instrument is not 
 more difficult than its application is important 
 in chemical and philosophical research. Oert- 
 ling, the most celebrated maker of the che- 
 mical balance, construtts this important in- 
 strument in seven different varietie-', more or 
 less elaborate. The largest of these, with a 
 16-inch beam, will carry 2 lbs. in each pan, and 
 yet turn with xJo^h of a grain. A balance 
 with arms of unequal length or weight will 
 weigh as accurately as another of the same 
 workmanship with equal arms, provided the 
 substance weighed be removed and standard 
 weights placed in the same scale until the 
 equilibrium be agaiu restored, when the 
 weights so employed, being exactly in the 
 same condition as the substance previously 
 occupying the scale, will, of course, indicate 
 its proper weight. A knowledge of this fact 
 is useful, as it enables any one to weigh cor- 
 rectly with unequal scales, or with any sus- 
 pended lever. 
 
 Small weights may be made of thin leaf 
 brass, or, preferably, of platinum foil. Quan- 
 tities below the 100th of a grain may be either 
 estimated by the position of the index, or 
 shown by actually counting rings of wire, the 
 value of which has been previously determined. 
 The readiest way to subdivide small weitthts 
 consists in weighing a certain quantity of very 
 fine wire, and afterwards cutting it into sucli 
 parts, by measure, as are desired ; or the wire 
 may be wrapped close round two pins, and 
 then cut asunder with a knife. By this means 
 it will be divided into a great number of equal 
 lengths, or small ring*.' 
 
 The following tables represent the values of 
 the weights legally employed in this country 
 for the sale of gold, silver, and articles made 
 thereof, as well as platinum,. diamonds, and 
 other precious metals and stones; also for 
 drugs when sold by retail (See WEiOHTa akd 
 Mbasubes Act, 1879 j and JIeastjbes). 
 
 ' An elalior»te essay on the Balance, in Watt's • Diet, of Chemistry,' 
 rules for tlie eliuiuiatiou of erron. See Balahcii. 
 
 gives minute directions for weighing, with 
 
1756 
 
 WEIGHTS. FOREIGN 
 
 
 1. Troy Weight. 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 gr. 
 
 FennyweightB. 
 dwt. 
 
 Ounces, 
 oz. 
 
 Pound, 
 lb. or ft. 
 
 24 
 
 480 
 
 5760 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 240 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 *#* The standard of the above measure is 1 cubic inch of distilled water, -whitfh, at 62° 
 Fabr. and 30 inches of the barometer, weighs 252^458 troy grains. 
 
 The carat used in weighing diamonds is 3| grains (nearly). Troy weight is employed in 
 weighing gold, jewelry, &c., and, under a somewhat modified form, in prescribing and dis- 
 pensing medicines. (See helow.) 
 
 2. Apothecaries Weight, 
 (Modified Troy Weight.) 
 
 Grains 
 (Troy). 
 
 Scruples. 
 
 Drachms. 
 3 
 
 Ounces. 
 S 
 
 Poonds. 
 ft 
 
 Equir. in 
 
 French 
 
 grammes. 
 
 Equiv. in 
 
 Minims or 
 
 measured 
 
 drops. 
 
 Equiv. in 
 cubic inches. 
 
 Equiv. in 
 
 Avoirdupois. 
 
 weiglit. 
 
 !• 
 
 20^ 
 
 60^ 
 
 480^ 
 
 6760. 
 
 •05 
 V 
 
 3^ 
 24^ 
 
 286^ 
 
 ■01666 
 •3333 
 !• 
 8- 
 96^ 
 
 ■002083 
 •0416 
 •1250 
 !• 
 12^ 
 
 •0001736 
 -00347-J 
 •0104166 
 ■0833333 
 
 r 
 
 •06475 
 1-395 
 3 885 
 31118 
 872 96 
 
 109 
 
 21-94 
 
 6562 
 
 636 62 
 
 6319-64 
 
 •003961055 
 
 •C7922109 
 
 •23766329 
 
 1-90130685 
 
 22-81567609 
 
 60^ „ 
 1 oz. 42^5„ 
 18 „ 736,, 
 
 •#* Apothecaries' weight is employed in prescribing and dispensing medicines according 
 to the Ph. L., E., and U. S. But in the last Ph. D. and the new Brit. Ph. it has been 
 superseded by avoirdupois weight. 
 
 Troy Avoirdupoia. 
 
 1 a is equivalent to 0^ 822857 lb. 
 1 oz. „ 1^097143 oz. 
 
 WEIGHTS, FOREIGN. 
 
 
 
 JBinary Weights. 
 
 (Syst^me usuel.) 
 
 French. 
 
 
 I'rench 
 Grain. 
 
 Scruple. 
 
 Gros. 
 
 Ouce. 
 
 Livre. 
 
 Kilo- 
 gramme. 
 
 Equiv. in 
 grammes 
 metrique. 
 
 Bound number 
 of the Codex 
 in grammes. 
 
 Equiv. in Avoir- 
 dupois weight. 
 
 !• 
 
 24^ 
 
 72^ 
 
 676^ 
 
 9216- 
 
 18432- 
 
 "v 
 
 3^ 
 
 24^ 
 
 384^ 
 
 768^ 
 
 !• 
 
 8- 
 138^ 
 256- 
 
 "i- 
 
 16^ 
 
 32- 
 
 !• 
 
 2- 
 
 !• 
 
 •0542 
 1-31) 
 3 906 
 81-25 
 600- 
 1000- 
 
 ■05 
 
 1-30 
 
 4- 
 
 32^ 
 
 600- 
 
 1000^ 
 
 Ih. oz. gr. 
 
 0-837 
 
 20-1 
 
 60-284 
 
 ... 1 45- 
 
 1 H ei^ 
 
 2 3i 13^ 
 
 *,* The old French grain is equal to '820 of an imperial troy grain ; hence 1 troy grain 
 is equal to 1-21 old French grains. The gros, once, and other multiples of the grain, are, of 
 course, proportionate. The new French grain (of 1812) is equal to '0542 gramme, or 
 •8365228 gr. troy. It is said, in some works, to be equal to '878 gr. troy, or, in round 
 numbers, -d, but this la much too high. 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT 
 
 1757 
 
 CoNTiNBNTAL Mbdioiitax Wbiohts, tji Trot) Oraiw. 
 (From Dr GhristUon's ' Dispeneatory.') 
 
 CuuDtry. 
 
 Pound. 
 
 Ounce. 
 
 Drachm, 
 
 Scruple conaistinfc of 
 
 Grain. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 med. gra. 
 
 20 med. grs. 
 
 
 French 
 
 66: 0-6 
 
 470-60 
 
 6910 
 
 19 7 
 
 
 0^20 
 
 Spaniili 
 
 
 
 6;i!!S'3 
 
 4434« 
 
 6614 
 
 1847 
 
 
 0-769 
 
 Tuscan 
 
 
 
 6240-8 
 
 436-67 
 
 64-68 
 
 18-19 
 
 
 0-758 
 
 lloiiiiia 
 
 
 
 62.S5 
 
 436 26 
 
 54-68 
 
 1817 
 
 ... 
 
 0-757 
 
 AuitriHli 
 
 
 
 61931 
 
 641-25 
 
 67G5 
 
 ... 
 
 22-5 
 
 1-127 
 
 Gcimiin 
 
 
 
 6524 8 
 
 460-40 
 
 67 65 
 
 
 19-18 
 
 0-96IJ 
 
 llugamn 
 
 
 
 662f8 
 
 460-40 
 
 57-55 
 
 ::; i9i8 
 
 0-960 
 
 PruHiun 
 
 
 
 6tl6'I 
 
 461-26 
 
 66 40 
 
 ! i"'"" 
 
 0-940 
 
 Dutch 
 
 
 
 6695-8 
 
 474 64 
 
 69-33 
 
 
 ia;i 
 
 0-988 
 
 Beltfixn 
 
 
 
 6696-8 
 
 474 64 
 
 6933 
 
 ... 
 
 19 78 
 
 0-9i8 
 
 Swedish 
 
 
 
 661.0-3 
 
 46X-34 
 
 67 29 
 
 ... 
 
 19-119 
 
 9.i I 
 
 PitMlmiinlese 
 
 
 47-U-7 
 
 &9.i 39 
 
 49 45 
 
 ... 
 
 16 48 
 
 0-834 
 
 Venetiun . 
 
 
 4C614 
 
 388-45 
 
 48 55 
 
 ... 
 
 1618 
 
 0-809 
 
 WEIGHTS ANB MEASURES ACT, 1878. 
 On the Ist of January, 1879, there came into 
 force un act to conaolidate throughout the 
 United Kingdom the law relating to weights 
 and measures. Legislation on this subject had 
 been long rendered necessary from the extreme 
 inconvenience and friction to commerce of all 
 kinds arising from the adherence to local stand- 
 ards of weight or measurements ; and from the 
 divergent values in different parts of the 
 kingdom, and in places more or less contiguous 
 to each other, of weights and measures often 
 bearing the same name. Thus, previous to the 
 passing of the above Act, there wire twelve 
 different markets in this country in which 
 when corn was sold by the bushel, the weight 
 of the bushel varied in each j and six different 
 localities in which the same thing occurred 
 when vended by the quarter and the load. In 
 some places a score of grain would imply 20 
 lbs. but often less, whilst in others it was not 
 un infrequent transaction for wheat to be sold 
 by one measure, delivered by another, and 
 eventually paid for by weight. And the same 
 perplexing and arbitrary conditions attached 
 to the sale of numberless other commodities. 
 We give below the most important sections 
 of the Weights and Measures Act of 1878 : 
 
 Law of Weights and Mbasuees. 
 
 Uniformily of Weights and Measures. 
 
 The same weights and measures shall be 
 used throughout the United Kingdom. 
 Standards of Measure and Weight. 
 
 The bronze bar and the platinum weight, 
 more particularly described in the first part 
 of the First Schedule of this Act, and at the 
 passing of this Act, deposited in the Standards 
 Departments of the Board of Trade, in the 
 custody of the Warden of the Standards, shall 
 continue to be the imperial standard of 
 measure and weight, and the said bronze bar 
 shall continue to be the imperial standard for 
 determining the imperial standard yard for the 
 
 United Kingdom, and the said platinum weight 
 shall continue to be the imperial standard tor 
 determining the imperial standard pound for 
 the United Kingdom. 
 
 Imperial Measures of length. 
 The straight line or distance between the 
 centres of the two gold plugs or pins (as 
 mentioned in the First Schedule to this Act),' 
 in the bronze bar by this Act declared to be 
 the imperial standard for determining the 
 imperial standard yard, measured when the 
 bar is at the temperature of sixty-two degrees 
 of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and when it is 
 supported on bronze rollers placed under it in 
 such a manner as best to avoid flexure of the 
 bar, and to facilitate its free expansion 
 and contraction from variations of tempera- 
 ture, shall be the legal standard measure of 
 length, and shall be called the imperial stan- 
 dard yard, and shall be the only unit or 
 standard measure of extension from which 
 all raiusures of extension, whether lineur, 
 superficial, or solid shall be ascertained. 
 
 One third part of the imperial standard 
 yard shall be a foot, and the twellth part of 
 such foot shall be an inch, and the rod, pole, 
 or perch in length shall contain five such yiirds 
 and a half, and the chain shall contain twenty- 
 two such yards, and the furlong two hundred 
 and twenty such yards, and the mile one thou- 
 sand seven hundred and sixty such yards. 
 
 The rood of land shall contain one thousand 
 two huudred and ten square yards according 
 to the imperial standard yard, and the acre 
 of land shall contain four thousand eight 
 hundred and forty such square yards, being 
 one hundred and sixty square rods, poles 
 or perches. 
 Imperial Measures of Weight and Capacity. 
 
 The weight in vacuo of the platinum 
 
 weight (mentioned in the First Schedule to 
 
 this Act), and by this Act declared to be the 
 
 imperial standard for determining the im- 
 
 I See further on. 
 
1?58 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT 
 
 perial standard pound, shall be the legal 
 standitrd measure of weight, and of measure 
 having reference to weight, and shall be called 
 the imperial standard pound, and shall be the 
 only unit or standard measure of weight from 
 which allother weights and all measures having 
 reference to weight shall be ascertained. 
 
 One sixteenth part of the imperial standard 
 pound shall be an ounce, and one-sixteenth 
 part of such ounce shallbe a dram, and one 
 seven thousandth part of the imperial standard 
 pound shall be a grain. 
 
 A stone shall consist of fourteen imperial 
 standard pounds, and a hundred weight shall 
 consist of eight such stones, and a ton shall 
 consist of twenty such hundredweights. 
 
 Four hundred and eighty grains shall be 
 an ounce troy. 
 
 All the foregoing weights except the ounce 
 troy shall be deemedto be avoirdupois weights. 
 
 The unit or standard measure of capa- 
 city from which all other measures of capacity, 
 as well as for liquids as for dry goods, shall 
 be derived, shall be the gallon containing ten 
 imperial standard pounds weight of distilled 
 water weighed in air against brass weights, 
 with the water and air at the temperature of 
 sixty-two degrees of Fahrenheit's thermome- 
 ter, and with the barometer at thirty inches. 
 
 The quart shall be one fourth part of the 
 gallon, and the pint shall be one-eighth part 
 of the gallon. 
 
 Two gallons shall be a peck, and eight gal- 
 lons shall be a bushel, and eight such bushels 
 shall be a quarter, and thirty-six such bushels 
 shall be a chaldron. 
 
 A bushel for the sale of any of the follow- 
 ing articles, namely, lime, fish, potatoes, 
 fruit, or any other goods and things which 
 before (the passing of the Weights and 
 Measures Act, 1835, that is to say) the ninth 
 day of September, one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and thirty five, were commnnly sold by 
 heaped measure, shall be a hollow cylinder 
 having a plane base, the internal diameter of 
 which shall be double the internal depth, and 
 every measure used for the sale of any of the 
 above-mentioned articles which is a multiple 
 of a bushel, or is a half bnshel or a peck, shall 
 be made of the same shape and proportion as 
 the above-mentioned bushel. 
 
 In using an imperial measure of capa- 
 city, the same shall not be heaped, but either 
 shall be stricken with a round stick or roller, 
 straight, and of the same diameter from end 
 to end, or if the article sold cannot from 
 its size or shape be conveniently stricken, shall 
 be filled in all parts as nearly to the level of 
 the brim as the size and shape of the article 
 will admit. 
 
 Metric Equivalents of Imperial Weights and 
 Measures. 
 
 The table in the Third Schedule to this 
 Act shall be deemed to set forth the equiva- 
 lents of imperial weights and measures 
 
 and of the weights and measures therein 
 expressed in terms of the metric system, and 
 such table may be lawfully used for computing 
 and expressing, in weights and measures, 
 weights and measures of the metric system. 
 
 Use of Imperial Weights and Measures. 
 
 Every contract, bargain, sale, or dealing, 
 made or had in the United Kingdom for 
 any work, goods, wares, or merchandise, or 
 other thing which has been or is to be done, 
 sold, delivered, carried, or agreed for by weight 
 or measure, shall be deemed to be made and 
 had according to one of the imperial weights 
 or measures ascertained by this Act, or to 
 some multiple or part thereof, and if not so 
 made or had shall be void; and all tolls and 
 duties charged or collected according to weight 
 or measure shall be charged and collected 
 according to one of the imperial weights or 
 measures ascertained by this Act, or to some 
 multiple or part thereof. 
 
 Such contract, bargain, sale, dealing, and 
 collection of tolls and duties as is in this 
 section mentioned is in this Act referred to 
 under the term ' trade.' 
 
 No local or customary measures, nor the use 
 of the heaped measure, shall be lawful. 
 
 Any person who sells by any denomination 
 of weight or measure o'iher than one of the 
 imperial weights or measures, or some multiple 
 or part thereof, shall be liable to a fine not 
 exceeding forty shillings for every such sale. 
 
 All articles sold by weight shall be sold 
 by avoirdupois weight ; except that — 
 
 (1) Gold and silver, and articles made 
 thereof, including gold and silver 
 thread, lace, or fringe, also platinum, 
 diamonds, and other precious metals 
 or stones, may be sold by the ounce 
 troy or by any decimal parts of such 
 ounce ; and all contracts, bargains, 
 sales, and dealings in relation thereto 
 shall be deemed to be made and had 
 by such weight, and when so made 
 or had shall be valid ; and 
 
 (2) Drugs, when sold by retail, may be sold 
 by apothecaries' weight. 
 
 Every person who acts in contravention of 
 this section shall be liable to a fine not ex- 
 ceeding five pounds. 
 
 A contract or dealing shall not be invalid 
 or open to objection on the ground that 
 the weights or measures expressed or referred 
 to therein are weights or measures of the 
 metric system, or on the ground that decimal 
 sub-divisions of imperial weights and measures, 
 whether metric or otherwise, are used in such 
 contract or dealing. 
 
 Nothing in this act shall prevent the 
 sale, or subject a person to a fine under this 
 Act lor the sale, of an article in any vessel, 
 where such vessel is not represented as con- 
 taining any amount of imperial measure, nor 
 subject u person to a fine under this Act for 
 the possi'ssion of a vessel where it is shown 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES ACT 
 
 1759 
 
 that BucVi vessel is not used nor intended for 
 use OS a measure. 
 
 Any person who prints, and any clerk 
 of a market or other person who tnakes, 
 any return, price list, price current, or uny 
 journal or other paper containing price 
 lister price current, in which the denomina- 
 tion of weights and measures quoted or re- 
 ferred to denotes or implies a greater or less 
 weight or measure than is denoted or implied 
 by the same denomination of the imperial 
 weights and measures under this Act, shall be 
 liable to a tine not exceeding ten shillings for 
 every copy of every such return, price list, 
 price current, journal, or other paper which he 
 publishes. 
 
 Every person who uses or has in his 
 possession for use for trade a weight or mea- 
 sure which is not of tlie denomination of 
 some Board of Trade standard, shall be liable 
 to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or in the 
 case of a second offence ten pounds, and the 
 weight ormeasureshall be liable tobe forfeited. 
 Unjust Weighta and Measures. 
 
 Every person who uses or has in his 
 possession for use for trade any weight, men- 
 sure, scale, balance, steelyard, or weighing 
 machine which is f^ilse or unjust, shall be 
 liable to a fine not exceeding five pounds, or 
 in the case of a second offence ten pounds, 
 and any contract, bargain, sale, or dealiui; 
 made by the same shall be void, and the 
 weight, measure, scale, balance, or steelyard 
 shall be liable to be forfeited. 
 
 Where any fraud is wilfully committed 
 in the using of any weight, measure, scale, 
 balance, steelyard, or weighing machine, the 
 person committing such fraud, and every per- 
 son party to the fraud, shall be liable to a tine 
 not exceeding five pounds, or in the case of a 
 second offence ten pnunds, and the weight, 
 measure, scale, balance, or steelyard shall be 
 liable to be forfeited. 
 
 A person shall not wilfully or knowingly 
 make or sell, or cause to be ^mnde or sold, 
 any false or unjust weight, measure, scale, 
 balance, or weighing machine. 
 
 Every person who acts in contravention of 
 this section shall he liable to a fine not exceed- 
 ing ten pounds, or in the case of a second 
 offence fifty pounds. 
 
 MISCBLLAKS0U8. 
 Every inquisition which, in pursuance 
 of any Act hereby repealed, has been taken 
 for ascertaining the amount of contracts to 
 be performed or rents to he paid in grain or 
 malt, or in any other commodity or thing, or 
 with reference to the measure or weight of 
 any grain, malt, or otiier commodity or thing, 
 and llie amount of any toll rate or duty pay- 
 able according to any weight or measure in 
 use before the passing of the said Act, and has 
 been enrolled of record in Her Majesty's Court 
 of Exchequer, shall continue in force, and 
 may be given in evidence in any legal pro- 
 
 ceeding, and the amount ascertained by such 
 inquisition shall, when converted into im- 
 perial weights and measures, continue to be 
 the rule of payment in regard to all such con- 
 tracts, rents, tolls, rates, or duties. 
 
 Standards and Definitions. 
 
 Nothing in this Act shall affect the 
 validity of the models of gas holders verified 
 and deposited in the Standards Department of 
 the BiKtrd of Trade, in pursuance of the 
 Act of the session of the twenty-second and 
 twenty-third years of the reign of Her pre- 
 sent Majesty, chapter sixty-six, entituled " An 
 Act for regulating measures used in sales 
 of gas," and of the Acts amending the same, 
 and the provisions of this Act with respect to 
 Board of Trade standards shall apply to such 
 models ; and the provisions of this Act with 
 respect to defining the amount of error to be 
 tolerated in local standards when verified or 
 revei'ified, shall apply to defining the amount 
 of error to be tolerated in such copies of the 
 said models of gas holders as are provided by 
 any justices, council, commissioners, or other 
 local authority in pursuance of the said 
 Acts. 
 
 Nothing in this Act shall extend to pro- 
 hibit, defeat, injure, or lessen the rights 
 granted by charter to the roaster, wardens, 
 and commonalty of the mystery of the Foun- 
 ders of the City of London. 
 
 Nothing in this Act shall prohibit, defeat, 
 injure, or lessen the rights of the mayor 
 and commonalty and citizens of the City of 
 London, or ot the Lord Mayor of the City of 
 London for the time being, with respect to 
 the stamping or sealing of weights and mea- 
 sures, or with respect to the gauging of wine 
 or oil, or other gaugeable liquors. 
 
 APPLICATION OF ACT TO SCOTLAliD. 
 
 This Act shall apply to Scotland with the 
 following modifications : 
 
 In the application of this Ait to Scot- 
 land the expression ' rents and tolls ' includes 
 hU stipends, feu duties, customs, casualties, 
 and other demands whatsoever, payable in 
 grain, malt, or meal, or any other couiuiudity 
 or tiling. 
 
 The fair's prices of all grain in every county 
 shall he struck by the imperial quarter, and 
 all other returns of the prices of grain shall 
 be set forth by the same, without reference to 
 any other measure whatsoever. 
 
 APPLICATION OP ACT TO lEELAND. 
 
 This Act shall apply to Ireland with the 
 folloHini; modifications : 
 
 In Ireland every contract, bargain, sale, 
 or dealing — 
 
 For any quantity of corn, grain, pulses, 
 potatoes, hay, straw, flax, roots, carcasses of 
 beef or mutton, butter, wool, or dead pigs, 
 sold, delivered, or agreed for : 
 
 Or for any quantity of any other commodity 
 sold, delivered, or agreed for by weight (uoc 
 
1760 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT 
 
 being a commodity which may by law be sold 
 by the troy ounce or by apothecaries' weight), 
 shall be made or had by one of the following 
 denominations of imperial weight; namely, 
 the ounce avoirdupois ; the imperial pound 
 of sixteen ounces ; the stone of fourteen 
 pounds; the quarter hundred of twenty-eight 
 pounds ; the half liundred of fifty-six poundd ; 
 the hundredweight of one hundred and twelve 
 pounds; or the ton of twenty hundredweight; 
 and not by any local or customary denomina- 
 tion of weight whatsoever, otherwise such 
 contract, bargain, sale, or dealing sliall be 
 void : 
 
 Provided always, that nothing in the present 
 section shall be deemed to prevent the use in 
 any contract, burgain, sale, or dealing of the 
 denomination of the quarter, half, or other 
 aliquot part of the ounce, pound, or other 
 denomination aforesaid, or shall be deemed to 
 extend to any contract, bargain, sale, or deal- 
 ing relating to standing or growing crops. 
 
 In Ireland every article sold by weight 
 shall, if weighed, be weighed in full net stand- 
 ing beam ; and for the purposes of every con- 
 tract, bargain, sale, or dealing the weight so 
 ascertained shall be deemed the true weight of 
 the article, and no deduction or allowance for 
 tret or beamage, or on any other account, or 
 under any other name whatsoever, the weight 
 of any sack, vessel, or other covering in which 
 such article may be contained alone excepted, 
 shall be claimed or made by any purchaser on 
 any pretext whatever under a penalty not 
 exceeding five pounds. 
 
 SCHEDULES. 
 
 FiEST Schedule. 
 
 Paet I. 
 
 IMPEBIAL STANDAErS. 
 
 The following standards were constructed 
 under the direction of the Commissioners of 
 Her Majesty's Treasury, after the destruction 
 of the former imperial standards in the fire at 
 the Houses of Parliament. 
 
 The imperial stundard for determining the 
 length of the imperial standard yard is a solid 
 square bar, thirty -eight inches long, and one 
 inch square in transverse section, the bar 
 being of bronze or gun-metal ; near to each 
 end a cylindrical hole is sunk (the distance 
 between the centres of the two holes being 
 thirty-six inches) to the depth of half an inch, 
 at the bottom of this hole is inserted in a 
 smaller hole a gold plug or pin, about one 
 tenth of an inch in diameter, and upon the 
 surface of this pin there are cut three fine lines 
 at intervals of about the one hundredth part 
 of an inch transverse to the axis of the bar. 
 and two lines at nearly the same interval paral- 
 lel to the axis of the bar; the measure of 
 length of the imperial standard yard is given 
 by the interval between the middle transversal 
 line at one end and the middle transversal 
 line at the other end, the part of each line 
 which is employed being the point midway 
 
 SCHEDULE. 
 Denoxinations op Standaeds ov Afoihe- 
 
 CAEIES' WeIQHI and .MEASUBE. 
 
 1. Apothecaries' Weight. 
 
 
 Weight in grains in terms 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 of the Imperial Slandard 
 Found H hicli contains 
 
 
 7000 such grains. 
 
 Ounces. 10 ounces . 
 
 1 
 4800 grains 
 
 8 „ . . 
 
 3840 „ 
 
 6 „ . . 
 
 2880 „ 
 
 4 „ . . 
 
 1920 „ 
 
 2 „ . . 
 
 960 „ 1 
 
 1 ounce . 
 
 480 „ 
 
 Drachms. 4 drachms 
 
 ) 
 
 or half 
 
 [ 240 „ 
 
 an ounce 
 
 ) 
 
 2 drachms 
 
 120 „ 
 
 1 drachm . 
 
 60 „ 
 
 Scruples. 2 scruples . 
 
 40 „ 
 
 H „ 
 
 
 or half a 
 
 30 „ 
 
 drachm 
 
 
 1 scruple . 
 
 20 „ 
 
 half a scru- 
 ple . . 
 
 } '" ■ 
 
 6 grains . 
 
 6 „ 
 
 5 „ . . 
 
 5 „ 
 
 4 „ . . 
 
 4 „ 
 
 3 „ . . 
 
 3 „ 
 
 2 „ . . 
 
 2 „ 
 
 1 grain . 
 
 1 grain 
 
 halfagrain 
 
 0-5 „ 
 
 2. Apothecaries' Measure. 
 
 Denomination. 
 
 A fluid ounce and the 
 multiples thereof 
 from 1 to 40 fluid 
 ounces 
 
 Half a fluid onnce . . 
 
 A fluid drachm and the 
 multiples thereof 
 from 1 to 16 fluid 
 drachms . . . . 
 
 Half a fluid drachm . 
 
 A minim and the mul- 
 tiples thereof from 1 
 to 60 minims . . . 
 
 Containing the following 
 weight of Ulstilled water. 
 Temperature=62^ Fahr. 
 Barometer^SO mches. 
 Imperial Pound=7000 gr 
 
 One fluid ounce con- 
 tains 4375 grains 
 weight, or ^^ im 
 perial gallon. 
 
 One fluid 
 equals 
 ounce. 
 
 drach 
 r fluid 
 
 One minim equals 
 ■^fj fluid drachm 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT 
 
 1761 
 
 between the longitndinal lines ; and the said 
 points are in this Act referred to us the 
 centres of the said gold plugs or pin^ and 
 inch bar is marlced " copper 16 oz., tin 2i, 
 tine 1. Mr Baily's metal. No 1 standard 
 yard at 62''-30 Fahrenheit. Cast in 1845. 
 Tronghton and Simms, London." 
 
 The imperial standard for determining the 
 weight of the imperial standard pound is of 
 {tiatinum, the form being that of a cylinder 
 nearly 1-35 inch in height and 1-15 inch in 
 
 diameter, with a groove or channel ronnd it, 
 whose middle is about 0-34 inch below the 
 top of the cylinder, for insertion of the points 
 of the ivory fork by which it is to be lifted ; 
 the edges are carefully rounded off, and such 
 standard pound is marked, P.S. 1844, 1 lb. 
 
 The following new and additional denomi- 
 nations of standards of apothecaries' weights 
 and measures, were created under the Weights 
 and Measures Act, by an Order in Council, 
 dated the 14th August, 1879.' 
 
 THIRD SCHEDULE. 
 
 Paet I.— Meteio Equivalbnts. 
 
 Table of the values of the principal denominations of measures and weights on the metric 
 system, expressed by means of denominations of imperial measures and weights, and of the 
 values of the principal denominations of measures and weights of the imperial system, 
 expressed by means of metric weights and measures. 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 
 Metric DeiiominHliona nnd Values. 
 
 EquivolcDts in Imperial DeuoDiiuations. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 to 
 
 i 1 
 
 
 
 
 = 1 
 
 Myriametre .... 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 r 6 
 
 \ or 
 
 376 
 10,936 , 
 
 11-9 
 11-9 
 
 Kilometre .... 
 
 
 ! 1000 
 
 ... , 1U93 ; 1 
 
 10-79 
 
 Hectometre .... 
 
 
 J 100 
 
 1U9 , 1 
 
 1079 
 
 Decametre .... 
 
 
 10 
 
 ... 10 li 9-7l>79 1 
 
 Metro 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 ... i 1 
 
 3-3708 
 
 Decimetre .... 
 
 
 "to 
 
 ' 
 
 3-9371 
 
 Centimetre .... 
 
 
 T^o 
 
 
 
 0-3937 1 
 
 Millimetre .... 
 
 
 Tosir 
 
 
 ... 
 
 
 0-0394 ; 
 
 i 
 
 Measures of Surface. 
 
 Metric Denominations aad Valaes. : ^''"■L"enoti.i"atf"r"" 
 
 
 i 1 s^ -S 
 
 Hectare, i.e. 100 Ares 
 
 Decare, i.e. 10 Ares 
 
 Are 
 
 Centiare, i.e. 1^5 Are 
 
 i 
 
 ]'i000 ■/ ' ' 2280-3326 
 
 ^'•^"^^ it or 11960-3326 
 
 1000 ... ! 1196-0333 
 
 ICD ■ ... 119-6033 
 
 1 ... 11960 
 
 1 
 
 > Published in the ' LoBdon Gazette,' August, 15th, 1879. 
 
 TOL. II 
 
 111 
 
1763 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 Metric Denominations and Values. 
 
 Equivalents in Imperial Denominations, . 
 
 
 Cubic 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Quarters. 
 Bushels. 
 
 Pecks. 
 
 i 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 Pints. 
 Decimals. 
 
 Kilolitre, i.e. 1000 Litres 
 Hectolitre, i.e. 100 Litres 
 Decalitre, i.e. 10 Litres . 
 Litre . , , , . 
 Decilitre, i.e. -jL Litre 
 Centilitre, i.e, -jig Litre . 
 
 1 
 
 TCJT 
 
 1 n u 
 
 loouu 
 
 «::::•. 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-77 
 
 0-077 
 
 1-6077 
 
 1-76077 
 
 0-176077 
 
 0-0176077 
 
 Metric Denominations and Yalues. 
 
 Equivalents in Imperial Denominations. 
 
 
 Grams. 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 Stones. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Drams. 
 Decimals. 
 
 Millier 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 15-04 
 
 Quintal 
 
 100,000 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 6-304 
 
 Myriagram .... 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 11-8304 
 
 Kilogram .... 
 
 1,000 
 
 1 "for 
 
 15432- 
 
 2 
 
 3487 gr 
 
 3 
 
 s.) 
 
 4-3830 
 
 Hectogram .... 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8-4383 
 
 Decagram .... 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-6438 
 
 Gram 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-56438 
 
 Decigram .... 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-056438 
 
 Centigram .... 
 
 Too 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-0056438 
 
 Milligram .... 
 
 lUOO 
 
 
 
 
 
 0-C0056438 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 
 Imperial Measures, 
 
 Equivalents in Metric Measures. 
 
 Millimetre. 
 
 Decimetre. 
 
 Metre. 
 
 Kilcmetre. 
 
 Inch 
 
 Foot or 12 inches . 
 
 Yard, or 3 feet, or 36 inches . 
 
 Fathom, or 2 yards, or 6 feet . 
 
 Pole or 5i yards 
 
 Chain, or 4 poles, or 22 yards . 
 
 Furlong, 40 poles, or 220 yards 
 
 Mile, 8 furlongs, or 1760 yards 
 
 = 25-39954 
 
 = 3-04794 
 
 = 0-30479 
 = 0-91428 
 = 1-82877 
 = 5-02911 
 = 20-11644 
 = 201-16437 
 = 1609-31493 
 
 = 0-20116 
 = 1-60931 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES ACT 
 
 1763 
 
 Meamret of Surface. 
 
 Imperml ""asurei. 
 
 Equivalents in Metric Memures. 
 
 Square Deci- 
 metrea. 
 
 Square Metres. 
 
 Ares. Hectares. 
 
 Square inch .... 
 Square foot, or 144 square 
 
 inches 
 
 i Square yard, or 9 square feet, 
 
 or 1296 square inches . 
 Pole or perch, or 30i square 
 
 yards 
 
 Uoiid, or 40 perches, or 1210 
 
 square yards 
 Acre, or 4 roods, or 4840 square 
 
 yards 
 
 Square mile or 640 acres . 
 
 = 06451 
 = 9-28997 
 = 83-60971 
 
 = 0-092900 
 = 0-836097 
 = 25-291939 
 
 = 10-116776 
 
 = 0-40467 
 = 258-98945 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 Imperial Measures. 
 
 Equivalents in Metric Measures. 
 
 Decilitres. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 Decalitres. 
 
 Hectolitres. 
 
 Gill 
 
 Pint or 4 pills 
 
 Quart or 2 pints 
 
 Gallon or 4 quarts . 
 
 Peck or 2 gallons . 
 
 Bushel, or 8 gallons, or 4 pecks 
 
 Quarter or 8 bushels 
 
 = 1-41983 
 = 5-67932 
 
 = 0-14198 
 = 0-56793 
 = 1-13587 
 = 4-54346 
 = 908692 
 
 = 0-90869 
 = 3-63477 
 
 = a-90781 
 
 Cubic Measure. 
 
 Imperial Measures. 
 
 Equivalents in Metric Heasores. 
 
 Cubic Centi- 
 metres. 
 
 Cubic Deci- 
 metres. 
 
 Cubic 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Cubic inch 
 
 Cubic foot or 1728 cubic inches . 
 Cubic yard or 27 cubic feet . 
 
 16-88618 
 
 28-31531 
 
 0-76451 
 
1764 
 
 WELD— WHEAT 
 WtAght». 
 
 Imperial Weiglita. 
 
 EquiTalents in Metric Weights. 
 
 Grams. 
 
 Decagrams. 
 
 Kilograms. 
 
 Millier or Me- 
 tric Ton. 
 
 Grain 
 
 Dram 
 
 Ounce, avoirdupois, or 16 drams, 
 
 or 437'5 grains . 
 Pound, or 16 ounces, or 256 
 
 drams, or 7000 grains . 
 Hundredweight or 112 lbs. 
 Ton or 20 cwt. 
 Ounce, troy, or 480 grains 
 
 =0-06479895 j 
 = 1-77185 
 
 = 28-34954 , = 283495 
 
 = 453-59265 i =4535927 
 
 = 31-103490 = 3-i'l035 
 
 = 0-45359 
 = 50-80238 
 = 1016-04754 
 
 = 1-01605 
 
 1 
 ! 
 1 
 
 WELD. Syn. Woald. The Reseda luieola 
 (Linn.), an herbaceous annual employed by 
 the dyers. A decoction of the stems and leaves 
 gives a rich yellow to goods mordanted with 
 alum, tartar, or muriate of tin. See Yellow 
 Pigments. 
 
 WELSH EARE'BIT. Prep. Cut slices of 
 bread, toast and butter them ; then cover them 
 with slices of rich cheese, spread a little mus- 
 tard over the cheese, put the bread in a cheese- 
 toaster before tlie lire, and in a short time 
 serve it up very hot. 
 
 WEN. The popular name of pulpy, en- 
 cysted, and fleshy tumours of the face and neck. 
 
 WET (to keep out from Gun Locks). In 
 giving hints to sportsman going to Norway, 
 Mr. Lock, in his book on ' Sport in Norway,' 
 gives some capital advice on this subject, 
 which would be equally serviceable in wet 
 weather in England. Sportsmen will do well, 
 lie says, to remove the Jocks from their rifle 
 and gun, oil them with a little Rangoon oil, 
 lay them on the hob of the fireplace until they 
 are quite hot, and then wipe them as dry as 
 possible with a little cotton waste, so that 
 there will be no superfluous oil left to clog the 
 works. While the locks are getting hot get 
 a little beeswax and melt it in a cup, and with 
 the tip of a penknife carefully pay, as though 
 you were using putty to place in a pane of 
 glass, though more sparingly, the wooden 
 ledges where the lock-plates rest when in 
 their places, in such a manner that none of the 
 wax gets into the places hollowed out to re- 
 ceive the works of the'lock. When the warm 
 locks are put back in their places, and screwed 
 up tight, the wax will adhere to the edge of 
 the lock-plates and the wood wherein they 
 bed, and effectually render them impervious 
 to wet. The sportsman can afterwards, when 
 stalking, push his rifle through wet grass, and 
 use his fowling-piece when the water, after a 
 shower, drops from the trees upon him as he 
 forces his way between the wet branches, with- 
 out fear of the wet making its way into the 
 locks. 
 
 WHEAT. Syn. Teitiofm, L. The ripe 
 seed or fruit of several varieties of Triticum 
 vulgare (Linn.), of which the principal are 
 Triticnm oestivum, or spring wheat, Triticwm 
 hylernum, or winter wheat, and Triticum ttir- 
 gidum, or turgid wheat, the last two of which 
 include several red and white sub-varieties. 
 Of all the cereal grains wheat appears to be 
 that best adapted for bread corn, not merely 
 on account of its highly nutritious character, 
 but also on account of the power it possesses 
 from its richne'is in gluten, of forming a light 
 and agreeable loaf by the process of fermenta- 
 tion. 
 
 According to Sir H. Davy, good English 
 wheat contains of gluten, 19? ; starch, 77f ; 
 soluble matter, 4 to 5^. 
 
 The average weight of good wheat per bushel 
 is from 58 to 60 lbs. ; and its average yield of 
 flour is fully 12i lbs. for every 14 lbs. The 
 weight of the straw is said to be about double 
 that of the grain. The produce per acre varies 
 from 12 to 60, or even 64, bushels an at-re. 
 See Flofe, Staeoh, &c. 
 
 Buckwheat. Syn. FAaoPTETJM. The seed 
 of Fagogprum eseulentum, a plant of the na- 
 tural oriier Polygonacea. It makes excellent 
 cakes, crumpets, and gruel. In North Ame- 
 rica, buckwheat cakes, or rather fritters, are 
 in general use at breakfast, eaten with mo- 
 lasses. In England, buckwheat is cultivated 
 as food for pheasants. 
 
 Wheat, Indian. See Maize. 
 
 Wheat, Steeps for. Quicklime, sulphate of 
 zinc, or white vitriol, sulphate of copper or 
 blue vitriol, and arsenious acid or white ar- 
 senic, are the substances chiefly employed for 
 this purpose. About 5 lbs. of the first (slaked 
 and made into a milk with water), 1\ lb. of the 
 second, 1 lb. of the third, and 3 or 4 oz. of the 
 last, are regarded as sufficient for each sack of 
 seed. The method of applying them is either 
 to dissolve or mix thein with just suflScient 
 water to cover the seed, which is then to be 
 soaked in the mixture for i tew hours, or a 
 less quantity of water is employed, and the 
 
WHEY— WHISKY 
 
 1765 
 
 more conrentrntcd golution is, at intervals, 
 well sprinkled, by ineiina of a ' watering pot,' 
 over tile seed wlieat spread npon the b:irn 
 floor, the action being promoted by occasional 
 stirring. 
 
 04*. The first two snbstances above named 
 have been separately proved to be amply suffi- 
 cient to destroy the 'smut' in seed wheat, 
 and are perfectly harmless in their effects, 
 which renders them greatly preferable toar- 
 eeiiic, or even to sulphate of copper. Nearlv 
 all tlie numerous advertised ' anti-smuts,' or 
 nostrums to prevent the smnt in wheat, con- 
 tain one or other of the last three of the above 
 substances. 
 
 WHEY. Syn. Sebum lactib, L. ; Petit 
 lAiT, Fr. The liquid portion of milk after the 
 curd has been separated. It consists chiefly of 
 wati'r, holding in solution 3 or 4Jf of sugar of 
 milk. A pounii of milk mixed with a table- 
 Bpoonful of proof spirit allowed to become 
 sour, and the whey filtered from the sedi- 
 ment, yields, in the course of a few weeks, 
 a good vinegar (whey vinegar), free from 
 lactic acid (Scheele), Skimmed milk may be 
 used. 
 
 Whey, AVnm. St/n. Sbeum lactis alu- 
 MINATUM, L. Prep. Take of powdered alum 
 1 dr. i hot milk, 1 pint; simmer a few seconds, 
 let it repose tor a short time, and strain the 
 whey from the coagulum. Used in diarrhoea, 
 &c. ; a wine-glassful after every motion. Acid 
 whey (sebum lactis aoidum) mnv be pre- 
 pared in a similar manner by substituting 
 i dr. of tartaric or citric acid for the alum. 
 Orange whey and lemon whey are prepared 
 from the juice of the respective fruits, with n 
 little of the yellow peel to impart flavour. 
 
 WHEY POWDER. Frep. 1. From whey 
 gently evaporated to dryness, and powdered 
 along with abont l-3rd of its weight of lump 
 sugar. 
 
 2. Sugar, 7 oz. j sugar of milk, 2 oz. ; gum 
 Arabic, 1 oz. (all in fine powder) ; mix » ell. 1 
 oz. dissolved in li pint of water forms extem- 
 poraueous whey. 
 
 WHIS'KY. Dilute alcohol obtained from 
 the fermented wort of malt or grain. That 
 from the former is the most esteemed. The 
 inferior qualities of this spirit are prepared 
 from barley, oats, or rye, a small portion only 
 of which is malted, or from potatoes mashed 
 with a portion of barley malt, the re^snlting 
 wash being carelessly fermented and distilled, 
 and purposely suffered to burn, to impart the 
 peculiar empyreumatic or smoky flavour so 
 much relished by the lower orders of whisky 
 drinkers. The malt whisky, sold as such, of 
 the principal Scotch and Irish distillers is 
 fully equal in quality to London gin, from 
 which it merely diiicrs in flavour. The pecu- 
 liar flavour of whisky may be imitated by 
 adding a few drops each of pure creosote 
 and purified fusel oil to 2 or 3 gallons of good 
 London gin; and the imitation will be still 
 
 more perfect if the liquor be kept for some 
 months before drinking it. 
 
 We are indebted to ' L;ind and Water* for 
 the following interesting particulars relating 
 to Irish whiskey : 
 
 " Genuine unadulterated Irish whisky has, of 
 late years, become a great disideratum as it 
 wholesome and agreeable beverage, and in the 
 article produced by the large and successful 
 company whose premises and business I am 
 about to describe, the consuming public have 
 every guaraiitee of its excellence and purity, 
 ■19 far as can be insured by the use of the 
 very best materials, great skill and care in 
 the manufacturing processes, and the valuable 
 and extensive buildings in which the spirit is 
 stored until it attains the maturity and mel- 
 lowness which age alone can confer. 
 
 "No blending process of new whiskies can 
 effect this, no distiller who has not very ex- 
 tensive b.mded warehouses is to be trusted. 
 Acre after acre of cellers, vault after vault, 
 corridor after corridor, each and all dim, 
 damp, and dark, and guarded by the excise, 
 man's talismanic padlock — all these are neces- 
 sary for the soundness of the distillery. For 
 to secure age and quality, the effect of several 
 years storune in these vaults is required, if 
 you wish to see such store-rooms to perfec- 
 tion, go to Cork, which may be considered 
 the capital of the Irish whisky trade. Even 
 Dublin, with its Jamiesons, its Powers, and 
 its lioes, must bow down before it. 
 
 " But what is most singular of all, one com- 
 pany represents that important branch of 
 niannfacture, and have therefore a good right 
 to their title of 'Cork Distilleries Company.' 
 A little over a quarter of a century ago 
 there were five distilleries in Cork — Wise's, 
 Hewett's, Daly's, Murphy's, and Waters', In 
 18ii7, however, an amalgamation took place, 
 and the present company was started, and the 
 work of the five distilleries was concentrated 
 into three — the North Mall, still known as 
 Wise's (that proprietor wisely allowing him- 
 self to be bought out, after having made one of 
 the largest private fortunes in Ireland) ; the 
 Midleton, situated at a pretty village of that 
 name, about ten miles from Cork, and the 
 Watercourse, in the north-western suburb 
 of the city. The three distilleries are capable 
 of producing 1,000,000 gallons each per annum, 
 which represents an annual duty of one 
 million and a half pounds sterling. Their 
 paid-up capital is a, quarter of a million, and 
 a very large rest fund. Their works and 
 property are insured for over three-quarters 
 of a million sterling, and they find employment 
 for about 1000 men. 
 
 "The Brewing Process. — I shall have occa- 
 sion to describe each of these three distilleries 
 during the course of this paper, but it would 
 perhaps be as well to run hurriedly through 
 the several processes of whisky distillation. 
 It may be divided roughly into brewing and 
 distilling. Malt and barley, are, of course. 
 
1766 
 
 WHISKY 
 
 the ingredleuts used. Barley as it comes 
 from the market is distinguished by the appe- 
 lation ' green.' This is either steeped and 
 converted into malt, or kiln-dried and ground. 
 It is then removed to the mash-tuns, where 
 water is added, and the whole mixed by re- 
 volving machinery. After some hours' steep- 
 ing, the water has soaked all the desired 
 properties from the grain, and is known as 
 wort. This is led away or pumped ty a 
 complicated series of pipes to the top of the 
 manufactory, where it undergoes a cooling 
 process. When of the desired temperature it 
 is conducted to the fermenting vats — vast 
 wooden vessels of imposing appearance ranged 
 in rows. The brewing processes end with 
 this fermentation. 
 
 " The Distilling Processes. When this is 
 done, which generally takes five days, the fer- 
 mented liquor is conducted to the * wash' 
 charger, and from thence pumped to the in- 
 termediate charger, where it is heated before 
 undergoing the first process of distillation, 
 which now takes place. The still is a vast 
 copper vessel, shaped exactly like an inverted 
 funnel, with the pipe leading to the roof. The 
 ' wash' or liquor from the charger is conducted 
 into this vessel. Beneath it are two furnaces, 
 which soon raise the temperature of the vessel 
 to boiling point. When evaporation com- 
 mences the steam (which is the spirit, and is 
 technically known as ' low wines') is conducted 
 up the copper pipe into a refrigerator, known 
 as the ' worm.' This worm is, in reality, a 
 continuation of the pipe of the still twisted 
 into regular coils in and about a vessel filled 
 with the coldest water obtainable. By this 
 means the steam is converted into liquor. This 
 liquor passes into the close safe, a glass vessel 
 somewhat like an aquarium tank. The dis- 
 tiller stands by and watches the running liquor, 
 and his practised eye and educated palate im- 
 mediately detects any fault in the distillation. 
 He is not allowed to open his tank, however, 
 except by notice in the presence of the excise 
 officer, one or more of whom are always pre- 
 sent in every distillery. Through this tank it 
 runs into 'low wines' receiver, a large tank 
 placed below, and from these it again passes to 
 * feints chargers* c?i route to the 'low wines 
 still,' where the second distillation takes place. 
 I forgot to say that the refuse liquor left after 
 the first distillation is much valued by farmers 
 for its milk-producing qualities, and is bought 
 up by them for cow food. The refuse liquor 
 from the second distillation, however, is only 
 water, and the refuse liquor from the third 
 and final distillation is water also. 
 
 " The second distillation is like the first — the 
 same process of ' worm' cooling, conducting, 
 and charging is carried on. The third still is 
 known as the spirit still. The spirit is now 
 considered perfect, and is led oS' to the large 
 vats in the spirit stores, where it is reduced 
 to desired strength, racked off into casks, and 
 removed to bonded warehouses for maturity. 
 
 Such are the processes carried on here — such 
 are the processes carried on by all honest dis- 
 tillers during the last century ; but modern 
 science has discovered that many very common 
 — tasteless, I grant, but easily flavoured — vege- 
 tables will yield ardent spirits, and there are 
 not wanting those who will take advantage of 
 the discovery. 
 
 " Within a Distillery. But the distillery 
 itself, who can describe it — its stoi-y upon 
 story of granaries — its kilns, floored with 
 perforated tiles — its steeping vats and its low- 
 roofed malting sheds — its roaring mills — its 
 terrible and mysterious tanks — its inextricable 
 machinery — its innumerable rafters and false 
 roofs — its ladders perched up in inaccessible 
 places — its bewildering passages — and far 
 away, above all, its immense chimneys tower- 
 ing ap to the sky ? But this is not all — the 
 bonded warehouses have to be gone through. 
 The excise officer has to be called, and the 
 sealed lock has to be broken, and you enter 
 into the vast cool place. Black as night is 
 everything around you ; the lamps which the 
 attendants hold are utterly incapable of dis- 
 sipating the darkness, and only cast a strong 
 orange glare upon the faces of the men who 
 hold them. To show one the dimensions of 
 the place a man is sent to the opposite end. 
 Away he goes, only traceable by the lamp he 
 bears, and before he waves it to show that the 
 opposite end of the vault is reached, it has 
 become a scarcely discernible glimmer. As 
 we become more used to the darkness we see 
 straight passages leading in every direction, 
 and lined on every side by barrels piled almost 
 to the ceiling. 
 
 " The North Mall. The first of the Cork 
 distilleries I visited was the one at North 
 Mall, formerly, and, in fact, still known as 
 Wise's. It is in a western suburb of the 
 town out among the meadows. The Lee winds 
 its silvery course between tall alders close by 
 it, and a branch stream is made to do much of 
 the work of the immense manufactory. On 
 approaching it it has a picturesque efEect. It 
 lies underneath a tall bank, over which the 
 road to Sunday's Well leads. Looking down 
 from this road the whole of its vast dimensions 
 can be taken iu at a glance. The extensive 
 yard, where one would imagine enough coal 
 was stored to supply the whole city, is being 
 raised from the adjoining fields. 1 was looking 
 over an old history of Cork, published by a 
 certain Dr Smith, over a century ago, and I 
 find that formerly on this spot a Franciscan 
 monastery stood. Such discipline was pre- 
 served here that it was called the Mirror of 
 Ireland, and their sacerdotal character was so 
 great that they had the power of curing sore 
 eyes. The only remains of this ancient edifice 
 now visible is a carved stone built into the 
 wall of the great bonded warehouses in the 
 Sunday's Well Eoad. It was here that the 
 noted water oozed out of the red-stone rock. 
 Whether it is ever now used in making the 
 
WHITE ARSENIC— WHITE HELLEBORE 
 
 1767 
 
 agreeable beverage manufactured from the old 
 whUky stored below I did not asoertain. 
 These old Franciscan fathers had, donbtless, a 
 good cellar of their own; but what would they 
 have said of the vast, well- filled vaults which 
 now are found upon perhaps the identical spot ? 
 But, large as these are, they are not large 
 tnougli tJr the requirements of the distillery, 
 and other extensive premises have been secured 
 in Leitrim Street, which are now used as 
 bonded warehouses. 
 
 " The whisky produced at this distillery is, if 
 possible, still better now than it was in Wise's 
 time ; the same di'tiller who worked the con- 
 cern for him for twenty years is still there, 
 and none but the very finest description of 
 mult and barley (a large proportion of the 
 former) is used. Its production, as well as 
 those of the other two distilleries of the com- 
 pany, gained a first-class medal last year at 
 Philadelphia, and the jurors described it as 
 ' very fine, full flavour, and good spirit.' As 
 a naturul consequence, there is a demand for 
 this whisky all over the world, and there are 
 very few large towns in either hemisphere 
 where it is not represented by an agent. 
 
 "The ' Watercourse.' By-the-bye these lie 
 on our way to the celebrated Watercourse Dis- 
 tillery, the second of those used by this great 
 firm. Entering through the broad portals, 
 long ranges of old-fashioned buildings spread 
 out on every side. Hero is the mill, gaunt and 
 square and stolid; those jealously guarded 
 doors to the right are the bonded warehouses ; 
 the buildings across the yard are devoted to 
 the coopers' and smiths' work, which in all 
 three distilleries is done on the premises. 
 
 That tall black and white building far away 
 on the opposite side is the grain store ; this, 
 nearer to you, with the irregular roofs, the 
 complicated piping and open walled structures 
 running away overhead, is the distillery proper. 
 This distillery is about of equal size to th;it at 
 North Mall. It has an older and more vene- 
 rable appearance. It turns out as good and 
 extensive work, and, like it, is not satisKed 
 with the extensive storing facilities at its 
 command, but must needs go abroad to an old, 
 unused distillery, further in the suburbs, where 
 it hides most of its rich and treasured produc- 
 tions. A picturesque old place is tliis; the 
 ruins of the old works are still standing, and 
 their architecture is such that it only requires 
 a mantle of ivy to transform it into a remnant 
 of feudal savagi'ry. 
 
 " The MidLeton Distillery. The company 
 have handsome and extensive offices on Mor- 
 rison's Island, in the centre of the city, and 
 close to the water's edi;e. Here the directors 
 sit day after day, and the scores of clerks 
 attend to the intere>ts of 4000 customers. But 
 I cannot linger here, for I have another dis- 
 tillery to visit. Another, the brightest of 
 all, far out in the beautiful country, at the 
 town of Midleton, situate at the north-east 
 extremity of Cork's magical harbour. Ap- 
 
 proaching the distillery from the town, it has 
 somewhat the appearance of a fortress. A 
 massive stone gateway bars the entrance, and 
 heavy walls encompass it. But when once ad- 
 mi ttance is gained the sternness of the approach 
 vanishes. Great buildings loom aloft, but they 
 have all a bright look ; trees are on every side, 
 and handsome garden plots, and clinging ivy, 
 relieve the monotony of the high square struc- 
 tures. Here, I believe, is the largest still in 
 the world — certainly the largest in Ireland.' 
 No work was in progress at the time of my 
 visit, save the work of repairs and tlie st^rige 
 of coal. Here, as at Nor th Mall, water gives 
 considerable aid in driving the machinery, a 
 caual having been raised after considerable 
 engineering difficulties and much expense. 
 The vast works of Midleton Distillery cover 
 over eight acres. It was a hot July day when 
 I paid my visit, not at all the day to attempt 
 remarkable pedestrian feats. Will it be for- 
 given me, therefiire. if I forsook Irish whisky 
 for Irish hospitality ? Under the very shadow 
 of the tall manufactory, yet altiigttlier hidden 
 from it, there is a luring lawn, a cool shrub- 
 bery, and an elegant villa radiant witli flowers. 
 Is it not more pleasant to lounge ttirough con- 
 servatories than to climb staircases, to drink 
 iced claret cup than to sip raw spirit, or to 
 examine the points of a horse than to note the 
 intricacies of machinery ? Beyond the ;;arden 
 and the tennis court and the conservatory is a 
 grotto, so cunningly placed that none but the 
 initiated can find it; the air there isdeliciously 
 cool, 11 luxuriant growth of honeysuckle and 
 dog rose and fern surrounds yon, and at your 
 feet is a spring of as pure water as ever mortal 
 tasted. With pleasant societv, and chat and 
 gossip to while away the time, will it be 
 deemed strange that I stayed there until it 
 WHS impossible to see more of the distillery, 
 and that it would only be possible to catch my 
 last train by a hard and almost breok-neck 
 gallop ?" See Gin, Spibits, and Usqdb- 
 
 BAUQH. 
 
 WHITE AB'SENIC. Aesenious acid. 
 
 WHITE-BAIT. The Clupea Latulut (Clu- 
 pea alba, Yarrell), a very small and delicate 
 fish, common in the brackish waters of the 
 Thames from April to September. When 
 fried in oil it is esteemed a great luxury by 
 epicures, 
 
 WHITE COPPEE, See Geemak Siitee 
 and Packfong. 
 
 WHITE HEL'LEBOEE. Sgn. Veratbum 
 (Ph. L, & E.); Veeatei albi badix, L. 
 " The rhizome of Veratrum album, Linn., or 
 white hellebore." (Ph. L.) A powerlul acrid 
 cathartic, emetic, and sternutatory. It is now 
 seldom exhibited internally, and its external 
 use over a large or ulcerated surface is not 
 unaccompanied with danger. — Dose, \ to 2 gr. 
 of the powder, made into a pill ; in gout, 
 mania, &c. ; or 1 to 3 gr., carefully triturated 
 with 12 or 15 gr. of liquorice powder, as an 
 errhine, in amaurosis, &c. 
 
1768 
 
 WHITE LEAD— WHITEWASH 
 
 WHITE LEAD. Syn. Pine white, Flaee 
 
 W., CABBONATE OB LEAD, CeETTSE, MaSISTERT 
 OP LEAD; CeEITSSA, PltTMBI CAEEONAS (B. P., 
 
 Ph. E. & D.), L. Made by suspending rolls 
 of thin sheet lead over malt liquor, or pyro- 
 ligneous acid, in close vessels, the evaporation 
 from the acid being kept up by the vessels 
 being placed in a heap of dung, or a steam 
 bath. 
 
 Obs. Commercial carbonate of lead, how- 
 ever prepared, is not the pure carbonate of 
 lead, but always contains a certain proportion 
 of hydrate. It is generally largely adulterated 
 with native sulphate of baryta (' heavy spar '), 
 and sometimes with chalk. The former may 
 be detected by its insolubility in dilute nitric 
 acid, and the latter by the nitric solution 
 yielding a white precipitate with dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, or a solution of oxalic acid or 
 oxalate of ammonia, after having been treated 
 with sulphuretted hydrogen, or a hydrosul- 
 phuret, to throw down the lead. ** Pure car- 
 bonate of lead does not lose weight at a tem- 
 perature of 212° Fahr. ; 68 gr. are entirely 
 dissolved in 150 minims of acetic acid diluted 
 with 1 fl. oz. of distilled water ; and the solu- 
 tion is not entirely precipitated bv a solution 
 of 60 gr. of phosphate of soda." (Ph.E.) The 
 solution in nitric acid should not yield a pre- 
 cipitate when treated with a solution of sul- 
 phate of soda. — Used as a superior white paint, 
 and, in medicine, as an external astringent, 
 refrigerant, and desiccant. The particles of 
 carbonate of lead prepared by precipitation, 
 or by any of the quick processes, are in a 
 somewhat crystalline and semi-translucent 
 condition, and hence do not cover so well as 
 that just noticed. The following are some 
 of the varieties of ' white lead ' found in 
 commerce : 
 
 1. (Dutch white lead.) — a. (Finest.) 
 From flake white, 1 cwt. j cawk, 3 cwt. — 
 h. (Ordinary.) Flake white, 1 cwt. j cawk, 7 
 cwt. These form the best white lead of the 
 
 2. (EiKJLrsH WHITE LEAD.) Flake white 
 lowered with chalk. Covers badly, and the 
 colour is inferior to the preceding. 
 
 3. (Fkenoh white lead ; Blanc db 
 PLOMB, Fr.) Prom litliarge dissolved in vinegar, 
 and the lead thrown down by a current of 
 carbonic acid gas from coke. Does not cover 
 so well as flake white. 
 
 4. (Geaoe's white LEAD.) Miide from 
 sheet lead, with the refuse water of the starch- 
 maker's, soured brewer's grain, &c. 
 
 5. (HAMBUEa WHITE, HaMBUKO WHITE 
 
 LEAD.) From flake white, 1 cwt. ; cawk, 2 
 cwt. Also sold for best Dutch white lead. 
 
 6. (Venetian white, Venetian white 
 LEAD; Cerusa Veneta, L.) From flake 
 white, or pure white lead and cawk, equal 
 parts. (See below.) 
 
 White Precipitate of Lead. St/n. Minia- 
 ture painter's white. Sulphate op lead 
 From an acetic or nitric solntion of litharge. 
 
 precipitated by adding dilute sulphuric acid, 
 and the white powder washed and dried. The 
 clear liquid decanted from the precipitate is 
 poured on fresh litharge, when a second solu- 
 tion takes place ; and this may be repeated 
 for any number of times. Used in minia- 
 ture painting, being a beautiful and durable 
 white. 
 
 Wlii"ting. The same as prepared chalk, but 
 prepared more carelessly, in horse-mills. 
 
 White, Wilkinson's. From litharge ground 
 with sea water until it ceases to whiten, and 
 then washed and dried. 
 
 White, Zinc (Hubbucfs). A hydrated oxide 
 of zinc. It possesses the advantage of being 
 innocuous in use, and not being blackened by 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, like white lead. 
 
 WHITE PIG'MElTTS. Syn. Piomenta 
 ALBA, L. The following list embraces the more 
 important white pigments of commerce : 
 
 White, Alum. Syn. Baume'8 white. Take 
 of powdered Roman alum, 2 lbs. ; honey, 1 lb, ; 
 mix, dry, powder, calcine in a shallow dish to 
 whiteness, cool, wash, and dry. A beautiful 
 and permanent white, both in oil and water. 
 
 Wnite, Derbyshire. From cawk or heavy 
 spar, by grinding and elutriation. 
 
 White, Flake. The flner kinds of white lead 
 are so called. 
 
 White, Ilin'eral. Precipitated carbonate of 
 lead. 
 
 White, Newcastle. White lead made with 
 molasses vinegar. 
 
 White, Kottiugham. White lead made with 
 alegar. Permanent white is now commonly 
 sold for it. 
 
 White, Pearl. Syn. Faed's Spanish white. 
 Trisnitrate of bismuth. 
 
 White, Per'manent. Artiflcial sulphate of 
 baryta, prepared by precipitating chloride of 
 barium with dilute sulphuric acid, or a solution 
 of glauber salts. A good fast white, unchanged 
 by sulphurous fumes. Used to mark jars and 
 bottles for containing acids or alkalies, as it is 
 affected by very few substances ; also to adul- 
 terate white lead. 
 
 White, Spanish. Syn. Blanc d'Espa&nb, 
 Blanc de Teotes, Fr. Tiie softest and purest 
 white chalk, elutriated, made into balls, and 
 well dried. Used as a cheap white paint. 
 
 WHITE SWEL'LING. Syn. Htdraeiheus, 
 L. A variety of indolent, malignant, scrofu- 
 lous tumours, attacking the knee, ankle, wrist, 
 and elbow, especially the first. 
 
 WHITES (Sharp). Frep. 1. From wheaten 
 flour and powdered alum, equal parts, ground 
 together. 
 
 2. (Stupp; Bakee's stupp.) From alum, 
 ground to the coarseness of common salt, 1 lb. ; 
 common salt, 3 lbs. ; mix togeiiher. Both the 
 above are used by bakers for the purpose of 
 clandestinely introducing alum into their 
 bread. 
 
 WHITE'WASH. Whiting is made into a 
 milk with water, and a small quantity of 
 melted size or dissolved glue added. It is 
 
WHITING— WINDOWS 
 
 1769 
 
 applicJ to walls or ceilings with a broad, flat 
 brush, norked in a unirorm direction. Should 
 the surface have been previously whitewashed, 
 it is requisite first to remove the dirt by wash- 
 ing it with a brush and abundance of clean 
 water. 
 
 " LiMB-WASHiNQ is, from the cleansing ac- 
 tion of the quicklime, much the more effectual 
 mode of purification, but is less frequently 
 had recourse to, from the general ignorance 
 respecting the proper mode of preparing the 
 lime-wash. If glue is employed, it is destroyed 
 by the corrosive action of the lime, and, in 
 consequence, the latter easily rubs off the 
 walls when dry. This is the case also if the 
 lime be employed, as is often absurdly recom- 
 mended, simply slaked in water, and used 
 without any fixing material. Lime-wash is 
 prepared by placing some f roshly-buriied quick- 
 lime in a pail, and pouring on sufficient water 
 to cover it ; ' boiled oil ' (linseed) should then 
 be immediately added, in the proportion of a 
 pint to a gallon of the wash. For coarser 
 work, any common refuse fat maybe used in- 
 stead of the boiled oil. The whole should 
 then be thinm^d witli water to the required 
 consistency, and applied with a brush. Care 
 should be taken not to leave the brush in the 
 lime-wash for any length of time, as it destroys 
 the bristles." (W. B. Tegetmeier.) 
 
 WH1"TI1IQ. See White Pigments. 
 
 WHITING. The Gadus merlangus (Linn.), 
 a member of the cod family of fishes. It is a 
 very light and nutritious fish, and well adapted 
 to dyspeptics and invalids; but it has too 
 little flavour to be u, favourite with gour- 
 mands. 
 
 WHIT'LOW. Si/n. Whitloe; Parony- 
 chia, L. A painful inflammation, tending to 
 suppuration and abscess, at the ends of the 
 Angers, ami mostly under or about the nails. 
 Emollient poultices are useful in this affection ; 
 extreme tension and pain may be relieved by 
 an incision, so as to allow the exit of the pus 
 or matter from under the nail. The treat- 
 ment must also be directed to establish the 
 general health, as without this local remedies 
 often fail. 
 
 WHOOPING-COUGH. Sy». Chin-couoh, 
 HooplNO-o., KiN-o.; PERTtrsais, L. A con- 
 vulsive strangling cough, characterised by pe- 
 culiar sonorous or whooping inspirations, from 
 which its popular name is taken. It comes 
 on in fits, which are usually terminated by 
 vomiting. It is infectious, chiefly attacks 
 children, and, like the small-pox, only occurs 
 once during lile. 
 
 The treatment of whooping-cough consists, 
 chiefly, in obviating irritiition, and in exciting 
 nausea and occasional vomiting. For the 
 first, aperients and sedatives (hemlock or hen- 
 bane), in small doses, may be given ; for the 
 second intention, an extremely weak sweetened 
 solution of tartarised antimony, or a mixture 
 containing squills or ipecacuanha, may be ad- 
 ministered in small doses every hour or two, 
 
 according to the effect prodneed. In full 
 habits, blisters and leeches may be resorted to ; 
 and in all cases opiate and stimulating embro- 
 cations may be applied to the chest and spine 
 with advantage. Whenever the head is af- 
 fected, the use of narcotics is contra-indicated. 
 The hot bath is often serviceable. " A mix- 
 ture of cochineal and carbonate of potassa is 
 by some regarded as almost a specific for this 
 disease ; bat our own observations lead ns to 
 look with more favour on anatomical nau- 
 seants and emetics." (Cooley.) Other medi- 
 cinal agents employed in pertussis are alum, 
 bromide of ammonium, sulphate of zinc, bella- 
 donna, tincture of myrrh, carbolic acid, and 
 lobelia. See Antimonials, Dbauohts, Mix- 
 tube, O-VYMEL, SrB0p, Wines, &c. 
 WHOE'TLEBEEEY. (Bear's). .S>b. Vv-E 
 
 UttSI POLIA (B. P.), UVA I'KSI (Ph. L., 
 E., & D.), L. The leaf of Arciostophi/los 
 Uva Ursi, trailing arbutus, or Bearberry. 
 Astringent. — Done, 10 to 30 gr. of tlie 
 powder, thrice daily. See Decoction and 
 EXTBACT. 
 
 WIK'ANA. Syn. Wacaka des Inds, Fr. 
 Prep. (Uuibourt.) Roasted chocolate nuts 
 (ground), 2 oz. ; powdered cinnamon, 2 dr.; 
 powdered vanilla, \ dr. ; ambergris, 3 gr. ; 
 musk, 1\ gr. ; sugar, 6 oz. ; well mixed to- 
 gether. A teaspoonful is boiled with i pint 
 of milk, or arrow-root, as a stimulating diet 
 for convalescents. 
 
 WILD CHEEET. ThePcuniM rirginiana, 
 a beautiful tree, growing wild in the wustern 
 states of America. The inner bark (wild- 
 cherry bark) is officinal in the Ph. U. S., 
 and is a valuable sedative tonic. It is spe- 
 cially adapted for the alleviation of the dis- 
 tressing cough which is so harassing to pa- 
 tients with pulmonary disease. See Infusion. 
 
 WILD'FIEE EASE. Strophulus volaticus. 
 
 WILLOW. Si/n. Salix, L. The barks of 
 Salix alba or white willow, Salis fragilia or 
 crack willow, and Salix Caprea or great round- 
 leaved willow (willow BABK8 ; Salicis coe- 
 Tiois — Ph. E.), were otticinal in the Ph. D. 
 1826 ; and, with th:it of Salix Russelliana, and 
 other species, are rich in salicin, and hence 
 possess considerable febrifuge power. — Dose, 
 i to 1 dr., either in powder or made into a de- 
 coction ; as a substitnto for Peruvian bark, in 
 agues, hectics, debility, dyspepsia, &c. 
 
 WINDOWS. A prismatic or crystalline 
 appearance may be imparted to windows by 
 several expedients : 
 
 1. Mix a hot solution of sulphate of mag- 
 nesia (Epsom salt) with a clear solution of gum 
 Arabic, and lay it on hot. For a margin, or for 
 figures, wipe off the part you wish to remain 
 clear with a wet towel as soon as the surface 
 has become cold and hard. The efiect is very 
 pretty, and may be varied by substituting 
 oxalic acid, red or yellow prussiate of potash, 
 or any other salt (not efflorescent), for the 
 sulphate of magnesia. Sulphate of copper 
 
1770 
 
 WINE 
 
 gites a very beautiful crystallisation of a blue 
 colour. 
 
 2. Evenly cover the surface of the glass with 
 a layer of thin gum water, and sprinkle any of 
 the saline crystals before noticed over it whilst 
 wet. The gum water may be tinged of any 
 colour to vary the effect. 
 
 A blinded appearance, more or less resem- 
 bling ground glass, may be given as follows : 
 
 1. By evenly dabbing the surface with a 
 piece of soft glazier's putty. 
 
 2. A coating of stained rice jelly, laid on 
 with a painter's brush (sash tool), and after- 
 wards dabbed with a duster brush, applied 
 endways. 
 
 3. I'issue paper, either white or coloured, 
 applied by means of clear gum water or some 
 pale varnish. The pattern may be lined with 
 a pencil, and, when the whole is somewhat 
 dry, but not hard, the lines may be cut through, 
 and the pattern stripped off with the flat 
 point of a knife. 
 
 4. The surface of the glass being coated 
 with mucilage, or any pale varnish, as before, 
 coarsely powdered glass or quartz, reduced to a 
 uniform state of grain by a sieve, may be 
 sprinkled over it ; when dry, the loose portion 
 should be removed with a soft brush. 
 
 WINE. &KM. ViNTlM, L.; ViN, Fr. The 
 fermented juice of the grape. The general 
 
 characters and quality of wine are principally 
 influenced by climate, soil, and aspect the 
 nature and maturity of the grape, and the 
 method of conducting the fermentation. The 
 sp. gr, of the ' must ' varies from 1"0G3 to 
 1'285, from which the proportion of saccharine 
 matter and the ultimate alcoholic richness of 
 the wine resulting from its fermentation may 
 be inferred. That of Bbenish grapes seldom 
 exceeds 1'095 to I'lOO, Want of space com- 
 pels us to confine our remarks chiefly to the 
 properties, uses, and management of grape 
 juice after it has passed through tVie stage of 
 fermeutation, or, in reality, become wine. 
 
 Officinal Wine. The only wine ordered by 
 the British Colleges is sherry (whitb wine ; 
 TINUM XbEICUM — B. P., Ph. L. ; TINUM 
 ALBUM — Ph. E. ; TOTUM HlSPANICTTM — Ph. 
 D.) ; but several other wines are employed in 
 medicine, as tonics, stimulants, antispasmodics, 
 and restoratives, according to the circum- 
 stances of the case or the taste of the patient. 
 In pharmacy, the less expensive Cape or 
 marsala, or even raisin wine, is usually 
 substituted for sherry in the preparation 
 of the medicated wines of the Pharmaco- 
 poeias. 
 
 Varieties, characteristics, ^c. The following 
 Tables will convey much useful information 
 on this subject in a condensed form. 
 
 I. Table of the Quantity of Alcohol in Wine. By Dr. Cheistisoit. 
 
 Kanic, &c. 
 
 Port 
 
 Sherry 
 
 Madeira 
 
 very 
 
 {Weakest . 
 Mean of 7 samples 
 Strongest 
 White . 
 fWeakest . 
 
 Mean of 13 wines, excluding those 
 I long kept in cask 
 ,-{ Strongest .... 
 Mean of 9 wines long kept in cask 
 I the East Indies 
 LMadre da Xeres 
 
 J Long kept in cask in the East 'l_Stron!rest 
 ' [ Indies . 
 Teneriffe (long in cask at Calcutta) 
 
 Cercial 
 
 Lisbon (dry) ... 
 
 Shiraz . . , , . 
 
 Amontillado .... 
 Claret (a first growth of 1811) 
 Chateau-Latour (ditto 1825) 
 Rosan (second growth of 1825) 
 Ordinary Claret (Vin Ordinaire) 
 Rivesaltes .... 
 Malmsley .... 
 Kiideshcimer. 1st quality . 
 
 „ Inferior 
 
 Hamliaclipr. Superior quality 
 
 /We; 
 
 Alcnliol of 
 •7937 per 
 cent Ijy 
 weij'ht. 
 
 Proof spirit 
 
 per ceut. 
 
 by volume. 
 
 '"} 
 
 kest 
 
 14-97 
 16 20 
 17-10 
 14-97 
 13-98 
 
 15-37 
 
 16-17 
 
 14-72 
 
 16-90 
 
 16-90 
 
 14-09 
 
 13-84 
 
 15-45 
 
 16-14 
 
 12-95 
 
 12-63 
 
 7-72 
 
 7-78 
 
 7-61 
 
 8-99 
 
 9 31 
 
 12-86 
 
 8-40 
 
 6-90 
 
 7-35 
 
 31-31 
 
 34-91 
 37-27 
 31-31 
 30-84 
 
 33-59 
 
 35-12 
 
 31-30 
 
 37-06 
 37-06 
 30-86 
 3021 
 33-65 
 34-71 
 28-30 
 27-60 
 16-95 
 17-06 
 16-74 
 18-96 
 22-35 
 28-17 
 18-41 
 15-19 
 16-15 
 
WINE 
 
 1771 
 
 II. Quantity of Alcohol (ap. gr. .825' at 60° Fahr.) in 100 part, of Wine by volu. 
 
 
 ^ Names of Winc«. 
 
 
 Alcoholic content. 
 
 ' Authority. 
 
 
 Alba Flora 
 Baraac 
 Bucellas . 
 Burgundy (average) 
 
 Ditto 
 Calcavella (average) 
 Cape Madeira (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 17-26 
 13-86 
 18-49 
 14-57 
 1216 
 18-69 
 20-51 
 
 Brande. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 Fruiit. 
 Brande. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 Fontenelle. 
 Brande. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Cape Muechat . 
 
 
 
 
 18-25 
 
 
 Champagne (average 
 
 Ditto . 
 Claret (average) 
 Colares 
 Constantia (White) 
 
 
 
 
 1261 
 12-20 
 1510 
 19-75 
 19-75 
 
 
 Ditto (Red) . 
 
 
 
 
 18-92 
 
 uo. 
 
 do. 
 Front. 
 Brande. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (average) 
 Cdte E6tie 
 Currant 
 Elder 
 Frontignac (Rivesalt 
 
 
 
 
 14-50 
 12-32 
 2055 
 8-79 
 12-79 
 
 
 Gooseberry 
 
 
 
 
 11-84 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Grape (English) 
 
 
 
 
 18-H 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Hermitage (Red) 
 
 
 
 
 12-32 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (White) 
 
 
 
 
 17-43 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Honk (average) . 
 
 
 
 
 1208 
 
 do! 
 
 
 Lachryma Christ! 
 
 
 
 
 19-70 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Lisbon 
 
 
 
 
 18-94 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Lissa (avenige) . 
 
 
 
 
 25-41 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (do.) . 
 
 
 
 
 15-90 
 
 Front. 
 
 
 Lunel 
 
 Madeira (average) 
 
 
 
 
 15-52 
 22-27 
 
 Brande. 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 21-20 
 
 Prout, 
 
 
 Malaga 
 
 
 
 
 17-26 
 
 Brande. 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 
 18-94 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Malmsey Madeira 
 
 
 
 
 16-iO 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Marsala (average) 
 
 
 
 
 25-09 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 18-40 
 
 Frout. 
 
 
 Nice .... 
 
 
 
 
 un 
 
 Brande. 
 
 
 Orange (average) 
 
 
 
 
 11-26 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Port (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 20-64 
 
 Prout. 
 
 
 Ditto (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 22-96 
 
 Brande. 
 
 
 Raisin (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 25-41 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 15-90 
 
 Prout. 
 
 
 Red Madeira (do.) . 
 
 
 
 
 20-35 
 
 Brande. 
 
 
 Roussillon (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 1813 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Santcrne . 
 
 
 
 
 14-2J 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Shirnz 
 
 
 
 
 15-52 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Sherry (average) 
 
 
 
 
 19-17 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Ditto (do.) 
 
 
 
 
 23-80 
 
 Front. 
 
 
 Syracuse . 
 
 
 
 
 2000 
 
 do. 1 
 
 
 Ditto . 
 
 
 
 
 15-28 
 
 Brande. 
 
 
 Teneriffe . 
 
 
 
 
 19-79 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Tent .... 
 
 
 
 
 1330 
 
 do. 
 
 
 'J'oltay 
 
 
 
 
 9-88 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Vidonia 
 
 
 
 
 19-25 
 
 do. 
 
 
 Vin de Grave . 
 
 
 
 
 13-94 
 
 do. 
 
 Zante 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 17-05 
 
 do. 
 
 Alcohol of S^b rontnins 92 6^ of real or anhydrous alcobol; or, in the langaage of the Excise, is a'wut 62"^ o.p., 
 may be said to be of about twice the strength of brandy or rum, as usually sold. 
 
 and ID rouud numbers may t 
 
1772 
 
 wmE 
 
 Composition. The constituents of wine are 
 — alcohol, which is one of its principal ingre- 
 dients, and on which its power of producing 
 intoxication depends ; sugar, which has escaped 
 the process of fermentation, and which is most 
 abundant in the sweet wines, as tokay, tent, 
 frontignae, &c. ; extractive, derived chiefly 
 from the husk of the grape, and is extracted 
 from it by the newly formed alcohol ; tartar, 
 or bitartrate of potassa, which constitutes the 
 most important portion of the saline matter 
 of wine; odoriferous matter, imparting the 
 characteristic vinous odour, depending ciiiefly 
 upon the presence of cenanthic acid and ether ; 
 bouquet, arising from essential oil or amyl- 
 compounds, probably existing under the form 
 of ethers. IJesides these, small quantities of 
 tannin, gum, acetic and malic acid, acetic 
 ether, lime, &c., are found in wine. The 
 specific gravity of wine depends on the 
 richness and ripeness of the grapes used in 
 its manufacture, the nature of the fermen- 
 tation and its age. It varies from about "970 
 to 1-041. 
 
 Purity. The most frequent species of fraud 
 in the wine trade is the mixing of wines of 
 inferior quality with those of a superior grade. 
 In many cases the inferior kinds of foreign 
 wines are flavoured and substituted for the 
 more expensive ones. This is commonly 
 practised with Cape wines, which, after having 
 a slight ' nuttiness ' commuuicated to it by 
 bitter almonds or peach kernels, a lusciousness 
 or fulness by honey, and additional strength 
 by a little plain spirit or pale brandy, is made 
 to undergo the operation of 'fretting in,' and 
 is then sold for ' sherry.' Formerly, it was a 
 common practice of ignorant wine-dealers to 
 add a little litharge or acetate of lead to their 
 inferior wines to correct their acidity, but it 
 is believed that this highly poisonous substance 
 is now never employed in this country, ' salt 
 of tartar' being made to perform the same 
 duty. The lead which is frequently detected 
 in bottled wine, and which often causes serious 
 indisposition, may be generally traced to shot 
 being carelessly left in the bottles, and not to 
 wilful fraud. Sherry is commonly coloured 
 in Spain by the addition of must boiled down 
 to ^ of its original volume; and in England, 
 by burnt brown sugar, or spirit colouring. 
 Amontillado (a very nntty wine) is frequently 
 added to sherries deficient in fiavour. Various 
 other ingredients, as the essential oil of 
 almonds, bitter almonds in substance, cherry- 
 laurel leaves, cherry-laurel water, &c., are also 
 employed for a like purpose. In Portugal the 
 juice of elderberries is very commonly added 
 to port wine to increase its colour, and extract 
 of rhatany for the double purpose of improv- 
 ing its colour and imparting an astringent 
 taste. In England beet-root, Brazil wood, 
 the juices of elderberries and bilberries, the 
 pressed cake of elder wine, extract of logwood, 
 &c., are frequently added to port to deepen its 
 colour ; and oak sawdust, kino, alum, and ex- 
 
 tract of rhatany, to increase its astringency. 
 But the most common adulterant of port 
 wine, both in Portugal and this country, is 
 * jerupiga,' or ' geropiga,' a compound of elder 
 juice, brown sugar, grape juice, and crude 
 Portuguese brandy. That imported here con- 
 tains about 45§ of proof spirit, and is allowed 
 by the Custom-house authorities to be mixed 
 with port wine in bond. A factitious bou- 
 quet is also commonly given to wine by the 
 addition of sweetbriar, orris root, clary, 
 orange flowers, elder flowers, esprit de petit 
 grain, &c. 
 
 Tests. These, for the most part, are ap- 
 plicable to all fermented liquors: 
 
 1. Richness in alcohol. This may be found 
 by any of the methods noticed under Aico- 
 
 HOLMBTET, POETEB, and TlNCIUEB. 
 
 2. Sacchakine and exteactive mattee. 
 The sp. gr. corresponding to the alcoholic 
 strength, last found, is deducted from the real 
 sp. gr. of the sample, the difference divided by 
 ■0025, or multiplied by 400, gives the weight 
 of solid matter (chiefiy sugar) in oz. per gallon 
 (nearly). 
 
 3. Naecotics. These may be detected in 
 the manner noticed at page 1630. 
 
 4. Lead. The presence of lead or litharge 
 in wine may be readily detected by sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, or a solution of any alkaline sulph- 
 hydrate, which will, in that case, produce a 
 black precipitate. See Wine-tests. 
 
 5. Potassa or soda improperly present. 
 A portion of the wine is evaporated nearly to 
 dryness, and then agitated with rectified spirit ; 
 the filtered tincture, hohiiug in solution ace- 
 tate of potassa, is then divided into two por- 
 tions, one of which is tested for acetic acid, 
 and the other for the alkali. 
 
 6. Alum. A portion of the wine is eva- 
 porated to dryness, and ignited ; the residuum 
 is then treated with a small quantity of hydro- 
 chloric acid, the mixture evaporated to dry- 
 ness, again treated with dilute hydrochloric 
 acid, and tested with liquor of potassa. If 
 a white bulky precipitate forms, which is 
 soluble in an excess of caustic potassa, 
 and which is reprecipitated by a solution of 
 eal ammoniac, the sample examined contained 
 alum. 
 
 7. Oil op viteiol. — a. A drop or two of 
 the suspected wine may be poured upon 
 a piece of paper, which must then be dried 
 before the fire. Pure wine at most only stains 
 the paper, but one containing sulphuric 
 ai'id causes it to become charred and rotten. 
 The effect is more marked on paper which 
 has been previously smeared with starch paste. 
 
 h. According to M. Lassaigne, pure red wine 
 leaves, by spontaneous evafioration, a violet or 
 purple stain on paper; whilst that to which 
 sulphuric acid has been added, even in quantity, 
 
 only equal to 
 
 to sTx^oth part, leaves a 
 
 pink stain in drying. 
 
 8. SpBEioiis coloueing-mattbe. — a. Genu- 
 ine red wine yields greenish-grey precipitates 
 
WINE 
 
 1773 
 
 with sngjnr of lend, and greenish ones with 
 potassa ; but those coloured with elderberries, 
 bilberneg, litmus, logwood, and mulberries, 
 give deep blue or violet precipitates, and those 
 coloured witli Brazil wood, red sanders wood, 
 or red beet, give red ones. 
 
 A. Pure red wine is perfectly decoloured by 
 agitaiinn with recent hydrate of lime. 
 
 c. Diasolve a piece of caustic potash in a 
 small quantity of the liquid to be experimented 
 upon. If no deposit is formed, and the wine 
 assumes a greenish sliade, there is no arti- 
 ficial coloration. A violet-coloured deposit 
 indicates the presence of elderberries or mul- 
 berries, a red one indicates the presence of 
 beetroot for Brazil wood, red violet that of 
 logwood. If the deposit is blue violet, privet 
 berries have been employed; and if of a 
 pale violet the coloration is due to litmus. 
 
 d. For the detection of the principal colour- 
 ing matters employed in the sophistication 
 
 of wines, M. Cliancel proceeds as follows : 
 
 He takes 10 c. c. of wine, and adds 3 c. c. of a 
 dilute solution of subacetate of lead, allowing 
 the mixture to subside for a few minutes to 
 make sure that the precipitation is complete. 
 If this is not the case a slight excess of the 
 reagent is added. 
 
 After stirring and heating for a few moments 
 it is thrown on a very small filter, the fil- 
 trate collected in a test-tube, and the precipi- 
 tiite washed three or four times in hot water. 
 If the filtrate is coloured magenta is present, 
 and may be sought for by the aid of the spec- 
 troscope. But if the wine contains a mere 
 trace of this colour, it is retained in the pre- 
 cipitate, and is sought fo^ in the manner 
 directed below. To discover the colouring 
 matter which may be contained in the plum- 
 bic precipitate, it is treated upon the filter with 
 a few c. c. of a solution of carbonate of 
 p.itassa (2 parts of the dry salt to 100 of 
 water), taking care to repass the tame Solu- 
 tion several times through the precipitate. 
 Any magenta present is thus extracted, along 
 with carininaniic (ammoniacal cochineal) and 
 sulphindigotic acid. Tlie colouring matters of 
 logwood and of alkanet remain undissolved. 
 
 With a genuine wins the alkaline liquidtakes 
 a very faint yellow, or greenish-yellow tint. 
 For the detection of magenta the filtrate is 
 mixed with a few drops of acetic acid, and 
 it is then shaken up with amylic alcohol. The 
 magenta dissolves- in this alcohol with a fine 
 rose tint, and its presence is proved by spec- 
 troscopic examination. Carminainic and sul- 
 phindigotic acids remain in the aqueous solu- 
 tion, and are decanted off. A couple of drops 
 of sulphuric acid iire added, and the mixture 
 is again shaken up with amylic alcohol, which 
 now dissolves the ammoniacal cochineal. It 
 may be detected by the spectroscope. The 
 sulphindigotic acid remains undissolved in 
 the amylic alcohol, and may be found in the 
 blue aqueous residual liquor by meaus of the 
 
 spectroscope. Logwood Is most conveniently 
 sought for in a fresh portion of the wine by 
 digestion with a little precipitated carbonate 
 of lime, adding a few drops ol lime-water, and 
 filtering. In a natural wine the filtrate has a 
 faint greenish-yellow colour, but if logwood 
 is present it takes a fine red shade, and the 
 absorption bands of logwood may be detected 
 with the spectroscope. On treating the le.id 
 precipitate above mentioned with »d alkaline 
 sulphide, washing with boiling water, and 
 then trenting with alcohol, the colouring 
 matter of alkanet, if present, is dissolved, 
 and may be detected by spectroscopic exami- 
 nation.' 
 
 «. (Dr Dupre.) The colouring matter of pure 
 red wine does not pass through the dialyser. 
 The dialysate from pure wine is therefore 
 colourless or shows but » slight purplish 
 color ation, such as water would assume on the 
 addition of a small qnnntity of the wine. A 
 yellow or brownish-yellow dialvsate indicates 
 an adulteration with Ingwood, Brazil wood, or 
 cochin. Ill, the colouring matters of which may 
 bo icientified by the cliemical and optical tests 
 employed for this purpose. The ammoniacal 
 solution of the colouring matter of cochineal 
 yields three well-marked absorption bands. 
 
 f. Fur the detection in wine of fuchsine 
 only, the following methods are given by M. E. 
 Jacquemin: 1. A small quantity of gun 
 cotton is heated for a few minutes in 10 — 20 
 c. c. of the wine, and then washed with the 
 water. The nature of the coloration (if any) 
 imparted to the cotton is now identified by 
 means of solution of ammonia, which de- 
 colorises rosaniline, but turns archil violet. 
 
 2. 100 c. c. of the wine are boiled to expel 
 the alcohol, and then boiled for some time 
 with white Berlin wool, previously moistened 
 with water. The colour imparted to the wool 
 by fuchsine is retained after washing, and may 
 be distinguished from archil by ammonia. 
 
 3. 100 — 200 c. c. of the wine are boiled to 
 expel the alcohol, then allowed to cool, mixed 
 with ammonia in excess, and shaken with 
 ether. By immersing white wool in the 
 ethereal solution, and evaporating the latter, 
 the wool acquires the characteristic colour of 
 fuchsine. 
 
 9. Artificial platoueino. This can only 
 be detected by a discriminating and sensitive 
 palate. 
 
 10. Abtificial BOUQUET. The substances 
 added for this purpose may often be readily 
 detected by a comparison of the sample with 
 another of known purity. 
 
 Uses. The uses of wine as a beverage are 
 too well known to require desciiption. As a 
 medicine, port wine is most esteemed as an 
 astringent and tonic ; and sherry and Madeira 
 as stimulants and restoratives, in diseases 
 where the acidity of the former would be 
 
 1 'Coniptcs Rendus, February 19th, 1877 t' Cliem. 
 Xtws", XXXV, 106). 
 
1774 
 
 WINE 
 
 objectionable; ebampa^e is reputed diuretic 
 and excitant, but its effects are not of long 
 duration ; and the Rhenish wines are regarded 
 as refrigerant, diuretic, and slightly aperient. 
 Claret, Rhenish, and Moselle wines are said to 
 be the most wholesome. In pharmacy, wine 
 is used as a menstruum. 
 
 Management op winb. 
 
 Age. Tlie sparkling wines are in their prime 
 in from 18 to 30 months after the vintage, 
 depending on the cellaring and climate. Weak 
 wines, of inferior growths, should be drunk 
 within 12 or 15 months, and be preserved in a 
 very cool cellar. Sound, well-fermented, full- 
 bodied still wines are improved by age, within 
 reasonable limits, provided they be well pre- 
 served from the air, and stored in a cool place, 
 having a pretty uniform temperature. See 
 Maturation {below). 
 
 Bottling. The secret of bottling wine with 
 success consists in the simple exercise of care 
 and cleanliness. The bottles should be all 
 sound, clean, and dry, and perfectly free from 
 the least mustiness or other odour. The corks 
 should be of the best quality, and immediately 
 before being placed in the bottles should be 
 compressed by means of a ' cork-squeezer.' 
 For superior or very delicate wines, the corks 
 are usually prepared by placing them in a 
 copper or tub, covering them with weights to 
 keep them down, and then pouring over them 
 boiling water holding a little pearlash in 
 solution. In this state tbey are allowed to 
 remain for 24 hours, when they are well 
 stirred about in the liquor, drained, and re- 
 immersed for a second 24 hours iu hot water, 
 after which they are well washed and soaked 
 in several successive portions of clean and 
 warm rain water, drained, dried out of contact 
 with dust, put into paper bags, and hung up 
 in a dry place for use. The wine should be 
 clear and brilliant, and if it be not so, it must 
 undergo the process of 'fining' before being 
 bottled. In fact, it is a common practice with 
 some persons to perform this operation whether 
 the w ine require it or not ; as, if it had been 
 mixed and doctored, it "amalgamates and 
 ameliorates the various flavours." The bottles, 
 corks, and wine, being ready, a fine clear day 
 should be preferably chosen for the bottling, 
 and the utmost cleanliness and care should be 
 exercised during the process. Great caution 
 should also be observed to avoid shaking the 
 cask so as to disturb the • bottoms.' The re- 
 maining portion that cannot be drawn off clear 
 should be passed through the ' wine-bag,' and, 
 when bottled, should be set apart as inferior 
 to the rest. The coopers, to prevent breakage 
 and loss, place each bottle, before corking it, 
 in a small bucket, having a bottom made of 
 soft cork, and which is strapped on the knee 
 of the bottler. They thus seldom break a 
 bottle, though they ' flog iu ' the corks very 
 hard. When the process is complete the 
 bottles of wine are stored in a cool cellar, and 
 on no account upright, or in damp straw, 
 
 but on their sides, iu sweet, dry sawdust, or 
 sand. 
 
 Bouquet. See Flavouring and Petftim- 
 ing. 
 
 Brandying. Brandy is frequently added to 
 weak or vapid wines, to increase their strength 
 or to promote their preservation. In Portugal, 
 one third of brandy is commonly added to 
 port before shipping it for England, as with- 
 out this addition it generally passes into the 
 acetous fermentation during the voyage. A 
 little good brandy is also usually added to 
 sherry before it leaves Spain. By the regula- 
 tion of the Customs of England, lOg of 
 brandy may be added to wines in bond, and 
 the increased quantity is only charged the 
 usual duty on wine. The addition of brandy 
 to wine injures its proper flavour, and hence it 
 is chiefly made to port, sherry, and other wines, 
 whose flavour is so strong as not to be easily 
 injured. Even when brandy is added to wines 
 of the latter description, they require to be 
 kept for some time to recover their natural 
 flavour. To promote this object, the wine- 
 doctors employ the process called ' fretting in,' 
 by which they effect the same change in 3 or 
 4 weeks, as would otherwise require some 
 months, at the very least. 
 
 Cellaring. A wine-cellar should be dry at 
 bottom, and either covered with good hard 
 gravel or be paved with flags. Its gratings 
 or windows should open towards the north, 
 and it should be sunk sufficiently below the 
 surface to ensure an equable temperature. It 
 should also be sufficiently removed from any 
 public thoroughfare, so as not to suffer vibra- 
 tion from the passing of carriages. Should 
 it not be in a position to maintain a regular 
 temperature, arrangements should be made to 
 apply artificial heat in winter, and proper ven- 
 tilation in summer. 
 
 Colouring. Wines are as commonly doo- 
 tered in their colour as their flavour. A fawn- 
 yellow and golden-sherry yellow are given by 
 means of tincture or infusion of saffron, tur- 
 meric, or safflower, followed by a little spirit 
 colouring, to prevent the colour being too 
 lively. All shades of amber and fawn, to deep 
 brown and brandy colour, are given by burnt 
 sugar. Cochineal (either alone or with a little 
 alum) gives a pink colour ; beet-root and red 
 Sanders give a red colour ; the extracts of 
 rhatany and logwood, and the juice of elder- 
 berries, bilberries, &c., give a port-wine 
 colour. 
 
 Crusting. To make port wine form a crust 
 on the inside of the bottles, a spoonful of pow- 
 dered catechu, or i a spoonful of finely pow- 
 dered cream of tartar, is added to each bottle 
 before corking it, after which the whole is well 
 Hgitated. It is also a common practice to put 
 the crust on the bottle before putting the wine 
 into it, by employing a hot saturated solution 
 of red tartar, thickened with gum and some 
 powdered tartar. 
 
 Deacetification. This is effected by the 
 
WINE 
 
 1775 
 
 (illations addition of either lalt of tartar or 
 carbonate of goda. Wino bo treated soon gets 
 insipid by exposure and age; and, without. 
 care, the colour of red wines is thus frequently 
 spoiled. 
 
 Deacidifioation. See Detariarization {be- 
 low). 
 
 Deoaniing. This only refers to small 
 quantities of wine, ready for consumption. 
 In det^anting wine, care must be taken not 
 to shake or disturb the crust when moving it 
 about or drawing the cork, particularly of 
 port wine. Never decant wine without a 
 wine-strainer, with some clean fine cambric in 
 it, to prevent the crust and bits of cork going 
 into the decanter. In decanting port wine, 
 do not drain it too close ; as there are generally 
 two thirds of a wine-glassful of thick dregs in 
 each bottle, which ought to be rejected. In 
 white wine there is not much settling; but it 
 should nevertheless be ponred off very slowly, 
 the bottle being raised gradually. 
 
 JDecolourinff. The colour of wine is precipi- 
 tated by age and by exposure to the light. It 
 is also artificially removed by the action of 
 skimmed milk, lime water, milk of lime, and 
 fresh burnt charcoal. Wine merchants avail 
 themselves o( this property for the purpose ot 
 whitening wines that have acquired a brown 
 colour from the cask, or which are esteemed 
 pale; and also for turning 'pricked' red or 
 dark-coloured wines into white wines, in which 
 a small degree of acidity is not so much per- 
 ceived. In tills way brown sherry is com- 
 monly converted into pale or gold-coloured 
 sherry. For the hitter purpose, 2 to 3 pints 
 of skimmed milk are usually sufficient; but t« 
 decolour red wine 2 to 3 quarts or more will 
 he required, according to the nature and in- 
 tensity of the colour, or the shades of paleness 
 desired. Charcoal is seldom used, as it re- 
 moves the flavour as well as colour, but a little 
 milk of lime may sometimes be advantageously 
 substituted for milk, when the wine has 
 much acidity, more particularly for red wines, 
 which may even be rendered quite colourless 
 by it. 
 
 Detartariialion. Bhenish wines, even of 
 the most propitious growths, and in the best 
 condition, besides their tartar, contain a cer- 
 tain quantity of free tartaric acid, on the 
 presence of which many of their leading pro- 
 perties depend. The excess of tartar is gra- 
 dually deposited during the first years of the 
 vatting, the sides of the vessels becoming more 
 and more encrusted with it; but, owing to the 
 continual addition of new wine and other 
 causes, the liquid often gains such an escessof 
 free tartaric acid as to acquire the faculty of 
 redissolving the deposited tartar, which thus 
 again disappears after a certain period. The 
 taste and flavour of the wine are thus exalted, 
 but the excess of acid makes the wine less 
 agreeable in use, and probably less wholesome. 
 Amateurs and manufacturers should therefore 
 welcome a means of taking away the free 
 
 tartaric acid without altering, in any respect, 
 the quality of the wine. This is pure neutral 
 tartrate of potash. When this salt, in con- 
 centrated solution, is added to such a fluid as 
 the above, the free acid combines with the 
 nentral salt, and separates from the liquid 
 under the form of the sparingly solnble bitar- 
 trate of potash. " If to 100 parts of a wine 
 which contains one part of free tartaric acid 
 we add 1} part of neutral tartrate of potash, 
 there will separate on repose at 70° to 76° 
 Fahr., 2 parts of crystallised tartar; and the 
 wine will then contain only \ part of tartar 
 dissolved, in which there are only '2 part of 
 the original free acid ; '8 part of the original 
 free acid having been withdrawn from the 
 wine." (Liebig's 'Annalen.') This method 
 is particularly applicable to recent must and 
 to wines which do not contain much free acetic 
 acid ; but when this last is the case, so much 
 acetate of potash is formed as occasionally to 
 vitiate the taste of the liquor. 
 
 Fining. Wine is clarified in a similar manner 
 to beer. White wines are usually fined by 
 isinglass, in the proportion of about li oz. 
 (dissolved in 1\ pint of water, and thinned 
 with some of the wine) to the hogshead. Bed 
 wines are generally fined with the whites of 
 eggs, in the proportion of 15 to 20 to the pipe. 
 Sometimes hartshorn shavings, or pale sweet 
 glue, is substituted for isinglass. 
 
 Flatneti. This is removed by the addition 
 of a little new brisk wine of the same kind ; 
 or by rousing in 2 or 3 lbs. of honey ; or by 
 adding 5 or 6 lbs. of bruised sultana raisins, 
 and 3 or 4 quarts of good brandy, per bogs- 
 head. By this treatment the wine will usually 
 be recovered in about a fortnight, except in 
 very cold weather. Should it be wanted 
 soiiner, a table-spoonful or two of yeast may 
 be added, and the cask removed to a warmer 
 situation. 
 
 Flavouring. Varions ingredients are added 
 to inferior wines, to give them the flavour of 
 others more expensive, and to British wines, 
 to make them resemble those imported. Sub- 
 stances are also added in a similar manner to 
 communicate the aroma of the high-flavoured 
 grape wines. Among the first are bitter al- 
 monds, almond cake, or the essential oil of al- 
 monds, or, preferably, its alcoholic solution, 
 which are used to impart a ' sherry' or • nutty' 
 taste to weak- flavoured wines, as poor sherry, 
 white cape, and malt, raisin, parsnip, and other 
 similar British wines; rhatany, kino, oak saw- 
 dust and bark, alnm, &c., to convey astringency, 
 and — tincture of the seeds of raisins, to impart 
 a ' port wine ' flavour. Among the substances 
 employed to communicate the bouquet of the 
 finer wines, may be mentioned — orris root, eau 
 de fleurs d'oranges, neroli, essence de petit 
 grain, ambergris, vanilla, violet petals, essence 
 of cedrat, sweet briar, clary, and elder flowers, 
 quinces, cherry-laurel water, ic. By the skil- 
 ful, though fraudulent use of the above flavour- 
 ing substances and perfumes, the experienced 
 
1776 
 
 WINE 
 
 wine-brewer manages to produce, in tlie dark 
 cellars of London, from wliite cape, currant, 
 gooseberry, raisin, rhubarb, parsnip, and malt 
 wine, very excellent imitations of foreign wine, 
 and which pass current among the majority of 
 English wine-drinkers as the choicest produc- 
 tions of the grape, " genuine as imported." — 
 A grain or two of ambergris, well rubbed down 
 with sugar and added to a hogshead of claret, 
 gives it » flavour and bouquet much esteemed 
 by some connoisseurs. 
 
 Fretting-in. See Sweating-in (below). 
 
 Improving. This is the cant term of the 
 wine trade, under which all the adulteration 
 and * doctoring * of wine is carried on. A poor 
 sherry is improved by the addition of a little 
 almond flavour, honey, and spirit; a port 
 deficient in body and astringency, by the addi- 
 tion of some red tartar (dissolved in boiling 
 water), some rhatany, kino, or catechu, and a 
 little honey or foots, and brandy. See Mixing 
 (below). 
 
 Insensible Fermentation. See Maturation 
 (below). 
 
 Insipidity. See Flatness (above). 
 
 Maturation. The natural maturation or 
 'ripening* of wine and beer by age depends 
 upon the slow conversion of the sugar which 
 escaped decomposition in the 'gyle tun,' or fer- 
 menting vessel, into alcohol. This conversion 
 proceeds most perfectly in vessels which en- 
 tirely exclude the air, as in the case of wine 
 in bottles; as when air is present, and the 
 temperature sufficiently high, it is accompanied 
 by slow acetification. This is the case of wine 
 in casks, the porosity of the wood allowing 
 the very gradual permeation of the air. Hence 
 the superiority of bottled wine over draught 
 wine, or that which has matured in wood. 
 Good wine, or well-fermented beer, is vastly 
 improved by age when properly preserved; 
 but inferior liquor, or even superior liquor, 
 when preserved in improper vessels or situa- 
 tions, becomes acidulous, from the conversion 
 of its alcohol into vinegar. Tartness or aci- 
 dity is consequently very generally, though 
 wrongly, regarded by the ignorant as a sign 
 of age in liquor. The peculiar change by 
 which fermented liquors become mature or 
 ripe by age is termed the 'insensible fer- 
 mentation.' It is the alcoholic fermenta- 
 tion impeded by the presence of the already 
 formed spirit in the liquor, and by the low- 
 ness of the temperature. See Mipening (be- 
 low). 
 
 Mixing. Few wines are sold without ad- 
 mixture. It is found that the intoxicating 
 properties of wine are increased by mixing 
 them with other wines of a different age and 
 growth. In many cases the flavour is at the 
 same time improved. Thus, a thiu port is 
 improved by the addition of a similar wine 
 having a full body, or by a little Malaga, 
 Teneriffe, or rich sherry ; and an inferior old 
 sherry may he improved by admixture with a 
 little fuU-bodied wine of the last vintage. In 
 
 this consists the great art of ' cellar manage- 
 ment,* and to such an extent is this carried, 
 both abroad and in England, that it may be 
 confidently asserted that few wines ever reach 
 the consumer in an unmixed or natural 
 state. " 
 
 Mustiness. This may generally be removed 
 by violently agitating the wine for some time 
 with a little of the sweetest olive oil or almond 
 oil. The cause of the bad taste is the pre- 
 sence of an essential oil, which the fixed oil 
 seizes on, and rises with to the surface, when 
 it may be skimmed off; or the liquor under it 
 may be drawn off. A little coarsely powdered 
 fresh-burnt charcoal, or even some slices of 
 bread toasted black, will frequently have a 
 like effect. A little braised mustard seed 
 is also occasionally used for the same pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Perfuming. This is chiefly performed on 
 British wines for family use. For its appli- 
 cation to foreign wine, see Flavouring (above). 
 Wines may be perfumed by the simple addi- 
 tion of any odorous substances previously well 
 mixed with a little of the wine, or dissolved in 
 a few fluid ounces of rectified spirit. 
 
 Sacking. This should be performed in cool 
 weather, imd preferably early in the spring. 
 A clean syphon, well managed, answers better 
 for this purpose than a cock or faucet. The 
 bottoms, or foul portion, may be strained 
 through a wine-bag, and added to some other 
 inferior wine. 
 
 Ripening. To promote the maturation or 
 ripening of wine, various plans are adopted by 
 the growers and dealers. One of the safest 
 ways of hastening this, especially for strong 
 wines, is not to rack them until they have 
 stood 15 or 18 months upon the lees ; or, whe- 
 ther ' crude * or ' racked,' keeping them at a 
 temperature ranging between 50° and 60° 
 Fahr., in a cellar free from draughts and not 
 too dry. Another method is to remove the corks 
 or bungs, and to substitute bladder tied or 
 fastened air-tight over the openings. Bottled 
 wine, treated in this way, ripens very quickly 
 in a temperate situation. Some dealers add a 
 little dilute sulphuric acid to the coarser wines 
 for the same purpose ; but a small quantity of 
 concentrated acetic acid or tartaric acid would 
 be preferable, since these acids are found in all 
 wines. 4 or 5 drops of the former, added to 
 a bottle of some kinds of new wine, imme- 
 diately give it the appearance of being 2 or 3 
 years old. 
 
 Sopiness, viscidity; Graisse. This arises 
 from the wine containing too little tannin or 
 astringent matter to precipitate the gluten, 
 albumen, or other azotised substance, occa- 
 sioning the malady. Such wine cannot be 
 clarified in the ordinary way, because it is in- 
 capable of causing the coagulation or precipi- 
 tation of the finings. The remedy is to supply 
 the principle in which it is deficient. M, 
 Francois, of Nantes, prescribes the braised 
 berries of the mountain ash (1 lb. to the barrel) 
 
WFNE 
 
 1777 
 
 for this purpose. A little catechu, kino, or, 
 better still, rhutany, or the bruised footstalks 
 of the grape, may also be conveniently and 
 advantageously used in the same way. For 
 pale white wines, which are the ones chiefly 
 attacked by the muliidy, nothing equals a little 
 pure tannin or tannic acid dissolved in ))roof 
 spirit. Si'o Viscous peementation, JIalt 
 
 LIQUOBS, &c. 
 
 Boughenhig. See Plavouring (above). 
 Second fermentation ; La-pou»e. Inordi- 
 nate fermentation, either primary or secon- 
 dary, in wine or any other fermented liquor, 
 may be readily checked by sulphuration, or by 
 the addition of mustiird seed or sulphite of 
 lime. 1 oz. of brimstone, f to 1 lb. of bruised 
 mustard seed, and about 4 to 8 oz. of sulphite 
 of lime, are fully sufficient for a hogshead. 
 This sulistance seldom fails of arresting the 
 fermentation. — In addition to the above reme- 
 dies, a little sulphuric acid is sometimes em- 
 ployed, and the use of black oxide of manga- 
 nese, or chlorate of potash, has been proposed 
 on theoretical grounds. 
 
 Souring. This is either occasioned by* the 
 wine having been imperfectly fermented, or 
 from its having been kept in too warm a cellar, 
 where it has been exposed to draughts of air 
 or to continual vibrations, occasioned by the 
 passage ot loaded vehicles through the ad- 
 joining tbciruughfare. The remedy commonly 
 recommended in books for this purpose is to 
 saturate the acid with chalk, milk of lime, or 
 calcined ovster shells; but such additions, 
 made in sufficient quiintity to effect thisobject, 
 destroy the character of the wine, and render 
 it sickly and vapid. The best and only safe 
 remedy is u little neutral tartrate of potash, 
 cautiously added; or it may be mixed with a 
 considerable portion of full-bodied new wine ot 
 its class, adding at the same time a little 
 brandy, and in two or three weeks lining it 
 down, when it should bo either at once put 
 into bottles, or consumed as soon as possible. 
 !See IJeiicetificalion and Detartarisation. 
 {above). 
 
 Spitrkling, creaming, and hrislcness. These 
 properties are conveyed to wine by racking it 
 into closed vessels before the fermentation is 
 complete, and while there still remains a con- 
 siderable portion of undecomposed sugar. 
 Wine of this description, which has lost its 
 briskness, may be restored by adding to each 
 bottle a few grains of white lump sugar or 
 sugar candy. This is the way in which cham- 
 pagne is treated in France. The bottles are 
 afterwards inverted, by which means any sedi- 
 ment that forms falls into the necks, when the 
 corks are partially withdrawn, and the sedi- 
 ment is immediately expelled by the elastic 
 force of the compressed carbonic acid. If the 
 wine remains muddy, a little solution of sugar 
 and finings are added, and the bottles are 
 again placed in a vertical position, and, after 
 two or three months, the sediment is dis- 
 charged, as before. I 
 
 VOL. II 
 
 Stenatiag-in, The technical terms 'sweatiug- 
 in' and ' fretting in' are applied to the partial 
 prciduction of a second fermentation, for the 
 purpose of mellowing down the flavour of 
 foreign ingredients (chiefly brandy), added to 
 wine. For this purpose 4 or 5 lbs. of sugar 
 or hcney, with a little crude tartar (dissolve!), 
 are commonly added per hogshead ; and when 
 the wine is wanted in haste, a spomful or two 
 "f yeast, or a few brni<ed vine leave*, are also 
 mixed in, the cask being placed in a mode- 
 rately warm situation until the new fermenta- 
 tion is established, when it is removed to the 
 wine cellar, and, alter a few days, 'lined 
 down.' 
 
 Tante of Caek. The remedies for this ma- 
 lady are the same as those for mustiness. 
 
 *»* For further information connected with 
 the nature and mnnagementof wines, and other 
 fermented liquors, see Brewino, Fehmek- 
 TATioN, Malt liqcobs, Pohteii, Suoab, 
 SvBCP, Vmotra febmkntation, Viacoua 
 F., WOBT, Ybast, &c., and below. 
 
 Wine, British. Tbe various processes in 
 Britisli wine-making depend upon the same 
 principles, and resemble those employed for 
 foreign wine. 
 
 The PBUiT should be preferably gathered in 
 fine Wiather, and not until mature, as evinced 
 by its flavour; for if it be employed whilst un- 
 ripe, the resulting wine will be harsh, disagree- 
 able, and unwholesome, and a larger quantity 
 of sugar and spirit will be required to render 
 it palatable. The common practice of em- 
 ploying unripe gooseberries for the manufac- 
 ture of British champagne arises from a total 
 ignorance of the scientific principles of wine- 
 making. On the other hand, if ordinary 
 British fruit be employed in too ripe a state, 
 the wine is apt to be inferior, and deficient in 
 the flavour of the fruit. 
 
 The FKOIT, being gathered, at once under- 
 goes the operation of picking or garbling, 
 for tbe purpose of removing the stalks and un- 
 ripe or damaged portions. It is next placed 
 in a tub, and is well bruised, to facilitate the 
 solvent action of the water. Raisins are com- 
 monly permitted to soak about 24 hours pre- 
 viously to bruising them, but they may be ad- 
 vantageously bruised or minced in the dry 
 state. The bruised fruit is tlien put into a 
 vat or vessel with a guard placed over the tap- 
 hole, to keep back tlic busks and seeds of the 
 fruit when the must, juice, or extract is drawn 
 ofl''. Tlie water is now added, and the whole 
 is allowed to macerate for 30 to 40 hours, more 
 or less, during which time the magma is fre- 
 quently roused up with a suitable wooden 
 stirrer. The liquid portion is nest drawn ofip. 
 and the residuary pulp is placed in hair hags, 
 and undergoes the operation of pressing, to 
 expel the fluid which it contains. The sugar, 
 tartar (in very fine powder or in solution), &c., 
 are now added to the mixed liquora, and the 
 whole is well stirred or ' rummaged' up for 
 some time. The temperature being suitable, 
 
 112 
 
1778 
 
 WINE 
 
 the vinous fermentation soon commences, when 
 the liquor is frequently skimmed (if neces- 
 sary), and well ' roused' up, and, after 3 or 
 4 days of this treatment, it is run into casks, 
 which should be quite filled, and left purging 
 at the bung-hole. In about a week the fla- 
 vouring ingredients, in the state of coarse 
 powder, are commonly added, and well stirred 
 in; and in about another week, depending 
 upon the state of the fermentation, and the 
 attenuation of the must, the brandy or spirit 
 is added, and the cask is filled up, and bunged 
 down close. In four or five weeks more the 
 cask is again filled up, and, after some weeks, 
 (the longer the better), it is ' pegged' or 
 ' spiled,' to ascertain if it be fine or transpa- 
 rent; if so, it undergoes the operation of 
 racking ; but if, on the contrary, it still con- 
 tinues muddy, it must be either again bunged 
 up, and allowed to repose for a few weeks 
 longer, or it must pass through the process of 
 fining. Its future treatment is similar to 
 that already noticed under FoEEIGN WINE. 
 (See above.) 
 
 The must of many of the strong-flavoured 
 fruits, as black currants, mulberries, &c., is 
 improved by being boiled before being made 
 into wine. The flavour and bouquet of the 
 more delicate fruits are either greatly dimi- 
 nished or utterly dissipated by boiling. 
 
 General Formulae for the Freparation of 
 BeITISH wines : 
 
 1. From ripe saccharine fruits. Take of 
 the ripe fruit, 4 to 6 lbs. ; clear soft water, 
 
 1 gall. ; sugar, 3 to 5 lbs. ; cream of tartar 
 (dissolved in boiling water), IJ oz. ; brandy, 
 
 2 to 3^ flavouring, as required. If the full 
 proportions of fruit and sugar are used, the 
 product will be good without the brandy, but 
 better with it. li lb. of raisins may be sub- 
 stituted for each pound of sugar. 
 
 In the above way are made the following 
 wines : — Gooseberry wine (' British cham- 
 pagne'); — currant wine (red, white, or black); 
 — mixed fruit wine (currants and goose- 
 berries, or black, red, and white currants, ripe 
 Ijlack-heart cherries, and raspberries, equal 
 part), a good family wine ; — cherry wine ; — 
 ■colepress's wine (from apples and mulberries, 
 equal part) ; elder wine ; — strawberry wine ; — 
 raspberry wine; — mulberry wine (when fla- 
 voured, makes ' British port') ; — whortleberry 
 wine (bilberry wine), makes a good factitious 
 ' port' ; — blackberry wine ; — damson wine 
 (makes good factitious 'port') ; — morella wine ; 
 — apricot wine ;^apple wine; — grape wine, &c. 
 
 2. From dry saccharine fruit (as raisins). 
 Take of the dried fruit, 4i to 7i lbs.; clear 
 soft water, 1 gall. ; cream of tartar (dissolved), 
 1 oz.; brandy, 1^ to 4g. Should the dried 
 fruit employed be at all deficient in saccharine 
 matter, 2 to 3 lbs. of it may be omitted, and 
 half that quantity of sugar, or two thirds of 
 raisins added. In the above way are made — 
 ■date wine, — fig wine, — raisin wine, &e. 
 
 3. From ACIDtTlOUB, astemtgeni, or 
 
 SCAECELT EIPE PETTITS, Or those which are de- 
 ficient in saccharine matter. Take of the 
 picked fruit, 2i to 3i lbs. j sugar, 3i to 5i 
 lbs. ; cream of tartar (dissolved), J oz. ; water, 
 1 gall. J brandy, 2 to 6%. 
 
 In the above way are made — gooseberry 
 wine ('British champagne'); — bullace wine 
 (which makes an excellent ' factitious ' port') ; 
 — damson wine, &c. 
 
 4. From pootstai.es, leates, cuttings, 
 &c. By infusing them in water, in the pro- 
 portion of 3 to 6 lbs. to the gall., or q. s. to 
 give a proper flavour, or to form a good sac- 
 charine liquor; and adding 2^ to 4 lbs. of 
 sugar to each gaU, of the strained liquor. 1} lb. 
 of raisins may be substituted for each lb. of 
 sugar. 
 
 In the above way are made — grape wine 
 (from the pressed cake of grapes) ; — English 
 grape wine ; — rhubarb wine (' Bath cham- 
 pagne,' • patent c.'), from garden rhubarb ; — 
 celery wine, &c. 
 
 5. Prom SACCHAEINE BOOTS and stems of 
 PlANTS. Take of the bruised, rasped, or 
 sliced vegetable, 4 to 6 lbs. ; boiling water, 
 1 gall. ; infuse until cold, press out the liquor, 
 and to each gall, add of sugar 3 to 4 lbs. ; 
 cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; brandy, 2 to 5J. For 
 some roots and stems the water must not be 
 very hot, as they are thus rendered trouble- 
 some to press. 
 
 In the above way are made — beet-root wine 
 (' British Roussillon') ; — parsnip wine ('British 
 malmsey') ; — turnip w., &o. 
 
 6. From plowees, spices, aeomatics, &c. 
 These are prepared by simply infusing a suffi- 
 cient quantity of the bruised ingredient for 
 a few days in any simple wine (as that from 
 sugar, honey, raisins, &c.) after the active fer- 
 mentation is complete, or, at all events, a few 
 weeks before racking them. 
 
 In the above way are made — clary wine 
 (' muscadel'), from flowers, 1 quart to the 
 gall. ; — cowslip wine (flowers, 2 quarts to the 
 gall.; — elder-flower wine (' Frontignac '), 
 flowers of white-berried elder, f pint, and 
 lemon juice, 3 fl. oz., to the gall. ; — ginger 
 wine (ij oz. of ginger to the gall.) ; — orange 
 wine (1 dozen sliced oranges per gall.) ; — lemon 
 wine (juice of 12 and rinds of 6 lemons to the 
 gall.); — spruce wine(Joz. of essence of spruce 
 per gall.); — juniper wine (berries, f pint per 
 gall.) ; — peach wine (4 or 5 sliced, and the 
 stones broken, to the gall.); — apricot wine 
 (as peach wine, or with more fruit) ; — quince 
 wine (12 to the gall.); rose clovegillyflower, 
 carnation, lavender, violet, primrose, and 
 other flower wines (distilled water, IJ pint, 
 or flowers, 1 pint to the gall.);— balm wine 
 (balm tops, 4 oz. per gall.) &o. 
 
 7. From SACCHAEINE juices, or INPUSIONS, 
 
 or from fermented liquors. Take of the juice 
 or liquor, 1 gall. ; honey or sugar, 2 to 3 lbs. 
 (or raisins, 3 to 5 lbs.) ; cream of tartar, 1^ oz. ; 
 brandy, 2 to 4g. 
 
 In this way are made— English grape wine; 
 
WINE 
 
 1779 
 
 —mixed fruit wine — pine-npple wine ; — cider 
 wine; — elder wiue ;— birch wine (from tile 
 sip, at tlie end uf Fubrunry or beginning of 
 M.ircii); sycamore wine (from the sap); — 
 malt wine (' English Maileira '), from strong 
 wort; — and the wines of any of tlie saccha- 
 rine jaices of ripe fruit. 
 
 8. From bimplk bacchaeine matteb. Take 
 of sui^ar, 3 to 4 lbs. ; cream of tartar, i oz. ; 
 water, 1 gall. ; honey, 1 lb. ; brandy, 2 to i%. 
 A handful of grape leaves or cuttings, bruised, 
 or a pint of good malt wort, or mild alf, 
 may be substituted for the honey. Chiefly used 
 as the basis for other wines, as it has little 
 flavour of its own ; but makes a good ' British 
 champagne,' 
 
 Obs. In all the preceding formnlis lump 
 sugar is intended when the wines are required 
 very pale, and good Muscovado sugar when 
 this is not the case. .Some of the preceding 
 wines are vastly improved by substituting 
 good cider, perry, or pale ale or malt wort, 
 for the whole or a portion of the water. Good 
 porter may also be advantageously used in 
 this way for some of the deep-coloured red 
 winea. When expense is no object, and ver\ 
 strong wines are wanted, the expressed juices 
 of the ripe fruits, with the addition of 3 or 
 4 lbs. of sugar per gall., may be substituted 
 for the fruit in substance, and the water. 
 
 Examples of Beitibh imitations of ro- 
 
 EEIQN WINES : 
 
 Amebioan honey wine. From good honey, 
 21 lbs. ; cider, 12 galls. ; ferment, then add, ol 
 rum, 5 pints ; brandy, 2 quarts ; red or white 
 tartar (dissolved), 6 oz. j bitter almonds and 
 cloves, of each, bruised, i oz. ; powdered cap- 
 sicum, 3 dr. This is also called ' mead wine.' 
 With the addition of 3 oz. of unbleached 
 Jamaica ginger (finely grated), it forms the 
 best American ginger wine. 
 
 Beitish Burgundy. By adding a little 
 lemon juice, and a ' streak ' of orris or orange- 
 flower water, to ' British port,' the ingenious 
 wlne-hrewer converts it into ' British Bur- 
 gundy.' It is also made by mixing together 
 equal parts of ' British port 'and claret. 
 
 Beitish oapb. 1. (Wliite.) Raisin wine, 
 well attenuated by fermentation, either alone 
 or worked up with a little cider and pale malt 
 wort. 
 
 2. (Red.) British white cape, sound rough 
 cider and mulberry wine, equal parts; well 
 mixed and lined down. 
 
 Beitish champagne. 1. Prom stoned 
 raisins, 7 lbs.; loaf sugar, 21 lbs.; water, 
 9 galls. ; crystallised tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; 
 cream of tartar, 4 oz. ; Narbonne honey, 1 lb. ; 
 sweet yeast, J pint; ferment, skimming fre- 
 quently, and, when the fermentation is neaily 
 over, add, of coarsely powdered orris root, 
 1 dr.; eau de fleurs d'oranges, i pint; and 
 lemon juice, 1 pint; in 3 months fine it down 
 with isinglass, i oz. ; in 1 month more, if not 
 sparkiinu', a^rain line it down, and in another 
 fortnight bottle it, observing to put a piece of 
 
 double-refined white sugar, the size of a pea, 
 into each bottle; lastly, wire down the corks, 
 and cover them with tinfoil, after the manner 
 of champagne. 
 
 2. As the preceding, but substituting 32 lbs. 
 of double-retined sugar lor the sugar and 
 raisins thereni ordered, with the addition of 3 
 galls, of rich pale-coloured brandy. 
 
 3. From amber hairy champagne goose- 
 berries, English grape juice, or the stalks of 
 garden rhubarb, and lump sugar; with a little 
 sweetbriar, orris, or orange-flower water, to 
 impart a slight bouquet. The last forms 
 what is known as 'patent' or ' Bath cham- 
 pagne.' 
 
 4. (Pink.) To either of the preceding add 
 red currant juice, q. s. to colour ; or 1 oz. of 
 coarsely powdered cochineal to each 10 or 12 
 galls, at the time of racking. 
 
 Obs, It is notorious that two bottles of 
 wine out of every three sold for * genuine 
 champagne ' in Engl.tnd is of British manu- 
 facture. " We have ourselve-* seen sparkling 
 gooseberry, rhubarb, and white sugar wines, 
 sold for imported champagne, at 7s. 6d. per 
 bottle, and the fraud has parsed undetected, 
 even by habitual wine drinkers. (Cooley.) 
 
 Beitish olabet. 1. Rich old cider or perry 
 and port wine, equal parts. 
 
 2. To each gall, ot the last add of cream of 
 tartar (genuine), 3 dr., with the juice of 1. 
 lemon. Sometimes J pint of French brandy 
 is also added. 
 
 Obs. If Hiese mixtures are well fined down, 
 and mot bottled for at least a month or 5 
 weeks, they closely resemble good ' Bordeaux.' 
 A mixture of 4 pans of raisin wine, with 1 
 part each of raspberry and barberry or dam- 
 sou wine, also terms, when so treated, an 
 excellent factitious ' claret.' 
 
 British cypecs. From the juice of white 
 elderberries, 1 quart, and Lisbon sugar, 4 lbs., 
 to water, 1 gall. ; together with i dr. each 
 of bruised •;iiit'er and cloves. When racked, 
 add minced raisins and brandy, of each 
 2 oz. 
 
 Beitish bock, British erd hoce. From 
 cream of tartar, IJ oz. ; tartaric acid, J oz. 
 (both in extremely fine powder); juices c.f the 
 purple plum, ripe apples, and red beet, of 
 each (warmed), 5 pint~; lemoa juice, 1 pint; 
 with white sugar, 2.^ lbs. pir giill. 
 
 British madeira. From very strong pale 
 malt wort, 36 galls., sugar candy, 28 lbs., and 
 cream of tartar, 3 oz. ; fermented with yeast, 
 2 lb., adding, when the fermentation is nearly 
 tinished, raisin wine, 2^ galls. ; brandy and 
 sherry wine, ofeach 2 galls. ; rum and brandy, 
 of each 3 pints; after 6 or 9 months, fine it 
 down, and in another niont'.i bottle it. See 
 Beitish sheeby (6e/o«j). 
 
 British malmsey. From sliced or grated 
 parsnips, 4 lbs. ; boiling water, 1 gall. ; when 
 cold, press out the liqunr, and to each gallon 
 add of cream of tartar, i oz., and good Musco- 
 vado sugar, 3 lbs.; ferment, rack, and add of 
 
1780 
 
 WINES 
 
 brandy, 3 to 5J. Good Malaga raisins may 
 be substituted for the sugar. 
 
 Beitish bed moselI/B. The last, coloured 
 with clarified elderberry juice. 
 
 Bbitish spaeklino moselle. From rich 
 cider apples (carefully peeled and garbled), 
 pressed with l-4t,h of their weight of wliite 
 magnum-bonum plums (previously stoned), 
 and the juice fermented with 2i lbs. of 
 double. refined sugar pw gall., as champagne. 
 
 Bbitish mxisoadel. As ' British sparkling 
 Moselle,' with some infusion of clary, or of 
 the musk plant, to ilavour it. 
 
 Bbitish post, London p., Southampton 
 p. 1. From red cape, 2 galls. ; damson or elder 
 wine, 1 gall. ; brandy, i pint ; powdered kino, 
 ioz. 
 
 2. Strong old cider, 6 galls. ; elderberry 
 juice, 4 galls.; sloe juice, 3 galls.; sugar, 
 28 lbs. ; powdered extract of rhatany, 1 lb. ; 
 at the time of racking add, brandy, i gull. ; 
 good port wine, 2 galls. 
 
 3. Cxood port, 12 galls. ; rectified spirit, 6 
 galls. ; French brandy, 3 galls. ; strong rough 
 cider, 42 galls. ; mix in a well-sulphured cask. 
 (' Publican's Guide.') 
 
 4. Port wine, 8 galls. ; brandy, 6 galls. ; 
 sloe juice, 4 galls.; strong rough cider, 45 
 galls.; as the last. ('Licensed Victuallers' 
 Companion,') 
 
 5. Cider, 24 galls. ; juice of elderberries, 
 
 6 galls. ; sloe juice, 4 galls. ; rectiKed spirit, 
 3 galls. ; brandy, 1^ gall. ; powdered rhatany. 
 
 7 lbs.; isinglass, 4 oz., dissolved in a gall, 
 of the cider ; bung it down ; in 3 months it 
 will be fit to bottle, bnt should not be drnnk 
 until the next year ; if a rougher fiavour is 
 required, the quantity of rhatany may be in- 
 creased, or alum, 5 or 6 oz. (dissolved), may 
 be added. 
 
 Bbitish sheebt. 1. From cape or rnisin 
 wine, slightly flavoured with a very little 
 bitter-almond cake, or, what is more con- 
 venient, a. little of the essential oil dissolved 
 in alcohol (essence of bitter almonds). A 
 mere ' streak ' or ' thread ' of sweet-briar, 
 eau de fleurs d'oranges, or orris, is occa- 
 sionally added by way of bonquet ; but care 
 must be taken not to overdo it. 
 
 2. To each gallon of strong raisin must, 
 add, when racking, 1 Seville orange, and 3 
 or 4 bitter almonds, both sliced. By omitting 
 the almonds, and adding 1 green citron to 
 each 2 or 3 gallons, this forms ' British 
 madeira.* 
 
 3. Very strong pale malt wort, 36 galls. ; 
 finest Muscovado sugaif, 1 cwt. ; yeast, 1 pint; 
 ferment; on the third day add of raisins, 
 stoned, 14 lbs., and in another week add, ol 
 rectified spirit, 1 gall., vum, i gall,, and bitter 
 almonds, grated, li oz. ; bung down for 4 
 months, then draw it off into another cask, 
 add of brandy, 1 gall., and in 3 months bottle 
 it. 
 
 4. Teneriffe, slightly flavoured with cherry- 
 laurel or bitter almonds, forms an excellent 
 
 ' British sherry,' either alone or diluted with 
 an equal quantity of cape or raisin wine, or 
 good perry- 
 
 Beitish tokat. To good cider, 18 galls. ; 
 add, of elderberry juice, i gall. ; honey, 28 
 lbs. J sugar, 14 lbs.; red argol (powdered), 
 f lb.; ci'ystallised tartaric acid, 3 oz. ; mix, 
 boil, ferment, and, when the active fermen- 
 tation is complete, add of brandy, 1 gall., and 
 suspend in the liquor, from the bung-hole, a 
 mixture of cassia and ginger, of each i oz. ; 
 cloves and capsicum, of each i oz. ; the whole 
 bruised, and loosely enclosed in a coarse 
 muslin bag. It wUl be ripe in 12 months. 
 
 Obs. Some of the preceding formulae, by 
 skilful management, produce very good imi- 
 tations of some of the imported wines; but 
 (prejudice aside) many of the British fruit 
 wines possess an equally agreeable flavour, 
 and are frequently more wholesome. All 
 British wines require to be kept at least a 
 year, to ' mellow.' Much of the superiority 
 of foreign wines arises from its age. 
 
 WIHES (Culinary). Syn. Wines pob 
 kitchen use. These are prepared in a simi-^ 
 lar manner to the medicated wines noticed 
 below. 
 
 Wine, Basil. Frep. From green basil leaves, 
 4 or 5 oz. ; sherry, cape, or raisin wine, 1 
 pint ; digest for 10 days, press, and strain. 
 Used to give a turtle flavour to soups and 
 gravies. In a similar way may be made the 
 wines of celery leaves, celery seed, sage, 
 shallots, and the various green and dried 
 herbs used in cookery. 
 
 Wine, Cayenne. I'rep. From capsicum or 
 cayenne, 1 oz. ; cape, 1 pint ; steep for a fort- 
 night, and strain. 
 
 Obs. In a similar way may be made currie 
 (powder), ragout (spice), and several other 
 similar wines used in the kitchen. 
 
 WINES (Medicated). St/n. Impbegnated 
 WINES ; Vina medicata, L. The medicated 
 wines of pharmacy are prepared by cold mace- 
 ration, in well-closed vessels, in precisely the 
 same way as the tinctures. In the Ph. L. of 
 1 824, a diluted spirit was substituted for wine, 
 without altering the name of the preparation ; 
 but the use of wine (sherry) was restored in 
 that of 1836. The druggists commonly use 
 cape or raisin wine as a menstruum, from its 
 being cheaper than sherry, and, perhaps, 
 scarcely less power as a solvent. The 'vinum' 
 of the Ph. U. S. was formerly Tenerilfe. Dr 
 B. Lane's process for preparing medicated 
 wines by fermentation is noticed at the end of 
 the alphabetical list given below, 
 
 " Medicated wines should be kept in stop- 
 pered glass vessels, and be frequently shaken 
 during maceration." (Ph. L.) 
 
 The following are the principal medicated 
 wines at present in use : 
 
 Wine of Acetate of Iron. S^n. Vinum 
 FEEEi ACETATis. (Soubciran.) Prep. Ace- 
 tate of iron, 32 gr. white wine, 16 oz. 
 
 Wine, Alkaline Diuretic, Si/n. Vinum al- 
 
WINES 
 
 1781 
 
 KALINUM DITTBBTICTTM (Sydenham). Prep. 
 Asbes of broom, 12 oz. ; Rheuisb wine, 4 pints. 
 —Dote. 3 oz. twice a day. 
 
 Wine of Al'oes. Syn. Vinum aloes (B. P., 
 
 Ph. h. & E.), TlNCTUKA SACRAf, TiNCT. 
 
 HIKK* tiOUMf, L. JPrep. 1. (B. P.) Soco- 
 trine aloes, IJ oz. ; ginger, in coar^e powder, 
 80 gr. ; ciirdamoin seeds, bruieed, 80 gr. ; 
 sherry, 40 oz. ; digest seven diiyi, strain, and 
 make it up to 40. — Do»e, 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Powdered Socotrine or hepatic 
 aloes, 2 oz. ; powdered canella, i oz. ; sherry, 
 1 quart ; macerate for 14 days, and filler. 
 In the Ph. E. cardamoms and ginger, of each 
 li dr., are substituted for cauclla. — Dose. As 
 a purgative, i to 2 fl. oz. j as a stomachic, 1 
 to 2 H. dr. 
 
 Wine of Aloes (AlTialine). Sy». Vinum 
 ALOES ALKALiNnM, L. jPrep. (Dr A. T. 
 Thomson.) Carbonate of soda, 3 oz. ; myrrh 
 and extract cf aloes, of each 6 dr. ; sesqui- 
 carboiiate of ammonia, 4i dr. ; sherry, 24 
 ft. oz. (say li pint) ; macerate, as before. 
 In dyspepsia, chlorosis, &c. — Dose. As the 
 last. 
 
 Wine, Antimo"nial. Syn. Tabtak emetic 
 WINE ; Wine ov potasbio-tabxbatk of 
 
 ANTIMONY ; VlKUM ANTIMONII POTASSIO- 
 TAETKATIS (Ph. L.), V. ANTIMONIALE (B. P., 
 Ph. E.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Tartarated 
 antimony, 2 gr. ; sherry, 1 oz. — Dose, 10 to 
 60 minims. (In consequence of the insolu- 
 bility of the tarrarated antimony in the sherry. 
 Squire recommends it to be dissolved in about 
 ten times its weight of hot water, and tliat the 
 wine be added to the solution.) 
 
 2. (Ph. L. &. E.) Potassio-tartrnte of anti- 
 mony, 40 gr. ; sherry, 1 pint ; dissolve. Each 
 fluid oz. contains 2 gr. of emetic tartar. — 
 Dose. As a diaphoretic and expectorant, 
 10 to 30 drops, frequently ; as a nauseant, 1 
 to 2 fl. dr. ; as an emetic, 2 to 4 fl. dr. The 
 corresponding compound of the Ph. D. is 
 
 ANTIMONII TABTAEIZATI LIQUOB. See SO- 
 LUTION OF POTASSIO-TARTBATK OF AnII- 
 MONr. 
 
 Wine, Antiscorbutic. Si/n. Vinum anii- 
 BCOBBUTicuM (P. Cod.). Prep. Frcisli horse- 
 radish root, 3 oz. ; scurvy-grass, IJ oz. ; water- 
 cress leaves, li oz. ; buokbean, IJ oz. ; mustard 
 seed, li oz. ; chloride of ammonium, 5i dr. ; 
 wiuo, 6 pints; compound spirit of scurvy- 
 grass, IJ oz. 
 
 Wiae, Aromatic. 8i/n. Vinum aeomatioum. 
 (P. Cod.) Prep. Aromatic speiies, 1 oz. j 
 vulnerary tincture, 1 oz. j red wine, 10 oz. l?or 
 outward use. M. Rieord sometimes adds from 
 1 to 6 per cent, of tannin. 
 
 Wine of Bark. Syn. Vinum ciNcnoNa: 
 (P. Cod.) Yellow bark, 3 oz.; proof spirit, 6 
 oz. (by weight). Macerate 24 hours and add, 
 red wine, 5 pints. Macerate for 10 days, 
 shaking it occasionally; strain with expression, 
 and filter. 
 
 Wine of Bark (Compound). Si/n. Vinum 
 CINCUON.I: C0MP08ITUM. (P. Cod.) Prep. 
 
 Yellow bark, 1 oz.; bitter orange peel, 44 gr. ; 
 chamouiiles, 4t gr ; alcohol, (-864) 1 oz. (by 
 weight); white wine, 9 oz. (by weight). 
 Macerate for 10 days. 
 
 Wine of Bark, Unriated. %». Vinum oi.v- 
 OHONi; mubiatcm. Prep. Ammonio-citrate 
 of iron, i oz. ; wine of pale Ptmvian bark, 5 
 pints (made with double the quantity of bark 
 contained in the yellow); di-olve the am- 
 monio-citrate in twice its weight of distilled 
 water, and add to the wine. 
 
 Wine of Bitter Sweet. Si/n. Vinum dul- 
 CiMAE^B (Dr Currie). Prep. Dulcamara 
 stalks and leaves, 1 lb.; sherry, 2 pints. 
 Macerate for 14 days, and strain. 
 
 Wine of Bacha. Si/n. Vi.num buchu 
 (Brandes). Prep. Buchu leaves, 2i oz. ; 
 white wine, 1 pint. 
 
 Wine of Cackina. Syn. Visum caciNjE. 
 Prep. Ciichina, bruised, 1 oz.; Malaga wine, 
 16 oz. Macerate for 6 days, and strain. 
 
 Wine, Camphorated. Si/n. Vinum cam- 
 PUOEATUM. (Ph. G.) Camphor and gum 
 acacia in powder, of each J nz. Mix accurately 
 and gradually. Add 24 oz. (by weight) of 
 white wine. 
 
 Wine of Cascarilla. St/n. Vinum casca- 
 EILLJi (Ueruardean). Prep. Cascarilla, 1 oz. ; 
 Malaga wine, 1 pint. — Dose, 1 oz., twice a 
 day in consumption. 
 
 Wine of Catechu. St/n. Vinum catechu 
 (Soubeiran). Prep. Tincture of eiitichu, 1 
 part; red wine, 12i pans. Mix, and after a 
 few d:iy», filter. 
 
 Wine of Centaury (Compound). SytK 
 Vinum centaubiicompo6iidm. Hoffman's 
 ELIXIB VISCEBALE. Prep. Centaury, orange 
 peel, extract of blessed thistle, jientian, myrrh, 
 cascarilla, each 1 dr. ; slierry, 2 pints. 
 
 Wine, Chalyb'eate. See Wike uf ibon. 
 
 Wine of Cinnamon. St/n. Vinum cinna- 
 MOMI (Beral). Prep. Cinnamon, 1 oz. ; ali- 
 cant wine, 16 oz. ; mucerute aud filter. Sugar 
 is sometimes added. 
 
 Wine of Citrate of Iron. 5yn. Vinum 
 PEKRi oitbatis. (B. p.) Dissolve 140 grains 
 of citrate of iron and ammonia in 1 pint of 
 orange wine ; let the solution remain for 3 
 days in a closed vessel, shaking occasionally j 
 then filter. 
 
 Wine of Col'chicnm. Syn. Wine of col- 
 
 CHIOUM BOOT; ViBUM COLCHICI (B. P.); 
 
 Vinum eadiois colchici (Ph. L. & E.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Colchicum corms, dried and 
 sliied, 4 ; sherry, 20 ; macerate seven days 
 and strain. — Dose, 20 to 30 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Dried corms of meadow safi'ron 
 (sliced), 8 oz. ; sherry wine, 1 quart ; macerate 
 7 days, and strain (press strongly the resi- 
 duum and filter the mixed liquor — Ph. E.). 
 A powerful sedative and purgative. — Dose, 
 i to 1 fl. dr. ; in gout, acute rheumatism, and 
 other painful and inflammatory aud nervous 
 afi'ections. 
 
 Oba. The celebrated eau medicinalb of 
 M. Husson (aqua medicinalbs Hussonii) re- 
 
1782 
 
 WINES 
 
 sembles, in composition and action, the above 
 preparation in every point except its streiigtii, 
 which, we believe, is much above that of the 
 wine of the British Colleges. 
 Wine of Colchicnm Seed. Syn. Vinum 
 
 SEMINIS COLOHIOI, V. SEMINTTM C, L. Prep. 
 
 (Ph. U. S. & Dr Williams.) Seeds of meadow 
 saffron (preferably ground in a coffee-mill), 
 2 oz. ; sherry, 16 fl. oz. ; macerate for 14 days. 
 — Dose, 1 to 14 fl. dr. ; in gout, &c. 
 
 Wine, Emet'ic. See Antimohiai Wine, 
 Wine or Ipecacuanha, &c. 
 
 Wine of Colocynth. Syn. Vinitm colo- 
 CTNTHiDis (Van Mens). Prep. Colocynth, 
 2 oz. ; white wine, 24 oz. Macerate for 8 days, 
 and filter. 
 
 Wine of Elecampane. Syn. Vinum iNirii:. 
 As wine of wormwood. 
 
 Wine of Ergot. Syn. ViNUM besotje (Ph. 
 U. S.) Prep. Fluid extract of ergot (Ph. U. 
 S.), 2 oz. (o. m.) ; white wine, 14 oz. (o. m.). 
 Mix and filter. 
 
 Wine of Foxglove. Syn. Vikum digitalis. 
 (Ph. Port.) Prep. Dried foxglove, 1 oz. ; 
 good white wine, 32 oz. Macerate for 4 days, 
 and strain. 
 
 Wine of Gen'tian. Syn. Bitter wine, 
 ToKio w. ; Visum amaea, V. oentian^e (Ph. 
 E.), L. Prep. (Ph. E.) Gentian, in coarse 
 powder, 4 oz. ; yellow bark (do.), 1 oz. ; dried 
 orange peel, 2 dr. ; canella, in coarse powder, 
 1 dr. ; proof spirit, 4i fl. oz. ; digest for 24 
 hours, then add of sherry 1 pint and 16 fl. oz., 
 and further digest for 7 days. Tonic and 
 stomachic. — Dose, i to J fl. oz. 
 
 Wine of Hedge Hyssop. Syn. Vinum oka- 
 TIOLjE (Niemann). Syn. Hedge hyssop, 2 dr. ; 
 white wine, 16 dr. Digest at a gentle heat for 
 4 hours, and strain. — Dose, 1 oz. j frequently 
 in hypochondriasis. 
 
 Wine of Hellebore. See Wine oe White 
 Hellebobe. 
 
 Wine of Holly. Syn. Vinum ilicis (Rou- 
 sseau). Powdered holly leaves, 2 dr.; white 
 wine, 6 oz. Infuse for 12 hours. 
 
 Wine of Iodide of Iron. Syn. Vinum teeei 
 lODiDi (Pierquin). Prep. Iodide of iron, 
 4 dr. ; Bordeaux wine, 1 pint. 
 
 Wine of Ipeoacuan'ha. Syn. Emetic wine j 
 Vinum ipeoaouanh^k (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D), 
 L. Prep.l. (B. P.) Ipecacuanha, bruised, 1 ; 
 sherry, 20; macerate seven days, shaking 
 occasionally, strain, and make up to 20. — Dose. 
 As an expectorant, 5 to 40 minims; as an 
 emetic, 3 to 6 dr. 
 
 2. Ipecacuanha root, bruised, 2| oz. ; sherry, 
 1 quart; macerate for 7 days (14 days, and 
 strain, with expression — Pli. D.). This is a 
 mild and excellent preparation. — Dose. As a 
 diaphoretic and expectorant, 10 to 40 drops, in 
 coughs, diarrhoea, dysentery, dyspepsia, &c. ; 
 as an emetic, 2 fl. dr. to 1 fl. oz., in divided 
 doses; as an emetic for infants and young 
 children, 4 teaspoonful every 10 or 15 minutes 
 until it operates. 
 
 Wine of I'ron. Syn. Chaiteeate wine. 
 
 Steei, w. ; Vinum peebi (B. P., Ph. L.), L. 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Fine iron wire (No. 35), 1 
 oz. ; sherry, 20 oz. ; digest thirty days with 
 frequent agitation. The bottle to be corked, 
 but the wire not wholly immersed. — Dose, 1 
 to 4 dr. 
 
 2, (Ph. L.) Iron wire, 1 oz. ; sherry, 1 quart ; 
 digest, with frequent agitation, for 30 days, 
 and strain. Each fl. oz. contains less than I4 
 gr. of metallic iron. 
 
 3. Ammonio-tartrate of iron (Aikin's), IJ 
 dr. ; sherry, 1 pint ; dissolve. Frequently sub- 
 stituted for the last, especially when the pi'e- 
 paration is required in a hurry. — Dose, 1 to 5 
 fl. dr. ; as a mild chalybeate. 
 
 Obs. The formula for wine oe ieon was 
 modified in the Ph. L. 1824, omitted iu that 
 of 1836, and restored, in its original character, 
 in that of 1851. 
 
 Wine of Liquorice. Syn. Vinum gltctee- 
 HIZ.B, FuM/Ee's sweet tinctuee. Prep. 
 Liquorice (Italian juice), 1 oz. ; cochineal, 2 
 scruples; canary wine, 2 pints. Sometimes 
 1 drachm of saftron is added. 
 
 Wine of Malate of Iron. Iron wire steeped 
 in cider. 
 
 Wine of Mea'dow Saffron. Wine of col- 
 
 OHICUM. 
 
 Wine of Olive. Syn. Vinum oliVjE (Louis). 
 Prep. Fresh olive leaves, 2 oz. ; white wine 
 32 oz. Half a glass twice a day. 
 
 Wine of Onion. Syn. Vinum OEP.ffi. Prep. 
 Two onions, sliced ; white wine, IJ pint. 
 Digest and strain. For gravel. 
 
 Wine of 0"pium. Syn. Sydenham's hquid 
 liAUDANUMf; Vinum opii (B. P., Ph.L., E., 
 
 & 1).), TiNCTUEA, THEBAIOAt, LAUDANUM 
 tlQUlDUM SlDENHAMf, L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) 
 Extract of opium, 1 oz. ; cinnamon bark, 75 
 gr. ; cloves, 75 gr. ; sherry wine, 20 oz. ; 
 macerate for seven days and filter. — Dose, 10 
 to 40 minims. 
 
 2. (Ph. L.) Extract of opium (Ph. L.), 2i 
 oz. ; cinnamon and cloves, of each, bruised, 
 24 dr.; sherry, 1 quart; macerate for 7 days 
 (14 days— Ph. D.), and filter. In the Ph. E., 
 opium, 3 oz., and in the Ph. D., opium, in coarse 
 powder, 3 oz., are ordered, instead of extract of 
 opium. The Dublin College also omits the 
 aromatics. 
 
 3. (Wholesale.) From extract of opium, 11 
 oz. ; oil of cassia, 25 drops ; oil of cloves, 20 
 drops; wine, 1 gall, (or rectified spirit, IJ 
 pint ; water, 6i pints ; colouring, q. s.); digest, 
 with agitation, until dissolved. Milder than 
 the tincture. — Dose, 10 to 40 drops; as an 
 anodyne and hypnotic. 
 
 Wine of Opium (Fermented). Syn. Rous- 
 seau's LAUDANUM, BlACK-DEOP ; ViNUM OPII 
 EEEMENTATIONE PAEATUM, GuTTA NIGEA, L. 
 
 Prep. (P. Cod.) Opium, 4 oz.; boiling water, 
 5 lbs. ; dissolve, add of honey, 1 lb. ; yeast, 2 
 dr. ; keep it at 86° Fabr. for a month, or 
 until the fermentation is complete ; then 
 press, filter, distil oft' 16 oz., and evaporate the 
 residuum to 10 oz. ; distil the 16 oz. of spirit 
 
WINE-STONE 
 
 1783 
 
 obtained above until 12 oz. hove passed over, 
 and from thif, by n third distillation, obtain 
 H oz., which ud>l to the evaporated solution 
 (10 oz.), and filter. About four timi-s as 
 strong as tinctuie of opium. See Ubof, 
 Black. 
 
 Wine of Orange. Si/n. Vikum aheantu 
 (It. I'.) Prep. Made in Britain by the fer- 
 mentation of a saccharine solution, to which 
 the fresh peel of the bitter orange lias been 
 added, contains 12 per cent, of alcohol, and is 
 but slightly acid to test-paper. 
 
 Wine of Pepsin. St/n. Vinttm pepsin: (Ph. 
 (t.). Prep. Kemove by hard scraping, by 
 means of a bone kiiil'e, the pepsin from the 
 mucous membrane of a previously washed, 
 freshly killed, pig's or ox's fourth stoinnch, 
 and mix 10 drams of it with 5 drams (by 
 weight) of glycerin diluted with 5 drams of 
 water; put into a large flask and shake up 
 vigorously with 13i oz. (by weight) of white 
 wine, and i dr. (by weight) of hydrochloric 
 acid. Macerate lor 3 days at 68° Kahr., 
 frequently shnkiiig, and filter. 
 
 Wine of Potas'sio-tartrate of Antimony. See 
 Wine, Antimonial {above). 
 
 Wine of Quinine. Si/n. Vinum quinije (B, 
 P.), L. Prep. 1. (B. P.) Sulphate of quinina, 
 20 gr. ; citric acid, 30 gr. ; orauge wine, 20 
 oz. ; dissolve the citric lu'id and then the sul 
 phnte of quinia in the wine ; digest three days 
 and filter. — Dose, 4 to 1 oz. 
 
 2. (Magendie.) Sulphate of quinine, 14 
 gr. i sherry, 1 quart; agitate frequently for 
 some time. "The sulphate of quinine requires 
 to be dissolved in a little dilute sulphuric 
 acid before it is added to the wine." (Dr 
 Hayes.) — Dose, 1 wine-glassful, as a tonic and 
 stomachic. 
 
 Wine of Quinine, Aromatic. Syn. Vinum 
 
 QTJINiaJ AKOMATICUM. Ub COLMKB'S ABO 
 MATic QUININE WINE. Prep. Disulphate of 
 quinine, 18 gr. ; citric acid, 15 gr. ; sound 
 orange wine, 1 bottle (21 fl. oz). 
 
 Wine of Ehn'barb. Si/n. Vinum ebei (B. 
 
 P., Ph. E. & D.), L ; TiNC) ORA BHiEI VINOSA. 
 Prep. 1. (B. P.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 
 IJ; eanella bark, i; sherry, 20; macerate 
 seven days, filter, and make up to 20. — Dose, 
 
 1 to 2 dr. 
 
 2. (Ph. E.) Rhubarb, in coarse powder, 5 
 oz. ; eanella, in coarse powder, 2 dr. ; proof 
 spirit, 6 fl. oz. ; sherry, Ij pint ; macerate for 
 7 days, press, and filter. 
 
 3. (Ph. D.) Rhubarb, 3 oz. j eanella, 2 dr. ; 
 sherry, 1 quart; macerate 14 days. Weaker 
 than the last. — Dose. As a stomachic, 1 to 3 
 fl. dr. i as a purgative, i to 1 fl. oz., or more. 
 It does not keep well. 
 
 Wine of Sarsaparilla. Syn. Vinum sae 
 SAPABILL j: (Beral). Prep. Alcoholic extract 
 of sarsaparilla, 1 oz. ; white wine, 16 oz. 
 
 ■ Wine of Senna. Syn. Vinum senn^ (Ph. 
 Swed.). Prep. Senna, 4 oz. ; coriander seed, 
 
 2 dr.; fennel seed, 2 dr.; sherry, :ii lbs, 
 
 Digest for 3 days, add stoned raisins, 3^ oz. 
 Macerate for 24 hours, and strain with ex- 
 pre-sion. 
 
 Wine of Squills. Syn. Visum scills; 
 (P. C'.id.). Prep. Dried squills, 3 oz. ; M.i- 
 laga wine, 2^ pints. Macerate for 10 days. 
 
 Wine of Squills, Bitter. Syn. Vixr.M sciL- 
 LITICUM AMAEUM (P. Cod.). Pale Pernvian 
 bark, 6 oz. ; winter's bark, oz. ; lemon peel, 
 6 oz. ; swallow-wort, li oz. ; angelica root, 1\ 
 oz. ; squill, 1^ oz. ; wormwood, 3 l^z ; balm, 3 
 oz. ; juniper berries, li oz. ; marc, ] J oz. ; 
 white wine, 2i galls.; proof spirit, 1 pint. 
 Macerate for 10 days. 
 
 Wine of Squills, Compound. Syn. Vintm 
 BCILL.ffi COMPOSITUM (Richicr). Prep. Dried 
 .siiuill, 1 oz. ; orange peel, 3 dr.; junipfr ber- 
 ries, 2 dr. ; white wine, 2i pints. Digest for 
 3 days, filter, and add 2 oz. ot oxyrael of squills. 
 
 Wine of Stramonium. Syn. \'incm 
 STKAMMONII (Ph. Bat.). Prep. .Suamoiiium 
 seeds, 2 oz. ; Malaga wine, 8 oz. ; rectified 
 spirit, 1 oz. Digest and liltor. 
 
 Wine of Tobac'co. Si/a. Vinum tabaci 
 (Ph.E.), L. Prep. (Vh.k.) Tobacco, 3 J . .z. ; 
 sherry, 1 quart ; dige-t 7 days, strain, with 
 strong pressure, and filter. A powerful seda- 
 tive and diuretic. — Dose, 10 to 3U drops; in 
 dropsy, lead colic, ileus, &c. 
 
 Wine of Vipers, iiyn. Vindm yipebinum 
 (Ph. L., 1746). Prep. Dried vipers, 2 oz.; 
 white wine, 3 lbs. Macerate lor 7 d ly*. 
 
 Wine of White Hel'lebore. Syn.' Vinu.m 
 
 VEBATEI (Ph. L.), TlHOTUKA VBBATKI ALBlf, 
 
 L. Prep. (Ph. L.) White hellebore, sliced, 
 8 oz ; sherry wine, 1 i|uiirt; digest lor 7 days, 
 press, and filter. — Dose, 10 ilr<^j>s, <^nuiually 
 increisid to 'Ih or 30; as a substitute for coi- 
 chicuui, in gout and rheumatism. &c. It is 
 less iiiaiiageable than wine of culchicuiu, and 
 is now seldom employed. 
 Wine of White Hellebore (Opiated). Syn. 
 
 MoOKK's EAU M^DICINAIE; ViNUJI VEBATEI 
 
 OPIATUM. L. Prep. From wine of white hel- 
 lebore, 3 fl. dr. ; tincture of opium, 1 fl. dr. — 
 Dose. As the last. 
 
 Wine of Wormwood. Syn. Vinum ab- 
 SINTHII (P. Cod.). Prep. Dried wormwood 
 leaves, 3 oz. ; white wine, 5 pints; proot spirit, 
 e oz. Macerate the leaves in the spirit, in 24 
 hours add the wine, macerate for 10 days, and 
 strain. 
 
 Wines, Medicated (Dr B. Lane's). Sun. 
 Vinous essences; EssENTiiB tinos.b, Li- 
 QUOBES TiNOsi, L. Prep. From an infusion 
 or solution of the drug, of about 3 or 4 times 
 the usual strength, fermented with u little 
 yeast, and about 3 or 4 lbs. of sugar per gal- 
 lon; the fermented liquor being afterwards 
 set in a cool cellar until fit for bottling. 
 Compounds of calumba, cascabilxa, gen- 
 tian, OPIUM, EnUBABB, SENI4A, and talebian, 
 have been thus prepared. That of opium is 
 made of only twice the strength of the common 
 tincture. 
 
 WINE-STONE. Cbude taetab or absol. 
 
1784 
 
 WINE TESTS— WOAD 
 
 WIN'S TESTS. Prep. 1. (Hahnemann's.) 
 From quicldime, 1 oz. ; flowers of sulphur, li 
 oz. ; mix, and heat them in a covered crucible 
 for 5 or 6 minutes; put 2 dr. of tlie product 
 and an eqnal weight of tartaric acid (sepa- 
 rately powdered), into a stoppered bottle, with 
 a pint of water, and shake them well; let the 
 liquid settle, pour off the clear portion, and add 
 of tartaric acid, 1^ dr. 
 
 2. (Dr Paris's.) Prom sulphide of cal- 
 cium and cream of tartar, of each (in powder), 
 i oz. ; hot water, 1 pint ; agitate, &o., as before ; 
 decant the cold clear liquid into 1-oz. phials, 
 and add 20 drops of hydrochloric acid to each 
 of them. 
 
 Obs. The above tests will throw down the 
 least quantity of lead from wines, as a very 
 sensilile black precipitate. As iron might be 
 accidentally contained in the wine, the hydro- 
 chloric acid is added to the last test, to prevent 
 the precipitation of that metal. 
 
 WINTER-GrREEN (American). Si/n. Ptp- 
 8ISSEWA ; Chimapbila (PI). L. & E.). Py- 
 EOLA (Ph. D.), L. The herb of Chimaphila 
 umhellata. It is astringent, diuretic, tonic, 
 and stomachic ; and has been successfully 
 administered in loss of appetite, dyspepsia, 
 dropsy, chronic affections of the urinary 
 organs, scrofula, &c. It must not be con- 
 founded with ordinary winter-green (box 
 berry, chequer h., partridge b., mountain tea). 
 which is the Qaultheria procumbens, a plant 
 belonging to the EricacetB, whilst the former 
 plant belongs to a genus of the Pyrolaeece. 
 See Decoction, Extbact, and Oils (Essen- 
 tial). 
 
 WIREWOEM. The Editor is indebted to 
 Dr Spencer Coblwld, F.R.S., for the follow- 
 ing communication on tliis subject : — *" Dear 
 Prof. Tuson, — You asked me about the re- 
 medies for wireworm. Although a great deal 
 has been said on the subject, yet it is not 
 easy to advise. I believe the best plan is to 
 ' catch-*em-alive ' by means of sliced potatoes, 
 turnips, or carrots laid in rows, women and 
 children being (employed every morning to 
 pick up the slices, and brush off the larvse 
 into a jar (the slices being replaced). Mr 
 Hogg (the Ettrick Shepherd) found lettuce 
 leaves very serviceable when laid as a bait in 
 a similar way. Pheasanto are very destruc- 
 tive to them. As agriculturists do not like 
 the trouble and expense of this baiting 
 method (by far the best if persevered in) some 
 have recommended deep ploughing, &c. The 
 following extract taken from the ' Journal of 
 the Agricultural Society, of Victoria,' bears 
 on the question at issue. Trusting it may be 
 found useful, believe me, yours faithliiUy, 
 T. Spenoee Cobbold." 
 
 " Remedy for Wireworm. — Having seen in 
 your issue of the 24th ult, that ' B.' would 
 be glad if any one could give any information 
 as to a remedy for the ravages of the wire- 
 worm, which plays such havoc in our corn 
 fields during the early part of the growth of 
 
 our cereal crops, I beg to offer a few obser- 
 vations on the sulgect. I have for years paid 
 particular notice as to any remedy or preven- 
 tive, and it is with reijard to the latter that 
 1 shall chiefly confine my remarks, as there 
 is positively no known remedy when once the 
 insects have attacked the crop. Some persons 
 recommend the application of lime or salt, 
 but it is a well-known fact that if either of 
 these is applied in such quantity as to destroy 
 the worm, it will likewise desti-oy vegetation, 
 and consequently the crop will be entirely 
 lost; and not alone this crop, but the soil will 
 be poisoned to such an extent as to injure 
 succeeding crops. What I have found most 
 successful is deep ploughing, not what is 
 ordinary called deep ploughing, 7 or 8 inches, 
 but to the depth of at least 10 or 12, where 
 the soil will admit of it. The wireworm lives 
 not more than 4 inches below the surface, 
 and by burying it 10 or 12 inches it is found 
 that it cannot again make its way to the sur- 
 face, and consequently can do no injury to 
 surface-rooted plants, such as the grain crops. 
 The operation of ploiighing should be per- 
 formed as follows : a strong skim coulter is 
 attached to the beam of an ordinary strong 
 plough, which is drawn by three horses. The 
 skiui coulter pares off the surface, which is 
 buried underneath the sod turned over by the 
 mould-board. Or it is sometimes performed 
 in a different way. A small pluugh, drawn by 
 one horse, precedes the oidinary plough, 
 skimming off the surface exactly the same as 
 the skim coulter. So much for a preventive. 
 As to remedy, what I have found most efEec- 
 tual is heavy rolling, using, if possible, such 
 a roller as that called the Crosskill, which 
 crushes the insects, killing some, and prevent- 
 ing others doing much damage until the 
 crop is sufficiently far advanced as not to be 
 iiffected by the insect. — JoHH Thomas, 32, 
 Capel Street, Dublin." 
 
 WITCH MEAL. St/n. Vesetaele stti,- 
 PHCR, Ltcopoditjm. The spores of Lycopo- 
 dium clavatum^ or club moss. 
 
 WOAD. Syn. Dieb's woad; Pastei,, Fr. 
 The Isatis tinctoria. To prepare them for 
 the dyer, the leaves are partially dried and 
 ground to a paste, which is murie into balls; 
 these are placed in heaps, and occasionally 
 sprinkled with water, to promote the fermen- 
 tation ; when this is finished, the woad is 
 allowed to fall down into lumps, which are 
 afterwards i-eground and made into cakes for 
 sale. On mixing the prepared woad with 
 boiling water, and, after standing for some 
 hours in a closed vess. 1, adding about l-20th 
 its weight of newly slaked lime, digesting in 
 a gentle warmth, and stirring the whole 
 together every 3 or 4 hours, a new fermenta- 
 tion begins; a blue froth rises to the surface, 
 and the liquor, though it appears itself of a 
 reddish colour, dyes woollens of a green, 
 which, like the green from indigo, changes in 
 the air to a blue. This is said to be one of 
 
WOLFRAM— WOOL 
 
 1785 
 
 the niiost processes in the art of dyeing, and 
 does not well succeed on the small scale. 
 Woad is now mostly used in combination with 
 indign. 50 lbs. of woad are reckoned equal 
 V) 1 lb. of indjn^o. 
 
 WOL'PRAM. SceTwNGSTBN. 
 
 WOLFS'BANE. See Aconite. 
 
 WOOD is polished by carefully rubbing 
 down the grain with fine glass paper, or 
 pomice-stone, and then rnhhing it, first with 
 fliiely-powdercd pumice-stone and water, and 
 afteiwards with tripoli and linseed oil, until 
 a proper surface is obtained. For common 
 purpnscs, glass paper, followed by a metal 
 burnisher, is employed. 
 
 W.iod is stained by the application of any 
 of the ordinary liquid dyes employed for wool 
 or cotton. They sink deeper into the wood 
 when they are applied hot. When the sur- 
 face is properly strained snd drieil, it is 
 commonly cleaned with a rag dipped in oil 
 of turpentine or boiled oil, after which it is 
 either varnished or polished with beeswax. 
 Musical instruments, articles of the toilette, 
 Ac, are usually treated in this way. 
 
 Wood is preserved by any agnnts which 
 destroy the tendency to putrefaction of the 
 matter within its pores, or which enables it 
 to resist the attacks of insects, or rendirs it 
 nnsuiteil to the growth of minute fungi. 
 Sec Drt-kot. 
 
 WOOD NAPH'THA. See Spirit (Pyroxylic). 
 
 WOOD OIL. See Balsam, Gubqun. 
 
 WOODY FIBRE. See Lionin. 
 
 WOODY NIQHT'SHADE Bittee-swbet, 
 Solatium dulcamara. 
 
 WOOL. Syn. Lana, L. Wool is a fine, 
 soft, elastic variity of iiair, celluhited in its 
 structure. Its tilaments are cylindrical, like 
 those of silk ; but the surface is covered with 
 thin scales or epidermic cells. In the finer 
 qualities, these filaments vary in thickness 
 from tt'otj to iVoj "^ "^ inch; and under a 
 good miorosope distinctly exhibit, at in- 
 tervals of about ji„ of nn inch, a series of 
 serrated rin'.;s, imbricated towards each other, 
 ** like the joints of equisetum, or, rather, like 
 the scaly zones of a serpent's skin." These 
 appearances render it almost impossible to 
 mistake wool for silk, linen, or cotton. From 
 experiments made by different competent 
 authorities, it is found that wool is one ol 
 the worst conductors of heat known. This pro- 
 perty renders woollen fabrics particularly 
 adapted for clothing in cold, damp, and 
 changeable climates, since it enables them to 
 maintain the surface of the body at a proper 
 and equ ible temperature. Wool, sometimes, 
 however, proves too irritative lor highly sensi- 
 tive skins, and, moreover, disturbs the elec- 
 tricity of the cutaneous surface, on friction, 
 even more than silk. On these accounts there 
 are persons who find it unpleasant to wear 
 woollen garments, of any description, next 
 the skin ; in which cases all the advantagis 
 that can be derived from their use may be 
 
 obtained by wearing them oufside one of 
 linen or cotton. According to Erasmus Wilson, 
 this method " is preferal>le in warm weather, 
 since the linen absorbs the perspiration, 
 while the woollen garment preserves the 
 warmth of the body, and prevent* the incon- 
 venience resulting from its evaporation. See 
 Flaxnel. 
 
 Lleiitif. 1. By the microscope. (See 
 ahove.) 
 
 2. Its fibres, when inflamed, shrivel up, and 
 burn with difficulty, and evolve the peculiar 
 and characteristic odour of hair when similarly 
 treated, leaving a bulky charcoal; wlien-as 
 cotton and linen burn rapidly, leave no char- 
 coal, and evolve little or no odour. Silk acts 
 in nearly the same manner as wool. 
 
 3. Nitric acid, picric acid, and saseoua chlo- 
 r.ne, stain the fibres of wool and silk yellow. 
 Dr J. J. Pohl recommends an aqueous or alco- 
 holic solution of picric acid as well adapted 
 for a test — After innnersion of n small portion 
 of the fabric or yarn for from 5 t-o 10 minutes 
 in the solution, it is to he taken out, and 
 washed in warm water. The linen and cotton 
 in it will then appear white, but the wool, 
 silk, or other animal fibre, will retain its 
 yellow colour. In stuffs, cloths, flannel, &o., 
 the mixed threads may be readily observed 
 by means of a pocket lens, and their relative 
 numbers may be ascertained by nicaus of a 
 ' thread counter.' This test acts best with 
 white, but is also applicable to many other 
 colours. For dark colours nitric acid is pre- 
 ferable. 
 
 4. A square inch of the fabric or .i small 
 portion of the yarn, is boiled for a short time 
 in u solution of caustic soda or potassa, and 
 then withdrawn and washed. If it be of 
 pure wool, it will be di-sulved, and wholly 
 disappear; if any threads or fibres arc left 
 undissolved, they consist of either cotton or 
 linen ; of these, such as have acquired a dark 
 yellow tinge, are linen, whilst those which 
 have retained their whiteness, or which are 
 only slightly discoloured, are cotton. The 
 relative proportion of the adulteration may be 
 ascertained as before. See Cotton, Linen, 
 and Silk. 
 
 Wool and woollen goods exhibit a greater 
 affinity for colouring matter than either cotton 
 or linen, and in many cases this exceeds even 
 that of silk. The most difiicult dye to impart 
 to wool is a rich, deep, and permanent black. 
 See DvEiNS, Moedants, &c. 
 
 Woollen goods are cleaned and scoured in 
 the manner noticed under BLEACHina and 
 ScorniNS. 
 
 Wool, Spanish. Kouge-crepons. 
 
 Wool, Styptic. Dr. Erie, of Isny, prepares 
 this by boiling the finest carded wool for 
 half an honr or an hour in a solution con- 
 taining 4 per cent, of soda, then thoroughly 
 washes it out in cold spring wacer, wrings it, 
 and dries it. The wool is thus eflectually 
 purified, and is now capable of imbibing fluids 
 
1786 
 
 WOOBARA— WORMS 
 
 uniformly. It is then to be dipped two or 
 three times in fluid chloride of iron diluted 
 with oue-third of water, expressed and dried 
 in a draught of air, but not in the sun or by 
 tlie aid of high heat ; finally, it is carded out. 
 Thus prepared, it is of a beautiful yellowish- 
 brown colour, and feels like ordinary dry 
 cotton wool. 
 
 As it is highly hygroscopic, it must be kept 
 dry, and when required to be transported, 
 must be packed in caoutchouc or bladder. 
 Charpie may be prepared in a similar manner, 
 but on account of its coarser texture, is not 
 so effective as cotton wool, presenting _a less 
 surface for producing coagulation. When the 
 wool is placed on a bleeding wound, it in- 
 duces moderate contraction of the tissue, 
 coagulation of the blood that has escaped, 
 and subsequently coagulation of the blood 
 that is contained within the injured vessels, 
 and thus arrests the heemorrhage. The coagu- 
 lating power of the chloride of iron is clearly 
 exalted by the extension of its surface that is 
 in this wa.v affected. The application of tlie 
 prepared wool is not particularly painful, 
 whilst by sucking up the superfluous dis- 
 charge, and preventing its decomposition, it 
 Feems to operate favorably on the process of 
 the wound} 
 
 Wool Work, Woollen Shawls, &c., to clean. — 
 Boil a large piece of soap in rain-water. Put 
 it into an eiirthenware pan and add a teacup- 
 ful of ox-gall, which any butcher will supply. 
 Put in the work to be cleaned, and rub it 
 briskly, as you would a pockethandkerchief, 
 lifting it up and down. Wash in two waters, 
 if very dirty; then rinse quickly in cold 
 water, lay a cloth over it, and fold it tightly. 
 Iron it immediately on the wrong side with 
 hot, heavy irons. 
 
 WOOEA'EA. Syn. Oueabi, Woiteali. A 
 deadly poison employed in Guiana, obtained 
 from the Strychnos toxifera. See Upas. 
 
 WOOTZ. The Indian name of steel ; applied 
 in this country to the steel imported from 
 Bengal. 
 
 WOEM BARE. Syn. Cabbage-teee baek, 
 or Geoffk-ETA ineemis, L. The bark of 
 Andira inermis {QeoffrtBya i. of some bota- 
 nists). A powerful astringent, purgative, 
 anthelmintic, and narcotic. — Dose, 10 to 30 
 gr. In larger doses, or if cold water be 
 drunk during its action, it is apt to occasion 
 sickness, vomiting, and delirium. The re- 
 medy for this is copious draughts of warm 
 water. 
 
 WORM SEED. Syn. Semen oontea, se- 
 men ciN^, L, The broken peduncles, mixed 
 with the calyces and flower-buds, of several 
 species oi Artemisia imported from theLevant. 
 — Dose, 10 to 30 gr., in powder j as a vermi- 
 fuge. See Santonin. 
 
 WORMS (Intes'tinal). Syn. Veemes, In- 
 Testinalia (Cuvier), Entozoa (Rudolphi), L. 
 The principal parasites which are generated 
 ' 'laocet.* 
 
 and nourished in the hnman intestinal canal 
 are the — Ascaris lumlricoides (Gmelin), or long 
 round-worm, found in the small intestines, 
 and which is generally of the thickness of a 
 goose-quill, and varies in length from 10 to 15 
 inches ; — Ascaris vermicularis (Gmelin), maw, 
 or thread-worm, which is thread-like in ap- 
 pearance, varies from li to 5 lines in length, 
 and confines itself chiefly to the rectum; 
 — Tricocephalus hominis (Gmelin), or long 
 thread-worm, varying from 1^ to 2 inches 
 in length, and found chiefly in the caecum ; 
 — TtBnia solium (Gmelin), or common tape- 
 worm, having a flattened riband-like appear- 
 ance, varying in length from 3 or 4 to 15 or 
 20 feet, and occupying the small intestines; — 
 Bothriocephalus latus, or broad tapeworm, a 
 variety seldom found in this country, but 
 common in Switzerland and the north of 
 Europe ; and TcBnia mediocaTtellata, another 
 large species, described by Ktichenmeister. 
 
 Causes. A debilitated state of the digestive 
 organs, improper food, sedentary habits, im- 
 pure air, bad water, stnd, apparently, an occa- 
 sional hereditary tendency to worms. 
 
 Symp. Griping pains, especially about the 
 navel ; acid eructations ; slimy stools ; occa- 
 sional nausea and vomiting, without any mani- 
 fest cause ; beat and itching about the anus ; 
 tenesmus ; emaciation ; disturbed dreams ; 
 grinding of the teeth during sleep ; pallor of 
 countenance ; discoloration round the eyes ; 
 feverishness ; headache ; vertigo, &c. In many 
 cases these symptoms are often highly aggra- 
 vated, and mistaken for primary diseases. The 
 only absolutely positive evidence of the exis- 
 tence of worms is, however, their being seen 
 in the fseces. 
 
 Treat. In common cases, an occasional mo- 
 derately strong dose of calomel overnight, fol- 
 lowed by a smart purgative the next morning, 
 is an excellent remedy, where the use of mer- 
 curials is not contra-indicated. Cowhage, made 
 into an electuary with honey or treacle, is also 
 an excellent vermifuge. Oil of turpentine is 
 useful against nearly every variety of worms, 
 and, when taken in sufBeient doses to reach 
 the rectum, is almost specific in ascarides 
 (thread-worms). When this is inconvenient, 
 an occasional enema of oil of turpentine is even 
 more effective. Enemas of aloes are also vei-y 
 useful in such cases. Scammony, under the 
 form of basilic powder, has long been employed 
 to expel worms in children. Aloes, castor-oil, 
 worm-seed, tin-filings, and sulphur, are likewise 
 popular remedies. Cabbage-tree bark is a 
 powerful anthelmintic ; but its use requires 
 caution. Most of the quack vermifuges con- 
 tain either aloes or gamboge, or calomel and 
 jalap. The substances which have been most 
 highly extolled for the destruction or expul- 
 sion of tapeworm (tesnia) are kousso, oil of 
 turpentine, male fern, pomegranate, and tin- 
 filings. The first two are those on which the 
 most dependence may be placed, Madame 
 Nouffier's celebrated ' Swiss remedy' for tape- 
 
WORM TEA— WORT 
 
 1787 
 
 worm, for which Lonis XVI gave 18,000 francs, 
 consisted of H or 3 dr. of powdered male 
 fern,.tel(t-n in i piut of water, in the mominf;) 
 fasting, fiillowed in 2 hours by a bolus made 
 of calomel and scammony, of each 10 gr. ; 
 giimbogc, 6 or 7 gr. ' Swain's vermifuge' is 
 prepared Irora worm-seed, 2 oz. ; valerian, rhu- 
 barb, pink-root, and white agaric, of each li 
 02. J boiltd in water, q. s. to yield 3 quarts of 
 decoction, to which 30 drops of oil of tansy, 
 and 45 drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a 
 quart of rectified spirit, are addtd. All pur- 
 gatives may be regarded as vermifuges. Be- 
 sides our efforts to destroy and expel the 
 worms, the tone of the primaj via; should be 
 raised by the use of stomachics and tonics, 
 by which the tendency to their equivocal 
 generation will be either removed or les- 
 sened. See AaoABia lumbbicoidbs. De- 
 coction, Enbma, Pills, Patent Medi- 
 cines, VEBMiFUaES, &c. ; and also the several 
 vermifuges under their respective names. 
 
 Oba. Parasitic worms as existing in 
 animals are so remarkably prevalent and so 
 widely diffused that probably no creature can 
 be said to be secure against their attack. 
 Among domestic animals, sheep often suffer to 
 a most serious extent from these parasites, and 
 more especially from the nematoid, known as 
 Strongylus bronchialia. In some years lambs 
 are lost by Ijundrods from the complications 
 of disease which attend upon the presence of 
 these worms within the windpipe and the 
 bronchial tubes. Their existence is marked 
 by great wasting of the body, hurried breath- 
 ing, and distressing conp^h. After a time 
 diarrhoea sets in, which quiekly carries off the 
 animal. It has been found that lambs fed on 
 clover, and other allied plants, which bad been 
 pastured the year previously with sheep, suffer 
 the most, and are far more likely to be 
 affected than those which are differently 
 in:inaged. Remedial measures too often prove 
 ineffectual, especially when structural disease 
 of the lungs has followed as a consequence. 
 The exhibition of oil of turpentine in doses of 
 about half an ounce, mixed with an equal 
 quantity of linseed oil, is sometimes found to 
 be beneficial ; but it must be conjoined with 
 a corn diet, the free use of salt, and also sul- 
 phate of iron mixed with the nianfrer food, 
 tincture of assafoetida, and the essential oil of 
 savin, in small doses, are remedies greiitly ex- 
 tolled by some persons. The inhalation of 
 diluted chlorine gas or of sulphurous aiid gas 
 is often exceedingly beneficial ; but remedies 
 of this kind ought always to be confided to the 
 superintending care of the veterinary surgeon. 
 
 WOKM TEA. A preparation sold in the 
 shops of the United States, and much used, 
 consisting, according to Brande, of spigelia or 
 pink-root, savin, senna, and manna. 
 
 WOKM'WOOD. Syn. Absinthium (Ph. L. 
 & E.), L. The flowering herb of Artemisia 
 Absinthium, a well-known plant, indigenous to 
 this country, and largely cultivaied for medi- 
 
 cinal purposes. It is a bitter tonic and sto- 
 machic, and also anthelmintic. — Dote, 20 to 
 40 gr. of the dried herb, either in powder or 
 made into a tea or infusion; in dyspepsia, 
 dropsy, scurvy, sympathetic epilepsy, &.C See 
 Absintbihb and Abslntbic acid. 
 
 WO£T. The technical name for the fer- 
 mentable infusion of malted grain. 
 
 The strength of worts is ascertained hymeans 
 of an instrument termed a saccharometer, 
 " Brewers, distillers, and the excise, sometimes 
 denote by the term ' gravity ' the excess of 
 weight of 1000 parts of a liquid by volume 
 above the weight of a like volume of distilled 
 water, so tbut if the specific gravity be \Oib, 
 1070, 1090, &c., the gravity is said to be 45, 
 70, or 90 ; at others, they thereby denote the 
 weight of saccharine matter in a barrel (36 
 gulls.) of wort ; and again, they denote the 
 excess in weight of a barrel of wort over a 
 barrel of water equal to 36 gallons, or 360 lbs. 
 This and the first statement are identical, 
 only 1000 is the standard in the first case, and 
 360 in the second." (Ure.) The last is that 
 commonly adopted by the brewers. 
 
 According to Dr Ure, the solid dry extract 
 of mult, or ' saccharine,' has the specific gra- 
 vity 1264, and the specific volume -7911 ; 
 " that is, 10 lbs. of it will occupy the volume of 
 7'911 lbs. of water. The mean sp. gr., by com- 
 putation of a solution of that extract in its 
 own weight of water, is 1'116 ; but by ixjieri- 
 ment, the sp. gr. of that solution is 1216, 
 showing considerable condensation of volume 
 in the act of combination with water." The 
 quantity of solid saccharine or sugar in a wort 
 may be determined in the manner mentioned 
 under Sybup. 
 
 " According to the compilers of the tahlcs 
 accompanying Field's alcoholometer, 18 lb. of 
 saccharine is decomposed for the production 
 of 1][ of proof spirit; but according to our 
 experiments, the proportion of siirrhiirine 
 named is rather below the true equivalent." 
 (Cooley.) 
 
 The rapid cooling of worts is an important 
 object with the brewer and distiller. On the 
 large scale, the old system in wliieh thallow 
 coolers are employed, with all its numerous 
 inconveniences and accidents, is now icr the 
 most part abandoned, being supplanted by the 
 method introduced by Mr Yr.udall, nearly 40 
 years ago. This consists in the use of a 're- 
 frigerator,' which is an apparatus so con- 
 structed that any hot liquid may be cooled by 
 about its own volume of cold water, in a very 
 short space of time. The principle is that of 
 passing the two fluids through very shallow 
 and very long passages, in opposite directions, 
 being essentially that of a ' Liebig's condenser' 
 on a gigantic scale. The apparatus m!iy con- 
 sist of zigzag passages, flattened tubes (ir con- 
 voluted curves, of any convenient shape, so 
 that they possess little capacity in one direc- 
 tion, but great breadth and length. A rciri- 
 gerator, having the passages for the fluids \ of 
 
1788 
 
 WOUND- XYLOIDIN 
 
 an inch thick, is said to require a rnti of about 
 80 feet. The success of this method is such 
 as to leave nothing more to desire. See 
 Beewing, Pbkmentation, Malt, &c. 
 
 WOUHD. Syn. VuLNUB, L. A solution of 
 continuity in any of the soft parts of the body, 
 arising from external violence. 
 
 Wounds are distinguished by surgeons Into 
 CONTUSED WOUHIIS, INCISED W., lACEKATED 
 W., POISONED W., PUNCTUKED W., &C. ; terms 
 which explain themselves. Sword-cuts are 
 incised wounds j guu-shot wounds, lacerated 
 and contused ones. Slight wounds, and, in- 
 deed, all those not demanding material 
 surgical assistance, after dirt and foreign sub- 
 stances have been removed, may be treated 
 in the manner noticed under Cms and Abba- 
 
 SIONS. 
 
 WOUND BAL'SAM. See Tihctuee op 
 Benzoin. 
 
 'WEIT"ING, executed in the ordinary tanno- 
 gallic inlc, andwhich has been rendered illegible 
 by age, may be restored by carefully moisten- 
 ing it, by means of a feather, with an inlusion 
 of galls, or a solution of ferrocyanide of potas- 
 sium slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, 
 observing to apply the liquid so as to prevent 
 the ink spreading. 
 
 WKITING FLU'IDS. A term commonly 
 applied, of late years, to easy flowing inks, 
 adapted for metallic pens ; in contradistinction 
 to the old tanuo-gallic compounds at one time 
 exclusively employed for writing. 
 
 Prep. 1. Dissolve pure basic or soluble 
 Prussian blue in pure distilled water, and dilute 
 the resulting solution with pure water until 
 the desired shade of colour is obtained. Very 
 permanent and beautiful. It is not affected 
 by the addition of alcohol, but is immediately 
 precipitated by saline matter. The precipi- 
 tate, however, still possesses the property of 
 dissolving in pure water. 
 
 2. From the soluble ferrocyanide of potas- 
 sium and iron, dissolved in pure water. Re- 
 sembles the last, but it is precipitated from its 
 solution by alcohol. 
 
 3. Powdered Prussian blue, 1 oz. ; concen- 
 trated hydrochloric acid, IJ fl. oz. ; mix in a 
 matriss or glass bottle, and, after 22 or 30 
 hours, dilute the mass with a sufficient quan- 
 tity of water. 
 
 4. Dissolve sulphindylate of potassa or am- 
 monia in hot water, and, when cold, decant the 
 clear portion. It is an intense blue, and dries 
 nearly black ; is perfectly incorrosive, and 
 very permanent and easy flowing. 
 
 5. (Horning.) Perehloride of iron, 4 parts ; 
 water, 750 parts ; dissolve, add of cyanide ot 
 potassium, 4 parts, diesolved in a little water ; 
 collect the precipitate, wash it with several 
 effusions of pure water, allow it to drain until 
 it weighs about 200 parts, then add of oxalic 
 acid, 1 part ; and promote solution by agitat- 
 ing the bottle or vessel containii^g it. 
 
 6. (Mohr.) Pure Prussian blue, 6 parts; 
 oxalic acid, 1 partj triturate with a little 
 
 water to a perfectly smooth paste, then dilute 
 the mass with a proper quantity of soft water- 
 Tfae product resembles Stephen's ' patent blue 
 ink.' 
 
 7. (Rev. J. B. Reade — patented.) — a. A 
 solution of his patent soluble Prussian blue in 
 distilled water. Blue. 
 
 i. Prepared by adding to good gall ink a 
 strong solution of bis soluble Prussian blue, 
 riiis addition " makes the ink, which was pre- 
 viously proof against alkalies, equally proof 
 against acids, and forms a writing fluid which 
 cannot be erased from paper by any common 
 method of fraudulent obliteration without the 
 destruction of the paper." This ink writes 
 greenish blue, but afterwards turns intensely 
 black. Stephen's ' patent ink,' which does the 
 same, is a similar compound. 
 
 8. (Prof. Rungo — cheomic ink.) Logwood, 
 in fine chips, i lb.; boiling water, 3 pints; 
 digest tor 12 hours, then simmer the liquid 
 down gently tol quart, carefully observing to 
 avoid dust, grease, and smoke ; when cold, 
 decant the decoction, and add to it of yellow 
 chromate of potash, 20 gr. ; dissolve by agi- 
 tation, after which it will be fit for use. 
 Cheap and good. It resists the action of all 
 oidinary destructive agents better than the 
 tanno-gallic iiiks ; it may be washed alter use 
 with a wet sponge, or steeped for twenty -four 
 hours in water, or even tested with dilute 
 acids, and yet preserve its original blackness. 
 It is perfectly liquid, it scarcely thickens by 
 age, and neither deposits a sediment nor cor- 
 rodes steel pens. 
 
 9. (Ure.) From vanadate of ammonia de- 
 composed with infusion of galls. It is of a 
 perfectly black hue, flows freely from the pen, 
 is rendered blue by acids, is unaffected by 
 dilute alkaline solutions, and resists the action 
 of chlorine. 
 
 Ohs. The preceding formula), under proper 
 management, produce excellent products, all 
 of which are extremely mobile, and most of 
 them of a more or less beautiful colour. The 
 blue ones, when concentrated, dry of a blue 
 black, whilst two or three of the others, 
 though at first pale, rapidly pass into a deep 
 black, when exposed to the air. Care must be 
 taken in all cases that the ingredients be pure. 
 The Prussian blue, except when directly pre- 
 pared tor the purpose, should be washed in 
 dilute hydrochloric acid before attempting its 
 solution by means of oxalic acid. Unless these 
 precautions are attended to, success is unlikely. 
 A little gum may be added, if required, to pre- 
 vent the fluid spreading on the paper j but in 
 most cases the addition is no improvement. 
 Most of the blue fluids may be used as 'in- 
 delible ink ' to mark linen, and will be found 
 very permanent, provided the part be first 
 moistened with alum water, and dried. , 
 
 XYLOIDHf. When starch is immersed in 
 concentrated nitric acid (sp. gr. 145 to 150), 
 it is converted, without disengagemeatof gas. 
 
XYLOL-YEAST 
 
 1789 
 
 into a colourless, trcmalous jelly, which, when 
 treated with an excess of water, yields a white, 
 curdy, insoluble substance, which after being 
 edulcorated with pure water, until every trace 
 of ucid is removed, is xyloidin. Paper, sugar, 
 gum, manuite, and several other substances, 
 treated in the sarae manner, become in great 
 part changed to xyloidin or analogous com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Obs. Pure xyloidin differs but slightly from 
 pyroxylin, or pure gun-cotton. 
 
 XYL'OL. A hydrocarbon, homologous to 
 benzol,fouadinwood-tar and coal-gas naphtha. 
 
 TAWS. Syn. Fbambcebia, L. A peculiar 
 disease of the skin, common in the Antilles 
 and some parts of Africa. It is characterised 
 by mulberry-like excrescences, whicli dis- 
 charge a watery humour. The treatment 
 chiefly consists in alleviating urgent symp- 
 toms (if any), and the adoption of a tempe- 
 rate diet and regimen, until the eruptions, 
 having run their course, begin to dry, wlien 
 tonics and alteratives, as cinchona bark, qui- 
 nine, and sarsapai'illa, with occasional small 
 doses of mercurials, generally prove advan- 
 tageous. The master (or principal) yaw, 
 which frequently remains troublesome after 
 the others have disappeared, may he dressed 
 with the ointment of red oxide of mercury, 
 or of nitrate of mercury, diluted with an equal 
 weight of lard. 
 
 The yaws is not a dangerous, although a 
 very disgusting, disease, it is contagious by 
 contact, and, like the smallpox, only occurs 
 once during life. 
 
 YEAST. Syn. Babu, Fbbmbnt, Zvmine ; 
 Febmentuu, L. Yeast, which consists almost 
 entirelyof minute vegetable cell9,termed Torula 
 cerevisice, is either the froth or the deposit of 
 fermenting worts, according to the character 
 of the fermentation. 
 
 The top yeast, or superficial ferment, which 
 covers the surface of fermenting worts, is 
 called ' oberhefe' by the Germans; and the 
 bottom yeast, or the ferment of deposit, is 
 termed ' unterhefe.' The first is the common 
 yeast of the English brewer; the other, that 
 used in Bavaria for the fermentation of worts 
 from below (untergiihrung). Both varieties 
 yield their own kind under proper conditions. 
 Wort fermented with top yeast, at from 46° 
 to 50° Fahr., yield both varieties, and each of 
 these furnishes its own kind, nearly pure, by 
 a second fermentation. See Bbbwihq, Fbb- 
 
 MBNTAIIOH, &C. 
 
 Fres. 1. Ordinary beer yeast may be kept 
 fresh and fit for use for several months, by 
 placing it in a close canvas bag, and gently 
 and gradually squeezing nut the moisture in a 
 screw press until the remaining matter ac- 
 quires the consistence of cluy or soft cheese, 
 in which state it must be preserved in close 
 vessels, or wrapped in waxed cloth. This is 
 the method generally adopted for the best 
 Flanders and German yeast. | 
 
 2. Whisk the yeast until it forms a nniforra 
 liquid mass, and then lay it with a clean and 
 soft painter's bmsh evenly and thinly on flat 
 ditches, or any convenient surface, on which it 
 can be exposed to the sun or air ; this opera- 
 tion must be repeated as soon as the first coat 
 is sufficiently solid, and so on, until the layers 
 acquire a proper thickness, wlien it must be 
 detached and preserved as before. If ren- 
 dered quite dry, its power of exciting fermen- 
 tation will be destroyed. 
 
 3. By employing strips of clean new flannel 
 (well washed), as above, and, when sufficiently 
 dry, rolling these up, and covering them with 
 waxed cloth or paper, or placing them in tin 
 canisters or boxes. For use, a few inches of 
 one of the strips is cut off, and soaked in luke- 
 warm water, when the bann leaves the flannel, 
 and mixes with the water, wliich may then be 
 stirred up with the flour. 
 
 Yeast, ATtifi"cial. "Although the conver- 
 sion of a small into a large quantity of 
 yea-t is a very easy thing, yet to produce that 
 >ubstance from the beginning is very difiicult." 
 (Beizelius.) Both cases are met in the for- 
 mulae below. 
 
 Prep. 1. ( Without a ferment.) — a. (Fownes.) 
 Wlieat flour Is to be mixed with water into a 
 thick paste, which is to he slightly covered, 
 in a moderately warm place; about the third 
 day it begins to emit a little gas, and to 
 exhale a disagreeable sour odour; about the 
 sixth or seventh day the smell cliangcs, much 
 gas is evolved, accompanied by a distinct and 
 agreeable vinous odour, and it is then in a 
 state to excite either to vinous or panary 
 fermentation, and may be either nt once em- 
 ployed for that purpose or formed into small 
 and very thin cakes, dried in the nir and pre- 
 served for future use. Woi-t fermented with 
 it in the ordinary way yields a large quatitity 
 of yeast, of excellent quality, which is found 
 at tlie bottom of the vessel. " This is a revival 
 of a method which, although Mr Fownes 
 seems to regard it as new, is to be found in the 
 ' Chemistry ' of Boerliaave " (' Lancet.') It is, 
 indeed, a mere modification of the mode of 
 preparing leaven, as practised from the most 
 remote ages of antiquity; but is not the less 
 valuable on that account, 
 
 2. (With a ferment.) — a. Take of bean 
 flour, i lb. ; water, 6 quarts ; boil for \ an 
 hour, pour the decoction into any suitable 
 vessel, add of wheat flour, 3i lbs.; stir the 
 whole well together, and, when the tempera- 
 ture reaches 55° Fahr., add of beer yeast, 2 
 quarts; mix well, and in 24 hours alter the 
 commencement of the fermentation add of 
 hurley or bean flour, 7 lbs. ; make a unitbrm 
 dough by thorough kneading, form it into 
 small cakes, as above, and then preserve these 
 in a dry situation. For use, one of these discs 
 is to be broken into pieces, laid in tepid water, 
 and set in a warm place during 12 hours, 
 when the soft mass will serve the purpose of 
 beer yeast. 
 
1790 
 
 YELLOW DYES-YELLOW PIGMENTS 
 
 J. (Patent teast.) Take of hops, 6 oz. ; 
 water, 3 galls. ; simmer for 3 hours, strain, and 
 in 10 minutes stir in of ground malt, J peek ; 
 next reboil the hops in water, as before, and 
 let the strained liquor run into the first mash, 
 which must then be well stirred up, covered 
 over, and left for 4 hours; after that time 
 drain off the wort, and, when the temperature 
 has fallen to 90' Fahr., set it to work with 
 yeast (preferably patent), 1 pint; after stand- 
 ing for 20 to 24 hours in a warm pl;ioe, take 
 off the. scum, strain it through a coarse hair 
 sieve, and it will be fit for use. 1 pint is said 
 to be enough for 1 bushel of bread. 
 
 Obs. The preparation of artificial yeast, 
 and substitutes for yeast, has long engaged 
 the attention of both the scientific chemist 
 and the practical tradesman. The subject is, 
 undoubtedly, of great importance to emigrants 
 and voyagers. The above processes, by good 
 management, yield products which are all that 
 can be desired. 
 
 yEL'IiOW DYES. The following substances 
 impart a yellow to goods, either at once or 
 after they have been mordanted with alumina 
 or tin : — annotta, barberry root, dyer's broom, 
 French berries, fustic, f nstet, quercitron bark, 
 and turmeric. Goods mordanted with acetate 
 of lead, and afterwards passed through a bath 
 of chromate of potash, acquire a brilliant 
 chrome-yellow colour; — solution of sulphate 
 or acetate of ii'on, followed by immersion in 
 potash or lime water, gives a buff or orange ; 
 — orpiment, dissolved in ammonia water, im- 
 parts a golden yellow. (See the above- 
 named substances, iu their alphabetical places.) 
 An aniline yellow (chrysaniline) has recently 
 been obtained by Mr Nicholson, which is said 
 to be a most valuable dye-stuff, comparable, 
 indeed, with the aniline reds and purples. 
 
 YELLOW iE"VER. The bilious remittent 
 fever of hot climates. It is very common in 
 the West Indies and the Southern States of 
 America. New Orleans has been several times 
 nearly depopulated by it. 
 
 YELLOW PIG'ffiEMTS. Of these the prin- 
 cipal are — 
 
 Brown Pink. Frep. Take of French ber- 
 ries and pearlash, of each 1 lb. ; fustic chips, 
 5 lb. ; water, 2 galls. ; boil in a tin or pewter 
 vessel, and strain the decoction through flannel 
 whilst hot; then dissolve alum, IJ lb. in hot 
 water, 2i galls.; add the solution to the strained 
 decoction as long as a precipitate falls, which 
 must afterwards be washed, drained, and dried. 
 Some manufacturers omit the fustic. A good 
 glazing colour, when ground in linseed, and 
 used with drying oil. 
 
 Yellow, Chrome. Syn. Chuomate OE lead. 
 Yellow c. op l. ; Plumbi cheomas, Plumbi 
 OHEOMAS ELAVUM, L. The preparation of 
 the pure sale is noticed under Cheomium: and 
 Lead ; that of the commercial pigment is as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Add a filtered solution of nitrate or ace- 
 tate of lead to a like solution of neutral chro- 
 
 mate of potash as long as a precipitate falls ; 
 then collect this, wash it well with clean soft 
 water, and dry it out of the reach of sulphu- 
 retted vapours. 
 
 2. To the lye of chromate of potash, pre- 
 pared by roasting the chrome ore with nitre, 
 and lixiviation with water, add a solution of 
 acetate of lead, and otherwise proceed as be- 
 fore. 
 
 3. Dissolve acetate of lead in warm water, 
 and add of sulphuric acid, q. s. to convert it 
 into sulphate of lead; decant the clear liquid 
 (vinegar), wash the residuum with sott water, 
 and digest it, with agitation, in a hot solution 
 of neutral (yellow) chromate of potash, con- 
 taining 1 part of that salt to every three parts 
 of sulphate of lead operated on ; afterwards 
 decant the liquid, which is a solution of sul- 
 phate of potash, and carefully drain, wash, 
 and dry the newly formed pigment. The 
 product contains much sulphate of lead, but 
 covers as well, and has as good a colour, as 
 pure chromate of lead, whilst it is much 
 cheaper. The shade may be varied by in- 
 creasing or lessening the quantity of the 
 chromate.' 
 
 Obs. Four shades of this beautiful pigment 
 are met with iu the shops, viz. pale yellow 
 or straw colour, yellow, deep yellow, and 
 orange. The former are made by adding 
 a little alum or sulphuric acid to the so- 
 lution of the chromate before mixing it with 
 the solution of lead ; the last, by the addition 
 of a little subacetate of lead (tribasic acetate), 
 or by washing the precipitate with a weak 
 alkaline lye. The darker colour appears to 
 arise from a little 'dichromate' being thrown 
 down intimately mixed with the neutral 
 chromate, and the paler shades from a slight 
 excess of acid, or from the presence of water- 
 sulphate of lead, and, occasionally, alumina. 
 The colour is also influenced by the tempera- 
 ture of the solutions at the time of admix- 
 ture. Authon has found that, when hot so- 
 lutions of equal equivalents of acetate of lead 
 (190 parts) and chromate of potash (100 parts, 
 both neutral and in crystals) are mixed, the 
 yellow precipitate, when dried, is anhydrous ; 
 but when the mixture is made at ordinary 
 temperatures, the precipitate has a paler 
 yellow, and when dried contains 1 eq., or 
 nearly 5ig of water. (' Buch. Kept.') It 
 thus appears that the shades of colour of 
 chrome yellow may be varied, without any 
 foreign addition. In practice, the third for- 
 mula will be found very satisfactory. See 
 Oeange Chkome and Chkome Red. 
 
 Dutch Pink. Prep. Take of French ber- 
 ries, 1 lb. ; turmeric, i lb. ; alum, 4 lb. ; water, 
 \\ gall. ; boil \ an hour, strain, evaporate to 
 2 quarts, adding of whiting, 3 lbs., and dry by 
 a gentle heat. Starch, or white lead, is some- 
 times employed instead of whiting, to give it 
 a body. Golden yellow. Used as a pigment j 
 but will not glaze like brown pink. 
 
 1 Armengaud's ' G^uie Industrie),' April, 1853. 
 
YTTRIUM— ZIXC 
 
 1791 
 
 English Pink. iSy*. LionT pink. As the 
 last, but usiiii; 5 Iba. of whiting. 
 
 Indian Yellow. 8i>o PcBasB. 
 
 King's Yellow. Factitious terenlphurct of 
 arsenic, 
 
 Naples Yellow. 8i/n. Mikebax tellow 
 Prep. 1. Take of metallic antimony, in powder, 
 3 Ibd. ; red lend, -Z lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 1 lb. ; 
 mix, calcine, well triturate the calx, and fuse 
 it in a covered crucible; the fused mass must 
 be reduced to an impalpable powder by grind- 
 ing and elutriation. 
 
 2. Flake white, 1^ lb. ; diaphoretic anti- 
 mony, i lb. ; calcined alum, 1 oz. ; sal ammo- 
 niac, 2 oz. ; calcine in a covered crucible with 
 a moderate beat for 3 hours, so that nt the 
 end it may be barely red hot. More antimony 
 and sal ammnniac turn it on the gold colour. 
 
 3. (Quimel.) Washed diaphoretic antimony, 
 1 part ; pure red lead, 2 parts ; grind them to 
 a paste with water, and expose this mixture 
 to a moderate red heat for 4 or 5 hours, as 
 before. Used in oil, porcelain, and enamel 
 painting. Chrome has now nearly superseded 
 it for ordinary purposes. 
 
 Patent Yellow. Sgn. Cabsbl Yelmw, 
 MoNiTKLllEB T., Tueneb's t. Prep. Toke 
 of dry chloride of lead, 28 parts j pure car- 
 bonate of lead, 27 parts j grind them together, 
 fuse, and powder. 
 
 2. Common salt, 1 part, and litharge, 4 
 parts, are ground together with water, and 
 digested at a gentle heat for some time, water 
 being added to supply the loss by evapora- 
 tion ; the carbonate of soda formed is then 
 washed out with more wiiter, and the white 
 residuum heated until it acquires a fine yellow 
 colour, Works well in oil. Chiefly used in 
 coachpaintiiiy;. See Oxtchloeide op leas. 
 
 Weld Yellow. Prepared from a decoction of 
 weld brightened with a little alum, in the same 
 manner as Dutch pink. Used chiefly for paper 
 hansrings. 
 
 YTTRIUM. Y. The oxide of this metal 
 (yttria), a rare, white earth, was discovered by 
 Gadolin, in 1794, in a mineral from Ytterby, 
 in Sweden, since called gadolinite. Yttrium 
 was obtained by WOhler in 1828, as a brittle, 
 dark-grey metal, made from the chloride by 
 the action of sodium. Its salts have in general 
 a sweetish taste, and the sulphate and several 
 others an amethystine colour. Its solutions 
 are precipitated by pure alkalies, but alkaline 
 carbonates, especially carbonate of ammonium, 
 dissolve it in the cold. They are distinguished 
 from glucinium salts by the colour of the sul- 
 phate by beiug insoluble in pure alkalies, 
 and by yielding a white precipitate with fer- 
 rocyanide of potassium. Yttria may be ob- 
 tained from gadolinite by a similar process to 
 that by which glucina is extracted from the 
 beryl. 
 
 According to Professor Mosander, ordinary 
 yttria is a mixture of the oxides of not less 
 than three metals — yttrium, erbium, and tf r- 
 bium. These metals differ from each other 
 
 in many important particulars. The first is a 
 powerful base, and the others are said to be 
 weak ones. They are separated with extreme 
 difficulty, and are only interesting in a scien- 
 tific point of view. 
 
 ZAFFEE. Syn. Safpea, Sapfior, Zappek. 
 Crude oxide of cobalt, obtained by roasting 
 cobalt ore, reduced to an impalpable powder, 
 and then ground with 2 or 3 parts of very pure 
 quartzo^e or siliceous sand. Used as a blue 
 colour by enamellers and painters on porcelain 
 and glass. Chiefly imported from Saxony. 
 See SuALTS. 
 
 ZE"SO. See Theemometer. 
 
 ZESTS. See Powdbes, Saucjs, SricR, Ac. 
 
 ZINC. Zn. Sy». Zink, Spelter; Zin- 
 CUM. (Ph. L., E., & D), L. This metal was 
 first noticed by Paracelsus, in tlie Ifjth cen- 
 tury, who called it ' zinetum ;' but its ores 
 must have been known at a much earlier 
 peiiod, IIS the ancients were acquainted with 
 the manufacture of brass. 
 
 Prep. The zinc of commerce is obtained 
 from the native sulphide (zinc blende), or car- 
 bonate (calamine), by roasting those ores, :md 
 distilling the calx with carbonaceous matter 
 in a covered earthen crucible, having its bot- 
 tom connected with an iron tube, which ter- 
 minates over a vessel of water situated beneath 
 the furnace. Tlie first portion that passes 
 over contains cadmium and arsenic, and is in- 
 dicated by what is technically c:illod ' brown 
 blaze ;' but when the metallic vapour begins 
 to burn with a bluish-white flame, or the 'blue 
 blxze' commences, the volatilised metal is 
 collected. 
 
 The following method, by which several 
 pounds of chemically pure zinc may be obtained 
 in about i of an hour, will be found very useful : 
 — Melt the zinc of commerce in a common 
 crucible, and granulate it by throwing it into 
 !i tolerably deep vessel of water, taking care 
 that the metal be very hot at the time ; ilry 
 the metallic grains, and dispose them by layers 
 in a Hessian crucible with i of their weight 
 of nitrate of potassium, using the precaution 
 to place a slight excess at the top and at the 
 bottom ; cover the crucible, and secure the lid, 
 then apply heat ; after the vivid deflagration 
 which occurs is over, remove the crucible 
 from the fire, separate the dross with a tube, 
 and, lastly, run the zinc into an ingot mould. 
 I'his zinc, tested in Marsh's apparatus during 
 entire days, has never given any stain, and in 
 solution the most sensitive reagents, such as 
 hydro-sulphocyanic acid, have never indicated 
 the least atom of iron. (' Journ. de Pharm.') 
 Prop. Zinc is a bluish-white metal, having 
 the sp. gr. 68 to 7'2 ; tough (under some cir- 
 cumstances, brittle) when cold, ductile and 
 malleable at from 250° to 300° Fahr. ; brittle 
 and easily pulverised at 400°; fuses at 773° 
 (Daniell); at a white heat it boils, and sub- 
 limes unchanged in close vi ssels ; heated to 
 whiteness (941° Daniell) in contact with the 
 
1792 
 
 ZINC 
 
 air, it burns with a brilliant green light, and 
 13 converted into oxide. It is very soluble in 
 dilute sulphuric and hydrochloric acid, with 
 the evolution of hydrogen gas. It is little 
 acted on by the air, even when moist. The 
 salts of zinc are colourless. 
 
 Pmj-. Commercial zinc is never pure. Its 
 specific gravity is 6'86. It is soluble in nitric, 
 hydrochloric, and dilute sulphuric acids. 
 
 Tests. 1. The solutions of zinc give a gela- 
 tinous white precipitate with the alkalies 
 and carbonate of ammonium, which is com- 
 pletely redissolved by an excess of the pre- 
 cipitant. — 2. The carbonates of potassium 
 and sodium give a white precipitate of car- 
 bonate of zinc. All the above precipitates 
 acquire a lemon-yellow colour when dried and 
 heated, but again become white on cooling. — 
 3. Sulphide of ammonium gives, in neutral 
 solutions, a white precipitate, insoluble in ex- 
 cess of the precipitant, or in solutions of 
 hydrate of potassium or ammonium, but freely 
 soluble in the dilute mineral acids. — 4. Sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, in neutral and alkaline 
 solutions, also gives a like white precipitate. — 
 5. Ferrocvanide of potassium gives a gelatinous 
 white precipitate. 
 
 Estim., S(c. — a. 100 gr. are digested in 
 dilute hydrochloric acid in excess, and the in- 
 soluble portion, which is chiefly carbon, dried 
 and weighed. 
 
 b. The acidulous solution (see a) is next 
 treated with a current of sulphuretted hydro- 
 gen until it smells very strongly of that gas ; 
 the whole is then Itft for some time in a warm 
 situation. The precipitate which subsides 
 consists of the sulphides of arsenic, cadmium, 
 copper, lead, &c., if any of these metals were 
 present in the sa nple. 
 
 c. The filtrate from h, after being boiled, is 
 treated with a little nitric acid, after which it 
 is again boiled, and, when cold, is precipitated 
 with carbonate of barium added in excess ; the 
 precipitate (ferric hydrate) is then collected, 
 dried, ignited, and weighed. The weight, in 
 grains, multiplied by '7, gives the percentage 
 of iron in the sample examined. 
 
 d. The filtrate from c is next precipitated 
 with dilute sulphuric acid, and solution of 
 carbonate of sodium is added in excess to the 
 filtered liquid; the whole is then boiled, after 
 which the new precipitate is washed, dried, 
 gently ignited for some time, and then cooled 
 and weighed. The weight, in grains, multi- 
 plied by '80247, gives the percentage of pure 
 zinc in the sample. 
 
 Uses, iSfc. — Zinc is used to form galvanic 
 plates ; in fireworks, and in medicine. Of late 
 years it has also been extensively used in the 
 manufacture of vessels of capacity, tubing, 
 sheets for roofing, and other things that require 
 lightness and durability. 
 
 Zinc, Amalgamated, which is employed for 
 voltaic batteries, is prepared as follows: — The 
 plates, having been scoured with emery, are 
 immersed for a few seconds in dilute sulphuric 
 
 acid, then rinsed in clean soft water, and, after 
 the loose water has drained from their surface, 
 dipped into a strong solution of either mer- 
 curic nitrate or chloride, or into equal parts 
 of a mixture of saturated solutions of mercuric 
 chloride and acetate of lead ; the plates are, 
 lastly, dipped into water, and then rubbed with 
 a soft cloth. Another and simpler method 
 is to rub mercui^ over the plates while wet 
 with dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Zinc, Granulated. Sj/n. Zmcm obanu- 
 LATUM (B. P.). Fuse commercial zinc in a 
 crucible, pour it in a very thin stream into a 
 bucket of cold water, and afterwards dry the 
 zinc. 
 
 Zinc, Ac'etate of. Zn(C5H302).. Syn. 
 ZiNCi ACETAS, L. Prep. 1. (Ph. l5.) Ace- 
 tate of lead, 1 lb., is dissolved in distilled 
 water, 2^ pints, and the solution being placed 
 in a cylindrical jar, sheet zinc, 4 oz., rolled 
 into a coil, is immersed therein ; after 24 
 hours the liquid is decanted, evaporated to 15 
 oz., and solution of hypochlorite of calcium 
 added drop by drop, until a reddish precipitate 
 ceases to form ; the liquid is then filtered, 
 acidulated by the addition ol a few drops of 
 acetic acid, reduced by evaporation to 10 fl. 
 oz., and set aside to crystallise; the crystals 
 are dried on bibulous paper set on a porohs 
 brick, and then preserved in a well-stopped 
 bottle. More crystals may be obtained from 
 the mother-liquor. 
 
 2. (B. F.) Add 2 oz. of carbonate of zinc 
 in successive portions to 3 fl. oz. of acetic acid, 
 previously mixed with 6 fi. oz. of distilled 
 water, in a fiask ; heat gently, add by degrees 
 2 fi. oz. of acid, or q. s., till the carbonate is 
 dissolved ; boil for a few minutes, filter while 
 hot, and set it aside for two days to crystallise. 
 Decant the mother liquor, evaporate to one 
 half, and again set it aside for two days to 
 crystallise. Place the crystals in a funnel to 
 drain, then spread them on filtering paper on 
 a porous tile; and dry them by exposure to the 
 air at ordinary temperatures. 
 
 Prop., Sfc. Efflorescent, white, hexagonal 
 plates, having a powerful styptic taste; very 
 soluble in water; less soluble in alcohol; de- 
 composed by heat. It is tonic, antispasmodic, 
 and emetic. — Dose, 1 to 2 gr. ; as an emetic, 
 10 to 20 gr. ; externally, 2 or 3 gr. to water, 
 1 fi. oz., as an astringent lotion or injection. 
 
 Zinc, Bro'mide of. ZnBrj. Syn. ZiNOI 
 BKOMIDTTM, L. Prepared like the correspond- 
 ing salt of iron. 
 
 Zinc, Car'bonate of. ZnCOj. Syn. ZiNOi 
 
 CAEBONAS PUEUM, ZlNCl CAEBONAS (B. P., Ph. 
 
 D.),L. Prep. 1. (Ph.D.) Solution of chloride of 
 zinc (Ph. D.), 1 pint is added, in successive 
 portions, to a solution of crystallised carbonate 
 of sodium of commerce, 2 lbs., dissolved in boil- 
 ing distilled water, 6 pints, and the whole is 
 boiled until gas ceases to be evolved ; the pre- 
 cipitate is then washed, and dried, at first on 
 blotting-paper, and, finally, by a steam or 
 water heat. 
 
ZINC 
 
 1793 
 
 2. (B. P.) Dissolve lOJ oz. carbonate of 
 soda with 1 pint of boiling water in a capa- 
 cious porcelain v'essel, and pour intoitlO oz. of 
 sulphate of nine, also dissolved in 1 pint of 
 water, stirring diligently. Boil for 15 mi- 
 nutes after effervescence has ceased, and let 
 the precipitate subside. Decant the super- 
 natant liquor, pour on the precipitate 3 pints 
 of boiling distilled water, agitating briskly; 
 let the precipitate again subside, and repeat 
 the process of affusion of hot distilled water 
 and subsidence till the washings are no longer 
 precipitated by chloride of barium. Collect 
 the precipitate on calico, let it drain, and dry 
 it with a gentle heat. 
 
 Zinc,Chlo"rideof. ZnCl,. Sy». BuTTBEor 
 ZINC, Muriate of z.f; Zinoi chloeidum 
 (B. P., Ph. L.), Z. MUEiAst, L. Frep. 1. By 
 heating metallic zinc in chlorine. 
 
 2. (Ph. li.) Hydrochloric acid, 1 pint; 
 water, 1 quart; and zinc (in small pieces), 7 
 oz. ; when the effervescence is nearly finished, 
 apply heat until bubbles cease to be evolved; 
 rlfcaut the clear, and evaporate to dryness ; 
 fuse the resulting mass in a lightly covered 
 '•nicible, by a red heat, pour it out on a flat 
 smooth stone, and, when cold, break it into 
 small pieces, or cast it into rods in iron moulds, 
 and preserve it in a well-stoppered bottle. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Put 16 oz. of granulated zinc 
 into a porcelain basin, add by degrees 44 fl. oz. 
 of hydrochloric acid previously mixed with 1 
 pint of distilled water, and aid the action by 
 gently warming it on a sand-bath until gas is 
 no longer evolved. Boil for half an hour, 
 supplying the water lost by evaporation, and 
 allow it to stand on the cool part of the sand- 
 bath for 24 hours, stirring frequently. Filter 
 the product into a gallon bottle, and pour in 
 solution of chlorine q. s. by degrees, with fre- 
 quent agitation, until the fluid acquires a per- 
 manent odour of chlorine. Add i oz. or a suffi- 
 cient quantity of carbonate of zinc, in small 
 quantities at a time, and with renewed agita- 
 tion, until a brown sediment appears. Filter 
 through paper into a porcelain basin, and evapo- 
 rate until a portion of the liquid, withdrawn 
 on the end of a glass rod and cooled, forms an 
 opaque white solid. Pour it out now into proper 
 moulds, and when the salt has solidified, but 
 before it has cooled, place it in closely-stop- 
 pered bottles. 
 
 4. (In BOitTTiON).— o. (Liquor zinci 
 CHLOEIDI — Ph. D.) Hydrochloric acid and 
 water, of each 2i pints; sheet zinc, 1 lb. ; dis- 
 solve, filter through calico, add of hypochlorite 
 of calcium, 1 fl. oz., and evaporate, by boiling, 
 to a pint; when cold, pour it into a bottle, 
 add of prepared chalk, 1 oz., and water, q. s. 
 to make the whole measure 1 quart; agitate 
 occasionally for 24 hours, decant or filter, and 
 preserve the liquid in a stoppered bottle. Sp. 
 gr. 1-693. See Solutions. 
 
 b. (E. Parrish.) Granulated zinc, 4 lbs.; 
 hydrochloric acid, 4 lbs., or q. s. ; water, 9 
 quarts ; dissolve, avoiding excess of acid. The 
 TOl. II 
 
 solntion contains 1 in 12 of chloride of zinc. 
 Recommended as of the proper strength for a 
 disinfectant. 
 
 Prop., S^c. When pure, a colourless, amor- 
 phous mass or crystals ; generally a whitish- 
 gray, semi-transparent mass, having the con- 
 sistence of wax ; fusible ; volatile at a strong 
 heat, condensing in acicular crystals; freely 
 soluble in alcohol, ether, and water; highly 
 deliquescent ; coagulates albumen and gelatin, 
 and corrodes animal substances. The solution 
 possesses the sameproperties in a minor degree. 
 
 Pur. From the aqueous solution, hydro- 
 sulphuric acid or ferrocyanide of potassium 
 being dropped in, a precipitate is thrown 
 down. Wliat is thrown down by ammonia 
 or hydrate of potassium from the same so- 
 lution is white, and is redissolved by either 
 precipitant in exiess. The precipitate thrown 
 down by the carbonate of either ammonium 
 or potassium is (also) white, but is not redis- 
 solved when these are added in excess. 
 
 Uses, ^c. Dry chloride of, zinc is chiefly 
 used as a caustic, for which it is highly re- 
 commended by Voght, Canquoin, and others. 
 It is more powerful than chloride of anti- 
 mony, and its action extends deeper than 
 does nitrate of silver, whilst it exercises an 
 influence over the vital actions of neighbour- 
 ing parts. The sore is generally healthy after 
 the separation of the eschar, and no consti- 
 tutional disorder ensues. It has been given 
 in scrofula, epilepsy, chorea, &c.; and, com- 
 bined with hydrocyanic acid, in facial neu- 
 ralgia. — Dose, \ gr. to 2 gr. ; externally, as a 
 lotion, 2 to 3 gr. to water, 1 oz. In large 
 doses it is poisonous. 
 
 The solution is also used as a caustic, but 
 chiefly as a disinfectant and deodorizer, e.g. as 
 Sir Wm. Burnett's Fluid and Prof essor Tuson's 
 ' Sporokton,' of which it is one of the very best, 
 possessing, as it does, the power of rapidly de- 
 composing sulphide of ammonium and of ren- 
 dering inert the virus of infectious diseases. 
 
 Zinc, Cy'anide of. ZnCy^. Si/n. Cyahitbet 
 
 OF zinc ; ZlNCl CTANIDUM, ZiNCI CYANU- 
 RETUM, L. Prep. (P. Cod.) Add a solution 
 of cyanide of potassium to another of pure 
 sulphate of zinc; wash, and dry the preci- 
 pitate. — Dose, ^ to 1 gr., twice a day; in 
 epilepsy, hysteria, and other nervous affec- 
 tions, heartburn, worms, &c. ; and as a srtb- 
 stitute for hydro-cyanic acid. 
 
 Zinc, Ferrocy'anide of. Zii2FeCy5. 8yn. 
 ZiNCi FEBKOCYANIDUM, L. Prep. By adding 
 a hot solution of ferrocyanide of potassium 
 to a hot and strong solution of pure sulphate 
 of zinc, and washing, and drying the precipi- 
 tate. White. — Dose, 1 to 4 gr. ; in the same 
 cases as the last. 
 
 Zinc, I'odide of. Znl,. Svn. Hydbiodate 
 OY ziNot; Zinci iodidum, Zinci hydriodas, 
 li. Prep. 1. (Doflos.) Iodine, 2 parts ; granu- 
 lated zinc, 1 part; water, 4 parts; proceed 
 as for ferrous iodide, only employing a glass 
 or porcelain vessel. 
 
 113 
 
1794 
 
 ZINC 
 
 2. (Magendie.) Iodine, 17 parts ; zinc (in 
 powder), 20 parts; mix, and sublime in a 
 matrass. 
 
 Frop., ^0. Deliquescent. Chiefly used ex- 
 ternally ; 15 gr. to water, 6 il. oz., as a coUy- 
 rium in scrofulous inflammation of the eye 
 (Poulet) ; 1 dr. to lard, 1 oz., as a powerful 
 resolvent in scrofulous and other glandular 
 swellings, rubbed on the part twice a day. 
 (Ure.) 
 
 Zinc, Lac'tate of. Zn(CsH50.2)j. Syn. ZiNOi 
 lAOTAS, li. Prepared from zinc in the same 
 way as ferrous lactate is from iron. 
 
 Zinc, Ox'ide of. Sun. Protoxide of zinc ; 
 ZiNci OXTDITM (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), L. 
 Frep. 1. (Ph. L.) Sulphate of zinc (pure), 1 
 lb. ; carbonate of ammonium, 6i oz. ; dissolve 
 each separately in 6 quarts of water, filter, 
 mix the solutions, well wash the precipitate 
 with water, and calcine it for 2 hours in a 
 i strong fire. The Pb. E. is nearly similar. 
 
 2. (Ph. D., B. P.) Place carbonate of zinc 
 in a covered clay crucible, and expose it to a 
 very low red heat, until a portion taken from 
 , the centre of the mass ceases to effervesce on 
 being dropped into dilute sulphuric acid. 
 
 Frop., S[c. A white, tasteless powder ; in- 
 : soluble in water ; freely soluble in acids, the 
 solution yielding colourless and easily crys- 
 . tallisable salts ; strongly basic. 
 
 Uses, S;c. It is tonic and antispasmodic, 
 and has been advantageously used in chorea, 
 -epilepsy, and other nervous and spasmodic 
 affections. — Dose, 1 to 6 gr., twice h. day. It 
 is also used as a dusting powder, and to make 
 an ointment. It has been proposed as a sub- 
 stitute for white lead in painting, than which 
 it covers better, but dries slower, and hence 
 requires the addition of dried white vitriol. 
 '.This oxide is the only compound which zinc 
 forms with oxygen. 
 
 Zinc, Phosphide. Fragments of pure distilled 
 zinc are introduced into a tubulated stoneware 
 retort, so as to occupy about one fourth of its 
 capacity ; the retort is placed in an ordinary 
 furnace, and a current of dry carbonic acid is 
 passed into it through the neck. Over the 
 ■tubulure is placed a crucible cover, so as to 
 close the orifice incompletely, and allow the 
 carbonic acid, after traversing the retort, to 
 escape. When the zinc enters into ebullition 
 small fragments of previously-dried phosphorus 
 are successively thrown in through the tubu- 
 . lure, the cover being removed and returned 
 after each addition, to prevent loss of phoS' 
 phorus. From time to time it is necessary to 
 break the crust of phosphorus formed, in 
 order to expose a new layer of metal to the 
 action of the phosphorus. The operation is 
 terminated by increasing the heat strongly 
 -^a precaution that is indispensable, in order 
 to separate as completely as possible the zinc 
 phosphide from the metallic button of nearly 
 pure zinc, which collects at the bottom of 
 the retort. Further, the zinc phosphide 
 
 should be reduced to very fine powder, and 
 the fragments which resist the action of the 
 metal, however slightly, should be reserved 
 for another operation. The product pulverises 
 the more readily in proportion as it approaches 
 more closely the formula PjZnj. In this state 
 it resembles iron reduced by hydrogen, and 
 only thus should it be used by pharmaceut- 
 ists. It is completely soluble in hydrochloric 
 acid.' 
 
 Zinc, Sulphate of. ZnSO,. Syn. White 
 coppBEAS*; White vitriol* ; ZiNCi suiphus 
 (B. P., Ph. L., E., & D.), li. Pre'p. 1. (Ph. L.) 
 Granulated zinc, 5 oz. ; diluted sulphuric acid, 
 1 quart ; dissolve, filter. Evaporate to a pel- 
 licle, and set it aside to crystallise. 
 
 2. (Ph. D.) Zinc (laminated or granulated), 
 4 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3 fl. oz. ; water, 1 pint; 
 mix' in a porcelain capsule, and, when gas 
 ceases to be evolved, boil for 10 minutes, 
 filter through calico, and evaporate the fil- 
 trate to dryness; dissolve the dry salt in 
 water, Ipint; frequently agitate the solution, 
 when cold, during 6 hours, with prepared 
 chalk, \ oz. ; next filter, acidulate the filtrate 
 with nitric acid and dilute sulphuric acid, 
 of each 1 fi. dr. ; evaporate until a pellicle 
 forms on the surface, and set it aside to crys- 
 tallise; dry the crystals on bibulous paper, 
 without heat, and preserve them in a bottle. 
 More crystals may be obtained from the 
 mother-liquor. 
 
 3. (B. P.) Pour 12 fl. oz. of sulphuric acid; 
 previously mixed with 4 pints of distilled 
 water, on 16 oz. of granulated zinc contained 
 in a porcelain b:isin, and when effervescence 
 has nearly ceased, aid the action by a gentle 
 beat. Filter the fluid into a gallon bottle, and 
 add, gradually, with constant agitation, solu- 
 tion of chlorine until the fluid acquires a 
 permanent odour of chlorine. Add now, with 
 continued agitation, \ oz. or q. s. of carbo- 
 nate of zinc, until a brown precipitate ap- 
 pears ; let it settle, filter the solution, evapo- 
 rate till a pellicle forms on the surface, and 
 set aside to crystallise. Dry the crystals by 
 exposure to air on filtering paper placed on 
 porous tiles. More crystals may be obtained 
 by again evaporating the mother-liquor. 
 
 4. The common sulphate of zinc of com- 
 merce frequently contains copper, cadmium, 
 lead, iron, and manganese, and nearly always 
 one or more of them. By digesting its concen- 
 trated solution for some time with metallic 
 zinc, it may he freed from copper, lead, and 
 cadmium, for these metals are all reduced and 
 precipitated in a metallic state ; or, the acidu- 
 lated solution may he treated with sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen as long as any precipitate 
 forms. In order to separate the iron, chlorine 
 gas may be passed into the solution, by which 
 the iron is converted into the ferrous chloride ; 
 if this solution be exposed to the air for a 
 
 1 From ' Formulse for New Medicamenta,* adopted by 
 the Paris Fharriiaceutical Society. 
 
Z INCETH Y L— ZIRCONIUM 
 
 1795 
 
 length of time, it absorbs oxygen, and oxide 
 of iron is deposited as a yellow powder, from 
 which the solution must be filtered. When 
 the sulphate contains mnn^nese, which is not 
 very often the case, the solution must be boiled 
 up a few times with purified charcoal, filtered 
 and evaporated. (' Jonr. fur prakt. Chem.') 
 The product of each of the above formulse 
 is nearly chemically pure. 
 
 5. {Commercial.) The crude sulphate of 
 zinc (white copperas, or white vitriol, of the 
 shops) is prepared by roasting native sulphide 
 of zinc (zincbleiide) in a reverberatnry furnace, 
 exposing the calcined mass to the air and 
 humidity for some time, then li^jviating it, 
 and evaporating the resulting solution until 
 it forms a white semi-crystalline mass on 
 cooling. 
 
 Prop. Pure sulphate of zinc forms inodo- 
 rous, colourless, transparent, quadrangular 
 prisms, closely resembling in appearance those 
 of Epsom salt, which effloresce slightly in the 
 air, and contains 7 equiv. of water ; it has a 
 slightly acidulous and very styptic metallic 
 taste ; the crystals dissolve in 2i parts of cold 
 and in less than their own weight of boiling 
 water J they are insoluble in alcohol. The 
 crude sulphate of zinc of commerce (white 
 vitriol) occurs in irregular granular masses, 
 which somewhat resemble loaf sugar. 
 
 When a solution of this salt, in 6 of water, 
 is boiled with a little nitric acid, and a solu- 
 tion of ammonia is then added until the oxide 
 of zinc at first precipitated is all redissolved, 
 no yellow precipitate remains, or a trace only, 
 and the solution is colourless. 
 
 Uses. In medicine, as a tonic, antispas- 
 modic, &c. ; in doses of 1 to 2 gr., twice 
 daily; as an emetic, 10 to SO gr. In large 
 doses it is poisonous. It has been employed 
 with benefit in dyspepsia, Sunr albus, chorea, 
 epilepsy, hooping-cough, and other convulsive 
 and nervous affections, generally combined 
 with bitters, foxgloVe, hemlock, henbaue, or 
 opium. As an emetic, it acts almost imme- 
 diately, and is therefore well suited to empty 
 the stomach at the commencement of a fit of 
 ague, and in cases of poisoning, &c. It is also 
 extensively used externally, to form astrin- 
 gent and repellant collyria, injections and 
 lotions. 
 
 Zinc, Snlpho-carbolate. The acid prepared 
 as in Bulpho-carbolate of soda (which see) is 
 saturated by aid of a gentle heat with oxide 
 of zinc, filtered, and crystals allowed to form. 
 The crystals should be dried by exposure to 
 the air. 
 
 Zinc, Vale"rianate of. Zn(CjH902)3. Si/n. 
 ZiNCI VALEBL4NA8 (B P., Ph. D. Prep. (Ph. 
 D.) Valerianate of sodium, 2i oz., and sulphate 
 of zinc, 2 oz. 7 dr., are each separately dissolved 
 in distilled water, 1 pint ; the solutions are 
 then heated to 200° Fahr., mixed, and the re- 
 sulting crystals skimmed off; the liquid is 
 next evaporated at a, temperature not higher 
 than 200°, until it measures 4 fl oz., the crys- 
 
 tals, as they form, being removed from the 
 surface ; the salt thus obtained is steeped, for 
 an hour, in distilled water, just sufficient to 
 cover it, after which the whole is transferred 
 to a paper filter, on which it is at first drained, 
 and then dried at a heat not exceeding 100°. 
 
 Prop., S^c. Brilliant white, pearly scales ; 
 very light ; astringent ; smells strongly of 
 valerianic acid ; only slightly soluble in cold 
 water, more so in hot water, and freely soluble 
 in alcohol and ether ; exposure to heat rapidly 
 decomposes it ; exposure to the air also decom- 
 poses it, but more slowly. It is regarded as 
 powerfully antispasmodic and tonic. — Dose, 
 1 to 3 gr., thrice daily, made into pills; in 
 neuralgia, tic douloureux, nervous headaches 
 (more particularly hemicninia), hysteria, pal- 
 pitation of the heart, vertigo, chorea, epilepsy, 
 &c. 
 
 Obs. Butyrate of zinc, scented with valeri- 
 anic acid, which is often sold for the above 
 compound, may be detected by distilling it 
 with sulphuric acid; the distillate, tested 
 with a strong solution of acetate of copper, 
 gives a bluish-white precipitate if it contains 
 butyric acid. The valerianate is distinguished 
 from the other salts of zinc by its extreme 
 lightness, 
 
 ZmC-E'THTL. Zn(CjHs)„. A curious liquid 
 body, discovered by Dr FraiiKland, and formetl, 
 along with iodide of zinc, when iodide of ethyl 
 is heated with pure zinc in a sealed dass tube. 
 The mixed white product, by distillation in a 
 current of hydrogen, yields pure zinc-ethyl. 
 It is a highly volatile liquid, having a rather 
 disagreeable odour, and so rapidly decomposed 
 by contact with the air that it takes fire. 
 Water resolves it into hydride of ethyl, and 
 other products. 
 
 ZINC-ME'THYL. ZnCCHp),. Obtained by 
 the action of zinc upon iodide of methyl, as 
 zinc-ethyl. It takes fire on coming in con- 
 tact with the air. 
 
 ZINCING. Si/n. ZiNKiNO. Vessels of 
 copper and brass may be trovered with a firmly 
 adherent layer of pure zinc, by boiling them 
 in a solution of chloride of zinc, pure zinc 
 turnings being at the same time present in 
 considerable excess. The same object may be 
 effected by means of zinc and a solution of 
 chloride of ammonium or hydrate of potas- 
 sium. 
 
 The variety of zinced iron commonly known 
 by the name of ' galvanised iron ' is prepared 
 by immersing the sheets of metal, previously 
 scoured and cleaned with dilute hydrochloric 
 acid, in a bath of melted zinc covered with 
 powdered sal ammoniac, and moving them 
 about until they are sufficiently coated. 
 
 ZINCOG'KAPHY. An art closely resembling 
 lithography, in which plates of zinc are sub- 
 stituted for slabs of stone. 
 
 ZIS'CON. See Geus. 
 
 ZIKCONIUM. Zr. Sgn. The oxide of this 
 metal, a white pulverulent earth, discovered in 
 the mineral gargon or zircon of Ceylon, by 
 
1796 
 
 ZIRCONIUM 
 
 Klaprotb, hi 1789. It haa since been found 
 in the hyacinth. 
 
 Frep. The stone is calcined and thrown 
 into cold water, and then powdered in an 
 agate mortar ; the powder is mixed with 9 
 parts of pure hydrate of potassium, and the 
 mixture projected, by spoonfuls, into a red-hot 
 crucible, care being taken that each portion is 
 fused before another is added ; after fusion, 
 with an increased lieat, for an hour and a half, 
 the whole is allowed to cool ; the calcined mass 
 is next powdered, and boiled in water ; the 
 insoluble portion is then dissolved in hydro- 
 chloric acid, and the solution heated, that the 
 silicic acid may fall down, after which the 
 zirconia is precipitated with hydrate of potas- 
 sium ; or, the zirconia may be precipitated 
 with carbonate of sodium, and the carbonic 
 acid expelled by heat. 
 
 From this, metallic zirconium is obtained by 
 beating in a glass tube, with a spirit lamp, a 
 
 mixture of potassium and thedouble fluoride 
 of zirconium and potassium, carefully dried ; 
 the product is washed with water, and digested 
 for some time in dilute hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Frof., S(c. A black powder j it acquires a 
 feeble metallic lustre under the burnisher, and 
 takes fire when heated in the air. It has not 
 been thoroughly examined. 
 
 Oxide of zirconium, or zirconia, Zr02, has 
 neither taste nor odour, is insoluble in water, 
 and forms salts with the acids. It is distin- 
 guished from all the other earths, except 
 thorina, by being precipitated when any of the 
 neutral salts of zirconium are boiled with a 
 saturated solution of sulphate of potassium. 
 The salts of zirconium are distinguished from 
 those of aluminium and glucinium by being 
 precipitated by all the pure alkalies, and by 
 being insoluble when they are added in excess. 
 The precipitated hydrate and carbonate are 
 readily soluble in acids. 
 
 WOEKS EEFEERED TO IN THIS EDITION. 
 
 Acton's Cookery. Royal Agricnltural Society's Journal. Analyst. Artisan Cookery. 
 Blyth's Dictionary of Hygiene. British Phannacopceia. Beasley's Pocket Formulary 
 and Druggists' General Receipt Book. British Medical Journal. Beeton's Cookery. 
 Beale's (I):' L.) Disease Germs ; How to Work with the Microscope ; Kidney Dis- 
 eases, Urinary Deposits, &c. Bloxnm's Chemistry. British Manufactures and Industries 
 (Stamford). Chavasse's Counsel to a Mother and Aphorisms foi- Parents. Crooke's 
 Practical Handbook of Dyeing and Calico Printing. Calvert's Dyeing and Calico Printing 
 (edited by Stenhonse and Groves). Chambers' Cyclopaedia. Chemist and Druggist. 
 Chemical News. Chemical Society. Journal of. Chemistry, Theoretical, Practical, and 
 Analytical (Reissue of Muspratt's Dictionary), MacKenzie. Cassell's Family Magazine. 
 Carpenter's Human Physiology. Dun's (Finlay) Veterinary Medicines. Dental Hospital 
 Pharmacopcoia. Dorvault's L'Officine. Daily Telegraph. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 Eassie's Healthy Houses. "'ius' Qualitative Analysis ; do.. Quantitative. Field. 
 
 Fitzwygram's Horses and Sti.u. .. Gardner's (Dr) Household Medicine. Garrod's Materia 
 Medica and Therapeutics. Hanbury and Fluckiger's Pharmacologia. Handbook for 
 Emergencies (Cassell). Hughes' Principles and Practice of Photography. Hartley's Water, 
 Air, and Disinfectants. Kingzett's Alkali Trade. Knap's Chemical Technology (Richardson 
 and Watts). Letlieby's Lectures on Food. Lancet. Land .^nd Water. Miller's 
 Chemical Physics ; Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. Medical Times and Gazette. 
 Meyer's Procrustes ante Portas (J. T. Craig). Nature. New Remedies. Pharmaceu- 
 tical Journal. Parkes' Practical HygiSne. Payen's Industrial Chemistry (edited by 
 Dr Paul). Pareira's Materia Medica. Pepy's Diary. Roscoe's Elementary Cliemistry. 
 Roberts' (Dr T. J.) Theory and Practice of Medicine. Royle's Materia Medica and Thera- 
 peutics. Roberts' (Dr W.) Renal Diseases, &c. Smith's (Dr Angus) Air and Rain. Spon's 
 Workshop Receipts. Society of Arts Journal. Sanitary Record. Squire's Companion to 
 the Pharmacopceia. Tegetmeier's Household Cookery. Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manu- 
 factures, and Mines (edited by Hunt). Wagner's Chemical Technology (edited by Crookes). 
 Wood and Bache's United States Dispensatory. Wanklyn's Water Analysis and Milk 
 Analysis. Year Book of Pharmacy.