(2? 8G BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME EROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF ■• • Hcnrg m. Sage T891 _^ ■ * ^-i^m^ ■' ^///£i I CORNELL UNIVERSnV LIBRARY 3 1924 072 606 613 Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924072606613 (Bximm IBLitxavv No. 7 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN GRIMM LIBRARY. No. x. GEORGIAN FOLK-TALES. Translated by Marjory Wardrop. Cr, ^o,pp. xii+l7S. $s. net. GRIMM LIBRARY. No. 2. THE LEGEND OF PERSEUS. By Edwin Sidney Hartland, F.S.A. Vol. I. THE SUPERNATURAL BIRTH. Cr. '&vo,pp. xxxiv + 228. is. 6d. net. GRIMM LIBRARY. No. %. THE LEGEND OF PERSEUS. By Edwin Sidney Hartland, F.S.A. bVoL. II. THE life-token. Cr. Sva, pp. viii+44S. I2s.6d.net. GRIMM LIBRARY. No. 4. THE VOYAGE OF BRAN, SON OF FEBAL. Edited by KuNO Meyer. With an Essay upon the Happy Otherworld in Irish Myth, by Alfred NUTT. Vol. I. Cr. 800,//. xvii-l-331. 10s. dd. net. GRIMM LIBRARY. No. 5. THE LEGEND OF PERSEUS. By Edwin Sidney Hartland, F.S.A. Vol. hi. ANDROMEDA. MEDUSA. Cr. %vo,pp. xxxvii -)- 225. ^s. 6d. net. GRIMM LIBRARY. No. 6. THE VOYAGE OF BRAN, SON OF FEBAL. Edited by KuNO Meyer. With Essays upon the Irish Vision of the Happy Otherworld, and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth, by Alfred Nutt. Vol. II. Cr. Svo, pp. xii + 352. \os. 6d. net. All rights reserved THE Legend of Sir Gawain STUDIES UPON ITS ORIGINAL SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE: BY Jessie L. ^eston TRANSLATOR OF WOLFRAM VON ESCHENBACH'S ' PARZIVAL' ' Sir Gawayne hath sought the isles of light Beyond the shores of day, lA^here mom never waneth to shades of nighty And the silver fountains play ; There he holdeth high court as the Maidens' Knight, In the Maidens' Isle for aye.' Published by David Nutt in the Strand, London 1897 13 p/N/ G3 B 3 Edinburgh : T. and A. Constable, Printers to Her Majesty AUTHOR'S PREFACE In presenting these Studies to the public a few words of explanation may be necessary. They were undertaken solely with the object stated in the Introductory Chapter- that of throwing light upon the Arthurian cycle as a whole, by ascertaining, if possible, what was the precise nature of the tradition originally associated with the knight who played so important a part in that cycle. I had formed no definite conclusion on the subject — the results, such as they are, have evolved themselves naturally and inevitably in the course of careful study and comparison of the different stories. If these results seem to point to a Celtic origin as represented in Gaelic (Irish) rather than Kymric (Welsh) literature, to a mode of transmission in which specifically Welsh tradition has played apparently but little part, I would ask the reader to believe that such results are in no sense due to a previous bias towards, or against, the conclusions of any individual scholar, or group of scholars. I do not claim to do more than bring together facts which, hitherto scattered, may, in their collected form, help to elucidate a highly confused and perplexing section vi THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN of the Arthurian cycle, and at the same time suggest an interpretation of these facts which appears to me to be neither forced nor unnatural. But it may be that though the evidence, as I interpret it, appears to me to point clearly in one direction, others better versed in such matters may read it otherwise. In the present state of Arthurian investigation that writer is over-bold who claims infallibility, or finality, for the most tempting conclusions. It only remains for me to express my indebtedness to those scholars whose works have been of use to me in preparing these Studies, and especially to Mr. Alfred Nutt, to whose advice and valuable suggestions this book, in its completed form, owes much. JESSIE L. WESTON. Bournemouth, August 1897. PAGE CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY The Arthurian legend in England — Arthur, historical and mythica — Necessity of examining the legends connected with the lead- ing knights I CHAPTER II EARLY CONCEPTIONS OF GAWAIN William of Malmesbury — Testimony of Italian records— Gradual declension of Gawain's character — Incqnsistency of Malory's presentation — Gawain originally Celtic — Peculiarity ascribed to hira — Probably a solar hero— G ringalet — Excalibur . 7 CHAPTER III THE LEGEND IN CHrIiTIEN's ' CONTE DEL GRAAL ' AND wolfram's ' PARZIVAL ' Summary of the two poems — Wolfram's conclusion probably inde- pendent and genuine .... ... 18 CHAPTER IV THE LEGEND IN THE MINOR ROMANCES General character of the incidents most frequently alluded to — List of such incidents — The romances in which they occur — Parallel with Cuchulinn's adventures in The Wooing of Enter . . 26 viii THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN CHAI^TER V THE MAGIC CASTLE PAGE The Castle in Chretien and Wolfram— Castles_regardei as other- worli dwellings—The lady "and the magician — The I41e of Women — Diu Krone — The Voyage of Bran — Death of Gawain, real and supposed — Gawain in Fairyland — Apparition of Gawain to Arthur — Real significance of the Chateau Merveil adventure — Visit to the other-world in Teutonic and Celtic mythology — Position-of this adventure ia.the Gawain legend- - ■ 32 CHAPTER VI THE LOVES OF GAWAIN No special lady connected with Gawain — Conflicting testimony on the point — Gawain's character affected by the ' Castle ' adven- ture — His love a supernatural maiden — Her connection with a magician — Diu Kr6ne — Cuchulinn — This feature preserved in English romances — The Marriage of Syr Gawayne — Interesting Irish parallel — The Loathly Messenger — The Carle of Carlile — Summary of evidence — Its bearing on the question of transmis- sion of the Arthurian legend . . . ' . , . 44 CHAPTER VII gawain's son Testimony of romances on this point — The Fair Unknown cycle General summary of story— Hero's yoM!Ca.—Liheaus Desamus Le Bel Inconnu — Carduino — Wigalois — His connection with Perceval— Views of Dr. Schofield and M. Ferd. Lot— His parentage— Superior antiquity of the Danae motif— Connection between Gawain and Perceval— Tradition of conflict between father and son— Its bearing on the Gawain legend • . . 55 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER VIII LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE PAGE Different versions of the story— Chretien— Hartmann von Aue— Malory— Suggestions as to original hero— Professor Rhys— M. Gaston Paris — Gawain's share in the adventure — The character of Mel&gaunt's kingdom — Li ponz evages — Pierre Bercheur — Early connection of Gawain and Guinevere— Survival in English metrical romances — Gawain and Lancelot — Perceval and Galahad 67 CHAPTER IX SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT Summary of the English poem — Li Conte del Graal—Diu KrSm — La Mule sans Frein — The prose Perceval— The Fled Bricrend — Antiquity of the story — Comparison of the various forms — Examination of the Carados version — IdrajtificatLMi_ of the Kgight-Magician — Original significance of the story — Probable order of the different versions — The imgic_girdle™=The story probably a genuine survival of oripni Gawain legend . . 85 CHAPTER X THE LEGEND IN MALORY ^ Importance of Malory's version as drawn from all the principal branches of Arthurian literature — ^Testimony of each section to early Perceval-Gawain story — Passages in illustration — Their bearing on the relations between Chretien and Wolfram — Con- cluding summary of results deduced from these studies . . 103 Index ERRATUM Page 8, line ^,for Walwain ^aa^ Walwein. LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED TEXTS Li Conte del Graal. Poem by Chretien de Troyes. With the continuations of Gautier de Doulens, Gerbert, and Manessier. Printed by Potvin from a ms. in the Mons Library. Mons, 1866-71. Six volumes. Vol. contains the prose romance of Perceval It Gallois, by an unknown writer. Parzival. Poem by Wolfram von Eschenbach. Edited by Karl Bartsch. {Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, vols. ix. X. xi.) Leipzig, 1875-79. .'. The translated passages are from the author's English rendering, 2 vols. London, 1894. Le Roman de Merlin. Edited from the French ms., Add. 10292, in the British Museum, by Dr. H. Oskar Sommer. .London, 1894. Le Morte d' Arthur, by Syr Thomas Malory. The original edition of William Caxton reprinted and edited by Dr. H. Oskar Sommer. London, 1889-92. Three volumes. Vol. i. Text. Vol. iii. Studies on the Sources. (Vol. ii. has not been referred to.) xii THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Diu Krone. Poem by Heinrich von dem Tiirlin. Edited by J. H. F. SchoU. Stuttgart, 1852. Iwein Oder Der Hitter mit dem Lowen. Poem by Hartmann von Aue. Edited by Fedor Bech. Deutsche Classiker des Mittelalters, vol. vi. Leipzig, 1888. Syr Gawayne. A collection of ancient Romance-poems by Scottish and English authors, relating to that celebrated Knight of the Round Table. Edited by Sir Frederick Madden. Printed for the Bannatyne Club. London, 1839. Histoire Littiraire de la France, vol. xxx. Romans en vers du Cycle de la Table Ronde. (Introductory essay and study of the different romances by M. Gaston Paris.) Paris, 1888. .•. Contains summaries of the following romances quoted in this work : La Mule sans Frein; Le cimetiere perilleux % Rigomtr ; La vengeance de Raguidel; and of many others referring to Gawain. MONOGRAPHS Hartland (E. S.). The Legend of Perseus. Vol. i. The Supernatural Birth. London, 1894. NuTT (Alfred). The Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula in the Folk- and Hero-tales of the Celts (Folk- lore Record, vol. iv. London, 1882.) Studies on the Legend of the Holy Grail, with especial reference to the hypothesis of its Celtic origin. London, 1888. and K. Meyer. The Voyage of Bran. Vol. i. The Happy Otherworld. London, 1895. LIST OF BOOKS CONSULTED xiii Paris (Gaston). :6tudes sur les romans de la Table Ronde {Romania, vols. x. and xii.). Paris, 1881, 1883. . ■ . These Studies are concerned wholly with Lancelot. Rhys (John). Studies in the Arthurian Legend. London, 1891. SCHOFIELD (W. H.). Studies on Libeaus JDesconus (Har- vard Studies and Notes in Philology and Literature, vol. iv.). Boston, 1895. Cf. the reviews by Monsieur Ferd. Lot (Moyen Age, Oct. 1896), and Monsieur E. Fhilipot (Romania, April 1897). ZiMMER (Heinrich). Keltische Studien, V. : Ueber dem compilatorischen Character der irischen Sagentexte im sogennanten Lebor na h-Uidhre. (Zeitschrift fur vgl. Sprachforschung, vol. xxviii. Heft 5-6.) Giitersloh, 1887. .•. Contains summaries of the tales concerning Cuchulinn referred to in this work. Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1890, No. 12. (Con- tains a review of Mr. Nutt's Studies on the Legend of the Holy Grail.) Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen, 1890, No. 20. (Con- tains a review of vol. xxx. of the Histoire Littiraire de la France^ Bretonische Elemente in der Arthursage des Gottfried von Monmouth, and Beitrage zur Namenforschung in den altfranz Arthurepen. {Zeiisckrifi fur franzosische Sprache und Litter atur, vol. xiii. Heft i.) .•. The Arthurian studies of Professor Zimmer have been vigorously criticised and, to a great extent, entirely reflated by (i) Monsieur J. Loth : Les nouvelles thteies xiv THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN sur I'origine des romans Arthuriens (Semie Celtique, vol. xiii.); and (2) Monsieur Ferd. Lot: Celtica (Romania, vol. xxiv.) ; Etudes sur la provenance du cycle Arthurien {Romania, vols. xxiv. and xxv.). Cf. also Mr. Alfred Nutt's Les derniers traVaux allemands sur la legende du Saint Graal (Revue Celtique, vol. xii. ). But in the present condition of Celtic studies the summaries of texts given in Professor Zimmer's articles, the wealth of illustrative material, and the attempted identification of names, are extremely useful. THE LEGEND OJF SIR GAWAIN INTRODUCTORY 3 Arthurian poems and Idylls has freed us from a well- deserved reproach, though, from a critical- point of view, it must be admitted that his work is open to much the same objection as is Malory's — it is admirable considered as literature, as legend it does even less justice to the original characters of the story. This feature of the question, viz., that the great mass of Arthurian romance is in a foreign tongue, ought to be borne in mind j it goes far to explain the fact — for it is a fact — that the labours of English scholars in this field have hitherto been productive of less solid results than have been achieved either in France or in Germany. It must be admitted that it strikes an English student disagreeably to find that, in taking up the study of a subject so essentially national in spirit, the English books which can be relied upon for information are so few in number, and, with some honourable exceptions, of so little value in comparison with the foreign literature. 1 It has long been a matter of discussion whether there ever were an historical Arthur or not. Our minds are not so easily satisfied as was Caxton's — who tells us, in his pre- face to Malory's Morte cH Arthur, how he hesitated whether to print the romance or not, doubting whether Arthur had ever lived ; but was reassured by those who had seen the King's tomb at Glastonbury, and Gawain's skull at Dover Castle. Such evidence as this would scarcely satisfy us nowadays, though for the sake of English literature we may well rejoice that it satisfied Caxton. But without committing ourselves to a faith in these interesting relics, or in Arthur's victories far afield, we may, so scholars tell us, believe that he really lived, and was a valiant warrior and successful general. Both Professor < 4 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Rhys^ and Mr. Alfred Nutt^ adhere to the view that the historic Arthur occupied a position equivalent to that of the Comes Britannia, who under the Romans held a roving commission to defend the"province wherever attacked. It is J quite in keeping with this identification that we find *" Arthur warring in all parts of the island : now in North- umberland — crossing the border into Scotland to take counsel with the allied princes for an attack on the Saxons ; now journeying southward to give the invaders battle on Sahsbury Plain. That mythical elements also entered largely into the popular conception of Arthur is doubtless true, as the curious story of his birth and election to the crown seem to testify,* but whether he really represents a Celtic God or Culture Hero,* or is a representative of a widespread Aryan myth,^ we have but scanty data to determine. Dr. Oskar Sommer predicts * that when all the leading MSS. of the cycle have been carefully edited, and all the romances dissected and compared, we shall find that the original Arthur saga is very simple in form,— it is the stories connected with the other heroes who gathered „ round the_BrilisE]ffig7which have crossed and complicated the. primitive Jegend._ One, and that an important step in the great work of elucidating this confused tangle of romance, would therefore be the careful sifting of the stories con- nected with the individual knights ; the attempt to discover what was the original form of each legend ; to find out, if ^ Studies in the Arthurian Legend, chap. i. ' Mabinogion Studies ; Folklore Record, vol. v. = Cf. Merlin, chaps, v. and vi. < Rhys, Studies. ^ Nutt, Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula ; Folklore Record, ^ol- iv- ' Introduction to the Merlin, p. viii. INTRODUCTORY 5 we can, how much they have borrowed — in the case of the leading knights, how much they have lent ; and thus by separating, as far as may be, the threads of the fabric, to discover the nature of the ground-work. But this is a task which is only practicable, and indeed only serviceable, in the case of the leading figures of the legend — such char- acters as Gawain, Perceval, Kay, Tristan, Lancelot, and Galahad. The great crowd of minor characters who cross and recross the stage are in many instances only under- studies of the principal heroes; their adventures but reflections of deeds originally attributed to other and more important actors in the drama. Many of these characters would well repay study of the details of their story, but in the case of those above named the work is not merely de- sirable, but absolutely essential, if we are ever to arrive at a clear idea of the growth of this great legend. Something has already been done in this direction. Mr. Nutt's Studies on the Legend of the Holy Grail have gone far towards the elucidation of the original donnhes of the Perceval story. Professor Zimmer's study on the Tristan saga has thrown light upon the genesis of that legend ; but there is still a vast field to be explored. The most per- plexing, and in many ways the most important, of all the knights surrounding King Arthur, Gawain, has hitherto failed to meet with the favour accorded to his companions ; true, the materials for an examination of his legend have in a great measure been prepared by Sir Frederick Madden^ in his collection of English metrical romances, and by M. Gaston Paris,^ in his study of the episodic romances connected with the hero; but the varying legends have ' Sir Gawayne, Madden, printed for Bannatyne Club. ' Histoire Litterairt de la France, vol. xxx. 6 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN not hitherto been examined and compared with a view to determining what was the original form of the Gawain Legend. The more one studies the Arthurian cycle, the more one becomes convinced of the importance of this character, and of the necessity of discovering his original rdle. The materials at our disposal grow with every year, and we are now far better furnished for the task than was the case when Sir Frederick Madden undertook to collect the romances connected with Sir Gawain. These Studies there- fore have been undertaken with the view of leading to a truer appreciation of one of thejnost p.uzzling,_and at the same time most fascinatm^Txharacters ,of ,±he_Arthurian cycle, a character which later .deyelopments^of the legend have -greatly'b^curedj. and. most unjustly vilified. If in the course of these Studies certain points are established which may impel those better qualified than the present writer to pursue the investigation yet further, they will have amply fulfilled their object. CHAPTER II EARLY CONCKPTIONS OF GAWAIN William of Malmesbury — Testimony of Italian records— Gradual declen- sion of Gawain's character — Inconsistency of Malory's presentation — Gawain originally Celtic — Peculiarity ascribed to him— Probably a solar hero — Gringalet — Excalibur. There is practically no doubt that, as mentioned in the previous chapter, the Arthurian legend proper has become greatly obscured by the introduction of legends connected with other heroes ; there is but little more doubt that the [jrstof all the heroes with whom Arthur gradually bec ame connectea~war"he^h5m~we "kiib wrrom the A nglo-Norman aridrgen"clrTDnrairoEg~as~<^g/a/g/«i Gauvain^ Gawain, aiici from Welsh texts as Gwalchmai. The first M. Gaston Paris ioofs~upoii "dSThe'^aesTTorm of the name by which the knight is best known, and it is no unusual thing to find both Walwein and Gawain employed in the same romance. That the French Gawain and Welsh Gwakhmai are the same character is certain, but the connection of these two forms is not so clear. Any student of the Arthurian cycle could, without difficulty, name romances in which such leading heroes as Tristan, Lancelot^ or Galahad are not even mentioned, but it wguldbe difficult to_ _recall one in which Gaw ain does not figure, — sometimes even more prominently than the ■ 7 8 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN ostensible hero of the romance. Always closely con nected with Arthur, his uncle on the mother's side , he is found in the historical accounts of that king, even as in the romantic. M. Gaston Paris gives,i as the earliest mention of him, a quotation from William of Malmesbury (1125), relating to the discovery of Walwain's tomb at Ross in Pembroke- shire; he is there mentioned as Arthur's nephew, and 'not unworthy of Arthur.' Professor Zimmer, in his criticism of M. Paris' views,^ carries the literary evidence further back, by referring to Signor Rajna's discovery of names of Breton heroes in ItaUan deeds of the early twelfth century ; Artusius {Arthur) and Galvanus {Gawaiti) are names of frequent recurrence. The German scholar is of opinion ^ that these names justify the conclusion that the heroes were well known in Italy by 1090 — arguing a widespread continental acquaintance with the romances during the last thirty years of the eleventh century, at the latest — a date considerably anterior to that of any romance we now possess.^ Of those which have" descended to us we may take Chrgtien^d e Troye s' poems both as the earliest in themselves, and as representing a more primitive and less complicated form of the respective stories with which they deal. In all these poems, and also m,..the earlier pros e rom ances, ^iicK'aS the MtrttfTt^v^Am. its extended form), Gawain appears as jKe bea iPtSial of courage and courtes y, and this charactgrjie prpcgrvp., was the invention of the German poet, but I shall hopi to show, in the progress of these Studies, that incidents parallel to those related in Wolfram are to be found esewhere; and even in the portion which he shares in cAmmon with Chretien there is at least one important incident of which the French poet knows nothing, but which is weserved in an independent romance. \ Critics have also objected t)iat the Grail quest, under- taken by Gawaiii, is allowed to Irop into oblivion, and that this must be owing to the fact bat Chretien left his poem unfinished. Had he completsd it, he would, they say, have brought Gawain, as well as Perceval, to the Grail castle ; and Wolfram, taking Chistien for his guide, would have done the same, instead of leaV •Qowiiig in the track thus made. He traverses the HnHtus dftntf and eventually reaches the dwelMng of Scadtach, whidi is beyond the water, by means of a dangerous bridge, which rises and throws the hero bade when he attempts to cross. Having achieved all these feats^ and leamt all Scathach can teach him, he returns, art acoomptisked warrior, to wed the lady of his choice. It wtQ hardly be denied that a general resemblance be- tween this story and the Gawain-Proud-Lady ^isode exi^s. * CC Arc&eoiitcKai Havimtt iSSS, Nos. t-4. fer the vulg&te text, wldeik prabttMr tepreseats sn dn«Btlt-«eBtaix icdKctkrn, anni Jbnmt CWM^Mf, ^raL xSL. fear tBte ^oct text, which Pto&ssot Ktmo Meyer *ss%izs to tlte e^&tlt eeabaij.. 30 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN For our purpose there are two points which should be especially noted : (a) that the maiden is closely connected with a magician ; (d) that these incidents do fioi occur in the Welsh Peredur, which offers so close a parallel to the Perceval section of the story. To both of these points we shall return shortly. As during the progress of these Studies we shall frequently have occasion to refer to C uchulinn , it may be well here to say something on the subject of~that hero, the leading figure of the early Irish or Ultonian heroic cycle. Whether or not the personages of this cycle had any historical existence it is not easy to say. They are regarded as having lived in the decades immediately preceding and following the birth of Christ, and the legends relating to them had been woven into stories and fixed in writing by the seventh century.! In this early Irish tradition the court of Conchobar, king of Ulster, is represented, like that of Arthur, as the rallying- point for the heroes of his day. Research has not yet decisively determined the source and origin of the Round Table, but there is a very general opinion among scholars that in the circumstances of Conchobar's court we have one {j^ the earliest parallels to that famous mediaeval institution. Cuchulinn, whose glory overshadowed that of Conchobar, was the king's nephew, being son of Dechtire, Conchobar's sister, and Lug the Light-god, afterwards looked upon as Lord of the Other-world. Thus his relation to Con- chobar exactly parallels that of Gawain to Arthur, and the elementary connection thus estabhshed will be found to extend to other points, some of them striking in their cor- respondence. ^ Cf. Zimmer, KeltUche Studieiit, v. THE LEGEND IN MINOR ROMANCES 31 For the present chapter it is enough to remark that the Cuchulinn-Emer parallel practically covers all the latter part of the story as told by Chretien and Wolfram, and appears to afford an assurance that we shall not go wrong in selecting this portion of Gawain's adventures as reflecting most closely the original form of the story, and therefore as being the point to which we must direct our special investigation. CHAPTER V THE MAGIC CASTLE The Castle in Chrgtien and Wolfram — Castles regarded as other-world dwellings — The lady and the magician — The Isle of Women — Diu KrSne — The Voyage of Bran — Death of Gawain, real and supposed — Gawain in Fairyland — Apparition of Gawain to Arthur — Real significance of the Chateau Merveil adventure — Visit to the other- world in Teutonic and Celtic mythology — Position of this adventure in the Gawain legend.' The short summary of the preceding chapter has shown us clearly that one of the adventures most generally attributed to Gawain is -the winning of a castle, or king- dom, only to be approached by water. The form varies, but the attribution of some mysterious water-adventure to this hero is remarkabj^ frequent. As given by Chretien and Wolfram it may be summarised as follows : — Gawain approaches the castle under the conduct of a lady whom he has met under mysterious circumstances ; the fact that she is found seated beside a spring or fountain is indicative of her unearthly origin. The castle is, so far as we can gather, on an island ; ap- parently it can only be approached, or quitted, by water, and Chretien in particular emphasises the fact that the water is so wide that no engine of war could throw a missile across it. THE MAGIC CASTLE 33 ' Et s'est lie e'en unefronde de mangonel ne deperrilre nejetast outre la riviire ne arbalestres n'i transist.' ' This castle is inhabited by three (or four) queens, and a crowd of maidens, four hundred according to Wolfram ; ChrStien does not enumerate the ladies, but gives the number of knights as five hundred — ^probably the maidens equalled them. But Wolfram gives us most clearly to understand that, though dwellers in the same castle, knights and ladies had nothing to do with each other — an important point as determining the real nature of the castle; thus, ' Sie wdm ein ander unbekant, unt besl6s se dock ein parte, das sie ze gegenworte nie kdmen, frouwen nock die man.' ^ What is the exact connection between the lady who has guided Gawain and the castle it is not very easy to discover, but it is much closer in the German than in the French poem. In the former she has concluded an alliance with the magician who owns the castle,'and is evidently re- garded with the greatest respect by the dwellers within it. She is fairer than any of the captive maidens ; and it is she, rather than the old queen, who seems to be looked upon as its mistress. Chretien, as we have seen, also tells us that he who wins 1 Conte del Graal, vol. ii. verses 8588-91. 2. ' Unknown were they yet to each other, tho' one fortal it shut them in, And never a man nor a maiden might speech of each other win.' Parzival, Book xiii. 320-23. C 34 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN the castle must remain there for the rest of his life ; a pro- hibition which evidently belonged to an earlier form of the story, and the significance of which has become obscured, as Gawain pays no attention to it. To sum up \y Chretien's and Wolfram's Castle is on an island, inhabited by women, keeping themselves apart from men, and own- ing as mistress a lady of surpassing beauty. To win this Island Castle involves permanent residence there. Now it is well known that ancient mythology, both Celtic and Teutonic, represented the abode of the dead sometimes as an Island (such as the Isle of Avalon), sometimes as a Castle (such as the castle inhabited by Brynhild in the Thidrek-saga and Nibelungenlied'^). The lot of the dwellers in such an other-world was no unhappy one ; their surroundings were fair, even luxurious ; the one drawback was that they were unable to leave the place of their imprisonment. This latter feature is strongly brought out in the speech of the old queen to Gawain {Parzival^m. 949-1020). The passage is too long to quote in its en- tirety, but she begins by telling the hero how Klingsor has built the castle which he (Gawain) has now won, imprisoning in it all whom he makes captive. Christian or heathen. She beseeches Gawain to set them all free, as residence in a strange land is a grief to her : ' Swaz er gesach der werden ■Af Kristenltcher erden, ez waere mdget wib oder man, der ist in hie vil undertan : mane heide unde heidentn muosf ouch bi uns hie Hffe sin. ^ Cf. Legends of the Wagner Drama— Siegfried,— vih&ce I have discussed this question at greater length. THE MAGIC CASTLE 35 nu l&t daz vole wider komen da riUch uns sorge si vernomen. ellende frumt mir'z herze kalt' ' She then illustrates her meaning by a quaint riddling parallel of ice born of water and turning to water again, as joy is succeeded by sorrow, and that again turns to joy. Finally, after alluding to the welcome they will receive on their return she concludes with the suggestive words : ' Hirre ich h&n lange hie gebiten : nie geloufen nock geriten kom her der tnich erkande, Der mir sorgen wande. ' ^ There is no doubt here that the queen's residence in the Magic Castle is an unwilling one. If the poems be compared it will be found that this idea is much more clearly brought out in the German than in the French version. True, the passage just quoted occurs after the point at which Chretien's share in the story abruptly closes, so we have comparatively little material for determining the light in which he really re- garded the castle. The account given to Gawain by the boatman seems to indicate that it was really the property 1 '■And all who from Christian countries 'neath the sf ell of his magic lay. Be they woman, or man, or maiden, are thy vassals both one and all. And many from lands ofpaynivi with us 'neath his power must fall. Let this folk then now get them homewards, where yet for our loss they mourn. For to dwell in the land of the stranger, it maketh my heart forlorn. ' Parzival, English translation, vol. ii. p. 89. 2 'Sir Knight, here der long I stay. Yet there cometh no man who doth know me and turneth my care away.' Ibid., ii. p. 90. 36 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN of the elder queen, having been erected with the treasure she brought into the land. The architect of the castle ' I sages clers d'asfrenomie ' plays no part in the story, and is certainly never regarded as its lord — a fact of importance in deciding the relative connection of these two poems. As was hinted in the last chapter, and as we shall find clearly brought out when we discuss the personality of Gawain's love, that lady is closely connected with a magician, or a prince possessed of magic powers. Pro- bably she was originally his daughter. In Diu Krdne, a poem to which we shall have occasion to refer frequently, she is his niece, and he is undoubtedly the owner and master of the castle. The fact that Chretien has altogether dropped the magician, while Wolfram retains him, and though never bringing him personally on the stage (which in accordance with the original form of the story he doubtless ought to have done) yet preserves his close connection with the castle, and in a lesser degree with the lady, goes far to prove that the German poet was independent of the French, and drew his account, preserving an archaic feature Chretien had dropped, from another source. That he in- vented a situation so consonant with primitive tradition is hardly likely. But to return to the character of the castle : — Scholars are now pretty generally agreed on the point that Gawain's castle does represent such an other-world dwelling; and when we turn to Celtic mythology the real nature of the adventure becomes clearly apparent. Part of the old Irish paradise was known as the ^Isle of WoTnen,' and was inhabited exclusively by women, ruled over by a queen of unearthly beauty, who is represented as THE MAGIC CASTLE 37 occasionally visiting the earth, and inviting a chosen hero to return with her to her kingdom. We find an account of such a visit in the Voyage of Bran} and a similar tale is told of Connla,2 son of Cond, and of Oisin.^ Gawain, even as these heroes, reaches his wonder-castle under the guidance of its fair mistress; and a feature recurring in the Irish tales, the bearing of a branch of a wondrous tree by the queen, seems reflected in the com- mand laid upon the knight to pluck the bough of the tree guarded by Gramoflanz. The direction given in Chretien, to pluck any of the flowers which he sees, is much less significant. In Diu Krdne of Heinrich von dem Tiirlin, a most curious compilation of adventures of which Gawain is the chief hero, we find it related that he reaches in a mysterious manner, apparently on a floating islet, a land where no man dwells, but maidens only, ruled over by a queen, ^ Der Meide-land.' This lady offers Gawain his choice between becoming her consort, and remaining in the land, or receiving the balsam of eternal youth as a gift ere he leaves the island. Gawain chooses the latter.* We do not know the sources of this curious poem; Heinrich certainly knew both ChrStien and Wolfram, but he adds many adventures, some of a curiously archaic character, unknown to either of these writers. In the light of this testimony it becomes evident that"' Gawain's adventure was not merely a visit to the other- world, but specifically to the other-world as conceived of 1 Voyage of Bran, by Prof. Kuno Meyer and Alfred Nutt. ^ Ibid., p. 144; also appendix to Tannhduser — Legends of the Wagner Drama. ' Ibid,, p. 149. * Diu Krdne, 17329 et seq. 38 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN i in Celtic mythology. Nor would such an adventure be ' out of keeping with the original conception of Gawain as a solar hero, as comparison with the Siegfried myth will prove. The original consequences of such a visit would be that the hero would be unable to return to the upper world, though under certain circumstances, which will be pointed out later, these consequences are waived. Hete the passage quoted from Chretien (p. 22) as to the imposs ibility of tKe achiever of the venture leaving the castle, becomes very important as a witness to the original -nature of the adventure. The Voyage of Bran shows us clearly what would be the result, as a rule, of an attempt to return to the earth. Bran and his companions depart from the Magic Isles, but are warned, if they return to Ireland, not to set foot on shore. One of the band dis- obeys the injunction, and immediately falls to ashes ' as if he had been in the earth for many hundred years ' ^ — in plain words, he and his companions had long been dead. ' This is, I believe, the true explanation of the many refer- I ences to Gawain's death^eal or supp osed, in the Romances, i relerencSS TKTt 'toT)e paralleled in the case of any of the other knights. Tristan dies, of course, but his death has I but little effect on the cycle. Lancelot outlives Arthur; Perceval's death is but vaguely referred to, but there is no doubt as to the death of Gawain, and the grief caused by his loss. Further, this death is, over and over again, fore- shadowed by Gawain's disappearance from the Court, when the rumour gains ground that he has been slain. I The original Gawain had passed to the land from whence there was no return, and, in spite of the glamour sur- rounding his dwelling, the fact that he was in reality dead ■ ^ Voyage of Bran, p. 32. THE MAGIC CASTLE 39 was impressed firmly upon the minds of those who first told his story, and in one shape or another it has coloured that story ever since. That tradition to t he effect that Gawain was still living, " but i n Fairyland , w as current in tEe Middle Ages, is feVideST" from quotations given by Sir F. Madden in the Intro- duction to his Sir Gawayne.^ The first, which is from ) the Roman de Guillaume d^ Orange, represents King Arthur as receiving Renouart in Fairyland, and pointing out to him the heroes who are his companions, among them Roland, Iwein, and Gawain. Another quotation, from Chaucen speaks of ' Sir Gawayne with his old curtesie, Th(f he come again out of Fairie He could him nought amendin in no worde.' As indications of this tradition we may cite Saigremar,^ where Gawain is kept a prisoner in the Isle of the fairy Karmente ; and Meraugis de Port les guez^ where he is again the prisoner of a lady on an island, and forced to combat all comers. He will not be freeid till he himself is overcome. This last adventure, which is in Malory at- tributed to Balan, seems, from the fact that the conflict is watched by ladies within the castle, to have been originally closely connected, if not identical, with the Chateau Merveil episode. Malory^*Jia^_j, curious account of_rtie apparitionof Gawain's ghostj, surrounded by,a_bevY of fair ladies, to ~King ~Art hur. Malory explains his companions as being fhe^ spirits of those fw whoBL.Ga.wain.-liad-4bught-wfeile ' Introduction, p. xxxvi. " Hist. Lift., xxx. p. 262. ^ Ibid. , p. 226. * Morte c[ Arthur, Book xxi. chap. iii. 40 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN alive^ Dr. Sommer considers that one source of this twenty-first book was a romance analogous to, but not identical with, the prose Lancelot. There, Gawain's ghost appears surrounded by ' many poor people,' who tell Arthur they have helped Gawain to conquer the heavenly kingdom ^ — a version far too edifying to be the original one. It seems possiblejhat ti[ie^ account_^iven by Wolfram of Gawaufrlretura^m the_Chateau_M^rxiJllj£SOffi^mS_- by a party of fair„ladi>vsith-a!iiOi»ie^«Hr^ t^nt, is'^^irectlyj^or indirectly,,^tJtoe.xoQtjQiUhi^^ No o3ier~romance which I have examined contains any- thing at all resembling the episode, and it seems highly improbable, in the face of so curious a correspondence as that between Malory and the Parzival, that Wolfram invented the incident. He most probably found it in his French source, and it has been preserved by independent tradition. y. Taking all these facts into consideration, we may, I think, hold it proved that a visit of Gawain to the other-world, here represented most closely by the Celtic Isle of Women, was an early, probably an original, part of the tradition con- nected with that hero. It is this tradition which lies at the basis of Chretien's and Wolfram's poems. This admitted, what position should such a visit hold in the legend? It would in all probability be the hero's concluding feat. Certainly the earliest idea connected with such an expedition is, that it necessitated the hero remain- ing in the mysterious other-world, did he once succeed in reaching it. There are of course exceptions, but these seem to depend on the motif of the expedition — i.e. if it be ^ Sommer, On the Sources of Malory, p. 266. ^ Cf. quotation, p. 13. THE MAGIC CASTLE 41 undertaken unsolicited by the queen of the land, and with the view of releasing one there held in durance. This feature seems to have been specially perpetuated in Northern mythology, where we have the expeditions of Hermodur, of Swipdag, and of Sigurd — all governed by what may be called the ' deliverance ' motif. But it is otherwise in the cases in which the hero responds to the invitation of the queen, and departs, rather under the exigence of a spell laid upon him, than in order to fulfil a task. This version seems to predominate in Celtic mythology ; we have the cases mentioned above of Bran, Connla, and Oisin ; and the story of Thomas the Rhymer would fall under the same heading. We have of course instances on either side of the operation of the other motif. The episode of Melwas or M^leagaunt, which we shall discuss later, seems to be a Celtic instance of the ' rescue ' expedition, just as in German legend the Tann- hauser story corresponds to the ' invitation ' form ; but the general character of such legends seems to differ in the two mythologies in the manner indicated above. Was the ' invitation ' form the earlier ? If so, this might help to explain some of the inconsistencies in the Gawain story— /.tf. he first went at the invitation of the queen, and would thus be regarded as par force remaining in her land. Later on he was regarded as the rescuer of the ladies imprisoned in the Chi,teau Merveil, and in this character was enabled to return. If this earlier form of the story were as we suppose — indeed, if the visit to the ChS,teau Merveil be in any way an original part of the Gawain legend, — then it is more than probable that the ending, as given by Wolfram, was no invention of the German poet, but based upon existing, if 42 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN already somewhat involved, tradition. Had Chretien lived to finish his poem, he would, I beUeve, have completed the Gawain episode in much the same manner — i.e. he would have left Gawain lord and master of the Chiteau Merveil, as Perceval was of the Grail Castle. And if we grant this, we should, I think, go a step further and admit that Gawain was not originally a ' Grail ' hero at all, that that famous quest was no part of his own story, but has affected it through his connection with Perceval. That the ' Grail ' castle as described in the Romances has certain other-world features is true, but these features are combined with others belonging to what Mr. Nutt in his ' Studies ' designates as the 'Feud' quest ; and in the earliest forms of the story these latter features, as connected with what was apparently the original taUsman, the Bleeding Lance, probably predominated. It is worthy of note that the most striking ' other-world ' feature ever attributed to the Grail castle is found in con- nection precisely with that hero whose quest, there is reason to believe, was originally of such an other-world nature, i.e. with Gawain and not with Perceval. In Diu Krbne it is the former who achieves the famous venture, which Perceval, by his neglect to ask the question, has failed in ; and immediately on Gkwain's uttering the mystic words, the old king joyfully informs him that, though apparently living, he and his companions are already dead, but com- pelled to preserve the semblance of life till the asking of the question breaks the spell. Having said this, he and all the knights who crowd the hall vanish, and Gawain and the Grail-bearer with her attendant maidens are left, the only living creatures in this veritable ' Castle of the Dead.' ^ ' Cf. Diu KrSne, verses 29182-29619. THE MAGIC CASTLE Was the ' other-world ' quest so clqsgl; 43 connected w ith gawaHTthat it col oured all the stori^JntQ jhich. he-was brought ? It wouTa'almosrseei ysa' Certainly if there be "~j on e hero of all ArJiur£Cour£^j^aJS..Xa^ world of the departed, either in the fantastic fairyland form m which ancient mythology clothed it, or in its sombre real^l^^l^^gs^ao^his^ncSrtaditipn relating to his death ^Jl^LEl?5S_Qf ^ bti?ial-r.tP „Sax^ nothing. „aL.ffie«-«»Miyr{aIs.e^ . reports of his decease — that hero is Gawain. 7:^ W*^"^' CHAPTER VI THE LOVES OF GAWAIN No special lady connected with Gawain — Conflicting testimony on the point — Gawain's character affected by the " Castle ' adventure — His , love a supernatural maiden — Her connection with a magician — Diu KrSne — Cuchulinn — This featme preserved in English romances — The Marriage of Syr Gawayne — Interesting Irish parallel — The Loathly Messenger — The Carle of Carlile — Summary of evidence — Its bearing on the question of transmission of the Arthurian legend. If we accept the conclusion arrived at in the preceding chapter, that Gawain's quest was originally of the nature of a visit to the other-world, and that in a form most con- sonant with Celtic myth, we should naturally expect to find some surviving traces of his connection with the queen of this other-world. £all the knights of King Arthur's Court, Gawain is certainly the one whose lovgi^affairs, if we accept l ater tradition, we should expect^^tg J^fld^fiffli-Jl^^rst, the most _, num'erous"a"n3jLhe least edjfyingj On the contrary, tradi- tion on'~tKis~polnt iicurio usly vagu e and^ncomp lete. ~In ^n~^w^HT^stOTyjtherejsjnoJ:ra^^^ cumstances of deception and treachery, such as is attributed toTSncelot_orjrristan._ How he came to win Jhe reputa- tion oLaJaitHggalihertinfij^suchasJatextrato THE LOVES OF GAWAIN 43 him, it would be impossible, regarding his story merely on the^siirface, to]l^ HTTjastdii Paris^ ^pointT oiinHat tKe^ame'orno^pecial lady is associated with hi s, as that of Enid is with Erec, or Guinevere and Iseult with the two heroes just mentioned. Gawain is rather the courteous and disinterested champion of all maidens than the lover of one. This vagueness of tradition, coupled with the hero's repjaai.oi},^as.,jLjaadd..jaL,diffi3iaZ^ ^ later romances to the as s ociation of his namejUoaLmtb one, now with another : the same romance (as e.g. Diu Krone) some- times crediting him with two distinct lady-loves. It seems probable that the real cause of this conflict of evidence lies in the fact that Gawain's expedition to and residence in the Maidens' Isle (Isle of Women) was an essential part of his story. The lady of his love was really the queen of that other-world, and he was, naturally enough, regarded as the champion of all the dwellers in it. The romances give us no really good reason for the title of ' the Maidens' Knight,' as ascribed to Gawain; and it does not seem improbable that it may have been part of the original tradition. Gradually, as Christian ideas gained ascendency, this Celtic other-world would come to be looked upon somewhat in the light of a Mohammedan paradise, and the character of Gawain, as dweller in it, suffered pro- portionately. Without going so far as Professor Rhys,^ who looks upon Gawain as a pattern of chastity, and practically equates him 1 Cf. Hist. Litt., XXX. p. 34. "^ 'Khys, Arthurian studies, ' Gwalchmai and Gwalchhaved. ' Pro- fessor Rhys' explanation of Gawain's rejection of the advances made by the wife of ' the Green Knight ' is scarcely in accordance with the character the lady herself assigns to Gawain. 46 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN with Galahad, a view which can hardly be sustained by examination of the romances, we may, I think, maintain j with truth that thejtMbuliQa-Diliiidisiaiminate-jj^^ ■ this knight i£ not in arr.grdancejnthorigip al tradition. Tlie real truth was, I believe, that Gawain's love was not only a denizen of another world, but also, as is frequently the case in such stories, originally n ameless. It was not till, at a later date, certain attnbutes of t"fie' fcoddess of Love had been passed over to the queen of the other-world, that she received a name. Thomas the Rhymer's love is as nameless as the queen who led Bran and Connla to her island court, though Tannhauser's lady is Venus. There certainly was a persistent tradition to the effect that Gawain's love was no mere earthly maiden. The traces of such a tradition have, in Chretien's poem, been partially, but not entirely, obscured. The circumstances of Gawain's meeting with the lady are in themselves suspi- cious;^ she is more or less closely connected with the enchanted castle, and she is certainly nameless. Wolfram's Orgeluse is only a misreading of UOrgueilleuse de Logres, the only title by which Chretien knows her. Elsewhere we find it distinctly stated that Gawain's love was a. fairy. In Guinglain or Le Bel Inconnu'^ the hero is said to be the son of Gawain and the fairy Blancemal. In Rigomer^ Gawain is delivered from prison by the fairy Lorie, '^ qui moult I'amoit.' Florie is also the name attributed to the mother of Gawain's son in the German Wigalois, and in the version P of the Livre d'Artus.^ ^ Cf. remarks on p. 33. 2 Hist. Litt., p. 176. ' Ibid., p. 91. ' See note to Dr. Schofield's Studies on the Libeaus Desconus p. 236. THE LOVES OF GAWAIN 47 In connection with this latter it is interesting to note that the lady is said to be the daughter of the king of Escavalon. Now, the lady with whom Gawain had the chessboard adventure was the daughter of the king of Escavalon (Askalon in the Farzivat), and Wolfram, com- menting on the extreme beauty of this lady and her brother, mentions the fact that they came of fairy race.^ The coincidence is interesting. Flori is again the name of Gawain's amie in Diu Krone^ though the lady he marries is Amurfina, the niece of Gansguoter, the magician of the enchanted castle. Amur- fina is, however, said to be of Forei, which may be, a reminiscence of FloA. We may add to this list of Gawain's fairy mistresses the fay Karmente, who in Saigremor de- tains him in her isle. But there are two distinct lines of tradition to be noted in the different accounts of Gawain's unearthly love ; she is I sometimes, as we have seen, a fairy, nothing being said asl to her relatives, at others the close connection of a powerfu]| magician. This would appear to have been the case with Chretien and Wolfram's lady, as it is with Amurfina, whose uncle, Gansguoter, plays the same part as that of the enchanter of the Chateau Merveil in both French and German poems, viz. that of abductor of King Arthur's mother. We may remark here that the appearance in this character of the Lord of the Castle finds support in early legend. M.g. in Irish tradition. Lug, one of the lords of the Irish other-world, abducts Dechtire, sister of Conchobar, and mother of Cuchulinn, with whom, as we have shown, ^ Parzival, Bk. viii. verses 66 et seq. ^ Diu Krdne, verse 7907. 48 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Gawain has important points of contact. It will be re- membered that both in Chrfitien and in Wolfram the mother of Gawain, as well as of Arthur, is a prisoner in the Magic Castle, and is freed by her son. That Amurfina is none other than the lady otherwise known as I'Orgueilleuse de Logres, or Orgeluse, seems very probable; and the special interest of Heinrich's present- ment lies in the fact that he connects her so closely with the magician. We found in a preceding chapter that Emer, whose wooing by Cuchulinn afTords a parallel to the Gawain-Proud-Lady episode, is the daughter of Forgall the Wily, a prince renowned for his magical powers, a feature which suggests an originally closer connection between the magician and the lady in the French and German poems than the authors of those poems were aware of; and which has been, in a measure, preserved in Diu Krdne. This relationship however survives, in slightly varying forms, in the English metrical romances. In the frag- mentary poem of the The Marriage of Sir Gawayne ' we find the hero, in order to rescue King Arthur from the snares of a powerful enchanter, chivalrously wedding the magician's sister, a lady of unexampled hideousness. On the marriage night she reveals herself as beautiful as she was previously repulsive, and gives her husband the choice whether he will have her beautiful by night, and hideous by day, or vice versA. Gawain, with that courtesy for which he was famous, leaves the decision to the lady ; whereupon she tells him she has been laid under a spell to preserve this repulsive form till she finds a knight courteous enough 'to give her her will.' The spell is now broken, and she will be beautiful alike by night and by day. ' Sir Gawayne, Madden, p. 288. THE LOVES OF GAWAIN 49 I am indebted to Mr. Alfred Nutt for having pointed out the existence of a most striking Irish parallel to this story, which, as seeming to indicate the source of the incident itself, and also as strengthening the argument for the Celtic origin of the Gawain legend, we may well insert here. The tale^ deals with the adventures of the five Lugaids, sons of Daire Doimtech, one of whom it was prophesied should obtain the kingship of Ireland. ' It had been foretold that the future ruler should bear the name of Lugaid, wherefore Daire, apparently anxious to show no favouritism, gave the name to each of his sons. Pressed for a further indication, the Dniid foretold that a golden fawn should come into the assembly, and the son who should take it should win the kingship or sovranty. The fawn appears, and all the sons pursue it; one, Lugaid Laigde (Macniad), caught it, while another brother cut it up. Snow began to fall heavily, and the youths sought for a shelter. They came to a great house, with fire and food in abundance, the mistress of which was a horrible hag. She is ready to give them lodging for ' the night, provided one of them will share her couch. The youths, not un- naturally, demur at this, but finally Lugaid Laigde (who had caught the fawn) accepts the offer, and the tale runs thus : — Howheit the hag went into the couch of white bronze, ^ This story is translated by Mr. Whitley Stokes in the Academy, April 23rd, 1892 (No. 1042), and commented upon by Mr. Nutt in the succeeding number. Mr. Nutt points out that two forms of the story are represented in extant Irish literature, one found in the Coir Annum (Fitness of Names), an eleventh-century compilation, purporting to explain the epithets of some 300 famous personages in the older romantic literature ; the other found in Annals which cannot be younger than the eleventh century. These two forms difiFer considerably, and thus testify to the antiquity of the tale. D 50 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN and Macniad followed her ; and it seemed to him that the radiance of her face was the sun rising in the month of May, and her fragrance was likened by him to an odorous herb- garden, and she said to him, ''Good is thy journey, for I am the Sovranty, and thou shall obtain the sovranty of Erin."' The following morning they find themselves horseless, on a level plain, with their hounds tied to their spears. Now this story is certainly as old as the eleventh century, probably older, and there seems little doubt that in it we have the earliest form of the incident found in the Marriage of Sir Gawayne. As Mr. Nutt points out, there is a similar motif in the two tales; in the Irish, the lady is 'the Sovereignty'; in the English, the question Arthur has to solve is 'What do women most desire?' The answer is 'Sovereignty,' i.e. their will. When Gawain practically exemplifies this by giving his bride her own way, the spell is broken. In the Irish tale the lady herself is the enchanter, and not subject to a spell laid on her by another. It is an interesting point that both Mr. Whitley Stokes and Mr. Nutt connect this lady with the 'Loathly Mes- senger' of the Grail, who both in the Peredur, and the Gautier continuation of the Perceval is transformed to a fairer shape. Neither Chretien nor Wolfram retain this feature, but the latter, besides his hideous Kondrie, has also a Kondrie la Belle; this latter is a resident in the Magic Castle, and is Gawain's sister. If she really be, as has been suggested, a survival of the messenger in her transformed shape, the connection with Gawain is curious and interesting. An Irish parallel of certain aspects of this character is Leborcham, the female messenger of King THE LOVES OF GAWAIN 51 Conchobar, and one of Cuchulinn's loves; she bore him two sons. A later version of the English ballad makes the lady the mother of Gyngalyn, known otherwise as Libeaus Desconus, and amusingly remarks that though Gawain ' was weddyd oft in his days ' yet he never loved any other lady so well. Altogether, this question of Gawain and the Loathly Lady scarcely seems as if it had yet been fully worked out. Another English romance, The Carle of Carlile^ in its later form weds Gawain to the ' Carle's ' daughter, the hero having previously freed the father from enchantment by striking off his head. It may also be that the amorous advances made to Gawain by the wife of the Green Knight, a story with which we shall deal fully later on, owe their origin to a reminiscence of this early feature. What then, we may ask, is the conclusion to be drawn from this special inquiry? Firstly, I think we must ad- mit that Gawain's connectio n with a lad y of supernatural ' origin is a remarkably well-attested feature~orhis story. | Secondly, that b etween this la dy, as represented in the most consecutive accounts of Gawain's adventures, and__tlie q ueen of the other-worl d, as represented in Irish tradition, there exists so close a correspondenc e as to leave little doubt that they were originally one and the same character. Thirdly, that in these earlier stories we find, side by side with the lady, a magician, whose connection with her is obscure, but who is certainly looked upon as lord and master of the castle to which she conducts the hero, and which the latter wins. In such stories as the Carle of Carlile and the Green Knight the character of the magician has been preserved, while the lady has lost her super- ' Sir Gawayne, Madden, p. 270. 52 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN natural qualities. This remark may also hold good for The Marriage of Sir Gawain, where the magician is found, but the lady is apparently unable to free herself, unaided, from the spell laid upon her. Fourthly, we examined the nature of the castle ruled over by this magician, and we found it to be undoubtedly an ' other-world ' dwelling. Taking all these points into consideration the inference to be deduced from them seems clear — Gawain's love in the earliest instance was regarded as being either the Daughter of the King of the Other-world, or as herself the , Queen of that Other-world. The presence of the magician points to the first of these characters, the parallels with the ' Island of Women ' to the second — but, essentially, both characters are one and the same. It is interesting in thisconnection to note tha*" Professor Rhys in his Arthurian Studies considers Lot, Gawain's father, as having been originally identical with Lug, the Irish Light-god, father of Cuchulinn, and, like Lug, later on a king of the Other-world, or Isles of the Dead. If we are right in the above reading of the problems con- tained in the Gawain story, the hero was originally a sun- deity (therefore probably son of a light-god), and at the same time son-in-law to the lord of the other-world. Another, and not less important, point must also be con- sidered. We saw in the case of the Gawain-Proud-Lady episodes that no parallel to them is found in the Peredur, which contains such striking parallels to the Perceval portion of Chretien and Wolfram's work. Again, in the special features characterising these episodes, which seem to have so far-reaching a bearing on the Gawain story, we have found ourselves compelled to go further back, to seek in Irish rather than in Welsh tradition for parallels THE LOVES OF GAWAIN 53 and explanations — and this search has been fruitful of result. So far as I can speak from personal study, the close connection between Gawain and a magician, or magician's daughter, seems to have completely dropped out of Welsh literature, and yet there seems little doubt that it represents a feature of the primitive story. The French and German romances retain it, so do the English metrical tales. Whence then did they obtain the tradi- tion? The English romances probably drew, at least partially, from French sources; the Germans certainly owed their knowledge of Arthurian legend to France. The question really is, Where did the French poets get their 'C version ? Judging from the silence, on so many important points, of Welsh tradition, it seems most probable that, as Professor dimmer maintains, they obtained their knowledge 1 direct from their Breton neighbours, and not from Wales j through the medium of England — a view which M. Gaston \ Paris favours. It seems probable that this Breton version represented more closely the original form of the story than the / tradition preserved in Wales. Otherwise one can hardly ' account for Chretien and Wolfram, not to mention Hein- rich von dem Tiirlin, being in possession of a version so capable of explanation by Irish parallels, which version is at the same time unrepresented in extant Welsh literature. It may be that the Gawain story, thoroughly and carefully examined, will eventually throw important light on the vexed question of the transmission of these fascinating legends. But, however transmitted, it is, I think, clear that in the solution suggested in these last two chapters we have a key to the conflicting versions of Ga*rain's amours, as well 54 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN as an explanation of that change of character which in the later romances operated so disastrously for his fame.^ ^ Mr. Nutt points out that a parallel to this deterioration may be found in the character of Ninian or Nimue, Merlin's love. At first a sympathetic ai^d attractive personality, she gradually, in the expanded Merlin romances, undergoes a change for the worse, developing finally into the repulsive Vivien of the Tennyson Idylls. Kay also declines in the estimation of the romancers, though hardly to the same extent, or on the same lines. CHAPTER VII gawain's son Testimony of romances on this point — The Fair Unknown cycle — General summary of story — Hero's youth — Libeaus Descomts — Le Bel Inconnu — Carduino — Wigalois — His connection with Perceval — Views of Dr. Schofield and M. Ferd. Lot — His parentage — Superior antiquity of the Danae motif^Connection between Gawain and Perceval — Tradition of conflict between father and son — Its bearing on the Gawain legend. We examined in the last chapter the tradition connected with Gawain's love-adventures, and found reason to believe r that after all they were perhaps less numerous than the later romances would lead us to suppose. An indirect confirmation of this suggestion may be found in the very scanty references to any offspring of his alleged numerous marriages. Thus, the hero of the group of poems which may be classed together as the Bel Inconnu or Fair Un- known family, Guinglain, Gyngalyn, or Wigalois, is his son, and Malory mentions two others, Sir Lovel and Sir Florence (Gyngalyn he does not mention), the sons of a lady whom we only know as ' Sir Brandalis' sister.' But M. Ferd. Lot, in a review of Dr. Schofield's Studies on the Libeaus Desconus, inclines to the opinion that the son of Brandalis' sister (the earliest accounts only mention one) is the same as Guinglain — in which case genuine tradition <■ would ascribe to Gawain only this one son. 55 S6 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN The story connected with this hero is found in four leading versions, Libeaus Desconus (EngUsh), Guinglain or Le Bel Inconnu (French), Carduino (Italian), and Wigalois (German). It is therefore a remarkably widespread and popular legend.^ For our purpose it is only the introduc- tory portion of these romances which is of importance, and it is therefore unnecessary to give a full summary of the hero's adventures, which, briefly speaking, are as follow : — He arrives at Arthur's court to demand knighthood, and offers his services to a damsel who has come to ask assistance, either from the king or his knights, for her lady. She despises the aid of so young a champion, and flouts him persistently ; 2 notwithstanding which the hero boldly overcomes all the dangers of his quest, learns the secret of his parentage, and returns to King Arthur's court to be welcomed with joy by his father, Gawain. But our special interest lies in the introductory account, which in each poem deals with the hero's history previous to his appearance at court. In Libeaus Desconus we are told that he is the son of Sir Gawain, ' begotten be a forest side' (which does suggest the adventure with Brandahs' sister) ; his mother, fearing for his fate if he learnt the use of arms, brought him up alone in the forest that he should see no armed knight. He does not even know his name : ^ Full abstracts of these stories will be found in Hist. Litt. xxx., Le Bel Inconnu by M. Gaston Paris ; and Studies on the Libeaus Desconus by Dr. Schofield. I have followed the latter in the summaries given above. 2 Is it possible that this flouting of the hero by his companion, which is a persistent feature of all the tales of this family (cf. Gareth and Linet and Sir La Cote Maltaile in Malory), may be a reminis- cence of the Gawain- Proud-Lady story, having been transferred from father to son ? GAWAIN'S SON 57 He is so fair his mother has only called him Beau-fis. One day he finds a knight lying dead in the woods, and clothes himself in his armour. In consequence of this adventure he seeks King Arthur's court. The Bel Inconnu omits the story of the lad's youth, but, like the hero of the English poem, he knows neither his parentage nor his name ; his mother has called him Biel- fil. The secret of his birth is reserved apparently to heighten the effect of his principal deed of valour, the achievement of the fier 6azser ■when he kisses, or rather is kissed by, a horrible serpent, which turns into a fair maiden. Immediately after this a voice reveals to him that he is Gawain's son. The English poem expressly states that the lady could only be disenchanted by a kiss from Gawain, or one of his race. The Carduino is much the fullest in its account of the hero's youth: — Arthur has a favourite noble, who is treacherously slain by some barons of the court (Gawain and his brothers, we find later on). His wife flies with her young son, and takes refuge in a forest, where she brings up the boy in the belief that no other human beings besides themselves exist in the world. He is clothed in skins, and spends his time hunting the wild beasts, slaying them with the aid of two spears he has accidentally found. One day the king and his knights are hunting in the neighbourhood, see the lad, and give chase to him. He escapes, but will live no longer in the forest. His mother accompanies him to a city, where he lays aside his savage dress and is clad in armour. Finally, at the instance of his companions he determines to go to Arthur's court and win honoilr. Before his departure his mother acquaints him with his father's name and fate. S8 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN In the Wigalois the commencement is quite different. Gawain has been overcome by an unknown knight, and compelled to follow him to his own land, where he weds the niece of the king. After six months he leaves her to revisit the court, and, the land being enchanted, is unable to find his way back. The boy grows up at his mother's court, where he is trained in all knightly accomplishments, and finally sets out to find his father. Now on the surface there certainly seems to be a strong resemblance between this story and the well-known En- fances of Perceval; and Dr. Schofield arrives at the con- clusion that the hero of the romance was originally no other than Perceval himself. This conclusion M. Lot attacks, but, it seems, on in- sufficient grounds. He says,^ 'On retrouve partout des hdros dont la jeunesse est obscure, sauvage, ou meprisee. Comme tous ces rdgits s'infiuencent reciproquement il nous parait impossible d'espdrer atteindre la source la plus recul^e.' This is, of course, in a measure true, but we do not see that it operates in the main against Dr. Scho- field's theory. It is impossible for any one familiar with the Perceval romances not to be struck with the correspond- ence in detail existing betw;een the two groups : the mother's expressed dread of her son being slain in battle — his absolute ignorance, not merely of his parentage, but of his own name — the very terms of endearment employed by the mother ^ — his being clothed in skins and armed with javelins — the first suit of armour being taken from the body of a dead knight — his giving up his solitary life on his first contact with the outer world and proceeding at ' Cf. Le Moyen. Age, October 1896. ^ Cf. Parzival, Books ii. verses 1625 et seq., iii. 722-4. GAWAIN'S SON 59 once to Arthur's court. All these features agree so closely that we are surely justified in concluding that the stories forming these two groups represent a common original, even if they be not directly derived the one from the other ; i.e. if the Fair Unknown be not Perceval himself, he and Perceval are both representatives of the same primitive hero, which practically amounts to the same thing. Of these stories, three, as we have seen, represent the hero as Gawain's son ; the fourth, Carduino, describes the father as having been slain by three brothers, Calvano, Agueriesse, and Mordarette, i.e. Gawain, Agravain, and Mordred ; so here Gawain, instead of being the father of the boy, is that father's murderer. Dr. Schofield considers that the Carduino version is later than the others, on the ground, as we understand him, that it represents Gawain in a light quite inconsistent with the early representation of that hero. In this the critic is undoubtedly quite right ; it would be impossible to imagine Gawain figuring as a treacherous murderer in any but quite the latest version of his story. M. Lot, who does not appear to have quite grasped the reasons given by Dr. Schofield for his conclusions, asserts that, on the contrary, the Carduino represents the earliest form, giving as one reason for his opinion that 'la vie solitaire du h6ros est bien mieux motivde.' It is easier, he contends, to understand the flight of a widow, whose husband has been murdered by nobles powerful at court, than to understand the youth's being brought up in ignorance of the fact that he has a famous hero for his father. But this is, we think, to put the ori^n of the story too late. Both J. G. von Hahn and Mr. Alfred Nutt, in their 6o THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN studies on the Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula^ have demonstrated that a tale such as this told of Guinglain or of Perceval is of very ancient origin. In the table drawn up by Hahn we find the first feature of such stories to be that the father of the youth is a god, or hero, from afar, while the mother is a princess residing in her own country. Two of the stories classed under this formula are those of Perseus, and Romulus and Remus, both of which intro- duce the feature classified by Mr. Hartland, in his exhaus- tive study of the Perseus legend, as the Danae motif.^ The father is a supernatural being, of whose identity the mother herself is not fully aware, and in consequence of her ignor- ance on this point she and her infant son are expelled from their native land, a feature, as he demonstrates, of extreme antiquity. There can be no doubt that this represents an older and more archaic type of the story than that in which the father has been killed, either in battle or by treachery ; and the fact that the Perceval enfances have been recognised as belong- ing to this family of legends, renders it probable that, at one time or another, this story too presented features con- formable to the older type. A proof of this is afibrded by the Irish heroic tales. The Ultonian cycle, the chief hero of which, Cuchulinn, is a god's son, is older than the Ossianic, whose hero, Finn's father, is slain. Between the enfances of both these heroes and of Perceval a strong resemblance admittedly exists.^ So far from dismissing the versions ' Cf. Nutt, Aryan Expulsion and Return Formula ; Folklore Record, vol. iv. ^ Hartland, Legend of Perseus, vol. i. ' Mr. Nutt suggests that the ' Conall ' story, in which the father, Art, is both a kingly stranger and is slain, forms an intermediate version. GAWAIN'S SON 6i which represent Gawain as the boy's father as necessarily later than those which represent him as fatherless, it seems not impossible that they may be valuable survivors of a genuine original tradition. These Studies, dealing, as they do, primarily, with Gawain rather than with Perceval, it will not be necessary to enter into a comparison of the stories connected respectively with this latter and with Guinglain — what has been said above as to the undeniable resemblance between their legends must suffice. What we would ask here is. If Perceval and the Fair Unknown resemble each other so strongly as to lead to a suspicion tliat they are really one and the same, is there any evidence that the first-named was ever regarded as Gawain's son? There does not appear to be any direct evidence on this point, but there are certain points which seem to invite special attention and study. We may note at first that the tradition as to Perceval's father is extremely vague ; he never twice bears the same name, and in many of the romances the hero is generally spoken of as the son of 'la veuve dame.' In fact, the point of Perceval's parentage is undoubtedly obscure. As we have shown in chapter iii., the early Grail poems closely connect Perceval and Gawain ; the romances deal- ing ostensibly with the former devote quite half their space to recording the deeds of the latter, and, even omitting the fact that Wolfram considers them kinsmen and blood- relations, it seems difficult to explain the close connection of these two heroes — a connection evidently dating from a very early period, and to which no parallel exists in the cycle. In the Peredur and the English Syr Percyvelle the hero is son to Arthur's sister, and therefore first cousin to 62 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Gawain. Both in Chretien and Wolfram's poems, and also in the Welsh Peredur, it is Gawain who introduces Per- ceval as a knight to King Arthur's court; in the English Sir Percyvelle he appears earlier on the scene, and aids the hero to disarm the Red Knight, whom he has slain. We have already noted ^ that the Suite de Merlin ^ con- tains a statement by the enchanter to the effect that Gawain shall only be overcome by one knight. This is undoubtedly Perceval, who in the earliest romances is the only knight whom we find considered in any way superior to Gawain. It is to be noted that there is no growth in Perceval's fame — from the first he is held ' the best knight in the world.' The Parzival, as we have shown,^ gives an account of just such a conflict between the two knights as is, apparently, indicated by the Merlin, a conflict in which Gawain is worsted. This will probably be found to be the earliest instance in which such a fate befalls that originally invincible hero. It may be well here to recapitulate the details of this conflict : the two knights are unknown to each other, and Gawain is near being slain by his adversary when his pages coming up call on him by name, and Parzival, finding his opponent is his friend and kinsman, throws away his sword with lamentations over the unnatural strife. The maiden Bene, who is acting as go-between in the love-affair between Gawain's sister and King Gramoflanz, rid§s up at the same moment, and loudly bewails Gawain's evil plight, while at the same time she assists him to the best of her power.* ' Vide supra, p. 9. ^ Sommer, The Sources of Malory, p. loj. s vide supra, p. 23. * Parzival, Book xiv. verses 274-332 and 390-408. GAWAIN'S SON 63 Now in Malory 1 we find a curious parallel to this combat in a fight between Gawain and his brother Gareth ; neither knows the other, and they fight fiercely for over two hours, till the damsel Linet, riding upon a mule, calls on them by name to cease fighting with each other. A very curious feature in this account is that the adventures of Gareth (or Beaumains), as related by Malory, bear an undeniable resemblance to the adventures of Gawain's son in the Fair Unknown stories. The source of this book, Dr. Sommer, in his study on Malory, tells us he has been unable to discover, but he considers that it represents a lost French poem. Without the original before us we cannot tell whether it really formed a link between the Perceval and the Libeaus Desconus stories or not, but Malory's version certainly seems to touch both. The special interest as regards these studies is that it renders probable the fact that there was a tradition relating to a conflict between Gawain and a near relation, which tradition has been preserved by Wolfram and not by Chretien. We have noted above that, according to the Merlin, Gawain was only to be overcome by one knight. In the case of a hero so popular, and so generally considered invincible, this knight might be expected to be his own son, as by this means, father and son being practically one, the fame of the original hero would be held to have suffered no diminution. Such a conflict between a father and a son, who do not recognise each other, is of frequent recurrence in old romances, e.g. the old German Hildebrand' s lied, where, however, the father gets the better of the son, while the Celtic hero of such a conflict is none other than ^ Morte (P Arthur, Book vii. chap. 3. 64 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Cuchulinn, with whom both Gawain and Perceval have many points of contact.* The question is not one which admits of definite solu- tion; we have not sufficient data for the purpose. The Gawain and Perceval stories certainly came into connection with each other at a very early date, and probably before the latter, at least, was definitely united to the Arthurian cycle; Perceval's connection with King Arthur's court is, in both Chretien and Wolfram, extremely slight. We shall probably not be far wrong if we consider these two heroes the earliest to have been brought into contact with the British king; though perhaps we should except Kay, who seems to have belonged to the Arthurian cycle from a very early date, and whose character has, like Gawain's, suffered much in the later romances. We must therefore expect to find the original legend greatly obscured — certainly in the case of Gawain the task of recon- structing the story appears to offer peculiar difficulties, and we cannot hope definitely to solve the problem of the original connection existing between him and Perceval. Their adventures are in themselves so distinct, being entirely unshared the one by the other, that it appears as if we must look outside the letter of their feats for the reason of their union. The mythical character which Gawain undoubtedly originally bore would not be out of keeping with the father ^ In the Irish story the father (Cuchulinn) is the victor. The circum- stances of the begetting and rearing of his son, Conlaoch, who, when he comes to Conchobar's court, is only known as Aife's son — Aife being his mother, — are not unlike those of the Bel Inconnu. Our oldest testimony to the Irish story dates back to the middle of the tenth century, but there can be no reasonable doubt that the incident belongs to the very oldest stratum of Irish story-telling. gawain;s son 65 of the primitive Aryan hero Perceval is generally held to represent. The story generally told of Gawain's son has many points of contact with the account given of Perceval's youth ; further (this may only loe a coincidence, but it is a striking one), the hero, who, ks we shall see in the next chapter, gradually took in the (later Romances the position first assigned to Gawain, has also a son, who for his part supersedes Perceval. j The arguments advanced in this chapter in no sense make claim to be conclusive ; all that is claimed for them is that they afford ground for maintaining the hypothesis that these two earliest heroes )f Arthurian saga were once looked upon as standing ir the relation to each other of father and son, to be no; altogether unreasonable, nor entirely devoid of confirmatory evidence.^ ^ While this chapter was in the press I had the opportunity of reading M. Fhilipot's important criticism of Dr. Schofield's Studies oil the Libeaus Z)esconus, in Romania 102, April 1897. M. Philipot agrees with M. Ferd. Lot in regarding Dr. Schofield's identification of Le Bel Inconnu with Perceval as mistaken, maintaining that the origin of the slory is to be sought in the enfances/%^i';»«.r or Lancelot, rather than in the enfances humaines or Perceval. Without discussing the question at length, for which a footnote does not afford opportunity, I cannot refrain from saying that I believe M. Philipot to be completely in the wrong in regarding the enfances fieri^ues as anterior to the enfances humaines — for these reasons ! — a. The enfances Lancelot have not escaped my notice, but I have hitherto found no Lancelot romance which does not show demonstrable traces of having been affected by the Gawain- Percival story. b. In view of the wide diffusion of the central theme of the Perceval story, and the remarkable parallels to be found in other literatures (e.g. the Danish Ilelden Lieder given by Rassmann in vol. i. of his Helden Saga, and the accounts of Finn's boyhood in the Ossianic cycle), it is, I believe, a grave error to criticise this story solely as a £ 66 THE LEGEND /OF SIR GAWAIN branch of the Arthurian cycle ;< and it is precisely to the human element in the enfances that we 4pA these parallels. t. The enfances humaines are jrougher, more elementary and primi-. tive in character, than the enfa'pces fieriques, which are distinctly mediaeval and chivah-ic in type. \ d. I therefore incline to think thaft the enfances humaines, i.e. Perceval, represent the older and original version; the eTiiances fieriques, i.e. Lancelot, a version due to contami Ration by the Gawain-Fairy- Mistress traditions ; and that the order of 'evolution was rather as follows : — (1) Aryan tradition represented by, Perceval story (no fairy element) ; (2) Perceval story affected by Gawaifi legend=Ze Bellnconnuyexsions ; (3) Fairy element in these versions gradually incretising in importance and issuing finally in the Lancel4t version. That the primitive, uncouth, Perceval version, with its culous Celtic and Teutonic parallels, was evolved from the elaborate and \nished fairy tale of the Lancelot enfances I cannot believe. The whol\ question is to my mind a strong and additional argument in favour wj what I have further on insisted upon — viz. the necessity for a careful and comparative study of the Lancelot and Gawain Romances. - .1 CHAPTER VIII LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE Different versions of the story — Chretien — Hartmann von Aue — Malory — Suggestions as to original hero — Professor Rhys — M. Gaston Paris — Gawain's share in the adventure — The character of Mel&gaunt's kingdom — Li fom evages — Pierre Bercheur — Early connection of Gawain and Guinevere — Sui'vival in English metrical romances — Gawain and Lancelot — Perceval and Galahad. Students of Arthurian literature are well aware that the poem, the name of which heads this chapter, relates an important episode of the cycle, and one which presents certain specially interesting and perplexing features. Speaking broadly, it is the story of Guinevere's abduction by a knight named Mel^agaunt, and her rescue by Lancelot. Of this story we have several versions. The most famous is that of Chretien de Troyes — the poem named above. Malory in his nineteenth book relates the story of the abduction differently — his source evidently going back to a tradition identical with that preserved by a fragmentary Welsh poem of the fourteenth century ; but his account of the rescue is the same as Chrgtien's. The Iwein of Hartmann von Aue, who in the rest of his poem is following Chretien's Chevalier au Lion, again gives a different version of the abduction, and is silent as to the 87 68 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN details of the rescue. The story is also told in the prose Lancelot, but this version, as M. Gaston Paris has demon- strated, is directly drawn from Chretien's poem. We have two other accounts of the carrying off of Guinevere ; one in the Lanzelet of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, where the abductor is Falerin, and the deliverer Lancelot ; the other in Diu Krbne, where the characters are respec- tively Gasozein and Gawain. Inasmuch as Chretien's poem is the most widely known we will take this as our standard of comparison.^ He tells the tale as follows : — A knight appears at Arthur's court, boasting of the ladies whom he holds captive ; he will set them all free if Arthur will confide Guinevere to the care of one of his knights, who will undertake a single combat with the new comer (Mel^agaunt). If he be defeated all the ladies shall be free; if, on the contrary, the queen's cfiahipion is vanquished, Guinevere herself shall become Meleagaunt's prisoner. Kay, on pretence of being about to quit Arthur's service, demands a boon. This the king promises to grant, and it proves to be that he shall be permitted to accept the challenge. Guinevere goes unwillingly with Kay. Gawain reproaches Arthur, and obtains leave to follow, and free the queen if necessary. He rides forth in company with other knights; they meet Kay's horse riderless, and covered with blood. Gawain outrides his companions and encounters a knight (Lancelot), who asks him for a steed. Gawain gives him his, and following shortly finds the horse slain, and Lancelot on foot. The latter mounts a cart which they meet, and Gawain follows. The kingdom of Meldagaunt is surrounded ' Cf. M. G. Paris's study of the poem in Romania x. and xii. LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 69 by water crossed by two bridges, the one, pont de Fepie, a sword-blade, which Lancelot crosses on hands and knees, wounding himself sorely in the crossing ; the other, pont de Five, goes under the water. This Gawain selects. Lancelot succeeds in freeing the queen, but falls into a trap set by Meldagaunt, and is himself imprisoned, while Gawain escorts Guinevere back to her husband. The account given by Chretien in the Chevalier au Lion, which is very short, agrees with this. The king had put Guinevere in Kay's charge ; Gawain has gone to her rescue. It is not stated who frees her, and Lancelot's imprisonment is only incidentally mentioned. In Hartmann's poem, on the contrary, we have an entirely different account of the abduction.i A knight appears at Arthur's court and requires the king to grant him a boon — whatever he may ask. Arthur demurs, but finally yields to the knight's taunts and gives the required promise, when the knight demands the queen and carries her off, exactly as the Irish knight Gandin carries off Queen Isolt. The knights arm to pursue the ravisher ; Kay is the first to overtake him, and is struck from his horse with such violence that his helmet catches in the bough of a tree, and he hangs suspended. He is not taken captive, as in the other versions. One after another all the knights are vanquished, and Guinevere is carried off. Gawain is not at court — had he been there it would never have happened j he returns the next day, and rides at once in search of the queen. Later on we are told he has returned to the court,^ and a few lines further on ^ that in these same days the queen had returned from her captivity. Who freed her is not stated, but we are led to ^ Hartmann von Aue, Der LSwenritter, Book viii. verses 4530-4725. ^ Ibid., X. verses 5668-9. ' Ibid., x. verse 5678. 70 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN infer that it was Gawain. Lancelot is not once mentioned throughout the poem. The differences between the French and German poems are so great that it scarcely seems possible they can be referred to the same source. Nor is it likely that Hart- mann would have devoted so much more space to the account of the abduction (two hundred lines as against ten in Chretien), had he not been dissatisfied with the version of the French poet and desirous of substituting another for it.i Malory's version need not here be taken into account, as it is rather with the latter than the earlier part of the story that we are concerned; and here he agrees in the main with Chretien, excepting that Gawain does not appear in the story at all, but the part usually assigned to him is here taken by Lavaine. Had the similarity of sound any- thing to do with the substitution of one name for another ? This story, as the above abstracts show, represents not only a well-known incident of the Arthur saga, but also one of early origin. Like most of the Arthurian stories, it has undergone considerable changes and developments, and it is generally admitted that, as it now stands, it does not represent the original form of the episode ; and that, in that original form, it was not Lancelot, but some other hero, who played the part of rescuer. Who that original rescuer was, critics are not agreed. Professor Rhys in his Arthurian Studies ^ equates Lancelot with Peredur (Perceval), and tries to show that the story ' The German poem is on the whole longer than the French, but by no means so in the proportion indicated by this incident. Chretien's poem consists of 6815 verses ; Hartmann's of 8165. ' Cf. Arthurian Studies, chap, vi. LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 71 of Guinevere's rescue from Meldagaunt is based upon a mistaken rendering of Peredur's love for the Empress of Constantinople. But it cannot honestly be said that this attempted solution is in any way satisfactory. M. Gaston Paris, in his study of Chretien's Romance,^ decides that the original hero was Arthur, quoting in support of his opinion a passage in the Vita Gildcz, attri- buted to Caradoc de Lancarvan (about 1150), but, as M. Paris remarks, certainly later. There we are told that Melwas, king of Estiva Regis (Somerset), carries off Guinevere to Glastonbury. Arthur marches with the armies of Devon and Cornwall to besiege him, but by the intervention of St. Gildas and the Abbot of Glastonbury peace is made, and the queen restored to her husband. M. Paris admits that the story, as it stands, is a ^ d'e- formation monacale d'un ricit fofulaire,' but maintains, that in representing Arthur as the hero it is in accordance with original tradition. It is with diffidence that one ventures to dissent from the conclusions of such a scholar as M. Paris, but may it not be that it is just in this point of the rescuer that the 'deformation monacale' is most clearly shown ? i.e. for purposes of edification the monks substituted the husband, who naturally ought to have been the deliverer of his wife, for the lover, who, in the story as known to them, really freed her — that Arthur is the last rather than ^q first of the traditional rescuers ? ^ •• Cf. Romania, xii. p. 511. ^ We make no use here of the mediaeval Welsh fragment quoted by Professor Rhys, Arthurian Stttdies, chap. iii. , as it seems impossible to determine its real signification or value, i The MS. is apparently of late date, and if it does represent an attempt made by Arthur to carry off his wife from an abductor, the assigning such a r6le to him may be only a reminiscence of the ' Gildas ' account. This however occurs 72 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN It will, we think, be admitted by all Arthurian students that such a feat as the rescue of a lady, Guinevere or any other, from a knight who has carried her off against her will, is not an action attributed, as a rule, to Arthur. It is his knights who perform all these special deeds of chivalry. Arthur is a valiant warrior, a successful general, a slayer of monsters {e.g. the giant of Mont S. Michel ; and the demon cat in Merlin), but not, as a rule, a succourer of distressed damsels. The deeds usually attributed to knights-errant are, on the whole, absent in his story. Further, if Arthur were the original rescuer we should expect to find some trace of this in the later versions, whereas there is no indi- cation that he bestirs himself in the matter ; he leaves the pursuit and recovery of his wife entirely in the hands of his knights. But if the substitution of Arthur for Lancelot does not approve itself as consonant with the indications of the story as we have it, who then was the original hero of the adventure? It seems straVige that no one has suggested Gawain. Professor Rhys came very near the point when he asked why Lancelot, rather than Gawain, was repre- sented as the queen's deliverer, remarking that Gawain appears in this character in Diu Krone ; but the Lancelot- Peredur equation with which he was so much in love blinded him to the full force of his own suggestion. As we have seen above, all the version s, save Malory, represent f^wain, g.qual ly with L anc elot, as~st:arring~Hr pursuiFbf the queen, braving the dangers of the approach to the mind — the ravisher (if any) in the fragment appears to be Kay. The knight in Hartmann's version carries off Guinevere by a ruse iden- tical with that employed by Kay when desirous of accepting Mel^a- gaunt's challenge. Is there any connection \between these accounts ? LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 73 to the castle, and, in the principal version (that of Chretien), it is he who brings Guinevere back to the court, and is at first hailed as her rescuer. In the Lanzelet of Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, Guinevere has been carried off by Falerin, and Lanzelet cannot deliver her without the aid of the enchanter Malduc, who refuses to assist him unless Walwein (Gawain) and Erec, with whom he has a feud, are delivered to his power. These heroes voluntarily give themselves up, and Lanzelet, with the aid of the enchanter, frees Guinevere.^ Here again Gawain plays a not unimportant part in the rescue. Malory, as we have seen, introduces Lavaine into the story, a not insignificant change. If we couple with this Hartmann von Aue's divergence, apparently of set purpose, from the version given in the poem he was otherwise following ; his utter silence as to Lancelot, and apparent inference that Gawain was the rescuer ; it must, I think, be admitted that there is prima facie sufficient evidence to justify the hypothesis that it was the latter and not Lancelot who was the original hero. But when we examine the story more closely we shall find this hypothesis much strengthened. Both M. Paris and Professor Rhys are of one mind in regarding the dwelling of Melwas, or M^leagaunt, as an ' other-world ' kingdom. Its situation, surrounded by water — the difficulty of access to it — Chretien's significant words, ' Et si Pa el reaunte mise Dont nus htranges ne retome, Mds par force el pais sejorne en servitude et en essiV ^ ' Cf. Romania, x. p. 475. ^ Cf. ibid., xii. p. 467. 74 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN — the identification with Glastonbury, — all point unmistak- ably to this conclusion. Now, as we said before (chapter v.), an expedition to such an 'other-world' dwelling is exactly the feat most generally attributed to Gawain. Taking traditional charac- teristics into question, if there were one of Arthur's knights more likely than another to be represented as the hero of such an adventure as this it would be Gawain. And surely it is significant that it is he, and not Lancelot, who, nearing the castle, elects to cross by the bridge which, we are told, ' A non It pom evages, Por ce que soz eve est U ponz, Si a de Pevejusgu'alfonz Autant desoz comme desus Ne deqa meins ne de la plus Aim est lipom tot droit en mi, et si n'a que piS et demi de II et autretant desph.' ' When, in the first version of the story, Gawain rescued the queen, it was doubtless by this bridge, which probably was then the only means of access, that he reached the castle. In connection with this it must not be forgotten that there exists an independent tradition ^ as to a subaqueous adventure of Gawain. This story, related in the Reduc- torium Morale of Pierre Bercheur, runs as follows : — ' What shall I say of the marvels which occur in the histories of Gawayne and Arthur? Of which I will mention only one, namely, of the palace under the water which Gawayne accidentally discovered, where he found a table spread with eatables, and a chair placed ready for him, but was ■^ Cf. Romania, xii. p. 467. " Vide supra, p. 28. LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 75 not able to find the door by which he might go out ; but being hungry and about to eat, suddenly the head of a dead man appeared in the dish, and a giant, who lay on a bier near the fire, rising up, and striking the roof with his head, and the head calling out, and forbidding the repast, he never dared touch the viands, and after witnessing many wonders, got away he knew not how.'^ There is also another reason why Gawain, rather than another, should have gone in search of Guinevere — he was, as we learn from the Merlin^ specially the ' queen's ' knight. This is a boon which he craves for himself and his com- panions at the first court held after Arthur's marriage. The Merlin^ gives long accounts of the rivalry between the queen's Knights, headed by Gawain, and the Knights of the Round Table — a rivalry which gives rise to more than one fiercely contested tournament. The English Metrical Romances have preserved this tradition, and when king and queen ride forth, it is Gawain who escorts the queen.^ If the carrying ofi' of Guinevere were really a part of the 7 early Arthurian legend, it seems scarcely possible to evade the conclusion that it must have been Gawain who rescued her ; there was no other knight on whom the duty would have been equally imperative and binding. ^ This fourteenth-century reference is noteworthy as testifying to the considerable mass of Arthurian romance which has perished, a fact to be borne in mind when the argument, so dear to some scholars, ex silentio, is brought forward. The incident itself, so wild and fantastic in character, may be compared to the eleventh-century Irish tale, entitled ' Finn's Visit to the Phantoms,' edited and translated by Dr. Whitley Stokes in vol. vii. of the Revue Celtiqtte. ^ Roman de Merlin, chap. xxvi. p. 343. ' Cf. Anturs of Arthur, verse i, in Madden's Sir Gawayne. 78 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN adventure contains a deeper and more interesting problem than the mere identity of Guinevere's rescuer. If, as here suggested, Gawain, in an early version of his story held the position of the lover of his uncle's wife, we can discover more than one reason which would operate towards the divesting him of such a character. The situation in itself originally belonged to a very elementary stage of society. At first, probably, Tristan was thought no worse of for his liaison with Isolt than was Diarmaid for his abduction of Grainne : the other heroes of Finn's court strongly object to taking any active part against the escaping couple. But at a later period, when the chivalrous ideal of knighthood was fully accepted, and the refine- ments of Minne-dienst as yet undeveloped, such a course of conduct on the part of a trusted kinsman would stamp him as a traitor. The French poets, to whom we owe the development of Gawain's character as a model of knightly courtesy and chivalric virtues, would scarcely have admitted such a flaw in his reputation, even if they knew the story. We must remember that the method adopted of excul- pating Tristan and Isolt by blackening the character of King Mark, was quite impossible in the case of Arthur, who, from his historical position as leader of the Britons against the invading tribes of heathen Saxons, was naturally regarded as the champion of Christendom and seems in fact to have undergone a steady process of moral and spiritual development, till he culminated in Tennyson's ' blameless king ' — a far cry from the original Arthur. It is, I think, clear that if such relations as those suggested above ever existed between Gawain and Guinevere, they must, in the exigencies of the story, have been modified at an early moment. In any case, whether innocent or other- LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 79 wise, it seems practically certain that a close connection between the queen and her husband's famous nephew did really exiet, and taking into consideration the manner in which Lancelot elsewhere supplanted Gawain, I atn in- clined to think that no ' blundering ' on the part of Chretien or of any other writer need be postulated, but that the story in this special instance only followed the course of development taken by the legend as a whole, and replaced the earlier by the later hero. It may be asked what proof have we that such a dis- placement of the one knight in favour of the other ever took place to any appreciable extent ? Let any one who doubts the fact read first such romances as Chretien's Conte del Graal, the Parzival of Wolfram von Eschenbach, or the Merlin, and then turn to Malory's Morte d! Arthur, a compilation which, drawn from various sources,' gives an excellent general impression of the Arthurian legend in its latest stage. In the first named, they will find Gawain the most valiant of all Arthur's knights, the pattern of courage and chivalry, the pride of the Round Table, and the favourite alike of King and Queen. Lancelot does not come on the scene at all — the Merlin just mentions his birth. In all the romances represented by Malory's work (Tristan, Lancelot, the Queste) Gawain is in the back- ground, and it is Lancelot who is the glory of the court, the favourite of the king, the lover of the queen ; in fi^ct, he has completely supplanted Gawain. Such a change did not take place at once, but we can discover indications of the gradual transference of feats from one hero to the other. Thus, in Diu Krdne 1 we find that Lancelot's strength waxes double at mid-day— a trait which, ^ Diu Krbne, verses 2087 et seq. 8o THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN as we have seen, originally belonged to Gawain. Curiously enough, this passage immediately precedes a reference to the story of the ' Charrette,' here ascribed to Lancelot.^ M. Paris ^ notes that in the Rigomer he has found a trait attributed to Lancelot which he has not met with else- where. He appears in poor attire at an assembly presided over by Arthur, and in order to prove his identity to the knight whom he addresses : ' // a lapaume tendue, et cil a le plaie veue qui saine est et racousturie Car d'unefort lance aceree Fu avec le suie {%\c)ferus. Par eel est mout reconneusj n'avait chevalier en Bretagne ne le conneust par Pensaigne.' 1 M. Paris in his essay on the subject remarks incidentally that the form Milianz, given to Guinevere's abductor by Heinrich von dem Turlin, does not represent the French MeUagaunt, and yet that it is improbable that Heinrich knew any other form of the name. Now in the Parzival, which Heinrich certainly knew, the name is given as Meljakanz ; and further, in Book vii. of that poem, Meljakanz, and Meljanz von Liz (Melians de Lys), are not only represented as allies in the tournament at Beaurbsch, but Meljanz is riding the horse which Meljakanz won from Kay when he smote him out of the saddle with such force that he was found hanging to a bough, verses 588-96. The two names occurring in such close connection, with practically the difference of only one letter between them, a slip of the memory, or of the pen, might easily substitute the one for the other, and this is probably the simple explanation of the puzzling form Milianz. It should be stated that Wolfram's reference here is to Hartmann, and not to Chretien, who has not this incident of Kay's suspension. His subse- quent references in the same Book, verses 147 1-8, and at the com- mencement of Book xii. verse 8, are to Chrltien's poem. ' Romania, x. p. 494. LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 8i If such an injury be not elsewhere attributed to Lancelot, we twice over find reference to Gawain. being wounded in a similar manner. In Parzival^ we are told how Gawain ' mit dem mezzer durch die hunt stack ; des twang in minnen kraft unt -wert wipllch geselleschaft.' And in Diu Krone^ we learn that he pierced his hand through with a knife, in order to rouse himself from a love- trance. We do not know enough of the sources of Diu Krone to say whether the account given by Heinrich was merely invented to explain the Parzival allusion, or whether it be a genuine and independent tradition ; but it certainly looks as if the original source of the ' Lancelot ' incident were to be found in an adventure attributed to Gawain. In the next chapter we shall discuss an episode which forms the subject of a separate and famous romance of the cycle, and here too we shall find that while one version represents Lancelot as the hero, there is every reason to believe that the story originally attaches to Gawain. Nor should it be forgotten that the account given by Ulrich von Zatzikhoven of Lanzelet's youth and up-bringing — how he was stolen by a water-fairy, and brought up in her kingdom, das Meidelant ^ — presents remarkable points of contact with the Gawain legend. Here too Lanzelet is ' Parzival, Book vi. verses 640-2 : ' When the knife's sharp blade He drove through his hand through love's urging, For the sake of a gracious maid.' » Diu Kr6ne, verses 9058-63. ^ Romania, x. p. 473. F 82 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN represented as Arthur's nephew, his sister's son — a rela- tionship obviously borrowed from Gawain. Elsewhere Lancelot is the son of King Ban of Benoyc, Arthur's valiant ally and friend, but no relation to the British king. The whole question of the relationship of the Lancelot and Gawain stories is particularly interesting, and seems to demand more careful study than it has yet received. Some connection between the heroes there certainly must be, but of what nature ? Was Lancelot merely an under-study to Gawain? Or is he the hero of an independent cycle of adventures, which, like the Perceval story, early came into contact with the Gawain legend, without remaining, as this latter has done, practically unaffected thereby? There seems reason to believe that Lancelot was a comparatively late addition to the Arthurian story ; the earliest romances, as we have seen, know nothing of him. The question becomes doubly interesting when we take into consideration the relation between Perceval and \ Galahad. That the former, and not Galahad, was the 1 original Grail winner is practically certain, and his suppres- j sion in favour of Galahad presents a remarkable parallel I to the suppression of Gawain by Lancelot. Galahad was Lancelot's son. If, as suggested in the previous chapter, Perceval was once considered as son to Gawain, we have the interesting problem of one pair of heroes, originally father and son, being displaced by another pair, bearing the same relationship to each other, and to the characters of the original story : Gawain = Lancelot, Perceval = Galahad. There are certain circumstances connected with Galahad which seem to lend colour to such a supposition, however far-fetched it may at first appear. His mother, too, is a LE CHEVALIER DE LA CHARRETTE 83 princess residing at her father's court ; his father, a hero from afar, a mere passing guest. His birth takes place under remarkable circumstances ; he is brought up apart from his father, and the latter, though he confers knight- hood upon his son, is ignorant of his identity, till he arrives at court, and declares his relationship to King Pelles. There seems here to be an echo of the tradition originally connected with Gawain's son, and with the Aryan hero represented by Perceval. But this digression has led us somewhat astray from the original subject of our study — the freeing of Guinevere. The considerations advanced above go, we think, far to- wards proving that the original hero of the adventure was neither Lancelot nor Arthur, but Gawain. In all the versions he appears as playing a part only secondary to Lancelot ; in one, Hartmann's, we are led to infer that he, and he alone, achieved the adventure; the only version which does not name him at all introduces a comparatively obscure knight of a similar name. The story, in its original significance,^ is exactly in accordance with the feat most generally attributed to him, and the very details of his journey to the castle conform to the primitive 'donnees' of his story. If we reject Lancelot as the primitive hero, as scholars are generally agreed to do, we must, I think, admit that the body of evidence in favour of Gawain is far stronger than can be advanced in the case of any other knight. ' It may be noted that the ladies, who are reported to be also held prisoners by Mele^aunt, are not mentioned again ; they seem to drop out of the story as we have it. But the fact that they are mentioned forms an interesting parallel to the Chateau Merveil story, where, be- sides the queens, a number of ladies are also captive. 84 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN We might even be justified in holding that the very fact that it is Lancelot who is here represented as achieving an adventure which apparently reaches back to a very early stage of the Arthurian legend, is in itself an argument in favour of Gawain — he being the hero whose place in the cycle Lancelot gradually usurped. Whether the story is old enough to be considered as having formed part of the original Gawain legend is another question, and one which cannot be positively answered. It seems probable that it did not do so, but that its analogy to a feat which did belong to that original legend caused it to be attributed to the hero of the older story. CHAPTER IX SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT Summary of the English poem — Li Conte del Graal—Diu KrSne — La Mule sans Frein — The prose Perceval — The Fled Bricrend — Antiquity of the story — Comparison of the various forms — Examination of the Carados version — Identification of the Knight-Magician — Original significance of the story — Probable order of the different versions — The magic girdle — The story probably a genuine survival of original Gawain legend. Among the Metrical Roma nces, which, as we have a lready saidTfonned, previQ5i^tQ__Malors._theJ^nglis h_contrI5uti5h to Arthurian literature, the most import ant is tha*' ^""'"l as Syr~Gawavne and 'TheGr ene Knvsh te ; important not cnTyTrom'the-poiifforvrew of literary merit, which is con- siderable (M. Gaston Paris considers it '/<; joyau de la litterature Anglaise au Moyen Age '), but also from its sub- ject-matter — the adventure which it relates being found in varying forms in other romances, and, there is reason to believe, going back to an early stage of Celtic saga. As the story, while it preserves with singular fidelity its archaic character, is yet given at greater length, and with more elaboration, in the English poem than in the other versions, we will first consider the adventure as there related, and then compare the other accounts with it, thus endeavouring to discover what were the original features of the story, and who was its earliest hero. 8S 86 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN The poem, as given by Sir F. Madden in his Sir Gawayne, is printed from a ms., believed to be unique, in the Cottonian collection. From internal evidence it appears to have been written in the reign of Richard ii., i.e. towards the end of the fourteenth century, though it may have been composed somewhat earlier ; and the authorship has been ascribed to the Scottish poet, Huchown, whose Morte d' Arthur, preserved in the Lincoln Library, was used, among other romances, by Malory in his compilation.^ The story is as follows : — On a New Year's Day, while Arthur is keeping his Christmas feast at Camelot, a gigantic knight, clad in green, mounted on a green horse, and carrying in one hand a holly bough, and in the other a 'Danish' axe, enters the hall and challenges one of Arthur's knights to stand him * one stroke for another.' If any accept the challenge he may strike the first blow, but he must take oath to seek the Green Knight at a twelve- months' end and receive the return stroke. Seeing the gigantic size and fierce appearance of the stranger the knights hesitate, much to Arthur's indignation. Finally Gawain accepts the challenge, and, taking the axe, smites the Green Knight's head from the body. To the dismay of all present the trunk rises up, takes up the head, and, repeating the challenge to Gawain to meet him on the next New Year's morning at the Green Chapel, rides from the hall. Faithful to his compact, Gawain, as the year draws to an ^ Cf. Madden, Sir Gawayne, p. 299 et seq. Mr. GoUancz, on the other hand, assigns the poem to the author of Pearl and other middle English alliterative poems of a didactic character, and regards the whole group as belonging to the West-Midland district, i.e. to the borderland between the English- Welsh-speaking lands. See his edition of /'far/, London, 1S92. GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT 87 end, sets forth amid the lamentations of the court to abide his doom, which all look upon as inevitable. He journeys north, and on Christmas Eve comes to a castle, where the lord receives him kindly, tells him he is within easy reach of his goal, and bids him remain over the feast as his guest. Gawain accepts. The three last days of the year the host rides forth on a hunting expedition, leaving Gawain to the care of his wife, and making a bargain that on his return they shall mutually exchange whatever they have won during the day. Gawain is sorely tempted by the wiles of his ho stess, who, during her lord's absen ce, would fain take advantageof Gawain's well-known courtesy and fam e as a loier.. But h^turns a deaf ear to her blandishments, and only a kiss passes between them, which he, in fulfilment of his compact, passes on to the husband on his return. The next day the result is similar : Gawain receives and gives two kisses. The third day, besides three kisses, the lady gives him a green lace, which, if bound round the body, has the property of preserving from harm. In view of the morrow's ordeal, from which Gawain does not expect to escape with his life, he cannot make up his mind to part with this talisman, but gives his host the kisses, and says nothing about the lace. The following morning at day- break he rides forth, and comes to the Green Chapel, apparently a natural hollow, or cave, in a wild and desolate part of the country. The Green Knight appears, armed with his axe, and bids Gawain kneel to receive the blow. As the axe descends , Gawain instinctively flinches, and is rebukedJJQt-his-XQffiSiBIae^. thfekmgi^^ cannot be Gawain. The second time he remains steady, but the axe does not touch him. The third time the knight strikes him, inflicting a slight cut on the neck. 88 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Gawain promptly springs to his feet, drawing his sword, and announces that he has now stood 'one stroke for another,' and that the compact is at an end ; whereon the Green Knight reveals himself as his erewhile host. _He was cognisant_gf_jiis^_w ife's dealings with Gawain; th e 'TTrrpp'strnkeTequalledJhe three trials. of lii s guest's fide l^Yr_^ ^n3rKaa"not"Gawain proved partially faithless to his com- paEf b~Y concealjng"the ~gitt ofThFlace, he wouigTImv e escaped junharmed. The name" o7^~th e^ Green Kni ght is Bernlak de Hautdesert, and he had undertaken this test of-Gawain's y^m-^lJ:^^ :lT \ sfAT \ r p, ''f t h^ by help o f ijig- skinrofTCT^ an le Fay, who desired to vex Guinevere by- shaming t:llP^^'^'^''° '^f*^" 'P"""'^ 'T'nWf Gawain returns to court, tells the whole story, concealing nothing, and all the knights vow henceforward to wear a green lace in his honour. This is a summary of the wild and fantastic story, the origin of which Sir F. Madden believed he had discovered in the first continuation (by Gautier de Doulens) of Chretien's Conte del Graal. But this theory, though at first favourably received, cannot, we think, be main- tained. In the French poem the story is connected with a certain Carados, Arthur's nephew, and the son, unknown to him- self, of a powerful enchanter. This latter makes his ap- pearance as does the Green Knight (only he is not dressed in green, and the colour of his steed is 'fauve'), while Arthur is holding high court, at Pentecost — not at Christ- mas. He is armed with a sword instead of an axe (which latter seems to be the original weapon), and proceeds at once to explain to Arthur what he means by ' one blow for another ' — viz. that he will allow one of Arthur's knights to GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT 89 cut off his head on condition that he may be allowed at a year's interval to do the same for the knight. This, M. Gaston Paris observes, at once marks a corrupted form of the story, revealing as it does the superhuman nature of the challenger. But we are not sure that this does not really correspond to the original form, only, and this is an important differ- ence, in the primitive version the hero knows from the first that it is a magician with whom he is dealing, and there is no masquerading in the form of a knight. This will become clear as we proceed in our investigation. To pro- ceed with the story : — All refuse, with the exception of the new-made knight, Carados, who, in spite of the remon- strances of king and queen, seizes the sword and strikes off the knight's head. The latter takes it up, replaces it on his shoulders (not riding off with it in his hands, as in the English poem), and, bidding Carados look for his return in a year's time, departs. At the expiration of the year the knight returns and finds Carados ready to submit to the test, but at the prayer of the queen and her ladies he forbears the blow (thus omitting the real test of the valour of the hero), and reveals the true relationship, that of father and son, betvjeen himself and Carados.^ It seems difficult to understand how any one could have regarded this version, ill-motived as it is, and utterly lacking in the archaic details of the English poem, as the source of that work. It should probably rather be considered as the latest in form, if not in date, of all the versions. Two other accounts, which seem, so far as can be judged from the comparison of an abstract with an original to be practically the same, again connect the story with Gawain. ' Conte del Graal, vol. iii. 90 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN lot shall cut off his head, taking an oath that he will return in a year's time and submit to the same ordeal. Lancelot complies, and the knight falls dead. At the expiry of the year the hero returns, and is met by the brother of the first knight. Lancelot kneels down, com- mends his soul to God, and prepares to receive the blow ; but as the axe descends he flinches, and is rebuked by the knight — 'So did not my brother.' Before he can strike again two damsels interpose, and at their prayer Lancelot's life is spared. Twenty knights have already been slain without their slayer having dared to keep his part of the compact by returning. Lancelot's courage, and fidelity to his word, have broken the spell; the 'Gaste Cite' is re-peopled. It will be seen here that there is no trace of a magician, and it is evidently a late form of the story. We have already referred (chapter vi.) to the story of Gawain disenchanting the Carle of Carlile by striking off his head ; and in Malory's S eventh Book, previously quoted, we find GarethT Gawam's brother, arriving at the castle of his lady, Dame Liones. During the night he is attacked by a knight in armour, and strikes off his head. The knight is healed by an ointment applied by the damsel Linet, and returning the following night, fights again with Gareth, is again beheaded and restored to life by the same means. The story seems to lack point, and both it and the Carle of Carlile incident are probably reminiscences of the ' Green Knight ' legend. But to all appearance the oldest version now accessible is that of the Fled Bricrend (Bricriu's Feast), an Irish tale preserved in mss. written towards the end of the eleventh or beginning of the twelfth century, but representing a GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT 93 tradition considerably older, and showing no trace of Christianity.^ The story there given is as follows : — The three heroes, Cuchulinn, Lodgair^, and Conall, dispute as to which of them is entitled to the chief place and 'portion of the hero' at the feast. The king, Conchobar, declines to decide the question himself, and after appealing to several judges, they are finally referred to the giant Uath Mac Denomain, who dwells near a lake. They seek the giant, and submit the questions to him. He promises a decision if they, on their part, will observe a certain preliminary condition — which they undertake to do. This proves to be of the nature of a bargain — ' Whoever of you says Uath will cut off my head to-day, and allow me to cut off his to-morrow, to him shall belong " the portion of the hero." ' Loegair^ and Conall either refuse to submit to the test, or having cut off the giant's head fly without waiting for the return blow, there appear to be two versions — Cuchulinn, on the contrary, declares himself willing to submit to the test. Uath, giving his axe to Cuchulinn, lays his head on a stone, the hero smites it from the body, and the giant, clasping it to his breast, springs into the lake. The next morning he reappears, whole as before. Cuchulinn pre- sents his neck to the axe. The giant makes three feints at striking him, and pronounces that he has fulfilled the con- ditions, and is alone entitled to ' the portion of the hero.' The versions of Irish sagas preserved in the eleventh- and twelfth-century mss. seem not infrequently to contain • doublets ' of the same incident, and thus at the conclusion ' This account is taken from the notes to M. G. Paris's study on ' Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, '.Z?w/. Litt., xxx. p. 77. Cf. for a detailed summary of the tale, Zimmer, Kelt Studien, v. 7 94 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN of the Fled Bricrend the incident occurs again, in a frag- mentary form in the oldest ms. (the Book of the Dun Cow), but complete in a later MS. from which it has been translated by Professor Kuno Meyer.^ This version differs from the one given above in a manner important for our inquiry. The stranger, a gigantic figure, carrying axe and block, arrives at the court of Conchobar during the absence of the three heroes, Cuchulinn, Conall, and Loegaire. He excludes the king, and his councillor Fergus, from his challenge, but directs it to all the other heroes. The terms agree with the earlier version. The first who accepts is Munremar, who smites off the stranger's head ; he takes it up, and departs with it in his hand. The following night he returns, but Munremar does not appear to fulfil his part of the bargain. The chief heroes are, however, present, and declare their readiness to accept the challenge. Loegaird and Conall follow Munremar's example in evading the fulfilment of their pledge ; Cuchulinn, as before, comes triumphantly through the ordeal. The giant only strikes him once, with the blunt edge of his axe, and proclaims him the chief hero of Ulster. He likewise reveals his own identity ; he is Curoi Mac Daire, the famous Munster warrior and magician, to whom the settlement of the supremacy of the Ulster champions had been remitted by Ailill and Medbh, whom Conchobar had first chosen as judges of the matter. It will be seen here that the conditions of the test resemble more closely those of Diu Krtne and La Mule sans Frein ; but the three blows of the oldest Irish ms. are only found in the English version. The story is then an exceedingly old one, and the first ^ Cf. Revue Celiique, vol. xiv. p. 455. GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT 95 recorded hero with whom it is connected is the Ultonian hero Cuchulinn. We have already noted the many striking resemblances between this hero and Gawain; it seems therefore, prima fade, likely that if the story were connected with one of the knights of the Arthurian cycle, it would be with that one who is admittedly of Celtic origin, and more- over already connected with Cuchulinn j and when we examine the stories as they have descended to us, we find that the three versions ascribing the adventure to Gawain undetiiably present more archaic features than either of the remaining tjyo — two out of these three giving the challenge in the same terms as in the Irish stories ; in one, the Mule sans Frein, the opponent of the hero is a giant, while in the Green Knight he is of gigantic size, thus again recalling the primitive version. Further, it is significant that in the two remaining versions the hero is in one instance a young knight of whom little or nothing is known, but who is here said to be Arthur's nephew; in the other, the very knight who, as we saw in the last chapter, gradually superseded Gawain, i.e. Lancelot. But so much has been claimed for the Carados version, which, as we said above, has been held to be the source of the Enghsh poem, that it cannot fairly be put on one side without a careful examination of the reasons for so rejecting it. As a point in favour of its priority it has been held that the close relationship between magician and hero, there existing, represents a feature of real antiquity which has dropped out, even of the Irish story. The father of Cuchulinn, the primitive hero of the adventure, was not merely a god, but also one of the Tuatha de Danann, a god turned magician. 96 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN This is true so far as it goes, but the point for us is, Was the giant who tested the valour of the Ultonian hero represented in any version as being that hero's father ? If he were, no trace of it has come down to us, and it seems creating unnecessary confusion to postulate such a lost version, when, as we hope to show, the evidence all points to a much simpler solution. If it be true that Cuchulinn was the son of a magician, it is also quite as true that he married a magician's daughter. The real question seems to be. Which of the two characters does this weird enchanter of the Green Knight story represent — the hero's father or his father-in-law, the lord of the Chateau Merveil ? On this point the Diu Kr6ne version, which, as we have seen, agrees in the terms of the challenge with the Fled Bricrend, and possesses some specially archaic features, is very explicit — the magician is Lord of the Magic Castle, abductor of King Arthur's mother, and uncle to the lady whom Gawain eventually marries. Nor are indications of this lacking even in the Carados version. The story there told of the liaison between the mother of the hero and the enchanter closely resembles the account of the loves of Klingsor, lord of the Chiteau Merveil, and Iblis, wife of the king of Sicily, as related by Wolfram.^ The English poem, as we noted in a preceding chapter, seems also to have retained a hint of this, in the relations between Gawain and the wife of the knight-magician, who exerts all her fascinations to induce the hero to make love to her. The Carle of Carlile story, which relates how Gawain struck off the Carle's head, thus freeing him from ^ Cf. Parzival, Book xiii. verses 895-910. See also notes to English translation oi Parzival, vol. ii. p, 213. GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT 97 enchantment, and wedded his daughter, belongs to the same group, and adds its testimony to strengthen the suggested identification. 1 But if the magician of the story was originally the lord of the Chiteau Merveil, then we have, I think, a clear in- dication of how the story first came to be connected with Gawain : it was one of the tests he had to undergo in order to prove himself a worthy mate for the enchanter's daughter. ' Connected with Cuchulinn, the point of the story was clear and definite ; it was no mere vague, chance adventure ; there was something to be won by submitting to the ordeal. Why transfer this, among all Cuchulinn's innumerable feats, to Gawain, unless he, too, was to be tested for a definite purpose? This original motif of the story has dropped out, but the idea' that the trial was designed as a special test of Gawain's vaffir still survives. And, if this was really the original meaning of the story, I do not think it is difficult to see how the magician came in the French poem, and in that alone, to be represented as the hero's father. The version of the story known to the poet had lost the lady, for whose sake the feat was under- taken, altogether. There is no trace of the magician's ^ Having nothing but an abstract of La Mule sans Frein before me, I cannot tell whether there the giant who tests Gawain's valour is in any way connected with the lady on whose behalf he rides on his quest. If any scholar familiar with the original could supply information on this important point I should be very grateful. It is noteworthy, in connection with the suggestion thrown out in the two preceding paragraphs, that a love-adventure between Cuchulinn and Blathnaid, wife of Curoi, was one of the most famous love-stories of ancient Ireland. The Ulster hero is at first overcome and im- prisoned by the Munster champion, but, thanks to Blaithnaid'shelp, he ultimately succeeds in killing the husband and carrying off the wife. O 98 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN daughter here surviving. At the same time it is possible that the idea of a near relationship between magician and hero still lingered, and the author, either of the Carados version, or of its source, accounted for this relationship in a manner accordant with the story he already knew of the enchanter's liaison with a queen. If we reject this, which seems an easy and natural solution, and prefer to consider the French story as a genuine survival of the connection between the Ultonian hero and his supernatural father, then. we must postulate, (a) the existence of a hypothetical original, differing in at least one important point from the Fled Bricrend story, (b) that this original descended by a different line than that of the Gawain versions, where the Magicians Lord of the Magic Castle, and the hero's father-in-law. Now we are tolerably certain that this was not the case, for not only is there a similar story told of the enchanter in the French poem to that told of the Lord of the Castle, but the hero is Arthur's nephew, i.e. the tale has been affected by the Gawain versions. In estimating the relative value of the versions, as repre- sentatives of the original form, it is interesting to note that they fall apparently into two classes, in one of which the magician seeks the hero, and the scene passes at Arthur's court, in the other the hero goes to find the magician (or meets him accidentally), and the adventure falls out at the castle of the latter. Now this variation of form may correspond to the two versions of the Fled Bricrend, in one of which Cuchulinn seeks the giant in his home, in the other the giant comes to Conchobar's court, or it may be due to the growing popularity of the Arthurian legend, which encouraged the GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT 99 placing of such adventures in the brilliant frame provided by the famous court. If the former were the case we should expect to find very little difference in detail and character between the two groups. As a matter of fact, those which have kept the visit to the magician offer, as a rule, much more archaic features, though we must except from this rule the prose Perceval. The oldest form of the story may therefore be said to be represented by the Book of the Dun Cow version of the Fled Bricrend, Diu Krdne and La Mule sans Frein ; in these three cases the hero visits the magician, and the blows are given on succeeding days. The Green Knight poem, which represents the magician seeking Gawain at Arthur's court, and Gawain visiting the magician for the return blow, is an ingenious combination of the two forms, — the only version we possess which does attempt to combine them. The introduction of a year's interval between the two strokes is probably due to this variation, which necessitated a double journey, on the part of the magician and on that of the hero. The author of the Green Knight, or his source (probably his source), was either the first to make the magician visit Arthur's court (if due to the influence of the Arthurian legend), or already knew two forms of the story. The original author of the Carados version, on the other hand, only knew one, and that not the oldest form. So he never suggests the visit of the hero to the magician, and keeps the year's interval be- tween the blows, for which, in his case, there was no need, as they were to be given on the same spot. The challenger might just as well have returned the next day, as he does in the Fled Bricrend continuation, which seems to show that the visit to the court was not due to a knowledge of that early variant. loo THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Further, the knight in the French poem is armed with a sword, not with an axe, which was undoubtedly the original weapon ; he replaces his head on his shoulders, instead of going off with it in his hand, a touch which adds much to the weird horror of the original story ; finally, and this is the most decisive proof of all, the return blows are entirely omitted, so the hero is spared the real and crowning test of his valour, a test which, unless we greatly mistake, was the raison d!Hre of the whole story. On all these grounds there seems little doubt that the story, as told by Chretien's continuator, represents a very late, and eminently unsatis- factory, version of this popular adventure. 'Y:\i'e. Perceval or Lancelot version, on the other hapd, though manifestly late, is much better motived. There is a real test of the hero's courage in his returning after a year's interval to face what is, practically, certain death ; nor is he spared the ordeal of the return blows. But the fact that the challenger is no magician, but is really slain, shows conclusively that the author had only a late and con- fused form of the story before him. So far as we can tell, taking the Irish story as our basis, the Diu Krone and Mulejans Frein versions are the oldest, the Lancelot the youngest of the series. The Green Knight and the Carados versions come in between them, and the English poem is certainly the older of these two. This, of course, would practically settle the point of the identity of the original hero, did not the fact that the feat belongs to the Cuchulinn-Gawain parallels place it beyond doubt. It is Gawain and 'not Lancelot nor another' to whom it should rightfully be ascribed. There is one interesting feature in the story, which hitherto does not appear to have attracted much attention, GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT roi viz. the lace which the wife of the Green Knight bestows upon Gawain, and which has the power of conferring invulnerability on its wearer. In I)iu KrS ne, too, we find Gawain in possession of a magic girdle, wrought by a fairy, which also has the power of preserving the wearer from harm. Gawain apparently wins it to give to Guine- vere; but the story is confused, and it is evident from numerous allusions in the poem that he himself retains, if not the girdle itself, the stone in which its magic power resides, and which is eventually won from him by a trick. We find the girdle again in the Wigalois, when a knight appears with it at the Court, offering it as a gift to Guinevere ; bidding her, if she will not accept it, to send a knight to fight with him. Guinevere at first takes the girdle, but the following day, by Gawain's advice, returns it. One after another, the stranger overthrows all Arthur's champions. Finally, Gawain himself is overcome, and forced to ride with the new comer to his own land. On the way the knight gives the girdle to Gawain. This hero weds the niece of the king of the land (as we saw in chapter vii.), and it is because he has parted with this girdle, which is enchanted, to his wife, that he cannot find his way back to her.^ The story is not very clear, but the point of importance for us is that here again we find this hero possessed of a magic girdle. Now CuchuUnn als o had such a girdle, and scholars have seen in the powers Conferred by it a connection with the invulnerability generally ascribed to the northern hero Siegfried. It seems therefore not unlikely that this feature, preserved only in the English poem, may also be referred ' Cf. Dr. Schofield's abstract of the poem Libeaus Descomts, Studies, P- 235- 102 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN to an early Celtic source. In any case it is undoubtedly interesting, and seems to demand closer examination. On the whole, the adventure which we have discussed in this chapter stands on a different footing to that which we studied in the preceding. There, the conclusion seemed to be that, though there was a strong body of evidence in favour of Gawain as the original hero, yet that that evidence was not of a character to lead us to conclude that the story need necessarily have formed part of the original Gawain legend. Here it is otherwise. There is practically no doubt that, as connected with Arthurian legend, it was Gawain, and Gawain alone, who was the hero of the adventure. The Celtic parallels are strong evidence for an early date,Fand in more than one version we find traces of a connection with the adventure which demonstrably formed part of the primi- tive Gawain story, i.e. the CMteau Merveil episode. Taking ' all these points into consideration, there seems strong grounds for concluding that in the stories classed under : the heading of this chapter we have a genuine survival of a feat which formed part of the very earliest adventures ! attributed to the hero, — if we mistake not, one of the special \ deeds of valour by which he won the favour and the hand ' of his ' other-world ' bride. 'V CHAPTER X THE LEGEND IN MALORY Importance of Malory's version as drawn from all the principal branches of Arthurian literature — ^Testimony of each section to early Perceval- Gawain story — Passages in illustration — Their bearing on the relations between ChrStien and Wolfram — Concluding summary of results deduced from these Studies. In concluding these Studies it may be interesting to note the various passages in Malory's compilation, which, drawn as they are from widely differing sources, seem to indicate a very general knowledge of the legend as related by Chretien and Wolfram. Some of these passages have already been noted, but it will be useful to give them more fully, and also in a collected form. Thus, we have noted (chapter v.) that t he ad ven- tvireoi a knight reac hing an island , ruled over by-a ■.queen, vanquishing the knight w ho defend s the island , and then fi ndlHg ^lC^^'^ pnnTpg]lgj_^r> take his place till he, in his tuTHj^ be vanquished, ascribed to Gawam in the_^ggiSf:f)^ of MSrau0r'ks'-FSfTlsi£i^KSInLM^S^ ZMs(^^ toJB alaBr ""TCspecial detail in this adventure is that the conflict is watched by the ladies of the castle : ' thenne Balyn looked up to the castle and saw the towres stand full of ladyes.' This detail seems to connect the conflict with that fought ^ Morte cC Arthur, Book ii. chap. 1 8. 104 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN by Gawain before the Chiteau Merveil;^ the fact that the ladies in the castle are spectators of the jousts ridden with- out is strongly emphasised in the Parzival. Again, Malory ^ gives an acc ount of how Gawayne, Uwayne, and Marhaus, riding together, come to_ _the- C^^^^I^Isiraunge mieniures- 'In this country sayd syr Marhaus cam neuer knyghte syn it was crystened / but he fonde straunge auentures / and soo they rode / and cam in to a depe valey ful of stones / and ther by they sawe a fayr streme of water / aboue ther by was the hede of the streme fa fayr fontayne / and thre damoysels syttynge therby /. And thenne they rode to them / and eyther salewed other / and the eldest had a garland of gold aboute her hede / and she was thre score wynter of age / or more and her here was whyte vnder the garland / The second damoysel was of thyrtty wynter of age with a serkelet of gold aboute her hede / The thyrd damoysel was but xv yere of age / and a garland Lv j)f flowres aboute her hede/.' Professor Rhys^ compares these ladies with the well- maidens mentioned in the introduction to the Conie del Graal — but surely they are no other than the three queens of the Chateau Merveil ? Age and appearance correspond ' Cf. Parzival, Books x. verses 979-84, xii. 430-2, 470-3, xiii. 165- 171. Dr. Oskar Sommer has already suggested that when the stories of Balan and of Gawain are closely investigated, the two heroes will be found to be connected with each other. The fact that the crowning incident of the former story is the fight between Balan and his brother Balin, in which the two, unknowing, mortally wound each other, may therefore lend aid to the hypothesis above advanced, i.e. that such a conflict with a near relative was part of the early Gawain story. ' Morte ^Arthur, Book iv. chap. 19. ' Cf. Arthurian Studies, chap. xii. THE LEGEND IN MALORY 105 exactly.! Chretien especially mentions thejwhite_hair_of J he elde st queen. Their position by a fountain, at the head of a rough and rugged ravine, recalls the deep ravine with river running through it, which Gawain has to cross to gather the garland for his Proud Lady — while the ' Country of straunge aventures ' = Terre Mdrveik, as the land is called in the Parzival, where we also read, gar dventiure ist al diz lant? This Fourth Book of Malory is _dgY pted specially tQ . the adventures "or~Gawam7~thoi^ other knights are introduced. Both this and the Second Book are taken from the Merlin Romance in its extended form, viz., the ' Ordinary ' Merlin and the Suite de Merlin. The adventure of Sir Bors in the Grail Castle* — ' Ande thenne Syre Bors layd hym doune to reste / and thenne he herd and felt moche noyse in that chamber / — shot of arowes and of quarels soo thick that he merveylled / and many felle upon hym and hurt hym in the bare places / and thenne — cam in an hydous lyon,' etc., is of course Gawain's adventures in the * Lit Merveil.' Malory's source here is the prose Lancelot. So in Book xiii. chap, y, where Gawain is the first of all thejayghtjjoj^owjiii^ — a feature not at all in accordance with his general char- acter in this romance — we recall the fact (of which this is doubtless a reminiscence) that in the earliest versions it was Gawain and Perceval alo?ie who were represented as undertaking the quest. But the most interesting proof of the survival of the ^ Conte del Graal, Potvin, vol. iii., verses 9273, 9475. "^ Cf. Parzival, Books xi. 126, x. 1360. ' Morte c^ Arthur, Book xi. chap. 5. io6 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN early version, and seemingly a decisive one for the estab- lishing of the mutual independence of the French and German poems, is found in Book xiv. chapter i (taken from the Queste), where Perceval comes to a hermitage inhabited by a female recluse. He kneels down before the window, and the recluse opens it, and talks to him through it — finally revealing herself as Perceval's aunt. Now, an exact parallel to this incident is found in the Parzival (Book ix. verses 65 et seq.), where the hero arrives at a hermitage in a forest, and finds it inhabited by a maiden ; he speaks to her through the window, she recognises him, and finally reveals herself as his cousin Sigune. Chretien, on the contrary, knows nothing of a.nyfemak recluse related to Perceval. The hermit is his uncle, as he is elsewhere. The Queste also gives Perceval a sister of a holy and 'devoted' life. The question is. How did this tradition arise? There is nothing in Chretien's poem to account for it ; there is no reason to believe that the writer of the Queste knew the Parzival; and yet it is clearly evident that Walter Map (if it really was he who wrote the Queste) and Wolfram von Eschenbach were on this point both in possession of a substantially identical tradition. The con- clusion seems certain, viz., that there was a French version of the Perceval, and (as the incidents referred to previously would indicate) of the Gawain story, agreeingwith Chretien's version in the main, but differing in detail. That the author of the Queste knew the old Perceval story seems quite clear ; the aunt was queen of the ' Waste Lands ' — a name which recalls ' la gaste forest Soltaine ' (Soltane) of Chretien and Wolfram. Perceval's mother THE LEGEND IN MALORY 107 dies of sorrow at his departure, as in both these ver- sions. The fact that when Perceval in the Queste reaches the castle of Carbonec (the Grail Castle) he sees through a grating an aged man upon a bed, reminds us that in the Parzival he sees, through a doorway, the maimed king's father : An eine spanhette er sack in einer kemen&ten i si ndh in zuo getdten den alien schoensten alien Man des er kiinde ie gewan, ich mages wol sprechen ane guft er was nock grawer dan der tuft^ Whereas in Chretien he does not see the Fisher King's old father at all. And this impression is borne out by other references to the original story,^ e.g. in a passage, found both in the prose Lancelot and the Tristan, we are told how on Per- ' ceval's arrival at court he is seated among the least renowned knights, when one of the queen's maids, ' who has never said a word, suddenly begins to cry out, ' Sergent de notre Seigneur ihesucrist vierge et net, viens te seoir au siege de la table ronde empres le siege perilleux' — and taking Perceval by the hand, leads him to the seat. Dr. Sommer^ connects this incident with Chretien, saying ' Cf. Parzival, Book v., verses 504 «' ■?«?■• ' and lo 1 thro' the open door. Within another chamber, on a folding couch he saw The fairest of old men ancient whom ever his eyes had seen, Greywas he as mists of morning — nor o'er rash is the tale, I ween.' ^ Morle d' Arthur, Book x. chap. 23. ^ Cf, Sources of Malory, p. 199. io8 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN that it occurs in his poem, but this is a mistake. Chretien knows of the damsel who has never laughed, but nothing of a dumb person, knight or maiden. Wolfram, on the other hand, beside the laughing damsel, Kunnewaare, has a knight, Antanor, who has sworn never to speak till the damsel laughs, and is therefore called ' the Silent.' Doubt- less there was a tradition of a dumb person speaking known to the writers of the prose romance, but they did not get it from Chretien.^ The Welsh Peredur has two dwarfs who have not spoken for a year. The feature of Kay having mocked at Perceval on his first appearance at court is also preserved by Malory, being referred to in Book xi. chapter 12, drawn. Dr. Sommer states, at second- hand from the prose Lancelot. In Malory's Third Book, the source of which is the Suite de Merlin, we are told how King Pellinore, Perceval's father, riding on a quest, meets a lady with a wounded knight in her arms. She beseeches his aid, which he, eager to achieve his quest, delays to give. The knight dies, and the lady slays herself for grief. She is Pellinore's own daughter, and, therefore, Perceval's sister. This can hardly be other than a reminiscence of Perceval's cousin, nameless in Chretien, Sigune in Wolfram, whom he meets under similar circumstances. The special interest of such passages as are here given from Malory lies in the fact that this work is avowedly a compilation drawn from all the principal branches of the Arthurian cycle— the Merlin, the Lancelot, the Tristan, and the Queste. Now, as we have seen, the references to the Gawain and Perceval legend, as related by Chretien and Wolfram, are not confined to any one of these branches, 1 The fool and his companion, chastised by Kay, are not dumb. THE LEGEND IN MALORY 109 but are found in books drawn from all. The legitimate conclusion is that this form of the story was early and widely known ; and, although overlaid by later accretions, had left so deep an impress on the traditional conception of these two heroes as to influence, more or less strongly, every version that has descended to us. If not the original legends, they must certainly represent a very early and widely known version of the stories. Further, it appears that in the case of some of the most striking parallels the agreement is with the German rather than with the French poem. We cannot believe that the writers of the different prose romances knew the Parzival, which, popular as it undoubtedly was in its own land, exercised no influence outside Germany. We are there- ' fore led to the conclusion that side by side with Chretien's version of the story of these early Arthurian heroes there existed another, deriving from a source identical with, or analogous to, that of the French poet, but apparently fuller in detail. "^ That Chretien's poem was not the original fount of the Perceval-Gawain story we know. Are we necessarily bound to beheve that no eyes but his ever saw the book lent to him by the Count of Flanders ? — that he possessed an entire monopoly of the original source ? In Arthurian criticism hitherto there has been far too much of what may be called the ' Chretien plus Imagina- tion ' theory, i.e. that theory which attributes any episode resembling an episode in Chretien to that poet as source — explaining all variations of detail, however important, to the imagination of the borrower. The story of the Green Knight, which we discussed in the last chapter, is a case in point. That the influence exercised by Chretien's works 1 no THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN in the extension and development of the Arthurian legend was unequalled by those of any other writer may be freely admitted, but the sources used by Chretien also went for something in that development; and we make a grave mistake when we pursue our researches as far back as the French poet, and no further. Thus, instead of setting the Parzival outside the range of our inquiries, as being a mere replica of the more widely known Perceval, we shall do better to examine it side by side with the French poem as bearing independent testimony to a parallel stream of French tradition. Our ground of examination will become thereby both wider and stronger. What was said in the opening chapter may with pro- priety be repeated here on the closing page. It is only by examining singly and in detail the stories of each of the knights who formed the court of the hero. King Arthur, that we can hope to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion as to the growth and development of this important cycle. These Studies have attempted to at least clear the ground for such an examination of the Gawain legend, and though necessarily partial, for so wide a field cannot all be explored at a first attempt, it may, I think, be claimed that we have arrived at certain definite and helpful results. In the first place, the parallel between Cuchulinn and Gawain has proved to be no mere accidental resemblance, confined to perhaps an isolated adventure, but a substantial thread, running more or less persistently through the whole series of studies, and meeting us, as in the case of the magic girdle, sometimes in unexpected places. And even when the parallel with the Ultonian hero did not appear, other Celtic evidence, as in the case of the Island of THE LEGEND IN MALORY iii Women and TTie Marriage of Syr Gawayne, was amply forthcoming. That the ultimate source of the Gawain story was Celtic there can scarcely be further doubt. We have thus been enabled to demonstrate that one special adventure, with strongly marked 'other-world' features, formed a very early part of his story, and was on the whole more widely known in connection with him than was any other adventure. Into the framework offered by this story it seems pro- bable that other incidents, now apparently detached, ori- ginally fitted. The Green Knight story is a case in point ; not improbably the Marriage incident may have once done so. This framework, the achiev ement of a series of feats in order^towin thejbiandof a supernatural bride, was eriim^ ently elastic; it would be quite poSiBle ioSTany early singer of Gawain's deeds to lengthen the roll of the hero's exploits by the introduction of feats taken from varying sources. May it not be that in the theory here suggested we have, not only a well-attested basis from which to con- tinue our investigation, but also an explanation of the crowded and conflicting nature of the tradition which has gathered round the name of King Arthur's famous nephew ? INDEX Abbot of Glastonbury, 71. /Estiva Regis (Somerset), 71. Agravain, lo, S9- Agueriesse. See Agravain. Affe, 64 n. Ailill, 94. Amurfina, wife of Gawain, 47 ; ? same as I'Orgueilleuse de Logres, 48,90. Antanor, the Silent, 108. Anturs of Arthur, 75 «. Art, 60 «. Arthur, legend of, 1-6 ; French, German, and English treatment, 2 seq. ; Malory, 2 ; Tennyson, 2 ; Historical, 3-4 ; Comes Britannias, 4 ; Mythical, 4 ; Arthurian Knights — Gawain, 5-6 ; Gift of Excalibur to Gawain, 16; not as a rule rescuer of ladies, but slayer of monsters, 72; Development of hero, 78. Artusius. See Arthur. Askalon, 20, 47. Avalon, Abode of the Dead, 34. Balan Compare Gawain, 39, 103. Balin (also Balyn), 103, 104 n. Ban, King, father of Lancelot, 82. Beaumains, Gareth, 63. Bene, 63, Benoyc, Kingdom of Ban, 82. Bernlak de Hautdesert, name of Green Knight, 88. Blancemal, 46. Blathnaid, Wifeof Curoi, 97 ». Bleeding Lance, 20. Bors, Sir, 108. Bran, Voyage of, 37, 38, 41, 46. Brandelidelein, 23, Brandalis' sister. Mother of Gawain's sons, 55. Branstock, (Sword of.) Compare with Excalibur, 16. Bricriu's Feast. See Fled Bricrend. Caladbolg. See Excalibur. Caledvwlch. See Excalibur. Calibumus. See Excalibur. Calvano. See Gawain. Camelot, 86. Caradoc de Lancarvan, 71. Carados, 88, 89, 95, 96, 99. Carbonec. See Grail Castle. Carduino, 56, 57, 59. Carle of Carlile, 28, 51 ; compare with Green Knight, 92, 96. Castle, Abode of the Dead, 34, 42 ; magic, see Chateau Mervil. Caxton, 3. Chateau Merveil, 19, 21, 22, 24; chapter v. , 40, 41, 47, 50, 83, 96, 97, 98, 102, 104. Chaucer, 39. Chevalier au Lion, 9 n, 67, 69. Chevalier de la Charrette, 28, chap- ter viii. Chretien de Troyes, 2 ; Earliest record of Gawain, 8, 9 «., 11, 16, chapter iii. , 22, 24, 26, 32, 33, 36, 46. 47. S3. 63. 67, 68, 73, 79, 88, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109. Cimetiire Perilleux, 27, 28. Clarions, Firstowner of Gringalet,i4. Comes Brittannias. See Arthur. Conall, 60, 93. Conchobar, uncle of Cuchulinn, 29, 30. 47. SI. 64 «. 93. 97. 98. H 114 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Cond, 37. Conlaoch, 64 n. Connla, 37, 41, 46. Cuchulinn, compared with Ga- wain, 17 ; Wooing of Emer, 28, 30, 47, sii 52- Compared with Finn, 60, 64 and »., 77, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, loi, no. Curoi, 97 n. Curoi Mac Dair^, 94. DXire Domtech, father of the Lugaids, 49. Dechtire, mother of Cuchulinn, 30, 47. See Demoiselle du Gautdestroit. Orgeluse. Diarmaid, flight with Grainne,77,78. Diu Kr6ne, 20 n. , 27, 28, 36, 37, 42, 45, 47, 48, 68, 72, 79, 81, go, 91, 94, 96, 99, 100, lOI. Dover Castle, 3. Dwarf (hideous), 21 ; (dumb), 108. Emer, wooing by Cuchulinn, 28, 29, 48. Erec, IS, 4S, 73- Escalibur. See Excalibur. Escavalon. See Askalon. Excalibur, solar hero, 15, compare with Sword of Branstock, 16, Zlmraer, on, 16, won from King Ripn, 17 ; Gift of Lady of Lake, 17 ; three distinct swords, 17. Falerin, 68, 73. Fair Unknown, chap. VII. , 55, 59, 61, 63. Fergus, councillor to Conchobar, 94. Feud Quest, 42. Fier-baiser, 57. Finn. Compare with Perceval and Gyngalyn, 60, 75 n., 77, 78. Fled Bricrend, 92 seq. , 96, 98, 99. Florence (Sir), son of Gawain, SS- Flori, mother of Gawam s son, 46, 47- Forei, 47. Forgall the Wily, father of Emer, 29, 48. Freyr, his steed, 15. Gaheris, 10. Galahad, 5, 7, 16, 45 »., 46, 82. Galvanus. See Gawain. Gandtn, 69. Gansguoter, uncle of Amurfina, 47, 90, 91. Gareth, 9, 10 ; (or Beaumains), 63, 92. Gasozein, 68. Gautier de Doulens, 12, 50, 88. Gauvain. See Gawain. Gauvain et 1' .chiquier, 28. Gawain, previous to Malory, more fully represented in English litera- ture than Arthur, 2 ; Skull at Dover Castle, 3, $-6; Different names, 7; close connection with Arthur, 8.; earliest mention and early ideal, later degeneration, 8 seq. ; Malory inconsistent, 9 ; compared with Tristan, 10 ; Ori- gin, II ; Characteristics and story, 12 seq. ; Variation of strength during day, 12; solar divinity, 13 ; steed, 14, 15 ; sword, 15, 16, 17 ; Parallels with Cuchulinn, 17 (see also Cuchulinn) ; Perceval or ContedelGraaland Parzival, earli- est stories, 18 seq. ; Bleeding lance or Grail, 20 ; Le Chateau Merveil and Lit Merveil, 21 and 32 seq. ; Orgeluse, 22 ; Perilous Ford, 22 ; Vengeance de Raguidel and Cimeti^re Perilleux, 27; Water adventure, 32, 74 ; Magic Island, 34; in Fairyland, 39; compare with Balan, 39; his ghost, 39; not a Grail but a Bleeding-Lance Hero, 42 ; no special love story, 44 ; Maidens' Knight, 45 ; Son, SS, s? ; Fight with Gareth, 63 ; mythical, 65 ; Rescuer of Guine- vere, 72 seq. ■ Queen's knight, 75 ; compare with Lancelot, 76, 79, 82; Adventure with Green Knight, chap. IX. ; quest of Holy Grail, 105. INDEX "5 Gawayne (Marriage of Syr), 28, 48, SO.S3- •^— (Syr) and Grene Knyghte, chap. IX. Geoffrey of Monmouth, x. Geraint. See Erec. Gilbert, connection with Gringalet, Gingalet. See Gringalet. Girdle, also lace, 87, 101, no. Glastonbury, 3, 71, 74. Gottfried von Strassbourg, 2. Grail-bearer, 42; -Castle, 19, 20, 42,105,107; Conte del or Perceval, chap. iii. ; -Holy, 5. 10, 20 ; -legend of, 9 ; -quest, 24, 79, 106, 107, 108 ; -winner, 82. Grainne, flight with Diarmaid, 77, 78. Gramofianz. See Guiromelans. Grani, compared with Gringalet, 15. GreenKnight, 4S«.,si; Adventure vrith Gawain, chapter ix., English Poem, 85-88 ; named Bernlak de Hautdesert, 88; French version, 88-89; German, Diu Kr6ne, 90; French, compare with Carle of Carlile, 92 ; Fled Bricrend, oldest version, 92 ; Lace or magic girdle, loi. III. Gringalet, Steed of Gawain. 14, 15 ; Various spellings, 15 ; Merlin, on, 14; won from Clarions, 14; meaning lost, 15 ; only once in Welsh literature, 15; Professor Zimmer, on, 15, compare with Grani, 15, 21 ; theft of, 27. Guillaume d' Orange (Roman de), 39- Gumevere, 10, 67 seg., 73; carry- ing off and rescue, 71, 72, 75, 77. 78. Guingalet. See Grmgalet. Guingambr&il or Kingrimursel, 19, 20. Guinglain, 27, or Le Bel Inconnu, 46, s6. Gmromelans, 22, 23, 37, 62. Gwalchmai. See Gawain. Gyngalyn, son of Gawain, 51 ; story of, 56 «$■. ; called Beau-fis or Biel-fil, 57. Hartmann von Aue, 2, 9 n, 67, 69, 70, 73, 8o«., 83. Heinrich von dem Ttirlin, 20 n, 48, 53, 80. See also Diu Krdne. Hermodur, deliverance motif, 41. Hildebrand's lied, 63. Hucbown, 86. IBLIS, 96. Island, of the dead, 34, 52 ; magic, 38 ; of women, 36, 40, 45, 52, in, Isfllt (Queen), 45, 69, 76. Iwein, contest with Gawain, 9 ; in Fairyland, 39, 67. Karmente (Fairy), 39, 47. Kay, s, 23, 64, 68, 6g, 72 «. , 80 ». , 108 and n, Keincaled. See Gringalet. Kingrimursel (or Guingambrdsil), 19- Klingsor, 34, 96. Kondrie, 50. Kr6ne Diu. See Diu KrSne. Kunnewaare, the laughing Damsel, 108. Lace. See Girdle. Lady of Lake, connection with Excalibur, 16, 17. Lancelot, 5, 10, 38, 44, 65, 66 ». , 67, 68, 6g, 70 ; rescuer of Guine- vere, 72, 73; Queen's lover, 76, 77, 79; in Rigomer, 80; sup- planter of Gawain,8iandje?.; son of King Ban, 82 ; Green Knight, adventure, 91, 100, 105, 107, 108. Lanzelet. See Lancelot, Lavaine, 70, 73. Le Bel Inconnu. See Guinglain. Leborcham, female messenger of Conchobar, 50. Le Gringalet. See Gringalet, / Libeaus Desconus, 51, 55, 56, 63, 65 n., 66. Linet, 63, 92, Liones (Dame), 92, ii6 THE LEGEND OF SIR GAWAIN Lit Merveil, zi, 105. Livre d'Artus, 46. Loathly Lady, 51. Loathly Messenger, 19, 50. Lo^gair6, 93, 94. rOrgueilleuse de Logres. See Orgeluse. LiOrie (Fairy), 46. Lot, identical with Lug, 52- Level (Sir), son of Gawain, SS- Lug, father of Cuchulinn, 30, 47, 52. Lugaid Laigde (Macniad), 49. Lugaids, sons of D4ireDoimtech, 49. Macnaid. See Lugaid Laigde, 49. Maidens' Knight, 45. Malduc, 73. Malory, 2, 3 ; inconsistent with re- gard to Gawain, 9, 10, 13 ; 39, 40, SS, 63, 67, 70, 72, 79, 85, 86; great importance, chap. x. Map (Walter), io5. Marhaus, 104. Mark (King), 78. Medbh, 94. Meidelant (das), 37, 81. M^leagaunt (also Melwas), abduc- tion of Guinevere, 41, 67, 68, 69, 71, 73, 80 K., 83 n. Melians de Lys. See Milianz. Meljakanz. See Milianz. Meljanz von Lys. See Milianz, Melwas. See Mfleagaunt. M^raugis de Port les guez, 28, 39, 103. Meriaduc, 28. Merlin, 8, 9, 13, 14, 16 ; contest between Perceval and Gawain, 62, 63 ; 72. 75. 76, 79. loS. 108. Milianz, abductor of Guinevere, 80 n. Mordarette. See Mordred. Mordred, 10, 59, 77. Morgan le Fay, 88. Morris (William), 11. Morte d'Arthur. See Malory and Huchown. Mule sans Frein (la) Green Knight story, 90, 91, 94, 95, 97 and n., 99, 100. Munremar, 94, NiBELUNGENLIED, 34. Ninian (or Nimne), 54 n, ; compare Vivien. Odin, connection with Gringalet, 15- Oisin, 37, 41. Orgeluse, Gawain's chosen Lady, 22, 23, 27 n.f 28, 46. rOrgueilleuse de Logres, I'Orgueilleuse pucelle, 48, Ossianic cycle, 60, 65 »., 77. Parzival, 14, 18 seq., 23, 28, 34, 35, 40, 62, 76 »., 79, 80 «., 81, 96 «., 104 n„ 105, 106, 107, 109, no. Pearl, 86 ». Pelles (King), 83. Pellinore (Kmg), Perceval's father, 108. Perceval, 5, 13, chap. iii. 24, 42 ; compare with Gyngalyn, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 and «. ; Perceval Galahad, 82, 83; Green Knight story, 91 ; Quest of Holy Grail, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, no. Perceval li Gallois, 28. Percejrvelle (Sir/, 61. Peredur, 30, 50, 52, 61, 108. Perilous Ford, 22. Glen, 29. Pierre Bercheur, 28, 74. Plain of Ill-luck, 29. Pont de I'epfe, 69. de r^ve, 69. Proud Lady, 22, 28. Reductorium Morale, 28, 74. Renouart, 39. Rigomer, references to Gawain, 27, 46; Lancelot, 80. Rion (King), Excalibur won from, 16, 17. Roland in Fairyland, 39. Roman de Guillaume, 39. Ross, 8. INDEX 117 Saigremor, 27, 39, 47. Scathach, 29. St. Gildas, 71. Siegfried, 15, 34 n. ; comparison with Gawain, 38, 77, 101. Sigune, 106, 108. Sigurd, deliverance motif, 41. Sovereignty (the), 50. Svripdag, deliverance motif, 41. Swords, 15-17. TannhXuser, 41, 46. Tennyson, 2, 11, 54 »., 78. " Thidrek-saga, 34. Thomas the Rhymer, 41, 46. Tristan, 5, 10, 11, 38, 44, 76, 78, 79. 107, 108. Tuatha de Danann, 95. Uath Mac Denomain, 93. Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, 68, 73, 81, Ultonian Cycle. See Cuchulinn. Uwayne, 104. Vengeance de Raguidel, 27, 28. Venus, 46. Vita GildsB, 71. Vivien, 34 n. Voyage of Bran. See Bran. Walwein. See Gawain. Wigalois, 9, 46, 56, 58, loi. WiUiam of Malmesbury, 8. Wolfram von Eschenbacb, 2 ; chap, iii., 24, 32, 36, 37, 40, 41, 46, 47, 5°. 52. S3. 61. 63, 64, 90, 96, loi. Wooing of Emer, 28, 29, 48. INDEX OF AUTHORITIES Bartsch (K.), 14, GoUancz (I.), 86 n. Hahn (J. G. von), 59. Hartland (E. Sydney), 60. Lot (Ferd.), 55, 58, S9. 6S »• Madden (Sir F.), s. 6, 10, 16, 28 n., 39. 48 «., SI «•. 75 «•. 86, 91. Meyer (Prof. Kuno), 29, 37 n., 94. Nutt (Alfred), 4, 5, 28, 37 «., 49, 50, 54 M., 59, 6o«., 77. O'Grady (Standish Hayes), 77 n. Paris (M. Gaston), 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 28 »., 45, S3, 56 «., 68, 71, 73, 76, 80 and n. , 85, 89, 93 n. Philipot(E.), 65 ». Potvin (Ch.j, 12 »., 105. Rhys (Prof), 4, 45, 52, 70, and «., 72, 73, 104 n. 'Rajna (Signer), 8. Schofield (Dr.), 9 »., 46»., 55, 56 «., 58, 59, 65 »., 91 «., loi n. Sommer (Dr. Oskar), 4, 40, 62, 63, 63 n., 104 «,, 107, 108. Stokes (Whitley), 49 »., 75 «., 50. Strachey (Sir Ed.), 10. Zimmer (Prof.), s. 8, 14, iSi 16, 30, 53. 93 «• Printed by T. and A. Constable, Printers to Her Majesty at the Edinburgh University Press A LIST OF WORKS ON THE ARTHURIAN ROMANCE AND ON CELTIC LEGEND Published by DAVID NUTT in the Strand. 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