BEF( E UNITED STATES ANTHRACITE Cornell University Library HD 5106.L36 The Sanction for the eight-hour day. 3 1924 000 134 449 JSION ABER- T 5106 L36 THE SANCTION FOR THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY Presented by W. JETT LAUCK On behalf of John L. Lewis, President Philip Murray, Vice-President ( F. P. Hanaway, International Representative I Percy Tetlow, Statistician ! John Deinpsey 1 Committee Representing 1 homas Kennedy Chris. J. Golden Districts I, 7 and 9 Of the United Mine Workers of America WASHINGTON 1920 1 THE MARTIN P. CATHERWOOD LIBRARY OF THE NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY BEFORE THE UNITED STATES ANTHRACITE COAL COMMISSION EMPLOYES EXHIBIT NUMBER- SA THE ^NOTION FOR THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY. Prejented by W. JETT LAUCK On behalf of United Mine Workers of America WASHINGTON 1920 rrc\~ tJo^,^^ -r }Uf^MW THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY Introduction vil I. THE TREND TOWARD AN EIGHT-HOUR DAY IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES 3 1. The Movement fob a Shorter Working Day Dbmno the War '. 3 2. Eight-Hour Laws in the United States 4 a. Laws estahlishing a 6a«tc eight-hour day..,. 4 b. Laws estahUshing an eight-hour day for all workers in speoifled occupations 4 3. Eight-Hour Legislation in Foreign Countries 7 II. THE EIGHT-HOUR DAT AND OUTPUT 9 Introduction 11 1. Effect of Reduction of Hours Upon Output — Summary of THE Experience in Various Industries and Plants . ... 12 2. Relative Efficiency of the Eight-Hour and Tbn-Houb Systems ; Results of a Study by the United States Public Health Service 16 a. Summary of conclusions 16 b. Method of the study 17 c. Production curves in different types'of operations. . 18 d. Comparative output of the two plants 20 e. Time lost in starting and stopping work 20 f. Relation hetween fatigue and industrial accidents. . 21 3. Hours of Labor in Relation to Output in British Muni- tion Factories 22 a. "Weekly hours of employment" 22 b. Fatigue and Output (Second interim report of British Home Office) 29 4. Effect of Reduction of Hours upon Outpxjt in Certain Illinois Factories 31 5. Actual Results of EiGHT-HouR System in Commonwealth Steel Company 33 6. The Experience of the Salford Iron Works at Manches- chesteb, England 35 7. Shorter Wjorkday and Accidents : Testimony of N. I. Stone 37 8. Equal Production in Less Time 37 III. THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY IN RELATION TO HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY 39 Introduction « 41 Pfoperty of "^ MARTIN P. CATHERWOOD LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE SCHHOL INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS Cornell UniversHy IV 1. The Phtsiolosioai. Peincipms Involved 42 2. The Effects of Over-Fatigtie Upon Health : J. A. Hobson. . 44 3. Fatigue and Disease : Kobkb, Hanson and Lee 44 4. The Increasing Death Rate Among Occupied Males 45 a. Statistics compiled Jiy E. R. Havhurst 45 b. Statement hy E. E. Rittenhouse 46 5. Advantageous Effects Upon Health of Eight-Hour Day: John Rae , 46 6. Conclusion of W. B. Diokson, Former Vice-President of U. S. Steel Corporation 47 IV. THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE EIGHT-HOUR DAT 49 Introduction: Statements by President McKinkley and President Wilson 51 1. The Moral Significance of the Eight-Hour Day 53 a. Fatigue and self-control: Henry 8. Baker 53 b. Fatigue and the choice of recreation: Sidney Wehh and Harold Cox 53 2. Shorter Hours and the Opportunity for Wholesome Recrea- tion AND Home Life: F. W. Taussig; Ghas. Sumner Bird, President F. W. Bird & Son 55 3. The Greater Opportunity for Happiness : J. A. Hobson 56 4. Encouragement of Citizenship : Frank L. McVey 56 5. The Eight-Hour Day Worker a Better Consumer : From Re- port OF House Committee on Labor 57 6. The Shorter Working Day and Americanization : From Brief for the State of Oregon, Before the U. S. Su- preme Court 58 7. The Eight-Hour Day and the National Health 58 8. General Benefits TO Society OP the Eight-Hour Day 60 9. Awards of Umpires Under the National War Labor Board 64 a. Henry Ford , 64 b. Otto M. EidUtm 65 c. V. E. Macy 66 d. Judge Julian W. Ma^Je 66 • V. THE SHORT WORK DAX IN ENGLISH COAL MINES 67 VI. GENERAL STATEMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND DE- CISIONS RELATING TO THE SHORTER WORD-DAY, PARTICULARLY THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY 75 1. The Effects of Long Hours on Munition Workers in Great Bbitain During the War 77 a. General conclusions: Excerpts from final report of the BrtUsh Health of Munitions Worker^ Cotwmttee 77 b. Recommendations as to hours of lalior hy the British Health of Munitions Worker^ Gom- mittee 79 2. The Eiqht-Houb Day in a National Emebgenct: State- ment OF Privt Oounoilob Risht Hon. James H. Thomas at the Confeeence with the United States CoTjNon, of National Defense 82 3. Action op the International Labob CoNFEBEas^cE on the Eiqht-Houe Day 85 4. Attitude of AtrsTRALiAN Ooubt of Abbitbation 87 h Cornell University J Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000134449 INTRODUCTION. The principle of a shorter working day has been so thoroughly established, and experience with an eight-hour day is now so general, that the facts are fairly familiar to every tribunal dealing with questions affecting the welfare of labor and the profitableness of industry. The purpose of the present exhibit, therefore, is to present in as concise form as possible some of the most authoritative facts, opinions and decisions on certain phases of the question for the pur- pose of making them immediately available for consideration by the Commission. Accordingly, certain facts have been summarized relating to the unmistakable movement toward the eight-hour day in American in- dustry and to the status of American legislation on this question. Since it is thoroughly recognized that the employer of labor must take into account the profitableness of various lengths of working days, a brief review is presented of the experience of a number of plants with the eight-hour day from the point of view of output. The results of a recent important study by the United States Public Health Service are also given, and the British experience with the long and the short working day is presented. The profitableness of a working day of a given length, however, is to be evaluated not only in its immediate results upon output, but also in its effects upon the sustained efficiency of the worker. The question of the worker's health, therefore, of necessity enters into consideration, and a brief series of statements from authorita- tive sources on the physiologic principles involved is presented. The question has a much broader and even more important aspect, moreover. The length of the working day bears an important rela- tion to certain social conditions, and the eight-hour day possesses a significance of community and national importance for the reason that the moral, mental and social activities of the worker are affected by the degree of fatigue which his work entails and by the opportu- nity that is afforded him for self-improvement and civic interest outside of working hours. The nature of some of the more impor- tant phases of this question is suggested in the views of some of the more important writings by men of recognized eminence. It has been impossible, even were it desirable, to present all of vii VIU the great mass of scientific facts that have accumulated, of the de- cisions that have been rendered, of the facts of actual experience and of the opinions of students, employers and publicists. Only a very small proportion of the available data has been utilized for the purpose of stating briefly some of the most salient facts and au- thoritative opinions on a few of what are generally recognized as vitally important aspects of the eight-hour day. I. TREND TOWARD AN EIGHT-HOUR DAY IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES 6B I. TREND TOWARD AN EIGHT-HOUR DAY IN THE UNITED STATES AND FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 1. The Movement for a Shoktbe Working Day During the War. During the war period previous movements for sliorter hours were continued and were greatly accelerated by the fact that Government contracts required the eight-hour day. The eight-hour movement gained headway before the United States entered the war. As an instance of this fact may be cited the movement for the reduction of hours in the machine trades, which began late in 1915 and continued in 1916. Before our entry into the war railroad employees secured the so-called basic eight-hour day and the anthracite-coal agreement for an eight-hour day was also signed. Industries which as a whole went on an eight-hour day, with additional pay for overtime, from January, 1915, to June, 1918, in- clusive, are contained in the following tabulation. As this table was derived by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics largely from newspapers and trade journals, it is not complete, nor does it contain industries in which numbers of wage-earners secured a reduc- tion in hours from time to time as a result of sporadic agreements affecting only small numbers in certain localities: SUMMARY OP REPORTS RECEIVED BY UNITED STATES BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS, SHOWING REDUCTION OP THE WORKING DAY TO EIGHT HOURS, 1915-1918.^ 1918. . 1915. 1916. 1917. January to June. Total Number of reports 121 210 369 181 881 Number of establish- ments affected 224 3,027 534 455 4,240 Number of employees af- fected 171,978 342,138 603,795 330,621 1,448,532 1 Monthly Labor Review, September, 1918, p. 191. In following this movement, it may be noted, it has not always been possible to distinguish in the reports and sources of informa- tion the eight-hour day as representing an actual working day and the eight-hour day which is made the basis of wage compensation with extra pay for work beyond eight hours. However, while the movement has not always signified a reduction in hours of work for the wage-earner, it has at least signalized the acceptance of the prin- ciple of the shorter work day. 3 2. EiGHT-HouE Laws in the United States. The legislative enactments of an eight-hour day properly may be said to reflect public opinion on the question. In order to present these enactments briefly, the following summary prepared by the Women's Bureau of the United States Department of Labor (Bulle- tin No. 5, October 15, 1919) is reproduced: (a) Laws EstablisMng a Basic Eight-Hour Day. ALL OCCUPATIONS. Five States, California, Connecticut, Missouri, New York and Pennsylvania, have laws stating that eight hours shall constitute a day's work unless otherwise agreed. Although work above eight hours in any one day is to be paid extra compensation, it is not penalized by requiring rates of time and a half or double time. The Federal Government has a far more definite law that pro- vides that persohs employed on contracts for the United States shall be paid on the basis of eight hours constituting a day's work, with time and a half for overtime. SPECIFIED OCCUPATIONS. Five other States, Illinois, Indiana, Montana, Ohio, Wisconsin, and the Federal Government have laws providing that eight hours shall be a day's work in a limited number of occupations. Illinois and Indiana cover only manual labor; Montana, labor on public highways ; Ohio, work in hanufacturing, mechanical or mining busi- ness; Wisconsin, work in manufacturing or mechanical business; United States, letter carriers. VALUE OF LAWS. These laws show legislative recognition of 8 hours as a fair maxi- mum day's work. There does not seem to be any underlying prin- ciple, other than this recognition, behind these laws. They do not aim to limit strictly hours in industries usually recognized as hazardous, nor, with the exception of Montana, do they attempt to limit hours and wages of State employees. On the contrary, all the State laws expressly provide that the act is not to prevent contracts or understandings that a longer period shall constitute a day's work. (b) Laws Establishing an 8-Hour Day for All Workers in Specified Occupations. The largest group of laws limiting the hours of work to eight in any one day cover work done either directly or indirectly for the State. WORK ON PUBLIC WORKS. Eighteen States, California, Idaho, Kansas, Kentucky, Mary- land,' Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, Wyoming; three Territories, Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico and the Federal Government have laws definitely limiting the hours of labor on public works to 8 in any one day. In addition to this, one State, Ohio, limits the weekly hours to 48, and one Territory, Hawaii, limits the hours of labor on Saturday to 5. MANUAL LABOR ON WORK DONE FOR THE STATE. Eight states, Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New York, Oregon, and the Federal Government limit the hours of labor for all manual workers employed on State work to 8 in any one day. Moreover, two of these States, Colorado and Massachusetts, limit the weekly hours of such labor to 48. WORK DONE ON CONTRACTS TO FURNISH THE STATE WITH MATERIAL. Nine States, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Washington, and the Federal Govern- ment have laws providing that all persons working on contracts for material for the State shall be allowed to work only 8 hours in any one day. Oregon also limits the weekly hours to 48. WORK DONE FOR THE STATE. Eight States, Arizona, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, Washington, and two Territories, Hawaii and Porto Rico, have laws limiting the daily hours of labor to 8 in any one day, so broad in scope as to seem to cover all State employees. In six of these States, Arizona, Idaho, Montana, New Mexico, Okla- homa, Utah, this provision forms part of the constitution of the State. In Hawaii the hours of labor are limited further by pro- viding for a five-hour day on Saturday. WORK DONE IN STATE INSTITUTIONS. Four States, Connecticut j Montana, Oklahoma, Utah, have special statutes establishing an 8-hour day for various classes of employees of State institutions. These laws show great diversity in the classes included. Utah, for example, covers all employees of penal institu- tions; the other three States specify certain occupations such as firemen, janitor, etc., in all State institutions. In two other States, Idaho and Oregon, where employees of institutions would seem to be covered by the general law for State employees, they are ex- pressly excepted. Idaho excepts agricultural and domestic labor in State ilistitutions, and Oregon excepts "any employee of any State institution," and then excepts the penitentiary from this exception. WORK DONE ON PUBLIC PRINTING. One State, Massachusetts, and the Federal Government have laws limiting the hours of employment of all persons working on public printing to 8 in any one day. In the case of Massachusetts this means that all contracts are let with this provision in the contract, and with further stipulation that 4 hours shall constitute a day's work on Saturday unless the supervisor of State printing requires 1 Applies only to the City of Baltimore. a full day of 8 hours. The Federal law applies to the Government Printing Office. It directs the Public Printer to "rigidly enforce the 8-hour law" in all departments under his charge. Outside of these acts regulating work done either directly or indi- rectly for the State, the largest group of eight-hour laws covers cer- tain occupations considered especially hazardous. WORK IN MINES, TUNNELS AND QUAEEIBS. Thirteen States — Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Wyoming and one Territory, Alaska — ^limit the hours of work in mines, quarries, etc., to eight in any one day. The actual statutes differ very greatly. The Kansas law covers only lead and zinc mines; at the other extreme, the Arizona law specifies "all persons employed, occupied or engaged in work or labor of any kind or nature, in underground mines, underground workings, open-cut workings or open-pit workings, in search for or in the extraction of minerals whether base or precious, or who are engaged in such underground mines, underground workings, open-cut workings or open-pit workings, (or other purposes or who are employed, engaged or occupied in other underground workings of any kind or nature, open-cut workings or open-pit workings, for the purpose of tunnel- ing, making excavations or to accomplish any other purpose or design." WORK IN SMELTERS. Nine States — Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming and one Territory, Alaska, have considered the work of refining and smelting of metals particularly hazardous and have limited the hours of labor in all such estab- lishments to eight in any one doy. WORK IN ELECTEIC-POWEE PLANTS. > Arizona for the same reason has limited the hours of labor for all employees in electric-power plants to eight in any one day. WORK IN PLASTER AND CEMENT MILLS. Nevada treats work in plaster and cement mills as among those occupations having special hazards, and limits the working day of all employees of such mills to eight hours. Still another group of laws covers employees on whose alert at- tendance to duty depend the lives and safety of many others. RAILROAD TELEGRAPHERS, ETC. Two States, Arkansas and Connecticut, in recognition of this re- sponsibility have limited the hours of railroad employees controlling the movement of trains to eight in any one day. HOSITING ENGINEERS. Three States, Arizona, Montana and Pennsylvania, have con-- sidered the duties of hoisting engineers at mines as particularly arduous and have provided that they may not work more than eight hours in any one day. WORK ON IRRIGATION SERVICE. Montana and the Federal Government limit the hours of labor for all persons employed on irrigation works to eight in any one day. Probably in recognition of the strain of their duties letter carriers have been especially recognized in Federal hour regulation. LETTER CARRIERS. The Federal Government has passed a special act limiting the hours of letter carriers to eight in any one day. A fifty-six-hour week is permitted if the employee is allowed an amount of time off on some day of the following week ; the amount of time oflE to exactly correspond with the number of hours worked on Sunday. Only one law in the United States establishes the eight-hour day for all wage and salary earners. ALL WAGE EARNERS. The Territory of Alaska has been the first political division of the United States to pass an all-inclusive eight-hour law. This law, which provides an eight-hour day for all wage and salary earners, was submitted to the electorate and passed. ' Xn Alaskan court, however, has declared it to be unconstitutional. No test case has as yet reached the United States Supreme Court. VALUE OF LAWS. These laws do establish a working day definitely limited to eight hours. They recognize, not that a person should be paid extra com- I>ensation for working over eight hours in any one day, but that the working day should stop with the completion of eight hours' labor. In many cases this recognition seems to be based on the feeling that the occupation so regulated is dangerous or wearisome above the ordinary. In the acts limiting the hours for persons working for the Government and on Government contracts, however, there seems to be a definite recognition of the maximum eight-hour day as the longest justifiable period of any labor and of the obligation of the Government when employing labor to conform to a fair standard. 3. Eight-Hour Legislation in Foreign Countries. Twenty countries had embodied in their legislation, and one in its constitution, the principle of the eight-hour day or 48-hour week before the International Labor Conference, under the League of Nations, drafted its convention recommending the eight-hour day and the 48-hour week for incorporation into national legislation. Thus, as pointed out in effect by various speakers among Govern- ment and labor delegates, the conference was merely engaged in registering accepted principles, or at the very most, in harmonizing divergences of practice in respect to the application of the eight- hour day. It was insisted upon by the workers and the Government delegates that the committee appointed tq study the matter and to draft a convention should consider or ly the practical aspects of the matter, that the principle had already been agreed upon. To appoint a committee to discuss the principle of the eight-hour day and the 48-hour week, would be, as one Government delegate wittily put it, like appointing a committee for the discovery of America. The following statement shows the countries included and the date of enactment of the eight-hour laws. The State laws of the United States and those of the States comprising the Federal unions of some of the South American countries have been omitted. No attempt has been made to cover those eight-hour laws of certain countries which are applicable to public employments, nor those already applying to mines. While some of these newer laws in- clude mining, yet before the war and before the springing up of these general eight-hour laws, mining was already practically an eight- hour industry the world over, and is now moving in the direction of a seven or six-hour day: GENERAL f JGHT-HOUR LAWS IN FOREIGN COUNTRIES. Country. Date. Country. Date. Austria Dec. 19, 1918. Pajiama Not ascertained. Czecho- slovakia Dec. 9, 1918. Peru Jan. 15, 1919. Denmark Feb. 12, 1919. Poland Nov. 23, 1918 Ecuador Sept. 11, 1916. Portugal May 7, 1919. Finland Nov. 27, 1917 (amend- Russia Oct. 26 (Nov. 11) , 17. ed Aug. 14, 19, '18). Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Jugo- slavia) Sept. 12, 1919. France Apr. 23, 1919. Spain Apr. 3, 1919. Germany Nov. 23, 1918. Sweden Oct. 17, 1919. Luxemburg Dec. 14, 1918. Switzerland June 27, 1919. Mexico Jan. 31, 1917.1 Uruguay Nov. 17, 1915. Netherlands. . . . Nov. 1, 1919.^ Norway Aug 14, 1918. 1 Constitution. ^ Date in effect. '^ United States Bureau Labor Statistics, Labor Review, March, 1920, pp. 184-185. See also, Report on 8-hour day or 48-hour week, prepared by the Organizing Commit- tee for the International Labor Conference, Washmgton, 1919 (London, 1919) , p. 156. I!. THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY AND OUTPUT. II. THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY AND OUTPUT. Introduction. That the length of the working day bears a very definite relation to output is no longer a theory : it has been proven by actual records in modern industrial establishments. Under an eight-hour day it has been shown that not only is the output per hour per worker increased, but that the output of the entire plant for the entire day, and for longer periods of time, has been materially increased. More than half a century ago the study of fatigue was begun in laboratories. The effect of over-exertion on the muscular and nervous system was carefully and scientifically investigated and the principle was established that over-fatigue had deleterious results. But only within recent years has the actual application of this prin- ciple in industry been tested. Numerous general opinions and ob- servations are to be found in the statements of employers and eflS- ciency engineers; in practically no instance has a modern large employer of labor gone on record as favoring a longer working day rather than a shorter one. But it is not necessary to rely on merely generalizations, and in the following pages a brief resume of some of the more important records of output and productivity under the eight-hour day as compared with longer working days are presented. During the war with Germany the question of an eight-hour day was put to its most severe test. The following problem presented itself: It was necessary to secure the greatest possible output in industry and at the same time to conserve the health of the workers. The question to be solved was, What length of working day would be most profitable from the point of view of productivity as well as of sustained health and eflSciency? As affording an answer to this problem — ^which is equally as im- portant in time of peace as in war — ^the experience in American and in British industry is illuminating. On this point especial attention may be directed to the experience of numerous establishments, to the results of a recent study by the United States Public Health Service, II 12 and to the statements of the experience of the British Ministry of Munitions. 1. Effect of Reduction of Hours Upon Output: Summary of Experience in Various Industries and Plants. In the following paragraphs is presented a summary of the experi- ence of a number of plants relating to the effect of reduction of hours upon output. The ?data are by no means exhaustive, but they are believed to be fairly representative.' ^ The f onowing sources of iniormation have been consulted : Munitions manufacturing (Great Britain). Great Britain ministry of munitipns, ■health of munition workers committee, memoranda Nos. 5, 12, 7, 20. Great Britain Home Office, investigation of -fatigue by physiological methods. Commonwealth Steel Co., iron and steel. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, Teport on conditions of employment in the iron and steel industry in the United States (S. Doc. No. 110, 62d Cong., 1st sess., v. 3). John E. Grant (England), iron and steel. Letter from John B. Grant published in Engineering (London), October 22, 1915. Anthracite coal, mining. Monthly Review of the United States Bureau of Labor Sta- tistics, August, 1917. William J. Crawford Co.. granite. Letter from W. J. Crawford published In the hearings on the eight-hour bill (H. R. 27281) before the House Committee on Labor, January 30 to February 6-12, 1913. United States Navy Yard vs. Newport News Shipbuilding Co., battleships. The eight- hour day and Government construction by direct labor, by Ethelbert Stewart. In Com- mons, May, 1905. Paper manufacturing industry, paper. United States Tariff Board. Report on pulp and newsprint paper industry, 1911. W. n. McElwain Co., boots and shoes. The Survey, May 12, 1917, reprinted in the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics Monthly Review, June, 1917. Boot and shoe industry, boots and shoes. National Industrial Conference Board. Hours of work as related to output and health of workers: Research report No. 7, June, 1918. Fayette R. Plumb (Inc.), tool niajiiifacture. Monthly Review of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, June, 1917. J. H. Williams & Co., iron forgings. United States Industrial Commission Report, 1901, volume 14. Cotton manufacturing, cotton. National Industrial Conference Board. Hours of work as related to output and health of workers, cotton manufacturing. Research report No. 4, March, 1918. Manufacturing (general), manufacturing. Eight hours for laborers on Government work. Report by V. M. Metcalf, Secretary Department! of Commerce and Labor, on H. H.. 4064 (eight-hour bill), 1904. Zeiss Optical Works, Jena, Germany, optical goods. Abbe, Ernst. Die Volkwerb- schaftliche Bedeutung der Verkurzung des industrieUen arbeitstages. Jena, 1901. Digest in Goldmark's "Fatigue and Efficiency," 1912. Bngis Chemical Works, Leige, Belgium, chemical goods. Promont, L. G. Une experience industrielle de reduction de la journee de travail. Brussels, 1906. Digest m Goldmark's "Fatigue and Efficiency," 1912. Salford Iron Works, Manchester, England, iron and steel. ESght hours for laborers on Government work. A report ol the Secretary of Commerce and Labor to the House Committee on Labor, 1905. Cleveland Hardware Co., hardware. Survey, February 2, 1918. Joseph Feiss Co., clothing. Survey (New York), February 2, 1918. "The Case for the Shorter Work Day," brief of Mr. Felix Frankfurter in the Oregon ten-hour case before the Supreme Court of the United States, 1915. 13 1. Commonwealth Steel Co., Granite City, 111., iron and steel, 1912, 12 to 8 hours. Under the 8-hour system, in spite of the increase in hourly rates, there was a slight decrease in the cost of production, owing to the higher efficiency of the workers. Also the quality of the product was very much improved. 2. John E. Grant Co., England, iron and steel, 1914, from two 10-hour shifts to three 8-hour shifts. Normal weekly working hours increased 34 per cent. Output per man-hour increased, each man in his 48-hour week doing as much as he did before in the 50-hour week. Output increased 50 per cent. 3. W. H. McElwain Co., Boston, Mass., boot and shoe, 1916-17, 55-hour week to 52-hour week. Productive unit per employee per day increased from 8.91 to 9.02. Our experience has been that over- time work is decidedly undesirable. 4. Twelve coal companies, anthracite coal, 1915-16, 9 to 8 hours. Output per man-day for miners and miners' laborers in gross tons increased from 4.08 in 1915 to 4.20 in 1916 ; output per man-day for all labor in gross tons increased from 2.03 in 1915 to 2.06 in 1916. 5. William J. Crawford & Co., Buffalo, granite, 1912, 10 to 9 hours and 9 to 8 hours. The same man, under identically the same conditions, accomplished more of exactly the same kind of work when he was working 9 hours than he did when he was working 10 hours ; and again, when the hours were reduced to 8 hours this same man accomplished still more in an 8-hour day than he did in a 9-hour day. 6. United States Navy Yard of Brooklyn, and Newport News Shipbuilding Co. (a private company), shipbuilding, 1903-4, 8-hour day in Government yard; 10-hour day in Newport News Co. Two battleships were built simultaneously, one, the Connecticut, by the United States navy yard in Brooklyn, under the 8-hour day and by union men; the other, the Louisiana, by contract by the Newport News Shipbuilding Co., employing its men 10 hours a day. The average production per man per hour on the Connecticut exceeded by 24.48 per cent the average production per man per hour on the Louisiana. 7. Several paper mills, paper manufacture, 1908-9, 12 to 8 hours. Change from a 12-hour to an 8-hour system in 1909 showed a reduc- tion in the labor cost per ton of paper from $4.35 to |3.73. In other words, an increase in the hourly rate of wages to the extent of 33 per cent not only failed to result in a corresponding increase in the cost of labor per ton of paper, but was accompanied by an actual reduction in cost. While the figures of |4.35 in 1908 happened to be the highest in 10 years, there was not a single year in that decade under the 12-hour system which showed as low a cost as in 1909, the first year under the 8-hour system. 8. One hundred and ninety establishments, boot and shoe manu- facturing, 1916-17, from 54 to 50 hours in majority of cases. Study 14 made by National Industrial Conference Board presents the em- ployer's point of view. Of 77 establishments reporting on output after reduction in hours, 31.2 per cent state that it was maintained and 68.8 per cent that it was decreased. Both groups reported an average reduction of between 4 and 4i^ hours. The report con- cludes : "If all sttoh hindrances as inefficient management, irregular hours, short-time piece-workers and arbitrary reduction were elimi- nated, and a genuine spirit of co-operation was secured, it is pos- sible thata 50-hour week would be as productive as a longer one." 9. Poyette R. Plumb (Inc.), Philadelphia, Pa., tool manufactur- ing, 1916-17, 5714 hours per week to 52^^ hours per week. The weekly production in one of our worst departments, in spite of the shorter hours, has increased 18.4 per cent, and in the entire plant 10 per cent. 10. J. H. Williams & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y., iron and steel forgings, 1901, 10-hour day to 9-hour day. There is a slightly larger average output for the 9-hour day than for the 10-hour day, though in every other respect the work was done under similar conditions. There is throughout an increased rate of hourly output and a total output somewhat larger for the shorter working time. 11. One hundred and thirty establishments, cotton manufactur- ing, 1917, 57 to 54 hours and 64 to 60 hours. Study made by the National Industrial Conference Board presents the employer's view- point . Of the 130 establishments, 7.7 per cent maintained their previous output; 62 per cent showed a decrease in output; the effects upon output in the other establishments were not reported. Changes in policy, management, efficiency of machinery, material manufac- tured during period of investigation not stated. 12. Three hundred and ninety-six establishments, 83 manufactur- ing industries, 1904, various reductions. Out of 334 establishments, 11.1 per cent found no increase in cost of manufacture resulting from reduction in hours, while 88.9 per cent found manufacture was increased; also 9.3 per cent reported no decrease in quality of product, whereas in 90.7 per cent a decrease in product did result. 13. Zeiss Optical Works, Jena, Germany, optical instruments manufacturing, 1900, 9 to 8-hour day. Under the 8-hour system, as compared with the superseded 9-hour system, the hourly earnings of pieceworkers increased 16.2 per cent. This represents a greater daily output than before. 14. Engis Chemical Works, near Liege, Belgium, chemical manu- facturing, 1892, two 12-hour shifts (10 hours actual work) to three 8-hour shifts (7^^ hours actual work). Within 6 months after the change was effected the workers had equaled in 7^^ hours the pre- vious output of 10 hours and the daily earnings for 714 hours' work equaled the amount formerly earned in 10 hours. The total cost of 15 production was reduced 20 per cent and the quality of the output improved. 15. Salford Iron Works, Manchester, England, machinery manu- facturing, 1893, 53 hours per week to 48 hours per week. At the end of a year's time it was found that the amount of output for the year was slightly greater than the average of the six preceding years. 16 2. EelATIVB EFPlCiBNCt OF THE EiOHT-HoUE AND TElN-HOUtt Systems.' results of a study by the united statfes public health service.' In 1917, when the question of output was of paramount impor- tance, the Public Health Service, in conjunction with the committee on industrial fatigue of the Council of National Defense, and the committee on fatigue in industrial pursuits of the National Research Council, began an investigation of the effects of certain industrial conditions on output, especially the influence of fatigue, as shown by the relative production under different working hours when other conditions were reasonably similar. Accordingly a study was made of two plants where conditions, other than the length of a working day, were as similar as could be found. The investigation was made by P. S. Sargent and his asso- ciates, under the general direction of Frederick S. Lee, and the report was prepared by Josephine Goldmark and Mary D. Hopkins, all of the Public Health Service. This study was the first comprehensive investigation made with the definite purpose of ascertaining the relative efiSciency of the eight-hour and 10-hour systems. In view of its importance and of the fact that it was conducted by so unbiased an agency as the Fed- eral Public Health Service, its findings are given in some detail below.* a. Summary of Conclusions. The following is a summary of the conclusions stated in the lan- guage employed by the Public Health Service: A comparison of the 8-hour and 10-hour systems leads to the con- clusion that the 8-hour system is the more efficient. This is evi- denced by — 1. Mmntenance of output. — The day shift: The outstanding fea- ture of the 8-hour system is steady maintenance of output. The out- standing feature of the lO-hour system is the decline of output. 2. Lost time. — ^TJnder the 8-hour system work with almost full power begins and ends approximately on schedule, and lost time is reduced to a minimum. Under the 10-hour system work ceases regu- larly before the end of the spell and lost time is frequent. 3. Stereotyped or restricted output. — Under the 10-hour system artificial limitation of output is widely prevalent. Under the 8-hour ^ Treasury Department, United States Public Health Service. Studies in industrial fatigue: Fatigue in relation to working capacity. Comparison of an eight-hour plant and a ten-hour plant. Public Health Bulletin No. 106, February, 1920. 17 feystem output varies more nearly according to individual capacity. 4. Iiidustrial accidents. — (a) In the absence of fatigue, accidents vary directly with. speed of production owing to increased exposure to risk. (6) The breaking up of this regular variation by fatigue is indi- cated by — (1) The rise of accidents with the fall of output; (2) The disproportionate rise of accidents with the rise of output and the absence of a proportionate fall of acci- dents with the fall of output in the final hours of the day. (c) The importance of fatigue in the causation of accidents is emphasized by the fact that the higher accident risk accompanies the deeper decline of working capacity — (1) In the second spell as compared with the first; (2) In muscular work as compared with dexterous and ma- chine work; (3) At the 10-hour plant as compared with the 8-hour plant. (d) The level of the accident rate varies inversely with the experi- ence of the workers. b. Method of Study. The two plants chosen for investigation were engaged, one in the manufacture of munitions, the other in the manufacture of auto- mobiles. The munition plant worked two shifts, the day shift being on duty from 7 A. M. to 12, and from 1 to 6 P. M., while the night shift worked full 12 hours, from 6.20 P. M. to 6.40 A. M., with a break of 20 minutes at midnight. The other plant worked three shifts of 8 hours each. Comparisons were made only for the day shifts, since in the 8-hour plant only 8 per cent of the force were in the night shift, and there were other differences which made it diffi- cult to compare results fairly. In each plant certain repetitive processes, comparable with those selected in the other, and giving an output which could be counted or measured during the period of observation, were chosen, and repeated records were made of the output in each. For each process an average output for each hour of the working day was obtained, based on many single observa- tions of each individual worker, and of many different workers, in order to obtain a result which would not be affected by the chance variations which might appear in the case of a single worker. This average having been secured, the maximum hourly production for each process was taken as the norm for that process, and the output of the other hours was expressed as a percentage of this. This method, which differs from the customary method of using the aver- 18 age hourly output as the norm, is defended on the following grounds : Absolute output at the two plants can plainly not be compared. Different workers are employed; the processes, though comparable, are not the same ; the product is diverse. Even the deviations from the average output at the two plants can not fairly be compared, as may be readily shown. In such an average the drop of a single hour if great, may lower the general level so far as to make it wholly unrepresentative of the entire day's work, and thus prevent us from comparing the deviations hour by hour with similar deviations from a more representative average. This is the case at the 10-hour plant, where the depression of the average by the deep drop of the final hour to 80 invalidates a comparison of the hourly deviations with the wholly representative average of the 8-hour plant, which is based on hourly figures varying within narrow limits and a last hour fall- ing only to 95.5. c. Production Curves in Different Types of Operations. In the following tables are summarized variations in output per hour in the two plants and in the first and second halves of a work- ing day for the two plants : A. RELATIVE HOURLY PRODUCTION IN AN 8-HOUR DAY PLANT, COM- PARED WITH THAT IN SIMILAR OCCUPATIONS IN A 10-HOUR DAY PLANT. Average output observed each working hour.* Nature of work. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. 5th. 6th. 7th. 8th. 9th. 10th. Dexterous handwork 8 hr. day 10 hr. day Muscular handwork 8 hr. day 10 hr. day Lathe machine work 8 hr. day 10 hr. day Misc. machine work 8 hr. day 10 hr. day 91.2 88.6 93.6 90.8 84.8 65.1 88.7 86.2 98.0 97.4 99.6 95.0 93.1 90.7 94.9 92.2 98.2 98.5 96.2 92.9 96.8 92.0 98.4 98.9 97.0 97.1 91.1 92.7 92.7 100.0 96.7 99.1 94.8 91.1 95.0 83.9 97.4 92.7 95.4 93.8 95.6 90.9 92.5 93.5 93.8 86.2 95.8 90.7 95.6 93.0 90.5 89.3 93.2 90.1 97.5 93.9 88.9 90.7 84.4 85.0 91.0 91.5 94.8 97a 9i!2 82!6 925 97.'3 77*0 69.9 88^7 907 * Index number=:percentage variation from maximum; mazlmum=100. B. 19 RELATIVE PRODUCTION IN MORNING AND AFTERNOON SPELLS IN 8-HOUR DAY PLANT, COMPARED WITH THAT IN SIMILAR OCCUPA- TIONS IN A 10-HOUR DAY PLANT. Average output observed.* Nature of work. A Average for 1st half. B Average for 2nd half. Ratio of A to B. Average for day. Dexterous handwork 8 hr. day 96.1 94.5 95.1 91.1 91.8 88.1 94.7 94.0 • 93.8 88.5 90.5 81.9 93.9 89.5 95.9 94.0 97 94 95 90 J 02 102 101 100 94 9 10 hr. day 91 6 Muscular handwork 8 hr. day 92 9 10 hr. day 86 5 Lathe machine work 8 hr. day 92 8 10 hr. day 88 9 MisceL machine work 8 hr. day 95.3 10 hr. day 94.0 * Index number=percentage variation from maximum ; maximum=100. The output curve in general begins at something under its full height, works up within the second or third hour to a peak, and then declines, the last hour showing a considerable fall. The second spell of work follows the same general outline, though on a lower level. The operations studied were divided into four types — dexterous handwork, muscular handwork, lathe machine work, and miscel- laneous machine work. These showed some interesting variations in their output curves. In both plants the dexterous handwork processes showed a pronounced tendency to reach their maximum output in the third hour; apparently a considerable amount of prac- tice was required to get the workers into their full swing. After the lunch interval practice was again required to bring up the workers' efEicitency, but by the second hour this was accomplished, and in the 8-hour plant production then continued high until the last hour, when the customary drop occurred. In the 10-hour plant the after- noon level was relatively lower than in the 8-hour, and the di-oop of the final hour was far more pronounced. The curve of output in the muscular handwork processes reaches its maximum earlier than in the case with the dexterous processes, and the faU begins sooner, and is more marked throughout the day than is the case with any other type. As the main requirement in 20 this work is physical strength, fatigue shows itself more plainly than in types where dexterity is required, and the heavier the process the more marked is the eflfect of fatigue, as shown by the fall in out- put. The output of the first hour after lunch is in general larger than that of the second, showing the effect of the rest, the output not being affected by the loss in practice shown by the dexterous types. The afternoon fall is much greater and begins earlier than in the other types. The curves of the two types of machine work differ from each other, but both are marked by a singular maintenance of output through the second spell of work, and a relatively slight decrease in the last hour. In one operation the output of the last hour is actually the highest of the day. It is pointed out that this does not necessarily mean that fatigue has not developed. In the case of the miscellaneous machine processes the output is governed to a large extent by the machine, and the fatigue of the operator has little effect on it. In the case of the lathe machine operations the theory is put forth that fatigue is masked by the rhythmic nature of the work. d. Comparative Output of the Two Plants. In each of the separate types of work the 8-hour plant showed a greater steadiness of production than the 10 hour. The disparity between the two .sets of figures is striking. The lowest hourly output of the 8-hour plant differs by less than 10 points from the highest, while for the 10-hour plant the variation is not far from 20 points. The difference is noticeable not only in the first and last hour of each spell of work, but in the lower level of the entire second spell in the 10-hour plant. Summing up the situation, the authors declare that the outstanding feature of the 8-hour sys- tem is steady maintenance of output, while the outstanding feature of the 10-hour system is the decline of output. e. Time Lost in Starting and Stopping Work. At the 8-hour plant the workers in the various departments start and stop work practically on schedule. In one department, for in- stance, transmission gear cutting, observation showed that only two minutes was lost at the end of the morning shift; work also started punctually, 7 minutes being required to get under way in the morning shift, 3 minutes on the afternoon shift. At the 10-hour plant, on the other hand, fully 15 minutes before the noon hour and fully 30 minutes before quitting time at night, 21 workers may be seen sitting idly at their machines, while the shaft- ing still runs on, walking about, chatting, or else making prepara- tions to leave. Seven and one-half per cent of the total daily time is thus lost by many workers, of which 5 per cent is in the last hour. f. Relation Between Fatigue and Industrial Accidents. The report takes up, in considerable detail, the theories advanced to account for the customary accident curve. In this, accidents are uniformly low in the first hour of the working spell. They then rise gradually to a peak, most frequently in the penultimate hour of the spell, from which they gradually decline. In the second spell there is a generally similar rise and fall, often at a somewhat lower level. Speed of operation is admitted as an important cause of accidents, the exposure to risk increasing as the number of operations per hour or per minute rises. Fatigue has been advanced as an additional and important cause, but this theory has been attacked on the ground that in the final hours of the working spell, when fatigue should be at its height, the accident curve is falling. In this study, after mak- ing careful allowance for such items as lost time, change in work, and the like, which might interfere with the normal incidence of ac- cidents, an index figure is worked out, showing the hom-ly accident rate per unit of output. This presents a striking contrast to the customary accident curve, for, although in the latter hours of the spell or the day the accident rate declines, yet the rate per unit of production shows an increase. The main conclusioijs reached in this study of accidents are as follows: (a) In the absence of fatigue, accidents vary directly with speed of production, owing to increased exposure to risk. (6) The breaking up of this regular variation by fatigue is indi- cated by — (1) The rise of accidents with the fall of output. (2) The disproportionate rise of accidents with the rise of output, and the lack of a proportionate fall of acci- dents with the fall of output in the final hours of the day. (c) The importance of fatigue in the causation of accidents is emphasized by the fact that the higher accident risk accompanies the deeper decline of working capacity — (1) In the second spell as compared with the first. (2) In muscular work as compared with dexterous and ma- chine work. (3) At the lO-hour plant as compared with the 8-hour plant. (d) The level of the accident rate varies with the inexperience of the workers. 22 3. Hours of Labor in Relation to Output in British Munition Factories/ In Memorandum No. 20 on "Weekly Hours of Employment," is- sued under date of October, 1917, by the health of munition work- ers committee of the British Ministry of Munitions, it is urged "that the time is now ripe for a further substantial reduction in the hours of work." In view of the importance of this subject in connection with labor conditions in the United States, the text of this memo- randum is given herewith in full. a. Weekly Hours of Employment. Memorandum No. 20. 1. The committee have had under consideration the recommenda- tions made in regard to the maximum weekly hours of employment of men, women and young persons, which were set out in their Memorandum No. 5 on ''Hours of work" (issued January, 1916). When the committee commenced their labors, two years ago, they were faced with an almost complete absence of any scientific data as to the relation of hours of employment to output. They had accordingly to rely upon the general evidence of employers, work- ers and other persons of experience. As explained in Memorandum No. 1 on "Sunday labor," this evidence was practically unanimous as to the need for a weekly period of rest. There was, however, re- vealed a marked divergence of opinion as to the limits within which weekly hours of employment should be kept. It was a matter of urgent importance that some guidance on this subject should be offered forthwith. On the other hand, it was clear that in the absence of exact and reliable data any recommendations put for- ward at that time must necessarily be tentative and provisional in character. Moreover, if they were to be of practical value and to secure any wide measure of acceptance it was necessary that they should satisfy two essential conditions. First, they had to be such as would be regarded as reasonable and moderate by the great mass of employers and workers, and in the second place while taking account of the probable duration of the war, they had to have regard to the immediate urgency of output at the time. Any recommenda- tions which might involve even a temporary diminution of output would have been doomed to failure. It was evident, in fact, that any reduction of hours proposed must be gradual, and the commit- tee accordingly based their recommendations on what appeared to be immediately practicable rather than on what was ultimately desirable or might be defensible on a physiological basis. Further, they found it necessary to confine themselves to suggestions as to ^Health of munition workers committee, ministry Of munitions. Memorandum No. 20. Supplementary to MemorandumNo. 5 (tours of work). Weekly hours of employ- ment, October, 1917 Cd. 8801). 7 pp. Price, Id. net. 23 the maximum limits within which employment should he restricted and they did not endeavor to set out the extent to which, in their opinion, it was necessary or desirable to reduce these limits to meet varying industrial conditions. 2. The committee are of opinion that their cautious action and advice has been justified by events, and they are glad ta take the present opportunity of recognizing the sympathy with which their recommendations were received, as well as the active and continuous efforts which have been made by the departments concerned to secure their general adoption. The limits of the weekly hours of employment then suggested were — (a) For men, that the average weekly hours of employment should not exceed 65-67 (exclusive of meal times), i. e., a 13-14-hour working day. (6) That boys under 18 should be allowed to work the same hours as men, provided that — (1) The hours of boys under 16 should be limited to 60, so far as possible. (2) Substantial relief at the week ends should be insisted on. (3) Night work should be limited, as far as possible, to boys over 16. (c) That for women and girls employment should be restricted within the normal legal limit of 60, i. e., a 12-hour working day, though within the^e limits moderate daily overtime might be al- lowed, and llial the employment of girls under 18 at night should be limited at? fas as ]!Ossible. 3. The comiuittee are of opinion that the time has now come when these recoinuiendutions may properly be reviewed in the light of the following facts: First, the experience gained and the new evidence collected during the past two years; secondly, the strain involved by three years of war conditions, a strain which is likely still to continue for a considerable period; and, thirdly, the rapid increase in the number of women workers and in the variety of processes on which they are employed. 4. From the commeneement of their work the committee have attached the highest importance to the collection of exact data af- fecting the problems at issue. The field to be covered is a very wide one, while the process of collection is slow and laborious. The committee, hovrever, consider that the data which have already been collected on their behalf by Dr. Vernon and others are of gi-eat prac- tical value and merit the most serious attention. The results of these investigations are the more valuable, in that they have been undertaken solely in a spirit of scientific investigation and with no preconceived opinions. The selection of factories for inquiry was based solely on the likelihood of reliable data being forthcoming. Further, in none of the operations studied was there any change in the naturo of the operation or the type of machinery during the period under review. The data were so chosen as to eliminate any possible disturbance due to increasing skill. There is no reason 24 to suppose that the data quoted below were vitiated by any artificial restriction of output. 5. The results of Dr. Vernon's investigations, which covered a period of over a year, are set out in Memorandum No. 18. Although that memorandum has already been submitted to the ministry and published, it appears desirable shortly to set out again the principal results of his investigations in so far as they concern the relation of weekly hours of employment to output. The following are the four sets of data which bear on this subject : (A) WOMEN TURNING ALUMINTJM FUSE BODIES. Average weekly hours. Nominal. Actual. Relative hourly output. Relative total output. First period . Second period Third period , 74.8 61.5 54.S 66.2 54.S 45.6 100 134 158 100 111 109 During the first period Sunday work (eight hours) was done on five out of six Sundays ; during the second on three out of eight, the nominal weekly hours in these three weeks being 66.5 instead of 58.5, an average of 61.5; during the third period the timekeeping was bad, the normal weekly hours of work averaging about 55. Dr. Vernon accordingly suggests that with good timekeeping a nominal 50-hour week ought to yield the same actual hours of work (namely, 45.6) ; that is to say, that for women engaged in moderately heavy lathe work a 50-hour week yields as good an output as a 66-hour week and a considerably better one than a 75-hour week. (B) WOMEN MILLING A SCREW THREAD. Average weekly hours. Nominal. Actual. Relative hourly output. Relative total output. First period . Second period Third period . 71.8 64.6 57.3 64.9 54.8 48.1 100 121 i33 100 102 99 Dr. Vernon explains that the reason why a reduction of hours did not lead to an improvement of total output similar to that in the fhse-body turning operation is that for four-fifths of the total time required to mill the screw thread on the fuse body the operative had 25 no opportunity of quickening her working speed, since she had merely to stand idly -watching her machine, whereas the lathe worker had to apply seven different cutting and boring tools in succession to each fuse body, and could quicken up her speed of work at almost every stage. (C) MEN ENGAGED IN HEAVY WORK. Average weekly hours. Nominal. Actual. Relative hourly output. Relative total output. First period . Second period Third period , 66.7 62.8 56.5 58.2 50.5 51.2 100 122 139 100 106 122 It should be noted that during the third period the nominal weekly hours were about 5-6 less than during the second period. Owing to the cessation of Sunday labor the timekeeping was so much improved that the actual hours of work were greater than during the previous period. (E) BOYS BORING TOP CAPS. Average weekly hours. Nominal. Actual. Relative hourly output. Relative total output. First period Second period Third period 78.5 61.5 60.5 72.5 54.7 54.5 100 117 129 100 97 Increase of output in this process, which is largely automatic, could only be attained by a more continuous feeding of the machines throughout working hours. 6. The above data show that a reduction in the weekly hours of actual work, varying from 7 to 20, in no case resulted in more than an insignificant diminution of total output, while on the average it produced a substantial increase. As Dr. Vernon points out, the classification of the operations according to the possibility they of- fer for speeding up production demonstrates anew the self-evident fact that the alterations of hours may have very different effects in different operations. The exact measure of such alterations can not be predicted; it can only be ascertained by observation and experiment. It appears evident, however, that for processes similar 26 to those examined by Dr. Vemon the weekly hours can advanta- geously be reduced to a total of from 50 to 55, and he suggests that even lower limits might give an equally good output. 7. Two further points of importance emerge from consideration of these data. In the first place the rate of production changed gradually and frequently four months elapsed before an equilibrium value was reached. This gradual change appears to nullify the suggestion that the effect upon output of the change of hours was a mere consequence of the desire to earn the same weekly wages as before hours were shortened. The explanation is rather to be traced to the worker finding unconsciously and gradually by experi- ence that he can work more strenuously and quickly for a short- hour w^k than for a long-hour week. In the second place, the evidence suggests that a considerable increase in the average hourly output is possible, quite apart from any increased rapidity of work- ing. Thus, as the result of special investigations, Dr. Vernon found that in the case of the first body of workers mentioned above the time lost in commencing and stopping work during the first period averaged 37 minutes, as compared with only 26% minutes during the third period. 8. Professor Loveday, in his memorandum on the "Causes and conditions of lost time," which is included in the committee's in- terim report on "Industrial efiiciency and fatigue,"^ also supplies valuable data of a somewhat similar character. In the first place, he points out that the proportion of lost time that is due to sickness and other unavoidable causes is, as a rule, greatly underestimated in factory records, and the proportion due to slackness consequently overestimated. In the second place, he expresses the view that long hours, much overtime, and especially Sunday labor exert a pernicious effect upon health, particularly of persons occupied in heavy trades. In paragraph 33 (5) of that memorandum he gives - two tables, the first dealing with a body of about 180 men and the second with between 300 and 400 men employed on heavy work, their normal hours being from 65 to 70. In both these cases, when com- parison is made with the figures of lost time for June, 1915, and for a year later, the fact emerges that there was a material in- crease in the amount of lost time and that by far the larger portion of the increase was due to recorded sickness. In both cases through- out recorded sickness represented a noticeably high proportion of the total amount of time lost. 9. Professor Loveday also devoted considerable space to the examination of figures concerning the amount of time lost before breakfast. He consludes: (a) That if early hours be worked, the loss is likely to decrease if the start be later than 6 A. M. (6) That when the total hours of the day-shift week are the same, there are likely to be more hours actually worked without than with work before breaJjfast, other conditions being similar. ^ Co. 8511. 27 (c) That a reduction of hours may be compensated for or even outweighed by the abolition of early hours, partly owing to reduced absences, partly owing to reduced waste of time, and partly to the greater vigor of work after taking food. He quotes figures for a number of dlflferent factors which con- firm these conclusions. He strongly presses the view that food should precede work. He points out the undesirability of hunger work, its bad effect upon health, and the temptation to lose time in the short early spells. 10. There can be little douljt that there is an increasing recog- nition on the part of both employers and workers of the broad fact which emerges from the investigation of Dr. Vernon and Professor Loveday, namely; that substantial reduction of hours can be effected without any reduction of output. Whereas at the beginning of the war there was a general belief that longer hours necessarily pro- duced larger output, it has now become widely recognized that a 13 or 14 hours' day for men and a 12 hours' day for women, except- ing for quite brief periods, are not profitable from any point of view. Few, probably, would disagree with the statement contained in the summary prepared by the Eight Hon. G. N. Barnes, M.P., of the recent reports of the commissions on industrial unrest that — "There is a general consensus of opinion that Sunday and over- time labor should be reduced to a minimum, that holidays should not be curtailed, and that hours of work should not be such as to exclude opportunities for recreation and amusement." It must be obvious that any reduction of hours which can be ac- complished without loss of output is profitable not only to the em- ployer, in that it reduces running expenses, but to the worker, since even if his or her daily measure of work involves the same amount of fatigue a longer period is left for recovery and for the enjoyment of adequate sleep and recreation. 11. It must be recognized that the conditions are not the same now as they were in the early days of the war; not only have large numbers of the youngest and strongest workers been withdrawn for military service, but those who remain are suffering from the strain inseparable from a continuous period of long hours of employment. To this must be added the strain caused hy family and other anxi; eties arising out of the war. While much has been done to improve conditions of employment ' they are still in many cases far from ideal, notably as regards housing and transit. Further, large num- bers of women are now employed on heavy work and on skilled operations involving constant thought and attention, which were considered two years ago to be quite beyond their capacity. It may he true that no serious breakdown of health has as yet been ob- served among the great mass of workers, but it cannot be assumed that this condition will continue indefinitely. The effects of the strain may even have been already more serious than appears on the sur- face, for while it is possible to judge roughly the general condition of those working in the factory today, little information is avail- able concerning the large number of workers who for one reason 28 or another^ and often because they find the work too arduous, are continually giving up their job. This is an important point which IS liable to be overlooked, since the supply of labor has hitherto been adequate to fill their places. The irritability and nervousness mentioned by the commissions on industrial unrest are moreover well recognized symptoms of fatigue, while it must not be forgotten that the effects of fatigue are cumulative. 12. After careful consideration of all the circumstances, the com- mittee are convinced that the maximum limits of weekly employ- ment provisionally suggested are too high except for quite short periods, or perhaps in cases where the work is light and the condi- tions of employment exceptionally good. In the great majority of cases, however, the hours of work should now be restricted within limits lower than those quoted in paragraph 2 above. It is, impos- sible to lay down a single rule as to the best hours in all cases ; the best scheme can only be determined after a careful consideration of a number of different factor, e. g. — (a) The strain involved in the work, its character (heavy or light, continuous or intermittent) and the mental demand which it makes upon the worker. (6) The extent to which the pace of the work is governed by the machine. (c) The factory environment — ^temperature, ventilation, etc. (d) The individual physical capacity of the workers, and their age, sex and experience. (e) The organization of the factory (including welfare supervi- sion). (/) The sufficiency and suitability of the worker's food, canteen accommodation, etc. (g) The arrangements of the hours of work (spells, breaks and pauses) . (h) Conditions outside the factory — e. g., housing and transit. In arranging the hours of work for a factory, allowance should be made, as far as discipline and organization permit, for the fact that the best hours of employment will not be the same for all processes, even in the same factory. 13. In conclusion the committee desire to urge the view that the time is now ripe for a further substantial reduction in the hours of work. If this be effected with due regard to the varying conditions prevailing in different branches of industry, they are satisfied that reductions can be made with benefit to health and without injury to output. Signed on behalf of the committee. George Newman, M.D., Chairman. E. H. Pelham, Secretary. October, 1917. 29 b. Fatigue and Output. ^ Where the factory day consists of four working periods output is low during two of these, viz., the early morning period and over- time. During the middle periods of the day output is normally high, but is lowered by the working of overtime. This diminution is often so great that the total daily output is less when overtime is worked than when it is suspended. Thus overtime defeats its own object. The lowest output of the day is often found in the early morning period at the beginning of the week, and in the period ojf overtime at the week's end. The change appears to be due to the accumula- tion of fatigue and to the wearing off of the Monday effect (described above). The Monday effect * * * is not without a definite influence on output. It should be recognized and controlled where maximum output is desired. In cases where the early morning hours are not worked the un- satisfactory output commonly found in this period appears to be transferred, or not to be transferred, to the succeeding period, ac- cording to the particular day of the week concerned. On Monday the suspension of the early morning hours will, as a rule, lower out- put in the succeeding period. On Tuesday also a lowering will be noticed. On the remaining days of the week the suspension of work during the early morning hours is followed by an improve- ment in the output of the morning period. The change is due to the greater influence of practice (through restored co-ordination) early in the week and of rest (through lessened fatigue) later on. A worker may occasionally show a very high output in the early morning period. Psychical influences affect output. The output on Saturday, in spite of great fatigue, is often high owing to anticipation of the week-end rest. Workers may be so greatly fatigued at the end of the week that an extra period of overtime is beyond their powers, and should this be insisted upon on unsatisfactory output may be expected. A similar condition may exist on Friday. Great variations may occur in the output of individual workers at different times. The causes of such variations may be purely per- sonal and temporary, or they may be general and affect groups of workers. The unsatisfactory output of the early morning period is due partly to loss of co-ordination. It appears to depend also upon lack of rest, lack of food and general discomfort. These things arise indirectly from excessive hours of labor. The unsatisfactory output of the overtime period is due to fatigue. The early morning period may be regarded as bearing a similar ^From second interim report of the British Home Office on an investigation of industrial fatigue by physiological methods. 30 relation to the day as Monday bears to the week. In both cases abstinence from work has produced a disinclination for labor and an inability to carry it out effectively. This is due rather to loss of co-ordination than to fatigue. Examples of similar loss of co-ordination may be found in knitting, in typewriting and in similar processes. Where no overtime is worked output during the different periods of the day is more equal. A worker employed for 10 hours per day may produce a greater output than when employed for 12 hours, the extra rest being more than sufficient to compensate for the loss of time. A worker employed for 8 hours per day may produce a greater output than another of equal capacity working 12 hours per day. A group of workers showed an absolute increase of over 5 per cent of output as a result of a diminution of 16% per cent in the length of the working day. Another group increased their average rate of output from 262 to 276 as a result of shortening the day from 12 hours to 10, and to 316 on a further shortening of 2 hours. A group of pieceworkers increased their earnings considerably as a result of a diminution in the length of the working day. The suspension of overtime affects especially the output of the morning period. The suspension of the early morning period increases the rate of output, even after overtime has been suspended. The time "lost" by factory workers may approach an average of 10 per cent of the working day. The amount lost varies with the length of the working day and appears to depend upon fatigue. Under the conditions studied, neither rate of working nor total output attains a maximum when a 12-hour day is adopted. Rate of working and total output are limited by fatigue rather than by other conditions. Total daily output may be diminished by the introduction of over- time. 31 4. Effect of Reduction of Hours Upon Output in Certain Illinois Factories. According to records of output under a 10-hour day as compared with that under an 8-hour day in certain factories in Illinois, the output per day and per hour was actually greater under the 8-hour- day system than under the 10-hour-day system.' These factories employed women chiefly; nevertheless the records obtained throw light on the general question of productivity in re- lation to the length of the working day. The investigators were careful to select only records which were comparable. For example, records for three were found which had reduced hours without making any other changes which would affect output, these firms being classed as belonging to (A) garment in- dustry, (B) soap industry and (C) corset industry. In shops A and B piece rates had been increased when hours were reduced, while in shop C they remained the same. In shops B and the same group of workers was studied before and after the change. In shop A the entire force in a single department was studied. The follow- ing table shows the results : EFFECT OF REDUCTION OF HOURS UPON OUTPUT OF THREE SPECI- FIED SHOPS. Shop. Length of period studied. Decrease in hours per weelt. Increase in total output (percent). Increase in hourly output (percent). A....... B C....... 4 years 9 months 1% years 54-48 55-48 54-48 About 2 3.97 13.4 7.0 11.8 31.5 The report contains accounts of detailed studies on which the above summary is based, and of these perhaps the most decisive is that made in shop B. Here a group of 24 workers engaged in wrap- ping and packing a standard brand of soap was selected for special study. These had all been employed at this same work for at least three years previous to the period covered. Their output was studied for 10 weeks, from February 25 to May 4, 1918, during which period they were working a 10-hour day, and for 10 weeks, from August 5 to October 12, 1918, during which they had an 814-hour day. In ^ Hours and health of women workers. Report of Illinois Industrial Survey, Dec, 1918, Springfield, lU 3? both periods the department was running to capacity, so that the factor of slack time did not enter; Nevertheless, the investigators thought it worth while to check up the records for the two periods, and found that production varied as follows : AVERAGE NUMBER OP CASES PACKED PER HOUR AND PER DAY IN THE SOAP INDUSTRY, FOR A PERIOD OF 10 WEEKS. Week. Per hour. Per day. lO-hr- day. SVz -hr. day. 10-hr. day. 8%-hr. day. First . .5 5.2 5.3 5: 5.2 5.3 5 5.4 5 5.5 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.5 5.8 5.8 5.8 5.9 5.8 43.7 42.1 3S.6 49.7 41.8 40.9 40.6 46.2 39.5 48.3 41.4 Second . 43.5 Third 45.6 Fourth . 44.8 Fifth . 43.8 Sixth . . 45.8 46.3 Eighth . 45.8 Ninth 46.9 Tenth 4.9 36 period i' Entire 5.1 5.7 42.8 44.5 Production under the shorter day proved not only larger than under the 10-hour day, but considerably steadier; both the hourly and the weekly output show smaller fluctuations. An apparent ex- ception to this occurs in the tenth week of the 8i^-hour-day period, but this is explained as due to the fact that during that week a large quantity of soap was spoiled, and the packer's were held back by shortage of material. It must be remembered that the piece rates for this work had been increased when the hours were cut, so that the workers were not urged on to undue exertion by the desire of keeping up their former standard of earnings.. Apparently the larger output of the two periods is due solely to increased efficiency springing from shorter hours of work. 83 5. Actual Results of Eight-Hour System in Commonwealth Steel Company. The first results of an actual test of the reduction of the length of shifts from 12 to 8 hours in the steel industry were published in 1912.^ This test was made in the Commonwealth Steel Company's foundry at Granite City, 111. The results are summarized as follows:' The workmen in the open-hesarth department and boiler room were changed in 1912 from a system of two 12-hour shifts to one of three 8-hour shifts. To do this required increasing the number of men in the open-hearth department from 22 to 33, but in the boiler room it was necessary to increase the number of men only from 8 to 10. The hourly wage rates of all the men concerned were increased an average of 20 per cent. Exactly the same products were made under the two systems of working hours. Under the 8-hour system, in spite of the increase in hourly rates, there was a sli^t decrease in the cost of production, owing to the higher efficiency of the workers. There were very considerable re- ductions in the amount of pig-iron charged and in the amount of fuel oil consumed. Also the quality of the product was very much improved. 1. The open-hearth department of the Commonwealth Steel Com- pany consists of four 25-ton basic open-hearth furnaces, three of which only are operated at any one time, and which directly require for their operation 22 men for two 12-hour shifts, or 33 men for three 8-hour shifts. The plant, as a whole, employs 2,300 workmen. 2. The system was changed on February 5, 1912, from a 12-hour, 2-shift system 6 days a week to 3 shifts of 8 hours each. 3. The number of men on each shift (11 men) remained un- changed in the open-hearth department, while in the boiler room only 10 men were employed on the three 8-hour shifts in plact of 8 men on the two 12-hour shifts. 4. An increase in the hourly rates for the men employed ranges from 14 to 22 per Cf>nt, averaging about 20 per cent. 5. Under the new arrangement there was a slight decrease in the cost of production, owing to the higher efficiency under the 8-hour system, in spite of the increase in the hourly rates and the number of men employed. 6. Reductions in the amount of extra pig-iron charged and in ^R. A. Bull: "Economic side of the 12-hour shift in the steel foundry." Transac- tions of the American Foundrymen's Association, 1912. * Report on conditions of employment in the iron and steel industry in the United States. S. Doc. lio, 62d Cong., lat sess., Vol. HI, p. 187 et seq. 6C 34 the amount of fuel oil consumed were obtained under the new system. These reductions were almost enough to pay for the additional labor employed. 7. Also more accurate results were obtained in the quality of the castings. The physical and chemical specifications were more accu- rate under the '8-hour system, and the percentage of cracked cast- ings was decidedly decreased. 8. The workmen were satisfied with the change, although their earnings were about 20 per cent less under the 8-hour system as compared with tte l2-hour system. The superintendent, in his address before the Foundrymen's As- sociation, made the following statement, and submitted the follow- ing table : Therefore, viewed from any conceivable angle, I claim the change is justifiable, and' you will do well to make it, so far as your open- hearth furnaces' k¥e concerned. * * • Keverting finally to con- sideration of the steel maker, whose performance under both sched- ules is made the iburden of this argument, the basic principle is absolutely sound, ^and rests on the incontrovertible fact that you cannot expect any man to give you the best that is in him when you keep him eriiiiloyed without intermission for 12 hours per day, seven days per week, at work making a heavy demand upon his mental and physical powers, under conditions of high temperature such as obtain on a furnace floor. OPEN-HEARTH FURNACES. 12-hour shift. 8-hour shift. Average amount of extra pig-iron charged ■■ < ?, ] per heat 556 pounds 424 pounds. Average amount of fuel oil consumed per heat 1,275 gallons 1,138 gallons. Average amount of fuel oil consumed per ton of metal charged 55 gallons 49 gallons. Average number of cracked casting per heat. 0.49 . . 0.37. Average of longest intervals between rever- sals of burner during 12-hour periods. 26 minutes •■28.7 minutes. Average of chemical analyses of all heats: ^ Si " 3 '"' '•^ ' Carbon Correct per cent . Correct per cent. Phosphorus /. 0.011 per cent 0.011 per cent. Sulphur 0.022 per cent 0.022 per cent. Manganese 2 points under Correct per cent. Silicon 1 point under Correct per cent. Maximum phosphorus in any heat 0.022 per cent 0.018 per cent. Maximum su!pbur in any heat 0.025 per cent 0.025 per cent. Average physical tests of all heats: ' Yield point ner square inch 13 per cent over. . 15 5 per cent ovei". Tensile strength per square inch 5.9 per cent over.. 5.8 per cent over. Elongation in 2 inches 4.6 points over 4.1 points over. Reduction of area 7.9 points over 7.2 points over. Minimum physical tests Of any heat (not com- . bined results of one bar, but individual mini- mums of results covering all bars) : Yield point per square inch 2.5 per cent under 7.7 per cent over. Tensile strength per square hich 4.7 per cent under 1.4 per cent under. Elongation In 2 inches 5 points under 3 potats under. Reduction of area "" ' ' — "— " " — ■'-*- -••■'oi' 35 6. The Experience of the Salford Iron Works at Manchester, England. (Summary from Goldmark's Fatigue and EflQciency.) One of the most conclusive and influential of the experiments in shortening the day's work was made by the firm of Mather & Piatt in 1893 at the Salford Iron Works at Manchester, England. This experiment is of particular interest because it was carried on during an entire year for the express purpose of measuring the effects of reduced hours, "to prove how far the widespread desire for shorter hours might be met without danger to the mechanical trades." ^ The full complement of men at the Salford Iron Works during, the trial year (March 1, 1893, to February 28, 1894) was 1,200. The character of the work turned out was similar toithat of the preced- ing six years; that is, general engineering work. Since the firm was subject to keen competition in home and foreign markets, a de- taUed study was made of the effect of shorter hours on the cost of labor. In order to carry out the trial with scientific precision and care, extremely accurate comparisons were made by expert account- ants. Mr. Mather vouches for the absolutdy correct and trust- worthy nature of the results, while he states that their confidential nature makes it impossible to publish all of the figures which were later given to the Government oflScials. Previous to the trial year, the week's work was first 54 and then 53, hours, and the figures taken as standards with which to compare results: are the averages, per year, of thfe previous six years. The most noteworthy statement in the report is that under the 48-hour week production increased. Selling prices, moreover, were lower than in the previous years, so that during the trial year the cost of wages in proportion to "turnover" rose 0.4 per cent. Had selling prices remained the same, the cost of wages would have shown a decided decrease instead of an increase of 0.4 per cent. » » « In the light of our previous studies of fatigue and the strain upon men's energies in overwork, it is extremely significant that the management of the Salford Iron Works attributed the maintenance of full production during the trial year "solely to the unimpaired -^Mather, Wm., M. P.: The Fortyreight Hours Week: A Year's Experiment and its Results at the Salford Iron Works, Manchester^ Manchester, 1894. 36 and cheerful energy on the part of every man and boy throughout the day." ^ "We seem," Says the report (and the statement is the more inl' pressive because this investigation was not primarily c6ncerned with the workers at all, but with the effect of shorter hours upon the output of "onfe of the great staple trades of the country" center- ing in Lancashire and Yorkshire), "to have been working in har- mony with a natural law, instead of against it. * * * The most economical^toduction is attained by employing men only so long as they are at their best. When this stage is passed, there is no true economy in their continued work."'' As one result of the "unimpaired and cheerful energy" of the workers under the 48'hour system, the improvement in respect to "time lost without leave" is an important item. Under the 53-hour System the propQjtion of such "time lost" to the total time worked averaged 2.46 per cent, while under the new arrangement it was only 0.46 per cenfcc This loss of time meant, of course, a serious in- road upon prodti<*t"i6fl, and the greater "promptitude," "steadiness," "life and spirit about commfeticing work" reported by the foremen of various depa^ffiiSfentS^ aided in bringing about the success of the 48-hour week. Eleven years after this experiment was tried, the United States Bureau of Labor iiiquired of Messrs. Mather and Piatt whether their works were still upon an 8-hour basis, and received a reply dated May 24, 1904, stating that "our experience since the first year in which it (the 8-hour system) was tried has fully borne out the conclusions then arrived at, and we are fttlly satisfied that, as re- gards the comparison between eight arid nine hours per day, the balance of advantage is in favor of the Shorter period." ' 7. Shortbe Woek Day and Accidents. In his testimony before the New York State Factory Investigating Commission, Mr. Nathan I. Stone, former Expert, United States Tariff Commission, gave his opinion on the relation of the length of the working day to accidents in response to the two questions stated below, as follows : Q. Did the paper manufacturers, do you know, maintain the same help they had before the 8-hour shift? A. They did, and an entire explanation of [the fact] that where ^ Italics added. 2 Op. cit., pp. 25 and 26. ^ Op. cit., p. 79. 2 Bulletin of the ?Iev? York State Department of Labor. No. 25. June. 1905, p. 240. 37 the cost went down in spite of the reduction in hours (which was equivalent to an increase in wages per hour) is when the worker works 12 hours a day it is the last four hours that are very tiresome. After a man has been working ei^t hours he is apt to get tired. We know that by personal experience. Q. And accidents will happen? A. Accidents will happen. After the change there was four hours less fatigue. That does not mean just one-third less fatigue. The twelfth hour is the worst and the eleventh the next worse and the last four hours are mucb more fatiguing than the preceding eight hours. Any efSciency engineer will tell yon that. Any psy- chologist will tell you that. Now as a result of that change the worker not only got tired less, but he rested four hours more. That should not be lost sight of. It is a difference of four hours, but it is equivalent to 12 hours more to the worker in being less tired, and in the next place resting more, and the result was when he came to work the next morning he was bright and able to watch the paper and there were less breakdowns and the result wSs great reduction in the cost of production. (P. 2788.) Wew York. Senate Report No. 43. Fourth Report of the New York State Factory Investigating Commission, FeJtruary 15, 1915. 8. Equal Production in Less Tim^.^ Workmen in a Cleveland factory have been for some time turn- ing out the same amount of product in nine hours per day that they did formerly in ten ; and the hours are now to be further reduced to eight on the guaranty of the men that there will still be no reduction in output. This interesting test of comparative production is being made by the American Multigraph Co. During and after the war period this company operated its plant on a ten-hour schedule. Last November the hours of work were reduced to nine, and the com- pany found that its employees did as much work in nine hours as in ten, and that it had lowered its production costs on some items when operating on a shorter schedule. Says a contributor to The Iron Age (New York) : "Recently the employees through their congress asked that the work-day be reduced to eight hours and a shorter day was approved by the senate, composed of oflScers of the company and heads of de- partments. The men through their congress guaranteed that pro- duction under the eight-hour day would equal that set for ten hours, and have agreed to go back to nine hours at the same daily wage if after a six-months' test records show that production is not up to the guaranteed mark. "The company agreed to the plan because its policy is to pay for production and not for hours of work, even though a large share of its employees are still working at day-rate. One factor that led the company to agree to a further reduction in the working hours 38 without a change in its day-rate was the excellent showing the employees have made while working nine hours. Comparing pro- duction under a nine-hour day in 1920 with a ten-hour day in 1914, the company found that, taking 25 principal products as a basis, its employees produced these products in 31 per cent less time dur- ing the shorter working-day. The improvement in production is at- tributed entirely to greater eflSciency on the part of the men, and no part of it is credited to any change or improvement in manufactur- ing process. It will be noted that the comparisons are made with a pre-war period of 1914, and before the period of industrial unrest that has resulted in a noticeable slackening in work in many plants, and that the standards for work set for 1914 will be used as a basis for determining whether the employees make good on their guaranty to do as much work in eight hours as they formerly did in ten hours. "The eight-hour day was put in eflEect May 10 and records of oper- ation will be compiled every month during the six-month test period, The working hours will be from 7.30 A. M. to 4 P. M., except on Saturday when the plant will close at noon. Piece-work rates will be unchanged. Piece-workers working overtime will be paid time and a half of their day-rate for the time lost because of the lunch period. However, no lunch-time will be allowed until the overtime has amounted to two hours in excess of the regular day. The night force will stay oS^a ten-hour schedule, but their hourly rate will be changed to agrde' "with the new hourly rate of the day employees and a 20 per cent bonus for night work will still be paid. Time and a half will be allowed for overtime over eight hours and for Saturday afternoon. However, overtime work is first to be taken up with a joint committee of the senate and congress before being authorized, this giving the committee a chance to determine whether overtime is necessary because the men are not keeping up production or for other reasons." — Prom Literary Digest, June 19, 1920. III. THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY IN RELATION TO HEALTH AND EFFICIE N\^. III. THE EIGHT-HODE DAY IN RELATION TO HEALTH AND EFFICIENCY. Introduction. There is no longer any question that the health of the worker is fundamental to his own efficiency, to the well-being of his family and of his community, and to the productivity and profitableness of the industry in which he contributes his mental and physical labor. The modern employer is thoroughly committed to this principle, not only as the result of humfenitarian considerations, but as a matter of sound business. "' Upon this basis every condition under which the wage-earners work is being subjected to scrutiny as to its actual or possible effects upon the physical and mental health of the worker. The length of time a man can continue profitably at work without rest is probably the most important question to which an answer is sought. It is known that the fatigue which follows excessive work- ing hours may become chronic and result in general deterioration of health. While it may not result in immediate disease, it under- mines the vitality of the worker and leads to general weakness, anaemia of premature old age. Continuous overexertion ha® proved even more disastrous to health than a certain amount of privation; and lack of work in industrial crises has entailed less injury to health than long-continued overwork. The excessive length of work- ing hours, therefore, constitutes in itself a menace to health. Overfatigue from excessive working hours not only renders over- taxed workers susceptible to general and infectious diseases; it predisposes them effectually to more subtle nervous disorders, espe- cially neurasthenia in its various forms. Neurasthenia and other nervous diseases are due to overstrain of the nervous system. Since the central nervous system regulates all the vital functions, nervous exhaustion or neurasthenia may affect all organs and functions of the body. Intense and long-lasting fatigue is a characteristic of the disease. Disorders of the heart, circulation, the special senses and the diges- tive apparatus are common symptoms. These are facts of scientific knowledge and actual experience. The numerous experiments, tests, results of scientific investigations and observations cannot be presented in a brief exhibit, but a few authoritative statements are givefn for the purpose of suggesting some of tfee fundamental physiologic principles involved. 41 42 1. The Physiological Principles Involved. The physiological principle which underlies the question of the proper length of the working day has been stated in a few words by the United States Public Health Service as follows : "Work performed by any of the body cells produces waste products and other changes in those cells. Up to a certain limit work, into the resulting cell changes, is beneficial and improves, the physical condition ; but when work is excessive, too long prolonged, or too fast, the waste products begin to accumulate, the physiologic changes fail to occur, and if not properly rested the cells are dam- aged." — Public health Bulletin 76, U. 8. Public Health Serince, 1916, p. 10. The above statement may be accepted as a clear-cut summarization of the facts in non-|fechnical language. The literature on industrial hygiene and on the effect of overexertion upon the human organism affords a multitude of facts and conclusions which corroborate this statement. It has heen authoritatively proven by, experiment and experience that overfatigue leads to a breaking down of the muscular and nervous systefe?, and results in loss of health and the power of self-restraint. To the above brief statement may be added one other particularly definite exposition of the physiologic principle involved. The state- ment is taken from a paper by Dr. L. Duncan Bulkley, and in part is as follows : "Excessive fatigue when neglected leads to a depression of vital powers to such a degree that recuperation is not possible under a contiiluance of the same conditions of life and work; indeed, when these are persisted in there is a continued lowering of vitality, so that each day one is less able to bear the exhausting fatigue, and thus a vicious circle is formed, often ending in a complete break- down. True, this is often not recognized for a while, but the indi- vidual, finding each day's work harder, exercises more and more will power, and, like a hard master, forces the unwilling slave to do work, physical or mental, with increasing disability until a break down occurs. "Few grasp sufficiently the fact that lowered vitality leads to many diseases which either shorten life or develop invalidism. Sur- rounded as we are by multitudes of micro-organisms, many of which are beneficent and many injurious, a full vitality with active meta^ holism makes proper use of those favorable to life, but succumbs to those which are harmful. We all know that the tubercle bacillus is almost omnipresent, and pathologists state that every autopsy can shbw evidence of some slight invasion by this micro-organism,; and yet relatively few come under its full influence and devel'ot) signs 43 which can be recognized as active tuberculosis; and we all recog- nize now that those who are thus affected are those who suffer from lowerd nutrition, often caused by prolonged and excessive fatigue. The same may be said in regard to pus coci and many other microbes, and nature has provided phagocytes, which in healthy blood con- tinually guard us against their harmful influence, but which fail in this duty when the vital system is lowered by excessive fatigue, dther physical or mental." (P. 47.) industrial Medicine. Papers and discussions presented at the 39th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Medicine, 1914. . Fatigue as an Element of Menace to Health im, the Industrie^. L. Duncan Bulkley, A. M., M. D., PhysicianyNew York Skin arid Cancer Hospital, Consulting Physician, New York Hospital, etc., New York City. A detailed technical discussion of the chemical nature of over- fatigue would be beyond the scope of this brief presentation, but the relation of chemical changes caused by overexertion and their toxic effects to disability, particularly occupational diseases, has been succinctly stated by Dr. E. B. Hayhurst, Director of the Division of Occupational Diseases, Ohio State Board of Health, as follows: "Fatigue is one of the most common causes of ^occupational dis^ ability. This is a prime cause of the fact that bodily development in factory classes remains inferior to that in other social classes. Fatigue is defined as loss of irritability and contractility brought on by functional activity. The sensation of fatigue is due to the accumulation of waste products within the system called fatigue poisons (definite chemical substances) and fatigue toxins. The poisons are acidic in character. A fatigued muscle is acid in reac- tion, while one at rest is alkaline. Of the poisons, leucomaines are one type and are similar in action to ptomaines obtained from putrid meats. The presence of such substances is easily demonstrated, as for instance, in the dog experiment in which, a few cubic centimeters of blood removed from the veins of a dog, which has been run till fatigued, and then injected into another dog, not previously exer- cised, within a few moments causes symptoms of fatigue to appear in the second animal; even paralyzing effects and, finally, death may follow after a period of extreme exhaustion. There are many other ways of demonstrating the presence of this fatigue substance. Fatigue poisons do not accumulate in the system if time intervals are sufllcient for the circulation to counteract, and remove them between muscular efforts. These symptoms, when they appear, a,re usually not more prominent in the particular muscles or parts used than throughout the system in general. The brain, which is the source of motive power, always suffers in fatigue, no matter what part of the body is overworked." (Pp. 33-34.) Industrial Health-Hazards and Occupational Diseases in Ohio. E. R. Hathukst, a. M„ M. D., Director, Division of Occupational Diseases, Ohio State Board of Health, 1915. u 2. The Effects op Ovbefatigue Upon Health. The effects upon the human organism of overfatigue are not only immediate effects, but they lead to later injurious results. tFpon the well-established principle that any cause which weakens the muscular and nervous system also renders the individual less resist- ant to infectious and other diseases, a higher morbidity and mortal- ity rate may be expected among persons who have been subjected to overfatigue. The principle has, been stated in numerous writings by scientific authors, and it womld be impossible to present even a summariza- tion of what has been written on this particular point. Three typi- cal statements, however, may be cited, and are presented in the fol- lowing paragraph ^ "From the gre^^ body of the factory labor which goes to the pro- vision of our national income, the first great human cost that emerges is the burtf^n of injurious fatigue which results from mus- cular or nervous overstrain, and from tiie other phy^cal and moral injuries which are the natural accompaniments of this overstrain. (P. 63.) i,. "To this account of the physical costs of excessive work in muscu- lar and nervous waste must be added the greater liability to acci- dents and the greater susceptibility to industrial and npn-industrial diseases which fatigue entails. (P. 67.) "That over-fatigue connected with industry is responsible for large numbers of nervous disorders is, of course, generally admitted. The growing prevalence of cardiac neurosis and of neurasthenia in general amon,g working people is attested by many medical authori- ties, especially in occupations where long strains of attention are involved. But the general enf eeblement and loss of resistance power to disease germs of all kinds are even more injurious consequences of over-exertion. Many experiments attest the fact that fatigue reduces the power of the blood to resist bacteria and their toxic products." (Pp. 67-68.) Work and Wecdth: A Human Valuation. J. A. Hobson. New Yorlc, The Macmillan Company, 1914- 3. Fatigue and Disease. "The connection between fatigue and disease is probably much more frequent and close than is usually recognized. To disease fatigue stands in the relation of both cause and effect. That it may be a factor in causing disease is, indeed, often believed, and this belief is justified by laboratory experiments. Thus, it has been shown experimentally that of two groups of animals, the one resting and the other fatigued by muscular work and both inoculated by pathogenic bacteria, the fatigued animals exhibit a fall of the op- sonic index and succumb to the disease in larger numbers. This 45 may best be interpreted as indicating that the resistance of the body to the action of bacteria is diminished by thie metabolic changes involved in the fatigue processes. If this is true of one species of bacterium, it is probably true of others, and from the prevalence of the infectious diseases in the life of man it is obvious how important is the matter of avoiding undue fatigue." (P. 253.) Diseases of Occupation and Vocational Hygiene. Edited hy George M. KoBEE, M. D., Professor of Hygiene, Georgetown University, and William C. Hanson, M. D., Massacfmsetts Btate Board of Health. P. Blakiston's Son & Co., PMladelphia, 191Q. Fatigue and Occupation. Frederic S. Lee, New York. 4. The Increasing Death Rate Among Occupied Males. While no statistics have as yet been secured which accurately measure the precise effect of overfatigue as a predisposing cause of disease, the well-established relation between overfatigue and disease must be considered in interpreting signifiicant differences in the mortality rate from certain diseases among men who are en- gaged in industry and among men who are engjiged in agricultural pursuits. These differences have been commented upon frequently in the statistical and medical literature and, in the opinion of au- thoritative students, are of vital importance ks indicating the di- rection in which preventive measures should be taken. (a) An analysis of the mortality statistics for the registration area of the United States, which was made by Dr. E. K. Hayhurst, director of division of occupational diseases, Ohio State Board of Health, is presented below, MORTALITY AMONG OCCUPIED MALES. Those in agricultural pursuits. Those in 131 trades and callings. Of all deaths. Of all deaths. Deaths from preventable causes (6/7 are diseases) Deaths from degenerative diseases % 27.4 26.5 35.9 % 43.0 3.10 Total deaths after 70 years of age.. 13.4 In the above "Occupied Males" includes professional persons, oflB- cials, proprietors, those in domestic and personal services, as well 46 as those we term real workers, viz., in trade and transportation, manufacturing and mechanical pursuits^ mines, quarries, etc. Dr. Hay hurst's comment is as follows : "Deaths occurring under 70 years of age from circulatory or heart diseases should be considered preventable in the vast majority of instances. In Qhio, in 1912, over one-sixth of all deaths were due to circulatory diseases and one-eighth of all deaths were due to organic heart disease alone. As a cause of death tuberculosis has been almost doubly outstripped by these chronic degenerative dis- eases, 58 per cent of which have occurred before 70 years of age, and 20 per cent of which have occurred before 50 years of age." (P. 13.) b. No less an authority than President E. E. Rittenhouse, of the Life Extension Institute, has stated his conclusion to the effect that the strain of jnodem industry is resulting in the breakdown of the health and tin premature deaths of American workers. Mr. Rittenhouse says';*^' "Evidence found' in the mortality records indicates a marked decline in the poWer of American workers to withstahd the strain of modern life. "In the naturai^lSrder of things, the human machine will wear out and life must'fe'fid. But why should Americans wear out sooner now than they did a few years ago? Why have the chances of early death after reaching the prime of life increased? "How do we know that this has happened? Because of the extraordinary increase in the death rate from the breaking down of the heart, arteries, kidneys and of the nervous and digestive systems. "These are the diseases of old age. They are reaching down into middle life and below, and increasing there, and apparently at all "These slowly developing afflictions are not only reducing the working, productive period of life, but they are lowering the work- ing capacity of the individual often before he realizes it, or recog- nizes the cause. They are responsible for accidents, for damaged machines, spoiled goods, and other costly errors. They are the con- cealed enemies of alertness, accuracy and eflSciency. Therefore, every employer, snlall or large, is financial! concerned in checking the ravages of this steadily advancing enemy. Protecting the Human Machine. Concfensed from an Address Be- for the Board of Trade of Washington, D. 0., delivered hy Presi- dent E. E. RiTi'ENHousB of the Life Extension Institute on April 27, 1915. 5. Advantageous Effects Upon Health of 8-Hour Day. ^'In the first place, while it js true that under the short-hours system men work tarder while they are at their work than they do 47 under the long-hours system, it is also true that the short hours and hard work impose less strain on the body than long hours and dawdling, especially if the hours are passed in a hot, or dusty, or poisoned atmosphere, such as many trades are obliged to work in. The increased exertion during work hours has always been bal- anced, and more than balanced, by the restorative effects of the longer period of repose or recreation in good air. While the men do as good a day's work as they did before, they improve in health or vigor. After the Ten Hours' Act was six months in operation Mr. Horner r,^orted that the work people had, many of them, told him they enjoyed better health than they used to enjoy; and their story was confirmed by managera and overlookers, who said there had been less sickness in the mills than before, one manager, who was personally unfriendly to the 10-hours day, expressing great sur- prise to find how much better his men were in health, and how much more vigorously they worked although their wages had sunk so law that many of them got scare a bellyful of food. The effect of the Act of 1874 only repeated this experiencewf the Act of 1847. The textile workers again intensified their exertions, till they did their old day's work in the shorter term, and their intenser exer- tions haye again in no way hurt their growth in Tiodily health and vigor. (Pp. 100-101.) "Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co., * * ♦ v^3■it^ Messrs. Webb and Cox that 'The effect on the health and physjique of the men of this change has been most beneficial,' and they supply some striking particulars to the Departmental Committee of the Home OfSce on the health of chemical workers. The figures of the sick club con- nected with the works show that during the summer quarter in 1889, before the introduction of the three shifts, the percentage of men who received sick pay was. 7.1, while during the same quarter of 1893, after the introduction of the three shifts, the percentage was only 5.1, making a reduction of 28.32 per cent. In 1889 the men attended by the doctor amounted to 10.12 per cent of the whole, but in 1893 it was only 5.1 per cent, showing a reduction of 49.6 per cent. (P. 105.) "Indeed, the rate of mortality among miners in this country ob- serves almost a strict proportion with the customary duration of their working day, being less in the short-hours districts than in the long-hours districts." Eiffht Hours for Work. John Eab, London and New York, Macrrdl- lan d Co., 1894. (P. 106.) 6. Conclusion of W. B. Dickson, Poembr Vice-President U. S. Steel Coepjeation. "In my judgment a large proportion of the steel workers who, from early manhood, work twelve hours a day, are old men at forty." (P-376.) ^ . . The Swrvey. Vol. 31. New York, Jan. 3, 1914. Can American Steel Plants Afford an Eight-hour Twrnf William B. Dickson, Former Vice-President United States Steel Corporation. IV. THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY IV. THE SOCIAL IMPORTANCE OF THE EIGHT-HOUR DAY Introduction. The eight-hour day is not merely a matter of importance to the individual worker and to his employer; it has a much wider sig- nificance. The worker is a citizen. Upon his intelligence, his health, and his chance for mental development rests in large meas- ure the intelligence with which the affairs of the municipality and the state are conducted, the health of his family and of his de- scendants, the progress of the community and of the nation. Any measure which strengthens his self-restraint and elevates his en- joyments, which widens his opportunity for self-improvement and which stimulates his civic interest is a measure of national sig- nificance. This vitally important phase of the eight-hour question wasi eloquently summed up by President McKinley during his service in Congress, and in a quotation by him of Cardinal Manning's words. It has also been emphasized by President Wilson. These quotations are as follows : STATEMENT OF PRESIDENT MC KINLEY. "The tendency of the times the world over is for shorter hours for labor; shorter hours in the interest of health, shorter hours in the interest of humanity, shorter hours in the interest of the home and the family. ♦ * • Cardinal Manning in a recent article spoke noble words on the general subject, when he said : " 'But if the domestic life of the people be vital above all ; if the peace, the purity of homes, the education of children, the duties of wives and mothers, the duties of husbands and of fathers, be written in the natural law of mankind, and if these things are sacred far beyond anything that can be sold in the market, then I say if the hours of labor resulting from the unregulated sale of a man's strength and skill shall lead to the destruction of domestic life, to the neglect of children, to turning wives and mothers into living machines, and of fathers and husbands into, what shall I say, crea- tures of burden ? I will not say any other word — ^who rise up before the sun, and come back when it is set, wearied and able only to take food, and lie down and rest, the domestic life of man exists no longer and we dare not go on in this path.' " Congressional Record, Vol. XXI, Part X, Pages 9,300-9,301, Augtist 28, 1890. Remarks of Mr. McKinley upon the Eight-Hour Bill. 61 52 STATEMENT OF PKESIDBNT WILSON. In his remarks urgmg the Adamson Law, President Wilson set forth his reasons in general in justification of an eight-hour day for workers on public utilities, as follows: "You know that we have been a legalistic people. I say with all due respect to some men for whom I have a high esteem that we have been too much under the guidance of the lawyers, and that the lawyer has always regarded the relations between the employer and the employee as merely a contractual relationship, whereas it is, while based upon a contract, very much more than contractual rela- tionship. It is a relationship between one set of men and another set of men with hearts under their jackets, and with interests that they ought to serve in common and with persons whom they love and must support on the one side and on the other. Labor is not a com- modity. It is a form of co-operation, and if I can make a man be- lieve in me, know that I am just, know that I want to share the profits of success with him, I can get ten times as much out of him as if he thought I were his antagonist. And his labor is cheap at any price. That is the human side of it, and the human side extends to this conception, that that laboring man is a part of his employer. If he is a mere tool of his employer, he is only as serviceable as the tool. His enthusiasm does not go into it. He does not plan how the work shall be better done. He does not look upon the aspect of the business or enterprise as a whole and wish to co-operate the ad- vantage of his brains and his invention to the success of it as a whole. Human relationships, my fellow citizens, are governed by the heart, and if the heart is not in it nothing is in it. "Because a man ^es ietter work vMJwn eight hours than he does mthin a more extended dap, and that the whole theory of it, a theory which is sustained now ty abundant ewperiencC) is that Ms efficien,cy is increased, his spirit in his work is improved, and the whole moral and physcal vigor of the man is added to. This is no longer conjec- tural. Where it has been tried, it has been demonstrated. The judg- ment of society, the vote of every legislature in America that has voted upon it is a verdict in favor of the eight-ho'Ur day. "The reasonable thing to do is to grant the eight-hour day, not because the men demand it, but because it is right, and let me get authority from Congress to appoint a commission of as impartial a nature as I can choose to observe the results and report upon the results in order that justice may in the event be done the railroads in respect of the cost of experiment." 53 1. The Moral Significance of the Eight-Houe Day. Scientists and students of social questions are agreed upon the point that over-fatigue, whether caused by excessive working hours or other conditions, inevitably leads to a weakening of moral re- straint. According to numerous observations, not only is moral restraint gradually broken down, but the over-taxed person tends to enjoy less and less those pleasures and interests which require attention and which, under ordinary conditions, stimulate mental activity. He responds most readily to coarser pleasures and excite- ments. a. Fatigue and Lessened Self-Control. "Among the higher fimctions of certain brain tracts is that of in- hibition. These tracts are called 'inhibitory centres,' and their func- tion is like that of brakes on a wagon, or like the governor on an engine, or like that of a coachman who holds a tight rein when his spirited team is going down hill or along a crowded street. The ef- fects of fatigue on these centres is seen very quickly in any pro- longed effort. * * • in general, self-control is lost, and the lower, the baser, and the more selfish faculties of our nature run riot. * * * In short, the fatigued person is very sure to fly off on a tangent in one or more lines. In other words, his inhibitory centres have ceased to act, he has little self-control. Most crimes of all kinds are committed at night, when men are tired, ugly, and pos- sessed of little judgment, comparatively, and less consciences. * * * The rested boy or man can resist temptation, but the tired one cannot. His will and conscience are both too weak. (.P. 41.) "The facts of fatigue settle scientifically and beyond appeal some social and religious questions. Dr. C. F. Hodge, of Clark Univer- sity, proved that, while eight or ten hours of rest restored the tired nerve cells to a condition nearly normal, at least thirty or thirty-six hours is needed for an absolutely complete recuperation. That means that a Sabbath, giving so long a rest, is a necessity, if man is to do his best work physically and intellectually or live at his best esthetically, morally and religiously." (Pp. 51-52.) Sixty-fifth AnnvMl Meeting of tlie American Institute of In- struction. The Relation of Fatigue to Social and Educational Progress. Henry S. Bakee^ Ph. D. Boston, 1895. b. Fatigue and the Choice of Recreation. The results of nation-wide prohibition on the character of recrea- tion are still, in the opinion of many, a debatable question. But the opportunity for debasing pleasure will be afforded as long as there is a demand for it — whether prohibition is effected or not. As two eminent English writers have expressed it. 54 "If you compel men and women to work so long each day that they have not time to think, they will remain non-thinking animals. Under the present conditions of industry there are in all advanced industrial countries thousands of men and women who never have a moment's leisure until completely exhausted to sit down quietly and take stock of their position. All the time that is left to them between bed and work is spent in the pleasures that most immedi- ately appeal to an overwrought body. The gin palace, with its glar- ing lights and strong spirits, the music-hall, with its silly songs and maudlin sentiments, are the direct results of a system of overwork that prohibits mental leisure." (P. 151.) The Eight Hours Day. Sidney Webb and Haeold Cox. London, Walter Scott, 1891. 55 2. Shorter Hours and the Opportunity for Wholesome Eeckba- TiON AND Home Life. "Shorter hours of work are a natural and beneficent outcome of the forces Of civilization. The great ma^s of men need not only an increase of income, but an increase of leisure — leisure for rest, for play, for education, for happier and higher living. No doubt leisure is sometimes abused; but in the main it is a needed means of raising the sum of happiness. Therfore, the short hour move- ment should have the sympathy of every friend of humanity." (P. 14.) National Cwic Federation Monthly Review. Vol. I. October IS^ 1904. The Slwrter Work Day. F. W. Taussig, Harvard Univer- "A law should be passed in every state that would require all con- tinuous industries to operate on the three shift system. "I have had practical experience in paper-making. I worked for years in a paper mill when I was a boy, both on a thirteen-hour shift, and on the eleven-hour shift, nights and days. I know from practical experience what it means to work thirteen hours from 6 o'clock at night until 7 o'clock the next morning one week, and from 7 in the morning till 6 at night, 11 hours, the next week, year in and year out. I know that this sort of work is intolerable and I speak with deliberation and with knowledge. It is intolerable, not only because of the number of hours, which, under any condition of labor would be excessive, but also because in many paper mills the conditions of work are severe and trying. • • » "I want every man and woman who reads this to think what such long hours would mean to him or to her in their home life. What time can a man who works thirteen hours each night have with his family? What time can the same man have during the next week when he works eleven hours each day with no time off for meals ? That such hours are intolerable no fair-minded person can deny. In many ways it is as dangerous to the welfare of the nation as was the slavery of the black race; the men employed for such long hours are taxed beyond their strength and the physical exhaustion, day after day, week after week, soon results in a lower standard of life. No time or energy is left for the development of the healthy home life essential to iiie welfare of the nation.' (P. 377.) The Survey. Vol. 31. Wew YiyrTc, January 3, 1914. Three Eight-houv Tours vn the Paper Mills of America. Charles Sumner Bird, President F. W. Bird & Son. S6 3. The Greater Opportunity foe Happiness. "But from the standpoint of the individual worker the economy of a shorter work-day has a double significance. We have seen that it more than proportionately diminishes his personal cost, by can- celling the last and most costly portion of his work-day. But it also increases the human utility which he can get out of his wages. A day of exhausting toil entails the expenditure of a large portion of his wage in mere replacement of physical wear and tear, or incites to expenditure on physical excesses, while the leisure hours are hours of idleness and torpor. A reduction of the work-day will, by the larger leisure and spare energy it secures, reduce the expendi- ture upon mere wear and tear, and increase the expenditure upon the higher and more varied strata of the standard of comfort. » • • Take an extreme case. A man who toils all day long at some ex- hausting work, and goes home at night too tired for anything but food and sleep, so as to enable him to continue the same round to- morrow, though he may earn good wages from this toil, can get lit- tle out of them. If he were induced to work less and leave himself feome time and energy for relaxation and enjoyment, he would get a larger utility out of less money income. "The matter, however, does not need laboring. It is evident that many modes of consumption depend in partj for the pleasure and gain they yield, upon the amount of time given to the consuming processes. It would be mere foolishness for a tired worker to spend money upon improving books which he had not the time and energy to digest. Shorten his hours, leave him more energy, such expendi- ture may be extremely profitable. Even the enjoymnt and good of his meals will be increased, if he has more time and energy for whole- some processes of digestion and for the exercise which facilitates di- gestion. And what is true of his food will hold also of most other items in his standard of consumption. No consumption is purely passive : to get the^ best utility or enjoyment out of any sort of wealth, time and energy are requisite. The greater part of a work- man's income goes to the upkeep of his home and family. Does the normal work-day in our strenuous age permit the bread-winner to get the full enjoyment out of home and family ? He belongs perhaps to a club or a co-operative society. Can he make the most of these opportunities of education and of comradeship, if his daily toil leaves him little margin of vitality? Most of the growing public ex- penditure which the modern State or City la^ys out upon the ameni- ties of social life, the apparatus of libraries, museums, parks, music and recreation is half wasted because industry has trenched too much upon humanity." (Pp. 235-236.) Work and Wealth: A Human Valuation. J. A. Hobson. 'New York. The Macmillan Company. 1914. r.7 4. Ekcouragement of Citizenship. "The wear and tear upon human life steadily increases under mod- ern methods of production. This is the third reason urged for the adoption of the eight-hour day. If men are to stand as heads of families, as electors, and even as operators of machines, they must have time for rest, for education, and for family life. The responsi- bility of government increasingly falls upon the working classes in a democracy. Shorter hours of labor alone can give the worker the leisure for careful study of the present-day problems thrust more and more upon the electorate for decision. (P. 523.) "Not, then, as a means of employing the "reserve army of indus- try" as the unemployed are sometimes called, is the eight-hour day to be advocated, but rather as a means of giving to men a wider in- terest in life, the possibility of greater culture and the surety of edu- cation commensurate with the problems now forced upon our de- mocracy for solution. It is not, then, as a private measure that this movement is acceptable, but as a public necessity." (P. 526.) American Journal of Sociology. Vol. 8. 1903. The Social Effects of the Eight-Hour Day. Frank L. McVey. University of Min- nesota. 5. The Eight-Hduk Day Worker a Better Consumer. "No recognized authority today combats the proposition that the condition of the laborer has improved with every reduction in the hours of daily service that has up to this time been made. Nobody is disputing that he has become a better consumer with each re- duction. • • * "Economists contend with great plausibility that the shorter day results in an increase of wages without an increase in price, as con- sumption enlarges production, and the larger the scale of pro- duction the cheaper the given article is produced; that the laborer, when he has the leisure resulting from the shorter hours, has new aspirations, ambitions and a grater personal self-respect, and, as before stated, wants a better house, better furniture, better clothe, better food, and becomes a great deal better consumer." (Pp. 8-9.) United States Congress. House Report. Xo. IIQZ (4405). Hours of Laborers on Public Works of the United States. Report from the Gornmittee on Labor. 57th Congress 1st Session. 1901-1902. 58 6. The Shorter Working Day and Americanization. The large proiiortion of foreign-born workers, particularly those of comparatively recent immigration, in the anthracite field em- phasize the importance of any condition which will promote Ameri- canization. The length of the working da,y is a factor of vital importance in this respect, since it affects the opportunity of Americanization. This point was stated concisely and forcibly in the brief for the State of Oregon before the Supreme Court of the United States on the question of the constitutionality of the Oregon "Ten-Hour Law." "Throughout the country there is increasing recognition that the prime necessity for the immigrant is Americanization, that is, op- portunity for acquiring the ability to speak and read the Englsh language, and to become acquainted with American institutions. "Americanization is the paramount need not alone for the immi- grant but for the very existence of the Republic. Unless the mil- lions of immigrants present and future are made an integral part of the pot)ulation, understanding our institutions, sharing the ^andards and ideals of the democracy, the nation itself is im- perilled. "No man can become a naturalized citizen unless he can speak English. Learing English is therefore the key to citizenship. It is indispensable for the adoption of American standards of living; for a participation in the life of the community. Ignorance of the English language is the greatest obstacle to industrial advance- ment. It prevents the distribution of congested immigrant popu- lations. It increases the dangers of industrial accidents, injuries and occupational diseases, owing to the immigrant's inability to understand orders or hygienic regulations printed or orally given in industrial establishments. "The growing recognition of the need of Americanization has resulted in a country-wide movement to provide evening schools to teach English and give special instruction on American institutions. Federal, State and city authorities are urging increased appropria- tions for these special facilities. "Obviously this whole program of Americanization is impossible unless sufficient leisure is provided after working hours to enable the workers to take advantage of the opportunities offered. "The task of teaching adult foreigners a new language is ren- dered almost hopeless unless they can come to be taught with some freshness of mind. The project of Americanization is defeated when working hours are so long that no evening leisure is left or the immigrant workers are too much exhausted to make use of it." The Case for the Shorter Work Day,. (Pp. 550, 551.) 59 7. The Eight-Hour Day and National Health. The Committee of One Hundred on National Health, in its well- known report, said : "It is not maintained that in all cases productivity will be as great in eight hours as in nine. Cases to the contrary could also be cited. The point to be insisted upon is not that it is profitable to an employer to make the work day shorter, for often it is not, but to show tiiat it is profitable to the nation and the race. Continual fatigue is inimical to national vitality, and however it may affect the commercial profits of the individual, it will in the end deplete the vital resources on which national efficiency depends." (P. 46.) Committee of One Hundred on National Health. Bulletin No. 30. July, 1919. Report on National Vitality, Its Wastes and Con- servation. Prepared for the National Conservation Commission. Professor Irwng Fisher, Tale University. Washington, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1909. Former Secretary of Commerce Eedfleld, himself an employer, made the following statement in a recent book : ''If American men and women are our most valuable possessions — more valuable, for example, than material wealth — then the getting of material wealth at the cost of injury to men and women becomes an economic mistake, a national injury as well as an ethical wrong. The price is too high to be paid. The nation cannot afford to waste its best for anything less valuable. If a great State loses its sense of right values so far as to refuse to protect its men and women from excessive hours of labor, then that State has become disloyal to its best self; is wasting its finest values, and its action or its in- action means the loss of that which it should be its chief function and pride to preserve and which it needs more than all else. (Pp. 9-10.) "The cry for shorter hours of labor * * * is a normal pro- test against the fatigue that destroys. (P. 12.) "In the doing of this mighty, multiform and complex task, those who would conserve the best value in America take both an ad- vanced and a progressive position. They do not hesitate to teach the doctrine that the people who work in our mills are of more value to the State than the product of those mills. • • • They do not hesitate to say that hours that overstrain the nerves and muscles of our people injure us all, and that a sufficient rest is as much a reasonable right as is a living wage." (Pp. 13-14.) The New Industrial Day. WiUiiAM C. Rkdfibld. New York. The Century Go. 1912. 60 8. The General Benefit to Society of An Eight-Hour Day. Report of the Committee of Stocklwlders of the United States Steel Corporation. April 15, 1912. ■ "To ascertain the number of employees of the Steel Corporation working on a 12-hour schedule (exclusive of oflacers, managers and clerical forces), we have examined the records of 175,715 men. Of this number we find 45,248, or 25% per cent, are at present working 12 hours per day. « * * The actual physical labor involved in many of the positions is today much less than in former years, this being especially true of the open hearth and blast furnaces, where the intermittent character of the work is such that there is less call for actual expenditure of physical energy that in many of the 8 and 10-hour positions. "Notwithstanding this fact, we are of the opinion that a 12-hour day of labor, followed continuously by any group of men for any considerable number of years, means a decreasing of the efficiency and lessening of the vigor and virility of such men. "The question should be considered from a social as well as a phys- ical point of view. When it is remembered that the 12 hours a day to the man in the mills means approximately 13 hours away from his home and family — not for one day, but for all working days — ^it leaves but scant time for self-improvement, for companionship with his family, for recreation and leisure. It is important that any industry be considered in its relation to the home life of those en- gaged in it, as to whether it tends to weaken or strengthen the nor- malness and stability of family life. By a reasonable conserving of the strength of the working population of today may we be best assured of a healthy, intelligent, productive citizenship in the future." (Survey. Vol. 28. Pp. 252-253.) The National Civic Federation Review. Vol. II, Fo. 8. Jan., Fel., 1906. The first Annual Meeting of the New England Civic Fed- eration, Boston, Jan. 11, 1906. Marcus M. Marks, President, National Association of Clothing Manufacturers : "There is another consideration which prompts the demand on the part of labor for a shorter workday ; it is the greater desire for self-improvement. "This has been encouraged by the advance in the public school of the system which affects our younger workmen in particular; also by the multiplication of popular free lectures, public libraries, cheap books and newspapers, etc., that have awakened in the workmen's minds the ambition to lead a better life, possible only in the enjoy- ment of a reasonable amount of leisure." (P. 8.) Diseases of Occupation from the Legislative, Social and Medical Points of View. Thomas Oliver, M.A., M,D., F.R.C.P., Medical Expert on the White Lead, Dangerous Trades, Pottery and Lucifer Match Committees of the British Home Office. New York, Dut- ton, 1908. 61 "• • * It is held that no employer has the right to utilize the whole of the working part of a man's day, and thus deprive him of the leisure to which he as a human being is entitled. Since his whole nature has to be developed, it is claimed that the intellectual, moral and physical powers of man cannot be developed if the hours of employment are too long, the work too hard and of a grinding nature." P. 11.) Discussions in Economics and Statistics, Vol. II. Francis A. Walker, Ph.D., LL.D. The Eight-Hour Law Agitation. New York, Bolt. 1899, "* * • I have small sympathy with the views so frequently, and it sems to me brutally, expressed, that the working classes have no need for leisure beyond the bare necessities of physical rest and repose, to get ready for the morrow's work ; that they do not know what to do with vacant hours, and that a shortening of the term of labor would, in the great majority of cases, lead to an increase of dissipation and drunkenness. Is it our fellow-beings, our own coun- trymen, of whom we are speaking? It seems to me this talk • * * is the poorest sort of pessimistic nonsense. It is closely akin to what we used to hear about slavery being a humane and beneficent institution.* * * "• * * We may well desire that somewhat more and much more, of leisure and of recreation should mingle with! the daily life of our fellows than is now known to most of them. It is a pity, it is a great pity, that workingmen should not see more of their fami- lies by daylight ; should not have time for friendly converse or for distinct amusements ; should not have larger opportunities for social and public affairs. Doubtless many would always, and still more would at first, put the newly acquired leisure to uses that were lower than the best, ♦ • * were even, in instances, mischievous and injurious. "But the larger part of this would be due to the fact, not that the time now granted was too great, but that the time previously granted had been too small. • • « But such men, who might, it is con- ceded, become even worse men with more leisure, are not to furnish the rule for the great majority, who are decent, sober and careful, fearing God and loving their families." (Pp. 383-385.) MassachMsetts Senate Documents No. 1. 1874. Address of Gov- ernor William B. Washhurn to the Two Branches of the Legisla- ture, January 2, 1874. "Furthermore, the large majority of operatives in many of our mills are of foreign birth. What is to be done with them? How are we to protect ourselves from the ignorance that is generally their misfortune rather than tbeir fault? How are we to educate them into unity of aspiration and purpose with native-born citi- zens? Shall we wojk them so many hours a day that they will have neither strength, interest nor time for becoming acquainted with 62 our institutions or our aims as a people? Or shall we, by shorten- ing their hours of labor, and the establishment of evening schools, if need be, educate them, fit them for the duties of citizenship, and make them a part of ourselves? Unless something of this sort is done, while the census returns may show accumulation and enlarge- ment, there can be no increase of living power. If we are to have in the future a healthful growth of the body politic, all these different elements of population must be blended into one harmonious whole. This will be a work of time and patience, I very well know, but we cannot go on indefinitely without some broader and deeper consid- eration than we have yet given, as a community, to the well-being of those among us from foreign parts." (Pp. 34-35.) United States Congress. Senate Report No. 601. Hours of Daily Service of Laborers and Mechanics Upon Government Contracts. Report hy Mr. Bohah from the Committee on Education and Labor. Sixty-second Congress 2nd Session, 1912. "Much has been said as to the inconvenience which would result to the employers in establishing the eight-hour day. Doubtless in some instances and to some extent ^his inconvenience, necessitating in some instances rearrangement, will follow. It is perhaps true that in some instances there may result a greater expense to the Government. But these things, we believe, are to be considered as of minor importance compared to the general benefit to be derived from an eight-hour day for laborers. We believe it means better work, better citizens and in the end far better for society. ♦ • * "No doubt some business concerns will suffer a temporary incon- venience or loss. But in the long run the loss will likely not be nearly so' great as anticipated, and even if so, when weighed against the general good it ought not to prevail against such legislation." (Pp. 3-7.) Massachusetts House Docwment No. 44. 1867. Report of Commis- sioners on the Hours of Labor. Minority Report. EfiwAun H. EOGEES. "The most prominent facts, conditions and results of the ameliora- tion in time may be briefly stated thus : "Greater relative vigor of the workman, in, connection with the imperative obligation to reduce time from the exhausted portion of the day. Less loss of time in consequence of a sensible relief in the daily duration of la;bor. Greater healthfulness, especially during the (summer season. A quicker return to labor, and a more rapid recov- ery of strength after sickness. The increased respectability of labor, which retains many in production. An approximate equalization of the day's work, which has largely contributed to diffise employ- ment over the year, and thus dminiahed distress during the winter season. Multiplied inventions, subdivisions in trades and, generally, a more intellectual and progressive impetus to productian. Open- ings for the industrial classes in evening exercises of a religious, reformatory, political and miscellaneous ^tar^ter. The noticeably increased influence of woman, closely connected with the fact that the home has gained time formerly devoted to the shop or counting- Tmorter Working Day. B. A. Hadfibu) of Hadfield's Steel Foun- dry Co., Shield, md H. db B. Gibbins, M.A. Methuen & Co., London, 1892. "Mr. Chamberlain * * ' brushing aside all the usual talk about the interference of the State with adult persons of either sex, declared himself in favor of the principle once laid down by Profes- sor Jevons, that 'the State is justified in passing any laws, or even in doing any single act, which, without ulterior consequences, would add to the sum total of happiness.' He further argued that an eight- hour law would, without any ill-eflfects, add immensely to the hap- piness of half a million miners in the United Kingdom. His opinion in favor of the bill was based upon the fact that short hours did not mean diminished output. /P. 22.) "As in the past it has been clearly proved that the longer the hours of work the more the workers become mere machines, surely by a further shortening, which is proved to be absolutely necessary from the altered conditions of their surroundings, and apart from other necessary improvements, the general physique of the citizen will be improved and the nation will correspondingly benefit. (P. 115.) "It is rightly claimed that the shortening of hours would lead to improvements ,mental and physical. Any action by which such change or improvement is effected, relating to some 8,000,000 of human beings in this country alone, is not to be lightly put on one side or trifled with. If effected, and if even a partial accomplish- ment of the end in view can be attained, the raising of such a con- siderable portion of the community must be of the highest benefit to the nation as a whole." (P. 116.) A Shorter Working Day. R. A. Hadfibld of Hadfield's Steel Foun- dry Co., Sheffield, and H. de B. Gibbins, M.A. Methuen & Co., London, 1892. "What concerns us to observe more especially in this chapter is the general effect of the reductions in the working day upon the working classes of Australia, in order that we may form thereby some idea of what would be the probable effect of a similar measure in England. * * • It is a remarkable fact that in spite of high wages and short hours, the consumption of spirits has greatly de- creased in all the Colonies. Indeed, the active agitation of the pub- licans against the eight-hour day proves that they did not anticipate any increase in their profits through an increase in the comforts of the laborer's life. (Pp. 66-67.) "It is the general opinion in Victoria that the habits of the work- ingman have been improved rather than deteriorated by the reduc- tion of hours. * • • Intellectual as well as physical develop- u ment is a necessary cousequeuce of shortening the working day. A man cannot, unless he be a besotted idiot, spend all his spare time in the pot-bouse (as sonae among us do vainly talk), but feels, as he acquires time for educating his mind and strengthening his body, that there are other pleasures than those of intoxication, and higher ideals than those of the tap-room. This has been the case, at any rate, in Victoria." (Pp. 74-75.) Report of the United States Industrial Commission on tlie Relations and Conditions of Capital and Labor Employed in Manufactures and General Business. Yol. VII. 1900, Testimony of Mr. Kufus K. Wade, Chief of District Police, Mas- sachusetts : "The question may well be a.sked, What has been the effect upon those operatives whose hours of labor have been lessened and to the children obliged to work in factories whose school privileges have been secured? The benefit to adults, comprising the laboring classes, by the reduction of the hours of labor has been to lift them up in the level of their manhood to thoughts of better things and to an organ- ized demand for tho same. It has given needed time for leisure to the operative, it has encouraged self-culture, it has afforded addi- tional opportunity for recreation and has given the debating school, lecture-room and library an impetus in every city and manufacture ing town in Massachusetts. The large circulation which the daily papers have obtained, in my opinion, is due in part to the fact that the laboring people are considering the questions of public move^ ment. "From an experience which has extended many years, not only through the medium of ofiBcial duty, but from personal observation, I would say, with much confidence, that here has been a gradual yet steady change in the conditions once existing, whichi has operated to the benefit and well-being of the laboring classes in the opportu- nities for mental and social culture." (Pp. 79-80.) f 9. Awards of Umpire Unhbr the National War Labor Board. The National War Labor Board in its review of various disputed questions, under the provisions of the proclamation of the President of the United States, and according to its announced principles, decided for a shorter working day in numerous instances. Among such decisions, findings and awards were the following: A — Award, Henry Ford umpire, in re International Association of Machinists, Local No. 818,i;s. Wheeling Mold & Foundry Co., Wheeling, W. Va. ; "The National War Labor Board having agreed to submit to the 65 undersigned for his determination as umpire one single question, and that only, as follows : "Should the National War Labor Board render a decision granting the demand of the machinists of the Wheeling (^est Virginia) Mold & Foundry Co. for a basic eight-hour day, with timi and one-half for overtime and double time Sundays and legal holidays? "I, the said Henry Ford, do hereby answer the said question, Yes. "I have reviewed the arguments and have given the question due thought and consideration, and have come to the conclusion stated, but do not deem it necessary to give my reasons unless your honor- able board shall express a desire for the same. "But I cannot refrain from expressing my very deep conviction that the straight eight-hour day is much better practice than the so- called 'eight-hour basic day' where the latter is continually and almost uniformly being practically exceeded in the number of woric- ing hours. "My experience, and also my reason, teaches me that very few emergencies ever exist in a manufacturing business justifying the practice of exceeding eight working hours per day. The strain of eight hours is enough, and the hours should never be increased ex- cept under the most extraordinary circumstances. I can not dwell too much on this. For the good of the men, for the good of the employer, and for the general results, I would admonish those inter- ested to adhere to the straight eight-hour day. Eespectfully submitted, Heney Ford, Umpire." B. Award, Mr. Otto M. Eidlitz umpire, in re Employees vs. Employers in Munition and Eelated Trades, Bridgeport, Conn. : "In view of the fact that the evidence proves that an overwhelm- ing majority of the firms, parties to this controversy, have through the operation of this principle, or voluntarily, conceded an eight- hour work day to the workers in their shops, it is only reasonable that those firms which hold a different opinion should comply with the will of the majority, and hence the eight-hour work day should be established in all shops and factories subject to this ruling, I am constrained to come to this conclusion, knowing the dissatisfac- tion and consequent interference with output that accrues in a manufacturing community where a basic work day has come to be generally recognized, but is resisted by a minority." C. Award, V. E. Macy umpire, in re Marine Workers' AflBliation of the Port of New York vs. Railroad Administration, Shipping Board, Navy Department, War Department and Eed Star Towing & Transportation Co. : CD 66 "B. Bequest for an Eight-Hour Day. "The desirability of limiting the working day to eight hours has been recognized by Oongressiohal enactment for all Government de- partments and on all direct Government contracts, by most State Legislatures and municipalities, by the Eailroad Administration, and is the prevailing custom in many of our largest industries. Such a general acceptance of the principle of an eight-hour woi"k day has not been obtained merely through sentiment. The nation has come to realize that its security demands that its citizens have a reasonable opportunity for family life, a reasonable amount of leisure, and a proper standard of maintenance. In view of this recognition the nation has the right to demand of its able-bodied citizens eight hours' service, for six days in the week, in some useful effort. Good citizenship requires that this service be rendered either voluntarily or for pay, according to the financial needs of the indi- vidual. The right to an eight-hour day carries with it the obliga- tion upon the part of the individual to render better service during the fewer hours, for no right can be obtained without its correspond obligation. * • ♦ * * • "Excessive hours are as dangerous to good citizenship as are noxious fumes to the health of workers. There may be cer- tain occupations in which the straight eight-hour day is inherently impossible; if so the basic eight-hour day should be the standard and the pay for overtime regarded as a legitimate expense and a just charge to be borne by the public. It would seem, therefore, that the burden of proof that an eight-hour day is impossible in an industry lies on those who deny its practicability as well as upon those who request its installation." D. Award, Judge Julian W. Mack umpire, in re Local No. 81, Iron Holders' Union vs. Iron Foundry Owners of Elizabeth, N. J.: "Under the express principles governing this board in fixing hours of labor, due regard is to be given to the welfare, health and proper comfort of the workers. For the reasons set forth in the opinions of the umpires in other cases before this board and also most carefully expounded by Judge Alschuler in the Stockyard Case, these con- siderations fully justify the demands for the eight-hour day in the present stage of industrial development, especially in an industry like that here in question in which there is involved not only hard physical labor, but changing conditions of temperature under which the work is performed." V. THE SHORT WORK DAY IN ENGLISH COAL MINES V. THE SHORT WORK DAY IN ENGLISH COAL MINES. Abstracts from Report of the British Coal Industry Commission. The following quotations from the Report of the British Coal Industry Commission, March, 1919, concern the question of reduc- tion of hours of labor in the mines. They are important as repre- senting the conclusions of a majority of the commission after a thorough study of a vast quantity of evidence. The part of the report which deals with the short working day in Durham is of especial interest. The report of the commission reads, in part, as follows: Recommendations of the Goal Industry Commission — Interim Report dated 20th March, 1919 (Mr. Justice Sankey, Mr. Arthur Balfour, Sir Arthur Duckam and Sir Thomas Royden, Bart). "We recommend that the Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1908, com- monly called the Eight Hours Act, be amended by the substitution in the clauses limiting the hours of work under ground of the word ''seven" for the word "eight," as from July 16, 1919, and subject to the economic position of the industry at the end of 1920, by the sub- stitution of the word "six" for the "word "eight," as from July 13, 1921. Certain adjustments must be made in the hours of the classes of underground workers specifically mentioned in the act." Report. "The popular title — Eight Hours Act — of the Coal Mines Regu- lation Act, 1908, is, to some extent, misleading. The bill as it originally left the House of Commons provided, after the lapse of 5 years, for eight hours exclusive of one windings, but the act as eventually passed provides for eight hours exclusive of both wind- ings. In other words, the time both for lowering and for raising the workmen is outside the eight hours. As the result, many workmen are down in the pit for a very much longer period than eight hours, the average for tiie whole country being eight hours and thirty-nine minutes. "The question of reducing the hours of colliery workers is a serious and difScult one ; serious because it must admittedly reduce output ; diflBcult, because it is a matter almost of impossibility to estimate how much it would reduce output. "It would be, in our view, too dangerous an experiment in these circumstances to recommend a two-hour reductioji at once, and we have had great difficulty in coming to the conclusion whether it would be better to recommend at once a true Eight Hours Act as originally intended, or the substitution, first of a seven hours, and later of six hours for eight in the present act. 69 "We have come to the conclusion that the latter is the better course, because it will not tempt persons to put men down and bring them up too rapidly — a system which might lead to more accidents. "The reason for recommending the further reduction in July, 1921, is that we think we are justified in assuming that in two years the output should have reached, by the united efforts of all concerned, the amount of coal raised in 1913, namely, 287,000,000 tons. "The Seven Hours Act will mean that the men are underground, taking the average, seven hours and thirty-nine minutes, and relying on the valuable and weighty advice of Sir Richard Redmayne, the Chief Inspector of Mines, the estimated decrease in output will be a little under 10 per cent per annum." • » « • » Conclusions of Messrs. Robert SmilUe, Frank Hodges and Herbert Smith, Sir Lee Ghiossa Money, Messrs. R. H. Tawney and Sidney Webb, mth Reference to Hours. "We find justified the claim to a substitution in the Coal Mines Regulation Act of 1908 of six for eight (making the future maximum working day underground vary from about six and a half hours in some mines to eight and a half hours in others, and averaging nearly seven hours). A corresponding shortening of the working day should apply to the surface workers. Report. "What the Act of Parliament calls an eight-hour day is, in fact, on an average nearly a nine-hour day, and in not a few cases ap- preciably more than a ten-hour day. The miners' claim is to sub- stitute in the statute six for eight, a reduction of 25 per cent nomi- nal, with such an advance in rates as will prevent a fall in earnings. Their actual day below the surface would then be, in the extreme cases, one of more than eight hours, and on the average, one of nearly seven hours. "We are in the midst of a very general reduction of the hours of labor in nearly every industry. A reduction' of hours to 47 per week has just come into force throughout the engineering and ship- building trades, whilst in some other industries a 40-hour week has been secured. It is significant that in the great industry of iron and steel manufacture, with which coal mining is so closely associated — often combined in the same industrial enterprise — a reduction of no less than 33 per cent, or proportionally much more than the miners are asking for, has just been conceded by the employers. In view of the specially arduous and hazardous nature of the work of the miner, we consider that the case for what is virtually a seven-hour day (called, for underground workers, a six-hour day),, which differs only by a few minutes from the coal getting time already prevailing, with the full approval of the coal owners, among a considerable pro- portion of the hewers in Durham — cannot nowadays be resisted. 71 "We suggest, indeed, that the reduction of the hours during which each individual miner is exposed to his exceptional risk of accident is not only justified, but also a postive advantage to the nation. There are at present between 160,000 and 170,000 casualties in the mines each year — more in number than all those suffered by the Gallipoli expeditionary force— between 1,500 and 1,700 of them fatal, making the miners calling more hazardous than any other ex- cept that of seamen. In the ten years 1907 to 1916 actually 12,400 miners were killed in accidents occurring in the course of their work. We cannot confidently predict that a lessening of hours will, in itself, result in a diminution of accidents, because there has un- fortunately been no study of the extent to which accidents in the mines are affected by the men's fatigue. In other industries that have been investigated, it has been proved that a reduction in work- ing time leads to a more than proportionate lessening of accidents. But, however this may be in mining, each individual miner will cer- tainly be a shorter time at risk. The miner, as it has been graphi- cally put to us, is during the whole of his working time continu- ously 'in the trenches.' At present he goes on an average only six years before he meets with an accident, not necessarily fatal, but conspicuous enough to be reported, and severe enough to necessitate abstention from work for more than seven dajjrs. With a working day from bank to bank reduced by 28 per cent it may be anticipated that the underground worker will go without an accident, on the average, more nearly eight years than six. It must be counted, in- deed, a distinct social advantage of a shorter working day in trades exposed to exceptional risk of accident that it permits, on an aver- age, to every worker (and therefore to every father of a family) a longer uncrippled life." Effect of Shorter Hours Upon Output in English Coal Mines. The conclusions of the British Departmental Committee concern- ing the effect of the shortening of the working day upon output are pertinent. The committee presented statistics showing the output per employee per year from 1873 to 1905 in 33 mining districts. The committee used great caution in the interpretation of these statistics, as may be seen in the excerpt from its Final Eeport quoted below, but taking into consideration the evidence before it, its conclusions were as follows. (Final Eeport, p. 23.) "The mineral statistics published by the Home Office show great variations in the annual product per person in the various districts, but upon comparing the output per person with the hours worked we cannot find a uniform relation between them. For example, although the hours of work in the Newcastle and the Durham dis- tricts are practically the same, the annual product per person under- ground is 433 tons in the latter district and only 370 tons in the former. It is clear, therefore, that the principal factor in the com- 72 parative productivity of the individual is the character of the seams worked. Nevertheless, after making allowance for this governing fact, and comparing like with like, so far as the evidence enabled us to do, we cannot hut conclude that an hour's work of the men em- ployed in East an^ West Scotland, Northumberland and Durham, ichere the hours of work are shortest, is more effective than it is in Lancashire and South Wales, where the hours are longest. The tables do not show a uniform proportionate correspondence, hut they "do shoio some general relation between short hours and efficient work." Shorter Hours and Volmitary Absenteeism from Work in English Goal Mines. That voluntary absenteeism is lessened under a shorter working day system was the conclusion of the committee. By absenteeism was meant "the voluntary absence from work on day when work is available." The committee, after carefully analyzing the report of absenteeism, said : "The 6.6 per cent of available time lost by the voluntary absentee- ism of individual men on the days when the pits are open to them to work we also look upon as a reserve which will, to a certain ex- tent, be available for productive use under an eight-hour day, but it is impossible to say to what extent. As we have before explained, this percentage is not the measure of the total sum of absenteeism fpomj work from all causes, which most witnesses who have given evidence on the subject have told us amounts to at least double this percentage; nor even does it represent the total voluntary absentee- ism, but it measures the fluctuations between actual attendance on the best days and on the average days; therefore, a priori, it would not seem to be unreasonable to anticipate that a limitation of the hours during which it would be possible for the men to earn wages would lead to a better employment of those hours. If this assump- tion be correct, it might be expected that some confirmation of it would be found in Table XTI of the Home OflSce tables for the United Kingdom, and that where the customary hours are least it would be found that the practice of absenteeism would be least. Roughly speaking, we found this to be the case, and that in East and West Lancashire and North Wales, where the hours of work are longest, the practice of absenteeism is most prevalent, and in Scot- land and Durham-, wliere tJie hours, at any rate of hewers, luho form tlie class which furnishes the greater part of the absentees, are short- est, tlie average attendance at work is best. But we found that this rule does not work with uniformity, for, in Yorkshire, for example, where the hours are below the average, the percentage of absnteeism is nevertheless high, and after investigating the local evidence upon this point we came to the conclusion that the relative degree of the practice of absenteeism from work is not conditioned only by the relative length of the working day, but that in districts in w-hich 73 other forms of employment than coal mining are open to other male and female members of the family, the miner permits himself to indulge in more days of repose than in districts where all the em- ployment is at the pits and the family dependent solely upon the earnings of the miner. "But after making due allotoance for these local etwouragements of tlie practice of abstention from ioork we find, that the statistics that we have collected of absenteeism give grounds for leUeving that upon the wlwle shorter hours of the working day do at present oondMce to greater regulanty of attendance at the pits in the dis^ tricts in which the shorter Jwurs are worked. "Although many of the witnesses who were opposed to the eight- hour day were not disposed to admit that any improvement in the regularity of the attendance of the miners for work in the pits would follow a reduction of hours, some of the most experienced managers of collieries were of the contrary opinion, and agree with the inferences drawn from the statistics of absenteeism we have col- lected, in believing that an improvement in this respect may be looked for. For example, Mr. Charles Pilkington of East Lanca- shire, where the rate of absenteeism: is high, was of this opinion; Mr. E. M. Hann, manager of the Powell Duflfryn Collieries of South Wales, stated his belief that 'if he (the miner) has such short hours in which to earn a living, he has got to be there every day, and it will influence his working pretty considerably.' " Mortality in Relation to Length of Working Day in English Coal Mines. A comparison of the accident mortality rates in districts where long and short hours were in operation led the committee, after giv- ing some weight to the influence of other conditions, to conclude that, in general, the districts where the shortest hours were worked show an accident death rate below the average for the United King- dom, while those where the longest hours are worked show a corre- spondingly high accident death rate. It should be pointed out, how- ever, that this rule does not work with uniformity. Manchester and Ireland district, for instance, with long hours, shows the lowest accident death rate. This, however, seems to be an exception, and it must be borne in mind that these figures are for a single year. They are therefore more valuable as showing the tendency than as mark- ing an absolute correspondence. On the relation of the death rate from all causes, a table sub- mitted by Dr. Tatham shows, in general, that the mortality from all causes among occupied colliers between certain ages is lower in Durham and Northumberland than in districts where longer hours 74 are worked. The committee sums up its findings under this head as follows : "To bring the statistical information into direct relation to the subject of our inquiry, we must consider comparative tables of the mortality in the several mining counties in which the hours of work vary. The tables put before us show that of the counties for which separate statistics are available (in England and Wales) the lowest mortality (675) occurred in Derbyshire and Nottingham, counties in which the hours worked are below the average, and the highest (1,006) in Lancashire, where they are longest. The tables further show that in Lancashire, Monmouthshire and South Wales alone, the districts in which hours are longest, did the mortality from all causes exceed that of 'all occupied males,' and that it is only in- Lancashire that there is an excess due to 'other causes than accident.' "The information available which would enable us to form a judg- ment as to the probable efifect of the limitation of the working day upon the health of coal miners is of the scantiest nature, but, so far as the evidence goes, it tends. to show that the standard of health of the workers is lowest in those districts where the longest hours are worked." (Final Report, pp. 48-49.) VI. GENERAL STATEMENTS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND DECISIONS ON THE SHORTER WORKING DAY VI. GENERAL STATEMENTS, EEGOMMENDATIONS AND DECISIONS ON THE SHORTER WORKING DAY. 1. The Effects of Long Hours on Munition Workers in Great Britain During the War. a. General Conclusions. The final report of the British Health of Munitions Workers' Com- mittee/ appointed by the Right Hon. David Lloyd-George, said : 123. The evidence, however, showed that the long hours are open to certain serious objections: (a) They are liable to impose too severe a strain on the workers; (6) At any rate, after a period, the rate of production tends to decrease, and the extra hours produce proportionately little or no additional output; moreover, the quality of the output may be ad- versely affected during the whole period of work, and not only dur- ing the hours of overtime ; (c) A large proportion of the hours gained may be lost through broken time; the workers become exhautsed and take a rest; sick- ness tends to increase, at any rate among the older men and those of weak constitution ; (d) They lead to an undue curtailment of the periods of rest and sleep available for those who have to travel long distances to and from work ; (e) The fatigue entailed increases the temptation of men to in- dulge in the cosisumption of alcohol; they are too tired to eat, and therefore seek a "stimulant." (/) A very serious strain was imposed upon the management, the executive staff, and the foreman, both on account of the actual length of the hours worked and of the increased anxiety over the main- tenance of the output and quality of the work ; the staff cannot take days off like ordinary workers. 124. Whatever may have been the justification for the long hours worked, they undoubtedly imposed a severe strain on the workers, as evidenced by the following statements made by trades-union representatives : ^Industrial Health and Efficiency: Final Report of the British Health of Muni- tions Workers' Committee. Reprinted as Bidlethi No. 249 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (Februarjr, 1919). 78 Some of his men had been "working from 6 A. M. to 9 P. M. These hours were undoubtedly a severe strain and some men were just at the limit of their powers. They stayed away for a day or two to rest, but did not see a doctor if they could help it. The men were reaching the "fed-up" stage. They were getting nervous and irritated through working long hours. They could not keep up their physical efficiency ; he could see it in their faces. Men on overtime were more tired. They were liable to have time for only about five hours' sleep. The excessive hours now being worked were too much for the men. They led to a diminished output per hour. Men were continually having to stop working; they were obliged to rest, it was not a ques- tion of slackness. For fear of being called slackers they hesitated to get a doctor's certificate. 125. Though, as stated, the long hours thus undoubtedly placed severe strain upon the workers, the committee did not find that they had caused any serious breakdown among workers. This was in some measure due to the tendency, after a time, to reduce hours. Further, there was good reason for believing that the increased pay and better food which workers were able to enjoy helped to counter- act the strain of long hours. There is little doubt, too, that workers were stimulated to make special effort by an appreciation of the national importance of their work. These influences have been thus summarized by a trades-union official : (1) Will power: Men have continued at work in a condition that under ordinary circumstances would have put them off for a week or two . Even when a man comes off for a time he is anxious to get back again as quickly as possible. I have had one or two cases of serious breakdown. The main factor is that practically all the men Want to do their best. (2) Better wages mean better food for a large number of men with families, and they mean a little better provision for those fami- lies, which again reacts upon the man's health and his work. In these cases it is not so much the saving or possibility of saving money, but the satisfactory spending of it, which is the factor of importance. (3) The possibility of getting more money has also its efifect. You read much about the slacker. There is quite a large proportion of workmen really too anxious for overtime — employers will corrobo- rate — even under normal conditions. 126. It would, however, have been a mistake to depend too largely on the operation of influences of these kinds, or to hope that they could continue indefintely to be effective against fatigue. The com- mittee was satisfied that if workers were to be asked to work for any- thing approaching 15 hours a day for weeks and months on end, one 79 of two results must follow— either the health of the worker would break down or they would not work at full pressure. b. Recommendations as to the Hours of Lator^ In the preparation of the memorandum on "Hours of work In munition factories" (Memorandum No. 5) the committee seem to have been influenced by consideration of what is immediately prac- ticable regarding the health of the worker in relation to a maximum output, in view of exceptional conditions entailed by the war. It is suggested that an increased number of hours may be obtained by overtime or by a system of shifts and that the committee greatly prefers the latter, although recognizing that it is impracticable to establish shifts universally. The committee's objections to overtime, briefly stated, are: (1) It is liable to impose too severe a strain upon the workers, which adversely affects the rate of production and quality of output during the whole period of work as well as during the hours of overtime; (2) it frequently results in a large amount of lost time, which is attributed to workers becoming exhausted and taking a rest, and also to sickness; (3) it imposes a very serious strain upon the management, the executive staff, and foremen, since they cannot take days off, like the ordinary worker; (4) it is liable to curtail unduly the period of rest and sleep available for those who have to travel long distances to and from their work, a matter of special importance in the case of young persons; (5) the fatigue entailed increases the temptation to men to indulge in the consump- tion of alcohol. Admitting that overtime must continue, the committee suggested definite restrictions to govern it. For adult male workers the com- mittee recommends: 1. The average weekly hours (exclusive of meals) should not ex- ceed 65 to 67, including overtime. Hours in excess of 65 should only be worked for short periods and to meet sudden and unexpected circumstances. It may be desirable to differentiate to some extent between different kinds of work, and to fix a rather low limit of hours for work requiring close individual attention. 2. Where practicable, the overtime should be concentrated with- in three or four days \n the week, which should preferably not be consecutive. 3. Where overtime is worked, it is specially important that there should be no Sunday work. As respects women, the committee expresses the belief that the ^ Bulletin 221 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. 80 strain of long hours is serious and that conditions of work in excess of the normal legal limit of 60 hours a week ought to be discontinued as soon as practicable, although little objection is seen to such mod- erate overtime during the week as can be compensated for by an earlier stop on Saturdays. The committee feels that the need for overtime among women and girls is much less pressing than it is for men, and that wherever practicable the system should be aban- doned in favor of shifts. Although it is recommended that boys should be allowed to be employed overtime up to the maximum sug- gested for men, it is thought that every effort should be made not to work boys under 16 more than 60 hours a week. Although work on shifts involves night work, the committee makes it clear that night work is not to be regarded as a good thing in itself and offers the following objections to the system : 1. It is uneconomical. Though wages are paid at a higher rate, the rate of output, more particularly during the last two or three hours of the 12-hour shift, is generally lower. 2. Supervision is frequently unsatisfactory. 3. Conditions of lighting are seldom as good as in daytime and make fine work more difficult. 4. Workers experience great difficulty in sleeping by day. 5. The unfamiliar meal hour makes it difficult for the workers to consume substantial food, and their digestion is liable to become deranged. In its special study of "Output in relation to hours of work" (Memorandum No. 12) the object of the committee was to ascertain the hours of employment most likely to produce a maximum output over periods of months or even years. It held that output cannot be maintained at the highest level for any considerable period if the conditions were such as to lead to excessive fatigue and to deteriora- tion in the health of the workers. The committee's investigations covered operations of distinctly different character, some demand- ing heavy manual labor, others of a light, more or less sedentary, nature. It was found that the time schedule producing the maxi- mum output varied with the character of the operation. The committee found that for men engaged in very heavy labor the maximum hours of actual work yielding the most effective re- sults appear to be 56 or less per week, for men engaged in mod- erately heavy labor probably 60 per week, while for men and youths engaged in light labor, such as tending semi-automatic machines, probably 64 hours per week should be the maximuuL As a method of speeding up production, the committee recom- 81 mended the careful regulation of rest pauses. It was found that the operatives, if left to themselves, took rests at irregular and often unsuitable times, hence it would be much better if the rest pauses were chosen for them. For instance, a 10-minute break in the middle of the morning and afternoon spells during which the operatives remained at their machines, but took tea or other nutriment brought them by boys or by traveling canteens, has been found a valuable aid to output. Some types of work need longer and more frequent rest pauses than others, and the best time can only be determined by ex- perience. After being fixed they should remain compulsory and rest pauses at other times be checked so far as possible. The committee's study of "Industrial fatigue and its causes" (Memorandum No. 7) is closely related to its three memoranda deal- ing with hours of labor. The committee had the benefit of studies of fatigue made by the home oflSce and by a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and the committee's report may be regarded as the summing up of these various studies of fatigue and its own studies of hours of labor. The committee again emphasize the importance of the regulation of hours and of daily and weekly rests, made with due consideration of the char- acter of the work performed. The committee in recording their conclusions say : The committee are bound to record their impression that the muni- tion workers in general have been allowed to reach a state of reduced efficiency and lowered health, which might have been avoided with- out reduction of output by attention to the details of daily and weekly rests. The signs of fatigue are even more noticeable in the case of managers and foremen, and their practical results are prob- ably more serious than in the case of the workmen. It is of great importance to note that a special and strenuous voluntary effort in labor, if it be maintained under a badly arranged time-table of work and rest, does not necessarily bring increased output over a long period, however praiseworthy the intention of effort may be. Under wrong conditions of work, with excessive over- time, it is to be expected, indeed, that some deliberate "slacking" of the workers might actually give an improvement of output over a period of some length by sparing wasteful fatigue, just as the "nursing" of a boat crew over a part of a long course may improve their performance. It cannot under such circumstances be said that a workman so restraining himself, consciously or uncon- sciously, is doing more to damage the output, on the whole, than the employer who has arranged overlong hours of labor on the baseless assumption that long hours mean high output. 82 2. The Eight-Hour Day in a National Emergency. At the conference held on May 15, 1917, of the committee on labor of the Council of National Defense, with representatives sent by the British and Canadian Goyemments, one of the important questions discussed was the maintenance of an eight-hour day under the emergency war conditions. (British Labor's War Message to American Labor. Sen. Doc. 84, 65th Con., 1st. Sess.) The attitude of the British Government was stated by the Right Hon. James H. Thomas, Privy Councilor and Member of Parliment : Mr. a. F. Bemis : Mr. Chairman, I should like to ask Mr. Thomas a further question on this same point. Now, what I should like to ask Mr. Thomas is this, whether, not- withstanding the mistake that he said was made in going to the extreme, running 100 hours a week, for instance, in some cases, there may not be a certain amount of increase, say 10 per cent or 20 per cent per week over a temporary period of six months or a year which, in this tremendous strife, we might be justified in? Mr. Thomas : What you put to me is this, that while long hours have proved disastrous in a long period of two and a half years, an urgent provision for a given thing that would limit the long hours to a shorter period may in the end be temporarily adopted. That is, shortly, your point. Now, there are two answers to that, it appears to me. The first depends on whether the machinery could be adapted to a continuous shift. For instance, instead of, if you like, increasing the hours to 10 or 12, if arrangements could be made to utilize the achinery on two shifts instead of one without increasing the hours of the indi- viduals, you would there get double or perhaps treble your output ; but that must be regulated in accordance with whether or not the machinery itself would stand the strain ; whether you could organize your factory to get a continuous running of your machinery, or whether you could not. • ••«••• Dr. Albert Shaw : Mr. Chairman, may I ask Mr. Thomas a ques- tion? The Chairman: Certainly. Dr. Shaw : Mr. Thomas, may T ask a question somewhat closely associated with two or three that you have already answered? T have in mind certain manufacturers. Our government has already approached them and asked them to take munition contracts. Those contracts would not occupy the whole of their manufacturing facili- ties, would occupy, let us say, 20 per cent of their manufacturing facilities. These businesses are now on a 10-hour basis. The contracts that the government would have them take would have to be taken, let us say, on an 8-hour basis,, with time and a half for overtime. 83 Now, those men would like to do the Government business ; they would like to take those contracts; they want to be patriotic ; but if they took those contracts on the 8-hour basis — pardon me for speak- ing so long, but I will state my case clearly in a few words— if they took those contracts, which they would have to take on the 8-hour basis, they would be compelled to make over their entire factories upon an 8-hour basis, because their other men working on other things would probably demand the 8-hour day. These men are so situated at the present time that they can not make over their factories, in their own estimation, on the 8-hour day basis, without very, very serious disaster. The problem is not hypothetical. It is a very practical problem. It is a problem which at this very moment we are compelled to face in this country. What is the answer to a problem like that in the process of transition^because, of course, it is a transitional prob- lem? Me. Thomas: » • » There are two ways, I think, of meeting it. The first would be a universal 8-hour day for all, and that would put them all on an equal footing. [Applause.] But I am not going to skip it by, assuming that that is the only solution. That, I submit, would be the equal solution, would be the fair and equitable solution, I be- lieve, in the end, because our experience with the 8-hour day is this, that all employers that have adopted eight hours in our country have never gone back to a 9-hour day, and the general experience is that the eight hours has proved beneficial to the employers as well as the employees. But we are dealing with war, and the emergency it creates, and the general economic situation does not arise. Now, I believe, and I am satisfied from what has happened here today and what has happened during the fortnight that we have been with you, that there is a genuine desire on the part of organized labor to meet any and every dilBculty. That is one of the difBculties that is recog- nized, probably, as the most urgent on both sides ; and I would say that the best and the surest sign of the coming to an agreement is for you to do as I said just now in answer to another question : Let the manufacturer or the contractor who is faced with that problem immediately get in touch with the representatives of the men in that industry, come together, face the fact that here is the difiSculty, here are the facts of the situation, here is the nation's emergency, and I am satisfied that with give and take on both sides a bridge will be found for that. I have an idea our bridge could be found, but I am not dictating or lecturing the American people. I am giving them the benefit of our experience; and I am quite con- fident that with a desire to find a solution on both sides, you will find one. But I would beg of you not to be edging around the ques- tion, not to be assuming that the contracts can not be done, but let any contractor faced with that difficulty frankly send to the trades-union representatives and say, "Let us meet in conference to discuss this qwgtion with §iU the cards on the table," Let the 84 employer say, "I am not desirous of taking advantage of the war to break down something that I never believed in." On the other hand, let the employees say, "Whilst anxious to maintain the law, we are not anxious to take advantage of the war to enforce some- thing during the war that we could not obtain in peace times." With both sides recognizing that, I repeat, I believe they will find a solution. 85 3. Action of the® International Labor Conference on the EiGHT-HouE Day. 'At the International Labor Conference in Washington, October 29-November 29, 1919 — the first world labor conference — the eight- hour day was foremost among the subjects discussed, after being presented to the conference by the Hon. G. N. Barnes, Government Representative for Great Britain. The following account of the discussion appeared in the Monthly LaboF Review of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (Jan., 1920, pp. 8-9.) In the lengthy general discussion of the motion which followed, the iffisal arguments for and against the application of the principle of tiie eight-hour day were made and several amendments offered. Those opposed to the application of this principle emphasized the factHiat increased production is the greatest present necessity. War debts must be paid and foreign competition and immediate economic needs met. Shorter hours would mean less production, and the French employers' delegate said that the introduction of the eight- hour day in France had resulted in a 13 to 20 per cent reduction in production. If production should be cut down, the workers would be the first to suffer. It was further asserted that this limitation of working hours would not be practicable in seasonal industries such as agriculture and lumbering, in continuous industries and othws; that it would be the deathblow of small industries and would present starting new ones, and that in countries like Canada and the United States, where the labor question is a separate one in each Province and State, difficulties of agreement would result from the diltecent interests of the different national political divisions. In isftply to these arguments it was maintained that the question of increase in production was not overlooked in the limitation of the length of the working time. Experience gained in the war and sci«itific investigation had demonstrated the fact that the longer the hours of work the less the production. As regards the applica- tion of shorter w^orking hours in the continuous industries, the diffi- culty of granting a weekly day of rest could be met by an increase of shifts, and these could be easily manned for the reason that in the ielectrical indnstries only a small number of workers are required for the necessary fourth shift, and in the chemical and steel industries the labor required is largely unskilled labor which is readily ob- tained. A dele^te from Czecho-Slovakia pointed out that the Na- tional Polish Assembly wished the same law applied to agriculture as governed in other industries, because the attraction of town life and shorter hours induced the laborers to leave the farms. A law of this character, he said, had been in force in Poland, a newly created State whose economic questions were hard to solve, for nearly a year and no serious objections to it had been made. The eight- hour day in some form is, moreover, an accoruplished fact in many countries. To question its adoption, remarked the Government dele- gate from Netherlands, would be like trying tO rediscover America. The social and ethical importance of the 8-hour day and the 48-hour week was especially emphasized. The worker must not only "be protected against undue fatigue, but also must be insured reasonable leisure and opportunities for recreation and social life." The motion, with all the amiendments and suggested changes, was finally referred to a committee coinposed of 15 delegates, 5 from each section, for consideration. The final Teport upon the subject apart from its application in tropical countries was made by Mr. Arthur Fontaine, Director of the I^bor Department of the French Ministry of Labor, in the form of a draft convention. In general, the convention provides an 8-hour day and a 48-hour week applicable in "all industrial undertakings public or private, and to all branches thereof of whatsoever kind, other than under- takings in which only members of the family are employed.?' A recognition of the impossibility of a rigid application of this principle, however, resulted in the adoption of a nunjber of im- portant and far-reaching exceptions : "The provisions of the convention shall not apply to persons hold- ing positions of supervision or management, or employed in a con- fidential capacity. . * "Where by law, custom, or agrieenient between ^raployers' and workers' organizations (or whpre no such organizations' exist, be- tween the employers' and workers' representatives! the hours of work on one or more days of the week are less than eight, the limit of eight hours may be exceeded on the remaining, days of the week by the sanction of th& competent authority, or by agreement between such organizations or representatives: Provided, however, That in no case under the provisions bf this paragraph shall the daily limit of eight hours be exceeded by more than one hour. "Where persons are endployed in shifts it shall be permissible to employ persons in excess of 8 hours in any one day and 48 hours in any one week, if the average number of hours over a period of three weeks or less does not exceed 8 hoiiirs per day, and 48 per week." The draft convention on the eight-hour day was finally adopted by a substantial majority, 87 4. Attitude op Australian Court of Arbitration. In commenting upon the claim of the Federated Mining Em- ployees' Association of Australia for a 44-hour week and a maximum of 8 hours per day, Deputy President J. Powers of the Australian Court of Conciliation and Arbitration said:^ "The President of this Court has in every case up to the present, when the custom in an industry is to work for 48 hours, declined to reduce hours unless for exceptional reasons, leaving it for Parlia- ment to reduce the hours to be worked generally if it sees fit, or specially in particular industries. Legislation has been passed in all the States limiting the hours of miners to eight hours a day on six days a week. "I have followed the practice laid down by the President, and although, personally, I would like to see the hours underground reduced to 44, it is a custom in mining centers generally through- out the world to fix 48 hours as a week's work." ^ Commonwealth (Australia) Arbitration Reports, 1915, Vol. 9, p. 36. Cornell University Library HD 5106.L36 The sanction for the eight-+our da^^^^^