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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 1924 073 426 433 
 
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 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924073426433 
 
In compliance with current 
 
 copyright law, Cornell University 
 
 Library produced this 
 
 replacement volume on paper 
 
 that meets the ANSI Standard 
 
 Z39.48-1992 to replace the 
 
 irreparably deteriorated original. 
 
 1995 
 
THE PROGRESS 
 
 OF 
 
 CIVIL AND MEOHAMOAL ENGINEERING 
 
 AND 
 
 SHIPBUILDING 
 
 (Bnusirateli), 
 
 BEING 
 
 A Series of selected Examples of Constritction in Marine, Locomotive, and Stationary Engines, Iron Ships, and 
 other Vessels, Machine Tools, Ordnance, and other Mechanical Sitbjects. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 WILLIAM SMITH, C.E., M.Inst. Mech.K, &c., London; JOHN HENRY NOBLE, M.E., Dttblin; 
 
 THOMAS SMITH, M.I.N. A., London and Dublin; 
 
 AIDED AND ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS EMINENT ENGINEERS AND WELL-KNOWN CONTRIBUTORS TO PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO 
 
 1877. 
 
 Div. I. 
 
 D 
 
Prefatory Address. 
 
 ft 
 
 be said that is new. The same barbarous mode of dealing with the materials employed in constructing the Per- 
 manent Way of our railways is still followed, and the throwing down of sleepers, chairs, and rails in heaps, to 
 be dragged over the road in course of construction, and assembled and combined together, does certainly admit 
 of great improvement and economy being effected therein, as does the mode of mechanically framing the Per- 
 manent Way — for the prejudices of railway engineers and contractors have yet to be taclded, as other faulty 
 systems have had to be dealt with in other branches of engineering. 
 
 What has been seriously proposed, and to some extent has been dealt with and provided for, is in- 
 creasing the number of lines in our arterial systems of railways, the increasing the length and number of longer 
 sidings, by which trains may run into, stand in and run out of them without the necessity for first running 
 •over trailing points in the main line, and then backing into short sidings, may, through the increased security 
 of facing point construction and other arrangements, be rendered more generally available as a means of more 
 safely and economically working the general traffic of railways. The attention which has recently been 
 bestowed upon the arrangement of Goods' Yards has shown the way to the more economic and rapid dealing 
 with the enormously increasing goods-carrying trade of our railways. 
 
 In Tunnelling through rock, some efibrts have been made to apply machinery for working out the 
 materials. The substitution of mechanical power for hand labour has become better appreciated since the exe- 
 cution of the Mont Cenis and other Continental tunnel works, and we shall have occasion to give some illustra- 
 tions of what has been successfully done, and also to indicate how much remains to be done to render such 
 undertakings less dependent upon manual and brute labour. 
 
 The activity and zeal, and the high scientific attainments of the officers who manage the railway 
 department, and the practical training they have undergone since the establishment of that dej)artment of the 
 Board of Trade has been so thoroughly appreciated, that they themselves must confess to their success being 
 mainly owing to the self-evident necessities for their suggesting improved means of safely working the rapidly 
 increasing traffic over the railways of the country. Those officers are, in our opinion, to be highly compli- 
 mented upon their adapting themselves so thoroughly to the growing necessities of the railway service, and 
 their deference to public opinion, influenced and guided as they are by the light of the experience gained in 
 their official capacity, and acting as they have done as the brakesmen as well as the engine drivers of the train 
 of progress, looking only to the pul)lic and the representatives of public opinion as they would to the roadside 
 signals regarded by a driver of a train, but still retaining the right of judging by their own exjicriencc in con- 
 ducting aright the afi'airs in their official charge. 
 
 Not alone was the necessity for jproviding- some mechanical contrivance for interlocking the points and 
 signals of railways foreshadowed, and indeed jiointed out by such men as G-eneral Sir F. Smith, Colonel Pasley, 
 E.E., Captain Tyler, Colonel YoUand, Colonel Hutchinson, Colonel Eich, and others; but, when the mechanical 
 means and appliances were proposed, they did all that men could do to encourage such inventors as John Saxby 
 and others, and they suggested the modes whereby these contrivances could be made more complete and avail- 
 able for most of the conditions under which they had in practice to be applied and used, and we shall in the 
 course of this work be enabled to give our readers the most reliable information. Illustrations of the proo-ress 
 of this important subject, with plates and wood engravings the most thorough, complete, and exhaustive, wUl 
 bring this subject down to the end of 1876. 
 
 Bloclc Signalling on railways and other signals and apparatus which have, from time to time, been 
 employed, we shall, in like manner, be able completely to illustrate. Eailway safety appliances have seriously 
 attracted public attention. Although the demands upon Eailway Directors and the Managers of Eailways have 
 ressingly increased, and the subject has been so prominently and actively canvassed before the learned societies 
 
 Ti 
 
 n 
 
JL 
 
 PEErATORY Address.' 
 
 and institutions of the country, railway directors arid officers must not be considered so utterly regardless of 
 the safety of the public and their own customers as popular beliief appears to point to. 
 
 We regret we cannot view so favourably the results to be expected from the labours of the Eoyal 
 Commission on Eailway Accidents, as such Commission, although originally fairly composed, has been castrated, 
 and the present members, upon whom has devolved the main portion of the work, since the withdrawal of the 
 Duke of Buckingham and Chandos, have rather relied upon undesirable sources of information, derivable from 
 directors, officers, and staff of railway companies, than upon independent information derivable, from indepen- 
 dent sources, open to them and available under the powers they possess, holding as they do a Eoyal Com- 
 mission; but, nous verrons, one cannot be surprised at the exhibition of impatience that several members of 
 Parliament, in both Houses have evinced, asking questions as to when the report may be expected. Looking 
 to the fact that so far as the important question of the Brake arrangements which the Commission may re- ' 
 commend to be employed, it is a matter of grave importance to railway companies to determine what' their 
 requirements are, seeing that the delay has involved, and may still further involve. Companies in enormous 
 outlay, and whilst they are at present necessarily working in th,e dark, it may turn out they have been expend- 
 ing much capital uselessly, should the recommendations of the Commission in another direction have to 
 be carried out. \ • ' . 
 
 s 
 
 Of Eailway Brake contrivances we have collected the results of an interesting series of experiments 
 which, 'being illustrated, and the results tabulaited, and given in a collected form, will be found one of the 
 most interesting portions of the work, in those divisions which will be more or less devoted to the subject of 
 railway working. 
 
 Locomotive Engine construction, as ,a creation of little more than half a century, has within the last 
 thirty years made the most rapid strides ; whilst Marine Engines, with their machinery and surroundings, 
 have been entirely revolutionized by such men, as notably the late and ever to be regretted John Elder, and 
 by the, employment of the Hall surface condenser, and its modifications, and by the use of higher steam 
 pressures. , ' . 
 
 Naval Architecture and the Art of Shipbuilding have each undergone rapid changes in 'the main 
 course of progress ; but they have also been influenced by vacillations and violent oscillations of opinion, first 
 in one direction and then in another ; more , especially do these observations apply to the ships of the Eoyal 
 Navy, where changes in the policies of the Governing Body have been found to affect the form and features ' 
 of our ships of war, and the requirements believed to be necessary, or to be provided for in such ships, both 
 for offensive and defensive purposes ; and what was good yesterday, and praised and lauded to the skies by 
 the ablest of our Naval authorities, and by the cleverest writers of the day on such a subject, to-day is con- 
 sidered bad, or at best very indifferent, and is accordingly decried or condemned by almost the same persons 
 or individuals, often officials too, and the nation has had to set about undoing what it has done (and paid for 1) 
 and re-eonstructing the Navy according to the views of the "the in's," "the out's" hoping to get their turn by- 
 and-by, and so to be able to repeat the process. 
 
 When the Institution of Naval Architects was projected by Mr. John Scott Eussell, F.E.S., in con- 
 junction with Mr. Thomas Smith, M.LN.A., we were led to expect that the Council of Naval Architects who 
 were to govern that Institution would be able to exercise such a wholesome influence over the art of Naval 
 Construction, in the future, as to enable us, as the first naval power in the world, to set a sound, scientific, and 
 practical example to tlie rest of the world upon such matters, and so to maintain and extend the prestige of 
 this country, as the great seat of Naval Architecture and Shipbuilding, as the only nation to which they could 
 apply with any confidence that their requirements would be rightly understood and could be properly supplied, 
 
 iii 
 
Prefatory Address. 
 
 without increasing the risks of failure and disappomtment. How lamentable has been the exhibition, and how 
 gross the ignorance displayed in connection with this branch of our national strength and greatness, and what 
 ah amount of conceit also has come to the surface during the seething and foaming incidental to the debates in 
 Parliament, and the discussions in the newspapers and journals of the day ; and what littleness of mmd and 
 vulgarity, too, have been exhibited in the course of such wars of words, whilst the taxpayers of the country 
 look on in utter dismay and in disgust at the pretentiousness of those who from time to time have had the au- 
 thority to dip their hands into the public purse to pay for costly experiments, which proved to have been 
 only made to educate and train, as apprentices, those designers in a profession they affected to be masters of, 
 and were paid for in such latter capacity. 
 
 Amongst other things that have not reflected any credit upon a branch of our Naval Architects and 
 Designers, past and present, is that coquetting with Foreign Governments for employment, and receiving pay, 
 either in meal or in malt, for serving them, under the rose perhaps, but serving them nevertheless; and when- 
 ever the opportunity occurs, being, willing, nay pressingly urgent, to put themselves forward as the champions 
 of the claims of foreigners (distinguished foreigners of course), however ill founded, as the originators and 
 designers of anything which has been discovered to possess any practical merit, against the true, well-con- 
 sidered, and honest claims of English, Scotch, and Irish designers or originators ; more especially if the latter 
 are known to be dead, and not known to have any capable survivor or advocate to do champion for them. 
 
 Of Shipbuilding for the Mercantile Mariae, no doubt, great changes in the form and proportions of 
 cargo-carrying Steam propelled Ships have, during the last few years, been made, which have rendered neces- 
 sary the re-construction of that portion of our Mercantile Marine. 
 
 The revolutionizing effect upon the commerce of this country, more particularly as the principal 
 ocean carriers of the world, due to the completion and opening of the Suez Canal, has necessitated many im- 
 portant changes and modifications, not only in the designing, proportioning, and construction of the hulls of 
 our Screw Steam Fleet, but the necessities of the exciting competition in commerce amongst the over-sea car- 
 riers, more particularly those engaged in the India, China, and Australian Trades, and other long sea voyage 
 ships, have so impressed their owners with the importance of availing themselves of every means for effecting 
 economy in the use of steam, that the old question of steam versus' sailing ships has assumed a new phase, the 
 reverse of that which prevailed shortly after the introduction of the screw as a propelling instrument, and a 
 reversal of the condition of things which formerly obtained was in some instances adopted, so that Iron Sailing 
 Ships, suitably equipped and rigged, were in many cases employed to displace Steam Propelled Ships on 
 certain lines of traffic, as more economical transporters of goods, and in some cases of passengers too, when 
 conjointly so employed with the trade of goods carrying. This is one of the peculiar instances remarkable in 
 the history of everything in life ; for though history is said to repeat itself, and no doubt does, the occasional 
 negative, as well as the positive form of repetition has been apparent in many cases where the new conditions 
 of things which culminate and result from surrounding circumstances, as in the case of the dislocation and dis- 
 arrangement of commerce by such an event as the opening of the Suez Canal, could not have been fully fore- 
 told and provided for, nor even guessed at by ninety-nine men out of every hundred engaged in their daily 
 occupation connected with that branch of trade and commerce; nor, indeed, until the glaring actuality con- 
 nected with the particular occupation stared them most gravely in the face, could many bring themselves to 
 the belief in what had been pointed out to them long before, as the only practical course to be adopted to meet 
 the diffictdty, that they set about, as a tentative process, experimenting in the direction suggested for effectino- 
 the economy of propelling power and management of the ship's movements whilst employed in the transport 
 of goods and passengers on long voyages. 
 
 In Agricultural Engineering, the systematic application of mechanical means and appliances in a' 
 
 iv 
 
Peefatoey Address. 
 
 scientific way, and which, after all, is but the growth of yesterday as it were — whilst the application of steam 
 power in combination with mechanical means .and appliances is of the period of our day essentially, what such 
 men as the late John Fowler and those, associated with him have contributed for the benefit of not only this 
 country but towards the progress of civilization generally, must remain a matter of history, and for better ap- 
 preciation by the next generation, who will then no doubt be willing to accord a full meed of appreciation 
 more fully than those who are benefiting at the present day from the labours of such ingenious and useful men. 
 
 Of the Electric Telegraph and other matters allied therewith, though much has been written, much 
 more still remains to bo described and set forth as occasion offers, and more particularly, we may add, in re- 
 spect of the true history of the Submarine Telegraph Cable, and of those to whom credit is really due, as also 
 as to what has been done practically to make those world-encircling means of conveying intelligence at light- 
 ning speed between the most distant parts of the earth's surface. Of land and marine telegraphy, as of other 
 branches of Engineering and other sciences, it is fortunate that the habit and disposition of men to aggregate 
 and combine together for the advancement of special knowledge has, in the case of this branch of Engineering, 
 resulted in the formation of a very useful society, " The Society of Telegraph Engineers," which was established 
 in London as lately as the end of the year 1871, and since its existence has performed very useful functions, 
 and will serve to bring together in a concentrated form much information which would otherwise have been 
 very difiicult to obtain in a practical and available shape upon the various subjects it has taken under its 
 charge as a branch of Engineering, and will enable us to give with greater authority and more accurately much 
 that is interesting to our readers. All this, in the shape which we hope to present it to them, will prove of 
 great utility and value in adding to the stock'of common knowledge of the various branches to which each bf 
 us in our tiirn may prefer by education, training, or association to devote ourselves, either in study or in the 
 practice of our daily lives. 
 
 Of the subjects of Hemp and Flax-spinning, and the machinery employed, the introduction of the 
 Phormium Tenax, jute, &c., and of their applications to useful purposes, of the history of the Wire Rope and 
 its manufacture, the application of metallic wires, and the machinery and apparatus employed in its produc- 
 tion, and also the machinery employed for converting it into ropes and cables, we shall give the most complete, 
 historical, and practical details. In fact, the portion of the work devoted to the wire rope and its manufacture 
 will be unique, and, it is believed, that it will prove of very great interest to most scientific and practical 
 men. 
 
 Of water supply to cities and towns much has also been written, and some of the ablest Engineers 
 and scientific men of this and other countries have devoted their time and talent to the subject. Writers, 
 well skilled in the specialties of the subject have written upon it, and devoted tomes, large and small, simple 
 and elaborate, scientific and technical, erudite and popular, but still is this subject left incomplete, and to an 
 extent inconsistent with the advanced state of knowledge of many other branches of Engineering palpably im- 
 perfect, and certainly unexhausted as a subject of practical knowledge and a branch of Engineering. We had 
 hoped that an exhaustive work upon this subject, which was announced some years ago, would have been given 
 to us long ere this by a good practical writer and well known Engineering author, and we are still in hope that 
 he will, notwithstanding his numerous engagements, and whatever else may have interfered, see it desirable, 
 if not imperative, to redeem his promise. At any rate it will be_our province to give to our readers, extended 
 over 'the issue of the divisions of this work, such practical information as we have collected together for the 
 purpose, and more particularly all the most recent data collected in view of the issue of the present work, and 
 in the most succinct and useful shape for reference. ' • ' 
 
 Of Sanitary Engineering, dealing with the questions .of drainage and sewage matters, . and the allied 
 questions of the disposal and dealing with the same, it is fortunate in this instance, as in the case of Telegraph 
 
Prefatory Address. 
 
 Engineers, that those who have devoted their time and talents to such questions have associated themselves 
 together to concentrate their knowledge on the development of their branch of science and practical engineering, 
 by forming An Association of Municipal Sanitary Engineers and Surveyors ; and although its existence dates 
 only from 1873-74, it has already made its mark as a useful practical association, under the presidency of Mr. 
 Lewis Angell, M.Inst. C.E., &c., and it will in its own sphere of usefulness doubtless exercise an important 
 influence, and enable the tangled meshes of the subject of sewage and sanitary matters to be systematically 
 combed out, ready to be spun into useful threads of knowledge and progress. 
 
 Of other branches of Engineering, of which there are such a large number, and of such importance 
 in connection with the development of practical science, we may here shortly say that no one branch will be ne- 
 glected by us, and none omitted during the progress of the present work, but all be dealt with as exhaustively 
 and completely as the nature and extent of this work and its mode of publication will permit. 
 
 Gf Ordnance of various kinds, for land and sea use, and incidental to or connected therewith, our 
 subscribers will find a most exhaustive treatment ; and its different divisions and subdivisions will be histori- 
 cally treated, and the best collection of facts and figures relating thereto, in a condensed form, having the 
 stamp of authority, so that full reliance may be placed upon their authenticity and reliability, will be found 
 collected together in our pages. 
 
 Of Chemistry applied to the Arts, and of new processes in connection with the manufacturing indus- 
 tries of this country, we are enabled to promise our subscribers a series of papers of practical character and 
 . excellence. 
 
 We have also in course of preparation a series of tables, which for laboratory purposes, as well as for 
 direct reference, by the practical engineer, and others who may not be masters of chemical science, wUl prove 
 valuable by reason of succinctness and practical arrangement bearing upon the manufacturing processes in 
 use. In the various branches of manufacture of machine tools, and the improved means and appliances for 
 treating and manipulating metals, wood, &c., withia the last few years, great strides have been made by the 
 machine-tool makers, who have brought an amount of intelligence to bear upon the subject second to no other 
 class of engineers and machinists. We have a collection of illustrations and information upon the most 
 modern tools, and the most powerful machines and instruments for shaping and otherwise working upon the 
 enormously increased masses of materials that are now in everyday use by our constructors. But it is not 
 alone with machine tools of this description that we are eminently competent to deal in a practically useful 
 and exhaustive way, for machinery is now being employed in the production of small pieces of mechanism, 
 where reproduction and repetition, at a cheap rate and quickly are the means upon which the profitable em- 
 ployment of capital and labour depend for meeting successfully the natural competition which arises in con- , 
 nection with the development and use of machines, machinery, and appliances, for an infinity of purposes 
 heretofore believed in many cases impossible. 
 
 The processes of manufacture of machinery and apparatus upon the greatly enlarged scale which now 
 exists, and all incidental thereto, together with the new means and appliances that have been introduced, and 
 the machinery, tools, &c., &c., that have been brought to bear in aid of the production of these enormous 
 masses of material, will form one of the not least interesting portions of this work. 
 
 By way of comparison in the treatment of this last mentioned portion, as in the other portions or 
 sub-divisions of the work, each engineering subject will be historically treated, and examples given whereby, as 
 landmarks in the chart of material progress, may be seen and at once recognised the stepping stones of ad- 
 vancement ; and starting points from which improvements have been made, wUl be boldly marked out or 
 
 vi 
 
Prefatory Address. 
 
 carved and indented, as to leave the most careless reader and tlie most idle student no excuse for ignorance 
 upon the question of how, when, and where -the diiferent rounds in the ladder of progress are placed, and their 
 bearings of utility defined as means to the end. 
 
 Of Harbour, Estuary, and Eiver Engineering, of sea walls, breakwaters, and protective works in con- 
 nection with Marine Engineering, we shall have to present to our subscribers a valuable collection of examples, 
 and reliable information with regard to the progress of their construction, their cost, and in most cases the 
 results attained or effected by such constructions; and those examples which we have selected will not be con- 
 fined to works in this country, to India, Australia, Canada, and other English Colonies and possessions abroad, 
 but will include some of the most useful examples existing in foreign countries and distant places, extending 
 over the whole world. 
 
 Of Submarine Engineering, and operations allied to or connected therewith, we shall be able to give 
 some of the most recent and all the most useful and practical examples, their application and cost, and in many 
 cases the, economic results attained by their use. 
 
 As Tramways on common roads are now assuming daily a greater importance as means of passenger 
 transport, and as they may hereafter form more important aids to locomotion and internal means of inter- 
 communication in cities, towns, and provincial districts, we have considered it worth while to devote consider- 
 able space and attention to this subject, and we shall present to our readers the most complete and compre- 
 hensive details of what has been done in this country and elsewhere, since the first attempt to introduce the 
 tramway system for passenger carrying by George Francis Train, not that he was the originator of tramways, 
 but only as the unsuccessful introducer of that system into this country. 
 
 Of the various means of propelling tram cars, and the mechanical contrivances for tram car traction, 
 we can promise the most complete exposition extant. 
 
 Amongst the miscellaneous subjects that will be treated separately during the progress of the work 
 through the press, and which will be divided and spread over the whole series of divisions, as and when space 
 permits, we need only observe here that very many interesting papers will be given as contributions to science, 
 to which no allotment of subject will be given, as a separate division, but which will be found highly interest- 
 ing and valuable. 
 
 Generally, with reference to the rapid advancement of practical science (and we hope it may be also 
 said in connection with the development of technical knowledge, improved technical education amongst our 
 working classes), whilst in the recent history of physics the marked changes of both conception and classifica- 
 tion, almost equally great, the rapid advancement and changes made in the mechanics' art, as well as in those 
 branches of Civil and Mechanical Engineering of which we propose to treat, have not been less great or less 
 useful. Advancing from the older dynamic to the newer potential and kinetic conception of power those 
 branches of science may be said to have entered on a fresh stage, in which, instead of regarding natural phe- 
 nomena as the result of forces acting between one body and another, now-a-day the energy of a material 
 system is looked upon as being determined by its configuration and motion ; and the ideas of configuration, 
 motion, and force, are now generalized to the utmost extent warranted by their definitions. Indeed, it is said, 
 that this altered point of view, combined with the far reaching doctrines of the correlation of forces and the 
 conservation of energy, has respectively produced extensive changes in the nomenclature and classification of 
 the various sections of physics, whilst the fuller investigations into the ultimate constitution of matter, and 
 into the phenomena and laws of light, heat, and electricity, have created virtually new sections which must now 
 find a place in any adequate survey of scientific progress. 
 
 vii B 
 
Prefatory Address. 
 
 But as we do not intend in our present work to go beyond dealing with questions directly and 
 immediately connected with its title, we can only further quote the opinion of the highest of recent authorities, 
 in repeating that the application of the newer principles to the mechanical arts and industries has rapidly 
 advanced dixring the same period to which we have just referred, and will in like manner require extended 
 illustrations in many fresh directions. It is to this aim and object we have addressed ourselves, and we have 
 good reason for believing that we shall eminently succeed ; at least we may add that it will not be from any 
 lack of quantity and quality of matter at our disposal, or of exact and reliable information, of which we are 
 possessed, and of which we are availing' ourselves for the purpose of making this work what is expected of it, 
 so as to render it a standard authority and work of reference. 
 
 It has been said, with great truth. Mechanical Invention has so kept pace with the general progress 
 of science, rapid as it has been, more particularly within the last quarter of a century, that in almost every 
 department of physics, improved machines and processes have to be described, as well as fresh discoveries and 
 altered points of view upon technical and scientific questions. In recent as m earlier times, invention and 
 discovery have acted and reacted on each other to a marked extent. 
 
 It is evident, in connection with physics, that the use and employment of instruments of finer 
 measurement and analysis, have directly contributed to the discovery or finding out of physical properties and 
 laws which have again led us into investigations that have opened larger, more interesting, and more useful 
 fields of, investigation and enterprise, each occupying the human mind and the practical skill and ingenuity of 
 man, with most beneficial results, not alone to humanity in general, by the incidental contributions to science 
 and material progress, but also to the trades, industries, manufactures, and commerce of this and other 
 countries. 
 
 Take as one solitary instance, the enormous value of the spectroscope, and the wonderful influence 
 the use of that instrument has had upon a single great iadustry of this country, viz., the manufacture of iron 
 and steel, to which alone, however, be it remarked, neither its utility for practical scientific purposes, nor its 
 value as a scientific means of analysis, has been confined. 
 
 The recent iateresting discoveries of Dr. C. W. Siemens and other emiuent scientists, will be recorded 
 in our pages, and scientifically described in a practical and available manner. 
 
 The limits of a prefatory address do not permit of much that is desirable to say on the separate 
 subjects, and we shaU therefore leave it for each division of the work, where broad lines of demarcation are 
 made and intended to be adhered to in the course of the publication, for each division of the subjects 
 treated will be introduced by a few prefatory remarks applicable to them ; and also at each break, at each 
 historic advancement of each subject, it is our present purpose to give a few appropriate observations, so as to 
 form, as it were, the necessary halting places or steps in the progress, of the historical division of the subject, 
 and so on in the progress of the general work. 
 
 vui 
 
Prefatory Address. 
 
 Tims, what the Standard Encyclopedias, with more or less success, binder an alphabetical arrangement 
 and classification of matter, and what also the dictionaries of science and art, the dictionaries of Engineering 
 and other dictionaries, each in their own way do, we shall attempt — ^the present work being limited in its range 
 of subjects by the title selected for it, and by the scope to which it is confined in connection with " The 
 Progress of Civil and Mechanical Engineering and Shipbuilding," with each subject typographically described 
 in its pages, illustrated with plate illustrations, in the most elaborate and spirited manner, superadded to which 
 there wUl be a liberal and unstinted supply of woodcut and other illustrations, combined with the letterpress 
 having literal references thereto, so that no subject treated will lack linear illustrations and references to make 
 it so clear as to be easily comprehended by all, and leave nothing to be desired on their part in that 
 direction. 
 
 IX 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Note. — It is important that the reader 6f the following 
 notes should study them in the order given, as the proper 
 completion of tM whole depends greatly on the careful and 
 consderitious carrying out of the various suggestions laid 
 down. 
 
 Keels. — In boring keel bars it is important to have the 
 top row of rivet holes marked no lower down than is neces- 
 sary, to make a good and close fit of the garboard strake at 
 the top row of holes ; and on no account weaken the keel 
 bar by having the lower row of holes bored too low down ; 
 at same time care must be taken to have a distance equal 
 to the diameter of rivets between the lower edge of upper 
 row and upper edge of bottom row, i.e., a distance of two 
 diameters between the centre hnes of the top and bottom 
 rows. - In marking off the holes, attention should be paid 
 to having them properly divided, that is to say, having the 
 upper rivet exactly between the two lower rivets. 
 
 • ' Length of scarphs of keel 
 
 i ^^«-,>,»a — ~ — ~ — ~ — r~7 bars sh6uld be, at least, ten 
 /o o o Q&tie o o < times the thickness of keel- 
 
 bar. Lloyds' Eules give 
 ^^S' !• only eight times, but this 
 
 we deem too little to make a substantial connection. Before 
 commencing to drill the scarphs, see that they are drawn per- 
 fectly close, aind that the ends are brought together and make 
 a good fit. 
 
 It is not necessary to drill more than three holes in 
 scarphs for stitching, and these it is preferable to have on 
 the top part, so as not to weaken the keel-bar more than 
 is necessary. 
 
 ■ The upper side of scarph should be caulked before the 
 fraroies are laid across the keel, and the under side after the 
 keel-plates are rivetted. 
 
 .The butts of the garboard strake must be spaced, so as to 
 be well clear of the butts of keel-bar, say at least 30 in., 
 when practicable, and with care this distance can be gene- 
 rally arranged. 
 
 Let the position of all frames be marked on the keel-bar 
 with a centre punch before any of the frames are laid across ; 
 this will save a great deal of unnecessary trouble. It is 
 important that the keel-bars should be properly shored 
 
 and straightened on the top edge, and made quite fair 
 previous to laying any frames across them. Attention 
 should also be paid to fairing the keel fore and aft by a line, 
 after the frames are up in place, and before commencing to 
 fit any of the garboard strake on. 
 
 Let thef keel be kept a reasonable height from the ground, 
 so as to allow sufficient room for the workmen to get under 
 the vessel's bottom without being too much confined, other- 
 wise they cannot make good work of the rivetting and 
 caulldng. In settling this point the reader must bear in 
 mind, if the vessel has a flat floor, the blocks must be laid 
 higher, both for space and light. The keel blocks should 
 be spaced about seven feet to eight feet apart, and have a 
 double block between, say, every second and third block , 
 alternately; This arrangement will allow for shifting any 
 blocks that may be necessary, to get at the work without fear 
 of the vessel settling down. Attention should be paid to 
 having the three or four last blocks laid on fore and aft 
 logs, as the vessel will certainly sink at the after end, if 
 anywhere. , . 
 
 Fig. 2 shows height and dimensioiis for keel blocks, suit- 
 able for vessels of the ordinary class. , ' 
 
 a, Keel, h. Cap piece of 
 oak. e. Gluts or wedges. 
 d,' Eed pine, e, Bed pine. 
 /, Eed pine, g, Slabs, 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3S: 
 
 K -i.-^i'. 0'.—^ A 
 
 _» 
 
 3*^ 
 
 -eil- 
 
 
 ■) t 
 
 — - ^ — .4 .-£—.-_ 
 
 "t m'jmr 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 It is advisable to have 
 the keel rivetted as soon as 
 possible, to prevent dirt or 
 any rubbish getting down 
 between the keel and gar- 
 board strake. 
 
 Flat Plate Keels. — If for vessels building to class, the 
 breadth and thickness should be as follows : — In vessels of 
 600 tons and under, 2 ft. wide; from 500 to 1,000 tons, 
 2 ft. 6 in. wide ; 1,000 tons and upwards, 3 ft. wide. The 
 thickness of plates in all cases should not be less than one 
 and a-half times the thickness of the garboard strake. The 
 foregoing rule gives a very good scantling for such keels, 
 and I would recommend it to be adhered to in all cases. 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 It is very desirable in flat plate keels that the butts of 
 the garboard strake should be kept clear of the butts of 
 keel-plates at least two spaces of frames, on both the port 
 and starboard sides, and for this reason the keel-plates 
 should be made in such lengths as will suit this ; it is also 
 necessary that the butts of the keel-plates should be fair 
 between two frames, to facilitate the putting on of the butt 
 straps, and allow width for the proper distribution of the 
 rivets. 
 
 In all cases it is recommended to treble-rivet the butts of 
 keel-plates, making the butt straps as wide as they can be 
 worked in between the flange of the frame, angle irons, and 
 the heel piece on next frame. 
 
 Stern Posts and Stern Frames. — If for a screw steamer, 
 great care is necessary in boring any holes about the boss 
 that may be required, and this is best done previous to 
 putting the frame up in place. Carefully mark off the lead 
 of these holes so that they may be bored in the proper 
 direction, and thereby have the proper divide on the inside 
 of the boss. 
 
 Particular attention should be paid to taking out any 
 twist that may be in the stern frame, when it is finished at 
 the forge, and attention should be directed to ascertain that 
 the bosses on both inner and outer posts lead fair fore and 
 aft. 
 
 In the upper portion of stern-posts, that is, above the 
 knuckle of counter, it is only necessary to have one row of 
 rivet holes to secure the rudder trunk. Some shipbuilders 
 prefer two rows, but it is only unnecessary waste of labour 
 so doing. In the rivetting of bosses it is absolutely neces- 
 sary to have the countersink bored out to a sufiicient 
 depth, so that when the engineers have done boring and 
 fitting in tho stern tube there will bo plenty of countersink 
 left to make a secure hold for the rivets. 
 
 In putting in the boss rivets it is a good plan to cool 
 them at the jDoints, so that the heads may thereby be 
 thoroughly tightened up. 
 
 It is also advisable to remember that it will save much 
 trouble, and make better workmanship, if the plating is so 
 arranged that one strake covers the boss. The scarph of 
 your stem post should always be on the port side, and do 
 not make the length of your knee or keel portion to exceed 
 ten to eleven feet, as that length is about the greatest that 
 can conveniently bo talcon on ordinary "trucks, if tho 
 forging has to come by railway from the forge. 
 
 Stems. — The mould for bending the stem, too, should be 
 made off tho inside lino of stem, and if it is not turned 
 befor,e the scarphs of keel bars are cut and finished, it is 
 advisable to measure the total length of the keel on the 
 blocks, and contract or increase tho length of the stem bar 
 as the case may require, to make up the exact length. The 
 
 holes should not be drilled in the stem until it is -turned to 
 shape, and care must be taken to have the scarph on the 
 right side to agree with forward length of the keel-bar. , 
 In forgmg stem bars' the forward edges should be shaped 
 to a flat half round, and attention must be paid to see there 
 is no twist in the bar. 
 
 Rudder IVames.— Should it be desired to make the 
 rudder forging of scantling, in accordance with Lloyds' Rules, 
 remember that if for a spar-decked vessel, or one with full 
 poop and forecastle, the diameter of the rudder head must 
 be in accordance with the dimensions given in their rules 
 for the gross tonnage, and not the tonnage under the main 
 deck. 
 
 Attention is desirable to see that the rudder pintles are 
 all in a fair hne, and a steel washer should be fitted for the 
 pintle at heel of rudder, to work on. It is invariably the 
 best plan to make the rudder to unship, and the space for 
 unshipping at each pintle should be about one inch deeper 
 than the length of the pintle. 
 
 In a screw steamer attention should be paid to keep the 
 pintles clear of the bracket on the after stern-post, so as 
 not to interfere with the outside shaft bearing. 
 
 In rudder forgings for vessels of from 200 to 500 tons, a 
 stay should be fitted across centre of rudder, from rudder- 
 post to bow of rudder; and for vessels exceeding that 
 tonnage, two stays ; the width of stays may be from three 
 to four inches, and may either be made with the forging 
 or of cast-iron fitted in. The space between the plates of 
 the rudder should be filled in with wood or Portland 
 cement ; either will do. The thickness of the rudder plates , 
 need in no case exceed one-quarter inch, and it also makes 
 the most substantial work to have the rudder plates pro- 
 perly snap-rivcttcd instead of countersinking in a thin 
 plate. ' 
 
 Rudder Bands. — Attention should be particularly ,paid 
 to see that the centre of the pintles are correctly set off' 
 before boring them, by. striking a line up the centres, to see 
 if these are in a line, and that . the back is quite straight 
 and fair ; the foregoing applies also to the stem-post. The 
 rudder tmnk must be made of sufficient size to allow ample 
 space for the rudder stock to be got up easily — say from 
 eight to nine inches internal diameter for a four to five inch 
 rudder post; other diameters to bo in similar proportion. 
 Attention is needed in having tho rudder trunk and the 
 angle iron binding the foot of trunk to the outside plating 
 a good and perfect fit, and the bottom carefully caulked, 
 
 Rudder Stops.— Tho proper angle for a rudder to travel 
 is forty-two degrees on each side of centre line of vessel, 
 and the stoppers should be fitted to suit this. Particular 
 attention should be given to have the stoppers made 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 , strong, and properly secured to the stern-post. The rudder 
 ■working easily is a matter of no small importance, and 
 requires some amount of care and nicety in lining ofiVand 
 putting in place fair. 
 
 Angle Iron Franws. — Previous to putting any work on 
 the angle iron bars, they should each be thoroughly ex- 
 amined, to ascertain that there are no cracks or blemishes, 
 as angle irons are constantly sent from the iron works 
 without care being taken to see that they are sound. In 
 punching the frames care is required to see that the 
 holes are' properly divided, and, as an example, for double- 
 rivetted laps, with | in. rivets, the top hole should be 
 4| in. from upper edge of lap, or 6 J in. from the centre of 
 lap, and the lower hole 3|- in. from lower edge of lap, or 
 6 in.' from centre of lap, on plate mark on the mould. 
 
 a, Frame, b, Rivets, to be as 
 close to frame as head of rivet 
 will permit, c c c, Chain rivet- 
 ting at butts to have the holes 
 punched opposite each other. 
 d d, Butt straps to be fitted as 
 close as possible between laps of 
 outside strakes on the board. 
 Fig. 3 shows the proper spacing 
 ofrivets with double rivettedlaps 
 and f in. rivets. . 
 In single laps a hole should be punched 5^ in. on each 
 side of • centre of lap, the lap being 2| in. Divide the 
 spacing of the holes for rivets between one lap of plates 
 and the next, as nearly to equal eight times the diameter 
 of the rivets as you possibly can arrange. 
 
 In the frames that run up to form the sides of poop, 
 forecastle, or bridge, see that those frames with the beam 
 on are cut off low enough to allow the lug pieces for secur- 
 ing the stringer plate to shell to run from beam to beam. 
 
 a a a, Poop Deck 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 ^ 
 
 o ogo 
 
 OS ° 
 
 Fisf. 4. 
 
 Stringer Plate, b h, 
 Lug. c c, Beam Knees. 
 d d d, Frames, e e, 
 This hole to be made 
 after the plating is 
 on. A hole should be 
 punched in the head 
 of the frames that are 
 cut short for the lug 
 
 pieces to pass, about 3 in. down ; but it is advisable not to 
 put this in until after the vessel is framed and faired. 
 
 In the frames that step on the knee of stem-post or stem 
 you must not neglect to have them cut to the proper thick- 
 ness, so as to allow the plating to come on. 
 
 The heel of the frames bearing on keel should be care- 
 fully cut and finished, so as to butt close together, and the 
 
 bearing must not be greater in width than the thickness 
 of keel-bar, otherwise it will interfere with proper work on 
 the garboard strake. 
 
 The inside flanges of angle iron frames should be punched 
 so as to suit the size of the reverse frames, and care must 
 be taken to see that the holes are so pimched as to take the 
 centre of flanges of reverse frames. It is of importance to 
 see that the heel pieces are quite fair with the underside of 
 frames, and that they bear true on the keel-bar. One or 
 two holes only should be punched in the frames for the 
 beam knees prior to putting the frames in place. 
 
 Length of beam laiees are to be measured square off, and 
 the holes should be divided round the sweep, the centre of 
 lower hole to be placed about 2 in. from lower edge of luiee. 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 a, Reverse Iron, b, This hole punched to take reverse bar 
 on beam, c d, This measurement at right angles to top of 
 beam, not obliquely. 
 
 The upper hole in head of frame for the upper rivet in 
 beam knee should not be punched until after the frames of 
 vessel are all faired and sheered, in case the beam may 
 require to be lifted or lowered, in which case it spoils the 
 hole; and as this rivet passes through the angle iron on 
 beam it is necessary that the hole should be true to make 
 good workmanship. The same rule . applies to the bottom 
 hole in the beam knee, as it looks very unworkmanlike to 
 see a blind hole there. 
 
 The double frames at the bulkheads should be punched 
 for rivets about 4 in., centre to centre, and should be 
 chipped at. both edges previous to being hoisted up into 
 place, otherwise a diificulty will be found in making a tight 
 job of the caulking. 
 
 If the vessel has a sheerstrake with jump joints, atten- 
 tion is necessary to see that the holes punched in the 
 frames are clear of the lap of both the inside and outside 
 sheerstrakes. 
 
 Reverse Frames. — The frames with no beams on are to 
 have the reverse frames running up to the main deck 
 height, and these should butt in centre of floor plate, 
 having heel pieces of angle iron on the opposite side of top 
 of floor plates, of sufficient length and scantling to form 
 top flange for rivetting the centre keelson to. 
 
 Short reverse frames are to run up to the upper turn of 
 bilges, but if there is a spirketting plate on the 'tween-deck 
 stringer, then it is advisable that the short reverse frames 
 should run up to the top of said plate. 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Butts of the short reverse frames should be about four 
 feet on each side of centre line, alternately on the starboard 
 and port sides, but should any of these butts come in the 
 way of boiler, engine, or other keelsons, the distance must 
 be altered to suit these. 
 
 Holes should not be punched in the reverse frames in way 
 of floor-ends unless there is a clear space of three-quarters 
 of an inch from outside of rivet hole to lower edge of the 
 reverse frame. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 a, Keverse bar. 6, Floor, c. Frame, d, Eivet this flush, 
 ■ and let the reverse bar lie over it. 
 
 The reverse frames across the tops of floors at fore and 
 after ends of vessel, will require to be bevelled to suit the 
 rise of floors, and make a fair seat for the centra keelson. 
 These bevels will be best taken off when the vessel is ri- 
 banded and shored up fair. 
 
 Attention is necessary to see that the butts of the reverse 
 frames are quite close and fair to each other. Accuracy of 
 the workmanship adds greatly to the strength in all parts 
 of an iron vessel. 
 
 The reverse frames should fit well over the floor ends, 
 and attention is required to see that the floor ends are 
 neatly thinned down to suit this. 
 
 The double reverse frames on floor tops should be neatly 
 fitted on. A straight edge should be used, to ascertain that 
 it is fair, and attention is required to having all the scarph- 
 ing or lug pieces rivetted close to the floor plates. 
 
 (To he. contiimed in a subsequent Division.) 
 
 PADDLE STEAMERS "LIMA" AND "BOGOTA." 
 
 Ft. In. 
 Lengtli on deck ...... 257 
 
 Length between perpendiculars . . . 251 
 
 Breadth extreme 30 
 
 Depth of hold 17 
 
 Depth to spar deck 25 4 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tonnage, 0. M 1115^ 
 
 Gross Tonnage 14G1'24 
 
 Engine-room 295'Cl 
 
 Eogistor Tonnage 11 05 '03 
 
 The particular interest attached to the above vessels, il- 
 lustrated by Plates 1 and 2, and originally built and engined 
 by Messrs. Napier and Sons, of Glasgow, for the Pacific 
 Steam Navigation Company of Liverpool, and fitted with 
 the old-fashioned side lever engines, rests on the fact of 
 their being two of the first steamers sent home from the 
 West Coast of South America to Glasgow, and placed in the 
 
 hands of Messrs. Eandolph, Elder, and Company, to have 
 the old engines and boilers taken out, they having proved 
 to be such f/re-eaters that the vessels would not pay after 
 such a heavy consumption of fuel. Full details and plates 
 of the late John Elder's patent engines will be found in the 
 Marme Engineering portion of this work. A point of great 
 interest and vital importance both to the shipbuilder and 
 shipowner to carefully notice, is the great saving in space 
 occupied by the boilers and machinery when made on the 
 compound principle, as compared with the old fashioned 
 engines, which is fully explained by referring to the sec- 
 tional view (Plate 2) showing the Lima before and after al- 
 terations, the engine and boiler space being reduced thirty 
 feet in length, a space of great value added for accommoda- 
 tion and stowage in the body of the vessel. From the date 
 of the alteration of these steamers the Pacific Steam Navi- 
 gation Company never fitted into their vessels any other 
 than the most approved construction of compound engines. 
 "We will here take the opportunity of making a few 
 remarks, to show to shipowners, steampacket companies, 
 and most particularly to the shareholders of these com- 
 panies, the great folly that in many instances still exists, 
 and the amount of money that is squandered belonging to 
 the shareholders in many companies, by the most extraor- 
 . dinary fact that instead of the companies or owners employ- 
 ing properly qualified persons, they will insist upon making 
 masters of the mercantile marine their superintending ship- 
 builders, and half-pay naval officers their sole marine 
 superintendents and consulting engineers. As an instance 
 in proof of the above remarks, the engines of the Bogota, 
 after having been condemned as fire-eaters, are bought by 
 the London and North Western Railway and fitted into a 
 new steamer they were at that time having built, viz., the 
 Admiral Moorsom, for their passenger and cargo traffic 
 between DubUn and Holyhead. Far better to have taken 
 the advice of a practical shipbuilder and engineer, and paid ' 
 the price for a modern construction of engine. Below are a 
 few items of particulars of trial of the Lim,a when fitted with 
 the new compound engines and hull altered (Plate 2). 
 
 Displacement on Trial, 1,345 tons. 
 
 Draught of water, 11 ft. forward, 12 ft. aft. 
 
 Area of midship section, 302 square ft. 
 
 Indicated horse-power, 1,150. 
 
 Average speed on trial at sea, nearly 13 miles per hour. 
 
 Pressure on safety valves, 27 H). 
 
 Consumption of coal per hour, 23 to 24 owt. 
 
 We will supplement our above description of the Lima 
 and Bogota by giving our readers a plate of a vessel built 
 and engined in 18G1, by Messrs. Randolph, Elder, and Com- 
 pany, of Glasgow, and fitted with very similar machinery ; 
 in fact many parts of them were cast from the same pat- 
 terns. We illustrate this vessel as being the first steamer 
 built for the Channel traffic, which .was fitted with com- 
 pound engines. She proved highly successful, both as 
 
 i" 
 
LINES OF THE PACIFIC STEAM NAVIGATION COMPY? 
 
 ii 
 
 lL [] ii A'' a^'d"' bo s or J^ 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 Sci.U- 'he <:r vt J Jp j, f-:oi 
 
 bzL-nr:— -b= 
 
THE PACIFIC STEAM NAVIGATION COMPY? STEAM SHIPS 
 
 pla-te 1. 
 
 ii 
 
 g-J 
 
 ■JQ 
 
 Lr§i 1^'"' A^^B'" ^OG or j^ '^ 
 
 257 r,^i 
 251 ly-l 
 
 Vy'iriih, of Bturru .. 
 JyaX of Hold. 
 
 30Ful 
 j7FfM. 
 
 FIC. 3. 
 
 Sc.jU 'lie or VI. 1 tc 1. '■rol 
 
LONGITUDINAL SECTI 
 
 Fig 1 . s 
 
 
 
 
 I I I I I I II II I II M I I II 
 
 Fl& 2 
 
 [=r--i-i .4-i-l -^ I -,--fc 
 
ONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF THE PACIFIC STEAM NAVIGATION COMPY.s STEAM SHIP 
 
 F I C I . S E C T I N BEFORE A L T F_ R ^ T I O N S 
 
PLATE 2 
 
 -YT-y-r^T-J-T-T^TT^ I I I I I I I I , ._l_LJ^^-i 
 
 T7"T~^T n~' I I I I I I I I I I Tl~l 
 
 /.fo 
 
 /etj 
 
 no 
 
 — '-^- — ~— "^ 
 
 ..sT. 
 
 ^<7^(' 
 
BUILT BY 
 
 RANDOLPH, ELDER & C9. 
 
 GLASGOW. 
 
 66 
 
 DESIGNED BY Tt"} 
 
 FOR 1 
 
 LI M 1 1 
 
 DIMENSIONS 
 
 Zfiu/lh beiwefjL Perp? 
 
 Secan, 
 
 Dtpth I tram (opv/'Keel J 
 
 BurOunin Tanx ^V"^ S^/H 
 
 ft tns . 
 
 SMITH, DEL. 
 
99 
 
 Tn°? SMITH M.I.N. A. 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 I M 1 TE D 
 
 ^■Mi\ PA^'ifg? ©S 
 
 S) 
 
 PLATE 3 
 
 T.Jrwilmry. Mitnchi.itti' 
 
Pkactioal Shipbuildin&. 
 
 regards consumption of fuel and speed, showing herself to 
 be the fastest steamer in the Channel, and still holding her 
 position as one of such up to the present day. Great credit 
 is due to the Directors of the Drogheda Stecimpacket Com- 
 pany for having the enterprise and pluck to come out, as 
 the' first Homo Trading Company, to make the move in ad- 
 vance as soon as they heard of the success of the Lima and 
 Bogota, by. adopting the improvements in marine engines 
 for their new vessel the Oolleen Bawn, illustrated by 
 Plato 3. ■ , 
 
 Her lines and model mot the very higli scientific approval 
 of the late Professor Macquorn Rankine, and several other 
 vessels, both paddles and screws, have been built from the 
 same model as the Colleen Bawn, and all of which have 
 proved to be good sea boats, and have given highly satis- 
 factory results. Of course since the above date many 
 improvements have been made in marine engines, which 
 will be fully treated further on in this work. Below are 
 some particulars of the performance of the vessel on trial 
 trip:— 
 
 Area of midship section .... 253 square ft. 
 
 Displacement on trial .... 910 tons. 
 
 Indicated horse-power .... 1,276 h.p. 
 
 Speed of average runs .... 13'8 knots. 
 
 The same company have lately built two somewhat larger 
 vessels of a very similar type to the Colleen Bawn, and for 
 the information of our readers we publish a full and de- 
 tailed specification of one of these vessels, which wiU' 
 
 , answer for any similar vessel required for the general cargo, 
 coasting, and cattle trade. We are convinced that no work 
 at present published includes full and detailed working 
 specifications, and we intend to supply this want by giving 
 
 , our readers such of most classes of vessels, including sailing 
 ships, and paddle and screw steamers of various types and 
 build for special as well as general purposes. 
 
 SPECIFICATION OF THE "LOED ATHLtTMNET,", BUILT FOE 
 THE DROGHEDA STEAMPACKET COMPANY. 
 
 Dimensions. Ft, In. 
 
 Length on water line 230 
 
 Length over all (about) 238 . 
 
 Beam moulded 23 
 
 Beam on deck 32 
 
 Depth moulded 16 
 
 Depth of hold (to top of floors) . . . . 15 3 
 
 Tonnage, CM. 889 tons. 
 
 General Description.— The vessel to have a straight stem, 
 elliptic, stem, raised quarter deck, hurricane deck, and a 
 turtle back forecastle forward. All plans to be approved 
 and signed by the directors of the company before being 
 delivered to the builder. Vessel to be' built to the 18-years' 
 class of the Liverpool Underwriters, both as regards hull 
 and outfit. 
 
 Xeel — ^To be of best hammered iron, 8 in. x 2^ in., in 
 
 lengths of about 40 ft. ; scarphs 2 ft. long ; the garboard 
 strake not to extend more than 7 in. down the sides of keel. 
 
 Ste)n. — To be of best hammered iron, 8 in. x 2^ in. at 
 keel, tapering to G in. x 2^ in. at toj), and running about 
 10 ft. along keel, and scarphod thereto. ' 
 
 Stern Post. — To be of best hammered iron, 8 in. x 2| in., 
 extending for about 6 ft. along keel and scarphed thereto ; 
 lugs to be forged on post to receive rudder pintles. 
 
 Frames. — Of angle irons 3| x 3 x | in., in one piece 
 from keel to gunwale, spaced a distance of 21 in. apart, 
 centre to centre, throughout the vessel. Every alternate 
 frame is to be carried up to form sides of quarter deck 
 and forecastle under the turtle back forward ; heel pieces 
 same scantling as frames, and about 4 ft. long. 
 
 Floors. — On every frame, of plates 16 in. deep by J in. 
 thick for 115 ft. amidships, fore and aft, 16 X ^^ in., carried 
 up the bilges to' about the 2 ft. 6 in. water line. 
 
 Reverse Fra/mes. — On top of floor plates, of angle irons, 
 2 J X 2J X I in., extending on every frame, in engine 
 and boiler space, to gunwale, and underside of upper deck 
 beam knee ; fore and aft alternately to gunwale and upper 
 turn of bilges. 
 
 Centre Keelson. — To be formed of a plate 18 in. wide 
 by ^ in. thick, rivetted to the reverse frames and lugf 
 pieces on top of floors, with a vertical plate 12 in. deep 
 by ij- in. thick, and four angle irons 5 x 4 x f^ in.; top 
 plate as per midship section, 12| x ^ in.. 
 
 Bilge Keelsons. — Each to be formed of two angle irons 
 6 X 4 X 1%- in., rivetted back to back, and to reverse frames 
 and lug pieces. A bulb iron 7J x J in. is to be placed be- 
 tween the angle irons for 150 ft. amidships. 
 
 Sister Keelsons. — Same scantling as the above, but 
 without the bulb iron. To be placed as shown in Section. 
 Lug pieces for keelsons to be the same size as. reverse 
 frames, and at least 12 in. long. All keelsons are ,toTDe 
 continuous through bulkheads, and made perfectly water- 
 tight at same. 
 
 Upper Deck Beams. — To be of bulb iron, 7 X xV ^; 
 
 with two angle irons on top edge, 3 x 2 J x | in., placed 
 
 on every alternate frame as far as practicable. Beam knees 
 to be welded on, and to be 18 in. deep. 
 
 'Tween Deck Beams. — ^T6 be of bulb angle irons, 7 x 8^ x ^ 
 in., placed under upper deck beams. Knees 18 in. deep. 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 .1- 
 
 Hwrkane Deck Beams.— Oi angle irons, 4 x 3 x | in., 
 spaced and secured as shown in plans, or, if desired, they 
 may be of pitch pine, of suitable scantling. 
 
 . Beams fw Forecastle and Turtle Back— To be of angle 
 irons, 5 X 3 X I in., securely kneed to sides of frames. 
 
 Hold. Stanchions. — Of 2f in. round iron under every alter- 
 nate upper and lower deck beam, as far as practicable. 
 
 Upper Deck Stringer. — To be of plate iron, 52 in. wide by 
 I in. thick, for 115 ft. amidships, tapering forward and aft to 
 28 wide by -^-^ in. thick, securely rivetted to deck beams, 
 and secured to sheerstrake at gunwale by an angle iron 
 .5f X 4 X i\ in. Angle iron outside on top of sheerstrake, 
 3 X 2| X iV in. (see Section). Stringer to run about 7 ft. 
 under the quarter deck. 
 
 'Tween Deck Stringer. — To be of plates 24J x 1% in., 
 rivetted on top of beams, and secured to reverse frames and 
 lug pieces by an angle iron 5 x 4 x | in., and continued 
 through engine and boiler space, as shown in Section. A 
 secure connection to be made between the stringers at 
 engine-room bulkheads. 
 
 Tie Plates. — On upper deck of plates IZ x ^ in,, run- 
 ning all fore aft at each side of hatchways ; ties on 'tween 
 decks of plates. lOJ x | in. ; and on turtle back and fore- 
 castle 9 X f in. 
 
 Diagonal Ties. — On upper deck to be placed as shown 
 on plan, of plates 13 x t*t in- ; also, all necessary plates 
 under decks in wake of winches, capstans, &c. 
 
 Bvlkheada. — To be fitted with four watertight bulkheads, 
 each secured between double frames, one at each end of 
 engine-room, one at fore-peak, and one at break of quarter 
 deck, the latter carried up to height of quarter deck. 
 Plates to be | in. thick, stiffened with angle irons, 
 3 X 3 >< I in., spaced . 30 in. apart. Filling pieces to be 
 fitted in way of outside plates, and extending from frame 
 forward of bulkhead to frame aft of ditto. Each bulkhead 
 is to be fitted with a brass sluice, 3J in. diameter, and 
 worked from upper deck. 
 
 Phxting. — Garboard strake, for 140 ft. amidships, | in. 
 thick ; fore and aft, -^ in. thick ; bottom to bilges, for 140 ft. 
 amidships, i^ in. thick ; fore and aft, J in. thick ; sides, for 
 140 ft. amidships, ^ in. thick ; fore and aft, -^ in. thick. 
 Sheerstrake to be about 3 ft. wide amidships, and \\ in. 
 thick for 140 ft amidships, tapering at ends to |,and iTrii^-j 
 forecastle and quarter deck sides, -j^ in. thick. 
 
 Coal Bunkers. — Of \ in. plates ; casings on deck, -^ in. 
 thick. All plates for shell to be in 10 ft. 6 in. lengths as far 
 as practicable, except the sheerstrake, for say 105 ft. 
 amidships, which is to be in lengths of 21 ft. 
 
 Rudder. — Stock to be of hammered iron, 5 in. diameter 
 at the head, tapering to 3^ in. at the heel ; rudder pintles to 
 be forged on ; rudder plates, \ in. thick, snap rivetted, and 
 • to be filled in solid between with red pine. 
 
 Engine and Boiler Keelsons. — To be in accordance with 
 the engineer's plans, made to suit the machinery, accurately 
 fitted and securely rivetted. The keelsons for engines and 
 boilers are to be carried a sufficient length beyond each 
 bulkhead, so as to distribute strain caused by the machi- 
 nery. 
 
 Rivetting. — The laps of the outside plating are to be all 
 double rivetted; the butts of garboard, sheerstrake, and 
 upper deck stringer, for 150 ft. amidships, are to be treble 
 rivetted ; butts of sides of forecastle and quarter deck single ; 
 all other butts double. All rivetting to be chain. 
 
 Paddle and Engine Beams. — ^To be of the box form of 
 beams, of wrought iron, well and firmly constructed in the 
 best manner, to suit the machinery, and of size and strength 
 to the approval of the Engineering Inspector, and to be 
 sufficiently strong to prevent all shaking or tremulous 
 motion in the vessel. 
 
 Quality of Iron. — All plates and angle irons are to be of 
 hoiler quality, and branded as such by the manufacturer ; 
 the butt straps are to be cut off the ends of the plates, 
 which must be rolled of a sufficient length to allow for 
 same ; all rivets are to be of best boiler quality. The In- 
 spector shall have power to test any of the iron, and to 
 reject same if not of the quality specified. Plates to 'be 
 either Blochairn, Parkhead, or Staffordshire plate; angle 
 irons to be Motherwell, Losh, Wilson and Bell, or other ap- 
 proved makers.* 
 
 Wood Work and General Outfit. — Upper Deck. — To be 
 of best well seasoned crown, JDantzic, or Memel deals, 
 7 X 3j^ in. (or pitch pine, 6x3^ in.), securely bolted 
 to the deck beams with nut and screw bolts, and dowels 
 neatly let in and bedded in white lead ; the planks to 
 be free from sap, shakes, and knots ; all the decks to be 
 properly caulked and payed with marine glue ; hatchways 
 
 * Note.— All outside plating after it is fitted, punched, and countersunk, 
 is to be put in the furnace and made black hot, then to receive on both 
 sides a good coat of boiled and linseed oil mixed. 
 
Practical SHiPBuiLDiNa. 
 
 with' properly constructed gangways for 
 the -cattle to walk in and out of the 
 holds ; hatches to he placed according to 
 plans. 
 
 Lower Deck — To be of hard red pine, 
 6x3 in., free from Icnots and shakes, 
 and secured to the deck beams by nut 
 and screw bolts. 
 
 QiboHer Deck. — Of best well seasoned 
 picked yellow pine, 4|- x 3 in., secured 
 to the deck beams by wood screws, put 
 in from underneath; hurricane deck of 
 yellow pine, 2 in. thick, turtle back of 
 ditto 2 in. thick ; deck planks are to 
 be cut and stacked before the first in- 
 stalment is paid. Sizes given are for the 
 planks when dressed. 
 
 Ceiling. — In flat of bottom of American 
 elm, 2J in. thick, round the bilges 2 in. 
 thick ; sparing to be of American elm, 
 7 X 2J in. room and space. 
 
 Combings, Jtc. — Hatch combings to be of British oak, free 
 , from sap, 4 in. thick, and standing about 24 in. above deck, 
 fitted with hatchbars, hatches, locks, cleats, &c., complete. 
 
 Roughtree Stanchions. — To be of British oak, free from 
 sap, 6 X 5 J in. ; height as shown on plans, spaced 3 ft. 
 4 in. apart, and morticed into the covering board and 
 waterway, also to be further secured by galvanized iron knee 
 plates. : 
 
 Waterways. — To be of East India teak, 12 x 8 in., laid 
 ' in felt, and securely bolted; covering board on top' of teak 
 about 14' X 3J in. 
 
 RaAl. — To be American elm, 12 x 3f in., the outer edge 
 to be covered with split brass locomotive tubes, let in flush 
 and secured with brass screws. 
 
 . Topgallant Rail. — To be of East India teak, 9x3 in., 
 yellow metal on edges, stanchions for topgallant bul- 
 warksjof teak, about 4x3^ in. 
 
 ' Buhioa/rlcs. — The cleating of bulwarks to be of well- 
 seasoned yellow pine, 1|- in. thick, tongued and grooved, 
 and properly put together with white lead, to be lined in- 
 side with f in. elm; topgallant bulwarks to be bleated with 
 1 in. pine, and panelled, also the quarter deck bulwarks to 
 be panelled. 
 
 "LORD ATHLUMNEY." 
 Scale i" = 1 foot. 
 
 Wimdlass, <fec.— To have one of Walker's, Harfield's, or 
 Paul's patent windlasses, of suitable size, with all connections 
 complete, and a chain drum with chain to lead to steam 
 winch for working the windlass by steam ; the windlass is 
 to be, placed on the forecastle deck, and the hawse pipes led 
 up thereto ; a neat iron warping capstan is to be fitted on 
 forecastle, also one on quarter deck, with brass cover for 
 top, capstan bars, racks, &c., complete. . , \.. ^ ' 
 
 Anchors a/nd Chmn8.—To be in accordance with the re- 
 quirements of the Liverpool Underwriters* Rules for a 
 vessel of this cla!ss; anchors to be Trotman's, Martin's, Jack- 
 son's, or other approved description. Also to be supplied 
 with two mooring chains f in., and 40 fathoms each. '" ' 
 
 . HoAvsers, (fee.-— To he supplied with the folldwiiig: 90 
 fathoms of 9 id. best hawser, 90 fathoms of 8 'in, two 76 
 fathoms of 7 in., 80 fathoms of 5 in., 60 fathoms of, 4J in;, 
 60 fathoms of 3J in:, and 60 fathoms of 3 in. ; six coils of 
 1 in. rope, 4 hook ropes. All the above to be of best hemp 
 or tarred Manilla,, as may be desired. . - : ^ : 
 
 Steam Winches. — To have supplied, and fitted, two 
 powerful steam winches, to be worked by a donkey hbiler, 
 with all copper pipes and connections complete. AH the 
 pipes are t6 be felted, covered with canvas, and painted. ('A 
 hand-crab winch for quarter deck is to be supplied,' of ; ap- 
 proved make. ,. ' - ' .; '■. ,■•, 
 
Peactioal Shipbuilding. 
 
 Cattle Fittings. — The upper deck, 'tween decks, and holds 
 are to be fitted with stanchions, ehn shifting boards, iron 
 sockets, ring "bolts, &c., with other appliances for the proper 
 and safe stowage of cattle, as shall be pointed out by the 
 Inspector. All the fittings to be of similar construction to 
 those now in use in the company's vessels; stanchions, with 
 
 ' movable bars, at each gangway and hatch, for the purpose 
 
 " of carrying cargo stages. 
 
 Boats. — ^To have five larch built boats, in accordance with 
 the Board of Trade Regulations, supplied with oars, boat- 
 hooks, &c., complete. The cutter to have masts, sails, grat- 
 ings, &c. Lifeboats to have Clifford's or "Wood and Eogers' 
 patent boat lowering apparatus. 
 
 Paddle Boxes. — The inside, above wings, to be framed 
 with British oak 6 J in. square, stanchions outside, of British 
 oak same scantling, spaced about thirty inches apart, 
 all to be properly trussed and securely fastened. The inner 
 and outer frame is to be strengthened by a 3^ x 3 x f in. 
 angle iron ring, also a double angle iron ring of same 
 scantling, fitted in centre of paddle boxes, from paddle 
 beam to paddle beam. The cleating of paddle boxes to be of 
 two inch yellow pine, tongued and grooved (well seasoned). 
 Two extra sized beams to support the hurricane deck, either 
 of iron or wood, as may be decided, are to be thrown across 
 to stiffen the paddle boxes. 
 
 Wi/ngwales. — To be of British oak, each in two pieces, 
 securely bolted and fastened, each piece to be about 
 20 X 10 in., and the oak of first quality. If this size can-' 
 not be obtained, green heart or Malabar teak may be sub- 
 stituted. 
 
 Belting Pieces. — To be of British oak, of sufiicient length 
 to take the chafe of vessel when entering between the 
 Liverpool pier heads; to be about 17 x 11 in.' at 
 broadest part, tapering to about 12 x 8^ in. fore and 
 aft ; beams to support same to be of iron of suitable size, 
 properly kneed and secured to the vessel's side. Three 
 pieces of imoulding iron about 3 x 1 in, are to run round 
 the whole length on the outside, with a | in. plate bolted 
 on underneath ; iron stays 3 in. and 2^ in. in diameter to 
 support belting pieces and sponsons. The deck on top to 
 be of red or pitch pine 6x3 in., with openings cut as 
 required. 
 
 ' Gangways. — To be fitted opposite each hatch, through 
 bulwarks, about 9 ft. wide; also platform gangways, 
 20 in. by 3 in., from hurricane deck to quarter deck, and 
 turtle back, fitted with iron stanchions and railings complete, 
 Suitable ladders to ship and unship where required. 
 
 Timber Heads, <&c. — ^To be fitted with cast iron timber 
 heads, fairleads, moormg pipes, half rounds, transporting 
 shocks, &c.,as shall be pointed out ; size and numbers as re- 
 quired. On the quarter deck rail aft, a pair of brass fair- 
 leads are to be fitted; also a pair of mushrooms; mooring 
 bollards fitted on sponsons of cast iron. Two oak mooring 
 posts on main deck at break 15 x 15 in., extending down 
 to 'tween decks. 
 
 TanJcs. — To have two fresh-water tanks, placed right aft 
 in lower hold, each to contain about 800 gallons, tanks to 
 be strongly stayed and cemented inside, fitted with pumps, 
 filling pipes, air pipes, and all connections complete ; a small 
 pump in steward's pantry to lead to the tanks. 
 
 Pumps. — One for each compartment, with 6 in. copper 
 chambers, with lead pipes, roses, and aU working gear com- 
 plete ; also a donkey pump in engine room, with lead pipes, 
 and connections to lead into each hold; galley pump on' 
 deck to lead to fresh water tanks. 
 
 Masts. — ^Two pitch pine masts, according to drawing, 
 neatly made and fitted with galvanized iron mountings, 
 jack-stays for sails, brass spider hoop on mainmast; cargo 
 derricks of black spruce, with all fittings complete ; also iron 
 cargo gafi's. 
 
 Rigging. — ^AE standing rigging to be of best ,wire rope, 
 " Nervall's" manufacture, parcelled and served throughout, 
 and to be set up with rigging screws ; main rigging to be 
 matted ; running gear of best hemp or Manilla ; all rigging 
 chain to be " lion" proof. 
 
 Sails. — To have one jib of No. 1 canvas, one lateen fore- 
 sail of No, 2 canvas, ono main ditto of No. 4 canvas, top- 
 sail of No. 3 canvas, squaresail of No. 4 canvas ; sails to be 
 made of Moore's Isle of Man, Gourock, or Edinburgh 
 ropery ; two tarpaulins for each hatch, also skylight, wheel, 
 bell, binnacle, stoke hole, sail, boats, winch, capstan, and all 
 other covers that may be required ; two coal screens each 
 the fuU width of vessel and about seven ft, in depth; 
 twelve large coal or ash sacks, bags for flags, &c., com- 
 plete. 
 
 Awnings. — To be fitted for the quarter deck with slashed 
 and ornamental edges, and curtain for one side, euphroses, 
 ridge rope, &c., complete. 
 
 Blocks. — ^To have a full and complete set of the best 
 quality ; patent roller bushes where required ; other blocks to 
 have lignum vitas sheers, and brass turned pms. 
 
 Boats, Davits, <&o.—A. suitable pair of davits to be fitted 
 
 8 
 
Practioal Shipbuilding. 
 
 "LOED ATHLUMNEY." ' ' ' 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 for each boat, ■with tackles and falls complete ; also anchor 
 and fisli davits of suitable size. 
 
 Stanchions and Rails. — Throughout the ship, as may be 
 required ; all to be galvanized, and of suitable scantling ; 
 teak wood rail and turned teak stanchions at frdnt of quar- 
 ter deck. 
 
 Steering Gears. — To be supplied "with one of Pickup's 
 steering gears on the hurricane deck amidships, with suit- 
 . able iron rods and connections leading to tiller aft ; wheel to 
 ,be of teak, six feet diameter, strongly made and bound with 
 solid brass rings on nave and rim ; a spare iron tiller to , be 
 fitted aft; also a screw steering gear and wheel aft on 
 quarter deck'; both steering gears to be neatly covered with 
 teak coveirs, and to have suitable elm gratings. 
 
 Binnacles and Compasses. — To have two properly ad- 
 justed spirit compasses of best make, each with 13 in. 
 cards, both to have bronzed dolphin binnacles or 'other ap- 
 proved pattern ; also a telltale compass in captain's cabin. 
 
 Cementing. — The whole of the vessel's bottom inside, up 
 to centre of turn of bilges, is to be coated with White's best 
 Portland cement, put on about 1 in. thick ; gauged two of 
 cement to one of clean river sand ; the cement in centre to 
 be raised to height of the limber holes in floors. 
 
 Cooperage.-^T!o have 12 wash-deck buckets, galvanized 
 hoops ; 12 fire buckets on bridge, brass hoops ; 1 harness 
 cask,' Israss hoops; 1 sixty gallon oval water cask, and 1 
 deck tub, galvanized hoops. All cooperage to be of teak or 
 oak; and varnished, with ship's name painted on ; bucket 
 racks, &c., to be fitted complete. 
 
 - Aecormmdation. — First-class cabin under quarter deck, 
 t'o be fitted, according to plan, with saloon, state rooms, 
 ladies' cabin, 2 water closets, steward's pantry, &c.; the. 
 
 number of berths and sofas is to be 48, sofas made to turn 
 up ; all doors in cabin and pilasters to be of oak, polished ; 
 other bulk-heading to be of pine, painted and decorated as 
 desired; the sides of saloon to be ornamented with orna- 
 mental glass panels, with painted views to approval; the. 
 cabins and saloon are to have the floor covered with oil- 
 cloth, and Brussels carpet runners, handsome sideboard and 
 mirror, velvet cushions stuffed with best curled horse hair, 
 mattresses, linen, blankets, &c., in sufiicient quantity td 
 allow a change for each berth, also towels^ table covers, and 
 all the ' usual steward's fittings ; saloon table and settees to 
 be of oak, and made telescopic ; pantry to have a dresser, 
 with large brass basin, leaded fioor, and all necessary 
 shelves and fittings ; complete set of crockery with ship's 
 name ; also a full' and sufficient supply of glass and cut- 
 lery — in fact to be complete, with the exception of silver 
 plate. 
 
 Captain's Houses. — A house with stove, sofa, wash basin, 
 and table, is to be fitted on hurricane deck amidships, 
 strongly made of red pine, and properly painted and 
 grained; clock for this house, with dials to show inside 
 and outside ; house on quarter deck enclosed in the saloon 
 companion, with sofa, stove, bed, drawers, wash stand, and 
 all fittings complete ; a fire proof safe in captain's house, of 
 suitable size, with a Chubb's patent lock ; also a look-out 
 house on bridge. 
 
 Officers' Rooms, &c. — ^Two rooms to be built on the 
 sponsons for the accommodation of mate and carpenter, 
 strongly put together, and fitted complete with berths, 
 drawers, wash basins, lockers, &c., gratings for floors, 'small 
 iron stoves, &c. These houses are to be made of sufficient 
 size to contain' a store-room on each side forward, and a 
 water-closet on one side ; common funnel on other side at 
 aft end. 
 
 Engimeers' Berths. — To be fitted under hurricane deck 
 
Pkactioal Shipbuilding. 
 
 over the engines, with beds, settees, drawers, lockers, &c., 
 complete, or fitted below in the engine room if desired. 
 
 Crew. — To be accommodated in the forecastle under the 
 turtle back, with an extra space below in fore-peak if re- 
 quired. 
 
 Dealer's Room. — To be built in the fore part, of the fore- 
 told, fitted with berths, settees, tables, &c., complete. 
 
 Stohers. — ^To be accommodated forward, or in a room ad- 
 joining the engineers, as may be decided upon. 
 
 Sidelights or Scuttles. — In number as shown in plan ; aU 
 to have brass rims and galvanized iron frames, and dead 
 lights where required ; those in after cabin to have glasses 
 10 in. diameter, all others 8 in. glasses. 
 
 Companions and Slcylights. — To have a strong, hand- 
 some teak cupola skylight, with brass guards on quarter 
 deck, of size according to plans; all other skyhghts and 
 companions are to be strongly made of red pine, glazed with 
 good glass and properly protected. 
 
 Horse Stalls. — To have eight properly constructed horse 
 stalls, fitted under the turtle back, and so made as to easily 
 ship and unship. 
 
 Scuppers. — To be fitted with four 6 in. strong lead 
 scuppers oij each side of upper deck, protected with sub- 
 stantial brass bars across, also two smaller scuppers on each 
 side of quarter deck ; lips to be fitted to scuppers on vessel's 
 sides to throw the water off, also all necessary scupper 
 ports in bulwarks as may be pointed out. 
 
 Side Ladders. — One for quarter deck, of East India 
 teak, with elm gratings, and all necessary stanchions, 
 tackles, rope guards, &c., complete ; iron work to be gal- 
 vanized if desired ; a rope side ladder to be supplied for 
 forward. 
 
 Oalley. — To be of plate iron, placed as may be arranged, 
 and fitted with a 5 ft. cooking apparatus, with all the 
 necessary utensils and gear complete, to cook for the pas- 
 sengers and crew ; the floor of galley to be laid with en- 
 caustic tiles. 
 
 Flags. — ^To have a complete set of the Commercial Code, 
 with books and box complete ; also two Ensigns, Burgee, 
 Jack, Blue Peter, and Company's Flag. 
 
 Signal Lamps. — Masthead and side lights to be of brass, 
 and of largest size, and of make to suit the requirements of 
 
 the Board of Trade Surveyors; also all lamps for saloon, 
 state rooms, engine room, stokeholes, side houses, galley, 
 forecastle, holds, gangways, and all others that may be re- 
 quired throughout the vessel. 
 
 Bells.— To have one 16 in. metal bell and belfry on 
 hurricane deck, with vessel's name engraved thereon ; also 
 one 7 in. binnacle bell, fitted on after end of skylight on 
 quarter deck. 
 
 Hawse Pipes. — To be made to lead up to the top of 
 turtle back, and to save weight ; these are to be made of 
 malleable cast iron. 
 
 Deck Seats. — For quarter deck, bridge, and other parts of 
 vessel as may be desired. 
 
 Ventilators.— To be fitted for each hold and 'tween decks, 
 24 in. diameter, with movable hoods, and to stand about 
 6 ft. above the deck; the ventilator for after hold above 
 quarter deck to be of brass, about 12 in. diameter ; the 
 ventilators to the stoke holes to be fitted with winches to 
 bring up the ash buckets. 
 
 Stained Glass.— The saloon skylight on quarter deck, and 
 the windows in the companion to be glazed with ornamental 
 stained glass, of pattern and design that may be approved. 
 
 Lead on Stairs. — All stairs are to be covered with six 
 pound lead, and to have lead tread plates of 10 pound lead ; 
 also brass treads about y\ in. thick, cut diamond pattern 
 to cover the bottle of step. All cabin and deck house doors 
 to have substantial brass treads cut to pattern as above. 
 
 GJiain Lockers. — To be fitted 
 in fore-hold of sufficient size 
 to properly stow the cables;;" 
 also to have two iron chain 
 boxes with wheels and handles 
 on deck ; cables to be secured 
 to keelsons with an Admiralty 
 slip. 
 
 Si-ii' roit Chain Cable. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 Goal Shoots. — On upper 
 deck, and fitted with grating 
 
 tops, also iron covers, with strong glass in, to stand flush 
 with the deck, and to fit into a groove on the fixed flange, 
 so as to be always made watertight by means of a little 
 tallow. 
 
 Water Closets. — In number as shown in the plains, and of 
 the best description; double valve construction will be 
 preferred. Closets are to be supplied with water from 
 
 10 
 
Peactioal Shipbuilding. 
 
 cisterns lined with six pound lead, with filling pipes from 
 deck. Urinals as required. 
 
 : : Rubbing Pieces. — On the starboard side forward, one un- 
 I 'der the main rail, commencing at bow and carried as far 
 round as shall be pointed out ; also another rubbing piece 
 where the above finishes, placed below the gunwale mould- 
 ing, and running as far aft as the forward sponson. Kubbing 
 . piece to be fitted roimd stern under the taffrail, and extend- 
 ing for about 14 ft. round quarter, and tapering at the ends. 
 All rubbing pieces to be of American elm, 8x7 in., well 
 and securely bolted, and faced on the front with -f in. iron 
 plates. 
 
 Brealcwater. — ^Afb of paddle boxes on each side in the 
 wake of lifeboats, bulwarks to be carried up to height of 
 hurricane deck rounded in, and extending inboard for 
 ^aboiit 8 ft., supported with light angle irons, cleated with 
 2 in. yellow pine, tongued and grooved. 
 
 Carved Work. — The bow, stern, quarters, and paddle 
 boxes to have ornamental work as per approved design, and 
 to be handsomely finished in gold and colours as desired ; 
 carved teak wood arms to cabin skylight; also trusses in 
 cabins. 
 
 -/■'Signal Oun. — To have one 4-pounder neat iron gun, on 
 iteak wood carriage, with galvanized iron mountings, ram- 
 mer, mop, and sponges complete. 
 
 ' Store Rooms. — To have a store room fitted up complete 
 where most convenient ; also a paint and sail room. 
 
 Galvanizing. — Any ironwork throughout the vessel that 
 the owners may require to be galvanized is to be done with- 
 out extra charge. 
 
 Telegraph. — ^An engine room telegraph of most approved 
 construction is to be fitted on the hurricane deck, with an 
 . illuminated dial, and all fittings complete. 
 
 ,: 'Sundries. — To be supplied with 4 lifebuoys, 1 water filter, 
 ■ 2 dozen belaying pins, 6 scrubbing brushes, 6 paint scrub- 
 bers, 4 varnish brushes, 6 hair brooms, 6 cork fenders, 5 
 sets of boat grips, 1 hand lead and line, 1 deep sea lead and 
 line, 1 log reel and line, 12 mops, 1 serving mallet, 1 pitch 
 pot and ladle, 6 swabs, 6 brass padlocks, 1 grindstone and 
 trough, 6 scrapers, 1 copper powder magazine, 6 wood fen- 
 ders complete, 12 holystones, 3 dozen brooms, 6 squeegees, 
 1 teak meat safe, 1 set of caulking irons, 2 sets of shoe 
 -brushes, 4 clothes brushes, 2 inkstands, 2 blotting cases, 
 swinging trays over saloon table as may be desired, fiddles 
 for table, brass hat and coat hooks in all rooms, wash 
 
 basins for cabins, to discharge into cabins or overboard ; 1 
 coal box, 12 brass spittoons, door mats, set of measures for 
 pantry, 2 sets of bale slings, 2 puncheon slings, 2 cargo 
 slings, gins and chains complete, 6 crow bars, flash lamp, 2 
 cat blocks and falls, 2 snatch blocks, branding iron with 
 ship's name, 2 large windsails for holds. All the above to 
 be of best description. 
 
 Painting. — The whole of the ironwork to receive two 
 coats of red lead inside and outside ; the bottom outside to 
 waterline, to be finished with M'Inne's patent composition ; 
 above waterline two coats of black paint. All wood work 
 to receive four coats of good oil paint, properly rubbed 
 down after each coat ; ceiling of cabins to be finished in 
 white with gold or coloured mouldings; all the ofiicers' 
 rooms and cabins to be grained oak or maple, and var- 
 nished, or to be finished in plain colours as may be desired. 
 All hard wood fittings about decks to receive two coats of 
 the best copal varnish; boats to be painted 4 coats black, 
 with gold mouldings; masts and spars to be properly 
 scraped and varnished when finished and in place ; engine 
 room to be neatly grained oak, ceiling white ; forecastle all 
 plain colour ; dealer's cabin to be grained oak and varnished. 
 The quality of the lead used for paint to be of the very 
 best. 
 
 Board of Trade Certificate. — To be furnished to the 
 owners, both as regards engines, boilers, hull, and outfit of 
 the vessel. 
 
 CaulJdng. — Tlie decks are to be carefully caulked with 
 three threads of the best hand picked oakum, all to be 
 driven evenly home and payed with marine glue; the 
 caulking of the iron hull and the bulkheads is to be care- 
 fully done ; all edges of plates are to be chipped fair; butts 
 of outside plating to be all properly plfined before being 
 fitted together, and very neatly caulked. 
 
 Finally. — ^Every care having been taken to make, the 
 foregoing specification as clear and complete as possible, it 
 is to be expressly understood that the vessel is to be built 
 complete in every respect, and to the entire satisfaction of 
 the Drogheda Steampacket Company and their appointed . 
 Inspectors, without any extra charges whatsoever beyond the 
 contract price, excepting the following items, viz. : — Silver 
 plate and ship's stores. It is also to be noted that any ad- 
 ditions to this specification that maybe required. by the 
 Liverpool Underwriters' Surveyors for the 18 years' class - 
 are to be done solely at the builder's expense. 
 
 THOMAS SMITH, ," '' 
 :..,;.; Naval Architect. - 
 
 '1 
 
 11 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 The following vessel built in 1875 is a very suitable class 
 for general, coal, and heavy cargo purposes, between the 
 tidal harbours on the coast, and where difficulty is met with 
 in obtaining dock accommodation. This steamer will carry 
 420 tons dead weight of cargo on 11 ft. 6 in. draught of 
 water, fitted with compound engines of 70 horse-power, 
 nominal boiler working at 70 ib. pressure. 
 
 SPECIFICATION OF THE IRON SCREW STEAMER " TORCA,'' BUILT 
 BY MESSRS. THOMAS GRENDON AND CO., . DROGHEDA. 
 Dimensions. Ft lu.' 
 
 Length over all 149 ■ 
 
 Length on water line 147 
 
 Breadth movaded 22 3 
 
 Depth moulded 12 9 
 
 Tonnage, 0. M. . . . . . . SSUJtons. 
 
 General Description. — The vessel to have a straight 
 stem, an elliptic stern, with upright counter, full poop, and 
 forecastle, for the accommodation of the crew, engineers, 
 and master, as per plans. Water ballast tank is to be fitted 
 forward ; three pole masts, engines, and boiler to be placed 
 as far aft as possible, so as to give all available space for 
 cargo; hatches to be large, for stowage of machinery or other 
 heavy goods. Class 20 years in red, in the Liverpool 
 Underwriters' Eegistry. 
 
 Keel. — To be of bar iron, 6x2 in., in lengths of about 
 40 ft., connected by scarphs 20 in. long. 
 
 Stem. — Of same scantling as keel, tapering to 5 J x 1 J in. 
 at the head. 
 
 Stern Post. — To be of best hammered iron, and of 
 sufficient length to foi-m about 5 ft. of the keel, forward of 
 screw port ; forward post to be 6 x 3^ in. ; after post to 
 be 6 X 2^ in. 
 
 Frames. — To be of angle irons 3 X 2^ x | in., in one 
 length from keel to gunwale, and to be spaced a distanpe of 
 24 in. apart, centres to centres, throughout the vessel; 
 heel pieces to be 4 ft. long ; alternate frames to be car- 
 ried up to form poop, and every frame carried up to form 
 sides of forecastle. 
 
 Floors. — To be of plates 14 in. deep by ^ in. thick for 
 100 ft. amidships, forward and aft to be ^^ "i- thick; all floors 
 to be of sufficient depth, so as to measure at least 18 in. 
 wide across the top ; all floors to be curved up the bilges, 
 to double the depth of midship measure at keel. ) 
 
 Reverse Frames. — On top of floor plates, to be of angle 
 irons, 2J x 2 x i in., extending on every frame in en- 
 gine and boiler space, to gunwale and underside of upper 
 
 deck beam knee; forward and aft to run alternately to gun- 
 wale and upper turn of bilges. 
 
 Centre Keelson.— On top of floors amidships, running all 
 fore and aft, to be formed of a plate 15 x yV in., securely 
 rivetted on top of floors ; to have two angle irons on top, 
 4 X 3J X tV in-, rivetted back to back, with a 9 x ^in. 
 bulb iron fitted between. — {See Section.) 
 
 Sister Keelsons.— To be formed of two angle irons, 
 4 X 3^ X -| in, with a 6 x | in. bulb iron fitted between. 
 
 Bilge Keelsom.— To be formed of two angle irons 
 3 J x 3 X f in. ; all keelsons to be securely rivetted to re- 
 verse frames and lug pieces, and to be continuous through 
 bulkheads, and made properly watertight at same. 
 
 Bulkheads. — To have three watertight bulkheads placed 
 as per plans, and secured between double 'angle iron frames ; 
 plates to be i in. thick, and stiffened with 2 x 2 x i in. 
 angle irons spaced 30 in. apart. 
 
 Upper Deck Beams. — To be placed on every alternate 
 frame, as far as practicable, of bulb angle iron, 6 x 3|- x fin., 
 with the knees welded on 16 in. deep. 
 
 Hold Beams. — To be placed on every second and fourth 
 frame alternately, of angle irons 4^ x 3 x | in., with ;' 
 welded knees 14 in. deep. ' 
 
 Foop and Forecastle Beams. — To bo same scantling as 
 above. 
 
 Upper Beck Stringer. — To be of plates 36 X ^^ ^^- for 
 90 ft. amidships, tapering forward and aft to 24 x f in., 
 and securely rivetted to beams, and connected to sheer- 
 strake by an angle iron 4 x 3J x tV ^^■ 
 
 Stringer on Hold Beams. — To be of plates, 19 x | in., 
 on top of beams, secured to reverse frames and lug pieces 
 by an angle iron, 3J x 3 x § m., and to be continued 
 through engine and boiler space by two angle irons, 
 3 J- X 3 X I in,, rivetted back to back, with a 6 x f in. 
 bulb iron between. 
 
 Forecastle Stringer. — To be of plates, 10 x § in., with 
 an angle iron on top, 3 x 2J x f in. 
 
 Mai/ti or Upper Deck. — To be of plate iron J in. thick, 
 and chequered: plates for deck to be 2 ft. wide; butts 
 athwartships to be double rivetted, fore and aft bv^tts to be 
 single rivetted ; deck to be properly strengthened with angle 
 irons, in wake of steam winches, masts, &c., &c. 
 
 12 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Engine and Boiler Seat. — To be made in accordance with 
 engineer's plans, and of strength to approval of the Sur- 
 veyor. 
 
 Hold Stanchions. — Of 2| in. round iron, and to be 
 placed under every deck beam for one-third length of 
 vessel, as far as practicable, forward and aft as required. 
 
 Tunnel for Screw Shaft. — The engines being placed right 
 aft, the shaft may be protected by a circular tube of y^ in. 
 plates, arrangement being made to give access to all bear- 
 ings. 
 
 Ballast Tank — Forward, dimensions as per plans, to be 
 
 made of ^ in. plates, properly stiffened with angle irons, 
 
 and knee plates as necessary ; tank must be tested to see 
 
 that it is thoroughly watertight; cocks to be fitted for 
 
 ■ filling and discharging, also an air pipe and manhole door. 
 
 Rudder. — Stock to bo of liammorod iron, 4 in. diameter 
 at the head, tapering to 2^ in. at the heel, filled in soHd 
 with wood or cement, and plated with xV in. plates, snap 
 rivetted. 
 
 "TORCA." 
 Scale, i" = 1 foot. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Plating. — Garboard strake for 90 ft. amidships ^ in., fore 
 and aft ^ in. ; bottom ^V and -^ in. ; bilges ^ in., tapering to 
 ■^ in. ; next strake ^V in., tapering to ^^ in. ; next ^ in.. 
 
 tapering to i^V in. ; topsides tV in., tapering to -^ in. ; sheer- 
 strake |f in., 'tapering to ^ in.; butts of sheerstraketo be 
 treble rivetted, all other butts to be double rivetted ; bul- 
 warks to be -^ in. thick, poop and forecastle sides J in. thick. 
 
 Coal Bunkers. — As per plans, of ^ in. plates, stiffened 
 with 2 X 2 X :i in. angle irons, spaced 30 in. apart. 
 
 Rivettvng. — All the laps of plating to be double rivetted 
 up to the upper turn of bilges, also the sheerstrake; re- 
 mainder single, i' ' ■ : , 
 
 Hatch Combings. — To be of iron, ^ in. thick, with, chaf- 
 ing pieces on top edge ; the combings are to stand about 18 
 in. above the deck. 
 
 ■ Boiler Casing, d-e. — To be, as per plans, of ^ in. plates, 
 stiffened with 2 X 2 x I'n- in. angle irons ; iron doors from 
 dock to enter the engine room, stokehole, cabins, &c. 
 
 Wood Work and General Outfit. — Poop and Forecastle 
 Decks. — ^To be of yellow pine, G x 2^ in., secured to beams 
 with deck screws ; waterway pieces to be of red or pitch 
 pine, about 10 x 3 in. 
 
 Boughtree Rail. — To be of elm, 9 x 2f in., covered on 
 outside and inside edges with iron. 
 
 Gomhings. — For companions and skylights, all to be of 
 red or pitch pine. 
 
 Ceiling. — The hold to be close ceiled to the upper turn of 
 bilges with elm ' or oak, 2 in. thick, above room and space ; 
 flat of bottom to be laid in hatches, so as every alternate 
 plank will Uft out. 
 
 Windlass. — To have a suitable iron windlass — Harfield's 
 or Walker's make — with patent gear and warping ends, 
 also a messenger chain to lead to forward steam winch. 
 
 Steam Winches. — Two suitable steam winches to be fitted 
 for main hatchway, with reversing gear for discharging 
 coals ; copper pipes above deck, cased over, also all connec- 
 tions and gear complete ; a small crab winch to be fitted on 
 mizen-mast. 
 
 Pv/mps. — One for each compartment, with copper cham- 
 bers 4 in. diameter; lead pipes and all gear complete. 
 
 Scuppers. — ^As shall be pointed out ; also scupper ports 
 in bulwarks. 
 
 Water Tank — One water tank placed on deck to hold 
 
 13 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 about 300 gallons of water, with lid for filling, and cock to 
 draw off. 
 
 Ladders, — One rope side, two for holds, one each for fore- 
 castle and poop. 
 
 Boats. — To have two strongly built larch boats, with suit- 
 able iron davits, lowering gear and fittings complete ; one 
 life boat, 22 ft. x 6 ft. x 2 ft. 9 in., and one quarter boat, 
 20 ft, X 5 ft. 6 in. x 2 ft. 3 in. ; each boat to be fitted with 
 . oars, rudder, boat hooks, covers, &c., complete. 
 
 Boats' Davits. — To be of iron, 3^ in. diameter, with blocks, 
 tackles, and falls complete. 
 
 Anchor and Fish Davits. — Of suitable dimensions, placed 
 as required, and fitted with all gear complete, 
 
 Masts. — To have three pole masts, of pitch or red pine ; 
 gaffs, yards, &c., of spruce. 
 
 Rigging. — All standing rigging to be of wire rope; run- 
 ning rigging of best hemp or Manilla; all needful blocks, 
 &c., to be supplied. 
 
 Sails. — As per plans, of ext^a long flax canvas, with 
 covers for all sails; also skylight, hatch, binnacle, wheel, 
 and other necessary covers ; two tarpaulins to be supplied for 
 each hatchway. 
 
 ATichors and Cables. — To be of size suitable to the classi- 
 fication of the vessel ; also to have hawsers to meet the re- 
 quirements of the class ; working anchor to be Trotman's 
 patent, and others of approved make., 
 
 Hawse Pipes. — Timber heads, mooring pipes, bitts, and 
 other cast iron work as may be required, all of strong make. 
 
 Galley. — To be placed under the forecastle, and fitted Avith 
 a suitable cooking range and all necessary utensils for crew. 
 
 Bridge. — To be built amidships, with a lamp room on 
 one side, and a store room on the other ; wheel house to be 
 fitted on top of bridge. 
 
 Sidelights or Scuttles. — As per plans, for cabin and fore- 
 castle, brass rims, with galvanized iron frames, glasses 6 
 in. diameter. 
 
 Skylights and Companions. — All to be of red pine ; de- 
 sign and dimensions as per approval. 
 
 Accommodation. — Crew and firemen in the forecastle; 
 
 poop to contain a small saloon, with state rooms for master 
 and mate, also a pantry; engineers to have a room on deck 
 over the engine room, and still to be under cover of the ex- 
 tended poop ; all joiner's work about fittings to be perfectly 
 plain, but substantial and well put together. 
 
 Lamps.— To be supplied with brass masthead, side, and 
 anchor lamps, as may be required, to pass the Board of 
 Trade Surveyors ; also all the necessary lamps for cabins, 
 forecastle, engine room, holds, gangways, &c. 
 
 Binnacles and Compasses.— 1o have . two binnacles of 
 Dolphin pattern, compasses with 8-in, cards, both properly 
 adjusted. 
 
 Flags. — Ensign, Burgee, Jack, Blue Peter, and set of 
 Commercial Code, with box and book complete. 
 
 Bell. — To have one 9 in. metal bell, and belfry; ship's 
 name and date of build engraved on the bell. 
 
 Cooperage. — To have 6 buckets, 1 water cask, 1 harness 
 cask, &c., with ship's name painted on ; all cooperage to 
 have galvanized hoops. 
 
 Steering Gear. — One to work on bridge amidships, with 
 rods and chains to lead to tiller aft; wheel to be of teak, about 
 5 ft. diameter, and brass bound ; steering gear aft on top 
 of poop, with a similar made wheel 4 ft. 6 in, diameter; also 
 a spare iron hand tiller. 
 
 Cementiiig. — The inside of bottom to be coated with best 
 Portland Cement, properly gauged, with clean river sand, 
 put on about 1 in, thiclc, or with Val do Travors Asphalte, 
 put on about | in, thick; cementing to bo carried up to 
 centre of bilges. 
 
 Stanchions and Railings. — Round forecastle, poop, and 
 bridge, amidships, all to be 3 ft, high, with two rods, and 
 a 6 in. wood washboard. 
 
 Cargo Gear. — To be supplied with derricks, gins, chains, 
 shngs, wire rope span, and all necessary gear for properly 
 working the cargo in and out. 
 
 Gangways. — In bulwarks opposite the hatches, with 
 substantial fastenings; size and number of gangways as 
 desired, 
 
 Pa'mting. — All the ironwork to receive 3 coats of good 
 oil paint, both inside and out ; all wood work 4 coats of 
 ditto; deck work and forecastle to be finished in plain 
 colours ; cabins and engineers' accommodation to be grained 
 
 14 
 
DESIGNED BY 
 
 TH2? SMITH. MI N.A 
 
 DUBLIN & LONDON . 
 
 PLATE 4 
 
 T 
 
 -<- 
 
 -H 
 
 
 DIMENSIONS 
 
 Itt-nqth lifluYfii PtTp * 
 lii:arn 
 
 F< , /n 
 
 (I. i {':\ 
 
 . >jb. 
 
 OWNED BY 
 
 YNCHAUSTI ET C'-^ , MANILA . 
 BUILT BY 
 
 mWlL^EY W^BM AND ©^ 
 
 D UB LI N . 
 
 )'} 
 
 O.SMITH. DEL. 
 
 , I jF^,'~:^v-^.i -.- 
 
 T.Jewiiiiury, Mandt^'stir , 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 oak and varnished ; bottom to water line to be coated with 
 M'tnne's composition ; topsides to be finished black. 
 
 . Pl/iMnher Work — Brass sluices to be fitted to each bulk- 
 head, with gear to work from upper deck ; also soundings 
 rods for hold ; two water closets, with tanks, &c., complete. 
 
 Stoves. — To have neat iron stoves for cabin, forecastle, 
 and engineers' rooms, with funnels, &c., complete, the cabin 
 funnel, to be brass cased. 
 
 Ventilators. — To have two iron ventilators, of approved 
 size, with large, hoods to turn round, fitted for the stoke 
 hole ; also the necessary regulation ventilators for forecastle 
 and cabins. 
 
 ' Ruhhing Piece. — As per plans — (see Section) — about 90 
 ft. long amidships, of American elm, strongly bolted, and 
 further secured with two angle irons to vessel's side, and 
 faced on outer edge with f in. iron plates. , 
 
 Sund/ries. — 2 life buoys, 2 cork fenders, log line and reel, 
 lead line and reel, 1 hand lead and line, 6 marline -spikes, 2 
 mops, 3 crow bars, 4 strong wood fenders, with lines com- 
 plete ; 6 besoms, 6 scrapers, set of caulking irons, 12 hand- 
 spikes, 1 fog horn, &c. 
 
 ' Materials. — ^AU materials to be of good quality, and to 
 the approval of the Surveyor ; plates for sheU to be best 
 Staffordshire iron ; angle iron frames and beams to be either 
 Staffordshire or North of England make. 
 
 Workmanship. — To be of the best description in all the 
 various departments, and it is particularly understood that 
 no liners or filling pieces shall be used in the inside strakes 
 of plating ; all the landings to be fair and true. The Sur- 
 veyor is to have free access to the contractor's works, and 
 any work required to be done by the Liverpool Under- 
 writers' Surveyors to complete the vessel for their classifica- 
 tion is to be done solely at the contractor's expense. 
 
 SALOON PADDLE STEAMER " MANILA." 
 
 Ft. In. 
 Length between the Perpendiculars . .. 115 
 
 Beam moulded 20 
 
 Depth moulded 6 6 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Tonnage, 0. M 219 
 
 Gross Register 107tW 
 
 Nett Register 67t»A 
 
 Displacement at 3 ft. 6 in. draught . . . 130 
 Engines, Oscillators, 2 cylinders each . . 27 in. diameter 
 Length of stroke . . '. . . . 30 in. 
 Speed on trial, nearly 12 statute miles per hour. 
 
 The above vessel being of a somewhat peculiar build, we 
 
 publish for our readers a plate and full specification, with 
 the details of her construction. She was built to the order 
 of Messrs. Ynchausti et Cie., of Manila, by Messrs. Bewley, 
 Webb, and Co., Shipbuilders and Engineers, of North Wall, 
 Dublin, who guaranteed the vessel as to her speed and 
 draught of water, in both of which importtint matters they 
 successfully carried out what they had undertaken ; and it 
 would be well if all shipbuilders were competent to guaran- 
 tee as much. The " Manila" (Plate 4) was built for passen- 
 ger and light cargo traffic in the Bay of Manila, and con- 
 structed for shallow draught, to enable her to run up the 
 rivers and lagoons. She was finished complete by the 
 builders, and made a successful trial trip in Dublin Bay, after- 
 wards returning to the works, where she was dismantled of 
 her sponsons, paddle boxes, wheels, deck-houses, &c., all of 
 which, after being carefully marked, were packed and stowed 
 in her holds. The iron insides to her paddle boxes were 
 left standing, and a temporary wooden bulwark was erected 
 round her. She was then rigged as a saiHng schooner, with 
 pole masts, and a temporary bowsprit — (see engraving) — 
 the steam dome on top of boiler answering to secure the 
 mainstay. A temporary cabin was fitted up in the forward 
 part of the main hold for accommodation of the crew ; the 
 stoke hole was converted into a temporary galley for the 
 passage out. No small interest is attached to this vessel 
 from the fact of her dimensions and peculiar build, making 
 a good passage out to Manila under canvas alone. She 
 started on her voyage fitted with four lee boards, two on 
 each side, but lost them in a gale in the Irish Sea, and pro- 
 ceeded without them. Below are a few extracts from the 
 log of her voyage out : — 
 
 Dublin to Cape of Good Hope 
 Cape of Good Hope to Anger Point 
 Anger Point to Manila 
 
 70 days 
 45 „ 
 28 „ 
 
 Total 143 days 
 
 Her crew consisted as follows : captain, mate, four seamen, 
 cook, and boy — eight hands all told. Great pluck and skill 
 in seamanship was shown by her commander, Capt. Thomas 
 John Kochfort, of Dublin, who undertook to dehver the vessel 
 out in Manila, and we believe she is the smallest vessel, 
 saying nothing about her pecuhar build, that ever made 
 the passage out round the Cape of Good Hope and beat up 
 the China Seas, without any keel, or lee boards, and with a 
 dead, flat bottom, and an extreme draught of water of only 
 3 ft. 6 in. Captain Kochfort reports she crossed the tail 
 end of a typhoon in the China Seas, in which four large 
 merchant sailing vessels were lost. 
 
 SPECIFICATION OF THE "MANILA." 
 
 Keel. — To be formed of plates 16 x | in., and ^.con- 
 nected by double rivetted butt straps. 
 
 Stem, — To be of bar iron 4 x 1 in. 
 
 15 
 
•Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Hawsers. — To be supplied with two 5| in., and one 
 3 J in. hawser, each 60 fathoms in length ; also the neces- 
 sary hawsers and deck gear for passage out. 
 
 Accommodation. — The saloon aft to have a cane seat 
 all round, with cane back, as per dra-vvings ; a handsome 
 poHshed, hard wood sideboard, 5 ft. x 1 ft. 10 in., with 
 a mirror in gilt frame, also a mahogany table of sufficient 
 size to dine 12 persons, two settees and swinging trays; 
 captain and engineer to be berthed in a house fitted on 
 sponsons, as arranged in plans. 
 
 Lamps. — To be supplied with masthead, side, cabin, 
 forecastle, galley, hold, and other lamps, as may be neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Binnacle and Compass. — To have one binnacle and com- 
 pass, with 7 in. card for bridge steering gear amidships; 
 also the necessary compasses and nautical instruments for 
 the passage out. 
 
 Flags.— One Spanish Ensign, and Burgee. 
 
 Bell. — To have one 10 inch bell, and metal belfry, with 
 ship's name and date engraved thereon. 
 
 Cooperage. — To be supplied with four fire buckets, with 
 ship's name painted on ; also harness casks, and breakers, 
 as necessary for the passage out. 
 
 Steering Gear. — To be fitted on bridge amidships, with 
 all rods and connections complete; wheel to be of East 
 India teak, or mahogany ; a light built house to be erected 
 over the steersman, sides and back closed in with jalousies, 
 fixed Venetian blind pattern, front to bo left open ; a spare 
 tiller to be fitted on tlic I'udiler head aft; a suitable steer- 
 ing gear to be fitted aft on main deck for the passage out. 
 
 Deck Houses. — In the construction of these, every at- 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 tention is to be paid to ventilation, the upper portions of 
 sides of saloon to be window spaces all round, with jalousie, 
 falling shutters, and no glass windows. 
 
 Fainting.— Ml iron work, inside and outside, to receive 
 three coats of good oil paint, and the wood work four coats ; 
 a sufficient quantity to be sent out to give all the work 
 another coat after ro-crcction. 
 
 Stanchions and Railings.— To be fitted all round the 
 vessel on' outside of sponsons, 3 ft. high, with two rods; 
 the stanchions to be spaced about 5 ft. apart, and the 
 lower portion below middle rail to be covered with gal- 
 vanized iron wire, or rope netting. 
 
 Hold Stanchions.— One to be placed under every alter- 
 nate beam, as far as practicable, of If in. round iron; 
 stanchions in saloon and amidships to support awning 
 decks, to be of 1|- in. round iron. 
 
 Gangways. — Two on each side, about 5 feet wide, through 
 the iron stanchions and railings, with all necessary fasten- 
 ings complete. 
 
 Tarpaulins, &c. — Two for each hatchway, also skylight, 
 bell, binnacle, sail, wheel, and other covers as necessary. 
 
 Mast.— To have one red pine mast, as per drawing, with 
 gaff and all fittings complete. 
 
 Rigging. — To have three shrouds on each side, of If m. 
 wire rope ; forestay, 2| in. wire rope ; topmast stay, of 1 
 in. wire rope ; all running rigging to be of best hemp ; 
 all needful blocks, belaying pins, spider hoop, and other 
 gear, to be supplied. 
 
 Sails. — To have one fore staysail, and one trysail, both of 
 No. 4 canvas, and of best quality ; masts, sails, and rigging 
 for the passage out, to be as per the accompanying sketch 
 and of quality suitable for the voyage ; also to be sup- 
 plied with two extra strong storm sails. 
 
 Anchor and Fish Davits. — One of each to be fitted 
 forward, and constructed to shift, so as to suit on 
 either bow. 
 
 Ventilators. — Two large bell mouthed ventilators, to 
 be supplied and fitted for the engine room, with hoods 
 to turn round, and to stand a sufficient height above 
 docks to secure proper draught. 
 
 Ladders. — One to he fitted at front of hurricane 
 deck, leading up to awning deck, and one at each 
 
 18 
 
F L © A T 3 J^ O W O ¥in% n 
 
 ■3© 
 
 Scale of Feet. 
 
 VV'c?/*^/- 2^1 ft ^ 
 
 \^ 
 
 --J 
 
 Fio5- Section at A.B 
 
 Fic4. Sect'On at C.U 
 
 Fic 5. S EC 
 
 Fic Z.Plan 
 
R KB MO p.. 
 
 Plate, 5. 
 
 -^^^r^^M^ 
 
 ■~p'.-.rJ.T-.-l-.'.'^TJC:^Ui.TtSVE JJOy 
 
 v^r^^ 
 
 T^^^r 
 
 :r^" 
 
 \ 
 
 B. 
 
 
 Fig 5. S e ct I on at I-;.]' 
 
 Fig 6. Section at G II 
 
 ■I 
 
 
 3z3 
 
 
 
 I ki 
 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 gangway, aft of the paddle boxes, to hook on to the spon- 
 sons for passengers embarking. 
 
 Sundries. — To have as follows : 2 cork fenders, 2 wood 
 fenders (with all mountings complete), 2 life buoys, 2 paint 
 scrubbers, 3 holystones, 2 windsails, 1 meat safe, deck tub, 
 chain box, and the usual deck gear of a passenger river 
 steamer. 
 
 FLOATING WORKSHOPS. 
 (Illustrated by Plate 6.) 
 
 The accompanying plate is one of a series of floating 
 workshops that have been built for the Egyptian Govern- 
 ment, who employ them for repairing vessels, and any 
 machinery they may have situated along the banks of the 
 Lower Nile, besides in harbours and elsewhere. They were 
 designed by Mr. J. J. Birckel, with very small draught of 
 water, to enable them to run into shallow waters beyond the 
 reach of a hostile fleet. Vessels built of this class would 
 prove of very great utiHty in many foreign ports, where 
 there is not proper quay accommodation, or sufficient 
 depth of water to bring ships and steamers alongside for 
 repairs. The floating worltshop could steam out into any 
 harbour or roadstead, and be moored alongside the vessel 
 requiring repairs, and having all tools and machinery on 
 board, the work for all the various branches could be far 
 more rapidly executed, and at considerable less cost, than 
 having to send portions of the machinery, &c., on shore, 
 and the workmen continually going backwards and for- 
 wards from the vessel to the workshops. 
 
 Below we give some few particulars of the vessels already 
 built, and also a list of the tools fitted on board of same, 
 most of which will be illustrated and fully described in the 
 Engineering portion of this work : — 
 
 Ft. In. 
 Length on the water line . . . . 110 
 
 Breadth moulded 17 
 
 Depth from floor to deck 8 6 
 
 Draught of water with machinery on board . 2 6 
 Speed of vessels, 3 miles per hour, when working against 
 a current running at 4 miles per hour. 
 
 Machinery for No. 1 'Worlcs\o'p.—\ vertical saw frame 
 complete, with 15 blades, and 15 spare blades, and 15 spare 
 blades, 4 ft. in length ; a circular saw frame complete, 4 
 changes of saws, from 1 ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. 6 in. ; a morticing 
 machine complete, with 24 chisels ; a band saw frame com- 
 plete, with 12 blades from \ in. to \ in. in width; a wood 
 turning lathe, with gap to take in an object of 3 ft. dia- 
 meter ; 3 carpenters' benches, with drill on ; 6 carpenters' tool 
 .chests fitted copaplete ; 12 glueing-up clamps ; a small grind- 
 stone, with frame, 2 ft. diameter; a portable round. hearth, 
 18 in. diameter by 2 ft. 6 in. high. 
 
 Machinery for No. S Workshop. — One of Schiele's noise- 
 less fans complete, with driving belts, pipes^ and cock for 
 worldng the cupola and smithy ; 1 cupola of iron plates, to 
 be built afterwards with round bricks, diameter 3 feet, with 
 iron chimney 10 feet above the vessel, and 2,000 spare 
 rounded bricks for renewing interior when needed ; 6 
 smiths' fires, with anvils, and woodblocks under the anvils, 
 each fire to be provided with 2 large hammers, 1 middle- 
 size hammer, with handles complete, 8 tongs; 2 pokers, 
 and other round smiths' tools ; 4 square ones and 4 round 
 ones, with tank for water; two round portable hearths, 
 same as suppUed to No. 1 ; 1 3-ton crane complete, with 
 •chains and gear complete for moulders ; 1 hearth and brass 
 furnace for 2 crucibles, each to hold 50 pounds of metal ; 1 
 core fumac6 made of brick, and stayed with iron, the chim- 
 ney to be' a good height over deck ; one iron tank for core 
 material ; 1 small grinding mill for grinding sand and char- 
 coal for the use of the moulders; 1 bench, with two vices 
 on, and a small drill ; 4 ladles for moulders, to hold each 
 from 1 to 4 cwt. ; 24 moulding frames, from 10 in. square 
 to 5 ft. long and 3 ft, wide ; 12 different tongs ; 12 iron bars 
 for skimming, and 2 middle hammers; 6 chisels, and 1 
 moulder's box of tools complete. 
 
 Machinery for No. 3 WorJcsJwp. — 3 self-acting lathes, for 
 sliding, screwing, and surfacing, viz., 1 7-in. centre, 1 10- 
 in. centre, and 1 15-in. centre, the latter with proper gap 
 for turning or boring cylinders 4 ft. diameter and 5 ft. 
 long, with self-acting boring bar, with steel centres, sliding 
 socket, guide screw, change wheels, &c., with 4 boring 
 heads fitted, and differing in size from 18 in. to 36 in.; 
 each of these self-acting lathes to be provided with screw 
 bottom rests, quick hand traverse, compo'und slide rest, 
 complete set of change wheels of 24, commencing from 
 15 to 20 teeth, and up to 150 teeth for screw cutting; 
 Whitworth's thread, two face plates, Clement's driver, chuck, 
 back stay, top driving apparatus, strap lever motion, com- 
 mon stand and tee, and universal four screw chuck, and 
 each lathe to have 12 chisels and spanners, with belt com- 
 plete, same style as Whitworth's; 1 self-acting planing 
 machine, with self-acting transverse motion 3 ft. wide by 
 6 ft. 6 in. long, to take in an object 4 ft. high, with top- 
 driving apparatus, belt, &c., complete, similar to Whit- 
 worth's, with 12 steel chisels, one self-acting shaping and 
 planing machine, to take objects 10 in. long, with self- 
 acting transverse quick motion, and grooved foundation 
 plate, adjustable to any height up and down, with driving 
 apparatus complete, with belt and 12 steel chisels ; 1 
 radial drilling and boring machine with vertical sUde, 
 radial arm 4 ft., movable, with two drill chucks, driving 
 apparatus, strap lever motion, and grooved foundation plate 
 to drill up to 3 in. diameter hole, with belt complete, 
 and 12 steel drills from 1 in. up to 3 in. One small verti- 
 
 19 
 
 E 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 cal self-acting drilling and boring machine, with drill 1| 
 in. holes, with grooved foundation, plate adjustable, verti- 
 cally, driving apparatus, strap, lever motion, and belt com- 
 plete, 12 steel drills from ij to 1^ inches. One self- 
 acting slotting machine, to take 3 feet diameter, with 6 
 in. crank, with self-revolving grooved base, with driving 
 apparatus, belt, &c., 12 chisels complete. One self-acting 
 single screwing machine, with driving apparatus, transverse 
 motion, complete with 24 taps and 24 dies, Whitworth's 
 thread from J in. to 2 in., with belt complete. One punch- 
 ing and shearing machine, the length of the shearmg knife, 
 12 in. by 16 in. deep, with 4 spare knives, 12 steel punches, 
 and 12 dies, from | to | in., with driving apparatus, &c., 
 complete ; 2 portable round hearths, 18 in. diameter, 2 ft. 
 6 in. high; 1 grindstone frame and 6 spare stones, 3 ft. 
 diameter; 1 bench, with 6 vices, weighing from 75 to 100 
 pounds, with a revolving small drill over. 
 
 Materials for Fitters. — 1 complete" set of taps and dies, 
 Whitworth's thread, with stocks, wrenches, and spanners, 
 commencing from J to ^ in., with master taps each size ; 
 1 ratchet brace, 2 movable spanners, to 2 in., 6 hammers, 
 24 chisels, 2 saw handles, and 24 saws for iron and brass, 
 from 10 in. to 15 in. long; 6 calipers (straight), 6 round 
 ditto, 6 ditto with clips, 4 steel straight edges, from 2 to 
 4 ft. long; 1 levelling block and, 2 screw jacks, 1 dividing 
 marker for ditto, 100 dozen of files assorted, half of them 
 15 in., medium cut, and half assorted different sizes. 
 
 Tools for Iron Shi/pbvAlders and Rivetters. — 4 rivetters' 
 hammers, 2 large hammers, 2 holding-up hammers, 4 rymers, 
 with wrenches, 4 chisels, 2 snap rivetters. 
 
 The above-mentioned vessels and their respective tools 
 and machinery to be constru(;ted of the best materials and 
 workmanship, complete in every respect, combining all re- 
 cent improvements, and durability. These vessels made 
 , the voyage out to Egypt under steam, assisted by tempo- 
 rary sails, in a very satisfactory manner; therefore it is 
 presumable that vessels of this class are equal to any duty 
 required in a roadstead or harbour. 
 
 MIDSHIP SECTIONS, STEMS, STEKN POSTS, AND 
 ANGLE OF WATER LINES OF FISHING BOATS 
 AND FAST-SAILING VESSELS. 
 
 (Illustrated by Plate 6.) 
 
 The above plate will prove of considerable interest to our 
 readers, as it illustrates the various ideas of different 
 builders in many parts of the world. The sections, stems, 
 stempost, and water lines, are taken from vessels in actual 
 existence, and give a fair example of the varieties of build, 
 almost from one extreme to the other, as is markedly 
 
 exemplified in the rake of stemposts of the " America" and 
 "Titania" yachts, in the stems of the "Deal Lugger," and 
 the " Chinese Fishing Boat," and in the midship sections of 
 the " Yarmouth Lugger" and the " Galway Hooker." Every 
 one is aware that on all parts of the coast of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, the fishing boats are out in all weathers, and conse- 
 quently have to contend with the severest storms ; and it 
 is, we believe, from the experience gained in the various 
 locahties that the builders of these vessels have arrived at 
 the best form of model to suit their special requirements, 
 and the " height and length of the waves" they usually have 
 to contend against. The " Deal Lugger," beating about in 
 the narrow channel between England and France, will meet 
 with very different seas to the " Galway Hooker" on the 
 Atlantic Ocean, or the " Yarmouth Lugger" in the German 
 Sea. The accompanying plate will prove well worthy the 
 careful study of our readers, and enable them to make their 
 own comparisons between the various classes of sailing 
 vessels illustrated in this work, and built to suit different 
 trades and purposes in various parts of the globe.* 
 
 IRON SAILING SHIP ARIZONA, 
 
 {Illustrated by Plate 7.) 
 
 This vessel is a very fine example of a 1,300 ton first-class 
 sailing ship, suitable for the East Indian, AustraHan, or 
 San Francisco trades. She was built to the order of Messrs. . 
 Milbum Brothers, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, by Messrs. Short 
 Brothers, of Sunderland, under the inspection of Mr. C. A. 
 Bushell, Naval Architect and Surveyor, 33 Quayside, New- 
 castle. Her weight of hull and outfit complete is 808 tons, 
 and her mean draught of water Hght 8 feet 11 inches. Di-, 
 mensions are as follow : — 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Length between the Perpendiculars , . . 220 
 
 Breadth moulded ,S6 
 
 Depth of hold to top of floors . , , . 22 
 
 Tons, 
 Tonnage, Builder's Measurement (about) . . 1440 
 Tonnage, Gross Register 1287-]Vir 
 
 Classification to be the 100 A at Lloyds' Register, and to 
 be built to the satisfaction of the owners and their Inspector, 
 and supplied with a full East India outfit. 
 
 General Description of Hull, &c. — The hull to be built 
 in accordance with Lloyds' Rules for the 100 A Class ; to 
 have a full poop for the accommodation of captain and 
 officers, with the necessary water-closets, pantry, stores, 
 rooms, &c., and to plans agreed upon; top-gallant fore- 
 castle to be fitted with the necessary bunks for crew, with ' 
 wings at sides for water-closets, pamt lockers, &c. 
 
 » Note.— Plates and description of some of the most modern build of 
 fishing boats, both steam and sailing, will bo inserted in this work. 
 
 20 
 
MIDSHIP SECTIONS, 
 
 MIDSHIP 
 
 SMITH, DEL 
 
 SECTIONS 
 
riONS, STEMS, STERNPOSTS , and ANCLE of WATERLINES of FISHIIN 
 
 AND 
 
 FAST SAILING VESSELS. 
 
 STERNPOSTS 
 
>F FISHING BOATS 
 
 PLATE 6 
 
 )STS . 
 
 STEMS 
 
 TJftvsiury, lith ttnndlf 
 
C.A.BUSHELL 
 
 SURVEYOR . 
 
 LeJiffth overall. . 
 
 Do. . . . fiT/ji'ruli/'ulof.'i 
 Jireadth' Extrenu- . ... 
 
 Do. . . Moulded 
 
 /Jfpjt/i ... Dp . 
 
 . lk>. lo Top ol' FiMi-s 
 
 .I'o7m(ige Cross .._ 
 
 . Do.. .Net. .. 
 
 Ft 
 
 Tns. 
 
 2J8 
 
 t 
 
 2W 
 
 » 
 
 36 
 
 o 
 
 A, 
 
 30 
 
 n 
 
 23 
 
 H 
 
 22^ 
 
 h 
 
 f2S^ 
 1226 
 
 "Mf' 
 4ir 
 
 O. SMITH , DEI. 
 
BUILT BY 
 
 MESS^ SHORT S^-?^ of SUNDERLAND . 
 
 jsz 
 
 -ssz. 
 
 h — 
 
 n 
 
 5fg."-T'yr^ '>'-^gf<^.- y:.^tlJK^'g,/t''-. ^^i'^--'T^'^r"'t 
 
 f 
 
 5*^ 
 
 W^'- 
 
 Jfei 
 
 m: 
 
 j.^-^^.^av.,rft^jt^_/.i^-i4sjkgtvyi:ri '° 
 
 zc 
 
PLATE 7 
 
 
 r < Tf%vshiuy-J,iVi . ilnii duller 
 
PeAOT lOAL SniPBlilLDINa. 
 
 ''■PZaTis.— Model, deck, rigging, and other plans to be to 
 'oWner's approval. 
 
 ,,;'' Masts. — Three lower masts and bowsprit to be of iron, 
 
 ■ lower yards of steel. 
 
 i - 
 
 Waterways.— To have gutter waterways between poop 
 and forecastle, properly cemented with Portland cement and 
 made watertight. 
 
 Hatch Oomhvngs.^-^'YQ be of iron, to stand 20 in. above 
 deck, J in. thick, with all necessary booby hatches, hatch- 
 
 ■ covers, &c. 
 
 Decit House. — To have a house on deck abaft the foro- 
 
 ■ mast of wood, with galley in end properly lined inside with 
 'sheet iron and floor cemented; fitted with Cook's hearth 
 'and necessary cooking utensils ; provision also to bo made 
 ' for donkey boiler in house, and necessary coal bunkers. 
 
 Windlass.^A. properly fitted and efficient Harfield's 
 windlass to be supplied. 
 
 ' Cham, Lochers. — Of iron -^ in. thick, of sufficient size 
 to contain the chain cables, fitted forward below hold deck. 
 
 ' Pitmips. — Two in number, 7 in. diameter, placed aft of 
 main mast, and worked by fly wheel; also a head pump 
 ■-"and one force pump with hose; to have the necessary 
 pumps to pass inspection of Clubs. 
 
 Moormg Bitts. — Of cast iron ; to have all necessary moor- 
 ing bitts, mooring pipes, fair leaders, cleats, &c.'; 4 hawse 
 pipes to be fitted of cast iron of suitable size. 
 
 Declcs. — Main deck of yellow pine 6 X 4 in., poop 5 X 3 in., 
 forecastle 6 x 3 in. ; hold deck of red pine, 8 in. or 9 X 3 in.; 
 all properly fastened with galvanized screws and bolts 
 through each beam, and properly caullted, payed, and made 
 watertight ; plank next the waterway on main deck to be of 
 East India teak, 10 in. broad ; height between main and 
 hold deck beams to be 8 ft. from top of beam to top of beam. 
 
 Ceiling. — The hold to be close ceiled in bottom and 
 bilges, the flat of bottom to be made in hatches, with rings 
 for lifting out ; to bo berth and spaco up the sides and 
 'tween decks. 
 
 Fresh Water Tanks. — To bo of iron, two in number, each 
 to contain about 1,500 gallons of water, fitted with pump, 
 sounding rods, &c., to work from main deck. 
 
 Painting. — The outside of vessel to have two coats of 
 good oil paint, and one coat of some approved finishing 
 colour of paint or composition ; the inside of vessel to have 
 three coats of good oil paint ; deckwork, masts, spars, and 
 inside of bulwarks to have three coats. 
 
 Ceimentvng. — Inside the flat of bottom to the lower turn 
 of bilges to be properly cemented with best Portland 
 cement, gauged with sand. 
 
 SAIL PLAN "ARIZONA." 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 21 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Big.— Plan to be approved by owners, to bo full ship- 
 rigged, and to be fitted with one complete suit of sails and 
 spare sails as hereafter mentioned, ropes, masts, booms, 
 yards, &c., blocks, and principal brace blocks; to have patent 
 roUer bushes; standing rigging to be of the best galvanized 
 iron charcoal wire rope, served all over on the lower rigging, 
 and to be of suitable strength, the other portion of the rig- 
 ging to be in proportion. 
 
 Steering Gear, (fee— The steering wheel to be of teak ; 
 screw steering gear to be fitted aft ; also one spare tiller 
 and a stuffing box to be fitted round rudder stock at deck. 
 
 Carved Work. — Head and stern carved work to the owner's 
 approval. 
 
 Capstans. — One to be fitted on the forecastle deck and 
 two aft, as required. 
 
 Steam Winches. — To have two double powered steam 
 winches, 6 in. cylinders, made by Winstanley, of Liverpool, 
 , the foremost one to be fitted with chain lifters. 
 
 ^ Store Rooms. — To have all necessary store rooms fitted 
 up, both in fore and after peaks. 
 
 Galvanizing. — All wrought iron work connected with 
 hull on deck, that is practicable, is to be galvanized. 
 
 Donkey Boiler. — To be fitted in midship house, of suit- 
 able size to drive steam winches, with all necessary firing 
 irons, tools, &c. 
 
 Ventilators. — To have two 19 in. bell-mouthed ventila- 
 tors, and one 15 in. in the main hold, of galvanized iron, 
 the one coming through the poop deck to be of brass above 
 the deck. 
 
 Main Rail — To be of East India teak, 12 x 3f in., 
 fitted with belaying pins, and coppered where required. 
 
 Top Gallant Bulwarks. — To have a teak rail supported 
 by teak stanchions, and neatly planed and coppered where 
 required. 
 
 Iron Work of Hull. — The general scantling will be under- 
 stood from the following notes and reference to the accom- 
 panying midship section. Keel, 9 X 2| in. ; stern and 
 stempost, 8| x 2^ in. ; frames, 5 x 3 x t^ and ^^ in,, 
 spaced 24 in. apart ; reverse frames, 3 X 3 X ■j^ in., ex- 
 tending to main and lower decks alternately; bulkheads, 
 1^ and ^ in. thick ; rudder stock, 6f diameter, tapering to 
 3 in. at the heel; floor plates, 24: x -^ in., reduced to 
 
 xV in. at ends ; centre keelson, the centre plate 16 X -H in., 
 reduced to -^ in. at ends ; top plate, 9 x !•§• in., reduced 
 to T^V ill-; angle irons on keelson, 5 x 4< x ^ ia., for 
 three-fifths the vessel's length, reduced forward and aft to 
 XT ill. thick; intercostal plate, r\ in- thick; angle irons, 
 5 X 4 X XT. and xt in- in ends; sister keelsons, formed 
 of two angle irons, 5 x 4 x -j^^, and -j^ in. in ends ; bilge 
 keelsons, same scantling as sister keelsons; side stringers 
 between the 'tween decks of angle irons, 3 x 3 x xtt in., 
 tapering to xt in. at ends ; main deck, beams of bulb iron, 
 ^ X xV. and xV in. at ends, with two angle irons, 3 x 3 x f in. 
 Hold deck beams to be same scantling as main deck ; poop 
 and forecastle beams of angle irons, 6 x 3 x -5^ in., tapering 
 to -3^ in. thick. The poop is about 40 ft. in length ; main 
 deck stringer plate 44 in. wide by |^ in, thick for three- 
 fifths the vessel's length amidships, tapered to 26 X t^ in, 
 at ends, the stringer angle irons 5 x 4 x 5ft- and -^ in, ; 
 waterway angle irons, 3 1 x 3 x xVin.; hold deck stringer 
 of plates, 28 x i^t in-, tapering to 21 X -^ in. at ends ; 
 the angle irons, 4 x 4 x xV. and xV in- at ends ; tie plates 
 and diagonals on main and hold decks, 10 in. and 9 x i^ in., 
 reduced in ends to -j^ and xV in- thick; hold stanchions in 
 the lower hold, 3^ in. diameter, and 2|- in. diameter in 
 the 'tween decks ; garboard strake, 36 in. wide, \i in. thick, 
 tapering to -^ in. in ends ; bottom to bilge j;% in., tapering 
 in ends to -^ in. thick ; 2 strakes on bilges -^ in., tapered 
 to XT in. thick, with butts treble rivetted for half the vessel's 
 length amidships, the butt straps being 16f in. wide by 
 If in. tbick ; topsides i^, tapering to xV in- thick, the two 
 strakes above bilges treble rivetted for half the length 
 amidships, the strakes above to the sheerstrake double 
 rivetted butts only ; the sheerstrake is 40 in. wide by -fl in, 
 thick, tapering to xV in. at ends ; the butt straps 16f x If in. 
 for at least one half the vessel's length, and treble rivetted ; 
 bulwark plates ^ in. thick, and the angle irons under main 
 rail, 4 x 3 x xV in-; lower strake on poop side xV. tapered 
 to XT in., and the plating on round of poop y\, tapered to 
 385- in. All landings of outside plating, with the exception ; 
 of poop sides and bulwarks, are double rivetted. 
 
 General Outfit. — The following stores and utensils are to 
 be supplied, as is usual, for vessels of this class, viz., block- 
 makers, carpenters, boatswains, cooks, cabin tinners, gunners, 
 stationery, plated goods, cutlery, napery, earthenware, and 
 glass, and other requisites as required. 
 
 Boats. — To be supplied with 4 boats, 2 lifeboats, 1 sldff 
 and 1 gig, 24 ash oars, and to be fitted with rudders, yokes, 
 and set of iron, rowlocks for each boat, except those for the 
 gig, which are to be of brass; all necessary gratings, &c,, to 
 be supplied; the gig to have a brass yoke and teak gratings 
 in the bottom ; a complete set of spars and sails to be sup- 
 plied for one of the boats; all the boats to be copper fastened. 
 
 22 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Midship Section. 
 "ARIZONA." 
 Scale i" = 1 foot. 
 
 Cooperage. — 3 water casks, 120 gal- 
 lons eacli; 2 teak oval harness casks, 
 with brass hoops, hands, and clasps; 1 
 steeping tub, 12 mess kitts, 18 deck 
 buckets, 12 to be made of teak, with 
 brass hoops, and ship's name painted on ; 
 2 water funnels, 2 flour casks, with covers, 
 bars, and staples; 1 sea buoy, 3 fire 
 buckets, 2 cook's buckets, and 2 boats' 
 breakers. 
 
 Com/passes, &c. — 1 best brass binnacle, 
 with lamp and brass clasps, and to be 
 fitted with 1 tell-tale card, to fit on the 
 mizen-mast ; 1 best brass binnacle, with 
 lamp on best brass dolphin stand, fixed 
 at the steering wheel, and fitted with pris- 
 matic azimuth circle and sights, the com- 
 pass card to be 10 in. diameter; 3 spare 
 compass cards in boxes, and a heavy 
 storm card for each of the above ; 1 best 
 plain rosewood barometer; 1 eight-day 
 clock for cabin ; 1 binocular glass in case ; 
 4 log glasses, two 28 and two 14 seconds ; 
 1 thermometer ; all compasses to be pro- 
 perly adjusted ; 1 patent log of approved 
 make. 
 
 Colours, &c. — 1 Burgee with ship's 
 name, 1 House Flag, 1 Red Ensign, 1 
 Blue Peter, 1 Pilot Jack, 1 set Commer- 
 cial Code signals, with box and book. 
 
 Finally. — Anything omitted in this 
 specification usually supphed to vessels 
 of this size and classification, to be pro- 
 vided by the builders free of charge. 
 All materials and workmanship to be 
 the best of their respective kinds, 
 
 THE INSTITUTION OF NAVAL 
 ARCHITECTS. 
 By the annual pubhcation of the transac- 
 tions of the above institution, the public 
 are given to understand that the institu- 
 tion was established in the year 1860, 
 but few are aware that it was first pro- 
 posed previous to the above date, viz., 
 in July and agaia in September, 1857. 
 The credit of founding the institution is 
 wrongly attributed to Mr. John Scott 
 Russell and Mr. E. J. Reed, M.P. ; not that 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 the first proposer desires to claim any credit, as the institution 
 up to the present date has never been of any service for the 
 purposes intended when first proposed; but merely a society 
 holding, I may say, an annual meeting {for jive meetings held 
 in three consecutive days vn April in each year, can in reality 
 only count as one), simply to allow some of the Admiralty 
 officials and sanguine inventors of extraordinary classes of 
 ironclads and other vessels, to blow off their wastesteam. 
 Improvements in ships and other vessels for the Mercantile 
 Marine are seldom or ever thought of, or even the per- 
 formances of vessels built ever looked into or published ; 
 which, if it was done, would greatly tend to instruct young 
 naval architects and shipbuilders, and give them the oppor- 
 tunity of making improvements thereon. The followmg are 
 extracts from the Artisan of September, 1857, and Novem- 
 ber, 1868 :— 
 
 "Institution of Naval Architects and Musema." — There 
 is a want of union among Naval Architects, professionally, 
 that is detrimental to their own interests, and injurious as 
 regards public safety. There is not that supervision in 
 shipbuilding matters which is deemed so necessary in the 
 construction or alteration of houses and other buildings — 
 a supervision so necessary and proper where human life is 
 concerned. Before anything can be done in building or 
 altering . houses, the sanction of the surveyor must be 
 obtained; but anyone is allowed to cut a ship to pieces, 
 rise a new deck upon her, tower her masts to the skies, and 
 so weaken the vessel and destroy her stability as to jeopar- 
 dize the lives of three or four hundred people who may be 
 on board. There is no one to say, " That ship is not safe to 
 go to sea." — (Mr. Plimsoll's bill of 1875). And supposing 
 she is insured at Lloyds, Lloyds' surveyors only demand a 
 certain thickness of wood or iron, and frames, &c., of a 
 certain size, placed such and such a distance apart, and they 
 see that the same is properly put together. Now, this is all 
 very well, but it is not sufficient. They do not know 
 whether the vessel is of the right form or properly masted, 
 neither do they superintend the stowage of vessels to prevent 
 the dangerous practice some shipmasters have of putting 
 all heavy goods quite in tlie bottom of the vessel, thus placing 
 the centre of gravity too low, which is almost as dangerous 
 as if it were placed too high. 
 
 Now, if we were to become an incorporated body, we 
 could prevent all this. When we had attained a certain 
 standing the public would support us, and say that Naval 
 Architects were a necessary body, and not think, as many 
 now do, that thcro is no science in shipbuilding, and that 
 engineers, by applying tho same principles to ships as they 
 do to bridges and girders, arc capable of building a good 
 vessel. It may appear so, but is a vessel constructed on 
 these principles a good ship, as regards form and stability ? 
 
 I must bo" of my professional brethren to consider my 
 
 suggestions, and let me hear their various opinions. The best 
 way to carry out what I so anxiously desire (as far as I am 
 competent to judge), is to establish a yearly Exhibition of 
 the Science of Naval Architecture; thus once established, 
 we can easily form a School of Naval Architecture similar to 
 that which was abolished by the Admiralty, from reasons 
 never satisfactorily explained.* 
 
 In conclusion, I would bring under notice a paragraph 
 which will prove how necessary it is that a School of Naval 
 Architecture should be established, and most particularly 
 to make its main object the improvement of our Mercantile 
 Marine in all its various branches. 
 
 Iron Masts Discarded. — The Belgian steamer " Belgique" 
 has condemned her iron masts as unsafe and unsuitable. 
 Our opinion is, that the hull is as much at fault as the 
 masts. The bow and stern are very heavy and overhanging, 
 and the ship is narrow — ^in fact a boiler maker's model. 
 Better to have paid a competent Naval Architect for a 
 switable model, and thus secured a basis for utility and 
 profit. What is such a ship as that of the " Belgique " but 
 an imposition on the owner and the public in comparison 
 with a sea-going form. — " U. S. Nautical Magazine, March, 
 1857. Thos. Smith, Naval Architect." 
 
 Regulations Affecting the, Safety of Merchant Ships cmd '. 
 their Passengers. — I am pleased to see that the British ' 
 Association have taken the question of the safety of Merchant 
 Ships in hand, as it is a matter most urgently required to be 
 carried into practice. The same, or very similar suggestions 
 were proposed by the writer in 1857, but, unfortunately, with- 
 out obtaining any practical results at that immediate period 
 beyond the foundation of the Institution of Naval Archi- 
 tects, in 18C0, which was also suggested by tho writer at ■ 
 the same time. Firstly, with regard to tho depth to which \ 
 a vessel should be immersed (Mr. Plimsoll's Shipping Bill, ; 
 1875), 3 inches freeboard is mentioned as being considered ; 
 sufficient for every foot of immersion. This is perfectly ' 
 correct for a vessel designed by a theoretical and practical i 
 naval architect and shipbuilder, who has received the pro- 
 per training and education to enable him to design and 
 build vessels that wUl be seaworthy. One of the greatest 
 faults in our Mercantile Marine, and one that is the cause 
 of so many failures in required performances, is the fact that 
 a large proportion of our vessels are built by inexperienced 
 men, who work entirely by tho rule of thumb. Many ship- 
 owners oven entrust their shipmasters to make tho models 
 for both their steam and sailing vessels, just to suit some 
 
 * Note.—" Some few years after the publication of the above, the Ad- 
 miralty established a new School of Naval Architecture at South Ken- 
 sington, but we hear very little of it in connection with our Moroaatil© 
 Marino." 
 
 24 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 whim or fancy of tlieir own, without being able to give any- 
 intelligent reason for such a shape. These vessels are 
 actually built by our shipbuilders according to the form of 
 these blocks of wood, for they are nothing else, unless, as is 
 freq.uently the case, the shipbuilder cuts a bit off the bow 
 and puts a bit on the stern, or vice versa, to suit some 
 fancy of his own, but with no more idea of a correct theory 
 than the shipmaster who made the model. It is a fact that 
 many of our shipbuilders, even at the present time, are 
 perfectly ignorant of any rules, either theoretical or prac- 
 tical, referring to the construction and form of vessels for 
 various purposes and trades. It is such shipbuilders that 
 usually turn out an unseaworthy craft. She] either is a 
 vessel with too httle stabiHty, no bearings in the ends, 
 draws some feet more water than was intended, is a knot 
 under her required speed, or some other glaring bungle. 
 The owner then finds fault with the builder, but why did 
 he entrust the building of his vessel to such a man ? At the 
 Meeting of the Institution of Naval Architects, in April, 
 18G8, the Earl of Hardwicke, as Chairman of the Afternoon 
 Meeting, said, referring to some experiments, made on the 
 Greek ironclad, "King George'' that he trusted the time 
 had now arrived when all "shipowners" would see that 
 great advantage to themselves, and the safety of the public 
 at large, would be attained by having their vessels hwilt 
 only by such shipbuilders as were both practical and theo- 
 retical Naval Architects, and not the common rule of 
 thumb and block of wood men. It is by building such 
 vessels that so many accidents occur, and whatever amount 
 of freeboard you may allow, a badly constructed vessel, with 
 little or not sufficient length of floor, will ship successive 
 seas, and in time some of her deck fittings must give way : 
 the vessel then fills and founders. As to the position and 
 stowage of dead weight, this is a very important point in 
 the safety of a seagoing vessel, and one already referred to 
 by the writer in 1857 : still I fear we are no better off than 
 we were then. This cannot be properly regulated until an 
 Act of Parliament is passed {Vide Mr. PlimsoU's Shipping 
 Sill, 1876), and regulations made by the Underwriters, to 
 have qualified persons appointed to superintend the stowage 
 of cargo in vessels, with some regard to their centres of 
 gravity, stability, and form. The suggestion as to marking 
 on every vessel her proper depth of immersion, both for- 
 ward and aft, is a very good one, tod would be a great 
 security.. (FicZe Mr. PlimsoU's Shipping Bill, 1875). In the 
 event of the vessel being loaded beyond the allowed depth, 
 the Insurance Company should not be held liable for any 
 loss or accident that might occur, which would be the 
 means of deterring unprincipled persons from overloading 
 their vessels for the sake of extra profit. 
 
 But a very important question is, who is to decide to 
 what draught vessels of various construction are to be irn- 
 mersed, for the draught should i/n, all cases be ruled by the 
 
 form of the vessel. The Board of Trade have lately thought 
 fit to dispense with their Shipwright Surveyors, and left the 
 whole matter of supervision in the hands of the Engineer 
 Surveyors. This is a very great mistake. An Engineer may 
 know something about the construction and putting toge- 
 ther of the ironwork of a vessel, but beyond that he is lost 
 and entirely out of his element, although many men will 
 profess to have mastered both professions. They may, and 
 do, no doubt, understand the general routine of naval 
 construction, but as regards the scientific construction of 
 vessels, they are for the most part greatly in error. One of 
 the commonest . mistakes made by them, and one, I believe, 
 still entertained and persisted in by the heads of the Board of 
 Trade is, that a vessel is a girder. Now, a vessel is not a 
 girder, neither can it in any one way be treated as such. 
 
 In the case of an ordinary vessel the constant movement 
 of the waves, and the different portions continually being 
 subjected to various strains by the pitcliing and roUing of 
 the vessel, must show that to look upon the structure in the 
 form of a long girder is altogether erroneous. This is one 
 point that requires investigation, with a view to having 
 proper supervision to ensure the efficient and safe construc- 
 tion of our Mercantile Marine. 
 
 As regards deck loads of cotton or other light goods, in 
 vessels with a long flat floor, such loads are safe, but they 
 should he protected. All shipowners are aware that in steam 
 vessels built for the Atlantic trade, and particularly for New 
 Orleans, that it is necessary to build their vessels as deep as 
 possible, so as to allow space for stowing a suflacient quan- 
 tity of cotton ; consequently, many of these vessels are built 
 with a full poop and forecastle, and deep bulwarks amid- 
 ships, so as to aUow room to stow on the homeward voyage 
 a large deckload of cotton, which is, of course, in bad 
 weather liable to get wet with the sea, and becoming too 
 heavy, to make the vessel labour. Perhaps some will ask 
 why not cover in the space between poop and forecastle 
 with a light deck, if you desire to carry light bale goods ? 
 The answer to this is, that on account of Lloyds' or the 
 Underwiters' classification adding so much to the tonnage of 
 the vessel, no matter what purpose or trade the vessel is 
 for, they require such a large additional thickness of iron 
 and other extra weight, that the vessel is spoilt, that is if 
 the owner wants a class. I will mention one instance of a 
 vessel built on this construction (without consulting Lloyds), 
 and closed in from the forecastle to the poop with a light 
 deck, and sides to protect her deck load. The vessel was 
 built in every respect, as regards the scantling, &c., to the 
 highest classification at Lloyds, and under the special survey 
 of their surveyors; but at the finishing of the vessel, when . 
 the builder commenced to close in from the poop to the fore- 
 castle, the surveyor appeared annoyed, and asked, " What 
 are you going to do ?" The builder replied, " Merely to make 
 a covering to protect the decJc load, and prevent the sea from 
 
 25 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 going down the engine skylight and boiler hatches : i/nfact to 
 Tnahe the vessel safe for her intended trade." Tlie surveyor 
 immediately reported the same to the Committee, who 
 decided that the protecting of the deck load, or say the light 
 deck, from poop to forecastle, was an infringement of their 
 rules, and therefore refused to class the vessel, as originally 
 intended, although her scantling was of the highest grade. 
 Many shipmasters and would-bo wiseacres, when this took 
 place, came to examine the vessel on the stocks, and pre- 
 dicted she could never stand without ballast, and would be 
 certain to capsize when launched, besides many similar 
 remarks usual on such occasions ; in fact, from this period 
 until the time of the vessel being launched, she got the 
 name of the "Umbrella Ship," which soubriquet was, I 
 believe, originated by some persons connected with Lloyds, 
 and who should have been of superior standing in their 
 profession than to have made such errors. To the utter 
 amazement of these critics, when the vessel was launched 
 without ballast, but with masts, top-masts, topgallant-masts, 
 and yards across, and nearly one hundred men and boys on 
 her top deck, the vessel, when she left the ways, never 
 listed six inches either to port or starboard. The owners, 
 who were delighted with their vessel, got what they desired, 
 saw she would be a safe ship for the trade, and troubled 
 themselves no further about Lloyds or their classification. 
 The master reported her to be an excellent sea boat and a 
 large carrier. The foregoing is an illustration of the errors 
 in judgment of some of those placed in authority, and the 
 difficulties to be contended against with respect to the 
 safety and construction of our Mercantile Marine. 
 
 November, 1868. 
 
 THOMAS SMITH. 
 
 The Institution of Naval Architects, up to the end of 
 the year 1875, entirely ignored any proposal to establish 
 a yearly Exhibition of the Science of Naval Architecture, 
 but in March of the present year (187G) the Institu- 
 tion was called upon by the Lords of the Committee 
 of Education to assist in forming a collection of models, 
 apparatus, and drawings, illustrating the progress of the 
 Science of Naval Architecture, and the Institution, through 
 its secretary, sent out circulars, asking to be furnished 
 with any models or drawings of interest relating thereto. 
 What a glaring blunder that the Institution should have 
 neglected this most important matter for over the last 
 sixteen years, when it was fully laid down and pro- 
 posed for them over nineteen years ago. If the reader will 
 carefully peruse the foregoing extracts, he will also see that 
 the substance of Mr. Plimsoll's Shipping Bill was proposed 
 at the same date (viz., 1857). Note the paragraphs printed 
 in italics. Now had the Institution of Naval Architects 
 been carried on in the spirit first proposed and intended, 
 the Shipping Bill of Mr. Plimsoll's would have been in 
 
 force years ago, and I will simply ask one question,, 
 viz.. How many hv/ndreds of valuable lives would have 
 been saved? Another point I am desirous of drawing 
 attention to, and which I have discussed with many 
 practical Naval Architects in various parts of the United 
 Kingdom, and not a few of whom are rather sore on the 
 subject. When the Institution was established in 1860 
 (which should have been in 1867), it was composed of 
 two classes. Associates, viz., persons connected with ship- 
 building, naval and mercantile commanders, and other 
 ofiicers ; Members, composed of practical naval architects 
 only, each of whom had to pass a formal examination, and 
 furnish a complete set of designs, with the necessary calcula- 
 tions, to be submitted to the committee, and they, more- 
 over, were bound to be proposed by two previously existing 
 members. In 1868 the Institution deemed fit to alter this 
 rule, and admitted as Members naval commanders, engineers, 
 ship repairers, and boat builders, placing them on the same 
 footing, in the eyes of the public, as the practical naval archi- 
 tect and shipbuilder, who had passed his examination. Now 
 the above I deem to be lowering, in a scientific point of view, 
 the status of the Institution of naval architects, and would 
 suggest that all practical naval architects should at once re- 
 quest the committee to call upon the appointed members 
 since 1868, to pass the same examination, and go through 
 the same routine, or to remain as associates, who are a very 
 useful body, and well able to bring forward many and various 
 good ideas for discussion. But unless the Institution holds 
 at least its monthly meetings, same as the Institution of Civil 
 Engineers and Mechanical Engineers, it will, I firmly believe, 
 never prove itself to be of the real public benefit for which 
 it was intended, viz., the advancement and improvement of 
 our Mercantile Marine, and to further secure, as far as pos- 
 sible, the safety of all our fellow beings at sea, in all parts of 
 the world, whether on board a British or foreign vessel. 
 
 HIGH-SPEED OCEAN PADDLE STEAMER 
 
 " LY-EE-MOON." 
 
 (Illustrated by Plate 8.) 
 
 This vessel was built by the Thames Iron Works and 
 Shipbuilding Company, Blackwall, from the designs of Mr. 
 James Ash, Naval Architect, 60 Tredegar Square, Bow, Lon- 
 don, to the order of Messrs. Dent and Co., of China. We 
 illustrate her as being one of the best type of models built 
 for a high speed paddle-wheel ocean steamer. Her trial 
 displacement was 1,317 tons; displacement per inch, 
 1274 tons ; mean draught of water on trial trip, 12 ft.; indi- 
 cated horse-power, 1,420, and nominal horse-power, 350. 
 Her average speed, taken after five runs on the measured 
 mile, was 19| miles per hour. Her engines are a pair of 
 oscillating cylinders, each 70 in. diameter, and 5 ft. 6 in. 
 stroke. Four tubular boilers, working at a pressure of 25 lb.. 
 
 26 
 
DESIGNED BY 
 
 THAM 
 
ICNED BY M? JAMES ASH, NAVAL ARCHITECT, 
 
 AND BU 1 LT BY THE 
 
 THAMES IRON WORKS COMPANY. 
 
Pkactical Shipbuilding. 
 
 fitted with Beardmore's Superheating Apparatus. Paddle 
 wheels very strongly made, 22 ft. diameter, the reefing 
 floats 10 ft. long by 4 ft. 2 in. deep, giving 17 ft. 6 in. dia- 
 meter for the effective centres of floats. We accompany 
 our above description with a full specification of the Ly-ee- 
 Moon : — 
 
 DImonsions. 
 Length between the perpendiculars 
 Breadth moulded 
 Depth, BuUder's 
 Burthen in tons, O.M. 
 fDranght not to exceed . . 
 
 Pt. In. 
 
 270 
 
 27 3 
 
 18 
 
 1000 tons. 
 
 13 feet. 
 
 Model. — To be adapted for the highest speed, embracing 
 the requisites for carrying at least 300 tons of cargo, 50 
 cubic ft. per ton, or 22.5 tons of dead weight, with 5 days' 
 consumption of fuel, water, stores, &c., complete on 13 ft. 
 draught of water. To be a first-class vessel, containing all 
 ,the most recent improvements of the builder. 
 
 Hull. — To bo of the best Staffordshire iron, clincher fas- 
 tened throughout ; woodwork to be well and carefully com- 
 bined with the metal, painted with red lead where it comes 
 in contact. To be equal to an iron vessel in strength as classed 
 at Lloyds A 1, but not to be built according to Lloyds' 
 Rules, except for 60 ft. amidships, and in accordance with 
 the following specification : sheer of deck forward about 4 ft., 
 aft about 1 ft. 
 
 Stem and Sternpost. — 8 in. by 3 in. of best scrap iron ; 
 
 sternpost to be kneed at the lower end, running into the 
 
 keel 3 ft. ; projections to be left on sternpost to receive the 
 
 , rudder pintles, which are to be 4 in. diameter, and a heel 
 
 5 in. deep to bear the whole weight of the rudder. 
 
 Keel. — An internal keel to be approved of by employer. 
 To be of plate f in. thick, and as broad as can be procured. 
 (See enlarged sketch of details of keel in midship Section.) 
 
 Frames. — To be of angle irons 18 in. apart from centre to 
 centre for one-third of the length of vessel, viz., 90 ft. amid- 
 ships, and to graduate to 22 in. at the bow and stern; 
 frames 4^ x 3J x J in., with floor angle irons 3 and 4 ft. 
 long, to connect the two sides of ship together ; the frames 
 to be in one piece. 
 
 Reverse Frames. — Of angle irons 3 x 2f x f In., in way 
 of paddle boxes and engine room, all to be carried tip to 
 the gunwale ; in the rest of the vessel to be carried up to 
 gunwale and to the turn of bilge alternately. 
 
 Floors. — Of plates 18 in. deep at middle line, by | in. 
 thick, secured to the keelson by angle iron bracket 
 3 X 2| X I in. 
 
 Hull Plates, — Garboard strakes for 150 ft. amidships f in. 
 plates 4 ft. broad, the remainder to be | in., thence to the 
 turn of bilges ^ in.; bilge to wales, ^ in.; wales, -^ in.; 
 topsides, ^ in. ; sheerstrake, iV in., reduced -^ at each end 
 of vessel. 
 
 Rivettvng. — Rivets to be of the very best quality, fuU size, 
 to suit plates, according to Lloyds' Rules, aU the bottom 
 plates to be double rivetted, also all the butts, garboard, and 
 sheerstrake ; the rest of the vessel to be single rivetted with 
 the exception of the stem, sternpost, keel, breasthooks, 
 transoms, plates of beams, and all longitudinal and diagonal 
 ties, which must be double rivetted; frames and reverse 
 frames to be rivetted with holes every 6 in. in the outw'ard 
 flange ; behind each frame a filling piece or liner to be fitted 
 of the necessary thickness ; the whole of the strips or butts 
 to be tV in. thicker than the plates to which they are to 
 be attached, and all the rivet holes to be well counter- 
 sunk. 
 
 Engine and Boiler Bearers. — To be suitable to the en- 
 gines as may be required by the engineers, and to be carried 
 as far forward and aft as the form of the vessel wiU allow ; 
 thrust beams of strong proportions, well tied together ; also 
 diagonal braces to be fitted at crank hatches, to take the 
 thrust of the engines. 
 
 Beam,s. — Upper deck beams to be on every alternate' 
 frame, formed of bulb iron 7 X xV i^-j with two angle irons 
 on top edge 3 x 3 x f in., to be well secured to side of 
 vessel by knee plates, and rivetted to stringers, and sup- 
 ported by iron stanchions on every other one ; lower deck 
 beams 6 X | in. bulb iron, with two angle irons on top 
 edge 3 X 2^ X xV ^-t to be secured in the same manner as 
 upper deck beams. Where beams cannot be placed in en- 
 gine and boiler space, to be strengthened by other means as 
 required. 
 
 Beam Ties. — Of plates 10 x ^ in. on each side of hatches 
 right fore and aft. 
 
 Diagonal Ties. — Of plate 8 x f in. wherever available 
 fore and aft. 
 
 Stringers. — On main deck 22 in. by ^ in., tapering to 
 18 in. forward and aft, secured to gunwale by angle irons, 
 and rivetted to every beam; angle irons 4 X 3 x i^ in., 
 fitted home and rivetted to the outside plating ; in way of 
 paddle shaft to be strengthened by two strong angle irons 
 as shall hereafter be determined upon; stringer on' lower 
 deck 18 X fin., secured as the former; bilge stringer of 
 bulb iron, with double angle irons running all fore and 
 aft. 
 
 27 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Bulkheads. — To have 2 engine-room bulkheads, a bulk- 
 head at fore-peak, about 15 ft. from the bow; 1 in fore- 
 ■ hold, and 1 in after-hold, formed of plates |- in. thick, with 
 angle iron stiffeners about 30 in. apart, secured to the ship's 
 side by angle iron, and all to be well caulked and made per- 
 fectly watertight, and fitted with sluice valves leading to 
 the upper deck; bulkheads to be carefully fitted between 
 engine-room and stokehole, with watertight doors. 
 
 Midship Section,* &c., of 
 " LY-EE-MOON." 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 Topgallcmt Forecastle.— To be 25 ft. in length, and plated 
 outside with f in. plates. 
 
 Pillars or Hold Stanchions. — To be 2J in. round iron, or 
 3 in. hollow tube. 
 
 Rudder. — Diameter 5 in., tapering to 3 in. at the heel, 
 plated with f in. plates ; to be of the best scrap iron, fitted 
 with four pintles 3J in. diameter, or of such dimensions as 
 shall be determined upon; also to have one spare iron 
 tiller. 
 
 * Note. — In midship section keelsons are not shown, as they are compen- 
 sated for by the engine and boiler bearers running all fore and aft the 
 vessel. 
 
 Crutches. — To be fitted at both stem and stern to support 
 the fine ends of the vessel. 
 
 Breasthooks. — To have 5 breasthooks, each 7 ft. long by 
 J in. thick, secured to the frames with reverse angle irons, 
 and well rivetted across the bow ; also an apron piece from 
 deck to stem, bolted and made properly watertight. 
 
 Goal Bunkers. — To be capable of containing 250 tons of 
 coals ; plating to be yV in. thick, stiffened by angle irons 
 3 X 3 X f in., spaced about 30 in. apart; iron stays across 
 bunkers as requisite ; to be fitted with feeding and trim- 
 ming doors and scuttles on upper deck as required. 
 
 Paddle Beams. — To be made of a box form 21 in. deep at 
 the sides and 18 in. at the centre; plates | in. thick, stif- 
 fened with 4 bars of angle iron 4 x 4 x J in., each beam 
 to be made in three lengths, and rivetted at the sides of the 
 vessel. 
 
 Paddle Beam Stays. — To be double, and to consist of two 
 bars of round iron 3| in. diameter, secured by a broad foot 
 to the vessel's side, and to be trussed above by rods 2 in. 
 diameter, with regulating screws passing over ixpright stan- 
 chions about 8 ft. high by 3 J in. and 2| in. diameter, rest- 
 ing upon gunwale of main deck. 
 
 Paddle Boxes. — The sides next engines to be made of 
 iron, and to be worked at both ends into the sponsons ; 
 sponsons to be properly strengthened and fitted for working 
 a 56 cwt. gun if necessary, on fore and after parts ; wood- 
 work of best materials, and well fitted ; not required to be . 
 of teak. 
 
 Hawse Pipes. — Of wrought iron, with cast-iron flanges 
 securely rivetted to the vessel's side, two forward and two 
 aft, also two on quarters, and bow of cast iron, with hawser 
 bitts, cleats, &c. 
 
 Frame Work. — For engines and boilers, and all provisions 
 for carrying the shafts, including sleepers, stays and deck 
 beams — these to be provided as may be required for the pro- 
 per support of the machinery. 
 
 Transoms. — To be of plates 7 in. wide by \ in. thick, and 
 secured with angle irons 4^ x 2f x ^ in., rivetted to the 
 frames. 
 
 Channel Plates. — Of sufficient strength as shall be ap- 
 proved, rivetted and well secured. 
 
 Rudder Trunk — To be of |- in. plates, and well secured 
 to the sternpost. 
 
 28 
 
Practical Shipbuilding; 
 
 WOODWOBK, &c. 
 Upper Decks.— To be of best East India teak 6x3 in., 
 well secured to all the beams by galvanized through bolts 
 and nuts, and strengthened to carry two pivot guns of 56 
 . cwt. each, caulked and payed with best marine glue ; fore- 
 castle deck of East India teak 4x2 in., payed same as 
 upper deck. 
 
 Lower Deck — To be of yellow pine 4 x 2| in. in after 
 accommodation, and 6 x 2|- in. forward, payed as other 
 decks. 
 
 Waterways and Planlcsheer. — Planksheer to be 4 in. East 
 India teak. Waterways on upper deck of teak 7J in., and 
 according to Lloyds' Rules in tables A or B, as shall be de- 
 termined upon for a vessel of A 1 grade. Waterways to be 
 fastened with screw bolts 1 in. diameter, with nuts at under- 
 side 6f stringer plate. Lower deck waterways of red pine 
 12 X 5 in. 
 
 Roughtree Rail. — Of East India teak 9 X 4| in. Eough- 
 ti-ee timbers of teak 7 X 6 in., properly spaced and caulked. 
 
 Combings a/nd Head Ledges. — To be of East India teak, 
 4 in. and 3|- in. thick, to stand about 12 in. above decks, 
 and to be lined with iron plate where required. 
 
 Berthmg. — ^To be of well-seasoned yellow pine 2 in. thick 
 at bottom, diminishing to 1 in. at top. 
 
 Ceiling. — To have-a platform' in holds of yellow pine 2 in. 
 thick, with battens 4x2 in., spaced 4 in. apart, and so fas- 
 V tened to the reverse angle irons or frames, that they can be 
 readily removed for survey and painting. 
 
 Skylights and Com/panions. — To be of East India teak ; 
 skylights to be large and lofty, with oval ends, flaps, and 
 side ventilation, glazed with plate glass, and brass guards 
 aft, and galvanized iron rods forward. Companion aft to 
 have a broad circular staircase leading into saloon, with 
 slate steps, brass guards, iron railings, and mahogany 
 banister; engine-room, skylight, and companions as re- 
 quired. 
 
 Head, Stern, and Quarter Badges.— To be handsomely 
 carved, elliptical stern, fitted for anchoring and getting un- 
 der weigh, 'the same manner as forward by capstan, &c. 
 
 Ladders.— k\\ to be made of teak ; gangway ladders, one 
 on each side, complete ; bridge, forecastle, and promenade 
 deck ladders as required. 
 
 Boats' Davits.— To have davits for 4 boats, 2 to be fitted 
 
 with Clifford's Patent, aU to be fitted on Guthrie's lowering 
 plan, and to be of the required height, with gear complete. 
 
 Awning Stanchions. — Of iron, 2 in. diameter, fore and 
 aft ; the vessel of sufficient height. 
 
 Gooh Houses. — Two cook-houses, to be of iron of suitable 
 dimensions, and properly fitted. 
 
 Cabins, &c. — To have a saloon aft, with 3 state rooms 
 across the stern, 2 sleeping berths in each, 2 sofa berths 
 on each side of saloon, pantiy, bath-room, and 2 water- 
 closets ; also a double state-room athwartships ; height be- 
 tween decks 8 ft.; fittings to be of well-seasoned yellow 
 pine ; paint work white and gold, with pitch pine panelling, 
 polished, and ventilation of the most perfect description. 
 Robinson's patent plan of the above to be submitted for 
 approval. Store-rooms, magazine, lockers, ice-rooms, &c., 
 all properly fitted underneath cabins. Fore-cabin accom- 
 modation below for 3 officers and 4 engineers, consisting of 
 7 state-rooms, with mess-room and pantry; fittings to be of 
 yellow pine; paint work, graining, and white; ventilation 
 same as aft, with good companion staircase. To have a 
 pavilion house on deck, aft, 16 x 10 ft., with full height 
 entrance to saloon, and fitted up as an armoury and smok- 
 ing-room, with separate entrance, glazed, and Venetian 
 sashes all round ; mahogany fittings for small arms ; draw- 
 ing to be submitted. Forward on deck a wheel-house, 
 8x8 ft., containing steering apparatus, worked by gal- 
 vanized iron chains and rods, through lignum vitje rollers, 
 the tiller, if fitted below, to work in a casing ; if on deck, to,, 
 be covered with a teak grating ; a spare tiller to be fitted 
 to the rudder, to be used by relieving tackles; steering 
 platform to be 4 ft. above main deck, with a double roof. 
 Captain's cabin adjoining, 8x8 ft., ventilation, &c., as may 
 be required, and the roof as above; all external woodwork 
 to be of East India t^ak. Sufficient accommodation in the 
 fore-peak for crew, firemen, and petty officers. 
 
 Bridge. — Bridge and platform deck between paddle boxes, 
 extending over the deck houses, with gratings over the en- 
 gine-room, skylight, or hatches ; the woodwork of teak. 
 
 Cisterns. — To be fitted for bath-rooms and water-closets 
 on quarter deck, covered with teak. 
 
 Scwppers. — To have 8 large scuppers, properly fitted 
 where required. 
 
 Ports. — Where required forward'and aft ; in the way of 
 cabins about 2 ft. 2 in. x 1 ft. 3 in., with small brass 
 scuttles ; large scuttles in the space of crew accommo- 
 dation. 
 
 29 
 
Practical Shipbuilding. 
 
 Store-rooms. — Store-rooms, sail-room, lockers, &c,, of suit- 
 able description. 
 
 Water Tanks. — 4 water tanks, to contain 600 gallons 
 each, fitted below, with coimections to each, and pump to 
 work on deck; also 2 tanks, holding 150 gallons each, on 
 deck, with taps, &c., complete. 
 
 PU Tanks. — Engineers' stores to be provided by the 
 owners. 
 
 Bells am,d, Belfry. — 1 large and 1 small bell, with ship's 
 name engraved thereon. 
 
 Painting and Varnishing. — The whole of the wood and 
 ironwork to receive 1 coat of priming and 3 good coats of 
 paint or varnish, as may be required. 
 
 Masts, &o. — Foremast and bowsprit to be hoUow cylinders, 
 strengthened by means of internal stays of T iron ; the for- 
 mer to be about 80 ft. long by 24 in. diameter, fitted with a 
 small top, furnished in the usual manner for the yards, &c. : 
 the mainmast to serve as a ventilator to engine-room. 
 
 Hatchways — To be properly framed with East India teak 
 12 X 4J in., lined inside and on top edges with iron, fitted 
 with hatches, hatchway ladders, gratings, hatch bars, and 
 iron battens. 
 
 Catheads and Fish Davits. — 2 on each bow, of suitable 
 dimensions, with brass sheaves. 
 
 Bulwarks, — To be 4 ft. 8 in, high, of well-seasoned yellow 
 pine, fitted with ports and wash boards as required; mould- 
 ings of teak. 
 
 Chain LocJcers, — With shoots or tnuiks leading to them 
 in the hold. 
 
 Exceptions. — ^The following articles to be supplied by the 
 owners (hut all fittings and workmanshi/p appertaining 
 to the hull mil be supplied hy the builders)— iiJ[XQh.oxs, 
 chain cables, capstans, windlass stoppers, winches, der- 
 ricks, deck ventilators, patent water-closets, urinals, all 
 pumps, hoses, cooking apparatus, arms, ,&c. ; masts and 
 blocks, sails, awnings, and covers, rigging and hawsers, 
 colours, signals, binnacles and compasses, boatswains', car- 
 penters,' ship chandlers', 'and coopers' stores ; cook-houses, 
 stoves, and all gear on deck; cabin furniture, boats, life- 
 buoys, and everything pertaining to ornaments; upholstery, 
 . outfit, ship's and steward's stores. 
 
 With the foregoing exceptions, the hull of the vessel, to- 
 gether with iron foremast, mainmast, and bowsprit, to be 
 
 complete ; all material and workmanship of the best descrip- 
 tion of their respective kinds.* 
 
 IRON PADDLE WHEEL PASSENGER STEAMER 
 
 "LADY OF THE LAKE." 
 
 (Illustrated by Plate 9.) 
 
 This vessel was built for the Southampton and Isle of 
 Wight Steam Navigation Company, from the designs of Mr. 
 James Ash, Naval Architect, London. Her engines were con- 
 structed by Messrs. Stewart and Sons, of Blackwall, and are 
 of the colltective power of sixty horses. She attained on 
 her trial trip the speed of 16 miles per hour, and has since 
 continued to give highly satisfactory results in her actual 
 performances. She is of a design of vessels weU suited for 
 passenger traffic in the estuary of any river, or for crossing 
 narrow channels. The accompanying wood block, of body 
 plan, with various sections of frames of the Lady of the LaJce 
 will enable any of our readers who may desire, to run out 
 her lines; the frames from post to No. 80 are spaced 22 in. 
 apart; from No. 80 to No. 68, spaced 21 in. apart; from No. 
 68 to 60, 19 in, apart; 60 to 36, 18 in. apart; 36 to 28, 
 19 in. apart; 28 to 20, 20 in. apart; 20 to 12, 21 in. apart; 
 and 12 to stem, spaced 22 in. apart. Below are the dimen- 
 sions, with an outline specification: — 
 
 Ft. In. ' 
 Length between the perpendiculars . . . 140 
 
 Breadth, extreme 18 
 
 Depth of hold (about) 7 6 
 
 Burthen in Tons (B.M,) 222JJ tons. 
 
 Stem. — To be of bar iron 4^ x f in. 
 
 Sternpost. — Of bar iron 4J x 2 in, at head, tapering to 
 I in. at heel 
 
 Frames. — Of angle irons 3 x 2J x J in., spaced a dis- 
 tance of 18 in, apart in engine-room, centre to centre, in- 
 creasing gradually forward and aft to 22 in, apart. 
 
 Floors,- 
 thick. 
 
 -Of plates 6 in, deep at middle line and J in. 
 
 Reverse Irons. — Of angle irons 2J x 2 x J in. on top of 
 floors, carried up to gunwale in engine space. 
 
 Keelsons and Boiler Bearers. — To suit the engines as may 
 be required. 
 
 * Note. — We would recommend for a vessel o£ this class and dimensions 
 that the stringer plate on upper deck should be at least 36 in. wide in the 
 midship portion, and g in. thick, and the sheerstrake to be doubled for say- 
 half the vessel's length amidships at least, and to be connected by treble 
 ri vetted butt straps,— Editor. 
 
 30 
 
wsj-iii^^^^m^^'t^ ''*^ ^ 
 
Fl C. I . ELEVATION. 
 
 /J/:.S/0\V/';/) BY .M« JAMES .IS/f, 
 BUILT BY THE THAMES IRON WORKS COMPANY 
 
 r s.n !ric!i 'o 1 l-'oiiL. 
 
 '^~;'^"'^7 — ' ■ — •■■ •■■_ ----.^^~^ — ^^.^ 
 
 iggtfcggMriinfari./- J-=4». 1 1 lU ' I t "'-H*--t'^^°^?F'^^F^°^ 
 
 itas^^^^ fag : t T aJ s^g»agik'^aiigsaEa^BBliiigs<-ia!fl!i 
 
 ^^BP^^ ha^ iiJ H i^ gessagi ^s^iaa 
 
G-t. c r Ij : n p 
 
 ^W<^^^M^SS>^^^M 
 
 s 
 
 
 .-.^... 
 
Pbactioal Shipbuilding. 
 
 Beams. — Of angle irons 
 3 X 2J X I in. on every 
 alternate frame far as prac- 
 ticaible. 
 
 Chjumvala Stri/nger. — Of 
 plates 12 in, wide by I in. 
 thick, with angle irons 
 2^ X 2 X t in. 
 
 . Platmg. — Keel plate f in. 
 thick, sheerstrake -jV in- 
 thick, and all other plates 
 ^ in. . thick, single rivetted 
 throughout, 
 
 ' JBidkheads. — 3 in num- 
 ber, of plates \ in. thick, 
 with angle irons to stiffen 
 same 2 x 2 x -J in., spaced 
 about 3 ft, apart. 
 
 Rudder. — Main piece 2 
 in. diameter at head and 
 If in. at heel, plated with 
 i x\ ^^- plates. 
 
 Woodwork and General Outfit. — DecJc. — ^To be of yellow 
 pine 6 X 2J in., fastened with f in. galvanized bolts and nuts. 
 
 Waterways. — Of red pine 10 x 4 in. 
 
 Bou^htree Timbers. — ^To be of Dantzic oak or teak 
 4J X 4 in. 
 
 Boughtree Bail.— Of American ehn 6 x 2^ in. 
 
 Combmgs and Head Ledges.— Oi red pine 9 x 3 in. 
 
 Ghavns and Anchors.— 'io be supplied with 60 fathoms 
 of I in. close link chain, 1 anchor of 6 cwt. and 1 of 3 cwt. 
 
 Boat— To have 1 boat 16 ft. long. 
 
 Hawsers.— 'io have 1 hawser 5 in., and 1 warp ^ in. 
 
 Pttmps, <&c.— To have 2 suitable pumps, with working 
 gear complete; also 2 properly-constructed water-closets, 
 with cisterns, &c. 
 
 Cabw Accomrnodation.—T^o be for first and second-class 
 passengers, as shown on drawings; the first-class saloon 
 cabin to have numerous plate glass windows and maho- 
 gany fittings, seats and velvet plush cushions, tables, pier 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 glass, &c. The second-class cabin to be fitted with seats, 
 and enamelled cloth cushions, tables, &c. Both cabins to be 
 warmed with hot water pipes. Seats to be fitted round the 
 stem of the vessel as far forvyard as the ladies' cabin — shown 
 on plans. 
 
 Head. — ^To have a neatly carved figure head, finished in 
 white and gold. 
 
 Outfit. — ^To have signal lights, bell, stoves for cabins, bin- 
 nacle and compass properly adjusted, buckets and Hfe buoys. 
 
 Painting. — The whole of the wood and iron to have a 
 sufficient number of coats of good oil paint to bring up a pro- 
 per durable body. 
 
 Materials and Workmanship. — To be the best of their 
 respective kinds, subject to inspection ; a passenger certifi- 
 cate to be obtained from the Board of Trade. 
 
 Engi/nes. — The vessel to be fitted with London-made 
 oscillating engines of 60 horse power nominal, from 25 to 
 30 ib. pressure, fitted with superheating apparatus, and the 
 boiler to be proved up to 60 lb. to the square inch, hydraulic 
 pressure. A speed on trial of 15 statute miles per hour to 
 be guaranteed, and vessel and engine guaranteed for 12 
 calendar months from the date of delivery against any 
 defect arising from imperfect materials or workmanship. 
 
 31 
 
On Energy. 
 
 ■ i^. ON ENERGY. 
 
 f,v BY E. S. BALL, ^M.A., LL.D.,, 
 
 PEOraasoK or APPLiiD mathematics and mechanism,' boyal collboe 
 
 j , OF SCIENCE rOK IBELAND (BEING THE SUBSTANCE OF A DISCOTJKSB 
 I / ' BELIVEBED BY HIM). , , 
 
 Is f' : ■ 
 
 V INTRODUCTION. 
 
 TpB science of energy has been developed within the last 
 tyenty-five years, and appears to have a grand ' future, as 
 intimately connected with astronomy mechanics, hght, heat, 
 magnetism, electricity, even with life itself — ^leads us back 
 through periods compared with which geological time is as 
 nothing, and, like a time telescope points out the ultimate 
 destiny' of the universe. 
 
 h' ". / • ENERGY. 
 
 ;Ep,ergy is the capacity for raising weights. Distinction 
 between Force and Energy — Energy is the product of a 
 fof^sif and, a distance ; the unit of energy is the energy' re- 
 qujried to overcome the unit of force through the unit of 
 di^tflJice. Energy can be stored in a rapidly moving fly- 
 wheel, ''iThis is demonstrated by experiment. , Energy.,, is„ 
 also stored in any body moving rapidly ; for example, a 
 cannon ball. Energy of this kind is temded kinetic energy. 
 A steam engine is the meaps of turning into mechanical 
 work a portion of the energy contained in the coal con- 
 sumed in the furnace. Heat may be turned into mechanical 
 work in other ways ; for example, by a thermo-electric bat- 
 tery. The energy stored up in coal is denominated poten- 
 tial energy ; gunpowder, and a compressed spring, are other 
 forms of potential energy. Food and fuel are both forms of 
 potential energy ; but the former has to replace the wear 
 and tear of the machine which consumes it, which the latter 
 has not. Energy can be changed from one form into 
 another. The potential energy of the body may be turned 
 into mechanical work by raising a weight ; into kinetic 
 energy by setting a wheel in motion ; into heat by friction ; 
 into electricity, heat, and light by "Wilde's electric machine. 
 A piece of zinc may be burned in a stream of oxygen. The 
 potential energy is turned into light and heat, but the zinc 
 might be burnt slowly in a battery ; it would then develop 
 electricity, which may be turned into kinetic energy by an 
 electro-magnetic engine, or into light, sound, and heat by a 
 RhumkorfTs coil. 
 
 INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF ENERGY. 
 If energy disappears in one form it re-appears in another. 
 A hammered nail on an anvil becomes hot; the energy 
 
 which inoyes.the' hammer is transformed into heat in the. 
 nan — it is not; lost. Friction appears to consume energy, 
 but heat is produced sufficient to boil ether or water .when 
 properly appphed. The kinetic energy of a rotating toothed 
 wheel can be transformed into sound by Savart's apparatus. 
 
 . ■':,■' ENERGY CANNOT BE CREATED. 
 
 .Perpetual Motion is impossible, because some energy is 
 always uselessly expended in friction in every machine, 
 and energy cannot be created. A water-wheel could not 
 pump up sufficient water to supply itself. It has been 
 fallaciously proposed to work a magneto-electric machine 
 by a steam engine ; to decompose water with the electricity, 
 and sustain the action of the steam engine by the heat, 
 developed by burning the oxygen and hydrogen produced 
 by the decomposition. The steam engine could not decom- 
 pose enough water for the purpose. Since energy cannot 
 be destroyed, and cannot be created, the quantity of energy 
 in the universe must remain constant ; this is the principle 
 of the conservation of energy. 
 
 :i,i.:„..irH-E".i>isTRiBUTiON of energy throughout the 
 
 UNIVERSE. 
 
 The different forms of energy on the earth, whether derived 
 from food, fuel, wind, or water, can be traced to the heat 
 radiated from the sun. The heat is sustained in the sun 
 by the transformation of potential energy into heat due to 
 the sun's contraction. If the diameter of the sun dimin- 
 ished laooo P^^t, heat sufficient to supply the present loss 
 by radiation for 2,000 years would be produced. The heat 
 of the stars represents a prodigious quantity of energy. 
 The earth has a store of potential energy, due to its distance 
 from the sun. This energy is equivalent to as much heat 
 as would be produced by the combustion of 6,000 globes of 
 coal, each as large as the earth. The earth also has an 
 amount of energy due to its velocity in its orbit, equal to 
 that which would be produced by the combustion of 14 
 globes of coal of its own size. To this must be added a 
 quantity of energy due to the rotation of the earth on 
 its axis. 
 
 THE DISSIPATION OF ENERGY. 
 
 The Planets, since they are not rigid bodies, must ulti- 
 mately faU into the sun. Heat diffuses itself, but heat cannot 
 be turned into mechanical energy, unless when transferred 
 from , a hot body to a cold body. When, therefore, by thjj 
 diffusion of heat, the temperature is uniform throughout 
 the universe, mechanical work must cease. 
 
 T 
 
 32 
 
VHE^^ 01-' TMiE OPEMNG OF TIB[]E gfOCXTOr^ AH ID) BA^liL^INl 
 
 
 ^^. .-V-:. --^i^Mf r^'^^^> 
 
 . ■*/■ 
 
 
 
 ^'y^'y-pe//,,z^ In^'7^;,^Al Pf'""'' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ ■'.■■- ■:;-S^'■2v^•^•';/"^'"'*'~?^V^"i?^'■' 
 
 ^.'■'^i^^vji-i!:;- 
 
 Crf.-v>>« 
 
 •^^^ 
 
 vv 
 
 ^//, 
 
 'T^^.c 
 
 Tramof Wa/^^ons drav>n fry a Zoco-/7w/7/'c E/zr/i/tf.. 
 
4f,LlfTtX tUttf S' t.OI»m9M,W.C 
 
Railways and the Locomotiue Engine. 
 
 #n ^litilixrsg-s. 
 
 No poetry in Raili'oads? foolish thought 
 Of a dull brain, to no fine music wrought 
 By Mammon dazzled, though tlio people prize 
 The gold alone, yet shall not wo dospiao 
 The triumphs of our time, or fail to aeo 
 Of pregnant mind the fruitful progeny, 
 Ushering the daylight of the world's new mom. 
 Look up, ye doubters, bo no more forlorn ! — 
 Smooth your rough brows, ye little wise : rejoice, 
 Ye who despond : and with exulting voice 
 Salute, ye earnest spirits of our time, 
 The young Improvement ripening to her prime. 
 Who, in the fulness of her genial youth. 
 Prepares the way for Freedom and for Truth, 
 And breaks the barriers that, since earth began, 
 Have made mankind a foreigner to man. 
 
 Lay down your rails, ye nations, near and far ; 
 Yoke your full trains to Steam's triumphal car ; 
 Link town to town : and in these iron bands 
 Unite the estranged, and oft embattled lands. 
 
 Peace and Improvement round each train shall soar, 
 And Knowledge light tho Ignorance of yore ; — 
 Men, joined in amity, shall wonder long 
 That Hate had power to lead their- fathers wror(g: 
 Or that false glory lured their hearts astray. 
 And made it virtuous and sublime to slay. 
 
 Blessings on Science ! When the earth seemed old. 
 When Faith grow doting, and tho Reaaou cold, 
 'Twas she diaoovered that the world was young, 
 And taught a language to its lisping tongue : 
 'Twaa she disclosed a future to its view, 
 And made old knowledge pale before the new. 
 
 Blessings on Science, and her handmaid Steam ! 
 They make Utopia only half a dream ; 
 And show the fervent, of capacious souls, 
 Who watch the ball of Progress as it rolls. 
 That all as yet completed or begun. 
 Is but the dawning that precedes the sun. 
 
 Chakies Maokay. 
 
 THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE FIRST PASSENGER 
 
 RAILWAYS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 {Illustrated by Plate 1.) 
 
 [In the following chapters will be found an historical, statistical, 
 and general summary of the introduction of the Railway System and 
 the Locomotive Engine into this country, and a Report of the Jufeilee 
 Meeting, held September, 1875.*] 
 
 Fifty years ago there were only twenty-five miles of public 
 railroad open in the world — the Stockton and Darlington 
 line — constructed at a cost of less than £150,000. It is esti- 
 mated that there are now constructed one hundred and sixty 
 thousand miles of railway, which, at an average cost of 
 £20,000 per mile, represent a total sum of 3,200 'millions 
 sterling. Then there were only two Locomotive Engines 
 available for use on a public railway. Now there are 50,000 
 locomotives in use, representing a total power equal to that 
 of ten million horses. Fifty years ago the railway interest 
 
 * We are indebted to the historian of the event and to the Directors of 
 the North-Eastern Railway, who so obligingly placed the records of that 
 event at the disposal of the public, for the bulk of the information we were 
 enabled to collect, and now utilize in a connected form. 
 
 employed less than three hundred hands. Now it employs 
 more than three himdred thousand in Great Britain alone. 
 In the year 1844 — when we get fairly into the railway era 
 — the gross annual value of the lands, railways, canals, &c., 
 of Great Britain was only £95,300,248; In 1873, and mainly 
 in consequence of the development of railways, it had in- 
 creased to £212,922,851. Incomes from trades and profes- 
 sions have advanced during the same period with equally re- 
 markable strides — their gross annual value being £65,095,191 
 in 1844, and £197,237,339 in 1873. From these figures, 
 which can only be taken as approximate, we may form some 
 adequate idea of what railways have done for the world. 
 
 When the vast magnitude and extraordinary importance 
 of the railway system are taken into consideration, it will 
 appear somewhat singular, if not altogether unaccountable, 
 that the materials for a historical record of the first public 
 railway had not been collected together until the prepara- 
 tion for the Jubilee celebration, and yet such is the fact. 
 
 The first public railway was the Stockton and Darlington, 
 and its formal opening took place on the 27th of September, 
 1825. 
 
 33 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 The occasion of the Jubilee celebration of the Stockton 
 and Darlington Railway seemed to the directors of that line 
 to afford a suitable and auspicious occasion for supplyin"' 
 the greatest missing link in the literature of railways, to 
 enable those who are interested in the subject to know 
 something more than otherwise could be known of the be- 
 ginnings of the railway system. General histories of the 
 railway system have boon written over and over again. In- 
 dividual railways, moreover, have had their individual his- 
 torians, from the time of Mr. Booth, who published in 1830 
 his " Historical Account of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway," down to the present date. An exhaustive review 
 of the progress of railways at home and abroad will not, 
 therefore, be attempted in these pages. Such a theme would 
 demand limits far in excess of those prescribed within the 
 space at our disposal. It will only therefore be necessary to 
 deal briefly with the antecedent events which ushered in the 
 dawn and facilitated the development of the railway system, 
 as well as to review some of the consequences that have fol- 
 lowed from that development. Looked at from this point 
 of view, it may fairly be argued that the history of the first ' 
 public railway has gained by lapse of time. Had it been 
 attempted earlier, the historian might, indeed, have laid a 
 more elaborate foundation, but he could not have raised such 
 a wonderful superstructure. Not even the most sanguine 
 exponent of the merits and advantages of the railway systern 
 could have foreseen, at- any time within twenty years after 
 the germs of success had taken root at Darhngton, that the 
 extent and importance of railways would have become such 
 as they now are. Their progress has transcended all that 
 was ever hojied for or believed in. The past and the pre- 
 sent ai-e now sufficiently within the range of our knowledge 
 to enable us to judgp of the future, and to appreciate more 
 justly than could possibly have been done at any previous 
 date, the momentous and far-reaching results of the work 
 that was consummated by the pioneers of the first public 
 railway on the 27th of Sej)tember, 1825. 
 
 It has been remarked that it is a common error to sup- 
 pose that there w,ero neither railways nor locomotives .before 
 the era of George Stejihenson, Edward Pease, and the Stock- 
 ton and Darlington Railway. The fact is, that mechanical 
 locomotion, by the adhesion of the rim of a loaded wheel to 
 the surface upon which it rolled, while being forced to re- 
 volve by some tangential force, is very old. Camus, who 
 was born in 1672, and died in 1732, had in 1729 made an 
 automaton coach and horses for Louis XIV. Other me- 
 chanicians had made automata which were supplied with 
 power by the relaxation of a wound-up spring. 
 
 We find again, that in 1759 the possibility of producing 
 locomotion on land by steam-power was suggested by Dr. 
 Robison, of Scotland ; and in 1772 Oliver Evans, in America, 
 promulgated the same theory in relation to the engine with 
 which his name is identified. James "Watt, the principal 
 
 inventor of the steam engine, patented in 1784 an applica- 
 tion of his engine to the movement of carriages. His patent, 
 however, was allowed to lapse without coming to any prac- 
 tical result, and it has been contended by men of science 
 that the condensing-engine, which was Watts' special fa- 
 vourite, was not quite applicable to locomotive purposes. 
 
 Symington, again, proposed steam locomotion in 1784, 
 and actually succeeded in applying it to the purposes of na- 
 vigation, under the auspices of Mr. Millar, of Dalswinton, in 
 Dumfriesshire. In the following year Symington prepared 
 plans for the construction at the Carron Works, of an engine 
 of twelve horse power ; and this engine, when fitted up in a 
 strong boat, succeeded in drawing barges along the Forth 
 and Clyde Canal at the rate of nearly seven miles an hour. 
 
 In 1802-3 Trevethick completed a high-pressure locomotive 
 engine, which was considerably in advance of anything that 
 had been accomplished up to that time. This engine was 
 in 1804 tried in Wales, but was abandoned on account of 
 mechanical defects. It is, however, claimed for Trevethick 
 that he was the first to observe the value of the draught 
 produced by the escape steam in the chimney, and that at 
 this period he fully knew and asserted that the increase of 
 speed upon a railway was only a question of increased pro- 
 duction of steam. It is said* that the engine erected by 
 Trevethick had only one cylinder and a fly-wheel to secure 
 rotary motion at the end of each stroke. An engine of this 
 sort was sent to the North, for Mr. Blackett, of Wylam, but 
 for some cause or other it was never used upon his railroad ; 
 and it was eventually appUed to blow a cupola at an iron 
 foundry in Newcastle. 
 
 In 1811 Mr. Blenkinsop took out a patent for a locomo- 
 tive engine, working by a rack or toothed rail, which was 
 employed at the Middleton Colliery, near Leeds, in 1812 ; 
 and an engine of this description was employed on the Cox 
 Lodge Colliery Railway in 1813. 
 
 About this time a great amount of mechanical ingenuity 
 appears to have been bestowed on the attempt to solve the 
 problem of steam locomotion. Mr. Nicholas Wood speaks 
 of an engine constructed by Chapman, which was worked 
 by an endless chain, and which was placed on the Heaton 
 Colliery Railway in 1813. Another engine, constructed or 
 designed by Mr. Hedley, of Wylam, commenced working on 
 the Wylam Railway in the early part of the same year. 
 This railway was a cast-iron tramroad ; and Mr. Hedley, 
 being doubtful whether the adhesion of the wheels upon the 
 railway was sufficient for the engine to propel itself and also 
 a load forward, had some experiments made for that purpose 
 on the Wylam Railway. The result was, " that the friction 
 of the wheels of the experimental carriage (constructed 
 specially for the purpose) alone upon the rails, when it ap- 
 proached to the weight of an eijgine carriage, was sufficient 
 
 * In Nioliolas Wood's Work on Railways. 
 
 34 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 to enable it to overcome the resistance of an attached chain 
 of carriages." 
 
 It may be noted that Mr. Hedley's " Puffing Billy " is now 
 .exhibited in the Patent Office Museum, South Kensington, 
 as " the oldest engine in existence." It was in constant 
 operation until its removal from Wylam to the Patent Office 
 Museum, on the Gth of Juno, 1862. The first locomotive en- 
 gine which propelled itself by the adhesion of its wheels on 
 the round top-rails was erected at Killingworth, and tried 
 on the railway connected with that colliery on the 27th of 
 June, 1814. The steepest gradient on that line was 1 in 
 450, and this the locomotive ascended with eight loaded 
 waggons, weighing in all about thirty tons, at the rate of 
 four miles an hour. This engine Avas the result of the joint 
 experiments and amalgamated skill of George Stephenson and 
 Nicholas Wood. The latter tells us that "soon after Ste- 
 phenson had become established as engineer to the partner- 
 ship collieries in 1818, liis attention was drawn to the cost 
 of convoying the Killingworth coals by horses, where one 
 horse only took three chaldron waggons, or about eight tons 
 of coal at a time. He had inspected the locomotives at 
 Heaton and Cox Lodge, which had been abandoned, and 
 that at Wylam, which was at work ; and with this limited 
 information of what had been done, he set to work to con- 
 struct an engine of his own. The first question that pre- 
 sented itself for solution related to the adhesion of wheels 
 upon the round top-rails; and several experiments were 
 made by Stephenson and myself as to the adhesion on such 
 rails. Having been satisfied on this point, Stephenson dis- 
 carded any extraneous assistance to propel the engine for- 
 ward, such as was employed by Chapman, Brunton, or 
 Blenkinsop, simply coupling all the engine-wheels to- 
 gether, so as to have the adhesion of the sole weight of the 
 engine." 
 
 For nearly fourteen years, therefore, previous to his under- 
 taking the construction of the Stockton and Darlington 
 Railway, George Stephenson had not only identified himself 
 with the improvement of locomotive engines, but had suc- 
 cessfully applied steam locomotion to colliery purposes. 
 During that interval many successive improvements were 
 made upon the locomotive engine. Cog-wheels were first 
 superseded by an endless chain, and afterwards by a system 
 of cranks with side-rods. Stephenson also applied two cylin- 
 ders in his Killingworth engine, improved the mode of com- 
 municating the action of the pistons to the driving-wheels, 
 and was responsible for the application of the power of ad- 
 hesion on the round top-rails to propel the engine and its 
 load, without the intervention of racked rails or other con- 
 trivances used to propel the engine forward. It was not, 
 however, by the improvement of the locomotive alone that 
 Stephenson hastened the inauguration of the railway system; 
 there were many other economic and mechanical difficulties 
 to conquer. The mode of constructing and laying down 
 
 lines of rails was susceptible of immense advances towards 
 perfection. Long previous to Stephenson's time, lines of 
 railway were employed at collieries and elsewhere for the 
 purpose of facilitating and lightening the labours of man and 
 beast. The colliery waggon-ways already referred to date 
 as far back as 1602, when they took the shape of " wooden 
 railways." From 1670 these wooden railways were in general 
 use. In 1738 cast-iron rails were adopted, in three-feet 
 lengths ; these were first of all used in the form of tram-raUs. 
 Next came round top-rails of cast-iron; and, finally, malleable 
 iron rails of fifteen-feet lengths. In 1777, Carr, of Sheffield, 
 introduced underground rails for colliery purposes in lieu of 
 sledges. In 1794 cast-iron rails were partially used on the 
 railway belonging to the Walbottle Colliery. It was not 
 until 1815 that malleable iron rails began to be used instead 
 of cast iron. 
 
 Wood tells us that in 1813, when Stephenson was ap- 
 pointed engineer at Killingworth, the only rails used were 
 made of cast-iron, three feet in length, with square joints, 
 weighing from thirty-two to forty lbs. per yard, and just of 
 sufficient strength to carry a chaldron waggon loaded with 
 fifty-three cwt. of coal, or a gross weight of four tons. In 
 order to prevent the shock to the wheels by the square 
 joints, Stephenson patented, in conjunction with Mr. William 
 Losh, of the Walker Ironworks, a rail with half-lap joints, 
 or with one half of the end of the rails cut away longitu- 
 dinally for about two inches. Hence, when the ends of the 
 two rails were laid together, they were the same breadth of 
 top at each joint as the solid part of the rail, and thus the 
 shock to the carriage was obviated. Improvements were 
 also made by Stephenson in the construction of railway 
 chairs, and wheels. 
 
 From all that has been already stated, it will be seen that 
 practical men in the district which was ever afterwards to 
 be distinguished as the cradle of the railway system had ap- 
 plied themselves earnestly and laboriously to solve what has 
 since proved to be the greatest mechanical problem of the 
 age. 
 
 From a quaint record, we find that on Friday, the 13th 
 day of November, 1818, " a highly respectable meeting was 
 held in the Town Hall at Darlington, for the purpose of 
 taking into consideration the Committee's report on the sur- 
 vey taken a few years ago, by Mr. Eennie, for a canal, and 
 more lately by Mr. Overton, for a railway, between Stockton 
 and the colHeries in the Auckland district, by way of Dar- 
 lington." Over this meeting Dr. John Pv,alph Fenwick was 
 called to preside. The reports of Mr. Rennie, relative to the 
 canal scheme, and of Mr. Overton, in favour of the railway 
 project, were separately read. At the same time there was 
 submitted to the meeting the report of the committee ap- 
 pointed at a meeting held at Darlington, on the 4th Septem- 
 ber immediately preceding, to consider the relative merits of 
 the two schemes — " which being done, and the committee's 
 
 35 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 report having been previously printed and distributed, the 
 whole were taken into consideration." 
 
 It is interesting to note that the principal speakers on 
 this vital occasion were Mr. Jonathan Backhouse, Mr. Edward 
 Pease, Mr. John Grimshaw, and Mr. William Stobart, junior, 
 each of whom strongly recommended the adoption of a rail- 
 way in preference to a canal. The speech of Mr. Jonathan 
 Backhouse was full of facts and figures, which he used with 
 sledge-hammer effect to demolish the arguments and cal- 
 culations of those who advocated the canal scheme. After 
 speaking with just scorn and ridicule of the absurd preten- 
 sions and exaggerated claims of the canal promoters, he went 
 on to say, " now, our radway committee say that 20,000 tons 
 is all they have calculated upon for Stockton, and what goes 
 through that place to Cleveland ; and this quantity at 3d. 
 per ton per mile for twenty miles, comes to £5,000 ; and 
 that on the expenditure of £225,000, you will find comes to 
 about 2^ per cent. This added to the former calculation of 
 1 J makes, for both these items thus taken, 3|- per cent. But 
 they say that they expect 100,000 tons more for the home 
 consumption. On what foundation this estimate rests, I 
 must leave the gentlemen of Stockton to find out. If it be 
 correct I shall be glad. But Avhat does it prove ? Why, it 
 must clearly demonstrate that, instead of our having 15 per 
 cent, on the railway, we shall have 25 per cent, upon it, for 
 if they can send 100,000 tons by the home trade through 
 Stockton alone, how much must we send when we have 
 Piersebridge for Riclimond, Croft Bridge for Northallerton, 
 and part of Cleveland, Thirsk, &c.; the town of Yarm, and 
 Yarm Bridge for Cleveland, as well as the town of Darlington 
 itself, in addition to their boasted quantity of 100,000 tons ; 
 and what reason can be assigned why we should not do this 
 as well as they ? . . . Now I think I have proved to 
 you that we have fair grounds to expect a greater revenue 
 from the railway than they can expect from the canal." 
 The speaker commended the committee for the moderation 
 of their estimates, contending that they had most carefuUy 
 avoided holding out prospects which experience might after- 
 wards contradict ; and in conclusion, he maintained " that 
 this scheme holds out the most decided advantages over the 
 Aucldand line, and not only confers very great benefits on 
 almost the entire population of the south and east parts of 
 the county, but will also very much extend our intercourse 
 with the North Riding of the County of York ; so that, on 
 whatever side we view it, whether as a public benefit or a 
 private adventure, it powerfully urges the undertaking, and 
 affords a rational and Avell-grounded expectation of an ample 
 reward to the subscribers." Mr. Edward Pease more than 
 corroborated the conclusions of Mr. Backhouse. He pointed 
 out that the tolls on tlie coal-road from Darlington to the 
 collieries were let for £2,000 a year, and as the average 
 charge for a single-horse cart load (which was rather less than 
 a ton) was sixpence, and the distance about twelve miles. 
 
 this was a rate equal to one halfpenny per ton per mile. 
 " Now," said Mr. Pease, " if a halfpenny per ton per mile, as 
 now paid, produces £2,000 a year, then three halfpence per 
 ton per mile, the sum proposed to be charged for rail dues, 
 must produce £6,000 a year. You need not go any further. 
 This quite satisfies me. That revenue on this short piece 
 road yields me 5 per cent, on the outlay, and this is enough. 
 . . , . Some, perhaps, can make it out to be 6, or 8, 
 or 10, or 12 per cent. — I do not Icnow how much — but 
 there is ample room for calculation ; but I am quite satisfied 
 with my 5 per cent., and I have only made this statement 
 to show that by one single article we can make a suflScient 
 rate of interest by this undertaldng, and all the rest may be 
 taken as profit over and above 5 per cent." 
 
 A good deal of doubt prevailed about this time concerning 
 not only the best route for the railway, but also the calcu- 
 lated cost. On the latter point, Mr. Mewburn, as solicitor 
 to the promoters, interrogated Mr. Overton, engineer, and 
 received the following reply : — 
 
 "Lantholly, near Brecon, 
 "South Wales, 
 
 " 20th October, 1818. 
 " Sir — In reply to your letter, I will iinilortako to make the railway 
 single road at i;2,000 per mile ; formed for double road, at £2,400 a mile; 
 
 i£ laid double, £2,800 a mile 
 
 " Your obedient servant, 
 
 "George Oveeton." 
 
 This Mr. Overton, it may bo remarked, was Avell laiown as 
 a railway engineer long before the time of Stephenson, and' 
 he was employed by the promoters of the first public rail- 
 way to survey their original line, in 1818, when the name of 
 Stephenson had hardly emerged from the recesses of ob- 
 scurity. Of his career otherwise than so far as he was con- 
 cerned with the first passenger line, we know little or nothing. 
 But we have ample proof tliat lie was in advance of liis time. 
 Aided most zealously by Mr. George Overton, tlio committee 
 prosecuted their labours Avith much vigour. A voluminous 
 correspondence Avas opened up with the landoAvners along 
 the proposed line. Some of these were strongly opposed to 
 the project, and openly expressed their determination to 
 have it upset. One of the most })crtinacious opponents to 
 the scheme was Lord Darlington, Avhom the committee en- 
 deavoured to conciliate by the offer of certain exceptional 
 concessions. But his lordship Avas implacable. The strength 
 of the opposition offered to the first bill appHed for by the 
 promoters of the Stockton and Darlington Railway was so 
 formidable that it became necessary to use every means to 
 conciliate or conquer it. So well had the promoters of the 
 railway played their cards, that Avhcn their bill came on for 
 the second reading it all but passed. The committee record, 
 in a report presented to the proprietors on the 7th May, 
 1819, that 106 voted against the bill, and 93 in its favour, so 
 that it was only rejected by a majority of 13, The first 
 route chosen, on Overton's recommendation and survey, was 
 
 36 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 from Stockton via Darlington, Summer-house, Ingleton, and 
 Hilton, to the West Aucldand Coalfield. This line appears 
 to have passed through one of the Duke of Cleveland's fox- 
 covers, and in those days — happily not so in these — the 
 scions of nobility regarded private fox-covers as of greater 
 consequence than public railways ! After the original bill had 
 been defeated, the promoters determined to have another 
 survey made, with the view to the adoption of another route, 
 and the committee wisely resolved " that no time should be 
 lost in endeavouring to conciliate all those whose interests 
 or opinions are opposed to the measure." 
 
 After some negotiations, Mr. Overton was induced to un- 
 dertake another survey, which he brought to an end about 
 the 1st of September, 1820. On the 29th of the same month 
 he submitted it to the directors. Another Act was applied 
 for in 1820, but its passage W(as delayed owing to the illness 
 and death of the King. On the 12th of February, 1820, a 
 meeting of the committee was held at Yarm, vuidcr the pre- 
 sidency of Mr. Thomas Meynell. For their second, as for 
 their first bill, the Stockton and Darlington Railway Com- 
 pany had to make a great fight. Every member of Parlia- 
 ment that could be influenced, directly or indirectly, was 
 pressed into the service of the promoters. Every peer who 
 was known to have any doubt or hesitation was seized upon 
 and interviewed until he became a convert, while those who 
 looked upon the measure with favour were confirmed in their 
 faith. Nay, more, the promoters and their friends even car- 
 ried their influence as far as the hustings, and spared neither 
 trouble nor expense in endeavouring to secure — especially 
 in the North of England — the return of candidates known 
 to be partial to their cause. In testimony of this fact, we 
 find Mr. Overton writing on the Gth of May, 1820 : " I pre- 
 sume Mr. Lambton has discovered that what he has done 
 for the Darlington tram-road has been in some degree repaid 
 by the exertions of the advocates of that measure at his 
 election." Their efforts were triumphant. The second bill 
 met a different fate to the first, and in April, 1821, it received 
 the Royal assent. It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to add 
 that the chief promoter of the movement which culminated 
 in the passing of the Act authorizing the construction of the 
 Stockton and Darlington Railway, was Edward Pease. Very 
 soon after the Act had received parliamentary approval, that 
 gentleman and George Stephenson were brought together. 
 It may, indeed, be assumed that Stephenson's was the first 
 name that would occur to Mr. Pease in casting about for an 
 eno-ineer. At that very time Stephenson was laying the 
 Hetton Colliery Railway— a line about eight miles in length, 
 which traversed a very undulating and difiicult country. His 
 name had come prominently under Mr. Pease's notice, on ac- 
 count of the many improvements and modifications of perma- 
 nent way and rolling stock which he had patented. Applica- 
 tion had, moreover, been made to Mr. Stephenson to survey 
 a line from the collieries in the Auckland district to Dar- 
 
 lington and Stockton some time before, so that the two men 
 must have been all but intimately acquainted with each 
 other. We are indebted to the late Mr. Nicholas Wood for 
 an interesting account of Stephenson's first visit to Mr. 
 Pease. The narrator, in his admirable address on the two 
 late eminent engineers, the Messrs. Steplienson, father and 
 son, says that the event " is deeply impressed on my memoiy 
 by having accompanied Mr. Stephenson from KiUingworth 
 to Darlington and back to Durham ; and by having afforded 
 him a practical joke against mo, which, to within a few weeks 
 of his death, and on the occasion of the last time I saw him, 
 he reminded me of The incident is given by Smiles, not 
 quite correctly. The fact is, we rode from Killingworth to 
 Newcastle on horseback, a distance of five miles, travelled 
 from thonco by coacli, thirty-two miles to Stockton, then 
 walked along the proposed line of railway, twelve miles, 
 from Stockton to Darlington. We had then the interview 
 with Mr. Pease, by appointment, and afterwards Avalked 
 eighteen long miles to Durham, within three miles of which 
 I broke down (which constituted the joke agauist me), but 
 was obliged to proceed, the beds being all engaged at the 
 ' Travellers' Rest.' This interview with Mr. Pease, which 
 was on the 19th April, 1821, had the effect of Stephenson 
 being tdtimately appointed engineer to the Stockton and 
 Darlington Railway." 
 
 Very shortly after Mr. Stephenson's visit to Darlington 
 the directors of the new line considered the question of his 
 appointment as their engineer. He was duly appointed, and 
 asked to estimate the expense of a survey. The following 
 very interesting report will contrast favourably with engi- 
 neering estimates of modem times : — 
 
 "To Edward Pease, Esq. 
 
 " Sir — After carefully examining your favour, I find it impossible to form 
 an accurate idea of what such a survey would cost, as not only the old line 
 must be gone over, but all the other deviating parts, lyhioh 'wiU be equal 
 to a double survey, and, indeed, it must be done in a very dififerent manner 
 from your former one, so as to enable me to make a correct measurement 
 of all the cuts arid batteries on the whole line. It would, I think, occupy 
 me at least five weeks. My charge' shall include all necessary assistance 
 for the accomplishment of the survey, estimates of the expense of cuts and 
 batteries on the different projected lines, together with all remarks, re- 
 ports, &e., of the same. Also the comparative cost malleable iron and 
 cast-iron rails, winning and preparing the blocks of stone, and all materials 
 wanted to complete the line. I could not do this for less than £140, allow- 
 ing mo to be moderately paid. I assure you, in completing the under- 
 taking, I will act with that economy which would influence me if the whole 
 of the work was my own. 
 
 " Geoeoe Stephenson. 
 
 "Killingworth Colliery, August 2nd, 1821." 
 
 Satisfactory terms were arranged between Stephenson and 
 the directors, and the former at once made arrangements for 
 undertaking the proposed survey. 
 
 The first Act passed by Parhament for the construction 
 of a public railway (2 George IV.) received the Royal assent 
 
 37 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 on the 19th April, 1821. It provided " for making and 
 maintaining a railway or tramroad from the river Tees at 
 Stockton to "Written Park Colliery, with several branches 
 therefrom, all in tlie county of Durham." After reciting 
 that the practicability of making the railway had been as- 
 certained by levels and surveys, the Act proceeds to give the 
 names of the first shareholders who formed the company. At 
 this distance of time it may be interesting to furnish to pos- 
 terity a list of those who were bold enough to risk their 
 means in a then somewhat discredited undertaking. They 
 were — Benjamin Atkinson, Jonathan Backhouse the younger, 
 Henry Belcher, John Baxter, Robert Barclay, Richard Blan- 
 chard, Henry Birkbeck, Andrew Brown, Robert Bald, Vis- 
 count Barrington, Robert Botcherly, Jolm Backhouse, "Wil- 
 liam Braithwaite, Jeremiah Cairns, Warcop Consett, William 
 Cust, John Coates, Christopher Dove, William Dove, William 
 Nicholas Darnell, J olm Davidson, Thomas Eeles, William 
 Atkinson Fountaine, Benjamin Flounders, John R. Fenwick, 
 William Gent, W. Gill, Joseph Gurney, Joseph John Gurney, 
 Samuel Gurney, Barrett Hodgson, Thomas Jennett, Richard 
 Jackson, John J'Anson, William J'Anson, J. Kitching, Robert 
 Kirby, William Leatham, G. Lockwood, Thomas Meynell, G. 
 Meynell, Richard Miles, Thomas Miles, John Mewburn, Geo. 
 Middleton, Simon Martin, Henry Newman & Brothers, Joseph 
 Pease the younger, Thomas Benson Pease, Edward Pease, 
 John Pease, Daniel Milford Peacock, Richard Pickersgill, 
 Mattliew Plummer, William Richmond, Leonard Raisbeclv, 
 Thomas Richardson, J. P. J lobinson, Thomas Rogers, Richard 
 Scott, Mathew Scotson, Henry Stapylton, Francis Storey, 
 Ellen Storey, WiUiam Skinner, William Skinner the younger, 
 William Sleigh, John Trotter, Thomas Taylor, Thomas Alli- 
 son Tennant, William Tate, George William Todd, Anthony 
 Thistlethwaite, John Wardell the younger, Cuthbert Wig- 
 ham, Matthew Wadcson, John Wilkinson, and Charles Ben- 
 jamin Walker, 
 
 It is a fact, not without significance, tliat in their first Act 
 the Stockton and Darlington Railway Company took no 
 powers for the use of locomotives. The Act is exceedingly 
 voluminous, extending to sixty-seven pages of closely-printed 
 matter, and is probably the longest as well as the earliest 
 Railway Act that received the sanction of Parliament ; but 
 we cannot find that within its four corners there is any 
 mention whatever of the employment of engines, whether 
 locomotive or stationary. It is only provided with conve- 
 nient vagueness, that the Company shall " appoint their roads 
 and ways convenient for the hauling or drawing of waggons 
 and other carriages passing upon the said railways or tram- 
 roads, with men, or horses, or otherwise. But the omission 
 is specifically supplied in tlie Company's second Act — passed 
 on the 28rd of May, 1823 — wherein they are empowered to 
 " make, erect, and sot up a permanent or fixed steam engine, 
 or other proper machine, in such convenient situation" as 
 they might select. In the following section, power is ac- 
 
 quired for making and using " locomotives or movable en- 
 gines, for the purpose of facilitating the transport, convey- 
 ance, and carriage of goods, merchandize, and other articles 
 and things, upon and along the same roads, and for the con-* 
 veyance of passengers upon and along the same roads." 
 
 The latter Act was obtained " to enable the Stockton and 
 Darlington Railway Company to vary and alter the line of 
 their Railway, and also the line or lines of some of the 
 branches therefrom, and for altermg and enlarging the 
 powers of the Act passed for making and maintaining the 
 said Railway." It was in this bill that powers were sought 
 for the construction of the Croft branch, hereafter referred 
 to. The deviations contemplated in the main line were 
 chiefly in the immediate neighbourhood of Stockton or Dar- 
 lington. The expense of making the Croft branch, and car- 
 rymg out all the alterations and additions authorized to be 
 made by the second Act, was calculated at £74,300. In the 
 autunrn of 1821, George Stephenson commenced the survey 
 of the new line, aided by John Dixon, the grandson of that 
 George Dixon of Cockfield, who took an active part in sur- 
 veying and promoting the canal scheme of 1707. Robert 
 Stephenson, " a slight, spare, bronzed boy," was withdrawn 
 from his occupation of a pit viewer, and brought out with 
 the surveying party to undertake labour of a more healthy 
 kind. This was the younger Stephenson's first initiation 
 into the laying-out and construction of railways; and al- 
 tliougli he had the opportunity, while serving his apprentice- 
 ship at Killingworth, of seeing improvements made in the 
 different colliery railways under the inspection of his father, 
 as well as of visiting occasionally the Hetton Railway, then 
 under construction, yet it is difficult to suppose that at this 
 early period his own knowledge enabled him to render more 
 assistance to his father and to Mr. Dixon than any other very 
 intelligent but inexperienced lad. 
 
 Stephenson carried out the survey with so mucli credit 
 to himself and satisfaction to the committee, (hat on the 
 22nd of January, 1822, he was appointed engineer to the 
 company, " at a salary of £660 per annum, the said salary 
 being understood to cover aU the services and expenses of 
 himself and assistant surveyors." J caft'erson has mentioned 
 that when the survey was completed, Robert Stephenson's 
 name was placed on the plans as the engineer, and he has 
 found in this alleged fact " an affecting instance of paternal 
 devotion." But although Robert's name may have appeared 
 on some of the plans — a circumstance in itself of the most 
 trifling importance — we have abundant evidence to show that 
 his father, and his father alone, was held responsible to the 
 company; and the limited part tluit Robert took in the 
 construction of the line is evidenced, moreover, by his de- 
 parture for South America before it was completed. 
 
 The first rail was laid by Mr. Thomas Meynell, of Yarm, 
 as chairman of the company, near to St. John's Well, Stock- 
 ton, on the 23rd May, 1822. The ceremony was one of con. 
 
 38 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 siderable rejoicing, but the proceedings do not call for more 
 than this passing allusion. 
 
 "With the limited and imperfect engineering knowledge of 
 the time, it was no easy task to undertake the construction 
 of the first passenger railway. The stretch of country which 
 the line traversed was remarkably uneven, and the coals had 
 to be conveyed from the collieries in the Auckland Valley 
 over a high ridge of country called Brusselton Hill. Ste- 
 phenson was equal to the occasion. He had previously in- 
 stituted, along with Mr. Nicholas "Wood, an extensive series 
 of experiments on the diverse descriptions of motive power 
 then in use on the different colliery railways. On tliese 
 experiments he founded his system of motive power to be 
 used on railways generally — first, in applying such of the 
 various descriptions of motive power thus elucidated as 
 were applicable to the existing lines of railway; and next, 
 in applying them generally in laying out new lines. The 
 conclusions based on those experiments have thus been 
 stated by Mr. "Wood : — 
 
 " Ist. On tlio level, oi- nearly level, gradients, horses or looomotivo en- 
 gines wore proposed to bo used, it being laid down as a rule, that, if prac- 
 ticable, the gradients, ascending with the load, should not be more than 1 
 in 100. 
 
 " 2nd. In gradients descending with the load, when more than 1 in 30, 
 the use of self-acting planes ; and 
 
 ' ' 3rd. In ascending gradients with the load, where the gradients did not 
 admit of the itse of horses or locomotive engines, fixed engines and ropes 
 should be adopted." 
 
 Acting on these principles, Stephenson employed three 
 fixed engines, five self-acting planes, and three and a-half 
 miles of locomotive on the Hetton Colliery Railway, which 
 was opened in 1822. Similarly, he employed a fixed en- 
 gine on the Stockton and Darlington Railway, to pull the 
 coals over Brusselton Hill, and recommended the employ- 
 ment of locomotive engines on the descent from thence to 
 Darlington and Stockton. In this plan, however, he en- 
 countered some opposition. Mr. Benjamin Thompson, of 
 Eighton Banks, advocated the employment of fixed engines, 
 for which he had obtained a patent. Mr. Pease, in a diffi- 
 culty, decided to settle it for himself, £tnd to that end he 
 accepted Stephenson's invitation, and inspected the Kil- 
 lingworth engine, along with some of his co-directors. The 
 result was a resolution to adopt locomotives of the same 
 description as the KiUingworth engine, although somewhat 
 more powerful. On the 29th December, 1821, after consult- 
 ing a number of eminent engineers, the committee unani- 
 mously concluded " that two-thirds of the railway should be 
 laid with malleable iron, and the remainder with cast-iron, 
 the chairs in both cases to be of cast-iron." 
 
 Malleable iron rails, 28 lbs. per yard, " fish-bellied," and 
 Brikinshaw's patent, were recommended by Stephenson for 
 the Stockton and Darlington Railway. 
 
 A Mr. Richardson, a cousin of Edward Pease, a native of 
 Darlington, and who had realized a handsome fortune as a 
 
 bill-broker in London, was, at an early stage in the career of 
 the Stockton and Darlington Railway, one of its most at- 
 tached friends, and it was largely due to his influence •with 
 bankers and others of affluent means that the company were 
 so easily enabled to raise the necessary capital for the com- 
 pletion of their scheme. Like Mr. Pease, also, he had much 
 confidence in Stephenson, and unhesitatingly aided his 
 cousin in providing the means for the erection of the Forth 
 Street Engine "Works in Newcastle. 
 
 The specifications and conditions under which the first 
 rails required for the first public railway were supplied, can- 
 not fail to be interesting. Tiiey are, therefore, subjoined : — 
 
 " 1. The proposals to specify the lowest price, as there will not bo an 
 opportunity of making any abatement. 
 
 ' ' 2. No tender will be considered unless made by the principal or ac- 
 credited agent, nor should it differ in any respect from these conditions 
 and specifications. 
 
 " 3. The party contracting for malleable or cast-iron rails should give 
 a bond in the penalty of £4,000 for the fulfdment of his contract according 
 to specifications. 
 
 " 4. The party contracting for chairs to give a bond in a penalty of £500 
 for the fulfilment of his contract according to Bpocifications, 
 
 ' ' 8. The rails of malleable iron to be made from scraps, or good English 
 bars re-manufaetured — the E,ailway Company to have the liberty of send- 
 ing an occasional inspector to see that the rails and chairs are made of mate- 
 rials according to agreement. 
 
 "6. The rails, whether malleable or cast-iron, and the chairs for the 
 same, to be tested as laid down by a weight of fourteen tons, placed on a, 
 four-wheeled carriage, coupled at a distance of four feet, and moving at 
 the rate of two and a half miles per hour. 
 
 "7. All rails of either description, and all chairs which shall be broken 
 on testing by the above weight, or which at any time within three years 
 after being laid down, shall have any apparent deficiency, shall be returned 
 to the contractor, who shall bear the expenses of all carriage, and supply 
 others to the Railway Company free from any charge, 
 
 " 8. The Engineer employed /by the Railway Company shall, at their ex- 
 pense, lay down one hundred yards of malleable iron rails, and one hundred 
 yards of oast-iron rails, to prove that the specific weight of the rails is 
 sufficient to bear the above-described weight." .... 
 
 The specifications for the malleable iron rails prescribed 
 that they should be fifty-six pounds per double yard ; that 
 the breadth of the top of the rail should be two and one- 
 fourth inches, and the depth at the end two inches ; that 
 the depth at the middle should be three and one-fourth 
 inches ; that the depth at the top flange should be three- 
 quarters of an inch ; that the thickness of the web at the top 
 should be three-quarters of an inch ; that the thickness of 
 the web at the bottom should be half an inch ; that the 
 edge should be rounded, and the surface flat ; that the rails 
 should be perfectly straight, and fit to the chairs accurately ; 
 and that a sample rail and chair, or patterns thereof, should 
 be furnished to the company. For cast-iron chairs, the spe- 
 cifications provided that they should be twelve pounds per 
 double yard, each chair to weigh six pounds. The weight 
 and dimensions prescribed for the cast-iron rails and acces- 
 sory chairs were as foUoAv : — " The length of each rail to be 
 
 39 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 four feet, cast from good pig-iron ; the weight per double 
 yard to be 115 lbs. ; the weight of the chairs to be 10 lbs. 
 each, or 15 lbs. per double yard ; the breadth at the top of 
 the rail to be 2^ inches ; the depth at the end to be 4 inches; 
 the depth at the middle to be 6 inches ; the depth of the 
 top flange to be 1 inch ; the thiclcness of the web at the top 
 to be five-eighths of an inch." 
 
 In the modus operandi of laying down tlie rails and fixing 
 them together, the engineers had to feel their way to the 
 best results. At the outset of the railway system, there was 
 a considerable amount of discussion as to whether stone 
 blocks or wooden sleepers were more suitable for the pur- 
 poses of the permanent way. The directors of the Stockton 
 and Darlington Eailway made up their minds to try both. 
 They laid down specifications for the supply of stone bloclvs, 
 providing that each block should be 18 to 24 inches long, 
 by 14 to 18 inches broad, and 10 to 12 inches deep, " the 
 top and bottom of each block to be parallel with each other." 
 Into one of the parallel sides of the stone block, and exactly 
 in the centre, the contractor was required to insert the cast- 
 iron metal chair to the depth of half an inch. Two holes, 
 each three-quarters of an inch in depth were drilled through 
 each block to correspond with those in the chair. It was 
 required that 8,000 of these blocks should be ready for use, 
 and laid out in the quarry, ready for the loading of carts, by 
 the 1st March, 1822, and that 8,000. should be ready every 
 two months afterwards, until 64,000 blocks should be ready 
 for use. The oak blocks were each 2 ft. 6 in. in length, 6 in. 
 in breadth, and 6 to 8 in. in depth ; and of these a much 
 larger number were required. The two kinds of block had 
 various features of difference, but both were alike in this, 
 that they were within a few years superseded by the more 
 massive and durable " sleeper." 
 
 The first Engine employed on the Stockton aiad Darlington 
 Kailway was appropriately called by the name of " Locomo- 
 tion," its locomotive capacity being its greatest and most 
 distinguishing novelty at the time of its construction. In 
 passing, it may be mentioned that this primitive and patri- 
 archal engine may now bo seen, elevated on a pedestal built 
 for its reception, in front of the Darlington North Eoad 
 Railway Station, where it was placed with august ceremonial 
 in June, 1857. " The conveyance of passengers," says Mr. 
 Wood, " did not form a part of the intentions of the original 
 promoters. The conveyance of coals at the cheapest pos- 
 sible rate was tlie desideratum, and the principle whicli 
 Stephenson was instructed to proceed upon. High rate of 
 speed was no clement for the consideration of either direc- 
 tors or engineers. Heavy loads, conveyed at moderate rates 
 of speed, were alone considered. Hence the locomotive 
 engines to be used on the Stockton and Darlington Railway 
 were constructed to travel from four to six miles an hour 
 with the heaviest load which the power of the boiler in 
 
 raising steam enabled them to accomplish ; and hence also we 
 find, on Messrs. Walker and Rastrick's visit in 1829, two years 
 after the opening of the line, they place the performance of the 
 engines at 47| tons of goods, 23 J tons weight of carriages, 
 the engine and tender weighing 15 tons, making altogether 
 a gross weight of 86i tons, moved at five miles an hour." 
 
 " Locomotion " was constructed under Stephenson's direc- 
 tion at the Forth Street Engine Works, in Newcastle. The 
 best and most that it could do was to go along at from four 
 to six miles an hour, and an engine and tender of 15 tons 
 could draw on a level nearly 48 tons gross load, at the rate of 
 five miles per hour. The principal mechanical details of this 
 parent engine will be afterwards described. They wiU always 
 form an important chapter, interesting almost to romance, 
 in the strange and eventful history of steam locomotion. 
 
 At the Brusselton hill-top, two thirty-horse power engines, 
 combined together with one crank shaft or axle, were erected 
 by R. Stephenson & Company, of Newcastle, for drawing the 
 waggons up the incline. The cost of these engines was 
 £3,482 15s. At the Etherley hill-top, other two engines 
 were erected, each of fifteen-horse power, combined with one 
 axle, at a cost of £1,982 15s. The contract for the construc- 
 tion of these engines provided that the builders " should find 
 every description of material, and all fitting-up for both en- 
 gines and boilers, except that the company shall find all the 
 stones in the rough state that may be wanted for the said 
 purpose at Brusselton or Etherley quarries, they loading the 
 said stones — the two boilers for the first-named engine to be 
 8 feet diameter by 20 feet long, and the boiler for the Ether- 
 ley engine to be of the same dimensions, and to be made of 
 the best scrap-iron . . . The size of the working cylin- 
 ders to be thirty inches for the Brusselton engine, and twenty- 
 two inches for the Etherley engine, and all other materials 
 to be in proportion, and of the best quality and -workmanship, 
 fitted up in a complete and worlonanlike manner." 
 
 George Stephenson continued to bestow unremitting at- 
 tention on the construction of the Stockton and Darlington 
 line until the middle of 1824, when he was appointed En- 
 gineer to the Liverpool and Manchester line, then projected. 
 On the 19th May, 1824, Mr. Edward Pease received from 
 the chairman of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway 
 Company an intimation of Stephenson's appointment, and 
 requesting that, " if he be on your line, you will send a spe- 
 cial messenger to inform him that a letter has been sent to 
 him at Newcastle, notifying the same." 
 
 The adoption of locomotive power docs not seem to have 
 been seriously considered by the promoters of the Stockton 
 and Darlington Railway until the permanent way was far 
 advanced towards completion. In the spring of 1824, the 
 directors had occasional discussions on the relative merits 
 of locomotives and horse power, and on the 24th July of 
 that year, they resolved, " That R. Stephenson & Company 
 be applied to for the terms on which they will make two 
 
 40 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 locomotive engines, and that our engineer (George Stephen- 
 son) furnish specifications for the same." The sequel shows 
 that they must have met with approval, for on the 16th 
 September, 1824, an order was given to Messrs. R. Stephen- 
 son & Company to construct two locomotive engines for the 
 sum of £500 each. Such were the circumstances under 
 which "Locomotion," and its companion "Hope," were 
 ushered into the world. The opening day of the Stockton 
 and Darlington Eailway had at last arrived. To say that 
 the event was looked forward to with much interest, would 
 be to put it in the mildest possible way. There are, probably, 
 not many people of mature years who cannot recall to 
 memory their first impressions on seeing a railway train in 
 motion. Few circumstances lay such indelible hold on the 
 imagination ; and, looking down through the long vista of 
 years, we require but a feeble effort to live over again such 
 a wondrous realization of high-strung hopes and distended 
 expectations. But in 1825 the railway system had not be- 
 come an accomplished fact. Lines of tramway had been 
 ojjcned here and there for the convenience of colliery pro- 
 prietors ; but being private property, they were little known, 
 and never used, by the gi'eat mass of the people, while 
 horses or stationary engines were the motive power mainly 
 employed. Hero, however, was a public railway projected 
 and carried out on a scale of magnitude and novelty not 
 hitherto approached, and furnished with the then unfamiliar 
 accessory of steam locomotion. It had other features, not 
 needing to be enumerated, which made it otherwise unique. 
 It was destined to set at rest all doubts and to dispel all 
 illusions as to the practicability of railway locomotion. 
 Pessimist croakers did not scruple to affirm that the Peases 
 and their coadjutors were more fit for Bedlam than anything 
 else. Ideas of this sort were even countenanced by men of 
 high position and education. Lord Eldon wrote that, " as 
 to railroads, and all the other schemes which speculation, 
 running wild, is introducing, I think Englishmen who were 
 wont to be sober, are grown mad." Even Nicholas Wood, 
 who was all along in the van of railway progress, and who 
 could see further ahead than most men, declared : — " It is 
 far from my wish to promulgate to the world that the ridi- 
 culous expectations, or rather professions, of the enthusiastic 
 speculatist wiU be realized, and that we shall see them tra- 
 velling at the rate of twelve, sixteen, eighteen, or twenty 
 miles an hour. Nothing could do more harm towards their 
 adoption or general improvement than the promulgation of 
 such nonsense." 
 
 Announcements were made in the local newspapers as to 
 the arrangements for the opening ceremony, and a handbill 
 was issued afterwards, affording a more correct knowledge 
 of the detailed arrangements. 
 
 In connection with this highly interesting event we ob- 
 tained the following extract from the Neivcastle Courant, 
 of October 1st, 1825, giving the original account of the 
 
 opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway. This was 
 presented to each visitor by the management of the North- 
 Eastern Railway Company, at whose invitation the whole 
 of the guests were assembled on the occasion of the Rail- 
 way Jubilee. 
 
 " To give eclat to the public opening of the road a fwoj/ramme was issued, 
 stating that the proprietors would assemble at the permanent steam-engine 
 below Brusselton Tower, about nine miles west of Darlington, at eight 
 o'clock. Accordingly, the committee, after inspecting the Etherley Engine 
 Plane, assembled at the bottom of Brusselton Engine Plane, near West 
 Auckland, and here the carriages, loaded with coals and merchandize, were 
 drawn up the eastern ridge by the Brusselton Engine, a distance of 1,960 
 yards, in seven and a-half minutes, an d then lowered down the plane on 
 the east side of the hill 880 yards in five minutes. At the foot of the plane 
 the locomotive engine was ready to receive the carriages; and here the 
 novelty of the scene and the fineness of the day had attracted an immense 
 concourse of spectators — the fields on each side of the Railway being lite- 
 rally covered with ladies and gentlemen on lioraoback, and pedestrians of 
 all kinds. The train of carriages was thou attached to a locomotive engine, 
 of the most improved construction, and built by Mr. George Stephenson, in 
 the following order: — ' 
 
 1. Locomotive engine, with the Engineer (Mr. Stephenson), and assist- 
 ants. 2. Tender, with coals and water; next, six waggons loaded with 
 coals and llourj, then an elegant covered coach, with the committee and 
 other proprietors of the railway; tlien 21 waggons, fitted up on the occa- 
 sion for passengers; and last of all, six waggons loaded with coals — mak- 
 ing altogether a train of 38 carriages, exclusive of the engine and tender. 
 
 Tickets were distributed to the number of near 300, for those who it 
 was intended should occupy the coach and waggons; but such was the pres- 
 sure and crowd, that both loaded and empty carriages were instantly filled 
 with passengers. The signal being given, the engine started off with this 
 immense train of carriages, and here the scene became most interesting — 
 the horsemen galloping across the fields to accompany the engine, and the 
 people on foot running on each side of the road, endeavouring in vain to 
 keep up with the cavalcade. The railway descending with a gentle inclina- 
 tion towards Darlington, though not uniform, the rate of speed was conse- 
 fiuently variable. On this part of the railway it was wished to ascertain 
 at what rate of speed the engine could travel with safety. In some parts 
 the speed was freqiiently twelve miles per hour, and in one place, for a 
 s hort distance, near Darlington, fifteen miles per hour ; and at that time 
 the number of passengers was counted to four hundred and fifty, which 
 together with the coals, merchandize, and carriages, would amount to near 
 ninety tons. 
 
 After some little delay in arranging the procession, the engine with her 
 load arrived at Darlington, a distance of eight miles and three-quarters, in 
 sixty-five minutes, exclusive of stops, averaging about eight miles an hour. 
 Six carriages loaded with coals, intended for Darlington, were then left be- 
 hind, and after obtaining a fresh supply of water, and arranging the pro- 
 cession to accommodate a band of nuiaiu and passengers from Darlington, the 
 engine set off again. Part of the railway from Darlington to Stockton has 
 little declivity, and in one place is quite level; and as in the upper part, it 
 was intended to try the speed of the engine, in this part it was proposed to 
 prove her capability of dragging a heavy load, and, certainly, the perform- 
 ance excited the astonishment of all present, and exceeded the most san- 
 guine expectations of every one conversant with the subject. The engine 
 arrived at Stockton in three hours and seven minutes after leaving Dar- 
 lington, including stops, the distance being nearly twelve miles, which is at 
 the rate of four miles an hour; iind upon tlio level part of the railway, the 
 number of passengers in the waggons was counted about five hundred and 
 fifty, and several more clung to the carriages on each side, so that the 
 whole number could not be less than six lunidred, which, with the other 
 load, would amount to about eighty tons. Nothing could exceed the beauty 
 and grandeur of the scene. Throughout the whole distance, the fields and 
 lanes were covered with elegantly-dressed females, and all descriptions of 
 spectators." 
 
 41 
 
Railways and, the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 A SHORT NOTICE OF THE PRINCIPAL PIONEERS 
 OF THE LOCOMOTIVE RAILWAY SYSTEM. 
 
 [We are indebted to Mr. J. S. Jeans, the author of the biographical 
 sketches of the local oolobiitiua coniicctod with Uavlingtoii and tho North- 
 Eastem Railway District, for the following interesting notices of the late 
 Mr. Edward Pease, the father of railways ; the late Mr. Joseph Pease, and 
 the late Mr. Francis Mewburn, the first railway solicitor]. 
 
 Edward Pease, the "father of railways," belonged to a 
 Quaker family of high respectability, although making no 
 pretensions to patrician lineage. Of their antecedents little 
 is known that dates beyond the eighteenth century. So far 
 as the Darlington branch of this now distinguished family 
 is concerned, its history may be said to originate with 
 Joseph and Ann Pease, the parents of the first Edward 
 Pease, who was born in that town in 1711, and died there 
 on the 14th November, 1785. The eldest son of this Ed- 
 ward Pease was named Joseph. He was born at Darlington 
 on the 25th March, 1737, and married a Miss Mary Richard- 
 son on the 13th October, 1808. The fruit of this union was 
 the Edward Pease, the subject of the present notice. Like 
 his father and grandfather before him, Edward Pease was 
 trained to the business of a woollen manufacturer. The 
 mills where he laid the foundation of his prosperity and that 
 of his sons, were situated at the bottom of Priestgate, and 
 in the Lead Yard at Darlington, and part of the original 
 factory may still be seen. 
 
 Of his earlier career we have only fragmentary and im- 
 perfect .details. Every available item of information tends 
 to show that he was a practical exponent of the Carlylean 
 gospel. " Produce ! produce ! were it but the pitifuUest, in- 
 finitesimal fraction of a product, produce it in God's name !" 
 Diligent in business beyond the custom of most men, he 
 lived to learn that " in all labour there is profit." 
 
 Darlington was then a town of very limited importance. 
 Its population was shown by tho census of 1821 to be only 
 6,7C0, being an increase of (J91 on the population of 1811, 
 The pace of the ago was slow, and there was little scope for 
 achieving distinction of any sort in the ordinarily quiet and 
 uneventful life of the factory. We learn, indeed, of nothing 
 that occurred to interfere with the placid and even tenor of 
 Edward Pease's career until 1817, when the woollen factory 
 on the site of old Bishop's Mill was completely burned down, 
 involving a loss of £30,000, and throwing about five hundred 
 people out of employment. 
 
 It was about this time that Edward Pease threw himself 
 into the thick of the'agitation that had long previously been 
 pendin"- for tho projection of additional facilities of trans- 
 
 port in South Durham. In Stockton the popular feeling 
 was favourable to the construction of a canal between the 
 Tees and the Collieries of South Durham. But Pease and 
 the friends with whom ho took counsel, saw that a railway 
 would be better likely to suit the purpose aimed at, and 
 took up a position of antagonism to the Stockton people, 
 or, at any rate, to that section which sought to bring the 
 canal scheme to maturity. 
 
 It soon became apparent that Mr. Pease was pre-emi- 
 nently one of those men who believe that " the end of man 
 is action, not thought." He became the recognized leader 
 of the railway party, as contra-distinguished from the party 
 who promoted the canal. It is said that at first he only 
 contemplated a horse tram road between Stockton and Dar- 
 lington; "but as he proceeded with the project, and espe- 
 cially after he became personally acquainted with George 
 Stephenson, he gradually, but cautiously, became a convert 
 to the railway system." So writes Samuel Smiles in his life 
 of George Stephenson. The same author informs us, that 
 "in projecting a railway from Witton Colliery, above Dar- 
 lington, to Stockton, in the year 1817, Edward Pease stood 
 almost alone;" and that what he first contemplated " was 
 merely the means of effecting land-sales of coal at the sta- 
 tions along the proposed railway." 
 
 It need hardly be said that in his endeavours to get up a 
 company for the formation of the Stockton and Darlington 
 Railway, Edward Pease had difficulties of no ordinary land 
 to meet and conquer. The prejudice and traditions of the 
 times were against him. Cold water was thrown upon the 
 scheme to such an extent that it is now a legitimate wonder 
 that it was not drowned out. George Stephenson subse- 
 quently remarked that if the people would make the rail- 
 ways, the railways would make the country. But only men 
 like Edward Pease, of whom it was truly said, that "he 
 could see a hundred years ahead," could then discern the 
 coming events Avhich had already begun to " cast their 
 shadows before." From landowners in particular he en- 
 countered fierce opposition, and the voice of the landed 
 proprietary was much more potent then than it has since 
 become. But it hag never been laid to the charge of the 
 Pease family that they looked back after putting their hand 
 to the plough. To tliis rule Edward was no exception. He 
 had much influence with his friends and neighbours, and 
 he succeeded in enlisting the sympathies and co-operation 
 of some of the wealthiest residents in the neighbourhood, 
 including the Backhouses, the Richardsons, the Meynells, 
 and the Stobart family. Between Mr. Jonathan Backhouse 
 and himself, however, there was, at one time, likely to be a 
 serious point of disagreement. Mr. Backhouse approved of 
 the lino of railway from the collieries to Darlington, but 
 recommended the construction of a canal from Darlington 
 to Stockton. Mr. Pease, on the other hand, was strongly 
 opposed to a broken lino of communication, and stood out 
 
 42 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 for having it all of ono kind, whether railway or canal, while 
 he disapproved of a canal, because he contended that it 
 could never be made so valuable as a railway. The problem 
 was solved on the recommendation of Mr. Meynell, by 
 calling in a Welsh Engineer, Mr. Overton, who made a 
 survey of the proposed route, and recommended the con- 
 struction of a railway along its entire length. Upon this 
 report Mr. Backhouse fell in with the views of Mr. Pease, 
 and the preliminaries for the first Kailway Bill were pro- 
 ceeded with. 
 
 With only two notable exceptions, the landed gentry in the 
 county opposed the passing of the Act. These exceptions 
 are worthy of being remembered. They Avere Mr. Meynell, 
 afterwards the Chairman of the Company, and Mr. Benjamin 
 Flounders. Owing to the opposition of the landowners, the 
 first bill was thrown out, but only by a majority of thirteen, 
 no less than one hundred members voting for its second 
 reading. This result appears to have astonished the oppo- 
 nents of the bill. Ono noble lord is reported to have said 
 that " if the Quakers in these times, when nobody laiows 
 anything about railways, can raise up such a phalanx as 
 they have on this occasion, I should recommend the county 
 gentlemen to beware how they oppose them." 
 
 Mr. Pease was defeated, but not disheartened. Another 
 survey of the proposed railway was undertaken by Overton, 
 and, on the recommendation of the Hon. Fox Maule (after- 
 wards Lord Panmure), the Friends resolved to call in the 
 services of Mr. Robert Stevenson, of Edinburgh, Engineer 
 of the Bell Rock Lighthouse. That gentleman came to 
 Darlington, and recommended for the course of the pro- 
 posed raihvay the Hne of Ronnie's Canal. Such a proposal, 
 however, involved giving Darlington the go-by, and as this 
 did not accord with the views of the promoters, Mr. Robert 
 Stevenson was not appointed Engineer. Mr. George Ste- 
 phenson was next communicated with, and made a survey 
 and report which were ultimately adopted. 
 
 A second bill was prepared, and the company went to 
 Parliament a second time. But now another difiiculty was 
 experienced of a very different kind. Parhamentary rule 
 required that before going into Committee with the ■ bill, 
 two-thirds of the required subscriptions should be filled up. 
 On looking into the list of subscriptions, Mr. Mewburn, the 
 solicitor to the company, found that they were £10,000 
 short of this amount. Nothing could be done until this 
 deficit was made good. Mr. Mewburn got introductions 
 to the Stock Exchange and to several wealthy merchants 
 in London, through whom he endeavoured to supply the 
 deficiency, but he failed in his endeavours, neither the 
 Stock Exchange nor the general public having then suffi- 
 cient confidence in the proposed scheme to risk their 
 money in it. In this strait, lir. Pease was communicated 
 with. Mr. Mewburn wrote him from London that "he 
 must come home unless he • received subscriptions for 
 
 tlio sum named within three or four days." But the sub- 
 scribers in Darlington and its neighbourhood had already 
 invested all they could spare or cared to risk in such a 
 doubtful venture. Not one farthing could be raised among 
 them, and Mr. Pease at last subscribed the whole £10,000 
 himself, in addition to the amount he had previously 
 guaranteed. With reference to this incident, Mr. Mewburn 
 has stated " without the slightest fear of contradiction, that 
 if Mr. Pease had not subscribed this amount, the railway 
 would never have been made by Darlington, the communi- 
 cation would probably have been carried by the Clarence 
 route, and the public generally would have suffered. It 
 was to the talent and firmness displayed by Mr. Pease 
 throughout the whole of these proceedings that they owed 
 the success of their undertaking." 
 
 The second application to Parhament was successful, and 
 the bill for the construction of the Stockton and Darlington 
 Railway passed into law. But even then Mr. Pease's diffi- 
 culties were far from ended. Differences occurred as to the 
 materials to be employed in the construction of the perma- 
 nent way, and as to the manner of overcoming the engi- 
 neering and other difficulties encountered during the 
 progress of the worlcs. Some of a personal character, too, 
 from time to time, appeared, and one such may be fitly 
 related here. When George Stephenson was surveying the 
 proposed line, vid Darlington, he remarked to Mr. John 
 Dixon, his assistant, that the railway should be carried by 
 Rushyford and Sedgefield. This opinion Mr. Dixon took 
 occasion to report to Mr. Pease. The latter at once sent for 
 Stephenson, and told him that he had been employed to 
 improve the line, and not to take it away, " for if he took it 
 away from Darlington, he would take away the communi- 
 cation with Yorkshire, and ultimately with the rest of the 
 lungdom." Mr. Stephenson lived long enough to see and 
 admit that Edward Pease was in the right. To foUow closely 
 the career of Mr. Pease from this time forward would 
 be equivalent to writing the history of the Stockton and 
 Darlington Railway, with the fortunes of which he continued 
 to be more or less identified up to the time of his death. 
 Mr. Pease had almost reached a time of life when most 
 men begin to think of repose, at the time the first public 
 railway was projected. When the Stockton and Darlington 
 Line was opened, in 1825, he was bordering on sixty. But 
 the physical and mental adolescence of youth was still upon 
 him. He continued for many years to be the segis and 
 mentor of the line which called him parent ; and when, at 
 last, he found that the infirmities of age compelled him to 
 make 'way for another and younger generation, he had the 
 proud and pleasing satisfaction — accorded, alas ! to so few — 
 of seeing more than he had ever expected or conceived of 
 the fruition of his labour and desire. 
 
 On the 20th February, 1857, a movement was set on foot 
 in his native town for raising a testimonial to Mr. Pease, 
 
 43 
 
 H 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 4 
 
 A meeting of the inhabitants of Darlington, presided over 
 by Mr. Mewburn, was held in furtherance of this project. 
 The meeting resolved as follows : — 
 
 ' ' That, deeply impressed with the immense advantages o£ the exertions 
 of Edward Pease, Esq., in promoting, in the year 1818, the first Public 
 Kailway in the Kingdom (Stockton and Darlington Railway), and in subse- 
 quent years prosecuting the scheme of railway enterprise with indomitable 
 perseverance, under difllcultics almost inconceivable at the present day, it 
 is expedient to record the tacts by some testimonial, as a proof of the esti- 
 mation in which he is held in his native town of Darlington, its neighbour- 
 hood, and the district generally. 
 
 "That, in consequence of such means of locomotion, sources of wealth 
 have been developed, the entire kingdom advanced, and the comfort and 
 convenience of the public wonderfully increased, every Railway Company 
 in Britain be oommunioated with, in order to afford them the opportunity 
 of co-operating in this national tribute to a man who still lives to witness, 
 with liveliest satisfaction, the result of his early labours. 
 
 "That considering Mr. Pease has directly and indirectly been the 
 means of developing to an extraordinary extent the mineral wealth of this 
 district in particular, and thereby stimulating every branch of trade and 
 commerce in the country at large, communications be made with employers 
 and employed, affording an opportunity to masters and operatives of assist- 
 ing in a testimonial commemorating the services of that gentleman. " 
 
 There was a considerable difference of opinion as to the 
 form which the proposed memorial ought to take. A 
 bronze statue was suggested among other things. It was 
 eventually decided that, before coming to any decision, Mr. 
 Pease and his family should be consulted. This was done 
 by Mr. Mewburn; and the reply he received was the 
 expression of an earnest wish "that no such testimonial 
 should be prepared or further thought of" About the 
 same time Mr. Mewburn received from the fine old patri- 
 arch — then in his ninety-first year — a characteristic note, 
 dated the " 3rd Mo., 6, 1857," in which he stated that his 
 friends "had done him some injustice in doing him more 
 than justice," and added " it seems to me that Providence 
 has condescended largely to bless our designs and efforts for 
 the good of the world, and that we have great cause to 
 thank Him for the benefits He has enabled us to confer on 
 humanity." 
 
 Edward Poaso had distinctly forbidden a testimonial, and 
 his friends could not, contrary to his own wishes, proceed 
 further in that direction while he was stiU ahve. It was, 
 however, decided that an address should be presented to 
 Mr. Pease, in the modest and unassuming manner he so 
 much loved, and in the same year this took a practical 
 shape. On the 23rd October, 1859, a small party specially 
 chosen for the purpose, out of hundreds of influential 
 subscribers, waited on Mr. Pease, and presented him with 
 the following : — 
 
 "To Edward Pease, of Darlington, in the County of Durham, Esquire. 
 
 " Sir, — The undersigned, your friends and neighbours — in most 
 instances the descendants of those whom you have survived — greet you with 
 unfeigned respect, due alike to your venerable age, and the unvaried con- 
 
 sistency of your conduct during a term far beyond the usual span of man a 
 existence. 
 
 " We fondly hoped that this expression of esteem would have assumed a 
 form more public in its character, more gratifying to ourselves, and more 
 encouraging to posterity, than this merely individual address ; but your 
 modesty — conspicuous at the close, as it has been a strong feature in the 
 progress of your eventful life — forbidding us to perpetuate your memory 
 by a lasting testimonial, leaves us no other alternative. 
 
 "In no period of history have so many and so important events occurred 
 as in that in which you have lived, and no one more than yourself has 
 taken so active a part in strenuously promoting whatever might develop 
 the resources of the country in which we have the good fortune to dwell. 
 
 "In times less enlightened, and more prejudiced than these, with 
 amazing foresight you penetrated the necessity of unbroken communication 
 by railways, and in 1818 predicted the extension of that system which now 
 spreads a network over the civilized world, binding nations together for 
 the interchange of mutual interests. Not content vrith simply grasping 
 the idea thus initiated, you brought an earnestness of purpose, under 
 difficulties almost overwhelming, to stimulate your perseverance, and the 
 success of your first project from the collieries in the west, by Darlington 
 to Stockton-upon-Tees — the ample fulfilment of your augury — is an abiding 
 monument to you, rightly called 'The Father of Railways.' Many of us, 
 inhabitants of Darlington, reflect with gratitude that to yourself and your 
 active colleagues, the late Thomas Meynell and Jonathan Backhouse, we 
 owe entirely the advantage of our town being the focus whence sprang the 
 means of locomotion you originated ; and can never forget that to your 
 determination alone belongs the merit of continuing and increasing the 
 manufactories of this place, which would otherwise have been abandoned 
 for a more profitable investment of capital. 
 
 "Directly and indirectly — by your sterling ability, fertile resources of 
 invention, inexhaustible assiduity, and the highest moral courage — you 
 have been the means, under God — who has hidden boundless riches in the 
 earth, but granted intellect to man for their development — of opening fresh 
 avenues to science, encouraging every branch of trade and commerce, employ- 
 ing large bodies of operatives, and ameliorating the condition of aU classes of 
 society. To you, therefore, more than to any hero of any age, the thanks 
 of a nation are due, and justly may you be termed 'A Pioneer of Peace !' 
 
 "Few men have been blessed with a more numerous, and none with a 
 more prosperous ofl'spring ; active benevolence — personal sacrifices in dis- 
 tant lands, on holy and peaceful missions — distinction in the Senate — a 
 singular aptitude for business, and an untiring zeal for the welfare of 
 others ; such are the marked characteristics of your children and your 
 grand-children, to whom you have always been the constant exemplar and 
 the faithful friend. May your posterity to remotest generations follow in 
 your footsteps and do likewise. 
 
 "Private life is delicate ground, but we are not unmindful that more 
 than any man you enjoy the implicit confidence of your fellows ; that you 
 have foiled the subtle, assisted the weak, guided the resolute, supported 
 tho wavering, assuaged the angry, reconciled the estranged ; and though now 
 in tho full maturity of ago, in health and intellect marvellously, and we 
 trust long to bo, preserved, you can look upon a life of unblemished and ' 
 distinguished reputation, leaving us only the regret of being denied the 
 satisfaction of recording pur sense of your services by some memorial more 
 enduring — but no less sincere — than this simple writing. 
 
 "Darlington, 23rd October, 1857." 
 
 This may be said to be the last event of anything like a 
 public kind in which Edward Pease took part. The cere- 
 mony of laying the foundation stone of the pedestal on 
 which the original "Locomotion" now stands, in front of 
 the DarHngton Railway Station, took place on the 6th June 
 in the same year (1857), and it was desired that Mr. Pease 
 should take the most prominent part on the interesting 
 occasion. This, however, he was unable to do, and in lieu 
 
 44 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 thereof he -wrote the following letter to Mr. John Dixon, 
 the first Surveyor of the Company, conjointly with 
 Stephenson, and Mr. Macnay, who had waited upon him 
 to ask his consent : — . 
 
 "Darlington, Cth Mo., 2, 1857. 
 " RitsritaritD Frijinds — John Dixon and Thomas Macnay — I have 
 considorod tho request you wore deputed to make, that I should lay the 
 foundation stone of that building whioh it is proposed to erect for pre- 
 serving ' the first locomotive engine that ever went on u public lino of 
 railway, as this did in 1825. From my very advanced age, and unwilling- 
 ness to enter into ajiything connected with active public lite, I feel I must 
 bo excused accepting this mark of regard and esteem, whioh I cannot but 
 appreciate, and do feel grateful in being selected for the ofiice. Sanguine, 
 and I may say sure, as I was, of tho value of railways when I first moved in 
 their introduction, with two or three able helpers, and such an engineer as the 
 late celebrated George Stephenson (then first drawn from obscurity), their 
 success and importance have far, very far, exceeded the most favourable 
 anticipations, confidently sanguine as these anticipations were. With an 
 ample repayment of satisfaction and pleasure, I cannot, in taking a retro- 
 spective view, regret the care and attention for three or four years given to 
 the completion of our then unpopular work, opposed by magistrates, 
 commissioners of turnpikes, &c., to the full of their power. Steady, 
 disinterested attention, without one shilling of foe or reward, brought our 
 work, thankless and wageloss, to its completion. And it is with inexpres- 
 sible satisfaction I contemplate that so large u, portion of the civilized 
 world is now reaping inestimable benefit from this mode of transit. 
 When I see the hundreds of poor Irish reapers so quickly and easily trans- 
 ferred from country to country, and our beloved Queen, with her most 
 interesting group, with so much ease, rapidity, and comfort, conveyed 
 from Windsor to Balmoral, the sight and reflection delight me. Again 
 declining tho kindness of your proposition, I subscribe myself, with much 
 respect, your friend, 
 
 "EDWARD PEASE. 
 
 "The abundance of my years must apologize for very much of this 
 letter.'' 
 
 When he was preparing his life of George Stephenson, 
 Samuel Smiles called on Mr. Pease at his residence in 
 Darlington, in the autumn of 1854. "At that time," he 
 says, " Mr. Pease was in his eighty-eighth year, and yet he 
 still possessed the hopefuhiess and mental vigour of a man 
 in his prime. Hale and hearty, full of interesting reminis- 
 cences of the past, he yet entered with interest into the 
 life of the present, and displayed a warm sympathy for all 
 current projects calculated to render the lives of men 
 happier. Still sound in health, his eye had lost none of its 
 brilliancy, nor his cheek of its colour ; and there was an 
 elasticity in his step which younger men might have envied." 
 He was, like all his family, very fond of horticultural 
 pursuits, and he called the attention of Smiles to the fact in 
 these words : " Look at these fine old trees ! Every one of 
 them has been planted by my own hand. When I was a 
 boy, I was fond of planting, and my father indulged me in 
 the pastime. I went about with a spade in my hand, 
 planting trees everywhere, as far as you can see. They 
 grew while I slept, and now see what a goodly array they 
 make. But, truly," added the old man eloquently, "rail- 
 ways are a far more extraordinary growth than these. 
 When I started the Stockton and Darlington Railway, some 
 
 five and thirty years since, I was already fifty years old. 
 Nobody could then have dreamt what railways would have 
 groVra to within one man's lifetime." 
 
 We could not here, with the space at our command, treat 
 the life of Edward Pease after the manner of a BosweU or a 
 Smiles, and it may be that an adequate record of his life's 
 work will never appear. Certainly the facilities and tho re- 
 sources for such an undertaking are diminishing every year, 
 and the probabilities are being discounted with them. But 
 it would be unpardonable, oven in this brief anfl unpre- 
 tending sketch, to withhold rof(?.rcnoo to tho almost Crom- 
 wolUan character of the man. Mr. Pease himself would, 
 probably, had he been consulted on such a matter, have 
 been the first to utter — 
 
 "Hold! no adulation; 'tii the death of virtue." 
 
 but it would be the merest affectation to deny or ignore 
 the fact that, in moral strength, courage, and inflexibility, 
 Edward Pease was one — 
 
 "Wherever God did seem to set his seal. 
 To give the world assurance of a man." 
 
 One who knew him well, has given him credit for remark- 
 able tact and penetration, allied to a tendency towards 
 inflexible justice, which sometimes almost approached 
 Draconic severity. But he was kind and considerate withal, 
 hospitable and large-hearted, and would have died a much 
 more wealthy man " but for his unbounded forgiveness of 
 debt." 
 
 Being one of the strictest sect of the "people called 
 Quakers," he was opposed to all dissension, and always 
 advocated the interests of compromise and peace. He had 
 no dislike to the Church of England, but he always set his 
 face against its affectation of civil power and religious su- 
 periority. Living, as he did, long before the abolition of 
 church rates, he resisted their imposition to the utmost of 
 his power, and he and his friends were often, on this ac- 
 count, compelled to suffer for conscience' sake. Writing to 
 a friend on this subject in 1852, he said, " I know thou wilt 
 say church rates is a legal tax. Then, can a conscientious 
 man of his own free will go and pay that which his heart 
 tells him is inequitable and unjust. I cannot but hope, if 
 the Legislature does not take it out of the hands of those 
 who are willing to tear their neighbours' goods out of their 
 houses without a shadow of justice, that my good friend 
 
 will be no further participant in such 
 
 matters." 
 
 In the month of July, 1858, Mr. Pease passed to his rest, 
 in the ninety-second year of his age. His death was mourned 
 in every household in the town where he had spent his busy 
 and useful life. His funeral was very largely attended, and, 
 in homage to his memory, business was entirely suspended. 
 He was interred in the quiet little cemetery of the Friends, 
 in Skinnergate, Darlington, where a headstone, as plain and 
 
 45 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 unpretentious as the man liimself, simply indicates his name, 
 age, and date of decease. 
 
 The father of the Railway System ! What more honoured 
 or honourable title could a man possess. Nor will the name 
 of Edward Pease live in his o-vvn country alone. Lands that 
 are now sunk in the deepest sloughs of ignorance and bar- 
 barism; nations that may have nothing ebe in common 
 with the land of his birth ; communities to whom the foren- 
 sic, philosophical, and literary reputation of Greece and 
 Rome is not even " as a tale that is told ;" tribes and 
 tongues that have never articulated the great names of 
 Nelson and Wellington, of Burke and Fox, of Pitt and Peel, 
 may learn to remember and revere the name of Edward 
 Pease. Could it ever have entered into the heart of Edward 
 Pease — the man who humbly " dwelt among his own people," 
 and had no thought beyond that of being permitted, while 
 making himself useful to aU around him, to foUow out in 
 obscurity the course of what, as this world goes, would be 
 called an obscure life — that in the long hereafter his name 
 was to be inscribed in the long roll of those pioneers of pro- 
 gress, whom not only his own country, but the world itself 
 "dehghteth to honour." And yet this, and no less dis- 
 tinguished a place in the great Walhalla of fame, is reserved 
 for the man who successfully projected and carried out the 
 first public railway. 
 
 Joseph Pease, the first railway treasurer, was the son of 
 the subject of the preceding sketch. When the first meet- 
 ing was held in Darlington to promote the construction of 
 the Stockton and Darlington Railway, he was only nineteen 
 years old, having been born in 1799 ; but his father had 
 even at this early period of his son's Hfe endued him with a 
 firm and abiding faith in the advantages of railways ; and 
 the young man was of too ardent and sanguine a disposition 
 to remain inactive when there was a battle to be fought, or 
 a prejudice to conquer. His interest in the railway system, 
 and his efforts on its behalf, may therefore be said to have 
 begun with the inauguration of the Stockton and Darlington 
 line in 1818. 
 
 In 1825, when tlie Stockton and Darlington line was 
 opened, Edward Pease was an old man, and the growing 
 need of rest led to his relinquishment of practical and active 
 interest in the affairs of that line. His mantle, however, 
 had fallen upon the shoulders of an apt and able son, and 
 Joseph Pease, then tAvcnty-six years of age, was formally in- 
 stalled in the office of treasurer to the now line, and in that 
 position he acquired an influence in the counsels of the 
 board of direction scarcely subordinate to that of his father. 
 That influence ho exercised with wisdom and discretion, al- 
 though always on tlie side of progress. Both mentally and 
 physically he had an extraordinary amount of " go" about 
 him. This trait of his character was so reflected in all that 
 he did, and was so supremely ascendant in the management 
 of the first public raUway, that his authority was more like 
 
 that of a dictator than that belonging to the comparatively 
 subordinate function of treasurer. If a new extension was 
 projected, Joseph Pease was- consulted before anybody else. 
 If additional rolUng stock were required, Joseph Pease was 
 invariably called upon to prescribe its kind and capacity. 
 If an appointment of consequence had to be made, he was 
 the man to make or recommend it. If ways and means 
 were required, it was he who had to provide them. If diffi- 
 culties arose to obscure the company's prospects, he was 
 too often the young David who went up and slew the lion 
 that stood in the path. His power was siibordinate, yet 
 paramount. His functions were nominally defined and 
 prescribed, and yet they were so widely ramified as to be 
 indefinable. He actuated all the movements of the com- 
 mercial machinery ; he permeated all the counsels of his 
 ostensible superiors ; and in this Httle railway repubhc, he 
 was a virtual autocrat. 
 
 After the opening of the Stockton and Darlington line, the 
 far-seeing mind of Mr. Pease discerned the possibihties of 
 fostering and guiding the industrial growth of South Dur- 
 ham in such a way as to benefit not only his own interests, 
 but the general trade of the district. The sphere of his 
 operations at his father's mills was bounded by a hmited de- 
 mand, but the railway system appeared to open out a pro- 
 spect of unlimited development in limitless resources. The 
 coal trade of South Durham was then comparatively in its 
 infancy. There are no statistics available from which we 
 can ascertain the total vend of coals in this division of the 
 Great Northern coal field previous to the year 1825. Data 
 however, can bo found which enable aj)proximate estimates 
 to be formed. Up to 1825, Stockton was the only port of 
 shipment between the Wear and the Tyne on the east coast, 
 and Stockton was some distance from the South Durham coal 
 field, and the cost of cartage was very heavy. Hence it is 
 not surprising to find that the first shipment of coals from 
 Stockton did not take place until 1822 ; and in that year 
 1,224 tons were exported; in 1828 this quantity had ad- 
 vanced to 66,051 tons ! In 1834 the total vend of coal on 
 the Tees had mcreased to 261,244 tons, and from that date 
 the shipment of South Durham coals from the Tees' ports 
 increased steadily for several years. Apart from the quan- 
 tity of coal shipped from Stockton, a very insignificant 
 quantity would be raised in South Durham previous to 
 1825; but the conviction forced itself on the mind of Mr.. 
 Pease that the advent of railways would completely alter 
 the commercial and industrial relations of the district, and 
 in this belief he proceeded to work. In 1828 he became a 
 partner in Shildon Colliery, near Bishop Auckland; the coals 
 were led by carts from the colliery to Shildon Station, and 
 thence were carried by rail to Stockton for shipment. The 
 idea of creating another port on the Tees as a rival to 
 Stockton originated with Joseph Pease, who made a careful 
 examination into aU the circumstances, geographical and 
 
 46 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine, 
 
 otherwise, of the district lyuig between Stockton and the 
 sea, and came to the conclusion that better faciHties for the 
 shipment of South Durham coals could be found at Middles- 
 borough than elsewhere. In pursuance of this idea, Mr. 
 Pease induced some of his friends to join him in the pur- 
 chase of an estate of 500 ficrcs of land— tho site of tlio 
 modern town of Middlesborough. Thb land was a dismal 
 swamp, and seemed only adapted for the habitat of seafowl. 
 But the utility of the purchase soon became apparent. An 
 Act of Parliament was obtained for the construction of a 
 line from Stockton to Middlesborough, of which Joseph 
 Pease was the principal promoter, and pending its construc- 
 tion he erected coal staithes near the "site of what is now the 
 Middlesborough Dock. When the line was opened, there- 
 fore, there was every provision necessary to the shipment 
 of coal on a large scale from " Pease's Port," as it was some- 
 times called. Of these manifest advantages coal-owners and 
 shippers did not hesitate to avail themselves. The trade of 
 the new port advanced from year to year to a magnitude 
 that its promoters never anticipated. Its population grew, 
 and capital was attracted towards it. Soon the birth of the 
 Cleveland iron trade hastened its speed, and ushered it on 
 to a career of progress which can only be paralleled by the 
 too marvellous growth of some American cities. 
 
 It is not our purpose here to foUow Mr. Joseph Pease 
 through his successful commercial career, nor to dwell upon 
 his parHamentary life, nor his eflbrts in the causes of free- 
 dom and education ; suffice it to say that he continued to 
 take a great interest in the Stockton and Darlington rail- 
 way, and its extensions, up to the last. He died on the 8th 
 February, 1872, and was buried at Darlington. 
 
 Francis Mewburn, the first railway solicitor, was born at 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne; he was educated at Ormesby, near the 
 modern town of Middlesborough, which at that time was re- 
 presented by a farm-house. After being articled as a sohci- 
 tor to Mr. Francis Smales, of Durham, Mr. Mewburn came 
 to Darlington in 1809, and commenced business as an 
 attorney. Between that time and the agitation which cul- 
 minated in the projection of the Stockton and Darlington 
 Kailway, he had attained a high position in his profession, 
 and as the leading solicitor in Darlington he was naturally 
 consulted by the promoters of the new line. Mr. Mewburn's 
 discernment was sufficiently acute to enable him to realize 
 the value and possible ultimate importance of railways. He 
 therefore placed his services unreservedly at the disposal of 
 Edward Pease and Jonathan Backhouse, and aided them in 
 aU their efforts for the triumph of their novel scheme. In 
 the session of 1819 he was in London for weeks together, 
 interviewing and persuading all who could bring any in- 
 fluence to operate in favour of the proposed railway, vindi- 
 cating its usefulness, answering and upsetting objections 
 against its practicability and its alleged pernicious conse- 
 quences to the landed interest, trying to raise the ways and 
 
 means, which were not over-abundant, and generally en- 
 deavouring to crush the opposition that was arrayed against 
 the scheme. In the session of 1821, ho underwent the 
 same ordeal, and with more success. He had the gratifica- 
 tion of finding his efforts crowned by the passing of the 
 first Act for tlio construction of a j)ublic railway — an Act 
 which he himself was mainly concerned in drawing up, and 
 an Act which stands to this day, and will yet stand for 
 many a day to come, as a monument to the legal acumen, 
 tact, knowledge, and industry of its framer. 
 
 UntU the year 1828 there were ostensibly two solicitors to 
 the Stockton and Darlington Eailway. In that responsible 
 office Mr. Mewburn was, for the first ten years of its ex- 
 istence, associated with the late Mr. Leonard Raisbeck, of 
 Stockton. Mr. Raisbeck's appointment, however, like his 
 duties, was little else than honorary and nominal. It seems, 
 indeed, to have been made from motives of expediency, and 
 chiefly with a view of conciliating the people of Stockton, 
 who had great confidence in Raisbeck, and were largely in- 
 fluenced by his judgment. But it was at Darlington, and in 
 Mr. Mewburn's office, that the legal machinery of the con- 
 cern was actuated, and that gentleman was the chief source 
 of motive power. Mr. Raisbeck's first and last duty appear- 
 ed to be that of taking care that Stockton interests were 
 duly protected. Mr. Mewburn's obligations covered a much 
 wider area, and embraced the assimilation and reconcUiation 
 of all the various and varied interests within the Company's 
 jurisdiction. That his labours were eminently successful is 
 sufficiently attested by the high degree -of prosperity which 
 the company attained during the forty-two years he acted as 
 its solicitor. On 28th May, 1828, Mr. Raisbeck resigned his 
 joint appointment of soUcitor to the company, for the same 
 cause as that assigned by Mr. Meynell for the resignation of 
 the chairmanship, viz., the extension of the line from Stockton 
 to Middlesborough. The resignation was accepted, and the 
 dh'ectors passed a resolution requesting Mr. Mewburn "to 
 continue his efficient services as solicitor," and offering hun 
 " The warm and grateful thanks of the Company for his un- 
 wearied and invaluable, exertions for the promotion of its 
 interests on all occasions, especially during his late arduous 
 though successful exertions before Parliament." 
 
 From this time until the year 18G0, when he retired from 
 business, Mr. Mewburn continued to act as the sole profes- 
 sional adviser of the railway company, for whose very exist- 
 ence he had been compelled to fight perhaps the greatest battle 
 of his hfe. During this long interval of active service, he pre- 
 pared and obtained the Acts for some of the most important 
 extensions of the Stockton and Darlington Railway — often 
 in the teeth of formidable opposition ; always under circum- 
 stances that demanded professional dexterity, and involved 
 more or less difficult manipulation. On receiving Mr. Mew- 
 burn's letter of resignation, the board of directors agreed 
 upon a minute recording their unfeigned regret, collectively 
 
 47 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine, 
 
 and individually, at his retirement, and assuring him that 
 they were not " forgetful of the energy, ability, and success 
 with which the Stockton and Darlington Kailway Company's 
 interests committed to his professional care were ever 
 watched over and secured, even in days when, standing as 
 it were alone before the community as a railway solicitor, 
 new practice and precedents were of necessity to be created," 
 From 1846 until the incorporation of the borough of Dar- 
 lington in 18C7 — when the office was abolished — Mr. Mew- 
 bum was chief bailift' of Darlington, and in that capacity 
 was associated intimately with all the municipal affairs of 
 the town. On I7th August, 1855, he was presented by Mr. 
 Joseph Pease, on behalf of 224 subscribers, with a service of 
 plate costing upwards of £400, " as a testimonial of his high 
 character, his zealous and honourable discharge of his pro- 
 fession during a period of nearly fifty years, and their esteem 
 for him as a neighbour and a gentleman." 
 
 In this brief and necessarily imperfect sketch of Mr. Mew- 
 bum's life, we cannot venture to travel far beyond the re- 
 cord of his railway connection. To speak of him in relation 
 to all the multifarious offices which he filled, and all the 
 varied phases of his active career, would nearly be tanta- 
 mount to writing a history of Darlington for the greater 
 part of- the present century. No one filled a more con- 
 spicuous place in the annals of the town during that period. 
 No one was a more complete epitome of the shrewd lawyer, 
 of the kindly and thoughtful philanthropist, the active man 
 of business, the embodiment of municipal authority, the 
 learned savant, and the social reformer. He served Dar- 
 lington well in his day and generation, and Darlington ac- 
 knowledged her obligation by a public funeral, by psBns of 
 grief and requiems of sorrow, such as she has seldom ac- 
 corded to any of her sons. 
 
 As the construction of the Liverpool and Manchester 
 Railway has a strong collateral relation to the career of 
 the Stockton and Darlington Railway, we shall here briefly 
 allude to that circumstance of its formation. The Bill 
 authorizing its construction passed through Parliament in 
 1826, and the line was opened on the 15th September, 
 1830 — a day that added to its other memorabilia the tragic 
 death of Huskisson. While the bill was still under con- 
 sideration, Mr. Henry Booth, the first secretary, and subse- 
 quently the historian of the Liverpool and Manchester line, 
 addressed a letter to Mr, Edward Pease, stating that the op- 
 ponents of his company intended to represent the Darling- 
 ton Railroad was a complete failure, and asking for correct 
 information on the subject, especially with reference to the 
 strength of the rails. A great fight took place on this 
 bill, chiefly with respect to the motive power to be em- 
 ployed. It was still a moot point whether a railway 
 was or was not a more cheap and expeditious mode of 
 transit than a canal. It was admitted by the promoters of 
 water-navigation that the existing traffic was 1,200 tons 
 
 per day, that the shortest distance by the canal was fifty 
 miles, and that the average time taken to perform the 
 voyage between Liverpool and Manchester was thirty-one 
 hours, the charges being 5s. 2d. per ton, but reduced in 
 consequence of the proposed opposition to 3s. 8d. and Ss. 4d. 
 per ton ; whereas the promoters of the railway stated the 
 distance at thirty-one miles, and engaged to convey goods 
 at the rate of five to six miles an hour, and from twenty 
 to thirty per cent, below the canal charges, George Ste- 
 phenson was examined for four days before the Committee, 
 and assigned to the locomotives then in use a power of 
 twenty tons at eight miles, with the capabilities of making 
 thirty tons, and of travelling at the rate of twelve miles 
 an hour, Mr. Nicholas Wood, however, assigned a power 
 of fifty tons gross, at six miles an hour, with capabilities, 
 by increased power, of taking that weight at any speed be- 
 tween six and twelve miles an hour. Greater results were 
 achieved than either of these gentlemen anticipated, for 
 Messrs. Walker and Rastrick, in March, 1829, estimated the 
 capabiUties of a ten-horse engine for the Liverpool and 
 Manchester Railway at sixty tons gross, at five miles an 
 hour, thirty-seven and a-half tons at eight miles an hour, 
 and thirty tons at twelve mUes an hour. " The construction 
 of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway," says Wood, 
 " and the results elicited by the experiments of the locomo- 
 tive engines thereon, virtually established the system of 
 railways. The entire superstructure was not then raised, 
 but the foundation was firmly and securely laid." 
 
 The Railway jubilee at Darlington in celebration of the 
 opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway fifty years 
 ago may fairly be taken as one of the most prominent 
 landmarks in the history of the Locomotive Engine, as 
 well as of Railways; and we will proceed to describe the 
 principal types of the Locomotive Engine gathered together 
 upon that occasion, as the best exemplars of Locomotives 
 designed by the most eminent of the Engineers connected 
 with the Railways of this country and also some of the 
 Locomotive Engine Building firms, the productions of which 
 go forth to all parts of the world. 
 
 After giving, as wo have done, the early history of the 
 Locomotive Engine and of the earliest Railway worked by 
 Locomotive Power, we will give a detailed list of the Engines 
 collected together, and exhibited upon the occasion of the 
 Jubilee in accordance with the information supplied to us 
 by the late Mr. W. Bouch, the talented and well-lcnown 
 Locomotive Superintendent of the ISl orth-Eastern Railway 
 Company, and the Jubilee Committee, and we propose to 
 give that list in extenso, including a few exemplars of the 
 earliest Locomotive Engines in the order in which they were 
 arranged in the sheds when exhibited. 
 
 No. 1 Engine. — Built by Stephenson and Company, New- 
 castle, in the year 1825; designed by the famous George 
 
 48 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 Stephenson, for working mineral trains on the Stockton and 
 Darlington Railway. Boiler, 10 ft. long, 4 ft. diameter; main 
 6r internal furnace tube, 10 ft. long by 2 ft. diameter; total 
 heating surface, 60 square ft. ; boiler pressure, 253fes per square 
 in.; cylinders (2 vertical), 10 in. diameter, 24 in. stroke; 
 one pump ; metal wheels, 4 coupled ; total wheel base, 5 ft. 
 4 in. ; weight of engine in worlcing order, G tons 10 cwt.; speed, 
 8 miles per hour. Tender. — Body made of wood, on frames 
 10 ft. C in. long; wheels, metal. No 4, 2 ft. 6 in. diameter; 
 wheel base, 4 ft. 9 in. ; carried 240 gallons of water and 
 half a ton of fuel; weight in working order, 1| tons; extreme 
 length of engine and tender, 24 ft. 
 
 No. 10 Engine. — Built by Timothy liackworth, Shildon, 
 in the year 1839; designed by T. liackworth, for working 
 mineral trains on the Stockton and Darlington Railway; 
 boiler 14 ft. 6 in. long, 4 ft. 4 in, diameter, made of plate 
 f in. thick; main or internal furnace tube, 14 ft. 4 in. long, 
 2 ft. 6 in. diameter; boiler tubes, iron, 103, 12 ft. long, If in. 
 diameter, 14 W. G. thick; total heating surface, including 
 fire-box, 135 square feet; boiler pressure, 70 lib. per square 
 in.; cylinders, 2, outside, 16 in. diameter, 18 in. stroke; 
 pumps, 2; reversing gear, ordinary; wheels, metal, 6, coupled, 
 
 4 ft. diameter; tyres, of Yorkshire iron, 2 in. thick,, 5 J 
 in. broad; total wheel base, 9 ft.; speed, 15 miles per 
 hour. Tender. — Body made of J in. plate, on wood 
 frames, 10 ft. long; wheels, metal. No. 4, 2 ft. diameter, 
 with Yorkshire iron tyres, 1^ in, thick; wheel base, 6 ft. 
 6 in.; will carry 700 gallons of water and 1 ton of fuel; 
 brake power, ordinary; extreme length of engine and ten- 
 der, 43 ft. 9 in. 
 
 ITo. 10S2 Engine. — Built by the North-Eastem Railway 
 Company, Darlington, in the year 1875; designed by Mr. W. 
 Bouch, for working mineral and goods trains on the North- 
 Eastem Railway. Boiler, 14 ft. long, 4 ft. diameter, made 
 of Low Moor plate, tt i^^- thick; copper fire-box, 5 ft. 8 in. 
 high; 4 ft, 5 in, long, 3 ft. 6 in, wide; Low Moor iron boiler 
 tubes, 158, 14 ft. 6 in, long, 2 in. diameter, 14 W. G, 
 thick; total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,100 square 
 ft,; boiler pressure, 130 flb, per square in,; frames, 2, in- 
 side; cylinders, 2, inside, 17 in. diameter, 26 !in, stroke; 
 pumps, 2 ; injectors, 1, of the Giffard's No, 6, brass cased ; 
 reversing gear, Bench's radial screw; wheels, 6, coupled, 
 
 5 ft, diameter; tyres, Vicker's steel, new section, with lip on, 
 
 6 in. broad, 2| in, thick; total wheel base, 11 ft, 8 in; total 
 weight, 85 tons 17 cwt,; speed, 30 miles per hour. Tender. 
 —Body made of \ in. plate, on two iron frames, 16 ft, 4 in. 
 long; wheels, 6, 4 ft, in diameter, with Yorkshire iron tyres 
 2f in. thick; wheel base, 10 ft,; will carry 2,400 gallons 
 of water and 6 tons of fuel; brake power, ordinary screw; 
 weight in working order, 23 tons; extreme length of engine 
 and tender, 46 ft, 5 in. 
 
 No. 1033 Engine.— Bm\t by the Shildon Works Com- 
 pany, Shildon, in the year 1846; designed byMr. W. Bouch, 
 for working mineral trains on the Stockton and Darling- 
 ton Railway, Boiler, 13 ft, long, 4 ft. 4 in. diameter, made 
 of Low Moor plate, f in, thick; copper fire-box, 3 ft, 11 in. 
 high, 3 ft. 5 in, long, 3 ft, 1 in, wide; Low Moor iron 
 boiler tubes, 213, 13 ft, 3 in, long, 1| diameter, 14 W. G. 
 thick; total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,363 square 
 feet; boiler pressure, 75 lb, per square in,; cyUnders, 2, out- 
 side, 15 in, diameter, 24 in, stroke; pumps, 2; reversing gear, 
 ordinary; wheels, metal, 6, coupled, 4 ft. diameter; tyres, 
 steel, 21 in. thick, 5^ in, broad; total wheel base, 9 ft.; 
 weight of engine, in working order, 22 tons 7 cwt; speed, 20 
 miles per hour. Tender. — Body made of \ in. plate, on wood 
 frames, 10 ft. long; wheels, metal. No. 4, of 2 ft, in diameter, 
 with Yorkshire iron tyres, 2 in, thick; wheel base, 6 ft, 6 in.; 
 will carry 700 gallons of water and 2 tons of fuel; brake 
 power, ordinary; extreme length of engine and. tender, 
 48 ft. 
 
 No. 1035 Engine.— Buiii by the Shildon Works Com- 
 pany, Shildon, in the year 1847; designed by Mr. W. Bouch, 
 for working goods trains on the Stockton and Darlington 
 Railway. Boiler, 13 ft. 10 in. long, 4 ft. diameter, made of Low 
 Moor plate iron, |- in. thick; copper fire-box, 3 ft. 9 in. high, 
 
 3 ft. 5 in. long, 3 ft. wide; Low Moor iron boiler tubes, 107, 14 
 ft. long, 2 in. diameter, 14 W. G. thick; total heating surface, 
 including fire-box, 826 square ft.; boiler pressure, 80 lb. per 
 square in.; cylinders, 2, outside, 16 in. in diameter, 24 in. 
 stroke; pumps, 2; reversing gear, ordinary; wheels, 6, coupled, 
 
 4 ft. in diameter, metal ; tyres. Low Moor iron, 1| in. thick, 
 
 5 in. broad; total wheel base, 8 ft. 8 in.; weight of engine in 
 working order, 25 tons 11 cwt; speed, 20 miles per hour. 
 Tender. — Body made of \ in. plate, on wood frames, 12 ft. 
 long; wheels, T spoked, No. 6, 3 ft. diameter, with York- 
 shire iron tyres, 2|- in. thick; wheel base, 9 ft.; will carry 
 1,400 gallons of water and 4 tons of fuel; brake power, ordi- 
 nary screw; weight, in working order, 15 tons; extreme 
 length of engine and tender, 42 ft. 10 in. 
 
 No. 1041 Engine. — BuUt by Timothy Hackworth, Shildon, 
 in the year 1840; designed by T. Hackworth, for working 
 passenger trains on the Stockton ' and Darlington Railway. 
 BoUer, 8 ft. 2 in. long, 3 ft. 3 in. diameter, made of Low 
 Moor plate f in. thick; copper fire-box, 4 ft. high, 
 3 ft. 10 in. long, 3 ft. wide; Low Moor iron boiler tubes, 
 110, 8 ft. 8 in. long, 2 in. diameter, 14 W. G. thick; total 
 heating surface, including fire-box, 602 square ft.; boiler 
 pressure, 100 Bb. per square inch; frames, 2, inside; cylinders, 
 2, inside, 14 in. diameter, 16 in. stroke; pumps, 2; reversing 
 gear, ordinary gab; wheels, 4, coupled, 4 ft. 6 in, diameter; 
 tyres, Vicker's steel, 2| in, thick, 5| in. broad; total wheel 
 base, 4 ft. 10 in. ; speed, 30 miles per hour. Tender. — Body 
 
 49 
 
 r 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 made of ^ in. plate, on wood frames, 10 ft. long; wheels, 
 4, 2 ft. 6 in. diameter, with Yorkshire iron tyres, 2| in. thick; 
 wheel base, 7 ft. ; will carry 600 gallons of water and 2 tons 
 of fuel ; brake power, ordinary screw; extreme length of 
 engine and tender, 35 ft. 3 in. 
 
 No. 1050 Engine. — Built by the Shildon Works Com- 
 pany, Shildon, in the year 1843; designed by Mr. W. Bouch, 
 for working passenger trains on the Stockton and Darling- 
 ton Railway. Boiler, 8 ft. long, 4 ft. diameter; copper fire- 
 box, 3 ft. 8 in. high, 3 ft. 10 in. long, 2 ft. 10 in. wide; Low 
 Moor iron boiler tubes, 115, 8 ft. 6 in. long, 2 in. diameter, 
 14 W. G, thick; total heating surface, including fire-box, 
 633 square ft.; boiler pressure, 100 ft. per square in; frames, 
 
 2 outside and 4 inside; cylinders, 2, inside, 13 in. diameter, 
 20 in. stroke; pumps, 2; reversing gear, ordinary; wheels, 
 2, driving, 5 ft. diameter, 2 leading and 2 trailing, 
 3 J ft. diameter; tyros, Vickcr's steel, 2 J in. thick, 5| in. 
 broad; total wheel base, 13 ft. 11 in.; weight of engine in 
 working order, 19 tons 8 cwt.'; speed, 40. miles per hour. 
 Tender. — Body made of \ in. plate, on wood frames, 14 ft. 
 long; wheels. No. 4, 2 ft. 6 in. diameter, with Yorkshire 
 iron tyres, 2^ in. thick ; wheel base, 7 ft ; will carry 936 
 gallons of water and 2 tons of fuel; brake power, ordinary 
 screw; weight, in working order, 10 J tons; extreme length 
 of engine and tender, 36 ft. 10 in. 
 
 No. 106G Engine.— Omit by Gilkes, Wilson and Co., Mid- 
 dlesborough, in the year 1847; designed by R. Stephenson 
 and Co., for Avorking mineral trains on the Stockton and 
 DarUngton Railway. Boiler, 13 ft. 10 in. long, 3 ft. 8 in. 
 diameter, made of Low Moor plate, -| in. thick; copper fire- 
 box, 3 ft. 7 in. high, 3 ft. 6 in. long, 3 ft. 6 in. wide; iron 
 boiler tubes, 127, 14 ft. 3 in. long, 2 in. diameter, 14 W. G. 
 thick; total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,061 square 
 ft.; boiler pressure, 95 ft. per square in.; frames, 2, inside; 
 cylinders, 2, outside, 15 in. diameter, 22 in. stroke; pumps, 2; 
 reversing gear, ordinary; wheels, 4, T spoked, coupled, 5 ft. 
 diameter, 2 leading, 3;^ ft. diameter; tyres, Vicker's steel, 
 2^ in. thick, ^ in. broad; total wheel base, 11 ft. 10 in,; 
 weight of engine in working order, 27 tons 7 cwt; speed, 30 
 miles per hour. Tender.— Bodij made of \ in. plate, on 
 wood frames, 17 ft, 4 in, long; wheels, T spoked. No, 6, 
 
 3 ft, 6 in. diameter, Avith Yorkshire iron tyres, 2 J in. thick; 
 wheel base, 10 ft, ; will carry 1,200 gallons of water and 3 
 tons of fuel; brake poAver, ordinary; weight, in working 
 order, 17 tons; extreme length of engine and tender, 43 ft. 
 6 in. 
 
 No. 1068 Engine. — Built by the North-Eastem RaUway 
 Company, Darlington, in the year 1875; designed by Mr. 
 W. Bouch, for working express passenger trains on the 
 North-Eastem Railway (Darlington Section). Boiler, 11 ft. 
 
 long, 4 ft. in diameter, made of Low Moor plate, xV in- thick; 
 copper fire-box, 5 ft. 8 in, high, 4 ft. 5 in. long, 3 ft. 6 in, 
 wide; Low Moor iron boiler tubes, 158, 11 ft. 6 in. long, 
 2 in, diameter, 14 W, G. thick; total heating surface, includ- 
 ing fire-box, 1,100 square ft.; boiler pressure, 140 ft. per 
 square in.; frames, 2, inside; cylinders, 2, inside, 17 in. dia- 
 meter, 26 in. stroke; injectors, 2 of Friedman's No, 8, brass 
 cased; reversing gear, Bouch's radial screw; wheels, 4, 
 coupled, 6 ft. diameter, 2 leading, 4 ft, diameter; brake 
 power, fitted with Bouch's patent steam retarder; tyres, 
 Vicker's steel, 2f in, thick, new section, 6 in. broad; total 
 wheel base, 16 ft. 6 in,; weight of engine, in working 
 order, 31 tons 8 cwt.; speed, 60 miles per hour. Tender. — 
 Body made of \ in. plate, on iron frames, 16 ft, 4 in. long; 
 Avheels, 4, 4 ft. in diameter, with Yorkshire iron tyres, 2| in. 
 thick; wheel base, 10 ft,; will carry 2,400 gallons of water 
 and 6 tons of fuel; brake poAver, ordinary screAv; weight, in 
 working order, 23 tons; extreme length of engine and 
 tender, 44 ft. 5 in. 
 
 No. 1089 Engine. — Built by Bury and Co., Liverpool, in 
 the year 1846, for working mineral trains on the Stockton 
 and Darlington Raihvay. Boiler, 11 ft, 1 in, long, 3 ft. 6 in. 
 diameter; copper semi-circular fire-box (with dome top), 
 4 ft. 3 in, high, 3 ft. 6f in, long, 3 ft, 6 in. wide; iron 
 boiler tubes, 121, 11 ft. 4 in, long, 2 in, diameter, 14 W. G. 
 thick; total heating surface, including fire-box, 782 square ft. ; 
 boiler pressure, 100ft. per square in,; frames, 2, inside; cylin- 
 ders, 2, inside, 15 in. diameter, 24 in, stroke; pumps, 2; injec- 
 tors, none; reversing gear, ordinary; wheels, 4, coupled, 5 ft. 
 diameter; tyres, steel, 2f in, thick, 5^ in, broad; total wheel 
 base, 7 ft, 8 in, ; weight of engine in Avorking order, 20 tons 
 12 CAvt ; speed, 25 miles per hour. Tender. — Body made of 
 \ in. plate, on wood frames, 13 ft. long; wheels. No, 4, 2 ft. 
 6 in, diameter, with Yorkshire iron tyres, 2 in, thick ; Avheel 
 base, 7 ft, 5 in, ; will carry 900 gallons of water and 2 tons 
 of fuel ; brake poAver, ordinary scrcAv; extreme length of en- 
 gine and tender, 30 ft. 
 
 No. 1^70 Engine. — Built by the North-Eastern Railway 
 Company, Darlington, in the year 1874; designed by Mr. W. 
 Bouch, for working express passenger trains on the North- 
 Eastern Railway (Darlington Section), Boiler, 11 ft. long, 
 4 ft, diameter, made of Low Moor plate, x\ in, thick; copper 
 fire-box, 5 ft, 9 in, high, 4 ft, 5 in. long, 3 ft, 6 in. Avide; 
 Low Moor iron boiler tubes, 210, 11 ft. 6 in. long. If in. 
 diameter, 14 W. G. thick ; total heating surface, including 
 fire-box, 1,217 square ft,; pressure, 140 ft. per square in.; 
 frames, 2, inside; cylinders, 2, outside, 17 in. in dia- 
 meter, 80 in. stroke; pumps, 2; injectors, 1, one of 
 Friedman's No, 8, brass-cased; reversing gear,, Bouch's 
 radial screw; Avheels, 4, coupled, 7 ft. diameter, 4 bogey 
 wheels in front, 3 ft. 6 in. in diaineter; brake power, fitted 
 
 50 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 with Bouch's steam retarder; tyres, Vicker's steel, new sec- 
 tion, with lip on, 2f in. thick, 6 in. broad ; total wheel base, 
 21 ft.; weight of engine in working order, 44 tons 1 cwt.; 
 speed, 60 miles per hour, on heavy gradients, between Dar- 
 lington and Tebay. Tender. — Body made of \ in. plate, 
 on 2 malleable iron frames, 16 ft 4 in. long; wheels, 
 No. 6, 4 ft. diameter, with Yorkshire, iron tyres, 2f in. 
 thick; wheel base, 10 ft.; will' carry 2,400 gallons of water 
 and G tons of fuel; brake power, ordinary screw; weight, 
 in working order, 23 tons; extreme length of engine and 
 tender, 48 ft. 
 
 No. 1391 Engine. — Built by the North-Eastern Eailway 
 Company, Darlington, in the year 1875, designed by Mr. W. 
 Bouch, for mineral and goods trains on the North-Eastern 
 Railway. Boiler, 11 ft. long, 4 ft. diameter, made of Low 
 Moor plate yV '^^- thick; copper fire-box, 5ft. 8 in. high, 
 4 ft. 5 in. long, 3 ft. 6 in. wide; Low Moor iron boiler tubes, 
 158, 11 ft. 6 in. long, 2 in. in diameter, 14 W. G. thick; 
 total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,100 ft.; boiler 
 pressure, 130 lbs. per square in. ; frames, 2 inside; cylinders, 
 2 inside, 17 in. diameter, 26 in. stroke; injectors, 2 of Fried- 
 man's No. 8, brass cased; reversing gear,Bouch's radial screw; 
 wheels, 6, coupled, 5 ft. diameter; brake power fitted with 
 Bouoh's patent steam retarder; tyres, Vicker's steel, new 
 section, with lip on 6 in. broad, 2|- in. thick; total wheel 
 base, 16 ft. 3 in.; weight of engine in working order, 32 tons; 
 speed, 30 miles per hour. Tender. — Body made of I in. 
 plate, on 2 iron frames, 16 ft. 4 in. long; wheels. No. 6, 4 ft. 
 diameter, with Yorkshire iron tyres 2| in. thick; wheel 
 base, 10 ft, ; will carry 2,400 gallons of water, and 6 tons of 
 fuel ; brake power, ordinary screw ; weight in working order, 
 23 tons ; extreme length of engine and tender, 43 ft. 10 in. 
 
 NORTH-EASTERN RAILWAY COMPANY. 
 
 No. 174. Engine.— Built by the North-Eastern Railway 
 Company in the year 1875, designed by Edward Fletcher, 
 for working mineral goods on the North-Eastern Railway. 
 Boiler, 11 ft. 4 in. long, 4 ft. 2 in. diameter, made of Low Moor 
 ironplate-rV in- thick; copper fire-box, 6ft. 11 in. high, 4 ft. 7 in. 
 long, 3 ft. 4 in. wide ; 181 boiler tubes, 11 ft. 9 J in. long, 2 in. 
 diameter. No. 14 "W. G. thick; total heating surface, including 
 fire-box, 1,204 square ft.; boiler pressure, 140 lbs. per square 
 inch ; frames inside only, iron plates 1 in. thick ; cylinders, 
 17 in. diameter, 24 in. stroke; injectors, 2 of Friedman's 
 No. 8 size ; reversing gear, ordinary slot link, with weigh 
 bar and levers, worked by screw or hand ; wheels, wrought 
 iron, 6 in number, 5 ft. diameter; tyres, crucible cast steel, 
 6 in. broad, 2f on edge and lipped; total wheel base, 16 ft. 
 6 in. ; weight of engine in working order, 36 tons 2 cwt ; 
 speed, 30 miles per hour. Tender.— Body made of ^ in., and 
 tV in. plate, on plate frames 16 ft. 3 in. long; wheels. 
 
 wrought iron, No. 6, 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, with iron tyres 
 2| in. thick, and lipped ; wheel base, 10 ft. 3 in. ; will carry 
 2,000 gallons of water and 3 tons of fuel; brake power, ordi- 
 nary screw and levers ; weight in working order, 23 tons ; 
 length of engine and tender, 46 ft. 3 in. over buffers. 
 
 No. 273 Tank Engine.— Bxnlt by Messrs. E. B.' Wilson 
 and Co., in the year 1840, designed by Crampton, for work- 
 ing passenger trains on the North-Eastern Railway. Boiler, 
 9 ft. 3 in. long, ,3 ft. diameter, made of Low Moor plate, f in. 
 thick ; copper fire-box, 4 ft. 1 in. high, ^2 ft. 3 in. long, 2 ft. 
 
 9 in. wide ; 110 boiler tubes, 9 ft. 4f in. long, 2 in. in dia- 
 meter ; total heating surface, including fire-box, 576 square 
 feet ; boiler pressure, 100 lbs. per square inch ; frames, inside 
 8 in. deep, IJ in. thick, and 19 ft. long; cyHnders, inside, 11 
 in. diameter, 18 in. stroke; pump, one long pump, 18 in. stroke^ 
 1| in. ram; injector, 1; reversing gear, ordinary lever 
 and slot link ; wheels, 4 in number, 2 leading and 2 trailing, 
 with side rods coupled to crank shaft, 5 ft. diameter ; tyres, 
 wrought iron, 5f in. broad, 2 J in. thick ; total wheel base, 
 
 10 ft. 11 in; speed, 45 miles per hour. Tank. — Body all on 
 one frame, made of /^ in. plate ; will carry 225 gallons of 
 water and one ton of fuel ; extreme length of engine, 22 ft. 
 4 in. 
 
 No. 910 Engine. — Built by the North-Eastern Railway 
 Company in the year 1874 ; designed by Edward Fletcher, 
 for working express passenger trains on the North-Eastern 
 Railway. Boiler, 10 ft. 4 in. long, 4 ft, 3 in. diameter, made 
 of Low Moor iron plate, xV in- thick ; copper fire-box, 5 ft. 9 
 in. high, 4 ft. 10 in. long, 3 ft. 4 in. wide ; plates, J in. thick ; 
 254 boiler tubes, 10 ft. 9 J in. long, 1^^ in. diameter. No. 11 
 and 12, W. G. thick; total heating surface, including fire- 
 box, 1,209 square feet ; boiler pressure, 140 lbs. per square 
 inch ; frames inside and outside, of iron plates, 1 in. thick; 
 cylinders, 17 in. diameter, 24 in. stroke ; injectors, 2, of Fried- 
 man's, No. 8 size ; reversing gear, ordinary slot Hnk, with 
 weigh bar and levers worked by screw or hand ; wheels, 
 wrought iron, 6 in number, driving and trailing, 7 ft. dia- 
 meter ; leading wheels 4 ft. 6 in. diameter ; tyres, crucible cast 
 steel for driving and trailing, weldless iron for leading ; total 
 wheel base, 16 ft. 1 in.; weight of engine in working order, 
 39 tons 16 cwt. ; speed, 60 miles per hour. Tender. — Body 
 made of \ in. and -/^ in, plate, on Sandwich frames, 18 ft. 
 8 in. long ; wheels, wrought iron. No. 6, 3 ft. 8 in. diameter, 
 with iron tyres, 2| in. thick, and lipped; wheel base, 12 ft. 
 8 in,; will carry 2,200 gallons of water and 3J tons of fuel ; 
 brake power, ordinary screw and levers ; weight in working 
 order, 26 tons 4 cwt, ; extreme length of engine and tender, 
 48 ft, 6 in. over buffers. 
 
 No. IJiSl Bogie Tank Engine.— BxaS.t by R. and W. Haw- 
 thorn and Co., in the year 1875; designed by Edward 
 
 51 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 Fletcher, for working local passenger traffic on the North- 
 Eastern Eailway. Boiler, 10 ft. 6 in. long, 4 ft. 2 in. diame- 
 ter, made of Low Moor iron plate, yV i^i- thick ; copper fire- 
 box, 5 ft. 7 in. high, 3 ft. 10. long, 3 ft. 4 in. wide; 175 boiler 
 tubes, 10 ft. 11^ in. long, 2 in. diameter. No. 11 and 12 
 W. G. thick ; total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,049 
 square feet; boiler pressure, 140 lbs. per square inch; frames, 
 inside only; iron plates, 1 in. and IJ in. thick; cylinders, 
 16 in. diameter, 22 in. stroke; injectors, 2 of Friedman's No. 8 
 size ; reversing gear, ordinary slot link, with weigh bar and 
 levers, worked by hand or screw ; wheels, wrought iron, 8 in 
 number ; engine wheels, 5 ft. diameter ; bogie wheels, 3 ft. 
 diameter ; tyres, crucible cast steel, 6 in. broad, 2f in. on 
 edge, and lipped ; total wheel base, 21 ft. 8 in. ; weight of 
 engine in working order, 20 tons ; speed, 45 miles per hour. 
 Tank. — Body made of \ in. and yV in. plate, on 1 J in. frames; 
 wheels of bogie, No. 4, 3 ft. diameter, with steel tyres, 2f in. 
 thick, and lipped; wheel base of bogie, 5 ft.; will carry 1,000 
 gallons of water and 2 tons of fuel; weight in working order, 
 20 tons on bogie ; extreme length, 33 ft. 6 in. over buffers. 
 
 GREAT NORTHERN EAILWAY COMPANY. 
 
 No. 4.7 Engine. — Built by the Great Northern Eailway 
 Company, Doncaster, 1875, designed by Mr. P. Stirling for 
 working express passenger trains on the Great Northern 
 Railway. Boiler, 11 ft. 5 in. long, 4 ft. OJ in. diameter; made 
 of Low Moor plate | in. thick ; copper fire-box, 5 ft. 10 J in. 
 high, 5 ft. ^ in. long, 3 ft. 3| in. wide ; brazed copper boiler 
 tubes, 183, 11 ft. 10 in. long, If in. diameter ; 11 and 12 
 W. G. thick; total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,110 
 square feet; boiler pressure, 140 ibs. per square inch ; frames, 2 
 inside ; cylinders, 2 outside, 18 in. diameter, 28 in. stroke ; 
 injectors, 2 of Friedman's No. 8 brass case ; reversing gear, 
 ordinary lever; wheels, single, 8 ft. diameter; 4 bogie wheels 
 in front, 3 ft. 11 in. diameter ; trailing wheels, 4 ft. diameter ; 
 tyres, Taylor and Ticker's new section, with lip on, J in. 
 broad, 2| in. thick; total wheel base, 22 ft. 11 in.; 
 weight of engine in working order, 39 tons 10 cwt ; speed 
 from GO to 70 miles per hour, with 24 coaches, on Great 
 Northern Railway. Tender. — Body made of \ in. plate, on 
 2 malleable iron sides, with wood combined, 19 ft. 4| in. long ; 
 wheels, No. 6, 4 ft. in diameter, with Yorkshire iron tyres, 
 2f in. thick; wheel base, 13 ft. 4 in. ; will carry 2,400 gallons of 
 water and 3 tons of fuel; brake power, ordinary screw; weight 
 in working order, 31 tons ; total wheel base of engine and 
 tender, 43 ft ; total length over buffers of engine and tender, 
 52 ft. 2 J in. 
 
 GLASGOW AND SOUTH-WESTERN EAILWAY COMPANY. 
 
 No. 106 Engine.— BwWt by the Glasgow and South-West- 
 ern Railway Company, Kilmarnock, in the year 1875 ; de- 
 
 signed by James Stirling, for working express passenger 
 train on the Glasgow and South-Westem Railway. Boiler, 
 10 ft. 1 in. long, 4 ft. 2 in. diameter, made of Yorkshire plate, 
 I in. thick; copper fire-box, 5 ft. high, 4 ft. 9| in. long, 3 ft. 
 4 in. wide; brass boiler tubes, 252, 10 ft. 6 in. long, l\ in. in- 
 ternal diameter, 11 and 14 W.G. thick; total heating sur- 
 face, including fire-box, 1,178 square ft.; boiler pressure, 
 130 ibs. per square in, ; frames, 2 inside ; cylinders, 2 inside, 
 18 in. diameter, 26 in. stroke ; injectors, 1 of Giffard's No. 
 10 brass; steam reversing gear, designed by James Stirling; 
 wheels, 4, coupled, 7 ft. 1 in. diameter ; 4 bogie wheels in 
 front, 3 ft. 7 in. diameter ; tyres, Taylor's steel clip section, 
 2| in. thick, 5^ in. broad; total wheel base, 20 ft. 3f in.; 
 weight of engine in working order, 39 tons. Tender. — Body 
 made of \ in. plate, on 2 malleable iron frames, 17 ft. 8 J in. 
 long ; wheels. No. 6, 3 ft. 7 in. diameter, with Bessemer steel 
 tyres, 2| in. thick; wheel base, 11 ft. 7 J in.; will carry 1,800 
 gallons of water and 4 tons of fuel ; brake power, ordinary 
 screw; weight in working order, 24 tons 4 cwt.; extreme 
 length of engine and tender, wheel base, 40 ft. 8 J in. 
 
 midland RAILWAY COMPANY. 
 
 No. 1160 Engine. — Built by Kitson and Co., Leeds, in 
 the year 1875 ; designed by Mr. S, W. Johnson, for working 
 heavy goods and mineral traffic on the Midland Railway. 
 Boiler, 10 ft. 6 in. long, 4 ft. 3 in. diameter, made of Low 
 Moor plate, J in. thick; copper fire-box, 5 ft. 11 J in. front, 
 5 ft. 5 J in. back, 5 ft. 3 in. long, 3 ft. 4| in. wide ; boiler tubes, 
 223,' 10 ft. 11 in. long. If in. diameter, 11 and 13 W. G. 
 thick, brass ; total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,225 
 square feet; boiler pressure, 140 lbs. per square in.; frames, 
 2 inside, 1 in. thick; cylinders, 2 inside, 17J in. diameter, 26 
 in. stroke ; injectors, 2, Friedman's No. 9 ; reversing gear, 
 handle and rack ; wheels, 6, coupled, 4 ft. 10 in. diameter ; 
 tyres, Monkbridge steel, lip fastening, 5| in. broad, 2| in. 
 thick; total wheel base, 16 ft. 6 in., leading to driving, 8 ft., 
 driving to trailing, 8 ft. 6 in.; weight of engine in working 
 order, 36 tons 2 cwt. 1 qr.; speed, 20 miles per hour on a 
 level, 850 tons load ; 12 miles per hour 1 in 120, 380 tons 
 load, exclusive of engine and tender; 12 miles per hour, up 
 1 in 120, including engine and tender, 450 tons load. Ten- 
 der. — Body made of 3-16 in, plate, of 2 malleable iron frames, 
 20 ft. 6 in. long ; wheels. No. 6, 4 ft. diameter, with iron tyres, 
 2| in. thick; wheel base, 13 ft.; will carry 2,265 gallons of 
 water and 4 tons of fuel ; brake power, hand screw ; weight 
 in working order, 28 tons 19 cwt. 1 qr.; extreme length of 
 engine and tender over buffers, 49 ft. 4 in. 
 
 LONDON, BRIGHTON, AND SOUTH COAST RAILWAY 
 COMPANY. 
 No. 151 Engine. — Built by the London, Brighton, and 
 
 52 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 South Coast Railway Company, in the year 1874 ; designed 
 by W. Stroudley, for Avorking express passenger trains on 
 the L. B. & S. C. Railway. Boiler, 10 ft. 5 in. long, 4 ft. 
 5 in. diameter, made of Low Moor plate, J in. thick ; copper 
 fire-box, 5 ft. 11 in. (front), 4 ft. 8 in. (back), in height, G ft. 2 in. 
 long, 4 ft. 1 in. wide ; brass boiler tubes, 206, 10 ft. 10 in. 
 long. If in. diameter, 10 and 11 W. G. thick; total heating 
 surface, including fire-box, 1,242 square feet ; boiler pressure, 
 140 lbs. per square in.; frames, single ; cylinders, 17 in. dia- 
 meter, 24 in. stroke ; pumps, 2 ; reversing gear, ordinary 
 lever; wheels, 2 leading and 2 trailing, 4 ft. 6 in. diameter; 
 2 driving, 6 ft. 9 in. diameter ; tyres, steel, with lip and bolt, 
 5^ in. broad, 3 in. thick ; totixl wheel base, 15 ft. 9 in.; weight 
 of engine, empty, 33 tons ; speed, 45 miles per hour. Ten- 
 der. — Body made of \ in. plate, on iron frames, IG ft. 9 in. 
 long ; wheels, No. G, 4 ft. diameter, with steel tyros, 5 in. thick ; 
 wheel base, 12 ft.; will carry 2,500 gallons of water and 5 
 tons of fuel ; brake power, ordinary screw ; weiglit, empty, 
 15 tons ; extreme length of engine and tender, 49 ft. 5 in. 
 
 LONDON AND NORTH-WESTEEN RAILWAY COMPANY. 
 
 No. 2187 Engine. — Built by the London and North- 
 Western Railway Company, Crewe, in the year 1875; de- 
 signed by Mr. F. W. Webb, for working heavy express trains 
 on the London and North- Western Railway. Boiler barrel, 
 
 9 ft. 10 in. long, 4 ft. Of in. diameter, made of Bessemer steel, 
 plate, -^ in. thick ; copper fire-box, 5 ft. 7 in. high, 4 ft. 
 lOf in. long, 3 ft. 6 in. wide ; boiler tubes, solid drawn copper, 
 
 10 ft. 1 in. long, 1|- in. diameter, 12 and 14 W. G. thick ; 
 total heating surface, including fire-box, 1,083'5 square ft.; 
 boiler pressure, 120 lbs. per square in.; frames (inside only), 
 steel, i in. thick, by 1 ft. 4 J in. deep ; cylinders, inside, 17 in. 
 diameter, 24 in. stroke; injectors, 2, on fire-box, delivery 
 water passing through an internal tube, to front end 
 of the boiler; reversing gear, straight link motion, with 
 direct acting reversing screw; wheels, G, all wrought iron, 
 leading, 3 ft. G in. diameter, driving and trailing, coupled, 
 6 ft. 6 in. diameter, with average thickness of tyres ; tyres, 
 Bessemer steel, with safety lip, 5^ in. wide, and 3 in. thick; 
 total wheel base, 15 ft. 8 in.; weight of engine in worldng 
 order, 32 tons 15 cwt.; speed, up to 60 miles per hour, be- 
 tween Crewe and London. Tender.— Body made of y\ in. 
 plate, on timber frames, 17 ft. 6 in. long; wheels, wrought 
 .iron. No. 6, 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, with Bessemer steel tyres, 
 3 in. thick ; wheel base, 12 ft. 6 in. ; will carry 1,800 gallons of 
 water and 4J tons of fuel; brake power, ordinary screw; 
 leverage, 70 to 1 ; weight in working' order, 25 tons ; extreme 
 length of engine and tender over buffers, 46 ft. 5 in. 
 
 THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF SAFETY AND 
 EFFICIENCY IN THE WORKING OF RAILWAYS. 
 
 By CAPTAIN HENEY WHATELEY TYLER, E..E. 
 
 (CHIEF INSPEOTOE OE KAILWAYS, BOAKD OV TRADE.) 
 
 [We are indebted to Captain Tyler, R.E., the Chief Inspector of Railways 
 to the Board of Trade, for the following highly interesting contribution to 
 science. Ooming from the very highest authority upon the working of 
 railways, it has special value, and merits the serious attention of all con- 
 nected with railway property. Written with a sense of the responsibility 
 which attaches to his high professional position. Captain Tyler properly 
 de.ils with the subject in a fearless, yet temperate manner, befitting its 
 gravity and importance. 
 
 Captain Tyler properly takes exception to tlie empirical, popularity- 
 hunting expedients, resorted to at Railway General Meetings by chairmen, 
 as unworthy of men who have been selected for their presumed oxporionco 
 and special fitness for tlio odioo, and a rcllection upon the common sense 
 and intelligence of their constituents. 
 
 As a prelude to the practical papers upon Railway Safety Appliances, 
 a more appropriate introduction could not be given.] 
 
 Ed. 
 
 The various classes of collision, and the accidents of 
 facing-points, may together be roughly stated to comprise 
 from two-thirds to three-fourths of the casualties to railway 
 trains which are considered of sufficient importance to re- 
 quire investigation on the part of the Board of Trade ; and 
 questions as to the arrangement and working of points and 
 signals, and as to preserving intervals of time or space be- 
 tween trains, and their accessories, enter more or less into 
 the causes of such casualties. In 1872 there were 179 such 
 accidents out of 238 investigated trains ; in 1871, 105 out of 
 150 ; and in 1870, 97 out of 122. 
 
 Within the ordinary limits of a paper of this description 
 it would be neither desirable nor possible to enter into all 
 the details of the apparatus employed by the different rail- 
 way companies for points, for signals, and for train-telegraph 
 purposes, or to discuss all their relative merits or defects. 
 Such a description would, if complete, fill volumes ; and in 
 such a discussion it would be very, difficult to deal, as the 
 writer would always desire to do, with perfect fairness to 
 all competitors. It would seem to be preferable and more 
 useful to put forward in this paper the principles involved, 
 the requirements to be satisfied, and the direction in which 
 further improvements may be effected. It is only by close 
 attention to the constant teachings of practical experience 
 on various systems of railways that the present degree of 
 perfection has been reached ; it is only by jiatience and per- 
 severance in the same method, under the same instructor, 
 that further advances in teal improvement can be made ; 
 and it is only by the fuU appUcation, proper working, and 
 careful maintenance of the necessary appliances, that their 
 
 53 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 due result in the diminution of railway casualties can be 
 obtained. There is, perhaps, hardly any subject in regard 
 to which there has been more misunderstanding, or greater 
 confusion of ideas, than simplicity in railway working. The 
 ■writer and his colleagues have constantly been accused of 
 requiring complication when they have been seeking to in- 
 troduce simplicity; and in adopting, for this reason, the 
 heading of the paper as his thesis on the present occasion, 
 the writer would say a few words at the outset as to what 
 is, and what is not, simpUcity in such matters. It is, or 
 ought to be, the object of the inventor or engineer, in his 
 designs or his projects, his schemes, his plans, or his work. 
 It is usually the last result which, after the greatest amount 
 of thought, is attained. The same is true in other fields of 
 work. Even in literary labour, perfect simplicity of diction, 
 of description, of argument, requires the greatest thought 
 and care, and is the most difficult result to arrive at. The 
 Latin word simpUcitas and svmplex convey, no doubt, the 
 idea of singleness — of one thing ; and a simple machine is 
 in the same sense a machine of few parts, while a compli- 
 cated machine is a machine of many parts. But simplicity 
 of construction, and simplicity in working are in many cases 
 distinct and different from one another ; and further, com- 
 plication in construction is frequently necessary to obtain 
 simplicity in working. This is equally true of a machine, of 
 a railway, or of a sentence. Simplicity in working, as desir- 
 able, being the thesis, confusion in working, as undesirable, 
 is the opposite idea presented for consideration in the pre- 
 sent paper. As a confused sentence can only be made plain 
 by dividing it into a greater number of parts ; and as a 
 machine can only, in many cases, be started and stopped, 
 and made to work more easily by adding to its parts in con- 
 struction, so also a railway may be worked more simply, with 
 less confusion, more efficiency, and less risk, by the addition 
 of certain appliances and accommodation, and by their pro- 
 per adaptation to local circumstances. 
 
 Ingenuity, care, and forethought are required in their ap- 
 plication, and time and experience for their development 
 and further improvement. Railway worlung, which was at 
 first easily conducted, is becoming a science, with its separate 
 branches ; and the writer aims at no more in the present 
 paper than an outline sketch, which he hopes may be fiUed 
 up after a full ventilation of the subject. He ventures to 
 think that the time has arrived for such a discussion, and to 
 hope that full latitude may bo allowed for the expression of 
 opinions from all classes and all parties interested in the 
 subject. 
 
 The first important branch of railway working to which 
 reference may be made is that of points and signals. Wlien 
 trains were few, and there was little risk of their interfering 
 with one another ; when they had the same regular stop- 
 pages, and the speed was not great ; when junctions, stations, 
 and sidings were less frequent; — then fixed signals were 
 
 comparatively unimportant, the switches did not require to 
 be so often moved, and facing or meeting switches were not 
 the cause of so much risk. When the want of fixed signals 
 was experienced, boards and lamps were fixed on revolving 
 poles ; the expression " the board was on," or " the board was 
 off," is retained amongst the engine-drivers on some of the 
 older lines at the present time. The semaphore-arm, for- 
 merly so much used for telegraphic purposes, is now gene- 
 rally preferred as a railway signal. But its merits were not 
 fully recognized until the " board " had passed through a 
 great variety of forms, according to the ideas of designers 
 on different railway systems. The board was made round, 
 square, triangular, oblong, fish-tailed, half-moon shape, long 
 and thin, or short and stumpy, on different lines. In some 
 cases two red discs, called spectacle-discs, were, used for 
 danger, and a green one for caution ; and on the broad- 
 gauge systems the disc was the aU-right, while a cross-bar 
 below was the danger signal. So that the same indication 
 was employed for "danger" on the narrow, and for "all right" 
 on the broad-gauge railways. Then, again, additions were 
 made to these boards, discs, or cross-bars, by turning the ends 
 up or down, or by excrescences on one side or the other, or by 
 various methods, to indicate to the engine-drivers whether 
 they applied to an up-line, or to a down-line. As the speed 
 of the trains increased, and longer distances were required 
 for stopping them, the signals were raised, and auxiliary or 
 distant signals, worked by wires from a distance, came into 
 use; and these, again, were sometimes distinguished by 
 their forms from the home signals, when both were used ; 
 and in many cases distant signals were used without home 
 signals. The home signals were worked by means of handles 
 on the posts ; the distant signals by levers on the ground, in 
 what were considered convenient situations ; and the points 
 were worked by levers also on tho ground, but scattered 
 about, opposite to them, and frequently between tho lines of 
 rails. By degrees stations and junctions became more com- 
 plicated, and the points and signals increased in number, 
 and were at greater distances from one another. The signal- 
 men sometimes had to leave their signal-levers, for the pur- 
 pose of worlung points more or less distant from them, and 
 occasionally at the opposite sides of lines of rails, which 
 might be occupied by trains; and sometimes the points 
 were worked by one man and the signals by another. But 
 the mistakes, misunderstandings; and accidents which re- 
 sulted from such conditions — under which a signalman either 
 himself omitted to work his points and signals in harmony, 
 or signalled forward a train for one direction whilst the 
 pointsman set the points for another direction — led natu- 
 rally to the concentration of the signal and point levers in 
 or around the signal cabins ; and to afford a better view to 
 the signalman over passing trains, waggons in sidings, or 
 other obstructions, the cabins were raised to a greater or less 
 height above the ground, and placed in convenient situations, 
 
 54 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 according to local circumstances. But even then, when the 
 control was more conveniently placed in the hands of one 
 man, there was still, as the levers in or near a cabin became 
 more numerous, a liability to mistake, from a signalman 
 pulling over a wrong lever ; or the levers were fastened over 
 by blocks of wood which the signalman forgot to remove ; 
 and, to prevent such mistakes, and serious accidents result- 
 ing from them, it became further necessary to interlock the 
 levers with one another. 
 
 This important improvement was suggested as being pro- 
 bably feasible, by Colonel YoUand, in a report dated January, 
 1856, on a collision which occurred on the 7th December, 
 18$5, at the Bricklayers' Arms Junction on the North Kent 
 Railway. An apparatus designed to carry out this sugges- 
 tion waj patented by Mr. Saxby, in 1856, and it made 
 gradual progress between 1856 and 1860. By 1860 many 
 further improvements had been made by different persons, 
 notably Mr. Austin Chambers, and the inspecting oiScers 
 of the Board of Trade began to insist on the use of locking 
 apparatus at the junctions of new branches with existing 
 lines. The principle was .ilso carried out in that year at the 
 , signal cabin at the entrance to Victoria Station. In January, 
 1862, the writer made the following, besides other recom- 
 mendations, in reporting on a coUision at the Walton Junc- 
 tion, near Warrington, on the main line of the London and 
 North-Westem Railway, on the first of that month : — 
 
 " The points should be free to move when the signals are 
 at danger. The signalman should be unable to lower his 
 signal for any train to pass until he has first set his points 
 right for that train. After having lowered his signal for a 
 train to pass, he should not be able to turn his points in the 
 wrong direction for that train as to cause a collision ; and 
 he should not be able to make any mistake in the working 
 of his signals that could lead to a collision between any two 
 trains. These improvements will necessarily lead to some 
 alterations in the cabin itself, and the opportunities will be 
 afforded in carrying them out of giving the signalman 
 larger windows, that he may have a better view in each 
 direction, and of providing him with telegraphic instru- 
 ments and telegraphic communication, by means of which 
 he may at least be warned of the approach of the trains upon 
 the different lines which are under his control. This being 
 an arduous and an important post, and necessitating con- 
 siderable complication, when a very heavy traffic over two 
 junctions are combined, I think it would be wise to employ 
 three men to do the duty, and thus to reduce the periods of 
 labour from twelve hours to eight for each man." 
 
 Taking a simple case of a double junction between a 
 branch line and a main line, with the main line to the right, 
 the branch line to the left, and the down Hne running north, 
 there are several modes in which accidents may occur. A 
 down main-line, or a down branch-Hne train may find the 
 facing-points set in the wrong direction, or partially open ; 
 
 or the signalman may split a train, as it is called, by shift- 
 ing the points when it is passing through them. A branch 
 line up train may run through a main line down train, or a 
 main line down train may run through a branch line up 
 train ; or the engines may meet at the diamond crossing ; or 
 there may be collisions under different conditions between 
 main-line up and branch-line up trains at the fouling point 
 of the up lines ; or the leading points may be in the wrong 
 direction on the approach of a train on either of those lines ; 
 or a train which is being shunted back from the up main 
 to the up branch line may be met by a down main line train 
 at the diamond crossing. By the application of interlocking 
 gear, and other apparatus, it is possible to prevent nearly all 
 of these accidents from occurring, in the ordinary way of 
 working, in consequence of any mistake of the signalman. 
 Conflict between signals, conflict between points and signals, 
 may alike be avoided ; and a good combination of locking- 
 bar and bolt may be made to ensure that the facing points 
 are completely over before the proper signal is lowered, and 
 may also prevent them from being moved during the pas- 
 sage of a train. It is, of course, impossible to provide 
 against all the contingencies which may arise — such as, in 
 certain cases, against the absolute neglect of engine-drivers 
 to pay attention to the signals made to them ; or such as a 
 signalman, when two trains are running towards a junction 
 at one time, setting his points and lowering his signals first 
 for one of them, and then altering them and preparing for 
 the second train, without allowing time for the first train to 
 stop short of the junction. But provision may be made, 
 and is made to some extent, even for the contingency of an 
 engine-driver neglecting to obey signals. For instance, by 
 making (in the example before referred to) the facing-points 
 of the junction lead, as it is called, the trailing points — that 
 is to say, by so interlocking the levers that the former must 
 be pulled over before the latter — it may be provided that 
 any engine-driver approaching on the down line is neces- 
 sarily turned along the branch down hne, clear of the dia- 
 mond crossing, when the points and signals are right for 
 branch up-line trains to pass over that crossing, or when a 
 train is being shunted back over it. There is, however, no 
 means of providing against accident from engine-drivers 
 neglecting to obey signals on the branch up line, either when 
 a main-line down-train has entered the facing-points, or 
 when a main-hne up train is approaching the junction from 
 the opposite direction. 
 
 In more complicated situations, when there are cross-over 
 roads between the main lines, or branch, or both, and 
 through-crossings, and sidings connected at different points 
 with the passenger lines, or where passenger lines are more 
 numerous, and are connected at various points with goods 
 lines and with one another, then the locking system becomes 
 more compHcated. But it is then also of still greater utility 
 in securing the traffic from accidents which become other- 
 
 55 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 wise more likely to occur in consequence of mistakes on the 
 part of signalmen. The same principles are applicable, but 
 each case forms a problem in itself, to be carefully worked 
 out according to its own circumstances, the objects being, to 
 give the signalman complete control over the traffic in every 
 direction ; to prevent him mechanically, as far as is possible, 
 from making mistakes which may lead to accident ; and to 
 afford him the means of exhibiting a distinct indication to 
 an engine-driver proceeding, or waiting to proceed in any 
 given direction. The control of the signalman is rendered 
 more perfect by the addition of blind-sidings, so as to pro- 
 vide safety-points — where such are not in the laying out of 
 the yard or lines otherwise available — to goods lines or sid- 
 ings near their junctions with the passenger lines. These 
 safety-points serve alike to prevent waggons from being 
 blown out, or inadvertently run out or pushed out ; and to 
 prevent an engine-driver from proceeding against signals, 
 and endangering the traffic on the passenger lines ; but the 
 levers of the safety-points require to be worked from the 
 cabins, and to be properly interlocked with the other levers 
 in the cabins. Other devices or provisions for enabling the 
 signalmen better to perform their duties may be mentioned, 
 such as — the system of slotting, as it has come to be termed, 
 the connections of a signal, so that the arm of it may be 
 raised to " danger " by a signalman in either of two neigh- 
 bouring cabins, but can only be lowered to " clear " by the 
 joint action of the signalmen in both the cabins ; — the appli- 
 cation of repeaters of various descriptions, either to inform 
 the signalmen of the working of any signals which may bo 
 out of their sight, or to afford a more distinct indication, 
 when such is required, to the engine-drivers ; — the means of 
 information by telegraph as to Avhon trains may bo expected ; 
 cloclcs to furnish the correct time ; and register-books in 
 which to record the telegraph-signalling and passing of 
 trains, so as to secure the regular performance of the duties, 
 and to provide a clieck upon tlie working of the signalman 
 in any one cabin by the working of the signalmen in cabins 
 on either side of it. But there are objections in the ordi- 
 nary way to an ovcrlaj) of the signals worked from one 
 cabin by the signals worked from another cabin, as involv- 
 ing a liability to deceive the engine-drivers ; and it is im- 
 portant to afford the means of all necessary communications 
 between the signalmen, that they may not be working at 
 cross purposes, and to deprive them of all excuse for mak- 
 ing unauthorized signals on bells or block instruments to 
 one another. Private signals or systems of intercommuni- 
 cation have frequently led to misunderstanding and acci- 
 dent. The selection and regular training of fit men for the 
 performance of sucli (hitios ; the employment of responsible 
 inspectors for constant supervision, and the preservation of 
 rigid discipline ; the command of a sufficient number of 
 relieving men, to take Sunday duty and to replace signalmen 
 absent from sickness or otherwise ; and the maintenance in 
 
 high condition of the whole of the apparatus, are matters .of 
 obvious importance ; and experience has shown that it is 
 by no means unnecessary to refer to them. 
 
 When these desiderata are all properly worked out, and 
 carried out in practice, great simplicity in working is ob- 
 tained. Each signalman has control over his position, and 
 is in a great measure prevented from making mistakes 
 which may lead to accidents. The engine-drivers have in 
 every case distinct indications to guide them, and are, also, 
 in many cases, prevented from causing accidents, even if 
 they neglect to obey signals. The dangers of facing-points 
 are for the most part obviated. Under such arrangements 
 engines and trains may be turned in and out and across one 
 another with marvellous rapidity and facility, and in a way 
 that would be impossible without the protection that they 
 afford. The more numerous and complicated the lines, the^ 
 sidings, and the crossings to be worked, the more indispen- 
 sable does such apparatus become, and it is then, frequently, 
 a means of considerable economy in the number of men 
 employed ; as well as a means of avoiding much sacrifice of 
 life and limb to running pointsmen, yardmen, and shunters, 
 whose services are to a great extent dispensed with. The . 
 simphcity in working thus ' obtained is not, however, appa- 
 rent at first sight to the uninitiated, who see only an array 
 of levers, and are not aware of the way in which they are 
 named and numbered for guidance of the signalmen ; 
 each signal-lever bearing the number of any point or other 
 lever that requires to be moved before it can be pulled over, 
 and being also described as to its own particular purpose on 
 a brass plate or otherwise. And it is not even yet under- 
 stood or appreciated in many cases by experienced railway 
 officers who have not devoted much attention to this special 
 branch of railway working. The comparative simplicity of 
 the system will be best understood by an examination, and 
 by watcliing tl\c worlcing, of any complicated stations, or 
 junctions, at whicli it lias not yet been aj)pliod ; and it may 
 to some extent be conceived by remembering what the con- 
 fusion and complication in working would he if these levers 
 were of all sorts, sizes, and shapes, scattered about in various 
 situations, worked by different men, and independently of 
 one another. An idea of the way in which confusion may 
 be avoided wiU also be formed by comparison with the 
 elementary principle of another system once in force, and 
 much persisted in as being correct, on one of the great rail- 
 ways of this country. A signal-post was placed at a junc- 
 tion, with one arm on it applicable to two conflicting lines 
 of railway. It was an eminently simple arrangement in 
 more than one sense. But it had the disadvantage that 
 when two engine-drivers approached a junction from two 
 directions at the same time, and when, seeing the one sema- 
 phore-arm lowered, or a hand-signal waved, each thought it 
 was intended for him, they advanced together towards the 
 junction, and thus could not avoid in some cases running 
 
 56 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 into each other. It was only after repeated collisions from 
 this cause, and consequent remonstrances from the Board of 
 Trade, that this arrangement, simple in construction, but 
 which undoubtedly led to confusion in worldng, was at 
 length abandoned. A simple arrangement still, as far as 
 construction is concerned, is a mere hand-flag, or hand- 
 lamp, or the arm of a signalman ; but, imfortunately, they 
 are not well seen, and they are Uable to be, as they have 
 too often been, overlooked or wrongly interpreted, especially 
 when signals require to be exhibited in several directions at 
 one time ; and thus it becomes necessary for true simplicity 
 in working to employ what are sometimes complained of as 
 complications, in the way of posts, levers, rods, cranks, arms, 
 lamps, and glasses ; and to provide a separate signal for 
 every purpose for which a signal is really required, to enable 
 a distinct indication in every case to be exhibited by a sig- 
 nalman and understood by an engine-driver. 
 
 The next branch of the subject is that which refers to the 
 preservation of intervals between the trains. It is obvious 
 that as long as any interval, whether of time or space, is 
 actually preserved between any two trains, they cannot 
 come into collision with one another. ColUsions are liable 
 to occur between trains following each other on the same 
 line of rails ; or within fixed signals, at stations, sidings, junc- 
 tions, &c. The greatest number of collisions occur at stations 
 or sidings,"" and within fixed signals. In 1872 there were 91 
 cases of collisions at stations or .sidings, 32 cases at junc- 
 tions, 22 cases from trains following one another, 6 from 
 trains meeting in an opposite direction, and 34 from passen- 
 ger trains being wrongly turned into sidings or otherwise 
 through facing-points — out of a total of 238 train accidents 
 investigated by the Board of Trade. 
 
 As soon as trains were run with sufficient frequency to 
 endanger one another, it became obviously necessary to 
 establish some system of preserving intervals betAveen them ; 
 and the practice obtained of allowing a certain number of 
 minutes to elapse, not only between their times of starting, 
 but also between the times at which they should pass inter- 
 mediate stations, and any junctions, or level-crossings in 
 charge of gatekeepers, or other points at which servants of 
 the companies were stationed ; and the platelayers were also 
 on many lines expected to warn any train which appeared 
 to be following too closely upon a preceding train. In tim- 
 nols it was further found necessary to prevent one, train 
 from entering at one end until the preceding train had 
 passed out at the other end, and this was the commencement 
 of what is called the block-system, by means of which an 
 interval of space was secured in place of an interval of time 
 between the trains. The time interval which came to be 
 generally adopted were 5 minutes of danger and 6 minutes 
 of caution, that is to say, the trains were to be kept 5 
 minutes apart from one another in their running, and were 
 to be cautioned if they were not 10 minutes apart. But in 
 
 the case of goods, or slow trains preceding fast non-stopping 
 trains, still greater intervals were required, and sometimes 
 periods of 15 or 20, or more minutes became, as the differ- 
 ences in speed increased, insufficient safely to admit of heavy 
 goods trains being started in front of express passenger trains. 
 It was recognized at an early period that the simplest and 
 best mode of avoiding collisions at stations and sidings was 
 by keeping the main lines clear for passenger trains, and 
 accordingly it was provided in the regulations that the main 
 lines should not be interfered with, in the way of obstruc- 
 tions or shunting, within ten minutes of a passenger train 
 being due^ and, sometimes within 15 minutes of an express 
 being due. The proposal to divide the line into telegraphic 
 sections, and thus to preserve space intervals between trains, 
 was made by Mr. Cooke as far back as 1842, and was first 
 practised, it is believed, on a portion of what is now the 
 Great Eastern Railway, in 1844; and, subsequently a train 
 telegraph system was established on portions of the London 
 and North- Western Railway. This latter, however, was not 
 a block system, or a space system, but a time system worked 
 with the aid of telegraph instruments ; and it is now known 
 as the permissive system. Under this system, the line be- 
 tween, London and Rugby was divided into sections averag- 
 ing rather more than two miles in length, and the signalmen 
 wore required to telegraph the trains to one another — to 
 turn their signals to danger on the passage of every train — 
 keep them at danger for 3 minutes, or more in certain cases 
 — to exhibit caution signals after the expiration of the three 
 minutes — and oiily to give clear signals again after receiving 
 " line clear " from the next cabins in advance. In the case 
 of tunnels, no second train was allowed to enter until the 
 preceding train had been signalled as " out," and a space 
 system was thus introduced ; but on other sections two or 
 more trains were allowed to be travelling at the same time ; 
 and even if a second train reached a cabin before a preced- 
 ing train had passed the next cabin, and within the three 
 minutes prescribed for the exhibition of the danger-signal, 
 the engine-driver was, after his train had been brought to a 
 stand, to be warned of a train in advance, and to be allowed 
 to proceed. This system is worked by needle instruments, 
 the needles being pegged over to " line blocked " or " line 
 clear," as the case may be ; and the vertical position of the 
 needle is taken to indicate, citlicr that the telegraph is out 
 of order, or that the line is obstructed. On certain tele- 
 graph-posts special loops of the telegraph wires are provided, 
 to be broken by the guards or brakesmen of trains in the 
 event of sudden obstructions; and in long tunnels the loops 
 are enclosed in boxes at intervals of about 100 yards. By 
 breaking these loops the guards or brakesmen are enabled 
 to inform the signalmen at either end of a section, of an up- 
 Hne, or a down-line, or a third-line, or two or three lines, 
 being suddenly obstructed by an accident to a train. 
 As regards the block system, there are many descriptions 
 
 57 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 or kinds of instruments for working it, and various rules and 
 regulations applicable to it on different lines of railway. 
 The main principle involved is, simply, by the division of a 
 line into block sections, and by allowing no engine or train 
 to enter a block section until the previous engine has quitted 
 it, to preserve an absolute interval of space between engines 
 and trains. This may be done mechanically or electrically. 
 Any means of communication with which the signalmen 
 may be provided will enable them to inform one another of 
 the approach of a train, of its entrance into a block section 
 at one end, and of its exit from that block section at the 
 other end. The raising or lowering of signal arms inside or 
 outside the cabins, the beats on mechanical gongs or bells, 
 the beats on electric gongs or bells, or the working of differ- 
 ent descriptions of telegraph needles or instruments, may, 
 any of them, be employed to afford indications of this de- 
 scription. But in many cases it is considered necessary to 
 give further information, such as the description of the train, 
 whether a through or stopping passenger train, or a goods or 
 mineral train, or a ballast train, or a light engine ; and to 
 provide, besides the signals for line clear or line blocked, 
 separate indications also for an acknowledgment signal, for 
 an attention signal, for an obstruction signal, for an error sig- 
 nal, for a testing signal, for notice of a shunting going on at a 
 station, for a train to be shunted out of the way to allow 
 another to pass it, or for a train to be stopped and examined 
 in the event of something suspicious or wrong having been 
 observed in it. Then, again, on some lines distinction is 
 made between passenger trains, express goods or cattle 
 trains, through goods or mineral trains, stopping goods, 
 mineral or ballast trains, and as to whether these are ap- 
 proaching, or whether they have entered the section. These 
 and other indications are differently made on different lines. 
 In some cases the block instruments are used for them ; in 
 some cases they arc made exclusively on electric bells; in 
 some cases single-needle speaking instruments are employed. 
 On certain lines the block system is used for the protection 
 of junctions ; no two trains which could come into collision 
 with one another being allowed to approach a junction at 
 the same time. On other lines it is not so used, or is only 
 used in the case of junctions approached on heavy falling 
 gradients, or under other circumstances of extra risk. On 
 some lines record-books or registers of the trains are care- 
 fully kept, and are found to be valuable safeguards against 
 irregularities, the working of each signalman being checked 
 by the record-book of the signalman on each side of him. 
 On other lines record-books are not employed. Certain rail- 
 ways are worked on the block system by bells only ; others 
 by bells and block instruments, so as to afford the aid and 
 evidence of sight as well as sound to the signalmen ; and 
 others by bells, block instruments, and spealdng instruments. 
 When the bell code includes a groat number of indications, 
 then the number of beats required, amounting to 10, or even 
 
 14 or 15, becomes so numerous that the men are liable to 
 mistakes in counting them ; and especially with the system 
 sometimes employed of making, for instance, six beats mean 
 one thing, and three beats twice repeated some other thing. 
 It is, in all cases, all-important that the two indications, 
 "line clear" and "line blocked " (from whatever cause), 
 should be entirely distinct from all other signals ; and the 
 necessity for this was demonstrated in a recent accident, one 
 cause of which was that an acknowledgment signal was mis- 
 taken for a line clear signal. One important question in 
 the working of block systems is, the particular time when 
 Ime clear should be given after an engine or train has passed 
 a section cabin or signal. The lengths of the sections vary, 
 necessarily, according to the nature of the traffic and with 
 local circumstances. They may be measured by miles in 
 some cases, and by yards in other cases. Whatever their 
 lengths, if one train has passed out of a section before 
 another train is admitted to it, there must, at the period of 
 admission of the second train be an interval of space equal 
 to the length of the section between the two trains. But, 
 supposing the first train, on passing out of the section, to be 
 brought to a stand immediately after passing the section 
 signal, then the second train, being admitted to the section, 
 may also run up to that section signal and to the tail of the 
 preceding train, and the interval between the trains wiU be 
 reduced to nil. An engine-driver overrunning a signal to 
 only a slight extent may in such a case come into collision 
 with a preceding train. Different companies meet this ques- 
 tion in different ways. On some railways the line is consi- 
 dered clear when the last vehicle of a train has passed the 
 section signal ; on other lines this is the case except during 
 fogs and snowstorms ; on others, again, different specified 
 stations are differently provided for ; and on other lines a 
 difference is made in this respect between goods and pas- 
 senger trains. Tlic North-Eastorn rule, for instance, runs 
 as follows : — " In regard to passenger trains, the lino in the 
 rear section must always be considered blocked until the 
 preceding train has either been shunted clear off the main 
 line or has passed the advance semaphore where such signal 
 is provided, or, where there is no advance semaphore, has 
 passed the section home signal at least 300 yards on its 
 journey in the next section." The question of protection 
 by the distant signals in the case of trains so brought to a 
 stand beyond the home or section signals, or in the case of 
 an obstruction in a block section, formed the subject of a 
 memorial in August, 1873, by the engine-drivers in the em- 
 ployment of this company, and the officers of the company 
 appear to have acceded to the reasonable demand in this 
 respect of their engine-drivers. 
 
 The following is a copy, as received at the Board of Trade, 
 of this memorial, addressed to Mr. Fletcher, Locomotive 
 Superintendent of tlae North-Eastern Railway, and stated 
 to have been signed by G50 engine-men on that railway : — 
 
 58 
 
Kailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 "We, the undersigned engine-men under your employ, beg most respect- 
 fully to ask you to intercede on our behalf for the better -working of the 
 block signals, as the way it is worked is contrary to the working on all 
 other railways, and should the same practice be continued, the most dis- 
 astrous consequences may ensue as bad woathor approaches. 
 
 "What we complain of is the not working of the auxiliary or distant 
 signal when a train is required to stop, as it is impossible to stop at the 
 homo signal if the distant signals are not worked, as wo cannot see the 
 home signals at many stations and block cabins till we approach within a, 
 short distance of them; and likewise we beg to call your attention to 
 the slackness of the auxiliary wires at stations and block cabins as well, as 
 they are kept so slack they will not raise the signals as we can understand 
 them. 
 
 "Sir — Should you not bo able to get any of these bad arrangements 
 altered, will you, please, cause more time to run the trains, so that we can 
 stop at all cabins to ascertain if the road is clear, for our safety as well as 
 tho public at large. 
 
 "We remain, 
 
 ' ' Your most humble and obedient Servants, 
 
 "Enoine-'men in youb Employ. " 
 
 It is interesting to observe in this case that the engine- 
 drivers, who arc likol.y, as a\'o arc sometimes told, to become 
 rccldoss in working under tlio bloclc system, themselves took 
 steps to induce their superiors to alter regulations which 
 were not, in their opinion, and as the residt of their experi- 
 ence, sufficient to enable them to work with confidence and 
 safety. They appear virtually to have declined to work and 
 to be trained to work under a system of risk to which, in 
 their opinion, the regulations of tho company — which differed 
 from those of other companies — exposed them. But it is 
 to be hoped that those who were concerned, and took part 
 in this question, will relate accurately and fully what occur- 
 red, and what were tho views of the engine-drivers on the 
 one hand, and of the superior officers of the company on 
 the other hand, on this subject. A strong desire also was 
 expressed to the writer in the course of a recent inquiry, 
 on the part of the engine-drivers of the London and North- 
 Westem Railway, running with fast through trains, to re- 
 ceive a caution signal, say at block-station A, when the line 
 is not clear between block-stations B and C ; or, in other 
 words, to receive an additional section of warning by a cau- 
 tion signal in the event of an obstruction ; as well as to 
 have a greater proportion of brake- power under' their com- 
 mand. A tail-board by day, as well as a tail-lamp by night, 
 is of great value in enabling each signalman to see at a 
 glance as a train passes him, whether the whole of it has 
 gone by, and is now very commonly employed. 
 
 In the working of single lines by telegraph, a risk is in- 
 curred which does not arise in the case of double lines. In 
 the event of irregularities in the running of the trains, it 
 becomes necessary to alter the crossing places of trains pro- 
 ceeding in opiposite directions ; and from time to time acci- 
 dents have occurred in this country and elsewhere in con- 
 sequence of misunderstandings in making such alterations. 
 Such accidents led, many years since, to the establishment 
 of, and to the preference by many for, the train-staff system 
 
 of working single lines. In some cases a combination of 
 train-staff and block-telegraph has been adopted, and this 
 combination appears to afford, when it can be carried out, 
 the greatest degree of safety. But the feeling in favour of 
 working single lines by telegraph only appears again to 
 have strengthened ; and it must be admitted that it allows 
 of greater freedom in dealing with the traffic, especially on 
 lines of considerable length. It is most extensively practised 
 in America, in India, and on the Continent of Europe. 
 
 Of all the .difficulties that present themselves in railway 
 working, the greatest is that of running trains in a fog. 
 When the fog is so thick as to prevent the engine-drivers 
 from seeing tho ' signals, it then becomes necessary to in- 
 form them by other means of their condition ; and, 
 accordingly, platelayers or porters arc employed as fogmen, 
 to stand near the signals, to place detonating signals on the 
 rails, and thus to inform the engine-drivers of the indications 
 of the signals ; or they convey in some cases verbal direc- 
 tions from, tho signalmen; Tlio greatest difficulty and danger 
 are incurred cither when a fog comes suddenly on, and the 
 fogmen are not at their posts, or when it lasts for a long 
 time, and the fogmen are required for duty for an excessive 
 number of hours. The system is at best an unsatisfactory 
 one. Much ingenuity has been displayed, and numerous 
 proposals have been made, with a view to supplying audible 
 signals, detonating or otherwise, to be worked mechanically 
 with the ordinary signals, and thus to afford additional indi- 
 cations to the engine-drivers. But there is always danger 
 in trusting to expedients which arc exceptionally employed; 
 and it can hardly be contemplated, in any case, to make 
 every signal on a railway audible as well as visible, either 
 ordinarily or exceptionally, to the engine-driver. Such com- 
 plications of sounds as would result at busy places, might 
 indeed raise an outcry. The running of fast trains at high 
 speed, through a thick fog must, under any circumstances, 
 with or without the block system, be attended with great 
 risk ; and the only practicable arrangement appears to be to 
 cause the speed of the trains to be reduced, during fog, 
 according to its density, and according to circumstances ; 
 and to improve the organization of fogmen and their duties. 
 Some of the companies do not allow the use of great coats 
 to men employed in winter on such duties. 
 
 There are, then, many points worthy of discussion as to 
 the best mode of carrying out the details in the working of 
 the block system. It has been found essential on very 
 crowded lines, in tunnels, and other places of extra risk. 
 The outcry against it of those chairmen of railway compa- 
 nies, who at the same time take credit for its adoption, and 
 who are indebted to it for the comparative safety of the 
 traffic on the most crowded portions of their lines, cannot 
 be considered to be very serious. It promises at length to 
 be universally adopted. The system of presumed time in- 
 tervals has failed, because those intervals could not in prac- 
 
 59 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 tice be preserved ; and the permissive- system for reducing 
 the time intervals by aid of the telegraph, and sending trains 
 timed to travel, and capable of travelling, at various speeds, 
 one after another, into the sections, with a caution to each, 
 may also be considered to have failed, because it does not 
 afford sufficient protection to the traffic. Under these time 
 systems collisions have occurred from engine-drivers slacken- 
 ing their speed to avoid collision with trains in front of them, 
 and being run into by trains behind them. The greater the 
 variety of speed between the trains, the more does the weak- 
 ness of such systems become apparent. They may, at first 
 sight, appear simple, but they involve constant confusion 
 and uncertainty, because it is impossible to calculate in rail- 
 way worldng upon the time intervals which it is safe to 
 allow between trains under ever- varying circumstances ; and 
 no rules can possibly be laid down to meet all cases. Sim- 
 plicity in working is, after all, best obtained by a system 
 which will secure intervals of space between the trains ; but 
 a sufficient margin of space should be preserved between 
 them at the end of a bloclc-section as well as at the begin- 
 ning of it ; and to avoid confusion in worldng, not only 
 should the signalmen have control over the traffic, but also 
 the engine-drivers should have ample command of their 
 trains ; and tlicro sliould further be lines and sidings suffi- 
 cient to enable the worlv to • bo performed without disobe- 
 dience to the regulations, and under good discipline. One 
 great advantage, in fact, of the introduction of the block 
 system lies in the necessary and simultaneous introduction 
 of extra accommodation and appliances, without which it 
 cannot bo properly ^v■or]ced, 
 
 The safety of the railway traffic from the great majority 
 of serious accidents, namely, from various descriptions of 
 collisions, and from accidents in connection with lixcing- 
 points, tlius dopends niaiuly u])on two classes of men, and 
 upon tho aj)[)aratu,s, incauH, and appliances witli which Lluiy 
 aro supplied. Tlicso two classes of men arc the signalmen 
 and the engine-drivers. The engine-drivers rely upon the 
 Bignalmen to give them the proper indications, by means of 
 their signals, as to whether the lines are clear or obstructed, 
 as to whether the points are right or wrong ; and the signal- 
 men rely upon tlie engine-drivers to look out for and obey 
 the signals that are made to them. The safe working of the 
 traffic in this respect depends, therefore, upon a thorough 
 understanding between these t-wo classes of men. It depends, 
 in fact, on the avoidance of mistakes, misapprehensions, or 
 neglect (1) in the observance of signals by engine-drivers ; 
 
 (2) in tho working of points and signals by signalmen ; and 
 
 (3) in the comniunications of signalmen with one another. In 
 order to obtain tlio greatest degree of safety, it is necessary, 
 as far as possible, to reduce the risk of such misunderstand- 
 ings and neglect ; or, in other words, pains must be taken to 
 avoid confusion in working, and to substitute for it simpli- 
 city in working. Confusion in working must be more or less 
 
 the consequence when rules and regulations are in force 
 which cannot be carried out in practice — when hand-signals 
 intended for one engine-driver may be received and acted 
 upon by another engine-driver — when there is not a fixed 
 signal for each purpose for which a signal is required — 
 when signalmen and pointsmen are obliged to run about 
 station yards, at serious personal risk, to work points and 
 signals without being certain as to what train may next ap- 
 proach them, or when it may be expected — where, having a 
 number of levers without locking apparatus in or around 
 tho cabin, they are hable to pull the wrong signals, and 
 point levers over for an approaching train — when, in the 
 absence of necessary means of communication, neighbouring 
 signalmen are liable to work at cross purposes with each 
 other — when, in the absence of sufficient goods Hnes and 
 sidings, station-masters and signalmen are compelled to 
 allow the shunting, sorting, and marshalling operations of 
 goods trains to be performed on the passenger lines, or 
 goods trains to be moved from one main line to another, 
 while passenger trains are due or overdue in one or both 
 directions — when engine-drivers of through trains or stop- 
 ping trains, at junctions or sidings, have not reliable signals, 
 properly placed, to inform them distinctly, in each case, 
 wlien they must stop or when they may go forward — when, 
 under the permissive, or any other time system, they are 
 told of trains being two, three, or any other number of 
 minutes of time in front of them, without knowing how fast 
 such trains may be able to travel, or what trains may be 
 similarly allowed to follow them, and, therefore, what speed 
 they should themselves maintain to avoid, on the one hand, 
 a collision with a train in front, or, on the other hand, a col- 
 lision with a train behind them — when, in long heavy trains, 
 timed to travel at high speed, they have not sufficient brake- 
 ])owcr to enable them to bring it to a stand within a reason- 
 able distance — wlion they cannot depend upon 1,lie guard 
 liearing their brake-whistles, and liavo only a limited pro- 
 portion of retarding power under their own control — when 
 the lines cannot be kept clear for them at stations at which 
 they are not due to stop- — and when they find it difficult to 
 maintain theijr time-table speed, and at the same time to 
 approach each and every signal in the course of their jour- 
 neys with the requisite amount of caution, according to the 
 severity of the gradients, the slipperinoss of the rails, the 
 proportion of brake-power, and the positions of and view 
 afforded by such signals. 
 
 These elements of confusion in working, far from being 
 theoretical or imaginary, have too often been practically 
 iUustratod by lamentable accidents on various systems of 
 railways; and it is in the endeavour to avoid such confusion 
 that the modern recommendations and requirements of the 
 Board of Trade and its officers have gradually, as the result 
 of experience over a great number of years in observing 
 these causes of accidents, grown to their present condition. 
 
 CO 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 The object of these recommendations and requirements is 
 to substitute simplicity for such confusion, as a means of 
 greater safety and efficiency in working. SimpHcity in 
 working has thus been obtained in a very great number 
 of cases, and has yet to be obtained in many other cases. 
 It consists, as regards signabncn, in affording to each signal- 
 man, by proper signal and point arrangements, complete 
 control over the lines, sidings, and traffic at his post; in 
 preventing him from making such mistalces in the handling 
 of his levers as may lead to accidents — mistakes which the 
 most careful men are liable to make sooner or later if they 
 are not protected by locking apparatus, but which they are 
 in a great measure prevented from making by such apparatus; 
 in giving him sufficient warning of the approach of trains 
 from different directions, in providing sufficient accommoda- 
 tion on lines and sidings to enable the main lines to be kept 
 clear for the passenger trains. It consists, as regards the 
 engine-drivers, in arranging that each shall have a distinct 
 signal to loolc to for every necessary purpose, and that lie 
 sliall liavo ilui iiieiuiH of ])r()|)orly obeying it, vviLlioiit nny in- 
 ducement to nui risk in disobeying it. It cannot, of course, 
 be expected, even when the utmost simplicity in working is 
 arrived at, that there will be no more accidents to deplore, 
 because unfortunately, human agency must still be relied on, 
 and human agency must always be, as it has ever been, 
 fallible. So long as engine-drivers are men they will oc- 
 casionally run past signals^ so long as signalmen are human 
 they will occasionally malce mistakes and misunderstand one 
 another. Neither the block-system nor locking apparatus 
 will, as the writer has frequently stated, be a panacea for 
 preventing railway accidents altogether; nor can any other 
 improvements be expected to have such an effect. But it 
 is equally certain that the number of serious accidents may 
 be very much reduced, and especially on certain railway 
 systems, when all the improvements above referred to have 
 been carried out. The risk of the mistakes of signalmen in 
 working points and signals will have been in a great measure 
 neutralized. Goods trains will not so much encumber the 
 passenger lines, and. will not be engaged in shunting on 
 them, and crossing from one main line to another, when 
 passenger trains are due; and this, of itself, by a simpler form 
 of working, will tend to prevent a large proportion of ac- 
 cidents. Delays will thus be avoided, also, both to passenger 
 and goods trains, and greater efficiency in working will be 
 obtained. And this is no mere matter of speculation, be- 
 cause greater safety and efficiency have been and are 
 obtained on those railways or portions of railways on which 
 such improvements have already been introduced. 
 
 But it is necessary to consider next the arguments that 
 are put forward in opposition to such improvements. When 
 Mr. Harrison, of the North-Eastem Railway, attributes to 
 the writer that he does not sufficiently appreciate the ele- 
 ment of hurnan frailty as contributing to accidents on rail- 
 
 ways, and leaves it to be understood that improved arrange- 
 ments will not materially lessen the number of accidents 
 and their serious results, the writer would venture to reply 
 that he estimates that cause of accident at no more and 
 no less tlian has actually been found by the experience of 
 many years to attach to it. There arc, no doubt, as there 
 always will be, accidents wliicli occur from the inattention, 
 mistakes, or neglect of officers or servants after all possible 
 means have been provided for securing safety; but these 
 form the smaller proportion, and in too many cases such 
 mistakes or neglect arise in working under defective and 
 even glaringly defective arrangements; while on the other 
 hand, it is marvellous to observe for how long a period those 
 officers and servants whose fallibility is thus considered to 
 be under estimated, frequently carry on their work under 
 such defective arrangements without causing accidents of a 
 serious character. Inefficient men arc sometimes found, also, 
 at most important posts. The wonder really is — and it is 
 only fair to tliom plainly to say so— tliat the men who do 
 l.lie real jii'actica.1 work on I.Ik! railwiiys liavo made so few 
 mistakes, when they have in so many cases been unprovided 
 with proper means of performing their work. In order fully 
 to prove the truth of this position, it would be necessary to 
 adduce the experience of many years, which would occupy 
 too much space here; but it will be sufficient for the pre- 
 sent purpose to cite a few prominent cases in illustration of 
 it, and some of them may bo talcen from the history of the 
 North-Eastem Railway, over the Engineering Department 
 of which Mr. Harrison so ably pi-esidcs, and which ho has 
 quoted so frequently in the discussions at the Institution of 
 Civil Engineers. The attention of that company appeared 
 first to be seriously awakened to the necessity of inter-lock- 
 ing point and signal levers on their existing lines, though 
 they had for many years been necessarily doing it on the 
 new lines, after the fatal accident at Thirsk on the 9th May, 
 1869, when a Scotch express train from the South ran 
 through a pair of facing-points into a siding near the station, 
 instead of pursuing its course along the main line. The 
 signalman clearly could not have made the mistake which 
 caused that accident if the lever by which the facing-points 
 were worked had been interlocked with the levers for work- 
 ing the signals. He would in that case not have been able 
 to lower his signals until he had first set the facing-points ■ 
 in the proper direction. Then, again, the collision at 
 Brocldey Whins, on the 6th December, 1870, was one of the 
 most disastrous in its results that ever happened on the 
 North-Eastern Railway. In that case, an express up- 
 passenger train and a down coal train, due to pass on op- 
 posite directions on two main lines without stopping, were 
 turned into each other on a cross-over road between these 
 two lines. The collision was due, no doubt, to a mistake of 
 the signalman, but under circumstances which would hardly 
 be credited if they had not caused the accident. The 
 
 61 
 
 r 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 signalman was provided with one lever for working together 
 the two facing-points, one on each of those main lines, and 
 thus with the means of the more easily turning the trains 
 •into one another and producing the accident; whilst that 
 lever was not interlocked with the signal-levers, so as to 
 prevent him from lowering signals whilst the facing-points 
 were set in this dangerous position. Five persons were 
 killed, and fifty-nine wore injured, as the result of this ex- 
 ample of simplicity in construction and confusion in working. 
 Turning to other railways, the fatal collision on the 29th 
 June, 1867, at the Walton Junction, on the main line of tlie 
 London and North- Western Railway — one of the most costly 
 collisions, as regards the amount of compensation, that ever 
 occurred on that railway, in which eight passengers lost their 
 lives, and seventy were injured — would have been prevented 
 if the signals and points had been interlocked. The adop- 
 tion of this precaution had been specially recommended for 
 the same junction by the author, on the occasion of a pre- 
 vious collision on the 1st January, 1862, in the words quoted 
 near the commencement of the present paper. Then, again, 
 there was the collision at Kirtlebridge in 1872, the worst 
 example on the Caledonian Railway, in which eleven persons 
 were killed, and fifteen were injured, and which, it is said, 
 cost the company about £50,000. In this latter case, the 
 station-master himself turned a shunting goods train across 
 into the way of a night express train from London for Scot- 
 land, after a signalman at a distance from him liad lowered 
 the signals to allow it to pass. But the station-master 
 wovild not have made this fatal mistake, and it coTild not 
 have been made at all, if the points had been worked from 
 a cabin, and if the lever for working them had been inter- 
 locked with the signal levers. These are a few instances 
 Avhich must, it is true, be set down to mistakes of officers 
 or servants, but in wliicli this clement of human fallibility 
 might and would liavo been complotoly neutralized if only 
 points and signals liad been interlocked with one another, 
 and if thus simpHcity had been substituted for confusion in 
 working. 
 
 Another illustration of the arguments employed against 
 such improvements in railway working is contained in the 
 half-yearly speeches of Sir Edward Watkin, and coming from 
 so practical an authority, they ought to bo worthy of special 
 attention. In addressing the shareholders of the Manches- 
 ter, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway at Manchester, on 
 the 28th January, 1874, Sir Edward Watldn is reported in 
 the Railway Neius to have said that the Board of Trade 
 " assumed that men were infallible instead of fallible ; that 
 they were always awalcc and attentive, and that they never 
 could by any possibility make a mistake." Now it will be 
 at once apparent that if the Board of Trade had any such 
 conviction, its officers would not have thought it neces- 
 sary, for instance, to require that signal-levers and point- 
 levers should be interlocked with one another, because if 
 
 men were really infallible they would never pull over the 
 wrong lever, and in that case the serious accidents above 
 cited would, in fact, never have occurred. It is precisely 
 because human agents are fallible that the various precau- 
 tions referred to are required, to counteract as far as possible 
 the element of such fallibility ; and it is for that reason that 
 locking and other arrangements become necessary. It is 
 hardly necessary to say that Sir Edward Watkin has no 
 warrant for making such an assertion, which, indeed, he 
 himself partially refuted — according to the same newspaper 
 — at the half-yearly meeting, on the following day, of the 
 South-Eastern Raihvay Company. He then made a very 
 different allegation in saying : — " But where the Board of 
 Trade's heresy is, is in beUeving that by the adoption of 
 mechanical appliances you can ensure almost absolute 
 safety." So that the Board of Trade has two heresies — one 
 in assuming the men to be infallible, and an opposite one in 
 trusting to mechanical appliances. But he goes on himself 
 to express confidence in mechanism : — 
 
 ' ' I aay it is heresy, because it overlooks the fact that you have to work, 
 without military discipline, your eight thousand or your ten thousand 
 men who are fallible. It is the mistakes of these men which cause the ac- 
 cidents, and not the failure of mechanism or deficiencies in the strength or 
 endurance of material." 
 
 And again: — 
 
 "My notion of railway working is simplicity. These things increase 
 complication. The Board of Trade requirements tend to mako the thing 
 complex, to make it difficult, and to multiply the causes which lead to 
 error ; and I think myself, if you will take the average of ten years after 
 we have got all these new-fangled things into operation, it will be shown 
 that the old simple arrangements of Stephenson, Brunei, and Locke are 
 best; and, after all our experience, we may have to come back to the 
 simple way of working, and to put many of these new-fangled things in 
 the fire." 
 
 'Ilio writer recently heard of n,n observation even more 
 extraordinary tliau the above, wliicli was ;uidv(!ssed by an 
 aged Field-Marshal to a still more aged retired Jjord Chan- 
 cellor, and which was related to him by a friend who was 
 with them. In the midst of earnest conversation in a loud 
 tone — for they are both rather deaf^ — the Field-Marshal sud- 
 denly stopped, and thumping his umbrella violently on the 
 ground, said impressively, witli evident reference to a by- 
 gone period, " When I went to see the Dook at Walmer, the 
 Dook said that railways would never answer in this country ; 
 and, you see, here's this Wigan accident. The Dook was 
 right." This sentiment is in one sense on a par with Sir 
 Edward Watkin's proposal, to " put many of these new- 
 fangled things in the fire," and to return to the simplicity of 
 older days. Exactly to what period of simplicity he would 
 revert he docs not point out ; — whether to the days of no 
 signals at all, and to the system of the fireman jumping off 
 the Engine to pusli over the switches without the aid of a 
 lever ; or to any particular epoch between that time and the 
 present, he does not specify. But seriously, can he believe, 
 
 62 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine, 
 
 as Chairman of the Soiith-Eastern and the Metropolitan 
 Kailways, that by putting the apparatus — complicated, no 
 doubt, in construction, but simple in working as compared 
 to the duties to be performed — into the fire ; by doing away 
 with the locking apparatus and the block system at Charing 
 Cross and Cannon Street, and at the various complicated 
 stations on the Metropolitan Railway, with trains following 
 each other, and crossing the path of each other within 
 periods numbered sometimes by minutes, sometimes by 
 seconds, that the traffic could be carried on at all ? He 
 would find that not one day, nay, in some places not one 
 hour, would pass without a serious accident and a complete 
 block to the traffic. And, indeed, the writer has had occa- 
 sion himself to inquire into two accidents, which have so 
 occurred, during a temporary want of the apparatus, on the 
 occasion of alterations or repairs. 
 
 Sir Edward Watkin's remarks were anything but compli- 
 mentary to the common sense of his shareholders, and they 
 were an insult to the memory of the illustrious Engineers 
 whose lionourcd names he dragged into such an argu- 
 ment. They would never have proposed to work the 
 traffic of the present day with the simple arrangements of 
 former times. 
 
 Speaking specially of the block system he further 
 says: — 
 
 " It is very goOtl, btit it lias a woakneas I have often pointed out, namely, 
 that it loads on the part of our servants to too great reliance on the ma- 
 chinery, and a weakening of the reliance on themsolvea. 
 
 And he takes credit for the South-Eastern Company — as 
 other chairmen have done for companies — for having been 
 the first to adopt this system, He says : — ■■n.j 
 
 "But if there is any credit to be taken for the block system, I fam here 
 to tell you that the credit belongs to you, for the first railway in England 
 before the Board of Trade found out that there was any good in it) tha t 
 adopted the block system was the South-Eastern, and the first railway that 
 completed their line with this system was the South-Eastern. We got no 
 hints from the Board of Trade. We acted on our experience, and it has 
 been a valuable advantage (always with the drawback I have mentioned) 
 in conducing to the safety and regularity of our work." 
 
 It is hardly, then, the apparatus connected with the block 
 system which Sir Edward Watkin would propose to put into 
 the fire. Is it the locking apparatus that he would wish to 
 commit to the flames ? Speaking at the South-Eastern 
 meeting, he says, it will be observed, " we got no hints from 
 the Board of Trade." Speaking at the Metropolitan meeting, 
 in regard to a collision under the block system, he attributes 
 it to Board of Trade meddling, as I shall presently show. 
 But, in reality, the same hints and the same meddling 
 applied to both railways equally, excepting that there were 
 additional hints in the case of the South-Eastern Railway, 
 which may be quoted, both as opening up another interest- 
 ing subject for discussion, and as showing the risk that an 
 
 officer of the Board of Trade may incur even when invited, 
 and doing his best to assist a company presided over by a 
 chairman, who, like Sir Edward Watkin, attributes accidents 
 which arise from a mistake of his signalman to the Board of 
 Trade. Some months before the Charing Cross Railway was 
 opened for traffic, the writer was asked by the South-Eastern 
 Company to make a jirelirainary inspection of it, and to con- 
 fer with the ofi^icers of that company as to the best mode of 
 dealing with the signal and working arrangements ; and he 
 had, as he always has, great pleasure in being of any use in 
 that respect. Besides the general arrangements, which were 
 agreed upon without much difficulty, an important question 
 arose, in regard to the working of tlic block system. It was 
 proposed by the Company to work the Cliaring Cross line 
 by bcUs only, as other parts of the South-Etistcrn Railway 
 were worked, without block instruments. But the writer 
 ventured to dissent from that proposal, and to express the 
 opinion that, considering the importance of the line, and the 
 nature of the traffic which it was likely to accommodate, it 
 wiw absolutely necessary to provide visual as well as audible 
 instruments — to give the signalmen, in fact, the advantage of 
 a record before their eyes as to the conditions of each block- 
 length — whether it was obstructed, or whether it was clear — 
 in place of trusting to their memories as to the last signal 
 which, they had received or transmitted on their bells or 
 gongs. The writer stated, in fact, that lie would be unable 
 otherwise to recommend the Board of Trade to sanction the 
 opening of the line. The talented electrical superintendent 
 of that company accordingly contrived and provided, before 
 the opening of the line, the miniature semaphore signals 
 which are working in the cabins ; and the safety of the fine 
 has been probably due in some respect to the " hint " on 
 which the company thus acted. And this hint may further 
 be supposed to have been considered valuable, inasmuch as 
 the use of miniature semaphores has since been extended to 
 all other portions of the South-Eastern Railway. But if any 
 accident had occurred through the failure of, or in working 
 those instruments, it would, of course, have been open to the 
 chairman to attribute it to Board of Trade meddling, as he 
 did, publicly, the collision which occurred on the Metropo- 
 litan Railway, between the Gloucester-road and the High- 
 street Kensington stations on the 29th August, 1873. In 
 that case a disabled train proceeding from the Mansion-house 
 station to the Edgeware-road station came to a stand in a 
 tunnel after passing Gloucester-road, and the signalman at 
 the High-street station, when an unusual length of time had 
 elapsed since he received notice of it, asked on his speaking 
 instrument, " Is train coming ?" to whicli the Gloucester- 
 road signalman replied, " I have not received line clear for last 
 train." The signalman at High-street, fancying he must have 
 forgotten to give " line clear," did so, and a second train was 
 thus allowed to enter the block-length before the first train 
 had passed out of it. Sir Edward Watkin remarked upon 
 
 63 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 this at the half-yearly meeting of the Metropolitan Railway, 
 on the 22nd January, 1874, as reported in the Railway Netvs 
 of 24th January ; — 
 
 "Now this accident, the first of the kind which has occurred, I think, 
 during a period of twelve years' working, ought to be called — as many- 
 accidents ought to be called— a Board of Trade accident." 
 
 And he proceeded toargue that because the Board of 
 Trade recommended in the general list of recommenda- 
 tions — ^for it was not an absolute requirement — speaking 
 instruments as well as block instruments in the cabins, 
 and because the signalman had, incalling attention and 
 replying on the speaking instruments, committed this 
 error, therefore the accident was, as he put it, " the 
 consequence of the Board of Trade meddling." There 
 was, however, another recommendation — that record-books 
 should be kept also in the cabins ; and this had not it 
 appeared, been complied with in the Gloucester-road cabin. 
 Whenever an accident occurs at any place where every pre- 
 caution has been taken to avoid it — and such accidents must 
 be expected occasionally to occur — and where all the re- 
 quirements and the recommendations of the Board of Trade 
 have been complied with, it will of course be open to any 
 chairman of a company, so disposed, to attribute such acci- 
 dent to Board of Trade meddling, and to call it a Board of 
 Trade accident. But in this particular instance the signal- 
 man might have committed the mistake in question without 
 spealdng mstruments at all. The recommendation with 
 regard to the adoption of speaking instruments in addition 
 to block instruments is contained in clause 7, under the 
 heading of " Precautions llecommended in the Working of 
 Railways," and is as follows : — 
 
 "Wliena liuo is worked by telegraph, the telegraph huts should bo 
 commodious, and should bo supplied with clocks, with record-books, with 
 a separate needle for signalling the trains on each lino of rails, and witli 
 an extra needle for other necessary oonununications between tho signal- 
 men. " 
 
 It was introduced because signalmen had been found 
 making private signals to one another on their block instru- 
 ments or their bells, " waldng " each other " up," as they 
 term it, by shaking the needles, and so on. The recommen- 
 dation has, in very many cases, not been complied with, and 
 it will be an interesting subject for discussion, whether and 
 how far it should be acted on, as well as how far it may be 
 considered desirable to depend upon bells alone without 
 block instruments. Speaking instruments are, indeed, ab- 
 solutely necessary in many cases, when it is considered re- 
 quisite to afford information from distant stations of the 
 running of fast non-stopping trains — whether they are keep- 
 ing time, or whether and how much they are behind time. 
 They are required in other cases for the transmission of 
 messages on the company's service in regard to the working 
 of the line in various respects. In the absence of them, the 
 
 block regulations of some companies prescribe codes of sig- 
 nals by beats on the telegraph bells ; and the number of 
 beats required for such purposes mount up, as already stated, 
 to 14 or 15. It is an important question to consider whether 
 the signalmen may not make mistakes in counting so many 
 beats on the beUs more easily than in the use of speaking 
 instruments. Sir Edward Watkin's proposal in the same 
 speech was to send a man in place of using a speaking in- 
 strument, and was thus expressed : — 
 
 "The idea, no doubt, of the Board of Trade was this: that if anything 
 took place in the way of blocking, the signalman should be able to ascer- 
 tain what it was, instead of pursuing the old-fashioned plan, that when 
 there was a block somebody shoiild be sent to see what it was. " 
 
 But no man would in this case have been sent running from 
 the Gloucester-road signal cabin to the High-street sig];ial 
 cabin, even if there had been no speaking instruments in 
 the cabins ; and at all events the Board of Trade have never 
 made any objection to Sir Edward Watkin's employing men 
 in that capacity if he thinks proper, and finds it compatible 
 with the working of the traffic on the Metropolitan Railway 
 to do so. It is the more necessary to make the above ob- 
 servation because Mr. Forbes, the Chairman of the Metropo- 
 litan District Railway, is reported to have echoed in some 
 degree the sentiments of Sir Edward Watkin in regard to 
 the accident on their joint line. According to the Railway 
 Times of the 14th February, 1874, Mr. Forbes is reported to 
 have said, at the half-yearly meeting, on the previous Tues- 
 day, of the Metropolitan District Railway : — 
 
 "The item of compensation had been £5,000 extra in the half-year, 
 with which they had really nothing to do. The accident was caused by 
 one Metropolitan train running into another Metropolitan train, and they 
 liad to pay one-third of tlic cost under the agreement with that company. 
 He complained that under tho direction of tho Board of Trade they wore 
 obligud to use apparatus that had caused aooidonts, and had entailed a loss 
 of .tl 8,000 in damages, which ho thought very hard indeed." 
 
 It would be interesting to learn from the General Manager 
 of the Metropolitan and the Manager of the District Rail- 
 way, whether now, after the experience of that accident, they 
 are prepared to remove the speaking instruments from all 
 the signal cabins, and whether they would carry on the 
 working of the hne without them. Unless they can come 
 forward and teU us that they are prepared to adopt this 
 measure — which, if they consider it expedient, there is 
 nothing to prevent them from doing — it must be admitted 
 that the remarks of Sir Edward Watkin and Mr. Forbes on 
 the subject are more ingenious than ingenuous, and the 
 writer contends that they were, in any case, in the highest 
 degree unjustifiable. 
 
 Fully to expose the injustice and the nature of the accu- 
 sation thus made by Sir Edward Watkin and Mr. Forbes 
 against the Board of Trade for causing this accident by 
 meddling, because one of their recommendations is that 
 
 64 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 there shall bo "an extra noodle for otlier necessary commu- 
 nications betAveen the signalmen/' it is right, however, fur- 
 ther to point outf that the printed regulations for signalmen 
 on the Metropolitan Railway provide for the use of speaking 
 instruments, two in number at terminal, and three in num- 
 ber at intermediate stations; that there be six in the cabin 
 in which the mistake was made ; and that the signalmen 
 are directed to use these speaking instruments when the 
 disc instruments are out of order, or the bells fail to ring. 
 
 The following are the regulations referred to, extracted 
 from " The General Rules and Regulations to be observed 
 by the officers and servants employed by the Metropolitan 
 Railway Company : — 
 
 "118. The station at each end of the lino is provided with two train sig- 
 nalling instruments, one for the up-train service, and one for the down- 
 train service, and "• telegraph bell instrument ; two speaking instruments 
 are also provided, one to communioato only with the next station, and 
 the other instrument for communication with all stations. 
 
 "119. The intermediate stations and junctions are each provided with 
 four train-signalling instruments, one for up-trains and one for down- 
 trains in one direction, and one for up-trains and one for down-trains in 
 the, opposite direction, with two boll instruments; throe speaking in- 
 struments are also supplied, one for use to and from the station on either 
 side, and the through instrument, by which each station is in communi- 
 cation with every other. 
 
 " 131. Should the disc instruinent be out of order, or the bells fail to 
 ring, the speaking instrument must be used, for the purpose of signalling 
 the trains." 
 
 And the following is a regulation for signalmen, to a similar 
 effect, from the printed book of rules for the Metropolitan 
 District Railway: — 
 
 "90. Each station has an independent speaking instrument to the 
 station on either side. There is also a through speaking instrument, by 
 which eacli station is in communication with every other. " 
 
 The rule-books of these two companies thus provide for 
 speaking instruments in the cabins, in excess of the Board 
 of Trade recommendation, and it is due to the companies to 
 suppose that they do not supply more instruments than they 
 find in practice to be necessary. But it is anything but jus- 
 tifiable in the chairman to represent that an accident 
 occurring in the use of instruments provided for their own 
 purposes has resulted from their being forced to obey a Board 
 of Trade recommendation, contrary to their own convictions ; 
 and especially when there are signal cabins on other lines 
 where the recommendation is not complied with at all. The 
 railway companies, indeed, have not been always in the habit 
 of so implicitly carrying out the recommendations made to 
 them by the Board of Trade as might be inferred from the 
 accusation referred to. 
 
 Mr. Forbes, also at the half-yearly meeting of the London, 
 Chatham, and Dover Railway Company — as reported in the 
 Railway Times of the 14th February, 1874, 
 
 " Protested against the duplicate management which was being insti- 
 tuted by the Board of Trade, for it was this it amounted to, and the, de- 
 
 partment was placing moro faith in machinery than men. This was really 
 deteriorating the men, for they relaxed their watchfulness in the trust in 
 machinery, and were trapped into a security whicli had led to two acci- 
 dents on the line." 
 
 Mr. Forbes does not state what accidents he particularly 
 refers to, or by what special machinery the men are traj)ped 
 into security ; and it is therefore impossible at present to 
 reply in detail to his allegations, but if he will be more 
 specific on these points it will add to the interest of the dis- 
 cussion, and his charges shall be fairly met. Meanwhile, 
 the writer is quite ready to admit, and has often stated, 
 that there may be a tendency in the block system to engen- 
 der confidence in engine-drivers, guards, and all coimected 
 with it, as regards the safety of these trains from collision ; 
 and that such confidence is justified by the results of its 
 working. But while it is only natural that engine-drivefs 
 should have less apprehension of obstruction from trains, it 
 must be remembered that there are still public road, occu- 
 pation crossings, the liability to find platelayers at work, or 
 vehicles thrown from another line foul of that on which they 
 am travelling, as well as other cauKoHrocpiirmg them to keep 
 a look out. The experience of block worldng hitherto has 
 not justified the apprehension which has, at times, been ex- 
 pressed of greater danger being incurred, and more serious 
 accidents being caused, as the result of undue confidence 
 • thus engendered. Instances may, it is true, be adduced of 
 engine-drivers running past signals, or of signalmen making 
 mistakes, under the block system. But many more instances 
 may be brought forward of similar causes of accident, where 
 the block system has not been in force. The great balance of 
 actual experience, up to the present time, has shown that 
 there is more risk of inattention, mistakes, or neglect on the 
 part of officers and servants in railway working when they 
 are constantly compelled to work with insufficient appliances 
 and accommodation, and arc thus trained, so to speak, to 
 dangerous practices, than when they are provided with the 
 means of carrying on their work in a systematic, safe, and 
 proper manner ; and good discipline, which is, after all, and 
 in any case, a most important element, can then be better 
 maintained. And the memorial and opinions already re- 
 ferred to of the engine-drivers on the Morth-Eastem and 
 London and North-Western Railways are illustrations of 
 the natural desire which these men must, more than any 
 other, feel to be afforded the means of carrying on their 
 daily work under safe conditions, with sufficient warnings of 
 obstructions, and ample means of obeying signals. 
 
 As an illustration of the necessity for block worldng com- 
 bined with more accommodation for the conduct of traffic, 
 and of the worldng of railway traffic under difficulties, the 
 writer cannot do better than refer to the circumstances of a 
 collision, that occurred 13th December, 1873, near Bolton, 
 on the Lancashire and Yorlcshire Railway. On that occa- 
 sion, a down passenger train from Manchester to Fleetwood 
 
 65 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 overtook, whilst running, and came into collision witlj, an 
 empty waggon train, in a misty state of atmosphere, a mile 
 and a quarter after leaving Bolton, and a portion of the 
 wreck having been thrown upon the other — the up-Kne — it 
 was immediately aftenvards run into by an up passenger train 
 from Southport for Manchester. In this double collision, 
 42 passengers, and 6 servants of the company, were injured 
 or shaken. There are two signal cabins, 194 yards apart, 
 called the BuUfield upper and lower cabins, on the further 
 side of the BuUfield tunnel from Bolton, and the signalmen 
 in those cabins, who had, as usual, exhibited caution signals 
 only from their hand-lamps, were dismissed from the com- 
 pany's service for not obeying the company's regulations, 
 which require them to show a danger signal for five minutes 
 and a caution signal for five minutes longer after the passage 
 of the empty waggon train to any following down passenger 
 or other train. But it turned out, on inquiry, that it had 
 not been the practice at those cabins, at all events for eight 
 years, to obey those regulations — that the signalmen did 
 just what they were in the habit- of doing, and what other 
 signalmen working in those cabins would have done ; and 
 that the traffic could not have been carried on in conformity 
 with such regulations. One of the signalmen further pointed 
 out that he could not be expected to keep the trains five 
 minutes apart when they were timed to start from Bolton 
 within two and three minutes of each other. A reheving ■ 
 signalman, not concerned in the accident, stated that he 
 would have worked in the same manner, and himself have 
 been dismissed from the service of the company, if the acci- 
 dent had happened an hour later ; and he further stated • 
 that when he left his cabin to give his evidence, there were 
 five engines — -which turned out on enumeration to be six — 
 on one main line, and three on the other main line, of which 
 one was shunting in and out of the sidings at each side, and 
 the others were waiting to shunt or to pass. The engine- 
 driver of the passenger train, who had complained before 
 leaving Bolton of the empty waggon train having been sent 
 away in front of him, -was told in reply that it could not be 
 helped. Now there were no " new-fangled things " at these 
 cabins. They wore stated to be 20 years old, with such ap- 
 paratus as they contained ; and there was certainly nothing 
 in their ajipearance to load to a contraiy opinion. The 
 writer vontiu'ed to think that less confusion and more sim- 
 plicity in dealing wilJi the trallic might bo obtained by tJio 
 addition of extra lines and .sidings, and by the construction 
 ol improved cabins with modern apparatus in connection 
 with them, and also by the extension of the block system 
 (at present in force for the BuUfield tunnel only) to the 
 portion of the line on ^vhich the accident occurred. The 
 caution, the presence of mind, and the self-reliance of the 
 officers and servants of the comjiany must, certainly, have 
 been developed to the utmost in the working of this traflic ; 
 but not with a satisfactory result, either to the passengers 
 
 and servants of the company who were injured, or to the 
 two signalmen — of good previous character — who lost their 
 situations for doing their duty to the beat of their power, 
 as they had been trained to do it, as they had always done 
 it, and as they were compelled to do it. The neglect of 
 fallible servants will, no doubt, be considered by some to be 
 a cause of this accident ; but it is not essential to railway 
 working that frail human nature should be employed under 
 such conditions ; and the writer would commend this case 
 to the serious consideration of those who, in opposing what 
 are called "modern requirements" on railways, like Mr. Har- 
 rison and Sir Edward Watkin, are inclined to lay too much 
 stress upon human frailty as the cause of accident, to decry 
 the means and appliances by which that element of constant 
 risk may be in a great measure neutralized, and to leave out 
 of consideration the diflEiculties, the disadvantages, and the 
 defective or insufficient arrangements under which the offi- 
 cers and servants of railway companies are frequently com- 
 pelled to work. The opponents of modern improvements 
 which are thus designated as " new-fangled things" are, in 
 fact, not now found so much amongst the officers and men 
 who have the practical working of them. Such officers and 
 men, on finding out the value of them for their own protec- 
 tion, and for real simplicity and safety in working the traffic, 
 are only too glad to obtain them, and are only anxious that 
 their operation should be extended. The opposition to them 
 comes mainly from certain chairmen and general managers 
 of railways and others whose practical experience was gained 
 in former years, before many of the improvements now so 
 successfully employed were available, and under different 
 circumstances of traffic ; and also from gentlemen, such as 
 Mr. Harrison, who having some time since retired, as he tells 
 us, from the active work of railways, has not yet realized the 
 benefits which such improvements confer. Many, who were 
 once opponents, have now become firm believers, and, sooner 
 or later, the true difference in such matters between simpli- 
 city in construction and simplicity in working, will, the 
 writer believes, be all but universally understood and ad- 
 mitted. 
 
 Since the above was written, another eminent and practical 
 railway chairman has made use of arguments and expres- 
 sions which can hardly, in such a paper, be passed over 
 without notice. 
 
 Sir JJaniel Goocli is reported in the liailiuay Times to 
 have said, at the half-yearly meeting of the Groat Western 
 Railway Company, on the 4th March, 1874 : — 
 
 " Wo complain of the ineclianical arrangements and contrivances, and 
 different things which arc forced upon railways contrary to the opinion of 
 the railway engineers and ofliccra who are responsible for working the rail- 
 ways, and who have had exporionce to enable thom to judge of the efficiency 
 or otherwise of these contrivances. Therefore we say, and we say it very 
 strongly — that the contrivances of the Board of Trade, to the extent to 
 which they are forced upon us, are increasing the danger of our railways," 
 
 6(3 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 And again : — 
 
 " Undoubtedlyour moohanioal contrivances are very ingenious and olerer, 
 but they are not equal to tho mechanical contrivances and appliances pro- 
 vided by a higher power, therefore I have much more eonlideneo in a well- 
 trained pointsman at his post than in any mechanical appliances designed 
 to take his place." 
 
 These quotations would seem to convey the ideas — (1) that 
 railway companies ought to abolish locldng apparatus and 
 trust to Providence ; (2) that the Board of Trade is seeking 
 to supplant well-trained pointsmen, and to employ mechani- 
 cal contrivances and appliances in place of them ; (3) that 
 the danger of railway working is being increased by a num- 
 ber of things — though it is not stated what things — which 
 the Board of Trade are forcing upon railway companies. 
 Sir Daniel Gooch, no doubt, honestly feels what he so pithily 
 expresses ; but he certainly exhibits an extraordinary mis- 
 apprehension of the principles by which all the action of 
 the Board of Trade has been guided. And indeed, Mr. 
 Harrison made a complaint in tho opposite direction, namely, 
 that the requirements of the Board of Trade would necessi- 
 tate the employment of a much greater number of signal- 
 men, and thus lead to increased risk. Placing side by side 
 the allegations of the four eminent gentlemen, who are the 
 chief complainants, it will be observed Sir Edward Watkin 
 accuses tho Board of Trade of two heresies — one, in consider- 
 ing the men infallible ; and the other in expecting too much 
 from machinery; Mr. Forbes says that the Board of Trade's 
 mistake is in trusting to machinery rather than to men ; 
 Sir Daniel Gooch prefers to trust in well-trained pointsmen, 
 which ho looks upon as the bettor contrivances of a higher 
 power ; and Mr. Harrison complains — with special reference 
 to the block system — that too many of these men are re- 
 quired. The truth of the matter is, that the Board of Trade 
 desires, not only to see well-trained signalmen employed, 
 but also that they should be provided with apparatus that 
 shall enable them to work with tho utmost possible simpli- 
 city, and sliall ncutralijio, as far as possible, tho mistakes that 
 othorwiso tho best of men are liable — nay, are almost cer- 
 taiii, sooner or later, in tho course of years of working, to 
 commit, and Avishes further to see their numbers increased 
 only so far as is necessary for the proper performance of 
 their duties, for affording due warning to the engine-drivers, 
 and for enabling the traffic to be worked in the simplest, 
 best, and safest manner. 
 
 But the present is an admirable opportunity for these, or 
 any other gentlemen,' to come forward, and state specifically 
 what mechanical contrivances ought, as they think, to be 
 dispensed with, and what are in their opinion admissible. 
 If the Board of Trade is proceeding on a wrong basis, in 
 whole or in part, let them point ont precisely what are its 
 errors. The object of all is to increase the safety and effi- 
 ciency of railway working ; and that object may, apparently, 
 
 best be secured by more simplicity and less confusion in 
 worldng, on tho principles stated in the present paper. 
 There has been ample experience as to the causes by which 
 railway accidents have been produced, as to the defects which 
 they have disclosed in construction and working, and as to 
 the remedies by which they may be, and have been avoided. 
 The writer has laboured anxiously and earnestly, by analyz- 
 ing from year to year the results of that experience, to afford 
 the best means of judging — to any one who will take the 
 trouble to study those results — not of the working of any 
 one line, but of all the railways of the United Kingdom ; 
 and he will feel deeply grateful to any one who will correct 
 him in any of the conclusions at which he has arrived, or 
 point out to him any other mode by which the safety and 
 efficiency of railway working may be better secured. Under 
 no system can perfect safety be obtained — as he is too well 
 aware — but confidence in a Higher Power, as it is expressed 
 by Sir Daniel Gooch, can only witli propriety be entertained 
 after all reasonable means have been exhausted, with a view 
 to the attainment of that result, which all must ultimately 
 desire, and which should be the real aim and object of any 
 discussion on this subject. 
 
 To sum up the whole case, it is necessary, in railway work- 
 ing, to deal with men and mechanism. Men are falUble, 
 and mechanism may fail. The complications of railway 
 construction and traffic have enormously increased, and are 
 still increasing. At some points, the lines, the sidings, and 
 the crossings, are so numerous, and the traffic is so constant, 
 that the employment of tho best jncans and appliances is 
 unavoidable. In other localities, of severe gradients or ob- 
 structed view, or when greater danger is otherwise incurred, 
 similar means and appliances are also indispensable. These 
 points and localities become more and more numerous, and 
 ample experience has now been obtained as to the most effi- 
 cient modes of working. The result of that experience has 
 most plainly demonstrated that mistakes and accidents may 
 best be avoided, and efficiency of working best be ob- 
 tained : — 
 
 1. By judicious selection, and careful training of the men 
 employed, and especially — in a safety point of view — of en- 
 gine-drivers and signalmen. 
 
 2. By providing these men with reasonable and necessary 
 apparatus and accommodation for the proper performance 
 of their duties. 
 
 3. By maintaining good discipline amongst them, which 
 is only feasible when proper means and accommodation are 
 provided, when proper modes of working are adopted, and 
 when it is possible for them to carry out in practice the rules 
 and regulations furnished for their guidance. 
 
 These three desiderata include the provision of fixed sig- 
 nals in sufficient number to enable the signalmen to afford 
 due warning in each case in which warning is required to 
 the engine-drivers, and to enable the engine-drivers clearly 
 
 67 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 to understand the warnings so given to them. They include 
 the supply of locking and other apparatus, which has been 
 proved to act efficiently in preventing or neutralizing the 
 mistakes, in the working of points and signals, which the 
 best of men are otherwise, sooner or later, almost certain to 
 make. They include the addition of sufficient lines and 
 sidings to enable the traffic to be properly worked — without 
 goods or mineral trains constantly obstructing the passenger 
 lines — without the main lines being blocked when fast 
 through trains are due, or may be expected — ^without exces- 
 sive delay to slow or goods trains in waiting for fast or pas- 
 senger trains to pass — without stopping trains being shunted 
 from one main line to another, to allow fast trains to pass 
 them — without habitual unpunctuality. They include the 
 necessary apparatus for enabling intervals of space to be 
 properly preserved between running trains, and the proper 
 management and working of such apparatus, with the care- 
 ful adaptation of it to local circumstances. They include 
 the provision of ample retarding power in the trains, appli- 
 cable at the wiU of the engine-driver, to enable him to obey 
 the signals which he receives, and to bring ^his train to a 
 stand within a reasonable distance. They include, in fine, 
 all those things which contribute to simplicity, and which 
 tend to the avoidance of that great cause of extravagance, 
 inefficiency, and danger — confusion in railway working. 
 
 TYPES OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 
 
 1867, 
 
 (Illustrated by Plates Nos. 3 and S.) 
 
 The number of locomotive engines brought together in the 
 French Exhibition of 18C7 was far greater than at any 
 previous display. Although there may not have been such 
 great diversities in appearances or in practice as when loco- 
 motive engineering was in its infancy, there is still a suffi- 
 cient variety to attract attention, while in almost every case 
 these variations were the result of long experience, or were 
 designed for the peculiar exigencies of the road for which 
 they were intended. No less than thirty-two locomotives 
 were there assembled, illustrating and affording means of 
 comparison between all the principal countries in which 
 they were manufactured, including France, Belgium, Ger- 
 many, Austria, America, and England. As regards the ma- 
 chinery proper, but very little difference appeared to exist 
 in the whole of the designs ; and, in fact, in this respect 
 scarcely any change was observable from those exhibited 
 
 way, 
 was 
 
 in London, in 1862. Railway travelling at the present day 
 is no faster (if, indeed, it is as fast) than it was ten years 
 ao-o, experience having shown that we had practically at- 
 tained the highest speed that was compatible with safety 
 and economy— a speed of forty to forty-five miles an hour 
 bein"' the highest that is now ever practised for regular 
 traffic. Of late years, therefore, engineers have turned their 
 attention more especially to the economical working of the 
 locomotive, and the saving in wear and tear of the permanent 
 The most obvious improvement in the locomotive 
 to make it burn coals instead of coke, and various 
 methods have been adopted for this purpose. 
 
 But, perhaps, the principal point to which the attention 
 of railway engineers has been directed, is the economical 
 working of the permanent way ; consequently, the distribu- 
 tion of the weight of the locomotive over a larger surface, 
 has been the object at which they have aimed, and which 
 is well illustrated in the examples before us. In England, 
 where for the most part, railways have but few heavy- 
 gradients, and where the permanent way is constructed in a 
 superior manner, there are not so many difficulties of this 
 nature to be overcome, and consequently not such scope for 
 improvements in this direction as in new countries or moun- 
 tainous districts. It is, therefore, in the examples from 
 Austria and America, and in the locomotives intended for 
 the more mountainous parts of the Continent, that we find 
 them constructed with eight or ten wheels coupled, to give 
 them sufficient tractive power to overcome the gradients 
 which they have to encounter, without injury to the per- 
 manent way. In connection with this point, however, 
 another arises, nearly, if not entirely antagonistic to'" the 
 system of long engines with coupled wheels, viz., the vast 
 number of lines which have been lately made, both in the 
 metropolis, as branch lines, and various other cases where 
 the curves arc so sharp as to necessitate a small wheel base. 
 This difficulty our engineers have endeavoured to overcome 
 by using the bogie; but, though this contrivance enables 
 the locomotive to travel with ease round a curve, the wheels 
 are useless for traction purposes, unless, perhaps, we except 
 one example, viz., the mountain locomotive, by Haswell, of 
 Vienna. 
 
 To begin with the oldest and most celebrated firm, Messrs. 
 Robert Stephenson & Co., of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Fig. 1 
 (plate 2) represents one of a number of passenger loco- 
 motives which they built for tlie Egyptian Railways, this 
 being the 2,012th turned out by the same firm. It is an 
 inside cyhnder engine with single driving wheels, and is fur- 
 nished with double frames, the driving axle having both 
 inside and outside bearings, and the leading and trailing 
 axles outside bearings only. The valve gear is of the ordinary 
 shifting link description, and is worked by a very neat ar- 
 rangement consisting of a combined lever and screw revers- 
 ing gear. The lever is placed in its usual position, and has 
 
 68 
 
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 [■.-•:MiLii^:;fi'U 
 
 DIAGRAMS OF LOCOMOTIVES EXJJIBJTED 
 
 ^T THE PARIS EXHIBITION 
 
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Plate 2. 
 
 ES EXHIBITED 
 HIBITION 
 
 FlC.3 CGUIUFT. 
 
 Fig 4. CREUSOT SiMLLAIR 
 
 ! i',./.f !i ;>.!; 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 an eye formed in it through which the screw passes. The 
 screw is placed horizontally, and increases in diameter to- 
 wards the middle of its length, its outline being an arc 
 struck with a radius equal to the distance between the upper 
 side of the screAV and the bottom pin on which the lever 
 vibrates. Tlio lever is furnished with a catch in the usual 
 way, but this catch, instead of falling into the notches of a 
 catch-plate, enters the thread of the screw, so that when the 
 catch is down in the thread of the screw, the engine can be 
 reversed by turning the screw ; or, when the catch is raised, 
 the reversal can be effected in the usual way by tlie lever. 
 The boiler — which is intended to be worlced at the pressure 
 of 180 lb. to 190 lb. per square inch — has welded longi- 
 tudinal joints ; the tranverse joints are double rivetted. 
 The following are a few particulars : — 
 
 Length of grate 4 ft., width of grate 3 ft. 5-61 in, ; total 
 grate surface, 13f square ft. ; height of crown of fire-box 
 over fire-bars, 4 ft. lO'S in. ; size of fire-box, 69 cubic ft. ; 
 number of tubes, 101 ; length of tubes between tube plates, 
 11 ft. 4 in. ; external diameter of tubes, 2 in. ; thickness of 
 tubes, ID to IS m. ; heating surface of tubes, 960 square ft.; 
 ditto fire-box, 83 square ft. ; ditto total, 1,043 square ft. ; 
 mean diameter of body of boiler, 4 ft. ; thickness of plate, 
 '60 in.; working pressure permitted, 12| atmospheres ; cubic 
 ft. of water contained in boiler (3 in. over crown of fire- 
 box) 88'6 cubic ft. ; amount of steam space in boiler 
 (ditto) .50 cubic ft. ; length of smoke-box, 2 ft. 8^ in. ; 
 width of ditto, 3 ft. \\\ in.; internal diameter of funnel, 14| 
 in. ; diameter of cylinders, 16 in. ; stroke, 22 in. ; number 
 of wheels, 6 ; ditto coupled, none ; distance between leading 
 and trailing wheels, 15 ft. 8 in. ; diameter of driving or 
 coupled wheels, 6 ft. 7 in. ; ditto of leading or trailing 
 wheels, 3 ft. 9 in. ; weight on leading axle, 9 tons 13 
 cwt. ; ditto on driving axle, 13 tons 14 cwt. ; ditto on 
 trailing wheels, 7 tons 2 cwt. ; total weight of locomotive 
 worldng, 30 tons 9 cwt. ; ditto empty, 27 tons 9 cwt. ; trac- 
 tive force (counting 65 per cent, as effective), 3 tons 16^ 
 cwt. ; adhesion, at one-sixth 2 tons 5| cwt. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents an express engine, constructed by the 
 Lilleshall Company. This Company have hitherto been 
 known rather as makers of heavy machinery for the manu- 
 facture of iron, such as blowing engines ; besides which they 
 are iron and coal masters. It is, however, a very first-class 
 example of an inside cylinder engine. The fire-box has a 
 brick arch and deflector plate for coal burning, and is of 
 very large proportions. The framing, which is very stiff; 
 is formed of two pairs of longitudinal slabs extending 
 the whole length between the buffer beam and back plate. 
 The crank axle, as also the leading and trailing axles are 
 of steel. The sUde valves are worked by AUan's patent 
 straight link motion, of the box form. Leading dimensions : 
 — Total grate surface, 18 square ft. ; number of tubes, 186; 
 length of tubes between tube plates, 11 ft. 2 in. ; external 
 
 diameter of tubes, 1-75 in. ; thiclcncss of ditto, -062 in. ; 
 heating surface of ditto, 980 square ft. ; ditto fire-box, 96 
 square ft. ; ditto total, 1,076 square ft. ; mean diameter of 
 body of boiler, 4 ft. 3'12 in. ; working pressure permitted, 
 9 J atmospheres; diameter of cylinders, 16 in. ; stroke, 21 in.; 
 number of wheels, 6 ; ditto coupled, none ; distance between 
 leading and trailing wheels, 16 ft. 5 in.; diameter of driving 
 or coupled wheels, 6 ft. 11 in. ; ditto of leading or trailing 
 ditto, 4 ft. 2J in. ; weight on leading axle, 10 tons 11 cwt.; 
 ditto on driving ditto, 12 tons 14 cwt.; ditto on trailing 
 wheels, 8 tons 8 cwt. ; total woiglit of locomotive workmg, 
 31 tons 13 cwt. ; ditto empty, 27 tons 14 cwt. 
 
 Fig, 3 represents a very curious locomotive by Comllet, 
 of Charleroi. It is mtended to work a branch line, or for 
 mineral traffic. It has four coupled wheels, and the driving 
 axle, which does not work the wheels direct, has a centre 
 bearing besides two outside bearings. It is an inside cylin- 
 der engine, with the valve casings on the outer sides of the 
 cylinders ; the valve being worked by only one eccentric. 
 The following are a few i)articulii,rs : — Pressure, 9 atmos- 
 pheres ; diameter of the body of boiler, 3 ft. 9 in. ; number 
 of tubes, 162 ; diameter of ditto outside. If in. ; length of 
 ditto, 8 ft. 4 in. ; heating surface in fire-box, 61 square ft. 
 ditto tube surface, 612 square ft. ; total, 673 square ft. 
 diameter of cylinder, 13^ in. ; length of stroke, 18 in. 
 diameter of wheels, 4 ft. ; distance between wheels, 9 ft. 0^ 
 in. ; total weight when working, 23 tons 4 cwt. ; ditto empty, 
 19 tons 10 cwt. ; contents of tank, 440 gallons. 
 
 Fig. 4 represents one of the Express Engines built by 
 Messrs. Schneider & Co., of Creusot, for the Great Eastern 
 Eailway Company, after the designs of Mr. Sinclair, and 
 which gave rise to so much discussion respecting the com- 
 parative capabilities of English and Foreign manufactories, 
 both as regards price and quality. The subjoined particu- 
 lars may be found useful : — Length of grate, 4 ft. 6f in. ; 
 width of ditto, 3 ft. 5 J in. ; total grate surface, 15| square 
 ft. ; height of erovm of fire-box over fire-bars, 4 ft. 7'38 in.; 
 size of fire-box, 7371 cubic ft. ; number of tubes, 190 ; 
 length of tubes between tube plates, 12 ft.; external diameter 
 of tubes, 1-75 in. ; thickness of tubes, 11 in. to -14 in. ; heat- 
 ing surface of tubes, 1,045 square ft. ; ditto of fire-box, 75 
 square ft. ; ditto total, 1,120 square ft. ; mean diameter 
 of body of boiler, 3 ft. llj in. ; thickness of plate, -44 in. ; 
 worldng pressure permitted, 10| atmospheres ; cubic ft. of 
 water contained in boiler (3, in. over crown of fire-box), 111*3; 
 amount of steam space in boiler (ditto), 37 cubic ft. ; length 
 of smoke-box, 2 ft. 8f in. ; width of ditto, 4 ft. 1\ in. ; inter- 
 nal diameter of funnel, 15 in. to 18 in. ; diameter of cylin- 
 ders, 16 in. ; stroke, 24 in. ; number of wheels, 6 ; ditto 
 coupled, none ; distance between leadmg and trailing wheels, 
 15 ft. ; diameter of driving or coupled wheels, 7 ft. ; ditto 
 of leading or trailing ditto, 3 ft. 7 J in, ; weight on leading 
 axle, 9 tons 4 cwt. ; ditto on driving ditto, 13 tons 18 cwt,; 
 
 69 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 plan adopted by the Messrs. Penn in their high pressure 
 marine engines. It has inside framing. The following are 
 a few of the dimensions : — Cylinders, 11'8 in. ia diameter 
 and 22 in. stroke ; diameter of wheels, 4 ft. 2 J in. ; pressure, 
 9 atmospheres; number of tubes, 138 ; length of ditto, 
 8 ft. 2| in. ; diameter of ditto, 1| in. ; weight when worldng, 
 17 tons; ditto empty, 14 tons. 
 
 Fig. 9 is an express engine, built for the Great Northern 
 Railway Company from the designs and specifications of 
 Mr, Sturrock, by the Yorkshire Engine Company, and was 
 the first engine completed by them at their works, near 
 Sheffield. It is an inside cylinder engiae, with 4 coupled 
 wheels, 7 ft. diameter. The driving axle has both inside 
 and outside bearings, the leading and trailing axles having 
 only outside bearings. All the outside bearings are of the 
 double conical shape, similar to the bearing in a lathe head- 
 stock. The axles and wheel tyres are of steel, and the latter 
 are secured to the wheels by Beattie's patent fastener. All 
 the springs are placed above the axles, and those belonging 
 to the outside bearings of the driving and trailing axles are 
 connected by compensating beams, each beam having arms 
 2 ft. 3 in. and 3 ft. 8 in. long respectively ; the shorter arms 
 being coupled to the trailing axles, and the extra weight 
 thus thrown upon the trailing springs compensate for the 
 weight put upon the inside bearings of the crank axle. The 
 copper plates inside the fire-box are all J in. thick, except 
 the tube plate, which is f in. thick, reduced to | in. below 
 the tubes. The crown of the fire-box is strengthened by 12 
 transverse stays, assisted by sling stays, fastened to T irons, 
 rivetted to the crown plate. Gusset stays are used instead 
 of longitudinal tie rods for strengthening the tube plates. 
 A man-hole is formed on the top of the fire-box casing, and 
 on its cover the safety valves are placed, and immediately 
 beneath the man-holes are placed six vertical pipes com- 
 municating witli tlio main stoam pipe by wliicli tlio stoam 
 is conducted to the regulator. The following are some of 
 the leading dimensions : — Heating surface of fire-box, in- 
 cluding the midfeather, 116-37 square ft. ; heating surface 
 of tubes, 905-14 square ft.; total heating surface, 1021-51 
 square ft. ; diameter of chimney, 1 ft. 4 in. ; diameter of 
 cylinders, 17 in. ; stroke, 24 in. ; distance apart, 2 ft. 6 in. ; 
 steam ports, 1 ft. 3 in. long by 1^ in, wide ; exhaust ditto, 
 4 in. wide ; driving and traiHng wheels, 7 ft. diameter ; lead- 
 ing ditto, 4 ft. 3 in. ; total wheel base, 18 ft. 1 in. ; distance 
 botwoon driving and trailing wheels, 8 ft. G in. ; ditto driv- 
 ing and leading wheels, 9 ft. 7 in. ; total weight of engine 
 in working order, 35 tons ; weight on driving wheels, 13 
 tons ; ditto on leading ditto, 10 tons ; ditto on trailing ditto, 
 12 tons. 
 
 Fig. 10 represents an outside cylinder engine, with 4 
 coupled wheels, constructed by Emile Kessler, of Esslingen, 
 for the East Indian Railway. The following are some of the 
 principal dimensions : — Diameter of cylinder, 16 in. ; stroke, 
 
 22 in.; area of grate, 17 square ft.; height of crown of 
 fire-box over bars, 4 ft. 3 in.; number of tubes, 162; outside 
 diameter of ditto. If in. ; length, 11 ft. ; heating surface of 
 tubes, 1,048J square ft. ; ditto of fire-box, 102 square ft. ; 
 total heating surface, 1,150J square ft. ; pressure of steam, 
 120 lbs. ; diameter of leading wheel, 3 ft. 6 in. ; ditto of 
 driving and trailing wheels, 5 ft. 6 in. ; wheel base, 15 ft. 
 4 in. ; weight of engine empty, 29 tons 12 cwt. ; ditto when 
 in worldng order, 32 tons 8 cwt. ; ditto on leading wheels, 
 11 tons 12 cwt; ditto on driving wheels, 10 tons 8 cwt.; 
 ditto on trailing wheels, 10 tons 8 cwt. ; tractive force 
 (counting 65 per cent of effective) 3 tons 5 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 11 is a 4-wheeled tank engine, by Krauss, of Munich, 
 and was the first built at his new works. It is a 4-wheeled 
 engiae, with outside cylinders, and there are several in- 
 genious contrivances about this locomotive. One of these 
 is the formation of the framing, which is so contrived by 
 being made of the box girder kind to fulfil the double pur- 
 pose of tank and engine frame. This is certainly a novelty, 
 but it is doubtful whether it can be kept watertight. The 
 inside of the fire-box is made of corrugated plates to allow 
 for the expansion and contraction, thereby avoiding the 
 strain in the corners of the fire-box. The reciprocating 
 parts of the engine are all of steel, and made as light as pos- 
 sible, the connecting and coupling rods being hollowed out 
 so as to form a T section. The injector is very simple, 
 having no adjustment screws, but is found to work 
 very well for all practical differences of pressure that may 
 exist. 
 
 A self-acting lubricator is placed at the top of each 
 valve chest, giving a regular supply each time the steam is 
 cut off in the steam chest. The dimensions are : — Length 
 of grate, 3 ft. 1-3 in. ; width of ditto, 3 ft. 3 in. ; grate sur- 
 face, 10;| square ft. ; lioight of firo-l)ox, 4 ft. 6'3 in.; cu])ic 
 capacity of ditto, 4;U It.; number of tubes, 150; longtli of 
 tubes between tube plates, 11 ft. 5^- in.; exterior diameter 
 of tubes, If in. ; thickness of tubes, -079 in. ; tube heating 
 surface, 812 ft. ; ditto fire-box, 49 ft. ; total ditto, 861 ft. ; 
 diameter of body of boiler, 3 ft. 9-8 in. ; thickness of plate, 
 ■31 in. ; working pressures allowed, 10 atmospheres ; volume 
 of water in boiler, 109 cubic ft. ; ditto steam ditto, 40 ; 
 length of smoke-box, 2 ft. 4| in. ; width of ditto, 3 ft. 9|- in. ; 
 diameter of chimney, 13f in. ; diameter of cylinder, 14 in. • 
 length of stroke, 22 in. ; number of wheels, 4 ; ditto coupled, 
 4 ; length of wheel base, 8 ft. i in. ; diameter of driving and 
 coupled wheels, 4 ft. 11 in. ; load on wheels, forward, 10 
 tons 18J cwt. ; ditto, second, 13 tons 18| cwt. ; weight of 
 locomotive working, 21 tons 17 cwt. ; ditto, light, 16 tons 
 6 cwt.; tractive force, 4 tons 15 1 cwt.; adhesion at one- 
 sixth, 3 tons 13 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 12 is taken from a drawing in the Exhibition of an 
 engine manufactured at Carlsruhe, which was intended for 
 the express traffic in Switzerland. It is an eight- wheeled 
 
 n 
 
FlC-.i. GRAFFENSTAOEN. 
 
 te.-^ 
 
 !-^. 
 
 DIAGRAMS OF LOCOMOTIVES ElBTBITED 
 AT THE PARIS EXHIBITION 
 18 67. 
 
 FlG:^.. FORQUENOT. 
 
 Fig- 4-. Haswfll. 
 
 FiQ 6 Fives - Lilles. 
 
 Fic,7. Schneider 
 
 FlG:'2.HUGHEJ 
 
 IG11. FUSTiiM..uD f^ROCIER 
 
 F-IG:r2. Gre.usot- RUSSE 
 
 
 
 M- 
 
 FiG: 13. GOUiN 
 
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 ^--cfe 
 
 ISO; 
 
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 ^^y-^-^^^^^^TT-^ 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 outside cylinder engine, with 4 coupled wheels, the 4 lead- 
 ing wheels running under a bogie. It is fitted with 2 
 Giffard injectors. The safety valve is kept down by a 
 weight instead of a spring balance. 
 
 Fig. 13 is a good type of locomotive used on the Belgian 
 States Railways for express service, having been built for the 
 lino from Anvcrs to Rotterdam. 
 
 This engine is chiefly remarkable for the unusual position 
 of the oylindcrs, they being stuck outside the framing ; tlio 
 steam pipo being carried round outside the boiler. The fire 
 grate is exceedingly large, being 4 ft. 7^ in. by 4 ft. 2| in. ; 
 pressure of steam, 9 atmospheres ; liimaber of tubes, 223 ; 
 exterior diameter. If in. ; total heating surface, 1,210 square 
 ft. ; diameters of cylinders, 17'3 in. ; stroke, 23'6 in. ; weight 
 of engine, empty, 31 tons ; ditto when running, 34 tons. 
 
 Fig. 14 is an express locomotive by Hartmann, of Chem- 
 nitz, for the Luxomberg Railway, where it had been running 
 for six months. It has outside cylinders, and the trailing 
 axle runs behind the firegrate. Length of grate, 4 ft. 1'8 in.; 
 width of ditto, 3 ft. ; grate surface, 13 square ft. ; height of 
 fire-box, 5 ft. 21 in. ; cubic capacity of ditto, G8 cubic ft. ; 
 number of tubes, 193 ; length of tubes between tube plates, 
 10 ft. ^ in. ; exterior diameter of tubes, 1| in. ; thickness of 
 tubes, -1 in. ; tube heating surface, 824 ft. ; fire-box heating 
 surface, 91 ft. ; diameter of body of boiler, 4 ft. 1 J in. ; thick- 
 ness of plate, -59 in. ; working pressure allowed, 9 atmos- 
 pheres; volume of water in boiler, 115-8 cubic ft.; ditto, 
 steam, 55 ditto ; length of smoke-box, 1 ft. 2'6 in. ; width of 
 ditto, 4 ft. 1^ m. ; diameter of chimney, 15 in. ; diameter of 
 cylinder, IG in. ; length of stroke, 22 in. ; number of wheels, 
 6 ; ditto, coupled, 4 ; length of wheel base, 14 ft. 5 in. ; dia- 
 meter of driving and coupled wheels, 6 ft.; ditto of leading, 
 3 ft. 4 J in. ; load on wheels, leading, 11 tons 4 J cwt. ; ditto, 
 driving, 11 tons 4| cwt. ; ditto, trailing, 11 tons 4| cwt. ; 
 weight of locomotive working, 33 tons 13^ cwt. ; ditto, 
 light, 30 tons 8 cwt. ; tractive force, 2 tons 14| cwt. 
 
 Fig. 15 is an outside cylinder express engine for the Paris 
 and Orleans Railway. It has 4 coupled wheels, and has a 
 light and elegant appearance. 
 
 The locomotive shown by figure 1 (Plate 3) was con- 
 structed at Graffenstaden, for the Eastern Railway Company, 
 and is chiefly remarkable for having a steam tender, mak- 
 ing, in fact, two locomotives, with one boiler and tender be- 
 tween them. Both the engine proper and the tender have 
 six coupled wheels, the axles having outside bearings and 
 overhung cranks. The exhaust steam from the cylinders 
 of the tender is not utilized as in Mr. Sturrock's steam 
 
 tenders. 
 
 There are two steam pipes, one to supply the cylinders 
 of the locomotives, and the other, which has no special 
 coupling arrangement, to supply the cylinder of the tender. 
 The wheels of the engine are 4 ft. 3 in. in diameter, and the 
 wheel base 12 ft. 2 in. ; the diameter of the wheels of the 
 
 tender is 3 ft. 11 in., and the wheel base 10 ft. 6 in. The 
 cylinders of the engine are 16| in. diameter, and 2 ft. 
 stroke, and of the tender 15 in. diameter by 16J in. 
 stroke. The tubes are 2 in. diameter, 276 in number, 
 and 9 ft. 10 in. long. The fire-grate is 3 ft. 3J in. wide, by 
 7 ft. 4 in. long, and the total licating surface 1,424 ft., of 
 which 159 square ft. are fire-box surface. The weight of 
 the engine is 30 tons 10 cwt. empty, and 35 tons when 
 working, the weight of the tender being 15 tons 18 cwt. 
 empty, and 28 tons when full. 
 
 Fig. 2 is another locomotive with a steam tender, designed 
 by Maurice Urban, for the Belgian Railways. It is by no 
 means an elegant-looking engine, the steam-chest being laid 
 along the top of the boiler, and connected therewith by 
 means of two short pipes, a plan not unfrequently adopted 
 for land boilers, but looking very awkward upon a locomo- 
 tive. 
 
 The steam-pipe which supplies the cylinders in' the ten- 
 der has a stuffing box-joint and packing consisting of 3 
 rings of India-rubber. The exhaust steam from the cylin- 
 ders in the tender is used to heat the feed water. There are 
 368 tubes in the boiler If in. outside diameter, andj 9 ft. 
 10 inches long. The furnace is 7 ft. 2| in. long by 3 ft. 6 in. 
 wide ; the total heating surface 1,929 square ft., of which 
 107 square ft. is fire-grate surface. The cylinders of the 
 engine are 18 in. diameter and 2 ft. stroke ; those of the 
 tender are 13f in. diameter, and 15f in. stroke. The en- 
 gine and tender have each of them six wheels 4 ft. diameter, 
 the wheel base of the engine being 12 ft., and that of the 
 tender 10 ft. 6 in. The weight of the engine when empty 
 is 31 tons, and in working order 36 tons ; that of the tender 
 is 14 tons 16 cwt. empty, and 27 tons full, the total weight 
 together when running being 63 tons. 
 
 Fig. 3 is a ten-wheel tender engine for the Paris and 
 Orleans Railway Company; was built at their works at 
 Ivry, from the designs of M. Forquemot, and intended to 
 work a branch line upon which there is an incline of 1 in 29. 
 The axles of the two hind pairs of wheels are placed below 
 the fire-box, and have outside journals, so as to allow the 
 width of the fire-box to be increased while the axle boxes 
 are kept away from the heat of the furnace. To accommo- 
 date this arrangement the engine is provided with outside 
 frames for a short length at the trailing end, which carry 
 the horn plates for the two hind axles. The three remain- 
 ing axles have inside bearings. 
 
 The principal dimensions are as follows: — Length of grate, 
 
 73 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 6 ft. ; -widtli of ditto, 8 ft. 8J in. ; grate surface, 224 square 
 ft. ; height of fire-box, 4 ft. 10 in. in front, and 3 ft. 7 in. at 
 back; cubic capacity of ditto, 93 J cubic ft.; number of 
 tubes, 280 ; length of tubes, 16 ft. 5 in. ; exterior diameter 
 of ditto, 1| in. ; thickness of tubes, 'OS in. ; tube-heating 
 surface, 2,152 square ft. ; fire-box ditto, ditto, 107| square 
 ft. ; total ditto, ditto, 2,259^ square ft. ; diameter of body 
 of boiler, 5 ft. 3 in. ; thickness of plate, '39 in. (steel) ; 
 working pressure allowed, 9 atmospheres ; volume of water 
 in boiler, 193 cubic ft. ; length of smoke-box, 3 ft. 3 in. ; 
 diameter of chimney, 17| in.; diameter of cylinder, 19^ in. ; 
 length of stroke, 23J in. ; number of wheels, 10 (coupled) ; 
 length of wheel base, 14 ft. 10 in. ; diameter of wheels, 3 ft. 
 6 in. ; load on wheels forward, 11 tons 14 cwt. ; chtto second, 
 
 11 tons 14 cwt. ; ditto third, 12 tons G^ cwt. ; ditto fourth, 
 
 12 tons 9 cwt. ; ditto fifth, 12 tons 9 cwt. ; weight of loco- 
 motive working, 63 tons 12| cwt.; ditto, ditto, hght, 47 
 tons 10 cwt. ; adhesion at one-sixth, 10 tons 2 cwt. ; tractive 
 force, 7 tons 10| cwt. 
 
 In order to couple the two hind axles with the other 
 wheels, the crank pins of the driving wheels are made very 
 long, and are each furnished with 3 journals. The connect- 
 ing rods are coupled to the central journal of each crank- 
 pin, whilst to the inner journal is connected the coupling 
 rod for the front wheels, the outer journal taking the 
 coupling rod for the hind wheels. The valve gear, which 
 is of the stationary link class, is entirely outside, and is 
 worked from overhung cranks on the outer ends of the 
 driving crank-pin. 
 
 Fig. 4 is an Austrian locomotive, constructed under the 
 direction of M. Haswell from the designs of Chevalier 
 de Engerths. It is the same engine as that exhibited at 
 the London Exhibition of 1862, but since that time several 
 alterations have been found necessary for its practical work- 
 ing. It was originally constructed as a tank engine, but in 
 consequence of the excessive load upon the hind wheels, the 
 tank has been removed and a tender attached to it. The 
 ten wheels of the engine are arrg,nged in two groups, the 
 front truck having 6 coupled wheels, and the following 
 truck, which is connected by a pivot joint, having 4 coupled 
 wheels. The tender is coupled to this truck in a similar 
 manner, and the engineers of the Austrian State Railway, 
 who exhibited the engine, contend that this method of 
 coupling facilitates the passing of curves. The engine had 
 been constructed for running upon rails weighing only 
 48 lb. per yard, which are laid upon an incline of 1 in 50, 
 and in curves of 360 ft. radius. Under such circumstances 
 the engine draws up a load of 120 tons in fair weather. The 
 following are some of the principal dimensions : — Length of 
 grate, 4 ft. I in. ; width of ditto, 2 ft. 11 m. ; total grate sur- 
 face, 12| square ft. ; height of crown of fire-box over fire- 
 bars, 4 ft. 6 in. ; size of fire-box, 62 cubic ft. ; number of 
 tubes, 158; length of tubes between tube plates, 14J ft.; 
 
 external diameter of tubes, 2 in. ; thickness of tubes, '079 
 in.; heating surface of tubes, 1,240 square ft.; ditto, ditto, 
 fire-box, 78 square ft. ; ditto, ditto, total, 1,318 square ft. ; 
 mean diameter of body of boiler, 4 ft. ; thickness of plate, ^ 
 in.; working pressure permitted, 7 atmospheres; cubic ft. 
 of water contained in boiler (3 in. over crown of fire-box), 
 115-8 cubic ft. ; amount of steam space in boiler (ditto, 
 ditto), 60 cubic ft. ; length of smoke-box, 2 ft. 7J in. ; width 
 of ditto, 5 ft. 8J in. ; internal diameter of funnel, 16^ in. ; 
 diameter of cylinders, 18 J in. ; stroke, 24f in. ; number of 
 wheels, 10 ; ditto, ditto, coupled, 10 ; distance between lead- 
 ing and trailing wheels, 19 ft. 3^ in. ; diameter of driving 
 and coupled wheels, 3 ft. 6 in. ; weight on leading axle, 9 
 tons 4 cwt. ; ditto on driving ditto, 9 tons 2 cwt. ; ditto, 
 ditto, 8 tons 15 cwt.; ditto, ditto, 6 tons 5 cwt.; ditto on 
 trailing wheels, 9 tons 2 cwt. ; total weight of locomotive 
 working, 42 tons 8 CAvt. ; ditto, ditto, empty, 38 tons 13 cwt.; 
 tractive force (counting 65 per cent, of effective), 6 tons 8 
 cwt. ; weight of tender, 10 tons 4 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows a tank locomotive exhibited by M. Waessen, 
 constructed at St. Leonard, Liege, and is of a somewhat 
 similar class of locomotive to that used on the North 
 Spanish railways (Alar del Ray and Santander). This en- 
 gine has 6 coupled wheels, 4 ft. 3 J in. in diameter ; and a 
 four-wheel Bissel truck under the leading end ; the wheels 
 being 2 ft. 7J in. in diameter. The water is carried in wing 
 tanks, the boxes for fuel being also placed on each sidej 
 The boiler is fed by injectors placed upon the top of the 
 fire-box. The engine is fitted with M. Walschdert's valve 
 gear, a system which has been largely applied in Belgium, 
 and which has also found favour in many other parts of the 
 Continent, but as it would be difficult to apply it to any en- 
 gines but those having outside valve gear, it is scarcely 
 suited to locomotives in this country. In Walschdert's gear 
 the valve derives its motion partly from the piston-rod 
 cross-head, and partly from a small overhung crank ; the 
 valve spindle cross-head being coupled to the shorter arm 
 of a lever, the longer arm of which is connected by a link 
 to an arm on the piston-rod cross-head. The fulcrum of this 
 lever is not fixed, but consists of a pin carried by the end 
 of a radius rod, which derives its motion from a quadrant 
 link, having an oscillating motion imparted to it by being 
 connected to the small overhung crank already mentioned. 
 The extent and direction of the motion of the radius rod 
 depends upon the position which the blocks carried by it 
 occupy in the vibrating quadrant link, and this position is 
 adjustable by a weigh shaft and lifting arms in the 
 usual manner. The motion imparted to the fulcrum 
 of the lever by the action of the crank and vibrating 
 link gives the lead to the valve, and also enables 
 the motion to be reversed. The distribution of steam 
 effected by this description of valve gear is very good, 
 but, as before mentioned, it is difficult to apply. The 
 
 74 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 bogie frame is connected to the main frame of the en- 
 gine in such a manner that it can not only rotate upon its 
 central pivot, but can also move laterally, so as to adapt 
 itself to any curve on which the engine may run. For this 
 purpose, the pin, which works in the socket in the bogie 
 frame, is not fixed to the main frame of the engine, but is 
 secured in the end of a radius bar 3 ft. 4| in. long, the front 
 end of which takes hold of another pin fixed to a strong 
 transverse stay extending across the engine under the 
 smoke-box. The other end of the radius bar is widened 
 out, and the upper side of this widened part is fitted with 
 two pairs of double inclines, which bear against correspond- 
 ing inclines fixed to the under side of another transverse stay, 
 by which means fhe pin in the socket of the bogie frame 
 can move laterally, its movement being governed by the 
 radius bar and the inclines. The trailing axle of the en- 
 gine has a lateral movement, the side play being permitted 
 by making the axle-box guides 1^ in. narrower than the 
 recesses in their axle-boxes, and their movement is re- 
 strained by double inclines fitted to the top of each axle- 
 box. The trailing crank-pins have spherical bearings. The 
 front and hind pair of coupled wheels have their springs 
 arranged over the axle-boxes in the usual way, but the 
 middle pair of wheels are without springs, the spring pins 
 resting on the tops of their axle-boxes, each bearing against 
 the under side of a short beam, the ends of which are con- 
 nected by links to the ends of compensating beams, ' the 
 other ends of which are coupled by links to the springs of 
 the front and hind pair of coupled wheels respectively. The 
 draw-hook of the engine, instead of being attached to the 
 trailing buffer beam as usual, is coupled to a long draw-bar, 
 which is cranked downwards, and connected at the other 
 end to a pin which passes through a transverse stay, carried 
 across the engine between the front and middle pair of 
 coupled wheels, the pull being thus taken from a point near 
 the middle of the length of the engine. 
 j!,:The fire-box casing is flat topped, and the crown of the 
 fije-box is stayed to the top of the casing in a similar 
 inanner to the sides. The back plate of the fire-box casing 
 and the smoke-box tube plate are strengthened by gusset 
 staiys. > The following are some of the principal dimensions : 
 —Length of grate, 7 ft. 2-616 in ; width of ditto, 2 ft. 10725ths 
 in. ; total grate surface, 20-7 square ft. ; height of crown of 
 fire-box over fire-bars, 4 ft. 1'21 in. ; size of fire-box, 84!'6 
 cubic ft. ; number of tubes, 193 ; length of tubes between 
 tube plates, 12 ft. 1'67 in. ; external diameter of tubes, 2 in. ; 
 thickness of tubes, '079 in.; heating surface of tubes, 1,197 
 square' ft. ; ditto fire-box, 96 square ft. ; ditto, total, 1,293 
 square ft. ; mean diameter of body of boiler, 4s ft. 1-21 in. ; 
 thickness of plate, '472 in. ; worlcing pressure permitted, 9 
 atmospheres ; cubic feet of water contained in boiler (3 in. 
 ■over crown of fire-box), 148'5 ; amount of steam space in 
 boiler (3 in. over crown of fire-box), 67'5 cubic feet ; length 
 
 of smoke-box, 2 ft. 11 J in. ; width of ditto, 4 ft. 1"21 in. ; in- 
 ternal diameter of funnel, 17'71 in. ; diameter of cylinders, 
 1811 in.; stroke, 23'62 in.; number of wheels, 10; ditto, 
 coupled, 6 ; distance between leading and trailing wheels, 
 17 ft. 8'59 in. ; diameter of driving or coupled wheels, 4 ft. 
 318 in. ; ditto of leading ditto, 2 ft. 7| in. ; weight on lead- 
 ing axle, 10 tons 14 cwt. ; ditto on driving ditto, 12 tons 9 
 cwt. ; ditto, 12 tons 10 cwt.; ditto, 12 tons 14 cwt;; total 
 weight of locomotive working, 48 tons 7 cwt. ; dittoi' empty, 
 35 tons 6 cwt. : . ■ ■; ,!• ■ 
 
 Fig. 6 is an eight-wheeled goods engine constructed at 
 Fives Lilies, i. Many similar engines have been already 
 turned out at this shop, and are employed to work the 
 heavy goods traflSc of the Northern Railway. The trailing 
 axle is arranged to pass under the fire-box so as to obtain 
 a better distribution of the weight. The bottom of the fire- 
 box is horizontal, but the fire-grate is slightly inclined 
 downwards towards the front end. The grate bars, which 
 are of cast-iron, are made on the Belpaire system, being* 
 about |ths in. thick at their upper edges, and; arranged 
 with spaces of about xV^bs in. between them. The grate is 
 furnished in front with a rocking plate for clearing the fire, 
 and worked by means of a screw. The fire hole is of large 
 dimensions, and the door has two leaves. The top of the 
 fire-box casing is flush with the barrel, and the latter ia 
 furnished on its imder side with two cleaning holes. On 
 the top of the barrel is a large steam dome, and the'regu- 
 lator is situated in a cast-iron casing fixed on the top of the 
 barrel near the front end. From this casing two steam 
 pipes, which are well lagged and protected by a sheet iron 
 covering, lead outside the boilers to the cylinders. 
 
 The frames are each cut out of a single plate without 
 weld; they ai^e well connected between the cylinders. The 
 boiler is fixed to the frames at the front end, and the other 
 connections between it and the frame are such that it is 
 free to expand towards the rear end of the engine.' The 
 wheels are of wrought iron, and were made by MM. Arbel 
 et Cie, of Rive-de-Gier, by their patented process. The 
 tyres are of Krupp's steel, those of the second pair of wheels 
 from the front end being without flanges. The valve gear 
 is of the shifting box-link kind, and is external. The boiler 
 is fed by a pair of Giffard's injectors. No. 10, placed verti- 
 cally, one on each side of the fire-box, and the water is de- 
 livered into the barrel at about the middle of its length. 
 The hind pair of wheels is fitted with brake blocks, and 
 there is a large sand-box placed on the top of the barrel of 
 the boiler. The trailing springs are placed below the axles, 
 and the springs of the two centre pairs of wheels are con- 
 nected by compensating beams with equal arms. 
 
 The following are some of the principal dimensions: — 
 Length of grate, 7 ft. 1^ in. ; width of ditto, 3 ft. 8J in. ; 
 grate surface, 23 J square ft. ; height of the fire-box, 4 ft. 
 4 in. in front, and 3 ft. 5 in. at back ; cubic capacity of fire- 
 
 75 
 
 U 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 box, 90^ cubic ft. ; number of tubes, 249 ; length of tubes, 
 13 ft. 5 in.; external diameter of tubes, 2 in.; thickness of 
 tubes, -08 in. ; tube heating surface, 1,656 square ft. ; ditto, 
 ditto, fire-box, 103 square ft.; ditto, ditto, total, 1,759 
 square ft. ; diameter of body of boiler, 4 ft, 11 in. ; thick- 
 ness of plate, "63 in. ; working pressure allowed, 9 atmos- 
 pheres; volume of water in boiler, 110 cubic ft.; ditto, 
 steam in ditto, 86 cubic ft. ; length of smoke-box, 3 ft ; 
 width of ditto, 4 ft. 10 in. ; diameter of chimney, 19J in. ; 
 diameter of cylinder, 19|ths in. ; length of stroke, 25J in. ; 
 number of wheels, 8 (coupled) ; length of wheel base, 14 ft,; 
 diameter of wheels, 4 ft. 3 in. ; load on wheels forward, 12 
 tons ; ditto, second, 11 tons ; ditto, third, 11 tons 12 cwt. ; 
 ditto, fourth, 8 tons 16 cwt. ; weight of locomotive working, 
 43 tons 8 cwt. ; ditto, ditto, light, 38 tons 17 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 7 is a tank engine, constructed by Messrs. Schneider 
 and Co., of Creusot. Tliis is an outside cylinder engine, and 
 has six coupled wheels, all the axles being placed under the 
 barrel of the boiler, the fire-box being overhung. The tanks 
 hold 990 gallons of water, and the principal dimensions are 
 as foUows : — Length of grate, 4 ft. 2 in. ; width of ditto, 
 
 3 ft. 2 J in. ; total grate surface, 12f square ft. ; height of 
 crown of fire-box over fire-bars, 5 ft. 1 in. ; size of fire-box, 
 69 cubic feet; number of tubes, 181; length of tubes be- 
 tween tube plates, 13 ft. 11 J in.; external diameter of tubes, 
 2 in. ; thickness of tubes, '079 in. ; heating surface of tubes, 
 1,195 square ft.; ditto, ditto, fire-box, 86 square ft.; ditto, 
 ditto, total, 1,281 square ft. ; mean diameter of body of 
 boiler, 4 ft. 2 J in. ; thickness of plate, '47 in. ; working pres- 
 sure permitted, 9 atmospheres ; cubic ft. of water contained 
 in boiler (3 in. over crown of fire-box), 113 cubic ft. ; amount 
 of steam space in boiler (ditto, ditto), 45 cubic ft. ; length of 
 smoko-box, 2 ft. 11 in. ; widtli of ditto, 4 ft. 3'4 in. ; internal 
 diameter of funuul, I7vl. in.; diainotor of cylinders, 17'32 in.; 
 stroke, 23'6 in. ; number of Avheels, C (coupled); distance be- 
 tween leading and training wheels, 11 ft. 7| in.; diameter of 
 wheels, 3 ft. 11 in. ; weight on leading axle, 12 tons 13 cwt. ; 
 ditto on driving ditto, 12 tons 14 cwt. ; ditto trailing ditto, 
 12 tons 17 cwt, ; total weight of locomotive working, 38 tons 
 
 4 cwt. ; ditto, ditto, empty, 29 tons ; tractive force, ' count- 
 ing (65 per cent, as effective), 10 tons 4 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 8 is a neat little contractor's engine, by Hughes and 
 Co., of Loughborough. It is a four coupled wheel engine, 
 furnished with a saddle tank of the usual description. The 
 loading dimensions are: — Lcngtli of graLo, 3 ft. 1 in.; width 
 of ditto, 2 ft. 4 J in. ; total grate surface, 7|- square ft.; height 
 of crown of fire-box over fire-bars, 3 ft. 4 in ; number of 
 tubes, 100 ; external diameter of tubes, 2 in. ; diameter of 
 body of boiler, 3 ft. 2| in. ; thiclmess of plate, '39 in ; dia- 
 meter of cylinders, 12 in, ; stroke, 20 in ; number of wheels, 
 
 4 (coupled) ; distance between leading and trailing wheels, 
 
 5 ft. 2 in. ; diameter of wheels, 3 ft. ; total weight of locomo- 
 tive, empty, 11 tons 10 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 9 is an eight coupled wheel engine, constructed by 
 M. Sigl, of Vienna, and intended to run on one of the Eus- 
 sian lines, the gauge being 5 ft. It is an outside cylinder 
 engine. The axles have outside bearings, and are coupled 
 by means of clumsy-looking outside cranks, to one pair oi, 
 which the connecting rods are also coupled, according to 
 the system patented by Mr. Hall. The engine is intended 
 for burning wood, and the cliimncy is provided with an 
 American sparkcatcher, the smoke-box being also furnished 
 with a special arrangement for facilitating the removal of 
 the wood ashes. The springs of the three hind pairs of 
 wheels are connected by compensating levers. The boiler is 
 supplied with a Giffard injector. The weight on the wheels 
 is distributed as follows: — Upon the leading wheels, 11 tons 
 10 cwt.; upon the second, 12 tons 10 cwt.; upon the third 
 or driving wheels, 13 tons ; and upon the trailing wheels, 
 12 tons; diameter of boiler, 4 ft. 11|- in.; number of tubes, 
 220 ; exterior diameter of ditto, 2 in, ; length of ditto, 
 15 ft. 5| in. ; length of fire-grate, 5 ft. 4-J- in. ; width of 
 ditto, 3 ft. 7 1 in. ; height of ditto, 5 ft. 1| in. ; heating sur- 
 face of fire-box, 104 square ft. ; ditto of tubes, 1,787 square 
 ft.; diameter of cylinders, 20'47 in.; length of stroke of 
 ditto, 24'8 in. ; diameter of wheels, 4 ft, ; wheel base, 
 12 ft. 7^ in. ; weight, empty, 43 tons 10 cwt. ; ditto, when in 
 working order, 49 tons. 
 
 Fig. 10 is a goods locomotive for the Grand Duchy of 
 Baden Railway, constructed at Carlsruhe, and destined for 
 working the heavy traffic between Heidelberg and Wurz- 
 burg. This line has gradients of 1 in 80, and curves of 
 328 ft. radius. The price of each engine without tender 
 was about £2,184. The axles, tyres, piston-rods, connecting 
 and coupling rods, are made, of steel, principally from 
 Krupp's works, and the boiler is of iron plates, made at 
 Albruck, in liadon. Tho boiler tubes are of iron, and tho 
 fire-box of copper, -g- in. thick, and the tube plate 1 in. thick. 
 An engine of the same construction at its first trial took a 
 load of 220 tons up an incline of 1 in 80, and through 
 curves of 328 ft. radius, at a speed of 16 miles per hour. 
 
 The following are the principal dimensions : — Length of 
 grate, 4 ft. 4 in. ; width of ditto, 3 ft. 4 in. ; total grate sur- 
 face, 14-20 square ft. ; height of crown of fire-box oyer fire- 
 bars, 4 ft. 6 1 in. ; size of fire-box, 70 cubic ft. ; number of 
 tubes, 203; length of tubes between tube plates, 14 ft. 3^ in.- 
 external diameter of tubes, 2 in,; thickness of tubes, -084 in.; 
 heating surface of tubes, 1,290 square ft. ; moan diameter of 
 body of boiler, 4 ft. 61 in. ; thiclmess of plate, -59 in. ; work- 
 ing pressure permitted, 10 atmospheres ; cubic feet of water 
 contained in boiler (3 in. over crown of fire-box), 124 cubic 
 ft. ; amount of steam space in boiler (ditto), 54 cubic ft. ; 
 length of smoke-box, 3 ft. 1| in. ; width of ditto, 4 ft. 6 in. ; 
 internal diameter of funnel, 17| in. ; diameter of cylinders, 
 18 in. ; length of stroke, 25 in. ; number of wheels, coupled, 
 6 ; distance between leading and trailing wheels, 11 ft. 4 in. ; 
 
 76 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 diameter of driving and coupled wheels, 4 ft. ; weight on 
 leading axle, 12 tons 3 cwt. ; ditto on driving ditto, 11 tons 
 14 cwt. ; ditto on trailing, 11 tons 15 cwt. ; total weight of 
 locomotive working, 35 tons 12 cwt. ; ditto, empty, 30 tons 
 11 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 11 is a small contractor's engine, by Messrs. Kuston 
 and Proctor, the well-known agricultural engineers of Lin- 
 coln. The chief peculiarity in the appearance of this engine 
 is the forward position occupied by the saddle tank. The 
 principal dimensions are : — Length of grate, 2 ft. 4| in. ; 
 width of ditto, 2 ft. 3| in. ; total grate surface, 5 J square ft. ; 
 height of crown of fire-box over fire-bars, 3 ft. ; size of fire- 
 box, 17 cubic ft. ; number of tubes, 64 ; length of tubes be- 
 tween tube plates, 7 ft. 3 in. ; external diameter of tubes, 
 2 in. ; heating surface of tubes, 240 square ft. ; ditto fire- 
 box, 33 square ft. ; ditto, total, 273 square ft. ; mean dia- 
 meter of body of boiler, 2 ft. 10 in.; thiclcness of plate, f in.; 
 working pressure permitted, 9 atmospheres; cubic ft. of water 
 contained in boiler (3 in. over crown of fire-box), 33^- cubic 
 ft. ; amount of steam space in boiler (ditto), 15 cubic ft. ; 
 length of smoke-box, 1 ft. 10 in. ; Avidth of ditto, 2 ft. 10 in.; 
 internal diameter of funnel, 8^ in; diameter of cylinders, 
 8-66 in.; stroke, 16 in.; number of wheels, coupled, 4; dis- 
 tance between leading and trailing wheels, 5 ft. ; diameter of 
 wheels, 2 ft. 8 in. ; weight on leading axle, 5 J tons ; ditto on 
 trailing axle, 5 J tons ; total weight of locomotive working, 
 11 tons; ditto, empty, 9 tons. 
 
 Fig. 12 is an express locomotive, constructed for the Rus- 
 sian Railways, by Messrs Schneider and Co, of Creusot; and, 
 like Fig. 9, is intended for running upon a 5 ft. gauge. The 
 cylinders are secured to inside and outside frames, with 
 which the engine is provided, the steam chests being passed 
 through openings formed in the inside frames; the flanges 
 which are bolted to the frames, are provided with lips, clip- 
 ping the latter both above and below. The piston-rods are 
 enlarged at both ends, so that they are not weakened by the 
 cotters which secure them to the cross-heads, nor by their 
 attachment to the pistons, the glands and packing rings 
 being made in halves to admit of this arrangement. The 
 connecting rods have solid ends. The sUde bars are 4| in. 
 wide, and the slide blocks are 13| in. long, so that they 
 have a large wearing surface. The crank-pin and cross-head 
 bearings are also of a good size, the former being 4 in. in 
 diameter by 4f in. long, and the latter 3^ by 3|- in. 
 
 The engine has eight wheels, the two pair of centre wheels 
 being coupled, and a smaller pair of carrying wheels at each 
 end ; the leading and trailing wheels are provided with out- 
 side bearings, G in. in diameter, and lOf in. long. One 
 spring on each side is made to serve for the two coupled 
 axles, there being on each side a compensating beam, which 
 bears, through the intervention of pins on the top of the 
 axle boxes, and is connected by links with an inverted 
 spring fitted between the axles. The valve motion is of the 
 
 shifting link description, with back connections for the ec- 
 centric rods, the throw of the eccentrics being 2-^ in., and 
 the maximum travel of the valve 5^ in. The boiler is fed 
 by two injectors, the steam for working them being taken 
 from the safety valve pillar on the fire-box casing. The 
 following are some of the leading dimensions : — Diameter of 
 cylinders, 17'32 in.; length of stroke, 23| in.; distance 
 apart, 6 ft. 4 in. from centre to centre ; diameter of coupled 
 wheels, 6 ft. 10-f^ in; distance apart, 7 ft. 2f in. from centre 
 to centre; diameter of leading and trailing wheels, 4 ft. 3| in.; 
 distance apart, 19 ft. | in. from centre to centre ; barrel of 
 boiler, 4 ft. 4| in. in diameter; number of tubes, 180; out- 
 side diameter of ditto, 2 in. ; length of ditto, 14 ft. 3J in. ; 
 heating surface of ditto, 1,217"4 square ft. ; ditto of fire-box, 
 1091 square ft. ; total heating surface, 1,326J square ft. ; 
 steam space (the water level being 4 in. above the crown of 
 the fire-box), 70 cubic ft. ; water space, 128^ cubic ft. ; area 
 of fire-grate, 23 J square ft.; weight on leading wheels, 9 tons 
 18^ cwt, ; ditto on driving wheels, 10 tons 8| cwt. ; ditto on 
 coupled wheels, 10 tons 6^ cwt. ; ditto on trailing wheels, 
 7 tons 13-| cwt. j total weight of engine in working order, 
 38 tons 6 cwt. 
 
 . Fig. 13 represents a peculiar looking locomotive, con- 
 structed by Messrs. E. Gonin and Co., for the Northern 
 Railway of France. It is a four-cylinder engine, and is pro- 
 vided with a super-heater and feed water heater. The plan 
 of the engine is founded upon that of the four-cylinder 
 engines constructed in 1863, from M. Petiet's designs, draw- 
 ings of which were shown in the International Exhibition of 
 1862. The general arrangement of the axles and cylinders 
 have been preserved in the new engines, but an important 
 change has been made in the construction of the boiler. 
 The super-heater with which the first engines were fitted 
 has been replaced by two cylindrical casings fitted with 
 tubes, which are placed above the barrel of the TDoiler, and 
 are traversed by the waste gases on their way to the chim- 
 ney. The first of these two cases is a super-heater, and it is 
 traversed by the whole of the steam on its way from the 
 boiler to the cylinders, the regulators being fixed directly 
 to it. The second casing is a feed- water heater ; it receives 
 the water direct from the water apparatus, and delivers it, 
 heated, into the boiler by a pipe which leads from the upper 
 part of the casing to below the level of the water in the 
 barrel. The feed ls supplied by two pumps, the plungers 
 of which are worked from the cross-heads ; and a small in- 
 jector (No. 2) is also provided for use when the engine is 
 standing. The delivery pipe from the injector is led into 
 that by one of the pumps. 
 
 The first of the two cylindrical casings above mentioned 
 — or that which acts as a super-heater — is 2 ft. 8 in. long by 
 3 ft. 5 in. in diameter, and it contains 86 iron tubes, 3-J- in. 
 diameter outside, and 2 ft. 8 in. long. The second casing — 
 or feed-water heater — ^is made of the same diameter, and 
 
 77 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 contains the same number of 3^ in. tubes as the first, but 
 its length is 3 ft. 8 in. The dimensions of the engine are 
 as follows: — Length of grate, 6 ft. 2 in.; width of ditto, 
 5 ft. 3 in.; grate surface, 32 1 square ft.; height of fire-box, 
 4 ft. 3 in. forward, and 3 ft. 5 J in. aft; cubic capacity of 
 ditto, 124^ cubic ft.; number of tubes, 275; length of tubes, 
 8 ft. 2 in. ; exterior diameter of ditto, 2yV in. ; ■ thickness of 
 ditto, '08 in. ; tube heating surface, 1,168 square ft. ; fire- 
 box ditto, 102 square ft.; super-heater surface, 377 square ft.; 
 total ditto, 1,647 square ft.; diameter of body of boiler, 
 4 ft. 5 in. ; thickness of plate, '55 in. ; working pressure 
 allowed, 9 atmospheres; volume of water in boiler, 124 
 cubic ft.; ditto steam in ditto, 63 cubic ft.; length of 
 smoke-box, 2 ft. llj in. ; width of ditto, 4 ft. 10 in. ; dia- 
 meter of chimney, 20 in,; diameter of cylinder, 17"3 in. 
 (4 cylinders) ; length of stroke, 17'3 in. ; number of wheels, 
 12 (coupled) ; length of wheel base, 19 ft. 8 in. ; diameter of 
 wheels, 3 ft. 6 in. ; load on wheels forward, 10 tons 2 cwt, ; 
 ditto, second, 10 tons 14 cwt. ; ditto, third, 8 tons 18 cwt. ; 
 ditto, fourth, 9 tons 6 cwt. ; ditto, fifth, 10 tons 16 cwt. ; 
 ditto, sixth, 10 tons 12 cwt. ; weight of locomotive working, 
 60 tons 8 cwt. ; ditto, light, 46 tons 8 cwt. 
 
 Fig. 14 is a locomotive built by Messrs. Cockvill, at Seraing, 
 for the Belgian State Eailway, and is one of a class adopted 
 on that line since 1865. It is an inside cylinder engine, 
 with the driving and trailing wheels coupled. They are 
 used for various kinds of traffic, and are said to perform 
 exceedingly well. The cylinders are horizontal, with the 
 slide valves placed between and above them, the valve 
 spindles being slightly inclined. The driving axle has both 
 inside and outside bearings, and the other axles outside 
 bearings only. The reversing gear is of the combined lever 
 and screw land, as employed by M. Belpaire, it being so ar- 
 ranged that either screw or lovor may be used independently. 
 The following arc the loading dimensions; — Length of 
 grate, 8 ft. 9 in. ; width of ditto, 3 ft. 8 in.; height of crown 
 of fire-box over fire-bars, 3 ft, 7f in. ; number of tubes, 208 ; 
 length of tubes between tube plates, 11 ft, 3 in. ; external 
 diameter of tubes, If in. ; thickness of tubes, "098 in. ; heat- 
 ing surface of tubes, 861 square ft.; ditto fire-box, 107f 
 square ft,; ditto, total, 968| square ft. ; mean diameter of 
 body of boiler, 3 ft. 2'5 in. ; thickness of plate, 433 in. ; 
 working pressure permitted, 9 atmospheres ; cubic ft. of 
 water contained in boiler (3 in. over crown of fire-box), 109'45 
 cubic ft. ; amount of steam space in boiler (ditto), 70-983 
 cubic ft. ; length of smoke-box, 2 ft, 6 in. ; width of ditto, 
 4 ft. 1 in. ; internal diameter of, funnel, 1 ft, 9^ in. ; diameter 
 of cylinders, 16'929 in. ; stroke, 22 in. ; number of wheels, 
 6 ; ditto, coupled, 4 ; distance between leading and trailing 
 wheels, 15 ft. 2-287 in.; diameter of, coupled wheels, 6 ft. 
 6-743 in. ; ditto of leading ditto, 3 ft. 11-191 in. ; weight on 
 leading axle, 11 tons 2 cwt. ; ditto on driving axle, 11 tons 
 3 J cwt, ; ditto on trailing axle, 11 tons 3| cwt. ; total weight 
 
 of locomotive working, 33 tons 9 cwt.; ditto, empty, 30 tons 
 4 cwt. ■■' '■ -'^ 
 
 Fig. 15 is a small tank locomotive, constructed by Messrs. 
 Schneider & Co., of Crousot, for mineral traffic, the gauge 
 upon which it is intended to run being only 2 ft. 9| in. It 
 has outside cylinders, and 4 coupled wheels ; the weight of 
 the engme being equally divided between the axles. The 
 leading dimensions are : — Length of grate, 2 ft. I in, ; width 
 of ditto, 1 ft, 5^ in. ; total grate surface, 3^ square ft. ; 
 height of crown of fire-box over fire-bars, 3 ft. ; size of fire- 
 box, 9f cubic ft.; number of tubes, 73; length of tubes 
 between tube plates, 5 ft. 10| in. ; external diameter of tubes, 
 1| in, ; thickness of tubes, -06 in. ; heating surface of tubes, 
 155 square ft.; ditto fire-box, 23 square ft.'; ditto, total, 178 
 square ft. ; mean diameter of body of boiler, 2 ft. 6 in. ; 
 thickness of plate, -364 in. ; working pressure permitted, 9 
 atmospheres; cubic ft. of water contained in boiler (3 in, over 
 crown of fire-box), 25'38 ; amount of steam space in boiler 
 (ditto, ditto), 9-5 cubic ft. ; length of smoke-box, 1 ft. 9i in.; 
 width of ditto, 3 ft. 4 in.; internal diameter of funnel, 
 8 in.; diameter of cylinders, 8 in. ; stroke, 14^^- in. ; number 
 of wheels, 4 (coupled) ; distance between leading and trail- 
 ing wheels, 4 ft. 8 in. ; diameter of wheels, 2 ft. 4 in, ; weight 
 on leading axles, 3 tons 3J cwt. ; ditto on driving ditto, 3 
 tons 3 J cwt, ; total weight of locomotive working, 6 tons 
 7 cwt, ; ditto, ditto, empty, 5 tons 4 cwt. 
 
 We have now gone over the whole of the locomotive 
 engines exhibited in the Paris Exhibition of 1867, with con- 
 siderable care and exactitude in detailing their dimensions, 
 and the peculiarities of the features exhibited by them ; 
 and we have preferred to select that occasion, as marking 
 an epoch in the Progress of Locomotive Engineering, at 
 once interesting and valuable, and as a stand-point and 
 halting-place in the historical progression of this subject ; 
 and we have divided our illustrations into two sheets each, 
 containing 15 exemplars, and arranged the textual matter 
 so as to refer to the two plates, and the figures contained 
 thereon. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF MODERN LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES. 
 
 (Illustrated by Plates 4' and Jfa.) 
 
 With a view of explaining more thoroughly and usefully 
 the changes which have taken place during a recent period 
 in the arrangement and details of Locomotive Engines, upon 
 one of our principal Metropolitan Passenger-carrying lines 
 of railway, we have selected illustrations of the Express 
 
 T 
 
 78 
 
NCLINE TANK ENGINE DESIGNED BY 
 
 FOR T 
 
 Constructed BY Mess"^ Sharp 
 
 Gcalt': 4 Ji'jr-h r( 
 
ESICNED BY M^ JOHN KERSHAW. Mem.Ins.C.E 
 
 FO R TH E 
 
 ESS"^ Sharp Stewart & C° Manchester . 
 
PLATE 5. 
 
 ! i 
 
 J 
 
Eailways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 TANK ENGINE FOU THE G. I. P. EAILWAY FOR 
 WOEKING THE BHORE GHAUT AND THULL 
 GHAUT INCLINES. 
 
 Plate No, 5 represents the side elevation of one of a class of 
 engines designed for working very steep gradients combined 
 with sharp curves, constructed by Messrs. Sharp, Stewart and 
 Co., and intended to work upon the Bhore Ghaut and ThuU 
 Ghaut inclines of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. Of 
 the two inclines the Bhore Ghaut is the heavier, being 
 longer, and attaining a greater altitude than any incline in 
 Europe. It is 15 miles C8 chains in length, and a total rise 
 of 1,851 feet. The average gradient is 1 in 37 for 4 miles 48 
 chains, and 1 in 40 for 5 miles and 6 chains. 
 
 The following dimensions indicate the large power and 
 good distribution of weight on the wheels of the engine: — 
 
 The cylinders are of 20 in. inside diameter, and 24 in. 
 stroke. There are 10 wheels, 6 of 52 in. diameter, all 
 coupled together, and having between them to the outside 
 springs compensating levers ; the driving wheels are with- 
 out flanges, and have the tyres turned parallel. The four 
 leading wheels under the bogie are each 33 in. diameter, 
 and carry the front part of the engine. The bogie is con- 
 structed on a, plan admitting of both radial and lateral 
 movement through block and quadrant, by means of which 
 the engine will be able to traverse curves of 500 feet radius 
 with facility without cutting the flanges of the wheels or 
 straining the framing in any way. 
 
 The tyres of all the wheels are of Krupp's steel, secured 
 to the irons, on Mr. James Beattie's system. 
 
 The inside and outside frames are continuous and straigl^t 
 for their whole length, and of groat strength, the insido 
 frames being 1 in. thick by 12 in. in its least depth, worked 
 out of the solid. The outside frames are 4f in. thick, of 
 the usual sandwich form. Both inside and outside frames 
 are very strongly cross-stayed, so that the whole framing 
 can withstand the severe duty which engines of this class 
 and power are called on to perform. 
 
 The boiler, fire-box, and smoke-box, are aU flush, of 4 ft. 
 8 in. outside diameter, constructed entirely without angle 
 iron, and thus possessing very considerable strength and 
 simplicity. With the object of preventing priming, liable to 
 an engine traversing inclines of 1 in 37, owing to the change 
 of the water level, a capacious dome is placed on the centre 
 of the fire-box, from which the steam is taken. 
 
 The inside fire-box, of copper, has a longitudinal mid- 
 feather, the bottom sloping upwards at a moderate angle to 
 the back of the fire-box, so as to allow the wheel base to be 
 reduced, and the weight on each pair of coupled wheels to 
 be made as nearly equal as possible. 
 
 Although the size of the boiler would allow of a large 
 number of tubes being used, it is considered that greater 
 evaporative efficiency will be obtained by increasing the pro- 
 portion of direct to indirect heating surface, and also by 
 giving more than usual freedom for the escape of steam 
 amongst the tubes. Hence there are only 200 tubes of 2 in. 
 diameter, giving a surface of 1,293 square ft., which, with 
 1,604 ft. of fire-box surface, gives a total of 1,443 square ft. 
 of evaporation surface, and a boiler and a fire-box of large 
 proportional steam and water room. 
 
 "With the object of obtaining all possible efiiciency and 
 economy in working, every well-ascertained improvement 
 has been adopted. The boiler is fed by one of Giffard's in- 
 jectors and one pump, the injector being alone able to supply 
 the boiler, either when the engine is drawing its heaviest 
 load, or when standing still. The descent of a long incline 
 of 1 in 37 with heavy trains requiring ample brake power, 
 4 sledge brakes, one between each pair of coupled , 
 wheels, are carried from the inside and outside frames, and 
 arranged so as to transfer the whole weight on those wheels 
 (about 37J tons) to the rails through the sledges, thus en- 
 tirely saving the usual and costly destruction of the tyres, 
 whilst using a brake of the greatest retarding power. 
 
 The haulage of useless weight is saved, and additional 
 tractive force is obtained by dispensing with the tender and 
 substituting a saddle tank containing 1,050 gallons of water. 
 This tank covers the smoke-box, the boiler, and part of the 
 fire-box. The coal-boxes are placed on either side of the 
 fire-box. 
 
 This engine, in working order, weighs above 49 tons, and 
 is able to draw a minimum train of 200 tons at the rate of 
 15 miles per hour, over either the Bhore Ghaut or ThuU 
 Ghaut inclines. 
 
 ROLLING STOCK. 
 
 For a long time past public attention has been called to the 
 large expenditure of new capital involved in the making of 
 new lines and other similar works of recent years ; and it 
 may not be uninteresting to tabulate the large expenditure 
 which has been going on of late on many of our great 
 lines for the provision of new roUing stock, over and above 
 that needed for the repair and renewal of old stock. When 
 we consider that within 5 years, the number of locomo- 
 tives added to the stock of the four chief railway com- 
 panies in England has been above 1,200, and the carriages 
 added have been above 4,000, and the waggons added 
 have been ten times the original number, some idea may 
 be formed of the capital expended in this way in a limited 
 period. On working stock, two of the chief railways — the 
 London and North- Western and North-Eastern — ^had ex- 
 
 80 
 
Railways and the Locomotive Engine. 
 
 pended, up to tlie end of last year, close upon sixteen 
 millions sterling. The object in view, however, may be 
 better served by the statement of the sums spent by several 
 representative companies during the last half-year. The 
 amounts thus spent on the provision of new rolling stock, 
 during the six months roforrod to, wore : — 
 
 Midlantl .... 
 London and North-Western 
 
 . £306,448 
 93,710 
 
 North- Eastern 
 Lancashire and Yorkshire 
 
 423,021 
 98,572 
 
 South-Eastern 
 North Staffordshire 
 
 10,620 
 8,780 
 
 Metropolitan 
 
 2,114 
 
 So that in these seven lines, representative of the different 
 railways, there was an expenditure approaching a million 
 in the six months. It may be interesting to notice that 
 there was a varied disposition of the amounts — ^the propor- 
 tion of the expenditure for engines, waggons, and carriages 
 differing greatly. Thus, it may be interesting to show the 
 mode in which the largo amounts expended by the North- 
 Eastern and Midland Companies were spent, and the fol- 
 lowing win give the details, the totals being divided as 
 under : — 
 
 
 North-Baetom. 
 
 Midland. 
 
 Locomotives 
 
 . £171,584 
 
 . £88,373 
 
 Carriages 
 
 8,378 
 
 . 79,741 
 
 Waggons 
 
 232,692 
 
 . 121,037 
 
 Brakes and Vans 
 
 10,366 
 
 
 Machinery, 
 
 
 . . 21,797 
 
 Thus, whilst the North-Eastern spent twice the amount 
 on locomotive engines that the Midland did, the latter 
 company expended nearly ten times the amount on car- 
 riages that the North-Eastern did, but this was an abnor- 
 mal proportion, largely contributed to by the new carriages 
 necessary for the Settle and Carlisle branch. And, before 
 leaving these two companies, it may be added that the 
 rolling stock added by the North-Eastern during the half 
 year, were in number 734, whilst the number added by the 
 Midland were more than double those. It may be added, 
 however, that in nearly every case the total expenditure 
 for the half-year for working stock is less than in the 
 corresponding half of the preceding year. 
 
 In the future this expenditure will go on, varying as 
 new lines approach completion and the equipment needs 
 provision. The estimated expenditure for some of the 
 companies is as follows, for the current half-year: — 
 
 North-Eastern .... 
 London and North- Western 
 Midland (included in general estimate) 
 South-EastiSrn .... 
 London, Brighton, and South Coast . 
 
 £326,550 
 31,713 
 
 50,000 
 43,375 
 
 So that it is evident that a large expenditure is still 
 
 going on ; but, as many of the companies only give the 
 gross total of the intended outlay, it is impossible to state 
 the exact amounts. The amounts, however, are, in the 
 cases given, larger than are those for the corresponding 
 period of the previous year. But wliore the estimated 
 amounts for the future are given, tlioso amounts are 
 small — that for the North-Eastern, for instance, being 
 stated as £100,000 for succeeding half-years — not a third 
 of the amount being expended this half-year. It must 
 be noticed that these are estvmated amounts only, and 
 the estimates may be, and probably are being affected by 
 various causes. Thus, in the future, the amounts to be 
 spent might be increased by the removal of branches 
 from the category of " lines in abeyance " to that of 
 " lines in course of construction." On lines — such as the 
 Great Northern — where there are few new branches in 
 constriiction, except those which will be speedily com- 
 pleted, there will be a decreasing amount. The Great 
 Northern spent in the last half-year £135,893 on working 
 stock ; its estimated expenditure for this year was £35,000 
 less, and in future half-years it is estimated that the 
 further expenditure will be only £110,932. But where 
 there are, as in the case of many of the lines, extensive 
 branches for which powers have been obtained, but which 
 have made little or no progress, the amount must, in the 
 immediate future, be determined by the rate at which 
 these works are proceeded with. But on these the ex- 
 penditure, it must be noted, has of late been largely for 
 waggons to meet the increased mineral traffic, and only 
 in small proportion for carriages. And from the dulness 
 which has supervened in this branch of traffic, it wOI be 
 probably found that the estimated expenditure will not, 
 at the end of the half year, have been come up to ; so 
 that, in all probability, the sums to be spent to fully 
 equip the lines in course of construction wiU be spread 
 more equally over the period that construction involves, 
 and thus the strain of an excessive issue of new capital 
 may be avoided in part — at any rate during the deepest 
 depths of trade depression. 
 
 It is manifest also, where contracts have not been en- 
 tered into for the provision of rolling stock in advance, 
 that the continuous fall in the price of iron and other 
 similar materials must have beneficially affected the com- 
 panies by lesserdng the cost of rolling stock into which 
 they so largely enter ; so that it may be fairly assumed 
 that, for the present, the maximum has been/ reached of 
 the capital expenditure xmder tliis head, and that there 
 will be for some period a declension in this amount. On 
 some of the mineral lines, the receipts for this year are 
 less than they were in the corresponding period of last 
 year, but the decrease is not in any case to a very largo 
 amount, and there is, by the fall in the price of coal and 
 iron, as well as in the lessened amount paid now for 
 
 81 
 
On Coal Gas akd Its Flame. 
 
 ■wages, a reduced worldng expenditure, which may, per- 
 haps, balance the loss of revenue, if it were not for the 
 increased capital charges. But the latter are inevitable, 
 and they will affect the dividends for the present year. 
 We confess, however, to a belief that a recovery will, 
 before that, set in, unless untoward political events inter- 
 vene. For, new branches wiU be opened before the year 
 is out to a large extent, maldng capital long locked up 
 remunerative, and developing new sources of traffic, which 
 must contribute a considerable quota to the traffic retxirns. 
 And, as the expenditure for rolling stock is the inevitable 
 preliminary to the maldng of capital remunerative, the 
 largeness of the sums that have been spent during the 
 last year, and are being spent now, are, in themselves, 
 hopeful auguries of the largeness of the expectations that 
 have been formed of the new revenue to be thus earned. 
 
 ON COAL GAS AND ITS FLAME. 
 
 By Dk. J. EMEKSON EEYNOLDS, 
 
 PEOFESSOR OP ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY, EOYAL DUBLIN SOOIKTY, 
 
 BEING THE SUBSTANCE OF A BISC0UE3E DBLIVBEED 
 
 BY HIM BErOEE THE SOCIETY. 
 
 We are all famUiar with the fact, that a particular theory 
 may long continue to be accepted by the scientific and 
 general public, but in time it may happen to be put to more 
 seyere tests than before, and may then have to give place to 
 sonie other theory, more in : accordance with our advancing 
 knowledge. This is at present the case with the theory of 
 Ijhe luminosity of gas and other flames. , About 1817 Sir 
 HvimphreyDavy promulgated his theory of the luminosity 
 pf flame, ;which has been accepted, almost without question 
 up,to;t;hree or four years ago. At that time Professor 
 ip'jraiiy.and. attacked Sir Humphrey Davy's theory, and at- 
 tempted to, show that it was, if not untenable, at least inca- 
 pable of accounting fully for the lun^nosity of flame. It is 
 heire proposed to give as short and complete a statement as 
 possible of the respective views of Davy and Frankland on 
 the cause of luminosity of flame in , gerieral, and of that of 
 coal gas in particular. Before doing so, however, it seems 
 d^isir^bl^ to briefly sketch the chemistry of coal gas con- 
 Sliiitue^nts, pa. so far as necessary for the object in view. , 
 ,,,,Gas is produced by a peculiar mode of distillation of com- 
 mpn co,al. r Wlien coal is subjected to a moderate degree of 
 lteat,,,varipus bodies, solid, liquid, and gaseous, are produced. 
 ■jThe solid bodies need not be noticed, and the liquid products 
 reqiwre no special reference at present ; we, may, therefore, 
 turn ,chiefly to the gaseous bodies, A mere list of the vola- 
 ijii|e constituents of coal would be, very lengthy ; but it is 
 Si^flSqient for our purpose now to consider only the combus- 
 tilble bodies, which may be naturally divided iuto two classes. 
 Tj(i|8 [first,- class consists of bodies .vrhich, in burning, emit 
 y^jry |litt}e. light ; and the second consists of Mghly luminous 
 
 Among the comparatively little luminous bodies are hy- 
 drogen, carbonic oxide, bisulphide of carbon, and what i. is 
 recognized as marsh gas ; the principal bodies capable, of 
 burning with a luminous flame are olefiant ga3,,ao,etyl.en.Q, 
 butylene, propylene, &c., and vapours of various > other hyr 
 drocarbons. The flame of hydrogen is very feebly lumi^.pus, 
 but that of olefiant gas is highly luminous ; we can, how- 
 ever, render the flame of hydrogen as luminous as that of 
 olefiant gas by saturating it with the vapours of hydrocar- 
 bons referred to above. These hydrocarbon vapours, like 
 olefiant gas, acetylene, &c., contain a common constituent, 
 namely, carbon. Carbon thus appears to be directly con- 
 nected with the luminosity of flame, and this luminosity is, 
 in fact, ia some way dependent on its presence.. . 
 
 The flame of coal gas is composed of several parts, and of 
 these three are distiactly visible. First, an inner non-lumi- 
 nous cone; second, a brightly luminous surface flame jv third; 
 a mantle of feebly luminous, but very hot, flame, i '■>■'' aO' '■: 
 
 The inner cone is comparatively cool, the temperature 
 of the outer mantle very high ; the inner and outer portions 
 are non-luminous for exactly opposite reasons — ia the inner 
 cone from there being very little true combustion, but in the 
 outer mantle everything is completely burnt, on account of 
 the free access of air. If air is mixed with coal gas before 
 combustion, the whole flame is reduced to the condition of 
 the outer portion ; it becomes non-luminous, owing to rapid 
 and complete combustion. The well-known " Bunsen burner" 
 enables us to obtain a flame of this kind. Thus we see that 
 the mode in which gas is burnt, as regards access of air, will 
 determine the degree of luminosity of the flame. In pro- 
 portion as air is introduced beyond a certain point the 
 luminosity of the flame is steadily diminished. 
 
 There is an Argand burner, which, when supplied with a 
 constant amount of gas, can be made to give much or little 
 light without in any way smoking, by altering in a very 
 slight degree the direction of the air-supply to the burner, ! 
 
 Sir Humphrey Davy made a large number of experiments 
 to determine the cause of the luminosity of flame. Amongst 
 these were the following: when finely-divided carbon us 
 sifted into a non-luminous flame, the particles become im- 
 mediately incandescent, and a bright flame is emitted.' If 
 any cold surface be impressed on a flame, particles of. black 
 soot are immediately deposited. Sir Humphrey Davy hav- 
 ing made further experiments, came to the conclusion that 
 the luminosity was due to the decomposition of carbon pro-; 
 ducts in the flame, and to reduced carbon becoming incan- 
 descent. If hydrogen and oxygen are burnt together, the 
 temperature is nearly double that produced by the combus- 
 tion of hydrogen alone, but the luminosity is not much, in- 
 creased. If carbon, iron, or magnesium be sifted : into the 
 flame, the combustion becomes much more vivid, , Lime is 
 very httle volatile, but when it becomes incandescent, it 
 emits great light. Sir Humphrey Davy thought that he 
 
 82 
 
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City of Dublin Graving Dock. 
 
 proved by these and similar experiments that the luminosity 
 of flame was due to the incandescence of solid bodies. 
 
 Now, it is always disagreeable to have to do away with 
 old ideas formerly considered of the highest importance. 
 Nevertheless we must take facts as we find them, and shall 
 now endeavour to show that it is not necessary to have solid 
 matter in a flame to produce a bright light. 
 
 If arsenic is burnt in oxygen great light is produced. But 
 arsenic is volatile at a very low temperature, and could not 
 exist in a solid form at that required for combustion. Nor 
 could arsenious oxide, the product, which is also volatile 
 much below red heat. Jn this case, therefore, light could 
 not be due to the presence of solid matter. To take another 
 case, bisulphate of carbon burns with a very feebly luminous 
 flame; but if oxygen is added its luminosity is enormously 
 increased. It follows, therefore, that Sir Humphrey Davy's 
 theory is not necessarily true of all flames, and there must 
 be some other cause in addition to that which he supposed 
 for the luminosity of flame. We shall now endeavour to 
 trace this out. If hydrogen and oxygen mixture is burnt 
 in air, it explodes with a very feebly luminous flame, and 
 water is produced. If a very strong vessel be filled with 
 hydrogen and oxygen, and an electric spark passed through 
 the mixture, the gases combine under a pressure of ten 
 atmospheres, and, a great amount of light is produced. 
 Pressure thus helps to determine the luminosity of gas ; and 
 in this case, under a less pressure, less light is produced. If 
 the pressure is reduced so as to only equal that of the at- 
 mosphere at the moment of combustion in the glass vessel, 
 as feebly luminous a flame is produced as when the gas 
 bums in air. There is, therefore, some connection between 
 
 the luminosity of flame, and the density of the gases under- 
 going combustion. If the pressure of the atmosphere be 
 very materially reduced, and a series of electric sparks 
 passed through the air-pump receiver, they are very feebly 
 luminous; but as air is admitted, the luminosity of the 
 sparks is increased. The greater the density of the air, the 
 greater is the luminosity of the sparlcs. 
 
 Assuming Sir Humphrey Davy's theory to be true, the 
 light of a gas flame should be very opaque ; but no effect is 
 produced by interposing two strongly luminous, gas flames 
 in the most effective position between an image and a screen; 
 whereas they, ought, on Davy's theory, to completely obli- 
 terate the image. , • . 
 
 The purest soot obtained from coal gas contains hydrogen; 
 and in Frankland's view, hydrocarbons of the coal gas flame, 
 when raised to a certain temperature, produce very dense 
 gaseous compounds of carbon and hydrogen, which, when 
 ignited, emit much light ; the luminosity in this case 
 being due to incandescent, dense gas, and not to the pre- 
 sence of solid matter. If a gas burns with much light we 
 should reduce the light, on Dr. Frankland's theory, by re- 
 ducing its density. This was proved to be the case. Under 
 diminished pressure, common gas burns with a' very feebly 
 luminous flame, and its luminosity increases in proportion 
 as the pressure is increased. 
 
 When phosphorus is burnt in oxygen, great light is pro- 
 duced, but phosphoric oxide is volatile at a very low red 
 heat, and must have a very high vapour density. Therefore, 
 it is the density and temperature of the gas, and not the pre- 
 sence of solid matter, which determines the luminosity of its 
 flame. 
 
 City of Dublin (IVorth Wall) Graving Dock. 
 
 (Ilhistrated by Plate 6, and Woodcut) 
 
 In view of the local interest attaching to the printing and 
 publishing of this work in Dublin, and of the great im- 
 portance of the development of Harbour and Dock Works 
 in connection with the city of Dublin, we have selected 
 an exemplar of such works. ' We' now illustrate, by plate 
 6, the City of Dublin (North Wall) Graving Dock, as 
 one exhibiting no mean engineering talent, and works 
 which would do credit to the Thames, the Mersey, or the 
 Clyde. We have, therefore, pleasure in calling attention 
 to this Graving Dock, and of illustrating it by the accom- 
 panying plate and woodcut. At no harbour or port, per- 
 haps, in the three Kingdoms, was the necessity for proper 
 
 accommodation for the repairs of shipping more severely 
 felt than in Dublin. As a consequence, vast sums of 
 money were being yearly spent elsewhere in the repairs 
 of vessels. Before the year 1796, there were no graving- 
 docks in Dublin; but in that year three were erected, in 
 connection with a large basin, by the Grand Canal Com- 
 pany. The Corporation for Preserving and Improving the 
 Port, some fifty years ago, bestirred themselves in the 
 matter, and had two patent slips erected on Morton's prin- 
 ciple — one for vessels of 400 tons and under, and a second 
 for vessels of 800 tons, builders' measurement ; the smaller 
 slip being almost always occupied by their own barges 
 
 83 
 
 n 
 
City of Dublin Graving Dock. 
 
 and mud floats, the larger they lent for the repairs of 
 vessels at a trifling charge per ton per day, with some- 
 thing extra for launching and hauling up. 
 
 The want of further accommodation being for many 
 years glaringly apparent, several designs were submitted 
 to the Chamber of Commerce and the Ballast Board ; and 
 from those the plans of their own Engineer, Mr. George 
 Halpin, C.E., was selected, as being the most suited to the 
 necessities and state of the harbour. In 1850, the requisite 
 borings and examination of the site were proceeded with. 
 
 The design contemplated a floating-basin of about 38 
 acres in extent, two graving docks, of the respective lengths 
 of 400 and 300 ft., a graving slip, and large and com- 
 modious building-yards, quays, &c., &c. In 1851 opera- 
 tions were commenced, by forming a vast embankment 
 with the deposit dredged from the channel of the harbour, 
 and this work progressed so rapidly, that in less than a 
 year the working plans were in the hands of the engi- 
 neering draftsman, and the Corporation was in a position 
 to advertise for contractors. 
 
 After the different tenders had received the proper at- 
 tention and consideration that such matters require, the 
 late Sir William Dargan (then Mr. Dargan) was declared 
 the contractor, and, as is unhappily not tinusual in such 
 cases, a great deal of jealousy was the result; one firm 
 going the length of publishing a protest, which was very 
 industriously circulated amongst the building trades and 
 corporate bodies of Ireland. 
 
 The Ballast Board, however, were not to be moved from 
 " the even tenor of their way " by such " weak inventions," 
 and before many months elapsed large quantities of " plant " 
 were daily being brought to the ground, and sheds, en- 
 gine-houses, and colossal chimneys began to spring up on 
 the great bank of newly-recovered alluvium. Various de- 
 scriptions of pile-driving engines were erected, amongst 
 which Nasmyth's stood prominent ; and pumps, with their 
 attendant steam-engines, strewed the ground on all sides. 
 Then might be seen men laying down a railway, sur- 
 rounding the vast hollow in which the dock was to be 
 erected ; and on these rails a locomotive and its tender was 
 shortly to be seen simmering away, whilst waiting patiently 
 tin called on to move the ponderous beams of timber and 
 blocks of granite that were daily coming to the works. 
 Dublin had not seen a work of such activity, excepting 
 the building of its Exhibition in 1853. Upwards of 2,000 
 Memel piles, averaging 30 ft. in length, and containing 
 somewhere about 1,500 tons of timber, were all shaped, 
 and fitted with wrought, and, in some cases, cast, iron 
 shoes, and hooped on the head with best wrought-iron 
 rings. 
 
 To secure the cross bearers and sleepers of the timber 
 platform (on which the stone-work was intended to rest) 
 to the piles, large wood screws were required, 5 ft. in 
 
 length ; and these having, as a matter of course, to be cut 
 with a taper core, Mr. Dargan had erected on the ground 
 some very ingenious screwing lathes for this purpose. 
 
 Many opinions as to the best method of driving the 
 piles into such a stiff bottom were elicited, and different 
 foremen of the contractors tried different plans, which only 
 resulted in delaying the operations for a lengthened period. 
 The works at last, however, were given by the contractor 
 into the hands of a Mr. Browne, who at once caused the 
 Nasmyth Engines to be set to work, and the piling went 
 on rapidly. The large engine, Avhich had hitherto been in 
 use at the works of the great Cork tunnel, was erected; 
 two other powerful horizontal engines were placed at the 
 head of the dock space, and a large beam, and a direct 
 acting engine, were brought to bear on the lower or south 
 end. The pumps used were three pair of lift, and two 
 centrifugal. They used no coffer-dam (in the general ac- 
 ceptation of the term), but the south end of the dock was 
 closed in by a great bank of earth, deposited there by the 
 floats of the Ballast Board. The piles having been driven 
 to the requisite depth, which, we have been informed, ave- 
 raged 30 ft., were cut off to the proper height, and the 
 ground aU brought to a level one foot below that height. 
 On this was laid the concrete, formed of small stones or 
 gravel and Portland cement, in proportions which we 
 will describe when we enter into the details of the work. 
 This concrete was brought up to a level with the top of 
 the cross bearers and sleepers, and having been finished 
 off, was left for a short time to set, when the planking 
 commenced, and was proceeded with and completed in a 
 very short time. The vast timber floor at this time 
 presented a novel and rather striking appearance, the 
 dimensions being nearly 500 ft. by 100 ft. 
 
 We must not, however, forget to mention how the long 
 5 ft. wood screws were driven home. The holes were 
 bored with shell-augers to the depth required, and the 
 screw then introduced — a circular counter-sinking being 
 formed for the head, so that the top of the head might 
 range flush with the upper skin of the sleepers, and not 
 interfere with the planking. A small capstan of wrought and 
 cast-iron, its centre post being a polygonal tube, was put 
 down over the screw, the bottom resting on the sleeper; 
 and when in this position, it was sufficiently high to catch 
 the top of the screw; it was then turned by four men pushing 
 the bars, when, as it carried the screw round, it was also free 
 to travel down the tube. The entering and driving home of 
 a screw in this manner only occupied 'a few minutes. At 
 this stage of the proceeding the erection of the great, gantries 
 or travelling cranes, commenced. Three of these in par- 
 ticular were looked upon as being remarkably well construc- 
 ted, and had been engaged with great success in the erection' 
 of the Boyne viaduct. They were fitted with ribbons of 
 wrought iron, instead of chains; and although not at all' 
 
 84 
 
 I 
 
City of Dublin Grayikg Dock. 
 
 so safe as chains, where any twist was likely to occur, 
 they were considered much smoother in worldng, and 
 large stones could be set by them with greater facility. 
 
 The dock had boon so far completed that, in July, 1857, 
 the erection of the gates was commenced, and finished in 
 about ten weeks. 
 
 
 
 n 
 
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 C3=t 
 
 
 =1= 
 
 
 Fig. 1 is a cross section through the dock between the 
 timber slides. The piles, as shown in the section, are 
 placed' 7 ft. 3 in. from centre to centre, excepthig the 
 ctentre piles, which are 6 ft.; the shoeing of these piles 
 was effected in the most careful manner, and the pile 
 themselves are of crown memel, adopted after a cautious 
 selection by experienced persons. 
 
 Over the longitudinal bearers, the platform, consisting of 
 4-in. planking, was laid, spiked down to the bearers, and 
 on this was built the masonry, which consisted at first of 
 a 12-in. course of black stone or calp, procured princi- 
 ■, pally in the quarries of Donnybrook. On this course was 
 set the floor of Killiney granite, 8 ft. 6 in. in thicloiess or 
 depth in the middle, and falling off at either side to 3 ft. 
 'Along each side is a drain 12 in. in width by 6 in. in 
 depth. The floor consists of nineteen courses of granite, 
 the three central courses being level, the others falling 
 with a slight inclination to either side.' 
 
 From this floor rise the steps and altars, each 2 ft. high 
 by 2 ft. wide; five of these bring us up to the broad 
 altar, which is 6 ft. wide, and from which the next 
 series of steps, four in number, rise with a face batter 
 of one in twelve ; the step next to the altar is 5 ft., and 
 and the other three 3 ft. in height. 
 
 The width of the dock at the floor level is 37 ft. 8 
 in., and at the coping, 80 ft. in the clear. By the very 
 judicious arrangement of the steps and altars a large 
 amount of light is enjoyed by shipwrights in this dock, 
 
 which has also the advantage of being built of granite of 
 a beautiful light colour. The baclung, and all the under- 
 work, is of calp. 
 
 The culverts, shown in the section, are for the purpose 
 of emptying the dock ; they are very carefully constructed, 
 and completely surround it, meeting in a point at the 
 head where they communicate with the well of the pump- 
 ing engine. 
 
 At intervals, as will be seen, are placed . cast-iron posts 
 or bollards, which are found of the greatest service in 
 mooring vessels and adjusting them in their position on 
 the blocks. There are also slides formed along the sides 
 and head for the purpose of the more easily letting down 
 the bent timbers for wooden vessels, and other materials. 
 The total depth in the centre is 23 ft. 6 in., and the centre 
 of the floor is 5 ft. lower than the low water of spring 
 tides in Dublin Harbour ; the average rise of which is about 
 13 ft. The entrance to the dock is 70 ft. in clear 
 width, and is composed of apron, invert, lock- pit, and inner 
 invert, all bmlt in the most substantial manner, of granite 
 laid in foot courses of alternate headers and stretchers. 
 
 The sea AvaU, or frontage to the dock, is built with a 
 batter of one in twelve, and, as will be perceived by the 
 section, is based 3 ft. below the general level of the dock 
 foundations. This arrangement wiU permit the dredging 
 of the outer basin to a uniform depth of 12 ft. at low 
 water spring tides, the foreshore being set at an inclination 
 of 1 in 4. 
 
 85 
 
City of Dublin Graving Dock. 
 
 The outer row of piling is driven closely as sheet piling, 
 and with a batter of 1 in 12, with wales and through 
 bolts: the two inner rows of main pUing are also driven 
 with a batter. The courses of masonry in the sea wall, 
 and under the apron, have their beds laid square with 
 the face of the wall, which is carried round to the first 
 invert, forming the "cheese-head" entrance to the dock. 
 The waUs of the first invert are also carried down for a 
 depth of 19 ft., with the batter of 1 in 12, but at that 
 level the curve (which has a radius of 114 ft. 9 in.) 
 commences, and is brought down to 4 ft. below the low 
 water of spring tides. In this invert, which is 20 ft. 
 wide, is the groove for the dam or caisson, which would 
 be required in case of anything serious happening to the 
 gates; this groove is 2 ft. 3 in. in width at the top, and 
 2 ft. at bottom, and 14 in. in depth. The stones of 
 the invert on the curved portion are laid with radial 
 joints, and form a most compact and unyielding mass 
 of masonry. Immediately within the first, and between 
 it and the second inverts, is the lock pit, which is 9 ft. 
 wider than the other portions of the entrance, the recesses 
 for the gates accounting for the difference; it is also 
 deeper by 18 in. than the bottom of the inverts,, which 
 range with the bottom of the siU, and which is, as we 
 before observed, 4 ft. below the low water of spring tides 
 in Dublin Harbour. The stones of the sill, and, indeed, 
 of every portion of the dock, are laid in regular breadths; 
 those in siU being particularly large, averaging 70 cwt. 
 each. The inner invert is similar to the outer, excepting 
 that it is not so wide, and has nO' caisson groove. 
 The hollow quoins are of the peculiar shape suited to 
 Mallet and Wilds' patent gates, each of one stone, many 
 of which are considerably over 6 tons in weight, laid 
 in 2 ft. courses. 
 
 The piling of tho foundations of the entrance was par- 
 ticularly attended to, there being three separate rows of 
 close piles, one under the first invert, one under the point 
 of the sill, and one under the heel-post of the gates. 
 These were all secured by double walls and through screw 
 bolts, with nuts and washers ; and between these tho main 
 piles were regularly placed at equal intervals. All through 
 the dock foundations the cross pieces and sleepers were 
 secured to the piles by scrap-iron holding-down screws, 
 cut by machinery on tho ground, and screwed down by 
 an ingenious capstan-headed tool. These screws were 5 
 ft. long by 1^ in. diameter, and their cutting formed 
 one of the matters of curiosity to the visitors to the 
 works. Their grip in tho timber is remarkable, and they 
 were tested on several occasions with particular severity. 
 Considering the great depth below tho lowest spring tide 
 that this foundation Avas laid, too much care could not 
 be taken to counteract the immense upward pressure of 
 the water. 
 
 Immediately within the second invert the steps and altars 
 of the dock commence ; and at 5 ft. from the invert,^ at 
 either side, are the openings into the filling and emptying 
 culverts which surround the dock, meeting at the head in 
 the large culvert which leads to the engine-well. These 
 culverts are provided with sluices to work in grooves, and 
 by those, and the sluices in the face of the dock, the whole 
 space can be filled at high water ; and when a vessel is 
 admitted and safely berthed, the supply of water can be cut 
 off, and the sluices of the emptying culverts opened. At 
 intervals, 75 ft. apart, are double flights of stairs leading 
 to the bottom of the dock, and between these are the tim- 
 ber shdes arranged for the convenience of letting down the 
 timbers, planks, and also materials for the artificers. They 
 are found most convenient for the plates of iron vessels, and 
 for the many uses which the steps of the dock might inter- 
 fere with. The head of the dock terminates in one of these 
 slides and stairs, from which the view of this fine work is 
 admirable. The whole of the facing is of beautifully white 
 Dublin granite, the reflective powers of which are found of 
 the greatest advantage to the shipwrights employed at the 
 lower parts of vessels, more especially in dark winter days. 
 The entire length in the clear, from inner invert to head 
 of dock, is 400 ft.; the width, above, 80 ft.; and in the 
 bottom, 37 ft. 8 in. The dock is 2 ft. lower in level of 
 coping than the coping of the entrance, which allows of 
 more light, whilst the extra height of sea-wall and entrance 
 is to provide against extraordinary spring tides, which have 
 frequently flooded the quays of Dublin. 
 
 The sequel has proved that the Engineer's labours have 
 been crowned with success, for there is not in the world a 
 more thoroughly staunch graving dock than that we have 
 been describing. Placed at the mouth of three rivers in a 
 deep bed of alluvial gravel as porous as a sponge, sur- 
 rounded by innumerable springs, it required such experience 
 as Mr. Halpin possessed to carry through tho undcrtaldng 
 in the manner in which it was accomplished, and to that 
 gentleman and his assistants much credit is duo. 
 
 As the subject of Graving Doclc accoinmodation is one of 
 general interest in every Port, and as oiio cannot but admire 
 the persistence and determination that tho citizens of Dub- 
 lin have shown in their desire to improve their Harbour, 
 and encourage its Trade and Commerce, the question of the 
 profitable character of such works must influence all con- 
 cerned in determining the extension of Graving Dock ac- 
 commodation, wherever the necessity for such extension is 
 felt to exist. We, therefore, avail ourselves of the opportu- 
 nity of appending hereto the accompanying table, as fur- 
 nished to us by tho compilers, of the computed cost of Kent 
 and Docking and Pumping charges for Graving Docks and 
 Slips, at the following ports, including Dublin : — 
 
 86 
 
1 
 
 
 
 
 
 COMI 
 
 UTED COST OF RENT AND DOCKING AND PUMPING CHARGES AT SUNDRY PORTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 MO TOWS. 
 
 1,000 TONS, 
 
 Itaiit, 
 
 1,500 TONS. 
 
 (.TiiH-gM. Tolnl 
 
 - 
 
 2,000 TONS 
 
 
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 Ilont 
 
 .1.000 TONe 
 
 1 
 
 noiiL 
 
 Charpw, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Riml. 
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 Chntgoa. 
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 Clutvcii. Total. 
 
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 52 
 
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 10 
 
 
 
 estimated. 
 
 
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 36 
 
 
 
 
 46 1 
 
 
 
 60 
 
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 60 
 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 Mail communication has been maintained between Endand 
 and Ireland for a century and a-half. An Act of 1729 con- 
 firmed si patent granted to the French family for erecting a 
 lighthouse on the Skerries, and authorized a payment of 
 £50 per annv/m by the Postmaster-General in consideration 
 of the benefit rendered by it to the packet service. Holy- 
 head had been selected as the port of departure, as being 
 nearest, and opposite to Dublin. The travelling was tedious, 
 and the service irregular. The Mcnai Bridge was proposed 
 before the Union, and no less than twenty-four Reports in 
 ten years were presented to the House of .Commons on the 
 communication and the improvements suggested for the 
 267 miles between London and Holyhead. At length, 
 nearly a million of money was expended, and in .1826 the 
 road was completed, by which the traveller passed the dis- 
 tance in 34 hours with ease. 
 
 ' Improvements for the sea part of the journey had also 
 engaged some degree of attention ; but, while sailing ves- 
 sels were in use, it was not thought that much could be 
 gained in the passage of the Channel. In 1814, passages 
 appear to have extended to three days in duration, and it 
 is recorded, in the Parliamentary returns of that year, that 
 for the space of nine days but one packet could saU, owing 
 to adverse wind. In 1819 the average time occupied in the 
 passage from Holyhead was about twenty hours, and about 
 fifteen hours from Dublin. The vessels then employed were 
 small cutters. Two years aftewards. Sir Eobert Seppings 
 submitted designs for a superior class of vessel, sixty-five 
 ft. in length, 19^- ft. beam, and of 102 tons burthen. The 
 inferiority of the vessels previously employed in the service 
 may thence be imagined. 
 
 The packet harbour of Howth was constructed at a cost 
 of £300,000, with the special object of faciUtating the inter- 
 course with England. Improvements at considerable cost 
 were also provided, from time to time, for the Mail Packet 
 Service at Holyhead, at the public expense. Indeed, no- 
 thing appears to have been overlooked, which could render 
 more perfect connexion of the several parts of the chain of 
 communication. 
 
 The application of steam power for propelling vessels at 
 sea, which was commenced in these islands by Henry Bell, 
 in 1811, extended but slowly for some years, and no attempt 
 was made to introduce the improvement for Channel navi- 
 
 gation until 1819, when the "Talbot," of 156 tons, built by 
 Wood, of Port Glasgow, with two Engines of 30 h, p. each,, 
 by Napier, was placed on the Holyhead station for the sum- 
 mer and autumn ; and in the following year the " Ivanhoe," 
 built by Scott, of about the same size, with engines, also by 
 Napier, of 70 h. p. Their unexpected success overcame the 
 professional prejudices of the experienced commanders of 
 the sailing mail packets, who had recently recorded their 
 opinion, " that no vessel could perform the winter, service 
 with safety but sailing cutters." Soon afterwards the "Royal 
 Sovereign" and the " Meteor" were built specially for the 
 Post Office service. The sailing cutters disappeared for ever. 
 The " Royal Sovereign" was of 205 tons burthen, with two 
 engines of 60 h. p. each. The "Meteor" was fifteen tons 
 less in size, and had 20 h. p. less than her consort. The 
 vessels were built by Evans, and the engines were made by 
 Messrs. Boulton and Watt, who had also the honour of 
 making the first engine placed in any vessel, viz., that for 
 Fulton, in 1804, and used by him in his first boat on the 
 Hudson River. The performance of the " Royal Sovereign" 
 and the " Meteor" fully established the advantage of steam. 
 The average length of their passages, in the first year, 
 between Holyhead and Howth, was 7h. 33m. ; the shortest 
 passage was 5h. 48m.; and the longest is stated to have 
 been upwards of 23 hours. 
 
 The mail communication between London and Dublin 
 had been thus long maintained exclusively by way of Holy- 
 head, but the rapidly growing importance of Liverpool — ^the 
 seaport of the manufacturing districts of Lancashire, York- 
 shire, and Staffordshire— justly claimed a direct postal 
 service with Ireland, which was accordingly established in 
 1826, though the sea passage is more than double that from 
 Holyhead. Packfets of a larger size were buUt, and pro- 
 vided with more powerful engines. The Parliamentary 
 returns for a period of three years give the shortest passage 
 as having been made in llh. 5m., while the longest ex- 
 ceeded 35 hours. Private enterprise, as early as 1819, had 
 placed steam vessels on this station, for the conveyance of 
 passengers during the summer months. In 1823, however, 
 Mr. Charles Wye Williams, of Dublin, a venerable associate 
 of the Institution of Civil Engineers, originated a company 
 for the maintenance of a regular steam communication 
 throughout the entire year. His plan embraced, not only 
 
 87 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 . the conveyance of passengers, but of merchandize, an ex- 
 tension of the advantages of the regularity of steam trans- 
 port, till then iinattempted. His plan was so eminently and 
 immediately successful, that it was speedily adopted on other 
 lines of the coast, and ultimately over the entire globe. 
 
 Though not apparently necessarily connected with the 
 subject of the communication between England and Ireland, 
 it is right to draw attention to the substitution of iron for 
 timber in the construction of steam vessels, as having 
 afforded great facilities for building models of the finest 
 form, combined with lightness and strength, and the name 
 of the first builder of an iron steam vessel should not be 
 forgotten. Mr. Aaron Manby, the father of the honorary 
 secretary of Institution, built the first sea-going vessel of 
 that material, so early as the year 1820, in which year the 
 first sea voyage was performed, when a cargo was conveyed 
 direct from London to Paris, without transhipment, the late 
 Admiral Sir Charles Napier acting as captain, and Mr, Chas. 
 Manby as engineer. Many good authorities then questioned 
 the innovation. Now, scarcely any but iron steam vessels 
 of every class are used for commercial purposes. This ma- 
 terial has also, of late, been almost entirely adopted for 
 vessels of war. In fact, it may be doubted whether vessels 
 of the form of those which now perform the Holyhead Mail 
 service, could have been built of adequate strength of 
 timber. 
 
 But if private enterprise was successful by sea, it was soon 
 to be almost eclipsed by still greater success on land. The 
 same spirit in England originated, and soon saw accom- 
 plished that wondrous improvement of modem times — the 
 railway. The line from London to Liverpool was completed 
 in 1838 ; thenceforward that line became, for some years, 
 the most expeditious route to Dublin, and the mails and 
 passengers nearly deserted the Holyhead route. Liverpool, 
 however, did not long retain this superiority. The proposial 
 to continue the line of railway from Chester to Holyhead 
 met with general acceptance. English Enterprise again 
 triumphed over every difficulty. The genius of Stephenson 
 rivalled that of Telford ; the Conway Eiver and the Menai 
 Straits were spanned a second time, and in 1849 a con- 
 tinuous hne of railway was completed between London and 
 Holyhead, by private capital, three-and-twenty years after 
 the continuous line of road had been constructed by direc- 
 tion of the State, and principally by grants of public money. 
 The conveyance of the Irish mails was then re-transferred 
 from Liverpool to Holylioad, and the largo and powerful 
 packets of the Government, and of the Company which had 
 carried the night mails under contract for the previous ' ten 
 years on the Liverpool line, were appropriated to other 
 duties. 
 
 It is not easy, from the Parliamentary Returns, to arrive 
 at the exact cost of maintaining the Service between Great 
 Britain and Ireland prior to its concentration at Holyhead, 
 
 on the completion, of the railway to that place. In addition 
 to the principal postal services with Dublin, two other lines 
 of man communication had for many years been carried on 
 by Government vessels ; one in the North, between Port- 
 patrick and Donaghadee, and the other in the South, 
 between Milford and Waterford. The expense of supporting 
 all these communications is stated at £75,000 a year, with- 
 out taking into account the original cost of the vessels, 
 built in the Royal dockyards, the interest on the capital, 
 the annual depreciation, or the insurance. The outfit of 
 the steam vessels provided for the Irish service appears to 
 have cost upwards of £600,000 between the years 1820 and 
 1848. 
 
 During the period while these recent changes had been 
 in progress, the Asylum Harbour of Kingstown was com- 
 pleted, and having ample depth of ivater at all times of the 
 tide, which the harbour of Howth had not, the packet ser- 
 vice was transferred to it. Ultimately a line of railway, six 
 miles in length, connected it with Dublin, 
 
 The new Refuge Harbour at Holyhead was next decided 
 on, with the avowed intention of providing the most perfect 
 arrangements for the Irish Mail Service. 
 
 The only link then remaining to complete the communi- 
 cation with Ireland was such a superior class of vessels as 
 the mechanical skiU of the day could construct. The Go- 
 vernment declined the offers of the former mail contractors 
 to supply the vessels, having decided on building four of about 
 700 tons burthen each, fitted with engines of 350 nomiiial 
 h. p. Great attention was bestowed on these vessels, and 
 no expense was spared, with the desire of securing a result 
 far in advance of any which had been previously arrived at. 
 The result was universally admitted to have been a success. 
 The " Banshee," built of timber, with double planking, but 
 without frames, was a beautiful model, and of light draught 
 of water. Her oscillating engines indicated 1,555 h, p., and 
 her rate of speed at the measured mile on the trial trip was 
 rather over 18 J statute miles per hour, nearly four miles 
 more than had been attained by any other vessel. The speed 
 of the " Llewellyn" was very nearly as good, but the other 
 two vessels, having heavier engines, were not equal to the 
 same high rate of performance. 
 
 About the same- time the Chester and Holyhead Railway 
 Company, under what were considered the exceptional cir- 
 cumstances of the case, succeeded in passing a Bill through 
 Parliament, aut^iorizing the novelty of owning and navi- 
 gating steampackets for a period of 12 yea;rs. Four vessels 
 were accordingly provided by that Company for the con- 
 veyance of passengers. Two of these were fully equal in 
 speed to the " Banshee," another was considerably less, and 
 the fourth was admittedly a failure. 
 
 The Lords of the Admiralty, acting in accordance with 
 the recommendation of a Committee of the House of Com^ 
 mens, decided, after a trial for a short time of the new 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 Service at a heavy cost, to have it performed by contract, as 
 - had been the case for some years previously on the Liver- 
 pool line, and the tender of the former contractors was 
 ultimately accepted. The service was to be performed at 
 the average speed of 12 knots, or nearly 14 statute miles per 
 hour. Four hours and forty minutes were allowed on the 
 average for the passage of the Channel, from outside the 
 Lighthouse at Kingstown Pier to the light at Holyhead. 
 This service lasted from May, 1850, until October, 1860, and 
 the passages were generally performed within the stipulated 
 time. 
 
 ~ Having thus traced the several changes in the means of 
 communication between London and Dublin up to the com- 
 mencement of the Service now in operation, it may be 
 interesting to state the time usually occupied in the journey 
 at various periods, in order to show the gradual improve- 
 ments in acceleration, which have resulted from the con- 
 -tinued attention of Parliament to the subject. 
 ..:-'■ Before the opening of the new turnpike road by way of 
 Shrewsbury to Holyhead, and of the establishment of steam 
 mail packets, the communication with London was attended 
 with so much uncertainty that it would be difficult to give 
 any accurate estimate of the time necessary for the journey. 
 Travellers in those days thought themselves fortunate if 
 ' they accomplished the distance within four days. But after 
 the opening of that road, and the establishment of steam 
 -vessels, the average time occupied in the transmission of the 
 mails was reduced to about forty-three hours ; letters posted 
 in London on Monday being considered as due in Dublin 
 on the following Wednesday evening. The adoption of 
 Liverpool as the principal packet station, and subsequently 
 the opening of the railway thence to London, shortened the 
 time for the transit of letters to twenty hours, so that letters 
 reached either capital in the evening of the day following 
 ' that on which they were posted. Within a few months after 
 the complete restoration of the Mail Service to Holyhead, 
 the time allowed for the transit of the mails was reduced, to 
 sixteen hours from Dublin to London, and about fourteen 
 hours in the opposite direction, the reason for the difference 
 being that the service from Ireland was timed with suffi- 
 cient margin for the contingencies of the Channel passage, 
 to ensure the arrival of the mails so as to allow of their 
 being forwarded by the trains appointed for the ordinary 
 English services ; while for the down mails, the packets 
 waited the arrival of the train at Holyhead from London, 
 and invariably proceeded to sea as soon as' the mails and 
 passengers were embarked, so that generally there was an 
 advantage in time in the journey to Dublin. Great, how- 
 ever, as was the improvement thus finally effected, it was 
 impossible to afford the public the advantage of the entire 
 .day for completing their correspondence in one capital, 
 coupled with a morning delivery in the other, so long as 
 the transit occupied from fourteen to sixteen hours, to 
 
 which must be added the time required for sorting the let- 
 ters, after their arrival at the respective Post Offices. The 
 night service was, therefore, necessarily divided into two 
 parts. First, an early despatch from one end of the line, 
 accompanied with an early morning delivery at the other ; 
 and the second, a late or night despatch from the one capi- 
 tal, coupled with a late or afternoon delivery in the other. 
 
 The Directors of the Company into whose hands the mail 
 service between Holyhead and Kingstown had been en- 
 trusted, soon turned their attention to the subject, with the 
 object of proposing further improvements to be effected by 
 the substitution of special express trains for the Irish Ser- 
 vice, in place of the ordinary trains, which were timed mote 
 in reference to the requirements of the English mails ; and, 
 secondly, by the employnient of larger and more powerful 
 stcampackets. Considerable doubts were 'at first expressed 
 as to the practicability of running trains with safety, the 
 starting of which was to depend on the arrival of the 
 packets at Holyhead. But the public loudly demanded 
 more commodious vessels. Meetings were held in London, 
 which were attended by tlio most influential persons in- 
 terested in the question, who warmly .approved of a plan 
 then submitted for consideration, of a vessel of great size 
 and power, which the projectors anticipated might attain 
 the extraordinary speed of 25 statute miles per hour. 
 Meetings of the commercial interest were also held in Dub- 
 lin, to urge forward the adoption of any feasible measure of 
 improvement in the postal and passenger arrangements for 
 communication between Great Britain and Ireland. A plan 
 was soon after submitted to Government, proposing a new 
 service from London to Kingstown, the entire distance to. be 
 performed under ordinary circumstances in eleven hours. 
 Express trains' were to be appropriated exclusively for the 
 Irish service, completing the land journey in six hours and 
 forty-five minutes. Eor the Chaimel part of the service, 
 steam vessels were proposed, 300 ft. in length, with suffi- 
 cient engine power to attain the speed on trial of 20 sta- 
 tute miles per hour, so that the passage of the Channel 
 could be made, under favourable circumstances, in three 
 hours and a-half. The shipbuilders and engineers who were 
 consulted, unhesitatingly declared that such a result was 
 practicable. A committee of the House of Commons was 
 appointed in the following year to inquire into the subject ; 
 and their report strongly recommended that the improved 
 class of vessels should be provided, and that the . speed on 
 the railway should be accelerated, so that the mails, instead 
 of requiring the average of fifteen hours between London 
 and Kingstown, might be conveyed in eleven hours, as had 
 been proposed. The Committee further recommended to 
 the favourable consideriation of the Government the plan 
 and estimates of the class of vessel contemplated, as able to 
 attain a speed of 25 statute miles an hour, but to te em- 
 ployed only in daylight, their advocates having expressed 
 
 89 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 i 
 
 the opinion that they could not be safely used at night. 
 This objection, in addition to the great cost of the vessels, 
 estimated at £180,000 each, no doubt caused that plan to 
 be rejected. 
 
 The London and North- Western Railway Company, and 
 the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, having agreed 
 to united action, passed a Bill through Parliament, in 1855, 
 to sanction and facilitate their arrangements. 
 
 The Government then made a communication to the 
 Companies, as to the requirements of the Post Office, for 
 two services, one by day and the other by night, to be com- 
 pleted in half an hour less time than that which had been 
 already proposed, and this to be guaranteed under heavy 
 pecuniary penalties for every minute of excess, arising from 
 causes -even beyond control. T^he Companies agreed to 
 undertake this service, but altogether declined to submit 
 to penalties for loss of time arising from fogs or other causes 
 wholly beyond their control. The subject having been 
 allowed to lie dormant for another year, the Members of 
 Parliament for Ireland collectively urged on the Prime 
 Minister so forcibly the expediency and necessity of provid- 
 ing for the improved means of communication at the public 
 expense, as had been formerly done when the new Holyhead 
 Road and Telford Bridges were constructed, that the matter 
 was at last taken up seriously, and the Government agreed 
 to carry into effect the plan recommended in 1853, and 
 which eventually received the cordial approval of the Lords 
 of the Treasury. 
 
 The main provisions of the new postal contract were, first, 
 that the entire distance between London and Kingstown 
 was to be performed in eleven hours (eleven hours and a- 
 half being allowed to Dublin), assigning four hours for the 
 sea passage, subject to fines for loss of time, unless arising 
 from weather, or other causes beyond control ; secondly, that 
 four steam packets should be provided, each 300 ft. in 
 length, and 1,700 tons burthen, builders' measurement, with 
 engines of 600 nominal h. p. ; thirdly, that express trains 
 should be appropriated exclusively to the Irish trafiic ; and 
 fourthly, a morning and evening departure from each capi- 
 tal. The Improved Service was arranged to be commenced 
 in January, 1861, two years being allowed by the contract 
 for building the vessels. 
 
 To accomplish what had been proposed, and fully to realize 
 the expectations of the public, was naturally a subject of no 
 small anxiety to those on whom the responsibility devolved 
 of providing vessels so much in advance of any which had 
 yet been built. It was not a mere question of speed at the 
 measured mile in Long Reach or in Stokes Bay ; that had 
 been shown to bo practicable by the great success of the 
 Royal Yacht, which attained the imprecedented rate of 
 speed, at the trial trip, of 19 J statute , miles per hour; the 
 difficulty was, to maintain such a rate of speed in severe 
 weather, and under the disadvantageous circumstances 
 
 which must so often occur in the passage of the Channel 
 four times every day in the year, as to insure comparative 
 regularity in the due performance of a mail service, with 
 but very small margin for contingencies at sea. With the 
 object, therefore, of insuring this result, it was ultimately 
 decided to increase the size of the vessels to 2,000 tons, and 
 that of the engines in like proportion. Designs were re- 
 ceived from the most eminent builders in England. Those 
 submitted by Messrs. Laird, of Birkenhead, and Mr. Samuda 
 (M. Inst. C.E.), of London, were adopted. Messrs. Ravenhill, 
 Salkeld & Co., supplied two pairs of engines, and Messrs. 
 James Watt & Co. the other two pairs. The dimensions 
 and general arrangements of the four vessels are so nearly . 
 alike, that the following description of one, the " Connaught," 
 will' be sufficient for all. This was built by Messrs. Laird, 
 as well as the " Ulster" and the "Munster;" the fourth, the 
 " Leinster," was built by Mr. Samuda. 
 
 The 'ships are built of iron. The length between the 
 perpendiculars is 334 ft. ; the beam is 85 ft. ; and depth, 
 21 ft. The keel is formed of a centre keel plate 8 ft. deep, 
 and I in. thick, with two bars 9 in. deep by | in. thick, on 
 each side at the bottom ; these five plates, with the two gar- 
 board strakes, | in. thick each, are secured together with 
 iron bolts rivetted and countersunk. On the top of the 
 centre keel-plate two angle iron bars are rivetted, 5 
 in. by 4 in. by J in., and to these angle irons, and to 
 the angle irons on the top of the floorings throughout 
 the entire length of the vessel, as far as the fine ends 
 will allow, is rivetted a strong plate, 4 ft. wide amid- 
 ships, and 2 ft. 6 in. at the ends. There are also two very 
 strong box keelsons, secured on the floorings at each side of 
 the keel, and another in each bilge. The general framing 
 of the ship and the outside plating are done in the usual 
 way, care being taken to have everything well put together. 
 The engine beams, paddle, and spring beams, and all other 
 beams for the main and lower decks, are of iron. Timber 
 has been used only for the decks and cabin fittings. There 
 are nine principal iron water-tight bulkheads, which not 
 only provide for the safety of the ship in case of accident, 
 but add greatly to her strength in a seaway. The bulwarks 
 are of iron plates, in continuation of the sides of the vessel 
 to the rail, and without any break for gangways, such not 
 being required for landing, either at Holyhead or at Kings- 
 town. To give additional strength in the centre, where the 
 weight of the engines, wheels, and boilers has to be carried, 
 the insides of the paddle boxes are also formed of iron plates, 
 continued from the sides and bulwarks of the vessel, with a 
 strong bow girder, formed of an iron plate 15 in, broad and 
 f inch thick, so as to provide ample means of resistance to 
 the severe shocks which these long vessels must encounter 
 in rough seas, when driven at such a high rate of speed. 
 The gunwale is formed of angle iron bars, 4 in. by 4 in., 
 rivetted to the sheer strake, and to a plate which is rivetted 
 
 90 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 to the top of tho beams. At a distance of about 15 in. 
 from. this, an inner angle bar is rivetted, against which the 
 wooden waterway is fitted, so as to leave tho outer part, be- 
 tween this and the gunwale, to form a drain to take the 
 water off" tho deck, and to discharge it through the scuppers, 
 This arrangement, wliicli was introduced by Mr. Laird, has 
 been found very convenient, in freeing the decks quickly 
 from water. These iron gunwale plates are 5 ft. wide by | 
 in. thick amidships, tapering gradually to about 2 ft. 6 in. 
 by I in. at the ends, with a system of diagonal tie plating 
 from side to side, securely bolted or rivetted to the deck 
 beams.. Between the paddle-boxes an upper deck, about 
 50 ft. in length, has been placed. It is laid on iron beams 
 well securedj and being provided also with diagonal tie 
 plates, it further adds to the strength amidships ; though 
 ,the primary object was for tho more ra])id embarkation and 
 landing of passengers and luggage, at times of low Avater 
 both at Holyhead and Kingstown. It also -forms an agree- 
 able promenade for tho passengers in moderate weather. 
 The wheel and the binnacle are placed on this upper deck, 
 so as to allow of the coiximander and the officers being near 
 to the men engaged in steering. All difficulty is thus 
 avoided in passing the word, a distance of nearly 200 ft., 
 as would have been necessary in the ordinary way. The 
 entire of the main deck, from the foreinost funnel to the 
 bows, is covered over by a hurricane deck, formed with angle 
 iron beams, 5 in. by 2| in., extending from the rail at each 
 side, and boarded over with planks ll~ in. thick, leaving 
 when at sea but one small opening round the foremast. 
 This construction has been found of great advantage in 
 throwing off the seas, which, previously to the vessel's 
 being thus' protected, occasionally in heavy weather caused 
 damage to the skylights and upper works. The weight of so 
 large a piece of work, about 140 ft. in length,;is considerable, 
 , and increases the immersion of the vessel forward ; but this 
 ,has been amply compensated for, by the security afforded 
 when pressing at a high rate of speed' in tempestuous 
 weather. There has not been the slightest damage to any 
 of the. vessels since they were completely provided with this 
 excellent protection. This plan was copied from a small 
 vessel, the " Menai," fitted out in Liverpool for the River 
 Plate, in 1854. 
 
 The engines for all the vessels are on the oscillating 
 principle. In the two pairs made by Messrs. Eavenhill, 
 Salkeld & Co., for the "Leinster" and the " Cdnnaught," the 
 cylinders are 98 in. diameter, with a length of stroke of 6 ft. 
 6 in. The eight, boilers are multitubular, four being at each 
 end of the engine-room space, arranged in pairs, with one, 
 ■funnel to each pair. There are five fire grates in each boiler, 
 3 ft. 1 in. wide, with bars 5 ft. 6 in. long. The boilers being 
 .placed lengthways in the vessel, the firing space, which is 
 ;11 ft.'wide, is in tho centre. The entire extent of the grate 
 surface in the eight boilers is 677 square ft.; and the heat- 
 
 ing surface measures 19,700 square ft. The bunkers are 
 small, being made to contain only one day's coal, as the ves- 
 sels can be supplied either at Holyhead, or at Kingstown, 
 during the interval between their arrival and departure. 
 The space occupied in the length of the vessel by the en- 
 gines and boiler, is 108 ft., and this has been sub-divided, 
 by iron water-tight bulkheads, into three compartments, an 
 arrangement suggested by Mi'. Laird, and which has been 
 found most beneficial in giving strength in a part of the 
 vessel which might otherwise have been weak, and unequal, 
 to the severe strain of the powerful machineiy working in the 
 heavy sea-way of the Irish Channel The wheels, which are 
 constructed on the feathering principle, with fourteen floats < 
 each, are 31 ft. in diameter, at the outside of the floats', or 
 27 ft. to the centre of axis ; and each float is 12 feet long 
 by 4 ft. 4, in. broad. On the trial trips, the engines worked 
 at the r.ato of 25^ revolutions per minute, under a steam 
 pressure of 25 lbs. per square inch. The* moan of the runs 
 of the " Leinster^" at the measured mile in Stokes' Bay, was 
 at tho rate of 20J statute miles an hour, a greater speed, by 
 upwards of one mile an hour, than had been previously ob- 
 tained by any other vessel. The " Connaught," when sub- 
 sequently tried at the measured mile in Stokes' Bay, attained 
 a higher result, the mean of her runs showing the speed of ■ 
 20| statute miles per hour. 
 
 The "Ulster" and the " Munster " were built" by Messrs. 
 Laird, on exactly the same lines as the " Connaught." The 
 engines of these vessels were constructed by Messrs. James 
 Watt & Co., of Soho, the same estabhshment from whence 
 the engines proceeded for the first steam vessels built for ^ 
 the Post Office for the performance of the Holyhead Mail 
 Service. Boulton & Watt would have been somewhat sur- 
 prised, if it could have been foretold that their successors 
 would have been called on to construct engines tenfold the 
 size of what they had made, to be placed in vessels tenfold 
 the -tonnage of the "Eoyal Sovereign " or the " Meteor," and' 
 for the same line of postal communication. The general 
 arrangement of the engines in the " Ulster" and the " Mun- 
 ster" is nearly the same as of those in the "Leinster" and 
 " Connaught."' The cylinders are 96 in. in diameter, -with a 
 length of stroke of 7 ft. The wheels are 33 ft. in diameter 
 over all. The boilers have each 6 fire-places, 2 ft. 6 in. wide, 
 and the bars are 5 ft. 6 in. long, giving in the aggregate as 
 large an extent of grate surface as in the others. The area 
 of the heating surface is 18,033 square ft. One funnel is 
 used for the four boilers of each compartment, and as the 
 coals are carried on the top of the boilers, the entire space 
 occupied in the ship by these engines and boilers is but 102 - 
 ft. These engines were erected on board the vessels, in the 
 Liverpool Docks. There was not any measured mile at that 
 port for testing speed, but from a return supplied from 
 Messrs. Watt and Co., of observations made on several trips, 
 the rate attained appears to have been 17^ knots, or 20'3 
 
 "t 
 
 91 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 statute miles per hour ; and the average performances of the 
 " Ulster " and the " Munster," contrasted with the average 
 performances of the other vessels, fully proves that this ia 
 no degree over-rates their speed, when going under the usual 
 conditions of a trial trip. 
 
 ■The internal arrangements of the vessels were planned 
 with the object of providing for the comfort and laccommo- 
 dation of the public, in the way best calculated to mitigate, 
 and as far as possible- prevent, the sufferings so usually 
 inseparable from the passage of the rough Irish Channel. 
 For although the talented builders endeavoured to design a 
 form which should be easy in a sea-way, both they and those 
 for whom they were building, Avere well aware that it was 
 Utopian to expect, as many appear to have expected, with 
 ships of even their large dimensions, a uniform horizontal 
 position in tempestuous weather. Enlarged size has, no 
 doubt, in many cases, lessened the motion at sea, but the 
 chief advantage, in this instance is, that it has afforded the 
 means of providing reasonable accommodation for many 
 passengers — a want which had been so much felt with the 
 previous smaller class of packets. The saloons and cabins 
 in the new vessels are large, lofty, and well ventilated. The 
 principal ono is upwards of 60 ft. in length, by 17 ft. in 
 breadth, and 9' ft. G in. in height. On each side of this 
 saloon there are state-rooms with several berths or sofas. 
 The ladies' saloons and cabins, which are entered from a 
 large deck-house by a separate stair-case, are provided with 
 upwards of forty sofas and berths, independent of the ac- 
 commodation in the deck saloon and in the adjoining state- 
 rooms, also on the main deck. First-class, passengers have 
 excellent sleeping cabins in other parts ' of the ship, and 
 there are also two commodious deck cabins, one of which is 
 appropriated as a smoking-room. The cabins for the second 
 class passengers are placed forward. Throughout the whole 
 of the communications Avhich took place between the builders, 
 the engineers, and the directors of the company, the most 
 perfect concord prevailed, all parties appearing to be actuated 
 by the desire to produce vessels and machinery in every way 
 calculated to fulfil the high expectations which so much 
 public discussion had raised. 
 
 A better opportunity could not have been devised for 
 attaining a good result than the Holyhead and KingstoAvn 
 mail line. There was sufficient depth of water at all times 
 of the tide, with no natural obstruction to the navigation of 
 the Channel; and the short distance needing no great weight 
 of coal, and no cargo being carried, the vessels would at all 
 times have very nearly the same uniform immersion. Be- 
 sides, the vast importance of the communication justified 
 an expenditure for the mail service, which could not be 
 undertaken as a commercial speculation, to be remunerated 
 solely by the conveyance of the traffic. All these advan- 
 tages united afforded an unprecedented opportunity, which 
 those engaged in the work fully appreciated, and they endea- 
 
 voured to make the most of it. It is due to them to state, 
 that after the contracts had been entered into, every sugges- 
 tion made during the progress of the work, with the desire 
 of providing further improvements as to strength, or accom- 
 modation, was at once adopted, though attended with 
 increased cost. The result proved that the unbounded 
 confidence which was placed in the contractors by the 
 Directors of the Company was well deserved. 
 
 The cost of the four ships to be provided, in accordance 
 with the contract, was £75,000 each. The actual cost has, 
 however, greatly exceeded the amount agreed to be ex- 
 pended by the Company, in consequence of the size of the 
 vessels having been enlarged to upwards of 2,000 tons, and 
 the engines in about the same proportion; a change which 
 has obtained increased accommodation for the pubhc, and 
 probably a superior performance of the vessels at sea. 
 
 One of the principal peculiarities which render these ves- 
 sels of so unique a class is the Post Office fitted for sorting 
 letters during the passage. The space occupied for this pur- 
 pose extends across the entire breadth of the vessel, and for 
 the length of 30 ft., between the first and second class 
 cabins. It is divided into two rooms, one for letters and one 
 for newspapers. In these rooms the sacks are opened, the 
 contents taken out, and arranged by eight or ten sorters, 
 under the direction of a head superintendent. The letters 
 are stamped with the Post Office Packet brand, the postage 
 label cancelled, and all the operations completed, so that the 
 letters are ready for delivery, or to be forwarded to their 
 destination on the arrival of the vessel at Kingstown. About 
 two hours are thus saved in the transmission of the mails, in 
 consequence of their being made up on board instead of after 
 their arrival at the General Post Office in Dviblin. Besides 
 the gain in time thus secured for postal purposes, the main 
 object to be attained was regularity ; while for passengers, 
 accommodation was even more to be valued than extreme 
 speed. To fulfil all these conditions it was necessary to 
 have very large vessels, such only obviously allowing the 
 requisite extent of accommodation, and experience had 
 shown that the larger the vessel, when provided with ade- 
 quate power, the less was the difference in length of the 
 passage at sea caused by severe weather. 
 
 The contract with the Postmaster-General had appointed 
 January, 18G1, for the commencement of the improved ser- 
 vice. But the vessels being in readiness some months 
 sooner, it was commenced, by mutual agreement, in Octo- 
 ber, 1860, and has since boon continued without interruption. 
 When two of the vessels, the " Lcinster" and the " Ulster" 
 were completed and ready for duty, it was thought advisable 
 to make a trial with them, by way of practice, in the perfor.- 
 mance of the old contract. Each performed the distance 
 between the lighthouse on Kingstown Pier to the hghthouse 
 at Holyhead, upwards of 65 J statute miles, in nearly the 
 same time on the average, namely, the " Leinster" in three 
 
 92 
 
 r 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Seeviob, 
 
 , Hours and thirty-one minutes, and the " Ulster" in three 
 ■ , hours and thirty-two minutes, being respectively thirteen and 
 twelve minutes less than the shortest monthly average of 
 , the " Banshee," in 1848-49, and twenty and nineteen minutes 
 less than the " Llewellyn," when the distance between the 
 lights was one mile less than in 18G0 — the Holyhead 
 breakwater not having been then in existence. The gain in 
 speed realized by the new vessels was therefore at the rate 
 of from 1"2 to 17 mile per hour. 
 It remains now to give some information as to the man- 
 ' ner in which the new service has been performed since it 
 was commenced in 1860. From what has been already 
 stated with regard to the speed of each of the vessels on 
 their trial trips, when, as is usually the case on such occa- 
 sions, the utmost power of the engines is exerted during the 
 short time required for the run of a fcAv miles, it may be 
 ~ readily, seen that for actual daily duty the difference be- 
 tween the four vessels is inappreciable, a matter of para- 
 mount importance to a mail service. The extreme difference 
 in the rate of speed on trial appears to have been about 
 half a mile an hour, which would add but six or seven 
 minutes to the passage between - Holyhead and Kingstown, 
 taking the present course at 67 knots, or a little over 65^ 
 statute miles ; the extension of the great breakwater having 
 added more than a Imot to the distance given in the Admi- 
 ralty Returns, as haying be,en performed by the " Banshee," 
 the "Llewellyn," and other packets in 1849-50. A speed of 
 17^ knots, or 20 statute 'miles per hour, on the trial trip, 
 allows a safe margin for making the passage commonly in 
 four hours, the time proposed by Government ; but this 
 large margin has not in practice been found too .much. 
 Again, it may be observed, that there is a considerable dif- 
 ference in running a few times by the measured mile, when 
 all is tasked for' a short time to the utmost ; and making a 
 single complete passage of the Channel, even under favour- 
 able circumstances. Thus, while the " Connaught" attained 
 a speed of 20| statute miles an hour on her trial trip, her 
 shortest passage of the Channel occupied three hours and 
 fourteen minutes, being at the rate of about 20 miles an 
 hour. The shortest passage of the "Leinster" was made in 
 three hours and twenty minutes ; that of the " Ulster" in 
 three hours and eighteen minutes, and of the " Munster" in 
 throe hours and twenty -six minutes. But the. average per- 
 formance of the vessels for the first tAvo years and five 
 months, during which they were on service, is still closer. 
 Inclusive of all passages made in fogs, gales, &c., 
 
 The "Connaught" made 1,064 in the average time of 
 The " Leinster" „ 919 „ „ ,, 
 
 The "Ulster" „ 925 „ „ „ 
 
 And the "Munster" 920 „ „ „ 
 
 n. M. 
 3 51 
 3 52 
 3 65 
 3 58 
 
 So close a performance by the four vessels, not identical, 
 and' nbt all from the same builders and engineers, could 
 
 scarcely have been anticipated. The longest passage made 
 in the severest gales has not exceeded five hours and forty 
 minutes, and one vessel only has been that length of time 
 on but two occasions. The previous packets were retarded 
 by the weather to a far greater degree. The " Banshee" has 
 talcen nearly eight hours to cross the Channel ; the " Lle- 
 wellyn," the ' " Caradoc," and the ." St. Columba," still 
 more. 
 
 Experienced naval officers anticipated frequent and 
 serious disasters, but the rate of speed, ' 16 miles an hour, 
 though high for night work, does not appear to have been 
 too Mgh for safety. The sense of greater responsibility, and 
 the larger number of men engaged in the navigation and 
 management of the vessels, must naturally induce addi- 
 tional precaution as well as afford the means of guarding 
 against danger. The facility with Avhicli these large vessels 
 are handled and brought alongside the jetties is remarkable. 
 The practised skill of the officers, and the quickness with 
 which the engines are managed, frequently succeed in get- 
 ting the vessels alongside, in making them fast, estabhsh- 
 ing the means of communication witli the shore, and in 
 landing the mails, in three or four minutes. 
 
 The consumption of coal in the first few months was 
 considerably in excess of the quantity originally estimated. 
 Steam of from 25 lbs. to 28 lbs. pressure was then used, 
 which not only required much extra coal, but severely 
 tasked the durability of the boilers. Arrangements were 
 therefore made to reduce the consumption to the amount 
 stated in the estimates submitted to Government, on which 
 the contract was founded. The result has been satisfac- 
 tory, Avhile the additional time occupied on the passage is 
 but a few minutes, and they are still made on the average 
 within the time allocated to the sea service by the proposal 
 of Government. The necessity of laying up the vessels 
 more frequently for repairs has been also diminished, which 
 is a matter of much importance, as they are of so unique a 
 class, that in the event of more than two being laid up at 
 the same time, it would be impossible to obtain an efficient 
 substitute, and, therefore, the postal service might be ex- 
 posed to some. danger of interruption, if such circumstances 
 were to continue for any length of time. The engines in 
 the " Ulster" and the " Munster" were provided with super- 
 heaters, but experience has not sliown any advantage re- 
 sulting from their use, either as reducing the consumption 
 of coal, or tending to a superior performance. In 1,865 
 
 passages made in the 
 
 time of 3h. 56m. by these 
 
 vessels, they have consumed 30 tons 7 cwts. on the ave- 
 rage of each, inclusive of the quantity required for raising 
 steam, which is very considerable. The " Leinster" and the 
 " Connaught," without super-heaters, in 1,983 passages, made 
 in the average time of 3h. 52m., have consumed (inclusive 
 of raising steam) on the average 30 tons 1 cwt. of coal. 
 No break-down has taken place with any of the engines. 
 
 93 
 
The Holyhead Mail Packet Service. 
 
 On two occasions some derangement occurred ■with the 
 wheels. Very constant attention is given during each " rest," 
 after the usual term of duty, to the machinery and the 
 boilers, so as to prevent the necessity of extensive re- 
 pairs. 
 
 The principal trouble hp,s arisen from the difficulty which 
 appears to be experienced in obtaining sufficiently sound 
 forgings for the large intermediate air-pump crank shafts. 
 As a precautionary measure, two duplicate shafts fitted with 
 cranks, had been included in the original order, one suitable 
 for either pair of engines from each firm, so that no time 
 might be lost in replacing one, if at any time it was found 
 to be defective, or appeared to be doubtful. This was no 
 needless precaution, as within the first year it was found 
 necessary to condemn two shafts, and to use the duplicates, 
 and the vessels were ready within the week for service instead 
 of being laid up for months. Two new spare shafts were 
 immediately again ordered, and these have since been re- 
 quired; and another of steel, made by Mr. Krupp (of Essen), 
 is also now in use. Within the space of two years and a- 
 half, five of these costly pieces of work were condemned. It 
 ■ is justice to the makers of the engines to state, that they 
 have met the case in the most satisfactory manner. No 
 failure has hitherto occurred with any of the shafts supplied 
 by the Mersey Steel and Iron Company, and they have done 
 their fuU share of duty. Very great exertion was made by 
 that estabhshment on one occasion to prepare a forging 
 within the short space of three weeks, to replace one under 
 
 peculiar circumstances, which rendered the utmost expedi- 
 tion important. 
 
 With regard to the ships, it is very satisfactory to be able 
 to state, that no repairs have so far been needed. They are 
 now in as perfect a condition, after the performance of their 
 severe duty, as when they commenced in 1860. The fre- 
 quency of docking, for the purpose of cleaning and coating, 
 has afforded constant opportunity of examination, so that 
 painting only has been found necessary. 
 
 To maintain speed, it is obviously indispensable to keep 
 the bottoms of the vessels clean; but as no docking accom- ' 
 modation has as yet been provided at Holyhead, and it being 
 objectionable to remove the vessels from the station to the 
 graving docks of other ports, if possible to avoid doing so, 
 the experiment of employing divers, while the vessels lay 
 alongside the jetty, was tried, and with some success. The 
 growth of marine vegetation, and the adhesion of marine 
 animals, which take place rapidly in the summer months, 
 were prevented to a considerable extent. 
 
 Mr. W. Watson, connected as he has been with the sea 
 part of this service, has given the information which con- 
 stant and anxious watching over it from the commencement 
 has enabled him to do. 
 
 We are also indebted to Mr. Wm. Watson for the follow- 
 ing return relating to the performances of the four mail 
 packets during the fifteen years ending September 30, 1875, 
 which will prove of great interest to all engineers, and others 
 connected with the progress of steam navigation: 
 
 Average Time op Passages of the Four Mail Packets between Kingstown and Holyhead 
 (distance 56 knots), fob 15 Years, ending 30th September, 1875. 
 
 Wiuter half-year . . 
 Suiumor hal£-year . . 
 Whole year .... 
 
 Connaught. 
 
 Loinstor. 
 
 Munster, 
 
 Ulster. 
 
 Four Packots. 
 
 Ti-iijs, 
 
 Tiino. 
 
 Tl'llM. 
 
 Tlrno, 
 
 Ti-lpx. 
 
 Tliiio. 
 
 Ti-li«. 
 
 Tliiio. 
 
 Trips, 
 
 Tlmy, 
 
 3192 
 
 2C55 
 
 H. M. B. 
 
 3 56 6 
 3 .W 5 
 
 2510 
 2933 
 
 11. M. S. 
 
 3 58 3 
 3 53 8 
 
 2371 
 2897 
 
 11, M. B. 
 
 3 59 6 
 3 53 4 
 
 2848 
 2490 
 
 11. M. H. 
 
 4 1 I 
 
 3 55 9 
 
 10927 
 10975 
 
 11, M. H. 
 
 3 59 
 3 54 
 
 S847 
 
 3 54 7 
 
 5449 
 
 3 55 8 
 
 5268 
 
 3 50 2 
 
 5338 
 
 3 58 2 
 
 21902 
 
 3 50 5 
 
 94 
 
Improved Slipway tor Hauling Up , Vessels. Broadside On. 
 
 IMPKOVED SLIPWAY FOE HAULING UP VESSELS 
 BROADSIDE ON. 
 
 (Illustrated by Plate 7.) 
 
 A. ■' VARIETY of methods will be illustrated, for obtaining 
 access to the bottoms of vessels for examination and repairs. 
 These may easily be diyided into two classes, viz., that in 
 which a vessel is lifted above the water, such as slips and 
 lifts, and that in which the Avater is drawn from under the 
 vessel, such as floating or dry docks. To tho latter class, 
 the chief objection is their first cost, for, though floating 
 docks have some great advantages, especially when, in com- 
 bination with the Edwin Clarlt hydraulic dock arrangements, 
 trays are used, by means of which a great many vessels may 
 , be docked at the same tinie. It is well known that these 
 latter cost enormous sums to build. As regards dry docks, 
 they too are expensive to make, while in some soils it is 
 almost impossible to construct them, and several cases 
 niight be pointed out where large sums of money have 
 ' been fruitlessly expended in the endeavour to excavate 
 a dry dock in a treacherous Soil. Even on the banks 
 of the ' Thames, great difiiculty is experienced in their 
 construction from this" cause, and it is not an uncommon 
 occurrence for the bottom of a dock to blow up from the 
 pressure of the water accumulated either by land springs or 
 the infiltration of the water from the river. Leaving out of 
 the question the gridiron which is only available in places 
 where there is a great difference between high and low 
 water, there is no doubt but the slip is the simplest and 
 cheapest method of obtaining access to the bottom of, a 
 moderate sized vessel. When ' required for a large vessel, 
 however, the slip has to be carried such a long distance un- 
 derneath the water that' the expense is enormously increased, 
 especially where the beach is steep, while at the same time 
 there is >often a considerable difficulty in obtaining • a suffi- 
 cient depth of land to accommodate a long vessel " end on" 
 on the shore. 
 
 To qbviate these objections, and to enable a slipway to be 
 constructed, so as not only to accommodate a large vessel, 
 but to admit of several vessels being repaired at the same 
 time) Messrs. Thompson and Noble contrived a very in- 
 
 genious and convenient plan on the " broadside on" prin- 
 ciple, as shown in plate. One of tho principal advantages of 
 the " broadside on" over the " end on" system, is that it can 
 be milch more conveniently and cheaply constructed where 
 the beach dips rather suddenly into deep water, and it is 
 therefore imder such circumstances the most advantageous 
 plan to adopt. Although the expense for machinery and 
 foundations on shore is increased in comparison with a slip 
 constructed to "haul up" a vessel " end on," yet if such a, 
 plan were carried out Under the above conditions, the length 
 of tho piles necessary to bo used in deep water, and the 
 stifl'ening required by them, would bo a serious obstacle to 
 overcome. Until lately, however, the " end on" system had 
 one great advantage over the other, as the cradle was gene- 
 rally made of such a form as to alloAV of its being readily 
 lowered down the slip from underneath the vessel, as it en- 
 counters no obstruction in its descent from the shores that 
 support the vessel's sides, and thus the cradle could be 
 made available for taking up other vessels to be repaired 
 at one and the same time. In a slipway constructed 
 on the " broadside on" system, the reverse was .the case, as 
 the cradle could not pass these necessary impediments, thus 
 necessitating th6 vessel being repaired on the cradle, and 
 consequently precluding the possibility of more than one 
 vessel being repaired at a time. 
 
 In the plan here illustrated, however, several vessels can 
 be repaired simultaneously on the same slip, Messrs. 
 Thompson and Noble having adopted a very simple and 
 ingenious arrangement consisting of a series of short cradles, 
 each having its own chain, but all the chains worked by the 
 same shaft, instead of the old plan of one long cradle, as 
 will be seen on reference ■ to the engraving. By this con- 
 trivance blocks can be inserted between the cradles, leaving 
 the sHpway -clear for them to be lowered down for another 
 vessel. Thus it is evident that by this simple modification, 
 viz., the dividing the cradle into several pairts, the number 
 of vessels that can be repaired at the same tilne is only 
 limited by the distance inland to which the , slipway is 
 carried. Upon this system a vessel of 300 ft. (in length 
 requh-es nine Cradles, whilst one of 200 ft. only,: takes six 
 cradles, and of course a proportionate number for any other 
 length of vessel. 
 
 T 
 
 95 
 
The Royal Mint in 1876. 
 
 L Bntranoe Hall. 2. Mint Office. 3. Comptroller's Office. 4. Bullion Stronghold. 
 6. Eosidonce. 6. Laboratory. 7, Assay Office. 8. Eosidenco. 9. Coin Stronghold. 10. 
 Pyx Office. 11. Eesldence. 12. Ecsidenco. 13. Ecsidoneo. 14. Laboratory. 15. Die 
 FroBS Boom. Ifl. Die Annealing Eoom. IT. Office. 18. Stronghold. 19. Coach-house. 
 20, Boiler House. 21. Tank. 22. Roflnory. 23. Smith's Shop. 24. Die Forger's Shop. 
 25. lunijaag Lathes. 26. Engine Eoom. 27. Boiler House. 28. Eeflner's Eoom. 29. 
 CharcoaL 30. Coala. 31. Beserroir. 32. Boiler House. S3. Wood House. 34. 40 h. p. 
 Engine House. 35. Engine Eoom. 36. EoUing Mill Eoom. 37. Grinding Eoom. 38. 
 Gold Molting Houao. 39. Eosidenco. 40. Stronghold. 41. Office. 42. Silver Melting 
 
 House. 43. Stronghold. 44. Copper Store. 45. Store Eoom. 46. Melting House Yard. 47. 
 Well. 43. Tramway. 49. Coining Press Eoom. 50. Coining Engine Houso. 51. Boiler 
 House. 62. Office. 63. Strongholds. 64. Shaking Eoom. 50. Blauohing Boom. 60. An- 
 nealing Eoom. - 57. Presses for Annealing. 58. Marking Eoom. 59. Cutting-out Eopra. 
 60. Engine Boom. 61. Boilor House. 62. Strongholds. 03. Adjusting Maohlnefl. 64. 
 Lathe Eoom. 65. Automaton Balance Eoom. 06. Bronze Office. 67. Carpenter's Dwel- 
 ling. 68. Bronze Coin Store. 69. Gas-man's Eosidonce. 70. Fire Engine. 71. Smith's 
 Shop. 72. Brew House. 73. 40 h. p. Engine Houso. 74. Ditto. 75. Guard Eoom. '70. 
 Porter's Lodge. 
 
 LITTLETOWERHILL. 
 
 It may be stated that in the olden times, prior indeed to 
 the reign of Queen Mary, who, like her unfortunate name- 
 sake the Queen" of Scots, paid much attention to coins and 
 coining, there were several metropolitan and provincial mints 
 in this country. The notorious Mint street, in Southwark, 
 
 London, derives its name from a Mint that for many years 
 existed in Suffolk House, which occupied part of the site of 
 that street ; and in wliat is now known as Durham-street, 
 Strand (but which owes its name to Duresme House, which 
 once stood there), a mint also was in full action for many 
 
 96 
 
The Royal Mint in 1876. 
 
 . years. Canterbury, Winclioster, and York cities, too, boasted 
 their mints ; and, more remotely still, it was the custom for 
 our monarchs, and even some favoured dignitaries of the 
 Church, to employ detachments of men, loiown as moneyers, 
 who accompanied their masters in their progresses through 
 the country, and wlio cast and stamped money whenever 
 the royal or archiepiscopal exchequers became too scantily 
 furnished to meet current expenditure. 
 
 Inquiries into ancient minting operations have revealed 
 many curious and highly interesting facts ; whilst the laws 
 and regulations which governed the movements of the ope- 
 rators are still more quaint and peculiar. Details of these 
 cannot here be given. Sufficient be it to say that, during 
 the reign of Queen Mary, the whole of the mints of England 
 were consolidated into one large establishment, which was 
 situated " within" the Tower of London. There the national 
 coinage was thenceforth struck, until the public demands 
 for metallic currency outran the productive power of the 
 place, and a new steam-power mint, " outside" the Tower 
 walls, became an absolute necessity. Tliis contingency really 
 occurred towards the close of the last century, and hence 
 the parliamentary discussion resulting in the erection of the 
 present mint, of which a plan' is given, together with literal 
 references to the several portions of the establishment. 
 
 The Eoyal Mint is wholly under the control of the govern- 
 ment, and is managed by a master (the Chancellor of the 
 Exchequer ex officio), deputy -master, superintendents of the 
 operative and assay departments, and a not very numerous 
 staff of officials of minor rank, under whom are employed 
 from eighty to ninety artificers and work-people. Its steam- 
 power consists of two engines, respectively of 40 horse-power, 
 and 20 horse-power, both of which are on the compound 
 (high and low pressure combined) principle, the larger having 
 been constructed by Messrs. Hall, of Dartford, and the 
 smaller one. by Messrs. Rennie, of London. The maximum 
 productive force of the Mint is equal to the creation of 
 200,000 pieces of money of any denomination per day of ten 
 hours ; but the extent to which this force is exerted depends 
 upon' the requirements of the Bank of England.. The 
 , alternate repletion and depletion of the coffers of the Bank, 
 and the causes of those phenomena, are points of some inte- 
 rest undoubtedly; but it is not essential that they should be 
 entered upon here. It may be imagined, for our purpose, 
 ■ that there is a strong efflux of gold and silver coin from the 
 Bank, and • that it is desirable to supply the vacuum thus 
 formed with newly minted money. If the outflow be in the 
 form of gold, an intimation is forwarded by the Governor 
 and, Company of the Bank of England to the Master of the 
 Mint to the effect that he will, on an early and specified day, 
 be required to receive an importation of ingots of that metal; 
 and that such importations will be continued twice or thrice 
 a week until further notice. At the time appointed, waggons, 
 laden with ingot chests, and with porters as an escort, arrive 
 
 at Tower Hill. . A "note" of the weight of each batch of 
 ingots " to the utmost carat," and of " the fineness of the 
 gold," arrives with each load. The material is received and 
 duly weighed by the Mint officials, the weight being recorded 
 in ounces and decimal parts of the ounce. Notes are then 
 compared, receipts written, and the empty waggons depart. 
 This procedure applies to gold alone ; when silver is wanted 
 at the Bank, intimation of the fact is sent to the Mint, and 
 the master purchases the material in the bullion market. 
 He then causes its conversion into coin, arid transfers' the 
 latter to the Bank. ■ These importations of gold continue 
 according to the original notice of the Bank until perhaps a 
 million sterling in value, and ten tons in weight, of ingots 
 have been received at the, Minti This quantity is deemed 
 sufficient to warrant the putting in motion of the Mint ma^ 
 chinery. ' Ere this is done, however, a careful and scrupu- 
 lous assay of each individual ingot is made, and the result 
 reported to the master? The identity of all the ingots is 
 maintained by stamping each of them with letters and num- 
 bers, imtil they reach the melting room, where they are next 
 conveyed. 
 
 Nearly all the manipulatory arrangements of the Royal 
 Mint for the production of coins of the realm, and of 
 medals for the army and navy, remain to-day as they 
 were sixty years ago: The hand of improvement has 
 touched but lightly the mechanism of the establishment, 
 whilst that of time has fallen heavily upon it. Most of the 
 machinery of the place is of an antiquated type, and al- 
 though in its day it well reflected the ingenuity of such 
 men as Boulton and Watt, John Rennie, and Henry Mauds- 
 lay, all of whom were concerned in its invention and con- 
 struction, it is now wholly out of date, obsolete in its 
 nature,, and defective in its condition. The responsibility 
 for this lamentable state of affairs must rest somewhere. It 
 is not for us to attempt to fasten it upon any individuals 
 in particular, but the evil itself may be safely attributed, in 
 no small degree, to the Governmental system of placing 
 non-practical men at the heads of manufacturing depart- ' 
 ments where, above all, practical knowledge is absolutely 
 needed. 
 
 Perhaps the fairest opportunity for modernising, remodel- 
 ing, and increasing , the productive power of the Mint 
 occurred in 1859-CO, Avhen it was determined to withdraw 
 the entire copper currency of the United Kingdom, and to 
 re-issue it in the form of the bronze money now so familiar 
 to all. It was at that time abundantly manifest to those 
 who where cognizant of the circumstances attending the 
 change to be effected, that an enormous amount of profit 
 must accrue from the transaction; equally clear was it that 
 the strain to be put upon the mechanical appliances of the 
 Mint by the necessarily rapid manner in which the new 
 coins would have to be struck and issued would be excessive. 
 Here, then, were two powerful motives for the improvement 
 
 97 
 
The Eoyal Mint m 1876. 
 
 .L 
 
 of the macliinery, and other fitments of the State Money 
 Manufactory. In ordinary cases, and apart from the region 
 of red tape, such'incentives to action would have proved irre- 
 sistible. At the Mint they exercised no force whatever. It 
 did not occur, apparently, to those who then ruled the estab- 
 lishment that the transformation of three thousand- or four 
 thousand tons of heavy old copper coins into the same weight, 
 but three times the nominal value of bronze pieces, would 
 yield a clear gain to the country of more than a quarter of a 
 minion sterling. Still less did they see the necessity for 
 hypothecating, as it were, a few thousands of pounds out of 
 this splendid prospective return, and using the money for the 
 purpose of permanently increasing the mechanical resources 
 of the Mint. At any rate, and as we have reason to know, 
 in spite of persistent appeals from one officer of the place 
 to the principal authorities, nothing of the kind was done. 
 
 It was preferred, on the contrary, to commence the great 
 re-coinage in question with a plant of machinery wholly 
 inadequate for the rapid accomplishment of the work, and 
 to supplement the shortcomings of the Mint through the 
 agency of contractors at Birmingham! The results were 
 exactly what might have been, and, we believe, were ac- 
 tually foretold. The new coinage advanced at a "snail's 
 gallop" within the Eoyal estabhshment, because the 
 machinery was frequently required to stamp gold and silver 
 money simultaneously Avith the bronze coins, and at Bir- 
 mingham a slower pace still, was maintained because the 
 contractors had had no previous practice in the art of coining 
 bronze, and spoiled costly steel dies ad libitum in their vain 
 efforts to learn it. 
 
 Thus delays were caused in the issue of the new money, 
 grumbling paragraphs appeared in the newspapers, jokes 
 were cut at the expense of the "sleepy" officials, public 
 patience became cxliaustod, and tlio Master of tlio Mint, for 
 the time being, was uoarly driven out ol:' his mind! Evou- 
 tually, of course, all (lilliculties were surmounted, and tlie 
 transmutation of copper into bronze was completely effected. 
 But the erection of four or six new .coining presses within 
 the walls of the Mint at the proper time would, obviously, 
 have prevented all this. Shakspeare has said " the evil that 
 men do 'Hves after them," and no doubt there is truth 
 in the aphorism. It is also a fact that sins of omission 
 and of commission not unfrcquently entail inconvenience 
 and loss upon those who have had no share at all in their 
 perpetration. 
 
 Of this latter circumstance the sketcli wc have given is an 
 illustration. Had the Mint machinery been improved as 
 it ought to have been at the date above named, many 
 thousands of pounds paid subsequently to out-door 
 contractors would have been saved; and the establishment 
 itself would have gained credit as a national manufacturing 
 department. It is useless, however, . " to cry over spilt 
 milk," and it is fortunately not altogether too late to set 
 
 about putting the Royal Mint into a complete state of effi- 
 ciency. 
 
 There is scarcely to be found in Europe a coin manufac- 
 tory more advantageously situated than that on Tower Hill. 
 It is isolated from other buildings, as a Mint always should 
 be — is not far from the Bank of England, has a magnificent 
 Artesian well within its own boundary walls, yielding 
 100,000 gallons of spring water per diem, is covered by the 
 Tower guns, occupies an area of five or six acres, and all its 
 work-rooms are so arranged as to give the best light for con- 
 ducting the delicate processes carried on within them. Pos- 
 sessed of such advantages, together with others not here 
 enumerated, it is difficult to understand why the question of 
 the removal of the Mint to the Thames embankment, or to any 
 other site than its own, should ever have arisen. It is much 
 easier to comprehend why the public voice has answered 
 that question in the negative, and certainly those who most 
 desired the removal of the establishment should be thankful 
 for being saved from themselves. It would have been im- 
 possible to find, within anything like an equal radius of the 
 Bank of England, a spot at all comparable in eligibility with 
 that upon which the Mint stands. Now, therefore, that 
 the idea of its migration westward has been definitively (as it 
 is hoped) abandoned, it may seriously occur to those in - 
 authority that it will be well to commence forthwith the too 
 long delayed improvements of its mechanism and means of 
 production. 
 
 In order to inaugurate this most essential reformation, it 
 is desirable that some well known engineering employer 
 be consulted. Let the maximum number of coins struck in 
 any one of the last ten years (say 1872, for example, as that 
 was the most prolific of all) by the Mint and its satellites' at 
 Birmingham be talcen as the minimum productive power of 
 tlio future Mint. Tliis datum Avould bo tlie starting point 
 for the calculiiLions of Uio adviser called on, and in a very 
 short space of time lie would determine the number of ma- 
 chines requisite for effecting the object. The subsequent 
 constrviction of those machines, with additional steam power 
 to work them if need were, would be simply a question of. 
 time. 
 
 Such further mechanical arrangements as would be ren- 
 dered essential for producing and feeding the coining presses 
 with the requisite quantities of blanks should, of course, 
 be introduced, and in this respect there would be no serious 
 difficulty. The space already available for the reception of 
 an increased number of machines might readily be augmented 
 if found necessary, by covering in the large quadrangular area, 
 between the existing work-rooms, with a glass roof. This 
 latter plan indeed has, Ave have reason to know, been sug- 
 gested to the Mint authorities in time past. It would almost 
 seem, however, in reviewing the history of the place, that 
 the sentinels and policemen, who so zealously and constantly 
 guard the outer portals of the Eoyal Mint, had succeeded in 
 
 98 
 
The Eoyal Mint. 
 
 most effectually shutting out, not only unauthorized visitors 
 but every kind of improvement. 
 
 As it was in the beginning (a.d. 1810), so it is in the pre- 
 sent (a,d. 187C), and so apparently it is likely to remain, 
 unless the application of pressure from without should haply 
 prove strong enough to overcome the inertia within the 
 walls of the establishment. It is part of our own mission to 
 assist in the accomplishment of the work in' question, and to 
 this end some further arguments, and some more space in 
 these pages will be devoted. 
 
 Among the many requirements partalcing more or less of 
 the character of indispensability as regards the future effi- 
 ciency of the Royal Mint, is that of placing it in direct and 
 secret communication with the Bank of England. Time 
 was when the renowned statesman, Burke, endeavoured to 
 cause the amalgamation of the two establishments, and to 
 make the Mint entirely subordinate to the Governor and 
 Company of the Bank. To this arrangement the Ministers 
 of the day, supported by a strong majority in the House of 
 Commons, objected, and Mr. Burke's motion, consequently, 
 came to naught. This was a right conclusion beyond doubt, 
 for in all ways it is better that the Mint should be control- 
 led by the Government exclusively rather than by so com- 
 paratively irresponsible a body as the "House list" of direc- 
 tors of the Bank. Still there remains the fact that though 
 possessing independent administrative and executive orga- 
 nizations, the two concerns must ever be intimately connec- 
 ted. Their united and harmonious action is of almost vital 
 consequence, not only to the commercial, mercantile, and 
 trading interests of the nation, but to every class of the 
 community. The legalised proportions between the paper 
 and the metallic currencies of the British empire can only 
 thus be properly maintained, at the same time thiit the 
 general convenience of the public in the conduct of mone- 
 tary transactions is subserved. 
 
 ' Hence, since the moral union between the Bank of Eng- 
 land and the Royal Mint is and always must be close and 
 indissoluble, so ought their material connexion to be made 
 intimate and indivisible. In plain words, there should be 
 created forthwith a Subway between the two places. Through 
 this, either by the agency of a pneumatic tube, containing 
 miniature lines of rails and properly constructed carriages, 
 or by other means as effective, all ingots of gold and silver 
 intended by the Bank for coinage could readily, secretly, 
 silently, and safely be sent on to the Mint, and all the coins 
 produced by the latter transferred, via the same underground 
 channel of communication, to the Bank of England. The 
 distance from Tower Hill to Threadnccdlc-street by such a 
 course as it would be necessary to take for the avoidance of ^ 
 sharp curves, .&c., is not quite a mile, whilst the "engineer- 
 ing difficulties" to be encountered in the construction of this 
 golden line of railway, would, in these days of rapid boring 
 and tunnelling be unworthy of serious mention. 
 
 It is not for us at this moment to go into details of the 
 plan for thus invisibly sucking or blowing the precious 
 metals from Bank to Mint, and vice versd. It is enough, 
 just now, to suggest its consideration to the Government, 
 which has so wisely determined that the Royal Mint shall 
 continue where it is. 
 
 The clumsy, inconvenient, primitive, and very imsafe 
 method of ti'ansferring bullion and coin through the streets 
 of London in "common stage waggons," as practised to this 
 day, is one which ought not to be suffered to exist any 
 longer. It is as repugnant to the scientific instincts of the 
 people of this country, as it is antagonistic to common sense, 
 and we look, therefore, with confidence to the adoption of 
 some such arrangement as that now suggested. It is true, 
 that it is not probable in these latter days for disciples of 
 Dick Turpin, or of Paul Clifford, to emulate those desperate 
 ruffians, and to attack the Bank and Mint argosies vi et 
 armis, as they jostle through the crowded streets of Lon- 
 don; but highwayism has been largely succeeded by low 
 cunning, and ingots of gold might, by its agency, be found 
 to be transformed into pigs of lead during their transit to 
 and from the Tower Hamlets. 
 
 At any rate it would be safer, bettei", more economical, 
 and more in accordance with the spirit of the scientific age 
 in which we Uve, that the millions of money constantly pass- 
 ing and repassing between the sister establishments should 
 be screened from public observation, and freed from all 
 unnecessary risk. 
 
 Changes of a minor and comparatively insignificant kind 
 in respect of the actual processes of coining as practised at 
 the Royal Mint, have been introduced during the last few 
 years, and these it may be well to particularise. 
 
 In the first place, a reduction in thickness, to the extent 
 of nearly one-half, has been made in bars of gold and silver 
 intended for coinage. The object sought to be attained by 
 this remarkable innovation upon what, from their long 
 continued employment, may be termed the orthod6x di- 
 mensions of such castings, was, the economy of labour and 
 expense in their subsequent annealing and lamination. This 
 consequence has naturally followed — ^but we are not pre- 
 pared to say that the alteration Is In other respecfts any 
 improvenient. All practical founders know that thin 
 castings are less likely to be sound and of equal density 
 than moderately thick ones. Now in coining bars these 
 characteristics are indispensable to the production of coins, 
 which must all be within a shade of imlform weight. In 
 the thicker bars defects as to homogeneity were less likely 
 to happen In the original castings, whilst those defects 
 were subsequently removed, or at least minimised, by the 
 repeated series of rollings to which, in process of attenu- 
 ation, the bars wore afterwards subjected. With thin bars, 
 such as those now employed for coinage purposes at the 
 Royal Mint, the Inherent defects of the castings are never 
 
 n 
 
 99 
 
The Eoyal Mint. 
 
 entirely eliminated, because the repeated laminations 
 ■which would to a great extent cure them, are necessarily 
 omitted. Another evil resulting from the use of thin bars 
 is that, from lack of sufficient pinching and compression, 
 the strips or " fillets" from which blanks are to be cut are 
 porous and soft, instead of being dense and hard. This may 
 facilitate thereafter the operation of stamping the money, 
 but it also ensures its rapid deterioration by abrasion when 
 put to the rough test of wear and tear out of doors. 
 
 In coining as in other manufacturing operations, there are 
 points to be observed beside mere cheapness of production, 
 and if these be disregarded, the profits effected in first cost 
 will surely be dissipated subsequently. It is important, in 
 respect to the gold currency of the kingdom especially, that 
 all coin issued by the Mint should possess the elements of 
 durability to the fullest possible extent, and that their 
 artistic finish should be of the highest character. It may 
 well be doubted whether the employment of thin bars for 
 their production tends to the promotion of either of the 
 desiderata in question. 
 
 In the treatment of fillets of gold and of silver at the 
 present moment at Tower Hill the Drawbench is occasion- 
 ally disused. This implement, indeed, has several radical 
 and serious imperfections in its principles and plan of 
 construction. With certain practical modifications, how- 
 ever, such an apparatus would, it is believed, be found 
 an invaluable adjunct to the machinery of the Mint. It 
 is almost universally admitted that rolling alone, how care- 
 fully so ever performed, will not produce straps or strips 
 of metal of exactly uniform thickness. It is not sufii- 
 cient that the rolls be of the finest chiUed cast-iron 
 or of steel, that they be truthfully turned and " lapped" 
 to circumference gauges, placed in massive frames, and that 
 their bearings be smooth and firm as adamant. In practice 
 there will still inevitably be found a certain amount of 
 yielding or elasticity when the pinch of a passing " fillet" 
 comes, and this elasticity is increased when the density of 
 the fillet itself varies throughout its length. The springing of 
 the roUs — even when their barrels are short, their diameters 
 large, and the distance between their bearings not great — 
 communicates its effects to the fillet, and irregularities of 
 thickness in the latter may be detected after the finest of 
 fine rolling by means of a micrometer gauge, Irregu- 
 larities of thickness in fillets moan diversity of weight in 
 blank coins cut from them, and this latter evil is fatal to 
 the gold coiner who is allowed the narrowest margin or 
 "remedy" above or below the true standard weight, on 
 sovereigns or half sovereigns as determined by Act of Parlia- 
 ment. Thus, then, the "adjusting" of gold fillets (and in a 
 lesser degree the remarks applies to fillets of silver also), 
 after roUing is of infinite importance. The Drawbench, 
 as in use at the Mint, which was erected in 1816, is, no 
 doubt, a valuable tool. It might bo modified in design, 
 
 and when wholly reconstructed, would become an invaluable 
 appliance. This, therefore, is another point to which Mint 
 reformers may very profitably direct their attention. 
 
 The machinery for cutting out blanks or planchets of 
 metal intended for conversion into coins remains at 
 Tower Hill in statu quo. Noisy in its action, it is effective 
 in its results, and with sundry modifications and additions 
 it may still do duty for some time to come. Of edge com- 
 pressing or " marking" machines the Eoyal Mint contains 
 several varieties, but perhaps none of them excel in rapidity 
 of action and efficiency that patented by Mr. Meredith 
 Jones, late of the same establishment. It "rims" or gives 
 protecting edges to blanks at the rate of 600 or 700 per 
 minute, and this with a smoothness of motion that is much 
 to be commended. Simplicity and non-liability to derange- 
 ment are also among its advantages, and in strengthening 
 the establishment more of such contrivances could easily be 
 included. The arrangements of the annealing department 
 of the Royal Mint are unaltered in any notable manner, but 
 the abolition of the acid bath process upon blanks after 
 removal from the ovens calls for some special comment. 
 
 It was formerly the practice to submit such pieces of gold 
 and silver to a bath of hot dilute sulphuric acid for the pur- 
 pose of removing impurities and alloy from them, and giving 
 them bright yellow (in gold), or frosted white surfaces (in 
 silver), prior to their taking impressions from the dies of the 
 stamping presses. The effects of this face washing, and a 
 subsequent wiping with fine sawdust, were wonderful. The 
 discs of metal, made in appearance as they were in quality 
 worthy of their high destiny, looked like candidg,tes for 
 sovereign honours. When they left the presses — their blush- 
 ing honours thick upon them — they literally reflected credit 
 on their manufacturers. Now, alas ! a change has come upon 
 gold and, silver blanks alike. From motives of economy, 
 hot water baths have been substituted for boiling acid immer- 
 sion, and the poor blanks, when they emerge and are dried 
 out for stamping, are but spiritless, tawny, copper-faced, 
 shankless-button-like planchets, and altogether unfit for 
 conversion into coins of the realm. The highly polished 
 dies between which they are subscquciitly pressed can 
 transfer neither lustre nor bloom upon their tropical vi- 
 sages, and hence the sovereigns and half sovereigns of to-day 
 compare disadvantageously for themselves with newly minted 
 halfpence or farthings of bronze! What could be the 
 object of such a mischievous alteration ? it may well be asked. 
 The reply is " to save money in the cost of manufacture." 
 The acid system removed a portion of copper alloy from the 
 surfaces of the metal, and this lightened its weight somewhat. 
 In respect of gold tlie loss thus accruing amounted to per- 
 haps one grain in fifteen pounds weight. In silver the loss 
 was in a greater proportion, but in both cases it was only 
 copper that disappeared. These losses, in point of fact, were 
 provided for in advance by the addition of extra alloy in the 
 
 100 
 
The Royal Mint. 
 
 crucible. The acid bath was therefore a refining process, 
 and it simply brought the coins up to their proper and legiti- 
 mate standard of fineness, besides giving them faces of pure 
 gold or pure silver, upon which to take their "images and 
 superscriptions." 
 
 Many millions of water- washed sovereigns and half sove- 
 reigns are now in circulation ; and, but for their weight, it 
 might be supposed that they were really — as they are not 
 — of a lower standard than the " yellow boys" of old. 
 
 The aniiealing and blanching of planchets of sUver in- 
 tended for conversion into coins are operations of a nature 
 similar to those performed upon gold blanks. It is many 
 years, however, since Mr. J. Newton (now a retired officer), 
 of the Royal Mint, introduced a practical improvement 
 in the mode of dealing with silver pieces in their pas- 
 sage through the annealing and blanching rooms. En- 
 trusted, in 1857, with the management of this department, 
 he discovered that irregularities had previously existed 
 therein, which opened a door to peculation on the part 
 of the workpeople, without a chance of detection. It was 
 then, and is now, the practice for silver planchets for coins of 
 all denominations to be weighed up, when gathered from 
 the cutting-out presses, in quantities of 60 ib. weight, and 
 deposited in canvas bags. In this convenient and portable 
 form the planchets were, and are now transferred to the 
 marking machines, for the purpose of being rimmed, or as 
 it is technically termed, "marked." It was found that 
 when this operation had been completed, the custom was 
 to mix the planchets together in an indiscriminate mass, 
 and then to forward them to the annealing and blanch- 
 ing rooms. Here the operations consisted in exposing 
 the silver in open pans of wrought iron to the soaking heat 
 of a reverberatory furnace, until they assumed a cherry red 
 complexion. Then they were withdrawn, cooled to some 
 extent, submitted to a douche bath of cold water, and then 
 immersed in boiling dilute sulphuric acid ; another bath of 
 cold water followed, and then came the drying of the 
 planchets in sawdust, and more completely by means of a 
 muffle, or perforated cylinder of copper, slowly agitated in 
 an atmosphere heated to a high temperature equal to about 
 500°. The effect of this treatment was actually to frost the 
 silver pieces, and rid their surfaces and edges of every vestige 
 of sulphate of copper and sulphuric acid. Thus, the plan- 
 chets were made plastic and impressionable, perfectly free 
 from impurity, quite dry, and ready to receive their obverse 
 and reverse ornamentations and milling. 
 
 These operations, however, entailed a considerable loss of 
 weight, and here arose the difficulty of determining the 
 exact amount to be apportioned legitimately to the various 
 processes. Previously to Mr. Newton's taking charge of 
 the department, and probably from the date of the creation 
 of the Mint, in 1810, a certain arbitrary allowance for this 
 .waste had been fixed by the authorities. When that 
 
 allowance was not exceeded in the course of a day's work- 
 ing,* it was deemed satisfactory, and the workmen received 
 permission to depart. 
 
 It was, nevertheless, considered that this mode of proce- 
 dure was eminently unsatisfactory, and he, with the sanction 
 of the then (1857) Master of the Royal Mint, Dr. Graham, 
 proceeded to conduct many series of experiments, in order 
 to assure himself of the precise amount of loss which took 
 place during the operations just described. In effecting 
 this highly important object, the experimenter met with 
 great opposition from several of the workmen, who threw 
 every obstacle in his way, and did their best to maintain 
 things as they were. AH impediments of this kind, and 
 they were very numerous, disappeared before the persistent 
 energy of the officer in question, but not until a number of 
 workmen, who refused to do his bidding, or tried to mar his 
 experiments, had been first suspended, then dismissed, by 
 order of the Master of the Mint. 
 
 It has been said that the custom, from time immemorial, 
 had been to assume an average percentage of loss by an- 
 nealing and 'blanching upon any given quantity of silver 
 pieces thus treated. It was insisted upon making each 
 60 Tb. bag of metal answer for its own actual diminution of 
 weight, in the course of all the processes to which it was 
 submitted. In order to accomplish this end, he caused 
 every loaded bag to be numbered, and labelled with its 
 weight on ticket forms, which he drew up and had printed 
 for the purpose. The effect was to absolutely preserve the 
 identity of each individual bag of silver planchets in its pro- 
 gress through the rooms, and to check effectually all disposi- 
 tion to dishonesty on the part of any persons handling the 
 precious stuff during transit. Marvellous results followed the 
 institution of Mr. Newton's plans, which, with a new staff of 
 operatives, were found to work as smoothly as possible. 
 The average originally fixed for loss by annealing was found 
 to be far too high, and the positive and actual saving of 
 silver during ordinary coinages amounted to three or four 
 ounces, or nearly one pound sterUng in value per day. The 
 arrangement thus organized and completed by the gentle- 
 man referred to, in the teeth of as determined a little band 
 of antagonists as ever attempted to stay the hand of im- 
 provement, is still in current use at the Mint, and since 
 1857 it has caused a saving to the country of many thou- 
 sands of pounds. 
 
 Gold planchets pass through similar processes, but they 
 are weighed in smaller quantities, and virtually coimted. 
 Thus, an absent piece is noted at once by the officer in charge, 
 and there exists no chance of undetected peculation in respect ■ 
 of those more valuable articles. In short, there were estab- 
 lished/under the regime of Dr. Graham and his chief 
 assistants, Messrs. Newton and Ansell, so many checks 
 
 * The precious metals are balanced up in each' room of the Mint every 
 evening. 
 
 101 
 
The Eoyal Mint. 
 
 and counter checks, together with manipulatory improve- 
 ments, as to make it impossible almost for wrong-doing to 
 exist for one day without discovery, 
 
 A very wise and sensibly advantageous alteration is that 
 recently introduced, of making the weighing of individual 
 coins of gold and silver the final instead of an intermediate 
 operation. It was erstwhile the practice to weigh every 
 piece of such money in its blank form, and when, of neces- 
 sity, films of oU, acquired in the course of the rolling and 
 drawing of fillets, covered their surfaces. The disadvantage 
 of this arrangement was, that instead of ensuring exacti- 
 tude, it produced just the reverse effect. The blanks, after 
 weighment, and before stamping, were necessarily submitted 
 to the annealing, blanching, and drying-out processes, and 
 these reduced the weight of each. Thus, when the deli- 
 cately constructed automatic balances had tested and 
 passed the blanks, as being within legal "remedy," the 
 latter were tampered with by being put through ordeals of 
 fire, water, (or acid), and sawdust, and actually reduced in 
 weight ! The stamping and issuing of the money, en masse, 
 to the public followed, and reaUy the latter had not, and 
 could not get from the Mint itself any guarantee that 
 sovereigns and half sovereigns were not "light" when first 
 put into circulation. 
 
 It is many years since that the absurdity and injustice of 
 this method was pointed out, and now fortunately it has been 
 superseded by a wiser plan. The arbitrament of the auto- 
 matic weighing machines is, at this moment, the very last to 
 which individual coins have to be submitted prior to their 
 transference from the Koyal Mint to the Bank of England. 
 Hence it is a matter of absolute certainty, so infallible in 
 their action are the machines, that not one single piece of 
 gold or silver money below, or above its legal standard 
 weight can escape I'roin tlio coining department at Tower 
 Hill. 
 
 The automatic balances have been increased in number 
 of late years, and there are now no less than seventeen of 
 them in the elegant weighing room of the Mint. They have 
 proved most profitable servants of the State. Before the 
 year 1853, which was the date of their invention by Mr. 
 Cotton, of the Bank, and Mr. James M. Napier, of Lambeth, 
 and of their introduction, a staff of workmen loiown as 
 "sizers," and numbering about twenty, was constantly em- 
 ployed at the establislimcnt in weighing, by means of 
 apothecary's balances, individual coins. This kind of hand- 
 weighing, besides being imperfect as to results, was a costly 
 process to the country. The sizers were paid collectively 
 , at the rate of 10/- or 11/- per 100 lbs., Troy weight, of 
 sovereigns, and for other moneys in like proportion. The 
 automaton balances, which arc far more reliable in respect 
 of accuracy of results than any hand work can possibly be, 
 have saved in wages alone no less than £110 on every 
 
 million of sovereigns struck at the Mint since their intro- 
 
 duction. The saving effected upon all other coinages of the 
 precious metals has been in the same proportion. In 1872, 
 when, . owing to an unprecedented demand for gold and 
 silver coins, about forty millions of such pieces were struck 
 and issued to the public, the weighing machines of the 
 Mint saved the country a sum of money equal in amount 
 to the salary of the Prime Minister. The economy and the 
 exactitude of the automatons are still current, and it must 
 be admitted that their inventors, and those who have them 
 in charge, are deserving of public gratitude. Very lately, 
 as we perceive by the Sixth Report of the Deputy Master 
 of the Mint, the artificer who has had immediate control of 
 the machines from the day of their institution to this hour 
 — Mr. Richard Pilcher — has been promoted to the well- 
 earned rank of an Officer of the Royal Mint. 
 
 Of the automaton balances, indeed, it may be truthfully 
 said, that they constitute the most interesting, beautiful, 
 and at the same time profitable features in the mechanism 
 of modern Minting operations. 
 
 We append, as a fitting supplement to the foregoing 
 sketch of the Royal Mint, as it is in 1876, an extract from 
 the last published Report of the Deputy Master of the 
 establishment — The Hon. C. W. Fremantle. It recounts 
 the amount of work actually effected at Tower HUl during 
 the year 1875 : — 
 
 "The total number of British coins struck during the year 1875, in- 
 cluding those struck by contract, was 38,681,082, and their value as 
 follows : — 
 
 Gold. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ ». 
 
 d. 
 
 Half-sovereigns 
 
 258,120 
 
 
 
 
 
 258,120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silver. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Half-crowns 
 
 139,185 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 riorins 
 
 117,703 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Shillings . . . , 
 
 217,099 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sixpences 
 
 81,413 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fourponcea (M.aunily) 
 
 09 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Threepences 
 
 41,387 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Twopences (Maundy) 
 
 47 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Pence do. 
 
 35 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 597,540 17 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bronzo. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ponce .... 
 
 . 47,082 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Halfpence .... 
 
 . 13,927 
 
 10 
 
 7i 
 
 
 
 Farthings 
 
 . 7,089 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 68,698 13 
 
 li 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 Making a Total o 
 
 924,359 10 
 
 2i 
 
 Tlio gold coinage of the year, us will bo seen from tlio abovo figures, has 
 boon inoousidorablo, and lias boon confined to half-sovoroigns, which wero 
 the coins most required when the Bank of England resumed the importa- 
 tion of gold bullion into the Mint, in the month of November. I may 
 mention, however, in this place, that the importation of gold continued until 
 the close of January last, when the amount sent in for coinage had reached 
 a total of more than .C6, 250,000. The suspension of the gold coinage for 
 a period of more than a year, namely, from September, 1874, to November, 
 1875, is, no doubt, mainly attributable to the fact that during the latter 
 year no less a sum than .£2,720,000, in Australian gold coin was sent in to 
 the Bank of Enghiud, as against ^61,972,000 in 1874, and that the issue of 
 
 102 
 
 r 
 
The Royal Mint. 
 
 this coin, which is equally available with Bngliah aovoroigns for circulation 
 in this country, obviated the necessity for a coinage of a like amount in 
 London. . 
 
 Rather more than one-third of the gold bullion imported for coinage 
 between November and January last, namely, £2,129,881, consisted of 
 light gold coin withdrawn from circulation, and sent in for re-coinage. 
 
 jj.» V. ...... jj this year the work performed at the 
 
 Although durin, 
 Royal Mint was, from various causes, less than in some 
 previous years, still the labours and responsibilities falling 
 upon the Freemen of the Goldsmiths' Company, who act as 
 jurymen upon the trial of the Pyx, were very much the 
 same as heretofore; all the tests to be applied to the 
 varibus coins in the Pyx being the same whether the 
 coinage happens to have been heavy or othei'wise; the only 
 saving of trouble to the jurors in the case of a limited 
 coinage being, as on this occasion, the less amount of 
 tedious counting of the moneys deposited in the Pyx since 
 the last trial. 
 
 Considermg that the Freemen of the Goldsmiths' Com- 
 pany have performed the duties of jurymen at trials of the 
 Pyx for the last three or four centuries, and that their 
 services on such occasions have always been given gratuit- 
 ously, it must be admitted that their Company has done 
 good and valuable service in establishing, by their rigid 
 scrutiny of the work executed at the Royal Mint, that 
 confidence which exists throughout the commercial world 
 in the intrinsic value of the gold and silver coinage of this 
 country. 
 
 Pursuant to the terms of a "Warrant of the Lords Com- 
 missioners of Her Majesty's Treasury, dated June 15th, 
 1876, issued under the provisions of the Coinage Act, 1870, 
 the following officers, summoned from the various PubHc 
 Departments interested in. this trial, attended at Gold- 
 smiths' Hall for the purpose of conducting the trial of the 
 Pyx, namely. Sir Frederick Pollock, who, in virtue of his 
 office of Queen's Remembrancer, is named in Her Majesty's 
 Order in Council as the President on such occasions; the 
 Hon. 0. W. Fremantle, Deputy-Master of the Mint ; Mr. 
 W. H. Chisholm, Warder of the Standards, in whose cus- 
 tody are the trial plates of gold and silver, and the scales, 
 weights, and other accessories required for the use of the 
 jurors, together with Mr. Walter PrideaUx, the Clerk of the 
 Goldsmiths' Company, and ten Freemen of that Company, 
 summoned to serve on the jury. When all were assembled 
 in the Board Room of the Company, the Queen's Remem- 
 brancer called upon Mr. Hawkins, the Clerk in attendance 
 upon him, to read the Treasury Warrant ordering the trial 
 to be held, after which the names of the jurymen having 
 first been called over, and the jury sworn, he addressed a 
 few remarks to them upon the nature and importance of 
 the work they were about to perform. 
 
 The following is the method pursued by the jury in con- 
 ducting this very stringent and exact scrutiny of the work 
 
 done at the Royal Mint, as prescribed by her Majesty's 
 Order in Council of the 29th of June, 1871 :— 
 
 First — The Jurors have to ascertain that each packet of 
 coins found by them in the Pyx , contains the number re- 
 presented by the Officers of the Mint to be therein. It 
 may here be stated, that the Deputy-Master of the Mint is 
 bound to place in the Pyx, with a view to this trial, one 
 coin from each "journey weight" of metal used in coinage; 
 the journey weight in the case of gold being 15 lb. Troy, 
 and of silver 60 lb. of the same weight. After satisfying 
 themselves that the contents of all the packets are correct 
 — a long and tedious job where the coinage during the 
 past year has been heavy — they take as many coins from 
 each packet as they think necessary for the purpose of the 
 trial. They next have to weigh each of the cokis so taken 
 out, so as to ascertain whether they are within the pre- 
 scribed "remedy" as to weight. This remedy, it should be 
 explained, is an allowance in weight below the actual 
 standard made to the Deputy-Master of the Mint in the 
 manufacture of each denomination of coins ; and, although 
 very small, he has always been found to have worked weU 
 within his margin. 
 
 The following scale wUl show at a glance the nicety of 
 the test to be observed by the jury in conducting this 
 portion of their duty. The imperial weight in grains only 
 is given : — 
 
 Coin. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Romody. 
 
 Sovereign 
 
 123'27447 
 
 0-20000 
 
 Half-sovereign 
 
 61-63724 
 
 0-10000 
 
 Half-crown 
 
 218-18181 
 
 0-90909 
 
 Florin 
 
 174-54545 
 
 0-72727 
 
 Shilling 
 
 87-27272 
 
 0-36363 
 
 Sixpence 
 
 43-63636 
 
 0-18181 
 
 Fourpence . 
 
 29-09090 
 
 0-12121 
 
 Threepence ; 
 
 21-81818 
 
 0-09090 
 
 So delicate are the balances used in this operation that 
 it happens occasionally that a draught of air from the 
 opening of a door or window will turn the scales — ^in fact it 
 is quite necessary to keep the atmosphere as much undis- 
 turbed as possible round the instruments. The exact result 
 of each of these and the following tests has to be set out at 
 full in the verdict. 
 
 The next operation is this: — The Jurors melt all the 
 coins of gold and silver so selected from the packets iato 
 separate ingots, and assay them, comparing them with the 
 standard trial plates, so as to ascertain whether the metals 
 are with the Deputy-Master's remedy as to fineness.. 
 
 The standard fineness for gold coins is -^ fine 
 gold, and -j^ alloy, or millesimal fineness 916-66, the 
 remedy being millesimal fineness 002. For silver coins 
 the standard fineness is fj fine sUver, and -^ alloy, or 
 millesimal fineness -925, the remedy being millesimal fine- 
 ness 0-004. 
 
 The gold trial plate used in this test is of gold as nearly 
 
 103 
 
The Eoyal Mint. 
 
 perfectly pure as it is possible to procure it, the prepara- 
 tion of which caused Mr. Roberts, the Chymist to the Mint, 
 infinite pains to accomplish. The Deputy Master, in his 
 Sixth Annual Report, makes the following interesting 
 remark as to the metal of which this trial plate is com- 
 posed: 
 
 "As an instance of the intimate relation which should exist between 
 technical work and pure science, I may call attention to the fact men- 
 tioned by Mr. Roberta, that the trial plate of pure gold made by him in 
 1873, has incidentally rendered good service in experiments in solar phy- 
 sios, a portion of this plate, which is probably the purest ever prepared, 
 having been used as a standard of comparison in photographing the spectra 
 of certain other metals, " 
 
 The residue of the coins is next weighed in bulk, so as to 
 ascertain whether they are within the remedy as to weight. 
 As many, coias of gold and silver are now taken by the 
 jury from such residue as they think fit, and are assayed 
 individually, to see that they are within their respective 
 remedies. This operation being completed, the Jurors then 
 draw up their verdict, embodying therein all the results of 
 
 their various and searching tests. Such verdict was given 
 to the Queen's Remembrancer at the appointed hour, read 
 aloud by the Clerk of the Goldsmiths' Company, and signed 
 by the Jurors and Sir Frederick Pollock. It was published 
 in the London Gazette, and will be found to contain a most 
 complete discharge to the Deputy-Master and his staff for 
 the correct and careful performance of their duties during 
 the year. 
 
 The total value of the gold coined since the previous 
 trial, on the 21st of July, 1875, was £4,309,074 12s. lid, 
 which was converted into sovereigns and half-sovereigns, 
 of which 3,800 sovereigns, and 2,347 half-sovereigns were 
 placed in the Pyx. The value of silver coined in the same 
 time being £490,644, from which 702 half-crowns, 608 
 florins, 712 shillings, 340 sixpences, 2 fourpences, 117 three- 
 pences, 2 twopences, and 6 pennies (making a total value 
 of £194 3s. M), were placed in the Pyx for the purposes 
 of this trial. A large quantity of bronze coinage was 
 likewise issued during the year, but of this latter no exami- 
 nation is made at the trial of the Pyx, 
 
 104 
 
Heavy Machine Tools. 
 
 ON THE PROGEESSIVE IMPROVEMENTS IN THE 
 CONSTRUCTION OF MACHINE TOOLS FOR 
 ENGINEERING AND IRON SHIP WORK. 
 
 " The successful oonetruotion of all MAoniNERY depends on the perfec- 
 tion of the tools employed ; and whoever is a master in the art of tool- 
 making possesses the key to the construction of all machines ; » » * the 
 contrivance and construction of tools must, therefore, ever stand at the 
 head of the industrial arts." — Bahhage. 
 
 During the last forty years a great rise and progress 
 has taken place in the construction and aipplication of En- 
 gineering and Iron Ship Tools, their manufacture now form- 
 ing a very important branch of mechanical engineering. 
 Fifty years ago tools were of very rude and primitive de- 
 scription, the lathe and drill being about the only ones then 
 in general use ; slide lathes were possessed only by a few 
 persons, being made with great labour and expense, and 
 very inferior in point of workmanship. The introduction of 
 the planing machine, however, and its subsequent develop- 
 ment, effected an entire change in the manufacture of tools 
 and machinery of every class, giving the means of carrying 
 out with facility many works which had been left unat- 
 tempted previously, as too expensive or impracticable, and 
 opening the way for improvements and invention generally, 
 and in a short time these machines became comparatively 
 easy of manufacture, and in conjunction with the planing 
 machine and self-acting drill, formed a most important fea- 
 ture in the advancement of engineering work. Still much 
 remained to bo effected. A large proportion of work was 
 done by hand, especially the smaller portions of machi- 
 nery, until slotting and shaping machines were brought 
 into use, and special tools adapted for all parts where a 
 • quantity of work was required to be produced. By the 
 gradual introduction and perfecting of the regulator screw, 
 the wheel-cutting engine, standard gauges, large surface 
 plates, long straight edges, and scraped surfaces, combined 
 with the improved tools, not only was ' the amount of 
 manual labour considerably diminished but the work was 
 done more expeditiously, and a much greater degree of accu- 
 racy was attained, whereby the workmanship in all classes 
 of machinery was remarkably improved, and at a great re- 
 duction of cost. Jul As engineering skill was brought to bear 
 
 on schemes which could not previously have been carried 
 out, so were tools enlarged and new ones invented to meet 
 the exigencies of new works, until engineers and others be- 
 came really dependent for the accuracy and execution of 
 their works upon the tools that could be employed for the 
 purpose. The steam engine, with all the inventive genius 
 that has been concentrated upon it, would, without these 
 tools, have been most imperfect in construction, and would 
 have formed a wide contrast to the engines erected at the 
 present day in point of excellence of workmanship, durabi- 
 lity, and cost. Many instances could be given where tools 
 of unusually large dimensions or the most minute descrip- 
 tion are indispensable for the execution of the work re- 
 quired. 
 
 The great change which has taken place in the substitu- 
 tion of wrought iron, especially in shv\> and bridge building, 
 is a subject worthy of special attention. In shipbuilding 
 the use 6f wrought iron has advanced with such rapid 
 strides during the last forty years as to cause a complete re- 
 volution in the trade. The transition was so sudden, and the 
 demand so great, that much dif&culty was experienced in 
 procuring a sufficient number of the necessary class of work- 
 men, until those who had previously been employed as 
 shipwrights in building wooden vessels were in a short time 
 enabled, by the assistance of improved tools and appliances, 
 to compete with more practised hands, and to cope easily 
 with the heavy modern work. Improvements in the con- 
 struction of iron ships were then rapidly developed. New 
 tools were called for and produced, by means of which the 
 work has been materially improved and facilitated; the 
 edges of the plates are planed to make perfectly fitting 
 joints, and multiple drilling machines were rapidly intro- 
 duced into use for drilling a large number of holes at once 
 in the plates or keel-bars. 
 
 Another important feature in connection with improved 
 tools, is the direct application of steam power to individual 
 machines, especially those for the purpose of punching and 
 shearing plates, or cutting bars, &c., by the combination of a 
 small steam engine with each machine, thus rendering the 
 machines portable, entirely self contained, and independent 
 of other sources of driving power, and thereby saving in 
 many instances the necessity of running a large engine and 
 quantity of shafting to drive only one or two machines 
 
 -f 
 
 105 
 
Heavy Machine Tools. 
 
 when pressed for the work upon which they are engaged, 
 and entirely dispensing with shafting and the usual atten- 
 dant expenses. By this means, and by the use of an under- 
 ground steam pipe, with branches at convenient points, 
 either in worltshops, or along the sides of docks, or in work- 
 yards, these machines were moved about to any part re- 
 quired, and thus obviated the inconvenience and loss of 
 time in carrying work to and from the machines. Steam 
 pipes are now being used, and found very satisfactory for 
 purposes of this description, and this plan makes a much 
 more convenient and less costly arrangement than shafting, 
 which requires constant attention. 
 
 In the earlier construction of the lathe, the side rest was 
 the first great step towards the principle of the shde lathe, 
 and no doubt led to that invention which was considered 
 impracticable before planing machines were made of suffi- 
 cient magnitude to plane a lathe bed of even small dimen- 
 sions. A few slide lathes had indeed been made, the beds 
 of which were composed of timber framing, covered with 
 iron plates on the upper side to preserve the surface, similar 
 to those which were previously used for the ordinary hand 
 lathes, with the exception that the outer edges of the iron 
 plates were made of suitable shape to form the V's for the 
 carriage to slide upon. It was not, however, until some 
 time after the introduction of the planing machine, that the 
 cost of workmanship being considerably lessened, slide lathes 
 came into general use, and their utility was fully aclcnow- 
 ledged, and attention directed to their improvement. 
 
 The application of a screw to the slide lathe, so as to 
 render it capable of both sliding and screw cutting, was the 
 next important improvement, and a great amount of time, 
 perseverance, and capital was expended by a few persons, in 
 endeavouring to perfect this portion of the lathe. A short 
 screw was first made as accurately as possible with the rude 
 means then possessed, from which one was cut double the 
 length by changing the turned bar end for end in the lathe 
 after cutting one-half. Subsequently, by following out this 
 principle, screws were capable of being made of any length 
 required. 
 
 After this the surfacing motion was introduced, and also 
 the use of a shaft at the back of the lathe, in addition to 
 the regulator screw for driving the sliding motion by rack 
 and pinion, instead of both the motions for sliding and 
 screw cutting being worked by the screw alone. For it was 
 found that the threads of that portion of the screw nearest 
 the fast headstock being most in use were worn thinner 
 than the other parts, and, in consequence, the lathe did not 
 cut a long screw with the degree of accuracy which it other- 
 wise would have done. 
 
 Thus step by step improvements were gradually brought 
 forward; the four jaw and universal chucks, and other im- 
 portant appliances, were added, so as to render the lathe 
 appUcable to a great variety of work, even cutting spiral 
 
 grooves in shafts, scrolls in a face plate, skew wheels, and 
 also turning articles of oval, spherical, or other forms. The 
 duplex lathe, with one tool acting in front, and the other 
 behind the work, is also found to be a very useful arrange- 
 ment for sliding long shafts, cast-iron rollers, cylinders, and 
 a great variety of work where a quantity of the same kind 
 and dimensions has to be turned. 
 
 The lathe shown in Fig. 1, Plato 8, was an improved 
 lathe, designed for the purpose of turning long shafts, 
 screws, or other articles. The bed A was 40 ft. long, cast in 
 one piece, and planed the entire length at once. It is pro- 
 vided with two pairs of headstocks, placed right and left 
 hand, each pair having its own carriage and tool rest, and 
 working entirely independent of the other, the one pair B B 
 being 15 in. high to the centre, and the other C C 12 in. 
 high. In connection with the larger headstocks B B is a 
 regulator screw running through the entire length of the 
 bed, by means of which, when the other headstocks C C are 
 removed, a screw 35^ ft. might be cut at once. The smaller 
 headstocks C C, by means of a separate shaft at the back of 
 the lathe, was capable of sliding an article 25 ft. long, and 
 could also, if required, be provided with a screw cutting ar- 
 rangement. Thus the lathe possessed the advantages of 
 being used as two lathes for work of an ordinary character, 
 but at the same time a very long shaft might be turned 
 when required. In many workshops a long lathe is an 
 absolute necessity, although the whole length of the bed 
 may not be required many times during the year, and un- 
 less some similar arrangement to the one above described is 
 adopted, a large portion of the lathe bed taking up valuable 
 space would remain idle and useless the greater portion of 
 the time. Again, in sliding long shafts, the two carriages 
 and tools may be in operation at once upon the same piece 
 of work, and thus economize time. The headstocks being 
 placed right and left hand the loose headstocks are thus 
 able to accommodate each other in the different lengths of 
 work, thereby avoiding the necessity of moving the fast 
 headstock and top cone pulley when any work above half 
 the total length of bed is to be turned. 
 
 Figs. 2, 3, and 4, Plate 8, represent a slide lathe for 
 turning large marine engines, crank shafts, or other ar- 
 ticles up to 40 tons weight, or screw propellers up to 20 
 ft. diameter. The headstocks B C are 4 ft. 6 in. high from 
 the face of the bed, which is 40 ft. long. The main driving ' 
 spindle D is of cast-iron, 18 in. diameter in front bearing, 
 and 12 in. in the back bearing, arranged as an ordinary treble 
 geared lathe, which can be worked single, double, or treble 
 power. The cone pulley E, the largest speed of which is 3 
 ft. 6 in. diameter by 6 in. wide, runs loose upon the spindle 
 D. The faceplate F is 12 ft. diameter, and has on the back 
 a large internal toothed wheel G, Fig. 3. By means of two 
 pairs of driving pulleys on the countershaft, the lathe may 
 be worked at thirty different speeds to suit the diameter of 
 
 106 
 
 r 
 
HEAVY 
 
 Multiple -Drilling MbchLnc 
 
 Dctixils of Drill Spindles £P. cuid Drills 
 
 Fi^.21. Yitn 
 
 SCALE V8 
 
 
 !-w*;. 
 
 V ^ 
 
AVYMA CHINE TOOLS 
 
 Detail of JVut Mctkin^ Machine, enla 
 
 JVut Making Mctdajve' 
 
 Fi^ ?3. Verlical Sfi-iion. 
 
 
 SCALE VS"? 
 
 Hi 
 
 SeclioruiL Plan, cnlcuyed^^ o/~BoUffect* 
 
Detail of JViit MaJcin^ Machine, enZarpedj 
 
 PLATE 9 
 
 Fi^ . ^7 . Sediunal Plan. crJ^x/r/ed: of BoU ffmdiru/ Ma/Airiry . 
 
 SCALE V6 *•? 
 
 
 
 
Heavy Machine Tools. 
 
 articles to be turned. The fast headstock casting B is in 
 one piece, and without spindle or appurtenances weighs 19^ 
 tons. It is tied to the bed A by the tie plates H, Fig. 2. 
 The bed is 10 ft. wide over all, and is composed of two lathe 
 beds, A A, Fig. 4, each cast in one piece 40 ft. long, and held 
 firmly in a parallel position by distance feet or foundation 
 plates, K, having strips and bolts to bind the beds in their 
 places. When it is required to move the bed endways to 
 accommodate any large article on the faceplate, the strips in 
 the distance feet K are slackened, so as to allow the two 
 long beds A A to slide through them, the motion being 
 given at the end by means of wonn Avheels and screws, L, 
 Fig. 2. The end foot or distance piece K, nearest the fast 
 • headstock B, is fixed to the long beds A A, and travels with 
 them upon the tie plates H, so as to support their ends 
 whilst turning articles on the faceplate F. Two self-acting 
 sliding carriages, M and N, are employed, Fig. 2, upon one 
 of which, M, Fig. 4, is a slide rest of ordinary construction 
 and great strength; the other carriage, N, has a rest made 
 very narrow, with a wrouglit iron tool slide, and is for tlio 
 purpose of turning out cranlc sweeps. The self-acting motion 
 is driven from a strap by the spindle D to a pulley, 0, at the 
 back of the lathe. Fig. 3, and is provided with a reversing 
 a,pparatus, to enable the carriages to slide in both directions. 
 The motion can be thrown out of gear independently in 
 either of the carriages, M and N, which are provided with 
 an arrangement for moving them on the bed by hand. An 
 eye bolt is screwed in the front part of the lodse head stock 
 C, and a corresponding one upon the nearest carriage N, so 
 that the two can be coupled by a short chain or shackle, and 
 the loose head stock C can thus be drawn upon the surface 
 of the bed A to any required position by the hand motion 
 of the carriage N. The total weight of this lathe is upwards 
 of 70 tons. 
 
 The planing machine is one of the most important tools 
 in use, and has done more towards the advancement and 
 success of engineering work than any other invention, with 
 the exception of the lathe, and has passed through a great 
 number of changes since its first introduction down to the 
 present time. 
 
 In: the first planing machines the table was moved by 
 means of a chain winding on a drum, as in the old hand 
 machines. But this mode was found to be very objection- 
 able; the cut was unsteady, and when the tool was suddenly 
 relieved at the end of its cut, the table had a tendency to 
 spring forwards; it was also driven at the same speed both 
 forwards and backwards, and thus a great loss of time was 
 occasioned. This was much improved upon by the use of a 
 rack and pinion, arranged to give a quick return motion, 
 and also afterwards by the screw arrangement. Much 
 difference of opinion existed, as to the relative value of 
 the rack and the screw for driving the table of planing ma- 
 chines. 
 
 In some of the earliest planing machines the Vs were 
 made inverted, evidently with the idea of preventing any 
 cuttings that fell upon the wearing surfaces from remaining 
 iipon them. They proved, however, to possess no advan- 
 tage even in this particular, as the finer portions of the cut- 
 tings still adhered, and, in addition, it was found that from 
 the , motion of the table, the oil, by its own gravity, would 
 not remain upon the surfaces, and thus caused them to cut 
 and wear away quickly. They were afterwards made in an 
 ordinary V shape, and found to answer much better, as the 
 V formed a reservoir to contain the oil in a groove at the 
 bottom, from which it was raised at each stroke b^ the 
 motion of the table, and the apparatus attached for that 
 purpose. 
 
 The Vs have been constructed of different angles and 
 widths of surface, but it is the writer's opinion that at the . 
 present time many machines are made with the angle too 
 obtuse, and the surface widened to too great an extent. 
 In machines with very shallow Vs taking a heavy cut off 
 a light article, with the tools on the upright, the table is 
 liable to shift sideways, causing the tools to dig into the 
 work, and occasion much mischief. Also, with yery wide 
 Vs the table, when making very short strokes, cannot work 
 the oil up to the top of their surfaces, and thus allows them 
 to cut or gall. The iVriter has in use a planing machine 
 with a bed 54 ft. long, the Vs of which shown one quarter 
 full size in f'ig. 5, Plate 8, have only 2 in. of surface on 
 each, and are planed to an angle 85 degrees. This machine 
 has been working upwards of thirty years, and ^for the last 
 twenty years both night and day. It has been employed, 
 during the whole of that time upon very heavy work, rang- 
 ing from 5 to 20 tons. The Vs are still in good condition, 
 apparently very little worn, and the work the machine does 
 is at the present time perfectly true. .The bed is in three 
 parts, jointed and bolted together, and the table in two parts, 
 since at the time it was made-there was no machine capable 
 of planing a very long piece, and this was considered to be 
 one of the largest then in existence. The writer has also a 
 planing machine made about the same period, with a Y on 
 one side of the bed, and a flat surface on the other, which 
 plan he found was very objectionable, on account of the 
 two surfaces not wearing equally, and the oil, working off 
 the flat surface. 
 
 The planing machines were further improved after a time 
 by the use of two tool boxes on the cross sides, and by the 
 application of slide rests or tool boxes fixed upon the up- 
 rights, self-acting vertically for planing articles at right 
 angles to the tools on the cross slide. The reversing tool 
 box is a very ingenious and useful contrivance for planing 
 flat surfaces; but that plan is not so well adapted for general 
 purposes. Planing rnachines have, like other tools, been 
 specially adapted to a great variety of work, and the writer- 
 has made them with different numbers of tools, up to 
 
 107 
 
 Q 
 
Heavy Machine Tools. 
 
 as many as sixteen, all of which were in operation at 
 
 once. 
 
 The great changes which have lately taken place in the 
 manufacture of wrought iron and steel ordnance, and the 
 revolution they have caused in the construction of vessels of 
 war, have called into requisition a great many alterations 
 and adaptations of the present machines, as well as many 
 entirely new ones. The planing machine especially has 
 been called upon to do work of a very curious and intricate 
 character, namely, that of planing the edges of armour plates 
 to diiferent curves, shapes, or angles. In most cases this 
 has been accompHshed by a pattern bar of iron or steel 
 placed on edge in a small chuck fixed upon the surface of 
 the table, adjustable by set screws, and shaped to the form 
 to which it is required to plane the edge of the plate. As 
 the table travels this bar, which runs between two circular 
 rollers attached to the underside of the tool slide, moves 
 the tool sideways, according to the amount of curve in the 
 shaper or guide bar, the tool-box being disconnected for this 
 purpose from the screw in the cross sHde. 
 
 Figs, 6 to 9, Plate 8, represents one of Collier and 
 Co.'s duplex Planing Machines. This machine is arranged 
 with double beds AA, and double tables BB, Fig 8, each 
 table having a separate set of gearing, with starting, stop- 
 ping, and feed motions. There are two' tool-boxes, CO on the 
 cross slide D, each of which is independently self-acting, so 
 as to work with its own table. Thus the two tables may 
 be used separately as two smaller machines, working inde- 
 pendently of each other, and capable of planing different 
 lengths of work at the same time ; or when planing a large 
 article the two tables, gearing, and motions may be coupled 
 so as to form one large machine, an arrangement rendering 
 the machine capable of doing a great variety of work. Also 
 one table may be fixed stationary at a bed plate to bolt 
 awkwardly shaped, or long pieces to work upon, whilst they 
 are planed by a slide rest fixed upon the other table. When 
 used as one machine both sets of straps and gearing are in 
 operation, and are reversed by the stops of one table only, 
 so as to ensure the straps moving at the same time. 
 
 The machine shown in Figs. 6 and 8, Plate 8, is capable 
 of planing articles 10 ft. wide and 10 ft. high. The 
 racks on the underside of the tables BB are 3 in. pitch, with 
 stepped teeth, as shown enlarged in the Plan Fig. 7. The 
 wheel E working into the rack is 3 ft. 9 in. diameter at the 
 pitch Hne, and is driven by a smaller pinion F, Fig. 6, the 
 large wheel E being only for the purpose of transmitting 
 the power from the pinion F to the rack. By this arrange- 
 ' ment the large wheel E has a better hold upon the rack, 
 and a steadier motion is obtained, and also the pulleys and 
 driving gear G can be placed entirely behind the face of 
 the uprights H, so as to leave the front of the machine per- 
 fectly clear, that the straps may not be in the way when 
 taking the work off and on. The pulleys G being below the 
 
 ground line, may be driven by a horizontal underground 
 shaft at the back of the machine, and no straps will then be 
 visible. Machines of this description, with beds 40 ft. long, 
 to plane work up to 14 ft. in width were constructed the 
 same as shown in Fis:. 9, being made in two halves, AA, 
 jointed longitudinally with a projection I on one half fitting 
 into a corresponding recess in the other, and securely fas- 
 tened by bolts at intervals throughout the entire length. 
 
 This machine is particularly well adapted for planing 
 armour plates. Two plates can be planed at once on each 
 table, one being placed upright, the other horizontal, so as 
 to be operated upon by the tools on the cross slide and the 
 upright at the same time; or whilst two plates are. being 
 planed on one table, the workman may be fixing two or ■ 
 more on the others, and thus keep the machine constantly 
 employed. One workman is sufficient to attend to both 
 sides of the machine, thereby saving labour. By having a 
 stationary table fixed at one side of the bed upon which the 
 four ends of four other armour plates are bolted, and add- 
 ing an angle bracket and slide rest upon one of the mooring 
 tables, the four ends are planed at the same time. 
 
 The Slotting Machine was originally introduced for cut- 
 ting small wheels, levers, &c., mostly for self-acting mule and 
 loom work, and was afterwards adapted to a great variety of ■ 
 work, by the application of a circular table, which was an 
 improvement of the greatest importance, especially in large 
 machines for slotting or shaping large cranks or other simi- 
 lar work. This is now done with such perfection as to 
 require merely drawfilihg and polishing to give the work a 
 perfect finish. Many kinds of quick return motions, have 
 been employed for the purpose of saving time in the return 
 stroke of the tool, and to give it a regular and steady move- 
 ment in the cutting direction. Of these the principal are 
 the eccentric wheels, the eccentric motion, and, lastly, the 
 lever motion, which makes an excellent, steady movement, 
 and is now very much applied to shaping machines. 
 
 One of the large slotting machines introduced had a 
 stroke of 3 ft., and the framing is capable of taking in an 
 article 12 ft. diameter ; it has compound slides, and a self- 
 acting circular table 6 ft. diameter. The ram moves' in a 
 vertical slide, which can be raised or lowered to suit the 
 depth of work on the table, so as to form a support to the 
 ram when taking a heavy cut. The motion apphed to the 
 tool shde is the lever and connecting rod, arranged so as to 
 gain power, and give an almost uniform motion in the cut- 
 ting direction, and an accelerated speed in the return stroke. 
 
 A difference of opinion exists as to the best form for con- 
 structing slotting machines, whether with the double stan- , 
 dard or the projecting single frame. For machines required 
 to take in a very large diameter the former plan is preferred. 
 
 Figs. 10 to 14, Plate 8, show a double lever Punch- 
 ing, Shearmg, and Angle Iron Cutting Machine. The 
 strong, hollow cast iron frame AA is plaried at each end 
 
 
 108 
 
Pi^.l. LoTUf Double /^othe . 
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 for tho reception of the punching slide B, and the shearing 
 slide C. Tho machine is put in motion by a steam en- 
 gine D, Fig. 11, fixed upon the outside of the framing, and 
 connected to a crank-i)in in the fiy-wheel E, driving by a 
 pinion F on the first motion shaft into the large wheel G, 
 Fig. 12, which has cams H, cast on each side, and opposite 
 positions, so as to actuate the levers KK alternately. These 
 cams, are provided with circular rollers, which run against 
 the underside of the levers K, during the operation of 
 punching or shearing, and thus prevent any scraping or 
 friction of the surfaces in contact. The levers K are 
 wrought iron, steeled where operated upon by the cams, 
 which they work in the slides B and C, having the pins I 
 for their fulcrums. The punching sHde B, shown enlarged 
 in Fig. 14, is provided with a block J, which can be drawn 
 out from under the end of the lever to throw the punch slide 
 out of gear. At the shearing end C, shown enlarged in Fig. 
 13, an adjustable stop L, is added immediately in front of 
 the shears for holding down the plate whilst shearing, and 
 thus causing it to bo cut square on the edge ; this takes the 
 strain of holding down the plate from the workman, and 
 prevents short pieces of metal from getting down between 
 the cutters and breaking the machine. 
 
 Upon the end of the central shaft is forged an eccentric 
 M, Fig. 10, working into a block in the ram N, the lower 
 end of which is provided with suitably shaped cutters for 
 shearing bars . of an angle 0. This slide is placed at an 
 angle of 45 degrees, and has also a disengaging motion, so 
 as to be thrown out of gear whilst a long bar of angle iron 
 is being put between the cutters, and set to the proper place 
 or marlcs for being cut off correctly. This slide may also, if 
 required, be placed in a vertical position for cutting straight 
 bars. In cutting long bars of bent angle iron, however, with 
 the slide N placed in a vertical position, one ' portion of the 
 bar would project either upwards or downwards at an angle 
 from the ground, and would, consequently, be very awkward 
 for the workman to hold, but by placing the slide at an angle, 
 as shown in Fig. 10, the bars are kept in a horizontal line 
 parallel with the ground whilst being dut. 
 
 This machine possesses all the advantages of the old lever 
 machine and the eccentric machine combined, the former 
 of which has long been acknowledged to be the most simple 
 and useful. The cams H, Fig 12; are constructed of such a 
 shape, that the operation of punching or shearing is com- 
 pleted, and the slide returned to the top in half a revolution 
 of the machine, the whole slide remaining stationary during 
 the other half revolution, whilst the workman is adjusting 
 the plate for the next stroke. This enables the machine to 
 be worked one-third quicker than eccentric machines, and 
 still leaves the workman as much time to move the plate, 
 since in eccentric machines the punch or shears is always 
 being either raised or lowered instead of being stationary 
 during part .of each revolution. The levers KK are left 
 
 sufficiently long and heavy at the tail end to overcome the 
 weight of the slides B and C, and the friction of the punch 
 or shears upon the work. Many of the old machines were 
 made "without rollers, either in tho lever end or in the cam, 
 and in consequence of the wear which took place, the stroke 
 of the punch or shears was gradually lessened until the 
 worn out parts had to be renewed. By the application 
 of rollers, however, in the cams H, these objections are en- 
 tirely obviated ; and instead of scraping the oil from the 
 wearing surfaces, the roller tends to keep it on. 
 
 For the p;urpose of obtaining greater accuracy in dividing 
 out the holes in bridge plates, boiler, or ship plates, a divid- 
 ing table has been used, and machines have been arranged 
 to punch several holes at once. This was certainly a great 
 improvement upon the old method, since in addition to the 
 accuracy attained, very much more work was accomplished 
 in the same amount of time. Still, the work was not of a 
 satisfactory description ; in punching the holes the iron is 
 disturbed or fractured for some little distance round the 
 hole, thus weakening the plate ; and in consequence of the 
 taper which there must necessarily be in all punched holes, 
 the rivets do not thoroughly fill up the space, especially 
 when more than two plates are joined together. 
 
 The faults of punched work above mentioned were so 
 apparent when wrought iron bridge building became general, 
 that they led to the introduction, by Messrs. Cochrane, of 
 the Multiple Drilling Machine, for drilUng a large nujnber 
 of holes at once in bridge plates. 
 
 It has been found desirable to make this principle of 
 drilling machine more universal in its application, and a 
 machine for this purpose is shown in Figs. 15 and 16, Plate 
 8. The strong base plate AA extends the entire length of 
 the machine about 18 ft., with three circular openings 
 along the centre line, large enough to admit the hydraulic 
 cylinders CC, by which the table BB, carrying the plate to 
 be drilled, is raised and pressed against the drills with the 
 necessary force. The end frames DD are bolted to the base 
 plate, and upon them are fixed guides adjusted to each cor- 
 ner of the table ; they also support the girder EEj which 
 carries the drill frames. The ends of the girder are fitted 
 in planed grooves, and it is made in halves, which can be 
 set wider apart without altering the gearing, by inserting 
 cast-iron pacldngs of the requisite thickness, and longer 
 bolts at the joint F, Fig. 16. The two halves of the girder 
 can also be turned with the drill frames inwards if required,' 
 and adjusted to a distance of 4 in. apart for the two rows of 
 holes and upwards. 
 
 Each driU is held in a separate frame G, as shown enlarged 
 in Figs. 17 to 20, Plate 9. These frames are aU bolted on 
 the girder E, at the proper distance apart, by means of bolts, 
 the heads of which are in T grooves cast and planed in the 
 girder, Figs. 18 and 19. Two small projections on the driU 
 frame G are planed to fit the recesses of these grooves, as 
 
 109 
 
Heavy Machine Tools, 
 
 seen in Fig. 18, and the drill frames G are thereby all held 
 at exactly the same height, and are easily moved longitudi- 
 nally to any position along the girder E. Each drill spindle 
 is fitted with an adjustable tail pin, and lock-nut H; which 
 receives the upward pressure of the spindle ; and a conical 
 bearing is provided at the lower end of each frame G, which 
 prevents the drill spindles from wearing out of truth. The 
 drills are all turned parallel for a short distance at the upper 
 end, as shown enlarged in Figs. 21 and 22, and fit in parallel 
 sockets, which admit of short drills being adjusted to the 
 same length as longer ones, by putting some sinall burrs or 
 punchings from the punching-machine, of the required thick- 
 ness, into the drill socliets above the drills ; and the drills 
 are fastened in the sockets by a set screw. 
 
 Each drill spindle is driven at the top by a pair of spur 
 mitre wheels II, which may be described as each consisting 
 of a short section of 3f in. diameter twelve-threaded screw, 
 of which the threads are about 12 in. pitch, that is to say, 
 each thread or tooth if continued would make one complete 
 turn round its shaft in 12 in. length. A long steel shaft J, 
 2\ ill. diameter, with a groove throughout its length, passes 
 through each drill frame G, and its vertical spur mitre wheel 
 I, giving motion to each drill spindle. This shaft is driven 
 by a pair of strong bevel wheels K, Fig. IC, in the propor- 
 tion of 1| to 1, the larger one being on the shaft J; and 
 the wheels K take tlieir motion direct from the pulley shaft 
 L, which is driven with pulleys 3 ft. diameter, and ' 6 in. 
 wide, and runs at about 90 revolutions per minute, giving 
 about 60 revolutions per minute for the drills. 
 
 The application of the spur mitre wheels II, Figs. 17 to 20, 
 in this machine, for driving the drill spindles, enables the 
 spindles to be arranged in such a manner that they are 
 capable of being moved to suit different pitches of holes. 
 In consequence, liowcvor, of the Avheels II being 3f in. 
 diameter, holes could not be drilled at a less pitch than that 
 dimension with a single driving shaft J ; but another apph- 
 cation of the same mode of driving is shown in Figs. 17 to 
 .20, by means of which the drill spindles can be got to within 
 2^ in. from centre to centre, with the same diameter of driv- 
 ing wheels I ; this is effected by using two long steel driving 
 shafts JJ, instead of a single one, as previously described, 
 each shaft driving every alternate drill spindle. 
 
 The hydraulic cylinders GC, Figs. 15 and IG, are similar 
 to those of hydraulic presses, and are used to raise the table 
 with the work on it up to the drills, instead of gearing, 
 which would necessarily be much slower. A pair of strong 
 1| in. diameter pumps, worked by eccentrics on a shaft, force 
 water into an accumulator, which consists of an upright 
 cylinder fitted with a piston properly weighted ; and there is 
 a self-acting ajiparatus whicli throws tho pumps out of gear 
 when the accumulator is full. The hydraulic cylinders are 
 connected with the accumulator by a two-way cock ; and on 
 .turning the water on, the table B immediately rises. When 
 
 the pressure is to be removed, turnmg the cock back stops 
 the pressure from the accumulator, and at the same time 
 allows the water to escape from the cylinders, causing the 
 table to faU immediately. The working pressure of water is 
 about 3 cwts. per sqxiare inch, which produces a pressure of 
 about 6 cwts. per drill. A plate is drilled in 12 to 15 
 minutes. A strong parallel motion gear M, is fixed under 
 the drill table B, to prevent it from lifting at one end when 
 only the drills at the other end are being used, or when only 
 one row is in use. 
 
 These driUing machines were used by Messrs. Kennard 
 for drilling the plates and bars required in the main girders 
 of the new bridge over the Thames at Blackfriars. The 
 truth of the drilled holes is so complete that when a number 
 of plates with holes drilled for 1-in. pins are put together 
 indiscriminately, and four turned pins passed through the 
 comer holes, the holes fit so accurately throughout the en- 
 tire lot of plates, that a pin 1 in. diameter can be driven 
 through the lot at any hole with a light hand hammer. In 
 consequence of this superiority of the work, a great dimi- 
 nution in the cost of labour takes place in putting the parts 
 together, saving the drifting of the holes and the strain put 
 upon the plate, which necessarily takes place when rivet- 
 ting punched holes. In addition to this the fibre of the 
 iron retains all its strength and tenacity, and there can be 
 no doubt that the extra work of manufacture is fully com- 
 pensated for by the greater strength of construction, and the 
 decrease of 'cost in putting the plates together. 
 
 Several other useful machines are constructed for bridge 
 and ship-building purposes, amongst which may be named : 
 — A machine for shearing plates up to 1 in. thick with re- 
 volving circular shears ; machines for planing plates with a 
 travelling tool, and also with a revolving circular disc con- 
 taining a number of tools ; and machines for bending gai'- 
 board strakes, angle iron, and deck beams for ships. 
 
 A Nut-making Machine is shown in vertical section in 
 Figs. 23 to 25, Plate 9; the principal features of which 
 are the manufacture of nuts from a heated bar of iron, at 
 a single operation, by cutting off from the bar a piece 
 to form the blank, which is swaged into shape, and the 
 hole punched through it while still hot. The blank is 
 powerfully compressed between the pair of swages, while in 
 tlie die box, before the hole is punched, in order to make 
 the nut solid, and to shape it with smoothness and precision ; 
 and the hole is then punched while the nut is still confined 
 in the die-box, and under the heavy pressure of the swages, 
 so that it is prevented from bursting or straining during the 
 operation of punching. Figs. 24 and 25, Plate 9, illustrate 
 the worldng of the machine, in which the end of the heated 
 bar A, being pushed up to tho stop B, is cut off by the de- 
 scent of the die-box C, on to the stationary die J, and the 
 blank cut off being enclosed in the die-box C, is theii sub- 
 jected to severe compression by the descent of the upper 
 
 110 
 
Heavy Machine Tools. 
 
 swage I, which works within the die-box G, and fills it closely. 
 ■The blank is then punched by the descent of the punch D, 
 whilst still under compression in the die-box C ; and the 
 finished nut is liberated by the rising of the die-box C and 
 punch D, whilst the upper swage I remains stationary, and 
 pushes the nut out below. 
 
 The die-box C, Figs. 24 and 25, is carried on the crosshead 
 
 E, and consists of a cast-iron block, into which is fitted the I 
 steel die having a hole to correspond with the shape of nut 
 required to be made. The die is held down in the die-box 
 by a circular wrought-iron plate or washer let into the recess 
 in the top of the block. The upper swage I is made of steel, 
 and corresponds in size and shape with the die-box in which 
 it is to work; the upper end is enlarged, to prevent it from 
 dropping out when the die-box rises. The hole drilled 
 through the centre of the upper swage I, for the punch D 
 to work through, is made larger at the upper end, and small 
 enough at the lower end for about ^ an inch of its length to 
 fit the bottom end of the punch D, which makes the hole in 
 the nut. The bottom face of this swage I is slightly recessed, 
 in order to form the impression of a washer upon the upper 
 face of the nut. The lower swage or stationary die J is 
 made of steel, and has also a hole through its centre for the 
 reception of the burr punched out by the punch D. 
 
 The end of the heated bar A, Fig. 24, is laid upon the rest 
 
 F, which is fixed upon the crosshead E that carries the die- 
 box ; and as soon as the knocker G, Fig. 23, has passed from 
 between the upper and lower swages, the bar is pushed for- 
 wards up against the stop B, as shown in Fig. 24. The cam 
 H, Fig. 23, upon the main driving shaft of the machine, 
 then depresses the crosshead E by means of the lever K ; 
 and the blank to form the nut is thus sheared off from, the 
 end of the bar A, by the die-box C, and, enclosed within the 
 die-box, as seen in Fig. 25. For although the die-box C, at 
 the moment of beginning to descend, is filled by the swage 
 I, there is nothing to cause the descent of this swage until 
 after the blank has been sheared off and enclosed in the die- 
 box, then the crosshead E comes in contact with the check- 
 piece L, which presses upon the top of the swage I, and the 
 further descent of the crosshead through the last portion of 
 its stroke thereby compresses the blank between the swages 
 I and J, while still confined in the die-box. The second cam 
 M, Fig. 23,'upon the cam shaft 0, now draws down the other 
 crosshead N, in which is fixed the punch D, Fig. 25, for per- 
 forating the blank. The cams H and M are so shaped that 
 the punch is made to pass down through tl;ie blank and out 
 again before the blank is reheved from the pressure of the 
 swages, so that the metal is strongly compressed both before 
 the punching, and during the whole time the punching is 
 being performed. After the punch has been withdrawn the 
 die-box C is carried up again by the return motion of th6 
 cam H, and the finished nut being tight in the die-box 
 would be carried up with it, but the swage I is prevented 
 
 from rising through more than half the stroke of the die-box, 
 by means of the set screw P, Fig. 24, which stops the ascent 
 of the check piece L. The nut is thus pushed out of the 
 die-box by the swage I, and is ready to be knocked off by 
 the revolving arm G, Fig. 23, which is driven by bevel wheels 
 from the cam shaft 0. 
 
 The dies, swages, and punch are so fixed to the machine 
 that they can easily be removed and replaced by others of 
 different sizes : by this means the same machine may be 
 used for making nuts of various sizes and shapes. Two of 
 these machines have now been at work for upwards of fif- 
 teen years. With the aid of a good furnace, from 15 to 20 
 cwts. of I or 1-inch nuts can be produced in a working day 
 of 10 hours, the machine running at 60 revolutions per 
 minute. All the nuts possess the same degree of accuracy 
 in shape, the sides being parallel to each other, and the hole 
 being punched perfectly central whilst the nut is under pres- 
 sure in the die-box. The iron is fed into the machine at a 
 welding heat, and the pressure put upon it by the swages in 
 die-ijox has the effect of closing up the fibres of the iron, 
 making the nuts very much stronger than those forged in 
 the ordinary way by hand. The holes punched are perfectly 
 clean and regular, and have no scale inside them to injure or 
 chafe the threads of the taps, when being screwed. 
 
 A Bolt Heading Machine, similar in some of its principal 
 parts to the Nut-maldng Machine just described, is shown 
 in Figs. 26 and 27, Plate 9. Fig. 26 is a general plan of 
 the machine, and Fig. 27 is a sectional plan to a larger 
 scale, showing the arrangement and operation of the dies 
 and the heading swage. The dies A and B, Fig.. 27, which 
 enclose the long end of the bolt C to be headed, are divided 
 longitudinally down the centre, one half A being carried by 
 the stationary brackets D, and the other half B by the shear- 
 ing slide E, to which a reciprocating motion is given by the 
 cam F, Fig. 26. At the outer end of the stationary die A 
 is fixed a steel cutter I, of exactly the same form as the die 
 A ;' and in a similar position in the shearing slide E is a 
 corresponding steel cutter J, projecting for the purpose of 
 cutting off from the bar of iron the length C for making the 
 bolt. The dies A and B are made in short lengths, so that 
 the total length can be increased or diminished by inserting 
 pieces of different thickness, whereby bolts can be made of 
 any length, from 1 up to 12 in. ; the remainder of the . 
 space being filled up by packing pieces, and the whole 
 firmly held together by the bolts G. 
 
 The bar of iron for forming the bolt C, Fig 27, heated to 
 a welding state for a short distance only at the end, and of 
 the same diameter as the screwed portion of the bolt, is in- 
 serted between the dies A and B while open, and pushed in 
 up to the heading swage H, the length of which is adjust- 
 able, so as to measure off the iron to the correct length for 
 making bolts with different thicknesses of head. As soon 
 as the bar is inserted between the dies, the shearing slide E 
 
 111 
 
J. 
 
 Heavy Machine Tools. 
 
 carrying the die B and cutter J being pressed forwards by 
 the cam F, cuts off the length C for forming the bolt ; the 
 cutter and die B then remain stationary in this position, and 
 hold the bolt C firmly between the dies A and B, until the 
 formation of the head is completed. The die-box K is now 
 moved forward by the cams L and slide M until it touches 
 the face of the dies AB; when immediately the centre ram 
 N, carrying the heading swage H, is advanced by the cam 0, 
 and compresses the heated metal so as to fill the die-box K, 
 and form the bolt head. The heading swage H then remains 
 ' stationary, whilst the die-box K is drawn back clear of the 
 bolt head, when the swage also retires to its original position. 
 The shearing slide E is then withdrawn by the cam F, leav- 
 ing the bolt C in the stationary half A of the dies ; and a 
 knocker P, actuated by a cam at the side of the large wheel 
 E, Fig. 26, strikes the finished bolt and discharges it from 
 the dies. 
 
 This machine makes about 30 strokes per minute, and is 
 capable of producing a bolt at each stroke, provided it be 
 supplied with the iron at a proper heat. The bar of iron 
 is heated only at that portion which is to form the head, 
 the remainder or bolt end being cut off cold. The object of 
 this is to prevent the bolts from being scaled their whole 
 length through the action of the fire. 
 
 The ram N, carrying the heading swage H, is acted upon 
 by the cam 0, through the intervention of a lever S, through 
 which the whole pressure is transmitted; and the bottom 
 end of this lever is centred upon an oak beam fixed inside 
 the framing of the machine, which being sUghtly elastic, 
 prevents the machine from being broken in the event of 
 more iron being inserted into it than is required to make 
 the bolt head. In consequence of this provision a bolt has 
 been made without breaking the machine, with a head as 
 much as 1^^ in. thick, when the dies were set to make it 
 only I in. thick. 
 
 The large plate-shearing machine, which we have illus- 
 trated by plate 10 (constructed by Messrs. J. Yule & Co., 
 Glasgow), is made to shear with ease cold boiler or shij) 
 plates IJ in. thick. It is driven by a small steam cylinder, 
 fixed upon the sole plate of the machine. The shear 
 blades are 6 ft. long, have a stroke of 6 in., and malce 
 from ten to fifteen strokes or shears per minute. The 
 headstocks, or side frames, stand upon a large sole plate, 
 their centres 6 ft. apart ; the gap at the shears is full 2 ft. 
 deep, so that a plate 4 ft. broad can be cut into two equal 
 pieces; the clear distance between the inner flanges of 
 headstocks is 4 ft., which will admit a plate 18 ft. or 
 19 ft. long, by 4 ft. wide, to be cut into two plates of 
 equal lengths. Each hcadstock contains a large malleable 
 iron shaft, with eccentric ends for driving the slide holding 
 
 the upper shear blade. The whole is self-contained, and 
 requires no foundation except a levelled bed of brick or 
 timber. • 
 
 Fig. 1 is a side elevation of the machine ; Fig. 2, plan ; 
 Fig. 3, elevation of the shearing end of the machine; 
 Fig. 4, transverse sectional elevation, taken on the line 0. 
 The same letters of reference in the several views denote 
 the same parts of the machiae. 
 
 A A, headstocks ; B, sHde holding upper shear blade C, 
 provided with adjustable guides, "WW; C, lower shear 
 blade ; D, stock for holding ditto ; E, gap or opening, 2 ft. 
 deep, to admit of the shearing of a plate 4 ft. wide ; F F, the 
 large driving spur wheels, fixed upon the eccentric shafts ; 
 G, first driving pinion upon the end of the crank shaft, and 
 working into the intermediate spur wheel H. The inter- 
 mediate shaft, upon which the wheel H is keyed, has also 
 keyed upon it the large pinion T, which drives the two 
 spur wheels F F ; I, fly-wheel ; J, framing supporting 
 fly-wheel shaft ; K, steam cylinder ; L, sole-plate of the 
 machine ; M M, eccentric pins upon end of the driving 
 shafts Y Y ; N N, connecting rods working into recesses in 
 the slide B, and driven by the eccentric pins M M ; both 
 pins being placed in the same position causes the slide to 
 move up and down perfectly parallel; the slide is also 
 guided at the ends with V-shaped sides, P P ; these sides 
 are bound together with the wrought iron bar R. 
 
 There are a great variety of special tools for railway and 
 machine-making purposes, which we have been obliged to 
 pass over, and which would form ample material for another 
 paper, which we intend shortly to give. 
 
 In conclusion it may be remarked, that the opinion is 
 now universal that, without extraordinary strength, rigidity, 
 and power in tools, their work cannot be accomplished 
 either quickly or well. Accuracy in the manufactui'e of 
 tools, and tlieir universal application, have had a great 
 effect in the perfection of the work executed, and in the 
 facility and economy of its performance. By the assistance 
 of gauges for different parts of machinery (and, thanks to 
 the labours of Mr. Joseph N. Whitworth, we have now such 
 at our disposal), the advantages of engineering tools have 
 been more fully reahzed; and no engineering work, of 
 whatever magnitude, need now remain unaccomplished for 
 want of tools. 
 
 Notwithstanding the length of time during which the 
 improvement of tools has been in progress, and the great 
 advance that has been made, it may be said that at the 
 present time there is a wider field for improvement than 
 ever, and a constant and increasing demand for tools of 
 novel construction for special purposes. 
 
 112 
 
PRICE S 
 
 SeeiiofL C/iro ' c.<£. 
 
 T.S.JhnJyry.Hm .VcuuA'' 
 
Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 -XD-4.0— ^ 
 
 {Illustrated by Plate No. 11, and Wood Engravings). 
 
 In this branch of our industrial processes, we consider 
 the gas furnace of Mr. Price, Sunderland, one of the 
 naost valuable improvements recently introduced, and 
 having borne successfully the test of practical expe- 
 rience of its use, wo cannot do better than describe it here, 
 and give the practical results attained by its employ- 
 ment in several largo establishments, notably in the lioyal 
 Arsenal, Woolwich, whore it has been put through practical 
 ordeals to satisfy the requirements of that great establish- 
 ment with the supervisional watchfulness for economy for 
 which that establishment is proverbial. Attention is called 
 to , these iniprovements in puddling, heating, and forge 
 furnaces. They consist primarily in utilising the heat which 
 is now wasted in the common furnace. The plan is ex- 
 tremely simple, and capable of being easily adapted to exist- 
 ing furnaces. It does not interfere with their action except 
 to improve it; it is in fact an ordinary reverberatory furnace, 
 with a more economic use of the fuel products than now 
 obtains. The three following principal results are accom- 
 pHshed, and a saving in fuel of from 40 to 50 per cent, in 
 "fettling," of from 25 to 50 per cent, according to whether the 
 furnaces are double or single, for puddling — and the waste of 
 the iron is reduced 50 per cent. (1.) By intercepting the 
 enormous amount of heat which passes through the stack 
 into the atmosphere at some 3,000°, and returning this heat 
 to the furnace. The supply of fuel is by means of the retort 
 made to intercept this now wasted heat, and return it, to be 
 re-employed in the operations of the furnace. The inter- 
 cepted heat distils the volatile properties of the coal (which 
 pass at once into the furnace), and cokes the remainder prior 
 to its being pushed on to the bars, the temperature of the 
 escaping heat being thus reduced from about 3,000° to about 
 1,000°, except in cases where a higher temperature may be re- 
 quired for generating steam in boilers. (2.) Obviating the use 
 of cold and often damp coal for replenishing the fire. This, 
 it is well known, checks the heat; it often chills and sets the 
 cinders in piles, and from the difficulty in remelting, it is 
 a cause of blisters and unsound iron. This evil is removed 
 by a continuous supply of heated fuel. (3.) Preventing the 
 presence of free or uncdmbined air in the furnace. '^^■" 
 
 This 
 
 passes through the fuel on the bars, and in puddling and 
 reheating seriously oxidises the iron, and also produces 
 injurious eflfects on the furnace. This evil is removed by 
 the supply of highly heated fuel and the constant stream of 
 coal gas which flows from the " Retort" to the combustion 
 chamber from a higher level than the firo bars, and which 
 oCCoctually combines the froo air, nentriilizos Its destructive 
 action upon the charge, increases the yield of iron, and 
 diminishes the quantity of "fettling" required. Besides the 
 foregoing, these improvements also offer the following ad- 
 vantages: — (1st.) They facilitate the use of inferior fuels; 
 they promote a readier separation of the combustible' from 
 the non-combustible properties of the coal, with which such 
 fuels are heavily burthened. (2nd.) They bring within the 
 category of the useful fuels the rich stores of " anthracite," 
 which have hitherto failed in their utility to the iron-maker: 
 they have been used with success in the retort furnace. 
 (3rd.) The life of the furnace is lengthened one-third beyond 
 that of the ordinary furnace. Nearly two and a-half years* 
 ■uninterrupted work has determined their commercial value. 
 The economic effects of the retort furnace in the manufac- 
 ture of iron will be seen by the following results of their 
 daily working: — 
 To produce a ton of puddled bar — 
 
 In a Single Puddling Furnace. 
 
 Cwts. Qrs. 
 Iron . . . . 20 2 
 Fettling ... 6 
 Coals . . . 13 
 
 In a Double Puddling Furnace. 
 Cwts. Qra. 
 Iron . . . . 20 2 
 Fettling ... 4 
 Coals . . . . 10 2 
 
 To heat a ton of iron in a mill or forge furnace, 4 J cwt. of coals 
 is required. Excepting the apparatus by which the retort is 
 charged with fuel, there is no mechanism required beyond 
 what is common to all ordinary furnaces. Plate 11: — 
 Pig. 1. — A is a combustion chamber filled with grate bars in 
 the ordinary way. B, a heating chamber, separated from A 
 by the usual bridge. C is the neck descending into an 
 underground flue I), leading into an upcast or retort cham- 
 ber, as it has been designated, E. In the centre of the 
 chamber (E) is a fire-brick circular pillar F, with spaces 
 around, marked in Fig. 2, EEEE, and on which is placed a 
 
 113 
 
Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 cast iron cylindrical air vessel G, which is protected by fire- 
 brick. 
 
 On this air vessel (G) is built a retort H, partly of fire- 
 brick, partly of cast iron. The top of the cast iron part of 
 the retort is fitted with a hopper, I, in the throat of which 
 is a damper, J, worked by a rocking shaft and lever, K, from 
 the ground. 
 
 The lower portion of the retort made of fire-brick has two 
 necks, LL, the one leading to the combustion chamber for 
 the passage of fuel, the other to the outside of the furnace 
 for the insertion of stoking tools, to force the fuel forward 
 into the combustion chamber. The entrance of the outer 
 neck is closed by an air-tight door, M. The upcast or retort 
 chamber (E) extends to near the top of the retort, where it 
 is closed by brickwork, but is opened at the side by the flue 
 N, leading to the stack, 0. 
 
 Near the bottom of the chamber E, and in a line with the 
 centre of the circular air vessel G, are pipes PP, inserted in 
 the walls of the chamber (E), passing all around the chamber 
 as shown in Fig. 5. In front of the inner side of the circuit 
 of pipes, and opening into the chamber E, are a number of 
 port-holes, Q Q Q (see Fig. 5), leading to the space around 
 the pipes (P P), which space affords scope for expansion and 
 a free circulation of heat. These pipes (P P) are connected 
 with the blast as shown at E, Fig. 4, and pass into the 
 central chamber G, as shown at Fig. 5, the outlet E, Fig. 1^ 
 from the air vessel leads into the ash-pit S. 
 
 The practice in worlcing is to light a fire on the grate- 
 bars, and generate heat in the usual manner, until the 
 furnace is well heated. Tlie retort is then filled with fuel, 
 and the firing commences from the retort, and by the time 
 the fuel at the top descends to the bottom of the retort, it 
 is well heated, and a continuous supply of heated fuel is 
 then kept up. All raw fuel is from this time supplied to 
 the hopper (I) only, and let into the "retort" by the damper 
 without the access of air. 
 
 The gases so generated in the combustion chamber (A) 
 pass over the bridge into heating chamber (B), do\\'n tlie 
 neck (C), into the underground flue (D), into the upcast or 
 "retort" chamber (E), filling the spaces around, and giving 
 up their heat to the circular air chamber (G), the retort 
 (H), and the air pipes (P P), and their residue passing off 
 by way of the flue (N) into the stack (0), the heat so stored 
 being carried back into the furnace by the heated fuel. 
 Combustion is supported by air under pressure from a fan. 
 The air entering in as shown at (E), Fig. 4, traverses the 
 entire circuit of pipes, passing into the central air-vessel (G), 
 out through tlie outlet (R), into the ash-pit (S), and so up 
 through the grate-bars. 
 
 Further attention has been directed to these furnaces by 
 no less an authority than Isaac Lowthian Bell, Esq., M.P., 
 F.R.S., who regarded the success attending their working as 
 worthy of some notice on his part. In a paper read before 
 
 the Iron and Steel Institute, at Manchester, he fully sets 
 forth their marked simplicity and obvious economy, and 
 the results, he quotes, give a saving in fuel ranging from 
 30 to 50 per cent., but in the furnaces, now worked by 
 heated air, a constant saving of 50 per cent, is effected. 
 There is a marked improvement in the yield of iron over 
 the current practice of the trade, with a reduced consump- 
 tion of fettling and lessened repairs. This is such a splen- 
 did programme of efficiency that it cannot fail to arouse the 
 attention of iron makers to its most palpable advantages. 
 The sources of such saving are not shrouded in any mystic 
 invisibility, nor are they even remote; they present them- 
 selves at once to the eye of the intelligent practitioner, and 
 are not evolved by the tardy and dim process of mathemati- 
 cal induction. On reference to the stack at the point of exit 
 of the gases it Avill be found the 3,100° F. of the reverbera- 
 tory furnace is reduced to 1,500° F., the remaining 1,600° F. 
 being restored back into the furnace by the process of pre- 
 heating the fuel and air by which combustion is supported, 
 thus reducing the fuel to its constituents of gaseous and 
 fixed carbons, and passing them into tlio combustion 
 chamber, heated to a temperature of some 1,500° F., and 
 with the air at from 500° F. to 600° F., is conducive 
 not only to an absolute consumption of all the combustible 
 matter in the coal, but it imparts by the continuous supply 
 of heated fuel such an uniform action to the process of com- 
 bustion, and such an impetus to the intensity of the heating 
 powers of the furnace as to suppress mucli of the waste of 
 materials that proceeds only from irregular combustion and 
 incessant fluctuation. The evidence of this is to be found 
 in the facts that the average weight of ash and clinker is 7 
 per cent, of the coal charged. Smoke is very materially 
 abated, and the waste of iron from oxidation does not reach 
 to one-half that of a furnace of the old type. 
 
 Puddling is carried on with an average waste over 12 
 months of 3^- per cent., i.e., 9GI jiercent. of the pig charged 
 is utilized. The fettling does not reach to 4 per cent, per 
 ton, and the extended life of a furnace raises the out-put 
 some one-third, considerably retrenching the charges in 
 every phase of iron treatment — producing much now lost 
 between the " pig " and finished " bar." 
 
 When our attention was first arrested by results that ap- 
 peared prodigious when compared with the apparent source 
 from which they appeared to rise, their limit lay at 40 per 
 cent, of fuel, but since then a still further appropriation of 
 the immense energy that lies inert in the escaping products, 
 has raised this to a maximum of 55 per cent. It would be 
 most interesting to know that a plant of these furnaces was 
 in full operation with a set of multitubular boilers annexed 
 to the furnaces, for the utilization of the still-escaping pro- 
 ducts, which in the puddling furnaces reach as high a tem- 
 perature as 1,800° F. at the point of exit. It is quite trans- 
 parent that such a surplus of heat is equal to the production 
 
 114 
 
Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 of all steam used for the mechanical details of manufacture. 
 That it is quite practicable to save the fuel in the process of 
 heating, and leave a margin for steam, has been carefully 
 ascertained by pyrometers, where, during two successive 
 days, the temperature gave a mean of 1,500° F. It is 
 evident we arc verging upon a change in the economy of 
 iron manufacture. Some of our existing arrangements are 
 neither so excellent in design nor efficient in action, and 
 less change has been imported into the means of cheapening 
 the manufacture of iron by eliminating the causes of loss in 
 production than perhaps that of any other industry. That 
 much can be done to remedy this by the immense heat that 
 may bo utilized in the oiUgoing prodiictR is patent from tho 
 uniform success of this furnace, 
 
 Mr. I. Lowthian Bell says — The ordinary reverberatory 
 furnaces, as employed for melting and puddling pig iron, 
 or heating piles for the rolling mill, consist of a fire place, a 
 hearth for the reception of material under treatment, and 
 a chimney for securing the necessary current of air through 
 the fuel. 
 
 All the operations in an ironwork, with the exception of 
 raising steam, require for the performance a very elevated 
 temperature. Only that region, therefore, immediately ad- 
 joining the source of heat, is available for any of the above 
 mentioned purposes; because by the time we reach a dis- 
 tance of a few feet from the fire place, the flame is cooled 
 down below the point to which it is sought to raise the 
 contents of the furnace. 
 
 The waste of heat, therefore, in every simple furnace, as 
 described, is enormous, and various attempts have been 
 made to reduce the amount of this loss. In former times 
 chambers between the hearth proper and the chimney were 
 constructed, in which the iron received its first portions of 
 heat. The. extent under any circumstances to which this 
 system is applicable in an iron work is but limited, indeed) 
 practically it is confined to the puddling process. Now, 
 however, since the preliminary operation of refining has 
 generally speaking been abandoned, this mode of economiz- 
 ing fuel has fallen into disuse. 
 
 In more recent times a considerable portion of the heat 
 which otherwise escaped into the cliimncy has been inter- 
 cepted by employing it as a means of raising steam. This 
 application is sound in prmciple, because so far as a mere 
 question of heat is concerned, there is no reason why the 
 products of combustion might not be cooled down to 500° or 
 600° R, at which temperature a maximum intensity of 
 draught is commanded. 
 
 When, however, the gaseous contents of the chimney have 
 their temperature reduced to 1,200° or 1,500° F., the rate at 
 which they impart heat to another body is so slow that there 
 is no commercial advantage in preventing the loss insepa- 
 rable from their escape, and even then the magnitude 
 of the boiler arrangement is largely increased compared 
 
 with that when the fuel is applied direct for generating 
 steam. 
 
 An important mode of rendering available a portion of 
 the heat which otherwise is carried off unutilized is obtained 
 by the so-called regenerative furnace. In it the fuel is em- 
 ployed in the gaseous condition, so that both the combusti- 
 ble and the air required for its combustion have their 
 temperature raised, and in this way heat which would be 
 lost is intercepted, and returned to the point where it can 
 be usefully employed. Compared with the ordinary rever- 
 beratory furnace an economy of 20 to 30 per cent, in the 
 fuel consumed is stated to be effected by the regenerative 
 system. 
 
 In the common furnace tho volatilization of the hydro- 
 carbons in the fire place is not only the cause of the expen- 
 diture of a certain quantity of heat, but the absorption of 
 this heat tends to impose a limit to the power of the ap- 
 paratus. This coohng effect due to the evaporation of the 
 volatile constituents of tho coal is augmented by the peri- 
 odical introduction of the cold fuel, which is accompanied by 
 the influx of a large volume of cold air. The result has a 
 very prejudicial effect, both in respect of the economy of 
 combustible and the intensity of temperature. From this 
 inconvenience, the continuous action and previous heating 
 of fuel and air exempts the regenerative furnace. The pre- 
 liminary conversion, however, of the coal into a gas is' 
 attended with a certain amount of loss, inasmuch as tho 
 whole of the fixed carbon is burnt to the condition of 
 carbonic oxide, which means a sacrifice of about 30 per cent, 
 of its heating power. To this has to be added the cost of 
 plant for doing this, and for heating the gasified fuel and air. 
 
 Mr. John Price, of Sunderland, has combined a form of 
 apparatus which he distinguishes by the name of the retort 
 furnace. In it Mr. Price raises the temperature of the air 
 as well as that of the gaseous and fixed constituents of the 
 coal by the waste heat before it enters the chimney. It is 
 true he cannot compete with the furnace known- as the 
 Siemens, in the matter of intensity of temperature to which 
 the substances employed as the source of heat are brought, 
 but Mr. Price avoids the loss which takes place in the gas- 
 producers of the so-called regenerative furnace. Whether 
 the retort furnace can, or cannot be applied to the manu- 
 facture of steel by the open hearth process, remains to be 
 proved; in the meantime it is interesting to know that 261b. 
 of wrought iron has been completely melted in a crucible by 
 means of one of these furnaces, as shown in the following 
 figures— 1 to 6. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN WITH THE TEXT. 
 
 Fig. 1. — Is a longitudinal section through centre of fur- 
 
 nace. 
 
 Fig. 2. — A plan through the " retort," " combustion," and 
 "heating" chainbers. 
 Fig. 3. — A cross section through combustion chamber. 
 
 115 
 
 B 
 
J. 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufacture. 
 
 J- 
 
 Fig. 4. — An elevation, part in section, of the retort cham- 
 ber. 
 
 Fig. 5. — A sectional plan through retort chamber at EE. 
 
 Sectional Plan thro E.E. 
 
 •FIG. 5. 
 Part Section thro' D.D. looking towards A. 
 
 floor^ 
 
 The practice in working is to light a fire on the grate 
 bars, and generate heat in the usual manner until the 
 furnace is well heated. The retort is then filled with fuel, 
 
 and the firing commences from the retort, and by the time 
 the fuel at the top descends to tlio bottom of the retort, it 
 is well heated, and a continuous supply of heated fuel is then 
 kept up; all raAv fuel is from tliis time supplied to the 
 hopper only, and let into the "retort" by the damper without 
 the access of air. 
 
 The gases so generated in the combustion chamber, pass 
 over the bridge into the heating chamber, down the neck of 
 the underground flue into the upcast or "retort" chamber, 
 filling the spaces around and giving up their heat to the 
 circular air chamber, the retort, and the air pipes, their resi- 
 due passing off by way of the flue into the stack, and the heat 
 so stored being carried back into the furnace by the heated 
 fuel. Combustion is supported by air under pressure from 
 a fan. Tho air entering in as shown at E, Fig. 4, traverses the 
 entire circuit of pipes passing into the central air vessel G, 
 out through the oiitlet into the ashpit S, and so up through 
 tho grate bars. 
 
 It will thus be seen from the description just given that 
 to some degree the retort furnace embraces in principle that 
 of the regenerative system; at the same time that the re- 
 generative chambers as well as the arrangement of valves for 
 changing the direction of the current of the gases are dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
 According to a return furnished, a single bedded puddling 
 furnace (the one illustrated here by Plate No. 11), working 
 12| tons of pig iron per week gave the following results : — 
 
 q. L. 
 
 Pig iron delivered 
 Scrap iron delivered 
 
 Fettling used 
 
 Coal 
 
 Received puddled bars 
 
 Received scrap iron 
 
 T. C. 
 
 188 15 
 
 31 4 
 
 T. C. 
 
 219 19 
 
 49 17 
 
 149 
 
 
 
 1 10 
 20 
 
 184 
 
 28 
 
 2 15 
 
 3 15 
 
 212 9 2 2. 
 
 Contumplkm per ton of Puddled Iron and Scrap Balls. 
 
 Pig and scrap iron 2070 cwts. 
 
 Fettling '46 „ 
 
 Coal 14-0 „ 
 
 In the case of a double-bedded puddling furnace, working 
 25 tons of pig iron per week, the following figures apply : — 
 
 h. T. c. Q. L. 
 
 
 Pig iron delivered . 
 Scrap iron delivered 
 
 Fettling used 
 Coal used 
 
 Received puddled bars 
 Received scrap balls 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 603 
 
 82 11 
 
 
 
 685 11 
 
 70 
 
 350 
 
 578 14 
 75 
 
 2 10 
 1 15 
 
 653 14 3 25 
 
 Consumption per ton of Puddled Iron and Scrap Iron. 
 
 Pig and scrap iron 20'97 cwts. 
 
 Fettling '21 „ 
 
 Coal 10-71 „ 
 
 In both the trials, of which the particulars have just been 
 given, the furnace was worked by the draught of the chim- 
 ney, and the air entered the fire })lacc at the temperature 
 of the atmosphere. 
 
 117 
 
Ieon and Steel Manufactuee. 
 
 In the following experiment a fan was used, and the air 
 was propelled through heated pipes, by. which its tem- 
 perature before entering the fire j)lacc was heated to 300° F. 
 The furnace was of the double-bedded description (as per 
 woodcut illustrations in the text), and the work performed 
 was 26^ tons of pig puddled in ten shifts instead of 25 
 tons when using cold air. 
 
 Pig iron delivered 
 Scrap iron ,, 
 
 Fettling ,, 
 Coal 
 
 Received puddled bars 
 ,, scrap balls 
 
 T. C. Q. 
 
 26 5 
 
 3 4 
 
 T. C Q. L. 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 3 22 
 24 
 
 24 19 
 3 
 
 1 12 
 
 
 27 19 1 12 
 
 Consumption per ton of Puddled Iron and Scrap Balls. 
 Pig and Scrap iron . . . . . . 21 '06 cwts. 
 
 Fettling '38 ,, 
 
 Coal 9'44 „ 
 
 When the retort system was applied to a reheating fur- 
 nace using hot air, the consumption of coal was as follows: 
 
 Per Ton. 
 Cinder-bottom (day shift only*), including lighting up 5'25 cwts. 
 
 ,, working day and night . , . 4'25 ,, 
 
 Sand-bottom (day shift only*), including lighting up 4.50 ,, 
 
 ,, working day and night . . , 3'75 „ 
 
 In the ordinary furnace the coal consumed amounted to 
 9 J cwt. per ton of iron, worlcing day shift only, and 8 cwt. 
 when going on uninterruptedly, so that tlie saving of fuel 
 appears to bo about one-third in puddling and one-half in 
 reheating iron. 
 
 From the examinations which were made of the escaping 
 gases it would appear that the nature of the combustion is 
 capable of being controlled, and, in this manner, a flame of 
 more or less reducing character can be maintained. In one 
 place two piles of iron were placed in a reheating furnace, 
 which, from their size, projected above the bridge, where 
 they were exposed to the cutting action of the flame. To 
 avoid waste from this cause, the blast was moderated about 
 half its usual volume, the effect of which was manifested in 
 the nature of the escaping gases, which had the following 
 composition: — 
 
 Carbonic oxide 
 Carbonic acid 
 Hydrogen 
 Nitrogen 
 
 13-07 vols, or 13-39 by weight. 
 
 7-7(5 ,, 12-49 
 
 7-35 „ 53 
 
 71-82 „ 73-59 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 The air was licaLcd to 500° F., and the gases entered 
 the chimney at 1,500°, as ascertained approximately by 
 a pyrometer, the flue itself being visibly red hot. The ele- 
 vation in the temperature of the flue is probably due to the 
 presence of so much unburnt inflammable matter in the gases, 
 
 * As distinguished from night and day. 
 
 which would continue to burn on its way to the point of 
 exit. 
 
 In the next experiment the object sought to be obtained 
 was the intensity of the tempuratLU-o witliin command by 
 this form of furnace, hence the full equivalent of air heated 
 to 550° F. was employed. Indeed, the analysis of the 
 sample of gases extending over three-quarters of an hour, 
 shows an excess of oxygen. Their composition was — 
 
 Carbonic acid .... 15-9 vols, or 22-8 by weight. 
 
 Oxygen 2-2 „ 2-3 
 
 Nitrogen 81-9 ,, 74-9 ,, 
 
 100-0 
 
 1000 
 
 The elevated temperature afforded by the apparatus at 
 the period when the gases had the composition just described 
 may be judged of by the fact that 20 J lbs. of malleable iron 
 was perfectly fused in 2i hours ; while the escaping gases, 
 notwithstanding the intense heat of the hearth, only indicated 
 900° F., the flue itself not being visibly red hot. 
 
 Taking the heat evolved by the combustion of coal to be 
 8,000 units per unit of the fuel, that which escapes up the 
 chimney in the gases at 900° F. may be roughly estimated 
 at 15 per cent, of the whole. The loss from a furnace of the 
 ordinary construction would, at the high temperature at 
 which the products of combustion enter the chinmey, be 
 difficult to calculate, but at anything like 3,000° F. it would 
 not be far from one-half of the heat the coal is capable of 
 affording. The advantage, therefore, of intercepting the 
 difference between 50 and 15 per cent., and of returning 
 even a portion of it, so that it may be usefully applied, is 
 obvious. That a notable amount of effective power which 
 would be otherwise lost is so returned is apparent from the 
 figures giving the consumption of coal which have been fur- 
 nished. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing interesting particulars sup- 
 plied by Mr. I. L. Bell, wo append the following tables, show- 
 ing the practical results obtained in Woolwich Arsenal in one 
 of these furnaces, which wo will here distinguish (as that 
 illustrated by Plate No. 11) as the A furnace; — 
 
 
 WoiKht o( 
 
 
 WoiKlit of 
 
 
 Wolxlitof 
 
 Weight ot 
 
 A 
 
 FCJIINACE, 
 
 1875. 
 
 ClKU'gO. 
 
 
 Ylold. 
 
 
 Scniii Dftllo. 
 
 OooIh. 
 
 
 S 
 
 fc 
 o 
 
 o- 
 
 & 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 9, 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 y 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 (S 
 
 f. 
 
 f. 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 *} 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 J(l 
 
 ;i 
 
 t> 
 
 
 fl 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 ?0 
 
 Week 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 f, 
 
 <> 
 
 ending J 
 
 2 
 
 12 1 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 Sept. 18th, 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 »•• 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 90 
 
 1875. 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 ... 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 IG 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 G 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 ... 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 .20 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 118 
 
Iron and Steel Manufactuke. 
 
 
 Toub. 
 
 CwtH. 
 
 Qra. 
 
 libB. 
 
 Total Charges. 
 
 2G 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yield . 
 
 25 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Hcrap balls . 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 „ Fettling 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 ,, Coals . 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 Coal average, 9'2'IG per ton. 
 
 Appended is a further statement of 52 weeks' current 
 work for the 12 months terminating July, 1876, of a double 
 puddling furnace, working 10 J cwt. charges, the iron con- 
 verted by hand puddling. This shows a saving of 45 per 
 cent, against an ordinary furnace using best coals, and witli 
 equal charges. The Avasto is only 2 J per cent, over the en- 
 tire year, with every contingency that arises in current 
 manufacture. This, perhaps, is imparalleled in the history 
 of hand puddling. 
 
 These results have been eclipsed by Mr. James Witliam, 
 of Leeds, who erected a " retort furnace" for puddling 
 15 cwt. and 20 cwt. charges, puddled by his own mechanical 
 apparatus. The 15 cwt. charges he puddled for 7^ cwt. of 
 coal per ton of iron, and the 20 cwt. charges for 6|- cwt. of 
 coal per ton, and it is quite within the limits of probability, 
 that with the use of the " dandy" and 20 cwt. charges, Mr. 
 Witham's idea may be realized of puddling one ton of iron 
 with as small an allowance of fuel as is necessary to heat a 
 ton of bars, or less than 5 cwt. per ton. These large charges 
 were worked with the same economy of waste, as his average 
 
 waste of 7 per cent, was reduced to 3 per cent., and such 
 startling results are fully supported by data of the most 
 reliable character. 
 
 Though Mr. Bell has spoken with some reservation on the 
 matter of temperature, and lias even expressed his doubts 
 of this furnace rivalling in that respect the Siemens fur- 
 naces, yet practice has demonstrated that their limits of 
 temperature are limited only by the capacity of the bricks 
 to withstand heat. They are capable of melting steel and 
 wrought iron in crucibles with facility, and are adapted to 
 tlie manufacture of steel in any of its phases, and they are 
 equal to the requirements of any of our known metallurgi- 
 cal necessities. One of the- most notable' characteristics of 
 the furnaces, as fitted with the apparatus for working with 
 heated air, is their rapid accession of temperatures. 
 
 The adaptation of tlio " retort furnace" for facilitattag the 
 use of hitherto refuse fuel, is now being exemplified in Staf- 
 fordshire, where the common " slack'' is used with facility, 
 and with results attained by the use of best coals. 
 
 * This is the total yield of iron on -which the coal is computed, 
 weight of scraps is the -weight actually balled up. 
 
 The 
 
 AiisTiiAcr 01' 52 weeks' ■workIoe the "phicb" double puddlino 
 ruRN-AOE (as per illo-steation in body) to jttly, 1876. 
 
 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Cwt. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Lba. 
 
 
 27 
 14 
 
 1 
 18 
 
 Total 
 Out-put 
 of Iron. 
 
 Total -weight of Iron charged . 
 ( ,, Puddled bar yielded 
 ( ,, ,, Scrap balls 
 „ Fettling 
 „ „ Coals 
 
 1258 
 
 1229 
 
 156 
 
 317 
 
 697 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Coal average, =: @ 10'0'6 Ihs. 
 Loss in puddling, 2J per cent. 
 Average fettling per ton := @ 4^. 
 
 aUNN AND CAMERON, TRIXTERS, 
 
 119 
 
 FLEET STREET, DUBLIN. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 DIVISION I. 
 
 PREFATORY ADDRESS. 
 
 PRACTICAL SHIPBUILDING . 
 
 "lima" and "BOGOTA," PADDLE STEAMERS 
 
 "LORD ATIILUMNHY," I'ADDLIO STKAMICR . 
 
 " TORCA," SCRK^V STJSAMUR 
 
 "MANILA," SALOON PADDI-M STKAMKIl 
 
 ELOATING WORKSHOPS 
 
 MIDSHIP SECTIONS, ETC. — FAST SAILING VESSELS 
 
 " ARIZONA," SAILING SHIP . 
 
 INSTITUTION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS 
 
 " LY-EE-MOON," OCEAN PADDLE STEAMER . 
 
 "LADY OF THE LAKE," PADDLE STEAMER 
 
 Civil and Mcckanie(d .Ewjincevivg, &c. 
 
 ON ENIOIiOY, ]!Y R. S. BALT,, M.A., LL.J). .... 
 EARLY ilJSTORY OK THE FIRST PASSIONfJI'lll RAU.WAYS IN ENGLAND 
 LOCOMOTIVKS KX II I IIITIOI) AT STOCKTON AND DAItl,IN(;T()N RAILWAY .JUIill 
 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF SAFETY AND l';i''l''l('l KNlJY IN THE WORKING OF 
 
 WAYS, BY CAPTAIN II. W. 'J'YLER, R.I'',. 
 TYPES OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES, 1807 .... 
 EXAMPLES OF MODERN LOCOMOTIVE lONGJNKS 
 TANK ENGINE FOR G.T.P. RAILWAY, FOR WORKING THE BHORE GHAUT AND THULL \ 
 
 GHAUT INCLINES ...... 
 
 ROLLING .STOCK ....... 
 
 COAL GAS AND ITS FLAME, BY DR. J. E. REYNOLDS 
 
 CITY OF DUBLIN GRAVING DOCK ..... 
 
 HOLYHEAD MAIL PACICET SERVICE .... 
 
 IMPROVED SLIPWAY FOR HAULING ITP VESSELS liROADSIDE ON . 
 THE ROYAL MINT )N 1870 ..... 
 
 HEAVY MACHINE TOOLS ...... 
 
 IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURE ..... 
 
 E, 187.'') 
 RAIL- 1 
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 •J 
 
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 C8 
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 PLATES.— DIVISION I. 
 
 Shipbuilding. 
 
 Plate 1. "lima" and "bogota," lines, etc. 
 
 „ 2. " LIMA," longitudinal SECTIONS 
 
 3. " C(3LLEEN BA^VN," LINES, ETC. 
 „ 4. " MANILA," LINES, PROFILE, AND DECK PLAN 
 
 „ t). FLOATING WORKSHOPS 
 
 6. MIDSHIP SECTION, FAST SAILING VESSELS, ETC. 
 
 7. " ARIZONA," LINES, ETC. 
 
 8. " LY-EE-MOON," LINES, ETC. 
 
 9. " LADY OF THE LAKE," ELEVATION, PLAN, ETC. 
 
 Civil and Mechanical Engineering, Ac. 
 
 „ 1. OPENING OF THE STOCKTON AND DARLINGTON RAILWAY 
 
 „ 2. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERING, PARIS EXHIBITION, 1867 
 
 3. DITTO, DITTO 
 
 „ 4. EXPRESS ENGINE, L.B. AND S.C. RAILWAY . 
 
 „ 4ci DITTO, DITTO 
 
 5. INCLINE TANK ENGINE, G.I.P. RAILWAY, BOMBAY 
 
 G. GRAVING DOCK IN DUBLIN HARBOUR 
 „ 7. THOMPSON AND NOBLE'S IMPROVKD SLIPWAY 
 
 „ 8. HEAVY MACHINE 'J'OOLS 
 
 „ '.). DI'J'TO 
 
 „ JO. LARGK PLATK SIIKAIIING MACillNK 
 „ H. PRICH'S FURNA(;E for J'UDDLING, jikating, htc. 
 
 FACE PAGE 
 
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