Psychology TN THE Schoolroom DEXTER A,YP G st R.JLIC*flC New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library LB1051.D C 5°2 n i898 VerSi,yLibrary n»f y chol °gy in the schoolroom, 3 1924 013 072 552 Qpri^ell University, ^dueatiopal |T\uscum, The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013072552 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLROOM With 215 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. OBJECT LESSONS FOR STANDARDS I., II., AND III. IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. BY A. H. GARLICK, B.A., AND T. F. G. DEXTER, B.A., B.Sc. With Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. BY A. H. GARLICK, B.A. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., LONDON, NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLROOM T. F. G. DEXTER, B.A., B.Sc. HEAD MASTER OF THE FINSBURY PUPIL TEACHERS* SCHOOL A. H. GARLICK, B.A. HEAD MASTER OF THE WOOLWICH PUPIL TEACHERS' SCHOOL Author of " A New Manual of Method," etc. Qorpell ilpiuersfty, ^dueatiogal /Tjuseum. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1898 PREFACE. Many students have little difficulty in mastering the general principles of the Science of Psy- chology, but experience considerable difficulty in applying those principles to the Art of Teaching ; and it is because special attention has been paid to the application of the subject that it is hoped that this book will be of some service, not , only to the student and young teacher, but also to teachers generally. It has been thought advisable to exclude polemical discussions, since they are believed to be out of place in this elementary book, which is an attempt to apply the laws of Mental and Moral Science to school work — to take the elements of Psychology into the Schoolroom. T. F. G. D. A. H. G. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology ... 1 CHAPTER II. The Three Phases of Mind 19 CHAPTER III. Attention 28 CHAPTER IV. Sensation; The Organic Senses; Taste and Smell . . 47 CHAPTER V. Perception and the Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing 57 CHAPTER VI. Observation 82 CHAPTER VII. The Development and Training of the Senses . . 97 CHAPTER VIII. Memory 110 CHAPTER IX. Imagination 140 CHAPTER X. Conception . . 148 CHAPTER XI. Judgment ■ I 62 CHAPTER XII. Reasoning 172 viii Contents. CHAPTER XIII. PAGE Apperception . . 183 CHAPTER XIV. An Attempt to Examine the Psychological Basis of the Kindergarten System . ... . 189 CHAPTER XV. The Feelings . 196 CHAPTER XVI. The Egoistic Feelings ... ... 214 CHAPTER XVII. The Social Feelings 240 CHAPTER XVIII. The Intellectual Sentiment ... . . 251 CHAPTER XIX. The ^Esthetic Sentiment . . .... 259 CHAPTER XX. The Moral Sentiment 267 CHAPTER XXI. The Will ... 280 CHAPTER XXII. Habit .... . 306 CHAPTER XXIII. Character 330 CHAPTER XXIV. Discipline . 367 Appendix 397 Index 407 PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLROOM. CHAPTER I. THE SCIENCES OF PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. We have all heard of Physiology and know that it is called a Science. We know too that Physiology deals with the functions of the various parts of the body. By casual observation men have learned some elementary facts regard- ing the working of the body, e.g., that the heart beats, that the lungs take in air, etc. Such knowledge is called Common Knowledge. But many errors exist in common knowledge ; thus, it is popularly supposed that the heart is on the left of the chest. Common Knowledge then needs correction. Again common knowledge does not go very far. Every one knows that the lungs take in air, but comparatively few understand what purposes are served by respiration. Common Knowledge then needs amplification and extension. Common Knowledge made more precise, more exten = sive and more systematic is called Science. We all know we have a something within us which feels, and thinks, and acts, and we call this something the Mind. Now we can study the mind in much the same way as we can study the body. We can begin with popular ideas about the mind, we can examine them, correct them, extend them, classify them, and arrive at a science which deals with the workings of the mind. This science is called Mental Science or Psychology. Thus we have : — Physiology. Psychology. The Science dealing with I The Science dealing with the working of the Body. the working of the Mind. 1 2 Psychology in the Schoolroom. CONSCIOUSNESS. A girl in class loses her colour; her head bends forward; she falls to the ground. She is fainting. Her breathing be- comes less regular and appears to cease. She has fainted. The teacher goes to her aid, but the girl does not see or hear her. Water is dashed on the girl's forehead, but she does not feel it. She is unconscious. Her mind is appa- rently not working. By-and-by a tremor passes over her, she opens her eyes, and gradually begins once more to feel and think. She is restored to consciousness, i.e., her mind once again performs its usual functions. Consciousness is the general name for all possible mental operations. " Consciousness is the word which expresses in the most general way the various manifestations of psychological life. It consists of a continuous current of sensations, ideas, volitions, feelings, etc." (Ribot.) Part of an ordinary definition consists in showing that the thing denned belongs to some larger class. But consciousness cannot be denned in this way, because there is no more general term under which it may be brought. Consciousness is a characteristic of the mind, just as extension is of matter. Consciousness is the ultimate fact of mental life. The term consciousness must not be confused with conscientiousness, a word having reference to the conscience, and not directly to conscious life. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY. We will now define psychology more accurately : — (1) Psychology is the Science of Consciousness. (2) Psychology is the Science which describes, clas- sifies and explains our mental operations. (3) Psychology is " our general knowledge of mind re- duced to an accurate and scientific form." (Sully.) Psychology is a natural science just as physiology and chemistry are natural sciences. The chemist resolves compounds into their elements, the anatomist dissects the body into its simple tissues, the psychologist " dissects " mental phenomena into elementary states of consciousness. The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 3 RELATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO TEACHING. A man to be a good physician must have among other things an accurate knowledge of the various operations of the body. Similarly one who is to be a good teacher must have among other things a sound knowledge of the opera- tions of the mind. What physiology is to the doctor psychology is to the teacher. But a profound psychologist need not be a good teacher. Psychology is a science ; teaching is an art. We learn an art by doing. No one can become a cricketer by merely reading books on the playing of cricket ; no one can become a teacher by merely reading works on psychology. The laws of psychology furnish many rules for teaching. A teacher who knows something of the science upon which the art of teaching is based will avoid many of the errors of a purely empirical method, and will teach with greater profit to his pupils and greater pleasure to himself than one who merely applies rule-of-thumb maxims, the reasons for which he does not understand. Psychology places the work of the teacher upon a rational and scientific basis. MEANS OF ACQUIRING A KNOWLEDGE OF MIND. I can study my own mind or I can study the minds of others. Hence there are two great methods : — I. The Subjective Method. — The study of my own mind, often called Introspection. II. The Objective Method. — The study of the minds of others. By subjective is meant anything belonging to or existing only in my mind ; by objective is meant anything else. THE SUBJECTIVE METHOD. The student examines his own states of consciousness in a series of " self-studies " or " subject-lessons." " Object- lessons give a direct knowledge of the matter-world, while subject-lessons give a direct knowledge of the mind-world." (Baldwin.) 4 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The peculiar difficulty of the method is the fact that the observer has, as it were, to split himself into two — to be both the observer and the observed. The peculiar defect of the method is the uncertainty and variability of the standard. Thje physicist refers everything to the gram, the metre and the second. These are absolute standards ; they mean the same to all scientists. But when one man reads a work on psychology he refers all the theories to his own mind ; when another reads the same work he refers all the theories to his own mind. Now, no two minds are the same ; that is, the standard of reference in each case is different ; hence what each understands is not the same. No two men think exactly the same things about the functions of the mind. Each thinker has to elabo- rate his own psychology. Just as no two men have ever seen the same rainbow, so no two men have ever thought out the same science of psychology. Still, what one man thinks is sufficiently like what another man thinks to form a basis of agreement for all ordinary purposes. THE OBJECTIVE METHOD. This easily divides itself into the Method of Observation and the Method of Experiment. A. Method of Observation. — Men give signs as to what their own mental states are. When I have observed the signs of others, and have examined my own mental states, 1 am better able to infer the mental states of others. The teacher's special work in this connection is to observe the working of the minds of children. The diseased minds of idiots, the poorly developed minds of savages, can be made subjects of study under the direct method of observation. I can also observe indirectly or through others by the study of biography and literature. B. Method of Experiment or Psycho-physics. — This is the newest branch of the objective method. It presupposes a knowledge of the nervous system, and endeavours to per- form experiments upon the mind in much the same way as The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 5 the physiologist performs experiments upon the body. The student is referred to p. 63 for an example of the experi- mental method. CHARACTERISTIC DEFECTS OF THE OBJECTIVE METHOD OF THE STUDY OF PSYCHOLOGY. We cannot study the minds of others directly. We can study only certain bodily signs which we assume to be mani- festations of certain mental states, and from those bodily signs we infer what the state of the mind is. Now we can- not be sure that these bodily signs are really caused by the supposed mental state. An actor can play light comedy when his heart is as heavy as lead. Then again there is always a tendency to project our own modes of feeling and thinking into the minds of others. The generous-minded man assumes that others are generous-minded too. The mean, spiteful man regards the actions of others as being as mean and spiteful as his own. Much bad reasoning regard- ing children comes about in this way. Adults are too apt to project their own minds into the minds of children. Psychological Importance of the Study of Children. The child is the chief concern of the teacher. Too many of us project a number of our own states of consciousness into the child, and then imagine that we know something of him. We want to get at what the child is, not what we think he is. At present " the child is but half discovered." Psychology points out to us the way to the mind of the child. We cannot hope to educate the child properly until we have found out what he really is. When we have done this as well as our finite powers allow us, psychology further points out to us the true method for the develop- ment of the mind of the child. The Peculiar Difficulties of the Study of the Minds of Children. 1. During the first period of existence the child is unable to speak, and is quite unable to perform acts of introspection. 2. Children are born actors. If they think they are 6 Psychology in the Schoolroom. being observed they act quite differently from what they do under ordinary circumstances. They love to seem wise, to prove themselves interesting, to imitate their elders. Con- sequently, if we are not careful we find ourselves observing not a child but a poor copy of a man. 3. Children are often bashful. They are afraid to tell their experiences for fear of being laughed at. Many childish experiences reach us only through the faulty mediam of adult memory. A Good Observer of Children should have : — 1. A lively memory of his own childhood, in order that he may be able to reproduce accurately the mental states of that period. 2. The gift of sympathy. It is quite possible to recall a mental state without entering into it, or sympathising with it. It is necessary to enter into the pleasures and pains of the child, to be mentally " born again " and " become as a little child." 3. A psychological training, in order that he maybe able to accurately gauge the results of his observations. DEFINITION OF MIND. I feel : I think : I will. These words express the main facts in my mental life. If I am asked what part of me feels and thinks and wills, I answer — the Mind. The Mind is then the feeling, thinking, willing part of me. More exactly, the Mind is that which manifests itself in our pro= cesses of knowing, of feeling and of willing. What Mind is in itself we do not know. We know only what it does. The terms soul, spirit, ego, self, subject, are sometimes used as synonymous with mind. Mind is contrasted with matter. Matter occupies space; its special quality is Extension. Mind does not occupy space, it is unextended ; its special property is Consciousness. Matter is something outside us ; it is objective. Mind is something within us; it is subjective. Mind has reference to the ego, to the self. Matter has reference to the non-ego, to the not-self. The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 7 Mind is often used in a much narrower sense. Thus we speak of a strong-minded woman, i.e., one of great will power, and of a man of great mind, i.e., one of unusual intellectual ability. CONNECTION BETWEEN MIND AND BODY. The body is the means of communication between the mind and the outside world. Through the body the mind acts upon the outside world ; through the body the outside world acts upon the mind. But the body is more than an intermediary between mind and matter. Between mind and body there is an intimate though mysterious interdependence. Mental activity lias as its concomitant some mode of physical activity. Hope, despair, joy, sorrow have their characteristic bodily signs. Then again mental activity is largely dependent on the special form of bodily activity. Thus, sensations are largely dependent on the physical state of their special organs. A cold in the nose temporarily deprives us of the sense of smell. The influence of body on mind is seen elsewhere than in sensation. Our acts of volition depend on the state of the muscles. A feat of strength impossible at the end of a day of toil is accomplished without difficulty after a night's rest. Even limited observation convinces us that mental vigour is largely dependent on bodily vigour. The healthy mind is one of the effects of the healthy body. The body is thus something more than a servant of the mind ; it is one of the determining factors of mental states. Hence — A Knowledge of the Nervous System is Necessary for the Comprehension of the Functions of the Mind. The part of the body most intimately connected with the mind is the brain. The brain is the chief part of the ner- vous system. Even a brief study of the nervous system will do something to help us to understand the working of the mind. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The Nervous System consists of two parts : the cerebro- spinal system and the sympathetic system. Psychology in the Schoolroom. Fig. i.— The Cekebro-Spinal Cavity and its Contents. , t, o, cerebrum ; c, cerebellum ; mo, medulla oblongata ; ms, spinal cord. The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 9 The Cerebro- Spinal System consists of: — (a) The Central Organs. — Cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and spinal cord. Their relative positions can be learned from Fig. 1. (b) The End Organs, situated in the sense organs, muscles, etc. (c) The Connecting Organs, joining the end organs with the central organs in two ways : — 1. As Afferent Nerves bearing impulses to the central organ from the end organs. 2. As Efferent Nerves bearing impulses from the central organ to the end organs. This arrangement is represented graphically in Fig. 2. Shd Organs Fig. 2. The end organs connected with afferent nerves are as a rule Sensory, those connected with efferent nerves are as a rule Motor in their functions (see p. IS). The Sympathetic System is situated on each side of the backbone or vertebral column. Branches from this system ramify to the heart, stomach, etc., and do much to control these organs. The sympathetic system is concerned more closely with our bodily than with our mental life, and the consideration of it need not detain us. 10 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Rudimentary Ideas of the Functions of Central, End and Connecting Organs. The sensory organ is especially fitted to receive certain impressions of the outside world. The impressions may be said to be generally conveyed to the end organ in the form of vibrations, which the End Organ transmits to the Afferent Nerve. The afferent nerve conveys these vibrations to the Central Organ. The central organ interprets these vibrations and sends vibrations along the Efferent Nerve to the other End Organ, which is set into action in some special way by these vibrations. Fig. 3.— Section of a Part of the Median Nerve (Human). Drawn as seen under a low magnifying power. (From Landois, after Eichhorst.) The Nervous Tissue of the cerebro-spinal system is of two kinds : — I. White Matter, consisting of Nerve Fibres. II. Grey Matter, consisting of Nerve Fibres and Nerve Cells. NERVES consist of white matter. A nerve in (say) the arm is a white-looking cord which appears to be of the same The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 11 structure throughout. The microscope, however, shows that it is composed of a large number of Nerve Fibres, each of which is capable of conveying vibrations. Fig. 3 shows a cross section of part of a Nerve. It contains six Nerve Bundles in whole or in part, and each nerve bundle shows the cut ends of numerous Nerve Fibres represented in the figure by minute circles with dots at their centres. The same nerve may contain both afferent and efferent nerve fibres. In Fig. 2 the afferent and efferent tracks are separated merely for the sake of greater clearness. Nerve Cells are minute, irregular bodies containing nuclei. (Fig. 4.) Fig. 4.— Nerve Cells from the Grey Matter of the Brain THE BRAIN is enclosed in the cranium or skull. It con- sists of several parts, the chief of which are the cerebrum, the cerebellum, the pons varolii and the medulla oblongata. (Fig. 5.) The Cerebrum, situated in the upper and front part of the cranium, consists of two hemispheres separated by a fissure. Its surface is much convoluted. The grey matter is external, the white internal. The cerebrum gives off twelve pairs of Cranial Nerves, of which the Olfactory (first pair), the Optic (second pair), the Auditory (eighth pair) and the Glossopharyngeal (ninth pair), are the most important from a psychological point of view. 12 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Functions. — The cerebrum is the seat of sensation, reasoning, emotion and volition. These powers would seem to reside in the grey matter. Proofs. (1) There is a general connection between the mental powers and the size and development of the cerebrum. The average white man has a larger and more fully devel- oped cerebrum than the average negro ; the negro a much larger cerebrum than the ape ; and generally the more intelligent the animal the larger and the more highly de- veloped the brain. Fig. 5. — The Human Brain, a, cerebrum ; B, cerebellum ; c, pons varolii ; d, medulla oblongata. The parts are representedas separated from one another something more than is natural so as to show their relation better. (2) Disease or injury of the cerebrum (particularly of the grey matter) leads to partial or complete suspension of the higher processes of mind. The Cerebellum or little brain consists of two hemi- spheres, and is situated below the hinder part of the cere- brum. The grey matter is external ; the arrangement of the The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 13 white matter is such that it presents a tree-like appearance when viewed in cross section. (Fig. 6.) Functions. — The regulation and co-ordination of muscu- lar movement. The cerebellum does not originate muscular movement ; that is one of the functions of the cerebrum. It is the servant of the cerebrum, and carries out in a methodical and systematic manner the behests of its master. Proof. — Disease of the cerebellum in man leads to a staggering gait and partial or total loss of the power of controlling the muscles. Fig. 6.— Section through the Cerebellum. Showing the peculiar arrangement of the white and grey matter, forming what is known as the arbor vita: (tree of life). The Medulla Oblongata is situated in the lowest part of the cranium, is pyramidal in shape, and may be regarded as a bulb or prolongation of the spinal cord. The grey matter is internal, the white external. Functions. (1) It is a conductor between the spinal cord and the cerebellum and cerebrum. (2) The Nerve Centres which it contains control respira- 14 Psychology in the Schoolroom. tion, circulation, swallowing, etc. It is thus a centre for reflex action, which however is better studied in connection with the spinal cord. Proofs. (1) All the nerve fibres from the cord to the brain proper and vice versa pass through the medulla oblongata. (2) Its destruction invariably results in instant death. (3) Moderate stimulation of the respiratory centre of the medulla leads to changes in respiration. Fig. 7.— Transverse Section of the Spinal Cord. 5 Fig. 8.— Roots of Spinal Nerves issuing from Cord. The Right Anterior Root has been Divided and Turned Upwards. THE SPINAL CORD is a column of nervous tissue filling the canal which runs through the greater part of the verte- bral column. It gives off thirty-one pairs of Spinal Nerves, which must be carefully distinguished from the cranial nerves (p. 11). Each nerve has two roots — an anterior root and a posterior one : the latter possesses a ganglion. A transverse section of the cord shows that the grey matter is arranged in the interior in two crescents (Fig. 7), the four horns of which communicate with the four roots which form a pair of spinal nerves. (Fig. 8.) The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 15 Functions of the Anterior and Posterior Roots.— If the posterior root of a spinal nerve communicating with the leg be irritated at the point marked 6 (Fig. 8) pain is felt in the leg and movement of the leg follows. It must be distinctly noted that the pain is felt, not at the point of irritation, not in the cord, but in that part of the periphery in which the fibres of the nerve terminate. The irritation of the nerve fibre causes its particles to vibrate, and those vibrations are carried by the nerve to the cord, and by the cord to the brain, which interprets these vibrations as coming from that spot (the leg) from which on previous occasions similar vibrations have come. If the anterior root be severed as at 5 (Fig. 8) and the posterior root be stimulated, pain is felt as before, but there is no movement. From these and similar experiments we infer that afferent impulses (resulting gener- ally in sensation) travel along the posterior root, and that the efferent im- pulses (resulting generally in motion) travel along the anterior root. Hence the terms sensory and motor are sometimes applied to the posterior and anterior roots respectively. These considerations teach us too that the seat of sensation is not in the sense organ but in the brain itself. Functions of Spinal Cord. 1. It is a conductor of Nerve Impulses from all parts of the body (the head excepted) to the brain. Proof. — Injury to the cord leads to partial or total loss of sensa- tion and voluntary movement in those parts of the body receiving their nerves from below the point of injury. 2. It is the centre of Reflex Action. Proof. — A man whose spinal cord has been injured (say in the lumbar region) loses all control of his legs. If his feet be tickled he feels no pain, yet he withdraws them violently even though he may wish to keep them still. Reflex Action. — From the above we infer that the cord possesses the power of converting afferent into efferent im- pulses without the aid of the cerebrum. We have too an example of an afferent impulse which does not lead to sensa- tion, and we learn that the term sensory is not so good as afferent when applied to impulses travelling to the brain. Reflex Action is that power possessed by the Spinal Cord and Medulla Oblongata of transforming Afferent into Efferent Impulses without the interposition of the Brain. The afferent impulse, instead of travelling via the cord to the brain, takes, as it were, a short cut through the cord, is 16 Psychology in the Schoolroom. acted upon by the cord, and is transformed into an efferent impulse. In Fig. 9, A B C D represents the path in reflex action, A B E F C D represents the path in conscious action. The Energy of Nervous Matter : Necessity for Rest and Nutrition. — Energy means the capacity for doing work. Gunpowder has energy stored in it. When a gun is loaded and fired, the energy leaves the gun and does the work of propelling the bullet. A nerve cell may be compared with a gun. A nerve cell has certain chemical compounds within it which constitute its energy. These Ei Brain, \f \\ r 7 o(£"vf c A 1 Id Sensory Motor Fig. 9. chemical compounds in undergoing decomposition do work. When the nerve cell has discharged its energy it must be recharged before it can act again. Hence the necessity for rest for the nerve cell. The nerve cell is recharged by materials brought by the blood. The purer and richer the blood, the sooner and the better will the nerve cell be re- charged. Now pure and rich blood depends mainly on good food and fresh air. What is true regarding one nerve cell is true of practically the whole nervous system. Hence for proper mental work we must have good food, pure air and appropriate times for rest. The Sciences of Physiology and Psychology. 17 Summary. Consciousness is the general name for all possible mental operations. Psychology is the science of consciousness. Methods of studying Psychology. 1. Subjective Method: study of mind of self. 2. Objective Method : study of minds of others. Mind is that which manifests itself in our processes of knowing, feeling and willing. The mind is intimately connected with the nervous system. 1. Central organ : brain. I Cerebro Sninal % E " d or S ans : sense organs and Nervous ! l ' g s tem | muscles - System. ' 3. Connecting organs : efferent "■ and afferent nerves. V.II. Sympathetic System. Organ. Position. Distribution of Nerve Tissue. Functions. Grey. White. < c 'E. op 6 X) ■i) ■my father. ) \Jjvterest When I look at the right hand signs I have a presented image nothing more. It calls up no associated mental image, it 32 Psychology in the Schoolroom. has no meaning to me, it does not interest me. The word is however Greek for father, and to a Greek it would call up re-presented images presumably not very different from my own. (b) One teacher wishing to teach that air presses upwards tells the class the fact and then proceeds to illustrate it. An- other commences by filling a tumbler with water, putting a piece of cardboard on the top, and inverting the tumbler and card. The children will be filled with wonder that the water does not run out, will be curious to know why it does not do so, and will speedily become interested in the lesson. The first teacher has stifled curiosity, and probably failed to arouse interest ; the second teacher has created curio- sity, and interest follows in its train. From a consideration of these and other examples we are led to see the circumstances upon which interest de- pends. I. A certain amount of Similarity. From (a) we see that the absolutely new does not gain our interest. There must be a certain amount of similarity between our present ideas and our past ideas in order that interest may be aroused. We are not interested in a present idea which is unlike any previous idea. There is no bond of similarity between the two, hence we fail to attend to that present idea. " A teacher must not expect a child to be interested in that of which he is wholly ignorant." Instruction must be graded so that a pupil may have a stock of ideas capable of revival which are somewhat akin to the new idea and which may give it interest. Hence the soundness of the dictum that " Right methods produce interest." A lesson showing that decimal fractions are really a part of our ordinary system of notation would be very interesting to a child of eleven who had a good idea of the notation of whole numbers and some knowledge of vulgar fractions. It would be very uninteresting to a child of six struggling with the difficulties of the notation of thirteen and thirty. On the other hand, perfect familiarity is fatal to interest. We all grow tired of the oft-told tale. To give the amount Attention. 33 of repetition necessary for the formation of clear ideas and at the same time to maintain interest is one of the difficul- ties of the teacher's art. II. Degree of connection with what is pleasurable or painful. The stronger the connection the better the chance of arousing attention. III. Curiosity. Curiosity is the name given to that desire which the mind has of wishing to know the unknown. It is " one of nature's provisions for extending our range of knowledge." It is to the mind what appetite is to the body. KINDS OF INTEREST. I. Natural Interest. The value which the presenta- tion has in itself: II. Acquired Interest. The value which the presenta- tion acquires in virtue of its association. The attention which the young child gives to loud noises, bright colours, etc., arises from natural interest. The attention the biologist displays in dissecting an earthworm is maintained by acquired interest. The Importance of Interest in Involuntary Atten- tion. It is because of the great importance of interest in in- voluntary attention that this long digression has been made concerning it. Some have defined involuntary attention as that which is produced by interest, and voluntary attention as that which is produced by effort. Viewed in this light involuntary attention is a child of the Feelings, voluntary attention is a child of the Will. FUNCTIONS OF THE WILL IN VOLUNTARY AT- TENTION. (a) I open a book in a language quite unfamiliar to me (say Chinese). I sit down, fix my eyes upon the characters and try my best to attend to the book. I put forth effort to attend. But just as the body gets tired of prolonged 3 34 Psychology in the Schoolroom. bodily effort, so the mind gets tired of prolonged mental effort. The characters in the book do not recall other like mental images, and consequently no pleasurable or painful associations are revived. At last, tired in mind and body with my effort, I leave the book. I cannot attend to it, I do not understand it, it does not interest me. This example teaches that — 1. The Will can bring the mind and the object to- gether, but it cannot force a connection between them when the link (Interest) is missing. (b) A class is studying Gray's " Elegy." The teacher, during one lesson, can direct the children's attention to the general meaning of a part of the poem ; during another he can direct attention to the correct reading of the same passage ; on another occasion he can have the passage analysed and parsed. In the first case the interest centres round the meaning, in the second round the method of delivery, in the third round the technicalities of language. (c) I go botanising one day and do not notice the insects at all. I play the entomologist another day and disregard the flowers. I go the same walk with a friend and indulge in a heated political argument, and flowers and insects are to me non-existent. From these examples we learn — 2. The Will can determine the kind of interest which shall act at any given time. (d) Young children in school cannot resist listening to the strains of a street organ. (e) None but the well-trained scholar can omit looking up from his work when the gas is being lighted in the room. (/) The most abstract of philosophers would have his train of thought interrupted by an exploding cracker beneath his chair. Now examples (d), (e), (/) are instances of involuntary attention intruding into the domain of voluntary attention. Hence we learn that — 3. The Will is limited by the tendencies of Involun- tary Attention. The teacher who allows young children to look while the gas is being lighted is acting wisely in not fighting against a law A TTENTION. 35 of Nature. Of course elder children might be reasonably expected to resist such a comparatively slight external stimulus. CONTINUED VOLUNTARY ATTENTION AND IN- VOLUNTARY ATTENTION. Interest was said to be a mark of involuntary attention ; it is now seen to enter into an act of continued voluntary attention. We must now examine — The ways in which they differ. 1. In voluntary attention the stimulus is internal; in involuntary attention it is external. 2. In voluntary attention the will can, by the exclusion of certain stimuli, select the stimulus which shall maintain it. In involuntary attention the stimulus acts independently of the will. In voluntary attention the mind is master of the stimuli, in involuntary attention the stimuli are masters of the mind. 3. Voluntary attention is lasting ; involuntary attention is fleeting. The Complex Character of Adult Attention. We must recollect that, although we regard the acts of attention of the adult as mainly voluntary, yet both volun- tary and involuntary elements are involved. " Even in the attention of the mature man there is always something of the involuntary and the enforced, the irresistible attraction of a favourite thought, of a study of predilection, of a dominant taste." (Compayre.) Many muscular acts (e.g., walking, speaking), which in early life are accomplished only by an effort of will, become in later life reflex. In the same way it would seem that acts of attention, which at first require will power for their inception, become in mature life habitual or automatic. It is difficult to define exactly the function of the will in them. What may be termed a habit of attention has been acquired. 36 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Degrees of Attention. The attention of the teacher who is giving a lesson is different from that of a pupil who is receiving it. The pupil's attention is (or should be) concentrated upon the lesson. The teacher's attention is of a rather complex character. It is in a measure concentrated upon the subject-matter of the lesson, but, as he has been often through the same train of thought, the whole of his con- sciousness is not concentrated upon the lesson, but part of his consciousness is, as it were, diffused, ready to respond to any stimulus (talking, restlessness, etc.) that might arise. An attempt is made in Figs. 17 and 18 to represent these differences graphically. Di/hise Attention - Pupils forpurpost 4ftvntj'yyn. <^^ — Canscumx- of chucutlm Part of attention, concentrated on. Lesson, Fig. 17. Fig. 18. The difficulty of keeping the consciousness at the same time concentrated and diffused is a trying one. Perhaps the reason some teachers cannot keep good order during a lesson is sometimes owing to the fact that they cannot keep their minds concentrated on the lesson, and at the same time maintain a state of diffuse consciousness ready for the per- ception of any irregularities that may occur. The fact that in the mental world we can have, at the same time, a state of concentrated and diffuse consciousness may be compared to the fact that in the physical world we can have a well-defined image of that part of an object which falls upon the yellow spot, and a less well-defined image of the rest of the object, the image of which falls on the parts of the retina outside the yellow spot. (See p. 71.) Some have gone so far as to say that we cannot attend to more than one thing at the same time, that in the foregoing instance what really happens is, that states of concen- trated and diffuse attention alternate so quickly that we Attention. 37 imagine them to be two simultaneous acts of attention. As practical teachers we know how difficult it is to get a child to attend to even one thing. Whether it is psycho- logically possible for him to attend to more than one thing at the same time need not detain us. " One thing at a time " is a golden rule alike for teachers and taught. Since we can have different degrees of attention, we will try to examine upon what these different degrees of attention depend. Every teacher knows that — (a) Children are more attentive in the morning than in the after- noon, at the commencement of a session than at its close. (ft) Weakly children are more prone to be inattentive than strong ones. (c) Coloured pictures secure attention better than uncoloured ones. (d) The ambitious child is more attentive than the unambitious one. (e) Better attention is secured if the class be given some idea of the kind of special attention required. Children attend better to sights after being told to look for something and to. sounds after being told to listen to something. LAWS REGULATING DEGREES OF ATTENTION. I. The intensity of an act of Attention depends on the amount of active energy disposable at the time. Children attend better in the morning than in the after- noon, because energy has not been exhausted by the labour of the day. Weakly children are deficient in energy, and consequently prone to be inattentive. II. The intensity of an act of Attention depends on the strength of the stimulus which arouses the Atten- tion. Coloured pictures are strong external stimuli. In an ambitious child the desire to be top of the class is a strong internal stimulus. Other internal stimuli which may be evoked in children are :— 1. Desire to please teacher or parents. 2. Fear of punishment— (a) Bodily, " keeping in," chastisement ; (6) Mental, disgrace of low marks, fear of ridicule or scolding. 38 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The love of truth and right, the joy of discovery, the desire for influence and power are strong internal stimuli that appeal to children of larger growth. III. The intensity of an act of Attention depends on the pre-adjustment of the Attention to the stimulus of a particular kind. By pre-adjustment of the attention is meant the getting ready of the mind to receive an impression of a certain kind. On hearing the word " Look," we adjust the attention for sights rather than for sounds, and the attention of the particular kind which results is all the better in consequence. When we are " all ears" we hear things that escape our atten- tion at another time when we are " all eyes." OBSTACLES TO ATTENTION. I. Physical Obstacles. (a) Weakness of Bodily Powers. This may be the result of heredity (the child may have " a bad constitution"), or the result of a prolonged course of poor food, the habitual breathing of vitiated air, etc. The worst cases are those in which the effects of constitutional weakness are accentuated by poor or deficient diet and air. In these cases the teacher is largely the victim of cir- cumstances. Threats and punishments are of little avail. They give rise to timidity. Locke rightly says that it is as impossible to make lasting impressions upon a quaking mind as it is to trace firm characters upon a quivering sheet of paper. The only true course is to gain the child's involun- tary attention through interest, and to work slowly and patiently towards the development of the higher powers of attention. (b) Unsuitable Physical Environment. 1. Noises in or near the class-room. Children's attention is at the mercy of external stimuli. The teacher wishes the child's attention to be seized by one stimulus and that a selected one. If other stimuli are present, the attention will probably be seized by some unselected stimulus. The oraani- sation of class and school should be such as to reduce Attention. 39 all distractions to a minimum. Loud talking in the room itself, a noisy teacher in the next room, an organ in the street are all so many external stimuli enticing the attention in the wrong direction. Quietude is the sine qua nan of the child's attention. The ideal plan is to place him in such an environment that nothing can excite distraction. 2. A hot, badly-ventilated class-room lowers the child's respiratory and circulatory powers in particular, and the whole of his vital forces in general. Lack of energy and consequent diminution of attention follow. The teacher who finds a general lassitude creeping over the class should look to the windows. Generally they will be found closed or an insufficient number may be open. 3. Too long continuance of the body in one position. Mo- bility is one of the characteristics of the child. It is impos- sible for him to keep still for a prolonged period. Compayre is very strong on this point, and says " the child has need of movement even when he is studying. . . . Let us not de- mand of him what is impossible at his age — that during the time he spends in school he shall be a thinking statue." The inactive body soon produces the inactive mind. Many young children read much better if allowed to perform some favourite trick (such as rocking the body, standing first on one foot, then on the other) than when they are com- pelled to stand motionless. The teacher may mistake this restlessness for inattention. He can always determine whether the child is, or is not attending, by stopping the lesson and telling the child to rehearse in his own words that part dealt with during the period of supposed inattention. But it must be remembered that it is unwise to yield too much to this mobility of the child. Orderly instruction would become impossible with children always " on the jig,'' and besides many uncomely habits and disagreeable tricks would be fostered. Still the wise teacher recognises the child's love of motion and makes some provision for it. Thus in a reading lesson he would have the children stand- ing part of the lesson, sitting another part, and would freely intersperse individual with collective reading. 40 Psychology in the Schoolroom. II. Psychical Obstacles. 1. Those more immediately connected with, the Pupil. (a) Sluggishness of Temperament. Every teacher has met with children who seem stolidly indifferent to school and to school work. Such children will, however, be found to be active in some respect. Thus a child who is " lazy " and "wooden" in school maybe found keen and active in his play. Rarely, if ever, can a sane child be found who is not active in at least one direction. It is the teacher's business to discover the speciality of the child, and to work from that. A child whose interest centres in his play will be attentive in such lessons as drill and singing, which require the exercise of his activity. One department of knowledge is linked with another, and the child who is interested and consequently attentive in one becomes interested and attentive in another. Hence the necessity for a wide and varied curriculum in our schools in order that predilections of all kinds may be exercised. It must not be forgotten that by the bond of sympathy an active, vivacious teacher is likely to make his pupils active and vivacious also. (b) Vivacity of Temperament. This is one of the failings of the sharp, precocious child. Naturally intelligent, he finds that he is easily able to outstrip his class-fellows. Hence he is prone to minimise the value of sustained atten- tion. The boy near the bottom of the class has to attend in order to learn, but he is so clever that he can learn without attending. Fortunately it is easy to deal with this case. The teacher should watch his opportunity and question this boy after some new matter has been presented to the class. In nine cases out of ten the searching questions of the teacher will expose the ignorance of this intellectual prig, his amour propre will be hurt by the exposure, and he will learn that strict attention is as much a necessity for him as for the rest of his class. (c) Condition of Mind at the time. The condition of the mind at any given time is partly due to physical causes, such as environment, etc. (See p. 38.) Attention. 41 2. Those more directly connected with the Teacher and the Lesson. We have seen that interest is the great means of securing the attention, and in order that interest may be aroused, there must be a certain,, but not a perfect similarity between our present and past ideas. A child is sometimes inattentive because a lesson is " too hard," sometimes because it is " too easy" It is "too hard" where he has no ideas capable of recall which are sufficiently like present ideas to arouse interest. A lesson is "too easy" when it presents trains of ideas exactly, or mainly, like trains of ideas already existing in the mind. Sympathy between teacher and taught is a great means of maintaining the attention. The sympathetic teacher may have to work in a badly lighted, badly warmed school, and his teaching may not be psychologically sound, yet notwith- standing these drawbacks, he will succeed in securing attention. Educational Value of Voluntary and Involuntary Attention. The schoolmaster of a generation back placed great stress on voluntary attention. Few or no efforts were made to render teaching interesting. Learning was looked upon as a thing of toil and effort. Effort was everything, interest nothing. But the will power implied in effort is just one of those things most lacking in children. Hence various " stimulants " had to be applied, and " reading with- out tears" was unknown. The teacher of to-day relies mainly upon Interest for securing attention, because he finds — ■ 1. That young children have little will power, and are consequently incapable of prolonged effort. 2. That young children have fairly developed powers of feeling, and that it is easier to excite their feelings (by interesting them) than it is to stir their wills (by trying to make them put forth effort). 42 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 3. That it is the degree of the attention, and not the cause of it, which determines the depth of an impression. The focussing of the attention is the thing, the cause of the focussing matters little. We recollect what touches our feelings at least as well as we recollect what we have worked hard to obtain. Perhaps in our desertion of the old system we have embraced the new too thoroughly, and have overlooked the important fact that it is after all a habit of attention that we wish to cultivate, and that this can be acquired only through innumerable acts of voluntary attention. " Without doubt we must guard against the dangers of an education which is too compliant, too easy, which makes an abuse of what is diverting, and which excludes effort." (Compayre.) DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION. I. Attention in Infancy is Involuntary. — The infant is "the sport of every sight and sound." He cannot be said to have any attentive power. At one moment his mind is attracted by the bright fire, at another by a noise of some one moving in the room. At first fairly powerful stimuli are necessary ; by exercise, less powerful stimuli become sufficient to attract the attention. The baby whose atten- tion is now drawn to the bright fire, will, in a few weeks' time, be attracted by the lighted candle. II. Transition from Involuntary to Voluntary Attention. — Professor Sully considers that the transition stage is found in the continuance of an act of involuntary attention. Thus the infant who looks an appreciable time at the fire is showing distinct volition in the prolongation of his involuntary attention. This kind of attention is strengthened by exercise. The gazes become of longer duration, and less powerful stimuli suffice to arrest and maintain them. III. Voluntary Attention. — But more distinct evi- dences of voluntary attention soon show themselves. The baby who stops crying to listen for approaching footsteps is A TTENTION. 43 performing a well-defined act of voluntary attention. The stopping and listening both imply effort, and effort is that which best distinguishes voluntary from involuntary attention. Development of Attention in School. — The child is re- ceived into school with his powers of voluntary attention but feebly developed, as every teacher knows to his cost. The child's attention is distracted, flitting, momentary. A wise teacher will not require sustained attention in the young child. " He might as well command mobility of a bird." Threats and punishments which compel the outward semblance of attention are little good ; firstly, because the child has not sufficient will power to bring his mind to the subject, and secondly, because even if mind and matter can be thus brought together, they cannot be kept together long unless interest intervene. The teacher is thus driven back to an appeal to the child's involuntary attention. He must habituate the child " to those vivid dominating impressions which hold and cultivate his mind." This can be best done by directing the attention, not to abstractions, but to tilings. Early acts of attention are spasmodic and of brief duration, hence lessons to young children should be short. Variety is an important factor in the cultivation of the attention, but the teacher must be discreet as to its use. It is a bad plan in an object lesson to have a table crowded with attractive objects. Those objects not in immediate use should be kept out of sight. The aim should be to prolong the act of involuntary attention ; the object should not be discarded until its most salient features have been observed and discussed by the class. The teacher must "beware of the peep-show order of excitement,' - in which so many things are seen that practically nothing is seen at all. Variety can, however, be usefully employed in the sequence of lessons. When attention of one kind (say to sights) is getting wearied, the attention of another kind (say to sounds) may be evoked and retained. The attention may flag at the end of an arithmetic lesson, yet the singing lesson which succeeds will arouse and maintain it. 44 Psychology in the Schoolroom. It must not be forgotten that the teacher can make use of any or all of the following powerful stimuli for the evoking of attention : — (a) Hope of teacher's approval — a powerful stimulus to the modest, retiring child. (6) Emulation — powerful with ambitious children. (c) Fear of punishment — mental or bodily. Corporal punishment should be a last resource. Young children should never be punished for inattention. But some admit it to be efficacious in the case of the "sturdy vagabond," who is "born lazy." Here "I must" often becomes " I will," and regulated attention follows. The mind becomes gradually strengthened by exercise, and will and voluntary attention grow with it. As the child's experience widens, he acquires a greater stock of re-presentative images, and any effort of voluntary attention is more likely to recall the appropriate re-presentative image, and interest sooner results. By dint of frequent repetitions of acts of voluntary attention, the child slowly acquires a facility in adjusting and controlling his attention, and a habit of attention at last results. Just as the child in early childhood begins to walk and talk with little or no conscious effort, so in later childhood he gradually acquires a habit of attention, and attends to things with a minimum of conscious effort. Summary. Attention. Definitions. — (1) Concentrated consciousness ; (2) direction of mind towards object. Kinds. 1. Involuntary. 2. Voluntary. State of mind . . Passive . . . Active. Stimulus . . . External . . . Internal. Characteristic . . Interest . . . Effort. Duration . . . Short . . . Prolonged. Connection with pri- mary phases of mind Allied to Feeling . Allied to Will. Involuntary Attention depends on : — 1. The quantity) 2. The variety V of the stimuli. 3. The quality J Attention. 45 Interest.— Definition. The feeling attached to an idea. Dependent on : — 1. Similarity. 2. Connection with pleasure or pain. 3. Curiosity. Function. To connect mind and matter. Voluntary Attention depends on :— 1. Disposable active energy. 2. Strength of stimulus. 3. Pre-adjustment. Obstacles to Attention. I. Physical: — (a) Internal. Bodily weakness. (b) External. Unfavourable environment. II. Mental:— (a) Connected with pupil : temperament. (b) Connected with lesson : unsuitability. Development of Attention. 1. Early attention — involuntary. 2. Transition from involuntary to voluntary attention probably found in the continuance of an act of involuntary attention. 3. In School : — Attention should be first directed to Things. One thing should be presented at a time. Lessons should be short and varied. Emulation and hope of teacher's approval are powerful stimuli. By repeated exercise, habit of attention at last acquired. QUESTIONS. 1. — What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary attention ? Give examples of both and of the conditions under which the powers of fixing and concen- trating the attention of scholars may best be strengthened. (E.D.) 2. — How do you distinguish between voluntary and involuntary attention, and by what methods of training can the power of concentrating a pupil's attention best be strengthened ? Adduce facts or illustrations which may have been suggested by your own experience in connection with this subject. (E.D.) 3. — What is meant by attention ? How can it be cultivated in children ? (E.D.) 4. — Explain and illustrate the statement, " Right methods produce interest." (E.D.) 5. — Give a psychological analysis of the terms attention and interest. Discuss (a) the conditions involved in voluntary control of attention ; {b) the general nature of the circumstances that distract or obstruct attention. (L.U.) 6. — Give a short account of the several varieties of attention and compare their educational value. (L.U.) 7. — Why is involuntary attention especially valuable for intellectual ends? Sug- gest limitations to this. (E.D.) 46 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 8. — Explain fully what is meant by interest. In what relation does it stand to attention? (E.D.) 9. — Why do we fail to remember what does not interest us ? (E.D.) 10. — What are the most common causes of inattention ? State how you would deal with them. (C.P.) 11. — What is meant by the faculty of attention ? How does it operate and how far is its exercise an act of the will ? Mention some devices by which a teacher can strengthen in his pupils the habit of close attention. (E.D.) 12. — State and illustrate the main laws of attention and examine the following : " A teacher must not expect a child to be interested in that of which he is wholly ignor- ant." How does this bear on the method of teaching ? (C.P.) 13. — What is interest ? How is it related to attention and how are both related to retention ? Point out any practical conclusions to be drawn from these psychological facts. (C.P.) 14. — Bring out the meaning of non-voluntary attention and obstructive association, giving a concrete illustration in each case. (C.P.) 15. — On what does a close and sustained attention depend ? In what aspects does early attention differ from later? What differences in the mode of instruction are necessitated by these differences ? (C.P.) 16. — Bring out the difference between non-voluntary and voluntary attention and show how the one passes into the other. How would you begin to exercise a child in voluntary attention? (C.P.) 17. — Explain fully why it is necessary in the case of young children, (1) to make the lessons short ; (2) to introduce a variety of illustrations and of treatment generally. (C.P.) 18. — What appear to be the qualities which render an object more or less effective for attracting the attention of a child ? (E,D.) 19. — What is meant by interest and what are its chief varieties ? Bring out by means of an example the connection between interest in a subject, concentration of the mind upon it and curiosity to know more about it. (C.P.) 20. — Give a short account of non-voluntary attention. (C.P.) 21. — If you found the class you were teaching getting listless and sleepy, what causes might you suppose to be at work and what would be your remedies? (E.D.) 22. — Give a psychological account of the state of mind called interest, comparing the direct interest M N takes in bird-nesting with the reflected interest he takes in the paradigm T Y n T fl from the rewards or punishments depending on it. Discuss the possibility of securing the former kind of interest in school work. (L.U.) 23.— What is meant by a " habit of concentration " ? What is its educational im- portance and how can it best be secured ? (C.P.) 24.— What are the main conditions of a prolonged act of attention? How does the power of mental concentration differ in the case of a child of five or six and that of a youth of sixteen ? (C.P.) 25.— Enumerate such among the psychological facts concerning attention as you can show to yield rules for educational practice. (C.U.) 26.— Discuss carefully the effects of attention upon the presentations attended to. (V.U.) 27.— Distinguish reflex and voluntary attention, and analyse carefully an act of voluntary attention. (V.U.) 28.— What is the relation of attention to consciousness ? Carefully define both terms. How would you deal with the question whether we can attend to more than one object at once ? (V.U.) 29.—" Attention narrows the field of consciousness." Explain this, and illustrate the ways in which thinking depends upon attention. (V.U.) 30.— Define interest, and point out its relation to attention and to the intellectual processes. What different kinds of interest are there ? Describe the early manifesta- tions of each. (C.U.) 47 CHAPTER IV. SENSATION; THE ORGANIC SENSES; TASTE AND SMELL. Example of Sensation. While hard at work writing I smell something sweet, but am too busily engaged to tell where the sweet odour comes from. I am said to have a sensation of smell. Minute particles from the sweetly-smelling substance reach the end organs of the nerves of smell (see p. 54) and set up vibrations there. These vibrations are continued along the afferent nerve to the brain. So far the action is purely physical. Now the psychical begins. The mind in some way (how we do not know) reacts on these vibrations, distinguishes them from other vibrations the brain has received, and connects them with those that have before given rise to smell. DEFINITIONS OF SENSATION. (1) A Sensation is the "simplest psychical reaction against the nerve current caused by a physical stimulus." (2) "A simple mental state resulting from the stimulation or excitation of the outer or peripheral extremity of an incarrying or sensitive nerve." (Sully.) In psychology we must carefully restrict the term sensation to the immediate mental effects of definite bodily changes. In ordinary conversation we use the term sensa- tion otherwise. Thus we speak of the fire giving us the feeling or sensation of warmth. But the moment we begin to refer our mental state (warmth) to some object (the fire) we are doing something more than having a sensation. 48 Psychology in the Schoolroom. We are referring the sensation to the fire, and are perform- ing what is known as an act of Perception. Examples Helping to Illustrate the Differences between Sensation and Perception. (a) If, in the case given above of my smelling a fragrant odour, I by-and-by refer the odour to a rose on the table, I have a percept of the smell of the rose. (i) I am asleep. Some one knocks at the door, but I do not hear the knocking. Yet the air vibrates, the ear vibrates, the afferent nerve vibrates. The chain of physical events is perfect, but the mind is not in a state to interpret the physical phenomena, hence I do not hear. There is no " knocking " to me, although there is to some one who is awake in the room. The repetition of the stimuli rouses the mind to an activity sufficient to commence to interpret them. How it does this we do not know. My mind differentiates these stimuli from visual, tactual and other stimuli, and / become dimly conscious of a noise. I may now be said to have a sensation of " noised This act of differentiation causes my mind to become still more active (I begin to get more awake), and I identify the noise as a " knocking," and refer the knocking, not to my brain, but outwards to the door. Preliminary Definition of Perception. Perception is the reference of sensation outwards to some object. Perception Contrasted with Sensation. Perception will be dealt with more fully in the next chapter. For the present we will notice that sensation is a passive state ; perception is largely an active one. Sensa- tion is a kind of Feeling; perception is knowledge-giving and allied to Intellect. Sensations of Adult Life. In adult life we pretty well invariably refer our sensa- tions outwards, that is, we have percepts, not sensations. Again, when we have an apparently simple sensation (as in Sensation; The Organic Senses; Taste and Smell. 49 smelling the sweet odour above), the sensation calls up " remembrances " of other sensations of a like kind. These remembrances coalesce with the present sensation, and form one apparently unanalysable whole. What then seems to be a simple sensation is in this case the mental results of physical stimulation mixed with memory. It would seem then that we cannot have a pure sensation. A pure sensation is unobtainable, unanalysable. The chemist reasons about atoms, which he cannot obtain and which of course he cannot analyse. Sensations are to the psychologist what atoms are to the chemist. They are the ultimate facts upon which all else depend. We cannot reason about anything simpler than pure sensation. It is the simplest form of consciousness, the ultimate fact of mental life. CONDITIONS OF SENSATION. I. The Physical Factor, involving: — 1. The Mechanical Factor. — Some form of vibration is the ultimate occasion of sensation. We shall appreciate the meaning of this better when we have studied the senses in fuller detail (p. 63). 2. The Physiological Factor. — -This involves three factors : — {a) The end organ receiving the mechanical stimulus. (b) The connecting nerve conveying the stimulus from the end organ to the brain. (c) The changes in the brain tissue itself. II. The Psychical Factor.— The activity of the mind may be regarded as the factor in sensation. As we have seen (p. 48), the physical chain may be complete, but there is no sensation without the mind. How the mind receives the physical stimulus is quite unknown ; how it interprets it is also unknown. Comparison of Sensations.— Sensations may be com- pared as to : — I. Quality.— This is an effect of the kind of stimulation. We do not confuse sights with sounds because they are different in quality or kind. 50 Psychology in the Schoolroom. II. Quantity. — This is an effect of the amount of stimulation. The gas light is brighter than the candle because its stimulating power is greater. III. Locality. — This is an effect of the place of stimulation. Every nerve fibre connected with sensation has one definite ending in the brain and another in some other organ. The mind infers that a change in a certain part of the brain must be caused by vibrations reaching it from some definite part of the body. General and Special Sensations. — The examination of the end organs shows us that some are adapted to receive stimuli of a certain kind. Thus the structures connected with the afferent nerves of the eye are specially adapted to receive the stimulus ultimately resulting in " light '' ; they are not adapted to receive those stimuli which ultimately result in " sound." Other end organs have as their primary use the regulation of some organic function, as digestion. They have also a secondary use, insomuch as they give rise to sensations which tell us how the digestive functions are being discharged. But no part of the end organ seems to be especially adapted for this purpose. In other words, some sensations are connected with a sense organ, others are not. "A Sense Organ is a part of the body especially adapted for receiving stimuli of a particular kind." Those sensations connected with no special sense organ are termed General or Organic Sensations; those con- nected with special sense organs are termed Special Sensations. The General or Organic Sensations. The chief are : — 1. Those connected with the Digestive System, as hunger, repletion. 2. Those connected with the Respiratory System, as stifling, ex- hilaration. 3. Those connected with the Muscles, as " fitness," fatigue. These sensations are termed Organic because they are connected with the organism as a whole ; they are called General because they are localised with more or less difficulty. Sensation; The Organic Senses ; Taste and Smell. 51 Even if they are easily located at the beginning of the sensation, they have a tendency to diffuse all over the body. Thus the sensation of repletion, which arises from the stomach, gives rise to the beaming face, the contented mind and a. general feeling of satisfaction "all over." They cannot easily be discriminated from one another. Very important as regards our pleasures and pains, in fact at times all-absorbing, they give us no knowledge of the world without and little knowledge of that within. They are subjective, not objective. Extremely prominent in infant life, they become less important as life advances. They are the servants of the body rather than of the mind, yet they always exert some influence (often an imperious one) over the higher faculties of mind. The proper opera- tion of the higher faculties of mind presupposes the satis- faction of the more pressing of the organic sensations. We cannot expect to impart instruction to the hungry child. Fig. 19. —Section of a Ciecumvallate Papilla, showing the Distribution of its Nerve Fibres. The Special Sensations are connected with sight, hear- ing, touch (with the muscular sense), smell and taste. The first five are termed " the senses." A Sense may be defined as the sum total of the sensa- tions of a particular kind. The Special Sensations easily fall into two classes. 1. Those more immediately connected with the Organic Sensations— -taste and smell. These give sensations rather than sense-percepts. 2. Those more immediately connected with the Intellect — touch, the muscular sense, sight and hearing. These give sense-percepts rather than sensations. 52 Psychology in the Schoolroom. TASTE. Organ of Taste. — The sense of taste resides chiefly in the back part of the tongue and palate. The tongue owes its sensitiveness to taste to the fact that it has specially adapted structures termed papilla?. The most important are the circumvallate papillas (Fig. 19) situated at the back of the tongue. Fig. 20 shows a section of part of a circumvallate papilla. The epithelium covering the papilla contains small flask-shaped bodies termed Taste Buds or Fig. 2o.— Section of Circumvallate Papilla (Human). The figure includes one side of the papilla and the adjoining part of the vallum. Magnified 150 diameters. (Heitzmann.) e, epithelium ; g, taste bud. Taste Bulbs. Each taste bulb contains a number of Gusta- tory Cells in which nerve filaments from the glossopharyn- geal nerve terminate. Sensation of Taste. — The particles of the substance to be tasted must come into actual contact with the gustatory cells before taste can result. But these cells are covered with epithelium — a thin coating of tissue which prevents the solid particles touching the gustatory cells. Hence the sub- Sensation; The Organic Senses; Taste and Smell. 53 stance tasted must be soluble. The saliva is the usual sol- vent. The matter in solution penetrates the gustatory cells, stimulates the nerve endings, and this stimulation is con- veyed to the brain, where it is interpreted as a special kind of taste. Classification of Sensations of Taste. 1 I. Tastes Proper. (a) Sweet tastes — sugars. (b) Bitter tastes — quinine, bitter-aloes. Fig. 21. — Nerves of the Outer Wall of Nasal Foss.e. Network of the branches of the olfactory nerve. II. Tastes connected with the Stomach. — Relishes and " disgusts." These vary with the condition of the stomach. " The feeling in the tongue indicates at once whether the substance will or will not agree with the stomach ; the tongue is in fact the stomach begun." Butter is a relish to a man in good health : a " disgust " to one in the throes of sea sickness. III. Tastes connected with Touch. — Pungent tastes — saline, alka- line ; fiery tastes — salt, soda, mustard. 1 These analyses of the sensations and percepts are based on those of Professor Bain. 54 Psychology in the Schoolroom. IV. Tastes connected with Smell. — Flavours — the onion. If the eyes are blindfolded and the nose tightly held, it is diffi- cult to distinguish between the taste of an apple and an onion. SMELL. Organ of Smell. — The organ of smell is the nose. The complicated upper cavities formed by some of the nasal bones are covered with mucous membrane containing Ol- factory Cells to which minute fibres of the Olfactory Nerve are distributed (Pig. 21). Fig. 22.— Section of the Nasal Cavities, seen from behind. Sensation of Smell. — Substances possessing odours give off exceedingly minute vibrating particles. In ordinary respiration the air passes through the lower chambers of the nose (Pig. 22), and the air in the upper chambers suffers little disturbance. Some of the tidal air, however, diffuses into the upper chambers, some of the minute vibrating par- ticles penetrate these upper chambers, hence the first ill- defined sensations of smell. If we wish to smell well we sniff, i.e., we withdraw air from the upper chambers, and Sensation; The Organic Senses; Taste and Smell. 55 some of the tidal air laden with odoriferous particles takes its place. The particles touch the olfactory cells connected with the nerve endings and stimulate them. These stimula- tions are conveyed by the olfactory nerve to the brain, and sensations of smell result. Classification of Sensations of Smell. I. Smells Proper, — Fragrant odours and stinks — the violet, assa- fcetida. II. Smells connected with the Respiratory System. — Fresh and close odours — open air after close room and vice versa. III. Smells connected with Touch. — Pungent odours — ammonia. IV. Smells connected with Taste. — Flavours — onion. Summary. Sensation. The simplest psychical reac- tion against a physical stimulus. A simple passive state. Connected with feeling. Conditions of Sensation. Perception. The outward reference of sen- sation. A complex active state. Connected with intellect. ((a) Mechanical factor : vibration. I (b) Physiological factor : end organ, connecting organ, changes in cen- tral organ. II. Psychical Factor. Attention, discrimination, assimilation. I. Physical Factor General Sensations. Special Sensations. No sense organ. Difficult of localisation. Subjective. Give knowledge of pleasure and pain. The satisfaction of the most pressing is a necessity of organic existence. A sense organ. Easy of localisation. Objective. Give knowledge of external world. Their exercise is a necessity of intellectual life. The Special Senses more immediately connected with the Organic Sensations. 1. Taste. Organ ; tongue and palate. Nerve : gustatory. II. Smell. Organ : lining of upper nasal chambers. Nerve : olfactory. 56 Psychology in the Schoolroom. questions. i. — Define sensation, sense, sense organ. 2. — Give an original example to illustrate the differences between sensation and perception. 3- — What are the chief differences between general and special sensations ? 4. — In what ways do taste and smell resemble the organic sensations ? 5- — Briefly detail the structure of the organs of taste and smell. G. — Show in what respects taste is like smell. 7- — Why does sniffing assist the sense of smell? 8. — Why cannot we smell when we have a cold ? 57 CHAPTER V. PERCEPTION AND THE SENSES OF TOUCH, SIGHT AND HEARING. Examples of Perception. — The process of perception will be better understood after the careful examination of the following examples : — (a) I see an orange. 1. / see. Vibrations of ether are transmitted from the orange to the optic nerve of the eye, which conveys these vibrations to the brain. Now the mind begins to interpret these vibrations, which are differentiated from other im- pressions (e.g., from those coming through the auditory nerve, etc.), and are assimilated with those that have been recognised as Sensations of SigJit. So far I have tried to explain that / see. 2. I see something. Now there would seem to be an instinctive tendency of the mind to project sensations out- wards, to refer them to " things " outside the mind. This tendency is termed the " eccentricity of sensation." A boy who has his optic nerve stimulated by a method not unknown to English boys, says that he sees "stars," i.e., he refers the sensation outwards to some object. This primordial tendency helps to explain that / see something. 3. / see something yellow and round. The rate of vibra- tions of the ether waves produces certain impressions on the brain which the mind identifies as "yellow." From the distribution of the image on the retina, I 58 Psychology in the Schoolroom. recognise the shape under examination, and infer that / see something yellow and round. 4. / see an orange. My mind next begins to discrimi- nate this perception of something yellow and round from the revived images of things yellow and round, e.g., lemon, orange, melon, etc., and assimilates it to one of these previous images, and I thus arrive at the conclusion that / see an orange. But with the idea orange are inseparably connected mental images of the taste, smell and feel of the orange, and I project these qualities into the orange. That this is so, is seen from the following illustration : — It is quite possible for an orange to be made of wax so skilfully that a child would desire to eat it. The child merely sees something yellow, round, etc., and this percept calls up to his mind the idea orange. With this idea orange are connected the taste, feel, etc., of the orange, and pro- perties which the wax orange does not possess are pro- jected into it. (&) I hear the church bell ring. 1. I hear. The vibrations of the bell set up aerial vibra- tions, which are communicated by the ear to the auditory nerve and thence to the brain. These impressions are by the mind differentiated from other impressions, and recog- nised as auditory ones. So far I have tried to explain that / hear. 2. / hear something. By the eccentricity of sensation above referred to, 1 infer that I hear something. 3. / hear a bell ring. But I have had many auditory impressions {e.g., noises, sounds of voices, of musical instruments, bells, etc.), and all of these are in a greater or less degree capable of recall. The presence of this particular auditory impression causes me to discriminate the particular sound I am hearing from memory images of other sounds, and I assimilate it to the memory image I have of the sound of a bell. This helps to explain / hear a bell ring. Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 59 But I have done something more than this. With the auditory memory image of the bell are inseparably con- nected the visual and tactual memory images of the bell. Ill-defined images are called up of something made of metal, cold to the touch, of the shape of an inverted cup, containing some kind of clapper which by striking the metal causes the sound I hear. 4. / hear the church bell ring. I have memory images of the sounds of various bells — dinner bells, church bells, electric bells, etc. The mind compares and contrasts the present impressions with the memory images of previously recurring states, and I come to the conclusion that it is a church bell that I hear. But the recognition of the bell as a church bell calls up a shadowy image of a building set apart for worship and ornamented with a spire. So when I say I hear a church bell ring, I not only have sensations of sound of a certain Fig. 23. kind, but in a very dim way I have a mental picture of a bell hanging in a church spire and of this bell by its ringing giving rise to my present impressions. The Process of Perception may be divided into two well-marked stages. 1. The discrimination and identification of sense im- pressions. — This is the prehensive part of the process. 2. The conjunction of these present sense impressions with reproduced images of past sense impressions, and the projection of the whole group of present and past impressions 60 Psychology in the Schoolroom. into some external object. — This is perception proper, and is the apprehensive part of the process. Perception does not tell us how the outer world really is, but how it appears to us. "The mind apprehends the outer world with the assistance of what it has already ex- perienced, felt, learned and digested." Perception is something more than the mere consciousness of nerve excitation. If I look at Fig. 23 I have a percept-picture of a tree. If I look at it more carefully I see it is merely a grouping of a few lines. But these are sufficient to recall the idea " tree," and revived images of my past experiences of a tree are projected into this picture. I really put into it more than is already there. DEFINITIONS OF PERCEPTION. 1. "The process of localising' sensations and re= f erring them to definite objects." (Sully.) 2. "A complex mental act involving both pre- sentative and representative processes." (Sully.) 3. The work of the intellect in interpreting sense im- pressions. 4. Perception = sensation + thought. A Percept is the result of an act of perception. Frequently the term perception is used both for the process and for the result. It is best to confine the term perception to the process, and use the term percept for the result. Owing to the paucity of our vocabulary we are compelled to use the term sensation both for the process and also for the result. Complexity of Perception. — The complexity of the perceptual process is shown on resolving it into its various elements : — 1. Sensation. 2. Reproductive Imagination (memory). 3. Conception. The reproduced image is a concept (p. 150) which is the result of former sense impressions. 4. Reasoning, in assimilation and discrimination. 5. Belief in the reality of an external world. Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 61 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SENSATION AND PER- CEPTION. Sensation. A simple mental state. Preservative elements only. Difficult to recall. A passive state. A simple form of Feeling. Perception. A complex mental state. Presentative and repre- sentative elements. Easy to recall. An active state. A form of Intellect. Fig. 24.— Vertical Section of the Skin and the Subcutaneous Tissue. Magnified 20 Diameters. corium ; e, papillae ; pores. horny layer of epidermis ; b, Malpighian layer of epidermis /, fat clusters; g, sweat glands; h, sweat ducts; We now pass on to the consideration of those senses which may be regarded as the intellectual senses, and which yield percepts rather than sensations. 62 Psychology in the Schoolroom. TOUCH. Organ. — Almost all parts of the body are more or less sensitive to touch, but this sense is generally regarded as being located in certain parts of the skin and mucous membrane. The Skin consists of two coats : — 1. The Epidermis or outer layer; mainly composed of flattened cells ; contains a few nerve fibres but no blood vessels (Fig. 24). hHP jg Fig. 25.— Section of a Papilla of the Skin, showing a Touch Corpuscle. Highly Magnified. t, tactile or touch corpuscle ; d, nerve fibres passing up to it. 2. The Dermis or inner layer ; well supplied with nerves and blood vessels ; raised into folds or ridges formed by the Papillae, which may be regarded as the real organs ol Touch. These papilla? have on their surfaces Touch Corpuscles, which are the end organs of afferent nerves (Fig. 25). Although the papilla may be regarded as the organs of touch, yet if the epidermis be removed, objects Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 63 which touch the dermis give rise to Pain and not to the sensation of touch. Sensibility of the Skin. — By using bone compasses, and discovering the least distance apart the points can be placed to be felt as two, the varying sensibility of different parts of the skin may be estimated. The most sensitive part is the tip of the tongue, where the points can be dis- cerned as two when -} x of an inch apart. At the finger tips a distance of -^ of an inch is necessary, whereas in the middle of the thigh the compass points must be 2\ inches apart before they are distinguished as two. Microscopic examination shows that the closeness of the papilla; varies in direct ratio to the degree of tactile sensibility. SENSATION OF TOUCH. The action of touch is one of pressure. The object touched compresses the Skin and through it the Papilla. This pressure probably sets up vibrations in the Touch Corpuscles, and the nerve filaments at their bases convey these vibrations to the Brain, where they are received and interpreted as Sensations of Touch. IMPORTANCE OF THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 1. The other senses may be considered as modifications and developments of it. Sapid substances must touch the tongue, odoriferous particles must touch the nose, air waves must touch the ear, ether waves must touch the eye, before tasting, smelling, hearing or seeing is possible. 2. The other senses depend upon it for assistance or confirma- tion. We prove or disprove our visual and auditory per- ceptions by tactual ones. We might see " ghosts," we might hear them ; if we could touch them our scepticism in these apparitions would be considerably shaken. The Sense of Touch and the Muscular Sense. — The sense of touch is popularly considered to include much more than scientific investigation warrants. The muscular sense, the sensations of heat, and those of cold admit of fairly easy distinction from the sense of touch proper 64 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Examples helping to show the difference between the Muscular Sense and the Sense of Touch. (a) I swing a heavy weight in the air, and am conscious of a distinct sensation, not only in the part of the hand which grasps the weight (Touch proper), but also in the muscles of the arm (Muscularity). (b) My hand is placed flat, palm upwards, on the table. A sheet of foolscap is placed on my hand. I have a sensation of touch. A quire of paper is now placed on my hand. I have a distinct feeling, not only of the extent of the paper (Touch proper), but also of something pressing down upon the muscles of my hand, and of the muscles of my hand resisting the pressure, and endeavouring, as it were, to press back (Muscularity). (c) I look long and anxiously at a near object and have a sensa- tion in my eyes of tiredness, not unlike that in my arm in case (a) (Muscularity). THE muscular SENSATIONS are those which im- mediately accompany the action of the muscles. Sense Organ. The muscles. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MUSCULAR SENSATIONS AND OTHER SENSATIONS. The muscular sensations are combined with those of touch and sight, and it is not easy to separate them. The examples (a), (b), (c) illustrate some of these differences. An- other example may be added. There is a disease called locomotor ataxia, or failure of power of controlling certain muscles. A person may have this disease and yet main- tain his purely tactile sensations unimpaired. The differ- ences between the muscular sensations and the other sensations are set out below. Muscular Sensations. Connected with our active states. Arise from the state of the muscles. Not detached from other senses, but enter into com- bination with them, especi- ally with touch and sight. Other Special Sensations. Connected rather with our passive states. Arise from the existence of external objects. Detached from one another. Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 65 CLASSIFICATION OP THE SENSATIONS AND PER- CEPTS OF TOUCH. I. Passive Touch, or Touch Proper, i.e., the sensa- tions received from the contact of objects with the epidermis. Examples : — Soft Touches, as clothing. Smarts, as sting of nettle. Plurality of Points, as feeling the bristles of a brush by simply placing the hand upon it and without moving the hand along it. Pressure, as holding the hand, palm upwards, with a sheet of paper upon it. Here the sensation is probably due to the slight compression of the skin. Any but the slightest pressure calls into play the action of the muscles, and shades off into the next class. II. Active Touch, or Touch combined with Muscu- larity. Examples : — Hardness and Softness. A hard thing is one that resists change of form, and we judge of the hardness by the amount of muscular effort we have to put forth in order to overcome it. Thus when a child says that an apple is harder than an orange, he infers this because he has to put forth more muscular effort in order to change the shape of the apple than the shape of the orange. Roughness and Smoothness. We can in a certain measure dis- criminate between roughness and smoothness by means of touch proper (see Plurality of Points above), but the motion of the hand does much to increase the power of discrimination. Thus, I place my hand on a book cover and think that it is smooth ; 1 move my hand along it and find it is slightly rough. Weight and Pressure. When the hand is supported on the table, we probably judge of light weights by the degree of com- pression of the skin and by the resistance which the muscles of the hand offer to compression. Heavy weights are judged by the action of the muscular sense. CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCULAR SENSATIONS AND PERCEPTS. I. Of Movement. (a) In Connection with Touch. The feeling on moving the arm forward is different from that experienced on moving it 66 Psychology in the Schoolroom. backwards or sideways. We can discriminate one move- ment from another by the varying conditions of the muscles. Our first notions of space and distance are ob- tained through arm movement. (b) In Connection with Sight. The eyes can be moved up and down, etc., and different feelings are experienced with each action. " Up " is what I raise my eyes to see. The mobility of the eye and the varying feelings of the muscles of the eye are important factors in the perception of space. Fig. 26.— Diagrammatic Front View of the Left Ear. A portion of the temporal bone has been detached. 1, the pinna and lobe ; 2 to 2', the auditory canal; 2', the tympanic membrane ; 3, the cavity of the middle ear — above 3 is the chain of small bones ; 4, Eustachian tube ; 5, the facial and auditory nerves ; 6, placed on the vestibule of the labyrinth, above the fenestra ovalis ; a, c, e and /, portions of the temporal bone. II. Of Resistance and Strain. (a) In Connection with Touch. I push against a load too heavy to move and experience a feeling of resistance in the muscles due to impeded muscular energy. I want to push my arm forward but cannot do it. The child gains his first ideas of solidity from the fact that resistance is offered to the muscles of the two hands and arms. \ lift two Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 67 heavy weights. The one which produces the greater strain on the muscles of my arm I call the heavier of the two. (b) In Connection with Sight. The varying strains produced in the eyes on looking at distant objects are, as we shall see, among the things that aid us in the perception of distance (p. 75). HEARING. Organ. — The ear, especially that part which is lodged in the temporal bone (Fig. 26). The Ear consists of three parts : — I. The External Ear, formed by the Pinna and the Auditory Canal. The pinna is adapted for the collection of sound waves, but is a comparatively unimportant part of the organ of hearing. Fig. 27.— Intkrior of the Left Labyrinth. 1, 2 and 3, semicircular canals ; 4, cochlea ; 5, vestibule. II. The Middle Ear or Tympanum is a drum-shaped cavity, bounded on the outer side by the Tympanic Mem- brane and on the inner by the Fenestra Oralis. Stretching across the tympanum are the Auditory Ossicles. The differences between ordinary and physiological nomenclature should be noticed. In ordinary language we call the pinna " the ear " and the tympanic membrane the " drum of the ear." III. The Internal Ear is very complicated in structure. It may be said to consist of two parts : — (a The Osseous Labyrinth. An intricate cavity in the 68 Psychology in the Schoolroom. temporal bone. Its chief parts are the Semicircular Canals and the Cochlea (Fig. 27). (b) The Membranous Labyrinth. A complicated "bag" in the osseous labyrinth, nearly similar to it in shape but smaller in size. The membranous labyrinth floats in a liquid called the Perilymph, and contains another liquid called the Endo- lymph in which are some minute crystals termed Otoconia. Fibres of the Auditory Nerve are distributed along the inner surface of the membranous labyrinth. They end at the bases of little cells which are provided with the minute Auditory Hairs (Fig. 28). Fig. 28.— Auditory Epithelium. Highly Magnified, l, cell ; n, nerve fibril of auditory nerve ; k, h', auditory hairs. SENSATION OF HEARING. Take the case of a sounding bell. The bell vibrates and communicates its vibrations to the air. These aerial vibrations are collected by the Pinna, deflected into the Auditory Canal, and impinge upon the Tympanic Membrane. The three Auditory Ossicles transfer the vibration from the tympanic membrane to the Fenestra Ovalis, the vibration of which causes the Perilymph, Endo- Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 69 lymph, Otoliths and Auditory Hairs to vibrate in turn. The vibrations of the auditory hairs cause the Cells at their base to vibrate, and these again set up molecular disturb- ances in the Auditory Nerve Fibrils, which vibrations are conveyed to the Brain, where they cause changes in certain Fig. 29. — View of the Human Eye, divided horizontally through the middle. 1, conjunctiva ; 2, cornea; 3, sclerotic; 4, sheath of the optic nerve; 5, choroid ; 6, ciliary processes; 7, iris ; 8, pupil ; 9, retina; 10, anterior limit of the retina; n, crystalline lens; 12, suspensory ligament ; 13, ciliary muscle ; 14, aqueous chamber ; 15, vitreous chamber; 16, yellow spot ; 17, blind spot. parts of the brain tissue. The mind differentiates the vibra- tions and nervous changes, and interprets them as sensations of sound. By further psychical action the sound is inter- preted as that of a bell. 70 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The semicircular canals are probably not auditory in their function at all, but in conjunction with touch and sight assist in balancing the body. CLASSIFICATION OF THE SENSATIONS AND PER- CEPTS OF HEARING-. I. Those caused by regularly recurring vibrations. Music. II. Those caused by irregularly recurring vibrations. Noises. Many sounds, e.g., those of common speech, are due to a mixture of regular and irregular combinations of vibrations. SIGHT. Organ. — The eye. The Eye-ball (Fig. 29) has three Coats :— 1. The Sclerotic: external coat; white, strong and opaque; the "white" of the eye. In front the sclerotic becomes transparent, and is called the Cornea. Fig. 30. — Ciliary Processes and Retina as seen from behind. Twice the natural size. I, pupil ; 2, posterior surface of the iris ; 3, circular muscle of the iris ; 4, ciliary processes; 5, portion of the choroid. 2. The Choroid: middle coat; black, delicate and thin. In front it becomes modified into the Ciliary Processes and the Iris, the circular hole in which is termed the Pupil (Fig. 30). 3. The Retina: inner coat; covers the back part only of the eye. The structure of the retina is very complicated. It may be regarded as the end organ in which terminate the fibres of the optic nerve. The Rods and Cones are the Perception axd Sexses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 71 most remarkable structures of the retina. They are dis- tributed fairly uniformly except in two spots: — (1) The Yellow Spot or point of most acute vision where Rods only are found. (2) The Blind Spot or point of no vision where neither Rods nor Cones are found. Transparent Media of the Eye. 1 . The Cornea : already noticed. 2. The Aqueous Humour: a watery fluid between the cornea and the crystalline lens. 3. The Crystalline Lens : a double convex lens between the aqueous and the vitreous humour. 4. The Vitreous Humour : a semi-solid mass filling the large posterior chamber between the crystalline lens and the inner posterior surface of the eye-ball. Fig. 31. SENSATION OF SIGHT. Vibrations of ether traverse the Cornea, Aqueous Humour, Crystalline Lens, Vitreous Humour, and impinge upon the Retina, whence the vibrations are communicated by the Optic Nerve to the Brain, where nerve-cell changes of a certain kind occur. The mind differentiates these molecular changes and identifies them as Light. FORMATION OF AN IMAGE ON THE RETINA. If we interpose a double convex lens between a lighted candle and a sheet of paper, we notice that when the paper is at a suitable distance from the lens we get an inverted image of the candle upon the paper (Fig. 31). The lens of a photographic camera acts in the same way (Fig. 32). 72 Psychology in the Schoolroom, The crystalline lens acts as a double convex lens and throws upon the retina an inverted image of the thing I looked at (Fig. 32). ; If after we have obtained -" a clear image of the candle 3 upon the paper we move the < candle nearer the lens the a image becomes less distinct. j! If now we substitute a thicker ^ lens the image becomes clearer. * The same lens will not give d clear images of both near and jj distant objects. ACCOMMODATION THE EYE. OF The eye has to look at near and distant objects. We have seen that for a clear im- age of a near object a thicker lens is required than for a clear image of a distant object. It is obvious that the crystal- line lens cannot be changed, as the lenses were changed in the last experiment. The difficulty is surmounted by the crystalline lens changing its thickness. For near objects the crystalline lens becomes more convex in front, and con- sequently thicker from front to back. For distant objects it becomes less convex in front. k In a state of rest the front of the lens is kept somewhat flattened Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 73 by the suspensory ligament, which is attached to the crystalline lens and to the ciliary processes (Fig. 33). The ciliary processes are attached to the ciliary muscle, which is itself firmly attached to the point of junction of the cornea and sclerotic. When the ciliary muscle con- tracts the ciliary processes are pulled forward. This loosens the suspensory ligament, and the crystalline lens by its own elasticity becomes more convex. The strain felt in looking at an object very near to the eye is the muscular feeling due to the contraction of the ciliary muscle. Far hear Fig. 33. — Diagram to Illustrate Accommodation. Sc, sclerotic ; C.P., ciliary processes ; CM., ciliary muscle ; Sp.L., suspensory ligament ; C.L., crystalline lens. THE MUSCLES OF THE EYE. The eye is moved by six muscles. The position and names of the muscles are shown in Fig. 34. It is merely necessary to note that the amount and direction of the movement of the eye are inferred from the muscular sensations of one or more of these six muscles. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSATIONS AND PERCEPTS OF SIGHT. I. Sight Proper. (a) Light, as distinguished from darkness. (b) Colour. II. Sight combined with Muscular Sensations. (a) Movement. A very young child will follow a moving light with his eyes, thus showing the early (perhaps the 74 Psychology in the Schoolroom. instinctive) tendency to connect sight proper and the muscular sensations. Movements are interpreted as slow, quick, up, down, etc., according to the muscular sensations caused in one or more of the six muscles connected with the movement of the eye. Fig. 34.— The Muscles of the Right Orbit. e, sphenoid bone ; 1, muscle which raises the upper lid ; 2, pulley and tendon of the superior oblique ; 3, tendon of the superior rectus ; 4, external rectus — partly removed in lower part of figure; 5, inferior oblique muscle; 6, inferior rectus; 7, internal rectus ; 8, optic nerve. (b) Distance. Sight proper would seem to be powerless to estimate distance. Dr. Cheselden's patient, a boy about twelve years of age, who had been born blind, and whose sight was restored by a successful operation, at first " thought that all objects touched his eyes, as what he felt did his skin." The first perception of distance is undoubtedly obtained through arm movement. After numerous unsuccessful attempts, a conjunction is effected Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 75 between sight and the muscular sense, and the child learns exactly how much effort is required to touch an object which makes a certain impression on the retina. The ocular percepts become signs signifying the amount of muscular energy necessary. After constant repetitions the muscular movements are disregarded. Hence we imagine that we see distance, whereas we really infer it. Ocular Signs connected with the Perception of Distance. 1. The comparative dimness or distinctness of outlines and colours on the retina. 2. The muscular sensations dependent on the accom- modation of the eye. The " bursting " feeling and the subsequent tired feeling in the eye are due to the contrac- tion of the ciliary muscles. 3. The varying degrees of convergence of the axes of the eyes. Fig. 36. The axes of the two eyes are always directed to the same point in the visual field. Thus in Fig. 35 they are directed to A, in Fig. 36 to A. In looking at a near object, A, the axes converge at A, making an angle, L A R (Fig. 35). In looking at a more remote object, A', the axes converge at A', making an angle, L' A' R' (Fig. 36), which is more acute than the angle L A R. The perception of very remote distances is really a question of inference. If we wish to estimate the distance of some object on the hill top, such as a tree, we note the apparent size of the tree, and from that infer the distance. (c) Form. 1. Plane Surfaces. — Perception of difference of form is due to two causes : — 76 Psychology in the Schoolroom. (1) Differences of images on retina. The crystalline lens throws on the retina a triangular image of a triangle, a rectangular image of a rectangle, etc. (2) Differences of muscular sensation. The movement of the eye in following the shape of the Great Bear is different from that employed in following the shape of Charles' Wain. 2. Solids. — Although a solid body (if not too distant) projects two dissimilar images on the two retinas, yet observations on people born blind who have been restored to sight show that sight alone cannot give us perception of solidity. A child gains his first ideas of solidity through the tactile and muscular senses. The sunbeam offers no resist- ance to his grasp ; the rails of his cot do offer resistance. He can thrust his hand into the water, but not into the soap of his morning bath. The use of the two hands is Tactual .Percepts ffwe rise- to Itie-CL of Solidity. VisioaZ Percepts ytuerise- to Fig. 37. Visual Images of Objects. called into play for objects too large to be grasped single- handed. Crawling and walking round objects all tend to give an idea of solidity. All this time the sense of sight is being exercised in looking at objects, noting their forms, the light and shade on different parts, etc. This state of things may be represented graphically in Fig. 37, where the two processes go on concurrently, but no connection is as yet established between them. The visual percepts, after numberless coincidences, be- come connected with the tactual ones, and assist in giving the idea of solidity (Fig. 38). The tactual percepts gradually become of less import- ance, while the visual percepts gradually become more important, and by-and-by are all sufficient for giving the idea of solidity (Fig. 39). Perception axd Sexses of Touch, Sight axd Hearixc. 11 Hence the psychological soundness of Frobel's doctrine that the perception of form is best gained through manual reproduction. A child who has made several clay cubes would never commit the error of supposing that a cube has only four sides. PERCEPTION OF SELF. I. Perception of the Bodily Self. (<;) The importance of tactile percepts in the perception of self. The child soon begins to discriminate objects from one another. The discrimination of self from other objects belongs to a later stage. The earliest definite notions of self are probably acquired through examination of the body by Percept,? Fig. 38. •y 1 Idea of Solutiti/. Visual -Percep ts Percepts Jdea, of' j ywerLse to Fig. 39. SolCdtO/ j means of the sense of touch. The child on touching the side of his cot has one percept — that of active touch. When he touches a part of his own body he has two percepts — one of active touch localised in the hand, and another of passive touch localised in the part of the body experimented on. Thus in a rudimentary way he begins to divide objects into those that 3'ield him one percept (not-self) and those that yield him two (self). The self-grasping, self-bitings, self-strikings of young children all tend to the same end — the differentia- tion of self from not-self. (b) Sight assists touch. The child watches the motion of his arms, legs, etc., and probably connects the sight of movement with the feelings in the muscles due to motion. (c) The Trunk is first recognised as a part of Self. 78 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Although the limbs by their movements force themselves so much into notice, yet the trunk (on account of its intimate connection with the organic sensations — hunger, thirst, etc.) is probably the part of the anatomy first recognised as Self. The child now begins to call himself by the name by which he is usually addressed. (d) Next the Hands and Feet. The hands are next re- cognised as a part of self, probably from the habit which all children have of sucking their fingers, and also from the fact that the hands so frequently pass over the field of vision. The incorporation of the feet as a part of self comes later. A child offers a biscuit to his toes, evidently regarding them as not-self. (e) Lastly the Head. A child does not strike his trunk or limbs with his rattle, yet continues to strike his head, and desists only after many painful experiences. The reason for the late inclusion of the head as a part of self is doubtless due to the fact that the head cannot be seen. The Month is recognised as a part of self long before the rest of the head. The incorporation of the first person pronouns into the vocabulary marks the final stage in the perception of the bodily self, and does not take place till the beginning of the third year. II. Perception of Mental Self. The body is to young children the chief part of self. The recognition of the mind as self belongs to a much later date. The child's attention is at first directed outwards. The development of certain egoistic impulses, as pride, rivalry, and a growing susceptibility to praise and blame, tend to direct the thoughts inwards. The final stage is reached when self is recognised as the subject of thought, feeling and will, and the body is referred to the not-self. the relative: intellectual importance of the senses. The senses, as we have seen, easily fall into two classes : — Perception and Senses of Touch, Sight and Hearing. 79 I. Those more immediately connected with the Organic Sensations — Taste and smell. II. Those more immediately connected with Intellectual Operations — Touch (the muscular sense), hearing, sight. Taste and smell have been described as the "sentinels" of the alimentary and respiratory systems — the " servants of the body rather than the soul." Their function in life pre- servation is very great, but intellectually they are inferior to the other senses. Taste and Smell are inferior to the other Senses in the following respects : — 1. They are wanting in definiteness. We are apt to confuse smell with taste, e.g., flavours (p. 54). 2. The discrimination of varieties is difficult. We can- not distinguish two tastes or two odours that present them- selves in rapid succession. After smelling carnations the rose seems odourless. 3. They arc very variable, being sometimes efficient, and sometimes not. 4. They do not give us much knowledge of the external world. Only a small minority of things are capable of being tasted and smelled. How little would a child learn that could not see, hear or feel ! 5. They do not admit of easy recall. We can more easily recall the sight image of the rose than the smell image of its fragrance. The Relative Importance of Touch, Hearing and Sight. Touch is by some regarded as the most important sense, because the others are apparently derived from it (p. 63), and certainly depend upon it for confirmation. During in- fancy, too, much of our knowledge is derived through touch. In adult life hearing and seeing stand forth pre-eminently as the intellectual senses, and the eye must be awarded the palm as the intellectual sense organ. Our " memories " are chiefly visual ones. Our visual images are more numerous and admit of more easy recall than our auditory images. 80 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Summary. Perception. The process of localising sensations and referring them to definite objects. A Percept is the result of an act of perception. The Intellectual Senses are : — 1. Touch and the Muscular Sense. 2. Hearing. 3. Sight. Touch. Organ. — Touch Corpuscles, in Papilla?, in Dermis, in Skin. Sensibility of skin is proportionate to frequency of papilla:. The Muscular Sense. Organ. — The Muscles. Classification of f I. Passive Touch. — Touch proper. Soft Touches, Smarts, etc. Sensations and \ II. Active Touch. — Touch combined with muscularity. Hardness, Percepts of Touch. *- Roughness, Weight, etc. f I. Of Movement. (a) Connected with touch. | Help in the perception of short r {b) ,, „ sight, i distances. II. Of Strain and Resistance. {a) Connected with touch. Help in the perception of weight. (b) „ „ sight. Help in the perception of distance. Classification of Muscular Sensations and Percepts. Hearing. Oro-an ( *" External ear — Pinna, auditory canal. Thp- Far I ^" Middle ear — or tympanum. ( 3. Inner ear — Osseous and membranous labyrinth. Path of Aerial Waves. — Pinna, auditory canal, tympanic membrane, auditory ossicles, fenestra ovalis, perilymph, endolymph, otoliths, auditory hairs and cells, auditory nerve. Sight. Ifl. Sclerotic (and cornea). Coats. \ 2. Choroid (and iris). 1 3. Retina. hens. Crystalline. ( 1. Aqueous. Humours. -. „ , ri (2. Vitreous. Path of Ether Waves. — Cornea, aqueous humour, crystalline lens, vitreous humour, retina, optic nerve. Accommodation of the Eye. 1. The crystalline lens throws an image on the retina. 2. For the formation of clear images varying " convexities " of the crystalline lens are required. 3. The ciliary muscle helps to regulate the varying convexities of the lens — the front becomes more^ convex for near than for distant objects. Perception and Senses oe Touch, Sight and Hearing, 81 f I. Sight Proper. Light and colour. Classification of r( a ) Movement. Visual Sensations-^ II. Sight combined with] (b) Distance. and Percepts. Muscularity. j (Distance is inferred, not seen.) I 1(c) Form. The Five Senses arranged in order of intellectual Importance. — (1) sight ; (2J hearing ; (3) touch ; (4) smell ; (5) taste. QUESTIONS. i. — Give a general account of the more important processes involved in perception or apprehension through the senses. (L.U.) 2- — Bring out fully the part taken by the sense of touch (active touch) in the ,, development of our perceptions of form, and show the bearing of the principles on the right methods of early training in the perception of form. (C.P.) 3.— Illustrate the growth in a child of the idea of self. (E.D.) 4- — Analyse the process of perception with a view to show what constitutes bad or false perception, and how it may be remedied. (E.D.) 5- — Describe fully the process which goes on when we perceive an object, and explain, as to a class of sixth standard children, the structure and working of the organs of sight. (E.D.) 6. — What is perception, and how is it distinguished from sensation ? How does a child learn to recognise by the eye objects as the same at different distances? (C.P.) 7. — May the sensation of sight be produced without the use of the eye? If so, how? 8. — A person may be deaf although the ear is perfect in all its parts. Explain this. 9. — Why is it necessary to make use of the sense of touch in exercising children in the perception of objects ? Illustrate what kind of help you would expect to get from appealing to this sense. (C.P.) 10. — Explain fully how a child learns (a) to localise his sensations in a definite part of his body ; (b) to recognise by sight the solid or cubical form of an object. (C.P.) 11. — What is the importance of sense discrimination as a factor in the knowledge of things? Examine the following: "The retentive power works up to the height of the discriminative power; it can do no more." (C.P.) 12. — Give a brief account of the mental process by which we see and recognise some familiar object, say an umbrella among other umbrellas in a stand, bringing out more particularly the parts played by discrimination and assimilation. (C.P.) 13. — Compare the importance of touch and sight with taste and smell as sources of knowledge. (E.D.) 14. — It is said that the sense of touch is necessary to a clear perception of form in an object. Explain what is meant here, and show what use you would make of this sense in object teaching. (C.P.) 15. — Give a short account of the sensation of strain or resistance. (C.P.) 16.— Illustrate and explain by help of scientific principles the saying that "a child must learn to see objects." When and how should this learning be acquired? (C.P.) 17. — What is meant by education in sense perception ? How are other mental activities affected when this has been neglected? (C.U.) xS. — Compare the different senses (a) as sources of knowledge, (b) as sources of feeling. (V.U.) ig — What are the sensations frequently grouped as " the muscular sense" ? Dis- cuss their physiological basis, (V.U.) 20. — What conclusions can be drawn as to visual perceptions from cases of patients born blind and made to see? (V.U.) 2i. — Discuss the importance of eye movements in developing the perception of space. (V.U.) 6 82 CHAPTER VI. OBSERVATION. 1. General Definition. " To observe is to look at a thing closely, to take careful note of its several parts or details." (Sully.) Note the order of the definition. Proper observation implies the observation of the whole, before the observation of details. Looking closely at a thing implies attention, or a series of acts of attention, hence the following definition. 2. Observation in its relation to Attention. Observation is " a series of connected acts of attention." Percepts are among the objects of attention, hence the following. 3. Observation in its relation to Perception. " Observation is regulated perception." (Sully.) 4. Observation in its relation to Attention and Perception. Observation is " that prolonged perception which the attention directs towards a determined object." (Compayre.) The second, third and fourth definitions are wider than the first. Observation in its widest sense implies not only a re- gulated attention to sights, but also to sounds, touches, smells and tastes, and even to ideas in the mind. Still, on account of the overwhelming importance of the form element, the remarks on observation will have reference mainly to visual observation. 5. Observation in its relation to Experiment. Examples : — (a) A teacher applies heat and converts water into steam. (6) He takes a metal bar and shows that it gets longer on Observation. 8 'S being heated, and that the more it is heated the longer it gets. (e) He can get his children to observe the clouds, and after lessons on evaporation and condensation, he leads his pupils to the theory of the formation of clouds. (d) He gets them to examine the rocks in the locality, and after suitable illustrations and experiments, gets them to see that some were probably formed by the action of water, others by the action of heat. All these would be exercises in observation, but a brief ;xamination will reveal some important differences in these various acts of observation. In (a) he takes a cause (licat) and produces an effect (steam). In (b) he takes a cause (heat), and by varying the degrees of the cause (applying more or less heat) he produces different effects (varying lengths of the bar). In (c) he observes an effect (clouds), and from this effect he works backwards to the causes (evaporation, condensation, etc.). He is certain of both cause and effect, but he cannot control either of them. In (d) he can observe an effect (stratification), and from that he can infer the cause (action of water), but he cannot be certain as to whether his supposed cause has really pro- duced this special effect. In (a) and (b) In (c) and (d) (1) He takes the cause, and (1) He observes the effects, experiments for its effects. and infers the causes. (2) He is an active ob- (2) His state rather ap- server. proaches a passive one. (3) He experiments. (3) He observes. Experiment is that kind Observation is that kind if experience in which we of experience in which we take causes and examine are able to note cause and the effects which these effect, but are unable to ;auses produce. influence either; or it is that kind of experience in which we are able to note the effect only. In experiment, man is master of circumstances; in )bservation, circumstances are master of the man. 84 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Experiment is more potent as a knowledge-giving ex- perience than observation. " We might have to wait years or centuries to meet accidentally with facts which we can readily produce at any moment in a laboratory." (Jevons.) SCIENCES OF OBSERVATION AND SCIENCES OF EXPERIMENT. Such sciences as meteorology, geology, mineralogy, botany, are sciences of observation. In them we deal mainly with effects ; in some cases we do not even know the causes of the effects. Thus "male" and "female" are "effects" we meet with in botany and zoology ; we know practically nothing of their causes. In some cases, as in meteoro- logy, we know (or think we know) both cause and effect, but we cannot control either. It should be noted that within limits some of the sciences mentioned above are experimental. When the botanist watches the effect of light, electricity, soil, etc., on the growth of plants, he is conducting experiments rather than making observations. Such sciences as chemistry, magnetism, electricity, etc., are experimental sciences, because when we study them we can take causes and produce effects, and we can vary those causes and produce varying effects. It is observation in its widest sense, and not observation as contrasted with experiment, that is dealt with in the following pages. OBSERVATION IN CHILDREN. 1. Observation in Infancy. — What the infant six months or even a year old sees is a matter of great uncertainty. The eye has to learn to see, and it is not till babyhood is past and childhood begins that the perceptual powers and the attention are sufficiently developed to make observation possible. 2. Observation in Childhood. — With certain reserva- tions given below, the recognition of form is one of the easiest ways of testing a child's power of observation, and it is interesting to note how much children really do observe. One method, but not an infallible one, of testing a child's powers of observation is by means of drawing from memory. Observation. 85 Fig. 40 is a drawing of a " man " by a boy barely three years of age. It consists of a rounded form (probably the head) and two legs. Fig. 40. Fig. 41. A class of Board School children, aged three and a half years, were asked to draw a clock, a man and a horse. Figs. 41, 42, 43 were the three best drawings — all the work Fig. 43. Fig. 42. of the same embryo artist. The five hands to the clock (Fig. 41) are perhaps intended to represent the fact that the hands occupy varying positions. 86 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The man (Fig. 42) is a brave effort. The upper segment represents the head with the two ears. The two dots are a recognition of the fact that there is something on the face. The second segment probably represents, not the neck, but that part of the trunk above the waist, which is forced into children's notice by the belts or sashes they often wear. It will be noted that the proportions of head, trunk and legs are fairly accurate. He entirely omits the arms — a common failing with the early draughtsman. In some hundreds of childish drawings that have passed Fig. 44. under the writers' notice, they have never seen one in which the legs were omitted and the arms put in. After his previous efforts, his horse (Fig. 43) is decidedly disappointing. The seven legs show serious lack of powers of observation. The arms seem a difficulty with children. They are put in all positions, springing from the neck, as in Fig. 44, from the head, and even from the legs. In a class of thirty-five children, aged five years, asked to draw a man, six drew the face in profile, and of these six Observation. 87 four drew both eyes, and two of these four drew two noses, a full face and a side face nose (Fig. 45). A class of thirty-eight girls, aged seven to eight, were asked to draw a man and a woman. No less that twenty- Fig. 45 . eight drew the woman without a skirt, and made practically no difference between the man and the woman (Figs. 46 and 47). Four who drew the skirt made the legs showing through it. Every child in a class of forty-one, told to draw a man on horseback, showed both legs of the man, 88 Psychology in the Schoolroom. A further examination of children's drawings shows that not only is the average child's observation inaccurate, but that it is singularly capricious and one-sided. One illustra- tion must suffice. In Fig. 48 the child, aged seven, who is hopelessly wrong in the position and proportion of the arms and hands, nevertheless depicts in minute detail the feathers in the hat and the buttons on the dress and boots. It is perhaps unnecessary to add that the artist was a girl. $0* Fig. 46. The defects of children's drawings are not entirely attributable to defective Observation. Drawing from memory entails both the power to recall and the power to reproduce on paper the image recalled. The faculty of observation might be good, but memory and manual dexterity might be deficient. Professor Sully regards many of the drawings of children as pictorial definitions. If this is so, then it is because the Observation. 89 child wishes to express the fact that a man has two eyes that he puts them in a profile face, and it is because he wishes to show that a man has two legs that he shows them both in a drawing of a man on horseback. Vet when all these allowances have been made, it would still seem that the incorrectness of drawing is in a large measure due to defective observation. & Fig. 47. We are apt to overestimate the child's powers of Observation. Mr. Stanley Hall in his interesting little book, The Contents of Children's Minds, says that those who have not carefully observed children give them credit for knowing more than 90 Psychology in the Schoolroom. they really do know. He gives a number of interesting and convincing examples of deficient and incorrect obser- vation and sums up his remarks as follows: "While no child has all these misconceptions, none are free from them, and thus the liabilities are great that in this chaos of half- assimilated impressions, half right, half wrong, some lost link may make utter nonsense or mere verbal cram of the most careful instruction." And again : " There is nothing of pedagogic value the knowledge of which it is safe to Fig. 48. assume at the outset of school life." Hence the educa- tional necessity of object and kindergarten lessons as a preliminary to the beginning of more formal instruction. Defective Observation is however not confined to children. Many imperfectly educated persons will print 2 for S, and many well-educated people, when asked to print V or W, put the thick strokes in the wrong position. " It is astonishing how much we all go about with our eyes open and see nothing. This is because the organ of vision like other organs requires training, and by lack of training and the slavish dependence on books becomes dull and slow and ultimately incapable of exercising its natural function. Let those studies be regarded as primary that ask young people to know what they are seeing and to see what they would otherwise fail to see." (John Stuart Blackie.) Observation. 91 Town and Country Children contrasted as regards powers of Observation. The town child lives in the midst of whir and bustle. Many things are presented to his notice. His observation is distracted, opportunities of concentration are few, and the lack of concentration prevents proper development. The London boy is " like one of his own sparrows, in this street one moment, in that street the next ; he has plenty of ideas, but no distinct ideas, he is quick, but wanting in depth, though his knowledge covers a wide surface." The country child leads a quieter life, fewer things come under his notice, and he gains a better acquaintance with those few things. The town teacher has to correct, regulate and control the observation of his pupils ; the country teacher has rather to stimulate and extend the observation of the children committed to his care. ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATION. Three factors stand out prominently in any act of obser- vation. They cannot be isolated, and are dependent one on the other. 1. Perceptual Elements. The accurate noting of what is presented to the eye. 2. Elements of Attention involving some command of the will and the awakening of interest. 3. Correct Interpretation of the Perceptual Elements. This depends largely on the previous store of images, whether they are, or are not, suitable for the elucidation of the present ideas. Correct interpretation is often hindered by prepossession of some idea. " To observe accurately is to put aside prepossession, to restrain the imagination, and to direct the mind with singleness of purpose to what is actually present to the senses.'' TRAINING OF THE POWERS OF OBSERVATION. Since perception and attention are factors in observation, it follows that the training of the powers of observation in- 92 Psychology in the Schoolroom. eludes the training of the powers of perception and attention (see pp. 97 to 107 and pp. 38 to 44). The training of the ob- serving faculty is the antithesis of book learning. The necessity of a special training in observation is becoming better understood. Many of us are the product of text- book learning, and find it difficult to embrace the new order of ideas. Book learning, as distinguished from thing learning, has probably something to do with the preference shown by our young people for clerical as contrasted with manual labour, and for town as contrasted with country life. Cultivation of the powers of observation does much to inculcate a love of Nature, and to give a preference for country life. The object of the teacher should be to get the children to observe a few things thoroughly. The facts gained from observation are really of secondary importance. It is the power to observe which is the thing ; it is the habit of obser- vation which is to be cultivated. This is better done " by the thorough examination of a few objects than by the superficial treatment of many." Many school subjects may be made the means of training the powers of observation ; a few of these only can be considered. Object Lessons. Observations should be first directed to things as wholes. The special thing under observation should be compared and contrasted with other better known things. Thus the most striking and salient features of the subject of the lesson can be studied. Then some of the less important features may be noticed. Lastly, the results of all the acts of observation should be summed up and definitely connected with the object. The child should always be required to state the results of his observation in his own words. It is a common mistake for the teacher to state the result of an act of observation, and then turn to the object to substantiate his statement. " The object is not allowed to speak for itself, eloquent though it is, and capable though Observation. 93 it is of adapting its teaching to the youngest child who questions it. The teacher buries it under a heap of words and second-hand statements, thereby converting the object lesson into a verbal lesson and throwing away golden op- portunities of forming the scientific habit of mind." Such teachers teach " as though their pupils had eyes that saw not, and ears that heard not, and palates that tasted not, and skins that felt not, and muscles that would not work. They have insisted on taking the words out of Nature's mouth and speaking for her." (Canon Daniel.) Guide and in a measure control the observation of your pupils, put before them a set of facts, and get them to draw their own observations from those facts. Try to make your children discoverers rather than weary pilgrims along a beaten track. This is one of the refinements of the teacher's art to be attained only after long practice. Many lessons are called object lessons in which pictures usurp the place of objects. A picture is at best an imperfect symbol of the thing, and appeals to one sense only. The thing, the whole thing, and little else but the thing should be a guiding principle in object lessons. The rough black- board sketches drawn by the teacher are really the best pictures. Elementary Science. Lessons in elementary science when properly given afford unlimited means for the cultivation of observation. Text- books do much to prevent the development of the powers of observation, because they give the pupil second hand what he should acquire first hand. Too many teachers are addicted to allowing the class to read the book, and then bringing the specimen or the experiment forward to prove the facts stated. This, as we have seen (p. 32), stifles curiosity, fails to arouse full interest, and we can now add that it does not give a full training in observation. The ideal plan is for the pupil to use at first only one text-book — the text-book of Nature, to train the pupil to 94 Psychology in the Schoolroom. study that "book," and to record the results of his obser- vations. The records should be entered in a note-book, verified by the teacher, and preserved for revision work-. Of course as the pupil advances an ordinary text-book becomes necessary. Geography. The young learner of geography is too often set to learn "definitions'' from a text-book. He recites his lesson cor- rectly, and the teacher deludes himself into the belief that the scholar is learning some geography. But the child rarely realises that the things about which he reads are ever before his eyes, that the slope he walks up on his way to school has many points in common with the mountain, that the gutter after the April shower is typical of the river. The teacher should teach the beginnings of geography not from text-books nor even by word of mouth, but should get the children to observe (by means of school excursions and in other ways) the geographical features of the immediate neighbourhood. The environment of the school must be uninteresting indeed that does not furnish examples of most of the commoner geographical terms. When the district near the school has been thoroughly explored, wider excur- sions should be taken. Objects of industry and commerce may be next dealt with. The formal study of geography from text-books may then be commenced. Articles of trade should, as far as possible, be shown to the class ; pictures, diagrams, models should be pressed into service. The "things afar" of the text-book should be illustrated by the "things near" within the observation of the pupils. Even such subjects as grammar and history may be made to cultivate the powers of observation. Grammar. The teacher should write on the blackboard a set of examples which especially illustrate the point he wishes to teach. He should get the children to observe these examples, and by careful questioning he should bring out Observation. 95 the " point" which is the subject of the lesson. He should then draw up a rule or definition based on the results of the observation of the class. Lastly, the definition should be applied to new cases. Oral work should be taken as well as written work. Thus observation through the ear will be cultivated. Drawing up tables of conjugations, typical examples for word building, examples in sentence building, all furnish means of cultivating observation. History. The study of history should commence, not with the first Roman invasion, but with some object connected with history within the environment of the pupil. Our English coins, an election, the policeman, the town hall, the market cross, the village church, the neighbouring castle can be made materials for cultivating the powers of observation, and starting points for the study of history. Writing' and Drawing are two subjects which culti- vate the powers of observation. In drawing it is especially necessary for the pupil to observe as a whole the thing which is to be drawn. Too often the drawings are faulty because the pupil has observed minutely some part of the object before gaining an accurate appreciation of the thing as a whole. Summary. Observation. — "To observe is to look at a thing closely, to take careful note of its several parts or details." (Sully.) Observation in Children is singularly deficient and capricious. Observation involves : — 1. Perceptual elements. 2. Elements of attention. 3. The correct interpretation of the perceptual elements. The Training of the Powers of Observation is the antithesis of book learning. Lessons especially valuable for the Training of the Powers of Observation. — Object lessons, science, geography and drawing lessons. Even Grammar and History Lessons can be made to train the powers of observation. 96 Psychology in the Schoolroom. questions. i. — What is meant by the faculty of observation ? How would you endeavour to cultivate it (a) in a town school, (&) in a rural school? (E.D.) 2. — Distinguish between observation and experiment. What use does the teacher make of this distinction ? (E.D.) 3. — Define sensation, perception and observation, and show how they are related one to the other. What can the teacher do to improve the observing faculties of his pupils? (L.U.) „14. — How would you cultivate the observing powers in the successive stages of education? (L.U.) 5.— What are the principal conditions necessary for rendering an object lesson in observation effective? (L.U.) 6. — " We cannot properly observe unless we can describe what we observe." (Mill.) Carefully consider the relation of observation to description in connection with intel- lectual operation. (L.U.) 7. — Describe carefully the value of pictorial illustration in class teaching. What dangers have to be guarded against in the use of pictures ? (L.U.) 8. — Show how a habit of close observation of the distinctive characteristics of objects may be best cultivated in young children. (E.D.) 9. — What are the aims of the methods of the educator in exercising the powers of observation? Does the training of observation belong to one particular stage of education, or should it be continued throughout? (C.P.) 10. — Show how the grammar of the mother tongue may be taught as a science of observation. (C.P.) n. — What physical sciences are best fitted to cultivate observation? Explain why it is that in teaching physical science these disciplinary advantages are often not secured, (C.P.) 12. — What do you understand by observation ? Do you consider it necessary to train all children to observe? Give full reasons for your answer. (L.U.) 13. — What is meant by training the observing faculty of children? Is this a separate branch of intellectual education ? Can it be reduced to a methodical form ? (C.U.) ^j 14. — How soon in a scholar's career would you begin to teach drawing, and when and in what circumstances should you cease to include it in a school course ? • Give your reasons. (C.U.) 97 CHAPTER VII. THE DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING OF THE SENSES. CAUSES OF DIFFERENCES OF RATES OF DEVELOP- MENT. I. Differences of Inherited Dispositions. — The child from an artistic family is likely to show an earlier dis- crimination of colour and form, the child of savage tribes a greater appreciation of differences of sound, etc., than the ordinary child. Owing to past ancestral experiences, the child's temperament more readily responds to stimuli of one kind than another. II. Differences of Environment. — A child's sensibility " grows by what it feeds on." The child from an artistic family could show no discrimination of colour if confined in a room, the walls and furniture of which were of one uniform tone. The savage child would develop no acute- ness of hearing if kept in perfect silence. ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT IS ON THE WHOLE UNDJORM. But bearing these facts in mind, we find in the average child a fairly uniform manifestation of the order of sense development. We must not imagine on glancing at the next few headings that the sense of touch springs into being before the sense of sight, etc. The normal child has in his earliest days all his senses, and can exercise them, although of course in a very rudimentary way. What is meant is that the sense of touch is developed in early childhood more rapidly than the sense of sight, etc. 7 98 Psychology in the Schoolroom. ORDER OF SENSE DEVELOPMENT. Leaving out of consideration the organic sensations, the most imperative of which are spontaneously active soon after birth, but which, on account of their low intellectual value, need not detain us, we can pass on to consider the order of the development of the more intellectual senses. 1. Touch. — Touch and the allied Muscular Sense are the first to be exhibited. The new-born babe shows evidence of distinct pain from pricking, pinching, etc. During the first few weeks of baby life the rate of the development of touch is far in excess of the rate of development of the other senses. The baby hand will clasp the mother's finger long before any notice is taken of the mother's voice or the mother's face. 2. Sight. — Evidence of sight is sometimes shown on the day of birth, but as a rule at first there is a distaste for light, and it is not till some time has elapsed that any eagerness for it is shown. The child at first merely dis- criminates light from darkness, next he learns to distinguish objects. The perception of solidity and distance arises from complex causes at a much later date (p. 75). 3. Hearing. — Loud noises startle many day-old children. At first the infant merely discriminates great noise from little or no noise. Later on he learns to distinguish his mother's voice. But this sense is comparatively slow in development, and does not progress much until the child begins to endeavour to imitate articulate speech. 4. Taste. — Some place Taste as the sense first de- veloped. Certainly the baby vomits unsuitable food, but this rejection is perhaps due rather to general sensations connected with the digestive system (e.g., nausea) than to the sense of taste proper. The child soon carries all things he can handle to his mouth, and thus gives himself exercise in this sense. Its development is, however, very slow. 5. Smell would seem to be developed last of all, and like taste its potentiality of development is small. The Development and Training of the Senses. 99 training of the senses. By the Training of the Senses is meant the regular and systematic exercise of the organs of sense with a view to making the sense=percepts thereby acquired the efficient instruments of reasoning. THE NECESSITY FOR SENSE-TRAINING. The assertion that the senses do not require training is founded upon ignorance of the development of the higher intellectual powers. " Misled by erroneous notions of human dignity, older pedagogic methods have endeavoured to overleap the first stage of nature's culture, and to give a training of conceptions before, and in place of, that of perceptions." The training of the senses is a necessary preliminary to the training of the higher powers of mind. Comenius said : " There is nothing in the mind that is not first in the senses." Accurate sense-perceptions are the best and indeed the only preliminaries to accurate reasoning. The mind can erect a substantial intellectual edifice upon a small basis of sensation, but there must be some sensory basis. The teacher who tries to train the powers of judg- ment and reasoning upon incomplete and inaccurate sense- perceptions is like the man who built his house upon the sand. The wise teacher endeavours to build up the intel- lectual edifice upon the rock of well-ordered and carefully trained sense-percepts. CONSIDERATIONS AS TO THE TIME AND WAYS OF TRAINING THE SENSES IN SCHOOLS. 1. The Training of the Senses should be the first care of the Teacher of the Young. The senses are first developed, then the reasoning powers. Therefore the senses should be the first to be trained. The infant sees, hears, feels ; he does not show any desire to know the why and the wherefore of his sense- percepts. The boy is at first contented to beat his toy drum, delighted with the noise he makes. The opening of the drum, to see 100 Psychology in the Schoolroom. where the sound comes from, belongs to a later period, and marks a distinct stage in intellectual development. The teacher receives the child with his senses somewhat developed, but they are often clumsy and inaccurate. It is the teacher's business to make them sufficiently accurate and delicate for the purposes of ordinary life and general intellectual culture. 2. Contact with Objects is a prime necessity in Sense-Training. Too many teachers teach, words and not things. They seem to think that "because words describing sensations can reach the mind, notions of the sensations must reach it also." Words may revive a past percept, they cannot teach a totally new one. A volume on the theory of music would give no idea of the diatonic scale to a man born deaf, nor can mere words give any idea of colour to a man born blind. Children should be allowed to see, touch, handle, and if necessary and convenient, taste and smell actual objects. It is in this way, and in this way only, that the senses can be effectively trained. Mother Nature does not explain what is meant by light and darkness, hard and soft, noise and quiet ; she presents her varied phenomena, and through them the child acquires his ideas. Language and Literature an apparent exception. In the case of language and literature it would seem at first sight that it is possible to teach words without things, and the marvellous power of verbal memory possessed by some children would seem to support this idea. But words are mere empty symbols if they do not represent ideas. Ideas are based on concepts, and we shall learn that concepts are built up from percepts. Hence, if words are to have their proper significance, the ideas which they represent must have been acquired ultimately through things. 3. The Senses should be trained in the order of their development. By this we do not mean that the teacher is to pay exclusive attention first to the training of touch, then to the training of sight. Psychology, for the sake of clearness, separates one faculty from another, but the ex- The Development and Training of the Senses. 101 elusive training of a single faculty is impossible. The train- ing of the hand involves the training of the eye, and the use of the higher faculties of judgment and reasoning. What is meant is that the teacher of very young children should devote special (but not exclusive) attention to the senses of touch and sight rather than to those of taste and smell. The child naturally desires to touch and to handle what he sees. The teacher should not act upon the " look but not touch " principle, but should allow the child to use his hands as well as his eyes. 4. As many of the Senses should be appealed to as possible. Almost every object appeals to more than one sense. Bunyan says that the town of Man-soul has five gates — ear-gate, eye-gate, etc. Too many teachers approach one gate only. In giving a lesson on copper, one teacher deals with the colour, and then passes on to some such topic as the method of obtaining the ore, thus appealing to one sense only — sight. Another teacher not only lets the child look at the copper, but lets him feel it, bend it, put the tongue to it, strike it, thus appealing to the senses of touch, muscularity, taste and hearing. Other teachers "knock" at as many "gates" as pos- sible. The child has not a complete percept of the thing " orange " unless he can recall its shape, colour, touch, smell and taste, and he can recall these ideas only after he has gained them through sense-perception. 5. The Senses should be trained in proportion to their intellectual importance. Sight and touch are par excel- lence the intellectual senses. The eye should be appealed to whenever possible. A child remembers what he sees much better than what he hears. The impressions gained through sight should be corrected by those gained through touch. A child, who, on being told to look at a brick and tell the number of its sides, answers that there are four, should be made to handle the brick and count the sides. 102 Psychology in the Schoolroom. activity is a necessity in sense-training. " Learn by doing " was Frobel's maxim. The spon- taneous activity of children is one of their most marked characteristics. The teacher should not repress this activity, but seek to divert it into the proper channels. A common mistake is to suppose that children must sit still and listen to the words of wisdom (or unwisdom) of the teacher, and afterwards reproduce the verbal signs of knowledge. Ac- tivity, not passivity, is the child's mental state. Children should always be kept doing something; "doing nothing" should not be tolerated. But the exercises given must not be pure mechanical repetition. The teacher who after he has shown a triangle wishes to impress upon the class the fact that a triangle has three sides, and who lets his class repeat " a triangle has three sides," "a triangle has three sides," ad nauseam, is con- demning his pupils to an intellectual treadmill. A better method of procedure would be somewhat as follows : — 1. Show pieces of cardboard of various sizes cut into triangles. Let children handle them. 2. Draw some triangles on the blackboard. 3. Show pictures of church spire, roof of house, etc. 4. Let children make triangles with pieces of wood, paper, etc., and let them draw some triangles on their slates. 5. Call attention to the fact that there is one thing common to all the shapes, namely, the presence of three sides. 6. Introduce the term triangle and draw up the definition. In this way a number of repetitions would have been made, seve- ral senses would have been exercised, and yet interest would have been maintained. " Varying the instances " is a unique recipe for the maintenance of attention. Exercise strengthens any faculty provided that exercise is neither too excessive nor too prolonged. Try to push off the weariness stage by making the work interesting, and one way to do this is to employ the activity of the children in as many ways as possible. THE TEACHER MUST PLAY A SUBORDINATE PART IN SENSE-TRAINING. It is his duty : — 1. To provide materials sufficient in number for ex- The Development and Training of the Senses. 103 tended observation, and sufficient in variety to evoke interest. 2. To simplify and graduate the exercises in sense- training. One step should lead to the next. There should be no leaps. We have to deal with the child, not with the adult. " The genuine trainer will think nothing too elemen- tary or familiar, will smile at no depth of simplicity, and frown at no amount of awkwardness." 3. To guide and in a measure to control the observation of his pupils, and to turn the results of those observations into stimuli for further efforts. After that the teacher's part is one of " masterly inactivity ; " the pupil must do the rest. " Nowhere perhaps is the limit of the teacher's power more plainly seen than in the education of the senses." (Sully.) OBSERVATIONS ON THE TRAINING OF PARTICU- LAR SENSES. SIGHT. I. Training in Colour= Perception. Colours, especially the primary ones, are very attractive to young children. The exact order in which we acquire the perception of various colours is uncertain. Professors Preyer and Hoffding seem to think that yellow is first discrimin- ated, while other authorities give preference to blue. Probably the precise order varies with the individual. Most teachers commence with the three primary colours, and then proceed to the secondary ones. There is no lack of variety in this exercise. Matching colours, threading coloured beads, crayon work, brush work may be called into requisition. Probably more attention is given to this sub- ject in infant schools than its merits deserve. Our children will not all become artists. Still the subject gives abundant exercise in the discriminative faculty, and is always an inter- esting one to children. II. Training in Form = Perception. (1) Kindergarten. The kindergarten exercises give abundant facilities for the training of form-perception. Its 104 Psychology in the Schoolroom. especial merit in this respect is its insistence on the connec- tion of hand and eye. (2) Drawing. This subject is taught too often on wrong principles. Children are wearied with countless re- petitions of perpendicular, horizontal and slanting right lines. The child who spontaneously tries to draw always attempts the delineation of an object. The special delight of drawing is the satisfaction it affords to the imitative and creative instincts. The teacher should let the children satisfy this instinct by allowing them to draw actual objects. The blackboard, the door, a kite afford materials for such lessons. The use of rulers and squared paper will enable young children to get over the difficulty of making straight lines, and will allow them to devote attention to the propor- tion of the object. The first attempts will be crude, but continued practice will yield better results. Afterwards the lines of the object may be analysed and the whole drawn by freehand. The T-square, set-square, clock-face, hoop, bat and spade furnish more advanced exercises. At first only objects capable of representation in one plane should be attempted. What is ordinarily known as model drawing — a most useful exercise in form-perception — should be reserved for a later stage. (3) Writing. The teaching of writing should follow the teaching of elementary drawing, since writing is really a study in the drawing of some fifty-two forms. (4) Reading. The learning of the alphabet is a difficulty with young children, partly on account of the difficulty of form-perception. The lessons in drawing may be utilised. The children should be made to draw the forms on their slates. Those easiest of discrimination (as /, o) should be taught first ; those requiring finer discrimination (as b, p, q) should be reserved for a later stage. Advantage must be taken of the " device of juxtaposition " in these exercises. (5) Object Lessons are especially adapted for teaching form-perception. Children should be allowed to handle as well as to see the objects. The Development and Training of the Senses. 105 (6) Geography, by the employment of models, diagrams and maps, gives some exercise in form-perception. III. Training in Perception of Distance. Actual objects should be measured. The inch, foot and yard should not be mere verbal signs to the children, but tangible distances. Every classroom should have the foot, yard and metre painted on its walls, and the length, breadth and height of the schoolroom should be learnt by actual measurement. The dimensions of the playground may next be noted by actual measurement, the time taken to walk its length ascertained, and then the distances of the school from home and from public buildings in the vicinity may be inferred. This method rests upon the psychological basis that distance is not seen but inferred (p. 75). TOUCH AND THE MUSCULAR SENSE. Touch without the muscular sense is of little use as a knowledge-giving sense. In a normal adult touch ranks below sight in the perception of form. It is not so with children, who gain their first knowledge of form through touch. Children trust more to touch than to sight, and even in adult life touch is the final criterion of sight-per- ception. Frobel was on sound lines when he insisted that the children must handle the kindergarten gifts. TRAINING IN FORM - PERCEPTION THROUGH TOUCH. 1. Drawing and Writing. — The part the muscular sense plays in these exercises is apt to be overlooked. Yet we can all write our names, and indeed a whole line, with our eyes closed, in which case we are guided entirely by the muscular sense. The teacher who makes his pupils "draw" a curve in the air, before drawing it on paper, is giving a specific exercise to this sense. Many exercises should be given in form-perception through touch before writing is taught. Kindergarten rightly makes clay model- ling, paper folding and elementary drawing antecedent to writing. 106 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 2. Manual Training. — Paper cutting, clay and cardboard modelling, needlework, cookery, laundry work, " wood work," Sloyd, metal work, all give abundant exercises in form-per- ception through touch and sight. There is some danger that in paper cutting and some other exercises the minute- ness of detail makes what should be beneficial hand and eye training, hand training and eye straining. 3. Object Lessons. — The distinction of hard from soft bodies, rough from smooth bodies, and the estimation of the weight of bodies, give valuable training in the mus- cular sense. HEARING. 1. Training of Hearing in Reading. — Monotonous reading is often caused by a lack of nice discrimination of auditory impressions. In the training of the discrimina- tive faculty wide differences should be first presented, and, as the faculty improves, small differences will be distin- guished. Hence the teacher should at first exaggerate the emphasis on words so as to bring the varied emphasis clearly before the children. As they become more expert a simpler and unaffected style may be gradually adopted. 2. Training of Hearing in Singing. — The education of the ear for music is slow. Noises startle the infant, but seem to please the growing child. " The more he is stunned, and the more he stuns others, the happier he seems.'' Singing, like speech, is a matter of imitation, and should be first learnt by the ear. The child speaks because he has heard others speak, he will sing from hearing others sing. After a time the notes of the diatonic scale should be introduced. Compayre is of opinion that in some schools too much importance is attached to singing by note, and that thus the only purely aesthetic subject in our schools is degraded into a mechanical routine. SMELLING AND TASTING. There is little opportunity of training these senses in school. The Development and Training of the Senses. 107 In the Object Lesson children should be allowed to smell and taste objects possessing distinct odour and taste, e.g., camphor, alcohol, paraffin. //; Practical Chemistry considerable opportunity arises for the cultivation of the sense of smell, but instruction in this subject comes too late to have any great effect in sense- training as a preliminary to higher mental training. DANGERS FROM AN ABUSE OF SENSE-TRAINING. 1. Sense-Training may be over=specialised. There is the ordinary sense-training, which endeavours to lay a founda- tion of accurate sense-percepts upon which the higher intellectual faculties may be raised, and there is the special sense-training of the painter and musician. The general training should not be carried so far as to become a means of special education. It is not our business to make our children embryo artists, or musicians, or mechanics, or chemists, but men and women of good perceptive power and sound judgment. 2. Sense-Training may be too prolonged. After a time sense-perception becomes automatic. Little attention and practically no judgment are necessary. A lesson in sense-training that might be a valuable exercise for a five- year-old child would be useless for a child three years his senior. " After some measure of training this kind of study is less a labour than a distraction." 3. Sense-Training may be too exclusive. " Too many of our authors talk as if there were a long period of the child's life in which he can do little but observe, when the perceptive powers employ the whole energy of the mind, and that consequently the sole duty of the teacher is to cram the mind with facts, making little or no effort, con- scious or unconscious, to enable the child to see the universal which underlies the particular. This is certainly an erroneous and injurious view.'' (De Garmo.) 4. Sense-Training has the possible defect of dealing too exclusively with individual notions, and not enough with general notions. A child has some, though a limited, power to generalise. He can reason in a rudi- mentary way, and care must be taken to give simple exercises in the higher mental faculties as well as a good training in sense-perception. Sense-training lessons are not an end in education, they are but a means of rising higher. 108 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Summary. Development depends on : — (1) Heredity. (2) Environment. Order of Sense-development : — 1. Touch. 2. Sight. 3. Hearing. 4. Taste. 5. Smell. Training of the Senses generally ; — 1. Especially important with young children. 2. Contact with objects a prime necessity. 3. Training should proceed in the order of intellectual develop- ment, and should be proportional to it. 4. The activity of children must be appealed to. Training of Special Senses : — 1. Sight may be trained in colour and form exercises and in the perception of distance. 2. Touch may be trained in drawing, writing, manual training and object lessons. 3. Hearing may be trained in reading and singing. Dangers from an Abuse of Sense-Training : — Sense-training may be over-specialised, may be too prolonged, or may be too exclusive. QUESTIONS. i. — What do you understand by training the senses? State concisely the advan- tages secured by it ; are any of these obtainable in other ways ? (E.D.) 2. — How would you set about the training of the senses with a view to secure a wide range as well as minute accuracy of observation ? (E.D.) 3. — What can be done in school to make hearing more sensitive and exact, or to improve the voice ? (E.D.) 4. — " Some of the senses are more precocious and others more tardy in their development, and besides, the senses are of unequal importance, and not rendering the same services do not deserve the same attention." Comment on this and illustrate your statement. Deduce practical considerations as to the times and ways of training the senses in school. (E.D.) 5. — Define precisely what you understand by training the senses of a child. Illus- trate how you would seek to carry out such training. (C.P.) 6.— What is meant by the training of the senses ? What are the proper place and value of this training in general education ? Examine the assertion (a) that the senses do not need training ; (6) that they can be overtrained. (C.P.) 7. — Take one of the three senses : sight, hearing, touch, and classify the sensations we receive by it : also show in what ways exercise improves the capacity of the sense, illustrating by a reference to elementary processes of instruction. (C.P.) 8. — It is said that the senses do not give us knowledge, but only the materials out of which knowledge is built up by the mind. Explain what is meant, and bring out by reference to an object lesson the bearing of this point on the proper method of object teaching. (C.P.) 9.— Explain psychologically the function of the senses in the growth of knowledge, and assign as accurately as you can the proper place of exercise and improvement of the senses in intellectual education. (C.P.) The Development and Training of the Senses. 109 io. — How far does your knowledge of the sense of sight support the principle of Frobel that a nice perception of form is best gained in connection with the device of manual reproduction ? (E.D.) ii. — What seems to you the specific excellences of sense-perception ? How far, and in what ways may these be obtained through systematic training ? (L.U.) 12. — Bring out the meaning of the principle "Exercise strengthens faculty," and show its bearings on education. Do all kinds of exercise develop the faculties? (C.P.) 13. — Explain why a teacher should begin a course of instruction with an exercise of the senses. What senses is it most important to exercise in connection with the work of teaching ? (C.P.) 14. — What is meant by exercising the senses? Discuss the question whether a high degree of sense-discrimination should be made a chief aim in education. (C.U.) 15. — Discuss the use of sense-training, and explain the methods of training the observation through sight and touch, singly or in co-ordination with each other. (V.U.) 110 CHAPTER VIII. MEMORY. Images and Percepts. (a) I try to remember what an orange is like. At first " something yellow " comes into mj' mind. This " something yellow " acquires a rounded shape and a definite size. Then the markings on the orange are recalled, also its feel, taste, smell, etc. At last I have a mental idea of the thing orange before me. I am never likely to mistake this idea " orange '' for the real "orange." If I now try to think of an apple, the idea " orange " gradually fades away, and the idea "apple" gradually takes its place. Provided I keep my attention firmly fixed, I can have the idea " orange " no matter whether I look upwards,, downwards or sideways. If I ask myself why I have the idea " orange " at all, I find that the idea " orange " is due to the recollection of an orange (or of many oranges) I have seen. When I looked at a real orange, a percept " orange " was presented to my mind; when I think of an orange, the revived percept (or idea " orange ") is represented to my mind. This idea " orange " is called : — 1. An image, or \ 2. A mental image, or V of an orange. 3. A representative imagej (b) Now we know that when we look at a real orange,. we have a percept " orange." This percept is dependent on an external object — the orange. If the orange be re- Memory. Ill moved and an apple be substituted, the percept " apple " at once usurps the place of the percept " orange." As long as 1 continue to look at the orange I cannot help having a percept "orange.'' If I close my eyes, the percept " orange " disappears. Hence it would seem that percepts are independent of the will. But all percepts are not independent of the will. No effort of will can prevent my having a percept " flash of lightning," or a percept " report of cannon." However, we conclude that percepts are often independent of the will. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PERCEPTS AND IMAGES. A re-examination of cases (a) and (b) will help us con- siderably. Percepts. Images. 1. Vivid — make us think they are caused by some- thing real. 2. Dependent on external objects. 3. Largely independent of the will. 4. Appear and disappear rapidly in consciousness. 5. Largely presentative. 1. Not so vivid— do not make us think they are caused by something real. 2. Independent of exter- nal objects. 3. Largely dependent on the will. 4. Gradually rise and sub- side in consciousness. 5. Entirelyre-presentative. It will be noticed that the word Idea is not used in (b). The term idea should be restricted to re-presentations. It is a larger term than image, embracing both images and concepts. No sane person in a state of complete consciousness ever con- fuses images with percepts. The madman who sees all sorts of horrors does confuse images with percepts. In our waking life images are constantly being compared with percepts which exercise a corrective influence over them. In dreams wc do not have this corrective influence, and images become so vivid that they are mistaken for percepts. DEFINITIONS OF AN IMAGE. (1) An Image is the name given to a revived percept or a revived group of percepts. 112 Psychology in the Schoolroom. (2) An image is a re-presentative element in conscious- ness. (3) " The form in which the percept appears after the removal of the object is known as a mental image or re-pre- sentative image." (Sully.) EXAMPLES SHOWING THE CONNECTION BETWEEN IMAGES AND PERCEPTS. (a) The hand "tingles" some time after a cricket ball has been caught. If a tightly stretched string be struck it may be seen to vibrate some time after the blow. In the same way the tissues in the hand vibrate some time after the catching of the ball. This continuance of vibration causes the " tingling." (J) The Catherine wheel displays a complete circle of fire although it is burning at one point only. When light impinges on the retina the retinal nervous structures continue to vibrate after the removal of the light. The Catherine wheel moves round so rapidly that stimulation from the lighted point reaches the given point A (Fig. 49) on the retina before the effects of the original stimulus at A have died down. This is true of every point, a', a", etc., on the path described, hence a circle of fire is seen. A " something," largely physical in its cause, remains for a short time after the removal of the stimulus. It cannot be called an image, it is not re-presentative ; it is rather a continuance of a presentation. It is allied to a percept, is the continuance of a percept, and is termed an After -Percept. An after-percept is like a percept because it is dependent on a physical cause ; it is like an image because it persists after the removal of the physical cause. Memory. 113 (c) The air of some popular song will keep " ringing" in our ears some hours after we have heard it. Yet if we endeavour to recall this air at a later period we may be unable to do so. This " ringing " in the ears lasted too long to be con- sidered due to the continuance of physical vibration. It cannot be an after-percept. From the fact that it con- tinues to revert to consciousness it resembles a re-presented image. Yet it is not a re-presented image insomuch as it requires no effort for its reproduction. We say that it keeps "cropping up;" we do not say that we recollect it. It is an "echo" of a percept, and is called a Temporary Mental Image. Hence we can trace a series of interesting Links between Percepts and Images. fl. Percept — due to external stimulus. 2. After= Percept — due to continuance of bodily changes after removal of stimulus. 3. Temporary Mental Image — recurring without effort. Re=presentative Image — called up with more or less effort. Psychical ■WHAT HAPPENS TO PERCEPTS BEFORE THEY BECOME RE-PRESENTATIVE IMAGES. We must not suppose that all percepts become after- percepts, etc., before they become re-presentative images. Some do ; many do not. Let us try to see what generally happens. (a) A boy sees the bright light resulting from the putting of a glow- ing splint into ajar of oxygen (Percept). He is " dazed " for a short time after the light is extinguished (After-Percept). On being questioned on the experiment the next day he recalls the dazzling brilliancy of the light (Re-presentative Image). (b) Pupils learn their lessons at home in the evening (Perception) and repeat them the next morning (Re-presentation). 8 114 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The mind in each case has evidently performed at least two acts — it has acquired something; it has reproduced something. A little reflection will show that there was a Stage of Retention between the acts of acquisition and reproduction. Hence the following three well-marked stages : — I. Apprehension. — The fixing in memory. II. Retention. — The keeping in memory. III. Reproduction. — The bringing to memory. MEMORY. " When the mind acts in such a way that it records, retains and restores the ideas gained by its own activity, it is said to perform an act of memory.'' Memory is not a special faculty but a general condition of mind. Without memory and attention mental operations would be impossible. In ordinary language the term memory has especial reference to the retentive and reproductive stages. RETENTION AND SUB-CONSCIOUSNESS. We will now try to examine a little closer the retentive stage of memory. In the retentive stage the images are not actually before the mind ; they are not in consciousness. Yet the mind has something to do with them, it retains them. To account for this the hypothesis of a Sub-Conscious State is formulated. Example showing the Activity of the Sub-Conscious State. I meet an old boy and cannot recollect his name. After leaving him I feel vexed at my lapse of memory, but other matters arise and crowd the incident out of consciousness. Some time (perhaps hours) afterwards the name suddenly leaps into memory. A reasonable supposition is that during all this time sub-consciousness has been active and has at last succeeded in finding the name. Viewed physiologically this activity is termed Unconscious Cerebration. Viewed from the mental standpoint it is sometimes termed Sub- Psychical Activity. Consciousness and Subconsciousness. Let D E A B F C (Fig. 50) represent the mind. The. Memory. 115 smaller space (E A B F) represents consciousness ; the larger space (D E F C) sub-consciousness. The absence of a line joining D and C represents the uncertain extent of the sub- conscious state. The line E F represents the Threshold of Consciousness — the boundary between the conscious and the sub-conscious state. This Threshold is not fixed, but rises and falls. Thus during sleep it rises and becomes nearly or quite identical with the line A B. When we try to recollect something we endeavour to get the image out of the sub-conscious into the conscious region (Fig. 51). Images fade away, that is, they go from consciousness into sub-consciousness. Images pass below the threshold, and sink deeper and deeper in sub-consciousness. The lower they get the more difficult it is to recall them. Thus the image D will (other things being equal) be recalled with more difficulty than C, and C than B (Fig. 52). A B Consciousness TfcresnoZcL Sub Consciousness Consciousness 9 IMAGE Sub Consciousness Consciousness fB Sub Consciousness /?ECOLL£CTJNO. FoRGETr/HG. u o Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. OBLIVESCENCE, PARTIAL AND TOTAL. Many of our past ideas are capable of recall after more or less effort. Some of our past ideas would, however, seem to be beyond recall. Oblivescence or forgetfulness is the name given to the loss of power to recall a given image. Some, however, assert that every image is capable of recall. It is an axiom in physics that force is indestructible. The apprehension and retention of ideas is a form of mental 116 Psychology in the Schoolroom. force, and it is argued that mental force like physical force is incapable of destruction. Certainly ideas that appear to be irrecoverable can be brought back to consciousness by an unusual stimulus. REMEMBERING AND RECOLLECTING. We have used these terms. We will now try to distin- guish more clearly between them. (a) I think of my first school. At once, without any conscious effort on my part many particulars concerning it " leap " into my memory. I remember the school exactly. (b) A boy who is usually good at history cannot give his teacher the date of the Petition of Right. He cannot remember it. His teacher tries to help him to recollect it, and proceeds somewhat as follows : — In whose reign was the Petition of Right presented ? — Charles I. Give dates of Charles' accession and death. — 1625-1649. What is the principal event in the reign of Charles I.? — The Civil War. Was the Petition before or during the Civil War ? — Before the war. Was it then at the beginning or the end of the reign ? — At the beginning. Very well, let us think. 1625 ?— No. 1626 ?— No. 1627 ?— No. 1628 ?— Yes. The pupil has been made to recollect the date. When we revive ideas with little or no conscious effort, we are said to remember them. When conscious effort is involved, we are said to recollect them. Hence Memory has two aspects : — I. Passive memory. Remembering — little or no effort involved ; cf. involuntary attention. II. Active memory. Recollecting— effort involved ; cf. voluntary attention. Trying to Recollect. The physical accompaniments are the motion- less body, the fixed look, the compressed lips, etc. These signs will help the teacher to judge whether the scholar is " trying " or not. The will works through the attention, the mind is con- centrated, disturbing influences are shut out, and the mind often becomes dimly aware of the kind of image that it is desired to call up. Memory. 117 EXAMPLES SHOWING VARIOUS DEGREES OF REMEMBRANCE AND RECOLLECTION. (a) People who have witnessed some very painful sight — say a fatal accident — are often able to reproduce the details with minute exactitude. They say they will remember them till the day of their death. (4) We can all recall exactly the multiplication table and many scripture texts, poetical extracts, etc., we learnt in child- hood, whereas formulae in the higher mathematics which were acquired later do not admit of such easy and accurate reproduction. (c) Mr. X. is mentioned to me as being a former acquaintance. I cannot recollect anything about him until a photograph of Mr. X. is shown me, and then I am able to recall a large part of my connection with him. (tot?rapJi of "Mrjr" "mvx: Appearances of other 7heVisual Percept of a,p?iot0grap7i' of "Mrx n ^A PP i allowable uses of the term. (rf) .-1 Result of Constructive Imagination , J 2. Imagination is "the mind's power of making pictures without the present help of the senses." KINDS OF IMAGINATION. I. Reproductive Imagi= II. Constructive Imagi= nation. — The process of re viving percepts in the time nation. — " The process by which we recall past percepts which have never come within our experience." and place order of their and form them into totally occurrence. ! new combinations, the like of This kind of imagination has been already dealt with in the chapter on " Memory" (p. 110). It is Constructive Imagination that will chiefly concern us in this chapter, and for the sake of brevity constructive 142 Psychology in the Schoolroom. imagination will be designated imagination simply. Imagi- nation in its popular sense means constructive imagination. Imagination not a creative but a constructive process. Imagination is sometimes spoken of as a creative faculty of mind. But imagination is a process of rearranging ideas already in the mind, a process of working up old experiences into new forms. It is a constructive and not a creative faculty. '' It is as impossible to create in the mental as in the material world." Examples showing the Kinds of Activity involved in Imagination. (a) In a museum a child has seen a knight's suit of armour placed, we will suppose, on a landing in immediate prox- imity to pictures, busts, etc. The teacher is giving a lesson on the tournament. The child recalls the image of the armour standing on the landing near the pictures, etc. He isolates the suit of armour from its surroundings. (b) He calls up images of man and horse, places the man, as it were, inside the armour and upon the horse, and begins to imagine a knight ready for the tournament. He has combined parts or wholes of several memory images. The two Processes involved in Imagination. I. The Isolating Process, in which certain elements of a complex process are omitted and others are retained (a). II. The Combining Process, in which parts or wholes of other revived percepts are taken and joined with the isolated percepts obtained above (b). AN ATTEMPT TO ANALYSE THE PROCESS OF IMAGINATION. I. The " Cue." The mind starts with a dim and hazy notion of the sort of image that has to be formed. The notion is, however, not clear and well defined ; if it were, the act of imagination would be complete. The mind is dimly conscious of its existence, insomuch as there is a feeling of incompleteness which leads to the next stage. II. The Presentation of Images to the Mind. This vague feeling of incompleteness leads the mind to search among its Ima gin a tion. 143 store of images for the kind of image that is lacking, and numerous images are produced. Some are rejected as use- less, others retained. III. The Isolating and Combining Activity. Parts or wholes of these images are felt to be in agreement with the shadowy first image termed the " cue." They combine with it and with one another, and cause the original shadowy image to become more and more distinct. IV. A Feeling of Satisfaction pervades the whole pro- cess. There is a sense of fitness in the fact that the revived images seemed to "fit" the "cue," and at the end of the process this feeling is enhanced by the emotion of power, insomuch as the region of the known has been increased and that of the unknown sensibly diminished. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE IMAGINATION. Not a few writers have decried the imagination, and some have gone so far as to regard it as directly opposed to the reasoning faculty. The antagonism of fact and fancy has been exaggerated, and fancy (and with it the imagina- tion) has suffered an undeserved rebuff. Now "fact" is based on perception, and, as we have seen (p. 60), per- ception and imagination are inseparable, for in sense-per- ception the revival of images {i.e., imagination) plays an important part. We have already said that it is the ability to use knowledge which is power. " A person is not well equipped mentally who cannot apply his knowledge in new ways and under new conditions." Knowledge can be ap- plied to new cases in two ways : — / 1. By picturing out the process and the effect of the 1 application of the new knowledge — Imagination. 2. By inferring the application and effect of the new knowledge — Reasoning. In science the imagination yields hypotheses; in ordinary life the imaginative person is often the one who is quick to see a point or who quickly jumps to a conclusion. Imagination is the complement of observation, and supplies us with knowledge unobtainable in any other way. 144 Psychology in the Schoolroom. STRIKING DIFFERENCES IN THE IMAGINATIVE POWERS OF CHILDREN. It is commonly supposed that all young children are very imaginative. Undoubtedly normal children coming from good homes are usually " fancy full," but among the poorer classes in our large towns is found a considerable proportion of children who seem to have been " born old," to have come into the world after their age of imagination has passed. The eyes of these children rarely open wide with childish wonder, still less frequently do they evince any curiosity, their games are few, they never play at "make-believe," and the delights of a childlike flight of imagination are to them unknown. Children only in name are these little stolid lumps of humanity ! The earnest teacher finds them one of the problems of his class. The only course that seems open is to arouse imagination by striking appeals to curiosity and wonder. With the majority of children, however, early childhood is the period of the precocious development of the imagina- tion. Uncontrolled by experience and judgment, a child's imagination runs riot in fancy. The term fancy is here used as a sort of exaggerated imagination — one far removed from nature and fact. TRAINING OF THE IMAGINATION. Aided by imagination, the child's natural activity seems, as it were, to run over, to affect inanimate objects and to endow them with life. The doll is to the girl a real baby, the wooden horse is to the boy a real horse, even the stones become men and women, the big ones mothers and fathers, the smaller ones boys and girls. The child lives in a world of play, folk-lore, fairy tales and nursery rhymes. Some of the apparently far-fetched resemblances of the kindergarten are very real to the child. There seems a danger that at one period of child life fancy will be confused with fact. Hence it has been asserted that the imagination is a pernicious thing that must be crushed out. But the season Ima gin a tion. 145 of the riot of the imagination is a short one, and as Compayre says, the daylight of reason comes quite soon enough and dissipates the shadows and phantoms of the imagination. It may at times be wise to moderate a child's fancy, it cannot but be unwise to endeavour to crush it. The person who tries to stifle a child's imagination may be strangling an embryo artist, or poet, or inventor. About the age of six or eight years the imagination begins to evince signs of being brought more and more under control, and as knowledge grows and experience widens, the child begins to wonder whether the fairy tales are really true, and to show a decided preference for " true tales" (i.e., tales not opposed to his experience) based on narratives from real life. So far, the imagination has been largely passive ; it now begins to assume active char- acteristics. Childish invention commences to assert itself, and the child finds pleasure in modelling, pattern making and elementary drawing. By the age of nine or ten the average child has mastered the more common of the mechanical difficulties of reading, and is able to follow what he reads, i.e., he has a sufficient store of images to enable him to construct from them the images appropriate to the text. If he is a studious child he now enters upon a second imaginative period in which tales of adventure, etc., largely figure, but, unlike the first period, this one is dependent on, and is controlled by, previous experience. He now enters seriously upon the study of history and geography. History and Geography. These are par excellence the school studies that appeal to the imagination, and mistakes are often made in appealing to it too early. Distinctness of imagination, as we have seen, depends on the distinctness of sense-percepts. Clear images can be built up upon a sen- sory basis only. To imagine well we must begin by seeing well. Hence the first lessons in history and geography should be given upon objects and physical phenomena which are within the purview of the child. When these are ex- 10 146 Psychology in the Schoolroom. hausted the imagination should be appealed to ; " things near" should be made the basis of the explanation of " things far," and rough analogies should be drawn between what has been seen and what has to be imagined. Clear images are built up gradually, and the teacher must by frequent and searching questions discover whether the images are being built correctly. Models and pictures are valuable aids, and the word-pictures the teacher himself paints are very potent. Some teachers commit the error of explaining too much ; they forget to leave the imagination something to play on. Literature appeals powerfully to the imagination. The fairy tale gives us our first taste of imagination in literature. Tales of travel soon supplant them. Then begins the reign of the novel, which supplies many persons with the only material upon which they exercise their imagination. Summary. Imagination is the process of making images. An Image is a revived percept or concept. i 1. Reproductive. Imagination \ 2. Constructive. Known popularly as ' imagination. Analysis of Process of Imagination. 1. The " Cue," A notion of the end to be attained. 2. The Presentation of Suitable Images to the Mind. 3. The Isolation and Combination of those Images. 4. The Feeling of Satisfaction from the fact that the image formed is in conformity with the cue. Imagination in Science yields the hypothesis. School Subjects appealing especially to the Imagination — History, geography and literature. QUESTIONS. i.— What is imagination ? What different kinds of imagination are there ? What is meant by disciplining the imagination of children ? (C.P.) 2.— Explain the psychological difference between : (a) recalling the impression of some part of London which is familiar to us ; (b) forming a mental image of the appear- ance of old London before the great fire. How is it that good pictures help us so much in carrying out the latter process ? (C.P.) 3.— Take any fact not directly presentable to the senses, such as a historical event, and explain fully the process which the child's mind goes through in grasping the fact. Imagination. 147 How does the choice of words in setting forth the fact further or hinder the process ? (E.D.) +. — Describe the mental process by which a child's mind follows a historical narra- tive, explaining the part taken by constructive imagination and assimilation. (C.P.) 5. — What are the main causes of distinct and of indistinct mental images? Show how a knowledge of these causes may help the teacher in developing a child's imagina- tion. (C.P.) 6. — Describe the characteristics of children's imagination, and suggest how educa- tion has to adjust itself to this side of the child's mind. (C.U.) j. — Distinguish imagination from memory. Explain the uses and abuses of imagination from the educator's point of view. (V.U.) S. — Analyse the psychological processes involved in the recognition of a picture as representing a familiar historical scene. (V.U.) g. — Point out how productive imagination differs from memory and distinguish the various forms of productive imagination. (V.U.) 148 CHAPTER X. CONCEPTION. Examples of the Manner in which General Notions are formed. (i.) A young child often plays with a sheep dog. At first he looks in a cursory way at the dog as a whole ; his attention is not sufficiently cultivated for the observation of details. But in the course of time, as his powers of attention become stronger, he gains a more or less detailed knowledge of the dog, and notes, we will suppose, that it runs about, barks, has four legs, is larger than himself, atid has a brownish coat. He hears others call this thing a "dog." A dog then to him is a something which — (a) Runs about ; (b) Has four legs ; (c) Barks ; (rf) Is larger than himself ; (e) Has a brownish coat. (ii.) He next sees and examines a retriever, whilst, let us suppose, the sheep dog is present; hears the retriever called " dog " and notes that it — (a) Runs about ; (b) Has four legs ; (c) Barks ; (d) Is larger than himself ; (e) Has a black coat ; whereas the sheep dog — (a) Runs about; (6) Has four legs ; (c) Barks ; (d) Is larger than himself ; le') Has a brownish coat. Conception. 149 The recurrence of the properties (a), (b), (c) and (d) im- presses them upon the memory. The difference between the percepts (e) and (e') causes temporary confusion, and the percept (e) commences, as it were, to neutralise the per- cept (e'). The percepts (a), (b), (c) and (d) become fused together, are abstracted from the confused detail, and the child now comes to the conclusion that a dog is a some- thing which — (a) Runs about ; (b) Has four legs ; (c) Barks ; (d) Is larger than himself. He has had two percepts : — (1) Of the sheep dog, with I (2) Of the retriever, with attributes (a), (b), (c), (d). (attributes (a), (b), (c), (d'). From these two he has elaborated a "notion" with attributes (a), (b), (e). He has not seen anything with attributes (a), (b), (c) alone : he has thought the two percepts into one notion. (iii.) Later on he sees a spaniel, hears it called "dog" and notes that it is a something which — (a) Runs about ; (b) Has four legs ; (c) Barks ; (d) Is smaller than himself; whereas his notion " dog " is a something which — (a) Runs about ; (b) Has four legs ; (c) Barks; (d) Is larger than himself. There is again temporary confusion, neutralisation of the differences and abstraction of the attributes (a), (b), (c). His notion "dog" now is a something which — (a) Runs about ; (b) Has four legs; (c) Barks. 150 Psychology in the Schoolroom. This Notion " Dog" is not a Percept nor an Image. It is not a percept, for we have denned perception (p. 60) as the reference of sensation to definite objects. Now the child does not refer his notion "dog'' to any definite object — he has encountered no object which has merely the properties of motion, four-leggedness and barking. It is not a reproduced image, for such an image is a revived percept (p. 141), and this notion "dog" never was a percept. It is not a constructed image, for a constructed image might gain its materials from widely different percepts, whereas this notion has been obtained from percepts of things having many points of resemblance. It lacks too the definiteness of an image ; it is at the best but an ill-defined image, in which " individual differences are blurred, and only the common features stand out distinctly." The child might have recalled a memory image of the sheep dog, another of the retriever, and a third of the spaniel. Instead of this, his mind has taken together the three images and formed them into a Concept. (L., con, together; -cipio, -ceptum, I take.) Now the name dog is a general name (common noun). A concept is then a notion corresponding to a general name. DEFINITION OF A CONCEPT. A Concept is "a re=presentation in our minds answering to a general name." (Sully.) Concepts are variously termed generic images, general notions, group notions, class notions or ideas. DEFINITIONS OF CONCEPTION. (i.) Conception is a mental process which results in a Concept. An attempt has been made in the early part of the chapter to detail this mental process. It must not be assumed that every child passes through the process ex- actly in the way described ; probably few, if any, children have ever passed through all the stages exactly as detailed, but the study of an ideal case, like the one given above, will, Conception. 151 it is hoped, help to throw some light upon the difficult and intricate process of conception. Conception does not deal with individuals, but with classes. " If human intellect were limited to representing individual objects presented by sense-perception, our minds would, like a mirror, reflect what was about us. The world within would duplicate the world without. The ideas with which the memory is stored represent, not single things, but classes of things." Viewed in this light, viz., that of memory economy, we have the following definition : — (ii.) "Conception is the power to think individuals into classes" — the power "to think the many into the one." A CAUTION. We must clearly and carefully distinguish between : — 1. The Process. 2. The Result. Conception. Concept. Imagination. Image. Perception. Percept. Sensation. Sensation. Another Example of the Process of arriving at a Concept. As it is most important that the student should understand the conceptive process, the skeleton outlines of another process of arriving at a concept are given. The student should re-read pp. 148 and 149 and write the following in fuller form : — (i.) Percept or Revised} I Perce p t of School Percept (Image) of\ contrasted with Primer Nursery Rhyme Book I (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (6) Contained in a cover. (c) Has printed matter. (d) Has coloured pictures. (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (b) Contained in a cover. (c) Has printed matter. (d) Has uncoloured pictures. produces First Provisional Concept of Book. (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (b) Contained in a cover. (c) Has printed matter. (d) Has pictures. 152 Psychology in the Schoolroom. (ii.) Percept or Image of) contrasted with I First Provisional Concept Note Book I I of Book (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (b) Contained in a cover. (c) Has no printed matter. (d) Has no pictures. '/J (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (6) Contained in a cover. (c) Has printed matter, {d) Has pictures. produces Second Provisional Concept of Book. (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (b) Contained in a cover. (iii.) Percept or Image of \ . , ... (Second Provisional Con- cept of Book Bookwhich has lost itscover) (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (b) Has no cover. (a) Consists of leaves fastened together. (b) Contained in a cover. produces Final Concept of Book. Consists of a number of leaves fastened together. & IjTiages Percepts Sensations Fig. 6i. SOME OF THE THINGS THAT CAN BE LEARNED FROM THE EXAMPLES GIVEN. I. That Sensation is the Basis of Conception. We have seen how Sensations produce Percepts (chap, iv.), that Percepts yield Images (chap, viii.), and we have just learnt that Images give rise to Concepts. An endeavour to represent this graphically is made in Fig. 61. Conception. 153 Conception is impossible without a sensory basis. " Per- cepts must be in order that concepts may be." II. That a knowledge of Things is a necessary pre= liminary to the process of Conception. This follows as a corollary to the above, for the only way we can get sensa- tions is through things. III. That knowledge is at first individual and con= crete, and afterwards general and abstract. Perception, observation, memory are early operations and are closely associated with actual objects — they are processes largely concrete and particular. A concept is a later product and does not associate itself with any particular thing ; it is abstract and general. IV. That conception is essentially a process of Abstraction. This will be dealt with under " Stages in Conception." V. That concept=building is a gradual process. A true concept is reached only after the examination of many things of like kind. COMPARISON OF PERCEPTS, IMAGES AND CON- CEPTS. Percept. Based on Sensation. Is presentative. Gives knowledge of the presence of a thing. A " reality." Image. Based on Percepts. Is re-presentative. Implies remem- brance of a thing. A " picture." Concept. Based on Images. Is re-re-presentative. Implies knowledge about classes of things. A " symbol." STAGES IN CONCEPTION. A re-examination of the examples showing how the con- cepts "dog" and "book" may be obtained will facilitate the comprehension of the following description of the stages of conception. I. Observation. — Two or more individuals resembling one another in one or more particulars are brought together either as percepts or as images. 154 Psychology in the Schoolroom. II. Comparison. — But when similar percepts or images are presented to the mind, there is an innate tendency to compare and contrast them, and to pay special attention to the points of resemblance. III. Abstraction. — The special attention paid to the resemblances draws or abstracts those resemblances from the differences. These abstracted qualities grouped to- gether form the concept. Prof. Sully defines abstraction as " the withdrawing of the attention from certain things in order to fix it on others." IV. Generalisation. — The concept becomes clearer in the mind ; other individuals are noticed having qualities which agree with those of the concept, and gradually the idea is reached of a class of things having certain characteristics (those of the concept) in common. RELATION OF CONCEPTS TO NAMES. The examples we have studied have led us to see that there is 3 very close connection between conception and naming. On this question philosophers were formerly divided into two camps : — The Realists, who said that in the region of external existence there is a something corresponding to the general term ; that there was an actual dog answering to the term as distinct from a sheep dog, " dog " retriever, etc. This theory is called Realism. The Nominalists, who say that there is in external existence nothing corresponding to the general term. This is in distinct opposition to the Realists. They say that the general name is " merely a sign applicable to any object of a certain kind." This theory is called Nominalism. Practically there are no Realists now. The contest lies between the Nominalists and a new class who take their position from a psychological rather than a metaphysical standpoint ; — The Conceptual ists, who assert that the mind has the power of picturing ideas of classes of things. These ideas are the representations of the common features of many similar things. This theory is termed Conceptualism. Examination of Examples of Indistinct Concepts. 1. A child's father has, we will suppose, a black beard. The child learns to call him " dada." The distinctive mark " having a black beard " answers to the name dada. When he sees another man with a black beard he calls him dada too. The child has abstracted one striking but not charac- teristic quality from the number of qualities which serve to distinguish his father from other men. The mistake arises from hasty generalisation founded upon insufficient abstraction. The child has yet to make other and more characteristic abstractions before he has a sufficiency of marks to distinguish his father from other men. The obtaining of these additional abstractions depends upon many acts of perception and observation. So as we go deeper into the matter, we find that the real cause is insufficient perception and observation. That this is so is seen from the fact that the child will rarely call other women " mamma." The infant sees more of his mother than his father, more of women other than his mother than of men other than his father. He has more abundant facilities for comparing one woman with another than he has of comparing one man with another. The increased opportunities for perception and observation lead to more correct abstractions and more perfect concepts. 2. Many persons call the whale a fish. The characteristic mark, living in the water, answers to the term fish. No oppor- tunities have arisen of examining a whale and comparing it with a fish. The error is mainly due to lack of obser- vation. 3. Children apply the term circle to a ring, a penny, a ball, an egg, a hemisphere, a sphere, etc. The error is partly due to lack of observation, but also to the fact that the child hears the term circle loosely applied to these figures, and unconsciously conforms to general usage. Hazy concepts have produced a loose use of language, and a loose use of terms serves to produce more hazy and inaccurate concepts. 4. Teachers are sometimes too indiscriminate in their praise or blame. The child hears himself and others called " bad boys" for the commission of the most trivial offences. He comes to the conclusion that it is not so very dreadful after all to be a bad boy. The teacher, by a loose use of language, has led the pupils to a false conception of bad conduct, and what is more unfortunate, has done some- 156 Psychology in the Schoolroom. thing to lower the child's moral tone. Similar, but perhaps less direful results, follow from the use of indiscriminate praise. 5. I have not studied chemistry for some years, but having necessity to refer to a work on chemistry, which I studied and thoroughly understood some years ago, I find that many points in it are no longer clear to me, and I come across terms the meaning of which I do not fully under- stand. My concepts are here imperfect obviously through lapse of time and imperfections of memory. CAUSES OF INDISTINCT CONCEPTS. A consideration of the above examples will enable us to see that these causes are : — 1. Indistinct percepts. 2. Faulty or insufficient observation. 3. Imperfect abstraction. 4. Loose use of language. 5. Lapse of time. 6. Imperfections of memory. SOME MARKS OF GOOD CONCEPTS. These may be gathered from the examples given in this chapter. The chief qualities of good concepts are : — 1. They are founded on concrete examples. 2. They have a wide basis of experience, so that possible error is eliminated. 3. They are definite. The characteristics of the concept are distinctly represented in the mind, and there is no risk of confusion or coalescence with concepts of a somewhat similar kind. REASONS -WHY POWERS OF CONCEPTION SHOULD BE CULTIVATED. 1. Conception culture increases the vigour and number of mental operations. This follows from the fact that many important mental faculties are involved in an act of conception. 2. Conception culture economises mental force. Conception is the power to think the many into one. If Conception. 1 57 we did not possess the faculty of conception we should find our minds overburdened with innumerable particulars. 3. Conception culture makes the higher reasoning possible. The higher reasoning, as we shall learn in the next chapter, is concerned with classes and not with units. Conception deals with classes, and is really the first stage of reasoning. 4. Conception culture makes science possible. Science is concerned with generalities based upon parti- culars. This is the speciality of conception. Without conception the classifications, the theories, the laws of science would be impossible. GROWTH AND TRAINING OF CONCEPTION. I. Infancy. — During infancy the mind is concerned with sensations and percepts rather than with concepts. The infant's sphere lies in the concrete and the individual rather than in the abstract and general. Language, as we have seen, is a great aid to conception, indeed it may be doubted whether any conceptual power worthy of the name is in existence before the child learns to talk. Conception comes late, and its true progress is slow. II. Early Childhood. — For some time the child's know- ledge remains for the most part particular and individual. The general name "house" recalls to the child the parti- cular house in which he lives, the term "bird" the familiar sparrow or the pet canary. Individual percepts crowd in upon the child, and there is danger of his being overwhelmed with the mass of ungeneralised particulars. Refuge is found in the detection of similarity amidst diversity. This is the essential process in conception. There is an innate tend- ency of the mind to detect similarity between things ; this tendency is materially assisted by language and rudimentary classification results. Adjectives imply qualities, and the use of adjectives in the vocabulary marks an ability to differentiate one quality from another — a definite stage in the process of abstraction and conception. 158 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Much of the classification in which the child indulges at this stage is hasty and erroneous, often in defiance of every logical rule. Still, it has the advantage of exercising the higher powers of mind. The erroneous character of the classification is founded upon too narrow a basis of obser- vation — a defect which wider experience alone can rectify. III. Later Childhood. — Language so far has been an aid to conception. It has played the part of servant, there is now a tendency for it to enact the role of master. The mind is naturally prone to be satisfied with loose and vague notions about things, and this weakness is accentuated by loose use of language. The child is apt to repeat words, phrases and sentences without attaching any very definite meaning to them. Imperfect concepts produce loose language ; the loose use of language reacts and produces hazy concepts. The child should not be allowed to use words except he attaches some clear and intelligible mean- ing to them. The meaning may not be full to begin with ; it would be well if the idea corresponding with the term were accurate as far as it goes. It is really better at this stage that the child have a somewhat incomplete concept behind his word than that he should have no idea of its meaning at all. The essential at this stage is that the word should not be a mere empty sound, but that it should corre- spond with some definite notion or concept in the mind. Of course the fuller and more accurate that notion is the better. The basis of full and accurate conception is full and accurate perception. The child should be led to detect similarities between things, and to group things into classes, according as they do or do not possess certain qualities. In this way, and in this way only, can the foundation of correct conceptive power be formed. Pestalozzi says that it is the chief business of education to pass from distinctly perceived individual notions to clear general notions. In all this it is essential that the learner should do the work. The faculty of independent thinking must be carefully trained. There is a tendency on the part of all of us to let some one else do Conception. 159 the thinking : we are only too ready to believe what some one else tells us and to act upon it. The concepts thus acquired are second or third hand, and not first hand as they should be. Our children must be trained to regulate, to master and to assimilate 'their impressions ; too often they become the blind slaves of them. IV. Youth. — From fourteen years and upwards the powers of abstraction become more marked. The study of sciences like botany and zoology, which so largely depend upon observation, abstraction and classification, may be now commenced. School Lessons helpful in Training Conception. Object Lessons. — The child should be taught to dis- criminate one object from other objects somewhat similar to it. To do this effectively the teacher should depend on the device of juxaposition. The child is thus led to detect similarities, and to abstract these similarities from the mass of conflicting detail. This abstraction implies class-making and the formation of concepts. The formation of concepts should not be the first aim of the object lesson ; the first aim is the training of perception. But thinking cannot be carried far without concepts ; hence some training in con- ception is necessary. " Object lessons which stop at percepts are waste labour in education." As the object lesson becomes more and more a training in conception, it glides into the lesson in elementary science. Elementary Science. — Botany, zoology, mineralogy, chem- istry are the sciences which admit of most classification, and are thus those which are most useful in training the conceptive faculty. The pupil should be made to work out his own classifications. Too often the teacher does this. The teacher would not dream of digesting bodily food for his pupil even if he could, yet he frequently endeavours to digest his mental food for him. " Eat the pupil's dinner for him if you will, but I beg of you to let him do his own thinking." (Baldwin.) 160 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Composition. — Sentence-making is a great aid in training conception, provided the teacher sees that clear concepts do actually lie behind the spoken words. To this end, the child should be made to explain the meanings of the words which he employs. No word should be admitted to use unless some definite meaning is attached to it. The meaning will not be the full connotation of the word, it need not always be quite correct. The great desideratum is that some definite meaning be attached to the word in question. Subsequent experience will amplify and, if necessary, correct the first meaning. Summary. Definitions. A Concept is " a re-presentation in our minds answering to a general name.'' Conception is the mental process which results in a concept. Stages in Conception. 1. Observation. 2. Comparison. 3. Abstraction. 4. Generalisation. Causes of Indistinct Concepts. I Marks of Good Concepts. 1. Indistinct percepts. i 1. Founded on concrete ex- 2. Faulty or insufficient observa- , amples. tion. 2. Founded on wide range of 3. Imperfect abstraction. examples. 4. Loose use of language. 3. Deflniteness. 5. Lapse of time. 6. Imperfections of memory. j Development of Conception. 1. Infancy. — There is little conception before speech. 2. Early Childhood. — The multiplicity of individual things makes classification necessary, a work in which language materially assists. 3. hater Childhood. — The loose use of language now becomes a serious factor in the production of incorrect and hazy concepts. Object lessons, science lessons and accurate use of language are the remedies. 4. Youth. — Powers of abstraction become well developed, and conception grows apace, Conception. 161 School Lessons useful in Training Conception. 1. Object lessons. 2. Science lessons. 3. Language lessons. QUESTIONS. i. — Explain the steps by which a general notion or concept is formed, and distin- guish between distinct and indistinct concepts. How far does the choice of examples by a teacher assist the pupils in forming distinct and accurate concepts ? (E.D.) 2. — Illustrate, by some lesson on natural science, Bain's statement that the discovery of likeness among things seemingly unlike is the relief from an intellectual burden. (L.U.) 3. — " Qui bene distinguit bene docet." Show this in detail, with reference to the teaching of some particular subject. (L.U.) 4. — Sketch the psychological process of forming general notions, giving precise explanation of the correlative terms concrete and abstract. Illustrate by considering the mode in which the first notions of the parts of speech may be conveyed. (L.U.) 5. — Explain and illustrate what is meant by calling concepts (a) obscure, (6) clear, (c) distinct ; also discuss the means of training the powers of abstraction. (L.U.) 6. — Distinguish between the meanings of the terms abstract and concrete, and show the application of these terms (i) to parts of speech and (2) to arithmetic. Say what is the use of the distinction. (E.D.) 7. — What do you mean by abstraction? What faculties are concerned in the process? (E.D.) 8. — Distinguish between apprehension and comprehension, and between perception and conception, and show the bearings of this distinction on the work of the teacher. (E.D.) 9. — Explain and discriminate between comparison and contrast. Demonstrate their use in teaching, and show by precise examples in what subjects they are of special value. (E.D.) 10. — What is meant by a concept? Show by means of an example how you would seek to develop clear and accurate concepts in children's minds. (C.P.) ir. — Point out the distinction between mental images and general notions or concepts. Explain what is meant by saying that a vivid imagination may both help and retard general thinking. (C.P.) 12. — Discuss the nature of concepts with reference to the psychological question at issue between nominalists and conceptualists. (V.U.) 11 162 CHAPTER XI. JUDGMENT. Examples of Propositions. (a) The fire is hot. (b) The dog is an animal. (c) The whale is not a fish. (d) Honesty is the best policy. The above are examples of what the grammarian calls Simple Sentences, and what the logician calls Propositions. Examination of Propositions. We could all analyse these sentences according to grammatical rules : let us proceed to analyse them according to their meaning. The fire is hot. The dog is an animal. The whale is not a fish. Honesty is the best policy. V * *• * * -■ .- T Y something about a something asserted about which an assertion is connecting link ; the subject under made ; called the called the discussion ; called the Subject. Copula. Predicate. When we say The Dog is an Animal, we have in the mind two ideas, dog and animal, and we express an agree- ment between those two ideas. What is in the mind is called a judgment ; the expression of a judgment in words is called a proposition. A Proposition consists of : — A Judgment consists of : — 1. Subject. 1.)t> -j „ „ . . „ i 1 wo ideas. 2. Predicate. 2.J 3. Copula. 3. Relation between them. Judgment. 1 63 DEFINITIONS OF JUDGMENT. 1. To judge is to assert an agreement or disagree- ment between two ideas. 2. To judge is to discover the relationship between two ideas. 3. " Whenever we connect two representations with one another under the form of a statement we perform an act of judgment." (Sully.) JUDGING AND JUDGMENT. The term Judging should be used for the process ; the term Judgment for the result. Compare : — Process. Result. Judging Judgment Imagination Image Conception Concept Perception Percept Sensation Sensation Popular use of the Term to Judge. To Judge in popular language has several meanings : the two chief are : — {a) To come to a decision. (b) To apply in a quick and automatic manner the results of past experience to new cases. Examples of Judging. 1. Here are two lines A and B (Fig. 62). I look at them, examine them, and judge that B is a little shorter than A. A B Fig. 62. 2. When I express the judgment : Blackboards are useful things, I have, as it were, divided all things into two classes — Useful and Not-useful Things (Fig. 63). I have compared blackboards with useful and also with not- useful things, and have come to the decision that black- boards have more points in common with the class of useful things than with the class of not-useful things. 164 Psychology in the Schoolroom. ANALYSIS OF AN ACT OF JUDGING. From these two examples we can easily see that the process consists of two parts : — 1. Comparison. 2. Decision. JUDGING IS A HIGHER PROCESS THAN PERCEP- TION OR CONCEPTION. In Perception we form percepts, which are "ideas" of single objects, and which for the purposes of comparison may be termed single ideas. In Conception we form concepts, which are " ideas " of classes of things, and which when contrasted with percepts may be called general ideas. Fig. 63. In Judging we take single ideas or general ideas, and discover the relationship which exists between them. In judging we act upon the materials brought by the processes of perception and conception. JUDGING IS INVOLVED IN PERCEPTION AND CONCEPTION. In perception we compare and contrast the thing under examination with other things and come to a decision re- garding the thing under examination. But comparison and decision are the two essentials of judging. Hence even a lowly process like perception involves the essentials of a higher process like judging. Similarly, a re-examination of the process of conception [UDGMENT. 1 65 (p. 154) reveals the fact that comparison and decision (i.e., judging) are involved in it. All mental processes, in fact, involve judging. As before stated (p. 22) the faculties are not separate entities ; they are separable only by abstraction. The mind's capabilities may be studied separately, but they cannot act separately. KINDS OF JUDGMENTS. An examination of the judgments at the head of the chapter will show us that they are easily separable into two classes : — I. The fire is hot. A Judgment arrived at immediately. Called Intuitive Judgments. II. The dog is an animal. The whale is not a fish. Honesty is the best policy. Judgments arrived at after more or less prolonged deliberation. Called Deliberative Judgments. This classification divides judgments on the basis of their complexity. The mental attitude of the teacher in giving an explana- tion to a pupil is different from the mental attitude of the pupil who is receiving the explanation. The teacher is bringing forward his stores of information, his " things new" and his "things old," rejecting some ideas, retaining others. The pupil is receiving ideas and assimilating them to other ideas, he is piecing "the new" on to "the old." The teacher is using judgment in the rejection and re- tention of ideas, the pupil is using judgment in comparison and assimilation. The teacher's judgment is mainly analytic, whereas the pupil's is mainly synthetic. Viewed then as regards the progress of the judging, judgments are of two kinds : — 1. Analytic Judgments, which are expressions of judg- ments previously formed. 166 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 2. Synthetic Judgments, which are judgments used for the first time, and are the results of new experiences. A Synthetic Judgment adds to our knowledge ; an Analytic Judgment tends to make our knowledge clearer. A teacher always has a better comprehension of a subject after he has taught it thoroughly than he had previously. DEFINITIONS OF INTUITIVE JUDGMENTS. 1. " Intuitions are beliefs and judgments which present themselves spontaneously to the mind with irresistible evidence, but without the assistance of memory or re- flection." 2. Intuitions are forms of knowing otherwise than by observation and reflection. Classes of Intuitions. 1. Sense Intuitions. — Immediately perceived by the senses, i.e., percepts. 2. Rational Intuitions. — What is assumed as an apparently ulti- mate premise, e.g., "Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another." 3. Moral Intuitions. — The recognition of the good, the beautiful, etc. Some have held that intuitions are wholly independent of experi- ence. Rational and moral intuitions are held by others to be the results of experience, either of the individual or of the race. CAUSES OF INCORRECT JUDGMENTS. 1. Lack of Clear Ideas. — As we have seen, one of the essentials of judging is the comparison of ideas — i.e., con- cepts, images, percepts. The more numerous the ideas, and the more clear and accurate those ideas, the more correct is the judgment likely to be. Children's judgments are often incorrect owing to the paucity and falsity of their ideas. 2. Lack of Time to Examine Ideas. — Two ideas are presented to the mind, and the mind, before it has had adequate time for deliberation and comparison, "jumps at JUDGMEXT. 167 a conclusion." Subsequent examination perhaps shows that this conclusion is false. Hence the proverb: " Second thoughts are best." 3. Appropriating without due Examination the Words of other People. — The lack of clear ideas and the lack of time to examine ideas lead many to appropriate the ideas of others, regardless whether those ideas are right or wrong. There is a primitive disposition of the human mind to believe the words of others. Kept within due bounds, this primitive disposition is one of the main- springs of faith, belief and obedience. How far the child is to be taught to accept the words of others, how far the child is to be taught to minutely criticise and examine the statements of others, is one of the unsolvable puzzles of education. Require a child to accept everything on faith and you make him a slave ; " reason with a child about everything and you make him a monster." 4. The Bias of Feeling. — In endeavouring to arrive at a conclusion, we sometimes feel ourselves swayed by a wish to arrive at a conclusion of a certain kind, and the wished- for conclusion is arrived at, not by the process of cold reasoning, but by a triumph of the feeling over the intellect. Hence the proverb: " The wish is father to the thought." The bias of feeling is seen especially in theological and political judgments. The bias of feeling is likely to affect the teacher in his estimation of a scholar. The strong-minded teacher seeks to eliminate this bias from his judgments ; the weak teacher is more or less controlled by this bias, and "favouritism" results. IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATING THE JUDGMENT. As we have seen, judging enters into every department of our mental life, and in many mental operations it is a most important factor. No system of training can be complete which does not provide for the education of the judgment. 168 Psychology in the Schoolroom. DEVELOPMENT AND TRAINING OF JUDGMENT. Early Childhood. — From the beginning of life the child in a very rudimentary way exercises his judgment. The essentials of judging are, as we have seen, comparison and decision. The essential of any mental operation is differ- entiation (p. 22). But differentiation implies comparison and decision. Hence the earliest mental operations involve judgments. The child judges long before he speaks ; his progress in speech is however a fair indication of his pro- gress in judging. At first the child thinks " hot"; then he says "ot" (hot); next perhaps "dink ot" (drink hot); and lastly " dis dink is ot " (this drink is hot). Still we must not be led away too much by the general correspondence between thought and language, and imagine that because a child says wise things he therefore thinks them. Mere babbling is not thinking. Children sometimes startle us with their apparently well-reasoned judgments, but their " wise saws" are too often but parrot-like imitations of the remarks of their elders. The kindergarten, by the numerous opportunities it gives for comparison and decision, affords the earliest well-regu- lated method of educating the judgment. Later Childhood. — The outward and visible sign of a judgment is a sentence. Hence sentence-making becomes a valuable adjunct in the training of the judgment. The child should be compelled to give his answers, not in dis- jointed words, but in complete sentences, and should be rigorously cross-examined with the idea of discovering whether the corresponding judgments do lie behind the sentences which he has made. SCHOOL SUBJECTS ESPECIALLY SERVICEABLE IN THE TRAINING OF THE JUDGMENT. Writing and Drawing. — The child has to judge whether his effort is or is not like the copy. The young child in his comparison is apt to overlook slight differences between his exercise and the copy, and so comes to a wrong decision Judgment. 1 69 regarding the merits of his effort. Hence the teacher should exaggerate on the blackboard the child's error, so that the difference may be perceived, the comparison pro- perly made, and the correct decision come to. Manual Training Exercises, such as paper folding, paper cutting, clay modelling, woodwork, etc., all help to develop the judgment. Parsing and Analysis, if taught in their relation to sentence-making. Arithmetic is a subject which if properly taught makes powerful appeals to the judgment. Some arithmetical exercises are admittedly and necessarily mechanical, but " prbblems "are among the finest school exercises for train- ing the judging faculty. Games require a nice appreciation of the exact amount of muscular effort necessary to accomplish a desired result, and hence are potent factors in the cultivation of the judg- ment. SOME COMMON ERRORS IN TRAINING JUDG- MENT. 1. The Memory is crowded and the Judgment neglected. The knowledge of some pupils is a hetero- geneous mass, consisting of numberless details, ill-arranged or not arranged at all. It is easier to load the memory than to train the judgment, and the short and easy method is too frequently adopted. (See also p. 135.) 2. Judgments are put before percepts and concepts. The child is told the judgment by the teacher, and is then perhaps led to discover the percepts and concepts upon which that judgment is based. Too often the teaching finishes with the enunciation of the judgment. The child should be encouraged to make the percepts, to elaborate the concepts, and afterwards led on to form the judgments. " Teaching is the art of training the pupil to think." (Baldwin.) A generation ago the teacher did practically nothing for the child ; now he does nearly everything. The 170 Psychology in the Schoolroom. teacher of the past left his pupil to develop his own mental faculties. The teacher of to-day seems to do his best to relieve his pupil from the necessity of thinking at all. But there is surely a golden mean between doing nothing for a child and doing everything for him. It is for the teacher of the future to find it. The scholar of to-day would certainly be all the better for " a little wholesome neglect." 3. Pupils are encouraged to blindly accept the statements of text=books. Hasty judgments are arrived at, and there is no substratum of perception and conception in the pupil's mind upon which those judgments can rest. The love of truth and accuracy is not properly developed. Too much of the " education " given in our schools is text- book instruction, which cramps the normal activity of chil- dren and narrows their intellectual horizon. Summary. Judgment. Definitions. " To Judge is to assert an agreement or disagreement between two ideas." A Judgment is the result of an act of judging. Processes Involved in Judging. 1. Comparison. 2. Decision. Kinds of Judgments. i. Intuitive — arrived at immediately. 2. Deliberative — arrived at mediately. Or, i. Analytic — old judgments revived. 2. Synthetic — new judgments formed. Causes of Incorrect Judgments. 1. Lack of clear ideas. 2. Lack of time to examine ideas. 3. Hasty appropriation of the judgments of others. 4. The bias of feeling. Development of Judgment. 1. Early Childhood. — The earliest mental acts involve judgments. The rate of acquisition of language is some guide to the rate of development of the judgment. Judgment. 171 2. Later Childhood. — Hence sentence-making becomes a valuable aid in training the judgment. School Subjects Training the Judgment. 1. Writing and Drawing. 2. Grammar in relation to sentence-making. 3. Arithmetic. 4. Games. Errors in Training the Judgment. 1. Memory crowded; judgment neglected. 2. Judgments put before percepts and concepts. QUESTIONS. i. — Give a short account of an act of judgment, and show how it is possible for a teacher to expect too little, as well as too much, from a child's power of judging about things. (C.P.) z. — Give a brief account of an act of judgment. To what extent is a child of six or eight to be encouraged to form his own judgments ? (C.P.) 3.— What do you know of intuitive judgments ? 4. — Discuss the causes of incorrect judgments. 5. — What are the chief errors made in judgment training? 6. — What relations exist between a judgment and a proposition ? 172 CHAPTER XII. REASONING. Outlines of a Series of Lessons leading up to the Law : Matter expands with Heat. First Method. 1. Teacher obtains an iron ball which will just pass through a ring. He heats the iron ball, and again places it on the ring. It does not pass through. Inference: Heat has caused the iron ball to expand. 2. Experiment is repeated with brass, copper, leaden and glass balls. Inference: Brass, copper, lead and glass ex= pand with heat. 3. But iron, brass, copper, lead, glass are solids. Further Inference: Solids expand with heat. 4. Teacher takes a flask filled with water, and provided with a well-fitting cork, through which runs a narrow tube. The class notes the level of the water in the tube. The water is heated. The water rises in the tube. Inference : Water expands with heat. 5. The experiment is repeated with alcohol, milk, treacle, etc. Inference: Alcohol, milk, treacle, etc., expand with heat. 6. But alcohol, milk, treacle, etc., are liquids. Further In- ference: Liquids expand with heat. 7. Teacher partly fills a bladder with air, ties up the opening, draws attention to the wrinkled surface, and places the bladder before the fire. The wrinkles disappear, showing that the bladder is now full of air. Inference : Air expands with heat. 8. The experiment is repeated with coal gas and carbonic acid gas. Inference: Coal gas and carbonic acid gas expand with heat. 9. But air, coal gas and carbonic acid gas are gases. Further Inference: Oases expand with heat. Re a soning. 173 10. But solids, liquids and gases are forms of matter. Pinal Inference: Matter expands with heat. Second Method. 1. The teacher enunciates the principle : Matter expands with heat. 2. He argues solids are a form of matter; iron is a solid ; there- fore Iron expands with heat. 3. He then proceeds to work an experiment to prove his assertion. 4. He argues liquids are a form of matter; water is a liquid; therefore Water expands with heat. 5. He then proceeds to work an experiment to prove his assertion. 6. He deals with gases in a similar manner. Chief Difference between the First and the Second Method. There are many differences, as we shall see, between the two methods. At present we shall merely notice the chief difference. In the First Method particulars (i.e., single cases) were first dealt with, and from these particular cases general laws were inferred. This method of reasoning is known as Induction. In the Second Method the general law was first enunciated, and particular cases were then shown to be examples of this general law. This method of reasoning is known as Deduction. DEFINITIONS. REASONING. Perceiving relations among judg= ments. Reasoning is perceiving relations among judgments in much the same way as judging is perceiving relations among con- cepts (p. 163). INDUCTION. (1) The process of establishing a general proposition based on the evidence of parti= cular -cases. 174 Psychology in the Schoolroom. (2) Induction "is an inference establishing a general proposition based on the evidence of parti- cular cases." (Mill.) In the first definition Induction is viewed as a process, in the second as a result. To infer is to pass from one judgment to the next judgment. DEDUCTION is the process of following out a general proposition into its particular applications. The term elicit is often used to denote both inductive and deduc- tive reasoning ; young teachers frequently use the term deduce when they mean to indicate the use of inductive processes. COMPARISON OF THE FORMS OF THE TWO GREAT METHODS OF REASONING. Induction. Data. Iron expands with heat. Brass expands with heat. Lead expands with heat. Glass expands with heat. Inference. Solids expand with heat. Deduction. Data. All solids expand with heat. Iron is a solid. Inference. Iron expands with heat. In Induction we pass from given instances to a general law. This general law includes cases outside our experience. We thus generalise beyond the limits of our experience. Care must be taken that the instances upon which the induction is based are sufficiently numerous. An induction is, as it were, a leap beyond the limits of our experience — a leap which we may take with confidence because we know that Nature is uniform. In Deduction we reason by means of the Syllogism. A Syllogism is an "act of thought by which from two given proposi- tions we proceed to a third proposition, the truth of which necessarily follows from the truth of these given proposi- tions." (Jevons.) The two propositions are called Premises. The first proposition is called the Major Premise, the second the Minor Premise. Reasoning. 175 The third proposition is called the Conclusion. So we can rewrite our deduction. Syllogism. Major Premise. — All solids expand with heat. Minor Premise. — Iron is a solid. Conclusion. — Iron expands with heat. General Comparison of the Processes of Induction and Deduction. 1. Induction. An upward movement of thought from particular in- stances to general truths. 2. Leads to definition, or rule, or principle, or theory. 3. Leads to new know- ledge. 4. Is the method of dis- covery. Deduction. 1. A downward movement of thought from general truths to particular instances. 2. Leads to a more perfect comprehension of the general principle, rule, theory, etc. 3. Does not lead to new knowledge. 4. Is the method of verifi- cation and explanation. Comparison of Induction and Deduction in relation to Teaching. Induction. 1. Is the method of educa- tion. 2. Is slow. All knowledge has to be acquired first hand by the observation of par- ticular cases. 3. Is a natural method. The child begins with the consideration of individual cases and afterwards pro- ceeds to the consideration of classes. The true order is (1) percepts, (2) concepts, (3) judgments. Deduction. 1. Is the method of in- struction. 2. Is quicker. The child avails himself of knowledge others have acquired. 3. Is not a natural method. Judgments are put before concepts, concepts before per- cepts, theories before facts. 176 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 4. Is a sure method of education. The general law is arrived at little by little. Its meaning is well grasped and it can then be accurately applied to new cases. 5. 75 a method which fos- ters self-reliance in children. By it they are led to depend on their own acts of percep- tion, conception and judg- ment. 4. Is not a sure method. Many general laws are too difficult for children to under- stand when presented to them by this method. The chil- dren may have learnt the words but may not have grasped the ideas ; hence there is faulty application to new cases. 5. Is a method which en- courages dependence on others. OUTLINES OF A FIRST LESSON ON THE ADVERB. 1. Examples. — Have the following simple sentences written on the blackboard before the commencement of the lesson : — (n) The man walked slowly. (b) John rose early. (c) The girl often sees the horse. id) He faithfully served an unkind master, (e) The king never smiled again ; also (/) The man spoke loudly (softly, quickly, slowly, now, soon, then, again). 2. Manipulation of Sentence (a). Let a child read sentence (a), tell what parts of speech " the," "man" and "walked'" are. and give reasons for answers. Proceed to slowly. Elicit that it is not a verb, nor a noun, nor an adjective. 3. First Inference from Sentence (a). The word " slowly " is a new part of speech. 4. Manipulation of Sentences (b) to (/). Deal with these sentences in a manner similar to manipulation of sentence (a). Underline on the blackboard the words which are new parts of speech. 5. Inferences from the Sentences (a) to (/). The words slowly, early, pften, faithfully, never, etc., are new parts of speech. Reasoning. 177 6. Further examination of the new parts of speech to dis- cover their functions in the Sentence. Ask which makes the better sense, "man slowly" or "walked slowly." Proceed with other sentences. Note the part of speech to which the new part of speech seems linked. 7. Inference. Each, of these new parts of speech is closely connected with a verb. 8. Introduction of the term Adverb. Take the sentence : His house adjoins ours. Draw from class that " adjoins " means "joins to," and that consequently ad means to. Write verb on blackboard ; ask what syllable must be prefixed to make a word meaning " to a verb.'' An adverb is closely connected with a verb. 9. Further examination of the connection between Ad- verbs and Verbs. Take the sentences in (/). Again pick out the adverbs and the verb with which they are connected. Ask if we have the same idea of the "speaking" in "spoke loudly" as in "spoke softly.' 10. Inference. Adverbs slightly change the meanings of Verbs. 11. Introduction of the term " modify." The word "modify" hardly comes in a child's vocabulary, and had better be told to the class. Ask for sentences containing the word " modify." 12. PRELIMINARY DEFINITION. An Adverb is a word which modifies a Verb. 13. Application of the Definition. (a) Let class supply sentences containing adverbs. In each sentence given, ask which word is considered an adverb, and why it is so considered. (4) Ask class to supply suitable adverbs to sentences which you give. 14. Conclusion. Let class learn definition by reading it from the board, by transcribing it, and by repeating it from memory. Note. — The definition of the adverb can be extended to its ordinary form in subse- quent lessons, and adverbs can then be selected from suitable passages in the reading books. The student should write notes of lessons leading up to the preliminary de- finition: An thivcib is a word which tells how, when or where an action is done. Examination of the Method of this Lesson. The lesson commences with the examination of parti- cular cases (words in sentences), and leads up to the idea 12 178 Psychology in the Schoolroom. of a class of words (adverbs) having certain functions in sentences. The definition arrived at admits the existence of a class of words which contains more members than those already examined, i.e., the definition is an induction. The Method of the Lesson from Pars, i to 12 in- clusive is Inductive. But after the induction there was a further stage, in which the definition (general rule or induction) was taken, and particular cases were shown to come under this de- finition. The Method of the Lesson in Par. 13 is Deductive. Hence the lesson, viewed as a whole, is both inductive and deductive. The method might be called the Inductive- Deductive Method. Jevons calls it the Complete Method, while Mill denominates it the Deductive Method. The student must be careful to distinguish Deduction from what Mill calls the Deductive Method. Perhaps the following may make this clear: — (Slowly modifies a verb. Early modifies a verb. (Induction. -, Often modifies a verb, etc., etc. The There is a class of words (called adverbs) Deductive-) I which modify verbs. Method. (Words modifying verbs are adverbs. ■.DeductlonA Slowly modifies a verb. ^ Slowly is an adverb. Reasons that the Complete or Deductive Method should be followed whenever possible. 1. True Education is a training of the whole of a child's faculty. The complete method appeals to the whole child. It is often as advantageous to argue from " generals " to " particulars" as from "particulars" to "generals." Hence both methods should be used. 2. The Complete Method appeals to the activity of the child. It shows him how to collect his facts, how to examine them, what kind of inferences to make from them. Children taught by this method endeavour to tackle diffi- Reasoning. 179 cutties; children taught under other methods are liable to succumb to difficulties. They excuse themselves from the effort of solution on the grounds that they have had " nothing like it before " ; they expect to be told how to do everything ; they are not trained to find out anything. Spencer, a great advocate of the complete method, says: " Children should be told as little as possible, and induped to discover as much as possible." Any method which pours knowledge into children, and expects them to pour it out again, is a poor method. ANALOGY. A teacher puts some small stones, sand and fine earth into a strong glass bowl partly filled with water. He stirs up the mixture, and on ceasing to stir gets the class to notice : that the stones are deposited while the water is moving rapidly, that the sand is next deposited as the water slows down, and that the fine earth is deposited when the water is still. He shows that conglomerate is largely composed of stones, that sandstone is composed of sand, and that shale is hardened mud, and then leads the class to reason that conglomerate is evidence of the former existence of rapidly running water, that sandstone points to slowly moving water, and shale to still water. The reasoning in the above example is different from either Inductive or Deductive reasoning. Certain similari- ties have been discovered between the sandstone and the sand, and what is true of the sand is believed to be true of the sandstone. If the points of resemblance are few, the reasoning might be false ; if the points of resemblance are many, the reasoning is probably true. The certainty of the process depends on the extent and number of the resem- blances. This kind of reasoning is called Reasoning by Analogy, and is thus described by Mill : " Two things resemble one another in one or more respects ; a certain pro= position is true of the one ; therefore it is true of the other." 180 Psychology in the Schoolroom. DEFINITION. The definition (general rule or law) plays an important part in reasoning. When we define a word we seek to determine its com- mon qualities or marks. Logicians call this the connotation of the word. The connotation is practically what is called the meaning of the word. Three terms are involved in definition, the meaning of which must be thoroughly grasped before attempting to frame definitions. They are as follows : — Genus. — That part of the definition which is common to the term defined, and to the other terms with which it has to be compared. Species. — This is the term to be defined. Differentia. — This is the portion which distinguishes the Species from the rest of the Genus. A definition must show in what respects the species is like the genus, and in what respects the species is unlike the genus. This is expressed by saying the definition should be per Genus et Differentias. The following examples will make this clear : — Species. A house \ A church A barn A school Genus. - is a building ■ Differentia. r to dwell in. to worship in. to store grain in. to teach in. A factory A bank A theatre , to make goods in. to put money in. . to see plays in. Rules for Definitions. These are thus laid down by our best authorities : — 1. A definition must state the attributes of the thing de- fined, i.e., it must be per genus et differentias ; it must denote the species, the whole species, and nothing but the species. 2. A definition must not contain the name defined. 3. A definition should not be expressed in obscure, figurative or ambiguous language. 4. A definition should not be negative where it can be positive. Reasoning. 181 Summary. Reasoning is perceiving relations among judgments. The chief forms of reasoning are : Induction and Deduction. Induction. — The process of establishing a general proposition based on the evidence of particular cases. Deduction. — The process of following out a general proposition into its particular applications. A deduction is expressed in a syllogism. Induction is superior to Deduction from a Teacher's point of view, because : — 1. It educates the child. 2. It is the natural method. 3. It is sure, although slow. 4. It fosters independence of thought. The Complete Method (or the Deductive Method) com- prises : — 1. Induction, 2. Deduction, and should be followed wherever possible. Analogy. "Two things resemble each other in one or more respects ; a certain proposition is true of the one ; there- fore it is true of the other.'' A Definition unfolds the connotation (i.e., the meaning) of a term. A Definition should — 1. State the whole of the attributes of the thing defined. 2. Proceed per genus et differcntias. 3. Not contain the name defined. 4. Not be negative where it can be affirmative. QUESTIONS. i. — What methods would you adopt for the more effective training of the reason- ing power at school ? Show how you would vary your methods according to the age of the pupils. (L.U.) 2. — Show how the inductive method of reasoning may be employed in lessons on familiar natural phenomena, e.g.. the seasons, snow, dew. (L.U.) 3. — " Children should be told as little as possible and induced to discover as much as possible." How would you carry out this principle in the teaching of chemistry? (L.U.) 4. — Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning, and illustrate the place of each in school work. (E.D.) 5. — Explain the process of reasoning by analogy. In teaching by it, what subjects would you use ? Give your reasons. (E.D.) ■ ^ 6. — What operations of the mind correspond with the three parts of the syllogism ? (E.D.) 7. — Distinguish between analogy and induction, hypothesis and theory. (E.D ) 8. — Distinguish between sensation, perception and reasoning, and define the place of each in the process of education, (E.D,) 182 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 9. — Which is the more important factor in school education— learning or thinking ? Describe the difference, and point out by what lessons the power of reflection and understanding may be best developed. (E.D.) 10.— Discuss fully the following statement : " General truths, to be of due and permanent use, must be earned." (E.D.) xi. — Give examples of the general rules according to which the natural order of teaching proceeds from the simple to the complex and from the particular to the general. (L.U.) 12. — What do you consider the distinctive disciplinary value of (a) mathematics, (6) classics, (c) physical science? Show how, in the teaching of these subjects, their distinctive disciplinary value is often missed. (L.U.) 13. — " In each branch of instruction we ought to proceed from the empirical to the rational." Discuss this. (L.U.) 14. — "Through facts to principles." Explain this. (L.U.) 15. — What are the more common defects in children's reasoning about the causes of things ? How would you set about improving their manner of generalising about causes? (C.P.) 16. — What is meant by a perfect definition, and what processes of thought are involved in forming one ? Give examples of good and imperfect definitions, and assign your reasons. How far is it advisable, if at all, to require definitions to be learned by heart? (C.P.) ^ 17. — Distinguish between logical analysis and grammatical analysis. Which of the two exercises is, in your judgment, more useful as a mental discipline for young learners, and which should be taught first ? State your reasons. (C.U.) 18. — In what does training to reason consist ? Compare the reasoning powers of children at the ages of five, ten, fifteen. (C.U.) a 19. — How far is it possible to classify the intellectual differences which mark off" individual children one from another? Discuss the question with especial reference to one of the following : differences of memory ; differences of reasoning power. (C.U.) 20.— Distinguish between induction and deduction. Contrast scientific induction with empirical generalisation, and explain any one method of scientific induction. Illustrate by reference to school-work. (V.U.) 2Ii — What does the logician understand by the definition of a term (or " notion")? Give the rules of logical definition, and discuss their value to the teacher. (C.U.) 22.— What is meant by the " inductive method " in teaching, and to what extent is it analogous to the process of scientific discovery ? (C.U.) 183 CHAPTER XIII. APPERCEPTION. " Eyes and No Eyes." A child who has not learnt any physiology and who has not pre- viously looked through a microscope, looUs at a drop of blood under the microscope. He probably says that he sees nothing. Another child who has, we will suppose, studied bo- tanical sections under the microscope, looks at the same drop of blood and says that he sees some smalt round bodies. A third child who has learned a little physiology looks through the microscope, recognises the small round bodies as corpuscles, notes that the majority are reddish, looks for and perhaps finds a white corpuscle, and comes to the conclusion that it is a drop of blood that he sees. In the three instances everything is the same except the children. The differences in the results of the acts of obser- vation must be due to the differences in the minds of the children. The reason the third child saw more than the other two was that he was fitted by previous training to see more. In order that we may see a thing properly it is not sufficient that rays of light should come from the object to the eye, and nerve vibrations travel along the optic nerve to the brain, the mind must be in a position to interpret, to understand those vibrations. To sensations coming from without, the mind adds imagination (i.e., image - making) working from within. This combination of action of object on mind and the reaction of mind on object is known as Apperception. 184 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The Argument extended to some of the other Senses. Words do not " convey " ideas. Words simply convey a few noises into the mind. The meaning of the words has to be supplied by the mind receiving the impressions. If I am blindfolded and feel a piece of cloth, I am able to perceive little more than that it is (we will suppose) smooth and thick. The blind man will be able to discover much more than this. Not only will he be able to tell that it is smooth and thick, but he will be able to tell the texture, the material of which it is made, and sometimes even the colour of the cloth. The stimuli to the touch were the same in each case, but the blind man's consciousness reacted against more stimuli than my consciousness. This reacting activity of consciousness is the characteristic of apperception. Definitions of Apperception. 1. Apperception is that form of mental activity under which percepts are brought into relation with our previous intellectual and emotional states and assimilated with them. 2. The general name for the process of mentally " taking in" whatever form that process may take. 3. The process of taking anything into the mind and giving it position and meaning in the mind. 4. " The bringing to bear what has been retained of past experiences in such a way as to interpret, to give weight to the new experience." The speciality of apperception is the relating activity of conscious- ness. It may be viewed as psychic reaction, interpretation, elaboration, thought, all taken together. Apperception is to the mind what digestion is to the body. The body reacts on food and produces tissue. The mind reacts on percepts and produces knowledge. Conditions of Apperception. 1. The External Factor. — A stimulus from the outside must enter the mind. Thus in the example at the beginning Apperception. 185 of the chapter, stimuli from the drop of blood entered the eye and affected the nervous system and the mind. 2. The Internal Factors. (a) There must be some response to these stimuli in the form of Attention. (b) There must be a stock of " apperceiving ideas " — bits of kindred information which serve to interpret or explain the stimuli. The Apperceiving Group. — The group of ideas already in the mind which absorbs an idea just presented to the mind is called the apperceiving group. The idea just pre- sented is, when acted upon by the apperceiving group, said to be apperceived. " The apperceiving conceptions usually stand like armed soldiers within the strongholds of conscious- ness, ready to pounce upon everything which shows itself within the portals of the senses, in order to overcome it and make it serviceable to themselves." (Lazarus.) Causes of Defective Apperception. 1. Lack of Attention. — As we have seen (p. 22), atten- tion is one of the essentials of intellectual operations. 2. Lack or Insufficiency of Apperceiving Ideas. — When a lesson is " too hard" for a child, the child is unable to call up the group of apperceiving ideas suitable for the compre- hension of the idea just presented. When "words go in at one ear and out of the other," there is a lack of attention, or of the apperceiving group, or of both. Defective Apperception may be. false or may be incom- plete. It is false when the apperceiving group suitable for the explanation of the idea is not called up. Some other apper- ceiving group is called up and a false interpretation obtained. Apperception is incomplete when only a part of the suit- able apperceiving group is recalled. The ideas of most children are one-sided largely owing to the small range of experience. The teacher should strive for vivid, clear ideas. 186 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Completeness of ideas is of secondary importance. Time, " the great innovator," will remedy this defect. The Importance of the Consideration of Apper= ception. Nicole says that it is not the teacher nor outside in- struction which causes things to be comprehended. The teacher exposes " things " to the interior light of the mind. If this light is absent the "thing" is not understood, just as when light is absent it is impossible to see or understand a picture. The development of the mind from within is conse- quently more important than the instruction of the mind from without. Apperception shows that it is absolutely essential to stir the mind of the child. It is the child's own activity which will strengthen and develop his mind. " The condition of the learner should not be one of passive reception, but of earnest self-exertion." APPLICATION OF APPERCEPTION TO TEACHING. Brief reflection will show the thoughtful reader that the theory of apperception points out that: — 1. The minds of the pupils must be prepared for the matter to be taught. 2. The matter to be taught must be presented in a methodical manner. In other words, the thoughtful teacher, before giving a lesson, will ask himself two questions: — 1. What do the children already know which is at all kindred to the subject of the lesson ? 2. How shall I "dovetail" the new knowledge into the old? Preparation, i.e., the calling up of the Apperceiving Group. 1. The teacher must see that the matter to be taught is in some way connected with the previous knowledge of the class. He must not assume that the children know more Apperception. 187 about the subject than they really do. " The habit of assuming that children know more than they do is the cancer disease of our schools." 2. The apperceiving group must be marshalled in such a way as to excite expectation, stimulate interest, and generally to prepare for the new knowledge to be taught. 3. The preparation must not be too elaborate ; it is but a means to an end. This is a common mistake with young teachers, who frequently allow their " Introduction " to a lesson to monopolise the greater part of the lesson. Presentation, i.e., the absorption of the new ideas into the apperceiving group. 1. The matter to be taught must be presented, not in the mass, but in small logically arranged sections. 2. The subject should be unfolded step by step. Each new idea taught should be a step towards one end — the development of the whole subject. 3. The teacher should, at the end of each step, require the pupil to reproduce in his own words the details of that step, and at the end of the lesson he should require a summary of the whole lesson given in a pupil's own words. "The best test that a person has understood a thing is, that he can reproduce it in his own way with his own words." English teachers depend too much upon rapid vivacious question- ing in their examination. This method does not train the power of connected thinking. The German method, under which the child is required to give in his own words an account of the whole lesson, has much to recommend it. " The smooth connected presentation by the child is better than the discourse interrupted a hundred times by the teacher." Summary. Apperception. Definitions. — Apperception is that form of mental activity under which percepts are brought into relation with our previous states and assimilated with them. The Apperceiving Group is that set of ideas which assimilates the idea presented to the mind. 188 Psychology in the Schoolroom, Conditions of Apperception. 1. External Factor — stimulus giving rise to percept, idea, etc. 2. Internal Factors — (a) attention, (b) the apperceiving group. Apperception may be defective because it is false or incomplete. Defective Apperception caused by : — 1. Lack of attention. 2. Lack of apperceiving ideas. The Application of the Theory of Apperception to Teach= ing. Sound teaching may be divided into two stages : — 1. The Stage of Preparation, in which the appropriate apperceiving group is evoked. 2. The Stage of Presentation, in which the new ideas are absorbed by the apperceiving group. QUESTIONS. i. — Briefly describe the mode of activity of a child's mind in assimilating some oral lesson — say on history. How would you distinguish mere verbal knowledge from a real understanding of such a lesson ? (C.P.) 2. — It is said that in teaching young children "presentation" should precede "representation." Explain this, 3. — Distinguish between instruction and education. 4. — What points should be borne in mind in presenting comparatively new matter to a class ? 5. — "Learn something thoroughly and refer everything else to it." Discuss the value of this as a general rule for methodical teaching. (E.D.) 6. — What do you understand by method ? In what sense (if any) is the method of teaching one and the same for each subject, and in what sense is it different? (E.D.) 7. — Briefly unfold and estimate the following distinctions: (a) lecturing and teaching, (b) trained and untrained sight, (c) memory work and mind work. (E.D.) 8. — Compare the process of assimilation in following a historical narrative and in finding the solution of a mathematical problem. (L.U.) 9. — Herbart lays emphasis on the need of cultivating in the pupil " a large circle of thought, closely connected in all its parts." Explain this. (L.U.) 10. — What is meant by apperception ? Show how it is related to attention, and explain the practical conclusions to be drawn from considering the relation. (V.U.) 11. — What do you understand by the assimilation of knowledge? How do you distinguish ill-assimilated from well-assimilated knowledge ? Illustrate from school work. (C.U.) 12. — " Homines dum docent discunt." Examine this from the point of view of modern psychology. (C.U.) 13. — What is meant by apperception? How is it related to perception? (V.U.) 14.— Discuss the educational importance of the distinction drawn by certain psychologists between perception and apperception. (C.U.) 15. — Analyse perception, distinguishing it from sensation and from judgment. What is apperception, and how is it related to perception ? Show how good observar tion depends on apperception. (V.U.) 189 CHAPTER XIV. AN ATTEMPT TO EXAMINE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF THE KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM. We will endeavour to ascertain what are the more marked characteristics of early childhood, and then endea- vour to ascertain how far the kindergarten method can be made the means of developing those characteristics of the young child which are good, and of checking those that are bad. THE MOST MARKED CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD ARE:— 1. Spontaneous Activity. This is a noticeable feature in the young of all animals. The playfulness of the kitten, the freshness of the young horse, the delight of the young hound when released from the chain, will serve as illustra- tions. Bain attaches great importance to spontaneity, which he defines as "the fact that the active organs may pass into movement apart from the stimulus of sensation." In young children there would seem to be a superabundance of nervous energy which must be "fired off" somehow, always to the delight of the child, and often to the dis- comfort of his elders. One outlet of the child's spon- taneous activity is found in the exercise of the senses, and our first knowledge of things is gained through the exercise of this spontaneous activity. 2. Dislike of continued application. Restlessness of body has as its concomitant restlessness of mind. It is as impossible for a child to fix his mind upon one thing for any 190 Psychology in the Schoolroom. length of time as it is for him to keep his body in one position for a prolonged period. 3. Delight in examining things, especially in hand= ling them. The child three months old, after his attention has been riveted by the bright light, puts out his hand to try to grasp it. Sight alone is not deemed sufficient — a reference must be made to Touch. The crying of children for things they see, and which they must not have (e.g., ornaments on the mantel-shelf), illustrates the natural desire of the child to examine things by the sense of touch. 4. The superior attractiveness of the colour over the form element in claiming the attention. Bright- coloured things have a peculiar fascination for children. The child prefers his gaudily-coloured picture-book to the etchings of a first-class artist. The superiority of the colour over the form element is further shown in the fact that the names red, blue, etc., are learned before the names square, oblong, etc. 5. Marked Imitative Powers. In baby life the re- sponse to the mother's smile, and the attempts to imitate articulate language, are illustrations of this primordial faculty. The playing at " mothers and fathers," " keeping shop," " keeping school," are a few among the many later manifestations of the same thing. 6. Marked Imaginative Powers. Children are full of fancy. Their " make-believe " games are products of their spontaneous activity and of their imitative and imaginative powers. Untrammelled as it is by experience, the child's imagination often seems to run riot, and some educationalists have gone so far as to say that it ought to be restrained rather than cultivated. 7. Some evidences of Sympathy. The rudiments of sympathy are probably instinctive. Very young children answer smile with smile and look sorry when mother or nurse appears so. This instinctive sympathy needs experi- ence and exercise for its development. The capability of entering into the sorrows of others is first acquired — hence Psychological Basis op Kindergarten System. 191 many nursery tales depend upon the gratification of the im- pulse of pity. The young child does not readily enter into another's pleasures : the egoistic impulses are as yet too strong. 8. Strong powers of Verbal Memory. The ease with which the young child gains a fair mastery of the intricacies of his mother tongue is strong evidence of remarkable reten- tive powers. 9. Weakness of powers of fine discrimination. Even the very young child possesses some powers of discrimina- tion (p. 22), but this discriminative power is limited to the detection of large and striking differences. 10. Weakness of the higher mental powers : Ab= straction, Judgment and Reasoning. These, as we have seen, are the results of mental development. 11. Weakness or absence of moral impulses. The moral impulses are, as we shall see, largely the result of education in its widest sense. Finally, it should be noted that one characteristic is mutually dependent on the others. Just as in the body of the normal child one part grows in proportion to the growth of other parts, so one faculty of the mind may be said to develop in proportion to the other faculties. HOW FAR THE KINDERGARTEN SYSTEM RECOG- NISES THESE CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN. Any good system of education makes use of the powers of the child according to the order and strength of their development, and endeavours to direct those powers into the right channels. We will now examine the kindergarten system and endeavour to see how far it conforms to these requirements. 1. It starts with the recognition of the spontaneous activity of the child. Frobel recognised that " the first start in knowledge is made through spontaneous and over- flowing activity." The child was to him an acting and creating being, not a learning and knowing one. The 192 Psychology in the Schoolroom. systematic manner in which the kindergarten system aims at developing the higher forms of knowledge from the play- ful activity of the child is one of its most valuable features. The brick-building, plate-laying, bead-threading, singing, acting, marching are all so many devices for diverting the child's activity into educational channels. 2. It recognises the fact that the child is incapable of long-continued application. The lessons are short, and each short lesson is divided into parts which call for the exercise of different capabilities. But the lessons all centre round one idea, and thus habits of attention to one thing are fostered. The brick-building, stick-laying, etc., compel close and comparatively long active attention — a consumma- tion which no mere passive contemplation could achieve. 3. It recognises the fact that the child delights to examine, and especially to handle things. The " gifts " are not intended to be merely shown to the child — they are to be touched and handled by him ; indeed it was Frobel's idea that the " gifts " should be given to the child when the series of lessons dealing with them had been completed. The observation of the " gifts " trains the visual sense, the handling of the "gifts" trains the tactual and muscular senses, the conversation, recitation and singing train the sense of hearing. The perception of form is thus properly acquired through the exercise of the senses of touch and sight used conjointly. 4. It recognises the attractiveness of colour for young children by commencing with the coloured balls in the first gift. 5. It employs the imitative powers of the child by requiring him to build up the various forms, etc., in imita- tion of the teacher. 6. It employs the imaginative powers in getting the children to imagine that the forms built are chairs, seats, churches, etc. Some of the forms in the paper-folding exercises do certainly require considerable imagination for their identification. Psychological Basis of Kindergarten System. 193 The story-telling also gives considerable exercise to the imaginative powers. 7. It endeavours to cultivate Sympathy by the recital of suitable stories, and also by the example shown by the teacher in his treatment of animals that are the subjects of the lessons. 8. It cultivates the powers of Memory in the learning of recitations, songs, etc., and by the frequent appeals which are made to subjects connected with previous lessons. 9. It recognises the weak discriminative powers of the child by placing at first large differences before him. Thus after the first gift (balls of different colours), Frobel introduces the cube of the second gift and contrasts them somewhat as follows : — Ball. Cube. One surface. Several surfaces. No corners. Several corners. No edge. Several edges. Then when these great differences have been observed, he introduces the cylinder as intermediate in form, and compares and contrasts the ball and cylinder on the one hand, and the cylinder and cube on the other. The differ- ences between ball and cylinder are not so striking as the differences between ball and cube, and hence are not brought forward for observation until the greater differences have been mastered. 10. It recognises the weakness of the higher mental faculties, and consequently makes little demands upon them, preferring to build up a solid substructure of sense- percepts upon which higher intellectual processes may be founded. It recognises that the child's mind is not prone to division and abstraction, but is rather adapted for observing things as wholes, hence attention is drawn to the whole Cube in Gift II., before the introduction of its parts in Gift III. 11 . It endeavours to train the moral sense in many ways, e.g., by awakening sympathy and by inculcating the 13 194 Psychology in the Schoolroom. necessity for the quiet observance of law and order in all lessons. The kindergarten system recognises the mind as a whole, not as a mere accumulation of parts. It seeks to cultivate not only the thinking powers of the mind, but also those of feeling and volition. " It seeks to develop the inner man through the assimilation of the outer world." It does not try to "plaster" the external on to the internal; it endeavours to make the external internal. It aims at a true development of mind and not at the mere accumulation of knowledge. Summary. The Child possesses :— 1. Spontaneous activity. 2. Dislike of continued applica- tion. 3. Delight in handling things. 4. A liking for colours rather than for form. 5. Marked imitative powers. 6. Marked imaginative powers. 7. Some sympathy. 8. Strong verbal memory. 9. Weak discriminative power. 10. Weak powers of judgment and reasoning. 11. Weak moral sense. The Kindergarten System recognises : — 1. That this spontaneous ac- tivity must be diverted into educa- tional channels. 2. That lessons should be short. 3. That the child should handle the " gifts." 4. That the commencement should be made with coloured objects. 5. That the child should imitate the teacher. 6. That the imagination should be employed in naming forms made in paper folding, etc. 7. That sympathy should be cultivated chiefly through pity. 8. That the memory may be usefully employed in learning songs, etc. 9. That the differences pre- sented to the child's notice should be large. 10. That it is inadvisable to en- deavour to evoke these too much. 11. That the moral sense may be trained through sympathy and regard for law and order, etc. Psychological Basis of Kindergarten System. 195 questions. i. — Name the more marked characteristics of early childhood. Classify them into those that are useful and those that are not useful in advancing true mental develop- ment. 2. — In what ways does the kindergarten system utilise the activity of the child? 3. — Examine the psychological basis of the kindergarten system. (L.U.) 4. — How does the order of mental growth determine the order of instruction? (V.U.) 196 CHAPTER XV. THE FEELINGS. DIVISIONS OF FEELING. There are two great classes of feeling known as Sensa= tions and Emotions. The former have already been dealt with. We are principally concerned with the latter here. But it will be just as well to emphasise the difference be- tween the two classes. I knock my hand against the table. I have a feeling of physical pain — a sensation. A person does an injury to my reputation. I have a feeling of anger — an emotion. The one arose in direct response to an external stimulation (the knock) ; it was immediately presentative ; it brought into consciousness a state of the body. The other denoted a mental agitation ; it was caused by no material substance like the table, but arose in idea and brought into conscious- ness a state of the mind ; it was representation. Again, an infant would be conscious of the pain of the blow, although it would be indifferent to slander. In other words the sensation is a primary form of consciousness, whereas the emotion is secondary and derived. The same fact teaches us that the sensation is simple or primitive, whilst the emotion is complex. Other elements are wanting, a number of minor feelings are required, and these have to be fused, e.g., the feeling of injustice, of cruelty, etc. I could localise the sensation on my finger. Both its locality and character are definite, but my anger in the same sense is neither definite nor localised. We thus see that — The Feelings. 197 Feeling as Sensation is the increase (or decrease) of mind activity produced by Organic disturbance on the surface of the body whether external or internal, Whilst Feeling as Emotion arises within the body and is the product of all concepts present to conscious- ness at the time. FEELING DEFINED. We may experience fear or joy, anger or sympathy, love or hatred. Some of these conditions are pleasurable, some painful. Hence Feeling comprehends pleasures and pains. Mr. Bain adds " and states of excitement that are neither.'' As an instance he gives surprise, and points out that though some surprises are pleasurable or painful, some are neither. But it is to be questioned whether any feeling is entirely devoid of one or the other element. Our feel- ings are also very varied. They may be mere instincts, as in the case of sucking or crying in the child. With feeling as sensation we are already familiar. From these facts we learn that Feelings are agitations or impulses of the mind. Sometimes we speak of our general state of feeling, and this is the sum total of a large number of ob- scure concepts, each of which individually is too weak to rise above the threshold of consciousness. If these con- tributing elements change, the state of general feeling changes. But these elements are always changing as our experience grows, hence feeling tends to become very com- plex. Sometimes the elementary feelings conflict among themselves, and this adds further to the complexity of feel- ing. We note also that strong feelings are accompanied by immediate changes in the bodily organs, and that these changes act on the mind and so produce fresh changes of feeling. These bodily changes are due to an overflow of nervous energy into the sympathetic system of nerves. We thus see that two facts are necessary for the pro- 198 Psychology in the Schoolroom. duction of an emotion: (1) The feeling must acquire a cer- tain degree of intensity and produce certain physical results in the bodily organs ; (2) These changes themselves must be felt. CHILDREN'S FEELINGS. 1. Selfish and Rudimentary. A child's early feelings are naturally selfish and bound up with his bodily wants and the lower forms of sensation. The hungry child is indifferent to everything until his wants are satisfied. The chief part of his experience of life is composed of sensuous feelings. At present he is a young animal, and although traces of the more universal and elementary emotions like fear, astonishment, anger, grief, joy, curiosity and jealousy are early manifested, still only traces of these are at first present, and these are generally closely connected with the more primitive sensations. In fact many of them are more or less instinctive, for a child will show signs of fear before it can know anything to be afraid of. The maternal care soon begins to develop some degree of affection, but even that is not discriminative, for Madame Guizot points out that a child will often lavish the same affection on a doll as on her mother. This seems to show also that there is no proportion between the feeling itself and its manifestation. The higher feelings are almost entirely wanting, and are products of very slow growth. The assthetic sentiment at first shows itself merely on the sensuous side in the ap- preciation of the bright light or the pretty colour. 2. Non- representative. The sensibility of the child is limited by his intelligence, which is naturally very small. The concrete only appeals to him, for his memory is yet weak. He can neither recall the past nor conceive the future. Remove the object and you remove most of the feeling, for he is not yet mentally strong enough to retain it in idea, i.e., his feelings are non-representative; they are only aroused by present objects. He may be afraid of an animal, object or person when present ; he is not yet so The Feelings. 199 affected when it is absent. His weak representative power saves him the pain of fear, although at the same time it deprives him of the pleasures of imagination. 3. Intense and Violent. This characteristic of childish feeling is common experience. It is easily understood. The will is weak, hence self-control is lacking. The feeble intellect allows of no reflection. His moral sense is but little developed, and unequal to the task imposed on it. It is worthy of note that this characteristic is associated with pains rather than pleasures, and this is probably due to the more primitive nature of the emotions concerned ; e.g., fear, anger. The child is a perfect slave to the feeling whilst it lasts, especially in its more intense forms. 4. Fugitive and Brief. This is a compensating arrange- ment for their violence — they rarely last long. The non- representative element causes the feeling to quickly arise, but like the seeds that fell on stony ground they have no depth of root. The feelings in a sense are superficial. There is no nursing of wrath to keep it warm. The habit of feeling is not yet fixed, so that the emotion is transient. The introduction of a new presentative element will often displace the painful feeling. DEVELOPMENT OF FEELING. Development follows along the same lines as in the intellect, and this is easy to understand when we remember that we are only moved by a thing in proportion to our knowledge of it. Growth is from the simple to the com- plex, and is strengthened by exercise and experience. Speaking generally our first feelings are mere appetites and bodily sensations. We then find those emotions developing which are concerned with the individual him- self — the egoistic. Those feelings which relate to others — the social — are later in their development, whilst the higher emotions or abstract sentiments are the last to appear. 1. Sensuous Feelings. The early days of childhood are chiefly concerned with nutrition and growth, hence early 200 Psychology in the Schoolroom. mental life consists chiefly of sense feelings. These may be pleasurable or painful, and the child distinguishes the two states from the first. Hunger or thirst is announced by crying, which in this case proclaims a feeling of discomfort, which arises from the need of nourishment. Preyer asserts that even at a very early period the child's voice is different when he cries from hunger and when he cries from pain. We thus see that differences of bodily feeling assert themselves from the first, although these differences are as yet rudi- mentary. But sense impressions arise in great abundance, and so gradually lead to definite sensations, and to the higher feelings associated with these within the province of the special senses. 2. Emotions. Every feeling is accompanied by a diffused current of nervous activity which tends to produce movement or expression. These nerve currents spread to the centres and flow outwards along the nerve tracks to the external parts of the body, and produce certain changes as seen in anger and fear. Such emotions are primitive, and have instinctive germs as an element. The cause or stimulus of the feeling may be the same, but the result will vary with the disposition of the child. The hereditary element is revealed when the child smiles at his mother's face. Myriads of children have smiled at the faces of myriads of mothers ; the association has thus been set up and transmitted in the germ. The feeling is strengthened by its bodily manifestations. These in their turn give rise to feelings which intensify the original feeling. But there is a limit to this. The climax having been reached the feeling begins to subside. Some one has said that all the feelings in their highly emotional form run, as it were, a sort of physiological career. But the feeling while it lasts may be modified. The nervous disturbance may extend to the thoughts, as when we are " moved by fear," and it may produce such a strong modification of the original feeling that we may lose ourselves in it. The Feelings. 201 Memory and Imagination are factors in the develop- ment of feeling. If the like feelings have been pre- viously experienced, traces of these may mingle with the present feeling, either through their persistence in the mind or through their revival under the influence of the present feeling. We then have what is known as Ideal Feeling. But this stage of feeling demands a fair amount of re- presentative power and some experience before it can be imagined and recalled. Exercise is very necessary, for every time any particular feeling is aroused it leaves behind it some traces. No doubt many of these fade with time, but there is always a residuum sufficient for the purpose. It has already been pointed out that children's feelings are fugitive and brief, but an important result of repetition is the formation of Habits of Feeling, or speaking more strictly, tendencies to feel. Our higher feelings are naturally of a slow growth, and in a certain sense nothing but habits. We do not become benevolent or polite in a day, and our particular interests and hobbies are especially illustrative of the influence of habit on feeling. Temperament is an important factor. Physiological differences in the structure and mode of working of the brain give rise to differences in emotional capacity, and these differences manifest themselves in the presence or absence, in the strength or weakness, of certain feelings. Every form of feeling is more or less complex, and by association and combination feelings become still more complex, and this is an important fact to the teacher. These associations attach themselves to persons, places, objects, etc. Where school life is happy a favourable asso- ciation is established between the child and the school, between the child and the teacher. The more readily these associations are formed, the stronger is the association set up and the more rapidly is emotion developed. CLASSIFICATION OF FEELINGS. We may classify the feelings with regard to the occasions on which they arise, or the kinds of intellectual activity most 202 Psychology in the Schoolroom. closely engaged in their production. But undoubtedly the best classification is that which is based on the order of their development. It should proceed from the simple to the complex, from the more primitive to the more derived, from those involving a low degree of representation to the more ideal states. 1. Egoistic Feelings. From the order of development we have already learned that the first feelings are mainly egoistic. They are the first to be developed because they spring from the instinct of self-preservation and growth. They are concerned with pleasures and pains, the wants, desires and general well-being of the individual. In early life we are absorbed in them because they affect our own welfare. They include Fear, Anger, Antipathy, Love of Activity and of Power, Rivalry, Love of Approbation and the various forms of Self-Esteem. From this enumeration we see that some are directed towards or against others and are anti-social in their nature. 2. Social Feelings. These also are directed towards others, but in a favourable way. Their existence shows that man is a gregarious animal endowed with what are called " social instincts," seeking companionship and friend- ship. As these develop the child becomes less concentred in self and thinks more of others, and this fact will account for their later development. They include Love, Respect, Sympathy . 3. Sentiments. These abstract sentiments or reflective feelings constitute our higher feelings and are exceedingly complex in their nature, which complexity will account for their late development. They are usually sub-divided into : — (a) The Intelltctual Sentiment, or love of truth. (ft) The Msthetic Sentiment, or admiration of the beautiful. (c) The Moral Sentiment, or reverence for duty. REASONS FOR CULTIVATION OF FEELINGS. 1. The Happiness of Child. The cultivation of the feelings is essential to the happiness of the child. All our The Feelings. 203 pleasures and pains are states of feeling, and things only interest us in so far as they appeal to our feelings. The organs and faculties of the mind must be stirred into suit- able activity if we are to make the child happy. Body and mind are closely connected. They act and react on each other. The healthy stimulation of the one means the proper discharge of the functions of the other. 2. The Rudimentary Nature of Child Feeling. We are already familiar with the characteristics of children's feelings. Their selfish, transient and rudimentary nature, their non-representative character, their intensity and viol- ence all bespeak the necessity for careful and continuous cultivation. 3. The Feelings supply Motives to Conduct. The feelings supply the motives to action. Hence they are of vital consequence in the formation of character. The "heart" is as much a natural endowment as the mind, and stands in greater need of education. Pleasures and pains act as motives even when only present in idea as well as in reality. 4. Feeling is Contagious. Children are specially influenced by their circles of acquaintance. The home, school and street are the chief influences. The street influence is generally bad, the home is an uncertain factor, hence the school must be a good one. Feeling cannot be taught directly, but it can be communicated. It has a strong tendency to radiate. Individual units are attracted to a mob and take on the dominant feeling with amazing rapidity. The cultivation of a " public opinion '' or a " class sympathy" in the school is not unknown to teachers. 5. The Feelings need Control. In young children the anti-social feelings generally exist in excess, and so need checking more or less. This is a difficult task owing to the weak volition of the child. Hence the necessity for their regulation and guidance by the teacher. 6. The Feelings need Exercise. The feelings need both repression and stimulation. Starve the bad ones with 204 Psychology in the Schoolroom. lack of exercise. Give no play to them. This is the nega- tive side. The positive side is to exercise and foster the better feelings. The intellect must be cultivated as an essential. Superstition and terror thrive on ignorance ; bias on an unregulated judgment. Furthermore, opportunities must be sought for exercising and strengthening certain feelings as antidotes to others; i.e., speaking generally the higher feelings must be cultivated to weaken or control the lower. The frequent exercise of a feeling so long as it is within reasonable limits will help to form a habit of feeling. If a child is taught to practise a certain virtue, he will by association acquire the feeling prompting to that virtue. Generosity is learned by giving, and courtesy by polite actions. DIFFICULTIES OF THE CULTIVATION OF THE FEELINGS. 1. The Training of the Feelings is Indirect. If we wish to check a certain feeling we must either divert atten- tion from the idea on which the feeling depends, or we must discourage its outward manifestation. Yet still there is an art of cultivating the feelings. We can utilise opportunities favourable to the production of desirable feelings. In this respect the feelings differ from the intellect, which lends itself to direct cultivation. But the indirect nature of the training is not the only difficulty. 2. The Complexity of many of the Feelings. The range and complexity of the feelings naturally make pro- gress slow. 3. The Persistence of Ideas. This persistence of ideas is a very disturbing factor. The fixed idea becomes a powerful motive to conduct, as is seen in the miser, the bookworm, the love of power and the love of philanthropy. These ideas, owing to the emotional excitement attached to them, come to be followed out irrespective of the pleasure or pain they may cause us. This is the explanation given by Bain of all disinterested or extra-regarding action, such as love or patriotism. The Feelings. 205 the cultivation of the feelings. Certain feelings need stimulation whilst others need repression, and the cultivation of the feelings proceeds through these two channels. 1. Repression of Feeling. The education of the feelings is at first negative. The lower emotions generally exist in excess in young children, and so need repression. The mistake in treatment is that we often begin too soon. The out- burst of childish passion must be allowed to subside some- what before we begin to deal with it. We must then try to divert the child's attention, and the mobility of his mind lends itself to this effort. At the same time care must be taken so as not to wound his feelings. The expression of feeling requires attention from the teacher. There is a firm association between a feeling and its expression, hence the one may recall the other. Now this may or may not be desirable. A child relieves his grief by crying. An association is set up which every repetition strengthens, and if this association is not broken a crying child may be the product. Stop the crying and the grief becomes more intense. Take another instance. A happy child shows his joy by smiles, by laughter, by singing or by an excess of activity. Check these manifes- tations and the feeling dies. We thus see that the repres- sion of bodily expression seems to intensify a strong feeling and to weaken or destroy a lighter one. But the repression of the feeling itself is the main ques- tion for the teacher. All repression of bodily manifestation, speaking generally, is advisable, so that no undesirable association may be formed. And this is equally true of physical pains. The tears and groans fix the attention on the feeling, whereas to repress the feeling we must turn away the attention from it. 2. Stimulation of Feeling. Speaking generally the egoistic feelings need repression, the social feelings and abstract sentiments stimulation. The amount of stimulation must be regulated. A moderate quantity is sufficient for pleasure. But "moderate" is here used in a relative sense. The moderation will have to fit itself to the varying sensibilities of different children. A strong child needs more exercise than a weakling ; a strong brain than a weak one. On the other hand, weak emotional natures need more stimulation than those endowed with strong sensibilities. Excess of 206 Psychology in the Schoolroom. stimulation in any case is destructive of the feeling and soon produces pain. Pleasure ceases when fatigue begins, and fatigue is sooner or later the inevitable result of exces- sive stimulation. A glare of light or a deafening noise will produce physical pain. Gentle exercise is pleasurable to most people; violent exercise painful. Over-pressure, which counts as one of its factors over-stimulation, is not unknown in some schools. The mind must be kept active, but only to such a degree as to produce a flow of pleasur- able feeling. School life will of necessity demand some more neutral or even unpleasant feelings, but they should be kept at a minimum. But how is the teacher to stimulate feeling judiciously ? (1) He may provide suitable exercise for the feelings; (2) He may cultivate the intelligence ; (3) He may rely on the forces of example and imitation. {a) Exercise. Certain sentiments or feelings may be stimulated by the presenta- tion of suitable objects or situations. Beautiful sights and sounds will stimulate the aesthetic sentiment ; the tone of a good school ought to stimulate the intellectual and moral sentiments; suffering calls forth pity; love begets love ; real merit stimulates esteem ; attendance at a place of worship induces the religious sentiment. (b) Intelligence. The presence or absence of certain feelings in the individual may be largely due to defective intelligence and especially to a weak imagination. There is a close connection between feeling and knowing, and the cultivation of the one influences the other. With an expanding intelligence and suitable exercise the child will increase his experiences and his emotional endowment at the same time. (c) Imitation. The diffusion and contagion of feeling should be utilised. Children are apt to feel like those around them. The repetition of any particular feeling soon makes that feeling common property. The feeling is rapidly imitated by the class, hence the need for the stimulation of the social feelings and sentiments so that good feelings may be acquired. Example encourages imitation. The kind teacher incites a feeling of kindness. But the effect must not be allowed to rest there. In every case the feeling must be followed by action, or educationally it is wasted, We repress the selfish feelings and stimulate the higher ones because we want to use them as motives to action, and not because we want to foster emotional indulgences. The mere sentimentalist is one of the weakest of mortals volitionally because his abundant feeling never passes into action. ABUSES OF THE FEELINGS IN EDUCATION. Abuses in the cultivation of the feelings may lead to the formation of a Stunted Emotional Nature. (1) The too frequent wounding of a feeling tends to deaden it, and this is one of the dangers attending the too frequent use of ridicule. Instead of strengthening, the The Feelings. 207 teacher destroys the feeling as a motive, e.g., respect, sense of shame, etc. (2) The proper cultivation of feeling implies the cultiva- tion of the intellect also. The starving of the one may siunt the other. Coldness of heart is frequently traced to defec- tive imagination. (3) A not uncommon error in some infant schools is the bribing of children to be good with sweetmeats. This prac- tice is to be strongly condemned, for it appeals to the wrong motive — the appetite — and directs the mind to duty via the stomach. (4) The over-repression of childish activity from mistaken notions of discipline, the desire to keep a class in a state of chronic quiescence, to maintain a misconception as to what constitutes good order, to treat strong and weak alike, with their widely varying needs for exercise, constitutes perhaps the most general abuse of feeling in school life. The teacher stifles the very activity it is his business to regulate and guide. (5) The stunting effect of what the world calls " charity " is another familiar example. Its indiscriminate use saps forethought, self-reliance and self-respect. (6) Self-respect is sometimes further deadened by associat- ing it with unsuitable objects. A preference is shown for a child because of some superiority of dress, looks, social position or mental endowment, and these become the ob- jects of injudicious praise. The result is generally a feeling of injustice and hatred on the part of others, and self-conceit or arrogance on the part of the child himself. Respect in its stronger form of veneration is also sometimes abused by associating it too frequently with matters of creed, class, authority or antiquity, irrespective of their individual claims to this feeling. This is seen in the indiscriminate worship of cash, caste, customs, pedigrees, laws, rank, titles and institutions. (7) Over-indulgence in feeling and sickly sentiment is apt to produce mere affectation of feeling in other people 208 Psychology in the Schoolroom. whose emotional capacity may be more limited. It is one of the results of the influence of fashion on the feel- ings. Most teachers are more or less familiar with the stubborn child. The obstinacy may be due to causes over which the teacher has no control, but it is very often the result of the mismanagement of feeling in the offender. It may be nothing more than a form of opposition for its own sake, and arising from courage in excess. The teacher thoughtlessly enters into a contest and thus fosters the very abuse itself. Heedlessness is a very common fault of chil- dren, and it denotes a lack of caution. But the feeling of caution may be over-cultivated and watered down to timidity. Within reasonable limits the teacher should let the disci- pline of consequences operate here. Habits of feeling grow slowly but root deeply. The habit itself may be a blessing or a curse, and it ought to be the teacher's constant care that it is never the latter. There are two classes of persons each of which lays down a general maxim for the cultivation of the feelings. The one says, " Always reason with your children ; " the other, " Always appeal to their feelings." Both are wrong. Each in a measure involves the other, but the better course is a judicious use of both for older children. With young children it is more difficult, for neither reason nor feeling is sufficiently developed for safe appeals. Then there is a disproportion between a feeling and its manifestation in young children which has been previously pointed out, and which might lead the teacher into the very abuses he is seeking to avoid. Reason with your child about everything, says George Eliot, and you make him a monster. FEELINGS OF PLEASURE AND FAIN. How do these Feelings arise? A child's mother is taken ill. Many little things about the house daily proclaim the absent mother, and her image is thus affectionately maintained in the child's mind by a multitude of suggesting or furthering ideas. But the thought of her illness is The Feelings. 209 also maintained by opposing or arresting ideas, and these prevail over the others. The result is a feeling of pain. When the mother recovers, the furthering ideas over- ride the arresting ones and a feeling of pleasure is produced. Our states of consciousness are always changing. New ideas keep pouring in, and these may assist or conflict with the present ones, or in other words they may arrest or further the movement of thought. The thought process is now acted on by two conflicting forces — the arresting and the furthering ideas. Resistance to the arresting; ideas gives rise to a feeling of pain. The victory of the furthering ideas gives rise to a feeling of pleasure. CHIEF LAWS OF PLEASURE AND PAIN. 1. Law of Self -Conservation. Bain says that states of pleasure are concomitant with an increase and states of pain with an abatement of some or all of the vital functions. There is a wide correspondence between vitalising energies and pleasure, and depressing influences and pain. Spencer lays down the same law, but with a reservation. He says that pleasure increases as the activity increases except where the activity is either constant or involuntary. He shows that pleasures are the incentives to life-supporting acts, and pains deterrent from life-destroying acts. 2. Law of Stimulation. We may stimulate too little or too much ; the beneficial amount depends upon the condition of the brain and nervous system. If too much disturbance is produced in these organs pain is the result. If we pass from a dark room into a brilliant light, we are conscious of pain ; a railway whistle is generally too much for our ears. A crude contrast of colours, a discord in music, and two opposing emotions, are all painful from a feeling of conflict. But the stimulation may also be un- suitable. The mischief and disorder of some children show this when the school discipline is too repressive. The foolish act of frightening children, with its severe depres- sion of the vital functions, is another instance. 14 210 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 3. Law of Change. Variety is the spice of life. In our schools we sandwich work with play ; school with holidays. We change our lessons, and with greater fre- quency for young children. A good time-table is so drawn up as to allow for alternations and remissions of activity. We do all this because we recognise the necessity of change for our mental states, if they are to retain their pleasurable nature. Sameness produces satiety or weari- ness. We recognise this when we say we can have too much of a good thing. Whatever may be the cause of the pleasure or pain, unless tha^ cause continue to increase, the effect will continue to decrease. If enjoyment is to be prolonged there must be change, and this is especially true of children, who positively crave for it. The reason is to be found in the plasticity and mobility of their minds, and their relative freedom from habit. 4. Law of Accommodation. This is nothing more than a particular aspect of the law of stimulation ; a stimulus may at first be even painful, but by repetition the organ concerned may so adapt itself to the stimulus that it becomes pleasurable. This is especially true of some of the pleasures of appetite, as in smoking, drinking spirits, eating olives, taking condiments. We recognise this ac- commodation by calling such things " acquired tastes." In bodily sensations we accommodate our muscles and organs from painful to pleasurable efforts of exertion, as is seen in the more sustained or violent forms of exercise. A child may dislike a bath as much as a cat does, and yet come to enjoy a swim. The feeling of restraint on entering a school, which many children feel, often develops into love. 5. Law of Habit. This law is a development of the previous one, and is apparently in conflict with the law of change. It is true that repetition takes off the first keen relish, but a new feeling is called into play. We get used to a certain routine, to certain forms of bodily and mental activity, and we feel any interference as a form of pain. As a rule the feeling is a gentle one, but it may take, The Feelings. 211 intense forms when we are forced to sacrifice our cherished opinions (religious, political), or when we have to break away from any well-formed habit. The athlete who is a smoker has a keen enjoyment of his first pipe when training is over. The lovers' quarrel or the domestic tiff is followed by the joy of reconciliation. The teacher's work here is obviously to form good habits of feeling. BEARING OF THE ORDER OF DEVELOPMENT ON DISCIPLINE. We see that in early child-life bodily feelings are domi- nant, and that the love of activity is the most important factor. We shall learn more of this in the next chapter. We also note that feeling is strengthened by bodily mani- festation, hence the teacher's duty is to encourage that manifestation where the feeling is pleasurable, and to re- press it where the feeling is painful. Suitable opportunities must be found for the exercise of desirable feelings, so that good habits of feeling may be formed. The feelings are principally egoistic, and consequently anti-social. The school discipline must therefore allow for their checking or regu- lation on the one hand, and for the cultivation of the social affections, as antidotes, on the other. Finally, as feeling ascends in the scale it involves the intellectual elements, and especially the faculties of memory and imagination. These faculties must therefore be properly cultivated and supplemented later on with the development of the child's reasoning powers, so that the final product may show itself in right conduct and good character. Summary. Feeling as Sensation. Feeling: as Emotion. It is due to external stimulation. It is immediately presentative. It is a. state of the body brought into consciousness. It is primary. It is simple. It can be localised. It is definite in character. i. It is due to internal stimulation. 2. It is re-presentative. 3. It is a state of the mind brought into consciousness. 4. It is derived. 5. It is complex. 6. It cannot be localised. 7. It is indefinite in character. 212 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Definition of Peeling. As Sensation. As Emotion. The increase or decrease of mind activity, produced by organic disturbance on the surface of the body, whether external or internal. The increase or decrease of mind activity produced by all the ideas present to consciousness at the time. Characteristics of Children's Feelings. 1. They are selfish and rudimentary. 2. They are non-representative. 3. They are intense and violent. 4. They are fugitive and brief. Development of Feeling. 1. Sensuous Feelings — these form the bulk of childish feeling. 2. Emotions — the egoistic are the first to be developed. Classification of Feelings. 1 . Egoistic — these relate to self. 2. Social — these relate to others. 3. Sentiments- — these embrace our higher feelings, and are divided into three classes : — (a) The intellectual sentiment (a love of truth). (b) The aesthetic sentiment {admiration of the beautiful). (c) The moral sentiment (reverence for duty). Reasons for Cultivation of Feelings. 1. The happiness of the child. 2. The rudimentary nature of child feeling. 3. The feelings supply motives to action. 4. Feeling is contagious. 5. The feelings need control. 6. The feelings need exercise. Cultivation of Feelings. 1. Difficulties. («) Training indirect only. (6) Complexity of many feelings. (c) Persistence of ideas. 2. Some need repression. 3. Some need stimulation. (a) We must present suitable objects as stimuli. (b) We must cultivate the intelligence. (c) We must recognise the force of imitation. The Feelings. 213 The abuse of the feelings in education may lead to the formation of a stunted emotional nature. Feelings of Pleasure and Pain. Origin. Resistance to the arresting ideas gives rise to a feeling of pain ; the victory of the furthering ideas gives rise to a feeling of pleasure. Chief Laws. 1. Law of self-conservation. 2. Law of stimulation. 3. Law of change. 4. Law of accommodation. 5. Law of habit. QUESTIONS. i. — What do you understand by the feelings? Why and how should the feelings be cultivated? (E.D.) 2. — State and explain the chief laws of pleasurable feeling. (E.D.) 3. — In what way may interest be allowed to lapse in the course of a lesson ? Explain the fact in each case by a reference to the primary laws of feeling. (E.D.) 4. — The expression of all painful feeling should be repressed. Criticise. (E.D.) 5. — In what sense, and by what means, is it possible to develop a stunted emotional nature? (E.D.) 6. — Give what seems to you the best classification of the feelings, and show in what order they develop. How do the laws of development of the feelings bear upon the method of discipline in a school? (C.P.) 7. — What practical cognisance do you take in your teaching of the emotions ? In what way should they themselves be made the subject of education? (C.P.) ^_j 8. — Why and how is it necessary to use the feelings (a) for education, (b) for instruction ? (E.D.) g. — "As regards feeling, repression is the main thing in the earlier stages of development. Stimulation becomes more and more important as the child advances." Explain this and examine the following : " An envious child ought not to be placed in a situation which is pretty sure to excite this feeling." (C.U.) 10.— Define emotion and classify its principal kinds. Discuss the connection be- tween an emotion and its expression. (V.U.) ir. — Define the place of feeling in the whole mental life, and the proper place of an education of the feelings in a complete system of education. To what extent can a school teacher act beneficially upon a child's feelings by way of correcting such a defect as want of interest in work and of intellectual ambition ? (C.U.) I2l — Give a simple classification of the emotions. Discuss the problem of the repression or the stimulation of feeling in school age. (C.U.) 214 CHAPTER XVI. THE EGOISTIC FEELINGS. FEAR. Causes. All children suffer more or less from fear, and it is one of their characteristic states of feeling. The unknown and the strange are generally the causes. Foolish people frighten children with the dark and with the " bogey," in utter ignorance, it is to be hoped, of the suffering they are causing. The child has no experience of these, his feeble intellect cannot assist him, and so he suffers all the terrors which cluster round the unknown. When the child has gained a little general experience, he only be- comes conscious of his own weakness, dependence and incapacity , and in some forms of fear the force of heredity is added to this. EXPRESSION OF THE FEELING. 1. Physical. A child sees a strange animal, which throws him into a state of fear. He anticipates some injury, and at once shows unmistakable signs of his feelings. If the fear is intense, we may note that the child turns pale, and perhaps trembles. Organic derangement has been caused, and excepting those muscles (if any) which are expressly stimulated, the muscular system falls into a state of relaxation, and there is a general feeling of weakness. The expression is strongly marked, even in older people. We describe them as sick with apprehension, as quaking with terror, as livid with fright ; the mouth becomes dry, the knees knock, a cold perspiration breaks out, there is a The Egoistic Feelings. 215 feeling of collapse. All these facts point strongly to violent disturbance of the organs, and to interrupted motor stimu- lation (trembling). The feeling may also show itself in the shrinking of the child, in his fixed stare, in his cries, or even in shrieks. 2. Mental. The feeling influences the mind as well as the body. The normal action of the mind is stopped. The terrifying object strongly impresses the sufferer, and the attention becomes firmly fixed on it, hence the stare of the eyes. The memory is quickened, for we usually remember our severe frights, and the imagination may be over-excited from the influence of the unknown — we may picture all sorts of catastrophes. But the general result is to remove the intellect from control. The child is no longer master of his thoughts. 3. Volitional. The child tries strongly to get out of the way of the animal, and terror may lend wings to his flight. He seeks some means of escape and then concen- trates all his energies upon it. If no way of escape presents itself the terror is increased, and the danger and uncertainty may then combine to paralyse all effort. FEAR ANALYSED. Fear arises from a state of mind which anticipates suffering. But there could be no painful anticipation with- out some previous experience of pain in some form or other, hence we find a simple representative element in it. This involves the setting up of an association between the pre- vious experience of pain, its cause or causes and the feelings which accompanied it. With the aid of experience the feel- ing may be called up in idea, and the imagination may stimulate fear not only in like objects and circumstances but even in new cases. Another strange animal may throw the child into a state of fear, but so may the presence of fire, or the dark, or a loud and sudden noise. Instinctive elements, the gifts of heredity, are present, as in the fear of a strange animal and the dread of fire. The dread generally 216 Psychology in the Schoolroom. manifests itself on the first experience in such cases, so that instinct seems the only explanation. Teacher's Work. The management of fear in education is not easy. The feeling has to be checked, yet preserved. It has to be used as a motive force, and yet used as little as possible. Its application must vary in form and degree to suit the varying conditions and temperaments of the children. Acquired fear must be treated differently from inherited fear, yet both manifest themselves by the same signs. It is generally expensive, enfeebling both body and mind, and so conflicts with mental progress. Its effect on the will is equally injurious, arresting action or exciting undue concentration at the expense of the system generally. The teacher who works too much by its aid may secure obedience, but at the price of energetic work. The teacher will then seek to preserve the feeling in its milder forms only. The heedlessness of children often arises from excess of courage, and a mild form of fear in the form of caution is desirable. On the other hand, where the feeling exists in excess the teacher must check it by culti- vating courage and self-confidence. The feeble will must be strengthened by encouragement and practice. The anticipated evil should be faced. The teacher should note the causes dud seek to remove them. The association may be the result of accident or of experience. In the first case it can easily be removed — in the latter with more difficulty — by throwing a little light on the object. And, speaking generally, the cultivation of the intelligence is the best antidote to many forms of fear, and especially to the more debasing and less excusable kinds, like superstition, fear of dark and " bogey." At the same time the teacher will refrain from placing the child in situations of this kind — silly mothers and nurses do enough of that— so that his treatment will be both positive and negative. But these more intense forms can gradually be wakened and refined into a serviceable state or condition, when it be- comes no more than a gentle stimulation. The artistic and sympathetic handling of fear on the stage or in litera- ture is the chief means, and they are largely outside the teacher's influence. Still the teacher can cultivate affec- tionate fear — the fear of giving pain to those we love or esteem. This fear is the guiding line to that fear of God which is the beginning of wisdom. In such fear the depressing effect is far outweighed by its elevating force. The Egoistic Feelings. 1Y1 The same form of the feeling should be strengthened in relation to all worthy objects. The influence of temperament has already been referred to, and the teacher must not expect much from the naturally timid. It has been pointed out that their sins are of omission, and not commission, and that their weak- ness is an absence of general vigour. Patience and kind- ness are the chief factors in cases of this kind. COWARDICE. Cowardice is one of the results of fear, and has in it an element of meanness. It produces a general depression of tone, and mental depression, however arising, is exaggerated distrust of good and anticipation of evil. The cure of cowardice should be sought through its causes, which should be removed as far as possible. Teacher's Work. The causes may include frights, and these should be either removed or avoided. Sometimes they may rest on a basis of ignorance, and the cure must then proceed through the cultivation of the intellect. Un- certainty is a result of ignorance, and it often induces cowardice through fear. It may also arise through weak health and a feeling of physical incapacity. Such cases require kindness, sympathy and forbearance. The best remedies are beyond the teacher's reach, for they include good or improved conditions of life. But a certain amount of familiarity with, and a knowledge of, the causes will still be beneficial. Injudicious treatment often fosters the feeling, and the weak health may be a result of this. Timid children are often made cowards in this way. The children are surfeited with attention and misjudged kind- ness. The greatest anxiety is shown over every little accident that befalls them, and children are thus unfitted to face the little dangers and risks of their lives. As a result of fear, cowardice may also arise by association. The teacher's work is then to form new associations of a stronger and conflicting character. Heredity and tempera- ment may also be causes. A family, like a nation, may be cowardly by nature. In such cases the cure is perhaps the hardest and slowest of all. But the worst form of all is moral cowardice. Here the moral sense is weak and needs cultivation, and more will be said of this in subsequent chapters. Meantime, with 218 Psychology in the Schoolroom. all this indirect treatment must proceed the direct attempt to cultivate courage. The child must be encouraged to face difficulties and to overcome opposition, or he will most probably be a failure in the battle of life. At the same time this feeling must not be pushed too far, or the child may oppose at inconvenient and unsuitable times from mere love of opposition, and as all feeling is contagious, it may occasionally permeate and influence the conduct of a whole class or school. ANGER. Origin. The feeling is a primitive one, and arises from a sense of injury. In very young children it is nothing more than a vigorous and instinctive protest against physical pain. The child is a mere bundle of appetites and sensa- tions, which are ever seeking gratification. Any check to these excites anger. Mr. Darwin says that anger proper is distinctly manifested before the fourth month. Bain points out that " the pains that incite to anger must be such as to sting without destroying the active force. A crushing blow will kill the sentiment of anger and end in terror or grief. Proverbially, small grinding inflictions are the most irritating. Insulting language has a special efficacy. The connection of the pain with some personal agency is an essential feature ; there is a grim satisfaction in tracing every evil to a person, thereby making an opening for revenge." EXPRESSION OF THE FEELING. 1. Physical. There is an excitation of the system in general, and of the organs concerned in particular. The activity aroused is excessive ; it sometimes takes a destruc- tive form, and is often [accompanied by great explosiveness. Preyer noticed an instance in the seventeenth month. Both Darwin and Spencer explain the physical characteristics by evolution. Spencer says, speaking of animals: "The de- structive passion is shown in a general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes and nostrils, in growls ; and these are The Egoistic Feelings. 219 weaker forms of the actions that accompany the killing of prey." He then goes on to say : " What we call the natural language of anger is due to a partial contraction of those muscles which actual combat would call into play; and all marks of irritation, down to that passing shade over the brow which accompanies slight annoyance, are incipient stages of the same contractions." In violent anger the fists are often clenched, and there is a strong tendency to strike something or somebody — the latter for choice. This will explain the smashing proclivities of some angry people. The clenched teeth are associated with the act of biting, which is common both to young children and animals. The angry person may also frown or glare. The increased circulation will make the eye glitter, protrude, or even bloodshot ; the accelerated respiration will cause the nostrils to dilate. The voice also is affected, and becomes harsh, hoarse or noisy. Bain suggests this may be due partly to the violence of the expression and partly to the inspiring of dread in the victim. The beating of the heart is quickened, and there is a rush of blood to the head, face and neck. When the feeling is in excess we go pale with anger, and in this case the action of the heart is impeded. The secretion or discharge of saliva, gall, etc., is due to disturbed digestion and other functions through the withdrawal of blood and nervous power. 2. Mental and Volitional. These aspects of expression will become manifest from a perusal of the next paragraph. ANGER ANALYSED. Some injury, real or fancied, is done to the child. The child is thrown into a state of painful excitement, and his whole system is discomposed. A crowd of ideas arise in consciousness, and in such rapid abundance that the child is incapable of reflection, and well-known bodily, mental and volitional manifestations show themselves at once. Some of these ideas are raised to a high degree of intensity, for in addition to the feeling of injury the self-pride of the 220 Psychology in the Schoolroom. child is keenly wounded, and there is a strong and immediate desire to retaliate ; to strike, to destroy. There is an appeal to the instinctive impulse to fight for self-defence, and to get rid of the cause. The activities are violently aroused, and the child's actions are dominated by an irresistible rush of feeling. This activity shows itself in irregular and spas- modic outbursts; in the "fits'' and "bursts" of childish passion. If the retaliation is successful the pain turns to joy, and the quicker the process the keener the pleasurable reaction, for the feeling is too exhausting to be long main- tained at a pitch of intensity. This pleasurable reaction, this rejoicing over the pain inflicted on another, is, according to Mr. Bain, a most markedly human form of the passion. If the offending person seeks to make atonement, the feeling very often is soon allayed, and we enjoy the self-humiliation of the offender, but the joy is not so keen as in the case of the retaliation. But the anger is not concentrated on the individual only ; it often extends to objects and even persons associated with him, especially when it is not possible to strike directly. Ezra Girdlestone l could not strike Kate Harston, but he savagely kicked her dog. The angry child will break, spoil or destroy the toys of its offending playmate when he can neither bite nor strike him, and he will often do both if he gets the chance. The feeling thus seems to dry up or suspend for a time the tender and social feelings, and to give full play to the baser passions. FORMS OF ANGER. Anger shows itself in a variety of forms. There is the explosive form — the Sudden Outburst — which is generally characteristic of quick-tempered people. The suddenness and intensity make this form dangerous. The sufferer strikes and then thinks, when he thinks at all. As opposed to this is the state of Deliberative Anger ; the state in which wrath is nursed to keep it warm. Feeling 1 Conan Doyle, The Firm of G milestone. The Egoistic Feelixgs. 221 does not here cripple the intellect and the will, but utilises both. When this form of feeling is present in great strength it may pass into Revenge. Here retaliation becomes a fixed idea, to be carried out at any price if possible. Both the intellect and the will are again pressed into service. The intellect subscribes the means and the will seeks to carry them into action. The feeling is especially contagious, and will affect a whole class, community or nation. History is fertile in illustrations of this. It also possesses this special property : the longer the satisfaction is delayed the greater the sweets of success. When anger is firmly rooted it becomes Antipathy. It is an expansive form and embraces a wider range of objects than any of the previous ones. It even travels into the field of aesthetics. We form antipathies to the ugly, the useless, the unsuitable, to persons and places, to creeds and customs. Another form of rooted anger is known as Hatred. It is a stronger form than antipathy, and is due to a relatively permanent cause or causes. It rests on an irascible basis, and Bain says to be a good hater one needs only to be irascible by nature, and to be placed in some relationship of frequent encounter with the authors of the offence ; class hatreds, party spirit and sectarian strife frequently illustrate this. Malevolence is a form of anger with a peculiarly strong pleasure element. The feeling is one of those bitter-sweet compounds in which the sweet predominates. The evolu- tion school suggests its origin from the feelings associated with the destruction of an enemy. The strong feeling of elation which follows victory probably derives its strength from the addition of other elements. This intense enjoy- ment depends among other things on temperament and the stage of development reached. Where the sympathetic affections are weak and the lower conflicting passions are unusually strong, the pleasure of malevolence reaches its 222 Psychology in the Schoolroom. zenith. And this happiness will generally last as long as retribution fails to overtake the offender. The feeling also often scatters itself indiscriminately, and from mere excess of irascibility may discharge itself on anybody, innocent or guilty. It is a case of first come first served. TEACHER'S -WORK. The teacher's task is, as in the case of fear, a double one, and on that account the harder. He has both to repress and preserve ; to check and refine. He has also to make allowances for the temperament of the child, the nature of the provocation, and the special form of anger displayed. 1. Repression. The teacher should allow anger to subside before he attempts to deal with it. If immediate action is taken at all, it should take one of two forms: (1) The voluntary self-humiliation of the wrong-doer, or (2) a compulsory humiliation inflicted upon the wrong-doer. Bain assures us that both of these are found to answer their end. But, as a rule, the feeling should wear itself out somewhat before being subjected to treatment. The mind must get back, more or less, to its normal condition before it can be appealed to. As prevention is better than cure, it will be advisable for the teacher to avoid all irritating causes. For this purpose he must strive to make the restraints of discipline as little irksome as possible. Strict impartiality, firmness leavened with kindness, corrective language with no irritating ele- ments, and a sympathetic attitude generally towards the children, will reduce provocation from the teacher to a minimum. The removal of provocation is especially necessary in the case of quick-tempered children. The force of association must be remembered and allowed for. Bodily actions approximating to physical expression of the feeling should be discouraged. The nervous dis- turbance set up may become a strengthening cause of the feeling. The feeling and its expression may act and react on each other. He who frowns or doubles his fist after the manner of an angry child may actually become angry. "The hand which smooths the frowning brow appeases also the anger expressed by it." (Lotze.) The efficacy of physical counteractions is also urged by Kant and others. The Egoistic Feelings. 212> It is pointed out that a glass of water may serve a good purpose for the agitated, and that in this way the passion may be physiologically damped down. A warm bath or a seat may relieve the tension of the muscles of the angered one. This is interesting, but not much within the bounds of school discipline. Where the results are not disproportionate, the teacher might trust to the discipline of consequences in suitable cases. The punishment is then natural, and therefore the more likely to be productive of good. When it leads to acts of deliberate cruelty its treatment is specially difficult. In such a case it cannot be passed over, and yet it cannot be checked by physical force. It ought to be checked, even at the expense of considerable severity, and yet a whipping is likely to defeat its own ends. The opportunities for cruelty should be removed, and an attempt should be made to starve the passion whilst other methods are acting positively. For this purpose the teacher must get the child calm, and subsequently work on his intellect. His reflective powers should be zealously cultivated. "You must alter the habits of thinking, you must change the view of the object, before you can alter the feelings." (Edgeworth.) The angry child has perverted notions of his relations to, and treat- ment by, others. Like a young Ishmaelite, his hand is raised against every one. The teacher's work is to remove these misconceptions, and to set these relations and actions in a truer light. He might also be suitably reminded that public opinion considers anger as short madness. At the same time the teacher will seek every opportunity to strengthen the child's will. This will be more fully dealt with under the head of self-control. It will be sufficient here to state that the object is to make the child the master and not the slave of his passions. But perhaps the best method will be to cultivate the social affections, and so stunt the bad by the growth of the good. 2. Preservation. The feeling must be preserved in some of its forms as an aid to discipline. On the teacher's side a righteous anger is a strengthening factor in disapproval. On the child's side a just indignation should be aroused against acts of tyranny, bullying, flagrant dishonesty, treachery and kindred vices. " Be ye angry and sin not " must be a practical maxim to him. In this way are sown 224 Psychology in the Schoolroom. the first seeds of that universal righteous anger which condemns and curbs the cruelties of a nation or a tyrant. The Treatment of Malevolence. Because of the peculiar nature of this feeling it has been deemed advisable to deal with its treatment separately. Experience has taught that it is rarely (if ever) eradicated, and so it must be refined and adapted. In this form it will then serve the teacher as a motive force, despite its objectionable elements. Attenuation and adaptation should go on together. The teacher must provide suitable outlets as safety valves. School competitions, physical and mental, with proper re- gulation, will supply one channel. The feeling stimulates the energies to victory, and there is a dash of malevolence in the consequent pleasure of success. The weakness of this method is the risk of failure, which feeds instead of starving or diverting the feeling. Hence such contests must be so arranged that success is not only possible but probable. This must not be too obvious or failure will again be the result. Hence the task requires much skill from the teacher. In later days, and outside the school walls, party contests, games, trade, etc., will serve the same purpose. School discipline rests on punishments and rewards, and the certainty of punishment, when deserved, will afford another means. There is an element of gratification in the conviction and punishment of an offender, in the avenging of an injury. Even justice contains a retribu- tive element — gratification at the punishment of crime. It will be sufficient for it to be known that the punishment has been inflicted without parading it. Too much indul- gence in this feeling is dangerous, and from the teacher's standpoint fatal. Hence school punishments, like legal ones, should generally be inflicted privately. Suitable Literature can be used as another outlet, and outside the school the Theatre may also be utilised. The real characters of History, and the fictitious ones of the Novel, supply a convenient channel for the discharge of excess of malevolence. The teacher might also avail himself of certain forms of play indulged in by children. The malevolent element is sometimes present in such games in some small degree, and if these forms of play were observed and regulated, some good might result. But it may be laid down as a general rule that all games involving any exercise of the destructive propensity should be discouraged ; hence the The Egoistic Feelings. 225 teacher who elects to work through this channel will have need of great vigilance and judgment. Bain asserts that the highest refinement of the male- volent gratification is the feeling of the Ludicrous. "There is a laugh of vindictiveness, hatred and derision, that carries the sentiment as far as it can be carried without blows. But there is also the laugh expressed by playful- ness and humour, in which the malignant feeling seems almost on the point of disappearing in favour of the amicable sentiment. It is of some importance to under- stand that in play, fun and humour, there is a delicate counterpoise of opposing sentiments, an attempt to make the most of both worlds — Love and Anger. The great masterpieces of humour in literature, the amenities of everyday society, the innocent joyousness of laughter — all attest the success of this hazardous combination." LOVE OF ACTIVITY AND OF POWER. Nature of the Feeling. In a normally healthy child this exercise is always pleasurable, so long as it is not beyond his capacity. The spontaneity of the child induces a con- tinuous flow of activity, and this activity is all maintained and directed to the growth and development of the child himself. Hence its egoistic nature. But the pleasure of activity is nothing more than the pleasure of power, for the consciousness of activity is the consciousness of power. Physiologically, activity involves a discharge of nervous force, and it is this discharge which constitutes the feeling of pleasure. The pleasure is thus primarily of the sense organs, but a productive use of the feeling in the attaining of some end, so as to yield some further gratification than the mere bodily pleasure, increases the pleasure appreciably. Nor is this all. When we consider the many modes of activity, and the many forms of agreeable feeling arising from them, we get a large number of compound feelings which extend the range and intensity of the pleasure enormously. The feeling of power is especially gratified in the over- coming of a difficulty. The difficulty comes as a check, and acts as a strong stimulus to the activities. Success 15 226 Psychology in the Schoolroom. is a revelation to the child of increasing power, and a feeling of elation follows. In the cry of satisfaction which follows, Sully states that we have the first rude trace of the emotion of power. The success may be speedy or slow to appear, but the greater the speed the greater the pleasure, the more marked the consciousness of power. The scholar who solves a problem sooner than his class- mates is pleasantly conscious of the fact ; and speaking generally, Dugald Stewart says : " Whenever we are led to consider ourselves as the authors of any effect, we feel a sensible pride or exultation in the consciousness of power, and the pleasure is in general proportioned to the greatness of the effect, compared with the smallness of our exertion." Social influence is a factor in regulating the feeling. When among older boys, the child's consciousness of his weak- ness is unfavourable to the enjoyment of this emotion, and he may be anxious to get away from this depressing influence. Hence we see that the feeling may be anti-social in its nature. Place the same child among other children, and he will regain that self-confidence which is essential to fresh efforts. This in some measure explains the self- stratification that goes on among children. The love of power induces the child to go where he can excel, for the one-eyed man is king among the blind. There is a malevolent element in some forms of the feeling at least ; in fact, Dugald Stewart makes the emotion of power to be the foundation of the malevolent impulse. When it leads to the exercise of cruelty, the feeling is seen in its lowest form. Much of the cruelty of boys to animals and to each other is explained in this way. The feeling is so chronic and so over-mastering, that few opportunities of indulging it are allowed to slip. The suffering caused is often lost sight of in the gratification of this feeling. The feeling is fostered and encouraged by many of the everyday incidents of our lives, and so it may soon become a habit, the permanent feeling of self-confidence, the con- sciousness of ability. If our ability is questioned it wounds. The Egoistic Feelings. 121 our Pride, and Self-respect. A recognition of our ability, physical or mental, brings a warm glow of pleasurable feeling, which is in some measure due to the gratification of these allied emotions. Our admiration is aroused at a display of power by others. We admire in others what we desire for ourselves, and so extend the scope of the feeling. There are personal characteristics which mark the con- sciousness of power. We recognise it in the erect and lofty carriage, the firm mouth, the self-confident look, the strong athletic figure. In its lowest forms the bodily manifesta- tions approximate to those of anger. Teacher's Work. The love of activity acts as a powerful motive through the presence of pleasure, and this pleasure is of a high order. There are not only the pleasure of the activity itself, but the delights attending the growing sense of power, of acquisition, of aspiration. Without activity there is no development. Through its agency the child learns much before school-days, and it is in this way that he gains that experience of things which lifts his mind out of the infant stage. The teacher must utilise, regulate and guide this feeling, or it will remain, to the detriment of his discipline. He must remember that to be quiet is generally to be un- happy — with children — and too much should not be de- manded in this way. The feeling of restraint is painful, and mischief or restlessness may be the result. This is nature's way of reminding the teacher that he is incom- petent. The same unpleasant truth may be forced on him when he allows their energies to be diverted into unsuitable channels. School discipline does not permit each child to be a law unto himself, but the suitable channels are quite sufficient to make this unnecessary. Bad organisation and faulty classification may be responsible, but a lack of observation and sympathy will more often be the cause. There is one other danger. Children are greedy of power, and here the necessity of regulation arises. A certain amount of liberty is absolutely essential for full enjoy- ment, but this cannot be conceded where the feeling is in excess, or where it takes an undesirable form. Restraint may be a misfortune, but indulgence would be a greater one. 228 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The teacher then will seek suitable channels for the feel- ing, and there are plenty at his disposal. The whole curriculum is more or less available, but especially such subjects as kindergarten, hand and eye training, writing, drawing, drill and singing. The charm of these subjects lies in the sense of spontaneous exertion that goes with them. The child is kept agreeably busy, sees his work grow under his hands and enjoys to the full the conscious- ness of power. The object lesson affords another excellent outlet. Experiments are performed, observations are made or results noticed, and the child is invited to make inferences or discover truths from an examination of the objects themselves. The special strength of this method is that it falls in with the child's early experiences. He has seen and handled or observed numberless objects before his school-days, and now his lessons fit in with his habits and inclinations. In this way activity becomes a powerful motive, because the teacher is making his methods support his discipline. In such schools fear is rarely necessary as a motive. When the feeling is thus fostered as a motive its influ- ence is soon shown in the tone of the school. The chil- dren love their work and so form the valuable habits of attention, diligence and regularity. The children can be trusted in such cases to grapple with new tasks suited to their capacity, and the consciousness of this raises the dignity of learning in their eyes. The feeling of liberty is present, a pleasant association is set up with work, and a habit of work is formed. They are then in a fit condition to have the advantages associated with honourable work placed before them and to profit by the knowledge. The total result of such a course of treatment will show itself in the formation of conduct and character, as will be further seen when we deal with " habit " and " character." EMULATION, OR THE FEELING OF BXVALRY. I. Origin and Nature. Wherever a number of people pursue the same occupation simultaneously this feeling exists, hence it is ever present in the schoolroom. Children are ever competing with one another both inside and outside the school, so that we see it is closely connected with the feeling of activity. Its manifestations show it to be egoistic and anti-social. The feeling of rivalry may be vague and The Egoistic Feelings. 229 weak, but victory generally reveals its presence. It often shows itself where no material advantage can follow success, and where no punishment attends its absence. In fact it is a natural disposition acquired very early in fife which impels us to try to excel others. The word rivalry itself implies antagonism ; a feeling which shows itself in the love of combat. In its lower forms it is associated with anger, but in emulation we see it in a more refined condition. We emulate the good and this involves an imitative clement. But emulation is more than mere imitation. We are not content to copy only, but are carried on by the feeling to strive to excel. We strive to excel because we desire it, and this shows desire to be a motive. But there is no anger present. The feeling now approximates to the love of power. The child is more anxious to prove his ability than anything else. In this form " emulation is a generous ardour which nature herself kindles and nourishes." (Willm.) Nevertheless if the feeling is exercised through a prolonged contest, as in competing for a school prize, the feeling of hostility is apt to arise. II. Teacher's Work. The teacher has to remember that the feeling is deep-seated and natural ; that school life, with or without his help, is constantly appealing to it ; that it is a great stimulus to work and constitutes an important aid to discipline, so that he cannot do without it. It is anti- social and so has to be checked or diluted ; it is a great incentive to action and therefore has to be used and regu- lated. Hence we see that the same difficulties attend its treatment as in the case of the love of activity and power. It has already been pointed out that if appealed to in excess it develops hostility, and this may be crystallised into antipathy. This feeling, like sympathy, is very con- tagious, and so a whole class or school may be unfavour- ably affected. The teacher will thus see that there is less need to excite it than to guide and regulate it. This must be done by focussing it on objects of worthy ambition rather than upon mere contests. The refining of rivalry into a generous emulation will be furthered by the cultivation of the social feelings^ and especially sympathy. A judicious 230 Psychology in the Schoolroom. distribution of praise is a great aid to guiding and regulating the feeling. Prize giving is not so valuable, and it would be well if we could do without it. But the great majority have not yet learned how to do this. The great weakness is that these prizes fall to intellect in the school and to muscle out of it. Moral excellence, which is at least equally important, is recognised by a minimum of " good conduct " prizes or by nothing at all. Perhaps it is more virtuous in such cases that conscience should be its own reward, only conscience does not yet see it in that light. Even in the case of intellect the prize rarely goes to the most just or the most productive channel. It goes to the most successful, who may not be the most deserving. The result is often a feeling of hostility among the disappointed ones, i.e., the teacher has evoked the feeling he was seeking to restrain ; he has proclaimed the worship of the head at the expense of the heart. But cases may arise in which the teacher must excite the feeling ; cases where disposition or habit may be hostile, or where his own bad organisation is hampering him. The indolent, the indifferent, the unhappy, the weak, will readily suggest themselves as such. REFLECTED EMOTIONS OR SELF-IMPORTANCE. I. NATURE. These emotions are more or less egoistic, but they all contain a reflected element. We observe certain qualities in others which appeal to our social feelings. We admire skill, pity suffering, congratulate success, esteem merit and value friendship or kindness. Our attention is then turned inwards, and if we recognise any of these qualities in ourselves a feeling of pleasure arises. The feeling is thus reflected back on ourselves, and becomes a great force in influencing character. The feeling takes a variety of forms, depending on the constituent elements, and is variously known as self- worth, self-esteem, self- righteousness, self-pity, self-complacency, self-gratulation, self-respect, pride, self-reliance. They might all be collected under the common head of self-importance. The Egoistic Feelings. 231 II. THE VARIOUS FORMS ANALYSED. 1. Self -worth and Self-esteem. This is the simplest form of the feeling, and it is practically explained in the preceding paragraph. There is the observation of the acts and qualities of others ; we attach varying values to these, and so decide between man and man ; the feeling is then reflected, and we decide between ourselves and others. Of course bias is inseparable from such an act, and this is the great defect of the whole class. This defect is very apparent to us, for we generally " keep the feelings to ourselves," although not invariably so, for we all know people who " think a lot of themselves." The egoistic element is strong, and leads us to expect an undue share of the social feeling involved. Each constitutes himself the Benjamin of the feast. Charles Bray puts it very forcibly. He says that each person is the centre of his own universe, and whoever makes too little or too much of himself has a false measure for everything. This is illustrated by a mathe- matical statement, thus : — A trifle + his ego = immensity. Immensity - his ego = a trifle. 2. Self-pity. We see suffering in others. Our com- passion is moved and displayed ; this brings the sufferer some comfort. An association is thus formed between suffering and pity. We subsequently suffer some loss of privilege, health, etc. We then appropriate the feeling. The sense of injury acts as a powerful stimulus, turns the mind in on itself, a condition of suffering is recognised, association then works, and compassion is stirred by self for self. 3. Self-complacency. We dwell upon our own ex- cellencies and enjoy the process. The feeling is like self- worth, in that both prompt us to seek and expect a larger practical recognition. In some forms the reflective element is weak, as when the feeling arises from the possession of wealth or station. The operation hardly goes beyond a state of simple consciousness of superiority, whereas the 232 Psychology in the Schoolroom. reflective element seems to involve, more or less, personal merit. In this respect the sentiment differs from Self- gratulation, which always involves the reflective element. 4. Self=respect. Here the feeling is carried a stage higher, and is more noble and more altruistic. The egoistic element is present, but in a more desirable form. There is still the high opinion of self, and an eye to the main chance. But that is not all. The conduct which earns respect in others must be copied and maintained at its high standard or self-respect suffers. 5. Pride. In its best form this is closely allied to self- respect. It is a noble self-esteem, and indicates an elevation of character. Its characteristic is " a reserve of conscious merit for which no claim is made.'' (Bain.) The objection- able forms of this feeling are well known to every one — we are never aOowed to forget them. 6. Self-reliance. The self-reliant man must of necessity have a good opinion of himself. His independence arises from the same reserve of conscious merit referred to in pride. There is also a consciousness of power, the ability to stand alone, or to render help to others. The feeling is of great importance educationally, but its value depends on its degree of strength. Pushed too far, the anti-social element robs the feeling of much of its merit. III. TEACHER'S 'WORK. The teacher must foster the good element in each case, and check the anti-social. A certain measure of sclf-cstccm is desirable, so that it may be converted into a proper self- respect. A proper self-esteem is an element in honour, in fact Richter calls honour the rough husk of self-esteem. The feeling is an important element in the formation of conduct and character. If conscience were sufficiently developed in children to call up the opposite feeling of self-reproach when' necessary, the teacher's work would have ceased in this respect; but as it is almost impossible to make children reproach themselves, the teacher might strengthen as an intermediate step the fear of degradation. The child who fears to do a meanness, or any other de- The Egoistic Feelings. 233 grading act, shows an amount of commendable self- esteem, and is less likely to succumb to temptation. Again, it is very important that a child should be made reasonably self-confident, so that he may successfully face the difficulties of life, and the school offers facilities for the cultivation of this feeling. Silent reading, home lessons, arithmetic, composition, parsing, analysis, all offer diffi- culties which the child might be encouraged to meet unaided within his capacity. " If you want anything done, do it yourself," is also not bad advice for children if we wish them to grow up self-reliant. They will thus be pre- pared to escape that irresolution and indecision which marks the feeble will. There is not much risk of over-developing the feeling of self-importance in school, except in the case of " show " children, but there is much risk at home. The coddling and parading of their darlings is vastly overdone by too many injudicious and over-fond parents, and so the teacher's difficulties are increased. There is more risk, however, both in school and home, from the abuse of praise. The feeling of self-satisfaction, and of self-im- portance generally, is undoubtedly over-developed in this way. But perhaps the feeling of undue self-importance shows itself principally among children in the form of boasting. This active form of Vanity is too prevalent among some, who are notorious boasters. If unchecked, such children grow into those self-glorifying bores who are one of the afflictions of society. LOVE OF APPROBATION. I. Its Nature. Like all egoistic feelings this takes its origin from the impulse of self-preservation and self-asser- tion, but since it involves a desire for the appreciation of others, it has also a social element. A child soon learns to distinguish between the smile and the frown of his mother, and this seems to indicate an instinctive factor. The social element shows it to be connected with the feelings of self- complacency and self-esteem ; there is a feeling that the appreciation is merited. The pleasure which follows the smile, and the pain produced by the frown, are strengthened by association and experience. There is an element of jftistice, too, sometimes present. The child feels that the 234 Psychology in the Schoolroom. praise is justly due, and expects it. The strength of the feeling depends on several factors: (1) If we hold the be- stower in high esteem the pleasure or pain is correspondingly great. The same result ensues if the person is a superior, and the greater the recognised superiority, the greater the intensity. (2) When a state of conflict arises, by an act of judgment, more or less biassed generally, we seek the approval of one person at the expense of the disapproval of the other, as in creeds or politics. The strength of the feeling is accordingly modified, for we can never quite get rid of the discounting effect of the disapproval. (3) Then the extent of approbation is important. Generally, though not always, the greater the number whose approval is won, the greater the ensuing pleasure. So far as the pain is concerned, we seek to lessen it by an effort to form a low estimate of the person who inflicts it. The Love of Admiration is a stronger form of the feeling, and differing in several respects. The feeling of superiority is dominant, and Bain says this is due to an extension, by sympathy, of the self-complacent feeling. The qualities evoking the two feelings are also different. A duty well performed meets with approbation, but admiration is re- served for virtue, brilliancy, or unusual success. Approba- tion then is the lot of the many ; admiration of the few. II. Teacher's Work. In the treatment of this feeling there are certain facts for the teacher to remember, and certain things for him to do. 1. Things he should remember. He must remember that it is one of the strongest feelings we possess, that the disposition to seek the praise of others is natural to children, and that it is one of the most powerful motives to conduct ; that it leads to the desire to give pleasure to others, and so becomes a higher motive ; that the feeling is especially useful in childhood, since it acts as a powerful motive when higher ones are unavailable. He has to remember the efficacy of its opposite — dispraise or depreciation, and he has to know when and to what extent it must be used. He is not likely to forget that the feeling is often badly handled at home ; but he is less likely to see that the The Egoistic Feelings. 235 school claims its share of mismanagement also. He must remember the various forms the feeling takes when in excess — envy, jealousy, vanity, bashfulness, and he must also remember the causes of these forms. Finally, he must remember that the feeling is related to that of self-esteem, that children are unequally affected by these, and that both must be preserved more or less, for our very welfare depends on our reputation. 2. Things he should do. The feeling requires very careful treat- ment. It has to be utilised, but restrained and purified. To make it valuable as a motive, the teacher must make him- self loved and respected. The love of praise in the child will then rest upon a basis of affection and respect, and will become a great educational force in him. The appro- bation of the teacher will be sought not only in work but in conduct. This will do for a time ; but gradually the teacher will turn the child's attention from him to the child himself, so that the child may examine his actions and motives, and rest satisfied with the judgment of his own conscience. In this way only will he make the child self- reliant and independent of that chronic leaning upon the good opinion of others which indicates weak volition. This is the chief risk in cultivating a class opinion. But this power will need cultivation. The child will gradually learn to discriminate between opinions, especially if the teacher assists, and will attach value only to those which are worth it. The good opinion of the wise and virtuous will then act as a strong motive to the child, and the teacher, by his example, must show that he is to be numbered in that class. As the higher feelings become developed, the teacher will rely more and more on these, and less on approbation. All this will necessitate a judicious use of praise. Only real merit should be praised, and not the fortunate acci- dents of life. Charles Bray says that praise is often as dangerous as blame, especially when it so easily praises " an unconscious grace in the expressions of the heart, the mien, or the sentiments, and thereby converts it into a conscious one; that is to say, kills it." He also says that "to wish to serve and please others is a virtue; to do so for the praise and applause it may beget is to wish to please ourselves, and if not a vice, is nearly allied to one — for we are then satisfied with what begets the praise, and not with the good done." 236 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Some excessive forms of this feeling have been already named. The over-praised child becomes vain. He be- comes greedy of the feeling, and seeks to excel in work solely that he may excel in approbation. The cultivation of the intellect and the higher feelings should eventually make the child substitute the love of excellence for the love of excelling. But the production of vanity is not the whole mischief, for envy and jealousy are stirred in others. Hence the necessity for great care. Summary. FEAR. Fear depends on : — 1. The unknown. 2. The lack of experience. 3. The sense of weakness. 4. Heredity. Expression of Fear. 1. By well-known bodily signs. 2. By removing the intellect from control. The signs nre : — {a) The attention is firmly fixed. (6) The memory is quickened, (c) The imagination over-excited. 3. By stimulating (or paralysing) efforts to escape. Cowardice. One of the results of fear, and has in it an element of meanness. ANGER. Origin. It arises from a sense of injury. The connection of the pain with some personal agency is an essential feature. Expression. 1. Physically — by the arousing of excessive activity. 2. Mentally — by the presence of intense feeling, and the loss of reflection. 3. Volitionally — by the impulse to retaliate. Forms. 1. Sudden outburst. 2. Deliberative anger. 3. Revenge. 4. Antipathy. 5. Hatred. 6. Malevolence. The Egoistic Feelings. 237 Anger compared with Fear. Anger. Fear. The representative of the active passions. The representative of the passive pas- sions. Primitive feeling. 3. Springs out of an experience of pain. 2. Primitive feeling. 3. Springs out of an experience of pain. 4. Has a pleasure element — the gratifica- ! 4. Has no pleasurable element. tion of the passion. 5. Induces energetic action. . 5. Paralyses action. 6. Has root in the instinct of self-preserva- 6. Has root in the instinct of self-preserva- tion, tion. 7. Anti-social. 7. Anti-social. TEACHER'S WORK. I. Repression. 1. Allow anger to subside. 2. Avoid all irritating causes. 3. Allow for force of association. 4. Where possible trust to discipline of consequences. 5. Cultivate reflective powers. 6. Strengthen the will. 7. Cultivate the social affections. II. Preservation. Preserve in some forms: — 1. On teacher's side — a. righteous anger. 2. On child's side— a just indignation. Special Case of Malevolence. Find outlets :— 1. In school competitions. 2. In suitable literature. 3. In the drama. 4. In the feeling of the ludicrous. LOVE OF ACTIVITY AND POWER. Nature of Feeling. 1. Physiologically it involves a discharge of nervous power, and it is this discharge which constitutes the feeling of pleasure. 2. The pleasure is, in general, proportioned to the greatness of the effect, compared with the smallness of the exertion. Teacher's Work. 1. Utilise, regulate and guide the feeling. 2. Remember restraint is painful. 3. Organise and classify well. 4. Seek suitable channels as outlets. 238 Psychology in the Schoolroom. EMULATION. Nature and Origin. A natural disposition acquired early in life, which impels us to try to excel others. 1. The love of combat is an element. 2. It is associated with anger in its lower forms. 3. It contains an imitative element. 4. Desire is present as a motive. Teacher's Work. Chiefly to guide and restrain. 1. Restrain so as to check hostility and antipathy. 2. Focus emulation on objects of worthy ambition. 3. Distribute praise and prizes judiciously. 4. Stimulate emulation in the indolent, etc. SELF-IMPORTANCE. Nature. The feeling which arises from the recognition in our- selves of acts and qualities which we esteem in others. Forms of the Feeling. 1. Self- worth and self-esteem. 2. Self-pity. 3. Self-complacency. 4. Self-respect. 5. Pride. 6. Self-reliance. LOVE OF APPROBATION. Nature. 1. Has both an egoistic and social element. 2. Has an instinctive factor. 3. Justice enters as an element. Strength depends on : — 1. The esteem in which we hold the bestower. 2. Bias, in the case of conflicting opinions. 3. The extent of the approbation. Teacher's Work. 1. Let it rest on a basis of affection. 2. Strengthen self-reliance and independence. 3. Teach child to discriminate relative values of opinions. 4. Strengthen by example. 5. Rely on higher feelings as soon as possible. 6. Make a judicious use of praise. The Egoistic Feelings. 239 questions. *• — Define emulation, imitation, and the desire to excel in their relation to one another, and compare their value as motives in education. (L.U.) 2. — What bearing ought the fluctuations of mental energy during the course of the day to have (a) on the school time-table, (b) on play, (c) on evening work? 3.— Briefly elucidate the egoistic feelings. (C.P.) 4- — What use would you make of emulation in a school ? How would you guard against its dangers? (C.P.) 5. — Briefly explain and illustrate by an example anti-social feelings. (C.P.) 6. — Discuss from a psychological and from an ethical standpoint the value of the desire for reputation, or the good opinion of others, as a motive in education. (L.U.) 7- — Bring out the meaning, with a concrete example, of the feeling of rivalry. (C.P.) 8. — Write a short note on the love of approbation, and show its bearing on the work of education. (C.P.) 9. — Give a short account of the love of approbation. (C P.) 10. — Explain, by help of an illustration, the disturbing effect of violent feeling on the thoughts. Show in what ways children are especially liable to this disturbing influence, and suggest how you would seek to counteract the same. (C.P.) 11. — How should " restlessness " in children be turned to good account ? (E.D.) 12. — Analyse the mental state known as fear. (V.U.) 13. — What are the more important educational aspects of children's fear ? Examine the proposition that education means the leading of a child to fear in due proportion those things which are worthy of being feared. (C.U.) 14. — To what extent and in what way is it desirable that a teacher should concern himself with the games and recreations of his scholars ? (V.U.) 240 CHAPTER XVII. THE SOCIAL FEELINGS. LOVE. I. Nature. Love is a social feeling, i.e., it is a feeling which has others as its object. In its various forms it is the great cementing force of social life. The origin of sociability and love, according to the evolution school, is in the gregarious situation. Man is still a gregarious animal, and loves companionship. It involves a feeling of protectorship, for we are all ready to protect those we love. In explaining the origin of love, Bain attaches much importance to the pleasure of the embrace. He asserts that touch is both the alpha and omega of affection. No doubt the pleasure of soft warm contact may explain some of the infant's affec- tion, but the cupboard explains more. II. Causes. The feeling may be called forth by a variety of causes. The helplessness of the infant generates the maternal love. Great pleasures and great benefits dispose one favourably towards the feeling. We "warm" to those who are kind or generous, and we are always more amiable when in a state of great joy. Forms of suffering connected with helplessness and infirmity evoke pity, which often passes into love. We thus see that the feeling is prompted both by pleasure and pain. Bain points out that this paradox enables the feeling to assuage misery as well as heighten pleasure. We see another form of the feeling in Friend* The Social Feelings. 241 ship, but its highest form is not reached until it prompts to that brotherly love which the Samaritan showed to the plundered and injured Jew. RESPECT AND REVERENCE. I. Nature. We respect or reverence what is good. But a child must first be able to recognise what is good before he can appreciate it. Hence we see that these feelings demand experience and a certain amount of intellectual development. They are naturally weak in young children, who can hardly be expected to understand and appreciate such virtues as wisdom, justice, prudence and temperance. The abnegation of self involved in them also accounts for their weakness among children. There must be an element of affection, or the feeling passes into awe, and this is an important fact to the teacher. His position, personality and acquirements make him somewhat awe-inspiring to children, hence he must cultivate their affections so that the warmer feeling of love may arise. Respect or Esteem is a weaker feeling than reverence. It was pointed out in the last chapter that esteem is usually associated with useful virtues and acts, but Reverence is reserved for that which is most beautiful in human character. Ruskin says: "A man's happiness consists infinitely more in admiration of the faculties of others than in confidence in his own. That reverent admiration is the perfect human gift in him ; all lower animals are happy and noble in the degree they can share it. A dog reverences you, a fly does not ; the capacity of partly understanding a creature above him is the dog's nobility. Increase such reverence in human beings and you increase daily their happiness, peace, dignity ; take it away and you make them wretched as well as vile." II. Teacher's Work. If we esteem or reverence a person we like to be with him. We bear ourselves deferentially, and are pleased to render him a service. We desire to imitate him, and so the feeling becomes an elevating force. But 16 242 Psychology in the Schoolroom. the most potent factor for cultivating these feelings in the school is the personal example of the teacher himself. His character and discipline must win the respect and affection of his pupils. He must show due respect where it is required; he must be reverential in manner during re- ligious devotion in school and during the scripture lesson ; he must insist on a reverential attitude towards the Bible when used in these lessons. The influence of the church or chapel should be a supplementing force. In addition he will cultivate the Intellect of the children by directing their attention to, and explaining what is worthy of re- verence. Finally, he must check the sneer, the derision, the ridicule, which some children bestow on others in cases involving reverence ; he must check their thought- less outbursts of blasphemy, and cultivate respect for old age. SYMPATHY. I. Nature. There are evidences of sympathy very early in the life of the child. An infant two months old will smile at his mother's face. This early form of the feeling points to an instinctive origin. The process is involuntary , and merely indicates a tendency to reflect the feelings of others. These reflected acts are the result of an imitative impulse. Certain persons, animals or things may attract or repel children, and this is especially true of what is new or strange. The attraction (or repulsion) is unconscious, and so purely involuntary. An associative element is in- volved, and this element rapidly grows stronger. But a fixed association involves experience both of the feeling itself and its signs before the child can connect the two, hence a repetition of the feeling and of its signs is necessary. If the feeling is to grow, a good sense endowment is a sine qua non. Failure of the senses means failure of the sympathies, and the cramped sympathies of old age in many cases illustrate this. The failure of any particular sense narrows the sympathetic field, and this fact has led some to assert that there is a tendency in the deaf to self-conceit. As the senses of the child are developed new sensations are The Social Feelings. 243 experienced, and are associated with their causal objects. The sympathies are extended to a new field, and further play is thus given to the feeling. Imagination is a most important factor. The child must not only be able to recall in idea the particular state of feeling, but he must have the power of conceiving new emotions, i.e., the child must have a sympathetic imagina- tion. But this is not all. The growth of the feeling depends upon the growth of intellect generally. The state of feeling concerned cannot be recognised or recalled with- out the aid of observation. In the sympathetic child there must be a disposition to observe states of feeling, and the capacity to interpret them. A child of two years is capable of feeling pity with the more obvious forms of pain, but he cannot go any farther yet because the range of his sympathy is limited by the range of his understanding. But the child has now made the most characteristic step in the growth of the feeling — he is able to attach the re-excited feeling to another person. But the readiness with which the feeling is evoked, and its strength, depend largely upon his relation to the persons concerned. It is most active where a similarity of concepts brings about a common consciousness, i.e., where the " I " becomes a "we." There is a community of feeling from a community of interests or opinions. In school the class opinion, and out of it common occupations, similar political opinions, or credal beliefs, illustrate this. The prevalent practice of talking "shop" is one of the evidences of it. Under such circumstances the feeling of sympathy proper often develops into affection. We thus see that Sympathy is the capacity to understand and enter into the feelings of others, and for the benefit of others, even at the expense of personal pain. II. Expression. We recognise the presence of sympathy by certain -well-known signs, which we distinguish by the adjective 244 Psychology in the Schoolroom. " sympathetic." We speak of the sympathetic look, voice, manner, attitude, treatment. We not only take on the feelings of others, but the signs also, and in this way only is our sympathy revealed. Our social life enables us to under- stand this. People living together are often subject to the same influences, which give rise to the same feelings, which in their turn are expressed by the same signs. An associa- tion is formed between the feeling and its sign, and the presence of one recalls the other. In some cases the signs are especially contagious, probably because of their con- spicuous nature. The sympathetic cough in church, tears among women, and laughter generally, are instances. III. Obstacles. We are enabled to infer these from the previous section, and for the purpose of a rough classification, we may group them into three classes — physical, emotional and intellec- tual or social. Physical obstacles rest chiefly upon differences of sense endowment, of constitution and temperament. Here nature and habit share the responsibility between them. The active temperament may display too much activity at the expense of sensitiveness. Too much activity leaves less room for the operation of outside impressions. Pure animal delights and the over-indulgence of the appetites are ob- stacles because of their extreme egotism. The cramping effects of old age have already been noted, and bad health and temperament may produce similar results. A state of pain is also antagonistic. The emotional obstacles, more strictly so called, will embrace more or less all the different forms of the egoistic feelings, such as anger, love of power, antipathy, etc. The intellectual or social obstacles include differences in degree and kinds of education ; in social position, as is seen in class opinion ; in occupations ; in trade jealousies ; in the strifes of creeds and politics; in international rivalries; and generally ignorance and lack of sympathy are found together. The Social Feelings. 245 IV. Teacher's Work. 1 . Things to remember. In the cultivation of sympathy it will be necessary to remember the original condition of the child. His feelings are primarily egoistic, and so there is little or no sympathy. The early instinctive ele- ment of feeling in him is anti-social rather than otherwise. He is full of little caprices, and shows a marked aversion to certain persons and things. Perez says he sincerely hates whatever hurts or wearies him ; and that the switch and the wash-sponge are to him personal enemies. The earliest displays of the feeling are naturally shown to those more immediately around him, like his mother, nurse, etc., who incessantly minister to his wants. At present his sympa- thies are all strongly flavoured with the cupboard. And this is easily understood when we consider his tiny intellect and his lack of emotional experience. There is another important fact for the teacher to re- member — sympathy is incompatible with wretchedness. If children are to enter into the pains of others, they must be free from pain themselves. A previous experience of the pain will assist, but its immediate presence would check the flow of tender feeling from its distracting or engrossing nature. Hence the teacher must see that his discipline does not unreasonably curtail the happiness and comfort of his scholars. A feeling of comfort is conducive to the exercise of the gentle feelings, and there is some philosophy in the statement that the nearest way to a man's heart is through his stomach. Adam Smith points out that the man who is himself at ease can best attend to the distress of others ; whereas he who is himself exposed to hardships is most immediately called upon to attend to and to control his own feelings. The desire for sympathy does not invariably proclaim the possession of a sympathetic nature. We have defined sympathy as taking on the feelings of another for his benefit, hence the chief pleasure of the feeling is to the recipient. It is his pleasure which is increased, his pains 246 Psychology in the Schoolroom. which are assuaged; hence the desire may exist for sym- pathy in a purely selfish person. It is easier to make children sympathetic than just, because one is principally a matter of feeling, and the other principally a matter of intellect. The order of development explains this. Justice is a virtue, and is one of the products of a well-developed moral feeling, which comes at a later period than the social feeling. It makes higher demands both on intellect and emotion, and the statement is perhaps equally true of adults as of children. It is also easier to make children sympathise with adversity than with prosperity. In most of us there is an instantaneous impulse to pity people in distress, and this of itself would account for the preference. But the force of suggestion is an important factor. The misfortune of the sufferer immediately suggests our own freedom from adversity as a pleasing contrast, and it is really a special case of the necessity of personal comfort as an element in sympathy already referred to. To enter into the joy of another is far more difficult. Success is unfortunately one of the chief provocatives of envy, and it often requires a painful effort to keep it in the background. In this case the force of suggestion is against us. Jean Paul Richter says : " In order to feel with another's pain it is enough to be a man ; to feel with another's pleasure it is needful to be an angel." Besides, there must be a pleasurable ele- ment in pity, or sympathy with adversity ; otherwise the fondness of children for sad stories and the popularity of harrowing scenes in the theatre and the novel among certain classes are inexplicable. It is " the luxury of woe." 2. Things to do. Work in the concrete as much as possible, and so try to avoid those displays of emotion which never go beyond indulgence. See that feeling is followed by action. Distress should not only evoke sym- pathy or pity, but a readiness to relieve it, hence touching stories should always follow touching sights — life unfortu- nately supplies plenty of examples. Work in the concrete The Social Feelings. 247 also on the more difficult side of sympathy. Try to get the children to rejoice in the successes of one another. There are opportunities afforded both in school and out, which do not make too great a demand at first, where the others feel a reflected share in the success and glory. Most boys rejoice in the success of the school cricket or football team ; many of them feel proud at the success of their schoolfellows in open competitions, such as public examinations. This feeling forms a convenient bridge to that sympathy with personal success or prosperity which should be the teacher's aim. A further opportunity for working in the concrete is afforded by the cultivation of kindness, not only to one another, but also to animals. In childhood pet animals are among the earliest recipients of the child's tender feeling, and this probably accounts for the childish love of stories of animals. Nature and circumstances have here combined to supply a good aid, which the teacher should not fail to use. An essential condition is the observation of the signs of feeling in others, and the teacher will find further concrete work here in cultivating that observation. If the child is to possess a sympathetic nature he must be quick to recognise and correctly interpret the various signs expressing those feelings. The Imagination must be cultivated, and this will involve the cultivation of the Intellect generally. The better the feeling observed is understood, the easier and more ready is sympathy evoked. When " put yourself in his place " becomes possible, we have made a decided step forward. We are then better able to understand how the feeling operates, and so are more favourably placed for the arousing of our sympathy. We may do this by an effort of con- structive imagination, we may do it through a sympathetic imagination. In the one case the intellect is the principal factor; in the other the feelings. The form of imagination used will depend largely on the child's temperament. The child of greater intellectuality will probably use the con- 248 Psychology in the Schoolroom. structive form ; the more emotional child the sympathetic. The latter is probably the quicker, warmer and more general form among children at least. The aid of literature and history, and especially the Bible, should also be enlisted, so as to teach that broad Humanity which is the climax of the feeling. V. Uses. These should now be obvious. It is invaluable in the school as an aid to study and intellectual development. Where the feeling exists between the teacher and class there is little or no trouble with the work. The common occupation of the class is appealed to, and in its turn is reacted on by it, so that as a stimulus to work it operates both in a personal and a class form. Among children weakly disposed to study, the fact that all around them are engaged in that same work acts as a tonic to them. It is also a great aid to moral training. It forms an essential part of most of the virtues, and leads on parti- cularly to benevolence and love. It is thus enabled to act as a check to bad conduct, for a child will not willingly offend those whom he loves. It increases our social pleasures. Aristotle says it is not easy to maintain a glow of mind by one's self, whereas in company with some one else, and in relation to others, this is easier. We are pleased to meet with a similarity of views, vocally or printed ; and this is equally true of our pursuits and tastes. Summary. SOCIAL FEELING. One which has others for its object. LOVE. 1. Depends on the gregarious instinct. 2. Involves a feeling of protectorship. 3. Is excited both by pleasure and pain. RESPECT AND REVERENCE. Nature. Feelings evoked by the good, present or in idea. They involve : — The Social Feelings. 249 1. Experience. 2. Some intellectual development. 3. The abnegation of self. 4. An element of affection. SYMPATHY. Definition. Sympathy is the perception and adoption of the feel- ings of others. Nature. Chief elements involved are : — 1. The instinctive or involuntary element. 2. The association of signs and feelings. 3. A good sense endowment. 4. Intellect. This specially includes : — (a) A sympathetic imagination. (6) A disposition to observe feeling. (c) A power to interpret feeling. 5. The relation of the person concerned. 6. The attachment of the re-excited feeling to another person. Obstacles. These will include : — 1. Physical — constitution, age, health, etc. 2. Emotional — the egoistic feelings. 3. Intellectual or Social — differences in education, social posi- tion, occupation, creeds, etc. Teacher's Work. I. Things to Remember. 1. The original condition of the child. 2. Sympathy is incompatible with wretchedness. 3. The desire for sympathy may exist in a selfish person. 4. It is easier to make children sympathetic than just. 5. It is easier to make children sympathetic with adversity than prosperity. II. Things to Do. 1. Work in the concrete. 2. Cultivate kindness. (a) To each other. (6) To animals. 3. Teach children to observe signs of feelings in others. 4. Cultivate the imagination. (a) The constructive imagination, (ii) The sympathetic imagination. 5. Utilise suitable literature. Uses of Sympathy. 1. It aids study. 2. It aids moral training. 3. It increases social pleasures. 250 Psychology in the Schoolroom. questions. i. — Give some account of the nature and conditions of sympathy. It is said to be easier to make children sympathetic than just, and easier to make them sympathise with adversity than with prosperity. Examine these statements and discuss their educational bearing. (L.U.) 2. — How would you cultivate the spirit of reverence ? (L.U.) 3. — Define and give an illustration of the sympathy of numbers. (C.P.) 4. — Analyse sympathy. Give some reasons for its great practical importance. (E.D.) 5. — Give a short explanation of the " social environment of a child." (C.P.) 6. — Explain the influence of sympathy in the work of the school, showing its bearing both on intellectual and on moral education. (C.P.) 7. — What is meant by the sympathy of numbers, and what is its educational importance ? (C.P.) 8. — Briefly explain and show in what way education is concerned with the social feelings. (C.P.) g. — Discuss the educational function and the value of intellectual sympathy between teacher and pupil. (C.U.) 251 CHAPTER XVIII. THE INTELLECTUAL SENTIMENT. I. Description. The close connection between the three departments of mind is illustrated by the sentiments. The workings of the intellect give rise to a special class of feelings which more or less accompany the pursuit of knowledge. For this reason they are generally known as the Pleasures of Know- ledge, although they may be painful sometimes, as in re- flection and inconsistency, e.g., in an act of judging there is the stage of reflection, which may be called painful ; and the decision, which may be considered pleasurable. The latter stage reveals a volitional element, which is also prominent in curiosity, a marked form of the intellectual sentiment, for curiosity impels to action. We shall presently learn that the intellectual sentiment has as its basis the recognition of the similarity or dissimil- arity of the new with the old, that assimilation takes place between them, and that this is done through appercep- tion. The degree of ease with which the apperception is made fixes the degree of the accompanying feeling of pleasure. The sentiments differ somewhat from the emotions. Speaking generally, they are more spiritual, more ideal, and, as their names indicate, more intellectual. They are less intense, and so more enduring. They are less corporeal, appear later, demand a higher degree of de- velopment, and form the base of what is known as culture. 252 Psychology in the Schoolroom. II. Nature. The first abiding feeling is one of pain. The child's desire for knowledge is due to a painful feeling of his own ignorance and lielplessness in the presence of something new or unknown. If the thing is not repulsive, or does not clash with his primary instincts, he may enjoy a fleeting pleasure from its novelty or attractive nature. But the desire to know more of the thing soon lands the child into a state of perplexity. The pleasure of wonder has provoked the stimulus of curiosity, which is met with a feeling of ignorance. But strengthening feelings soon arise in a pleasurable form. If the child's senses are appealed to, if he is allowed to handle the object, his sense-activity is gratified by the pleasures of reasonable exertion ; colour or sound may assist, and his practical interest may be aroused from the utility of the object as a toy. It is by the seeing and handling of objects in this way that the child gains his first knowledge of the objects that surround him, and he experiences the first pleasures of the intellect. But subsequently, as knowledge and experience grow, it is noted that the feeling varies with the kind of knowledge. A preference is shown for particular forms of knowledge, although not necessarily to the exclusion of others, and the child's predilections take a definite form, and mark out his special aptitudes. During this process some feelings have merely acted as a stimulus to mental exertion, whilst others have arisen to maintain it. A feeling of curiosity, a desire for relief, may prompt to work ; the detection of identities in diversity, and the growing sense of expansion and power, or the arising of some special interest may sustain that work. The presence of Interest affords one of the best means for marking the growth of the intellectual sentiment. Ac- cording to the type of mind it is working on, it may either become deeper or more intense, and so give a special intellectual bent (science, art, etc.) ; or it may widen or expand, so as to embrace a wider field of knowledge. It The Ixtellectual Sentiment. 253 is a case of intension or extension. In the one case the feeling is more acute, in the other more diffuse ; but there is growth in either. The varied nature of the feeling is especially illustrated by the Laws of Association. In the Law of Contiguity, so far as memory and routine are concerned, the emotions are little appealed to. The deadening influence of habit is fatal to any deep or acute feeling, and whatever pleasure is present is negative rather than positive. But the case is very different with the Law of Similarity. Diversity sur- rounds us, is very obvious, and appeals but little to us. But the detection of similarity in diversity is accompanied with a flash of pleasure which exhilarates us. The bot- anists, entomologists, etc., who in new and strange speci- mens discover similarities to known specimens, experience a quiet glow of satisfaction. The accompanying rebound of pleasure may be partly due to a feeling of relief, partly to a sense of growing power, and partly to its practical value in the reduction of labour, for the discovery of identities lessens labour, as the world of science shows. But the feeling is by no means limited to scientific discoveries. The recognition of similarity in others either of thought, belief, or tastes, is followed by pleasurable feelings. Pleas- ure again follows the production or recognition of good illustrations, oral or pictorial, and generally these feelings accompany the whole range of intellectual activity. In its highest form the feeling becomes a pure love of Truth. The man who is seeking to discover, to invent, pursues his investigations over long periods of time, and requires special feelings to sustain his task. Love of power, love of fame, the practical interest of success, the pleasure of pursuit, the performance of congenial work, contribute a number of supporting feelings, and so aid in the performance of the task. But a pure love of truth ignores all practical considerations. It is the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. But the intellectual sentiments are not all pleasurable. 254 Psychology in the Schoolroom. The feelings of ignorance, of perplexity , are the pains of the first stage ; the pains of later stages are the pains of inconsistency, of discord, of failure. The set task may be repugnant. Mental work beyond the child's strength or capacity will produce a feeling of exhaustion or of inca- pacity. Failure again may be attended with disappoint- ment, perhaps with humiliation, and related feelings, like envy, anger, malice, etc., may be the result. CURIOSITY. Curiosity is such an important factor in the growth of the intellectual sentiment, that perhaps it is advisable to ex- amine it a little more closely. It is one of the chief springs to intelligence, and arises from the restless activity of chil- dren. As a result, every normal child is more or less disposed to it. Nearly everything around him, as well as what is new, appeals to the feeling at some time or other, for his mind is as yet free and the objects are fresh. But like all childish feeling, it is fitful and brief. Curi- osity cannot be maintained without Interest. This is first aroused by the novelty of the thing, and maintained by the attempt to find out its causes, and this is done under the influence of Desire. It is further maintained by what may be called secondary or derived interests. The personality of the teacher or parent, the beauty of the object, its special utility, may be contributing causes. But no great sustaining of interest can yet be expected. A child will naturally like some things more than others, and will con- sequently take more interest in them, and this preference will be largely determined by his temperament and environ- ment. The child of active temperament will delight in the kindergarten gifts and occupations, and in manual instruc- tion ; a child of greater intellectuality will early manifest a preference for what are known as the more intellectual subjects. This preference thus involves as an element the natural taste of the child, and this may co-ordinate or conflict with the other elements. The artist's child may love to draw and paint ; the son of a shoemaker may hate The Ixtellectual Sentiment. 255 his father's trade ; his tastes may lie in a totally different direction. The influence of example has also to be con- sidered. In this way the teacher, the parent, the neigh- bours, may all help to mould the child's curiosity into a definite channel. A child brought up in an intellectual atmosphere has the bent of his curiosity determined, not by the force of example only, but by the constant force of unconscious sympathy also. And so, under the influence of these various forces the child's curiosity, as a large factor in feelings of intellect, assumes a definite and permanent form. We are now able to define curiosity as that which " expresses the emotions of knowledge viewed as desire, and more especially the desire to surmount an intel= lectual difficulty once felt." (Bain.) CULTIVATION OF THE INTELLECTUAL SENTI- MENT. The chief aim of the teacher should be to implant a love of knowledge for its own sake, and so the whole curriculum and discipline of the school should be shaped for this pur- pose. Whatever other purposes knowledge may serve, its ultimate function is to influence conduct and character. The children should be led to understand that Knowledge is power in nearly every aspect of social life — intellectually, commercially, morally. For this purpose the teacher should make the most he can of curiosity. He should both guide and restrain it. The feeling is common to all children, as their many and sometimes odd questions reveal. Deal with these questions sympathetically, and especially avoid showing any feeling of irritation which they may arouse. As a rule, and within proper limits, a healthy curiosity should be encouraged, and the object lessons of the school, if properly handled, are a splendid means of doing this. But objectionable forms of this feeling are sure to arise with some children at times, and here the teacher must first restrain and then try to divert them into proper channels. Mr. Bain says that genuine curiosity belongs to the stage of 256 Psychology in the Schoolroom. advanced and correct views of the world, and he goes on to point out that much of the curiosity of children is a spurious article. It may arise from egotism, delight in giving trouble, in being pandered to and served. Questions are put not from the desire of rational information but from the love of excitement. In reply it may be said that after a varied experience extending over many years we are not able to agree with Mr. Bain. That it is a true description of some is undoubted, but that it is true of many is very debateable. It is probably more true of adults. But it is just this spurious curiosity which will tax the teacher's skill and patience to the utmost, in whatever form he may meet it. Apart from the kinds already specified there is that morbid kind which is so prevalent and which forms the basis of so much gossip and slander. The teacher who watches for, detects and restrains this vice is doing a grand service both to society in general and to the child in particular. There are yet other dangers in the educational treatment of curiosity. A common danger is to exhaust it by a too prolonged effort or by too much detail. This will arise when the teacher forgets the physical and mental capacity of his pupils. There is also the possible risk of attempting to force it under the pressure of authority and the possible failure to appeal to it at the right moment in the right way. The too prevalent use of pictures in object lessons is a case in point. The pictures interest by appealing to the aesthetic taste, but they rarely, if ever, arouse curiosity like the object The Intellectual Sentiment. 257 in their effect when utilised. But the greatest danger of all is the risk of supplanting it as a motive by a lower one, such as the love of distinction. The desire for knowledge then becomes a mere means to an end, instead of an affection for knowledge itself. This is one of the risks of school com- petitions. There are certain other facts for the teacher to remember in the cultivation of the love of knowledge. We have already noted that the feeling varies with the kind of knowledge, and this must guide the teacher in his work. Here, as in other cases, the sequence of teacliing must be observed. Pro- gress must be from the particular to the general. " Parti- culars " interest more easily and are more easily acquired. " Generals" are harder, and should come later. But learn- ing by particulars is slow and exhausting, hence the children should be trained to detect similarities in diversity, and so abridge labour. There is plenty of scope for the teacher's ability. The power of concentration is weak, and only rela- tively sustained efforts can be made, hence the teacher should avail himself of such aids as association, classification and interest. At the same time he must make as much allowance for special tastes as possible. Nothing is more likely to check a desire for knowledge than a compulsory pursuit of a distasteful subject. Summary. Intellectual Sentiment Described. Its basis is the recogni- tion of the similarity or dissimilarity of the new with the old ; assimilation takes place between them through ap- perception. Nature of the Sentiment. 1. It arises in a feeling of pain. 2. This gives place to pleasurable feelings. (a) Pleasure of sense activity. (6) Interest. 3. The feeling varies with the kind of knowledge. This is illustrated by the — (a) Law of contiguity. (6) Law of similarity. 17 258 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 4. The highest form of feeling is a love of truth. 5. The feeling embraces pains as well as pleasures. Curiosity. 1. One of chief springs to intelligence. 2. It arises in feelings of activity, hence children are naturally disposed to it. 3. It is fitful and brief, hence it requires interest. 4. Temperament and environment influence. Definition. Curiosity expresses the emotion of knowledge viewed as desire, and more especially the desire to surmount an in- tellectual difficulty once felt. (Bain.) Cultivation. 1. Implant love of knowledge for its own sake. 2. Remember that the ultimate function of knowledge is to influence conduct. 3. Encourage a healthy curiosity. 4. Differentiate real curiosity from the spurious. 5. Guard against certain dangers which are associated with the training of curiosity. 6. Observe the sequence of teaching. QUESTIONS. i. — Write a short account of children's curiosity, and show what the teacher has to do with it. (C.P.) 2. — What do you understand by the intellectual sentiment? 3. — Examine the psychological basis of curiosity. Show in what ways it aids attention and the acquisition of knowledge. 4. — Contrast the intellectual sentiments with the feelings and with the sensations. 5. — How would you deal with children's questions ? 259 CHAPTER XIX. THE JESTHETIC SENTIMENT. I. THE SENTIMENT DESCRIBED. This sentiment is variously described as the ^Esthetic Sentiment, the Pleasures of Beaut}', of Taste, the Sense of Beauty, and the ^Esthetic Emotion. It involves a number of forms, which are more or less connected with it, though all are not related to it, such as the Pretty, the Graceful, the Harmonious, the Sublime, the Melodious, the Ideal, the Picturesque, the Fit, the Orderly and the Proportionate. // arises in the form of feelings ivhich accompany the sense impressions of Sight and Hearing. The other senses are much less involved because of their more egoistic nature. The recognition of some agreeable aspect in an object, such as colour, lustre, harmony, proportion, gives rise to a pleasurable state of feeling, which we call the aesthetic sentiment. In its more developed form it is a laborious acquirement, excluding the lower pleasures of sense and appetite, and standing out in strong contrast to them by its refinement and purity. This refining tendency makes it shrink from all that is low, coarse or vulgar. It thus ranks high as an emotion, because it is based upon the perfection of other feelings, and begets a love of perfection for its own sake. It is a relative feeling, and varies both in individuals and communities, but for each community there is, nevertheless, a certain standard of taste which is based on experience, observation and intellect. A long series of competent judges have laid down certain canons or laws, which are 260 Psychology in the Schoolroom. applied as tests, and corrected or endorsed by modern opinion. When we say an object is beautiful or ugly we express an /Esthetic Judgment, and it is this faculty of /Esthetic Judgment which we mean by Taste. It follows naturally then that the value of our judgment depends upon the extent to which the faculty is cultivated. Our judg- ments vary because they are rarely purely aesthetic. Other elements are so closely associated with the aesthetic that they force themselves into consciousness, and give colour to our feeling. It is only where the feeling is highly cultivated that such factors as the utility or value of the object can be effectively separated from the effect which the object itself would have upon the sensibilities. We are thus prepared to meet different grades of the feeling. Even in its simplest form certain fundamental relations are necessary. For instance, in poetry the jingle of the rhyme or the measured tread or even flow of the metre, the harmony of two simple tones, the relations between two parallel lines, all produce a pleasing effect, and constitute simple forms of the aesthetic sentiment. We thus see that the simple form of the feeling is that which is produced by the grasping of certain pleasing fundamental relations in objects, so far as time and space are concerned. But when we view a cathedral, or a tree, or a design, or a picture, or when we listen to a musical composition, we get an amalgamation of many such simple relations, all in harmony with each other, and the degree of the feeling depends on the degree of harmony prevailing. Hence the aesthetic feeling as a whole arises from the recognition of the harmonious blending of a number of simple relations. II. THE iESTHETIC SENTIMENT ANALYSED. 1. The Sensuous Element. When the sense organ of sight or hearing is perfectly stimulated, there arises a feeling of pleasure, as when we view pretty colours, brilliant lights, graceful forms, lustrous bodies; or when we listen to The .-Esthetic Sentiment. 261 pure musical tones in simple combination. With very young children there is no clear distinction between the pleasant and the beautiful. Experience is required to form the sense of beauty, and to separate it from those general feelings of pleasure which are aroused by the presentation of objects to the senses. The difference is well marked, for the cesthctic sentiment is separable from its exciting cause, whereas the purely sensuous feeling is an enclitic to it. " The agreeable in sugar is very different to the agreeable in a musical chord, and the beauty of an architectural structure does not lie in the stones, but in their arrange- ment." The sensuous element is also seen in the love of activity, that creative impulse which leads to efforts at imitating nature. The kindergarten and the clay-modelling of our modern schools are a recognition and a utilisation of this element. There are also certain physiological methods of expressing the feeling in some of its forms ; e.g., when viewing the sublime we are conscious of the raised head, the stretched stature, the expanded lungs ; the fixed look is associated with the pretty; the pleased or admiring look with the graceful. 2. The Intellectual Element. The presence of the intellectual element marks a higher form of the sentiment. The perceptive faculty is called into play in the threefold division of the esthetic field — colour, form, sound. Certain arrangements of colours, either by contrast or by harmony, please, and the child learns to appreciate these. The beauties of space form (symmetry, proportion), of time form (rhythm, metre, melody), are also gradually apprehended and enjoyed. By the mental operations of observing and comparing the child learns to recognise the agreeable relations existing among the various objects presented to his senses. His improving discriminative sensibility has enabled him to discover these relations, and to recognise that happy combination of separate elements which forms a harmonious unit. 3. The Element of Ideality. This also is an intellec- 262 Psychology in the Schoolroom. tual element, but it deserves special notice because of its importance. It marks a further stage in the development of the feeling. The ruined castles of the Rhine, the mountains of Switzerland and historic sites do not appeal to children because they lack the interest of association. Their sugges- tive force as a contributing element to the play of imagina- tion is relatively weak or absent. Knowledge and experience are necessary to ideal pleasures, and these the child does not yet possess in sufficient abundance. Common Characteristics of the /Esthetic Senti- ment. (a) It has pleasure for its immediate object. (b) It has no disagreeable accompaniments. (c) It is open to all. III. CULTIVATION' OF THE AESTHETIC SENTIMENT. 1. Things to be Remembered. Progress in cultivation requires the teacher to remember that no practical element is involved. The delight in a picture must be free from market value if the feeling is to be assthetic. Art enjoyment is essentially social. Numbers can enjoy a picture gallery, a beautiful view, an oratorio or a piece of poetry at the same time, and this pleasure is increased by common sympathetic tastes. Perez says the child testifies to this social character of the feeling in his instinctive im- pulse to call his mother's attention to what is pretty. Art emotions are a great aid to morality. This follows from the law of relativity, for those who come under the pleasurable influence of these feelings will prefer them to the mere gratification of the senses and appetites. As the feeling grows the good and the beautiful thus tend to become synonymous. They are also an aid to Education generally. They sandwich work with pure and lofty pleasures which act as tonics. The art education of the child widens his interests and forms an appreciable addition to his pleasures. But the intellectual element is strong in the sentiment, hence a The .Esthetic Sentiment. 263 happy and powerful association is formed between mental activity and art emotions, which acts as a strong motive to education generally. Their sensuous element makes them easy of acquirement, and especially in those cases where native endowment is favourable. Those children whose special aptitudes lean to the art side will need little trouble, but a measure of success can be obtained by careful and systematic cultivation even with those less favoured. A weak sensibility to colour or form may yet be accompanied with susceptibilities to tender- ness. 2. Things to be Done. From what has already been said the teacher will see the necessity for the cultivation of the Social Affections. The cultivation of the Intellect is equally important. Observation, Imagination, Discrimination and Judgment are all involved. The cultivation of the creative faculty is specially neces- sary. In early life children grasp only the sensuous side of art emotions. This makes the beginning easy, but it must not stop here. The teacher must help his scholars to detect those elements of beauty which are either too obscure, too complex, or too expansive for immediate perception. IV. CULTIVATION IN SCHOOL. In addition to what has already been said about cultiva- tion, school life places certain means within the teacher's hands which materially assist in this work, and which may be regarded as special aids to the inculcation of the general principles laid down in the preceding paragraph. The environment of the child may be made a permanent influence in moulding taste. The colours of the walls and the wall decorations should be artistic ; both school furni- ture, decorations and the building itself should be marked by proportion and simplicity of design ; the school should be clean and bright ; the furniture orderly arranged ; the teacher's dress in good taste. The presence of a few plants 264 Psychology in the Schoolroom. and flowers also has a refining influence ; and speaking generally the addition of anything that is pretty, graceful or attractive should be utilised. Owing to the plastic nature of the children these first impressions are very important. But environment should not be limited to the inside of the school. School rambles under the guidance of a com- petent and sympathetic teacher afford the opportunity of cultivating pure tastes, such as a love of flowers, of scenery and of nature generally. The work, both inside and outside the school, should lend itself to the careful training of the observation. The object lesson, lessons in physical science, kindergarten, clay modelling, and school rambles, will be specially useful for this purpose. The Imagination will be trained by good lessons in history, literature, and especially poetry. Fairy tales sup- ply a fund of ideal pleasure to children. Some of the kindergarten exercises are also suitable for the same purpose. As knowledge grows, the force of suggestion will become greater through increased experience and added associations. The creative impulse is fostered and developed by the kindergarten gifts and occupations, by clay modelling, by hand and eye training, by original composition, and by drawing. There are certain well-known factors which are prime to the art emotions as a product, and which fall within the child's mental capacity. Symmetry, Proportion, Design and Form, are taught by the kindergarten, by drawing, geometry, writing, the first lessons in reading, clay modelling, manual instruction, and by various object lessons ; Order and Rhythm by music and poetry; Colour by special lessons on colour (object lessons), and by many of the kindergarten exercises ; Time by music and drill ; while Neatness, Order, Arrangement, should characterise the personal appearance of the children, the arrangement of the school furniture, and the contents of the desks, cupboards and cloak-rooms. The .Esthetic Sentiment. 265 The Moral influence of the aesthetic sentiment has already been noted. Summary. The /Esthetic Sentiment Described. 1. It arises in the form of feelings which accompany the sense- impressions of sight and hearing. 2. It is a relative feeling, and varies both in individuals and communities. 3. When we say an object is beautiful or ugly, we express an aesthetic judgment. 4. Wc call this faculty of aesthetic judgment Taste. 5. The simple form of the feeling is that which is produced by the grasping of certain pleasing fundamental relations in objects. 6. The aesthetic feeling as a whole arises from the recognition of the harmonious blending of a number of simple re- lations. The Sentiment Analysed. 1. The Sensuous Element. (a) Perfect stimulation of sense-organ gives pleasure. (ft) There is a distinction between the pleasant and the beautiful. (c) It shows itself in the creative impulse. (d) There are certain physiological methods of expressing the feeling. 2. The Intellectual Element. (a) Involves the use of the perceptive faculty, (ft) Discriminative sensibility acquired. (c) This involves observation and comparison. ( 40. — Give a definition of punishment. What are the chief ends of punishment? What are the evils of punishment from an educator's point of view? Give some plain limits to the use of punishment. (E.D.) 41. — Explain precisely what you understand by merit and demerit. (L.U.) 42. — What do you understand by a sense of justice ? In what sense, if any, would you ascribe a sense of justice to a child of six ? (L.U.) 43. — How would you deal with an obstinate child ? (C.P.) 44. — Compare home and school education at their best in their influence on the development (a) of sympathy, (b) of a sense of justice. (C.U.) 45. — Define, as precisely as you can, each of the following terms, and show how they are related : Education, Instruction, Discipline, Training, Development. (C.U.) 46, — The term Discipline is variously employed by writers on education ; discuss their views and select your own definition. (C.U.) 47. — Discuss in detail the principles which should guide a teacher in the administra- tion of punishment, and the means by which the necessity for resorting to punishment might be diminished or avoided altogether. (C.U.) 48. — Express precisely what is meant by, and implied in, training. Compare the characteristics of a child that has "run wild" with those of a child that has been "spoiled." (C.U.) 49. — What opinion have you formed respecting the giving of lessons or im- positions as punishments? Give your reasons. (V.U.) 50. — Discuss from the ethical standpoint the use and end of punishment. (V.U.) 51. — Distinguish between government and discipline. On what principles must the former be based in order that it may gradually give place to the latter ? (V.U.) 397 APPENDIX. CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY. 1895. PHILOSOPHY. First Honour Paper (B.A.). PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — Distinguish between general and special sensibility. Ex- plain the local character of sensations. State the law governing the relation of degree of sensation and force of stimulus. 2. — Clearly indicate the representative element involved in the perceptual process. 3. — Analyse the constructive process of imagination. 4. — Indicate the differences between the logical and the psycho- logical view of thinking. Describe the process by which concepts are formed. State and discuss Sully's view as to the formation of notions of geometry. 5. — State and criticise Sully's view as to the nature and sphere of intuitive judgments. 6. — Give an account of the nature and growth of the feeling of sympathy. Indicate its position in the ascending series of feelings. Show that sympathy involves an effort of constructive imagination. 7. — Characterise aesthetic enjoyment. Analyse the feeling of the sublime and the feeling of the ludicrous. Can we speak of an absolute standard of taste ? 8. — Describe the steps by which the faculty of complex action is acquired. Discuss the nature of permanent ends. 398 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 1896. PHILOSOPHY. First Pass Paper (B.A.). PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — Describe the functions of the nerves and the nerve centres. What reasons are there for holding the brain to be the chief organ of mind ? 2. — Analyse the process of perception. Distinguish between intraorganic and extraorganic localisation of sensations. 3. — Show (a) how visual perception develops independently, and (i) hows it combines with tactual perception. 4. — Define attention. Describe the nervous process accompany- ing it. Distinguish between analytical and synthetical attention. 5. — Indicate the main factors in mental elaboration, and show the unity of the elaborative process. Characterise the stages of intellectual development. 6. — Describe the process of the revival of percepts. State the general conditions of the retention and reproduction of percepts. 7. — Show, and illustrate by examples, how the mental processes involved in judging are based on the three fundamental intellective functions. 8. — State the intellectual conditions of belief, and explain its connection with feeling and active impulse. What is understood by logical control of belief? 1897. PHILOSOPHY. First Pass Paper (B.A.). PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — What is meant by laws of mind ? How are such laws dis- covered ? Describe any two simple experiments in psychology, indicating also the aim and the result of each experiment. 2. — Define attention. Distinguish between sensational and ideational attention. Enumerate the nervous concomitants of attention. 3. — Define perception. Set out, as clearly as you can, the grounds on which Professor Sully distinguishes, in our space- consciousness, between empty and occupied space. 4. — Explain how the visual perception of a solid body is acquired. Appendix. 399 5. — What precisely do you understand by association of ideas ? State the law of contiguous association, and illustrate its operation by reference to the process of " learning by heart." 6. — Define general idea, and describe the process by which general ideas are acquired. 7. — Distinguish between sense feelings, emotions and senti- ments. Give the psychological character of love of truth. 8. — Exhibit the factors of voluntary action. Explain and illustrate what is meant by volitional control of belief. Alternative Paper (B.A.). 1. — Define sensation. Explain its relation to perception. Give a full account of its distinguishable characters. 2. — What is the object of perception ? Explain the distinction between original and acquired perceptions. Give a psychological account of the origin of our perception of distance. 3. — Explain the nature of general ideas, and exhibit the process by which they are reached. What is the psychological function of general names ? 4. — Analyse the mental process in reasoning, and explain the distinction between inductive and deductive reasoning. Distinguish the logical and the psychological order in reasoning. MADRAS UNIVERSITY. 1895. PHILOSOPHY. First Pass Paper. PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — Define sensation and sensibility. Distinguish between general and special sensibility. What is understood by the local character of sensations ? 2. Describe the different stages of the perceptual process. Show in how far the senses of touch and sight are superior to the other senses as sources of knowledge. 3. How are we able to recognise distance by means of sight ? Describe the different ways in which the perception of objective movement arises. 4.— Define and illustrate implicit and explicit reasoning. 400 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 5. — State the relation of judgment and belief, and of belief and activity. 6. — Give an account of the nature and growth of the feeling of sympathy. 7. — Analyse the state of desire. Show (a) that desire underlies and precedes volition, and (b) that the transition from desire to volition requires an additional factor. 8. — Describe the steps by which the faculty of complex volition is acquired. 1895. (B.A.) PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — Distinguish between psychological and physiological facts; and state what you consider to be the true relation of physiology to psychology. 2. — Describe the structure and functions of the nerve cells and nerve fibres. What is the psychological significance of the difference in structure between the medullated and non-medullated nerve fibres ? 3. — Briefly enumerate the differences in the brain structure of the different species of the vertebrata, pointing out, at the same time, corresponding differences in mental development. 4. — In what different forms can the experimental method be applied in psychology, and what are the limitations to the applica- tion of this method ? Mill distinguishes the psychological method from the introspective method and regards the former as the more important method. Do you agree with him ? 5. — Examine the grounds on which it has been asserted that our sensations are psychically complex. Does psychology throw any light on the subject ? What part do sight and touch play in our know- ledge of space and distance ? 6. — What are the difficulties in the way of a scientific classifica- tion of emotions ? State and criticise Alison's theory of the beauti- ful. 7. — What is the physiological theory of retention ? Does not this theory favour the materialistic conception of mind ? What are the factors that enter into the process of constructive imagination ? Illustrate by an example. State the relation of imagination to thought. 8. — State and criticise the different views of consciousness im- Appendix. 401 plied in the following quotations: "We are never conscious at all without experiencing transition or change." " Every state of con- sciousness is a felt relation between the presenting subject and the presented object." 9- — What different views have been held as regards the relation between desire and will ? Summarise the arguments in favour of determinism and examine their validity. Can belief be resolved into inseparable association ? 1896. (B.A.) PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — It is held by some materialists that psychology is only a branch of physiology. How will you vindicate for the former a distinct position among the sciences ? Explain why introspection alone is not sufficient for the study of psychological phenomena. What additional aids are available to the psychologist ? 2. — Describe the structural and functional differences between nerve cells and nerve fibres. Is any structural difference observable between the nerves of the different sense organs ? If not, how do you explain their functional differences ? 3. — Exhibit in a diagram the relative positions of the chief centres of the human brain, and state briefly what is known as to their functions. Estimate the value of the methods used to localise distinct mental functions in different parts of the brain. 4. — Describe the various sensations of which the eye is the medium. Explain the phenomena of after-images, both positive and negative. What are the visual signs which help in the perception of distance ? 5. — Distinguish between sensation and perception. What is meant by an illusion of the senses ? How do illusions differ from (1) perceptions, and (2) hallucinations ? What are the characteristics of mental states in dreams ? 6. Define memory. Distinguish between "local" and "logical" memory. Is memory fully accounted for by the so-called laws of association ? What is meant by obstructive association ? 7. How do emotions differ from sensations ? On what different principles have the emotions been classified ? Describe the emotion of anger, pointing out its physical accompaniments. g. Distinguish reflex, automatic, instinctive and voluntary actions. Under what conditions do voluntary acts tend to become 26 402 Psychology in the Schoolroom. relatively unconscious ? Can this fact be explained by any general laws of nervous action ? 9.— What is attention ? Is the distinction between voluntary and reflex attention ultimate ? Discuss. What is meant by ex- pectant attention ? Exemplify some of its effects and give what you consider to be their psychological explanation. 10. — How do you distinguish desires from appetites and affec- tions ? Is desire a constant and necessary prelude of volition ? Is the will an original or a derivative faculty ? Give reasons for your answer. 1897. (B.A.) PHYSIOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — State some of the leading classifications that have been made of the fundamental operations of mind. What is meant by a mental faculty ? Discuss the objections which have been made to the use of this term in psychology. What are the methods of study open to the psychologist ? 2. — On what evidence is it held that the brain is the principal organ of mind ? Briefly describe the modifications which the struc- ture of the brain undergoes in the ascending series of vertebrates. 3. — Give a general description of the organ of touch. To what extent does discrimination vary in different parts of the organ ? Do we instinctively localise any of our tactual perceptions ? 4. — Is it true that pleasure uniformly accompanies actions beneficial to the organism ? In so far as it is true how would you account for it ? 5. — Discuss the question whether memory is a simple operation or whether it can be resolved into more elementary processes. 6. — Imitation is ranked as an original power by some psycho- logists. Discuss the question and distinguish between mimicry and imitation. 7. — Wherein lies the difficulty in classifying the emotions ? Give and criticise any classification with which you are acquainted. Describe the emotion of fear, pointing out and explaining as far as you can its physical accompaniments. 8. — Under what conditions do voluntary actions tend to become relatively unconscious ? Is the fact capable of being explained by any general laws of nervous action ? Appendix. 403 9. — What is the theory known as unconscious mental modifica- tions? How are the facts adduced in support thereof explained by those who reject the theory ? 10. — Describe the psychological nature of belief and show how it is related to knowledge. Discuss the question whether readiness to act is a certain test of belief. PUNJAB UNIVERSITY. 1895. PHILOSOPHY. Paper A (B.A.). 1. — Distinguish between the constructive and reproductive imagination, and consider whether the imagination is ever purely reproductive. Give an analysis of the operation of the constructive imagination, and show how far its power is limited. 2. — Show that intellectual, emotional and active development depend upon one another, and that all mental development may be regarded as a process of adjustment to surroundings. 3. — Give an account of the origin and growth of the moral senti- ment. 4. — Show the importance of sympathy from an educational point of view, and the means by which it may be cultivated. 5. — How far is measurement possible in psychology ? What methods are employed in attempting to measure various kinds of mental phenomena, and with what results ? 6. — State, explain and illustrate the law of association by conti- guity. On what does the strength of an association produced by contiguity depend ? 7. — Distinguish between the subjective and objective methods of studying the mind. Show that the two methods must be combined, and point out the peculiar difficulties and advantages of either method. 8. — Show the importance in psychology of the study of the mental operations of children. Give illustrations of conclusions arrived at from the observation of their words and actions. 404 Psychology in the Schoolroom. 1896. PHILOSOPHY. Paper B. PSYCHOLOGY. 1. — Define psychology, and show how it differs from metaphysics. 2. — Discuss the relation between mind and matter. State the objections against the theory that the mind is a function of the brain. 3. — How do we acquire the notion of extension ? How far has Jardine been successful in refuting Mill's theory of extension ? 4. — State and explain the general laws of association. Can they be reduced to the law of integration ? 5. — Is expectation a mode of representation ? Show all the psychological elements which constitute the former. 6. — Explain the elements which memory involves. Are they found in all forms of memory ? 7. — Define judgment. What are the mental processes involved in arriving at a judgment ? 8. — Is inconceivability the test of truth ? Discuss the question. 1897. PHILOSOPHY. Paper A (B.A.). 1. — What is the relation of psychology to physiology ? 2. — Distinguish between non-voluntary and voluntary attention. State and illustrate the principal laws of non-voluntary attention. 3. — How do we localise sensations in different parts of our bodies, and how does the perception of our own bodies teach us to distinguish between self and not-self ? 4. — Trace the progress of the imagination from early childhood, and show how it improves with the advance of years. 5. — Distinguish between judgment and conception, and show the close connection between these two processes. What is meant by saying that " all our judgments are at first synthetic, though they tend to become analytic as our knowledge of things is perfected " ? 6. — What are the principal circumstances that determine the strength of desire and active impulse ? Appendix. 405 7. — Explain : — (a) The co-operation of the two eyes in vision differs from that of the two hands in touching ; (b) Among these links of similarity must be included what has been called the analogy of feeling ; {c) Thinking is not the same thing as imagining, yet it is based on it and cannot safely be divorced from it ; (d) The relation of the emotional to the intellectual side of mental growth is a relation of mutual opposition and of reciprocal aid ; (e) Sympathy is the result of a process of observation and interpretation of the external signs of feeling. 8. — What are the distinguishing characteristics of the moral sentiment ? Show that the exercise of the moral faculty involves the exercise of the intellectual faculty of judgment. 407 INDEX. Abstraction, 154. Accommodation of eye, 72. Activity of children, 39, 40, 186. — a necessity for sense-training, 102. — love of, 234. Admiration, love of, 234. Esthetic sentiment, the, 259. — — analysis of, 260. — — characteristics of, 262. — — cultivation of, 262. — — description of, 259. Afferent nerves, 9, 10. After-percept, 112. Analogy, 179. Anger, analysis, 220. — forms of, 220. — origin, expression of, 218. — preservation of, 223. — repression of, 222. — teacher's work, 222. Antipathy, 221. Apperceiving group, the, 185. Apperception, 183. — and will, 290. — application to teaching, 186. — conditions of, 184. — defective and false, 185. — definitions of, 184. Appetite, 282, 292. Apprehension, 114. — conditions of, 129, Approbation, love of, 233. — nature of, 233. — teacher's work, 234. Assimilation necessary factor of all mental states, 22. Association and feeling, 207. — and truth, 318. — by contiguity, 122, 123. — by contrast, 123. — by similarity, 121, 123, — conditions of, 129. — convergent and divergent, 127. — educational value, 128, 130. — frequency of, 131. — of ideas, 119, 129, 131, Attention and consciousness, 28. — and variety, 43. — definitions, 29. — development of, 42. — educational value of various kinds, 41. — habit of, 44. — in adults, 35. — involuntary, 29. — laws of, 37. — necessary factor of all mental states, 22. — obstacles to, 38. — pre-adjustment of, 38. Auditory canal, the, 67. — nerve, the, 11, 69. Authority, 368. Belief in education, 167. Benevolence, 354. — teaching of, 355. Blind spot, the, 70. Body and mind, 7. Brain, the, 11. — seat of sensation, 15. Bribing, 207. Cause and effect, 123. Caution, 208. Censure, 379. Cerebellum, 9, 11. — functions, 12. Cerebro-spinal system, 9. Cerebrum, 9, 11. — functions, 12. Character defined, 338. — development of, 331. — discipline and, 335. — feeling and, 336. — habit and, 310, 335. — influence of home on, 333. — intellect and, 337. — moral sentiment and, 268. — psychology of, 330, 331. — school and, 333. — teacher's work in cultivation, 33 1 - 33 2 - 334. 335- 408 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Character, will and, 337. Charity, 207. Childhood, characteristics of, 189. Choice, deliberation and, 288. Clay modelling, 105. Cleanliness, 315. Concept contrasted with percept and image, 153. ■ — definition, 150. — indistinctness of, 155. — marks of a good, 156. — process of formation of, 148, 15,1. Conception, 148. — comparison in, 153. — culture, reasons for, 156. — definitions of, 150. — growth and training of, 157, — involves judgment, 164. — language and, 157, 158. — stages of, 153. Conceptualism, the conceptualist, 154. Conduct defined, 330. — feelings as motives to, 203. Connotation, 180. Conscience, definition, 273. — ethical exposition and, 277. — self-judging, 274. Consciousness, 2, 28, in, 119. — sub-consciousness and, 114, 121. — threshold of, 115. Conservative justice, 354. Constructive imagination, 141. Contiguity, inferiority to similarity, 128, 130, 137. — in school work, 124, 127. — law of, 123. Co-operation of pupils in discipline, 376. Corporal punishment, 44, 381. Courage, 359. — teaching of, 359. Cowardice, 217. — teacher's work, 217. Cram, 136. Cranial nerves, n. Creative impulse in aesthetic senti- ment, 262. Cruelty, 324. Curiosity, 33, 93, 252, 254. — cruelty and, 325. — definition of, 255. Deduction, 173, 178. — compared with induction, 174, Deductive method, the, 178. — - — superiority of, 178. Definition, 180. — rules for, 180, Deliberation and choice, 288. Deliberative anger, 220. — judgments, 165. Desire, analysis of, 281. — and motive, 282. — definition of, 281. — in curiosity, 254. — relation to feeling, intellect and will, 282. Detention, 380. Development and growth, 23. — differences in, 23. — factors in, 24. — heredity in, 24. — of attention, 42. — of hearing, 98. — of imagination, 144. — of judgment, 168. — of memory, 137. — of senses, 97. — of sight, 98. — of smell, 98. — of taste, 98. — of touch, 98. — of will, 292. Difficulties of study of child mind, 5. Diligence, 312. Discipline and environment, 375. — and moral duties, 275, 349. — and temperament, 374. — and the teacher, 375. — and truth, 318. — and will, 294. — bearing of order of development on, 211. — conditions favourable to, 375. — defined, 367. — home, 372. — moral, 369. — of consequences, 372. — school, 370. Discrimination necessary factor of all mental states, 22, 123, 168. Disgrace, 380. Dishonesty in school, 323. — teacher's work, 324, Disposition and character, 345. — and habit, 313. — and will, 295. — kinds, 345. — inherited, 97. Distance, inferred, not seen, 105. — perception of, 74. — training in perception of, 74. Drawing and form, 104, 168. — and writing, 95, 105. — as a partial test of observation, 84. Duties, classification of, 347. Index, 409 Duties, how to teach the chief moral, 347- Duty and virtue distinguished, 346. Ear, 67. Education, 23, 170, 175. Efferent nerves, 9, 10. Egoistic feelings, 214. Elementary science, teaching of, 93, 159, 172, 183. — — — superior to lan- guage-teaching, 129. Emotion, 19, 200. Emulation, 44, 228. — definition of, 229. — origin of, 228. — teacher's work, 229. Environment, 25, 38, 94, 97, 263, 375. Esteem, 241. Examinations, public, 390. Example, 242, 286, 293, 325, 336. Exercise strengthens faculty, 102. Experiment, observation and, 83. Experimental sciences, 84. Expulsion, 380. Eye, 70. — accommodation of, 72. — muscles of, 73. Faculties of mind, 19. Fairy tales, imagination and, 144, 145. Fancy, 143, 144. Favouritism, 167. Fear, analysis of, 215. — expression of, 214. — teacher's work, 216. Feeling, 19. — abuse of, in education, 206. — as motive to conduct, 203. — association and, 207. — bias of, 197. — charity and, 207. — children's, 198, 199, 203. — classification of, 201. — complexity of, 197, 204. — contagion of, 203. — control of, 203, 289. — cultivation of, 202, 204, 205, 207. — defined, 197. — development of, 199, 211. — divisions of, 196. — egoistic, 202, 214. — emotion as, 200. — exercise of, 203, 206. — imitation and, 206. — knowing and willing, compared and contrasted with, 19, 20, 21. — moral duty and, 350. Feeling of pleasure and pain, 208. — origin of, 208. — over-indulgence in, 207. — relation to desire, 281, 282. — repression of, 205, 207. — sensuous, 199. — social, 202. — stimulation of, 205. — training indirect, 204. Forgetfulness, 115. Form, perception of, 75. — training in perception of, 104, 105. General notions, 150. Generic image, 150. Geography, teaching of, 94, 105, 135, 140, 145. Glossopharyngeal nerve, 11, 52. Good manners, 315. Government and discipline, 376. — early, ends and grounds of, 377. Grammar, teaching of, 94, 135, 176. Growth and development, 23. Gustatory cells, 52. Habit analysed, 307, — and character, 310. — and memory of the will, 291. — and power, 226. — and truth, 319. — and will, 295. — defined, 306. — formation of, in school, 311. — law of, 210. — mental laws controlling, 308. — of attention, 44. — of observation, 92. — value of, 309. Hand and eye training, 106. Hatred, 221. Hearing, classification of sensations of, 70. — development, 98. — sensations of, 68. — training of, 106. Heedlessness, 208. Hereditary elements in development, 24. Heredity and character, 331. History, teaching of, 95, 127, 132, 134, 141, 145. Honesty (see Truthfulness), 316. Hypothesis, 143. Idea, persistence of ideas, 204. — restrictions as to use of term, in. Ideal justice, 354. 410 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Ideality in aesthetic sentiment, 261. Ideo-motor movements, 286. Image, a much abused term, 141. — connected with percepts, 112, — ■ contrasted with concepts, 153. — contrasted with percepts, no, in. — definitions of, in. — on retina, 71, — optical, 71. — re-presentative, 113. — temporary mental, 113. Imagination, 140, 190. — analysed, 142. — and truth, 319. — constructive, not creative, 142. — definitions, 141. — differences in imaginative powers of children, 144. — in aesthetic sentiment, 264. — • in sympathy, 243, 247. — its importance, 143. — kinds of, 14. — training of, 144. Imitation and intellect, 286. — in children, 190, 206. Imperative, the categoric, 269. Impulse, 282. Inclination, 282. Induction, 173, 178. — contrasted with deduction, 174. Inherited dispositions, 97. Instinct in sympathy, 242. Instruction, 23, 170, 175. Intellect, the, 19. — — and moral duties, 349. — — in desire, 31. Intellectual element in aesthetic senti- ment, 261. — sentiment, the, 251. — — cultivation of, 255. — — description of, 251. — — nature of, 252. Intelligence, 206. Intention, 268. Interest, 31. — circumstances upon which it de- pends, 31, 32. — in the intellectual sentiment, 252, 254. — kinds of, 33. — modern teacher relies on, 41. Introspection, 3. Intuitions, 166. Intuitive judgments, 165, 166. Involuntary attention, 29. — — laws of, 30. Judging, analysis of, 164. — judgment and, 163. — more than conception or per- ception, 164. Judgment, analytic, 165. — definitions of, 163. — deliberative, 165. — education of, 167, 169. — incorrect, 166, 167. — intuitive, 165, 166. — kinds of, 165. — synthetic, 166. Justice, 353. — teaching of, 354. Kindergarten system, 103, 105, 127, 168 , 301. — its psychological basis, 189. Kindness, 247, 248. Knowing, 19. Known to the unknown, 130. Language, conception and, 157, 158. — and literature as opposed to sense-training, 100. — how inferior to science, 129. — teaching, 127, 160, 168. Law of accommodation, 210. — of change, 210. — of contiguity, 123. — of contrast, 123. — of habit, 210. — moral, 270. — of pleasure and pain, 209. — of self-conservation, 209. — of similarity, 123. — of stimulation, 209. Learning by heart, 133. — its limitations, 133, 134. — by rote, 133. Literature, 134, 136. Look-and-say method, 126. Love, definition of, 240. — nature and causes of, 240. Lying, convinced, but unproved, 322. Malevolence, 221. — treatment, 224. Malevolent element in power, 226. Manual training, 106, 169. Mathematics, formulas in, 134, 169. Medulla oblongata, 9, n. — — functions of, 13. Memory, 108. — active, 116. — culture of, 132. — definition of, 114. — growth and development of, 137, — its plastic period, 137. JLlVJJJiJL* Memory of the will, 291. — passive, 116. — points in presenting facts to, 132. — verbal and visual, 135, 137. Mental operations, complexity of, 22, 165. Merit and demerit, 386. Mind and body, the, 7. — and matter, 6, 7, 118, 119. — definitions of, 6. — its three phases, 19. Mnemonics, 136. Moral education, 274. — intuitions, 166. — judgment, 267, 272, 274. — — nature of, 269. — obligation, 269. — sentiment, the, 267. — and sympathy, 273. — — definitions of, 272. — — function of, 267. — — growth of, 271. — — various designations of, 267. — training and cultivation of feelings, 275. — and discipline, 275. — — and ethical exposition, 277. — — and the moral judgment, 276. — — and the social feelings, 276. Motive and disposition, 339. — and intention, 338. — and will, 339. — classification of motives, 342. — essential conditions of, 275. — in childhood, boyhood and youth, 340, 341, 342. — in desire, 282. — in the moral sentiment, 267, 268. — importance of correct apprehen- sion of, 339. Movements, higher forms of, 287. — ideo-motor, 286. — impulsive, 283, 292. — imitative, 284. — instinctive, 283, 292. — involuntary, 283. — reflex, 283, 292. — sensory, 284. — voluntary, 283. Muscular sense and other special senses, 64. — — and sight, 66, 73. — — and touch, 63. Muscularity, 64. Naming and conception, 154. — and definition, 180. Nature, the book of, 93. — the love of, 92. — the teachings of, 100. — stunted emotional, 206. Nerve cells, 10, n. — fibres, 10, 11. Nerves, 10. Nervous system, 7. — matter, energy of, 15. Nominalism, the nominalists, 154. Non-voluntary attention, 29. — laws of, 30. Obedience, kinds of, 367, 368. Object lessons, 92, 100, 101, 104, 106, 107, 127, 159. Objective method, the, 3. — — defects of, 5. Oblivescence, 115. Observation, analysis of, 91. — and experiment, 83. — definitions, 82. — habit of, 92. — in adults, 90. — in children, 84, 88, 89, 91. — in conception, 153. — of children, 5. — of town and country children, 91. — ■ sciences of, 84. — training of, 91. Obstinacy, treatment of, 296, 297. Olfactory cells, 54. — nerve, n, 54. Optic nerve, n, 71. Organic sensations, 50. Papillae in skin, 62. Perception, analysis of, 59. — complexity of, 60. — contrasted with sensation, 48, 61. — definitions of, 60. — examples of, 57. — involves judgment, 164. — of distance, 74. — of form, 75. — of self, j j. — of solids, 76. Percepts, 60. — after-percept, 112. — connected with images, 112, 113. — contrasted with concepts, 153. — — — images, no, in. Physiology defined, 1. Pleasure and pain, chief laws, 209. Politeness, 315. 412 Psychology in the Schoolroom. Power, cruelty and, 325. — habit and, 226. — love of, 225. — nature of, 225. — teacher's work, 227. Praise, 385. Pre-adjustment of attention, 38. Pride, 232. Prizes, 385. Prudence, teaching of, 356. Psychological basis of kindergarten, 189. Psychology, characteristic difficulty, 22, 100. — defined, i, 2. — relation to teaching, 3. Psycho -physics, 4, 63. Public opinion in school, 389. Punishment, 37, 43, 44. — amount of, 382. — as a corrective, 382. — as a deterrent, 382. — corporal, 44, 381. — evils of, 379. — kinds of, 379. — limits of, 383. — necessity for, 378. Qualities of a good observer of children, 6. Querulousness, 297. Questioning, 39, 116, 187. Questions, 17, 27, 45, 56, 81, 96, 108, 138, 146, 161, 171, 181, 188, 195, 213, 239, 250, 258, 266, 279. 304. 3 28 > 365. 394- Rational intuitions, 166. Reading, aloud and silent, 126. — look-and-say method, 126. — teaching of, 104, 106, 124, 125, 126, 145. Realism, the realists, 154. Reasoning, 172. — definition, 173. Recollect, trying to, 116. Recollecting and remembering, 116. Reflected emotions, 230. Reflex action, 15. Repetition, frequency of, 118. Reproduction, 114, 117. — conditions of, 118. Reproductive imagination, 141. Resolution and perseverance, 288. — definition of, 289, Respect and reverence, 241. — — nature of, 241. — — teacher's work, 241. Retention and sub-consciousness, 114. Retina, 70. — formation of image on, 71. Revenge, 221. Rewards, 378. — evils of, 385. — kinds of, 384. — necessity for, 378. Rivalry (see Emulation). Rods and cones, 70. Rote-learning, 133. Sanction, 387. — kinds of sanctions, 387. Science defined, 1. — teaching, 93, 129, 159, 172, 183. Self-complacency, 231. — conservation, 209. — education in the will, 296. — esteem, 231. — importance, 230. — pity, 231. — reliance, 232. — respect, 231. — worth, 231. Semicircular canals, functions of, 70. Sensation, definition of, 47. Sensations, comparison of, 49. — conditions of, 49. — contrasted with perceptions, 48. — general and special, 50. — impossibility of pure, 49. — of adults, 48. — of hearing, 68. — of muscularity, 63. — of sight, 71. — of smell, 54. — of taste, 52. — of touch, 63. — organic, 50. — seat of, 15. — special, cfassined, 51. Sense, definition of a, 51. — intuitions, 166. — organ, 50. Senses, the, dangers of over-training of, 107. — development of, 97. — teacher's part in training, 103. — their relative importance, 78. — training of, 97, 99. Sensibility of skin, 63. Sensuous elements in the sesthetic sentiment, 260. Sentiments, the, 202, 207, 251. Sight and touch, the intellectual senses, 79, 101. — combined with muscularity, 73. — development of, 98, Index. 413 Similarity, law of, 123, 127. — superior to contiguity, 128, 130, 137- Singing, teaching of, 106, 127. Smell, 54. — development of, 98. Social feelings, the, 240. Spelling, teaching of, 131. Spinal cord, 9. — — functions, 15. Spontaneity of children, 189. Standard, moral, 271. Sub-consciousness, 114. Subjective method, the, 3. — — difficulties of, 4. Sub-psychical activity, 114. Summaries, 16, 26, 44, 55, 80, 95, 108, 138, 146, 160, 170, 181, 187, 194, 211, 236, 248, 257, 265, 278, 302, 326, 360, 390. Syllogism, the, 175. Sympathetic system, the, 9. Sympathy, definition, 243. — expression of, 243. — nature of, 242. — obstacles to, 244. — teacher's work, 245. — uses of, 248. Tasks and impositions, 380. Taste, 52. — buds, 52. Teaching, true, 134. Temperament, 40. — character and, 342. — curiosity and, 254. — in education, 344. — in will, 287. — varieties of, 343. Temperance, 358. — teaching of, 358. Things rather than words, 118, 131. Thrift, 357. — teaching of, 357. Tone of school, 388. Touch, 62. — active, 65. — and the muscular sense, 63. — classification of sensations of, 65. — development of, 98. Touch, its importance, 63. — proper, 64. — the fundamental sense, 63. Training by contact with objects, 100. — of conception, 151. — of imagination, 144. — of judgment, 168, 169. — of perception, 99. — of reasoning, 178. — of senses, 99. Trying to recollect, 116. Truth, love of, 253. Truthfulness, 316, 317. — arguments to be used in culti- vation, 319, 320. — cultivation of, 318. — nature of, 316. Tympanum, 67. Untruthfulness, 317. Variety, its influence on attention, 43, 102. Verbal aggregate, the, 124. — memory, 135, 191. Violence, 298. Virtue and duty distinguished, 346. Virtues, the, importance of classifica- tion of, 351. — — classified, 352. Visual memory, 135, 137. Volition, 19. Voluntary attention, 30, 33. Will, act of willing examined, 280. — and apperception, 291. — and desire, 281, 282, 292. — and feeling, 285, 289, 292. — and habit, 291. — and heredity, 285. — and moral duties, 351. — and movements, 283. — and temperament, 293. — definitions of, 280. — development of, 292. — in moral sentiment, 267. — thoughts controlled by, 290. — training of, 293, 294, 300. Yellow spot, the, 70. ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS. Crown 8vo, price 6s. 6d. TEACHING & ORGANISATION. With Special Reference to Secondary Schools. A MANUAL OF PRACTICE. Edited by P. A. BARNETT, M.A. ii. in. IV. CHAPTER I. The Criterion in Educa- tion. By P. A. Barnett, M.A., late Principal of the Isleworth Training College, and formerly Professor of English in Firth College, Sheffield. Organisation and Curri- cula in Boys' Schools. By A. T. Pollard, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School. Kindergarten. By Elinor Welldon, Head Mistress of the Kindergarten Department, The Ladies' College, Cheltenham. Reading. By Arthur Burrell, M.A. .Assistant Master in Bradford Grammar School. V. Drawing and Writing. By I. H. Morris, Head Master of the Gleadless Road Board School, Sheffield. VI. Arithmetic and Mathe- matics. ByR.WoRMELL, D.Sc, Head Master of the City Founda- tion Schools, London ; and Member of the late Royal Com- mission on Secondary Education. VII. English Grammar and Composition. ByE. A. Abbott, D.D., late Head Master of the City of London School. VIII. English Literature. By the Editor. IX. Modern History. By R. Somervell, M.A., Assistant Master in Harrow School. X. Ancient History. By H. L. Withers, M.A., Principal of the Isleworth Training College, and formerly Assistant Master in Clifton College. XI. Geography. By E. C. K. Gonner, M.A., Professor of Political Economy in University College, Liverpool. CHAPTER XII. Classics. By E. Lyttel- ton, M.A., Head Master of Haileybury College, and Member of the late Royal Commission on Secondary Education. XIII. Science. By L. C. Miall, F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the Yorkshire College, Leeds. XIV. Modern Languages. By F. Storr, B.A., Chief Master of Modern Subjects in Merchant Taylors' School. XV. Vocal Music. By W. G. McNaught, Mus. Doc, and H. M. Assistant Inspector of Music in Training Colleges. XVI. Discipline. By A. Sidg- wick, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Corpus Christi College, Oxford; arid formerly Assistant Master in Rugby School. XVII. Ineffectiveness in Teach- ing. By G. E. Buckle, Master of Method in the Isleworth Train- ing College for Schoolmasters. XVIII. Specialisation. ByM.G. Glazebrook, M.A., Head Master of Clifton College. XIX. School Libraries. By A. T. Martin, M.A., Assistant Master in Clifton College. XX. School Hygiene. By C. Dukes, M.D. Lond., Medical Officer in Rugby School. XXI. Apparatus and Furni- ture. By W. K.Hill, B.A., late Head Master of Kentish Town High School. XXII. Organisation and Curri- cula in Girls' Schools. ByM. E. Sandford, Head Mistress of the Queen's School, Chester. LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., LONDON, NEW YORK AND BOMBAY. Crown 8vo, price 7s. 6d. WORK AND PLAY IN GIRLS' SCHOOLS. By Three Head Mistresses : Miss DOROTHEA BEALE, Principal of the Cheltenham Ladies' College ; Miss LUCY H. M. SOULSBY, Of Manor House School, Brondesbury, N.W. ; late Head Mistress of the Oxford High School ; AND Miss J. FRANCES DOVE, Of Wycombe Abbey School ; late Head Mistress of St. Leonard's School, St. Andrews, N.B. CONTENTS : Section I.— INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. Edited by DOROTHEA BEALE, Principal of the Cheltenham Ladies' College ; formerly Mathematical and Classical Tutor, Queen's College, London. Introduction Dorothea Beak. A Few Practical Precepts |t ti Part I.— HUMANITIES. English Language Generally — Reading, Writing, Grammar, Composition, Dorothea Beale ; Classical Studies, William H. D. Rouse, M.A. ; Modern Languages, Dorothea Beale; Spell- ing Reform, Dorothea Beale ; History as an Educational Subject, Dorothea Beale ; Teach- ing Modern History to Senior Classes, Alice Andrews ; The Teaching of Ancient History, Mary Hanbidge, M.A.; Time-Maps, Dorothea Beale; Economics for Girls, Margaret Bridges ; English Literature, Amy Lumby ; Philosophy and Religion, Dorothea Beale. Part II.— MATHEMATICS. Arithmetic, Dorothea Beale ; Mathematics, Dorothea Beale. Part III.— SCIENCE. Introduction — Psychological Order of Study, with special reference to Scientific Teaching, Dorothea Beale; The Teaching of the Biological Sciences, Charlotte L. Laurie; Geo- graphy, Margery Reid, B.Sc. (Lond.); Physics, Agatha Leonard, B.Sc. (Lond.); The Teaching of Chemistry, Clare de Brereton Evans, D.Sc. {Lond.). Part IV.— .ESTHETICS. Introduction — Art, Dorothea Beale ; Pianoforte Teaching, Domcnico Bamctt ; The Violin, Lewis Hann; Class-Singing, Florence Mosley ; Singing, Tonic Sol-fa, Rhoda Rooney ; Elocution, Rose Seaton ; Drawing, Painting, etc., Pauline M. Randerson ; Brush Drawing, Mary Farbrother ; Painting, Arthur Richardson; Fresco, Eadie Reid; China Painting, Minna Crawley; Art Needlework, Minna Crawley; Wood Carving, etc., M. S. Lyndon Smith; Modelling, Evangeline Stirling ; Sloyd, Evangeline Stirling ; Conclusion — Relation of School to Home, Dorothea Beale. Section II.— THE MORAL SIDE OF EDUCATION. By LUCY H. M. SOULSBY, Of Manor House School, Brondesbury, N.W. ; late Head Mistress of the Oxford High School. Section 111.— CULTIVATION OF THE BODY. By JANE FRANCES DOVE, Of Wycombe Abbey School ; late Head Mistress of St. Leonard's School, St. Andrews, N.B. Index. LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., LONDON, NEW YORK AND BOMBAY. BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. A NEW MANUAL OF METHOD. By A. H. ,. d . Garlick, B.A. , Head Master of Woolwich Pupil Teachers' Centre. With numerous Examination Questions, Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo 4 6 OBJECT LESSONS IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE FOR STANDARDS I., II. AND III. Scheme A. By A. H. GARLICK, B.A. , Head Master of the Woolwich P. T. Centre ; Author of " A New Manual of Method " ; and T. F. G. Dexter, B. A. , B. Sc. , Head Master of the Finsbury P. T. Centre. With 215 Illustrations. Crown 8vo 3 6 Attention has been paid to Mental Training rather than to imparting Information. The Book contains: — 38 Lessons for Standard 1. 39 ., .. .. II. 44 iii- HOUSEHOLD SEWINQ, WITH HOME DRESS- MAKING. By Bertha Banner, Certificated by the Badische Frauenverein, Karlsruhe, Baden ; Training Teacher of Sewing and Dressmaking at the Liverpool Technical College for Women. With 64 Illustrations. Crown 8vo 2 6 THE TEACHER'S MANUAL OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES (Arranged to meet the Requirements of the New Code). By F. J. Harvey, Principal of the West of England Physical Training School and Gymnasium, Exeter. With 119 Illustrations. Oblong 8vo 3 6 PHYSICAL EXERCISES AND GYMNASTICS FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN (Arranged for use of Teachers in High Schools, Private Schools, Gymnasia, etc.). By F. J. Harvey. With 104 Illustrations. Crown 8vo 3 6 LONGMANS' WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING BOOK. By W. H. Drinkwater, Head Master of Morden Terrace Board School, Lewisham. Crown 8vo 1 6 KINDERGARTEN GUIDE. By Lois Bates. With 16 Coloured Plates and 200 Illustrations. Crown 8vo 6 NEW RECITATIONS FOR INFANTS. Containing 43 Recitations with Actions for Children of Four, Five and Six Years of Age. By Lois Bates, Author of "Saltaire Action Songs," etc. Crown 8vo 1 6 GAMES WITHOUT MUSIC FOR CHILDREN. By Lois Bates, Author of "Kindergarten Guide," " Recitations for Infants," etc. With n Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo 2 LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO., LONDON, NEW YORK AND BOMBAY. (o