Production Note Cornell University Library pro- duced this volume to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. It was scanned using Xerox soft- ware and equipment at 600 dots per inch resolution and com- pressed prior to storage using CCITT Group 4 compression. The digital data were used to create Cornell's replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Stand- ard Z39.48-1984. The production of this volume was supported in part by the Commission on Pres- ervation and Access and the Xerox Corporation. Digital file copy- right by Cornell University Library 1992.(f ovttcll IKwvmitg 3pibrarn BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF Hctirg Sage 1891 Alqfrjr*.................Ik/J/m.L 8441Swinging on a Shad-bush Leaf, waiting for Dusk. A Sphinx moth (Smerinthus excsecatus). The fore wings show blended shades ol brown and tan; each hind wing has a large rose-colored patch containing a blue> centered spot of velvety black. Natural size. Photographed from life.MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES BY MARY C. DICKERSON, B.S. (Unit, of Chicago) Head of the Department of Biology and Nature Study in the Rhode Island Normal School, Providence, R.I., and in Charge of the Nature Study in the Observation School in Connection with the Rhode Island Normal School WITH TWO HUNDRED PHOTOGRAPHS FROM LIFE BY THE AUTHOR \ BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS d* atfrensrara fketfcf 1901Ur A loZ J" i >. 7 - - ? Copyright, 1901 By MABY C. DICKERSON AT.T. rights reservedPREFACE There has arisen a need for insect books of an elementary- nature, in harmony with the modern work in animal ecology, interpreting habit and detailed structure as responsive adap- tations to surroundings, and further interpreting fundamental structures as a sign of blood relationship. With such an aid a student ought not only to gain training in observation and a broad view of the group studied, but should also gradually get hold of the underlying principles of. natural science which give the right foundation for natural-history work on other groups. “Moths and Butterflies” is an outgrowth of the writer’s interest, inspired by the enthusiasm shown by children in grammar grades, students in the Rhode Island Normal School, and teachers in summer schools where this subject has been presented. The subject cannot fail to be interesting for several reasons. It leads into a freer out-of-door life. Nowhere in nature or in art is there more beautiful coloring than in moths and butterflies. Most marvelous changes in form occur during their development, and since they are common everywhere and easily kept in captivity, these changes can be seen without difficulty. They have instincts developed to so high a degree that they do many things for self-preservation which it seems impossible to believe are not the result of self-conscious intel- ligence. Finally, moths and butterflies, in spite of all their enemies, belong to the group of animals dominant in numbers in tho world to-day ; this means that here we find most won- derful illustrations of perfect adaptation to environment. For one who has done no work along this line, moths and butterflies make a most charming recreation study for the yVI PKEFACE summer months. The subject is full of surprises and dis- coveries. It reveals the marvelous and beautiful where we had expected only the commonplace. It brings a realization of the adaptation of a creature to its life by the perfection of minute detail. It opens our eyes to the balance of life that exists in all nature. It broadens and deepens our view of the universe. The book uMoths and Butterflies” is entirely untechnical in its treatment of the subject. It will identify by means of photographs from life forty common forms, in caterpillar, chrysalis or cocoon, and adult stages. It makes clear the external structure adapting the creature to its life ; it describes and illustrates the changes in form from caterpillar to chrysalis, from chrysalis to butterfly. It is adapted to give quick insight into the secrets of the group. For young people natural history is of great educational importance, outside of its pleasure value. Its paramount value lies in the fact that it not only places before the senses a host of opportunities for pleasurable observation of concrete objects, but that it also leads the mind gradually but surely to the power of independent thought and judgment. When a structure, or habit, or condition of environment is seen, the question natu- rally follows, “ How does this help the creature in the circum- stances of its life ? ” or, “ How has this structure or this habit ever come about so perfectly to fit the creature to the conditions of its life?” In answering these questions the boy or girl becomes an independent reasoner. Because of this value — along with other values — natural history has been given a place in the educational system of to-day. But let us remember that natural history loses much of this value when merely talked about or when read from books. From the intellectual standpoint, natural history for- feits a part of its claim to a position beside the other subjects of the curriculum unless it is studied from the living objects themselves, and as far as possible in their natural environments. Original investigation on the part of each boy or girl, with the delights that come from the discovery of even the simplest factsPREFACE Yll and relations, must be the method for this subject. This book will not give its best results unless the last chapter with its questions is made the working chapter, the stories or fragments of stories of Parts I and II being read after the same moths and butterflies or nearly related forms have been studied; the relationship chapter of Part III should be studied after there have been some chances for original work in comparison. This method applied in grammar grades requires that con- siderable time be given during a whole year, or during a half year at least, to so large a subject. There will be of neces- sity some collateral work on the identification of various low- growing plants and of trees, on the structure of spurred and of tubular flowers, on insects other than moths and butterflies, and on the relations of moths and butterflies to agriculture. This is certainly all that can be accomplished in the spring and fall of one year, even adding to the work that can be done in the time allowed the subject in the school some home work on the part of those most interested. Nature study will never accomplish what it is capable of accomplishing — will never gain the deep, lasting interest of children, will never give any large amount of information, and will never train in scientific method—until the number of topics studied is sacrificed somewhat to thoroughness and inductive method. Observation and interpretation work in any subject whatever to be effective must concentrate attention on one part of the subject for a considerable length of time, exclud- ing during that time other parts of the subject, except in their most pertinent points of relation. MARY C. DICKERSON. Providence, March, 1901.CONTENTS PAGE Preface ........... v List of Illustrations ........ xiii Part I. Butterflies : The Monarch Butterfly ........ 3 The Black Swallowtail.............................37 The Tiger Swallowtail ........ 55 The Mourning Cloak ........ 67 The Painted Beauty ........ 77 The Interrogation Butterfly ....... 87 The Red-spotted Purple . . . . . . . . 95 The White and the Yellow ........................107 The Cabbage Butterfly . . . . . . .110 The Clouded Sulphur . . . . . . .112 Part II. Moths : The Promethea Moth . . . . . . . .117 The Bull’s-eye or Io Moth .......................143 The Cecropia Emperor . . . . . . . .155 The Polyphemus Moth . . . . . . . .167 The Chinese Silkworm . . . . . . . .181 The Tiger Moths .................................189 The Woolly Bear Caterpillar...................191 The Yellow Bear Caterpillar...................192 The Hickory Tiger Moth........................195 The Harlequin Milkweed Caterpillar . . . .197 The American Tent Caterpillars . . . . . .199 The White-marked Tussock.........................209 Two Apple-tree Dwellers . . . . . . .217 Red-humped Apple-worm.........................219 Yellow-necked Apple-tree Worm ..... 220 ix iX CONTENTS PAGE The Sphinx Moths . . 223 The Five-spotted or Tomato Sphinx . 226 The Twin-spotted Sphinx . 232 The Pandorus Sphinx . . 234 The “ Hog-caterpillar of the Vine ” . 237 The White-lined or Purslane Sphinx ... 239 Part III. Relationship — Practical Suggestions: A Chapter on Relationship showing Classification and Ancestry of Moths and Butterflies ...... 245 The Four-footed Butterflies — The Gossamer-winged Butterflies — The Swallowtails and their Allies — How to distinguish Butterflies ...... 245 The Skippers...............................................248 The Giant Silkworms — Royal Moths — Sphinxes or Hawk Moths — Tiger Moths — Tussocks — Owlets — Promi- nents — Loopers — Leaf-miners — Leaf-rollers — Slug- caterpillar Moths — How to distinguish Moths . . 258 Adaptation for Life in a chosen Haunt — Protective Resemblance and Mimicry — Dimorphism . . . 259 Synopsis of Common Butterflies and Moths . . . 266 Fundamental Likeness among Moths and Butterflies — Like- ness in Development — Structure Common to all Cater- pillars — Structure Common to all Chrysalides of Moths and Butterflies — Similar Structure in all Adult Butter- flies and Moths — Habits Common to all Butterflies and Moths....................................................267 Near Relationship of Moths and Butterflies to Each Other — Relationship to Ants, Bees and Wasps — to Flies — to Beetles — to Grasshoppers and Crickets — The Group of Insects . . . . . . . . . 271 Relationship of Insects to Spiders — to the Crayfish — The Group of Anthropods — Relationship to Worms . . 278 Synopsis of a Part of the Invertebrate World arranged in Descending Series to show near Relatives of Moths and Butterflies— The Ancestry of Moths and Butterflies . 282CONTENTS Xl A Chapter on how to collect, keep, and study Butterflies and Moths « * ......................... On collecting Caterpillars — Out-of-door Study of Cater- pillars— How to keep Caterpillars in Captivity—In- door Study of Caterpillars — Observation of Change to Chrysalis — Indoor Study of Chrysalides and Cocoons — On collecting Chrysalides and Cocoons — Out-of- door Study of Cocoons and Chrysalides — How to keep Cocoons and Chrysalides over Winter — Observation of Change to Butterfly and Moth — Field Work on Butter- flies — How to collect Butterflies — On collecting Moths — On collecting and studying the Eggs of Moths and Butterflies . . ' . Permanent Collections of Moths and Butterflies Original Investigation in the Natural History of Moths and Butterflies — Some Interesting Moths and Butter- flies for Original Study—Some Problems for Investi- gation .......... Books for Reference ....... Glossary ........... Index.......................................... PAGE 291 291 316 323 331 333 337LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE Frontispiece — A Sphinx moth in resting position (Smerinthus exccecatus) 1. Monarch butterfly (upper surface)..................... 2. Monarch resting on milkweed........................... 3. Arrangement of veins in wings of Monarch . 4. Arrangement of scales ........ 5. Head of Monarch, to show eyes, antennae, and proboscis 6. Egg of Monarch .......... 7. Milkweed caterpillar walking to feeding grounds 8. Milkweed caterpillar as it drops into the grass 9. Diagrammatic drawing of Milkweed caterpillar to show external structure .......... 10. Proleg, to show hooks.................................. 11. Head of caterpillar, to show structure................. 12. Milkweed caterpillar eating............................ 13. Moulting Milkweed caterpillar (front view) .... 14. Moulting Milkweed caterpillar (side view) .... 15. Milkweed caterpillar in position for change to chrysalis . 16. Moulting for chrysalis ........ 17. Chrysalis fastening cremaster in silk.................. 18. Cremaster of chrysalis to show hooks ..... 19. Chrysalis of Monarch butterfly ....... 20. Front, side, and back views of chrysalis to show structure 21. Chrysalis showing butterfly through.................... 22. First split in the chrysalis ....... 23. Emergence of Monarch butterfly from its chrysalis skin . 24. Butterfly just out of its chrysalis skin............... 25. Cross-section of butterfly “ tongue ” . 26. Monarch one-half hour after leaving chrysalis skin . 27. Empty Monarch chrysalis skin.......................... 28. Viceroy butterflies . . . . 29 Asterias caterpillar (common form) ...... 30. Young Asterias caterpillars............................ 31. Black Asterias caterpillar with osmateria protruded . 32. Head of Asterias caterpillar, to show spinneret . . 33. Wild-carrot leaf, to show caterpillar’s way of eating xiii 4 8 9 10 11 13 16 17 17 18 19 20 23 23 25 26 27 27 28 29 30 30 30 31 32 33 34 35 38 40 41 41 42XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 34. Fi\e drawings to show caterpillar spinning girdle of silk . 43 35. Asterias caterpillar spinning loop . . . . . .44 36. Asterias caterpillar fastening loop at side . . . . .45 37. Caterpillar within loop ........ 45 38. Beginning to moult ......... 46 39. Asterias chrysalis ......... 46 40. Chrysalis balanced in loop ....... 47 41. Chrysalis slipped through loop......................................48 42. One chrysalis fastened to another . . . . . .48 43. Asterias butterfly (male) . . . . . . . .49 44. Chrysalis from which ichneumon fly has escaped . . .51 45. Ichneumon flies from Asterias chrysalides . . . .52 46. Asterias butterfly just out of its chrysalis skin . . .53 47. Tiger Swallowtail, or Turnus butterfly . . . . .56 48. Turnus caterpillar in resting position . . . . .57 49. Angry Turnus caterpillar ........ 58 50. Turnus with osmateria protruded ...... 58 51. Head of Turnus to show eyes and opening for osmateria . 58 52. Turnus caterpillar spinning girdle ...... 59 53. Turnus in girdle . . . ...........................59 54. Five drawings from photographs to show chrysalis formation . 60 55. Chrysalis of Turnus butterfly . . . . . . .61 56. Young Turnus caterpillar............................................62 57. Turnus caterpillar in adult form on “spring bed” . . .63 58. Caterpillar of the Green-clouded Swallowtail . . . .64 59. Chrysalis of the Green-clouded Swallowtail . . .65 60. The Green-clouded Swallowtail butterfly.............................65 61. The Mourning Cloak or Antiopa butterfly . . . .68 62. Antiopa playing dead. . . . . . . . .70 63. Antiopas eating apple at Christmas time . . . . .71 64. Eggs of the Antiopa butterfly . . . . . . .72 65. Antiopa caterpillar on willow leaf . . . . . .73 66. Caterpillar in position to moult for chrysalis . . . .74 67. Chrysalis hardened with end sheathed in dry caterpillar skin . 74 68. Butterfly opening the door of its chrysalis skin . . .75 69. The Painted Beauty butterfly . . . . . . .78 70. Nests of the Painted Beauty on everlasting . . . .80 71. Caterpillar of the Painted Beauty ...... 81 72. Angry caterpillar...................................................82 73. Chrysalis of the Painted Beauty ...... 83 74. Painted Lady butterfly on aster . . . . . .84 75. The Red Admiral butterfly (upper surface) . . . .85 76. The Red Admiral (under surface) . . . . . .85LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV FIG. PAGE 77. The Interrogation butterfly (upper surface) . . . . 88 78. Caterpillar of the Interrogation butterfly . . . . .89 79. Eggs of the Interrogation ........ 90 80. Eggs laid in piles as are those of the Comma butterfly . . 90 81. Interrogation chrysalides . . . . . . . . 91 82. Interrogation butterfly (under surface) . . . . . 93 83. Young caterpillar of the Viceroy on leaf partly cut away for hibernaculum . . . . . . . . . 96 84. Caterpillar of the Red-spotted Purple in resting position . 97 85. Caterpillar in position for change to chrysalis . . .99 86. Chrysalis of the Red-spotted Purple..............................99 87. Young Viceroy caterpillar on denuded midrib of leaf . .101 88. Viceroy caterpillar asleep in hibernaculum .... 102 89. Two hibernacula............................................... 103 90. The Red-spotted Purple butterfly . . . . . .104 91. Clouded Sulphur butterflies just refreshed .... 108 92. Cocoons of parasites of the Cabbage butterfly . . .110 93. Chrysalides of the Cabbage butterfly . . . . .110 94. Cabbage butterfly in resting position...........................Ill 95. Cocoons of parasites of the Clouded Sulphur . . . .112 96. Cynthia moth....................................................118 97. Promethea cocoon................................................119 97a. Promethea moth (male) ..........................................120 98. Eggs of Promethea . . ...............................120 99. Young Prometheas soon after leaving eggs .... 121 100. Promethea caterpillars three days old and Cecropias just out of the eggs............................................. 121 101. Promethea caterpillars one-third grown . . . . . 122 102. Caterpillar after third moult ....... 123 103. Moulting Promethea caterpillar . . . . . .125 104. Moulted . . . . . . . . . . . 125 105. Cast-off clothing..............................................126 106. Promethea caterpillar spinning cocoon ..... 128 107. Giving attention to the lower part of the cocoon . . . 129 108. Cocoon cut lengthwise to show valve at top . . . .130 109. Cocoons cut crosswise to show valve............................131 110. Promethea cocoon made in a box.................................132 111. Cocoon cut open to show chrysalis and caterpillar skin . . 133 112. Promethea chrysalis (male)................................... 134 113. Promethea chrysalis (female) ..... . . 134 114. Chrysalis to show structure ....... 135 115. Promethea moth (female)........................................136 116. Promethea just out of its cocoon . . . . . .137xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 117. Antennae of Promethea moths ... . 138 118. Promethea depositing eggs .... . 139 119. Ichneumon-fly pupa protected by its cocoon and that of the Promethea ....... . 140 120. Open cocoon from which ichneumon fly has escaped . 141 121. Ichneumon from Promethea cocoon . . . 141 122. Small ichneumon fly and cocoons . 142 123. Io moth in resting position .... . 144 124. Io moth (female) . 145 125. Antennae of Io moth . 146 126. Eggs of Io moth . 146 127. Marching Io caterpillars ..... . 147 128. More processions . . . . . . . 148 129. Full-grown Io caterpillar ..... . 150 130. Chrysalis of Io . . 151 131. Tachina flies from Io cocoon .... . 152 132. Cecropia cocoon (lowland form) . 156 133. Cecropia eggs . 157 134. Hatching Cecropia eggs . . . 157 135. Cecropia egg and parasite .... . 158 136. Moulting Cecropias ...... . 158 137. At home on wild cherry . 159 138. Half-grown Cecropia caterpillar . 159 139. Full-grown Cecropia . 160 140. Cocoon cut lengthwise to show structure. . 161 141. Cocoon cut to show chrysalis and caterpillar skin . 162 142. Front view of chrysalides (male and female) . . 163 143. Side view of chrysalis ..... . 163 144. Hillside form of cocoon ..... . 164 145. Cecropia moth just out of its cocoon . 164 146. Cecropia moth (under surface) . ... . 165 147. Cecropia moth (upper surface) . 165 148. Polyphemus (upper surface) .... . 168 149. Polyphemus cocoons ...... . 169 150. Empty chrysalis skin of Polyphemus moth . 170 151. Just out of its chrysalis (male) . 170 152. Polyphemus (female) five minutes after leaving cocoon . 171 153. Polyphemus (female) getting stronger . 172 154. Polyphemus moth . . . 173 155. Eggs of Polyphemus . 174 156. Young Polyphemus caterpillar .... . 174 157. Hatching Polyphemus eggs .... . 175 158. Full-grown Polyphemus caterpillar . . 176LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii FIG. PAGE 159. Young Polyphemus pugilistic . . . . . . .176 160. Cocoon of large ichneumon fly (Ophion) . . . . .177 161. Small parasite and cocoons (Cryptus) . . . . .178 162. Luna cocoon and chrysalis . . . . . . .178 163. Luna moth . . . . . . • . . .179 164. Chinese Silkworm . . . . . . . . .183 165. Silkworm spinning cocoon . . . . . . .184 166. Cocoons from which moths have escaped .... 185 167. Cocoon cut open to show chrysalis and caterpillar skin . .186 168. Chinese Silkworm moth . . . . . . . .187 169. Woolly Bear caterpillars . . . . . . . .192 170. Yellow Bear’s cocoon and chrysalis ..... 194 171. Moth of the Yellow Bear . . . . . . .194 172. Hickory Tiger caterpillars . . . . . . .195 173. Hickory Tiger cocoon ........ 196 174. Harlequin Milkweed caterpillar . . . . . .197 175. Nest of the Cherry-tree LTgly-nest caterpillars. . . . 200 176. Egg masses of the American Tent caterpillar . . . 201 177. Tent caterpillar nest ........ 202 178. American Tent caterpillars ....... 203 179. Cocoons from which moths have escaped .... 204 180. Tent caterpillar moths in resting position .... 205 181. Moth with wings spread ........ 206 182. White-marked Tussock caterpillar . . . . . .211 183. Eggs of the White-marked Tussock . . . . .212 184. Cocoon of a parasite of the White-marked Tussock . . 213 185. Tussock chrysalides . . . . . . . . .214 186. Tussock moth (male) . . . . . . . .214 187. Red-humped Apple-worm moth . . . . . . 220 188. Co.coon and caterpillar of the Red-humped Apple-worm . .221 189. Yellow-necked Apple-tree worms . . . . . .221 190. Moulting caterpillars ........ 222 191. White-lined Sphinx (upper surface) . . . . . . 224 192. Tomato Sphinx caterpillars ....... 227 193. Tomato caterpillar burrowing ....... 229 194. Tomato Sphinx chrysalis . . . . . . . 229 195. Tomato Sphinx moth ........ 231 196. Twin-spotted Sphinx moth ....... 232 197. Caterpillar of the Twin-spotted Sphinx...................233 198. Chrysalis of the Twin-spotted Sphinx ..... 234 199. Caterpillar with the cocoons of its parasites .... 234 200. Young Pandorus caterpillar . . . . . . .235 201. Moulted Pandorus ......... 236xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE 202. Full-grown Pandorus....................................236 203. Chrysalides of the Pandorus moth ...... 237 204. Pandorus moth .......... 237 205. Young “Hog-caterpillar of the Vine ” ..... 238 206. Chrysalides of the “ Hog-caterpillar of the Vine ” . . . 239 207. Purslane Sphinx caterpillars ....... 240 208. Chrysalides of the Purslane Sphinx . . . . . 241 209. Moth of the White-lined or Purslane Sphinx (under surface) . 242 210. An Underwing in resting position.................260 211. An Underwing in flying position ...... 261 212. “Leaf-butterfly” with wings spread...............262 213. “Leaf-butterfly” in resting position ..... 263 214. Crayfish ........... 280 215. Net cage for keeping caterpillars . . . . . .295 216. Shallow glass for keeping caterpillars . . . . .296 217. Tall glass used as a caterpillar house . . . . .297 218. Framework of twigs covered with Chinese Silkworm cocoons . 299 219. Home-made cocoonery ........ 306 220. Aquarium cocoonery ......... 307 221. Folding net . ... . . . . . . 312 222. Denton butterfly net . . . . . . • • .313 223. Tumbler cyanide jar. After Denton ..... 317 224. Collecting papers. After Denton ...... 318 225. Drying oven. After Denton . . . . . . .319 226. Adjustable setting board ........................321 227. Denton mounts .......... 322 228. The larva of a Skipper . . . . . . • .325 229. Rosy Dryocampa moth..............................326 230. Thysbe Clear-wing Sphinx moth....................326 231. Pen-marked Sphinx larvae moulting ...... 327 232. Case of the Evergreen Bagworm ...... 32b 233. The larva of a Puss-moth . . . . . • .328Part I BUTTERFLIESHe prayeth best, who loveth best, All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all. Coleridge.THE MONARCH BUTTERFLY, OR MILK- WEED CATERPILLARiiiiii Fig. 1. — The Monarch. Male. Orange-brown wings with broad black veins and borders; white spots in borders; scent pouch on posterior wing. Natural size. Photographed from life.THE MONARCH1 He who knows the most, he who knows what sweets and virtues are in the ground, the waters, the plants, the heavens, and how to come at these enchantments is the rich and royal man. Emerson. My butterfly net and pocket magnifying glass are rare companions for a walk in the country. ^ William Hamilton Gibson. From May until late October we may see the Monarchs flying. We all know them, large butterflies measuring between four and five inches, and conspicuous because of their bright orange-brown and black coloring. They are to be seen in large numbers over low meadows and along roadsides, flying in a quiet, easy way, apparently never in a hurry. They rest so long on red-clover blossoms that we may pick them up in our fingers. They are very common; not only the meadows and roadsides and fields know them, but all the flower gardens welcome them. They add beauty — and they are very beautiful — to the forest, to the mountain, to the seashore. They are every- where ; and what boy has n’t caught one under his hat, and held it struggling between his fingers, and rubbed off all the brown dust from the wings ? In the mountainous regions of New Hampshire I have seen them sporting about the tops of the tall pines while a stiff wind was blowing. Monarchs indeed! they are well named. Let us watch one. “It seems fairly to 1 Danais archippus (Dan'a-is ar-chip'pus), or Anosia plexippus (A-no'si-a plex-ip'pus).6 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES revel with delight in a gale ; now it rolls and tosses and heaves, always heading against the wind; now it spreads its sails to the breeze, and is hurried violently backward and upward ; again it furls them, and, slowly descending and advancing, it describes a variety of the most charm- ingly graceful curves and waves and undulations imagi- nable ; a thing of beauty to look at and a joy to think of forever after.” As Mr. Moffatt suggests, uStorm King” would be an appropriate name for this butterfly. I have often thought so when I have seen it sporting in much this same way during a light fall of rain. If we go to Martha’s Vineyard, they are there, sail- ing high over the brightly colored cliffs at Gay Head. If we go on to No Man’s Land, and beyond, we shall have many chances to hail Monarch butterflies. Their power of flight is greater than that of any other butterfly. The Monarchs are native Americans, but have become very widely distributed, so that now they are known well- nigh all over the world and are likely to become quite cosmopolitan. They belong in tropical America, and it is supposed that our spring Monarchs at the north are migrants from the south, and that in the fall all our Monarchs go south. If this migration of the Monarch is certain, this butterfly is one of most peculiar interest and certainly has what seems to be a most delightful way of spending the winter. There are many observations on record to prove the southward journey. On the approach of cold weather the butterflies swarm in immense numbers, just as the birds do when getting ready for their migration. There may be thousands of butterflies in a swarm, so that whenTHE MONARCH 7 they settle down in a field or on trees the prevailing color will be changed to brown. Supposably, those that do not join the clans and go to a warmer clime are not able to endure the cold and die when the severe weather comes; at least no one has ever discovered a hibernating Monarch in the Northern States.1 Observations are not on record to prove the northward journey in the spring. Possibly they move as individuals rather than in large swarms, each butterfly flying long distances north, and still farther north to find food plants for its young. Before proceeding to the life history of these butter- flies, let us look closely at the butterflies themselves (Figs. 1 and 24), with two aims in view: to see their fundamental structure, that we may know their relation- ship to otlier creatures, and to see some details of struc- ture, that we may understand their habits and realize how wonderfully they are adapted to the lives they lead; for two points that we must make emphatic in all our nature study are life relationship, shown by fundamental structure, and life habits as related to structure and environment. There is the long, slender body showing very plainly division into three parts, — head, thorax, and abdomen. Attached to the thorax on the underside are three pairs of jointed legs, the anterior pair undeveloped and incon- spicuous.2 They are used for clinging (Fig. 2) and are poorly adapted for walking. Attached to the upper side 1 For further reading on their migration, refer to Chap. IV, Scudder’s “ Life of a Butterfly,” Henry Holt & Co. 2 The Monarch belongs to the Nymphalidse, the “ Four-footed Butterflies.”8 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES of the thorax are two pairs of wings. The abdomen is made up of rings or segments. Looking more closely, we find a pair of antennae, or feelers, attached to the anterior part of the head and projecting forward when the butterfly is alert. They are thread-like, with small knobs at the ends (Fig. 5). The antennae are the or- gans of smell, and it is most amusing to watch their use while the butterfly is feeding. They are constantly thrust forward to touch the flower, one at a time or both together, as if the creature were getting as much pleasure through smelling its food as tasting it, — a state of things that we can easily appreciate. The wings are very conspicuous and the most attractive feature of the butterfly, giving it motion and beauty. In the Monarch the posterior wings are somewhat smaller than the anterior. All four wings are orange-brown above and below, veined and bordered with broad black. Fig. 2. — Monarch with folded wings resting on milk- weed. Natural size. Photograph from life.THE MONARCH 9 Fore Wing There are double rows of white spots in the black borders. The males have the wings less broadly bordered with black than the females, and they have a black scent pouch1 on the upper surface of each posterior wing. When a butter- fly is hungry and alights upon a clover, its eager- ness and excite- ment are plainly visible in the wings. They are lifted and low- ered again and again; little^ shiverings and vibrations go through them until the nectar is found, when the wings are folded above the back and all is quiet until the flower cup is empty. . Then the butterfly’s eagerness is again plainly told by the vibrating wings until another full clover cup is found, when again they are folded above the back. The wings are always folded in this way when the butterfly is resting, and it is wonderful how like a dead brown leaf the insect then looks from a little distance (Fig. 2). This must serve the purpose of protection, Hind Wing Inner, or ^4- jlnalAngle---*' V Scent Pouch Fig. 3. — Arrangement of veins in the wings of the Monarch. 1 Bead Chap. XII, Scent Scales: a Question of Sexual Selection, ScudderM “ Life of a Butterfly.”10 MOTHS AJSn> BUTTERFLIES although, the Monarch scarcely needs the safety given by resemblance to its surroundings, for it is said to be extremely nauseous, so that birds never attack it. If a young bird in its inexperience and eagerness for food does attack a Monarch, the experiment is not likely to be repeated. The wings are thin and transparent and have traversing them many small blood vessels and air tubes, forming the so-called “ veins ” 1 (Fig. 3). However, they are covered above and below by closely overlapping colored scales.2 These make the wings strong and also give the beauty of coloring. One fully realizes the beauty and order in the natural world when looking at a series of butterfly wings under a microscope or even a hand lens. The Fig. 4. — Arrangement of scales on fragment of Monarch wing (many have been rubbed off). Greatly enlarged. scales, each one held in place by a stem fitted into a minute pocket in the chitin, are arranged with the fringed or scalloped free edges of the scales in one row overlapping 1 Butterflies and moths are classified largely according to the arrangement of veins in the wings. 2 Therefore the moths and butterflies are called u Lepidoptera,” from lepis, a scale, and pteron, a wing.THE MONARCH 11 the attached ends of the scales of the adjacent row (Fig. 4). They are of all sizes and shapes, in some cases most fan- tastic in shape, and of course of all colors. Besides the one color which predominates in each scale, there is a most pleasing play of rainbow colors, and it is the com- bined effect of this iridescence of the scales which gives the marvelous iri- descence of the whole wing. The eyes (Fig. 5) of the live Monarch butterfly are half spheres, gleaming like jewels in the sunlight. They are the typical com- pound eye of in- sects, made up of thousands of minute eyes, the hexagonal facets of which are invisible without the aid of a microscope. Insect vision is supposed to be very defective. The Mon- arch can distinguish light and shadow, in a vague way can see color, and probably moving objects, as one will soon find out when trying to catch butterflies; but its one keen sense is that of smell. It is this sense that guides the butter- fly to its mate, to its favorite flowers, and, most wonderful of all, to the plants on which its young can feed. The Monarch butterfly is well adapted for its life by its power of flight, by its nauseous quality, by its keen sense Small Part ojEye greatly magnified, Fig. 5. — Head of Monarch, x 3.12 MOTHS AND BUTTEBFLIES of smell located in the antennae, and by its peculiar pro- boscis,1 which enables it to procure its food, the nectar of flowers. The proboscis, or “ tongue,” is a long, black, hol- low tube and is coiled like a small watch spring between the palpi on the underside of the head (Figs. 5 and 25). The palpi protect the “ tongue” when it is not in use; in fact they almost hide it from view. But when the antennae proclaim the fact that food is near, the proboscis is rapidly uncoiled and straightened to its full length; the end is thrust into the honey cup of the flower, and the nectar is pumped up through the long tube into the little creature’s stomach. (Refer to Figs. 28 and 63.) “ Idle butterfly,” “ gay trifler,” “ the type of the frivo- lous ” ! At one time in its life the Monarch belies these common names. It diligently seeks out a milkweed plant, flutters nearer and nearer it, rests a moment on one of its leaves, then flies away. It seeks another milkweed plant, flutters slowly about it, finds a leaf to its liking, rests a moment on it, and is gone. And so it continues. What is the meaning? It may not stop for honey from the milkweed flowers; perhaps the plants are young and have not yet bloomed. If we watch closely, we shall see that while the butterfly is clinging to the edge of the leaf, its abdomen is slowly curved upward and the end is pressed gently for a second against the lower side of the leaf. If we examine the leaf afterwards, we see a small milk-white egg, of sugar-loaf shape, and less than one-twentieth of an inch high, glued securely to the underside of the leaf (Fig. 6). The eggs are laid singly, and usually on the undersides of the upright terminal leaves, but they may be found almost everywhere on the plant, on the small 1 Read Chap. II, Scudder’s “ Life of a Butterfly.”THE MONARCH 13 flower buds and stems, on the upper surfaces of leaves near the top, and on those lower down on the plant. The egg is very beautiful, but we need a more powerful eye than the human eye to see all its beauty. It haB from twenty-one to twenty-three slender ridges radiating from the center of the top and extending to the base, and the spaces between are crossed by many very fine parallel lines at right angles to the ridges. At the apex of the Fig. 6. — Monarch Egg. Greatly magnified. egg, the center from which the ridges radiate, there is a minute rosette of the most delicate lines. Many of the instinctive acts of butterflies seem to be performed by the use of intelligence, so nicely are they adapted to the needs of the insect. Of them all the but- terfly’s choice of a place for its eggs seems most marvel- ous. The unerring instinct that leads a creature to place its eggs on certain definite plants so that its young may find food in abundance as soon as needed, on plants for which the creature itself has no need, seems truly marvel- ous. It can see the form of the plant and leaves but indistinctly with its imperfect vision; it cannot even take a bite just to see if it tastes right. It can smell it ? Yes,14 MOTHS ART) BUTTERFLIES but how does it know that that is the odor of the plant that the young butterflies (the caterpillars) will like to eat ? We can simply fall back on the term “ instinct.” William Hamilton Gibson, in his volume “ Sharp Eyes,” which is full of inspiration for the student of nature, very aptly calls butterflies “ botany teachers.” 1 The Monarch always chooses some member of the milkweed family on which to deposit its eggs, making one exception in the case of the dogbane. But the dogbane is very nearly related to asclepias; in fact, the older botanists placed it in the same family, because of its silky seeds, its opposite leaves, and milky juice. The eggs hatch in four or five days unless spiders or crickets have found them. The little caterpillar eats its way out of the egg; at the top it climbs out. The edges of the opening in the top are all jagged, showing the work of the minute jaws. (Refer to Figs. 134 and 157 to see same process in Cecropia and Polyphemus.) The egg- shell is then devoured quite down to the surface of the leaf, probably to tell enemies who may hunt there later that no young caterpillar is anywhere in the vicinity. After eating the shell the tiny atom of life crawls to the inner face of the newest leaf at the top of the plant and there eats the first meal of juicy milkweed, sometimes making a small hole entirely through the leaf. We can find the small Monarch larvae on the top of the milkweeds, down amongst the young leaves or on the flower buds, from the first of June until the last of Sep- tember. The early appearance of faded Monarchs, so that eggs are laid and young caterpillars are out of the egg by the first of June, may point to hibernation rather 1 “ Sharp Eyes,” pp. 80-87, by William H. Gibson. Harper & Brothers.THE MONARCH 15 than migration. Who will find a live Monarch in winter ? After about two days of voracious eating, with periods of rest between meals, the caterpillar finds its skin much too tight for it and sheds it. The larva is now large enough to be seen easily, perhaps one-third of an inch long, a rather pretty, aristocratic-looking little fellow — for a caterpillar. The long, slender body is almost per- fectly cylindrical, with twelve distinct bands of black encircling it, the black bands being separated by bands of yellow and white. Near the head there are two very short black horns, and there is a still shorter pair near the posterior end. If the caterpillar is disturbed in any way, it quickly spins a thread and drops on it, rolled into a ball, sometimes hanging in mid-air as a spider does, but more often dropping quite to 'the ground. For the next five or six days the caterpillar develops very rapidly, moulting the skin twice during this time. It eats greedily day and night, with only short periods of rest spent on the concealed side of some horizontal leaf, midway between the stem and the tip of the leaf, with head outward. Let us look at the almost full-grown cat- erpillar and see how it is adapted for its life; how it is fitted to move from its feeding grounds to its resting place, to eat the thick milkweed leaves close down to the midribs, to sleep with its weight hanging from the under- side of a leaf, and to protect itself against enemies. The caterpillar (Fig. 7) now is a very conspicuous object, a little less than two inches long, and very distinctly banded with black, yellow, and green. The black horns are long and flexible. The colors of the caterpillar are not protective. They are called “ warning ” colors, for the16 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES larva has the nauseous quality of the butterfly. This is its chief protection. Hiding is another means of pro- tection. While resting the caterpillar is always on the underside of some horizontal leaf, and we may be certain that it is absolutely motionless. “Lie low ” is the watch- word in caterpillar world from first to last, and is the main safeguard. The Mon- arch larva is also pro- tected by its habit of dropping to the ground in a ball when in any way disturbed. If you think this does not protect it, try to find one after it has fallen into the grass. How- ever, now that it is large it seems to have lost the habit of spin- ning a thread on which Fig. 7. - Milkweed caterpillar, walking from to ride down and crawl resting place to feeding grounds. Length 2 inches. Banded with black, green, and yel- back, but drops full low. Black flexible horns on second and . , • , eleventh segments. Slightly enlarged. Photo- Weight into the grass graph from life. and Weeds (Fig. 8). The caterpillar’s body is most flexible. It is made up of twelve segments besides the head (Fig. 9-). There are three pairs of legs attached to the three segments nearest the head, a pair for each segment. The legs are short,THE MONARCH 17 have small pointed claws at the ends, and, most important of all, they are jointed. In fact, they are the undeveloped butterfly legs, and for this reason, are 'called the “true legs.” There are five pairs of legs on the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and twelfth segments, one pair for each segment. These are called “ prolegs,” or prop-legs, and are of service merely during the cater- pillar stage. However, the caterpillar would be very helpless without them; fi«. s.—Monarch lsirv^ &s it f&lls its long, heavy body would be quite un- into the gras* for manageable with only the slender legs protection, near the head. The prolegs (Fig. 10) are not jointed; they are mere extensions of skin and muscle, looking like diminutive elephant’s feet. They are wonderfully adapted Fig. 9. — Milkweed caterpillar, to show external structure. for the service they give the caterpillar. They can be drawn in or protruded, lifted and put down again, and when they are put down hundreds of tiny sharp hooks18 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES are exposed on each one. These hooks catch into the hairs and roughnesses of the milkweed leaf and stem, or into the fibers of the silk pathway the caterpillar has spun as it walked, and we can easily understand why the cater- pillar is not afraid to walk or rest on the underside of a leaf. And so the Monarch larva moves rather fearlessly about its milkweed home, up and down the stems, out and under the leaves, and it does not need to spin many path- ways of silk, for the milkweed has a rich covering of hairs. Fig. 10. — Inner side of proleg, to show hooks. Greatly magnified. But put Milkweed larvae into a glass house with their food at the top and they will have to spin a dense carpet of silk all the way up the sides of the glass. The glass is too smooth; each caterpillar must proceed slowly, spinning silk from the small spinneret (Fig. 11) on the underside of the head, moving the head constantly from side to side, back and forth in a figure 8. The silk is fastened to the glass by the glue exuded with it and so makes a firm foundation for the hooks of the caterpillar’s prolegs. It is interesting to note that no caterpillar uses the path prepared by another; each laboriously spins its own car- pet on which to walk, and this will be done even after theTHE MONARCH 19 glass is so covered everywhere by silk that we can scarcely see through it. The Milkweed caterpillar walks ; it never runs, as do many; it has the quiet, easy manner of the adult butterfly, probably the result of its secure protection. As it walks, the long black flexible horns are moved alternately forward and backward. It is very easy to find a Milkweed caterpillar eating, for it spends the greater part of its existence in this way. The mandibles (Fig. 11) are strong, horny jaws at the anterior end of the head and somewhat underneath, work- ing from side to side. From their rapid, effective action it is easy to guess how sharp and strong they are. The caterpillar usually attacks the leaf at its margin and, holding it between the true legs, rapidly cuts it out in overlapping, retreating curves. The true legs act as hands, holding the leaf, and pulling and pushing it into position for the mandibles. (Refer to Fig. 102.) The caterpillar breathes through spiracles, nine pairs of small openings with valve-like edges. They show plainly on the sides of all segments except the second, third, and twelfth (Fig. 9). They open inside the body Mar it hie y (tSpimt Tmwm of Butterfly) Mariikie/ Fig. 11. —Head of Milkweed caterpillar, to show eyes, mandibles, and spinneret. Greatly enlarged.20 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES into air tubes (tracheae), which branch again and again, carrying air to every part of the caterpillar body. This is the same apparatus for breathing that exists in the butterfly.1 This caterpillar seems very nicely adapted for its life in its milkweed home. It is out in the broad field where the air is always pure. It can hide under the broad expanse of the lower leaves if the sun is too hot or the rain too heavy; it can always go there to rest or for conceal- ment. The rough, hairy surfaces of the milkweed leaves and stems allow easy progress ; or, if there are smooth places, a pathway of silk can easily be spun. Ten- der, fresh food is always at hand, and so too is the best instrument possible — strong, sharp jaws—for cutting the food into small bits. However, the caterpillar is a very helpless creature out of its proper environment. This is largely due to the 1 The spiracles and tracheae are lacking in the second and third seg- ments of the butterfly, probably because these segments are taken up by the muscular apparatus for wings and legs. The lack of the breathing apparatus in these segments in the caterpillar may be in preparation for the condition of things in the adult.THE MONARCH 21 fact that it cannot see well. The eyes, simple, shining elevations, so small that they can scarcely be made out with the naked eye, are in a curved row on the sides of the head (Fig. 11). They can do little more than give power to distinguish light from darkness; so, although they serve very well when the caterpillar is in its own house, where every leaf and stem are familiar to it, they fail to do proper service when the caterpillar is cast abroad. It can only walk blindly on and on until it chances upon food again. The caterpillar whose life we have been studying has lived perhaps eight or nine days, and has passed through three moults. It must pass through one more moult. We can easily tell when it is to take place. The caterpillar stops eating, takes position on some leaf or stem, and spins a thick mat of silk. Forward it goes spinning, with head moving to right and left, until it has covered a space somewhat longer than its body; it then turns around and goes back over the same space, gluing a second layer of silk on top of the first; then it turns around and goes forward once more. Finally it takes position on this mat of silk and rests. Of course the hooks of all the prolegs are entangled in the silk; this is an important factor in the process. When you have caterpillars in captivity do not. push one off its support in giving it fresh food or in examining it until you are sure it is not resting on a carpet of silk; because it cannot spin a second mat of silk, for a very22 MOTHS AND BUTTEKFLIES good reason, which we shall see immediately, and it is almost, if not quite, impossible that it shed its skin with- out the aid of this carpet. They remain perfectly inac- tive in this position, looking as though they were almost dead, for at least twenty-four hours. The moulting process usually takes place at some time during the fore- noon, a very opportune time for investigation. If we examine the caterpillar just before the moult, we find the colors somewhat didled and the whole outer skin loosened. The caterpillar is covered by a thin skin of horny matter (cliitin) which serves as a protection; but this being made of inorganic substance does not grow nor stretch, and after the caterpillar has eaten much and grown, it is exceedingly uncomfortable in its tight clothes. It must get rid of them. If we look still more closely at the resting caterpillar, we find it seems to have two heads, one a very light- colored large head, the other a smaller darker one in front. The caterpillar looks as though it had a small black cap drawn far down over its eyes. The fact is, the whole skin has been loosened and slipped forward enough to allow the head to be drawn out of its old skin back- wards, so that it shows plainly through the body skin of the first segment. The old head skin is directly over the mouth-parts, and we can easily see that the caterpillar could not respin its carpet of silk. Here is a moulting caterpillar on a milkweed leaf; bend over the leaf so that we may see the new head with the old head skin far down over the mouth-parts (Fig. 13). This forcing of the head into the body skin puts increased strain on the thin chitin, which was already tightly stretched. The result is a splitting where the strain is greatest, in theTHE MONARCH 23 skin of the first segment. That the skin was very tight is demonstrated after it is split — by the rapidity with which it shrinks backward with almost no effort on the caterpillar’s part. It shrinks back over the true legs, and over the horns, which are drawn out of their old skins and lie adhering to the body because of the great amount of moisture. It shrinks over the first pair of prolegs, and over the second; but at this point its taut condition and its rapid drying will carry it no farther, and the caterpillar must begin to make some effort. But usually it is most concerned at this time with the old head skin, which is still over its mouth-parts. The head is rubbed against the sup- port, from side to side, back and forth, as a bird rubs its bill on a branch; the anterior true legs are used vigorously as hands to brush it off; finally it falls. Now all parts are free except at the posterior end ; to get rid of the discom- fort there, the caterpillar1 pulls out the remaining pro- legs and walks forward, leaving the shriveled skin behind. The hooks of the old prolegs hold securely in the carpet of silk, forming a brace, so that mechanically this moulting of Fig. 13. — Ready to moult. Head drawn back into transparent body skin, giving caterpillar appearance of having two heads. Fig. 14. — Ready to moult. Side view. Photographed from life.24 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES the posterior part of the caterpillar’s skin is a possibility. (Refer to Figs. 103, 104, and 105 to see Promethea in same process.) The caterpillar is much larger than before the moult, and light colored. In an hour or more the darker colors have returned and the chitin has hardened, so that the caterpillar is ready to pursue its ordinary habits of life, and if we can judge by action it is very glad to break its long fast. But before it attacks the milkweed leaves it eats the thin shriveled skin which is still clinging in the silk carpet, presumably so that its presence will not tell to enemies the nearness of the caterpillar itself. Of. all periods in the Monarch’s life this moulting season, which recurs four times before the caterpillar is full-grown, is one of the most critical. During the twenty-four hours or more of the preparation for moult- ing, the caterpillar is helpless and is protected only by its remaining perfectly still; after the splitting of the skin back of the head the process is a very short one, taking only five minutes or even less; but then follows the hour or more, during which the new skin hardens, before the caterpillar is again equal to the situation. The Milkweed caterpillar has much the same appear- ance from first to last, but very often after the third moult the black bands are much broader, occupying the space usually filled by green and black, so that the cater- pillar will appear very many shades darker than other Milkweed caterpillars. After this fourth moult the larva eats greedily for two - or three days and then becomes very restless, wanders up and down its food plant, and finally leaves it to seek the shelter of some neighboring fence or stone, or, more likely,THE MONARCH 25 some other green plant. If the caterpillar is in captivity, it may walk ceaselessly for hours and at last seem per- fectly exhausted. We may think it sick or dead, and the belief is helped out by the fact that the alimentary canal is thoroughly emptied in preparation for the long sleep as a chrysalis which is to follow. This fact is always a sign that the change to chrysalis is at hand, and that if we wish to see the process and get all the secrets it is time for us to be on the watch. The caterpillar chooses the under- side of some horizontal surface and there spins a carpet of silk as it does when about to moult; but the carpet is made very thick in one spot. Then the caterpillar walks over this car- pet until the posterior prolegs are over the thick button of silk; there it rests, and of course the many hooks of these prolegs become entangled in the silk. After a short time of rest the caterpillar lets go its sup- port with its true legs and four pairs of prolegs and drops, hanging by the posterior prolegs only. The position looks like a hazardous one, but the caterpillar hangs fearlessly, curving the head and anterior part of the body upward so as almost to touch the point of attachment. This position is maintained for some twenty-four hours. At the close of this time the colors are dulled, the skin seems loosened, the horns are shriveled, and the body is not so greatly curved; and at the posterior Fig. 15. — In position to moult for chrysalis. Drawn from under- exposed photograph.26 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES end we can look through the transparent skin and see the more slender end of the chrysalis (Fig. 15). The curved position of the body has put the skin on the dorsal surface near the head under great strain, and it was already under strain because it was much too small for the caterpillar’s body, and in addition the mid-line of this dorsal surface is the weakest place in the caterpillar skin. The skin now back to the front, the antennae, the legs, and the “ tongue ” folded down the front close to the body, the segments, and the spiracles. We have time to note all these as they are uncovered by the retreating skin (Fig. 16). Now, owing to the original taut condition of the skin and the efforts of the chrysalis, the skin has split so far up the dorsal side and shrunk upward so far that only the posterior end of the chrysalis is covered by it. Now look closely. See what the chrysalis must do! It must remove Fig. 16. — Moulting for chrysalis. Drawn from under-exposed photograph. splits at this weak- ened place and shrinks slowly up- ward, carrying the head skin along with it on the ventral side. The chrvsalis, or immature butter- fly, is slowly revealed as the skin with- draws; it is soft and light green; all the butterfly parts show plainly, the wings wrapped from theTHE MONARCH 27 the end from the old skin and attach it to the button of silk above and do this without falling. It is usually done quickly and easily. . - The slender black end of the chrysalis struggles out from the shriveled skin, reaches up and around, stretches makes effort after effort to reach the silk (Fig. 17), and finally one great upward movement of the whole chrysalis sends, the hooks (Fig. 18) of the cremaster of the chrysalis into the silk. Then the chrysalis works vigorously to remove the old skin, and Fig. 17.—Chrysalis fast- 0 # J # 7 ening hooks of cremas- not until it succeeds and the skin falls ter into button of silk i , i i t • , above. Drawn from does file chrysalis cease moving energet- under-exposed photo- icaHy back graph. J and forth. This fifth and final moult of the skin is accomplished in from three to six minutes. After it, the chrysalis remains passive; it shortens very much owing to a contraction of the segments of the abdomen; there seems to be a blending of the various parts, so that although all the butterfly parts are distinguished, they are far fig. is.—End of cremaster with hooks. I • ,-1 i i Greatly enlarged. Jess conspicuous than they were at first. The exterior hardens, becomes shining emerald green, and gradually the various yellow spots take on a metallic luster, and we have a veritable green and28 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES gold jewel, one of the most beautiful objects in nature (Fig. 19). But why did not the chrysalis fall ? Can you tell ? And, by the way, the chrysalis very often does fall, if the skin is too dry or for any reason the process takes too long. Notice that the chrysalis remains attached to the cater- pillar skin far up on the ventral side until the cremaster hooks are in the silk, and in fact until the ^violent strug- gles of the chrysalis free it from the skin. As the separa- tion between the skin and the chrysalis takes place note the white fibers of attachment as they give way, and note on the chrysalis the flattened place with the black spots just below the cremaster on the ventral side, which was the point of attach- ment to the skin (A in Fig. 19). Great changes took place under the caterpillar’s skin during the latter part of its existence, for surely this chrysalis is the sleeping butterfly (Fig. 20); all its parts are plainly discernible. But the caterpillar was the young butterfly also, a fact less easily realized. The realization is helped out by the knowledge that the wings exist in the caterpillar, very minute, mere folds of the inner skin in the second and third segments, but the undeveloped wings none the less. The Monarch sleeps in its green and gold house for. a week or ten days. Because of the absolute quiet of the chrysalis we are apt to think of it as not alive. But the butterfly is breathing; its blood is cir- culating ; many of the life processes are in operation ; it Fig. 19. — Monarch chrysalis. Green with golden spots. Drawn from photograph.THE MONARCH 29 is thoroughly alive. And, besides, further development is going on, which will make it the perfect butterfly. After the chrysalis has hung motionless for a week, more or less, the time depending somewhat on the .temper- ature, dark coloring appears, first down the lines of the antennae and legs and “tongue,”thence gradually spreading over head and wing regions, and finally up the ^dorsal side #/# - ibcfaminni b&jment SideView | \ W f Back View m |~ ~ Wing ^ L'|~ * ~ Abdominal JjL \ \ ’T*" Thomviv % * > Vl ’ihormlC §- - 'Tonytte Y~~Afttennn \'' M Thormdc „ wf /m f the other is free; the feet Me. 7 7 Fig. 23. — To show transparency of chrysalis skin, and emergence of butterfly. Photographed from life. struggle out from their cases and immediately seek support on the outer part of the chrysalis; the wings are free — small, soft, and brown; the long, large ab- domen is finally pulled out from the upper part of the chrysalis, and the butterfly crawls up the empty chrysalis skin to some more firm support, from which it hangs wet and helpless. The one from which the pho- tographs were made moved so rapidly that the photograph in which the butterfly is just leav- ing the chrysalis (Fig. 23) is not distinct in its details. The butterfly fell in trying to reach some support above the chrysa- lis and was placed on a clover blossom near (Fig. 24). Let us watch it for a few minutes. It hangs heavily from the clover.THE MONARCH 31 The body is large and heavy, the wings hang straight down, and although they have expanded considerably since they came from the chrysalis, they are still small. The antennae hang down with the wings. The butterfly seems to be having trouble with its “tongue.” This “tongue” is made up of two long pieces, grooved, and with curved teeth along the edges ; the but- terfly must fasten the grooved sides together to form a tube by dove- tailing the teeth of the margins (Fig. 25), and then the whole must be coiled, like a watch spring, between the palpi. It is interesting to watch the process. The two pieces are placed together and again separated—some- thing wrong. Placed together again and coiled, uncoiled and separated — not yet right. This is repeated again and again, sometimes for a quarter of an hour or more, before the butterfly is comfortable. But look at the wings ! They are rapidly increasing in size, and in strength also, for now the butterfly can fan them back and forth. The increase in size is due to the fact that quantities of blood are pumped into them from the body, which becomes correspondingly smaller. The Fig. 24. — Monarch butterfly a few seconds after leaving chrysalis. Photographed from life.32 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES increase in strength is due to this circulation of blood, and to the fact that exposure to air causes the chitinous cover- ing to begin to harden and give firmness to the wings as well as to the body. In half an hour the butterfly seems fully developed, although it is usually much longer before flight is Knd of Tongue magnified to show two parts of which it is composed Cross-section of Tongue to show how teeth are dovetailed so that a Tube is formed between the two parts Fig. 25. — Butterfly “ tongue.” Greatly magnified. attempted. But the wings are dry and fully expanded; the antennae no longer droop, but are held upright; the “tongue” is nicely coiled between the palpi, and the abdomen is much contracted and no longer shows from below, but lies above in a groove made for it by the posterior wings (Fig. 26). This is our Monarch at last! From the little egg that was laid some three weeks ago! And it is veryTHE MONARCH 33 beautiful. It is ready to go out and make “ sunshine in a shady place,” and sunny places still more sunny. The empty, colorless chrysalis is left hanging from its sup- port; even now it is dry and curled. It tells a long story (Fig. 27). The caterpillar has become the butterfly. The anterior three segments have become the thorax, the remaining Fig. 26. — Monarch butterfly one-half hour after emergence from chrysalis. Photographed from life. nine are the abdomen. The arrangement of spiracles is just as before. The three pairs of jointed “ true legs ” have developed into the butterfly’s legs; the prolegs have disappeared. Two pairs of wings have been formed on the second and third segments of the thorax. The anten- nae are greatly developed. Instead of strong mandibles, a long proboscis has been made, which, together with the34 MOTHS AXD BUTTERFLIES wing structure, will necessitate habits of life vastly different from those of the caterpillar. The metamor- phosis is complete. The controlling forces in the life histories of all our butterflies and moths have been the questions of food for their young, their protection from insectivorous foes, and the protection from the cold of winter. The struggle for existence in the case of the Monarch has resulted in this nauseous quality which gives it immunity from many of its foes; and in migration which gives more room to live in during the breeding season and so * ^ more food for the young, and also gives protection against the cold of winter. So in a way the Monarch’s race is a favored race; that is, it is so admi- rably adapted to withstand cold and fig. 27.—Empty Monarch enemies that it is likely to survive chrysalis. while other races less favored may die out. It is protected even by the fact that its food in the larval stage is one of the most common weeds the world over. The Milkweed caterpillars are not likely to be molested because of the value of the plants they feed on. The individual life of the adult Monarch is longer than that of most butterflies; it may extend from one summer, on through the winter, until the next spring. Of course its size when it leaves the chrysalis is its permanent size ; a small butterfly never becomes a large butterfly. All growth and development take place in the caterpillar and chrysalis stages. The male butterfly- is usually much smaller than the female.THE MONARCH 35 There is a most striking case of unconscious protective mimicry of the Monarch butterfly in the Viceroy/ which has the same range as the Monarch. This butterfly (Fig. 28) has not the nauseous quality that the Monarch lias, but it is protected from its foes by Fig. 28. — Viceroys at a feast. They can be distinguished from the Monarch by the black cross bands on the posterior wings. Photographed from life. its close resemblance to the poisonous form. When in the hand it is easily distinguished by the dark cross bands on the posterior wings and by its smaller size, but when 1 Limenitis disippus (Li-men-i'tis di-sip'pus), or Basilarchia archtppus (Bas- i-larVhi-a ar-cliip'pus).36 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES flying at a little distance the mimicry is thoroughly deceptive. The close resemblance has been brought about by a long process of natural selection; it began with a chance slight resemblance. In each generation the but- terflies bearing the greatest likeness to the Monarch were protected by this likeness, and so survived; heredity did the rest. Now it is the best instance of protective mim- icry among insects in the United States and one of the best in the world.1 1 Read Chap. VI, Scudder’s “ Life of a Butterfly.”THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL, OR ASTERIAS BUTTERFLYFni. 29. — Adult Asterias caterpillar in resting position. Length 2 inches. Green, banded with black, with orange spots in the black. Slightly enlarged. Photographed from life.THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL1 Seeing only what is fair, Sipping only what is sweet. Emerson. For September study, tlie Black Swallowtail, as well as the Monarch, is especially appropriate. The caterpillars can be found in abundance feeding on wild carrot and on the parsley and carrot of the garden. In fact, Aste- rias is another butterfly “ botany teacher ”2: the eggs are laid on the various members of the Umbelliferae and on no others; on carrot and parsley and dill, on anise, cara- way, and parsnip, on poison hemlock and fennel, and so on through all the list of members of the parsley family. The butterfly never makes a mistake. If we find the eggs or caterpillars of Asterias on any plant, we may safely conclude that it has honorable standing in the parsley family. The eggs are laid singly on the undersides of the leaves. They are smooth and round and have no mark- ings of any kind. They hatch in from eight to ten days. The little caterpillar is black, with a white saddle midway its length (Fig. 30), and as long as it keeps this dress it is well protected. It is angular and has six longitudinal rows of short fleshy spines, which are black except in the 1Papilio asterias (Pa-pil'i-o as-te'ri-as), or Papilio polyxenes (P. po-lyx'e- nes), of the family Papilionidse; read page 375, Comstock’s “ Manual for the Study of Insects.” 2Read Chap. IV, Scudder’s “Frail Children of the Air,” Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 3940 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES region of the saddle, where they are white. The spines often have orange-colored bases. The adult dress is very different. The caterpillar is quite smooth. It is largest at the anterior end. The ground color is green, with bands of black which have in them spots of yellow or orange. These orange spots may he wholly surrounded by black, or they may open broadly into the green (Fig. 29), so that the black band is broken crosswise into distinct parts. There is great variation Fig. 30. — Young Asterias caterpillars. Black, with yellowish-white saddle. Natural size. Photographed from life. amongst these caterpillars. There may be these two types, and a third type in which the caterpillar is almost black, with the orange spots mere pin points in the black, as in Fig. 31. The Asterias caterpillar is protected by a very disa- greeable odor which is given out from a pair of orange- colored flexible horns. These are united at their bases to form a Y-shaped organ, and are concealed in a sheath just back of the head. These horns, or osmateria (os-ma-te'ri-a), are about half an inch long. They are protruded on slight provocation (Fig. 31), though not often to their full length, then quickly concealed again.THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 41 The fundamental structure of the Asterias corresponds exactly to that of other caterpillars. (Refer to Monarch.) The caterpillars of all butterflies are alike in the number of seg- ments, in the number and position of the true legs, prolegs, and spir- acles, in the general position of the simple eyes, of the mandibles, and of the spinneret (Fig. 32). They also correspond exactly in the general uses of these parts, so that if we know one cater- pillar, we know vir- tually all caterpillars, except in some few details which show the adaptation of the individual to its par- ticular life. It is most interesting to watch the larva of Asterias eat the finely divided leaf of wild carrot. Not a fragment is wasted, although there are so many chances for cutting off parts. The caterpillar is likely to begin eating the leaf by attack- ing one of the lower divisions, as No. 1 in Fig. 33. This is held between the true legs, and the mandibles cut it Fig. 31. — Full-grown Asterias caterpillar, to show variation from type. Black, with minute orange spots. Orange horns (osmate'ria) protruded. Fig. 32. — Asterias head, to show spinneret. Enlarged.42 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES off in parallel lines until a is reached. As soon as the caterpillar feels the cut, even with this rib, it stops and attacks 2. This is surprising, but. perhaps chance. Let us watch. No. 2 is cut off in the same way, and as soon as the caterpillar feels the mandibles touch the central rib at b, again it stops and attacks 3. It would be so easy to make one more sweep with the mandibles and let the whole end of the leaf fall! No. 3 is treated in the same way till c is reached, 4 is eaten off to d; 5 is at- tacked, cut off down to e, then e is eaten down to the point where 6 joins the rib. This is clever! No. 6 is eaten to the rib, rib disposed of to 7; 7 is cut off down to rib, rib eaten to 8; and so on to the main stem. There is never a false sweep of the Fig. 33. — Part of wild-carrot leaf, to 11 . illustrate the caterpillar’s way of ^&ftdibl6S} all IS 6&t6Il? none eating- is wasted. The caterpillars feed and rest on the upper sides of the leaves, never seeming to attempt concealment, and as they are certainly rather conspicuous, they must depend on the protection given them by the offensive odor of their orange horns. They do most of their feeding at night and are very quiet during the day, very often resting for hours on the stem immediately under the umbrella of flowers of the wild carrot. The moults take place in full view on the stems and leaves of the upper parts of the plant. The carpet of silk is spun, as it is by other caterpillars under similarTHE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 43 circumstances, and the head and body skins are moulted separately. The caterpillar does not devour the cast-off skin, but leaves the tiny black shriveled mass cling- ing in the carpet of silk, until wind or rain disposes of it. If the caterpillar is in cap- tivity when the final moult or change to chrysalis ap- proaches, we are warned by the very same conditions which exist in the case of any caterpillar approaching this change. The caterpillar pays no attention to food and becomes very restless; the alimentary canal is thor- oughly emptied in prepara- tion for the long sleep; the colors are dulled, the whole caterpillar is contracted. In nature the caterpillar is most likely to seek some neighboring fence or house and take a vertical position in some protected place, or a horizontal position under FlG'1/u—To show, cement of cater- r pillar m spinning loop. Looked at from some support. After ob- anterior end. Compare with Figs. 35 . and 36. serving some six or a dozen chrysalides formed, we should perhaps say that they always take a vertical position, or they always take a ----e44 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES horizontal -position, but after seeing the process repeated some two hundred times we find that there seems to be no law, that with the same conditions one position may be taken by one caterpillar, and another by the next. The posterior prolegs are fastened in a button of silk, and the caterpillar rests for some two hours. Then it begins moving its head about, and if we watch we soon see that there is some system in the movements. The head is moved around to one side until it covers a point on the support a little at one side of the mid-line of the body, and somewhat in front of where the first pair of pro- legs is attached; here a thread of silk is fastened (a in A of Fig. 34). The caterpillar now moves its head away from this point, spinning a thread of silk (B) out as far as it can reach, re- maining fastened by the prolegs ((7); the ventral surface of the anterior part of the body is arched, lifted as high as Fig. 35.—Asterias cat- - . .. erpiiiar spinning loop, the caterpillar can lilt it, and held m viewed from the side, that position; then slowly the head is moved around to the other side (D), the thread of silk being caught and held by the second pair of true legs. At a point on the other side corresponding to the first point of attachment of the thread, it is again attached (b in E, Fig. 34, also Fig. 36). Thus a loop is formed embracing the arched ventral part of the caterpillar’s body, and this loop is held by the second pair of true legs, which bend forward so as to form a pair of hooks (Fig. 35). The movement is reversed, and a second loop of silk adhering closely to the first is made to pass from b to a (Fig. 34).THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 45 The loop is strengthened again and again, until it is a gleaming white rope made up of twenty- five or more single threads. Five minutes is the time usually taken to spin this loop. Finally, when the caterpillar is in position, as in Fig. 36, or A of Fig. 34, unexpectedly, by a very quick movement, the head is' put under the loop, which is slipped over the an- terior part of the body until it rests in the groove between the fifth and sixth segments. The head is curved forward so as almost to touch the sup- port, the caterpillar becomes still more contracted, its colors still more dulled, and this position is kept I without event for twenty-four hours (Fig.: 37). At the close of this time the skin is moulted, and the chrysalis is revealed. ' The spinning of this loop seems one of I ( the most wonderful feats accomplished dur- j! ing caterpillar life. It is difficult and is; done once only; yet it means life to the j caterpillar if it be done without mistake,. probable death if there should be a slip! anywhere. And it is done as easily as j though the caterpillar had been well taught: and had practiced many times; Fig. 37. — Asterias Never but once have 1 seen a caterpillar caterpillar ready show difficulty in managing the affair. One chrysalis!"86 Fig. 36. — Asterias caterpillar attach- ing thread of loop at side. Viewed from the side.46 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES caterpillar spun its loop a trifle too short, so that when it bobbed its head under and tried to slip the loop over to the sixth segment, it found itself too large to get through the loop, even with its most vigorous efforts. Twice the silk girdle was brought back to its original position over the arched ven- tral part of the body, held by the second pair of legs, and th.e head was pushed un- der ; but not till the third effort did the caterpillar succeed in getting it satisfac- torily placed. In this final moult the chrysalis has to work very hard. The bulk of the body is again and again slipped the loosened caterpillar this becomes tensely Fig. 38.—Begiiniin to moult. For series over the anterior end, of drawings to show forward in skin, so that stretched \/I VAX ill VY lli^O tv Oilv YY « ^ 1 1 *1 moult, refer to Fig. and very much wrinkled 53. Drawn from ^he posterior end photograph from 1 life. (Fig- 38). The skin splits back of the head and is forced back by its own taut condition and by the efforts of the chrysalis, until only the extreme posterior end of the chrys- alis is within it. Then the chrysalis withdraws this posterior end, with its hundreds of tiny hooks, from the skin on the dorsal side and, reaching around, securely fastens the hooks into the button of silk. Then the old skin is removed both from its fastening to the chrysalis and from its attachment in the button of silk (Fig. 39). (Refer to Fig. 39. — Asterias chrys- alis. Slightly enlarged. Photograph.THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 47 Fig. 53 to see same process in the Yellow Swallow- tail butterfly.) But the chrysalis sometimes does not succeed in land- ing the hooks of the posterior end in the button of silk before the attachment between the skin and its body is broken and all its energy is gone. This is especially true when the caterpillar has chosen a horizontal surface. It may hang supported in the loop (Fig. 40) for a day or more, until the silk has cut far into the soft chrysalis, Fig. 40. — An Asterias chrysalis that was unsuccessful in fastening its posterior end in the silk. and then by a second effort, brought about by the discom- fort of the unnatural position, the hooks may be securely fastened in the silk, and the old skin forced from its support. The chrysalis may not only fail in fastening the poste- rior end in the button of silk, but it may fall through the loop, perchance catching the hooks in the carpet of silk as it falls (Fig. 41), but more likely dropping to the ground to be destroyed in some way. The various parts of the undeveloped butterfly, all folded closely to the body to take up as little space as possible, show very distinctly on the surface of the chrys- alis (Fig. 40). This chrysalis is green, tinged with yellow48 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES on the dorsal side; or it mayJbe brown, with green spots and black streaks. With this coloring and its hard and rough exterior it resem- bles very closely a frag- ment of wood or bark, and so is well protected. One of these chrysa- lides looks so like a bit of wood that sometimes even an Asterias seems to be deceived by it and spins a carpet over it, attaching its loop of silk so that we have one chrysalis fastened to another (Fig. 42). This butterfly is double-brooded in New England. In the July brood the chrysalis stage lasts somewhat less than two weeks, but Fig. 42. — One Asterias chrysalis attached to another. Photograph. in the fall brood it is the stage which carries life over the winter. We must keep the chrysalis for spring study.THE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 49 In May the little fragments of green stem or of brown bark will suddenly become black, with rows of yellow spots, and will be soft to the touch. The chrysalis skin is separated from the butterfly within, and it will be a matter of a few hours only before the glorious Black Swallowtail will come forth, ready for a life of sunshine Fig. 43. — The Black Swallowtail or Asterias butterfly. Male. 3£ inches; black, bordered with double rows of yellow spots; a red eye-spot at the anal angle of each posterior wing; blue on the posterior wings between the rows of yellow spots. Natural size. Photographed from life. # / and flowers after its long winter sleep (Fig. 46). And woe betide the butterfly if the chrysalis has become broken from its support, so that the butterfly cannot pull itself out, but must walk about with the chrysalis skin clinging to its wings until it is too late, and these wings have hardened, not in their expanded perfect condi- tion, but wrinkled and folded so that the creature can never fly.50 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES We all know the Black Swallowtail (Fig. 43). From its great abundance in the north, its striking appearance, and the fact that its larva feeds on garden vegetables, it is probably known to more people than almost any other butterfly. It is large, measuring some three and a quarter inches across the expanded wings. The posterior wings are smaller than the anterior, and each has, extending from the middle of its hind margin, a slender tail a half inch long. The wings are black, bearing along their edges double rows of yellow spots. The inner row on the posterior wings is especially conspicuous in the male, but may be almost lacking in the female. On the posterior wings the space between these two rows of yellow spots is dusted with blue very prominently in the female, less so in the male. At the anal angle of each posterior wing is a red eye-spot; this is true in both sexes. The under surface resembles the upper in general effect, but much of the yellow is replaced by orange-red, especially on the hind wings. The life history of Asterias is somewhat different in the south; there are three broods, and the adult butterfly hibernates. In the north we may see the butterfly on the wing from May until the middle or last of September. For study we can have the butterflies in September, and the caterpillars and chrysalides then and later; in fact, the caterpillars have been found as late as the last of Decem- ber, having fed on parsley that had been protected for whiter use. The Asterias butterflies are very fond of the nectar of garden flowers, and more than repay, by the work of cross- pollination that they do, for the amount of parsley and carrot eaten by their larvae. They help make possibleTHE BLACK SWALLOWTAIL 51 many races of flowering plants which are absolutely dependent on them and other butterflies to carry the pollen which will help make their seeds. The Agricul- tural Department at Washington accuses them of injur- ing some flowers, by tearing them as they remove the long “tongues” from their depths. Every creature has many enemies. The student of nature becomes very familiar with this fact. Not only does each living thing have a hard time in finding and keeping a proper place to live in, and in getting the right kind of food and enough of it, but it must always be on the alert to elude its enemies. Caterpillars have many enemies, and on the! whole they seem rather)****^ helpless in any i sort of defense. Their great protection lies in hiding, and in their resemblance to their surroundings ; a favored few, such as the Milkweed and the Asterias caterpillars, are protected by disagreeable odors or nauseous qualities. But who are the enemies of butterflies and moths in the adult and in the larval stage ? Insectivorous vertebrates, such as the lizard, which are most common in the south; and birds; and various insects which are parasitic while in the larval stage. In the case of the Asterias caterpillar its offensive odor given off by the orange horns may protect it from insec- tivorous vertebrates and from birds, but it certainly does not from parasitic insects. Fhl -1 L~~niry.siHs smm lire. | like a fragment of brown wood or bark, and the resemblance is heightened by the habit of playing dead, which this butterfly always practices when disturbed. We may toss it from hand to hand, drop ■I ¥u>. i'>:L ■ rlnwk tmni>rih j4a>;iu Uung hy flaws m laud krai. N.UUral Hki- togrci plied fr«»m lihs 1 Nymplial'idae, largest family of butterflies, Comstock’s “ Manual for the Study of Insects,” p. 395. 2 Vanes'sids, subgroup of Nymphalidae.THE MOURNING CLOAK 71 it into the grass as we would any dry chip, and it shows no more life than any chip would. We may hang it up by the claws of its feet (Fig. 62); still it shows no sign of life. This habit must be a great protection in its life, for we know that birds and other animals must, as a rule, be convinced by the motion of their prey that it is alive, or they disdain it. This butterfly is of a sturdy race and hibernates in the adult form. We may see it flying in September, October, Fig. 63. — Willing captives at dinner, December 25. (The Mourning Cloak.) and even November, and again in February and March, or even earlier, if there happens to be a thaw;1 in fact, just as dandelions amongst flowers have been reported for every month of the year in the Northern States, so Mourn- ing Cloaks amongst butterflies have been seen flying every month from March to March again. We have seen that in the early spring, before the flowers come, they feed on the exuding sap of trees ; in the late fall, after the flowers are gone, they seem perfectly content with the juices of 1 Thaw Butterflies, Gibson’s “Sharp Eyes,” pp. 270-274.72 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES decaying fruits, assembling in large numbers in orchards and about cider presses. When the severe cold weather approaches they seek some sheltered cranny in piled wood or stones, in hollow trees, under the loosened bark of old stumps and trees, or on the rafters of barns; they have been found in all these and in other similarly protected places. Here they sleep, usually with folded wings hanging downward, enduring all the severe cold until the warmth of February and March days tempts them out in search of food. We may keep them in the house all winter by feeding them on apple (Fig. 63), but they are best kept in some cold, dark place which will give them the natural condi- tions for hibernation. In early May, when leaf buds are just opening, the eggs of Antiopa are laid side by side with great regularity in large clusters so that they encircle the twigs of the food plants—willow, elm, and poplar. The butterfly has two broods; in the case of the second, or summer brood, Fig. 64. — Eggs of the Mourning Cloak butterfly on twig and leaf of poplar, x 2. Photographed from life. the eggs are usually laid in close rows on the underside of a leaf (Fig. 64). It is an easy matter to see this process in nature as well as when the butterfly is in captivity;THE MOURNING CLOAK 73 the butterfly hangs from the leaf with wings folded, the abdomen is curved so that its end touches the under sur- face of the leaf. There is a pause of a few seconds after each egg is laid. The eggs are oval and yellow in color and are placed on end. When examined closely they reveal eight or nine vertical ribs. In about two weeks the young caterpil- lars escape through holes made at the tops of the eggs. They at once arrange themselves side by side on the under surfaces of the leaves, all in compact rows, with their heads at the edges. They live in com- pany through all their cat- erpillar existence, though scattering somewhat when near maturity, and, when the colony is a large one, considerable damage may be done to the branch or branches of the tree they occupy. They never try to protect themselves by hid- ing. When moulting time arrives all assemble on a branch, perhaps making it droop with their weight. Here they shed the skins, leaving the black, spiny masses clinging to the branch to tell the story. When mature they are two inches long and are cov- ered by longitudinal rows of black, branching spines. Fig. 65. — Antiopa caterpillar. Black, finely dotted with white, with longitu- dinal rows of black, branching spines, and with eight red spots along middle of back. Photographed from life.74 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES They are black, finely dotted with white, having eight orange-red spots along the middle line of the back (Fig. ^ 65). The five pairs of prolegs are of the same orange-red color. When ready for the change to chrysalis they scurry away singly in search of a fence or stone wall or other protected place in which to spend the critical hours before and after the change. The caterpillar hangs sus- pended, with its posterior pro- legs firmly fastened in a button of silk and its body curved up- Fig. 66. — Antiopa caterpillar in position to moult skin for chrysalis. Drawn from pho- tograph from life. ward (Fig. 66). After twenty-four hours the caterpillar begins to be restless, straightening its full length and again, curving its body upward. Finally the skin splits back of the head and is moulted exactly as in the case of the Milkweed cat- erpillar. If the skin is dry, or for any reason the ... . . Fig. 67. — Chrysalis of Antiopa butterfly hard- coildltions are not right, ened with end sheathed in old caterpillar the process may end trag- skin' Drawn from I,hotograph from ,ife' ically; the chrysalis may fall, or it may not be able to extri- cate its posterior end from the caterpillar skin and so hardens with this end closely sheathed in its old skin (Fig. 67).THE MOUKNTNTr CLOAK 75 The chrysalis is wood-brown and very rough and angu- lar, the back bearing many short spines. It is distinctly a protected form. Still it hangs freely, suspended only at the end, so that if the time in this stage were several months instead of two weeks or less, the chrysalis would be likely to be battered to pieces, in spite of its angles and spines, by the buffetings given by the fall, winter, and spring winds. It is an interesting fact that not only in the Antiopa butterfly is the life not carried through the winter in the chrysalis stage, j but in the case of all butter- flies whose chrysalides are sus- j pended by the posterior end only, the life is usually pre- j served over the winter season in some other than the chrys- alis form. The chrysalides of the first Fig ^ _ Antiopa butterfly opening the brood mature in July or some- door of its chrysalis skin. Photo- graphed from life. times the last of June ; the butterflies of the second brood push open the doors (the chitin covering head, proboscis, legs, and antennae), and climb forth from their chrysalis skins in September and October (Fig. 68). It is no uncommon thing to see this final transformation of the Mourning Cloak taking place on fences and stone fronts of houses, as we walk in the very heart of any city where elms (their food tree) are used for shade. Very soon after leaving the chrysalis, Antiopa voids a red fluid which resembles blood in color. All of the moths and butterflies on quitting the chrysalis skin send forth from the body a fluid very often red in color. Thus,76 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES when any form is very common in a locality these spots of red on houses and fences where the insects have rested on coming out of the chrysalis skins may be numerous enough to give rise in the minds of the ignorant and superstitious to belief in a rain of blood, interpreted to foretell disaster. It is said that this mistake was made many times in the history of the world and many lives sacrificed because of it, before the real cause of the red rain1 was found out. The Mourning Cloak is one of the most common butter- flies in the United States, as well as in various countries of the Old World. We can find almost no better material for study in spring or fall. 1 Red Rain, Holland’s “Butterfly Book,” pp. 299-304. Doubleday & McClure Company. Ready for life.THE PAINTED BEAUTY, OR HUNTER’S BUTTERFLYFig. 69. — The Painted Beauty on purple aster. Under surface of wings. Conspicuous masses of rose color on the hind parts of the fore wings; two large eye-like spots on each posterior wing. Natural size. Photographed from life. 78THE PAINTED BEAUTY1 The beautiful is as useful as the useful. — Victor Hugo. A butterfly that is distinctively American, and that is found throughout the United States except, perhaps, in some mountainous districts, is the Painted Beauty. It is well named, for it is one of much beauty in all stages, as well as one of much interest. A “ butterfly born in a bower ” !2 And a most attract- ive little bower it is that the butterfly finds itself in as it opens the door of the chrysalis and climbs out; a bower so small that the owner must leave it to find space for the expanse of its wings. If we examine the everlasting plants (gnaphalium) in September and October, we shall very often find hollow nests, all clean and white, made of large clusters of frag- ments of the everlasting flowers held together by slender threads of silk (Fig. 70); and if we make an opening and peep in, we are likely to find the caterpillar of the Painted Beauty (Fig. 71), or possibly the chrysalis. When the nests are first made, they are compact and shapely, but after they have been at the mercy of the wind for some time they are frayed into artistic disorder, and send out long streamers, beckoning us to come and examine. The caterpillar uses the nest as a resting place and a hiding place, and the neighboring leaves for its feeding 1 Hunter’s Beauty, Vanessa Huntera (Va-nes'sa Hun'te-ra), or Pyrameis Huivtera (Py-ra-me'is Hun'te-ra). 2 Read Gibson’s “ Sharp Eyes,” p. 168. 7980 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES grounds; so when we look inside we may find the tenant gone, and may have to search elsewhere on the stems and leaves of the plant. The full-grown caterpillar is one and- one-half inches long, and is very gay-colored and conspicu- ous. It is banded with deep red and yellow, and is boldly Fig. 70. — Nests of Painted Beauty caterpillars, on everlasting {gnaphalium). spotted with silvery white. It shows relationship to the Mourning Cloak by the longitudinal rows of branched spines (Fig. 72). The egg when laid is tucked down amongst the long hairs of the leaf. As soon as the young caterpillar comes from the egg, it makes a tent by biting off the long hairs and fastening them together by means of a close webTHE PAINTED BEAUTY 81 of silk. The little fellow lives in this tent until it has eaten all the pulp of the leaf under it, and then proceeds to make a new one. As the caterpillar grows a little older, the nest is sometimes made between two adjacent leaves, and finally we have the form in Fig. 70. The butterfly has two broods; the summer brood feeds on antennaria, or “ lady’s tobacco,” as well as on gnaphalium. The story of the periodic moults and of the formation of the chrysalis is clear if we know the Mon- arch or the Mourning Cloak. The chrysalis (Fig. 73) is made in the nest, or some- times on the stems of the food plant. It is extremely beautiful; Small and angular. Fig. 71. — Caterpillar of the Tainted Beauty, banded . , . with dark red and yellow, spotted with white, Wltn tWO prominent With longitudinal rows of branched spines. 1 h projections at the lncheS- Photographed life, head end. In coloring, it is a jewel indeed, gleaming with tints of green and bronze and gold. The chrysalis stage usually continues ten days or two weeks. The whole life history is worked out in the fall, the butterfly hibernating in the adult form. Its winter hiding places are not well known. It may prefer cozy hollows in trees, or protected places under large rocks, or dark corners of the rafters of barns. Who will find out the secret of its safe seclusion ?82 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES The butterfly is a most charming one. We can find it in large numbers in September and October on asters and golden-rods, on thistles and dandelions. It is extremely active and flies until a half hour before sundown. It Fig. 72. — Angry Painted Beauty caterpillar. Photographed from life. turns suddenly to right or left, reverses the course, returns to a point from which it has been frightened, and circles about; we try in vain to make the capture. It rests on an aster, puts the long proboscis into a nectar cup, folds theTHE PAINTED BEAUTY 83 wings above the back; and we may pick up the Painted Beauty between the fingers. If we do so, it at once appears lifeless; “ playing dead ” is one of its common means of escaping its enemies. If left quiet for a few seconds, it comes to life again and shows the curious rapid vibration of the wings preceding flight, which is so common a habit with moths. And again it is gone, as strong and free as ever. The Painted Beauty is a butter- fly of medium size, measuring two or two and one-quarter inches from wing tip to wing tip. The upper surface of the wings is nearly black, marked conspicu- ously with orange and white; the under surface (Fig. 69) is marbled and streaked with gray, white, and brown; there are conspicu- ous masses of rose color on the hind parts of the fore wings, and there are two large peacock-eye spots on each posterior wing near its hind margin. The harmony of coloring of the under surface is most pleasing. Another butterfly (Fig. 74) most nearly related to this one is the Painted Lady.1 This is known as the Thistle butterfly also, since its larvae feed on thistles. And because its larvae feed on thistles, which are weeds the world over, this butterfly is more widely distributed than any other in the world; it is the cosmopolitan butterfly. 1 Vanessa cardui (Va-nes'sa car'du-i), or Pyrameis cardui (Py-ra-me'is car'du-i). Fig. 73.— Chrysalis of the Painted Beauty. Green, bronze, and gold, x 1£.84 MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES Its life history and habits are very much like those of the Painted Beauty; if we know one, we need little intro- duction to the other. The butterflies are so alike that they are easily mistaken for one another. The Painted Lady has a row of small eye-like spots instead of the two large ones on the hind margin of the posterior wing. It afly whose migration arms is well known, fes in the adult form. vy Another very closely related but- terfly, which likewise | is most common, is (the Red Admiral1 | (Figs. 75 and 76). | We all know the black, red-bordered, | white-spotted wings | which have gained ifor this butterfly its name, and if we know the life history and habits of any other member of the group of Yanessids, it is only in details that we need any introduction to this one. Its food plant is the nettle. I'!..- 74. —Tltt! 1.: Thistle bnh«*rlly, Coloring likt’ ihai of htiulHl K^auty