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 Live stock. 
 
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LIVE STOCK. 
 
OASSBLVS AGBICULTUBAL TEXT-BOOKS. 
 Edited by Professor Weiohtson. 
 
 SOILS AND MAJSrUEES. By J. M. H. Mtjnbo, 
 D.So. (London), P.I.O., F.C.S. niustrated. 
 23. 6d. 
 
 FAEM CEOPS. By Professor Wbightson. Illus- 
 trated. 2s. 6d. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. By Professor Weiqhtson. IUus- 
 trated. 28. 6d. 
 
 Cossell & Compa/n/y, Lvmitedf London, Paris and Melbowme, 
 
C ASSELL'S AGRICULTURAL TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 {TBE ''DOWITTON" SESIBS) 
 
 " \ 
 
 LIVE STOCK 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN WRIGHTSON M.K.A.C. F.C.S. 
 
 PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE IN THE ROYAI, COLLEGE OF SCIENCE SOUTH KENSIK&TON 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE DOWNTON SALISBURY 
 
 EXAMINER IN AGRICULTURE UNDER THE SCIENCE AND 
 
 ART DEPARTMENT ETC. 
 
 SECOND THOUSAND 
 
 CASSELL AND COMPANY Limited 
 
 LONDON PARIS & MELBOURNE 
 
 1893 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In submitting this, the third book of the Agricultuval 
 SerieSj to the public, the authors believe that the infor- 
 mation already given in the two previous volumes is most 
 fittingly completed by a short treatise on Live Stock. 
 The three natural divisions of agriculture are soils, crops, 
 and live stock, and each of these sections has now been 
 treated of in a manner which it is hoped will prove 
 attractive and suggestive. It is impossible to entirely 
 avoid adverse criticism. Books such as this are some- 
 times said to be too sketchy and diffuse, and sometimes 
 too elaborate. An effort has been made to avoid both 
 these faults, and to produce a work of real value to those 
 who in after-life will be occupied in agricultural pursuits. 
 
 There are points of truly educational value in the 
 study of live stock. There is, for example, the lesson 
 of perseverance and ability abundantly evident in the 
 efforts of the earlier improvers of our domestic animals. 
 There is also the record of a great movement of national 
 importance in the improvement of so many breeds of stock 
 during the last hundred and fifty years. The diversity of 
 breeds, and their adaptability to different soils and climates, 
 or to different purposes, is also highly interesting and 
 instructive, showing that no breed can be spoken of as 
 the best, but that each is suited for its own particular 
 surroundings. 
 
viii Lir^ STOCK. 
 
 The relations of our domesticated animals to wild forms 
 from which they were derived, or to allied forms which 
 still roam unrestrained over grassy plains, or wander 
 through the trackless forest, is well worthy of attention. 
 This aspect of our live stock has been carefully studied by 
 many of our best naturalists, and it is hoped that the 
 attention bestowed upon it in the following pages may 
 stimulate a love of natural history, and throw an additional 
 interest around such familiar forms as horses and cattle. 
 Thus, at the very outset the question is asked, " Where do 
 all these breeds of cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses come 
 from ? " and an effort has been made throughout the book 
 to answer this interesting inquiry. The peculiarities of 
 each breed are also given in clear language, and the 
 relative merits of each are briefly discussed as an introduc- 
 tion to wider knowledge. 
 
 Live stock management may be treated of under the 
 heads of origin, varieties, principles of breeding, methods 
 of rearing and feeding, general management, and treat- 
 ment during disease. All of these topics deserve study ; 
 but it is evident that the minuter treatment of animals 
 suffering from disease must be left to the veterinary 
 surgeon. On the other hand, the best methods of main- 
 taining animals in a state of health, and of promoting 
 rapid growth, are more properly the objects of the agricul- 
 turist, and these subjects are consequently more prominently 
 put forward. 
 
 These Text Books are intended principally for those 
 who require elementary instruction, but there are many 
 points treated of which are worthy of the serious 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 attention of practical farmers. The writer has in some 
 measure advanced his treatment of the subject in the later 
 pages of the present volume, feeliDg that the student who 
 has carefully read the books treating of soils and manures, 
 and of crops, may now be expected to take an interest in 
 problems which might at the outset be beyond him. The 
 chapter upon the horse which concludes the present Keader 
 is written in a manner more suited to older students than 
 some of the earlier chapters, or than the two previous 
 Readers. Thisj it is submitted, is only natural in a work 
 such as the present, in which a very considerable course of 
 study, extending through three closely related books, is 
 attempted. Although separate, the three volumes ought 
 undoubtedly to be read consecutively, and to be considered 
 as forming an elementary course of agricultural teaching. 
 
 Lastly, I must impress upon all students of agricul- 
 ture, whether old or young, the vast importance of 
 practical knowledge of animals, gained by looking after 
 them. The directions given to pig-feeders lose half their 
 meaning to anyone who has no pig to practise upon. The 
 same is true of every kind of stock, and it is the actual 
 . contact, the actual exchange of opinions, coupled with 
 reading, which, taken together, form the basis of practical 
 knowledge. 
 
 It has been objected that books of this description are 
 calculated to turn out men who are wanting in substantial 
 practical knowledge. If the whole of a man's knowledge 
 of farming is gathered from books, such an accusation 
 would be true. As, however, the writer has been himself 
 actively engaged in farming for a number of years, he is 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 fully alive to the necessity of practical knowledge, and it is 
 his iirm conviction that knowledge gained bj' reading and 
 hearing can only be reduced to practice by actual perform- 
 ance. Agricultural knowledge is not a natural instinct, 
 but must be communicable, whether from father to son, or 
 teacher to pupil ; and it must be an extraordinary pursuit, 
 indeed, if its principles and its operations cannot, to some 
 extent, be reduced to writing ! Of this, however, there 
 can be no doubt. The only caution which it is necessary 
 to impress upon all students is that theory must go hand 
 in hand with practice. This statement may even be pushed 
 farther. It is not too much to say that while many success- 
 ful farmers have not studied the theory of their business 
 in books, and are therefore purely practical men, it is 
 impossible to find a successful farmer who owes all his 
 knowledge to books. Still, it does not follow that the 
 study of agriculture is useless. On the contrary, the best 
 agriculturists have always been found among men whose 
 ears are open to every suggestion and to the teachings of 
 science. 
 
 JOHN WRIGHTSON. 
 
 OoLLBGB OF Agriccltuke, Downton. 
 February, 1892. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BEITISH RACES OF CATTLE. 
 
 Cattle 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 1 
 
 Origin ( 
 
 if our Domestic Animals 
 
 2 
 
 Chillingham Cattle ' 
 
 3 
 
 Our Breeds of Cattle— 
 
 7 
 
 1. 
 
 Shorthorn Cattle 
 
 7 
 
 2. 
 
 Hereford Cattle 
 
 ... 11 
 
 3. 
 
 Devon Cattle 
 
 ... 13 
 
 4. 
 
 Sussex Cattle 
 
 ... 14 
 
 5. 
 
 Norfolk Eed-PoUed 
 
 ... 16 
 
 6. 
 
 Longhoms 
 
 ... 18 
 
 7. 
 
 Welsh (Pembroke) Cattle 
 
 ... 19 
 
 8. 
 
 Black Galloways 
 
 ... 20 
 
 9. 
 
 The Kerry Cow 
 
 ... 21 
 
 10. 
 
 The Polled Aberdeenshire and Angus Breeds 
 
 ... 21 
 
 11. 
 
 The West Highland Breed 
 
 . ... 23 
 
 12. 
 
 The AjTshire Breed 
 
 ... 24 
 
 13. 
 
 The Jersey Breed 
 
 ... 24 
 
 14. 
 
 The Guernsey Breed 
 
 ... 26 
 
 Cows and Calves 
 The Calf ... 
 Veal Calves 
 Bull Calves 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 30 
 33 
 33 
 
 34 
 
Xll 
 
 LIVB STOCK. 
 
 Ordinary "Weanling Calves 
 
 Calves during their First Summer 
 
 Calves diiring their Second Winter 
 
 Management of Yearlings and Two-year-olds 
 
 Fattening of Cattle 
 
 Practice of Fattening Cattle 
 
 Profits from Fattening Cattle 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DAIKY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Management of Milking Cows in Winter 
 
 Preparation of the Food 
 
 Effect of Food on Milk 
 
 Milk easily affected by its Surroundings 
 
 Separating Cream from Milk 
 
 The Laval Separator 
 Butter-making 
 The Dairy 
 Ripening of Cream 
 Churning ... 
 Cheese-making 
 Cheddar Cheese-making . 
 Concluding Remarks 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Relation of Sheep and Cattle to Wild Animals 
 
 British Sheep 
 
 Long- woolled Sheep 
 Short- woolled Sheep 
 Forest and Mountain Breeds 
 Principal Breeds 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 Long-woolled Sheep — 
 
 1. The Leicester Breed ^ 85 
 
 2. The Border Leicester 86 
 
 3. The Wensleydale Broed 86 
 
 4. The Lincoln Breed 87 
 
 5. Devon Longwools 87 
 
 6. Eomney Marsh Breed 88 
 
 7. The Cots-wold Race 89 
 
 Short-wooUed Sheep — , . 
 
 8. Southdown 89 
 
 9. The Hampshire Down Breed 92 
 
 10. The Sufeolk Down 94 
 
 11. The Shropshire Sheep 94 
 
 12. The Oxford Down 96 
 
 13. The Dorset Horn Sheep 97 
 
 Mountain and I'orest Breeds — 
 
 14. The Heath, or Black-faced Breed 97 
 
 15. The Cheviot Breed 99 
 
 16. The Herdwick Eace 99 
 
 17. The Lonk Breed 100 
 
 18. The Crag Sheep 100 
 
 19. The Exmoor Breed ... 101 
 
 20. The Dartmoor Breed 101 
 
 21. The Roscommon Breed 101 
 
 22. The Kyland Breed 102 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Sheep Breeding 104 
 
 Different Systems of Breeding Sheep — Ram Breeding 104 
 
 Breeding Fat Lambs 105 
 
 Breeding Store Lamhs - 105 
 
 Management of Ewes ... .,., ,„ .v 106 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 General Treatment 
 
 A young Ewe Flock 
 
 The Lambing Season 
 
 Young Lambs (January Lambing) 
 
 Young Lambs (March. Lambing) 
 
 Hill Lambs 
 
 Fattening Sheep 
 
 Great Economy of Sheep Folding 
 
 Turnips for Sheep 
 
 The Food of Fattening Sheep 
 
 Practical Directions for the Fattening of Sheep 
 
 Method of Feeding 
 
 Cutting Turnips 
 
 PAQB 
 
 108 
 109 
 110 
 113 
 115 
 116 
 117 
 118 
 119 
 121 
 122 
 124 
 124 
 
 CHAPTER VL 
 
 VARIOUS EVENTS IN THE LIPE OF A SHEEP. 
 
 Birth 
 
 Castration 
 
 Tailing 
 
 Weaning 
 
 Washing ... 
 
 Dipping 
 
 Shearing 
 
 Flies and Foot-rot 
 
 Liver-rot , 
 
 Scab 
 
 126 
 126 
 127 
 127 
 128 
 129 
 130 
 133 
 136 
 13S 
 
 Origin of the Pig . . . 
 The Wild Boar ... 
 Chinese Pig 
 South European Pigs 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PIGS. 
 
 141 
 142 
 145 
 146 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 English Breeds of Pigs — 
 The Black Breeds— 
 
 1. The Berkshire Breed ... 
 
 2. The Essex Eace 
 
 3. Other Black Eaces 
 
 4. The Tamworth Eace ... 
 The White Breeds— 
 
 5. Large and Small Yorkshires 
 
 6. Other White Breeds ... 
 
 CHAPTEE VIII. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OP PIGS, 
 
 The Breeding of Pigs 
 
 Sows 
 
 Farrowing 
 
 Store Pigs 
 
 Fatting Pigs 
 Bacon Curing 
 Wiltshire Bacon ... 
 Curing Hams 
 Sweet Hams 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 XV 
 
 PAQE 
 
 H6 
 
 147 
 148 
 148 
 
 149 
 150 
 
 151 
 153 
 154 
 155 
 156 
 159 
 162 
 163 
 163 
 
 HOBSES. 
 
 
 The Origin of the Horse 
 
 ... 165 
 
 The African Horse 
 
 ... 167 
 
 The Asiatic Horse 
 
 ... 168 
 
 The Arabian Horse 
 
 ... 168 
 
 The Wild Horses of South America 
 
 ... 169 
 
 Darwin's Yie-ws as to the Origin of the Horse 
 
 ... 170 
 
 English Horses 
 
 ... 171 
 
 English Cart-horses 
 
 ... 174 
 
 The Old English Black Horse 
 
 ... 176 
 
LIVE STOGK. 
 
 The Clj'desdale Horse 
 The Suffolk Punch 
 The Cleveland Bay 
 The Hackney Horse 
 Ponies and Galloways 
 Asses and Mules ... 
 
 PA OB 
 
 178 
 180 
 180 
 181 
 182 
 184 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OP HOUSES. 
 
 Breeding Horses .. . 
 Treatment of Weanling Colts . . . 
 Treatment of Yearling Colts ... 
 Treatment of Two-year-old Colts 
 
 Breaking-in Cart Colts 
 
 Management of Working Horses 
 Feeding of Farm Horses 
 
 189 
 191 
 191 
 192 
 192 
 193 
 195 
 
LIVE STOCK. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 . ElilTISH RACES OF CATTLE. 
 
 Great Britain is rich in breeds of live stock of a' 
 kinds. Why this should be so is not easy to explair 
 but it has been the case for many hundreds of years 
 The Venerable Bede^ who wrote almost twelve hundre 
 years agOj says : " Britain excels for grain and treesj an 
 is well adapted for feeding cattle and beasts of burden. 
 The climate of Great Britain is suited for cattle and sheej 
 as the summers are comparatively cool and moist, and th 
 winters are mild. The growth of grass is abundant, an 
 the mountains, hills, and vales favour the breeding c 
 different races, suitable for each situation. 
 
 We shall find no difficulty in describing fourtee 
 breeds of cattle and twenty breeds of sheep, includini 
 the cattle and sheep of Ireland, all comprised in a com 
 paratively small area, and each owned by breeders wh 
 take the greatest possible pains in improving them. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 Neat cattle, or bullocks, naturally come first in describ 
 ing our races of live stock. One of the first question 
 which would occur to any person who notices the man; 
 sorts of cattle, say at a great agricultural show, would be- 
 
 B 
 
2 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Where do all these breeds come from ? and how have they 
 beea brought to such perfection ? It is the object of the 
 following pages to answer this question, and in doing so 
 we must go a long way back in the history of England, 
 and touch upon that of other countries. 
 
 Origin of our Domestic Animals. 
 
 All of our domesticated animals, no doubt, at one time 
 lived in the wild state. It is, however, a curious fact that 
 there is no such thing as a truly wild horse, bullock, or 
 sheep which may be said to be the form from which our 
 domesticated horses, cattle, and sheep have sprung. This 
 is not true of the pig, for we see in the wild boar of the 
 forests of Germany an animal which can be readily 
 domesticated, and which may soon be converted into a 
 domestic pig. As we often hear of wild horses, it is well 
 to state that they are not exactly wild animals in the 
 sense that lions and tigers, antelopes and deer, are wild, 
 but that they are the descendants of horses which were 
 domesticated, but have escaped into the forests and 
 prairies, and become wild. When America was first 
 discovered by Columbus there were no horses to be seen, 
 and the first were imported by the Spanish soldiers who 
 went across the Atlantic Ocean to conquer the New World. 
 It is from these that the wild horses of America are 
 descended. In the same manner the wild horses of Tartary 
 are considered to be escaped rather than wild, and no one 
 knows what the original wild horse was like, except that 
 he was probably, in many respects, like his domesticated 
 descendants. A great deal has been written upon this 
 subject, the general opinion being that the wild horse, 
 
BRITISH RAGES OF GATTLE. 3 
 
 before he was tamed, was a more or less striped animal^ like 
 a quagga or zebra, and probably cream-coloured between 
 the stripes. You see, then, that the wild horse has so 
 completely disappeared from the face of the earth that 
 clever naturalists can only speculate or give their ideas 
 as to what he was like. 
 
 The same general fact is also true of cattle, for, in spite 
 of the great number of breeds, no one knows what the 
 parent form was like; but it is thought that at least 
 three different species were originally domesticated, all of 
 which have ceased to live an entirely independent life. 
 Bones of cattle have been discovered among the oldest 
 remains of human habitations, and these have been care- 
 fully examined, with the result that they seem always to 
 belong to one of these three species. 
 
 Chillingham Cattle. 
 
 The nearest approach to a wild ox in Great Britaiu is 
 to be found in the Earl of Tankerville's park at Chilling- 
 ham, in Northumberland. They are known as wild cattle, 
 and have many of the instincts of wild animals. That 
 they are not truly wild is shown by the fact that they are 
 confined within a park, like the herds of fallow deer so 
 often seen, and that they have, to a certain extent, to be 
 looked after and fed in the winter. Still, they are 
 fully as wild as pheasants, and, as the late Charles 
 Darwin says, " in their habits and instincts are truly wild.'^ 
 Thus, the cows hide their calves in the bushes and long 
 grass, and visit them from time to time to suckle them. 
 The calves lie close, and crouch in their lair when any one 
 approaches. The animals, when grown up, are very wary, 
 B 2 
 
LIVE a TOOK. 
 
 and always fly when man attempts to intrude upon them. 
 The herd gallops off along the bottoms of the valleys^ 
 and is difficult to find, because it generally succeeds in 
 placing a hill between itself and its pursuer. The bulls 
 
 form a ring around the 
 cows and young calves 
 in case of attack, and 
 present a bold front to 
 the enemy. All these 
 habits are very unlike 
 those of ordinary do- 
 mesticated cattle, so 
 that the Chillingham 
 cattle may be said to 
 be wild, although they 
 are confined to a park. 
 There are other herds 
 of wild cattle besides 
 those at Chillingham : 
 as, for example, those 
 of the Duke of Hamil- 
 ton, and Lord Ferrers 
 at Chartley, and at 
 Burton Constable. 
 These cattle are 
 considered to represent an otherwise extinct original race, 
 known to naturalists as Boa pruahjinnns. They are white, 
 with black rims to the eyes, black muzzles, black hoofs, 
 and black tips to the horns. The inside of the ears is 
 reddish-br(jwn, and the fianks and shoulders are shaded 
 with grey. 
 
 fig. 1- 
 
 -HEAD OF CHILLINGHAM BULL. 
 
BRITISH RAGES OF CATTLE. 5 
 
 Cattle of somewhat similar character are to be found in 
 Hungary, on the banks of the Danube^ and these, although 
 domesticated and used for purposes of draught and for 
 fatting, have still a good deal of wildness in their nature. 
 They are not safe to approach on foot, and the cows hide 
 their young ones among bushes and scrub. They are in 
 colour very similar to the cattle of Chillingham, and are 
 considered to be descendants of Bos primigenius. The 
 cattle of Spain and of Italy are also similar to them. 
 
 Returning to Great Britain, we believe that the 
 black cattle of Wales and the red cattle of Devonshire, 
 and probably those of Sussex, are also ' descended from the 
 same stock, although now bred of a different colour. 
 
 The remaining two forms* from which our cattle are 
 descended are only to be found in the domesticated 
 condition, so that the one trace we have of the truly wild 
 cattle which at one time roamed over Britain is now to 
 be found in a few ancient parks, where the animals are 
 highly valued by their owners. The Highland cattle are 
 probably descended from one extinct type (longifrons) , and 
 the other, if present at all, exists only in the form of 
 crosses in modified descendants. 
 
 The differences of colour of our breeds of cattle are 
 not difficult to account for, as domesticated animals tend 
 to vary in colour. Wild animals always are the same, 
 as a little observation will show. Wild rabbits, rats, mice, 
 ferrets, eats, pigeons, and almost all other wild animals, 
 are uniform in colour. But tame rabbits, rats, mice, ferrets, 
 cats, pigeons, etc., are always of different colours. So it is 
 with our larger domesticated animals. This appears to be 
 
 * These are known to naturalists as Bos longifrom and Boa frontosus. 
 
C LIVJH BTOGK. 
 
 a law of nature, for it is seen in plants as well as in 
 animals. As soon as a plant is cultivated it begins to 
 throw sports or varieties^ and the gardener soon obtains 
 a large number of different sorts. 
 
 Not only do domesticated animals and cultivated plants 
 differ from the original form in colour, but also in size and 
 in other peculiarities, and hence we see in the mere fact of 
 domestication a reason why there are so many varieties 
 of cattle, sheep, and other sorts of live stock in the country. 
 Animals are also bred according to certain "fancies" of 
 the breeder. In one country black may be the favourite 
 colour, and in another red or grey, and hence breeds 
 become established through the course of years. 
 
 Soil, climate, and food also produce their effects. On 
 small islands like the Shetlands or Orkneys both horses 
 and cattle become small, and on exposed situations or 
 on mountains, small cattle and horses, like the Kerry 
 cows or the Exmoor ponies, are to be seen. It is curious 
 to notice how quickly sheep of a certain breed alter in 
 character when removed to a new soil and climate ; and the 
 same is true of cattle. 
 
 We see, then, the explanation of our many races of 
 cattle : first in the fact that they are descended from at 
 least three original types or species of ox ; second, in the 
 law which appears to encourage differences of form and 
 colour whenever animals are domesticated; third, in the 
 fancies of breeders who try to breed their animals according 
 to their ideas of what constitutes a good type ; fourth, 
 to the gradual changes brought about by different soils, 
 climates, and food. 
 
 Lastly, and added to the above, we have another cause 
 
BRITISH RAGES OF CATTLE. 7 
 
 in the crossing of races so as to produce new forms. 
 Many of our best breeds of live stock have been produced 
 by crossing two or more breeds together. The English 
 race-horse was produced by crossing high-class English 
 horses with Arab, Turcoman, and Barb blood. The 
 Clydesdale horse was produced by crossing Scotch horses 
 with those imported from Flanders. The Shorthorn is no 
 doubt a crossed race, and we should probably find that 
 nearly all our races of cattle and sheep have been crossed 
 at some time. As for pigs, they owe their properties in a 
 great measure to crossing with Chinese and Italian pigs. 
 
 OUR BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 Having done something to clear the mind of the reader 
 as to why we have so many different descriptions of cattle, 
 we will, in the next place, pass the principal races in 
 review, and in tracing their history we shall meet with 
 fresh cases, showing the effects of the general laws which 
 have been already, to some extent, explained. 
 
 1. Shorthorn Cattle. 
 
 No kind of cattle is more highly thought of than the 
 Shorthorn. They are now found in every county of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, unless in purely moun- 
 tainous parts, where hardier races are preferred. Everyone 
 knows the Shorthorn by sight. Whenever we see a drove 
 of cattle of mixed colour, varying from red to white or 
 mixed red and white, we are probably looking at 
 Shorthorns. On closer inspection we notice that they 
 are square in outline, mossy in coat, • cream-coloured 
 around the eye and muzzle, and of moderate length in the 
 
8 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 horns. These a,re, no douljt. Shorthorns. They may not 
 he quite purely bred or oi' the best quality, but the general 
 features just mentioned declare them to belong to this 
 
 Fig. 2. — 3H0ETHOEN cow, " DAELINOTON IStH." 
 
 race. So generally distributed are they that many persons 
 might say tliat they thought all cattle were about the same 
 as have been described. 
 
 Shorthorns are a North Country breed, their first home 
 having been in Yorkshire and Durham. Tiiey were there 
 for a long time before they spread over the rest of tlie 
 country, and were Hrst improved by two brothers, Robert 
 
p 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 1-1 
 
 f1> 
 
 
 r/^ 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 rvl 
 
 H 
 
 
 1 
 
 rn 
 
 -O 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 M 
 
 
10 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 and Charles Colling, of Brampton and Ketton, in the 
 county of Durham. The brothers Colling, and especially 
 Charles, appear to have had a great natural taste for the 
 improvement of stock. They learnt a great deal from 
 Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, who ought to 
 be mentioned, because before his time no one seems to 
 have thought much about this important subject. 
 Bakewell undertook the improvement of horses, sheep, 
 and cattle, and produced the improved English black 
 horse, the Leicester sheep, and Longhorn cattle. Charles 
 Colling used to stay at Dishley, and determined to improve 
 the cattle of his own neighbourhood. The name Shorthorn 
 was most likely adopted as a sort of contrast to Bakewell's 
 Longhorn, and the rival race soon became the greater 
 favourite. The brothers Colling were very successful, and 
 their herds became the foundation of every other herd of 
 Shorthorns in the country. Mr. Thomas Bates, of Kirk- 
 levington, and Mr. Booth, of Warlaby, were also engaged 
 in the same pursuit during the life-time of the CoUings. 
 The great success of the Shorthorns as a breed appears to 
 be due to its combining the properties of milking and 
 beef -producing in a high degree, and also to the very early 
 age at which they are ready for the butcher. Before the 
 time of the brothers Colling cattle were seldom fattened 
 till they were four years old, but, owing to the improve- 
 ment caused by careful breeding, animals were produced 
 fit for slaughter at two years old. The points arrived at 
 by all the early and later breeders of these cattle have 
 been early maturity, beauty of form, a reduced quantity 
 of offal, and quick power of fattening or laying on flesh. 
 Shorthorns, combined with these qualities great milking 
 
BRITISH RAGES OF OATTLE. 11 
 
 properties, and being also very attractive in appear- 
 ance and exceedingly docile, it is no wonder that they 
 should have quickly spread over the country, and even 
 into foreign lands. 
 
 2. Hereford Cattle. 
 
 These cattle differ from Shorthorns both in colour and 
 form. The Hereford may be described, indeed, as red and 
 white, but the two colours are always seen in the same 
 parts of the animal. A Hereford may be described as 
 red, with white face, breast, belly, feet, top of tail, and 
 over the tops of the shoulders. This gives a uniform 
 appearance, which contrasts with the varied colours of the 
 Shorthorn. In form, the Hereford is longer than the 
 Shorthorn, its shoulders and fore-end are deeper, and its 
 buttocks are not let down quite so straight. The late 
 Mr. Dixon, who wrote upon cattle, tells us that the 
 peculiar white face of the Hereford was not always a 
 characteristic, but was introduced by the birth of a bull 
 calf with a white face towards the close of the last century. 
 This particular feature was admired, and became fashion- 
 able, and by the use of this animal as a sire the feature 
 was propagated until the whole of the modern Herefords 
 became red, with white faces. There are also light and 
 dark-grey Hereford, with white faces, but all the animals 
 one sees at shows are described as red with white faces. 
 As a beef-producer the Hereford is probably equal to the 
 Shorthorn, and the meat is of a more marbled appearance, 
 owing to the fat and lean being better mixed. They, 
 however, are inferior to Shorthorns as dairy cattle. 
 
BBITISS RAGES OF GATTLE. 
 
 13 
 
 3. Devon Cattle. 
 
 The Devons are an exceedingly symmetrical and beau- 
 tiful race of cattle^ found in North and South Devonshire. 
 They are rich red in colour, and are much smaller than 
 either of the last two breeds. Like most small breeds, 
 
 
 4\M 
 
 \nI* 
 
 2^ 
 
 
 N^H* 
 
 Fig. 5. — ME. W. FAETHINO'S DE¥ON COW, " PEETTT FACE." 
 
 they are beautifully formed, and excel in this particular 
 either the Shorthorn or the Hereford. One j-emarkable 
 feature in these cattle is the large size of the oxen, as 
 compared with either bulls or cows. A Devon ox^ indeed, 
 grows to a very great size, and is one of the most useful 
 cattle for draught which we possess in England. It is^ of 
 
14 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 course, seldom that cattle are used for ploughing, but 
 where the practice is still followed a pair of Devon steers 
 will beat any other kind of oxen either for quickness of 
 step, or for strength. Devon cattle are red all over, with 
 the exception of an occasional patch of white upon, or just 
 in front of, the udder. The skin around the eyes, inside 
 the ears, and around the muzzle is of rich yellow or orange 
 colour, and the base of the horn is sometimes of the same 
 hue. This enlivens the features, and gives a certain 
 brightness of colour to the face. The hair is sometimes 
 smooth, and in other cases deep and curly, mossy, and the 
 coat is mottled, or what is often called "hammer- 
 marked." In form the Devon is particularly smooth on 
 the shoulders, and well filled up behind them. Like the 
 Hereford, the quarters are not quite straight, and the 
 buttocks are somewhat rounded as compared with the 
 square-made Shorthorn. They are excellent producers of 
 beef, but not so much of milk. They are highly esteemed 
 ia their own county, as well as in Dorset, Somerset, 
 Wiltshire, and Hampshire. A great many also find their 
 way into graziers^ hands in Norfolk and other eastern 
 counties. The beef is of high quality, and is considered 
 by some to be superior to that of any other breed. The 
 milk, although less abundant, is richer than that produced 
 by the Shorthorn. 
 
 4. Sussex Cattle. 
 
 No breed of cattle has made more progress of late 
 years than the Sussex. They are red in colour, and are 
 very similar to the Devons, but a slight examination will 
 show them to be distinctly larger in size, looser in form. 
 
16 LIVE 8 TOOK. 
 
 and darker ia complexion, swarthy or dark in feature j 
 and the bright colours of the Devon are at once missed 
 when the two are compared. The Sussex is one of the 
 beef-producing races, and in this respect is fully equal to 
 any other breed. The farmers of Sussex are proud of 
 their cattle, and have of late years taken great pains to 
 bring them to perfection. 
 
 5. Norfolk Red-Polled. 
 
 Of late years, and especially since the revival of 
 interest in dairy-farming, the Norfolk red-polled cattle 
 have been much talked of and written about. Upwards of 
 a hundred years ago Suffolk, and to some extent Norfolk, 
 were dairying counties ; and the Suffolk polls or Suffolk 
 dun cattle were considered to be famous milkers. There 
 was, however, a long period during which corn-growing 
 was more profitable than dairy-work, and, besides, it 
 was less troublesome. Norfolk especially became almost 
 entirely a corn-growing and grazing county, and the cares 
 of the dairy were left to smaller men in other counties. 
 The old Suffolk Dun was a yellow-red cow, supposed to 
 have been descended from Galloway cattle, which had been 
 brought in droves from Wigtonshire and Kirkcudbright, in 
 the south-west of Scotland. These cows, crossed with the 
 cattle of the district, gradually produced a milking animal 
 known as the Suffolk poll; and the Norfolk red poll of the 
 present day seems to have originated from them. The 
 Norfolk red poll bears a great resemblance to the Sussex, 
 but the horn is wanting, and in its place is the knot or 
 high poll which always is seen in dodded or hornless 
 cattle. The Norfolk red poll is well described by its name, 
 
18 
 
 LIVJS STOCK. 
 
 as it is always of the same uniform rich red colour, and 
 free from horns. The cows are deep milkers, and they 
 are well adapted for yielding large quantities of milk for 
 the supply of towns. 
 
 6. Longhorns. 
 
 The Longhorn appears to have originally belonged to 
 the Craven Valley, lying in West Yorkshire and East 
 
 Fig. 8. — HEAD OF LONGHOEN (HEEEFOEd). 
 
 Lancashire. Similar cattle arc to be found in Anglesea. 
 They are interesting as having been the first race which 
 were improved by selection and careful breeding. Robert 
 Bakewell, of Dishley, Loughborough, Leicestershire, was 
 
BBITISS BA0E8 OF OATTLE. 19 
 
 a breeder of stock about 1763, and for many years later, 
 and one of his acbievements was the bringing out of the 
 Longhorns. As already mentioned, the Shorthorn followed; 
 but we can never forget that Bakewell led the way, and 
 that the improvement of every other race of cattle 
 followed, owing to the great example and success of 
 Bakewell. These cattle are very long in the horns, which 
 grow downwards, and turn in at the points towards the 
 cheek or jaw. They are often over thirty inches in 
 length, and have been known to be forty-two inches long in 
 the cow. In colour the Longhorn is brindled with mixed 
 red, yellow, and black, and white or pied along the back 
 and belly. The carcase is long, and the stature somewhat 
 low. The breed is, therefore, very distinct in character, 
 or unlike any other race. So successful was Bakewell in 
 improving these cattle that they became very popular all 
 over England, and Longhorn herds were found in almost 
 every county. They, however, met with a successful rival 
 in the Shorthorn, and the Longhorn is now only found in 
 small numbers. The late Duke of Buckingham was a 
 breeder of Longhorns, and some very excellent specimens of - 
 the breed were to be seen at the Windsor Show in 1889. 
 
 7. Welsh (Pembroke) Cattle. 
 
 These are best represented by the Pembrokes, a breed 
 of black, light-fleshed cattle, occasionally varied with a 
 little white. The correct coloui- is, however, black, with 
 a little white about the region of the udder. The horns, 
 hoofs, muzzle, and rims of the eyes are also black. These 
 cattle are probably of ancient origin, and closely connected 
 with the park cattle of Chillingham and £os Frimigenius. 
 
w 
 
 LIVE STOGK. 
 
 They are scarcely equal to any of the breeds already 
 mentioned for producing beef, but are a hardy and useful 
 
 "Fig <) —ME a F BOWDEN'S PiMBKOKE BUIL A^D HiirLE 
 
 race, both for the fatting stall and dairy. Au improved 
 black Welsh race is known as the Castle Martins. 
 
 8. Black Galloways. 
 
 North of the Solway Firth, and extending southward 
 to the same latitude as Durham, there is a peninsula, 
 including the counties of Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and 
 Dumfries, inhabited by a distinct and interesting breed of 
 cattle known as Galloways. They are jet-black and 
 hornless, strongly built, and rather low of stature. These 
 cattle are hardy in constitution, and are much esteemed as 
 
BBITI8H BAOES OF CATTLE. 21 
 
 producers o£ beef. The Galloway cattle are rarely housed, 
 and the calves are allowed to suck their dams. The profits 
 of their owners are derived from the sale of young cattle 
 to the English graziers in the northern counties, and as far 
 south as Norfolk. The Galloway is generally considered 
 to have been the foundation of the Suffolk dun, and, by 
 many, of the Norfolk red-poll, which are now famous as 
 milkers. Be this as it may, the Galloways are as a rule 
 only poor dairy cattle, and the custom of allowing the 
 calves to suck their dams is not likely to increase the 
 milking properties of the race. We were, however, 
 recently informed that many Galloway cows are equal to 
 Ayrshires in the production of milk. 
 
 9. The Kerry Cow. 
 
 The Kerry breed is now a favourite one where one or 
 two cows are kept for supplying a family with milk. They 
 are very small, and entirely black. Their form is slender, 
 and they are well adapted for being made pets of. In older 
 books they are described as having a white ridge along the 
 back, but the most approved type of animal is now entirely 
 black, with the exception of a small patch of white just 
 in front of the udder. Kerry cows are wonderful milkers 
 for their size. They are to be seen in large numbers in 
 the mountainous parts of Kerry. There is a short-legged 
 and thicker type of Kerry, which has received the 
 distinctive name of the Dexter Breed. 
 
 10. The Polled Aberdeenshire and Angus Breeds. 
 
 These breeds have often been separately described. 
 Both are polled and black, and inhabit the north-eastern 
 

 
BRITISH RAGES OF CATTLE. 
 
 23 
 
 peninsula of which Aberdeenshire forms a part. They 
 may he considered practically as one breed, and may be 
 said to bear a general resemblance to the Galloway cattle, 
 but are longer in the limb and looser in build. They are 
 now described as the Aberdeen-Angus breed. They form 
 a striking class at the annual show at Islington Hall, and 
 are peculiar for their level carcases, length of body, total 
 blackness of colour, and massive and hornless heads. The 
 cows are better milkers than the Gallowaj^s. 
 
 n. The West Highland Breed. 
 
 This is a hardy race which inhabits the western and 
 
 Fig 11 ^WEST HIGHLAND COW 
 
 central Highlands, and is found in great perfection in 
 Argyleshire and the neighbouring western islands. They 
 are exceedingly symmetrical in form, and their long, 
 upright horns, shaggy coats, varied colour, and bold mien 
 
24 LIVM STOCK. 
 
 render them ornamental and picturesque. A fine herd 
 which the author recently saw in Windsor Park possessed 
 all these features in a marked degree. They were yellowish- 
 brown, blacky silver-grey, or })rindled in colour, and their 
 fine carriage rivalled that of the red deer, or the wild 
 cattle of Chillingham. The West Highland cattle are 
 beef-producers rather than dairy cattle, and yield meat 
 of the highest quality. They are often to be seen grazing 
 in the marshes of Norfolk and other famous grazing 
 districts, from whence they find their way to the London 
 cattle markets. 
 
 12. The Ayrshire Breed. 
 
 In the Ayrshire breed we find one of the best of our 
 dairy races. They are red and white or yellow and white, 
 and occasionally self-coloured, and shaded to dark browns. 
 They are of medium size, are very hardy, and yield a large 
 quantity of milk, well adapted for cheese-making. The 
 Ayrshire cow will thrive upon land of comparatively pooT 
 character, and a larger number of them can be kept than 
 of Shorthorns. The Ayrshire cow is the very type of a 
 milking animal, being long and narrow in the head, 
 angular in form, thin of flesh, and is deservedly popular. 
 
 13. The Jersey Breed. 
 
 No cow is more generally known than the Jersey. She 
 is a great favourite with householders who keep a cow or two 
 for their private use. Jersey cattle are exceedingly pretty, 
 and are peculiar for a deer-like head, large, soft, promi- 
 nent eyes, curved horns, and are of medium size. The skin 
 is yellow, and the hair is shaded from a light fawn to dark 
 
26 LIFE 8T00K. 
 
 grey. The general tint is well described as smoke-coloured, 
 and approaches that of many of the mountain races of 
 Switzerland and the Tyrol. The value of the Jersey 
 consists rather in the richness than the quantity of her 
 milk ; she is essentially a butter cow. Both her milk and 
 butter are of rich colour, and a small number are often kept 
 in large dairies for the purpose of imparting a richer 
 appearance to the milk and butter. This is not a beef- 
 producing breed, as they lay on flesh slowly, and the steers 
 are difficult to fatten. 
 
 14. The Guernsey Breed. 
 
 This is another of the .Channel Island races. It 
 differs from the Jersey in being patchy yellow and whitp 
 in colour, and in being somewhat ampler in form. It is a 
 capital and rich milker and good butter cow, and is ajso 
 kept largely by private householders in the neighbourhood 
 of towns. We have now named and described the principal 
 races of cattle found in the British Isles. They will be 
 seen to be easily divisible into beef-producing and dairy 
 cattle, while some, but especially the Shorthorn, are 
 equally useful for both purposes. The best beef-pro- 
 ducing breeds are the Shorthorns, Hereford, Sussex, 
 Devon, Galloway, Aberdeen-Angus, and West High- 
 landers; while the most famous milk-producers are the 
 Shorthorns, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey, Norfolk Red- 
 Polls, and Kerrys. 
 
CHAPTER 11. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 The management o£ cattle naturally divides itself into 
 their breeding, rearing, and fattening, the management of 
 dairy cows, and the treatment of animals during illness. 
 It will be easily seen that a great deal might be written 
 upon each of these subjects. The breeding of cattle is 
 a most important part of pastoral and arable farming, 
 and where high-bred or pedigree stocks are kept a vast 
 deal of knowledge is required, as well as a great amount 
 of money. A single cow has been known to realise 
 j62,000, and hundreds are often expended upon the 
 purchase of one individual. In ordinary cases the breeding 
 and rearing of calves entails a large amount of attention, 
 and various methods are adopted, so that in all cases the 
 breeding of cattle is a subject to which a book might well 
 be devoted. Still, it is possible to give the principal facts 
 in such a manner as' to convey a fair idea as to what 
 farmers ought to know. Many persons who bring up 
 cattle from their birth have read very little about them ; 
 in such eases experience takes the place of book-knowledge, 
 and even those who have learnt their business entirely by 
 practising it may still learn a good deal from books. The 
 fattening of cattle is an art which has lately been much 
 improved by a study of the chemistry of foods, and of the 
 organs of digestion and assimilation, or the wonderful 
 power possessed by animals of changing grass, straw. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF OATTLE. 29 
 
 turnips, and other foodsj into beef, milk^ and other 
 products. 
 
 The management of dairy cows, and the best means of 
 converting their milk into butter and cheese, has received 
 a great deal of attention, and thick volumes have appeared 
 upon this important subject. Perhaps no part of agricul- 
 tural occupation has been more improved during the last 
 twenty years, and those who wish to know all about it 
 must travel far beyond the pages of this little book. 
 Similarly, veterinary surgeons have expended an immense 
 amount of laboui* in describing the diseases to which cattle 
 are liable, and the best treatment of animals or herds when 
 affected with disease. Some of these diseases may be 
 communicated to people who eat the flesh or consume the 
 milk of diseased cattle. Others are highly contagious or 
 infectious, while others again appear in particular conditions 
 favourable for their development, and become the cause of 
 heavy losses. Take, for example, the cattle plague which 
 visited our shores in 1864-5. This dreadful disease de- 
 stroyed millions of cattle, and in many cases swept off 
 entire herds. The history of these visitations, and the 
 best means of checking them, have exercised the minds 
 of the most able men, and are well worthy of con- 
 sideration. 
 
 It is well to reflect for a moment upon the extent of 
 knowledge required before a person can really understand 
 all about cattle; and this should be a check upon the 
 conceit which often accompanies ignorance. A good cattle 
 man may understand enough to milk a cow, churn the 
 butter, or make a good cheese, but in these days a more 
 varied knowledge is highly desirable, and it is the 
 
30 LIVH 8 TOOK. 
 
 object of these pages to at least show the nature of such 
 knowledge, and to encourage deeper study. 
 
 Cows and Calves. 
 
 Cows are valuable as producers of milk and calves. No 
 matter how bigh-priced a cow may be^ the objects for which 
 she is kept and tended are undoubtedly her milk and her 
 progeny. The high value attached to certain cows is due 
 to the consideration that they are able to transmit their 
 good qualities to their offspring, whether male or female, 
 and this constitutes the value of well-bred. or pedigree stock. 
 We should, however, never forget that a cow which will 
 not milk or produce beef is useless, and ought not to be 
 kept. The best cow is the animal which produces the best 
 and largest quantity of milk, and of calves that may be 
 turned into beef or into profitable cows. 
 
 The slight sketch of the various breeds of cattle just 
 given shows that some races are peculiarly milkers, while 
 others are beef-producers, and it would be foolish to expect 
 a quick result in fattening from a Jersey, or an immense 
 flow of milk from a Galloway cow. The peculiar properties 
 of each breed must be kept in mind, but usefulness in one 
 form or another is necessary. 
 
 Cows generally calve in the spring, a short time before 
 the grass begins to grow, and they continue to yield a large 
 quantity of milk throughout the summer. This is the 
 most profitable way of keeping cows, because no kind of 
 food is so good or so cheap as grass. If cows drop their 
 calves in autumn they give milk during the winter, but 
 it is never so abundant, and the food upon which the cow is 
 fed is much more expensive. It is, therefore, clear that 
 
MANAGEMENT OF OATTLE. 31 
 
 the best time for cows to calve is the early spring. As 
 there is no rale without an exception, we may add that 
 milk must be produced in winter as well as in summer, 
 and that, therefore, some cows must calve in the autumn. 
 It is necessary to pay the farmer more for milk produced in 
 the winter than in the summer, because it is produced at 
 a greater cost, and this induces some farmers to keep up 
 their supply of milk both winter and summer. It is 
 generally allowed that it is most profitable to produce milk 
 when the grass is growing. In cheese-making districts the 
 same rule holds good, and the cows are timed to calve in 
 February, March, and April, so as to be in " full profit " 
 during the grazing season. By November the cows are 
 allowed to dry ofE, and their new season commences after 
 again calving in the early spring. When cows are dry 
 they will live very well upon straw and a few turnips, and 
 hence the cost of food during the entire year is reduced to 
 a minimum, while upon grass the yield of milk is kept at 
 the maximum. 
 
 One acre of grass, rented ati£3, will keep a cow from 
 April 15th to September 30th, or for twenty-four weeks, at a 
 cost (for food) of 2s. 6d. per week. During October she will 
 receive hay, and gradually stop milking. In November, 
 December, and January she will be in straw-yard, at a cost 
 (in food) of about 2s. per week. After calving, and until 
 there is a good bit of grass, she will again receive hay, and 
 the entire cost of food will average about 3s. per week 
 throughout the year. This is at once a cheap and 
 economical way of keeping cows. 
 
 Well-managed cows produce a calf every year, and 
 yield milk for nine or ten months. The amount of milk 
 
32 LIVE BTOOE. 
 
 given by a good cow ranges from 600 to possibly 1,000 gal- 
 lons over the whole period, and in some cases even larger 
 quantities have been given. A cow that has newly calved 
 may yield as much as seven gallons every day, but in 
 ordinary cases four or five gallons are considered good. The 
 amount given per day gradually diminishes as the cow 
 becomes old in milk and heavy in calf, and at from two 
 to three months before calving she is dried off. 
 
 Cows should always be gently used, and carefully 
 milked and tended. It is of great importance to milk 
 them thoroughly, as imperfect milking is sure to be 
 followed by a lessened flow of milk. Well-bred or pedigree 
 cows ought not to require more attention than ordinary 
 cattle under good management should receive, and it is a 
 mistake to imagine that high-bred cows are delicate. Cows 
 should be driven to and from their pastures slowly, and 
 should not be hurried through doors or gateways, but 
 allowed plenty of time, to avoid pushing or crowding. 
 Cows are sensitive creatures, and are easily frightened. 
 They are also soon aware of kindness and gentle usage, and 
 repay their attendants by yielding more milk. If a cow is 
 roughly used, she is able to hold back her milk. When 
 cows are timed to calve in the spring the feeding is a very 
 simple affair, as it consists in turning them out to graze, 
 but when milk is desired in winter the feeding is much 
 more complicated and expensive. 
 
 As cows approach the period of calving they are dried 
 off and turned into straw-yards, and receive a few roots or 
 water, and in some instances 2 or 3 lbs. of oil-cake. Cows 
 ought to be kept in fair condition, and should not be allowed 
 to become fat, nor yet to become weak or low. They usually 
 
MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 33 
 
 ealve without assistance, but a good dairyman should watch 
 over cows before and after the time of calving, and be 
 ready to assist both the dam and her calf. It is seldom 
 necessary to call in the assistance of a veterinary surgeon. 
 
 The Calf. 
 
 As soon as a calf is born it requires attention. There 
 are two methods of dealing with calves. The first is the 
 natural method of leaving it to its mother^ who fondles and 
 licks it dry, and encourages it to rise on to its feet and suck. 
 When a calf is on its legs and finds the teat, immediate 
 anxiety is over, and probably all will go well. It is a good 
 plan to give a cow a comforting and laxative drench or 
 drink both before and after calving. The simplest drink 
 is Jib. of Epsom salts, given either in warm water or beer, 
 and a tablespoonful of ground ginger. There are also 
 good drenches sold by druggists for this purpose. The 
 second method of dealing with young calves is to take 
 them from their dams as soon as they are dropped^ and to 
 rub them dry with wisps of straw. The cow is then 
 milked, and the calf is fed with about a pint of the first 
 milk, which is different to the milk yielded later. In all 
 cases it is necessary to milk a cow immediately after she 
 has calved. When the calf is allowed to suck its dam it 
 does so after she has been milked^ sufficient being left in 
 the udder for the calf. Veal calves require a full supply of 
 milk, but calves intended for weaning may be kept a little 
 less liberally. 
 
 Veal Calves 
 
 should be allowed as much new milk as they can take ; 
 should be tied up, and not allowed any exercise, and be kept 
 
34 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 in the dark or in a subdued light. They will be ready for 
 the butcher in six or eight weeks. 
 
 Bull Calves 
 
 intended to be kept as bulls also require plenty of new 
 milkj and as they grow older nurse cows are sometimes 
 given to them. This is, however^ only done in special 
 cases. 
 
 Ordinary Weanling Calves. 
 
 As a general principle, liberal feeding is to be preferred 
 to hard keeping, but when calves are intended for grazing 
 on poor land, and to be reared for cows or steers, it is not 
 advisable to pamper them. Of late there has been a 
 growing practice to fatten steers at a year or fifteen months 
 old, and to produce what has been named " baby beef." 
 When this system is carried out, they are allowed a full 
 supply of milk from the first, and as much oil-cake and 
 forcing food as they can eat. In more ordinary eases 
 cattle are not put up to feed until they are about two-and- 
 a-half years old, and run during their first, second, and 
 third summers upon medium or poor pastures. In such 
 cases it is not advisable to feed them highly when they 
 are calves, but only to keep them in a healthy growing 
 condition. 
 
 Many good farmers allow their weanling calves to suck 
 for the first week, while others take the calf away, as 
 already mentioned, and bring it up entirely by hand. As 
 this system requires to be explained, we will follow the calf 
 during its first few weeks of life, until it is old enough to 
 be turned out to grass. We shall suppose it to be bom 
 early in February. It is first placed in a calf-pen, 
 
MANAGEMENT OF GATTLE. 35 
 
 rubbed dry, and covered up with dry straw. About a pint of 
 its mother's milkj called at that stage colostrum, is then 
 placed in a clean basin, and the attendant proceeds to give 
 the young animal its first lesson in the art of drinking. 
 Two fingers are introduced into its mouth, and the calf at 
 once begins to suck. The mouth is gently lowered into 
 the basin, and the calf soon learns to suck up the milk. 
 The object of the teacher is to gradually withdraw the 
 fingers until the calf learns to drink without them. Calves 
 of tender age are for this reason called "finger calves.'" 
 For the first day or two the calf requires feeding every 
 three or four hours, and up to the end of the first week 
 three times a day. Afterwards twice a day will suffice. 
 
 The full allowance for a calf is eight quarts of milk 
 a day, and this limit is reached when it is about ten 
 days old. The following table will give a fair idea as to 
 the times of feeding, and the quantities of milk required 
 in order to bring up a calf : — 
 
 1st day 1 pint every three or four hours. 
 
 2nd „ 
 
 1 quart morning 
 
 1 quarl 
 
 noon 
 
 , IJ quarts night. 
 
 3rd „ 
 
 n 
 
 J) 
 
 ^ 
 
 » 
 
 2 
 
 3> 
 
 4th „ 
 
 2 
 
 »> 
 
 
 71 
 
 2 
 
 )J 
 
 5th „ 
 
 2 
 
 ») 
 
 
 »» 
 
 2 
 
 »» 
 
 6th „ 
 
 n 
 
 )J 
 
 
 )» 
 
 2* 
 
 f» 
 
 7th „ 
 
 2* 
 
 }) 
 
 
 )> 
 
 ^ 
 
 )] 
 
 8th „ 
 
 3 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 »» 
 
 3 
 
 » 
 
 9th „ 
 
 3 
 
 )> 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 3 
 
 »l 
 
 10th „ 
 
 to end of first month. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 quarts morning 
 
 
 
 »» 
 
 4 
 
 J> 
 
 2nd month 
 
 4 „ 
 
 (old milk) 
 
 
 
 JJ 
 
 4 
 
 „ (old milk). 
 
 3rd month 
 
 4 ,, 
 
 (old mUk) 
 
 
 
 J) 
 
 4 
 
 „ (old mUk). 
 
 Calves soon learn to eat a little hay, meal, and finely 
 ground linseed-cake, and, this being the case, it is not 
 
36 LIVE STOCK 
 
 necessary to increase the amounb of milk beyond eight 
 quarts per day, and at twelve to fifteen weeks old the calf 
 may be weaned. 
 
 The system of weaning on milk may be considered by 
 some persons as expensive, and other fluids are, therefore, 
 employed. Lactina was a preparation invented by Mr. 
 T. Bowick, of Bedford, consisting of finely ground meals, 
 compounded with great care, and sold in bags. Lactifer 
 is prepared by Messrs. Thorley, and is of similar character. 
 Ayre's and Simpson's calf meals are foods of the same 
 description, and all are well adapted for their purpose. 
 The meal is well stirred in a little cold water, and boiling 
 water is poured over it, the whole being well stirred. 
 Cold water is then added in suflicient quantity, and 
 according to printed directions sent out by the makers. 
 Calves may be weaned very successfully upon these 
 artificial foods.* Finely ground bean-meal may be 
 similarly used, and with equal success. 
 
 Boiled linseed gives a pleasant-flavoured mucilage, 
 well suited for young calves when mixed with an equal 
 quantity of milk. Iceland moss may be boiled in water 
 for the same purpose. All of these substitutes for milk 
 may be used in calf-rearing with advantage, and the 
 milk thus saved may be more profitably disposed of. 
 Calves should be kept in roomy, well-ventilated, and well- 
 drained houses, and supplied with plenty of bedding, so as 
 to keep them clean and sweet. It is not advisable to tie 
 
 * AH calf meals are rich in nitrogenous matter, obtained by the fi-ee 
 use of beans, lentUa, and lupine-meal, together with ground malt, maize- 
 meal, locust-beans, and other ingredients. Some of them are baked, and 
 afterwards ground up into a fine state. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 37 
 
 them up, as they are happier free. Calves which are 
 treated in the manner indicated are seldom troubled with 
 illness, and at twelve or fifteen weeks old, or as soon as 
 the weather is warm enough, may be turned out to grass. 
 
 Calves during their First Summer. 
 
 Supposing a calf to be dropped early in February, it 
 will be (Jld enough to turn out to grass about the middle 
 of May. A small paddock near the homestead is the most 
 suitable place, and it should be shaded with trees or be 
 furnished with a shed, and there must also be a good sup- 
 ply of water. In practice it is found that calves intended 
 for weaning should be born in November and December. 
 
 But little management is required further than general 
 supervision until the end of September, when one pound 
 of linseed-cake may be given to each calf every day. As 
 the nights become cold they may be brought into yards. 
 
 Calves during their Second Winter. 
 
 They are now called Stirhs, and when they are one 
 year old are also termed yearlings. Stirks, or yearlings, 
 are best kept in well-littered and well-sheltered yards. 
 There they are supplied with refuse hay from the horse 
 stables, a few sliced roots, and two pounds each per day of 
 mixed barley-meal and cake, with straw and water. It is 
 bad policy to starve young stock, and it is wiser to err on the 
 side of feeding them well than to go to the opposite extreme. 
 
 Management of Yearlings and Two-year-olds. 
 
 Yearlings remain in winter quarters until about the 
 1st of May, when they are- again turned out to grass, 
 
as LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 usually on the poorer classes of grass land, in woods, 
 marshes, and commons, or in young plantations of trees. 
 Here they increase in size and value until November, 
 when they are again brought into yards, and receive 
 similar , treatment to yearlings, but with three pounds 
 per head of meal and cake instead of two pounds. They 
 again go out to grass as two-year-olds, and in October 
 are either brought in for fattening or are sold to* farmers 
 who make a business of winter-feeding bullocks. The 
 usual price of bullocks of this age is from £13 to £14 each. 
 The management here described may be considered too 
 expensive by some farmers. It is quite usual practice 
 to feed entirely on the natural produce of the farm instead 
 of giving cake. Much- depends upon the quality of the 
 pasturage, for it is evidently unadvisable to feed in winter 
 on a scale which the summer grazing is not able to carry 
 on or support. 
 
 Fattening of Cattle. 
 
 Well-grown steers and heifers in fairly good condition 
 require about five months to fatten. If fairly fed, those 
 put up about the middle of October are sold out during 
 March and April, and practically require the whole of the 
 winter before becoming ready for the butcher. Thus most 
 graziers fatten one lot of bullocks, unless they are brought 
 in in forward condition, in which case two lots may be 
 fattened during one season. 
 
 The subject of fattening cattle is a very important 
 one, upon which much has been written. The process is 
 properly named " fattening,'" for it consists in the accumu- 
 lation, or storing up, of fat. This may appear to be an 
 
MANAGEMENT OF GATTLE. 39 
 
 unnecessary remark, but it ought to be kept well in mind, 
 and examined closely. A lean animal, when first put up 
 to fatten, is composed of the organs of the body, such as 
 the stomach, intestines, lungs, heart, liver, etc. ; also of tbe 
 bony framework or skeleton, with muscles, tendons, a little 
 fat, skin, blood, and a considerable percentage of water. 
 When such an animal is put upon good keep it speedily 
 alters. It gains weight rapidly : that is, at the rate of 
 about two pounds every day. It becomes sleek in the 
 coat, rounded in outline, soft to the touch, and the bony 
 portions become thickly covered with flesh. There is at 
 the same time a large quantity of inside fat laid up 
 around the kidneys and intestines, and the animal is at 
 length pronounced to be fat. 
 
 The changes which have taken place consist, first, 
 in a portion of the water disappearing in favour of fat. 
 Not only is fat laid up in a layer on the outside of the 
 carcase just below the skin, but every part of the lean or 
 muscular part of the animal becomes interlarded with fat. 
 Unless the animal is growing, there is no great increase in 
 the lean or muscle, and yet the weight and volume of the 
 lean meat is increased. A well-fed piece of lean meat is 
 found on analysis to be charged with fat, which surrounds 
 every fibre, and causes the entire muscle to swell up and 
 occupy more room. The meat becomes soft, juicy, and 
 tender, owing to the large quantity of fat it now contains, 
 instead of being hard and stringy, as would be the case 
 in the lean meat of a lean animal. 
 
 The foods best adapted for bringing about these 
 changes are starchy and sugary foods, or oils, such as are 
 found in abundance in barley, maize, and rice meals, 
 
40 LIVB STOOK 
 
 turnipSj locust-beaus, treacle, malt, oil-cakes, palm-nut 
 meal, and also hay, and, to a limited extent, straw. It 
 must, however, be remembered that in all animals the 
 body is constantly undergoing change or waste. Every 
 part of the body is always wearing away, and being re- 
 placed by materials which are derived from the blood. 
 Hence, although the lean meat or muscle does not 
 increase in quantity except in growing animals, and, in 
 fact, may diminish through fatty degeneration of the 
 muscular fibres, it wastes, and needs to be replaced. 
 Hence the need of nitrogenous as well as of farinaceous 
 and oily foods. We consequently find two principal 
 classes of food needed : — 
 
 Fats, oils, sugar, starch, and pectin for the 
 formation of fat, and keeping up the heat of the 
 body. Albuminoids for repairing the waste of 
 muscle and nitrogenous tissues generally, and pro- 
 moting growth in young animals. 
 The younger the animal the larger proportion of albu- 
 minoids are needed in the food, and the older or more 
 mature the animal is the larger proportion of starchy 
 and sugary foods are needed. 
 
 The proportion which these ingredients of food bear 
 to each other is called the albuminoid ratio. If there 
 is 1 part of abuminoids to 5 of carbo-hydrates, the 
 albuminoid ratio is as 1 is to 5 : if there is 1 part 
 of albuminoids to 8 of carbo-hydrates, the albuminoid 
 ratio is 1 to 8, and so on. Oil is the most fattening 
 substance we know of. It passes, with little or no change, 
 into the circulation, and is stored up as oil or fat in the 
 body. Starch and sugar are also fattening, but not nearly 
 
MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 41 
 
 so much so as fat. It takes 2| lbs. o£ starch or sagav 
 to make as much fat as 1 lb. of oil. It is^ therefore, 
 necessary to multiply the amount of oil in a food by 2| 
 before it is added to the starch as sugar, in order to find 
 out the albuminoid ratio. 
 
 Example. — If 100 lbs. of linseed-cake contain — 
 24 lbs. of albuminoids, 
 29 lbs. of carbo-hydrates, 
 9 lbs. of fat or oil, 
 the albuminoid ratio is found by multiplying the 9 lbs. 
 fat by 2J = 22'5, and adding this to the 29 lbs. of 
 carbo-hydrates. This equals 22"5 -H ^9 = 51"5, and the 
 albuminoid ratio is as 22*5 : 51'5, or as 1 : 2'2. 
 
 The best albuminoid ratio in foods is as 1 : 5 or 1:6. 
 It is therefore evident that linseed-cake is too rich in 
 albuminoids to be used alone; but when given with 
 turnips and straw, the albuminoid ratio is reduced to the 
 proper level, and the feeding becomes natural and wholesome. 
 The albuminoid ratio in pasture grass is about 1 : 5, 
 and this partly accounts for the high value of grass for 
 feeding purposes. In clover it is 1 : 4 and 1 : 5. In barley- 
 meal it is 1 : 8. In hay it is from 1 : 4 to 1 : 10, accord- 
 ing to quality. In turnips it is 1:5 to 1 : 12, according 
 to ripeness and quality. In wheat-straw it is 1 : 41. If 
 a mixture of turnips, straw, barley-meal, and linseed-cake 
 is used for fattening cattle, a good ratio between albuminoids 
 and carbo-hydrates may be readily obtained. It is not 
 necessary to do more than to follow the practice of .good 
 farmers in order to get the proper ratio between albu- 
 minoids and carbo-hydrates ; because experience has taught 
 them the best proportion in which to mix foods together. 
 
42 
 
 LIVB 8T00K. 
 
 If, for example, we take a good mixture of foodsj or diet, 
 
 such as may be properly given to fattening bullocks, we 
 
 shall probably find the albuminoid ratio as nearly correct 
 
 as may be. Such a diet might be the following : — 
 
 4 lb3. of linseed-cake 
 4 lbs. of barley-meal, 
 50 lbs. of mangel-wurzel, 
 6 lbs. of hay, 
 10 lbs of out wheat-straw. 
 
 Such a mixture would be sufficient for a bullock during 
 the earlier stages of fattening; and towards the end of the 
 period the cake and meal might be increased to 6 lbs. 
 each, instead of 4 lbs. We shall now calculate to the 
 albuminoid ratio of the above mixture, and in doing so 
 show how these calculations are made : — 
 
 Food and Weight. 
 
 Carljo-liydrateg, including £.it njulti- 
 pliedby 2-44. 
 
 Albuminoids. 
 
 Linseed-cake, 4 lbs. 
 
 29 p.c. carbo-hyd. x 4 = 116-0 
 
 
 )j )) 
 
 8-9 „ fat X 2-44 X 4 = 86-9 
 
 
 Barley-meal, 4 lbs. 
 
 57 p.c. carbo-hyd. X 4 ^ 228'0 
 
 23-8 X 4 = 95-2 
 
 )) )? 
 
 1-7 „ fat X 2-44 X 4 = 16-6 
 
 
 Mangel, 50 lbs. 
 
 9-1 p.c. carbo-hyd. x50= 455-0 
 
 8-0x4 = 32-0 
 
 J) 5) 
 
 0-1 „ fat x 2-44 x50= 12-2 
 
 
 Hay (good), 6 lbs. 
 
 42-1 p.o. carbo-hyd. X 6= 2M-6 
 
 1-1 X 50 = 65-0 
 
 tt 1) 
 
 1-0 „ fat X 2-44 X 6= 14-6 
 
 
 ij j> 
 
 
 7-4x6 = 44-4 
 
 Wheat-straw 10 lbs. 
 
 31-9p.c.carbo-hyd. Xl0= 319-0 
 
 
 )f )t 
 
 0-4 „fat X 2-44 Xl0= 9-8 
 
 
 ti j> 
 
 
 0-8 X 10= 8-0 
 
 
 Total 1510-7 
 
 Total 234-6 
 
MANAGEMENT OF GATTLE. 43 
 
 The ratio of albuminoids to carbo-hydrates, with fats 
 added in terms of earbo-hydrateSj is therefore as 234" 6 is to 
 1510*7, and by division the actual ratio is as 1 is to 6'47. 
 Now this is just what the albuminoid ratio, suitable for 
 fattening cattle, ought to be ; and we therefore conclude 
 that a good mixture of foods, such as is approved by 
 practice, should be found to represent a good ratio between 
 albuminoids and carbo-hydrates. 
 
 A good food for fattening cattle and sheep must also 
 contain a large proportion of bulky material more or less 
 indigestible. If this is not provided, the food is too con- 
 centrated and not suited to the nature of these animals. 
 They are ruminants, and the " cud " could not be returned 
 and properly masticated if it existed in too small quantities. 
 
 Again, the first stomach of cattle and sheep is of large 
 size, and is called the rumen, or paunch. It must be 
 properly filled with bulky food to satisfy the animal^s 
 hunger, and hence hay, straw, grass, or turnips must 
 always form important parts of a proper dietary or mixture 
 of foods for stock. As examples of a different class of 
 animals we may take horses and pigs. These animals have 
 small stomachs, and thus the feeling of hunger is much 
 more easily satisfied. Horses and pigs therefore require 
 their food in a much more compact or concentrated form. 
 Pigs may'be fed with barley-meal alone j but to feed an 
 ox in this way would be contrary to nature. Horses may 
 be fed chiefly on oats, beans, and maize, with a little hay 
 or straw ; but such a diet as would be suitable for a horse 
 would be entirely unsuitable for a cow. 
 
 Food must also contain a small amount of mineral 
 matter to supply the waste of bone ; for bone, like the 
 
4i LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 softer tissues of the body, is subject to waste and repair 
 in common with the entire body. Mineral matter for Ihe 
 formation of bone is present in sufficient quantities in all 
 ordinary stock foods. 
 
 Practice of fattening Cattle. 
 
 In order that cattle may fatten profitably certain con- 
 ditions must be observed. In the first place it is important 
 to choose well-bred animals in which the disposition to 
 lay on fat has been increased by careful breeding. The 
 first-prize fat cattle at our great shows are always well- 
 bred, and it is mere waste to attempt to fatten ill-bred 
 stock. This is a point of great importance, and should 
 always be observed. Cattle may be fattened almost from 
 birth ; but when they are growing as well as fattening, fat 
 is not so rapidly laid on, and the profit is derived from the 
 general increase of the animal in size and weight, as well 
 as from the accumulation of fat. Perhaps the best 
 age is about three years. They must be comfortably 
 housed, either in small yards furnished with sheds, or in 
 covered yards or cattle-boxes containing one animal each. 
 They are also sometimes tied up by the neck in long rows, 
 or in stalls. 
 
 This last is a good system, provided the animals are well 
 kept and groomed ; but it is not to be recommended when 
 the cattle are kept dirty. They cannot lick themselves or 
 choose their lair. Their hoofs grow to a great length, and 
 require paring, and the animals suffer from want of exercise 
 during the months in which they are confined to one spot. 
 
 When store cattle are first brought in for fattening 
 the change of food must be gradual. They have been 
 
MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 45 
 
 grazing in open fields, and a change on to such feeding as 
 was recommended a few pages back would disorder their 
 systems. White turnips^ with 3 lbs. of oil-cake and 
 straw, are sufficient for the first week or two, and the 
 amount of rich foods, such as oil-cake and meal, ought to 
 be gradually increased. 
 
 Taking a medium-sized bullock as an example, we 
 should consider the following system reasonable and 
 according to good practice : — 
 
 First fortnight— 
 
 56 lbs. of Tfbite turnips, 
 
 2 Its. of linseed-cake, 
 
 6 lbs. of hay, 
 
 Straw and straw-chaff to satisfy the animal's hunger. 
 Second fortnight — 
 
 66 lbs. of white turnips, 
 
 2 lbs. of linseed-cake, 
 
 2 lbs. of barley-meal, 
 6 lbs. of hay, 
 
 Straw and straw-chaff as before. 
 Third fortnight — 
 
 56 lbs. of white turnips, 
 
 3 lbs. of Knseed-cake, 
 
 3 lbs. of barley-meal, 
 6 lbs. of hay. 
 
 Straw and straw-chaff as before. 
 Fourth and fifth fortnights — 
 
 56 lbs. of Swedish turnips, 
 
 4 lbs. of linseed-cake, 
 
 4 lbs. of meal, 
 6 lbs. of hay, 
 
 Straw and straw-chaff as before. 
 Sixth fortnight — 
 
 56 lbs. of Swedish turnips, 
 
 5 lbs. of linseed-cake, 
 5 lbs. of barley-meal, 
 8 lbs. of clover hay, 
 
 Straw and straw-chaff as before. 
 
46 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Seventh fortnight — 
 
 66 lbs. of swedes or mangel-wurzel, 
 
 6 lbs. of linseed-oake, 
 
 6 lbs. of barley-meal, 
 
 8 lbs. of clover hay, 
 
 Straw and straw-chaff as before. 
 
 Towards the extreme end of the fattening period it is 
 usual to feed still more liberally. In some cases 18 lbs. of 
 cake and meal have been given; but 14 lbs. is a better 
 maximum. As cattle approach the condition of prime 
 beef they make less use of their food, and a larger pro- 
 portion of it passes through the system into the manure. 
 Thus the duno- of fat animals is richer than that of lean 
 ones, and a larger proportion of the valuable parts of the 
 food are recovered in the form of dung. And yet it must 
 not be thought that the food is in any way wasted during 
 the last stages of fattening. 
 
 During the early stages the fat is mostly laid up in 
 the inside of the animal, around the kidneys and intestines. 
 Later, the flesh begins to thicken, and the animal to look 
 fat and to attract the butcher's eye. Half-fattened animals 
 are always sold at a loss, because they are not prime ; and 
 hence the last month often increases the value in the 
 market more than any previous period. 
 
 Regular feeding and a proper arrangement as to meals 
 is as important as is the food itself. Fattening animals 
 should not be kept waiting for their food, but should 
 receive it at stated times, so that they may lie down to 
 rest and ruminate. They should be fed early in the 
 morning and the last thing at night, as well as throughout 
 the day. The times and methods of feeding vary a good 
 deal, but the principle is rather that of " little and often " 
 
MANAGEMENT OF OATTLE. 47 
 
 than thrusting large quantities of food Upon animals and 
 
 leaving them to breathe over it and tire of it. When 
 
 cattle are being fed for show, the remnants of each meal 
 
 are removed and given to younger and less valuable stock, 
 
 and the mangers are thus kept clean and free from taint. 
 
 The following system we know to have been practised 
 
 with good results. It errs perhaps on the side of being 
 
 somewhat complicated, and one or two of the meals might 
 
 be omitted. Still, it is a good system, and very well shows 
 
 the care with which fattening animals ought to be treated : 
 
 At 5.30 to 6 a.m., a little meal mixed ■with straw-chafE, and just 
 
 enough pulped roots to moisten the ohaffl. 
 At 7.30 to 8 a.m., sliced roots. 
 
 At 9.30 to 10 a.m., meal and chaff as before, with pulped roots. 
 At 12 p.m., oil-cake, with chaff. 
 
 At 2 to 2.30 p.m., meal and chaff as before, with pulped roots. 
 At 4 to 4.30 p.m., do. do. do. 
 
 At 6 p.m., hay. 
 
 It is also a common practice to give a little hay to fattening 
 cattle at 8 o'clock at night, to eat during the night. 
 
 The remaining points of good management consist in 
 allowing a full supply of fresh water at all times, and 
 in keeping the animals well littered and quiet. Noises, 
 too much light, draughts, foul air, and everything which 
 tends to disturb or render the animal uncomfortable, should 
 be avoided. Restless or quarrelsome animals should be 
 removed and placed in loose boxes, or tied up by the neck 
 in stalls. If all the above points are attended to, we 
 believe that the fattening of bullocks will be carried on in 
 the best possible way. 
 
 Profits from fattening Cattle. 
 
 The profit depends principally upon the way m which 
 
48 LIVJE STOCK. 
 
 the animals are bought in and sold out. When lean 
 stock is cheap in autumn, and beef sells at a good price in 
 the spring, fattening may be very profitable ; but when the 
 opposite conditions occur it may be a losing business. 
 A farmer who possesses the faculty of buying well and 
 selling well often makes money while his neighbours are 
 losing. The actual balance between the cost of food and 
 attendance and the value of the animal's increase in 
 weight is very small, and may even be on the wrong side. 
 Hence Sir John Lawes, many years ago, gave his opinion 
 that the increase in the case of fattening cattle is obtained 
 at a loss ; that is, when the food given and the beef sold 
 are taken at standard prices. Prom what has been said, 
 however, it will be seen that the fluctuations in the prices 
 of feeding stuffs, of lean stock and of fat stock, give 
 opportunities for profit which a good business man wiU 
 watch. The profit of fattening cattle is not to be measured 
 by a simple calculation as to a standard price for cake 
 and a standard price for beef, but depends upon the prime 
 cost of the bullock, the adaptation of the foods given to 
 the market prices, bringing out the cattle at the proper 
 time, and a good sale. 
 
 Another item is the value of the manure produced. 
 The profits of bullock-feeding may be small or may be 
 eaten up in expenses, but the manure is worth a great 
 deal. If the business is carried on so that the cattle clear 
 their expenses, and leave the dung for nothing, many 
 farmers are satisfied. A fattening bullock will leave 
 one ton of manure every month, worth about 12s. a ton, 
 and thus during five months it leaves in manure a value 
 of £3. 
 
4a 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Management of Milking Cows in Winter. 
 
 Wk have already seen that the practice of spring 
 calving' and summer milking is general and profit- 
 able. By this system the cows are dry during most 
 of the winter^ and their food is cheap and simple. To 
 keep up the flow of milk 'during winter is much less 
 profitable than summer dairying, and the question which 
 may occur to any one not acquainted with farming 
 business might readily be — Why do it ? 
 
 The requirements of the new milk trade render a 
 winter supply of milk necessary; and hence, in making 
 their contracts with farmers, milk-buyers insist upon an 
 equal supply both in summer and winter. Gladly would 
 the farmers escape this condition, but as business cannot 
 be transacted without it, they make the best bargain they 
 can, and always receive a better price per gallon for their 
 winter^s milk than for that produced in the grazing 
 season. Hence they keep what is called a " running ^^ 
 dairy, or a dairy in which cows are calving at intervals 
 throughout the year, instead of at one period, as in cheese- 
 making dairies. 
 
 The winter management of dairy cows is not very 
 different from that of fattening bullocks. Both are well 
 supplied with rich foods, and the expense of keeping a cow 
 
50 LIVE 8 TOOK. 
 
 in milk during winter is much the same as that of main- 
 taining a fat bullock. The foods chosen are those most 
 suited for producing a large quantity of milk, and the 
 richness of the milk, provided it is sufficient to pass 
 muster, is only of secondary importance to the seller. 
 
 Supposing it is desired to supply milk from October 
 to April; the cows will gradually be put on to winter keep 
 as the nights become colder and the grass loses its 
 nourishing properties. The change is made slowly, and 
 in accordance with the season. About the middle of 
 October the cows will be housed at night, and hay will 
 be allowed nights and mornings. Early in November 
 about 4 lbs. per head of cotton-cake will be placed in the 
 mangers for the animals when they come in to be milked. 
 During November the food assumes more and more 
 a winter character, until towards the latter part of the 
 month the change is completed. 
 
 The best descriptions of food for cows in milk during 
 winter are hay, silage, brewers^ grains, white turnips, 
 mangel-wurzel, cotton-cake, rice-meal, and cut straw. 
 On many dairy farms hay is an important food, but on 
 others only a small allowance of this material is given. 
 For keeping up a good supply of milk we recommend : — 
 
 35 lbs. of white turnips or mangel-wurzel, 
 
 6 Its. of cotton-cake (undecorticated), 
 
 40 lbs. of silage, 
 
 i part of a busbel of brewers' grains, 
 
 6 lbs. of hay. 
 
 Straw-chaff, 
 
 with a good supply of clear and good water. About 
 two bushels of a mixture of pulped roots and chaff will be 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 51 
 
 found sufficient in bulk for an ordinary-sized cow, and 
 the cake may either be mixed in with their food or given 
 separately. 
 
 The routine of feeding consists in giving a little hay 
 before milking, and immediately afterwards a bushel of 
 the chaff and pulped roots, with or without the cake. 
 The cows are then turned out for water and exercise, 
 while the stalls are cleared of dung and wet straw. At 
 eleven o'clock they can have their silage, and at three o'clock 
 another allowance of chaff and pulped roots. At six o'clock 
 they can have their hay, and this will end the day's 
 feeding. The quantity of straw-chaff must be regulated 
 according to the appetites of the animals, and a more 
 liberal amount of cake may be bestowed on the animals 
 which yield the largest quantity of milk. When grains 
 are used, they also may be mixed with the chaff and 
 pulped roots. 
 
 Preparation of the Food. 
 
 In large dairies a powerful chaff-cutter, driven by steam, 
 and mills for breaking cake or grinding barley, are neces- 
 sary. The straw is cut and stored in a suitable shed, 
 and the roots are pulped daily. The food is mixed on a 
 cemented or concrete floor, by putting down the necessary 
 amount of straw-chaff, and scattering over it the allow- 
 ance of meal and cake. The pulped roots are then thrown 
 over the heap, and three or four buckets of cold water are 
 added. The heap is then turned over with forks until the 
 various parts are well mixed, and the food is given in 
 bushel baskets to the cows in their mangers. If six hours 
 elapse between mixing and feeding, the heap heats and has 
 
-52 LIVS STOOK 
 
 a pleasant flavour, which the cows enjoy j but it is not 
 desirable to allow the heaps to remain too long, as it then 
 becomes sour. The best arrangement is a long shed divided 
 by a brick wall into engine-house and feeding-room, with 
 a floor above for the cake-breakers and corn-mill. A shaft 
 extends along the length of the building, bracketed to the 
 wall, furnished with pulleys or sheaves for working the 
 various implements, such as pulper, cake-mill, corn-mill, 
 chafi-cutter, and pulper. The pulper may, however, with 
 advantage, be worked with a separate horse-gearing, as it is 
 not worth while getting up steam every day for this 
 purpose. 
 
 Effect of Food on Milk. 
 
 The yield of milk in cows is an hereditary and personal 
 quality. It is less. affected by the food the animal eats 
 than by the natural tendency to produce milk which she 
 possesses. In other words, a good milker will become 
 lean and wretched-looking, whereas a bad milker will 
 become fat and sleek. Poor feeding will lower the yield 
 of milk, simply because the cow must have the material 
 for making milk, and good feeding will, on a similar 
 principle, increase the flow up to the full bent of the cow's 
 powers. No feeding will, however, make a good milker 
 out of a bad one, and a good milker will go to skin and 
 bone sooner than lower her yield. . The quantity of milk is 
 therefore in some degree dependent on liberal feeding. The 
 quality of the milk is much less easily controlled, and it is 
 doubtful if any special feeding will materially alter the per- 
 centage of butter fats or cream in milk. Jersey cows have 
 been known to yield rich milk even when fed on straw ; 
 
DAIBY MANAGEMENT. 53 
 
 and there is no doutt that the richness or quality of milk 
 depends much more upon breed and individual peculiarities 
 than upon the food given. Rich fatty foods, such as linseed- 
 eake, do, to a certain extent, give richness to milk, but 
 only by supplying the cow with material which she is ready 
 to convert into cream. Cows which naturally yield poor 
 milk will lay the fat thus given them on their backs. Let 
 it then be understood that the best way of obtaining rich 
 milk is to keep cows which naturally yield rich milk and 
 feeding them well, and that it is useless to keep cows of a 
 poor sort, and try to increase the richness of their milk by 
 feeding them with rich food. The same is true of cows 
 kept for cheese-making. Ayrshire cows naturally give 
 milk rich in casein or cheesy matter, and most eCws yield 
 a fair return in cheese ; but no system of feeding will 
 greatly alter the amount. Watery foods, such as silage, 
 grass, grains, and distillery wash, increase the quantity of 
 milk, but lower the quality, and in town dairies, where a 
 large amount of milk is the principal object, they are much 
 employed. 
 
 Milk easily affected by its Surroundings. 
 
 Milk is an exceedingly delicate substance, and may be 
 injured even before it is drawn. Bad air, bad smells, bad 
 water, and , musty or badly-flavoured food, affect milk 
 unfavourably. Hence it is of great importance that cows 
 should bekept in wholesome, airy, and clean houses, and be 
 supplied with good food and > pure water. Turnips and 
 silage, if given in too large quantities, flavour the milk, and 
 bad odours . readily impart themselves to milk and. butter 
 made from it. 
 
64 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 After milk is drawn from the cow it at once begins to 
 change. Warm milk is, however, much less easily injured 
 than when cold, because milk just drawn from the cow, 
 being hot, throws ofE the air. The air is rendered lighter 
 when it comes in contact with the warm surface, and flies 
 upward, so that there is less risk of injury. In the case of 
 cold milk the conditions are reversed. The moisture in 
 the air becomes condensed upon its surface, and any im- 
 purities find their way into the milk and pollute it. The 
 larger the surface exposed the greater is the risk of con- 
 tamination, and hence one of the best reasons for the 
 deep setting of milk used in the newer systems of raising 
 cream. It will also be seen that pure air in the dairy is 
 of greater importance than pure air in the cow-house. 
 
 Separating Cream from Milk. 
 
 This brings us to the important consideration of 
 separating the cream from the milk. 
 
 The composition of cow milk, as ascertained by analysis, 
 is as follows : — 
 
 Water 87 percent. 
 
 Albuminoids (casein) 4 „ 
 
 Fat (butter) 3-7 „ 
 
 Sugar 4-6 „ 
 
 Ash 0-7 „ 
 
 100-0 
 
 These are the actual proportions of the various materials 
 contained in milk, but they do not give a correct idea of 
 the amounts of butter or cheese which milk is capable of 
 yielding. The best butter contains a little water, and rich 
 cheese contains nearly all the fat as well as the casein, 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 55 
 
 besides water and mineral matter. One hundred parts of 
 ordinary milk will yield 5 per cent, of butter, and if made 
 into cheese it will yield 10 per cent, of fresh curd. 
 
 The fat of milk exists in the form of minute globules 
 of about iTriT to tAtt of an inch in diameter. A single 
 pint of milk contains about forty thousand millions ol' 
 them. Their outer envelope is said to be albuminous, and 
 the casein is dispersed throughout the fluid. The sugar of 
 milk, or lactose, is an important element, and is highly 
 nutritious. Milk is, in fact, a wonderfully constituted 
 food, especially adapted for young animals. It contains 
 fats, sugar, albuminoids, and mineral matter from which 
 bone rnay be formed. 
 
 The separation of the cream was, until very lately, 
 done by the simple principle of gravity. The watery or 
 serous portion of milk is the heaviest, and bears downwards, 
 whereas the more buoyant or fatty portion gradually rises 
 to the top. The milk is spread in large flat vessels about 
 four inches in depth, and in twenty-four hours most of the 
 cream has risen, and may be skimmed ofE the surface. 
 This system is still the most generally followed, but is 
 open to the following objections : — 
 
 It is slow, and the milk often turns sour before all the 
 cream has risen. 
 
 It is liable to contaminate the milk and the cream, by 
 exposing a large surface to the action of germs which float 
 in the air. 
 
 It is incomplete, and allows a part of Ihe cream to 
 remain in the milk. 
 
 In order to do away with these disadvantages, various 
 systems have been devised. Two principles are kept in 
 
56 
 
 LirJ<l STOCK. 
 
 view : first, the exposing of a smaller surface to the air ; 
 second, the regulation of the temperature by means of hot 
 
 and cold water or ice. It is 
 found that cream rises most 
 rapidly in a falling tempera- 
 ture. By warming the milk 
 up to 100° Fah., and then 
 allowinar ice-cold water to flow 
 around the vessels containing 
 it, the milk is quickly cooled. 
 Now, all substances and all 
 fluids contract when cooled, but 
 not equally. The fat glob- 
 ules contract much less easily 
 than the watery portion of the milk, and hence they are 
 rendered still more buoyant, and rise with greater speed. 
 On this principle the Speedwell Creamer throws up the 
 cream in three or four hours, thereby giving a fresher and 
 
 14. — SCHWAEZ DEEr-SET- 
 TINO TIN. 
 
 Fig. 15. — LOXaiTtTDXNAL SECTION, SHOWING SOITWAEZ DEEr-SETTINQ TINS 
 PLACED IN THE TANK WITH WATEll FLOWINQ HOUND TIIEJI. 
 
 sweeter cream, as well as saving time and (what is also a 
 consideration) room. 
 
 The general form of the deep setting tins is oval or 
 
DAIIiY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 57 
 
 circular, and they are also furnished with covers to still 
 further protect the milk from the air. These deeji tins are 
 placed side by side in a wooden cistern lined with lead, and 
 in this hot water is placed so as to raise the temjserature of 
 the milk. When this has been done, cold water is allowed 
 to flow in, and the consequence is a rapid cooling of the 
 milk and quick rising of the cream. Such is the j)rinciple 
 
 Fig. 16.— SPEEDWELL CREAWRB. 
 
 of the Schwarz and Coolley methods, and in a modified 
 form of the Dorset and Jersey Creamers. The Speedwell 
 Creamer, which has been already mentioned, is a tin vessel 
 in which the bottom is composed of five fangs, or finger- 
 like tubes, which are hollow inside, and filled with milk. 
 
58 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 (See Fig. 16.) By this means the hot milk is brought into 
 close contact with cold water. A tin scoop accurately fits 
 the upper portion of the vessel, by whicb the entire cream 
 
 Fig. 17.— SPEEDWELL PATENT BAISER. 
 
 can be removed at once by a turn o£ the wrist. The 
 CooUey and Schwarz systems are also shown in figures. 
 
 The Laval Separator 
 
 is one of the most remarkable inventions of modern times. 
 It had long been known that centrifugal force might be 
 employed to efilect separations between substances of 
 different specific gravities. A rapidly revolving drum, set 
 in motion by a band driven from an engine, is the means 
 employed. About 7,000 revolutions per minute represents 
 the speed of the drum when in full work. The milk 
 is allowed to run in at the centre of the drum while 
 working at full speed. The immediate effect is that 
 the heavier parts of the milk are thrown outwards 
 to the sides of the vessel, and the lighter portion (the 
 cream) remains in the middle. This is the principle 
 of the Laval Separator, and the remainder of the process 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 59 
 
 is mere detail. A slit is provided for the escape of the 
 skim-milk, which then flows along a tube, and is delivered 
 into a receiver. The cream escapes at an opening near the 
 centre, and flows into a second vessel, and the separation is 
 thus effected immediately and continuously. One hundred 
 and fifty gallons of milk can be passed through a Laval 
 Separator in one hour, and a larger size is made which c:in 
 
 Fis;. 18.— SHOWING coolet's deep-settino can, and tank poe 
 
 EECEITING IT. 
 
 separate 250 gallons in the same time. The accompanying 
 sketch will give a very fair idea of the construction of 
 this instrument. 
 
 The Laval Separator is more adapted for large dairies 
 and town depots for milk than for ordinary farm use. It 
 requires steam power, although there is a small one now 
 
80 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 made which can be worked by hand, called the " baby 
 separator/' Where used, the separator is found to make 
 a much more complete division oi^ milk and cream than 
 any other method. It ensures absolute freshness in the 
 
 T 
 
 Fig. 19. — LAYAL CEEAM SEPAEATOE. 
 
 creamj and perfect sweetness in the skim-milk. It also 
 takes up much less room in a dairy than the large flat 
 leads or vessels used for separating milk. These advantages, 
 together with the rapidity of the process, render the 
 separator a most valuable addition to the appliances of a 
 
DAIBY MANAGEMENT. 61 
 
 large milk businessj and it is probable that before long it 
 will be adapted for more general use in farms. 
 
 The most recent improvement is the invention of what 
 is called the Instantaneous Butter-maker. In this instru- 
 ment a small churn is attached to the separator, and the 
 cream passes straight into the churn, and is made at once 
 into butter. In this case the churn consists of a small 
 hollow cylinder, furnished with beaters, to which a rapid 
 revolution of 3,000 per minute is communicated by means 
 of a steam turbine. The result is an almost immediate 
 production of butter, which keeps pace in its formation 
 with the delivery of the cream from the separator. This 
 wonderful invention was exhibited for the first time at the 
 principal agricultural shows of 1890. 
 
 Butter Making. 
 
 Butter is made by agitating or shaking cream until 
 the fatty globules break up and unite together in masses. 
 
 The art is very ancient, as may be seen by the constant 
 references to butter in the Scriptures. It is so simple 
 that it must have early reached perfection, and there is no 
 reason for thinking that the butter now made is better 
 than that which Jael set before Sisera, the captain of 
 Jabin^s host. Good butter has, however, always been 
 rare, on account of carelessness in its manufacture. The 
 process is simple, but success depends upon attention to 
 details from (or even before) the time the milk is drawn 
 from the cow to the moment when it is put on the table. 
 
 We have already seen that bad feeding, bad air, and 
 impure water afiEect milk before it is taken from the cow, 
 and that as soon as milk is cold it becomes liable to be 
 
62 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 injured. The fat is the most dehcate portion of the milk. 
 Fats absorb odours very quickly. Fat will extract the 
 smell of flowers^ and is employed for this purpose in the 
 manufacture of attar of roses and other scents. If, then, 
 milk, cream, or butter is in contact with putrid smells, 
 game, meat, paraflin, etc., it will absorb and retain their 
 odour and flavour. This fact shows the importance of 
 strict cleanliness and sweetness in every stage of butter- 
 making and of milk management. A perfectly clean and 
 sweet dairy is, therefore, a first consideration. 
 
 The Dairy 
 
 should open to the north, and ought to be protected from 
 the sun by trees, or by a roof specially fitted or prepared 
 to keep out the heat. It is generally a square or oblong 
 room, with a cemented or hard-tiled floor of non-porous 
 character. No crevices or cracks should be seen in a 
 
 Fig. 20.--sno\viNa plan or a modeen daiey. 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 63 
 
 dairy floor, as they only harbour sourness in some form. 
 The walls should be whitewashed or be lined with white 
 encaustic tiles, well fixed, and pointed with cement. The 
 ceiling must be lime-washed and clean. The vessels for 
 holding milk must be of porcelain, glass, lead, tin, glazed 
 earthenware, slate, or marble : that is, of non-porous and 
 clean character. The wooden bolls, tubs, buckets, etc., 
 should be of oak or maple, and must be well washed in 
 cold water, and scalded, before and after use, on all 
 occasions. A dairy is, in a word, scrupulously clean and 
 pure. It must be abundantly supplied with well water, and 
 the mop or squeegee is in constant use to take up any drop 
 of milk which may be spilt. It must also be furnished with 
 well-trapped and well-aired drains, contrived on a simple 
 and well-ventilated system, so as to prevent any return of 
 impure air by this channel. Such a dairy need not be of 
 expensive or ornamental appearance, so long as it is 
 thoroughly clean. 
 
 The cream is raised either in shallow or deep pans, and 
 when collected is placed in a glazed earthenware crock, in 
 which stands a peeled willow wand, used for stirring it 
 every now and then. 
 
 Ripening of Cream. 
 
 Butter may be made from fresh cream as it comes from 
 a Laval Separator, and some people think that this is the 
 best stage for churning. It is, however, a more common, 
 and we think a better, plan to ripen cream before churning. 
 It is a fact that sweet and good butter may be made from 
 sour cream, and it is, therefore, very common to see cream 
 churned once a week from slightly sour cream. By ri^e 
 
64 LIVE STOOE. 
 
 cream we should understand cream with a slight degree of 
 acidity^ but not distinctly sour, or about three days old, 
 and from such cream the finest quality of butter may be 
 made. It is also considered good practice to hold back a 
 spoonful of such sour cream, and add it to the next batch 
 of cream to produce acidity more quickly, so that sourness 
 in cream must not be considered a fault, provided it is not 
 carried too far. It is of great importance that the mil/c 
 from which cream is raised should be perfectly sweet and 
 free from all acidity, so that sourness in cream and sour- 
 ness in the milk which produces it are two very different 
 things. Cream raised from sour milk is sure to contain 
 cheesy matter, and this will render the butter rancid in a 
 few days; whereas pure butter fat will keep for a long 
 period without change. 
 
 Churning 
 
 may be done in a barrel churn or in a more modern churn, 
 but any good churn will make good butter. Tbe improve- 
 ments in churns made during recent years are, no doubt, 
 considerable. The old-fashioned churn (Fig. 7) consists 
 of an oak barrel on the inner side of which two or three 
 perforated shelves, or dashers, are fixed to agitate or break 
 the cream. Thei barrel is slung upon a frame, and turned 
 round with a winch handle. There is a large opening for 
 removing the butter, and for pouring in the cream or 
 water for cleansing the churn ; and this is closed with a 
 lid, and rendered tight either by a pad of cheese-cloth or bv 
 an indiarubber fitting, and kept in place by a strip of 
 iron and a screw. There is also a ventilating peg for 
 allowing the escape of gases, which is opened from time to 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 65 
 
 time at the earliei- stages of churning. Such is the old 
 barrel churn which has long passed as a good and efficient 
 instrument, and is to be seen very frequently even now. 
 
 Fig. 21. — hathaway's baekel cnwEN. 
 
 The faults of the old-fashioned barrel churn are as 
 follows : First, the fixed shelves or dashers are difficult to 
 keep perfectly clean, as they have angles in which particles 
 of butter may cling and lodge ; secondly, they are said to 
 over-churn some of the cream and under-churn the rest. 
 The chief action is naturally on the cream at the outside 
 of the revolving mass, while the centre of the churn 
 naturally moves slower ; and hence it is considered that the 
 
66 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 portion of the cream nearest the centre is not sufficiently 
 agitated. 
 
 These faults have been met by what is called the end- 
 over-end movement (Fig. 22), in which the barrel is 
 suspended at the bulge instead of at the ends. A diagonal 
 
 Fig. 22. — VICTORIA CHCTEN ENTIEELT WITHOUT DASHERS. 
 
 or swinging action has also been introduced, by which the 
 churn revolves not only end over end, but slightly out of 
 the centre, so that it swings to the right and left. Re- 
 movable dashers fixed like a ladder between grooves 
 within the churn are also now used, and after churnino- 
 the dashers are slipped out and washed separately, while 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 67 
 
 the churn is more easily washed out. Such is the 
 Charlemont Churn (Fig. 23). 
 
 Tlie modern system of butter-making also requires 
 
 Fig. 23. —PATENT "CHABLEMONT DIAPHRAGM" FACJTOET OHTTEN. 
 
 glass windows at either end of the churn to admit light, 
 and show the operator when to stop churning. Such a 
 churn is all that can be required. There are, however, 
 other good churns, among which may be mentioned the 
 Plunger churn, well adapted for churning the whole milk ; 
 the Box churn, in which the outer case remains stationary 
 F 2 
 
6B LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 while the cream is agitated with revolving beaters (Fig. 
 
 Fig. 24. — THE BOX cnuEN. 
 
 24) ; the Cradle churn, in which the churn is made to rock 
 
 fig. '25. — THE C0T8WINO CHUEN ON THE dUBLE rEINCIPLE. 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 69 
 
 backwards and forwards like a cradle (Fig. 25). There 
 are many sorts of churns^ but those mentioned will give 
 the reader a sufficient idea as to the means usually 
 employed. 
 
 The best temperature for churning is about 60° Fahr. 
 In winter it must be brought iip to 02°^ and in summer 
 kept down to 58° by the use of warm clean water or 
 ice, as the ease may be. 
 
 When the cream is put into the churn the handle is 
 turned slowly round about six times, and the vent-valve is 
 then pressed down to allow the warm air and gas to escape. 
 This is repeated until no air fizzes 
 outj and the churning then pro- 
 ceeds at the rate of forty revolu- 
 tions a minute. A quicker motion 
 of about fifty revolutions may be 
 used towards the end of the pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Churning usually occupies 
 from thirty to forty-five minutes, 
 and is now stopped earlier than it 
 used to be. The old-fashioned sys- 
 tem was to churn until the butter 
 gathered into a large mass, and began to fall from side to 
 side. It was then removed in the form of a lump, and placed 
 in the butter tub or trendle for washing. The system now 
 recommended is to stop churning as soon as the butter 
 forms in small particles, variously described as about the 
 size of pin-heads, the size of wheat-grains, or the size of 
 vetch-seed. This is easily seen by watching the glass 
 windows before mentioned. These are at first covered 
 
 Fig. 26. — SCOTCH HAUBS. 
 
70 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 with a white sheet of cream^ but when the butter is formed 
 the particles of butter and the thinner butter-milk are to 
 be readily seen separated against the pane. 
 
 Churning is now stopped, and the churn is turned plug 
 downwards, and a fine hair-sieve is held under it. The 
 plug is then removed, to allow the escape of the butter- 
 
 Fig. 27. — BTITTER-TTOEKEE. 
 
 milk, and any particles of butter are caught in the sieve, 
 and returned into the churn through the larger opening. 
 The butter is now seen as a granular mass of rich colour 
 lying in the churn, and on this is poured about half a 
 bucket of pure cold spring-water. The churn is now 
 turned round slowly about three times. The plug is again 
 opened and the sieve again used, and the whole of the 
 water is allowed to drain away. This operation is repeated 
 until the water escapes almost clear, and during these 
 washings the butter becomes a little more compact and 
 hard. When the operator is satisfied that the butter is 
 washed, he turns the churn slowly round in order to 
 
DAIRY UANAGEMENT. 71 
 
 gather the butter into a lump, and then removes it carefully 
 from the churn with the " Scotch hands " (Pig. 26), not 
 allowing it to be touched by his own hands. 
 
 The butter is now placed on the butter-worker, which 
 is shown at Fig. 27, although it may be of other forms, the 
 
 Fig. 28. — THE ALDEEJTET BUTTEE-'WOEKEE. 
 
 object being to work the butter without contact with the 
 hand at any stage. The butter-worker squeezes out all 
 the water, and leaves the butter firm and dry. It is then 
 worked into pats, and is ready for use. 
 
 Salting may be done either in the churn or in the 
 butter-worker. In the former case a brine strong enouc^h 
 to float an egg, made by about 1 lb. of salt to 1 gallon of 
 water, is introduced, and the butter takes up sufficient 
 salt for flavouring. In the latter case fine dry bay-salt 
 is sprinkled over the butter according to taste, and is 
 worked into it uniformly. 
 
72 LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 CHEESE MAKING 
 
 is a much more eomplieated process than butter-making. 
 Anyone who follows the foregoing directions, with the 
 assistance of an experienced dairy-maid, will soon be able 
 to make good butter. With cheese it is far otherwise. 
 The operations are more numerous, and are spread over a 
 longer time. Cheese-making begins the first thing in the 
 morning, and is not completed until evening. Great 
 judgment is required as to the proper temperature, the 
 peculiarities of the weather, and the time required between 
 the various stages in the manufacture ; so that good cheese- 
 makers are rare, and uniform cheese-makers who may be 
 relieu upon to turn out a lot of cheeses of equal quality 
 and flavour are rarer still. Cheese is made best in 
 factories, where large quantities of milk are handled by a 
 skilled cheese-maker, but flrst-rate cheese is also made in 
 farm dairies. 
 
 To describe cheese-making is by no means easy, 
 especially as the number of kinds of cheese is very great. 
 
 Cheese Districts. — The character of the herbage 
 affects the quality of cheese, the best being made from 
 land of cool and sometimes of marshy character, of 
 medium quality, and in a natural state. Heavy manuring, 
 draining, and other " improvements " have been known to 
 injure the quality of the cheese produced. 
 
 Cheese is made in nearly every county, but there are 
 districts which have become especially famous. Among 
 them may be named the Scotch Cheddar district, in 
 Ayrshire and contiguous counties ; the Cheshire district ; 
 the West Yorkshii-e Dale districts ; the Lancashire Dale 
 districts ; the Derbyshire Peak district ; the Leicestershire 
 
DAIBY MANAGEMENT. 73 
 
 and Stilton districts; the Gloucestershire Vale district ; the 
 North Wiltshire district; the Dorset district; and the 
 Somersetshire (Cheddar) district. There are^ no doubt, 
 other localities in which good cheeses are made, but those 
 made in the counties named have earned a particular repu- 
 tation, and are in high favour. 
 
 The new milk trade has, in many localities, taken the 
 place of cheese-making, as it is often more profitable, and 
 always less troublesome. Of late years, however, the sale of 
 new milk to towns has been rather over-done ; and recently 
 the price of good cheese has been high, and has caused a 
 reaction in favour of the production of cheese. A gallon 
 of milk may be relied upon to make 1 lb. of fresh cheese, 
 and if 72s. a hundredw^eight can be obtained, this repre- 
 sents (allowing for shrinkage during ripening) about 7d. 
 per pound, or 7d. per gallon of milk. Even the moderate 
 price of 56s. is equal to 6d. per gallon on the milk, and 
 besides, there is the whey, which is so useful for pig 
 feeding. Now, as a great deal of milk changes hands in 
 summer at 6d. and 7d. per gallon, it is clear that cheese- 
 making stands at no serious disadvantage with the sale 
 of new milk. 
 
 We can only spare space for describing one system of 
 cheese-making, and shall select Cheddar cheese as our 
 example, because it is widely practised, and gives a good 
 idea as to how the process is conducted. 
 
 Cheddar Cheese-making. 
 
 The instruments required are a cheese-tub (Fig. 29), 
 made to contain about 130 gallons of milk, a curd-knife 
 (Fig. 30), a curd-breaker (Fig. 31), a curd-mill (Fig. 32), a 
 
U LIVE STOGK. 
 
 cooler, or shallow wooden tray-vats (Fig. 33), and a cheese- 
 press (Fig. 34). Besides these appliances, a thermometer, 
 strainers, cheese-cloth, a source of pure water and of heat, 
 and a proper shed or cheese room, are required. 
 
 Fig. 29. CHEESE-TUB AND BOLLEE. 
 
 Thus supplied with the necessary appliances, the cheese- 
 maker proceeds as follows. 
 
 Cheese is made daily, and the size of the cheese varies 
 with the amount of milk. In a dairy of 25 to 30 cows 
 cheeses of 56 lbs. each may be made, and where 50 or 6U 
 cows are kept cheeses are made of 112 lbs. each. The vats 
 
BAIBY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 75 
 
 ought to be of sufficient size to hold 
 hundredweight cheeses, one on the top of 
 other. 
 
 The evening's milk is strained and put in the 
 cheese-tub, and covered over with a canvas cloth. 
 In the morning it is creamed, and the morning's 
 milk added. A pailful of milk is then heated to 
 95° Fah., and the cream is stirred in and added 
 to the milk in the tub. 
 
 Most cheese-tubs are jacketed, or double-cased, 
 so that steam from a boiler can be allowed to cir- 
 culate around the vessel, and the milk is raised 
 
 Fig. 30. — CIIEDIIAE CURD- 
 KNIFE. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 -CUED-BEEAEEE. 
 
76 
 
 Lir£: STOCK. 
 
 to 82° Pali.^ more or less^ according to the weather. This 
 may be supposed to take place at 7 a.m. Patent rennet 
 is then added at the rate of 1 oz. to 25 gallons of milk, 
 and stirred in for five minutes. The canvas cloth is now 
 spread over the cheese-tub and the milk is left for one 
 
 Fig. 32. — OUED-MILL. 
 
 hour for the curd to form. On removing tlie cloth the 
 milk appears to the eye much as it did before ; but on 
 further examination it will be seen to have coagulated 
 into a jelly-like mass from top to bottom, with a glazed 
 surface. 
 
 The cheese-maker now takes the curd-knife and cuts 
 gently "and firmly across and across the curd, allowing the 
 knife to go to the bottom at intervals of about an inch 
 from cut to cut. He then cross-cuts it in the same 
 manner, and the curd immediately begins to sink, and a 
 layer of pale yellow whey appears at the top. 
 
 After an interval of twenty minutes the curd is 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 77 
 
 slowly and gently broken with the eurd-bvcaker. The 
 object of quick and slow breaking at this stage is to 
 prevent the escape of the fat, for if roughly used the 
 fat appears on the top of the whey. Steam is now 
 again admitted and the temperature is brought up to 90° 
 Fah., and stirring is carried on more bris-kl v. because the curd 
 now becomes harder 
 and will bear rather 
 rougher treatment. 
 The breaking is con- 
 tinued for over an 
 hour, and the tem- 
 perature of the curd 
 and whey is then 
 raised to about 100° 
 Fah., and the stirring 
 is continued for a suf- 
 ficient length of time 
 to properly " cook ■'•' 
 the curd and make it 
 firm enough to break 
 over the finger to the 
 satisfaction of the 
 maker. 
 
 The curd is then 
 allowed to settle or 
 " pitch '•" to the bot- 
 tom of the tub, and after an interval of half-an-houi 
 the whey is drawn oft'. 
 
 Cheese-tubs are made with a convex bottom, and upon 
 this the curd lies in a thick layer. When the whey is all 
 
 Fig. 33. — CHEESE-VATS ILiDK OF TIN AND 
 OAK. 
 
78 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 drawn off the curd is cat in slabs of about six inches square 
 and piled in the centre ; and this cutting is,, repeated 
 at short intervals to favour the escape of the whey. 
 The curd is kept covered with cheese-cloth and a thick 
 canvas to keep it warm between all these ojjerations, and 
 is now left for about half-an-hour^ when it is again cut 
 and packed close together on the cooler, being well 
 coveiBd up with cheese-cloth and canvas. 
 
 Cutting and turning are continued, and the curd is 
 watched and examined, but 
 is kept well covered to jM-e- 
 vent it from becoming 
 chilled. It alters to a pale 
 drab colour and becomes sour 
 in smell, and when it is 
 judged to be at the proper 
 stage of acidity and tough- 
 ness it is put through the 
 curd-mill. This may take 
 place about five o'clock in the 
 afternoon. Salt is then added 
 to the crumbs of curd at the 
 rate of 2^ lbs. to 1 cwt,, and 
 well worked in by the hands ; and the curd is then placed 
 in the vat with a cheese-cloth nicely packed around the 
 sides, and put under the press, and pressure is applied to 
 squeeze out the whey. The presses are kept up to their 
 work by occasionally turning the screws ; and in the 
 morning the cheese is turned out, a fresh cloth is put 
 around it, and it is placed in the press again until the 
 following morning. Thus a cheese is in the jjress two 
 
 Fig. 34. — A CHEESE- PEES3. 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 79 
 
 nights and one day, and it is then removedj bound tightly 
 in a stout canvas band made for the purpose, the ends 
 being covered with muslin ; and it is carried to the cheese- 
 room, where it is turned daily to keep the top flat and 
 promote equal drying and pressure throughout. Such 
 cheeses will be ready for use in four months. The above is 
 a short description of Cheddar cheese-making, and it will be 
 seen that much experience and continued attention are 
 required. The maker has to look after cheeses in all 
 stages, and is, with his other work, kept very fully 
 employed. When the farmer's wife and daughters make 
 the cheese the labour imposed on the household is very 
 arduous, as the work is repeated every day, Sundays in- 
 cluded, from April to October. 
 
 Concluding Remarks. 
 
 We shall not attempt in this treatise to describe all the 
 ways of making cheese. A great deal might be said upon 
 Devonshire cream, cream cheeses, soft cheeses, Stilton cheese, 
 Cheshire cheese, Wensleydale and Cutherstone cheeses ; but 
 this is not a treatise on dairying, but on live stock. An 
 attempt has therefore been made to give the young reader 
 a fair idea as to the various matters which engage the 
 attention of pastoral farmers engaged in cattle raising. 
 
80 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 The sheep was the first animal ever domesticated by man. 
 Abel was a keeper of sheep, and he brought of the first- 
 lings of his flock to the altar as a sacrifice. There 
 is a more or less distinct reference to the first keepers 
 of cattle in Genesis iv. 20, where we read, that 
 Jabal was ''the father of such as dwell in tents, 
 and of such as have cattle." Jabal was the sixth 
 in descent in the direct line of Cain, and yet was 
 only the " father ''■' of such as have cattle, so that the 
 evidence from the Old Testament favours the idea that 
 sheep were domesticated long before cattle. The references 
 to sheep in the Scriptures show that in the remotest 
 times sheep were white and covered with fine wool, and 
 the allusion to a ram caught in a thicket, as well as the 
 use of rams' horns as musical instruments, indicate that the 
 sheep were horned, as many of our sheep are at the present 
 day. No one is able to say from what wild animal the 
 domestic sheep originally came. We are naturally disposed 
 to think that all our domesticated animals were once wild, 
 and that they were captured and tamed by man. The 
 horse, ass, ox, pig, dog, cat, are all believed to have 
 originally existed as wild animals, and this being the case, 
 it would be strange if sheep were an exception. The same 
 appears to be true of cultivated plants. They originally 
 grew wild, and have been chosen as useful, and cultivated 
 
SHEEP. 81 
 
 until they became improved in size, appearancBj flavour, 
 and productiveness. 
 
 But the strange thing is that in several cases — of which 
 the sheep is one — we know nothing with certainty of the 
 wild stock from which our domestic animals and cultivated 
 plants are descended. 
 
 Sheep bear evidence, in their wool, of very early 
 domesticatioi*, for the wool of the sheep kept in the time 
 of the patriarchs seems to have been fine, white, and 
 fleecy, as it is now. Even the most accomplished naturalists 
 are not able to throw much light upon the ancestry of sheep, 
 and we therefore may well leave this subject to the learned, 
 and at once proceed with the consideration o£ sheep as we 
 find them. 
 
 Relation of Sheep (and Cattle) to Wild Animals 
 
 While we cannot point out any wild animal from which 
 our sheep have been descended, we know that they, as well 
 as cattle, are etiminants, and that they therefore belong 
 to the order Ruminantia, which includes all those animals 
 which chew the cud. The whole order have many points in 
 common. They live in flocks or herds, are timid in their 
 nature, live on grass and green herbage, are mostly swift 
 of foot, and are horned. The ruminants are indeed 
 divided into families, or genera, by their horns. 
 
 Thus, there are hornless ruminants, of which the camel 
 and the llama are the best examples. 
 
 The giraffe is a ruminant, peculiar for a horn covered 
 with skin and hair, which is persistent : that is, never shed, 
 and of peculiar conical shape. 
 
 The large tribe of deer, including fallow-deer, the roe, 
 
FM 
 
 82 LIVE STOOK. 
 
 red deer, etc., are peculiar for carrying spreading aatlers, 
 which are shed every year. 
 
 Antelopes have hollow horns that are never shed. 
 Oxen and sheep also have hollow persistent horns. 
 Oxen and sheep, indeed, are not far removed from the 
 antelopes in their nature. Antelopes are divided as 
 follows : — 
 
 True antelopes, peculiar for their lightness, agility, 
 and beauty. 
 3 <j Bush antelopes, which are of clumsier form. 
 ^ f Ox-like antelopes, resembling oxen. 
 
 Sheep-like antelopes, resembling sheep or goats. 
 Oxen and sheep, as well as goats, appear, therefore, as 
 genera allied to these two latter classes of the Antelopid^. 
 
 British Sheep. 
 
 As already stated in the earlier pages of this book, 
 Britain is rich in breeds of sheep. They are so different 
 in appearance that they might well be considered as be- 
 longing to different species, but they are nevertheless very 
 similar in character. The bleating of a sheep is the same, 
 whether proceeding from a black -faced mountain sheep or a 
 highly-bred Southdown. Their habits and nature are also 
 the same, so that we look upon them all as sheep, whatever 
 their minor differences may be. 
 
 As in the case of cattle, so with sheep: the different 
 races may be accounted for as being caused partly by the 
 climate under which they have been bred for long ages, 
 as well as by the peculiarities of herbage, the fancy of 
 breeders, and the crossing of different races. Possibly there 
 may have been several allied races which in remote times 
 
8BEBP. 83 
 
 were domesticated by man, and whose peculiarities still 
 show themselves in their descendants. All o£ these causes 
 have helped to give us many " breeds " or races of sheep. 
 
 As to horns, there is no doubt that all sheep at one 
 time carried these appendages, but in many of our breeds 
 the horn has disappeared, although in even the hornless 
 kinds they occasionally appear. 
 
 The most distinctive sheep which we possess is the 
 Scotch black-faced, or heath sheep. It has bold, compressed 
 spiral horns, mottled black and white face, hairy wool, wild 
 nature, and has often been remarked on as unlike any other 
 British race. It has even been suggested that they were 
 originally produced by a cross between sheep and goats, 
 but there is no evidence to support this idea. They are 
 also said to have been introduced from Spain at the time 
 of the Armada, and it has been pointed out that they 
 are similar to the sheep of Wallachia, in Eastern Europe. 
 No writer can apparently do more than conjectrire as 
 to the origin of this breed, but it is probable that they 
 were imported from abroad. 
 
 Most of the breeds of British sheep may be divided into 
 long-woolled and short-woolled races, and mountain and 
 forest breeds. "' 
 
 Long-woolled Sheep. 
 
 These carry wool of from eight to twenty inches in 
 length, and the weight of the fleece varies from eight to 
 twenty pounds. They are white-faced, and generally 
 hornless : large in carcase, somewhat coarse in flesh, and 
 are generally found on low-lying situations, although there 
 are exceptions to this rule. 
 G 2 
 
84 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Short-wool led Sheep. 
 
 It has been said that in Great Britain we have no 
 true short-woolled sheep. The sheep most deserving of 
 the title of short-wooUed is the Merino, which is of Spanish 
 origin, and is found principally in Prance, Spain, Germany, 
 and Austro-Hungary, from which countries it has found 
 its way to Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The 
 wool of the Merino sheep is much finer and shorter than 
 that of any of our races, and hence it is the true fine- 
 woolled or short-woolled sheep. We have no wool that 
 will compare in these respects with that of the Merino. 
 It supplies the clothing wool, from which broadcloth 
 and the finest wearing apparel are made. Our home- 
 grown wool is known as combing, as distinguished from 
 CAEDiNG wool, and is coarse in comparison. It is em- 
 ployed in the manufacture of homespuns, rugs, serges, 
 tweeds, friezes, carpets, and blankets, but cannot yield the 
 finer fabrics. 
 
 Still, we may speak of short-woolled British sheep 
 as distinct from the long-wooUed races. Among them 
 are included all the Down breeds, such as Sussex and 
 Hampshire Downs. They are brown-faced, and close or 
 short in the fleece, which is not often more than four inches 
 in length, and weighs about four pounds. They are 
 generally found on chalky soils, or open downs on the 
 chalk formation in the south of England. 
 
 Forest and Mountain Breeds. 
 
 There are also several breeds of sheep of hardy and 
 active character found on the fells and mountains of Scot- 
 land, Cumberland, Wales, and Ireland, on the moors of 
 
SHEEP 85 
 
 Devonshire, Yorkshire, and Northumberland, all of which 
 deserve notice. 
 
 PRINCIPAL BREEDS. 
 
 We have now made a general classification of sheep, 
 and we must take the principal breeds in order, and give the 
 reader a general idea as to their appearance and qualities. 
 
 1. The Leicester Breed. 
 
 We take this well-known breed first, because it was 
 the earliest race which was definitely improved by care- 
 ful breeding. Bakewell, of Dishley, has already been 
 mentioned as a pioneer in the improvement of live 
 stock. He took in hand the native breed of his county, 
 and by carefully selecting the best parents for breeding, 
 produced the Improved Leicester or Dishley sheep, which 
 is still looked upon as one of our leading races. The work 
 accomplished by Bakewell consisted in reducing the size, 
 but improving the symmetry of the old Leicester. He is 
 accused of having paid too much attention to the flesh, 
 and of neglecting the wool j but be this as it may, he 
 produced a sheep of wonderful merit and beautiful form, 
 able to make the best use of its food by converting it into 
 mutton. He also developed a very valuable quality in what 
 is known as " earliness of maturity,^' or the power of pro- 
 ducing marketable mutton several months sooner than was 
 formerly thought possible. 
 
 The Leicester sheep is medium rather than a long- 
 woolled, its fleece being about eight inches in length, 
 and of fine white wool. Its face, ears, and shanks are 
 white, and it is free from horns in either sex. Its mutton 
 is rather coarse, and there is a disposition to lay on too 
 
86 LIVE 8T0GK. 
 
 much fat, which has rather prejudiced the breed of late 
 years. The Leicester sheep has been successfully used in 
 the improvement of all the other long-wooUed races, and 
 this has given it its greatest value in the opinion of 
 breeders. As each breed of long-woolled sheep is men- 
 tioned, it will be seen that it owes its position in a great 
 degree to having been crossed with Leicester sheep. 
 
 2. The Border Leicester 
 
 is a case in point. The Brothers Culley, who flourished 
 in the latter half of the eighteenth century on the banks of 
 the Tees, were buyers of Dishley rams, and these they 
 crossed with the old Teeswater, long-woolled ewes. After 
 long and careful breeding they produced an excellent flock, ' 
 which they took with them down into North Northumber- 
 land, and there gave the sheep the name of Border Lei- 
 cesters. In general appearance they resembled Leicesters, 
 but being exposed to a harsher climate, and falling into 
 the hands of a new class of breeders, they insensibly 
 altered in character. The Teeswater blood also imparted a 
 larger size and greater length to the carcase, and produced 
 the difference between a Leicester and a Border Leicester 
 which we now see. This sheep is larger and bolder in the 
 carcase and in the features, and is highly esteemed in the 
 Lowlands of Scotland and the border counties generally. 
 It is largely used for crossing both with the Cheviot and 
 the Black-faced breeds of sheep. 
 
 3. The Wensleydale Breed 
 
 must be regarded as another offshoot of the old Teeswater, 
 and improved by the introduction of Leicester blood. It 
 is highly esteemed in the dale districts of Yorkshire, 
 
SHEEP. 87 
 
 Lancashire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, and may be 
 described as essentially of Teeswater character, with a, 
 leaning towards the Border Leicester type. 
 
 4. The Lincoln Breed. 
 
 This is the largest breed of sheep in Britain, and pro- 
 bably the heaviest-carcased sheep in the world. 
 
 It must be allowed that at the present time the Im- 
 proved Lincoln sheep is more popular than the Leicester, 
 with which it was originally crossed. 
 
 A Lincoln tegg (yearling) will carry as much as twenty 
 pounds of wool ; and even heavier weights have often been 
 recorded. The carcase of a Lincoln sheep has been known 
 to scale as much as 360 pounds of mutton. It is therefore 
 highly valuable ; and it is not uncommon for a Lincoln 
 tegg in his wool to be valued at £5. The general appear- 
 ance of these sheep is white-faced and legged, and they 
 carry a top-knot of wool on their foreheads — a peculiarity 
 also not seldom seen in the Leicester. But the chief 
 peculiarities of the Lincoln are its size and the mass 
 of long wool which grows densely over the entire carcase. 
 The wool is very dense and boldly curled. The flesh is 
 firm and thick, and, like that of all the great long-woolled 
 breeds, less esteemed by butchers and consumers than the 
 mutton of the smaller breeds. The Lincoln sheep has 
 been largely used for crossing with Merinos, to pro- 
 duce an animal producing a quantity of high-class wool, 
 as well as meat. 
 
 5. Devon Long-wools. 
 
 Somerset and Devon have long been famous for their 
 long-woolled sheep, and these have been improved by 
 
88 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 crossing, first with the Leicester, and in more recent 
 years with the Lincoln. In general appearance and cha- 
 racter they might almost pass for Lincoln sheep ; but 
 being separated from them by a considerable distance, they 
 maintain their position among Devon and Somerset farmers 
 as a distinct breed. 
 
 6. Romney Marsh Breed. 
 
 East of the river Bother, and stretching to Dungeness 
 on the south and New Romney on the east, lies an immense 
 tract of marsh land separated into fields by wide ditches, 
 and supporting a singularly rich herbage. This district 
 has long been the home of a splendid breed of white-faced, 
 long-woolled, hornless sheep, which existed there long 
 before the time of Bakewell. 
 
 The original Romney Marsh sheep was hardy and well 
 calculated to resist the fogs and cold, searching winds of 
 the English Channel. It was also adapted for grazing 
 upon low-lying land, which, as a rule, is not suitable for 
 sheep. The old Romney Marsh sheep was early crossed 
 with the Leicester, with the usual effect of improving the 
 form and shortening the time required to bring them to 
 perfection. There seems to have been at first a disposition 
 to uphold the old type of sheep, as hardier and better suited 
 to the situation than the improved or crossed sheep. The 
 Leicester was, however, successfully introduced, and the 
 present Ilomney Marsh sheep is the result. The cross was 
 effected at the close of the last century, and is now 
 thoroughly blended and incorporated in the constitution of 
 the breed, which has every right to be considered as a pure 
 and distinct race. . In appearance, the Romney Marsh 
 sheep is very similar to the Lincoln. 
 
8EEEF. 89 
 
 7. The Cotswold Race. 
 
 The Cotswold Hills form an elevated table-land, 
 extending through north and west Gloucestershire 
 into Oxfordshire. They are highly picturesque, and in 
 many places precipitous. The lower hills are cultivated, 
 while the higher ranges are left in the form of open 
 downs, or wolds. The soil is of limestone character, 
 traversed by thick bands of clay, which give a very 
 varied character to the land. The climate is severe and 
 the altitude considerable, so that a hardy breed of sheep 
 is essential to successful sheep farming. This quality is 
 possessed in an eminent degree by the Cotswold sheep, 
 which are considered to be more suitable to the locality 
 than any other race. They are high standing, or a little 
 long in the leg and neck, and carry their heads more erect 
 than Leicesters or Lineolns, are white-faced, although a 
 few spots of grey are not objected to. The forehead is 
 decorated with a long and flowing lock of wool, and the 
 ears are long and flexible. The wool is long and composed 
 into a bold curl, and is thickly set upon the skin. The 
 breed was improved early in the present century by 
 crossing with the Improved Leicester, but for many years 
 has been bred pure. It is a little lighter than the Lincoln 
 or the Romney Marsh sheep, and fattens at ten to twelve 
 months old to a weight of twenty-two to twenty-five 
 pounds per quarter when fairly treated. None of the 
 foregoing races are horned. 
 
 SHORT-WOOLLED SHEEP. 
 8. Southdown. 
 
 The Southdown deserves to be mentioned first among 
 the shorter-woolled races, because it was the earliest upon 
 
90 
 
 LIVE STOOK. 
 
 wliicli the breeder's art was exerted in the way of improve- 
 ment. The unimiDroved races which were general one 
 hundred years ago appear to have been very inferior 
 animals. They were in many cases larger in frame than 
 the improved races of to-day, but are described as long- 
 leg-gedj flat-ribbed, razor-backed, narrow-chested, slow- 
 feeding, and light-fleshed. In this all writers agree. 
 
 I'lg. 35. — souTHDOWNS (from the flock of Mr. Jonas Webb). 
 
 The Messrs. Ellman, of Glynde, near Brighton, wei'c the 
 improvers of the Southdown, and they apjJcar to have left 
 them in a wonderfully perfect form. The elder Elln: in 
 lived in the long reign of George III., and this monarch 
 greatly admired the improvement which Mr. Ellman 
 effected. Tlie younger Ellman was an old gentleman 
 when the writer met him in 1861., and he died shortly after 
 
8SEEP. 91 
 
 tnat date. The Soutlidown holds a similar position with 
 regard to the shorter-woolled or Down breeds of sheep that 
 the Leicester holds with reference to the long-woolled 
 races, for there is not a race of Down sheep which 
 has not been crossed and improved by means of the South- 
 down. This is the most perfectly formed of all our sheep. 
 The face is like that of a fallow-deerj and is of light brown 
 colour, and the head is free from horns. The width 
 between the eyes, the beauty and prominence of the eye, 
 and the perfect symmetry of the carcase, all help to make 
 up a beautiful little animal, which has always been a 
 favourite, especially among land owners. 
 
 The quality of the mutton is very high, as the flesh is 
 tender, of excellent flavour, short-grained, and dark in 
 colour. The joints are not too large, and look well on the 
 table. 
 
 The flesh is at perfection at four years old, but most of 
 these sheep flnd their way to the butcher at from ten to four- 
 teen months old. When grazed in parks, it is not unusual 
 to allow them to run until they are of maturer age, and thus 
 the table of the mansion may be supplied with four-year- 
 old mutton rivalling the purest venison in quality. The 
 plumpness of form and perfect symmetry of the South- 
 down, its short and well-trimmed fleece, its lovely head 
 and limbs, place it in a peculiar position with respect to 
 other breeds, and it is scarcely to be wondered at that this 
 sheep should have enlisted the interest of the highest 
 personages of the land, among whom may be mentioned 
 especially the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Richmond, 
 and Lord Walsingham, all of whom have long been asso- 
 ciated with Southdown breeding. 
 
92 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 9. The Hampshire Down Breed. 
 
 The Southdown Hills find their eastern limit at 
 Beachy Head, near Eastbourne, and extend through Sussex, 
 crossing near Arundel into Hampshire. They pass Win- 
 chester and Salisbury, when they expand into the vast 
 plateau known as Salisbury Plain. These are the West 
 Country Downs, which have been the home of the 
 Hampshire Down sheep. This admirable breed is inferior 
 to none as a profitable animal. It is larger than the 
 Southdown, and must take, in consequence, a second 
 position with reference to quality of mutton. What is 
 lost in quality is, however, fully made up in quantity and 
 earliness of maturity, for which this race is peculiarly 
 famous. Hampshire Down lambs bear the palm for this 
 important quality, as they can be made ready for the 
 butcher at seven months old. In this point the Hampshire 
 Down eclipses every other race of sheep. When well 
 treated, a Hampshire Down lamb will increase in- weight 
 from the day of its birth until it is sold to the butcher 
 at the astounding rate of three-quarters of a pound per 
 day! 
 
 The Hampshire Down sheep is the result of careful 
 breeding, and the judicious introduction of Southdown 
 blood, over a long period. The foundation was the old 
 Wiltshire Horned sheep, which appears to have been in some 
 respects similar to the Dorset Horned sheep of the present 
 day : that is, white-faced and horned. These and the old 
 Berkshire breed, which was black or mottled-faced, Roman- 
 nosed, and of large size, were crossed, and subsequently 
 Southdown sheep were introduced, and gradually altered 
 the sheep of both Wilts and Hants. About 1860 Mr. 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 93 
 
 Humplireyj of Oak Ash, was a great breeder of A\'est- 
 Counlry DowuSj as they were then called, and had recourse 
 to the best Southdowns of Mr. Jonas Webb, of Babraham, 
 Cambridgeshire, and by judicious breeding gave a new 
 start to the breed, which then became known as Improved 
 Hampshire Downs. 
 
 The Hampshire Down sheep is of large size and 
 beautiful symmetry, although somewhat coarser than the 
 
 Fj^ 
 
 -PriZE IE*! or HAMP^HIKE DOWN 
 
 Southdown. Its larger, bolder, and blacker head, long 
 and spreading ears, and ampler form, easily distinguish 
 it from the Southdown breed. It is found in the greatest 
 perfection within a radius of about twelve or fifteen miles 
 of Salisbury, in the counties of Wilts and Hants, and 
 many of the most celebrated flocks are to be found within 
 this area. It is the custom to breed from ram-lambs, and 
 
94 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 at the annual sales as much as one hundred guineas have 
 been often given for lambs not more than seven months old. 
 Sixty and seventy guineas are often realised. The early 
 maturity and quick growth of these sheep is truly 
 rharvellous. Let anyone who doubts it visit Salisbury 
 Fair on July 15th, and inspect the pens of wether and 
 ram lambs there exhibited. 
 
 10. The Suffolk Down. 
 
 Of late years the Suffolk breeders have taken vast 
 pains with their native breed. This is also a large black- 
 faced sheep, having some points in common with the 
 Improved Hampshire Down. It is at once distinguished 
 from this last breed by its bare head, which is covered 
 with black short hairs^ not only on the face, but forehead 
 and poll, whereas the Hampshire breed is well covered 
 between the ears with wool. 
 
 The Suffolk sheep-breeders were among the first to 
 start a flock-book for the purpose of recording the pedi- 
 grees of their sheep. 
 
 11. The Shropshire Sheep. 
 
 Of late years — since about 1851 — there has been a 
 wonderful increase in the number of good breeds of sheep. 
 Previous to that time the Royal Agricultural Society only 
 recognised four great classes of sheep on their prize list : — 
 
 1. Leieesters. 
 
 2. Other long-woolled sheep, not Leieesters. 
 
 3. South Downs. 
 
 4. Other short-wooUed sheep, not South Downs. 
 About the year 1851 Shropshire sheep were allowed a 
 
SHEEP. 95 
 
 separate class, and since that time a large number of other 
 breeds have secured an independent position as separate 
 and recognised breeds. 
 
 The Shropshire sheep is a good example of successful 
 crossing. It appears to have sprung originally from a 
 small speckle-faced ewe, known as the Morfe-Common 
 sheep, and upon this foundation Leicester, Cotswold, and 
 Southdown crosses were superadded, until a sheep was 
 gradually formed possessing the good properties of 
 all these breeds. During the last forty years the 
 Shropshire sheep has been purely bred, and is now 
 fixed in its type or character. At first sight it 
 might be mistaken, by a novice, for a Hampshire Down, 
 but closer inspection will show several points of difference. 
 The ear is shorter, and more hidden in wool. The face is 
 woolled nearer the nose and further across the cheeks, the 
 throat is fuller, and often shows folds of loose skin. The 
 shanks are covered with wool down to the hoofs, and the 
 carcase is peculiarly thick. In other respects there is a 
 great similarity to the Hampshire breed. These sheep 
 are found in perfection around Shrewsbury,. Worcester, 
 Birmingham, Wolverhampton, Wellington, and other 
 midland towns, and are the principal stock of Shropshire, 
 Staffordshire, Worcester, and adjoining counties. They 
 are frugal in their habits, and will bear hardship well. 
 They have been imported into many countries, and even 
 into Scotland, where they do well, and there is also a 
 large export trade of them to various British colonies. 
 The Shropshire breed of sheep must be considered as one 
 of the most important, as it is widely distributed and 
 greatly esteemed, both on account of its wool and mutton. 
 
96 LIVE STOOK. 
 
 12. The Oxford Down. 
 
 In the period from 1850-1860 this breed was known 
 as " Crossbreds." They originated in the union of 
 Hampshire and Cotswold sheep, which was always a 
 popular cross, as it combined the high quality of mutton 
 which is peculiar to all the Down races with the weight 
 of flesh of the Cotswold. Mr. Druce, of Eynsham, near 
 Oxford, first attempted to fix the breed, and to make a 
 new race, and this he did with complete success. The name 
 of Crossbred was dropped in favour of that of the Oxford 
 Down, by which it is now recognised. These sheep are 
 of very excellent character, and have many admirers. 
 They are uniformly brown in the face and legs, and carry 
 a heavy fleece of medium length. The Oxford Down is at 
 once recognised by its long and well-formed ear and bold 
 head. It reminds the observer of both the original stocks 
 from which it was derived, having the fine feature and bold 
 nose of the Cotswold, and the dark-coloured head and fine 
 wool of the Hampshire side. The Hampshire, Shropshire, 
 and Oxford races are, in some respects, rivals, as all have 
 sprung into existence during the last generation, and all 
 are at the present time progressing in public estimation. 
 They have, however, become still more serious rivals of the 
 two famous breeds which at one time, and within the 
 memory of many of us, divided the field between them : 
 namely, the Leicester and the Southdown. If any test of 
 agricultural progress during the last fifty years were 
 required, no better one could be applied than the rising 
 of these excellent breeds of sheep, and their general 
 adoption throughout the country. 
 
, SSEEP. 9; 
 
 13. The Dorset Horn Sheep. 
 
 This is one of the few horned breeds. When the old 
 Wiltshire Crock, or Crook, wandered over the Downs around 
 Salisbury in place of the present Hampshire Down, white- 
 faced, fine-wbolled, and horned sheep must have extended 
 from Salisbury Plain to the south coast. The old 
 Wiltshire Crook has, however, ceased to exist, the last 
 flock having been dispersed about 1829. The Dorset 
 breed has met with improvers and admirers, and is now 
 found in large numbers around Dorchester and on the 
 Hampshire south coast, as well as in the Isle of Wight. 
 It is a white-faced, short-woolled breed, both sexes 
 carrying horns, although those of the females are much 
 less than those of the rams. A Dorset ram is a fine 
 object, with his bold horns sweeping in circles around 
 his eyes and ears. The Dorset breed has long been used 
 for producing early Iamb for the London market. The 
 ewes produce in October, or even earlier, and their 
 lambs are sold fat at Christmas. The appearance of these 
 sheep is very characteristic, and there is no other breed 
 which could possibly be mistaken for them. They are 
 not widely distributed, and are chiefly to be found where 
 the mildness of the climate suits the breeding of early 
 lambs for the table. 
 
 MOUNTAIN AND FOREST BREEDS. 
 14. The Heath or Black-faced Breed. 
 
 This breed has already been mentioned (page 83) as a 
 very distinct one. It inhabits the Highlands of Scotland, 
 and has been introduced into the mountainous tracts of 
 
 B 
 
98 LIVE STOGK. 
 
 North Wales. It is the principal sheep upon the heathy 
 lands of North Northumberland, and is found upon the 
 moors of Yorkshire and in the Peak district of Derby- 
 shire. Wherever grass gives way to heather, the Black- 
 faced sheep is found to suit. In common with every 
 other breed, the Black-faces have met with improvers, and 
 the sheep of to-day are very superior to those of a 
 generation since. The face is mottled black and white, 
 and short hairs extend backwards to the poll. The horns are 
 flat, transversely barred, and boldly turned in the males, but 
 simply crooked in the females. The wool is long, lashy, 
 and straight, approaching to a hairy quality, and in the less 
 improved stocks there is a line of hair following the spine. 
 The carcase is short and square, and the sheep are very 
 active and hardy. They are fit denizens of the mountain 
 and the moor, children of mist and snow, and their 
 appearance is equally interesting whether grazing among 
 the flowery heather or battling with the snow-storms 
 of winter. The flesh of these sheep is of the highest 
 quality, and often carries with it the flavour of the heather 
 on which the animals graze. It is a good example of the 
 fitness of our different breeds of sheep for all circum- 
 stances of soil and climate, for here we have an animal 
 which can live where any other race of sheep would starve. 
 The life of a shepherd upon the mountains of Argyleshire, 
 as of Sutherlaudshire, is an anxious one, and the sufferings 
 of even the hardy Black-faced sheep during winter are 
 severe, and accompanied with heavy mortality. The stock 
 farms are of immense size, many of them being 35,000 
 acres in extent, while in some cases they reach the 
 gigantic area of 70,000 acres. These barren tracts are 
 
SHEEP. 99 
 
 mostly of black mountain groand, interspersed with a 
 smaller proportion of green ground, and the rent is about 
 5d. to 7d. per acre. Two thousand breeding ewes will be 
 maintained on 35,000 acres, and the produce is kept for 
 three years before they are sold. 
 
 15. The Cheviot Breed. 
 
 This is a white-faced, hornless, medium-wooUed race, 
 which has for long occupied the Great Cheviot, separating 
 England from Scotland. The sheep is well adapted for 
 the rugged and inhospitable region it inhabits. It is slow 
 in fatting, and requires at least twenty months to mature. 
 The care of Cheviot flocks upon the Cheviot Hills is as 
 full of event, and even of romance, as is the tending of 
 Black-faced sheep on the Scottish mountains. The Cheviot 
 shepherds are a fine race of men, who look well after the 
 interests of their employers, with very little supervision. 
 Cheviot ewes are often crossed with Border Leicester 
 rams, and the produce fattens more kindly and in less 
 time than the pure Cheviot. A large area of the border 
 counties is stocked with first or second crosses of Cheviot 
 and Leicester sheep. Many Lowland farmers hold a hill 
 farm on Cheviot or Lammermuir, and keep a Border 
 Leicester flock at home and a Cheviot flock on the hills. 
 The half-bred " hoggs " are brought off the grazings in 
 autumn, and fattened upon turnips. 
 
 16. The Herdwick Race. 
 
 This interesting race of sheep is found in greatest 
 perfection in the lake district of Cumberland, Westmore- 
 land, and North Lancashire. The rams often, but not 
 H 2 
 
100 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 always, carry horns. When the lambs are born their legs 
 and heads are black, but as they grow older the dark colour- 
 ing disappears, and at three years old they are perfectly 
 white. The wool is heavy and strong, and disposed to 
 be hairy on the top of the shoulder. The head carries 
 a " toppin ■" of wool, and is broad, with a bold Roman 
 profile. The ears are white, fine, and erect, and always 
 moving. The Herdwick is remarkable for its hardihood, 
 and is much valued. It has been maintained pure for 
 many generations, and it is asserted that no cross can 
 improve them. The chief markets for Herdwick sheep 
 are those of Cockermouth, Penrith, and Kendal. 
 
 17. The Lonk Breed. 
 
 This is a Lancashire breed. It closely resembles the 
 Scottish Black-faced, but the wool is distinctly finer and 
 softer. The horns and face are similar to the Scotch 
 Black-faced sheep. The peculiarity of the Lonk is its 
 suitability for mossy, low-lying ground — a situation which 
 is not fitted for sheep in general, but on which the Lonk 
 thrives well. 
 
 18. The Crag Sheep. 
 
 This hardy breed is found on the higher moors of West 
 Yorkshire and East Lancashire. It is a white-faced, fine- 
 wooUed race, the rams often being horned. These sheep 
 will thrive upon the dry mountain limestone soils of the 
 West Riding, and require no water. They are, therefore, 
 suited for a different class of circumstances to that in 
 which the Lonk breed thrives, thus again showing the 
 fitness of various breeds of sheep for different situations. 
 
SHEEP. 101 
 
 19. The Exmoor Breed. 
 
 This breed is horned in both sexes, and white-faced. 
 It is well covered with dense wool, of rather long staple, 
 massed together after the style of Leicester wool. The 
 close affinity with the Dorset mentioned by Youatt is not 
 apparent now, whatever it was at the time when this 
 excellent writer penned his comprehensive work on sheep. 
 The Exmoor sheep is active and hardy, and yields mutton 
 of great excellence. 
 
 20. The Dartmoor Breed. 
 
 Exmoors and Dartmoors are classed together by Youatt 
 as scarcely distinguishable. The Dartmoor breed is, how- 
 ever, much larger than that of Exmoor. There is no 
 doubt that they were crossed with the Leicester, for Youatt 
 says: "An improved system has, however, lately (1851) 
 been introduced with regard to the lambs : the horned 
 ewe is crossed with the Leicester ram, and from this cross 
 the lambs often become as large in July as the native stock 
 used to be when they arrived at maturity." 
 
 The Dartmoor sheep exhibited at Plymouth, 1890, 
 appeared as a large long-woolled — or at least heavy- 
 fleeced — sheep, rivalling in size the Cotswold, Lincoln, or 
 Romney Marsh. They were hornless and white-faced, and 
 did not give the idea of a particularly active and forest- 
 like breed. 
 
 21. The Roscommon Breed. 
 
 This is the most useful and popular of the Irish races. 
 It is seen grazing on the rich limestone pastures of the 
 sister island, and bears a striking resemblance to the 
 English Leicester, with which it has been frequently 
 
102 LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 crossed. The history of the importation of the Leicester 
 sheep into Ireland is well given by Youatt. He says : 
 " The new breed struggled for a while against prejudices 
 and diiRculties of every description, and at length com- 
 pletely triumphed." In the Roscommon sheep of to-day 
 we have the result of this successful introduction of 
 Leicester blood. 
 
 22. The Ryeland Breed. 
 
 The old Ryeland was said to be the only truly fine- 
 woolled sheep of Britain, and appears to have possessed 
 many of the features of the Merino. Until recently it was 
 considered to be extinct as a breed, but it appears to have 
 been kept by certain breeders through a long period, in 
 which it was little thought of by the general farming 
 public. When the revival of interest in all breeds set in, 
 the breeders of Ryeland sheep bestirred themselves, and 
 made an effort to again establish the Ryeland sheep. 
 
 The Ryelands include a tract of sandy soils, in which 
 Ross, in Herefordshire, and the beautiful river Wye at and 
 about Ross, occupy a central position. "The Man of 
 Ross," whose virtuous career has been for long known and 
 appreciated, may serve to remind of this locality, which is 
 also well known to tourists as the site of Tintern Abbey 
 and some lovely scenery. It is here that the Ryeland 
 sheep found its home. 
 
 The modern Ryeland sheep is not so fine in the wool as 
 the older type, which as a fine-woolled sheep has ceased to 
 exist. The sheep has, however, still its admirers, and 
 possesses many excellent qualities worthy of notice. It is 
 early in maturing and fattens readily, and is worthy to 
 take its place in a list of the British breeds. 
 
103 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 The management o£ sheep, like that of cattle, includes 
 three principal branches — breeding, rearing, and fattening, 
 besides treatment in disease as well as in health. We 
 will endeavour to give in few words a general idea of all 
 these branches. It is true that different breeds require 
 rather different treatment, and still more do the several 
 localities where sheep are found. Thus the treatment of a 
 flock of Scotch Black-faces differs very much from that 
 of Hampshire Downs in "Wilts and Hants. Still, as said 
 in introducing the different breeds, a sheep is a sheep, 
 wherever he is found, possessing the same habits and 
 wants, so that, after all, there is a great similarity, as well 
 as difference, in the management of flocks. 
 
 Sheep are known by different names, according to their 
 age and sex. When first born they are spoken of as ram or 
 tup lambs, and ewe or gimmer lambs, and after castration 
 the ram lambs are called wether lambs. 
 
 A dinmont is another name for a wether, and a chilver 
 is another name for a gimmer lamb. A hogg or tegg is a 
 year-old sheep, and the name is generally used when lambs 
 are about ten months old. We may speak of ewe hoggs 
 and wether hoggs, of ewe teggs and wether teggs, and 
 also of chilver and dinmont teggs. When teggs have been 
 shorn they are called shearlings, and the sexes are spoken 
 of as shearling rams or shearling ewes. A shearling ewe is 
 also called a gimmer or theave. Sheep are described, accord- 
 
104 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 ing to age, as shearlings, two-sliear, three-shear, or four- 
 shear, but are also commonly described as two-iooth, four- 
 tooth, six-tooth, 2mA. full-mouthed (eight-tooth) . A shearling 
 is also a two-tooth, a two-shear is a four-tooth, a three- 
 shear is a six-tooth, and a four-shear is a full-mouthed sheep- 
 When sheep (ewes) pass beyond the stage of full-mouthed, 
 the teeth often become imperfect, and they are then called 
 broken-mouthed. Ewes which are drafted from the flock 
 on account of age, or for any other reason, are called draft 
 ewes, cull ewes, and crones. 
 
 Sheep Breeding. 
 
 When the soil and situation are favourable, sheep 
 breeding is found to be a profitable pursuit. It is mostly 
 carried on upon medium or poor soils, because it is not 
 desirable that ewes should be fat, or in too high condition. 
 The lambs may be, and generally are, sold towards the end 
 of summer at the early autumn fairs, and find their way 
 on to a better class of soils where they are fattened. It is 
 also very common to breed lambs and fatten them upon 
 the same farm. The system of breeding stock and fatten- 
 ing them at home is a very good one, because store or lean 
 sheep are often so dear that the buyer finds fattening to 
 be unprofitable, and when he rears his own lambs he is 
 more independent of the markets. He is also less likely 
 to be troubled with unhealthy or unsound sheep, and the 
 profits are more certain. 
 
 DiflFerent Systems of Breeding Sheep, 
 Ram Breeding. 
 
 Some farmers keep high or pure-bred flocks far too 
 valuable for killing. Their object is not to sell to the 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEF. 105 
 
 butcher, but to breeders of sheep, who buy their produce to 
 improve their own flocks. Such sheep bring very high 
 prices, and sometimes above £100 are given for a single 
 sheep. Such farmers are called ram-breeders, because their 
 principal object is the breeding of ram lambs or shearling 
 rams, which are sold every year at an auction, and put 
 up separately to the highest bidder. 
 
 Breeding fat Lambs. 
 
 Another class of breeders find their profit in breeding 
 early lambs to supply the fat market. This also is a 
 profitable industry, and a great deal of its success depends 
 upon bringing out good lambs early in the season, when 
 lamb is sold by the butcher at a high price per quarter. It 
 is conducted upon good land and in favoured situations as 
 to climate, and certain breeds — and especially the Dorset 
 horned ewes — are kept for the purpose. Many other breeds 
 are, however, well suited for producing fat lambs, and a 
 cross between a down and a long-woolled sheep is good for 
 this purpose. 
 
 Breeding Store Lambs. 
 
 But by far the largest number of flocks are kept for 
 producing lambs, which, after running on the hill pastures 
 during their first summer, are sold in August and Sep- 
 tember into the hands of graziers who make it their 
 business to fatten them during the winter, and to sell 
 them as mutton at from twelve to sixteen months old. A 
 great deal of poor land in England, Scotland, Wales, and 
 Ireland, which could not be profitably employed in any 
 other way, is kept under ewes of different races, according 
 
106 LIVE 8T00K 
 
 to the climate and the character of the herbage, and such 
 farming is also often very profitable. 
 
 Management of Ewes. 
 
 The management of a high-class ram-breeding flock is 
 a very difficult and expensive task. It is the object of the 
 breeder to excel, and his rivals in the business are equally 
 determined not to be beaten. To keep up and improve 
 such a flock, and to bring out the sale rams in tip-top con- 
 dition, are objects by no means easy to achieve, requiring 
 constant attention and a large expenditure of money, as 
 well as the exercise of great skill. It is not probable that 
 any short treatise on sheep could give the information 
 needed for carrying on such a complicated and skilful 
 business. 
 
 We shall therefore devote ourselves to the general 
 management of an ordinary flock, but may observe that 
 there are many points in such management which apply 
 equally to the most valuable flocks. In fact, however good 
 a flock may be, it is managed — so far as feeding and daily 
 treatment are concerned — much in the same way as ordi- 
 nary sheep stock. Pedigree sheep should not need to be 
 pampered, but, on the contrary, ought to be as hardy as 
 other sheep. The skill of the breeder is shown in selecting 
 parents, and turning out his sheep in a perfect form before 
 customers ; but the ordinary routine management of the 
 ewe flock does not differ in any special degree from that of 
 other sheep. 
 
 The management of a ewe flock resolves itself into 
 feeding and general treatment at each season of the year. 
 The best period of the year to commence its study is just 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP 107 
 
 after the lambs have been weaned, as this leaves the ewes 
 free for the next " crop " of lambs ; and by following the 
 history of a flock from weaning one year to weaning in the 
 following year, a tolerably correct idea may be obtained of 
 the treatment throughout the year. 
 
 When lambs are taken from the ewes, their mothers 
 should be placed upon poor keep, partly to dry up their 
 milk, but also because rich food is not any longer necessary. 
 On most farms poor pasturage can be found, and the flock 
 is also used to clean or eat up the leavings of those sheep 
 which are being got ready for sale. Weaning takes place 
 in May and June, or in late districts in July. As an 
 example of how ewes are now fed, we may imagine the 
 case of a large sheep stock, consisting of ewes and various 
 sections of lambs. If the most forward Iambs are allowed 
 a certain area of vetches, of clover, of cabbage, or of rape, 
 they are not made to eat their food up clean, but after 
 they have been over it the ewes are allowed to eat up the 
 scraps and leavings. 
 
 Thus the ewe flock is economically employed, and all 
 waste is avoided. Running the ewes on bare pastures, and 
 employing them as scavengers after the more pampered 
 sheep which are preparing for market, they are carried on 
 at little cost to harvest. After harvest they can earn a 
 living on the stubbles, and in the grass lands about to be 
 broken up for wheat, and thus they are carried on to the 
 time when the rams are turned out. At this season tke 
 ewes ought to be placed on good food, so as to ensure a 
 good fall of lambs, and for this purpose they receive a 
 certain quantity of white turnips, rape, mustard, good 
 grazing, and sometimes about a quarter of a pound of 
 
108 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 oil-cake. After they are seasoned they are again put on to 
 poor keep, without any extra or bought food, such as cake 
 and corn, until they lamb. After ewes have lambed they 
 are gradually given an allowance of linseed cake, oats, 
 maize, or other foods, together with hay and turnips, so 
 as to encourage the flow of milk and nourish their lambs 
 well. The amount of artificial food allowed depends upon 
 the purpose for which the lambs are bred. Ewes intended 
 to bring up ram lambs or fat lambs cannot well be 
 over-fed, but when ordinary store lambs are required a 
 much less quantity of corn or cake will suffice. An 
 ordinary maximum quantity of cake for ewes will be 
 1 lb. per day each, but j, ^, and f lb. per head are all 
 ordinary quantities. As a general principle, the better the 
 ewes are fed the stronger and bigger will the lambs be, 
 but all must depend upon circumstances. In some cases 
 the ewes never touch corn or cake from one year's end to 
 another. 
 
 General Treatment. 
 
 We strongly advise that ewes should be provided with 
 plenty of dry food during winter, and especially when they 
 are heavy in lamb. Hay and cut straw are not expensive 
 articles of food on a farm, and these should not be spared 
 in November, December, and January, or up to lambing 
 time. Ewes fed with plenty of dry food are not greedy of 
 turnips, and thus too large an allowance of turnips is 
 prevented without in the least pinching or starving the 
 ewes. 
 
 Another point of importance is to give them a dry lair 
 on stubble, grass land, or down ; as a wet, slippery, or 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SSEEP. 109 
 
 sodden lair is very bad for ewes in lamb. They must 
 not be quickly driven, or made to pass rapidly through 
 gateways, or teased with dogs, as sometimes happens. If 
 these rules are observed and the feeding is judicious, the 
 flock will be brought safely through the critical time up to 
 lambing. Much harm is often done by being too sparing 
 in the use of hay; and especially in November, when the 
 autumn rainfall is often severe, ewes should have one 
 pound per day of hay, or of a mixture of hay and straw. 
 Those who are fortunate in possessing an area of unbroken 
 up down or of, park find it exceedingly useful at this time, 
 as it affords grazing and a dry lair for the flock. 
 
 A young Ewe Flock. 
 
 Ewes will continue to produce lambs for several years, 
 and one instance was related to the author of a ewe 
 breeding until she was fourteen years old. It is, however, 
 good policy to keep the flock young. As a general rule, 
 ewes bring their first lamb at two years old, and continue 
 in the flock for three seasons, bringing three " crops " of 
 lambs. They are drafted at four and a half years old, 
 when still in full vigour, and are then at an age in which 
 they may be bought either for fattening or for breeding. 
 Any particularly good ewe may be kept in the flock a 
 few years longer, and ewes which have not been satis- 
 factory may be drafted a year sooner, so that the general 
 average will be found to be as just stated. In a good 
 flock it should always be the object of the master to 
 improve it year by year ; drafting should therefore be used 
 as an opportunity for getting rid of all faulty ewes, as 
 well as old ones. A more than sufficient number of ewe 
 
110 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 lambs should be kept to fill up the gap left in the flock 
 after drafting, and the new comers should be a shade 
 better than those which are going out. 
 
 The Lambing Season. 
 
 A ewe goes twenty-one weeks in lamb, and this is 
 called the period of gestation. As lambing time ap- 
 proaches increased attention should be given to the com- 
 fort of the ewes, and a suitable lambing pen should be 
 constructed. In some places the ewes are brought into 
 the rick-yard every night, which is kept well littered with 
 straw. In others a fixed and permanent lambing pen is 
 erected, with a sleeping-room for the attendant, and a stove 
 and boiler for the comfort of weakly lambs and for heating 
 milk. A shed runs around the outer wall, and is divided by 
 cross partitions into little cells, or coops, for each couple. 
 
 When lambing time falls late — ^that is, in April — ewes 
 are often not brought in at all, and no provision is made 
 in the form of a pen. Here ewes and lambs are allowed 
 to take their chance, favoured by mild spring weather. 
 It is, however, wiser under all circumstances to pro- 
 vide some shelter for young lambs and their mothers. 
 On large sheep farms, where flocks of 500 to 1,000 ewes 
 are common, the lambing pen is erected wherever there is 
 the largest amount of food. It is, therefore, a temporary 
 construction, formed of posts and rails, with straw stuffed 
 between double rows of hurdles, and a narrow line of 
 thatched shedding for dividing off into coops. Such a pen 
 will occupy about a quarter of an acre of ground, and is 
 divided by cross-lines of hurdles into several large yards, 
 all of which are well littered with straw. A large straw 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Ill 
 
 stack often occupies the middle, and affords a source of 
 food and litter, and of shelter from the wintry blast. The 
 pen should be made upon sloping ground, with an in- 
 clination towards the south, and ought to be close to a 
 turnip field, upon which it opens. There should also be a 
 hay-rick at hand, and a pond. 
 
 As some of our readers will probably some day have to 
 help in erecting such a pen, we will show them how it is 
 done. The farmer has had this matter in his mind for 
 several months before, and has arranged to build one or 
 
 Fig. 37. — SHOWING A SECTION" OF THE OUTEK FENCE OF A LAMBING PEN. 
 
 a, Thatcli covering ; b, Hurdles on which the thatch is laid ; c, Inner 
 8 ft. .stake ; d. Outer 6 ft. stake ; r, e, Section of rails supporting thatched 
 hurdles ; /, Hurdle for dividing the shed into cells or coops. 
 
 two hay and corn stacks near at hand. The first thing to 
 be done is to thrash the corn with a portable machine, and 
 build a long straw rick neatly thatched down, extending 
 from east to west, or, at all events, with a view to shelter. 
 
112 
 
 LIVE 8T0GK. 
 
 The lambing pen is marked off around this rick, and eight 
 feet and six feet posts, with rails as well as hurdles^ are 
 carted up to the site. The labour begins by driving a 
 double row of posts about ten feet apart around the area. 
 The six feet posts form the outside row, and the eight feet 
 posts are driven in -opposite to them on the inner side, 
 and both rows of posts are joined along the top by a 
 rail. The space between the six feet posts is then filled 
 by a double row of hurdles fixed in the ground, and 
 bound firmly to the posts. The hurdles are stuffed be- 
 tween with straw. A number of thatched hurdles are 
 then placed in a sloping direction from the inner rail to 
 the outer boundary, and thus a long shed is made. A 
 section of the shed is shown at Fig. 37. 
 
 The general plan of the pen is shown by Fig. 38. , 
 ^ 7> 
 
 Fig. 38. — SHOWING PLAN OP A LAMBING PEN. 
 
 a, Straw rioK ; 6, Coops, or cells ; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Yards, well littered ; 
 c, Sheplierd's van or hut on wheels ; 6, Corner hurdled off for lambs to 
 receive a little fine corn or cake in troughs. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 113 
 
 The yards numbered 1 to 5 are employed for various 
 sections o£ the flock. Ewes about to Jamb may be brought 
 into No. 3 at nightj where they can be regularly looked to 
 by the shepherd. Newly-lambed ewes will be placed in 
 the cells, or coops, surrounding the enclosure. Twins and 
 twin dams may, after an interval of two or three days, be 
 placed in No. 1 yard ; single lambs in No. 3 ; stronger 
 lambs in No. 4 ; while No. 5 may also be used for older 
 lambs and their dams, going out by day into turnips. 
 
 When the space becomes too crowded, a second, but 
 simpler, pen may be erected in any convenient position, and 
 the older ewes and lambs may be drafted there. A 
 lambing pen is a most interesting sight, as hundreds of 
 lambs are to be seen at various stages of growth. They 
 play and race with one another around the enclosure, or 
 retire into the hurdled-off space, where they are allowed 
 a little corn or cake. 
 
 Young Lambs (January Lambing). 
 
 As soon as a lamb is born, it and its dam should be 
 placed in a comfortable coop, and the shepherd should not 
 lose sight of the young animal till he has seen it on its 
 feet and sucking. The mother may have a little sweet 
 hay, a mangel or turnip, and a little water, and if nothing 
 goes wrong she will be able to go out into a littered yard 
 after the third or fourth day. During the first week of a 
 lamb's life it subsists entirely upon its mother's milk, 
 but after that period it begins to try its teeth upon the 
 finer portions of clover hay, turnip-tops, or to try the 
 flavour of the dust of cake or of bruised corn. Where it is 
 the intention to push lambs rapidly forward, they may at 
 
114 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 a fortnight old be encouraged to eat a little finely-crushed 
 linseed-cake, malt, pease, or maize, placed for them in 
 small lamb troughs in a corner, as shown in the plan of 
 the lambing pen. The ewes also are gradually put upon 
 cake or corn, with hay, roots, and water. The chief dif- 
 ference in management is in the amount of concentrated 
 food given, as already pointed out. Lambs dropped in 
 January and February are entirely dependent upon winter 
 food, and such lambs are usually intended to be rapidly 
 pushed forward. 
 
 At a fortnight or three weeks old they should be 
 allowed to run forward beyond their mothers by means 
 of the Lamb Creep, invented by Messrs. Carson and Toone. 
 By this creep the lambs are able to run forward and to 
 return easily to their dams, while the ewes are kept back in 
 their own fold. Lamb troughs may be placed outside 
 the fence, and suitable food placed in it for the young 
 animals. The lambs can in this way crop the turnips and 
 rape greens, and nibble the roots before the ewes, and thus 
 are supplied with a variety of clean and fresh food. 
 
 The lambs are carried on upon this system until the 
 middle or end of March, when the first green crop is ready, 
 in the form of winter-sown rye. As the spring advances 
 the choice of food increases, but there ought to be a supply 
 of turnips and swedes to last well into May. 
 
 It is good policy to give lambs plenty of change, 
 and at least two sorts of fresh, growing food every 
 day. This is most easily expressed in the following 
 way — the two foods being at no great distance from each 
 other : — 
 
 Turnips, swedes, and rye. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF 8EEEP. 115 
 
 Rye and ground swedes or mangel, and water- 
 meadow. 
 
 Rye, with a few roots, and winter barley. 
 
 Winter barley, with a few roots, and trifolium. 
 
 Trifolium and ground-up mangel, and vetches. 
 
 Vetches, with ground mangel and rape. 
 
 Rape, clover, and cabbages. 
 This series of foods will last from March to August, 
 and will be succeeded by a gradual introduction to winter 
 feeding, in the form of early-sown turnips. By this time 
 most of the lambs will haye been sold, and the routine 
 for another year's farming will have commenced. The 
 amount of cake and corn given during the summer may 
 vary, and be gradually increased from 2 oz. to 1 lb., or 
 even more, and chopped hay (chaff) will be continued 
 until spring keep is abundant. 
 
 Mangel, in small quantities, may also be given with 
 advantage throughout the summer. 
 
 Young Lambs (March Lambing). 
 
 In many districts lambing does not become general 
 until about the third week in March. When this is the 
 case, the intention is to produce store lambs, and the 
 keep is consequently less expensive, and the management 
 simpler. The weather is milder, the days are longer, 
 and the lambing is easier and safer. At this season of 
 the year there is a fair amount of spring keep when 
 the lambs are able to eat, and great dependence is placed 
 apon grass, either in the form of permanent pasture or 
 " seeds." 
 
 The general management of a ewe flock under such 
 I 2 
 
116 LIVJS 8T00E. 
 
 circumstances iS to Iamb them down on grass, and draft 
 the ewes as fast as they lamb on to the seed fields, where 
 they get a few oats. Folding usually gives place to open- 
 grazing, the ewes being run thinly over the grass fields, 
 and shifted when the keep begins to run short. Whether 
 the lambs receive any com or cake entirely depends upon 
 the ideas of the farmer, and many good flock-masters 
 like to boast that their well-grown lambs have never 
 tasted cake, as a proof of their hardihood and capacity for 
 thriving. 
 
 Weaning does not take place until July, and after 
 weaning the lambs again find their mothers, and follow 
 them during the remainder of the summer. 
 
 The grazing is often poor and dry, and the flocks range 
 over fells and high-lying pastures at small expense. The 
 chief items of management in these cases consist in 
 changing the sheep from pasture to pasture, and in 
 guarding them against the attacks of flies and other mis- 
 haps. After the ewes are shorn the lambs are dipped, to 
 kill the parasites which affect them, and they are quietly 
 carried on until the time arrives for selling the lambs, 
 or putting them on to turnips for fattening. 
 
 This, in few words, is a picture of the ordinary course 
 often pursued where the more forcing and complicated 
 method, first described, is but little known. The system 
 is more followed in long-woolled flocks than by the keepers 
 of Down sheep. 
 
 Hill Lambs. 
 
 The latest period for lambing ewes on hill farms in 
 Scotland, and on the moors of the north of England, 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SSEEP. 117 
 
 is April. The management is still simpler and more 
 primitive. Lambing takes place on the open hills, and 
 there is great loss among both lambs and ewes. The 
 sheep seldom taste cake or corn, and subsist entirely by 
 grazing. On these farms the wether lambs are sent on to 
 turnips in the winter, and return to the hills in the spring ; 
 and the chilver or ewe type are wintered on the lower and 
 more sheltered pastures with the assistance of hay and a 
 few oats. 
 
 Fattening Sheep. 
 
 When ewes and lambs are supplied with cake and 
 corn, roots, and hay, and the lambs fall in January, 
 growing and fattening proceed together, and it is quite 
 possible to sell the lambs to the butcher during July, 
 August, and September. The breeders of Hampshire 
 and Southdown sheep frequently follow this system, and 
 are recouped by the rapid growth of the lambs, and the 
 quick return which they yield. We have often known 
 wether lambs sold in August at 60s., or even 70s. each; 
 and when fat- lambs are reared they may go off at the 
 lirst-named figure in June. 
 
 A more ordinary plan is to carry the lambs on with 
 less pressure or forcing, and to finish the fattening during 
 the winter, selling out those that are fit for the butcher 
 from January to April. Sometimes they are shorn, and 
 then fattened out on grass during the succeeding summer, 
 at about sixteen months old. 
 
 The fattening of sheep is done in the open air, upon 
 the land, the animals being penned between hurdles or 
 nets, which are regularly shifted over the field. This is 
 
118 LirS STOCK. 
 
 called close folding-, and is well suited for all light or 
 medium dry soils. The treading of the sheep consolidates the 
 land, while their droppings enrich it. Light lands are too 
 open and loose for corn-growing, but after they have been 
 close folded with sheep in winter, they plough up stiff and 
 solid, and will grow corn crops well. 
 
 On the contrary, naturally stiff soils are not suitable 
 for winter folding, because the treading of the sheep's 
 feet puddles and " poaches " the land. Clay soils are 
 already solid and close enough in texture, and will not bear 
 sheep, or any kind of treading, in wet weather. 
 
 It will therefore be seen that the benefit of winter 
 folding with sheep is confined to light soils, and not only 
 so, but sheep will thrive well and fatten quickly upon a 
 dry light-topped soil, while they suffer in health when 
 closely penned upon a muddy clay field. Both land and 
 sheep are injured on clay soils, while both land and sheep 
 are benefited on light soils. 
 
 Great Economy of Sheep-Folding. 
 
 When sheep can be folded upon land with advantage, 
 a great saving is effected in many ways. In the first place, 
 the turnips or swedes are eaten where they grow, and all 
 the expense of pulling, throwing into carts, heaping, and 
 covering with straw is saved. Secondly, the land is 
 evenly manured without the aid of the dung-cart : a saving 
 which amounts in ordinary cases to about 7s. 6d. per acre 
 Thirdly, there is nothing wasted, for even fragments of 
 turnips, pieces of hay or straw, and particles of cake or 
 corn which may be blown out of the troughs by wind, or 
 pushed out by the sheep, are all preserved as manure on 
 
MANAGEMFjET of sheep. 119 
 
 the land. Not a particle can be absolutely wasted. It is 
 the same with the droppings of the sheep. There is no 
 black stream of liquid manure to be seen oozing from a 
 sheep-foldj such as is so often seen running out of cattle 
 yards. All the waste of fertilising matter, about which so 
 much has been said at various times, is avoided by sheep- 
 folding, and the economy is, in point of fact, perfect. The 
 price of mutton is higher than that of beef, and yet it 
 does not appear that it is more expensive to manufacture. 
 On the contrary, we are inclined to think that sheep are 
 less expensively managed than cattle, so that the higher 
 value of the mutton ought to appear in increased profits j 
 and this it probably does, as sheep-farming has generally 
 been found to be a profitable pursuit in all parts of the 
 world. 
 
 Turnips for Sheep. 
 
 The turnip contains 90 per cent, of water, and has, 
 therefore, been condemned as a staple article of food. It 
 is true that the turnip contains too much water, but it is a 
 food of which sheep are very fond, and the solid or dry 
 matter which it does contain is exceedingly digestible and 
 highly nourishing. The turnip contains a great deal of 
 sugar and soluble or digestible cellulose. When they are 
 grown upon good land, turnips are capable of fattening a 
 sheep, but it is a much wiser plan to use them together 
 with other kinds of foods. Hay, being dry, and also con- 
 taining a good deal of indigestible fibre, which is useful in 
 adding bulk to the food, is an excellent addition to turnips. 
 So also is straw, in the form of straw-chaff, or chop, as it 
 qualifies the watery character of the turnip. Concentrated 
 
120 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 foods, such as oil-cake, beans, peas, oats, etc., given in 
 small quantity, help to bring up the quality of the food to 
 the proper standard. Turnips and straw would not be rich 
 enough for fattening a sheep, and hay is not always either 
 suflBciently abundant or yet good enough for the purpose. 
 A few ounces of linseed-cake or of beans adds the necessary 
 richness to the food, and the animals readily fatten. 
 
 We look upon turnips as the staple food of a flock of 
 sheep in winter, and the hay, cake, and corn as supple- 
 mental or additional foods, given to qualify the watery 
 turnip, and to enrich the food generally. 
 
 The animal must be filled to satisfaction, and not limited 
 to a certain allowance. One or other food must be given 
 freely, or ad libitum, but the appetite can be checked by 
 other foods. Thus, 1 lb. of cake will satisfy a sheep as 
 much as 10 to 12 lbs. of turnips — that is, if a sheep would 
 be capable of eating 30 lbs. of turnips in a day, he would 
 only consume 18 to 20 lbs., with 1 lb. of oil-cake, and 
 water, in addition. 
 
 It is a serious objection to turnips as a main food 
 that they are cold. On a frosty morning the turnips are 
 frozen, and when a sheep eats 30 lbs. of frozen turnips 
 he is afterwards required to raise this food from 
 30° Fahr. — or even a lower temperature than that — to 
 98" Fahr., or to the natural heat of the sheep's body. 
 This can only be done by an expenditure of force, as the 
 animal heat is well known to be kept up by the consump- 
 tion of fat. 
 
 Now, fattening is simply the accumulation of fat in 
 the body, which cannot take place until all the wants of' 
 the creature have been supi)lied. It is clear that if 
 
MANAGEMENT OF 8BEEF. 121 
 
 30 lbs. of turnips are to be raised from 30° to 98° Fahr., 
 a good deal of heat or of fat must be required to do it. 
 Such a system of feeding is therefore irrational or foolish, 
 and properly open to objection. If sheep are house-fed 
 they always eat less, and yet increase in weight quite as 
 quickly as if fed in the open air. This is simply because 
 the fat — which in the open air is used to keep up the heat 
 of the body — is stored up when the animal is brought into 
 a warmer air. In order to secure the storing up of the 
 largest amount of fat in the animal body, it is necessary 
 that the animal should eat plenty, and that it should not 
 waste fat by being exposed to cold winds, or by being 
 required to raise a large quantity of water through 70° 
 Fyhr. 
 
 Turnips must therefore be used with judgment; and 
 the best system is to give such a quantity of dry food 
 that the appetite of the animal is checked, and the 
 quantity of turnips it eats is reduced — not by starving, but 
 by satisfying the animal in other ways. The turnip should 
 be given in just sufficient quantity to satisfy the thirst, 
 and to make the sheep independent of water. And yet 
 it is advisable that fattening sheep should have a supply of 
 water by them, so that they may in all respects feel com- 
 fortable and contented. 
 
 The Food of fattening Sheep 
 
 should be of a nature to assist in the growth as well as 
 the actual fattening of the animal. Sheep are almost 
 always young, and growing in bone and muscle, as well as 
 in fat, and hence it is a mistake to only give them oily or 
 fatty foods. 
 
122 LIVE BTOOK. 
 
 This is the reason why albuminoid or nitrogenous foods 
 are of value to them. We have already explained, in 
 speaking of cattle feeding, that not only does the animal 
 increase in weight, but there is also a constant waste, and 
 necessary replacement or repair, of the body going on. 
 This must be supplied by food. This waste, together with 
 the keeping up of the nervous system or strength of the 
 animal and the warmth of the body, has not improperly 
 been called the " life-tax " upon the food. This tax is a 
 heavy one. The heart must be supplied with the power to 
 beat, and the lungs and all the organs of the body must 
 be kept in full action. If only sufficient food were given to 
 keep the animal alive and healthy, there would be no storing 
 up of fat. You will at once see that it is only the extra 
 food which pays the grazier. He might, by only giving 
 sufficient food, derive no benefit from any increase in 
 weight; but by liberal feeding he secures a profitable 
 increase in the weight of the animal. 
 
 Beans, peas, oil-cake, hay, and turnips, given in 
 proper proportions and in sufficient quantities, allow the 
 animal to increase in weight and store up fat. The reader 
 would do well to again look at the section upon cattle 
 feeding (pages 38-48), and will then be better prepared to 
 follow the practical directions for the fattening of sheep. 
 
 Practical Directions for tine fattening of Sheep. 
 
 Bearing in mind the principles laid down in the 
 previous sections, we are now in a position to give 
 directions as to how sheep ought to be fattened. Store 
 lambs are put on turnips, gradually, during September and 
 October, and in November they are entirely on winter food. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. ^23 
 
 It is wise to change food for stock gradually. Poi 
 example : instead of folding sheep at once on turnips, they 
 should have a few thrown about on their pasture, or be 
 allowed to be folded for a few hours only, every day, until 
 they become accustomed to them. White turnips are the 
 best for this purpose, and swedes should only be allowed 
 after the animal has become well used to turnips. 
 
 When teggs have been gradually brought on to turnips 
 and into the sheep-fold, they may have a J lb. of cake and 
 corn. We will not say which cake or com, because so 
 much depends upon the relative prices of different foods at 
 the time. If a farmer happens to have a large quantity of 
 oats, he will use them for his sheep. If cotton-cake or 
 linseed-eake, maize or beans, happen to be cheap, he will 
 probably make his selection more according to market 
 price than by the actual chemical composition of these 
 foods. 
 
 Hay, either long (or as it comes from the rick) or cut 
 up by the chaff-cutter, will be given, and racks contain- 
 ing oat or peas straw may also be supplied. 
 The quantities will be as follows : — 
 For the first month (say October) — 
 
 ^ lb. of cake or corn, or mixed cake and corn ; 
 J lb. of hay ; 
 
 Straw and turnips ad libitum. 
 November — 
 
 ^ lb. of cake or corn ; 
 J lb. of hay ; 
 
 Straw and turnips ad libitum. 
 December — 
 
 f lb. of cake or corn ; 
 
124 LIVE STOOK. 
 
 f lb. of hay ; 
 
 Straw and turnips ad libitum. 
 January — 
 
 1 lb. of cake or corn j 
 
 1 lb. of hay ; 
 
 Straw and swedes ad libitum. 
 It will not be necessary to increase these quantities. 
 Next, as to the 
 
 Method of Feeding. 
 
 Fattening sheep should receive hay the first thing on a 
 winter's morning, as more comforting than cold turnips. 
 After the hay, the troughs may be filled with cut turnips, 
 and these they will eat with more relish after their dry 
 food. At twelve o'clock they may have their cake and 
 corn. At two o'clock they will again have their troughs 
 tilled with cut turnips. At four o'clock, or last thing, they 
 will have another feed of hay in sufiicient quantity to 
 employ them until dark. Feeding will be therefore 
 followed up from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. in the order given, and 
 sheep so treated will fatten quickly. 
 
 Cutting Turnips. 
 
 Teggs will break their own turnips up to February, at 
 which time they begin to cast their lamb-teeth, and at this 
 period they should have their turnips sliced or cut into 
 finger-pieces by means of the Gardner's Turnip-cutter 
 (Pig. 39). Fattening sheep always do better on cut 
 turnips, but store sheep, such as ewes, or ewe teggs for 
 stock, will be able to help themselves off the standing crop. 
 Again, white turnips are much softer than swedes, and so 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 125 
 
 long as teggs are on turnips the cutting may be dispensed 
 with ; but swedes must be cut, more especially as the 
 sheep are not so well furnished with teeth at the period 
 
 Fig. 39.— SHEEP TDBNIP-CUTTEB. 
 
 when swedes are eaten. When it is intended to cut 
 turnips into troughs they are pulled up and thrown into 
 heaps, containing about one cart-load each, and covered witli 
 straw and earth, and the turnip-cutter is drawn up by the 
 side of such .heaps, and wheeled from heap to heap. The 
 turnips are dressed or cleaned with a Icuife before they are 
 ground up in the cutter. 
 
126 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 VARIOUS EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SHEEP. 
 
 Birth. 
 
 Many lambs are lost at birth. Weakly lambs require 
 particular attention, but strong lambs will stand a great 
 deal of hardship. If a lamb is unable to stand and suck, 
 it should be put down by the fire in a basket and hand-fed 
 with a tea-spoon, with milk drawn from its mother. A 
 tea-spoonful of gin is an excellent medicine for such a lamb, 
 and it is surprising how often these attentions are repaid 
 by a quick recovery. We do not think it necessary to 
 enter at length upon the subject of parturition, or birth, 
 but every shepherd ought to know how to assist both the 
 mother and lamb through this critical period. It is an 
 anxious time for both shepherds and masters, and valuable 
 lives are often lost. Those who mean to follow the 
 arduous life of shepherds must learn all these particulars 
 in the field or from other sources, but we have sufficient to 
 occupy us in these pages without entering upon such 
 matters. 
 
 Castration 
 
 is performed on the male lambs which are not required for 
 breeding. It is best done soon after birth, but sometimes 
 it is postponed until later. The flesh of castrated animals 
 is much more tender and better-flavoured than that of 
 
EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SSEEP. 127 
 
 entire males, and the animals fatten more rapidly, and 
 are quieter, and, in all respects, better for the operation. 
 
 Tailing 
 
 is generally performed at the same time as castration. 
 The tail is cut ofE either close to the rump or at the third 
 or fourth joint. It has been objected that this operation 
 is unnecessary, and even cruel, but a little consideration 
 will show that it is humane, and essential to the comfort of 
 the sheep. In the natural state the wool cannot have 
 been so long or so abundant as in the domesticated sheep ; 
 neither was it ever intended by nature that sheep should 
 be folded on turnips upon ploughed or arable land. The 
 tail of a sheep is weak and limp, and cannot be used 
 to brush away flies. It is too thickly covered with wool 
 for whisking about, like the tail of a cow or horse, and it 
 becomes covered with dirt. Nothing, indeed, can be 
 more miserable than a long-tailed sheep when flies are 
 abundant, for they settle about the tail, and breed maggots. 
 In the winter, when sheep are folded on turnips, the tail 
 becomes wet and covered with knots of clay and dung ; 
 and this again is a discomfort to the animal ; so that it 
 is much better to inflict a momentary pang than to allow 
 the animal to be miserable all its life. 
 
 Weaning 
 
 is best done when lambs are about fifteen weeks old 
 Lambs born in January are weaned in May, when food 
 is abundant, and March lambs are weaned in July. Weaning 
 is effected by separating the lambs from their mothers, the 
 lambs being left upon good keep, while the mothers are 
 
128 LIVE STOOK 
 
 shifted to dry and poorer pastures. {See Management of 
 Ewes.) When it is the custom to keep sheep between 
 hurdles during the summer, weaning is most easily 
 effected by simply shutting the lambs off from the 
 ewes for longer and longer periods, until they learn to 
 do without milk. The old custom of milking ewes and 
 making ewe-milk cheese has almost died out. When, 
 however, a ewe is distressed with her milk, the shepherd 
 draws it off to relieve her. 
 
 Washing. 
 
 Sheep- washing is generally done in running water 
 about ten days before shearing. The operation is 
 simple, and consists in swimming the sheep through 
 the stream and keeping them a few minutes in the 
 water, during which time the backs and sides are well 
 scrubbed. They are then allowed to land. The yelk, 
 yolk, or grease which all fleeces contain, is a true potash 
 soap, and assists to cleanse the wool. Tub-washing in 
 cold water has been recommended, but scouring with soap 
 and the use of hot water is not desirable for the wool. 
 As a modification of the old-fashioned wash-pool, the 
 following plan has been suggested, and may be easily 
 follov<red, especially in the neighbourhood of a stream. 
 Two tanks are provided, each capable of holding about 
 five sheep. In the first tank the sheep are washed, and 
 the water is allowed to become greasy — or rather, soapy — 
 from the natural yelk of the wool. After a thorough 
 washing in No. 1 tank, the sheep are plunged in No. 2 
 tank, which is well supplied with clean water. It would 
 answer the same purpose to give them a swim in a clear 
 
EVENTS IN THE LIFJE OF A SHEEP. 129 
 
 stream after they had been well washed in the greasy 
 water. It must be remembered that the term grease^ or 
 greasy^ is misleading, and that the grease is really soapy 
 in its nature. In Germany and Hungary it is the custom 
 to save the water in which sheep have been washed, and to 
 evaporate it to dryness, and recover a large amount of 
 potash from it. 
 
 Dipping. 
 
 Sheep are usually dipped once a year. This is not 
 washing, but is done as a preventive of scab, and as a 
 means of destroying parasites, which infest the wool 
 and live on the juices secreted from the skin of sheep. 
 Dipping is also considered to improve the colour and 
 growth of the wool. Most sheep dips contain arsenic, 
 but there are also non-poisonous sheep dips, containing 
 glycerine, carbolic acid, and tobacco juice. A dip may be 
 composed of & lbs. of white arsenic, & lbs. of pearl-ash, 
 3 lbs. of sulphur, and 2 lbs. of soft soap. This is sus- 
 pended in a bath of about 100 gallons of water, in which 
 the sheep are dipped. It is scarcely advisable in these 
 days for farmers to make their own dips, as many ex- 
 cellent compositions are now sold, some being non- 
 poisonous, and others poisonous. Among these we may 
 mention McDongalFs (non-poisonous) carbolic and gly- 
 cerine dips, CampbelFs, Cooper's, Biggs', Watson's, and 
 Laidlaw's, all of which are in extensive use. The opera- 
 tion of dipping requires three men, one on each side and 
 one at the head. The sheep is allowed to remain a few 
 seconds in the bath, and is then placed in a drainer, when 
 the dipping material runs back again into the bath. 
 J 
 
130 LIVE STOCK 
 
 There are serious objections to tlie employment of arsenic 
 or mercury in. sheep dips^ and McDougall Brothers have 
 made a successful effort to introduce a non-poisonous dip, 
 which instantly kills all ticks, lice, maggots, and scab. 
 Two gallons (20 lbs.) of the dip are dissolved in 100 
 gallons of water to destroy scab, ticks, or lice, and four 
 gallons (40 lbs.) are dissolved in 100 gallons of water to 
 waterproof the fleeces as a protection against cold. 
 
 Shearing, 
 
 Few scenes are more cheerful than that of sheep- 
 shearing. When large flocks are kept the work is under- 
 taken by parties of about a dozen men, who quickly strip 
 off the fleeces and pass on to another farm. They are a 
 hearty, independent lot of fellows, and each member 
 of the company will shear his thirty-five sheep a day. 
 The clipping often takes place in one of the old-fashioned 
 roomy barns for which the southern counties are famous, 
 and the sheep are penned and caught for the shearers by 
 one of the farmer's own men. The farmer also undertakes 
 to wrap up the fleeces. Shearing is done with a pair of 
 spring shears held with one hand, while the other hand 
 and arm grasps the sheep. Great care is needed to avoid 
 cutting the skin; and as slight wounds are sure to be 
 made, a vessel containing Stockholm tar is placed within 
 easy reach for application to the cut surface. Shearing 
 heavy sheep is severe work, as anyone may learn who 
 has not been accustomed to it. To handle struggling 
 sheep on a hot day from morn to dewy eve, and turn 
 them about, requires strength, activity, and skill, and is 
 well worth the 3s. 6d. a score generally paid. 
 
EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SSEEF. 131 
 
 When sheep are shorn for market the fleece is taken ofB 
 with great care, and the shear marks form regular and 
 almost ornamental rings around the hody, and a con- 
 siderable amount of art is indulged in, as a kind of fancy 
 shearing. The shearer leaves diamond or lozenge-shaped 
 patterns on either leg or on the quarters and shoulders, 
 which are supposed to " set off " the sheep as he appears 
 before the buyer. A badly-shorn sheep is certainly a 
 miserable-looking object, and there is little doubt that 
 good shearing helps to secure a better price. 
 
 A man will hardly shear more than twenty fat sheep 
 for the market in the course of a day. To avoid a charge 
 of cruelty, it is advisable to provide jackets made of strong 
 and warm rug to put on clipped sheep sent to market in 
 severe weather. It is well known that the flesh of clipped 
 sheep, if chilled, suffers, so that both on account of 
 humanity and to satisfy the buyer this clothing ought to 
 be provided. It is retained after the sheep is sold, as 
 there is no necessity for providing for the wants of 
 another person's sheep. Ewes and stock sheep are shorn 
 with less care. 
 
 The Home fashion is to shear in a line toiM the ribs ; 
 the Colonial is to clip across the ribs and in a line with the 
 back-bone. This is much the more rapid style, and a 
 Colonial clipper will strip the wool off one hundred sheep 
 in a day, but the ordinary tally is fifty-five. In Austro- 
 Hungary the shearing is done by women on benches, and is 
 performed with scissors. One of the newest improvements 
 is the Wolseley shearing machine, made on the principle of 
 the horse-clipping machines, in which the teeth of the 
 clipper form a horizontal comb or series of points, closely 
 J 2 
 
132- LIVK 8T0GK. 
 
 met by a correspondingly divided upper blade. The 
 Wolseley clipper is worked with a small vertical engine, 
 so that all the shearer has to do is to hold and turn his 
 sheep and guide the machine. By these machines a sheep 
 may be beautifully shorn in five minutes, much more 
 perfectly than can be done in the ordinary way. The 
 engine works a number of machines by means of a long 
 shafting carrying pulleys or sheaves at intervals, 
 which work the blades of the machines. The Wolseley 
 Sheep- Shearing Machine Company estimates the advan- 
 tages of its invention at Is. 4d. per head, or 26s. 8d. per 
 score of sheep, which is a very considerable saving. The 
 average tally of one man with these machines is said to be 
 115 per day on Colonial sheep. A long tube hanging 
 from the top revolves a flexible spindle, made to 
 revolve rapidly by means of two cog-wheels. The 
 other end of the spindle is attached to the clipping 
 machine and causes the blades to work rapidly as the 
 shearer guides them. The principle is the same as has 
 been long applied by dentists for filing teeth in the 
 mouths of their patients with a small rapidly revolving 
 instrument only too well known to many of us. A 
 similarly rapid motion is given to the blades of the 
 shearing machine, and the wool rolls off the body of the 
 sheep with great speed and perfect success. 
 
 A still later development is the " compressed air sheep 
 shearer " brought out by the Australian Shearer Company. 
 The clipper differs but little from the one just described, 
 but it is actuated by compressed air instead of belting or 
 gearing. This machine was first brought prominently 
 into notice at the Show of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 
EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF A 8HEEP. 133 
 
 at Doncasterj 1891. The machine can be driven by hand, 
 horse or water power, but better still by steam, gas, or 
 kerosene engines. 
 
 Flies and Foot-rot 
 
 are two of the greatest troubles to sheep farmers. We 
 shall not try to describe all the diseases to which sheep are 
 liable as the subject is very vast, and could not be properly 
 treated of in a small book like the present. Sheep are 
 very difficult to " doctor.'" If a sheep is taken seriously 
 ill it is only too likely that it will not recover. The most 
 ordinary plan when a sheep takes ill is to kill it and sell 
 the carcase for what it will fetch. It is true that this is 
 not a course that can be approved of, because when 
 an animal is ill its flesh is often unwholesome, although 
 thorough cooking will generally render it harmless. 
 
 The liatural feeling among farmers is not to allow an 
 animal to die which may yet be slaughtered, and it is not 
 likely that they will alter their practice. If a sheep is seen 
 to " falter," or sicken, it is at once killed and the meat is 
 sold at a reduced price, and so far as economy is concerned 
 this is a better plan than to treat the animal with medicine. 
 
 The evils of flies and of lameness are, however, so 
 constant that they may almost be said to give employment 
 to shepherds throughout the year. Tending flocks often 
 means a struggle against the flies and the foot-rot, and we 
 shall therefore devote a little space to these two plagues. 
 
 Flies attack the heads and tails of sheep. They seek 
 out any spot where dirt or damp can be found, and tease 
 the sheep by their bites and the trampling of their tiny 
 feet, as well as by breeding maggots iu the wool. 
 
134 LITE STOOE. 
 
 When flies once attack the head of a sheep they never 
 let it alone. They swarm upon it and form what appears 
 like a black cap on the poor creature^s crown. They suck 
 out the juices of the skin, and wear it away until they 
 make a scald. 
 
 The unfortunate animal cannot rest or feed, and it is 
 impossible for him to thrive. And yet the remedy is 
 simple, for if a mixture of train oil and sulphur is pre- 
 pared and a little of it be smeared over the sheep's head, 
 not another fly will come near it. 
 
 When flies deposit their eggs on the tail, or elsewhere 
 on the body of a sheep, the maggots quickly find their way 
 to the skin and cause irritation and exudation. They 
 produce in this way a scald, often extending over a large 
 surface, and unless the sheep is looked to it may die from 
 pain, much as though it had been burnt. McDougall's 
 sheep-dip may be applied raw, or undiluted, by either 
 pouring it over the wounded part or applying it with 
 cotton wool. Mercury stone is very poisonous, but is 
 commonly carried by shepherds, who rub it over the 
 affected parts to destroy the maggots. In bad cases the 
 wool comes off and disfigures the sheep. Flies are most 
 trouhlesome in wet and warm weather, during the later 
 summer and autumn. 
 
 FooT-EOT — Lameness. — Sheep are often lame, but not 
 always with true foot-rot. When their feet are neglected 
 the hoof grows over the sole of the foot and bends over it, 
 and gravel and hard clods of clay lodge between the over- 
 grown hoof and sole causing lameness. In such cases all 
 that is needed is to catch the sheep and with a sharp knife 
 to pare the foot and restore it to a natural condition. 
 
EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SHEEP. 136 
 
 True foot-rot may be induced by neglect^ where the con- 
 ditions exist for its spread. It is, however, a contagious or 
 catching disease, and often remains in the ground ready 
 to break out. 
 
 It is a growth of a fungoid character, and burrows 
 between the wall of the horn and the sensitive part of the 
 foot. The horny part of the foot separates from the 
 inner sensitive portion, and a spongy dark-coloured and 
 corrosive substance, having an offensive smell, extends 
 under the horn. The first thing necessary is to catch the 
 sheep, and having set him on his rump on the ground, to 
 cut away all the horn affected, and remove the fungous 
 growth. This is done with care; and after the foot is 
 thoroughly exposed and cleaned, an astringent is applied in 
 the form of powdered blue vitriol, sulphate of zinc, butter 
 of antimony, or some kind of foot-rot paste sold for the 
 purpose. Such a lotion is the Australasian Foot-rot 
 Lotion, sold by K. Sando and Co., Wool Exchange, 
 Coleman Street, London. 
 
 In simple cases of foot-rot the sheep is treated as just 
 described, and allowed to go free. Foot-rot is sometimes 
 a very serious affair. It is always dreaded, as likely to 
 prevent sheep from thriving, but if allowed to go too far 
 the entire foot comes off, and the animal gradually pines 
 away and dies. 
 
 Even in serious cases the treatment just described may 
 be employed. After cutting away every part of the 
 diseased horn, even although the whole foot is involved, 
 the foot should then be washed in a solution of chloride of 
 lime, in the proportion of one pound to one gallon of water. 
 This will purify the surface, and prevent sloughing and 
 
136 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 mortification. The chloride or butter of antimony may 
 then be applied with a feather to all the exposed parts of 
 the foot. Youatt says — " There is no application com- 
 parable to this.^' It is a caustic whicb acts rapidly, but 
 is not of a corrosive nature, and soon becomes diluted with 
 the juices of the foot. Now wrap a little clean tow round 
 the footj and bind it tightly round with tape, and let the 
 animal be placed on a dry pasture or in a clean and well- 
 littered yard. The bandage should be opened every day, 
 and the foot dressed. Any fresh appearance of the disease 
 must be checked with the knife and touched with the 
 caustic. The new horn must also be watched. If it is 
 healthy, nothing need be done, but if it is soft and spongy 
 the caustic must be applied. 
 
 Liver Rot. 
 
 Another dreadful disease to which sheep are liable 
 is the '' rot," or, more properly, the liver rot. So fearful 
 is this disease that cases are common in which the entire 
 flock has been swept away. The worst of rot is that 
 an act of carelessness may easily cause it, and all the 
 sheep which have been allowed to wander on to a piece of 
 " unsound •'■' ground are likely to suffer. To make our 
 meaning more clear, it must be, mentioned that any boggy, 
 low-lying, spongy, or marshy ground may, at certain 
 seasons of the year, cause rot. Many pastures are known 
 to rot sheep, and cannot be stocked with them. The 
 most fatal times of the year for sheep contracting the 
 disease are late summer and autumn. In the spring of 
 the year much land which is unsound at other parts of the 
 year may be safely grazed. It is, for example, the custom 
 
SVENTS IJS TEE LIFE OF A 8HEEF. 137 
 
 to graze both ewes and lambs, as well as teggs, on water 
 meadows in April and May, but it would not be safe to 
 trust them on the same land in July and August. The 
 cause of liver rot is the taking into the system, through 
 the mouth, of a small shelled mollusc, known as the 
 Lymnius truncatulus. 
 
 This small snail, it appears, contains a very minute 
 parasite (entozoon), or what we may speak of as a worm 
 for the sake of simplicity, which finds a suitable place for 
 living and breeding in the bile ducts of the liver of sheep 
 and cattle. 
 
 To cattle it does not do much harm, as the ducts are 
 large. In the liver of the sheep, however, it proves fatal, 
 for it completely chokes up the ducts, causes inflammation, 
 deranges the entire liver, which becomes rotten, and, as a 
 consequence, the sheep pines away and dies. It is curious 
 to notice that in the earliest stage of this disease sheep 
 fatten more rapidly, and so well is this known that 
 butchers and graziers have been known to " coathe " or 
 "rot'''' sheep which are intended to be slaughtered, so as 
 to cause them to fatten more rapidly. When the first 
 stage is over the animals become weak, and pine away 
 until they die. The last serious outbreak of rot occurred 
 after the wet season of 1879, and so widespread was the 
 disease that the entire sheep-stock of the country was 
 reduced by millions. The disease, after the first or 
 thriving stage, shows itself first in the eye. The vessels 
 in the corner of the eye become pale and yellow, and later 
 the tongue and mucous membrane of the lips become 
 tinged with yellow. The skin becomes spotted yellow and 
 black, and the animal becomes spiritless. The wool comes 
 
138 - LIVE STOCK. 
 
 off, and the animal wastes away, purges, and gradually 
 becomes thinner and thinner, until death puts an end 
 to its sufferings. When a rotten sheep is killed a 
 yellow fluid is seen to extend over the whole body. The 
 liver is completely rotten, and the ducts which carry the 
 bile are found full of flukes, or little flat, oval-shaped 
 worms. 
 
 There is no cure for rot, but it may be prevented by 
 keeping sheep only upon sound ground. The effect of 
 continued wet weather no doubt causes ground which is 
 usually sound to become dangerous, but on the chalk hills 
 and in other high-lying dry situations rot is never found. 
 
 It has also been often noticed that healthy sheep may 
 contain a few liver flukes, but unless they are present in 
 large numbers they do not affect the health of the animal. 
 
 Scab. 
 
 Reference has been made to scab under the head of 
 "dipping.'' This is a skin disease of such a fearful 
 character that it is a punishable offence to offer scabbed 
 sheep upon the market. Sheep affected with scab rub 
 themselves, and are affected with a constant itch. Some- 
 times the skin appears perfectly clean, but generally the 
 scab appears more like what is known as mange in other 
 animals. The skin becomes rough, and a scurf forms at 
 the bottom of the wool, near the skin. 
 
 Scab in sheep is caused by a minute acarus of irregular 
 form. They are barely visible to the eye, but may be 
 readily seen on a black surface. When magnified, they 
 are seen to be of two sexes. If female acari are placed on 
 the wool of a sound sheep, they quickly travel to the root 
 
EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SBEEP. 139 
 
 of it, and bury themselves in the skin. There is then 
 nothing more to be seen except a minute red point. On 
 the tenth or twelfth day there is a little swelling, which 
 may be detected with the finger. On the "sixteenth day 
 the swelling or pustule breaks, and the mothers again 
 appear with their little ones attached to their feet, and 
 covered with a portion of the shell, from which they have 
 just escaped. These little ones soon again penetrate the skin 
 and begin to multiply, until the poor animal has myriads 
 of them to prey on him and to torment him, and it is not 
 wonderful that he should speedily sink " (Youatt). 
 
 The treatment of- scab consists in dipping the sheep in 
 a bath, which kills the acarus. The substances relied upon 
 are arsenic, mercury, hellebore, and tobacco. Carbolic 
 acid has of late years been found to be a cure for scab. 
 It is carefully compounded in the McDougall dip. In the 
 directions for using this remedy for scab, the shepherd is in- 
 structed to use two to four gallons of the dip to one hundred 
 gallons of water, and to keep the animal immersed for one 
 minute, while men remove the crusts from the scab spots 
 as far as possible, so that the liquid may reach the 
 " insects " under the crusts. If possible, keep the bath 
 warm while dipping for scab, in order to soften the spots 
 and allow the liquid to penetrate more freely. A repetition 
 of this treatment will be found advisable. 
 
 As in other cases, prevention is better than cure, and 
 sheep should be examined for scab before they are purchased. 
 It is also wise to dip all newly-purchased sheep before 
 allowing them to mix with the flock. The annual dipping 
 of all sheep is no doubt a preventative against scab. 
 
J 40 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PIGS. 
 
 Pigs are not so important as farm stock as either cattle 
 or sheep. Taking the total numher of each of these 
 animals in Great Britain, as returned by the Board of 
 Agriculture, they were in 1890 as follows : — 
 
 Cattle 6,508,632 
 
 Sheep 27,272,459 
 
 Pigs 2,773,609 
 
 On all farms pigs are kept, but it is not uncommon to 
 find only a few, and there is an impression that too many 
 pigs are not desirable. 
 
 The pig, if less important as farm stock, is more 
 generally appreciated among the general population. He 
 is a favourite not only with the farmer, but with all 
 classes of the community, from the highest to, the lowest. 
 No mansion would be complete in its offices without a 
 well-contrived pig-stye for the accommodation of these 
 thrifty animals. Every rectory or vicarage ought to 
 possess, at convenient distance, a place for keeping a 
 couple or more pigs. Every householder in the country, if 
 possible, keeps a pig. Among establishments and trades, 
 such as workhouses, asylums, hotels, inns, slaughter- 
 houses, and many other places, the pig is ever ready to 
 prevent waste, and to consume refuse food. Wherever 
 there is a garden there ought to be a pig, and hence to 
 
PIGS. 141 
 
 the cottager, as well as to the farmerj the pig is an object 
 of interest. He is the poor man's bank, a true thrift-box 
 and save-all while alive, and after death a comfort so long 
 as a vestige of him remains. 
 
 No animal is more completely useful and so free from 
 ofEal. Prom his head is made brawn or collared head — a 
 dish fit to set before a king. The whole of the carcase, 
 tail and feet included, is excellent, either as pork, or 
 cured. The Americans say with truth, but also with a 
 touch of humour, that every part of the pig is useful 
 except the " squeak." The bristles make brushes, the skin 
 saddles, the intestines are used for packing meat in 
 the form of savoury sausages, the bladder is filled with 
 the lard which is made from the melted inside fat : so that 
 from snout to tail the pig is excellent. 
 
 Origin of the Pig. 
 
 The domestic pig is derived from the wild boar, an 
 animal which abounds in Germany, Russia, and Spain, 
 and up to the time of Charles I. was found in our own 
 forests. 
 
 The reader will remember that the ox and the sheep 
 are not represented by any really wild animal which may 
 be at once recognised as their ancestors. Naturalists are 
 obliged to study forms now extinct before they can say, 
 with any certainty, where our cattle came from, and as 
 for sheep, we are almost in the dark as to the original 
 form. But the pig may always be derived afresh from 
 the wild boar. To speak more exactly, our improved 
 races of swine are descended from two or three types 
 of pig, all of which now exist. There is the wild 
 
142 LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 boar of the European and Indian forests, known scientific- 
 ally as the Stts scro/a. There is the Chinese, Malacca, 
 Siamese, or Cambodian hog, which is found in a domes- 
 ticated condition over vast regions in South-Eastern Asia ; 
 and, lastly, the South European or Neapolitan pig, 
 found in Italy and other southern countries of Europe. 
 These pigs have been crossed and blended together by 
 breeders in order to produce various races of English pigs, 
 all of which have their admirers. 
 
 The Wild Boar {Sus scro/a, vel aper). 
 
 This is a formidable wild animal, furnished with 
 terrible weapons in the form of tusks, which he keeps 
 sharp, and uses on slight provocation. He is so swift 
 that he can keep up with a horse, and can climb the 
 steepest hills with ease. He lives principally on roots, 
 which he grubs up with his strong snout, but will also eat 
 animals and carrion. He gives splendid sport to the 
 hunter, as he is alert, cunning, and dangerous, and requires 
 to be pursued with all the caution and dexterity which is 
 dear to the sportsman. Professor Low writes as follows 
 of the wild boar : — " There is something noble in the 
 courage of this powerful and solitary creature. All his 
 strength seems to be given for self-defence. He injures 
 no one, unless when disturbed in his retreat, or in the 
 search of food which his nature leads him to seek. He 
 does not court a combat with enemies that thirst for his 
 blood, but for the most part seeks to secure himself by 
 betaking himself to the nearest covert. If attacked by 
 savage dogs, he sullenly retreats, turning often upon thera, 
 and driving them back by his formidable tusks. When 
 
PIGS. 
 
 143 
 
 wearied and tormented, and forced at length to fight for 
 his life, he turns on his persecutors, and aims at vengeance. 
 If struck by the spear or ball of his pursuers, he has been 
 known to disregard all other enemies, and single out his 
 destroyer. When pursued by dogs, he rashes fiercely upon 
 
 Fig. 40. — WILD BOAE (■S'k.s iOufci 
 
 the foremost and strongest, maiming and killing numbers 
 of the pack in an incredibly short time. In like manner 
 he dashes at the foremost horseman, overthrowing the 
 horse and his rider in a moment." 
 
 This fine creature abounded in our own country in the 
 twelfth century, during the reign of Henry II., together 
 with wolves, wild bulls, and other game in the great 
 forests around London. 
 
144 LIVE 8 TO OK. 
 
 It is not easy to recognise in this noble denizen of the 
 forest the indolent and greedy inhabitant of the pig-stye, 
 and yet we are assured that the process of domestication 
 and degradation is rapid. If the wild pigs be taken 
 young from their mothers in the woods, they become 
 nearly as docile as the domesticated races, and in a single 
 generation all the fierceness which distinguished the 
 parents is lost. We cannot do better than once more 
 quote from the late Professor Low : — " When the wild hog 
 is domesticated, these changes, amongst others, take place : 
 the ears, not being required to collect distant sounds, 
 become less movable; the formidable tusks of the male, 
 no longer needed for self-defence, diminish ; the muscles 
 of the neck, not being exercised in the same degree as in 
 the natural state, become less developed, and the head 
 becomes more prone ; the back and loins become longer, 
 the body is rendered more capacious, and the limbs become 
 shorter and less muscular; and anatomy shows that the 
 stomach and intestinal canal have extended. . . The 
 animal becomes diurnal in its habits and does not choose 
 the night for its search after food/' The female be- 
 comes more prolific, producing young both more often and 
 in larger numbers. The animal becomes more greedy and 
 less particular in the matter of food ; it becomes naturally 
 corpulent, and fattens readily. In the domesticated hog 
 the number of teeth diminish, so that instead of six incisor 
 or cutting (front) teeth in the upper, and as many in the 
 lower jaw, found in the wild animal, he possesses only half 
 that number. In countries where the pig has not been 
 improved or carefully bred and crossed, the domestic pigs 
 in many respects resemble the wild boars, as they are wild 
 
PIGS. 145 
 
 and grisly in appearance, but they never appear to regain 
 the truly wild character. It is therefore clear that in the 
 wild boar we find the ancestor of our own domesticated 
 pig. As previously mentioned, the improved races have 
 been crossed with other, forms, among which the most 
 important is the Sus Indiaa, or 
 
 "Chinese" Pig. 
 
 The kingdoms of Cambodia, Siam, Cochin-China, and 
 Malacca are covered with magnificent forests, in which, 
 among other animals, the wild hog abounds. The so- 
 called Chinese pig, however, appears to have been domes- 
 ticated for a longer period than our own native race, and 
 it is doubtful if the parentage in the remote past has been 
 the same as that now found in the native forests. There 
 are several races of these pigs, differing in size and colour, 
 but all of them are peculiar for their fattening properties. 
 
 The Chinese feed more largely upon pork than on any 
 other animal food, and to this fact some persons have 
 attributed the rejection by the Chinese of the Mohammedan 
 faith, which forbids the flesh of swine. The Chinese are 
 also said to use the milk of the sow as an article of food. 
 
 These pigs are found over a vast tract of territory, and 
 are known by various names. The type most in favour 
 in this country for crossing with our own native breeds is 
 described as of small size, with a cylindrical body, hollow 
 back, belly near the ground, short in the limbs, covered 
 with soft bristles approaching the character of hair, colour 
 black or rich copper colour, ears short and erect, head 
 hollow or concave and short, arriving quickly at maturity, 
 and fattening on a small quantity of food. 
 
 E 
 
146 LIVE 8T0GK. 
 
 South European Pigs. 
 
 Hogs have been imported from Malta and Naples^ and 
 are known as Maltese and Neapolitan. They are black in 
 colour^ have very little hair, are long in the nose, and 
 of rather small size. Some of tlie best Italian hogs are 
 said to be found in the Duchy of Parma, and all have been 
 introduced into this country, and have assisted to form 
 our races. 
 
 ENGLISH BREEDS OF PIGS.— THE BLACK 
 BREEDS. 
 
 1. The Berkshire Breed. 
 
 This breed is described by Professor Low as usually of 
 a reddish-brown colour, and in his coloured illustration of 
 
 our domestic animals 
 he gives as an example 
 a red-coloured animal 
 bred by Richard Ast- 
 ley, Esq., of Old-stone- 
 hall, to represent the 
 breed. The Berkshire 
 pig of the present 
 day is black, broken in certain places with white, 
 and his turned-up nose is very different from the long 
 nose shown in Professor Low's drawing. The breed 
 has indeed been improved with Chinese crosses, and now is 
 very unlike the drawing which represented him some fifty 
 years ago. No race is more popular in the midland and 
 southern counties, but in the north of England the white 
 breeds are more in favour. 
 
 rig. 41. — BEEKdHlEE. 
 
PIGS. 147 
 
 The Berkshire pig is of medium size, being inferior in 
 iihis respect to the large Yorkshire breed. He may be 
 described as follows : — The head is short, broad and hollow 
 in the forehead, the nose being very much turned up. 
 There is a streak or star of white on the forehead, which 
 is characteristic of the breed ; the feet, and often the tip 
 of the tail, are also white. The ears are rather large, and 
 should be carried forward, and be inclined to lop over the 
 eyes and nose. The crest should overhang the forehead ; 
 the neck is strong and arched, as is also the back, which 
 forms a gentle arch from crest, or poll, to tail. The ribs 
 are well sprung, and the loin is wide and well covered. 
 The quarters must not droop suddenly, but partake of the 
 general curve of the body from end to end ; the sides are 
 somewhat flat and deep, the hams are well developed, and 
 the gammon, or lower end of the ham, falls on and touches 
 the hock joint; the belly is near the ground; the fore- 
 quarters, or fore-hams and shoulders, are well developed, 
 and the space behind the shoulder is well filled up ; the 
 skin is black, with a reddish blush below, and is well 
 covered with an abundance of bristle, or coat. The breed 
 may be used for pork or for curing, and is a great favourite 
 at all bacon factories, and commands a high price per score. 
 
 2. The Essex Race 
 
 is also a black breed, but difiers from the Berkshire in 
 being entirely black in every part of the body, and is not 
 thickly covered with bristle. The head is long and the 
 nose flexible, probably through the use of Maltese or 
 Neapolitan crosses. The Essex pig is flat or oval in 
 carcase, and wants the width and solidity of the Berkshire 
 K 2 
 
148 LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 pig. It is a remarkably quick and kind feeder, and 
 produces flesh of particularly white and tender character. 
 Its want of coat argues a delicacy, which might unfit this 
 breed for roughing it in straw-yards in winter, as " coaty " 
 pigs are always preferred for this purpose. 
 
 3. Other Black Races. 
 
 The black Suffolk, Dorset, and Hampshire pigs are 
 also famous, but taking our great agricultural shows as 
 our guide, we consider that all the remaining black races 
 may be merged as larger and smaller black breeds, while 
 the Berkshire and the Essex stand out prominently as 
 definite races, requiring separate mention. 
 
 4. The Tamworth Race. 
 
 The Tamworth pig is of red colour. As the wild boar 
 is of the same russet tint, and the old Berkshire, as figured 
 by the late Professor Low, was also red, we see in this 
 colour the remains of a hue which was probably more 
 general at one time among pigs than it is now. That this 
 was the case might easily be proved by quotations from 
 writers upon live stock early in the present century. The 
 author first saw a Tamworth pig in 1865, and was struck 
 by its large size at an early age, and by its distinctive 
 character. The quick growth of the breed was at that 
 time well known and much spoken about. In 1879 
 Messrs. Harris, the great bacon curers at Calne, in Wilt- 
 shire, issued a circular calling attention to the " excessive 
 fatness of bacon pigs, and recommending judges at shows 
 to be guided by the weight 6i flesh carried on the most 
 valuable parts." The reaction against fat meat which has 
 
PIGS. 
 
 149 
 
 taken place duriDg recent years has brought forward the 
 Tamworth breed, which appears to have been less affected 
 by the Chinese crosses used on most of our breedsj and to 
 have retained a greater power of developing muscle or lean 
 meat. They are somewhat gaunt — ''great high-baekedj 
 slab-sided creatures " — as Mr. G. M. Allander calls tliem_, 
 although himself an admirer and improver of the race. 
 
 THE WHITE BREEDS. 
 5. Large and Small Yorkshires. 
 
 We may even go a step further, and divide the York- 
 shire breed into large, medium, and small, but the middle 
 race is much less definite in its character. The large 
 Yorkshire is an 
 immense creature, 
 rivalling a bullock 
 in weight. He is 
 of rosy rather than 
 white colour, and 
 the skin is covered 
 with straight 
 bristles. The head 
 
 is long and straight ; and if he has a fault, it is that he is dis- 
 posed to grow to too great a size. According to the old say- 
 ing, " little pigs make the best of bacon," and certainly the 
 large Yorkshire, although he is unquestionably little at one 
 time of his life, cannot be spoken of as a little pig. The 
 highest price per score is now given for pigs which, when 
 slaughtered and dressed, weigh about one hundred and 
 sixty pounds, or eight scores. 
 
 The small Yorkshire is at once known by his somewhat 
 
 SMALL YORKSniEE. 
 
150 LIVU STOCK 
 
 smaller size, although they also may grow to a great 
 weight. They are rounder or more cylindrical in form, are 
 short in the head and turned up at the nose, and are well 
 covered with a curly silky coat. These pigs are o£ better 
 quality than the large breed, but give the impression that 
 they are almost too highly improved. They are exceedingly 
 short in the leg, and so sleepy that they often seem as if 
 they could not be roused. These are the pigs which in 
 show-yards are often seen reclining on wooden pillows, to 
 keep their nostrils free of straw and litter, which might 
 interfere with their breathing, and smother them. They 
 are a valuable breed of pigs, but too much inclined to 
 lay on fat rather than flesh. They might be spoken of, in 
 the language once applied to our very fat breeds, as 
 " bladders of animated lard.^^ Still, we have no vnsh to 
 run down the small Yorkshire pig, as he is an estimable 
 creature, and has many admirers. 
 
 6. Other White Breeds. 
 
 The Yorkshire white breeds are by no means entirely 
 confined to Yorkshire, neither are they of pure Yorkshire 
 origin. The late Prince Consort was a great improver of 
 pigs, and the Windsor breed is well known all over Europe 
 as a first-class white race of pigs. There is also a breed 
 which is known as the Coleshill, bred by a former Earl of 
 Radnor, whose stock was dispersed in 1869, and was largely 
 bought by the breeders of Yorkshire pigs. These were 
 also known as White Berkshires. There is a rather coarser 
 long-haired pig to be found in Herefordshire, and named 
 after its county j and we may mention a small and fine 
 pig, known as the White Suffolk. 
 
151 
 
 CHAPTER VIll. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF PIGS. 
 
 Wb shall not find it necessary to devote so much 
 attention to the management o£ pigs as we have done to 
 that of cattle or sheep. 
 
 The management of pigs is simpler^ and it is also 
 better understood by most people. It may be divided into 
 breeding, rearing, and fattening, and one more branch may 
 be profitably considered — namely, the curing of bacon, 
 which we propose to treat of fully. 
 
 The Breeding of Pigs. 
 
 The pig is one of the most prolific of animals. We 
 wonder if our readers have ever attempted to calculate the 
 vast number of pigs which a sow is capable of producing 
 through her female descendants in a period of sis years. 
 A sow ought to produce two litters a year of at least six 
 each time, of which half may naturally be expected to be 
 females. Each of these sows may, for the sake of calcula- 
 tion, be supposed capable of producing young at one year 
 old, although in ordinary practice fourteen months would 
 be a more usual age. These will also produce two litters 
 of six each every year, half of which are females ; but no 
 sow must be kept for breeding after she is three years old. 
 Here is a question in arithmetic which might be worth 
 following out; and if it is done, the number of pigs 
 produced in six years will be seen to be prodigious. 
 
]52 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The calculation is made as follows : if we suppose our 
 six years to commence with a sow one year old^ just 
 farrowed, we shall then have the following table, showing 
 the produce in sows alone : — 
 
 ears. 
 
 No. of Sows. 
 
 No. of Suckers 
 
 No. of six 
 
 
 
 (females). 
 
 old hilt 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 1* . 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 57 
 
 21 
 
 24 . 
 
 39 
 
 117 
 
 57 
 
 3 
 
 92 
 
 276 
 
 117 
 
 H ■ 
 
 202 
 
 606 
 
 276 
 
 i 
 
 459 
 
 1,377 
 
 606 
 
 ii ■ 
 
 1,026 
 
 3,078 
 
 1,377 
 
 5 
 
 2,311 
 
 6,933 
 
 3,078 
 
 6i . 
 
 5,187 
 
 15,561 
 
 6,933 
 
 6 
 
 11,661 
 
 33,983 
 
 15,561 
 
 The total number of female pigs, big and little, would 
 in this case be 61,205, and as there would have been born 
 an equal number of male pigs, the total descendants of the 
 original sow would have numbered 122,410. In another 
 six months this number would have risen to 257,534, 
 and at the end of the seventh year to 600,120. With 
 such a result we need not wonder that the price of pigs 
 is quickly reduced when they become dear. Any scarcity 
 of pigs is much more easily put right than is a scarcity of 
 sheep or cattle, because they only produce young once a 
 year, and generally one at a time, so that a regular increase 
 in the number of females cannot be relied upon. The 
 above calculation appears quite reasonable, because six is a 
 
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS. 163 
 
 small litter, and sows often produce twelve, and even as 
 many as eighteen, young ones at a birth. 
 
 Sows. 
 
 From what has been already said, sows may produce 
 young at a year old, but about fourteen or fifteen 
 months old is more usual. A sow goes sixteen weeks in 
 young, and generally suckles her young for eight weeks. 
 If she breeds regularly, the year will be divided as 
 follows : — 
 
 The first trip is farrowed about February 1st. 
 
 Pigs ■weaned about April 1st. 
 
 The second trip is farrowed August 1st. 
 
 Pigs weaned about October 1st. 
 
 Sows will continue to breed for several more years than 
 we allowed in our calculation, but three years old is a good 
 age to fatten them ofE; and if they are allowed to live 
 much longer they become very unsaleable. 
 
 Sows must be allowed plenty of exercise and freedom. 
 When they can roam in the pastures and get their own 
 living, they are always more healthy, and likely to bring 
 large and healthy litters. They should be, if possible, 
 allowed a paddock, with a good supply of water and a 
 hovel or hovels to retire into. A copse is also well suited 
 for pigs, as they enjoy shade and a natural life. They 
 enjoy a good wallow in a mud bath, but are not naturally 
 uncleanly animals. The mud, no doubt, is, in the long run, 
 cleansing to the skin, and allays that irritation which is 
 caused by exposure to the sun or the attacks of flies. 
 
 Sows are best fed with grass, and will also enjoy cut 
 clover, cut vetches, cabbage, mangel, turnips, and almost 
 
154 LirU 8T00K. 
 
 any kind of green food. Their drink may be water, but 
 wash or swill, such as whey or dish -washings, is 
 also much relished. A small quantity of pollards, of 
 brewers'" grains, and of bran may be added to the contents 
 of the pig-tubs, but sows should not be over-fed, and are 
 more profitable when fed upon the natural waste substances 
 of the house and farm. We believe that sows managed 
 as recommended will be healthy and profitable, and that 
 nothing more is necessary to keep them in full health 
 and vigour. 
 
 Farrov/ing. 
 
 As farrowing approaches sows should be removed to 
 the farrowing pen. They must be kept quiet, and free 
 from all disturbing noises. They have an unnatural 
 inclination at times to eat their offspring, and this extra- 
 ordinary taste is developed if they are disturbed or 
 frightened. The farrowing house is composed of an inner 
 pen and outer court, and should be roomy, warm, and 
 well ventilated. It should be protected from the north, 
 and open towards the south. The inner or covered portion 
 should be at least eight feet long and ten feet broad, and 
 the outer court may be eight feet long and twelve feet 
 broad. The floor may be concrete or asphalte, and slope 
 on all sides towards a drain. The sheds must be spouted, 
 and the feeding troughs be placed under the south 
 wall. The main pen must be furnished with a railing 
 supported on posts about seven inches from the wall, and 
 the same height above the floor, to prevent the sow from 
 lying too close to the wall. Heavy sows often let them- 
 selves down by leaning against the wall and sliding their 
 
MANAGEMENT OF FIGS. 155 
 
 feet outwards, until they slip down, and in doing this 
 little pigs are often squeezed to death. The farrowing pen 
 should be somewhat scantily supplied with short litter, as 
 young pigs are liable to get entangled in long straw, and 
 may, at such a time, be smothered by an unwieldy mother. 
 Sows show some anxiety to find a nest as their time 
 approaches. They are seen carrying straw about in their 
 mouths, and their paps also begin to fill with milk. The 
 sow should now be put into the farrowing pen, and left as 
 quiet as possible until she has produced her litter. A dose 
 of from a quarter to half a pound of Epsom salts may then 
 he administered by mixing it with her food, and a little 
 sulphur is also wholesome. This is the best way of giving 
 medicine to a sow, as they are awkward brutes to drench. 
 
 After the first week has passed the sow and pigs may 
 be removed to a second pen, in which the outer court is 
 railed off into two parts, so as to allow the little ones to 
 eat a little milk, with fine " sharps '' mixed in it. They 
 must be kept clean and dry, or their tails will rot off. 
 Young pigs may be weaned at eight weeks old. During 
 the time the sow is suckling her young she should have a 
 liberal diet of barley-meal, pollards, and a few beans. 
 
 Store Pigs. 
 
 Stores should be kept hardy. We recommend a strong 
 rough pig with plenty of hair as most likely to thrive in 
 a farmyard, and unless pig-breeding is a speciality, too 
 large a number is not desirable. 
 
 Many farmers find it profitable to keep three or 
 four good sows, and to sell the pigs as soon as they are 
 worth twenty shillings each, which will be at from twelve 
 
156 LIVH 8T00K. 
 
 to sixteen weeks old. The February or March litters may 
 be carried on till harvest, when they go out to stubble, 
 and are fattened off by Christmas, at weights varying from 
 seven to ten scores. A pig, if well managed, will increase 
 at the rate of about one score of twenty pounds every 
 month. They live on whey, skim-milk, butter-milk, 
 house-wash, grass, garden stuff, or cut green food during 
 the summer, with a little pollards or barley-meal mixed in 
 so as to form a thin wash. When whey is not available, 
 brewers' grains make an excellent wash, especially when a 
 small quantity of pollards, bran, and barley-meal are 
 added, keeping the wash thin or watery. 
 
 Store pigs sbould be allowed plenty of room, and are 
 better in yards than close pens. They should, as far as 
 possible, live upon the produce of the farm. During the 
 winter months store pigs are allowed to run in the yards 
 with the fattening bullocks, where they are useful in eating 
 up what the cattle might waste, and in routing up and 
 mixing the manure. Nothing escapes them in their 
 industrious search for food. At the barn door, under the 
 cattle-troughs, watching for the litter brought from the 
 cow-sheds and stables, completely hidden under the newly- 
 thrashed straw, seeking for odd grains of corn — hardy 
 and cunning, pertinacious and alert — are the store pigs. 
 
 Fatting Pigs. 
 
 The favourite weight for bacon pigs is now 160 pounds j 
 and this they ought to make in eight months from birth. 
 
 To speak generally, the spring litters farrowed in 
 February are fattened off before Christmas, and the August 
 litters are ready the following March. At five months old 
 
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS. 157 
 
 the pigs may begin to receive forcing food ; and experience 
 has shown that barley is highly suitable for this purpose. 
 The experiments on pig-feeding carried out by Sir John 
 Lawes at Rothamsted showed that, after all, the cottager is 
 right in using barley-meal for fattening his pig. The meal is 
 mixed with water or with wash of some kind, and as the pig 
 fattens the food is made thicker, until, in the later stages, 
 it is of such a consistency as to form into balls. Plenty 
 of barley-meal, regular attention, and a comfortably and 
 not too roomy stye seem, then, all that is necessary to 
 succeed — to which ought to be added a good sort of pig. 
 
 And yet we should like to say a little more about pig- 
 fattening, as much has been written on the subject. Thus, 
 Mr. Sanders Spencer recommends that pigs, "after they 
 are about five months old, should be kept in. a confined 
 place, and fed on meal made from one-seventh wheat and 
 two-sevenths each of barley, oats, and rye. This should 
 be ground as fine as possible, and the best return will be 
 obtained from it if it is fed to the pigs dr^, another trough 
 being put in the stye, in which is always to be found a 
 supply of clean water or dairy refuse, either in the form of 
 skim-milk, butter-milk, or whey. By the time the pig is 
 seven months old it ought to weigh 150 to 170 lbs., 
 when it will command the highest price in the market." 
 
 One of the most important points which require atten- 
 tion is the production of lean meat, or muscle. The 
 difference between pigs in the amount of lean meat they 
 produce is wonderful. In some cases the bacon seems to 
 be entirely fat, and in other cases it is beautifully streaky 
 and well mixed. Mr. Thomas Harris, the great bacon 
 curer at Calne, in Wiltshire, has for some years given a 
 
158 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 bonus upon lean pigs. The excessively fat pig is therefore 
 at a discount. Young pigs, being muscularj contain more 
 lean than old ones, and as they are making muscle they 
 Ban be so fed and treated as to develop it. Everyone 
 knows that exercise and good food develop muscle ; and the 
 pig is no exception to this rule. An old sow will not 
 develop much, but simply lay on fat, whereas a young 
 growing pig may be so treated as to develop lean meat. 
 It is also a mistake to prolong the fattening process to 
 a later period than will satisfy the great bacon curers in 
 the matter of fatness. 
 
 " The best kind of pig," writes Mr. Harris, " for bacon 
 purposes is one with long deep body and hind quarters : 
 thin in the neck, shoulders, and jowls, and with plenty of 
 hair, weighing seven to eight and a-half scores dead weight." 
 "The Tam worth pig is, I think, the one which gives most 
 lean meat, being a long, thin-shouldered, deep-sided animal 
 with plenty of hair (which is always a sign of leanness), 
 hardy, and prolific. This sort, crossed with the Berkshire 
 or large Yorkshire, with judicious feeding, I consider 
 makes the nearest approach to a model side of bacon." 
 Next as to the effect of food. Mr. F. J. Lloyd says that a 
 nutritive ratio {see page 41) of one to five is well calculated 
 to produce fleshy animals — i.e., animals containing much 
 lean meat. This is true, and points clearly to the use of 
 such foods as bean-meal, as well as barley-meal. Young 
 animals always require foods rich in albuminoids, simply 
 because they are making muscle, and by encouraging this 
 tendency we secure lean meat. Such a diet as is recom- 
 mended by Mr. Alexander Watt, in his Prize Essay on 
 Dairy Farming in Devonshire, is well worthy of attention. 
 
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS. 169 
 
 It consists of equal quantities of beans^ maize, barley, and 
 wheat-meals. This is no doubt better than pure barley- 
 meal, because the nutritive ratio of barley-meal is 1 to 
 8, which is too low, and too much adapted for laying 
 on fat. Skim-milk and barley-meal is also an excellent 
 union of foods, because the nutritive ratio in skim-milk 
 is very high, being 1 to 18, and when given ju- 
 diciously with barley-meal it produces the necessary 
 material for making muscle or lean. Once more, it is well 
 to repeat that young growing animals will always be more 
 likely to make lean than old animals which have done 
 growing. 
 
 Bacon Curing. 
 
 We will describe the simplest method first, and then 
 mention some plans for producing special or finely-flavoured 
 hams. Bacon curing is a very simple operation, only re- 
 quiring salt, and a little saltpetre for giving the required 
 colour to the flesh. 
 
 Every householder should know how to cure bacon. 
 Like baking and brewing, it is now carried out in large 
 establishments, such as are to be seen at Calne, in Wilt- 
 shire, at Limerick, and on a still larger scale at Chicago, 
 in the United States of America. In some of these bacon 
 factories thousands of pigs are slaughtered every week, and 
 the work is carried out on an extensive scale with the aid 
 of machinery. In one of these factories at Limerick large 
 and airy sheds, covered with light roofing, occupy a vast 
 space. The pigs are killed by hoisting them up by one 
 hind leg, and by means of a hook fitting into an overhead 
 rail or bar, they slide down a slight incline to the "sticker," 
 
160 LIVE 8T0GK. 
 
 who, armed with a sharp knife, skilfully slaughters them as 
 they pass him. The animal speedily bleeds to death, for 
 the art of pig-sticking is well understood by the operator, 
 and the carcase travels by its own weight onwards on the 
 overhead rail until it is suspended over an immense tank of 
 boiling water. In this it is plunged, and, floating through 
 it, is fished up on the other side with wonderful speed, and 
 lowered down upon an iron cradle, which is then passed 
 for a few moments into a fiery furnace in order to singe it. 
 The carcase is then slid on to another overhead rail, and is 
 pushed on to be washed by means of jets of water which 
 spout out of an iron casing so as to completely cover 
 every part of the body. The next operation is scraping, 
 and the washed and scraped pig is again pushed on to join 
 a long rank of freshly slaughtered carcases, where it is 
 opened, the viscera removed, the carcase cut down the back, 
 and left to cool. We need not follow these operations in 
 detail, but may say that when cool the carcase is cut down 
 into sides, or flitches, and, in many cases, slid down a 
 shoot into the cellars, where a man stands to receive them. 
 They are then stacked up, one on the other, with the skin 
 side downwards, each side being well covered with a mix- 
 ture of salt and saltpetre. The thicker parts and hams 
 are injected with brine by means of a force-pump, and the 
 sides are left for a week. They are then re-stacked and 
 fresh salted, and in a fortnight are ready for smoking. 
 The whole process occupies three weeks, and the flitches 
 are then packed and despatched to the bacon factors. We 
 take the following more detailed description from Morton's 
 "Cyclopaedia":— 
 
 " The carcase of the hog, after hanging over-night to cool, is laid on a 
 
MANAGEMENT OF PIG8. 161 
 
 strong bench or stool, and the head ia separated from the body at the 
 neok, close behind the ears. The fat, and also the internal fat, are 
 removed. The carcase is next divided into two sides in the following 
 manner : The ribs are divided about an inch fronx the spine on each side, 
 and the spine, with the ends of the ribs attached, together with the in- 
 ternal flesh between it and the kidneys, and also the flesh above it, 
 throughout the whole length of the sides, are removed. The portion of 
 the carcase thus cut is in the form of a wedge — the breadth of the in- 
 terior consisting of the breadth of the spine, and about an inch of the 
 ribs on each side, being diminished to about half an inch at the exterior, 
 or skin along the back. 
 
 " The breast bone, and also the first anterior rib, are also dissected 
 from the side. Sometimes the whole of the ribs are removed, but this, 
 for reasons afterwards to be noted, ia a very bad practice. When the 
 hams are cured separately from the side — which is generally the case — they 
 are cut out so as to include the hock bone, in a, similar mode to the 
 London mode of cutting a haunch of mutton. The carcase of the hog 
 thus cut up is ready for being salted, which process in large curing estab- 
 lishments is usually as follows : The skin side of the pork is rubbed over 
 with a mixture of fifty parts by weight of salt and one part of saltpetre 
 in powder, and the inside parts of the hamper flitch, and the inside of the 
 flitch covered with the same. The salted bacon, in pairs of flitches, 
 with the insides to each other, is piled, one pair of flitches above another, 
 on benches slightly inclined, and furnished with spouts or troughs to 
 convey the brine to receivers in the floor of the salting house, to be 
 afterwards used for pickling pork for Navy purposes. In this state the 
 bacon remains a fortnight, which is sufficient for flitches cut from hogs 
 of a carcase weight of less than fifteen stone (fourteen pounds to the stone) . 
 Flitches of a large size, at the expiration of the time, are wiped dry, and 
 reversed in their place in the pile, having at the same time about half 
 the first quantity of fresh dry common salt sprinkled over the inside and 
 incised parts, after which they remain on the behches for another week. . 
 Hams, being thicker than flitches, will require, when less than twenty 
 pounds weight, three weeks, and when above that weight four weeks, to 
 remain under the above-described process. 
 
 "The next and last process in the preparation of bacon and hams 
 
 previous to being sent to market is drying. This is effected by hanging 
 
 the flitches and hams for two or three weeks in a room heated by stoves, 
 
 as in a smoke-house, in which they are exposed for the same length of 
 
 L 
 
162 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 time to the smoke arising from the slow combustion of the sawdust of 
 oak or other hard wood. The latter mode of completing the curing 
 process has some advantage over the other, as hy it the meat is sub- 
 ject to the action of creosote, a volatile oil, produced hy the com- 
 bustion of the sawdust, which is powerfully antiseptic ; the process also 
 furnishing a thin covering of a resinous varnish, excludes the air, 
 not only from the meat, but also from the fat, thus effectually pre- 
 venting the meat from becoming rusted ; and the principal reasons 
 for condemning the practice of removing the ribs from the flitches 
 of pork are that by so doing the meat becomes unpleasantly hard and 
 pungent in the process of salting, and by being more exposed to the 
 action of the air, becomes sooner and more extensively rusted. Notwith- 
 standing its superior efficacy in completing the process of curing, the 
 flavour which smoke-drying imparts to meat is disliked by many persons, 
 and it is therefore by no means the most general mode of drying adopted 
 by mercantile curers. A very superior variety of pyroligneous acid, or 
 vinegar made from the destructive distillation of wood, is sometimes used 
 on account of the highly preservative power of the creosote which it con- 
 tains, and also to impart the smoked flavour, in which latter object, how- 
 ever, the coarse flavour of tar is given rather than that derived from the 
 smoke from combustion of wood. A considerable portion of the bacon 
 and hams salted in Ireland is exported from that country packed among 
 salt in bales immediately from the salting process, without having beenin 
 any degree dried. In the process of salting above described pork loses 
 from eight to ten per cent, of its weight, according to the size and quality 
 of the meat, and a further diminution of weight, to the extent of five to 
 six per cent., takes place in drying during the first fortnight after being 
 taken out of salt, so that the total loss of weight occasioned by the pre- 
 paration of bacon and hams in a proper state for market is not less, on 
 an average, than fifteen per cent, on the weight of the fresh pork." 
 
 Wiltshire Bacon. 
 
 Pound and well mix for eact pig a pound and a 
 half of coarse sugar, a pound and a half of bay-salt, six 
 ounces of saltpetre, and one pound of common salt. First 
 sprinkle each flitch with common salt, and let the liquid 
 drain away for twenty-four hours. Then take the above 
 
MANAGEMENT OF PIGS. 163 
 
 ingredients and rub it well into the meat, which should 
 be turned every day for a month. Then hang it to dry, 
 and afterwards smoke it over a wood fire for ten days. 
 
 Curing Hams. 
 
 Rub two hams with common salt, and leave them in a 
 large pan for three days. Throw away the brine which 
 has been extracted from the hams. Mix one pound of 
 moist sugar, one pound of common salt, and two ounces 
 of saltpetre. Well rub the hams, and place them in a 
 suitable vessel, taking care that they are well covered with 
 the salt. After three days pour over one quart of good 
 vinegar. Turn daily in the brine for a month, and then 
 take them out and rub them with bran. If thought desir- 
 able, they can be then smoked over a wood fire. 
 
 Sweet Hams. 
 
 Rub two hams with salt, and after twenty-four hours 
 drain away the brine. Take a saucepan, and boil together 
 three pounds of common salt, three pounds of coarse sugar, 
 one pound of bay-salt, and three quarts of strong beer. 
 Let the mixture boil for a quarter of an hour, and pom- 
 it over the hams, and let them remain one month in the 
 pickle. Eub and turn daily under the pickle, and take out 
 and smoke for one month over wood fire. 
 
 I. 2 
 
164 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 HORSES. 
 
 England is as famous for horses as she is for cattle, 
 sheep, and pigs. From the thorough-bred or race-horse to 
 the cart-horse, she stands foremost among nations in this 
 respect. The reader may wonder whether our English 
 horses are superior to the beautiful horses of Arabia, which 
 have so often been spoken of and praised, or the horses of 
 Barbary, or the celebrated Turcoman horse. We believe 
 they are. All of these horses have been used in forming 
 the English thorough-bred, and it is not too much to say 
 that for speed, endurance, and beauty the English horse 
 excels them all. Other nations, being well aware of the 
 superiority of English horses, are constant buyers, and give 
 long prices to secure the best of our breeding animals, 
 and a time may come in which we shall find ourselves 
 beaten. There is no doubt that the competition is very 
 keen and very close. We have, however, two strong 
 points, one of which cannot be taken from us : and that is 
 our climate. Much has been said against our variable and 
 uncertain climate, but we should value it highly on account 
 of its being suitable for all kinds of domesticated animals. 
 If there is a climate more suitable for horses than that of 
 England, it is to be found in Ireland. The virtue of oui 
 climate seems to be that it is temperate, and moist enough 
 to cause an abundant growth of grass. The soil of Ireland 
 mostly rests upon limestone, and thus is able to supply 
 
HORSES. 165 
 
 the material in sufficient quantities from which bone is 
 made. Her pastures are particularly rich, which has 
 earned for her the name of the " Emerald " Isle^ and Irish- 
 men are fearless riders and true lovers of the horse. 
 
 Our other safeguard is the natural love of animals, and 
 the genius for breeding them which characterises our nation. 
 
 The Origin of the Horse. 
 
 We have stated that no true wild horse exists in the 
 world, and need not now repeat the reasons for this 
 opinion. The horse appears to have been domesticated so 
 long since that the actual parent form has disappeared, 
 and the so-called wild horses are considered to be the 
 descendants of domesticated horses which have recovered 
 their freedom. He is thus, in some respects, an artificial 
 creature, and his form appears to have become moulded to 
 the requirements of man in a very special manner. 
 
 The Book of Job is considered to be of great antiquity, 
 and yet the description of the war-horse there given is the 
 most spirited ever penned. The words occur in God^s own 
 rebuke to the patriarch, and may be here quoted as 
 showing how perfect the animal was known to be, even 
 in those far-off times. " Hast thou given the horse 
 strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? 
 Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? the 
 glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, 
 and rejoiceth in his strength : he goeth on to meet the 
 armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted : 
 neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver 
 rattleth against him, the glittering spear and shield. He 
 swalloweth the ground with fierceness and rag-e : neither 
 
166 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith 
 among the trumpets. Ha, ha ; and he smelleth the battle 
 afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shouting." 
 No one who has watched or bestrode a high-mettled steed 
 but will feel the truth of this wonderful description. The 
 horse, though timid when brought into positions new to 
 him, is courageous when he knows what is expected of 
 him. He is nobly excitable, and in war or in the chase he 
 rushes on with such impetuosity that he is difficult to hold 
 back. Especially in company with men and horses he 
 " paweth and rejoieeth in his strength/' The charge of 
 cavalry is terrible and overwhelming, and has often turned 
 the fortunes of battle. The Book of Job is thought to 
 have been written about 1,500 years before Christ, and 
 therefore indicates the great length of time that the horse 
 has been domesticated. As, however, some scholars in 
 these critical days consider that the Book of Job may not 
 be so old as just stated, we will quote one more Scriptural 
 authority which is of unquestioned and remote antiquity — 
 namely, the song of Miriam, sister of Moses, who cele- 
 brated the overthrow of Pharaoh in the Red Sea in the 
 words, " the horse and his rider hath He thrown into the 
 sea " ; and we read in Moses' own account that " the 
 Egyptians pursued, and went in after them to the midst of 
 the sea, even all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his 
 horsemen." 
 
 The Egyptians, therefore, had horses; but if we turn to 
 the history of the twelve patriarchs going down to buy 
 corn in Egypt, we shall find that they took asses with 
 them, and no mention is made of horses until Egypt is 
 reached. The Ishmaelites who carried Joseph into Egypt 
 
HORSES. 167 
 
 were mounted on camels, and there is no mention made of 
 horses as existing among the patriarchs, but thpy possessed 
 sheep, oxen, camels, and asses. 
 
 Although the descendants of Jacob lived four hundred 
 years in Egypt, they do not appear to have acquired pro- 
 perty in horses, and, indeed, were enjoined not to possess 
 themselves of them. In their wars it was their custom to 
 hough or hamstring the horses which they captured from 
 their enemies. David hamstrung six hundred horses, and 
 speaks with a sort of disdain of horses as an instrument of 
 war, when he says, "some trust in chariots, and some in 
 horses.^^ The ass and the ox were the animals of burden or 
 of draught employed by the Jews, and Saul, it will be 
 remembered, was in quest of his father's asses, which had 
 strayed, when he was called to be king over Israel. David, 
 however, when he houghed six hundred horses, reserved one 
 hundred, and Solomon broke through the customs and laws 
 which had guided his predecessors, and formed a numerous 
 body of horses and chariots, and established a trade in 
 horses with Africa. 
 
 Arabia was not apparently possessed of horses at that 
 time. Strabo, who wrote in the time of Tiberius Csesar, 
 states that neither Arabia-Felix nor Deserta possessed 
 either horses or mules, but at and after the time of 
 Mahomet the Arabs became horsemen. If, then, Arabia 
 was destitute of horses, and Solomon imported from Egypt 
 and other countries of Africa, we may infer that the 
 Egyptian horses were of African origin. 
 
 The African Horse. 
 
 The African horse appears to be distinct from that of 
 
168 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Asia, and the most characteristic type is found in Nubia 
 and the adjoining deserts. How far this remarkable race 
 of horses extends into the burning regions of the interior 
 we are ignorant, but the horses of Africa with which we 
 are most familiar in Europe are those which inhabit the 
 countries north of the desert of Sahara. They are termed 
 Barbs, and they inhabit the kingdoms of Fez, Morocco, 
 and all the countries eastward, to the deserts bordering on 
 Egypt, 
 
 The Asiatic Horse. 
 
 This horse, although of a stronger and robuster type, 
 has also been since the earliest times domesticated in the 
 countries .bordering on the Caspian and Euxine Seas, and 
 is found in perfection near the Caucasus, in Armenia, and 
 other parts of Asia Minor. The Circassians are famous 
 for the beauty of their horses. The Turcomans and Kurds 
 possess horses of great strength and power, and it was 
 from these countries that the Turks derived their splendid 
 cavalry with which they well-nigh subdued Europe. 
 
 Armenia, at an earher period, supplied the merchant 
 princes of Tyre and Sidon with horses and mules, and 
 Homer, a thousand years before the Christian era, speaks 
 of the horses of the same countries as yoked to the chariots 
 of his heroes. 
 
 Tlie Arabian Horse. 
 
 Arabia does not appear to have acquired the horse until 
 the age of Mahomet. The Arabian horses are connected 
 in all their characters with those of the Caucasus and Asia 
 Minor ; but inhabiting a very dry and arid country, they 
 
E0BSE8. 169 
 
 are smaller, but at the same time more eompactj rounder in 
 body, shorter in limb, with more bone and sinew than the 
 Asiatic horse previously described. They are not often 
 more than fourteen hands, or fifty-six inches, high. They 
 are lean, slender, and somewhat narrow-chested, and are 
 swift, agile, spirited, and gentle. They are by no means 
 the fiery animals some people imagine them to be, but are 
 docile and affectionate. These horses are produced in the 
 largest numbers in the countries bordering on Syria and 
 the river Euphrates, where the climate is temperate and 
 food abundant ; and south of the countries stretching from 
 Mecca to the Persian Gulf they are few in numbers and 
 stunted in growth. 
 
 Very fine horses are to be found in Persia, especially 
 near the Caspian" Sea. The Indian horses are small and 
 inferior in temper to those of Arabia. In China the hoi'se 
 is not much esteemed, but in Tartary and Thibet they are 
 numerous. The horses of the Kalmuks and those of 
 Independent Tartary, owned by the Turcomans and others, 
 have always been famous, especially for purposes of war. 
 The region of Siberia contains herds of wild horses, but, 
 as already stated, it is more than doubtful if these are truly 
 wild, and they are now looked upon as having escaped from 
 a state of domestication, and become wild in their habits. 
 In Siam, Cambodia, and Malacca the horse is of pony 
 size, fiery, tolerably swift, but not possessed of great 
 powers of endurance. The inhabitants of these countries 
 have never been horsemen. 
 
 The Wild Horses of South America. 
 
 That the horse is capable of regaining his freedom, ana 
 
170 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 of assuming once more the habits of a wild animai, is 
 clearly shown in South America. It is well known that 
 the horse did not exist in the vast new continent discovered 
 by Columbus. It was imported by the Spanish soldiers of 
 Pizarro and his compeers, and there multiplied with 
 wonderful rapidity. According to Azara, when Buenos 
 Ayres was abandoned, about the year 1535, its inhabitants 
 left behind them five horses and seven mares, which had 
 been brought from Andalusia. These soon multiplied, and 
 gave origin to those vast herds which covered the broad 
 plains southward and westward of the Rio de la Plata, 
 while others, escaping from the. settlement north of the 
 same river, multiplied in Paraguay and other parts of the 
 interior. Mexican horses have also escaped into the woods 
 and savannahs, and become wild, and have extended north- 
 ward to the Rockies and Columbia in the fifty-second and 
 fifty- third parallels of latitude. The " wild " horses of the 
 Falkland Islands furnish also another instance of how 
 rapidly horses return to a state of freedom. 
 
 Darwin's Views as to the Origin of the Horse. 
 
 The great naturalist, Charles Darwin, was strongly of 
 the opinion already given, that the horse does not now 
 exist in the original form from which he was derived. 
 He came to the conclusion that the horse is descended 
 from an extinct stock which probably resembled the quagga, 
 or in a less degree the zebra — that is, a more or less striped 
 animal. He was led to this conclusion by noticing that 
 in many parts of the world horses which have not been 
 carefully bred, or which have continued unimproved, are 
 furnished with a dark-coloured stripe, extending from the 
 
H0B8^S. 171 
 
 mane to the tail, like that seen upon the ass. Further, he 
 noticed that in many cases the spinal stripe is accompanied 
 by distinct shoulder stripes, and in others with cross-bars 
 or markings on the hocks and inside the fore-legs. 
 In rarer cases other markings similar to those found 
 upon Burchell's zebra were observed, and from these 
 and other observations he came to the conclusion that 
 there is a tendency for horses to throw stripes. The 
 appearance of these markings in horses bred in all parts 
 of the world seems to indicate a lost character which now 
 and then appears in the domesticated horse, which, it is 
 therefore thought, is derived from a remote parent form of 
 striped character, now extinct. 
 
 Older writers, such as the late Professor Low, to 
 whose writings we are largely indebted for much 
 information on horses, do not seem to have had any 
 doubt as to the existence of truly wild horses in 
 Asia and Africa. The light of science has, however, 
 caused us to modify this view. The presence of wild 
 horses in America and the Falkland Islands shows 
 how readily the horse may become emancipated or free, 
 and it is therefore exceedingly probable that the so-called 
 wild horses of Siberia and Central Asia, may also be the 
 descendants of escaped horses. 
 
 English Horses. 
 
 When Julius Csesar invaded Britain, in the year 55 
 B.C., he found the Belgffi possessed of horses, which they 
 attached to cba,riots for the purposes of attack and defence. 
 "Whatever was the character of these early horses with 
 respect to their size, strength, and proportions, it is 
 
172 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 probable that for many ages they underwent little change. 
 The horses of Saxon England, for all we know, were much 
 the same in character with the horses which encountered 
 the Roman legions under Julius Caesar. The Normans 
 were, however, ardent admirers of the horse, and soon 
 after their occupation arose the age of chivalry. The 
 Norman knights are known to have imported the great 
 Black horse of Flanders, as capable of supporting the 
 weight of armour required in the warfare of those rude 
 times. The Crusades brought our armies into contact 
 with the superior Turkish horses used by the Saracens, and 
 by degrees horses from Spain and Italy, Barbary and the 
 Levant, found their way to the land of the Anglo- 
 Normans. King John devoted his attention to the im- 
 provement of the native horses, and at one time imported 
 one hundred stallions from Flanders. Edward II. im- 
 ported horses from Lombardy, and Edward III. devoted a 
 large sum to the purchase of Spanish horses. Henry VII. 
 was the last of the English kings who maintained the 
 usages of chivalry, and imported finer horses from Turkey, 
 Naples, and Spain for the improvement of the royal stud. 
 Owing, in a great measure, to the use of heavy armour, 
 the English horses of this time appear to have been 
 rather of the cart-horse type, even when employed for the 
 chase. During the reign of Elizabeth heavy armour went 
 out of use, and her successor, James I., favoured a sport 
 which has had a great influence on our horses: namely, the 
 horse-race. This idea was further encouraged, and became 
 established as a national sport, by Charles II., and from 
 this period a vast amount of care has been bestowed on 
 horses devoted to the course. 
 
S0BSB8. 173 
 
 The horses imported for this purpose were chiefly from 
 Africa, from Asiatic Turkey, and, ultimately, from Arabia. 
 The Barbs came generally from Morocco and Fez, the Turks 
 from Smyrna, and the Arabs from the deserts adjoining 
 Syria. From the reign of King James II. to Queen Anne 
 the imported horses were Barbs and Turks, but chiefly 
 Barbs, which had, therefore, the largest share in forming 
 the character of the English race-horse. The pure Arabs 
 were chiefly imported in the early part of the last cen- 
 tury. 
 
 As the horses produced by crossing these various types 
 with our native breed were constantly tested on the race- 
 course, and as success on the turf is generally hereditary, 
 it was natural that pedigrees should be carefully kept, and 
 in this way the foundation was laid of what is now known 
 as the English Thorough-bred horse. The various ele- 
 ments became fused together, with a magnificent result; 
 and it is not too much to say that the English Blood-horse 
 is unequalled in the world for strength, swiftness, and 
 endurance. Although originally compounded of various 
 races, his properties have now been transmitted through 
 so many generations that he is properly regarded as 
 pure-bred or thorough-bred, and in this peculiarity he 
 stands almost alone. 
 
 The Thorough-bred is, in the first place, a racer, but 
 his splendid qualities have been utilised for improving 
 the standard of the inferior horses of the country. Thus, 
 we find a large number of " half-bred " horses, by which 
 term is meant any high-class horse which is not a pure- 
 bred. Half-bred horses produced by the union of, it may 
 be, cart mares, or mares of higher breeding, with a 
 
174 LIVB STOCK. 
 
 thorough-bred horse, give fine carriage -horses, hunters, 
 and hacks or roadsters. In some cases they are nearly 
 thorough-bred, while in others they are of less pure 
 descent, and of heavier build. Horses are required for 
 such a vast number of purposes that all degrees of size 
 and weight find a market, but for all the classes of lighter 
 or faster work "a dash of blood" is now thought to be 
 essential. Thus, horses are needed for heavy broughams, 
 wagonettes, dog-carts, trade vans, as well as for ordinary 
 saddle purposes and the hunting-field ; and the Thorough- 
 bred lies at the foundation of all of these, though in a 
 greater or less degree. 
 
 Fox-hunting, scarcely less than racing, has proved to 
 be a great stimulus to the breeding of weight-carrying 
 horses gifted with staying powers. It is therefore clear 
 that the history of the English Thorough-bred is bound up 
 with the general progress of breeding for the supply of all 
 the better class of horses. (See Hackney Horses.) 
 
 English Cart-horses. 
 
 The origin of the English Cart-horse dates back to the 
 time previous to the importation of those higher classes of 
 animals which gradually produced the English Thorough- 
 bred. At the time of Queen Elizabeth the coarse cart- 
 horse form was the prevailing one, as may be seen from 
 the pictures of the time. 
 
 We cannot, however, look upon English Cart-horses as 
 all of the same general form. We have several well- 
 defined races of draught horses, each of which is now bred 
 with great care, and, although the term thorough-bred has 
 been appropriated to the blood-horse, or racer, many of our 
 
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 A 
 
 
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 ■uP^» 
 
 
 jF* 
 
 '•v>^i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1^^'-^ 
 
 r 
 
 
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 P^-'... 
 
 
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176 Liri) STOCK. 
 
 draught horses may well be spoken of as pure or thorough 
 in their pedigrees. 
 
 The Old English Black Horse. 
 
 This breed is now better known as the Shire horse, 
 which is the direct descendant of the Old English and 
 European Black horse — one of the grandest and most 
 widely extended breeds of horses. In the reign of Heury 
 VIII. a law was passed that all stallions below a certain 
 size (fifteen hands) should be confiscated, and that any 
 mares not likely to breed foals of a reasonable size should, 
 at the discretion of the drivers of the commons, be killed 
 and buried. Professor Low speaks of these " monstrous 
 edicts " as causing such a decline in the number of horses 
 in England that Queen Elizabeth could only muster 3,000 
 eayalry when the terrible Spanish Armada thrieatened her 
 kingdom with destruction. Mr. Walter Gilbey, who is a 
 great breeder of Shire horses, takes a different view : namely, 
 that "this statute no doubt served to build up what has 
 since come to be called the SAire horse.'^ 
 
 It is well known tha;t from the earliest times a large 
 and heavy race of horses of black colour existed in Europe. 
 It was well known to the Romans, who derived the most 
 powerful horses for their cavalry from Belgic Gaul. In 
 the Middle Ages these horses carried knights and men-at- 
 arms, and they are still used for mounting heavy cavalry 
 throughout Europe. 
 
 The same widely spread race has long existed in Eng- 
 land, under the name of the Old English Black horse. It 
 has long been known, from the Humber, through the fens of 
 Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, and extending westward 
 
HOBSBS. 177 
 
 through the counties of Huntingdon, Northampton^ 
 Leicester, Nottingham, Derby, Warwick, and Stafford, to 
 the Severn. Other counties might be named north and 
 south of those already mentioned, and hence the appropriate 
 name of the Shire horse, or horse of the English shires. 
 
 It is the largest, heaviest, and perhaps grandest, horse 
 in the world. At two and a half years old colts are often 
 seventeen hands high, and, when weight is required, the 
 larger descriptions of Shire horses are in most demand. 
 
 Three varieties of this race have been described: (1) 
 The largest and heaviest kind, which is used for dray and 
 railway work; (2) Waggon-horses; (3) Lighter horses, 
 used for certain Household Cavahy regiments and for the 
 melancholy task of drawing hearses and mourning-coaches. 
 What is known now specially as the Shire horse represents 
 an improved form of the heaviest and largest description of 
 Black horses. 
 
 Professor Low, whose works on live stock were written 
 some fifty years ago, relates that the unimproved, or 
 original, type of Black horse had in his turn almost ceased 
 to exist, but that " individuals are still to be met with, 
 bordering on the commons or in possession of very old 
 farmers.''^ They had coarse heads, large ears, and thick 
 lips largely garnished with hair, coarse shoulders, stout, 
 hairy limbs, broad hoofs, and upright pasterns. Robert 
 Bakewell, of Dishley, who has been already mentioned in 
 connection with Longhorn cattle and Leicester sheep, was 
 the first notable improver of the Old English Black horse. 
 He went to Holland, and bought mares, which he crossed 
 with the native stallions, and afterwards pursued a course 
 of careful selection, with most excellent results. During 
 
 M 
 
178 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 recent years the type has been further improved, especially 
 in the legs and pasterns, and are largely exported to 
 America, where they are very popular. The Shire Horse 
 Society and " Stud Book/' and an influential list of famous 
 breeders, attest the popularity of this famous breed. 
 
 The Clydesdale Horse. 
 
 This breed occupies a similar position in the lowlands 
 of Scotland and border counties to that of the Black or 
 Shire horse of the English midlands. In appearance they 
 are similar j and when we remember the wide distribution 
 of the European Black horse, and the fact that a Duke of 
 Hamilton crossed the mares of his country with Flemish 
 stallions, it is more than probable that the two races are 
 closely related. The Clydesdale horse is of the larger class 
 of draught horses, the ordinary height being sixteen hands. 
 They are often black in colour, but may be brown, bay, and 
 even grey. They are longer in body than the Old English 
 Black horse, and less weighty and compact, with a quicker 
 action. For farm work they are superior to the English 
 breed, as they step out more briskly, and are less heavy 
 upon the land. They find their favourite home in Lanark- 
 shire, and are largely found in Renfrew, Ayr, and Dum- 
 fries. These horses are also much sought after by 
 American buyers, and high prices are given for them. As 
 an example of the value of these horses, we may mention 
 that the late Mr. Lawrence Drew gave £1,500 for one 
 stallion. A large and heavy type is the favourite one, 
 and there has been some intermixture ol the Clydetdale 
 with the Shire horse. 
 
H 2 
 
180 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 The Suffolk Punch. 
 The county of Suffolk boasts a distinct breed of ex- 
 cellent draught horses^ which are supposed to have been 
 originally imported from Normandy, and to date back to 
 an earlier time, when that country was invaded and settled 
 by the Norsemen of Scandinavia. The chief feature of 
 the Suffolk Punch, which at once distinguishes it as a 
 breed, is the colour, which is chestnut or light sorrel, witl 
 lighter coloured, and almost flaxen, mane and tail. Theii 
 form is thick and compact, with short backs and short legs. 
 They are determined pullers, hardy and frugal. The 
 colour of the Suffolk Punch is characteristic of the horse 
 in many parts of the world, but especially in Scandinavia, 
 Northern Europe, and eastwards into the far-off plains of 
 Tartary, where the dun colour is known to prevail. 
 
 The Cleveland Bay. 
 
 The three breeds last mentioned include the truly 
 distinct draught races of Great Britain. The Cleveland 
 Bay is scarcely a draught horse, although he has been 
 used for ploughing and carting in the district after which 
 he is named. The locality is fixed at the mouth of the 
 Tees, and at the foot of the Cleveland Hills, where a tract 
 of rich land, composed of Lias clay, forms a fertile area 
 north of Thirsk and around Middlesborough. 
 
 The Cleveland horse is clean-limbed, and is a bay with 
 black points, and is rather a carriage- than a cart-horse. 
 They are remarkably active, and may be used indiscri- 
 minately for ploughing, riding, or trapping. They have, no 
 doubt, originated in the gradual improvement of the horses 
 of the district by successive crossing of high-class blood 
 
HOUSES. 181 
 
 ia which the thorough-bred has had a part. The Cleveland 
 Bay some years ago appeared to be in danger of becoming 
 extinetj and would have done so had it not been for the 
 efforts of the Cleveland Horse Society. The Cleveland 
 mare is suitable for breeding fine carriage-horses of the 
 most approved colour^ and may^ when put to a thorough- 
 bredj throw a first-rate hunter. 
 
 It is described and classified as a coach-horse by Low, 
 who also says : '' It has been formed by the same means as 
 the hunter — -namely, by the progressive mixture of the 
 blood of the race-horse with original breeds of the country. 
 But a larger class of horse has been used as the basis, and 
 a larger standard adopted by breeders." 
 
 The Hackney Horse. 
 
 A few years ago the race-horse enjoyed an exclusive 
 use of the term Thorough-bred, which he still retains. All 
 the faster and finer-bred horses were termed " Half-breds,'' 
 and so much is this still the case that we can only look 
 upon the pure breeding of hunters and roadsters as a 
 new idea. 
 
 Richard Lawrence, writing in 1816, says: — "The 
 proper stallion for breeding road horses should be what 
 is called a Half-bred ; " and this continued to be true until 
 recently, and is still true in most cases. Many roadsters, 
 are, however, bred out of stronger mares, and from 
 thorough-bred sires. 
 
 In 1883 the Hackney Stud Book Society was formed, 
 to encourage the pure breeding of Norfolk Trotters and 
 Yorkshire Roadsters. The Thorough-bred, or Racer, is not a 
 trotting horse, as is well known. His pace is the gallop. 
 
182 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 but trotting is an accomplishment of Half-breds and of 
 horses specially bred for the purpose. Among them, the 
 Norfolk Trotters and Yorkshire Roadsters are the most 
 famouSj and trotting races have become very fashionable in 
 America. 
 
 The object of the Hackney Society is to encourage 
 horses of this type. "A horse bred from Hackneys," 
 says Mr. Anthony Hammond, "whose pedigree can be 
 traced for years, is certain to have action, and action 
 always commands money .'^ 
 
 These horses are best when fifteen hands two inches 
 high, and the trot is their strongest pace. 
 
 Ponies and Galloways. 
 
 A pony should be under twelve hands, or forty-eight 
 inches high, measured carefully by a proper standard at 
 the withers, or shoulder-tops. A Galloway is from twelve 
 to fourteen hands high. The most famous ponies which 
 we possess are those of Shetland or Zetland, Orkney, and 
 the Hebrides ; the Welsh ponies ; the Exmoor ponies of 
 Devonshire, and the New Forest ponies of Hampshire. 
 The Galloways are named after the small horse of South- 
 Western Scotland. 
 
 We are also familiar in this country with the ponies of 
 Norway and Corsica. 
 
 These small horses are capable of doing more work 
 than those of larger stature, and are invaluable for a 
 variety of purposes, such as shooting, road work, and 
 saddle work. They are much used for children before they 
 can be trusted to ride a full-sized horse. They are also 
 employed in mines for drawing the loaded trucks to the 
 
H0B8B8. 183 
 
 pit-mouth along the narrow and low passages which extend 
 for miles under ground. These ponies are stabled and live 
 in the mines, and only rarely are allowed a holiday above 
 the surface. 
 
 The pony is the result of peculiar conditions of food 
 and climate, and in many cases is known to have been 
 descended from full-sized horses. Thus, in America there 
 are races of ponies, such as the Puno pony, which, like all 
 American horses, is a descendant of animals imported into 
 that continent from Spain in the fifteenth century. Tra- 
 dition also affirms that at the time of the Armada (1588) 
 many Spanish horses were stranded alive on the shores of 
 the Hebrides and Shetland. 
 
 Ponies are always associated with mountains and 
 raoors, where a full-sized horse would find it difficult to 
 live. The size becomes reduced, and the severer the 
 climate the smaller is the size. Those of Shetland are 
 often only seven-and-a-half hands high, or even less, and 
 the ordinary height is nine hands. " These little horses in 
 their native islands are left almost in a state of nature 
 until they are caught for use. They have no shelter from 
 the continued storms of tempestuous seas beyond what the 
 crags, ravines, and hill-sides afEordj and they scarcely ever 
 receive any food but what they can collect on the sedgy 
 bogs, the heathy hills, and barren shores of the country." 
 (Low.) Such conditions are only favourable for an animal 
 whose size and, therefore, whose requirements in food, are 
 small, and which at the same time is active and hardy; and 
 thus we see that the surroundings or circumstances of the 
 Shetland pony must have constantly tended to reduce his 
 stature and to keep up his hardiness of constitution. The 
 
184 LIVB 8T0GK. 
 
 same conditions exist in Norway, the Hebrides, Orkney, 
 North Wales, and in a less degree on Exmoor and the 
 barren heaths of the New Forest. Small islands also 
 aj)pear to be favourable to the development of ponies, of 
 which fact sufficient evidence has been given. 
 
 The horse is therefore seen to be capable of great 
 alterations in size, according to the food he is supplied with 
 and the climate to which he is exposed. The small horses 
 of the barren tracts of Arabia, the still smaller ponies of 
 Zetland, and, by contrast, the magnificent horses of the 
 fen-lands of Lincolnshire, which have been bred for 
 hundreds of years on rich pastures and in a temperate 
 climate, are instances which help us to understand the 
 wonderful effect of surroundings, or what naturahsts call 
 " environment,^'' on the animal body. 
 
 Asses and Mules. 
 
 The ass is so well known, and his general character is 
 so similar wherever found in the country, that but little 
 description seems necessary. Asses vary, it is true, in 
 colour, from white to silver grey, and from light to dark 
 brown, also in size to some degree ; but in general the 
 English donkey is the same wherever met with. Patient, 
 somewhat stupid, cunning, funny-tempered, but responsive 
 to good treatment, is the donkey. He is the poor man's 
 horse, the companion of the costermonger and small 
 gardener, the children's playmate at home and on the sea- 
 beach — an animal whose appearance often provokes a smile, 
 and whose name has been associated with obstinacy, 
 stupidity, and stolidity in all ages. ' 
 
 The ass is, nevertheless, an object of great interest to 
 
EOBSJES. 185 
 
 the student. He is valued at a higher rate in many 
 countries than he is here, and attains a larger size and 
 is employed for nobler purposes. Interest in the ass 
 is readily awakened when he is connected with events of 
 sacred and ancient history. He was apparently domestic- 
 ated before the horse, and if this statement is thought to be 
 doubtful — for both animals have been for ages the willing 
 servants of man — we know that the ancient Jews, and their 
 forefathers, the patriarchs, preferred the ass to the horse. 
 Asses and camels were among the riches of Abraham and 
 Lot, and Balaam's ass is known to all as the only animal 
 which ever opened her mouth, when she, in a miraculous 
 manner, reproved the madness of the prophet. "Saddle 
 me the ass,'' is a familiar expression in the Old Testament. 
 It was an ass, it will be remembered, upon which our Lord 
 made His triumphal entry into Jerusalem shortly before 
 His crucifixion. 
 
 If we are to understand the real character and origin 
 of the ass, we must study him as he appears in far-off 
 regions. He is . naturally an inhabitant of desolate places 
 and trackless deserts. There he is free as air, and is of 
 noble nature. His very stubbornness in servitude seems 
 a sort of protest against slavery, for the wild ass is one 
 of the fleetest and freest of beasts. In the beautiful 
 language of Job the ass is selected as one of the most 
 perfect works of the Almighty, and is pictured in the 
 following striking words : " Who hath sent out the wild 
 ass free ? or who hath loosed the bonds of the wild ass ? 
 whose house he hath made in the wilderness, and the barren 
 land his dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city, 
 neither regardeth he the crying of the driver. The range 
 
186 LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth after 
 every green thing." This fine description seems at once 
 to indicate the grand freedom of the wild animal, and 
 to hint at the lowliness of the domesticated ass. The 
 "crying of his driver" is a sound as familiar now as in 
 the days of Job, and seems to show that the tame ass, even 
 at that time, required urging. We may also notice in 
 this connection the different language employed when the 
 horse is spoken of as rejoicing in his strength, and saying, 
 " among the trumpets. Ha, ha ! " — a form of expression 
 which well imitates the impatient neighing of a charger. 
 
 The ass was included by Linnaeus in the genus (family) 
 Equtjs, but has been separated into another group by 
 later naturalists, under the name of A sinus. The horse 
 and the ass are, however, closely allied, as is proved by the 
 fact that they breed together, and produce a sterile off- 
 spring, known as the mule. 
 
 The wild ass is so well described in the quotation from 
 Job above given that we should only be able to repeat it 
 in other words if we wished to say more. He, in colour 
 and form, resembles the larger varieties of the domesticated 
 animal, and chiefly differs from them in his proverbial 
 wildness. He is known by the Persians as Gor, and this 
 name, coupled with Khur, the Persian name for an ass, 
 forms Gor-Khur, by which the wild ass is known in 
 various countries of the East. 
 
 The wild ass abounds in Africa, above the cataracts of 
 the Nile, and is there, as in Asia, an inhabitant of the 
 desert, and is fleet of foot and difficult to capture. 
 
 The finest domesticated asses are found in Greece, 
 Italy, and Spain, and also in the old Poitou province of 
 
HOBSES. 
 
 187 
 
 France. Specimens in the possession of Mr. C. L. 
 Sutherland, at Coombe, Croydon, seen by the author, 
 rivalled the horse in stature. They were about or above 
 fifteen hands high, with splendidly long ears, fine heads, 
 and massive carcases. 
 
 It is from these fine asses of Southern Europe that the 
 best mules are bred. The undersized mule which is often 
 
 J. 45. — A MXILE OF THE MIDI. 
 
 to be seen in England gives but a poor idea of what tins 
 strange animal may become under favourable circum- 
 stances. Mr. Sutherland has done a good work in en- 
 couraging the breeding of really good mules, and many 
 of them in his possession are as large as horses, and of 
 
188 LIVB 8T0GK. 
 
 wonderful power. They are more frugal : that is, can 
 thrive on poorer diet than a horse requires^ and they live to 
 a very great age. The hest mules are bred from the male 
 ass and mare, as the mother appears to give the external 
 form. Those bred from female asses are longer in the 
 ears, of less beautiful form, and duller in temperament. 
 
 The mule is the favourite beast of burden in Spain. 
 They are of various classes, some being suitable for 
 draught purposes, while others of more slender form 
 and finer action are used for the saddle, and are employed 
 by persons of wealth in preference to horses. The mule is 
 wonderfully sure-footed, like the ass. In all mountainous 
 countries, of which Spain is a good example, the mule is 
 invaluable. He can carry his rider safely over moun- 
 tain passes which appear inaccessible. He can climb 
 slippery ledges of rock overhanging fearful precipices, and 
 when he has arrived at the summit he makes his descent 
 with equal care and safety, often drawing his four feet 
 together, and sliding down steep ravines with fearful 
 rapidity, but instinctive exactness, arriving safely with 
 his burden at the bottom of the perilous path. In trans- 
 porting merchandise across the dreadful cliffs of the 
 Cordilleras, no animal can be compared with the mule. 
 
 In addition to the good qualities already enumerated, 
 the mule is blessed with a constitution wonderfully free 
 from the many diseases to which the horse is subject. 
 The wonder is that in an enterprising country like 
 England the mule is not more largely usedj but we 
 believe that his day is coming, and now that he is better 
 known he is likely to become more generally appreciated. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF HORSES. 
 
 To treat o£ the breeding, rearing, training, and manage- 
 ment of horses would be to undertake a work far beyond 
 our. original purpose, which is to give a fair idea to the 
 young of our many descriptions of live stock. The sub- 
 ject is so large that bulky volumes have been written upon 
 it. Our attention can, therefore, only be given to the 
 management of farm horses, on the same principle upon 
 which we have treated cattle, sheep, and pigs as farm 
 stock. 
 
 The management of all animals is naturally divided 
 into breeding, rearing, and after-management — such as 
 fatting in the case of cattle and sheep, or breaking, train- 
 ing, and using in the case of horses. 
 
 Breeding Horses. 
 
 This important subject includes the breeding of all 
 descriptions of horses, but we shall treat it generally. 
 Whatever breed of horse may be concerned, the selection 
 of parents is an all- important matter. Everyone who has 
 attempted to write upon this subject has laid stress on the 
 importance of only propagating from thoroughly sound 
 and good parents. This is most necessary, and requires to 
 be taught, because, while no one would deny the truth of 
 
190 LIVE STOCK 
 
 this principle many persons do not follow it out in 
 practicCj but apparently consider that any horse or mare 
 is .good enough to breed foals. Some defeetSj it is true, 
 are not open to objection, among which may be named 
 those caused by accidents, or such as breaking down under 
 heavy work, for example. Some good authorities go even 
 further than this, and advise that no animals should be bred 
 from which are not in full health and vigour, and free from 
 all defects. Lameness, blindness, malformations, etc., may 
 be due to accidents, it is true, but in some cases there has 
 been a weakness or disposition towards these ailments. A 
 thoroughly strong horse might have resisted the causes of 
 these apparent accidents, and therefore all imperfections 
 should be inquired into. Defects which a horse has in- 
 herited, and which showed themselves at the time of his 
 birth, or which have developed with his growth, are called 
 congenital defects — i.e., they belong to his constitution, 
 and are therefore liable to re-appear in his offspring. The 
 great principle that like hegets like runs through all Nature, 
 and hence sound, well-formed, good-tempered, and good- 
 actioned horses are only to be relied upon to produce young 
 of the same good character. The same remark applies to 
 mares as well as stallions. 
 
 The mare goes for eleven months with young, and 
 generally foals in May. 
 
 Mares. employed for breeding may be reasonably worked 
 to within a short time of foaling, and, in the case of farm 
 horses, working on the land in the plough or harrow is 
 considered more suitable than travelling in shafts or on 
 the road. For the last month it is advisable to turn 
 her out during the day, and bring her into a large loose 
 
MANAGEMENT OF S0BSE8. 19] 
 
 box at night. Mares usually foal without assistance, and 
 are rarely seen to produce their young. 
 
 After foaling, mares should not be worked for a 
 month J but as the weather is usually fairly warm, she 
 may be turned out into the pastures night and day, unless, 
 indeed, the nights are cold, when she and her foal ought 
 to be housed. The foal ought always to have free access 
 to the mare. This, of course, must be the case as long as 
 the two are turned out together ; but when mares are taken 
 up for work they are often over-heated through their 
 exertions, and the milk becomes disordered and sour ; the 
 consequence is that the foal scours, and sometimes dies. 
 A more natural system is to allow the foal to follow its 
 dam even when she is at the plough, and it can then suck 
 at short intervals or whenever it feels so disposed. Foals 
 soon learn to eat grass, and are weaned at Michaelmas. 
 
 Treatment of Weanling Colts. 
 
 The best situation for young colts or fillies after 
 weaning is rough pastures, where there is an abundance 
 of grass upon which they can live during their first 
 winter. Such a pasture, with a hovel into which the 
 young animals can retire and receive a little corn and hay, 
 is really all that is necessary. As colts are sociable, it is 
 not a good plan to place one by itself; it does better 
 with one or more companions. Colts should be liberally 
 fed with a peck of good oats a week and some sweet hay, 
 especially as the season advances. A few carrots or a 
 swede turnip are also wholesome additions to the grass 
 which forms the staple of their food. 
 
192 LIVE STOOK. 
 
 Treatment of Yearling Colts. 
 
 When a foal has arrived at one year old it is called a 
 yearling, and it is a yearling until it has accomplished its 
 second year, when it becomes a two-year-old, and so on. 
 
 During the summer which succeeds its first birthday it 
 runs on grass-land, such as sound dry pasture or marsh. 
 As winter approaches it ought to receive two pecks of 
 oats per week, with hay, as recommended during its first 
 wiater. 
 
 Treatment of Two-Year-Old Colts. 
 
 At two years old cart colts are often broken to light 
 work, such as harrowing in spring corn, more to accustom 
 them to harness and make them handy than to get any 
 profitable work out of them. After a few half-days of 
 such light labour, they should be again turned out for the 
 summer. It is often the custom to break colts gradually 
 to ordinary work in the same autumn, and if they 
 are judiciously employed, and only worked half-days at a 
 time, with frequent holidays, there is no serious objection 
 to the practice. As, however, work often presses, it un- 
 fortunately happens that colts are often over-taxed, and 
 damaged for life. A wiser rule is, therefore, to put ofE 
 breaking-in until the colt has had another winter's run, 
 and to bring him into light work after he is three years 
 old. 
 
 Breaking-in Cart Colts. 
 
 Foals should be early taught to be led about with a 
 halter, and to lift up their feet when asked by gently lifting a 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SOBSES. 193 
 
 foot and holding it of£ the ground. They should, in a 
 word, be made docile, and what is called " handy/' At 
 two years old they may be bitted or mouthed by allowing 
 them to champ a breaking-bridle for two or three hours 
 a day, and thus to gradually make a tender mouth. Cart 
 colts are seldom lunged around a ring, as is generally done 
 with higher class colts. 
 
 At two and a half or three years old a colt may be 
 backed and gently ridden about. One man on either side 
 is a safe precaution when a strong colt is first mounted, 
 and he is then gently led until he becomes accustomed to 
 be ridden. Cart colts are usually introduced to their work 
 by yoking them at once by the side of a steady horse, or 
 between two, and taking the precaution to have plenty of 
 help in case of accident. The horse is easily trained to his 
 work, but great care is requisite that no hitch or accident 
 should happen, such as running away, kicking, entangle- 
 ment in harness or doorways, as such mishaps are never 
 forgotten. Similarly, the rattle of a cart or vehicle behind 
 a young horse terrifies him a good deal at first, and there- 
 fore harnessing to such vehicles should be done carefully 
 and with assistance. Young horses should be taken charge 
 of by experienced men, who never forget the importance of 
 gentle usage, and steady, firm treatment. The break- 
 ing-bridle should be kept in the mouth frequently and 
 for long periods, so as to make the mouth thoroughly 
 tender. 
 
 Management of Working Horses. 
 
 Stabling. — So many kinds of stabling for cart-horses 
 are in use that we may well come to the conclusion that 
 
194 LIVE 8T0GK. 
 
 any kind which may be relied upon to keep the animals 
 comfortable will suffice. We have known cart-horses kept 
 in small yards provided with ordinary shedding ; in boxes, 
 ten feet by ten feet ; in simple sheds, where the animals 
 are tied up side by side, without partitions; and lastly, in 
 ordinary stall stables, in which the horses are divided from 
 each other by proper " travises," or partitions. 
 
 All stables should be well lighted, well ventilated, and 
 well drained. They should open and be lighted towards 
 the east. A good stable should be at least seventeen 
 feet wide, and divided as follows from wall to wall : — 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 A trough or manger 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Standing , 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 Gutter , 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Passage behind horses ... 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 Each horse is allowed a stall five feet six inches wide, so 
 that for the accommodation of ten horses fifty-five feet in 
 length is required. The stalls should have a slope or fall 
 of three inches from head to gutter, and every stall should 
 be provided with a drain protected by a grating, and should 
 be well paved. 
 
 Stables are not provided now with a loft, as it is not 
 thought desirable to store hay above the horses' heads, and 
 that the stable is better open to the roof, as being cooler and 
 more airy. A hay-house may be placed in the centre of a 
 stable devoted to ten or twelve horses, and be provided 
 with locked corn-bins and proper accommodation for chafE 
 as well as long hay. Ventilation is best effected by valved 
 openings placed above the horses' heads and louvered 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SOBSES. 195 
 
 openings in the ridge of the roof. In some cases the 
 ventilators in the front wall are placed low, but this is 
 a matter on which stable managers differ, as it exposes 
 horses to a direct draught. When placed just above the 
 horses' heads the openings may be so contrived as to send 
 the current of cold air upwards. The "travises" should 
 be sufficiently high at the heads to prevent the horses from 
 looking over and fighting or teasing one another. We 
 had a case in which one horse bit a large piece out of his 
 neighbour's tongue for want of this precaution. 
 
 In accordance with the plan of having no loft, the 
 mangers are placed low, and the space in front of the 
 horse is divided between rack and manger. In some 
 stables water is laid on so as to be always before the 
 horse, and this point is considered important by many 
 managers. Every stable should be provided with at least 
 one roomy loose box, used for various purposes — such as 
 mares near foaling, or in eases of illness, or when a horse 
 requires prolonged rest. A system of loose boxes is also 
 preferred by many horse-keepers, but it entails a good deal 
 of extra expense in the first instanced A loose box ought 
 not to be less than 14 ft. long and 10 ft. wide, to avoid 
 casting. 
 
 Feeding of Farm Horses. 
 
 An average-sized horse, in full work, will require, to 
 keep him in health, about 13 lbs. of oats and 8 lbs. of hay 
 daily, together with a little chaff, and access to oat or barley 
 straw, so that he should at all times feel satisfied. The 
 amount of food which a horse requires varies principally with 
 the amount of work he is called upon to perform, and thus 
 N 2 
 
196 LIVE 8T00K. 
 
 various dietaries are recommended j according to the stress 
 of work or the variations of the seasons. 
 
 On farmsj the four seasons of the year — spring, summer, 
 autumn, and winter — each bring changes in feeding, as 
 different natural foods succeed each other and as the 
 amount of work varies. If we commence the agricultural 
 year after harvest, we shall find a period of activity on 
 most farms. In nearly all cases the preparation for and 
 sowing of winter wheat, and the clearing of stubble, fur- 
 nish abundance of work for horses. And in others, besides 
 these ordinary employments, there are mangel-wurzels to 
 cart home, winter rye, winter barley, winter vetches to 
 plant, and sometimes winter beans; potatoes to harvest, 
 dung to cart out, and a variety of other work, which to- 
 gether make a busy season. At this period horses ought 
 to be well fed, and it is a matter of observation that if 
 they fall into low condition in the autumn they remain so 
 until the next summer. The food, therefore, must be 
 nutritious and abundant, and may consist of any of the 
 following combinations, each of which represents an allow- 
 ance for one week : — ■' 
 
 1^ bushels of oats, 
 f bushel of maize, 
 56 lbs. of bay; 
 
 or, 
 
 or. 
 
 2 bushels of oats, 
 I bushel of beans, 
 56 Iba. of hay; 
 
 1 bushel of maize, 
 1^ bushels of oats, 
 Barley straw {ad lib.) 
 
MANAGEMENT OF HOBSBS. 197 
 
 In East Lothian, where Clydesdale horses are kept, it is 
 the custom to give as much as 3^ bushels of home-grown 
 and undressed oats, and hay ad libitum; but the hours 
 on a Lothian farm are longer than in Southern England, 
 as horses are out of their stable from six to six, and 
 not, as in Hampshire, from seven to four. Ploughing is 
 also invariably done with two horses, and is usually carried 
 to a depth of from eight to ten inches. 
 
 Winter Feeding. — Winter always brings some relief 
 to horses. The days are short, and it is not possible to 
 plough before eight o'clock in the morning or after four in 
 the afternoon. Frosts, snow-storms, and heavy falls of 
 rain, together with gloomy mornings and dark afternoons, 
 and Christmas holidays, all combine to make work lighter 
 and less regular, so that a certain proportion of the corn 
 may be discontinued. The period comprised between 
 December 1st and February 1st, or even March 1st, is un- 
 favourable, as a rule, for tillage operations, and the food of 
 the horses may well be diminished. At this period 
 
 1 bushel of oats, 
 66 lbs. of bay, 
 
 would be a sufficient allowance for a horse for a week ; or, 
 if it is thought advisable to save hay, 
 
 1^ bushels of oats, 
 With barley straw, 
 
 will answer the same purpose j or, 
 
 1 bushel of maize, 
 With barley straw, 
 
 would form a good equivalent. 
 
198 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 Spring Feeding of Farm Horses. — With the re- 
 turn of spring comes a revival of oecupation for the horses. 
 Odd jobs, such as stone and dirt carting, or hay, straw, or 
 turnip carting for live stock, give place to the more im- 
 portant and serious tasks of getting in the spring corn, or 
 ploughing land for potatoes, mangel, and other early root 
 crops. The allowance of corn must again be increased to 
 the autumn level, and once more a liberal allowance of 
 oats, maize, beans, and hay becomes necessary. {See 
 Autumn Feeding of Farm Horses.) 
 
 Summer Feeding of Farm Horses. — The busy 
 period of spring is continued through May and June, and in 
 fact until the main bulk of the turnip crop has been sown. 
 After this a lull again occurs in the work of farm horses. 
 Hay-time and harvest are, it is true, periods of arduous 
 work for the men, but the horses are, on the whole, easier 
 worked at these times than when ploughing. Men pitch- 
 ing hay on to and off waggons work harder and more 
 continuously than the horse, which only drags the load. 
 Horses also always have a good deal of food when engaged 
 in harvest work, as they are usually to be seen eating hay 
 or barley ears, or getting frequent little morsels, at such 
 times. Besides, during the summer horses are often turned 
 out on to grass, and the succulent herbage takes away their 
 desire for corn. Many farmers give no hay in the height 
 of summer, and others never exceed one bushel of oats, 
 together with cut clover or vetches and grazing at night. 
 The custom of turning horses out to graze at night is not 
 one much to be recommended, as they frequently catch 
 serious colds and meet with accidents. The manure, is also 
 wasted to a great extent, and, unless straw for litter is 
 
MANAGEMENT OF H0B8E8. 199 
 
 scarce, we, on the whole, prefer that horses should re- 
 main in the stable at night throughout the entire year. 
 Nothing can be worse, for example, than, after horses 
 have been drawing a mowing machine or reaper all 
 day, to be turned out at eight o'clock at night on to a 
 pasture. 
 
 General Rules for Feeding Horses. — Having 
 indicated suitable quantities of food for farm horses at all 
 periods of the year, we shall now instruct our youthful 
 readers as to the best modes of feeding. Horses should be 
 fed regularly, and with fair frequency. A good carter 
 should be in his stable early in the morning. In some 
 parts of Lincolnshire the feeding commences at three 
 o'clock, and in no district later than about five o'clock. 
 Taking the latter hour as perhaps sufficiently early, the 
 carter enters his stables, and proceeds to mix a feed of corn 
 (3 to 4 lbs.) with wheat chafi: or fine "chop" (chopped 
 straw), and to place it in the mangers before each horse. 
 He then goes to his breakfast, and after an hour returns 
 and waters his horses. They are then rubbed down, har- 
 nessed, and in most southern counties leave the stable at 
 seven o'clock. At twelve o'clock they stop for half an 
 hour, and eat a feed of corn and chaff from the nose-bags, 
 which ought to be provided. They then plough or resume 
 work until they unyoke in time to return to the stable 
 at four o'clock. They then are watered, fed with another 
 feed of corn, and the racks are replenished with hay 
 or straw. About eight, or sometimes nine, at night, the 
 carter again enters his stables and makes the horses com- 
 fortable for the night, taking care that they have a supply 
 of hay. 
 
200 LIVB STOCK. 
 
 " Foddering time/' in the northern counties, is a well- 
 known institution, and it is then that the horses are weU 
 groomed with wisps of straw, their manes and tails are 
 combed out, and they are well bedded up for the night and 
 fed. Most careful farmers visit the stables at this time, 
 and see that their horses are well attended to. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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Selections from Cassell ^ Company's Puhlicatians, 
 
 * Peeps Abroad ** Library. Cheap Editions. Gilt edges, 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 Bambles Bound Iiondon. By C. 
 
 L. Mst^aux. Illustrated. 
 Ground and About Old England. 
 
 By C. L. Mati^aux. lUustrated. 
 Paws and Claws. By one of the 
 
 Authors of "Poems written for a 
 
 ChUd." lUustrated. 
 Decisive Events in History. 
 
 Bv Thomas Archer. With Original 
 
 lilusfrations, 
 Tlie Trus Sobinson Crusoes. 
 
 Cloth fifUL 
 
 Peeps Abroad for Folks at Home. 
 Illustrated throughout 
 
 ■Wild Adventures in TVUd Places. 
 By Dr. Gordon Stables, R.N, Illus- 
 trated. 
 
 Modern Explorers. By Thomas 
 Frost Illustrated. New and Cheaper 
 Edition. 
 
 Early Explorers. By Thomas Frost 
 
 Home Cliat with our Young Folks. 
 Illustrated throughout 
 
 Jungle, Peak, and Plain. lUustrated 
 throughout 
 
 The "Cross and Crown*' Series. Illustrated, as. 6d. each. 
 
 Freedom's Sword : A Story of the 
 
 Days of Wallace and Bruce. 
 
 By Annie S. Swan. 
 Strong to Suffer: A Story of 
 
 tbe Jews. By E. Wynne. 
 Heroes of the Indian Empire; 
 
 or. Stories of Valour and 
 
 Victory. By Ernest Foster. 
 In Letters of Plame : A Story 
 
 of the Waldenses. By C. L. 
 
 Mat^aux. 
 
 Through Trial to Triumph. By 
 
 Madeline B. Hunt. 
 By Eire and Sword: A Story of 
 
 the Huguenots. By Thomas 
 
 Archer. 
 Adam Hepburn's Vow: A Tale of 
 
 Kirk and Covenant. By Annie 
 
 S. Swan. 
 No. XIII.; or, The Story of the 
 
 XjOBt VestaL A Tale of Early 
 
 Christian Days. By Emma MarshalC 
 
 ' Golden Mottoes " Series, The. Each Book containing 208 pages, with 
 Four full-page Original Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 2s. each. 
 
 "Nil Desperandum." By the 
 Rev. F. Langbridge, M.A, 
 
 "Bear and Forbear." By Sarah 
 Pitt 
 
 "Foremost if I Can," 
 Atteridge. 
 
 By Helen 
 
 '* Honour is -m:^ Guide." By Jeanie 
 
 Hering (Mrs. Adams-Acton). 
 " Aim at a Sure End." By Emily" 
 
 Searchfield. 
 '' He Conquers who Endures.*' By 
 
 the Author of "May Cunninnham's 
 
 Trial," &C. 
 
 Casseirs Picture Story Books. Each containing about Sixty Pages of 
 Pictures and Stories, &c. 6d. each- 
 
 Little Talks. 
 Bright Stars. 
 Nursery Toys. 
 Pef B Posy. 
 Tiny T^es. 
 
 Daisy's Story Book. 
 Dot's Story Book. 
 A Nest of Stories. 
 Q-ood-Night Stories. 
 Chats for Small Chatterers. 
 
 Auntie's Stories. 
 Birdie's Story Book. 
 Iiittle Chim38. 
 A Sheaf ot Tales. 
 Dewdrop Stories. 
 
 Illustrated Books for the Little Ones. Containing interesting Stories. 
 All Illustrated, is. each ; cloth gilt, is. 6d. 
 
 Bright Tales & Funny Pictures. 
 Merry Little Tales. 
 Little Tales for Little People. 
 Little People and Their Pets. 
 Tales Toltf for Sunday. 
 Sunday Stories for Small People. 
 Stories and Pictures for Sunday. 
 Bible Pictures for Boys and Girla, 
 Firelight Stories. 
 Sunlight nnd Shade. 
 Hub-a^Dub Tales. 
 Fine Feathers and Fluffy Fur. 
 Scrambles and Scrapes. 
 Tittle Tattle Tales! 
 
 Up and Down the Garden. 
 
 All Sorts of Adventures. 
 
 Our Sunday Stories. 
 
 Our Holiday Hours. 
 
 Indoors and Out. 
 
 Some Form Friends. 
 
 Wandering 'Ways. 
 
 Dumb Friends. 
 
 Those Golden Sands. 
 
 Little Mothers & their CliildraiL 
 
 Our Pretty Pets. 
 
 Our Bohoolday Hours. 
 
 Creatures Tame. 
 
 OreatursB Wild, 
 
Selections from Cassell # Comfanjfs Puilications. 
 Ccssell's Shilling Story Books. AH Illustrated, and containing Interest 
 
 ing Stories. 
 Bunty and the BoyB. 
 Th.e Heir of Elmdale. 
 The Mystery at Shonoliff School. 
 Claimed at Iiast, & Boy's Keward. 
 Thorns and Tangles. 
 The OuokooHn the B-obin's Nest. 
 Johu'B Mistake. [Pitchers, 
 
 The History of Five Xjittle 
 Diamonds in the Sand. 
 
 Surly Bob. 
 
 "Wanted— aKing** Series. CkeapEdition. Illustrated. 
 Great Grandmamma. By Georgina M. Synge. 
 Robin's Bide. By Ellinor Davenport Adams. . 
 Wanted— a Kin^ ; or. How Merle set the Nursery Bhymea to Bights. 
 
 By Maggie Browne. With Original Designs by Harry Furniss. ■ ■ ' '' 
 Fairy Tales in Other Lands. By juiia Goddard. 
 The World's W^orkers. A Series of New and Original Volumes. 
 With Portraits printed on a tint as Frontispiece, is. each. 
 
 The Giant's Cradle. 
 Shag and Doll. 
 Aunt Iiucia's Iiocket. 
 The Magio Mirror. 
 The Cost of Bevenga. 
 Clever Frank. 
 Among the BedsTtins. 
 The Ferryman of Brill. 
 Harry Maxwell. 
 A Banished Monarch. 
 Seventeen Cats. 
 
 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 John Cassell. By G. Holden Pike. 
 
 Charles Haddon Spurgeon. By 
 G. Holden Pike. 
 
 Dr. Arnold of Bugby. By Rose 
 E. Selfe. 
 
 The Earl of Shaftesbury. By 
 Henry Frith. 
 
 Sarah Bobinson, Agnes Wes- 
 ton, and Mrs, Meredith. By 
 E. M. Tomkinson. 
 
 Thomas A. Edison and Samuel 
 P. B. Morse. By Dr. Denslow 
 and J. Marsh Parker. 
 
 Mrs. Somerville and Mary Car- 
 penter. By Phyllis Browne. 
 
 General Gordon. By the Rev. 
 S, A. Swaine. 
 
 Charles DidEens. By his Eldest 
 Daughter. 
 
 Sir Titus Salt and George 
 Moore. By J, Burnley. 
 
 Florence Nightingale, Catherine 
 Marsh, Frances Bidley Haver- 
 
 fal, Mrs. Banyard {"L. N. R."J. 
 y Lizzie Alldridge. 
 Dr. Guthrie, Father Mathew, 
 
 Elihu Burritt, George Livesey. 
 
 Bvjohn W. Kirton, LL.D. 
 Sir Henry Havelock and Colin 
 
 CampbeU Lord Clyde. By E. C. 
 
 Phillips. 
 Abraham Xiincoln. By Ernest Foster. 
 George Mtiller and Andrew Beed. 
 
 By E. R. Pitman. 
 Biohard Cobden. By R. Cowing.. 
 Benjamin Franklin, By E. M. 
 
 Tomkinson. 
 Handel. By Eliza Clarke. [Swaine. 
 
 Turner the Artist. By the Rev. S. A 
 George and Bobert Stephenson. 
 
 By C. L. Matgaux. 
 David Livingstone. By Robert Smiles. 
 
 •»• Tke above Works can also be had Three in One yot., cloth, gilt edges, 3s, 
 Library of Wonders. Illustrated Gift-books for Boys. Paper, is. 
 cloth, IS. Gd. 
 
 Wonderful Balloon Ascents, I Wonders of Animal Instinct. 
 
 Wonderful Adventures. Wonders of Bodily Strength 
 
 Wonderful Escapes. j and Skill. 
 
 Casseirs Eigliteenpenny Story Books. Illustrated. 
 
 Wee Wilhe Winkie. ""--' 
 
 Ups and Downs of a Donkey's 
 
 Life. 
 
 Three Wee Ulster Lassies. 
 
 TTp the Ladder. 
 
 Dick's Hero ; and other Stories. 
 
 The Chip Boy. 
 
 Baggies, Baggies, and the 
 
 Emperor. 
 Boses from Thorns. 
 Gift Books for Young People. 
 
 Original Illustrations in each. 
 The Boy Hunters of Kentucky. 
 
 By Edward S.EUis. 
 Bed Feather: _a Tale of the 
 
 American Frontier. 
 Edward S. Ellis. 
 
 By 
 
 Seeking a City. 
 
 Bhoda'B Reward; or, "If 
 Wishes were Horses." 
 
 Jack Marston's Anchor. _ 
 
 Frank's Life-Battle; or. The 
 Three Friends. 
 
 Fritters. By Sarah Pitt. 
 
 The Two Hardcastles. Bjr Made- 
 line Honavfa Hv^ijt. 
 
 Faith's Father. 
 
 By Land and Sea. 
 
 The Young Berringtons. 
 
 Jeff and Leff. 
 
 Tom Morris's Error. 
 
 Worth more than Gold. 
 
 "Through Flood— Through Fire;" 
 
 and other Stories, 
 The Girl with the Golden Looks. 
 Stories of the Olden Time. 
 By Popular Authors, With Four 
 Cloth gilt, IS. 6d. each. 
 
 Major Monk's Motto. By the Rev. 
 
 F. Langbridge. 
 Trixy. By Maggie Symington. 
 Bags and Bambows; A Story of 
 
 Thanksgiving. 
 Uncle Wiliiam's Charges; or. The 
 
 Broken Trust. 
 Pretty Fink's Purpose; or, The 
 
 Little Street Merchants. 
 Tim Thomson's Trial. By George 
 
 Weatherly. 
 Ursula's Stumbling-Block. By Julia 
 
 Goddard. 
 Buth's Life-Work. By the Rot. 
 
 Joseph Johnson. 
 
Selections from Cassell # Company* s PuhHcaiions, 
 
 Cassell's Two-Shilling Stoty Books. Illustrated. 
 
 Margraret'e Enemy. 
 Stones of tbe Tower. 
 Mr. Burke'G Nieces. 
 May Cunnin^liani's Trial. 
 The Top of the Uadder : How to 
 
 BjeaotL it. 
 X>ittle Flotsam. 
 Madge and Her Friends. 
 The Childreu of the Court. 
 Maid Marjory. 
 
 Peggy, and other Tales. 
 
 Th,e Ji'our Cats of tue Tippertona, 
 
 Marion's Two Homes. 
 
 Little Folks' Sunday Boole 
 
 Two Fourpenny Bits. 
 
 Poor Nelly. 
 
 Tom Henot. 
 
 Tliroiifh Peril to Portuoe. 
 
 Aunt Tabitha'a Waifs. 
 
 In Mischief Again. 
 
 Cheap Editions of Popular Volumes for Young People, 
 cloth, gilt edges, 2S. 6d. each. 
 
 Bound in 
 
 In Quest of Gold; or, TTn^'jr 
 the Whanga Falls. 
 
 On Board the EsTturalda; or, 
 Martin Leigh's Log. 
 
 For Queen and King. 
 Esther West. 
 Three Homes. 
 Working to Win. 
 Perils Alloa:; and Brigands 
 Ashore. 
 
 Books by Edward S. Ellis. Illustrated, Cloth, 2s, 6d. each. 
 
 The Great Cattle TraiL 
 The >atli in the Havine. 
 The Toung Hnncliers. 
 The Hnaters of the Ozark, 
 The Camp in the Mountains. 
 £4ed in the Woods. A Tale 
 
 Early Days in the West. 
 Down the Mississippi. 
 The Last War Trail. 
 Ned on the River. A Tale 
 Indian River Wariare. 
 
 Footprints in the Forest. 
 
 Up the Tapajoa, 
 
 Wed in tne Block House. A 
 Story of Pioneer Life in Kentucky. 
 
 The Lost Trail. 
 
 Camp-Pire and Wigwam- 
 Lost in the Wilds. 
 
 Lost in Samoa. A Tale of Adven- 
 ture in the Navigator Islands. 
 
 Tad; or, " Getting Even" with 
 Him. 
 
 The "World in Pictures.' 
 IS. 6d. each. 
 
 A B-amble Bound France. 
 All the B.us8ias. 
 OhatB about Germany. 
 The Eastern Wonderland 
 (Japan). 
 
 Illustrated throughout Cheap Edition. 
 
 Glimpses of South America. 
 Bound Africa. 
 
 The Land of Temples (India). 
 The Isles of the Pacific. 
 Ir'eeps into China 
 
 The Land of Pyramids (Egypt), 
 
 Half-Crown Story Books. 
 
 Pioturea of School Life and Boy- 
 hood. 
 
 Books for the Little Ones. 
 
 Bhymes for the Tonng Folk. 
 By William Allingham. Beautifully 
 Illustrated. Ss. 6d. 
 
 With 
 Cloth, 
 
 Pen's Perplexitlea. 
 At the South Pole. 
 
 The History Scrap Book: 
 nearly i,ooo Engravings, 
 7s. 6d. 
 
 The Sunday Scrap Book. 
 Several Hundred Ilkis 
 
 llUistrations. 
 
 With 
 Paper 
 
 boards, 3s. Bd. rcloth,"gilt edg^rss^ 
 The^OldFMxy Tales. lVidiUri^..ai 
 
 Illustrations. 
 la.sd. 
 
 Boards, Is.; cloUj, 
 
 Albums for Children. 3s. 6d. each. 
 
 The Album for Home, School, 
 and Play. Containing Stories by 
 Popular Authors. lUufitrated. 
 
 My Own Album of Animals. 
 With Full-page Illustrations. 
 
 Picture Album of All Sorts. With 
 
 Full-page lUustratious. 
 The Chit-Chat AJhum. lUustrated 
 
 throughout 
 
 cassell & Company's Complete Cataloguo wiU h, mt Mi 
 
 free on application to 
 
 PASSELL & COMPANY, Limited, L^deaU Hill, l,pfdiny 
 
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