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 (UNIVERSITY' 
 
 
Cornell University Library 
 
 arV15295 
 
 Education as the training of personality 
 
 3 1924 031 280 674 
 olin.anx 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031280674 
 
Manchester University Lectures. No. XVII. 
 
 Ebucation as tbe G;ratnino 
 ot personality. 
 
Sherratt & Hughes, 
 
 Publishers to the Victoria University of Manchester, 
 
 34, Cross Street, Manchester, 
 
 33, Soho Square, London, W. 
 
 Agents for the United States : 
 
 Longmans, Green & Co., 
 
 443-449, Fourth Avenue, New York 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 AS THE 
 
 Training of Personality 
 
 An Inaugural Lecture 
 
 Delivered by 
 
 H. Bompas Smith, M.A. 
 
 Professor of Education and Director of the 
 Department of Education , 
 
 MANCHESTER: 
 
 AT THE UNIVEKSITY PKESS. 
 
 19X3. 
 
ft^S'jS^Cc 
 
—To— 
 
 The Right Hon. SIR WILLIAM MATHER, LL.D., 
 
 A Believer in Educational Ideals, 
 
 to whom is due the printing of this Lecture. 
 
In revising this Lecture for the Tress 1 hifve added a few 
 
 paragraphs if hick had to he omitted tnhen the Lecture 
 
 was delitered. 
 
 H.'B.S. 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 as the 
 
 Training of Personality. 
 
 The last twenty years have witnessed a great develop- 
 ment of mterest in the scientific aspect of education, a 
 development which bids fair to revolutionise our whole 
 educational procedure. And in the promotion of this 
 interest in the science of education no other English 
 University has, I believe, played so large a part as has 
 the University of Manchester. Its three professors of 
 education have all been, and two of them happily still 
 are, leaders in the work. Professor With ers, whose un- 
 timely death we still deplore, was one of the most far- 
 sighted pioneers. Professor Sadler is our great example 
 of the philosopher-king in education, for to an unique 
 experience of educational administration he has added 
 an unrivalled knowledge of modem educational history 
 and a profound comprehension of contempor ary problems. 
 Professor Findlay has not only enlarged our knowledge 
 of scientific teaching methods, but has shown us how 
 closely education is connected with the other functions 
 of the body politic, and has pointed out new lines of 
 advance both in his writings and by his personal example. 
 Each of these men in his own fashion illustrates that 
 
8 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 union of practical skill and theoretic insight which has 
 always marked the leaders of educational progress. I 
 need hardly say how deeply I feel the honour of being 
 allowed to follow where these men have trodden, and to 
 help Professor Findlay in the work he is still doing. To 
 their knowledge I can lay no claim. But I trust I shall 
 not be unfaithful to the tradition they have established 
 if I take as my subject a principle of practical importance 
 to aU teachers, and if I venture to speak as a school- 
 master to schoolmasters. 
 
 One of the most characteristic features of our national 
 life during the last three hundred years has been the 
 growth of interest in our material environment, that is, 
 in the physical and chemical properties of the bodies by 
 which we are surroimded. This interest has been both 
 theoretical and practical. On its theoretical side it has 
 produced the great body of systematic knowledge which 
 we call physical science, together with the modes of 
 thought characteristic of this science. On its practical 
 side this same interest has enabled us to turn to our own 
 use the resources of the material world in ways of which 
 earlier centuries never dreamed. There are signs that 
 we in our own time are witnessing the beginning of the 
 development of a similarly effective interest in the world 
 of man and human society. It is not impossible that our 
 children's children will witness the evolution of a body of 
 human sciences not less sjrstematic and comprehensive 
 than the knowledge of physical science which we now 
 possess. It is possible also that the growth of these new 
 sciences will be accompanied by a transformation in our 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY 9 
 
 social institutions comparable in extent to the transforma- 
 tion which has already taken place in our practical rela- 
 tions with the world of matter. 
 
 Now of these social sciences education is not the least 
 important, and in education at any rate we may look 
 forwai-d with some confidence to rapid progress being 
 made in our own and the next succeeding generations. 
 But if this progress is achieved it will be a progress both 
 in educational theory and educational practice. Theory 
 and practice are so closely connected — are, iadeed, only 
 two aspects of one fundamental interest, that neither can 
 make any great advance except with the co-operation of 
 the other. 
 
 For in the first place theory owes its birth to practice. 
 Practice gives us the experience which it is the first 
 function of theory to explain. Theory, says Bagley, 
 " should take successful practice and find out what prin- 
 ciples condition its efficiency ; and if these principles are - 
 inconsistent with those heretofore held, it is the theory 
 that should be modified to suit the facts and not the 
 facts to suit the theory." And, secondly, all practice 
 implies theory. Educational work of any kind involves 
 some plan of action, some acknowledgment of an aim, 
 some judgment as to the means to be employed ; that is, 
 it involves some theory, even though this theory may be 
 ill thought out. As a matter of fact no one is really more 
 theoretical or more dogmatic in his statements than is the 
 one-sided advocate of practical experience. He is so 
 sure of his ground because his theory is so limited, 
 because he tends to ignore all facts outside his personal 
 
lo EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 field of interest. " Would that we all considered this 
 fact," says Herbart,* "that each man has experience 
 only of what he has really tried. A schoolmaster of 
 ninety years has the experience of his ninety years' 
 routine ; he is conscious of his length of labour, but can 
 he also rightly criticise his methods and their results ? " 
 He can only do so in the light of a theory which was both 
 comprehensive and coherent. 
 
 If theory, therefore, cannot exist apart from practice, 
 neither can practice be divorced from theory. And if 
 education is to participate in the progress of the social 
 sciences, educational theory must in even fuller measure 
 do justice to the facts of our experience as teachers, and 
 practice must grow more effective under the guidance of 
 this theory. 
 
 There is, I think, evidence that this co-operative 
 advance of educational theory and practice is already 
 taking place. We have with us men who are both our 
 guides in theory and our leaders in our practice, men Uke 
 the present Vice-ChanceUor of Leeds. Teaching methods 
 are in many schools becoming more enlightened, as the 
 teachers take a more scientific interest in their profes- 
 sion. Many minds are engaged in the work of laying 
 secure foundations upon which a veritable science of 
 education can be built. Even our school administra- 
 tion is beginning to respond to the demands of educa- 
 tional theory. Here and there we find members of 
 Local Authorities or of Boards of Governors who have 
 caught something of the new spirit. 
 
 * Werke ed. Hartenstein, vol. x., p. 9. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. ii 
 
 But this movement of co-operation between our educa- 
 tional theory and practice is at present only in its initial 
 stage. We still find schoolmasters who distrust all system- 
 atic educational theory, and who question the value of 
 any training of teachers by exponents of such theory. 
 And what is even more significant, we find a widespread 
 failure on the part of the general public to realise that 
 there is any science of education in existence. Most 
 men who have gained a position in other walks of life are 
 prepared to speak in public on educational topics and to 
 prescribe the practice to be followed in our schools, 
 being, as it seems, unconscious of the fact that the nature 
 of education has at any rate been seriously considered by 
 some of the greatest thinkers of mankind, and that, 
 while much is still imcertain, there are some facts and 
 principles which have been definitely ascertained. 
 Among these amateur speakers and writers I do not 
 include men who give us the results of their experience 
 of the practical effect produced by education upon our 
 boys and girls. Large employers of labour, for instance, 
 have often valuable criticism to offer. I refer only to 
 men who regard vague platitudes or airy speculation as 
 a sufficient substitute for knowledge of the subject. 
 
 The prevalent distrust of educational theory is, how- 
 ever, not due solely to ignorance or stupidity. It is the 
 result in part of the failure of many writers on education 
 to appreciate the special problems which confront the 
 teachers in our English schools. Take, for example, a 
 man like Herbert Spencer, whose writings have done 
 much to widen our educational horizon. We feel that, in 
 
12 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 spite of his broad outlook, he has very little conception 
 of the actual conditions of school life. Speaking gene- 
 rally, educational theory has not succeeded in doing 
 justice to the heritage of practical skill and wisdom in the 
 teaching and management of boys which has accumu- 
 lated in the course of centuries. And yet, as the advo- 
 cates of practical experience rightly urge, unless a master 
 enters into this heritage he will never be efficient in his 
 work. We might have expected that the Training 
 Colleges would have devoted themselves to the task of 
 expoimding the theoretical formdations of the best tradi- 
 tional practice, and so have rendered practice more 
 uniformly intelligent. But, unfortunately, they have 
 often been content to teach an abstract and unreal form 
 of theory, whereby their own influence has been lessened 
 and the movement for training secondary teachers much 
 delayed. * 
 
 If, therefore, we are to attain that union of theory and 
 practice which is the condition of educational progress, 
 our theory must become more adequate to the facts. It 
 must take full account of the practice of our best school- 
 masters, explaining the principles which underlie it and 
 the reasons for its effectiveness. It must deal with the 
 realities of school life and work, and not be content 
 either with suggestive generalities or an unintelligent 
 empiricism. 
 
 * On the other hand, the proposal to treat a period of practice 
 in a secondary school as an adequate preparation for secondary 
 teaching is, in my opinion, open to grave objection. It implies 
 that teaching is mainly concerned with " special method," and 
 is httle more than an empirical art, without scientific basis. 
 The process would be largely that of giving " tips for teachers." 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 13 
 
 I propose in this lecture to consider what appears to 
 me to be one particular weakness of some current educa- 
 tional theories, namely, their inadequate appreciation 
 of the significance of personality. Many writers fail, 
 I think, to do justice to our experience as teachers 
 because they do not keep constantly before us the very 
 obvious fact that the boys and girls whom we try to 
 teach are living, human persons. 
 
 It may, however, be objected that I am trying to force 
 an open door. No one, I shall be told, denies that school 
 education is the process of training boys and girls as 
 living persons. This is assumed, at any rate implicitly, 
 in aU discussions of the subject. My contention is that 
 the personality of our boys and girls, instead of being 
 regarded as too obvious to be mentioned, must be put in 
 the forefront of the argument, and that this personality 
 must be recognised in the fullest possible sense. 
 
 But the question at once arises, what then do we mean 
 by personality ? 
 
 I cannot pretend to offer any adequate answer to this 
 question. Personality, says Lewis Nettleship, is pro- 
 bably the hardest of all subjects. All I can do is to indi- 
 cate certain characteristics of personality which are of 
 importance for our purpose. 
 
 The characteristics of a person to which I shall confine 
 myself are three, viz., unity, intrinsic value, and the 
 power to create his own value by the achievement of his 
 interests. The meaning of these phrases will, I hope, 
 become clearer in the sequel. 
 
14 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 The first characteristic, then, of personality is its unity, 
 however this unity may be explained or qualified. We 
 are conscious of ourselves as living agents, relatively 
 distinct from other people and the world around us. The 
 development of this consciousness of self and of our 
 ejection of it into other persons has been described by 
 Baldwin and others, and need not detain us here. We 
 each have a definite point of view, peculiar to ourselves, 
 from which we look out upon the world, and a particular 
 set of interests which are not the same for other people 
 as they are for us. To borrow Professor Alexander's 
 terms, we enjoy our own experience, we contemplate the 
 people and things outside us. And this unity of expe- 
 rience involves the corollary that ovec thoughts and 
 feelings and desires have no independent significance ; 
 they are significant only as elements in the whole, which 
 is ourselves. We feel, as William Wallace puts it, " that 
 we exist in our several modifications, that the various 
 feelings, desires, emotions are ours, belong to us, have a 
 common groimd and a mutual interdependence, thus 
 constituting a system with necessary relations."* 
 
 This unity of the self has important consequences for 
 education. For instance, it follows that in our work as 
 'teachers we must recognise the individual point of view 
 and interests of each boy or girl. All education must be 
 based upon sympathetic insight into the minds of those 
 we teach. We must not treat them simply as units with 
 attributes which for practical purposes are the same. 
 If this principle were cdways followed we should not find 
 * Lecture, p. 286. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 15 
 
 cMdren of four sitting on benches for five hours a day 
 and spending most of their time on lessons in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic. And, again, since each thought 
 or feeling derives its significance from the whole person- 
 ality of which it is an element, we must remember that 
 the training of any special aptitude is of value only in ' 
 so far as it improves the boy's life as a whole. It is an 
 error to try and cultivate one side of a boy's mind in isola- 
 tion from the rest. Yet it was two centuries before men 
 f uUy realised that the intensive study of Latin grammar 
 did not provide a complete form of niental training. 
 
 Secondly, a person has as such intrinsic value, and has 
 therefore the right to be treated always as an end and 
 not a means. It may, I think, be shown that our 
 whole sense of value is ultimately derived from our con- 
 sciousness that we ourselves as living persons are intrin- 
 sically valuable. " Our ultimate standard of worth,'* 
 says T. H. Green, " is an ideal of personal worth. All 
 other values are relative to value for, of, or in a person."* 
 
 According to this doctrine the ultimate purpose of 
 society and its institutions, including its schools, is the 
 increase of the personal value of its individual members. 
 Hence in education we must aim, in the first instance, not 
 at increasing our national efficiency, nor even at the im- 
 provement of the social order, but at promoting the right 
 development of our boys and girls as persons. Other 
 purposes are not excluded, but it would be wrong to 
 treat our scholars primarily as members of society who 
 
 * Prolegomena, Sec. 184. 
 
i6 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 owe their value to the contributions which they make to 
 the progress in civilisation of the nation or of the race. 
 
 And, thirdly, we must ourselves take an active part in 
 the process by which we, as persons, obtain value. Our 
 value is, indeed, in the last resort due to our position in the 
 scheme of things ; it is of grace, not works. But it 
 becomes actual only by om: own exertions. The process 
 is one often involving strain and stress, demanding 
 courage and endurance. " If the 'searching of our hearts 
 and reins,' " says William James, " be the pvirpose of this 
 human drama, then what is sought seems to be what 
 effort we can make."* " It is an everlasting duty," says 
 Carlyle, "the duty of being brave. Valour is still 
 vahte."^ If, therefore, the aim of education is to make 
 jzrur boys and girls into more valuable persons, this aim 
 will be attained only by rendering the m mo re capable of 
 effort, more courageous and enduring. 
 
 The implications of this principle are important for our 
 present purpose, and we shall put the point more defi- 
 ^tely if we say that our value as persons is measured by 
 the worthiness of our interests and the extent to which 
 we are capable of achieving them. This mode of state- 
 ment I cannot now attempt to justify, but must ask you 
 to accept it as sufficiently accurate for the general survey 
 to which we must confine ourselves. 
 
 What I mean by the achievement of an interest 
 may be made clearer by an example. Let us take 
 as an illustration the interest we may feel in botany. 
 
 * Text Book of Psychology, p. 458. 
 t Heroes, p. 29. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 17 
 
 By the achievement of an interest in botany I mean 
 the realisation of the value for ourselves and others of the 
 various aspects of the vegetable world. This realisation 
 is a gradual process, and involves effort in practical 
 activity no less than effort after fuller knowledge. The 
 interest may begin with the child's desire to pick a daisy ; 
 it may end in a life's devotion to the study of plant life. 
 As we achieve our interests they grow more intense and 
 also more comprehensive. This makes their achieve- 
 ment intrinsically valuable. 
 
 The consciousness that this is so, that it is really worth 
 while to achieve our interests, gives rise to a feeling of 
 satisfaction which accompanies all activity when it is at 
 all successful. In other words, we have what I shall call 
 an interest in achievement. This is the interest we try 
 to stimulate in order to make slack boys keen. It is the 
 achievement of this interest which makes a form feel 
 satisfied when it is working hard and getting on. "What 
 is it," asks Mr. J. W. Headlam in his brilliant defence of 
 a classical curriculum, " What is it that gives the peculiar 
 tone and strength to a strong well-taught sixth form ? 
 It is the unconscious feeling of intellectual growth and 
 energy arising from the willing and pleased absorption in 
 the noblest works of letters and the greatest of intellec- 
 tual problems."* This feeling can, I believe, be deve- 
 loped in any form, and is the satisfaction of the interest 
 in achievement. 
 
 But besides this general interest in achievement we 
 have also interests in particular aspects of the world 
 * Special Reports, 20, p. 43. 
 
i8 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 around us, and these particular interests fall roughly into 
 three main classes, connected respectively with our 
 material environment, with our fellow-men and the social 
 groups of which they and we are members, and with the 
 spiritual realities of art, philosophy, and religion. In 
 the first place, the material world is one great field in 
 which our interests can be achieved, and this is so because 
 the world is for us a system of opportunities. " One 
 profound characteristic," says Dr. Bosanquet, "runs 
 through the whole. And that is, that the world does not 
 let us alone ; it drives us from pillar to post, and the very 
 chapter of accidents, as we call it, confronts us with an 
 extraordinary mixture of opportunity and suffering, 
 which is itself opportunity."* In relation to this 
 material world our primary interest is, therefore, to take 
 advantage of the opportunities it offers, or, as I shall put 
 it, to master our environment. Only we must remember 
 that we can do this, as Bacon told us long ago, not by 
 defying, but by obeying nature. 
 
 The second class of interests are those which centre 
 in the world of owe fellow-men. They belong to us as 
 social beings. If the world of nature is a world of oppor- 
 tunities, the world of man is a world of co-operation. It 
 is only as members of society that we can achieve any 
 interests worthy of the name. As members of society we 
 make our own the interests of our feUow-men, so that 
 our life becomes in part identical with theirs. We see 
 this most clearly in our ethical experience. " Only a 
 revived social consciousness," says Edw. Caird, "... 
 * Individuality and Value, p. 27. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 19 
 
 can bring moral deliverance ; and he who will not take 
 upon himself the burden of the evil of others, and even 
 accept it also as if it were his own guilt, can never get rid 
 of his own. But for him who does accept this responsi- 
 bility for all evil . . . the very principle that makes 
 him, so to speak, throw down the barrier between his own 
 life and that of others . . . also gives him a con- 
 sciousness of unity with that power of goodness which 
 is ' above all, in all, and through all.' "* 
 
 Thirdly, we have our ideal interests, the interests 
 which are concerned with what Plato calls the world of 
 absolute justice and beauty and temperance. Their 
 achievement is the central problem of our life. It 
 involves at any rate humility, the renunciation of all 
 hostile interests, loyalty to the uttermost, and in some 
 form or other the love of God. 
 
 Our material and social interests find their completion 
 in these ideal interests, which by permeating our whole 
 personal life give to it unity and coherence. "The simplest 
 act of social duty," says Bosanquet, " taught by habitua- 
 tion to the growing citizen, say courage or soberness, has 
 in it a motive, or we may say really implies an awakening 
 and a yearning of the soul, which first expresses itself in 
 loyalty to society and in good citizenship, but which can 
 find no final satisfaction till it completes itself in the 
 knowledge and thought of God, in union with whom 
 alone the individual comes to be that which he really is."t 
 " Man's final ends," says Laurie, " are ideals — always 
 
 * Kant. II., p. 524. 
 t Individuality, p. 403. 
 
20 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 ideals ; he seeks The Truth, and in the very act ever 
 affirms Absolute Truth ; he seeks The Good, and so ever 
 affirms the Absolute Good ; he feels and longs after 
 Beauty, and so ever affirms Absolute Beauty."* 
 ''' Personality, then, we shall take to imply tmity and 
 intrinsic value, and we shall think of it as creating its 
 own value by the achievement of its interests — material, 
 social, and ideal. But these characteristics do not 
 exhaust the meaning of personality. They only make 
 explicit certain of its implications. We must consider 
 them only as elements in our idea of what a person is, 
 this idea being derived from our consciousness of our- 
 selves as persons and incapable of complete analysis. 
 We all know what we mean by a person, and we must 
 hold fast to this notion of living, concrete persons if 
 we would avoid the errors of abstraction. 
 
 Our next step will be to ask whether our conception of 
 education as the training of personality, in the sense just 
 described, will explain our actual experience in our 
 schools. Do we as a matter of fact try to train our boys 
 as individual persons ? And do they as persons exhibit 
 the characteristics we have noted ? I think a little 
 reflection will show that the effectiveness of our teaching 
 and the educational influence of the school's corporate 
 life can be explained only by the full recognition of our 
 boys and girls as persons. 
 
 Let us take first our actual attitude as teachers. When 
 we are doing our best work as masters do we not deal 
 with Brown and Jones as persons ? Is there not that 
 * Synthetica, vol. ii., p. 19. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 21 
 
 personal intercourse between us which is absent when we 
 treat them as units in a mass or as congeries of mental 
 processes ? Is not one test of a good master his ability 
 to come into contact with the boy's inner self, his power 
 to make the boy feel that he is understood ? When Tom 
 Brown and his comrades listened to the Doctor's sermon 
 they heard not the cold, clear voice of one giving advice 
 and warning from serene heights to those who were 
 struggling and sinning below, but the warm, living voice 
 of one who was fighting for them and by their sides, and 
 calling on them to help him and themselves and one 
 another. 
 
 If, on the other hand, we think of our boys as some- 
 thing less than persons, as essentially inferior to ourselves, 
 we shall inevitably attempt to mould them according to 
 our own ideas. We shall try to make them treat our stan- 
 dards of knowledge or morality as unconditionally 
 binding. But if we do so we shall hinder, and not help, 
 their progress towards true personality, for they will not 
 be achieving value for themselves. Authority and 
 punishment are necessary, but they must always be 
 means to the attainment of a higher end — they must be 
 used to strengthen the boy's higher interests against the 
 lower, like voices of friends and kinsfolk recalling him to 
 his better self. 
 
 This instinctive recognition of the boy's personality 
 might be illustrated from every department of school 
 life. I will confine myself to our treatment of our boys 
 when teaching. For perhaps it might be argued that 
 we respect a boy's personality in so far as he is a moral 
 
02 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 agent, but that when we are teaching him in class we 
 must deal with him as an inferior, the recipient of our 
 thoughts or knowledge with no independent rights. This 
 objection is true in a limited sense, or rather it represents 
 a subordinate aspect of the truth. What I take to be our 
 true attitude as teachers may be described as follows : 
 We feel ourselves when teaching to be in the presence of 
 certain facts, be they facts of grammar or moral truths, 
 and these facts claim recognition from us and our boys 
 alike. We by hypothesis know the facts better than 
 our boys, and our business is therefore to help them to 
 share our knowledge, or, if possible, to improve upon it. 
 It is not our knowledge as such that we pass on. We 
 have the right to teach only in so far as we are the repre- 
 sentatives of the realities around us, the organs of the 
 truth of things through whom this truth is made the 
 property of other minds. We are, therefore, not infal- 
 lible authorities, but co-workers with our boys in the 
 appreciation of reality. But if this is a true description 
 of our attitude as teachers, clearly it involves the recog- 
 nition of the boj^' personalities ; we teach them as 
 individuals like ourselves, members of the same world, 
 with the right, so far as they are capable of it, to an 
 independent assimilation of the truth. No doubt this 
 statement must be modified in the case of teachers of 
 quite yoimg children, but in principle it applies to 
 teachers of every kind. 
 
 Again, if we hold fast to the conception of our boys as 
 persons, we can explain the influence exerted by the 
 school's corporate life. If school life does a boy any good 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 23 
 
 it is just because the school makes him more of a person, 
 and it does this by helping him to achieve in some form 
 or other one or more of the types of interest we have 
 distinguished. I cannot attempt to work this out in 
 detail, but must content myself with illustrating it by 
 considering one interest only, the boy's interest in the 
 ethical ideal. 
 
 Let us notice first that the school is a place specially 
 adapted for the development of this interest. I do not 
 mean merely that the ethical interest can be achieved 
 only by active membership in a society, and the school 
 is a very intimate society. I mean also that in the school 
 the ethical ideal takes a very real and practical shape. 
 For in the school we meet with most, if not all, the 
 problems of our moral life in their most simple and 
 natural form. Life is here lived upon a smaller scale 
 than in the world of men ; boys' instincts are more 
 direct, their motives usually less complex than those 
 of older people. The side issues which confuse us 
 in later life are largely absent, and it is easier to view the 
 events of daily life in the light of the ideal. A boy, for 
 instance, is guilty of some petty act of meanness, perhaps 
 one which would be hardly noticed in the world outside, 
 but you know and you have to help him to realise that 
 he has sinned against one of the great laws of social life. 
 This imminence of the ideal is particularly evident in 
 school games, and gives to them their ethical significance. 
 " A game," says a wise schoolmaster, " has in ' a boy's ' 
 eyes certain high spiritual affinities which are missed by 
 our older selves. In his inner thought they have a 
 
24 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 sacred character, just as with primitive man ; and this 
 is the cause of his deep seriousness on the subject."* 
 He feels that every deed of pluck or cowardice, every 
 imselfish pass or wrongful keeping of the ball is an act 
 done in the sight of heaven, a sign of loyalty or treason 
 to the moral law. 
 
 Great schoolmasters have always shared the boys' 
 sense of the spiritual realities only half hidden behind 
 the veil of the school's daily work and play. It was Dr. 
 Arnold who, at the sight of a knot of vicious or careless 
 boys gathered round the great school-house fire, said that 
 it made him think he could see the devil in the midst of 
 them.f In other words, Arnold realised more vividly 
 than most of us that school life is a field for the develop- 
 ment of a boy's whole personality, and not least of his 
 highest type of interest, such as his interest in the ethical 
 ideal. 
 
 I hope that I have now succeeded in making clear the 
 point of view from which school teaching and school-life 
 may be regarded as effective instrmnents for the training 
 of personality. If the line of argument which I have 
 tried to illustrate is valid, we may assume that our view 
 of education as the training of boys as persons does, as 
 a matter of fact, explain our school experience. 
 
 The next point to be considered is whether our insis- 
 tence upon personality will justify itself in the field of 
 theory. Will this insistence make oiur theory of educa- 
 tion more comprehensive and consistent ? Will it 
 
 • Skrine : Pastor Agnorum, p. 76. 
 t Stanley's Life of Dr. Arnold. Chapter III. 
 
TRAINmO OF PERSONALITY. 25 
 
 enable us to define more definitely the educational point 
 of view ? In trying to show that it will help us in both 
 these respects, I must again limit myself to a few illus- 
 trations of a point of view, anything like a complete 
 discussion would mean a treatise on education. 
 
 In the first place, then, our view of education wiU help 
 to save us from two educational heresies which are finding 
 adherents at the present time, and which I shall call 
 respectively the psychological and the sociological 
 heresy. These heresies are rife because we have not yet 
 attained to a clear delimitation of the field of education. 
 We have not made up our minds as to what processes or 
 results have educational significance, and what processes 
 or results have not. We have not a clear conception of 
 the educational point of view. Our failure in this 
 respect is due partly to the fact that education has not 
 yet achieved its independence of its sister sciences, 
 psychology and sociology, from which much of its 
 doctrine is derived. We stiU occasionally hear education 
 spoken of as applied psychology, or as a branch of socio- 
 logy, sometimes by those who should know better. 
 
 But this confusion of thought is detrimental both to 
 education and, if an outsider may be allowed to say so, 
 in some measure also to psychology and sociology. To 
 take one point only, psychology and sociology are pure 
 sciences, having for their object the scientific investiga- 
 tion of certain classes of phenomena ; they are not 
 primarily concerned with the morals to be drawn from 
 the truths which they discover. Education, on the other 
 hand, is a normative science of which the fundamental 
 
26 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 aim is not to increase our knowledge but to guide our 
 action. This difference involves many others into 
 which I cannot enter here. I only wish to emphasize the 
 fact that each science will be hindered in its proper work 
 if it does not maintain its relative independence of 
 the others. When, therefore, I speak of the psycho- 
 logical and sociological heresies in education, I am not 
 venturing to criticise the methods of psychology and 
 sociology as such. For such a task I am quite un- 
 qualified. My argument is directed against the intro- 
 duction into educational theory of certain processes of 
 reasoning which, as it seems to me, are alien to the educa- 
 tional point of view. 
 
 The educational doctrine which I have called the 
 psychological heresy fixes our attention upon the various 
 processes which go on in the boy's mind to the compara- 
 tive neglect of his personality as a whole. A statement 
 of this heresy in its most flagrant form is given by Pro- 
 fessor Thomdike in his " Principles of Teaching." " If 
 there existed," he says, " a perfect and complete know- 
 ledge of human nature — a complete science of psycho- 
 logy — ^it would tell the effect of every possible stimulus 
 and the cause of every possible response in every possible 
 human being. A teacher could then know just what the 
 result of any act of his would be, could prophesy just 
 what the effect of such and such a page read or punish- 
 ment given or dress worn would be ; just how to get any 
 particular response or attention to this object, memory 
 of this fact, or comprehension of that principle."* And 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 27 
 
 again in the " Journal of Educational Psychology " for 
 January, 1910, he says : " Just as the science and art of 
 agriculture depend upon chemistry and botany, so the 
 art of education depends upon physiology and psycho- 
 logy. . . A complete science of psychology . . . 
 would aid us to use human beings for the world's welfare 
 with the same surety of the result that we now have 
 when we use falling bodies or chemical elements."* 
 
 It is hardly necessary to point out that these extracts 
 imply a view of education totally opposed to that which 
 we have found to be consistent with our experience. It 
 ignores all the characteristics of the boy as a living person, 
 or if it does not ignore them altogether it keeps them in the 
 background. In particular it treats our boys as if they 
 were automata capable of being stimulated by doses of 
 reading or of punishment, or as if they were musical 
 instruments upon which the educator can play at will. 
 
 Assuming the possibility of such a science of psycho- 
 logy as that here described, I believe that a knowledge 
 of it would be positively harmful to the teacher. We 
 should have to make ignorance of psychology an essen- 
 tial qualification for any master or mistress in our schools. 
 And the reason would be this. If a master enters his 
 class-room knowing that he can manipulate his pupils' 
 minds with as much certainty as he can chemical elements 
 or falling bodies, then his attitude towards them will be 
 that of a chemist or mechanician, but assuredly not that 
 of a teacher. For a teacher, as we have seen, treats his 
 boys as ends, not means, as creating their own value by 
 
 * p. 6. 
 
28 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 their own activity, not as having value implanted in 
 them from without. Above all, Thomdike's view shows 
 an absence of that reverence for personality which is so 
 marked a characteristic of all great schoolmasters. Let 
 us rather hear Edw. Bowen : " The experience of 
 teachers," he tells us, " has not generally brought the 
 conviction that specially-directed efforts can do much 
 to change a boy's nature. It does most of the changing 
 for itself. The building grows, like the temple of old, 
 without sound of mallet and trowel. What we can do 
 is to arrange matters so as to give virtue her best chance. 
 We can prevent tendencies from blossoming into acts, 
 and render pitfalls visible. How much indirectly and 
 unconsciously we can do, none but the recording angel 
 knows." " You can, and you should," says Chiffers, 
 " go straight to the heart of every individual boy." 
 Well, a fellow-creature's mind is a serious and sacred 
 thing. You may enter into that arcanum once a year, 
 shoeless. And in the effort to control the spirit of a 
 pupil — ^in the craving for moral power and visible guid- 
 ing — ^lie some of the chief temptations of a schoolmaster's 
 work. 
 
 And again, in speaking of the morbid effort to exercise 
 conscious influence, " Fancy the attitude of mind of the 
 captain of the eleven who should say at the beginning of 
 an innings, ' Go to, I will now use my moreil influence on 
 my team.' " 
 
 I turn now to the second educational heresy — ^the 
 sociological heresy. The root error of this heresy is that 
 it treats the boy not as a relatively independent person. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 29 
 
 but primarily as a member of society, that is, either of 
 society as it actually exists, or of society as it may be 
 expected to become in a few years time. As an illus- 
 tration of this standpoint I will quote some statements 
 of Professor Dewey. " We must take the child," he 
 says, " as a member of society in the broadest sense, and 
 demand whatever is necessary to enable the child to 
 recognise all his social relations, and to carry them out."* 
 He then specifies the relations of voter, subject of law, 
 member of a family, worker, member of some neighbour- 
 hood and commimity. 
 
 From this point of view the school's aim is described 
 as follows : " The moral responsibility of the school, and 
 of those who conduct it, is to society. The school is 
 fundamentally an institution erected by society to do a 
 certain specific work — to exercise a certain specific 
 function in maintaining the life and advancing the 
 welfare of society."t And that this society is not an 
 ideal society, but society as it actually exists, appears 
 clear from Dewey's argument. The school is to repro- 
 duce in typical form " the processes by which society 
 keeps itself going." The life of the school is to reproduce 
 on a smaller scale the life of the world around it. " The 
 child," he tells us, " ought to have exactly the same 
 motives for right-doing, and be judged by exactly the 
 same standard in the school, as the adult in the wider 
 social life to which he belongs."} And it is important 
 
 * Educational Essays, p. 28. 
 
 ■j- Essays, p. 27. 
 
 t ibid., p. 37. 
 
30 
 
 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 to notice that social life is regarded as essentially indus- 
 trial. This is shown by the interesting description given 
 by Dewey of the typiccd school-building, which is sym- 
 bolic of the occupations of its inmates. The school- 
 building consists of two stories, each with four rooms 
 and a central hall. On the ground floor we should have a 
 kitchen, a dining-room, a shop, and a room for textile 
 industries, with a library in the central hall. Upstairs 
 would come the physical and chemical laboratory, the 
 biological laboratory, rooms for art and music, and a 
 museum in the centre.* 
 
 No one, I think, can read Dewey's writings on educa- 
 tion without finding them most suggestive, and I am not 
 attempting any statement of his position as a whole. 
 But the doctrine in the extracts I have given is clearly 
 tainted by the sociological heresy. The child's persona- 
 lity is recognised to some extent, but only in so far as he 
 is a member of society. There is no recognition of a 
 personal life aiming at ideals which in their essence are 
 more than social. " We get no moral ideals," Dewey 
 says, " no moral standards for school life excepting as we 
 interpret these in social terms."t One with God is a 
 majority would not be written on his school walls. If 
 religion means the realisation of our relations with 
 unseen and absolute realities, Dewey's schoolboy is 
 regarded as having no religion. The implied conception 
 of personality is therefore fatally defective. A boy is 
 more than a member of society : he is also a citizen of 
 
 * School and Society, 
 t Essays, p. 33. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 31 
 
 the unseen world. Hence Dewey's ideal must be sup- 
 plemented by Professor Muir head's when he tells us* 
 that " the main problem of the immediate future is to 
 reinspire our educational system with the religious idea, 
 the idea that the task to which the teacher is called is 
 nothing less than the opening of the soul to all the 
 influences, spiritual, social, aesthetic, cosmic, that call to 
 it from the unseen, and thus to fit it for its true life." 
 
 By holding fast, therefore, to the principles of persona- 
 lity we can maintain the educational point of view 
 against these heresies. But heresies are always one-sided 
 statements of peirtial truths, and our principle enables 
 us to see the element of truth in the views we have 
 rejected. 
 
 Of the three great spheres of interest which we have 
 distinguished, mastery of environment, the common 
 life, and devotion to the ideal, Thorndike is concerned 
 primarily with the first, and Dewey with the first and 
 second. Their theories are incomplete because they 
 fail to do justice to ideal interests, but they have much 
 to teach us in regard to the subjects of which they treat. 
 
 From Thorndike, for instance, we may learn the 
 importance of many details in the boy's school environ- 
 ment which we are tempted to neglect. From Dewey 
 we may learn that our cturriculum and teaching methods 
 in the broadest sense must provide the boy with an intro- 
 duction to his after life, and therefore he must begin to 
 achieve at school the interests which wDl occupy his 
 manhood. 
 
 * Reports on Moral Training, ed. Sadler, vol. i., p. 68. 
 
32 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 To work these lessons out in detail would lead us too 
 far afield, and I must proceed to touch very briefly upon 
 one or two characteristics of the process of education 
 viewed in the light of our conception of personality. 
 
 Furst, then, education as the training of personality 
 wiU not be a thing of rules and observances, though 
 these, too, have their place. Its atmosphere is rather 
 one of freedom, of inspiration, and of adventure. For 
 it aims at stimulating the boy's achievement, not at 
 merely bringing him under discipline. I would apply 
 to education Wm. Wallace's description of morality. 
 Let us not forget — we all do forget — ^that the art of 
 education is not how not to do it. Its function is not 
 merely to keep us from falling, nor is it to help us to 
 become proper. It is to teach us to love God with all 
 our hearts and strength and mind, and our neighbours 
 as ourselves. ... In the work of education you 
 enter on a grand enterprise, a search for the holy Grail, 
 which will bring you to strange lands and perilous seas. 
 For you cannot say, interpreting, ' Thus far and no 
 further, merely according to the bond and duty' . . . 
 You follow by what has been, what is ruled aiid accom- 
 plished, but you follow after what is not yet.* 
 
 If we like we may describe this aspect of education by 
 saying that education is concerned with the boy's self- 
 realisation, or that self-activity is the law of mental 
 growth. Only we must remember that self-realisation 
 means also self-transcendence, the achievement of 
 interests deeper and wider than those which we call our 
 
 * See Lectures, p. 210. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 33 
 
 personal interests. It involves hardship and self-renun- 
 ciation. The man who chooses the life of thought and 
 wisdom, says Socrates in the Philebus,* it may be lives 
 without pleasure ; and who knows whether this may not 
 be the most divine life of aU ? " The higher, yet obvious 
 and dominant experience," says Dr. Bosanquet, " carries 
 you at least as far as, for example, strength and endur- 
 ance, love and sacrifice, the making and achievement of 
 souls."t 
 
 Perhaps you will now object that this statement at any 
 rate is an example of the abstract theorisings which have 
 little bearing on the boy's actual life at school. On the 
 contrary I believe that school life ought to be literally 
 the making and achieving of souls, and we fail to recog- 
 nise it as such partly because our conception of the boy's 
 personality and interests is too abstract, and we do not 
 realise the significance of the details of his daily life and 
 work. Consider, for example, the average boy in an 
 elementary school who in later life will be an artisan. 
 How can the school in his case do what we claim ? Now 
 I fully admit that complete success is not to be expected, 
 if only for the reason that the classes are usually too large 
 and the boy escapes too soon from all educational control. 
 But this does not alter the essential character of the work 
 which the school is called upon to do, and that work is to 
 help the boy to become in the true sense a person. How 
 this is to be accomplished we cannot discuss in detail ; I 
 can only mention one or two points by way of illustra- 
 tion. Cannot, for instance, the school help the boy to feel 
 
 * 33 B. t Individuality and Value, p. 5. 
 
34 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 the joy of doing a job well, that is, of mastering some 
 fraction of his environment ? This satisfaction of the 
 craftsman in the work of his own hands, the conscious- 
 ness of having finished what he imdertook in a work- 
 manlike manner in spite of difficulties and weariness, is 
 a feeling which a boy can experience while at school, and 
 yet if it stays with him through life it will go far towards 
 redeeming hissoul from the hopelessness of failure. So, 
 too, loyalty to his comrades, and the larger view which 
 leads him to forget his own narrow interests in[his absorp- 
 tion in the common good, can also be taught at school 
 if the right means are chosen. In these and other ways 
 the school can, and in many cases actually does, give 
 the boy ideals capable of fuller realisation in his 
 after Ufe, in whatever sphere his work may Ue. 
 It thus plays its part in the creation of a man with 
 interests of absolute and intrinsic value. And apart 
 from any theoretical discussion, do we not, as a plain 
 matter of fact, know some boys and girls who in the 
 course of their school life have passed through the vale 
 of soul-making spoken of by Keats,* and have achieved 
 not merely certain interests, but in some degree persona- 
 lity as a whole ? 
 
 But if the school is really to be a field in which souls 
 are made, every department of the school's life and 
 work must do justice to each of the great fields of interest 
 as elements in the boy's concrete personality. It must 
 help him to master some portion of his environment ; 
 it must in some way develop his social interests ; and 
 * Quoted by A. C. Bradley : Oxford Lectures, p. 222. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 35 
 
 it must increase the unity and coherence of his persona- 
 lity by promoting the subordination of all his lower 
 interests to his interests in the ideal world. May I illus- 
 trate what I mean by an example from a narrow field — 
 the teaching of geometry. In teaching geometry we 
 must, by exercises in drawing and measuring, and by a 
 course of theory, enable a boy to gain a mastery over 
 the simple geometrical properties of the bodies in his 
 environment. And I would add that this mastery must 
 be thorough. But our teaching must bear a direct 
 relation to the boy's present and after life. I refer not 
 only to the study of geometry as a direct preparation 
 for such callings as that of an engineer, but also to the 
 utility of geometry as an aid to the appreciation of the 
 scientific thought common to educated men and to its 
 practical use in daily life. " There is no reason," says 
 Dr. Ntmn, " why mathematics should not be taught 
 systematically as a means necessary for appreciating 
 the main results of hmnan industry and invention, 
 including those embodied in the mechanism of commerce 
 and the financial machinery of civic and national life." 
 And, lastly, we have the ideal purpose of learning geo- 
 metry which must permeate all our teaching of it. This 
 purpose has been described as follows by one of the most 
 suggestive thinkers of our day. " For the health of the 
 moral life," says Bertrand Russell, " for ennobling the 
 tone of an age or nation, the austerer virtues have a 
 strange power, exceeding the power of those not informed 
 and purified by thought. Of these austere virtues the 
 love of truth is the chief, and in mathematics, more than 
 
36 EDUCATION AS THE 
 
 elsewhere, the love of truth may find encouragement 
 for waning faith. Every great study is not only an end 
 in itself, but also a means of creating and sustaining a 
 lofty habit of mind, and this purpose should be kept 
 always in view throughout the teaching and learning of 
 mathematics."* 
 
 It wotdd, I think, be possible to show that the concep- 
 tion of education which I have endeavoiired to indicate 
 gives us a point of view from which we can discuss the 
 various problems of organisation, curriculum, and 
 method which meet us in our schools. It wiU not forth- 
 with solve these problems. Truth, whether of thought 
 or practice, is not so easily attained, but it will show us 
 the direction in which progress can be made. Upon 
 this inquiry, however, we cannot enter, as I wish in con- 
 clusion to say a few words on the character and equip- 
 ment of the teacher. 
 
 What kind of person must the master be if he is to be 
 a trainer of concrete persons ? 
 
 In the first place, he must himself be a person, not an 
 instructor merely or a good disciplinariein. Professor 
 Adams, in his suggestive book on the " Evolution of 
 Educational Theory," seems to anticipate the disappear- 
 ance of personality in teachers. " What the future has 
 to do," he says, " is to improve the machine. All the 
 present indications . . . point ... to a 
 future in which the profession will be made up of men 
 and women of a high level of average intelligence and 
 virtue, but without any special initiative, officered by 
 * Essays, p. 86. 
 
TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 37 
 
 a small body of highly-specialised men and women of 
 .particularly high capacity and attainments, and with a 
 large amomit of initiation."* And again, " Under the 
 increasingly centralised ss^tem that we have foreshadowed 
 we find little promise in the future of a diminution in 
 the number of institutionalised children. The tendency 
 is clearly towards increasing the number and intensify- 
 ing the tjT3e."t 
 
 I can only say that such a future appears to me to be 
 one which we must strive with all our earnestness to 
 avert, for in it education woidd be like Homer's ghost 
 in Hades — only a shadow of its former self. Unfor- 
 tunately we cannot deny the tendency to magnify the 
 machine. We hear of the introduction of methods, 
 whether Montessori or other, as if method in itself, apart 
 from personality, were a remedy for our weakness. I 
 doubt, however, whether this tendency is on the increase. 
 
 Not that method is unimportant. A master must 
 have as the foundation for his work a mastery of his 
 material. He must be a skilled workman, and his 
 material is perhaps the hardest of all to work, namely, 
 human nature. Hence we welcome all the light which 
 can come from a study of psychology and of teaching 
 methods new and old. And still more must we insist 
 upon the necessity for that personal sympathy with 
 boys of which we have already spoken. But a mastery 
 of his material is only one branch of the master's interest. 
 He must have also a social interest in education. He is 
 the organ of the community for handing on its life. 
 
 •Evolution of Educational Theory, p, 187. ■\ ibid., p. 388. 
 
38 EDUCATION AS THE TRAINING OF PERSONALITY. 
 
 Hence he must hear the call which comes to him from 
 the spirit of his time. He must be able to distinguish 
 the true demands of the age from the cries which would 
 lead astray. And in our own day that is no easy task. 
 It demands a wide outlook and broad sympathies, but 
 also a judgment both disciplined and fearless. And this, 
 as well as a lasting inspiration for his work, he will gain 
 only by the achievement of his own interests in some 
 form of the ideal. In the case of the majority this 
 central interest will be religious, using the term religious 
 in its widest sense, but it may also take the shape of an 
 interest in truth or beauty, that is, it may be philosophi- 
 cal or artistic. Still, whatever be the particular aspect 
 under which he views the ultimate reality, he must in 
 his own fashion be a servant of the ideal. To him must 
 be applicable in some measure the description Plato 
 gives of those who in his ideal city are to mould the souls 
 of men, a description of which my words to-night have 
 been little more than an expansion. The true educators, 
 Plato teUs us, " when engaged upon their work will often 
 turn their eyes upwards and downwards ; I mean that 
 they will first look at absolute justice and beauty and 
 temperance, and again at the human copy, and will 
 mingle and temper the various elements of life into the 
 image of a man ; and this they will conceive according 
 to that other image, which, when existing among men, 
 Homer calls the form and likeness of God."* 
 
 • Rep. vi., 501, tr. Jowett. 
 
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