i nro een f Do ee aah wae 7 x pea CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library arV19096 il ica ic 3 1924 031 284 221 olin,anx NIWA i p Eg Rs! o>, ok vt : oo etc. 3. KINDS OF FOLIAGE LEAVES IN REFERENCE TO THEIR COMPOSITION. Some foliage leaves have only one lamina and never more than one articulation at the base, as in ‘the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 16); while others have two or more laminae, as in the Fuji (Wistaria chinensis) (Fig. 48) and Akebi (Akebia quinata) (Fig. 49), or one lamina and two articulations, as in the Yudzu (Fig. 47) and Megi. Those of the former kind are called Simple Leaves and those of the latter Compound. KINDS OF FOLIAGE LEAVES. 48. KINDS OF FOLIAGE LEAVES IN REFERENCE { Simple Leaves. ‘TO THEIR COMPOSITION Those compound leaves with one lamina, as in the Yudzu (Fig. 47) and Megi, are said to be Unifoliolate, and those with two or more laminae, as in the Fuji (Fig. 48) and Akebi (Fig. 49), are said to be Multifoliolate. Unifoliolate. CoMPOUND LEAVES arenes In compound leaves, their laminae are called Leaflets, the stalks of leaflets Petzolwles, and the stipules of leaflets Stipels. Compound Leaves.. Fie. 47. WO a # S Fie. 47.—Unifoliolate compound leaf of the Yudzu (Citrus aurantium). Fie. 49. Fig. 48.—Pinnately compound leaf Fic. 49.—Palmately compound leaf of the Fuji (Wistaria chinensis ). of the Akebi ( Akebia quinata). 44 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Some multifoliolate compound leaves have their leaflets arranged laterally on a common petiole, as in the Fuji (Fig. 48) and Yendé, while others have their leaflets arranged on the top of a common petiole, as in the Akebi (Fig. 49) and Tochinoki (Aesculus turbinata). Those of the former kind are called Pinnately Compound Leaves and those of the latter Palmately Compound. MULTIFOLIOLATE COMPOUND) Pinnately Compound Leaves. LEAVES Palmately Compound Leaves. All the kinds of leaves in reference to their composition are represented in the following table. TO THEIR KINDS OF LEAVES | Simple Leaves. COMPOSITION hai Compound Unifoliolate Compound Leaves. Leaves......... Multifoliolate Com-( Fimmately Com- pound Leaves. Palmately Com- - pound Leaves. pound Leaves...... B. MODIFIED LEAVES. Modified Leaves are those, which are either changed to perform some particular functions, or only retrograded from normal ones. Some of the modified leaves are related either directly or indirectly to the nutrition of the plant to which they belong, as the insect-catching leaves of the Mosengoke (Drosera rotundifolia) (Fig. 50) or the spines of the Megi (Fig. 40); while others are related either directly or in- directly to reproduction, as the fruit-bearing leaves of the Nokishinobu (Polypodium lineare) (Fig. 51) or the floral leaves of the Sakura (Fig. 55). Those of the former kind © are said to be Nutritive or Vegetative, and those of the latter Reproductive. Nutritive. MoDIFIED LEAVES { : Reproductive. NUTRITIVE MODIFIED LEAVES. 45. Djs Fie. 50.—Mosengoke (Drosera rotundifolia). Fie. 51. Fia. 51.—Nokishinobu (Polypodium lineare ). 8. Clusters of spore-cases. 1. NUTRITIVE MODIFIED LEAVES. There are many kinds of nutritive modified leaves: some are hard and needle- shaped, as the spines of the Megi (Fig. 40) and Hebinoboradzu (Berberis vulgaris) ; some are thread-like and capable of coiling spirally, as the climbing organs of the Yendo and Shiode (Fig. 52); some are small and scaly, as the subterranean leaves of the Oniyuri (Fig. 12) Fie. 52. Fie. 5z.—Shoot of the Shiode (Smilax herbacea) with tendrils. 46 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. and Jagataraimo (Fig. 14); and others are either flattened or bag-shaped, capable of catching insects, as the Aattened leaves of the Mosengoke (Fig. 50) or the bag-shaped leaflets of the Tanukimo (Utricularia vulgaris). Those sharp-pointed leaves or parts of leaves are called Spines ; those thread-like leaves or parts of leaves Tendrils ; those scaly ones Cataphyllary Leaves ; and those insect- catchers Insectivorous Leaves. (See Fig. 17.) Not only leaves, but branches also are transformed into spines, as in the Saikachi (Gleditschia japonica) and Nashi (Pyrus sinensis), and into tendrils, as in the Budo (Fig. 15) and Tsuta (Vitis inconstans). These modified branches may be readily distinguished from modified leaves by their point of origin (modified branches arise from axils of leaves or are direct continuations of stems). Spines. Tendrils. Cataphyllary Leaves. Insectivorous Leaves. NUTRITIVE MODIFIED LEAVES 2. REPRODUCTIVE MODIFIED LEAVES. There are also several kinds of reproductive modified leaves : in one case, numerous ones are clustered on a branch, of which the internodes are seldom developed, to subserve reproduction ; some ones are situated below the above men- tioned clusters to protect or help them, as the flower- covering-leaves of the Tennanshd (Arisema japonicum) (Fig. 53) and Ayame; and others are scattered and bear minute fructifications, as in the Warabi (Pteris aquilina) and Nokishinobu (Fig. 51). The group of numerous leaves modified to subserve re- production is called a Flower, and its constituents are PARTS OF THE FLOWER. 47 Fria. 53. termed Floral Leaves; those situated below a flower or flowers Hypsophyllary Leaves or Bracts ; and those bearing minute fructifi- cations Spore-bearing Leaves. (See Fig. 17.) MODIFIED Hypsophyllary Leaves. Ruepropucrrvn Floral Leaves. LEAVES Spore-bearing Leaves. FLORAL LEAVES. The Floral Leaves are usually clustered into a group which is termed a Flower. PARTS OF THE FLOWER. Fra. 53.—Inflorescence of the aa ( ie A fully organized flower, as in aponicum) enclosed in a Be 2 ts ae tered bract. the Kabura (Fig. 54) and Sakura (Fig. 55), consists of four different series of floral leaves : the outermost whorl called the Calyx is composed of flat- Fie. 54. Fig. 55. (ZR qy \ y Fia. 54.—Flower of the Kabura Fie. 55.—F lower of the (Brassica campestris ). Sakura cut open. 48 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. tened leafy organs ; the next whorl within the calyx called the Corolla is also composed of flattened leafy organs; the third whorl within the corolla called the Andrecium consists of more or less thread-like organs; and the fourth series within the androecium called the Gyneciwm occupies the centre of the flower and consists of more or less sac-like organs. As the calyx and corolla are especially designed for the protection of the organs within, they are called Protective Organs or Floral Envelopes; while the andrcecium and gynoeecium are called Essential Organs, as they are indispen- sable for the main purpese of the flower. Calyx. Corolla. Andreecium. Gyneecium. Protective Organs | PaRTS OF THE rrowen! Essential Organs { THE CALYX. The Calyx is the outermost envelope of the flower and it is composed of flattened usually green organs called Sepals. DURATION oF THE CaLyx.—The duration of the calyx varies in different plants: in some plants, as the Keshi (Papaver somniferum) and Kusanod (Chelidontum majus) , it falls off when the flower expands ; in other plants, as the Kabura and Mume, it falls off with or after the corolla; and in others, as the Kaki (Diospyros Kaki) and Hodzuki (Physalis Alkekengi), it remains after the flowering is over. The calyx of the first kind is said to be Caducous or Fuga- cious ; that of the second kind Deciduous ; and that of the third kind Persistent. Caducous. DURATION OF THE cane Deciduous. Persistent. THE CALYX. 49 KINDs OF THE CALYX.—The calyx is composed of either distinct sepals, as in the Kabura (Fig. 54) and Kimpoge (Ranunculus acris) ; or more or less united sepals, as in the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 55). In the former case, it is said to be Dialysepalous or Polysepalous ; and in the latter, Gamosepalous or Monosepalous. — Dialysepalous Calyx. KINDS OF THE cars| Gamosepalous Calyx. The dialysepalous calyx may be composed either of sepals of equal size and like form, as in the Kabura (Fig. 54) and Kimpoge ; or of sepals of unequal size Fie. 56. and unlike form, as in the Torikabuto (Aconitum Fischert) and Sumire (Viola Patrinit) (Fig. 56). In the former case, it is said to be Regular, and in the latter Irregular. Regular Dialysepalous DraLYSEPALOUS Calyx. CALYX Irregular Dialysepalous Calyx. Fra. 57. The gamosepal- ee at ous calyx may (Viola Patrinii). be also composed either of sepals of equal size and like form, as in the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 55); or of sepals of unequal size and unlike form, as in the Fuji (Fig. 57) and Odorikoso (Lamium album) (Fig. 59). In the former case, it is also called Regular, and in the latter Irregular. Fre. 57.—Flower of the Fuji. Regular Gamosepalous Calyx. GAMOSEPALOUS catyx{ Irregular Gamosepalous Calyx. 50 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. All the kinds of calyx are represented in the following table. Dialysepalous Calpe CALYX | Gamosepalous Calyx | ( Regular Dialysepalous Calyx. Irregular Dialysepalous Calyz. Regular Gamosepalous Calyx. Irregular Gamosepalous Calyx. Parts.—Although the sepals are modified leaves, yet commonly they are not provided with those portions corres- Fie. 58. Fie. 58.—F lower of the Tampopo (Taraxacum officinale). ponding to the petiole and sheath. In a gamosepalous calyx, the part where the sepals are united is called the Tube, the free border the Limb, and the opening of the tube the Throat (Fig. 59). Sometimes the fimb of the calyx is developed in the form of scales or hairs called Pappus, as in the Tampopo (Tararacum officinale) (Fig. 58) and Shion (Aster tataricus). THE COROLLA. The Corolla is the inner floral envelope situated within the calyx and it is composed of flattened usually colored organs called Petals, DURATION OF THE CorRoLLa.—The duration of the corolla, like that of the calyx, varies in different plants. It is either Caducous, as in the Budd and Yabukarashi (Vitis pentaphylla), Deciduous, as in the Mume and Keshi, or Persistent, as in the Dokua-utsugi. Caducous. DURATION OF THE conora| Deciduous. Persistent. THE COROLLA. 51 KINDS OF THE CoRoLLA.—The corolla is also composed either of separate petals, as in the Kimpoge and Sakura (Fig. 55); or of more or less united petals, as in the Asagao (Fig. 9) and Odorikoso (Fig. 59). In the former case, it is called Dialypetalous or Polypetalous, and in the latter Gamopetalous or Monopetalous. Dialypetalous Corolla. KINDS OF THE { VERO Gamopetalous Corolla. The dialypetalous corolla is again composed either of petals of equal size and like form, as in the Kimpoge and Sakura (Fig. 55); or of petals of unequal size and unlike form, as in the Sumire (Fig. 56) and Fuji (Fig. 57). In the former case, it is called Regular as in the calyx, and in the latter Irregular. Regular Dialypetalous Corolla. Irregular Dialypetalous Corolla. DIALYPETALOUS conor The gamopetalous corolla is also either Regular as in the Asagao (Fig. 9) and Hodzuki, or Irregular, as in the Odorikoso (Fig. 59) and Kari (Paulownia imperialis). Regular Gamopetalous GAMOPETALOUS Corolla. COROLLA Irregular Gamopetalous Corolla. All the kinds of corolla are i he followin Fia. 59.—Flower of represented in the g Soa table. (Lamium album). 52 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Regular Dialypetalous Corolla. Irregular Dialypetalous Corolla. Regular Gamopetalous Corolla. Irregular Gamopetalous Corolla. Dialypetalous Corolla { CoROLLA Gamopetalous Corolla | Parts.—A fully developed petal consists of an expanded Fie. 60. upper portion corresponding to the lamina of a leaf and a narrow stalk-like portion which is analogous to the petiole, as in the Nadeshiko and Gampi (Lychnis grandiflora) (Fig. 60). The expanded portion is called the Limd, and the petiolar portion the Claw. In a gamopetalous corolla, the part where the petals are united is also called the Tube, the free border the Limb, and _ the orifice of the tube the Throat Fia. 60.—Petal of the Gampi “ (Lychnis grandiflora). (Fig. 59). THE ANDRCECIUM. The Andrcecium is the outer series of the essential organs situated within the corolla, and it is composed of one or more thread-like organs called Stamens. Parrs oF THE Stamen.—A fully organized stamen con- sists of a bag-like portion, which is analogous to the lamina, and a slender stalk, which is the representative of the petiole. The bag-like portion is called the Anther and the stalk the Filament (Fig. 65 and 67). The anther is usually divided into two equal halves which are separated perpendicularly by a central portion corresponding to the midrib. Each half is called an Anther-lobe and it has one or two cavities containing minute granules; and the central portion is THE ANDRECIUM. 53 termed the Connective. The cavity of the anther is called the Anther-cell, and its granular contents are collectively termed the Pollen. In a few cases, the anther is provided with only one lobe. Anther | Anther-lobes—Pollen. Connective. Parts oF THE sae | Filament. DuRATION oF THE ANDRacIUM.—Most stamens fall off when their anthers discharge their contained pollen, as in the Keshi and Kabura, but in rare cases they remain after the flowering is over, as in the Hotarubukuro (Campanula punctata) and Firings (C. Mediwm). In the former case the androecium is said to be deciduous, and in the latter Persistent. Deciduous. DURATION OF THE anpracrom{ 4 Persistent. KInDs OF THE ANDRecIUM.—The andreecium is com- posed either of separate stamens, as in the Kimpige and Fie. 61.—Tetradynamous Fie. 62.—Diadelphous andreecium of andreecium of the Kabura. the Fuji. Kabura (Fig. 61), or of more or less united stamens, as in the Fuji (Fig. 62) and Mukuge (Hibiscus syriacus). In 54 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. the former case, it is said to be Apostemonous, and in the latter, Synstemonous. KINDS OF THE anDRecrum{ Apostemonous Andreecium. Synstemonous Andrecium. The apostemonous androecium may consist either of but one fertile stamen, as in the Myoga (Zingiber Mioga) (Fig. 63) and Dandoku (Canna indica), or of two or more stamens, as in the Kitsu- nenomago (Justicia procumbens) and Kabura (Fig. 61). In the former case it is said to be Scmple, and in the Fra. 63.—Simple apostemonous andre- cium of the Myéga (Zingiber Mioga j. The multiple apostemonous andreecilum may be composed either of those stamens which are all of the same length and like form, as in the Mayumi (Euonymus europeus, var. Hamilitonianus) (Fig. 64) and Ayame (see Fig. 69); or of those which are of different length or unlike form, as in the Kabura (Fig. 61) and Tsuyukusa (Com- latter Multiple. Simple Apostemonous APOSTEMONOUS Andreecium. ANDRECIUM .| Multiple Apostemonous Andreecium. Fie. 64.—F lower of the Mayumi (Euonymus europeus, var. Hami- litonianus ), showing the regular multiple apostemonous andre- cium. melina communis). In the former case it is said to be Regular, and in the latter Irregular. Mutt. Apost. Anpr. Reg. Mult. Apost. Andr. Irreg. Mult. Apost. Andr. THE ANDR@CIUM. 55 The irregular multiple apostemonous andreecium may be composed either of such unequal stamens as follow no definite rule, or of those arranged in adefinite manner. In the latter case there are two important varieties : in one kind there are six stamens. of which four are longer than the re- maining two, as in the Kabura (Fig. 61) and Daikon; and in the other there are four stamens of which two are long and two short, as in the Odorikosé and Sagigoke (Mazus rugosus, var. macranthus) (Fig. 93). The androecium of the former sort is said to be Yetradynamous, and that of the latter Didynamous. The synstemonous androecium may be composed either of those stamens which are united into one body by means of their anthers or their filaments, as in the Tampopo (Fig. 58) and Mukuge; or of those which are united into two or more bodies by their filaments, as in the Fuji (Fig. 62) and Otogirisd (Hypericum erectum). The synstemonous androecium of the former kind is said to be Complete, and that of the latter Incomplete. Complete Synstemonous Andreecium. SYNSTEMONOUS ANDRECIUM : Incomplete Synstemonous Andreecium. A complete synstemonous androecium consisting of stamens which are united into one body by means of their anthers, as in the Tampopo (Fig. 58) and Shion, is said to be Syngenesious ; and that composed of stamen which are united into one body by their filaments, as in the Mukuge and Zeniaoi, is said to be Monadelphous. An incomplete synstemonous andreecium consisting of stamens which are united into two separate bundles, as in the Fuji (Fig. 62) and Yendo, is said to be Diadelphous ; that composed of stamens in three bundles, as in the Otogiriso and Midzuotogiri (Hypericum virginicum), is said to be Triadelphous ; and that consisting of stamens in four or more bundles, as in the Tomoyesé (Hypericum Ascyron) and Kinshibai (H. patulum), is said to be Polyadelphous. All the kinds of andrcecium are represented in the follow- ing table. 56 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Simp. Apost. Andr. Reg. Mult. Apost. Andr. Apost. Anae{ Irreg. Mult. Apost. Andr. Mult. Apost. Andr. | ANDRECIUM Compl. Synst. Andr. aes ee Synst. Andr. THE ANTHER. ATTACHMENT OF THE ANTHER TO THE FILAMENT.— The attachment of the anther varies in different plants: in some plants, as the Magnolia (Fig. 65), the anther is attached on its back throughout its whole length to the filament; in ‘some plants, as the Hebinoboradzu (Fig. 66) and all species of Carex, it is attached to the Fie. 65. Fie. 66. Fie. 67. Fie. 65.—Stamen of Fie. 66.—Stamen of Fie. 67.—Stamen of the Mokuren the Hebinoboradzu the Oniyuri with (Magnolia obovata), (Berberis vulgaris ), versatile anther. with adnate anther. with innate anther. filament by its base, and its anther-lobes are mostly disposed oppositely ; and in some plants, as the Oniyuri (Fig. 67) and Yamayuri (Liliwm auratum), itis only attached by a point near its centre to the tip of the filament. When attached as in the first case, the anther is said to be Adnate ; that attached as in the second case, Innate ; and that as in the third case, Versatile. THE ANTHER. 57 Adnate. ATTACHMENT OF THE acne Innate. Versatile. DIRECTION OF THE ANTHER.—The face of the anther is usually turned inwards towards the gyncecium, as in the Fig. 68. Fie. 69. Fia. 69.—Flower of Iris pumila, with front portion and half of one petaloid style-lobe and stigma cut away, showing the ovary and a stamen with extrorse anther. (Gray.) 58 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Hasu (Fig. 68), but sometimes the face is turned outwards towards the floral envelopes, as in the Ayame (see Fig. 69). When turned inwards the anther is said to be Introrse ; and when turned outwards it is said to be Etrorse. Introrse. DIRECTION OF THE ANTHER | Extrorse. DEHISCENCE OF THE ANTHER.—The act of discharging its contained pollen is called the Dehiscence of the Anther. This dehiscence takes place in different ways: in the com- monest case each anther-lobe opens longitudinally, as in the Mokuren (Fig. 65) and Hasu (Fig. 68); in some cases it splits transversely, as in the Hinjimo (Lemna trisulca) Fie. 70. Fig. 71. Fie. 70.—Flower of the Hinjimo Fie. 71.—Stamen of the Nasubi (Lemna trisulca ) (Solanum Melongena ) with anthers opening transversely. with the anther opening by pores. (Fig. 70); in some it opens by a hole or holes, as in the Nasubi (Solanum Melongena) (Fig. 71) and Tsutsuji (Rhododendron indicum) ; and in others the whole or portions of its face open like trap-doors, as in the Hebino- boradzu (Fig. 66) and all species of Lindera. The first kind of dehiscence is said to be Longitudinal, the second kind Transverse, the third kind Porous, and the last Valvular. THE GYNGECIUM. 59 Longitudinal. ee Transverse. ISCENCE OF THE ANTHER Porous. Valvular. THE GYNCECIUM. The Gyncecium is the inner series of the essential organs occupying the centre of the flower, and it is composed of one or more usually sac-like organs called Carpels. Although the carpels are mostly sac-like as in the Mume and Sakura, yet in a few cases they are open and scale-like as in the species of Pinus and they are consequently called Open or Gymnospermous Carpels. (See Fig. 127.) Parts OF THE CarPEL.—The ordinary uncombined carpel is made up of the lamina of a leaf, both halves of which are incurved lengthwise and united by their margins. Thus a flask-shaped organ is formed: its inflated lower portion is called the Ovary ; its prolonged neck-like portion, the Style; and its usually dilated rough apex, the Stigma (Fig. 55). The cavity of the ovary is termed its Cell, the line formed by the union of the leaf-margins the Inner or Ventral Suture, and the line corresponding to the midrib of the leaf the Outer or Dorsal Suture. Usually the interior surface of the inner suture projects more or less and bears one or more minute bodies ; the pro- jecting portion is called the Placenta, and the minute bodies, which become Seeds when fully ripe, are called Ovules. As the ovary and stigma are the essential parts of the carpel they are always present, but sometimes the style is wanting. Ovary—Ovule. PARTS OF THE career Style. Stigma. 60 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. DuRATION OF THE GyYNecIuM.—The gyncecium does not fall off as the other parts of the flower commonly do, but it becomes the Fruit when fully ripened. KinpDs oF THE GyNnoeciuM.—The gyncecium is composed either of separate carpels, as in the Fukujusd (Adonis amurensis) and Kimpoge (Fig. 72), or of more or less united ones, as in the Oniyuri (Fig. 73) and Sumire (Fig. 74). In the former case it is said to be Apocarpous, and in the latter Syncarpous. Apocarpous Gyncecium. KINDS OF THE aywacrom|{ : Syncarpous Gyneecium. The apocarpous gyncecium may consist of either but one carpel, as in the Sakura (Fig. 55) and Yendo, or two or more, as in the Kimpoge (Fig. 72) and Fukujuso. In the former case it is said to be Simple, and in the latter Multiple. slag re In the multiple apocarpous gynoecium gyneciun of the the ventral suture of each carpel is turned Kimpoge (Ra- ; nunculus acris ). inwards. Simple Apocarpous Gynecium. APOCARPOUS Gyvacrum| Multiple Apocarpous Gyneecium. The syncarpous gyncecium may be two- or more-celled being composed of two or more completely closed carpels, as in the Oniyuri (Fig. 73) and Nashi, or one-celled being composed of those more or less open carpels which are united together by their contiguous margins, as in the Keshi and Sumire (Fig. 74), or one-celled from the rupture of dissepiments, as in the Hakobe (Stellaria media) and Gampi. The syncarpous gyncecium of the first kind is said to be Mudlétilocular, and that of the second and the third Unilocular. THE GYNG@CIUM. 61 Fie. 73. Fig. 74. Fie. 73.—Cross section of the Fic. 74.—Cross section of the multilocular syncarpous gyne- unilocular syncarpous gynecium cium of the Oniyuri, showing of the Sumire, showing parietal axile placentation. placentation. SyNcARPOUS GYNeEcrUM | Havocs lee Syncarpous Encore. Multilocular Syncarpous Gyneecium. In the apocarpous gynecium, as the placenta is always situated on the interior surface of the ovary, the placentation (the manner in which the placentas are distributed) is said to be Parietal (Fig. 55). In the multi- locular syncarpous gyncecium, as the placentas are arranged in the centre, the placentation is said to be Aile (Fig. 73). In the unilocular syncarpous gyncecium composed of those open carpels which are united together by their contiguous margins, the placentation is mostly Parietal (Fig. 74). But, in the unilocular syncarpous gyneecium composed of those carpels which have lost their dissepiments, as the placentas are situated in the centre of the cavity and perfectly unconnected with the wall, the placenta- tion is said to be I’ree Central; and in the ordinary unilocular syncarpous one, the free central placentation is sometimes formed by the growth of a placental column from the base of the ovary-cavity. (See Fig. 78.) All the kinds of gyncecium are represented in the follow- ing table. Apocarpous oe Apocarpous Gynecium. Gynecium {Multiple Apocarpous Gynecium. Syncarpous eae Syncarpous Gyncecium. Gyneecium | Multilocular Syncarpous Gyncecium. GYN@CIUM 62 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. THE FRUIT. The Fruit is the ripened gyncecium, and it contains one or more seeds which are the ripened ovules. Parts OF THE FRuItT.—The ordinary fruit consists of two parts: namely, of the fruit-coat called the Pericarp, which is either thin, asin the Kabura and Daidzu, or thick, as in ‘the Mume and Momo (Fig. 84); and of one or more seeds. Although the pericarp consists normally of the mature ovary-coat or ovary-coats, asin the Mume and Kaki, some- times the calyx and receptacle (page 75) also enter into its composition, as in the Nashi, (Fig. 86) and Ringo (Pyrus Malus, var. tomentosa). When very thick, the pericarp is divisible into three layers, an external called the Hzocarp; a middle, the Mesocarp ; and an inner, the Endocarp. The exocarp is mostly tough and thin ; the mesocarp often very thick and fleshy ; and the endocarp is sometimes thick and very hard. When thick and very hard the endocarp is termed the Stone or Putamen ; such endocarp is seen in the fruits of the Mume and Momo (Fig. 84). Exocarp. Pericarp PARTS OF THE FRUIT Mesocarp. Endocarp. ' Seeds. DURATION OF THE FRUIT.—Some fruits fall off when fully ripe, as those of the Mume and Momo, but others remain permanently on the stem even after the plant dies, as those of the Daidzu and Togarashi (Capsicum longum). Those of the former kind are said to be Deciduous, and those of the latter Persistent. Deciduous. DURATION OF THE rrurr ; Persistent. THE FRUIT. 63 Kinps oF THE FRurt.—Some fruits are formed from single flowers, as those of the Sakura (see Fig. 55) and Momo (Fig. 84), while others are formed by the combination of several flowers, as those of the Kuwa (Morus alba) (Fig. 88) and Ichijiku (Ficus carica). Those of the former kind are said to be Monothalamic, and those of the latter Polythalamic. Monothalamic Fruit. KINDS OF THE rrurr{ Se Polythalamic Fruit. Monothalamic fruits may be composed either of one or more separate mature carpels, as in the Momo (Fig. 84) and Kimpige (Fig. 72), or of more or less united mature carpels, as in the Kabura and Nashi (Fig. 86). In the former case, they are said to be Apocarpous, and in the latter Syncarpous. Apocarpous Fruit MonoTHALAMIC rrurr{ . Syncarpous Fruit. Apocarpous fruits may be also Simple or Multiple. Simple Apocarpous Fruit. APOCARPOUS F nurr| Multiple Apocarpous Fruit. Monothalamic fruits whether apocarpous or syncarpous are either dry, as in the Kimpoge and Kabura, or fleshy, as in the Momo (Fig. 84) and Nashi (Fig. 86). ‘Manotnie ane Pau { Dry Monothalamic Beatie ; Fleshy Monothalamic Fruit. Some of the dry monothalamic fruits burst open or separate into pieces when mature, as those of the Ingen (Phaseolus vulgaris) (Fig. 76) and Nagashirami (Osmorhiza japonica) (Fig. 79); while others remain closed, as those of the Kimpoge (Fig. 72) and Togarashi (Fig. 81). Those of the former kind are said to be Dehiscent, and those of the latter Indehiscent. Dehiscent Dry Monothalamic Fruit. DRY MONOTHALAMIC FRUIT one Dry Monothalamic Fruit. 64 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Among dehiscent dry monothalamic fruits, some are apocarpous and each one opens by one suture only, as in the Yamaodamaki (Aquilegia Buergeriana) (Fig. 75) and Torikabuto ; some are also apocarpous and each one opens by two sutures, as in the Daidzu and Ingen (Fig. 76); some Fie. 75. . Fie. 76. Fic. 75.—Follicle of the Fie. 76.—Legume of Yamaodamaki the Ingen (Aquilegia Buergeriana ). (Phaseolus vulgaris ). Fie. 77. Fie. 78. Fic. 78.—Capsule of the Fic. 77.—Capsule of Matsubabotan Cardamine. (Portulaca grandiflora ). THE FRUIT. 65 are syncarpous and burst open, as in the Kabura (see Fig. 77), Matsubabotan (Portulaca .gran- diflora) (Fig. 78), and Tsubaki ; and others are also syncarpous and separate into their consti- tuent carpels without opening, as in-the Ninjin and Nagashirami (Fig. 79). In the first case the fruit is called the Follicle ; in the second, the Legume ; in the third, the Capsule.; and in the last, the Fie. 79.—Schizocarp of the Nagashirami S chizocarp. (Osmorhiza japonica ). Follicle. Legume. DEHISCENT DRY MONOTHALAMIO FRUIT . Capsule. Schizocarp. Among indehiscent dry monothalamic fruits, some have hard pericarps and are usually one-seeded, as in the Shira- Fie. 80. Fra. 81. Fia. 82. Fia. 83. Fie. 80.—Nut of Fie. 81.—Indehis- Fie. 82—Grain Fie. 83.—Grain the Shirakashi cent capsule of of the Ine. of the Omugi (Quercus glauca). the Togarashi (Hordeum (Capsicum longum). vulgare). 66 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. kashi (Quercus glauca) (Fig. 80) and Kuri (Castanea vulgaris, var. japonica) ; some have not hard pericarps and are usually many-seeded, as in the Daikon and Togarashi (Fig. 81); some are small and somewhat seed-like, each fruit being provided with a pericarp separable from the seed or seeds, as in the Kimpoge (Fig. 72) and Fukujusd; and others are also small, each one being provided with such a pericarp as is inseparably united with the seed, as in the Ine (Fig. 82) and Omugi (Hordeum vulgare) (Fig. 83). In the first case the fruit is called the Nut; in the second, the Indehiscent Capsule ; in the third, the Achene ; and in the last, the Grain or Caryopsis. Nut. Indehiscent Capsule. Achene. Grain. INDEHISCENT DRY MONOTHALAMIC FRUIT In some of the fleshy mono- thalamic fruits, as those of the Mume and Momo (Fig. 84), the endocarp is very hard and called the stone; while in others as those of the Budo (Fig. 15) and Kaki, the endocarp is not so hard. Those fruits, in which the endocarp is very hard, are called Fie. 84.—Drupe of the Momo Drupes. (Prunus persica ). Fleshy Monoth. Fr. with a stone-Drupe. FLESHY MONOTH. rr.{ Fleshy Monoth. Fr. without a stone. In some of the fleshy monothalamic fruits in which the endocarp is not so hard, the pericarp is soft throughout, as in the Kaki and Budo (Fig. 15); in some, the pericarp is soft internally and hard externally, as in the Tonasu THE FRUIT. 67 (Cucurbita Pepo) and Hyotan (Lagenaria vulgaris) (Fig. 85); and in others, the endocarp is papery, cartilaginous, or bony, and surrounded by a thick flesh which belongs chiefly to the adnate calyx, as in the Nashi (Fig. 86) and Ringo. Fia. 85. Fie. 86. Fic. 86.—Pome of the Nashi Fie. 85.—Pepo of the Hyotan (Pyrus sinensis ). (Lagenaria vulgaris). In the first case the fruit is called the Berry; in the second, the Pepo ; and in the last, the Pome. Berry. Pepo. FLESHY MONOTH. FR. WITHOUT A sone c Pome. Fria. 87. Fie. 88. Fie. 88.—Fleshy polythalamic Fig. 87.—Dry polythalamic fruit fruit of Morus. of the Karahanas6 (Humulus Lupulus ). 68 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Among polythalamic fruits also, some are dry as in the Akamatsu and Karahanasd (Humulus Lupulus, var. cordi- folius) (Fig. 87), while others are fleshy as in the Kuwa (Fig. 88) and Ichijiku. Dry Polythalamic Fruit. POLYTHALAMIC rrvrr{ Fleshy Polythalamic Fruit. All the kinds of fruits are represented in the following table. Follicle. Dehis. Monoth. Fr.+ Peas Capsule. Schizocarp. Dry Monoth. Fr. ... Nut. Indehiscent Indehis. Monoth. Fr.{ Capsule. Monoth. Fr.‘ Achene. Grain. Fleshy Monoth. Fr. x with a stone—Drupe. Bp Fleshy Monoth. Fr. Berry. E Fleshy Monoth. Fr. Pepo without a stone...) PF Pome. Dry Polyth. Fr. Holyth ies { Fleshy Polyth. Fr. THE SEED. The Seed is the ripened ovule and it always contains a rudimentary plant called the Embryo. Parts OF THE SEED.—The seed consists of the inner substance called the Kernel and its integuments termed the Seed-coats. The kernel consists of the embryo alone as in the seeds of the Daidzu and Kabura, or of the embryo and its nutri- tive matter called the Albwmen as in those of the Asagao and Ine. THE SEED. 69 The embryo being the rudimentary plant consists of an axis and one or more leaves. The apex of the axis is called the Plumule, its lower end the Radicle, its portion between the plumule and the radicle the Cawlicle, and the leaves bear the name of Cotyledons. The seed-coats usually consist of two layers ; namely, of the exterior integument called the Testa which is thick and often very hard, and of the interior one called the Tegmen which is commonly thin and delicate. Testa. Tegmen. Radicle. | Canilicle. | Plumule. Cotyledons. Seed-conts Parts OF THE SHED Embryo Kena Albumen. Kinps oF THE SEED.—In some seeds, as those of the Ayame and Omugi (Fig. 89), the embryo has only one cotyledon ; in some, as those of the Asagao (Fig. 90) and Fie. 89. Fie. 90. Fig. 91. Fra. 89.—Monocotyle- Fie. 99.—Dicotyle- Fria. 91.—Polycotyle- donous seed of the donous seed of. donous seed of the Omugi. the Asagao. Akamatsa. 70 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Daidzu, it has two cotyledons ; and in others, as those of the species of Pinus (Fig. 91), it has three or more cotyledons. In the first case the seed is said to be Monocotyledonous ; in the second, Dicotyledonous; and in the last, Polycotyle- donous. Monocotyledonous Seed. KINDS OF THE soup| Dicotyledonous Seed. Polycotyledonous Seed. KINDS OF THE FLOWER. Flowers vary according to either their floral envelopes, or their essential organs, so that they may be classified in two ways. KINDS OF FLOWERS ACCORDING TO THEIR FLORAL ENVELOPES. In some plants as the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 55) the flower possesses the corolla, while in others as the Jinchd- ge (Daphne odora) and Nawashirogumi (Eleagnus pun- gens) (Fig. 94) it does not possess the corolla. In the former case the flower is said to be Petalows or Dichlamy- deous, and in the latter Apetalous. Petalous Flower. Frowsn|{ Apetalous Flower. In some of the petalous flowers, the corolla is dialy- petalous as in the Kabura (Vig. 54) and Sakura (Hig 55); while in others it is Gamopetalous as in the Asagao (Fig. 9) and Odorikosd (Fig. 59). In the former case the flower is said to be Dialypetalous, and in the latter Gamopetalous. Dialypetalous Flower. PETALOUS rLowER{ Gamopetalous Flower. In some of the dialypetalous flowers, the corolla is quite separated from the calyx, as in the Kabura (Fig. 54) and KINDS OF THE FLOWER. 71 Kimpoge ; while in others, the corolla arises from the calyx, as in the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 55). The flowers of the former kind are said to be Free Dialypetalous, and those of the latter Adherent Dialypetalous. Free Dialypetalous Flower. DIALYPETALOUS rLowER{ Adherent Dialypetalous Flower. Free dialypetalous flowers may be either Regular as in the Kabura (Fig. 54) and Kimpoge, or Irregular as in the Sumire (Fig 56) and Murasakikeman (Corydalis incisa). Regular Free Dialypetalous Flower. Irregular Free Dialypetalous Flower. FREE DIALYPETALOUS FLOWER Adherent dialypetalous flowers also may be sometimes Regular as in the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 55) or at other times Irregular as in the Fuji (fig. 57) and Ingen. ; Regular Adherent Dialy- petalous Flower. Irregular Adherent Dialy- petalous Flower. ADHERENT DIALYPETALOUS FLOWER In some of the irregular adherent dialypetalous flowers, the andreecium is united with the style, and such flowers are said to be Orchidaceous ; and in some again, the corolla consists of five petals, of which the outermost one is usually the largest, the innermost two are often coherent in front inclosing the essential organs, and the lateral two are somewhat wing-like, and such flowers are said to be Papilionaceous (Fig. 57). In some gamopetalous flowers, the ovary or ovaries are united with the calyx tube, as in the Tampopo (Fig. 58) and Hakone-utsugi (Diervilla grandiflora) (Fig. 92); while in others, the ovary or ovaries are quite separated from the calyx, as in the T'sutsuji and Sagigoke (Fig. 93). In the former case, the flower is said to be Epigynous, and in the latter Hypogynous. 72 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Fra: 92. Fia. 93. Fia. 92.—Flower of the Fia. 93.—F lower of the Hakone-utsugi Sagigoke (Mazus (Diervilla grandiflora). rugosus) cut open. Epigynous Gamopetalous Flower. GAMOPETALOUS FLOWER{ Hypogynous Gamopetalous Flower. Epigynous gamopetalous flowers may be either Regular as in the Hakone-utsugi (Fig. 92) and Kikyo (Platycodon grandiflorum), or Irregular as in the Tampopo (Fig. 58) and Nindo (Lonicera japonica). Regular Epig. Gamop. F1. EPIGYNOUS GAMOPETALOUS rLowsr{ : Irregular Epig. Gamop. Fl. Hypogynous gamopetalous flowers also may be either Regular as in the Asagao (Fig. 9) and Sakurasod (Primula cortusoides), or Irregular as in the Kiri and Sagigoke (Fig. 98). \ Reg. Hypog. Gamop. FI. HYPoGYNOUS GAMOPETALOUS FLowER| : Irreg. Hypog. Gamop. Fl. KINDS OF THE FLOWER. 73 Iu some of the irregular hypogynous gamopetalous flowers, the corolla is five-lobed and the limb is divided into two portions, which are placed superiorly and inferiorly, somewhat resembling the lips and open mouth of an animal, and such fiowers are said to be Labiate (Fig. 59); and in others, petals are united on one side to forma flattened strap, and such flowers are said to be Ligulate (Fig. 58). Fig. 94. Fie. 95. Fia. 96. Fie. 94.—F lower of Fic. 95.—Male Fie. 96.—Female the Nawashirogumi flower of the flower of the (Eleagnus pungens ). Shidareyanagi. Shidareyanagi. In some of the apetalous flowers, the calyx is present as in the Jinchdge and Nawashirogumi (Fig. 94); while in others, it is absent as in the Akamatsu and Shidare- yanagi (Fig. 95 and 96). In the former case, the flower is said to be Monochlamydeous, and in the latter Achlamy- deous. Monochlamydeous Flower. APETALOUS rLowsn{ Achlamydeous Flower. 2. KINDS OF FLOWERS ACCORDING TO THEIR ESSENTIAL ORGANS. In some cases, the andrcecium and the gyncecium may be both present, as in the Mume and Sakura (Fig. 55); in some cases, either the androecium or the gynecium may be ab- ‘sent, that is, only one of the essential organs may be present, as in the Shidareyanagi (Fig. 95 and 96) and Akamatsu ; and in other cases, the essential organs may be altogether 74 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. wanting, as the outermost flowers of the Yagurumagiku Fra. 97. (Centaurea Cyanus) and Ajisai (Hy- drangea hortensis, var. Azisai) (Fig. 97). Those flowers which possess both essential organs are said to be Bisexual or Hermaphrodite; those in which only one is present are Unisexual or Diclinous ; and those Fie. 97.—Neutral which possess neither androeecium nor flower of the Ajisai (Hydrangea horiensis, gynoecium are Neutral. var. Azisai). KINDS OF FLOWERS ACCORDING TO THEIR ESSENTIAL ORGANS Bisexual Flower. Unisexual Flower. Neutral Flower. When a flower consists of four parts; namely, calyx, corolla, andreecium, and gynccium, as in the Kabura and Sakura, it is said to be Complete. When a flower wants one or more parts, as in the Jinchige and Shidare- yanagi, it is said to be Incomplete. When each part of a flower consists of an equal number of constituents: or the constituents of one part are multiples of those of another, as in the Ama (Linum usitatissimum) and Kirinsd (Sedum kamtschaticum), the flower is said to be Symmetrical. When each part of a flower consists of an unequal number of constitu- ents or the constituents of one part are not multiples of those of another,. as in the Keshi and Mume, the flower is said to be Unsymmetrical. HYPSOPHYLLARY LEAVES OR BRACTS. The Hypsophyllary Leaves or Bracts are modified leaves. situated below the flower or flowers. They are developed either singly as in the Tennansho (Fig. 53) and Ayame, or in whorls as in the Ichirinss (Anemone nikoensis) (Fig. 98) and Riunodgiku (Chrysanthemum sinense, var. japonicum) (Fig. 99). In the former case, they are said to be Scattered, and in the latter, Verticillate. THE INFLORESCENCE. 75 Fie. 99. Fie. 98.—Ichirinso Fic. 99.—Flower-clusters (Anemone nikoensis ). of.the Riunogiku (Chrysanthemum sinense, var. japonicum ). Scattered. Bracrs| Verticillate. THE INFLORESCENCE. The arrangement of the flowers.on the axis is termed the Inflorescence. Parts oF THE INFLORESCENCE.—In a well developed inflorescence, there is a common axis, branched or not branched, on which stalked or sessile flowers and usually bracts are developed. The axis is called the Pedwnele; the stalk of the flower, the Pedicel ; and the apex of the pedicel or peduncle, upon which the parts of a flower are arranged, the Receptacle. Sometimes the peduncle is more or less dilated and bears numerous flowers; it is then called the Common Receptacle. (See Fig. 17.) Peduncle. PARTS OF THE INFLORESCENCE {Power with or without Pedicels, Bracts. 76 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Kinps oF THE INFLORESCENCE.—In some plants, the main axis or common peduncle of the inflorescence is not terminated by a flower, as in the Kabura and Fuji (see Fig. 100) ; while in others, the common peduncle is terminated by a flower, as in the Nadeshiko and Kinshibai (see Fig. 104). The former kind is called the Indefinite, and the latter the Definite Inflorescence. In the indefinite inflorescence with an elongated common peduncle, as the flowers open in succession from below upwards, it is also called the Ascend- ing (Fig 100 and 101). When the common peduncle is shortened, the flowers open from the circumference towards the centre, as in the Shion and Tampopo, and the inflores- cence is again termed the Centripetal (Fig. 103). In the definite inflorescence with an elongated common peduncle, the flowers open in succession from above downwards ; hence it is also called the Descending (Fig. 104). When the common peduncle of this inflorescence is shortened, the flowers open from the centre towards the circumference, as in the Yamabdshi (Cornus kousa) and Gozentachibana (C. canadensis), and the inflorescence is likewise termed the Centrifugal. Indefinite Inflorescence. KINDS OF THE INFLORESCENCE i Definite Inflorescence. Among ascending inflorescences, some bear pedicellate flowers, as in the Kabura and Fuji; while others bear sessile or very short pedicellate flowers, as in the Obako and Shidareyanagi. The former kind is called the Raceme (Fig. 100) and the latter the Spike (Fig. 101). Raceme. ASCENDING INFLORESCENCH|{ : Spike. THE INFLORESCENCE. 77 Fie. 100. Fie. 101. b ol” d iO 0 Oc © & Of” © EO Ss Fie. 100.—Raceme. Fie. 101.—Spike. Fie. 102. Fie. 103. Fia. 102.—Umbel. Fie. 103.—Capitulum. Among centripetal inflorescences, some bear pedicellate flowers, as in the Ninjin and Nodake; while others bear sessile flowers, as in the Shion and Tampopo. The former kind is called the Umbel (Fig. 102), and the latter the Capitulum (Fig. 108). Umbel. CENTRIPETAL INFLORESCENCE Capitulum. Among definite inflorescences, some bear only one flower, as in the Fukujuso and Ichirinsd (see Fig. 98); some bear 78 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Fie. 104. numerous flowers the terminal: one of which is situated in the centre, as in the Nadeshiko and Kinshibai; and some bear numerous flowers the ter- minal one of which is situated lower- most, as in the Mosengoke and Tabirako. The first kind is called the Simple inflorescence ; the second _ kind, the Pletochasial Cyme (Fig. 104); and the last, the False Raceme or Sympodial Cyme (Fig. 105). , “ Simple Inflorescence. Fie. 104.—Pleiochasial DEFINITE {Pisce Cyme. cyme. INFLORESCENCE False Raceme. Je j Fia. 105.—False raceme. All the kinds of inflorescence are represented in the following table. Raceme. Spike. Umbel. Capitulum. Ascending Tnf.{ Indefinite Indoresance| Centripetal Int. { INFLORESCENCE Simple Inflorescence. Definite Inflorescence {Pieiochasin Cyme. False Raceme. SPORE-BEARING LEAVES. SPORE-BEARING LEAVES. The Spore-bearing Leaves are those, which bear minute bodies called the spores that answer to seeds. (See Fig. 51.) Kinps oF SPORE-BEAR- ING LEAVES.—Some spore- bearing leaves may perform only the reproductive func- tion, as those of the Zemmai (Osmunda regalis) and Shishigashira (Lomarva Spicant) (Fig. 106); while others may perform the nutritive function at the same time, as those of the Nokishinobu (Fig. 51) and Warabi. That with one Spore-BeaRine| function. LEAF That with two functions. Fie. 106.—Shishigashira (Loma- ria Spicant ), showing foliage leaves and a spore-bearing one. . 106. 80 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. SUMMARY. The leaf is that part of a plant, which is always developed laterally on the stem and is usually of a flattened nature. The base of the leaf is its organically lower end. The apex of the leaf is its organically upper end. The body of the leaf is the portion lying between the base and the apex. The leaf is said to be coriaceous when its texture is tough and leathery. The leaf is said to be herbaceous when its texture is weak and soft. The leaf is said to be succulent when its texture is thick and juicy. The leaf is said to be membranous when its texture is thin and flexible. The leaf is said to be annual when it dies the same year in which it is developed. ; The leaf is said to be biennial when it dies the second year. The leaf is said to be perennial when it lives for many years. The aerial leaf is one which exists exposed to the air. The aquatic leaf is one which exists submersed in water. The subterranean leaf is one which exists buried in the soil. The foliage leaf is one which is always green, mostly flattened, and does not produce reproductive organs. The modified leaf is one which differs from the foliage leaf. The lamina is that part of a foliage leaf, which is unuelly expanded and situated above other portions. The petiole is that portion of a foliage leaf, which stands between the lamina and the leaf-sheath and is usually semicylindrical. The leaf-sheath is that portion of a foliage leaf, which stands below the petiole and embraces the stem more or less assuming a tubular or sheath- like form. Stipules are small leafy appendages situated one on each side of the leaf sheath. : Veins are the woody thread-like structures in the lamina. The venation is the mode of veining. Ribs are large veins proceeding from the base to the apex of a lamina. The midrib is the most prominent central rib. When veins are distributed to form a kind of network, the venation is said to be netted-veined. When veins are distributed paralled to one another, the venation is said to be parallel-veined. When the netted-veined lamina has but one central rib, the venation ig said to be pinnately veined. SUMMARY. 81 When the netted-veined lamina has two or more ribs, the venation is said to be palmately veined. When the palmately {veined lamina has diverging ribs, the venation is said to be divergipalmately veined. ‘When the palmately veined lamina has converging ribs, the venation is said to be convergipalmately veined. ‘When the parallel-veined lamina has but one rib, the venation is said to be costal-nerved. When the parallel-veined lamina has several ribs, the venation is said to be basal-nerved. ‘When the basal-nerved lamina has diverging ribs, the venation is said to be flabellinerved. When the basal-nerved lamina has converging ribs, the venation is said to be longitudinal-nerved. When the lamina can be divided longitudinally into two similar halves, it is said to be symmetrical. When the lamina can not be divided longitudinally into two similar halves, it is said to be unsymmetrical. When the symmetrical lamina can be divided again by a lateral plane into two similar halves up and down, ‘it is said to be disymmetrical. ‘When the symmetrical lamina can not be divided again by a lateral plane into two similar halves up and down, it is said to be monosymmetrical. When its margins are without notches of any kind, the lamina is said to be entire. When its margins present notches of some kind, the lamina is said to be uneven. When its margins are cut into small indentations, the lamina is said to be dentate. When its margins are cut into divisions extending not more than half way down, the lamina is said to be lobed. When its margins are cut into divisions extending more than half way down, the lamina is said to be parted. When its margins are cut into divisions reaching to the midrib or the base, the lamina is said to be divided. When the apex of the lamina is sharp, it is said to be acute. When the apex of the lamina is rounded, it is said to be obtuse. When the apex of the lamina is abruptly pointed, it is said to be mucronate. When the apex of the lamina is straight as if cut across, it is said to be truncate. 82 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. When the apex of the lamina is more or less notched, it is said to be emarginate. When the lamina arises immediately from the stem, its insertion is said to be direet. When the lamina is attached to the stem by means of the petiole or the leaf-sheath, its insertion is said to be indirect. When the lamina whose insertion is direct has its margins not at all united except at the point where it is attached to the stem, its insertion is again said to be free. When the lamina whose insertion is direct has its prolonged basilar lobes more or less united with the stem, its insertion is again said to be adnate. When the lamina whose insertion is indirect is attached to the petiole or the leaf-sheath by its base, its insertion is again said to be basal. When the lamina whose insertion is indirect is attached to the petiole by a point more or less within its margins, its insertion is again said to be intramarginal. When leaves are produced singly at each node, they are said to be scattered. When two or more leaves are produced at the same node, they are said to be polymerous. When scattered leaves are produced on a stem with elongated inter- nodes, they are said to be alternate. When scattered leaves are produced on a branch of which the internodes do not elongate, they are said to be fascicled. When two leaves are produced at » node on opposite sides of the stem, they are said to be opposite. When three or more leaves are so produced at a node that the distance between any two adjacent leaves is equal, they are said to be verticillate. The angular divergence is the lateral distance between the bases of any two adjacent leaves. Simple leaves are those which have only one lamina and never more than one articulation at the base. Compound leaves are those which have two or more laminae or one lamina and two articulations. Compound leaves with one lamina are said to be unifoliolate. Compound leaves with two or more laminae are said to be multifoliolate. The laminae of compound leaves are termed leaflets. The stalks of leaflets are termed petiolules. The stipules of leaflets are termed stipels. Pinnately compound leaves are those which have their leaflets arranged laterally on a common petiole. SUMMARY. 83 Palmately compound leaves ar2 those which have their leaflets arranged on the top of a common petiole. Nutritive modified leaves are those which are related either directly or indirectly to the nutrition of the plant to which they belong. Lizproductive modified leaves are those which are related either directly or indirectly to reproduction. Spines are those nutritive modified leaves or branches which are hard and needle-shaped. - : Tendrils are those nutritive modified leaves or branches which are thread- like and capable of coiling spirally. Cataphyllary leaves are those nutritive modified ones which are small and scaly. Insectivorous leaves are those nutritive modified ones which are capable of eatching insects. The flower is an assemblage of numerous reproductive modified leaves. Floral leaves are those reproductive modified ones which constitute the flower. Hypsophyllary leaves are those reproductive modified ones which are situated below a flower or flowers. Spore-bearing leaves are those reproductive modified ones which bear minute fructifications. Protective organs of a flower are the floral envelopes consisting of the calyx and the corolla, Essential organs of a flower are the andrecium and gyncecium. The calyx is the outermost envelope of the flower and it is composed of flattened usually green organs. Sepals are those floral leaves which constitute the calyx. The calyx is said to be caducous, when it falls off as the flower expands. The calyx is said to be deciduous, when it falls off with or after the corolla, The calyx is said to be persistent, when it remains after the flowering is over. The dialysepalous calyx is one which consists of distinct sepals. The gamosepalous calyx is one which consists of more or less united sepals. The regular dialysepalous calyx is one which consists of distinct sepals of equal size and like form. The irregular dialysepalous calyx is one which consists of distinct sepals of unequal size and unlike form. The regular gamosepalous calyx is one which consists of more or less united sepals of equal size and like form. 84 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. The irregular gamosepalous calyx is one which consists of more or less united sepals of unequal size and unlike form. The tube of the gamosepalous calyx is that part where the sepals are united. The limb of the gamosepalous calyx is its free border. The throat of the gamosepalous calyx is the orifice of its tube. The corolla is the inner floral envolope situated within the calyx and it is composed of flattened usually colored organs. Petals are those floral leaves which constitute the corolla. The corolla is said to be caducous, when it falls off as the flower expands. The corolla is said to be deciduous, when it falls off with or after the calyx. The corolla is said to be persistent, when it remains after the flowering is over. The dialypetalous corolla is one which consists of separate petals. The gamopetalous corolla is one which consists of more or less united petals. The regular dialypetalous corolla is one which consists of separate petals of equal size and like form. The irregular dialypetalous corolla is one which consists of separate petals of unequal size and unlike form. ‘The regular gamopetalous corolla is one which consists of more or less united petals of equal size and like form. The irregular gamopetalous corolla is one which consists of more or less united petals of unequal size and unlike form. The limb of the petal is its expanded portion. The claw of the petal is its stalk-like portion. The tube of the gamopetalous corolla is that part where the petals are united. The limb of the gamopetalous corolla is its free border. The throat of the gamopetalous corolla is the orifice of its tube. The andrecium is the outer series of the essential organs situated with- in the corolla, and it is composed of one or more thread-like organs. Stamens are those floral leaves which constitute the andrecium. The anther of the stamen is its bag-like portion. The filament of the stamen is its stalk. The anther-lobe is the longitudinal half of an anther. The connective is that portion of w stamen which connects the two anther-lobes. The anther-cell is the cavity of an anther-lobe. SUMMARY. 85 The pollen is a term used to denote the minute grains contained in the _ anther-cell. The androecium is said to be deciduous, when it falls off after discharging the pollen. : The andreecium is said to be persistent, when it remains after the flower- ing is over.: ; ‘The apostemonous andrewcium is one which consists of separate stamens. The synstemonous andrecium is one which consists of more or less united stamens. The simple apostemonous andrecium is one which consists of but one fertile stamen. The multiple apostemonous andrecium is one which consists of two or more separate stamens. The multiple apostemonous andrecium is said to be regular, when it consists of those stamens which are all of the same length and like form. The multiple apostemonous andreecium is said to be irregular, when it consists of those stamens which are of different length or unlike form. The synstemonous andrecium is said to be complete, when its stamens are united into one body. The synstemonous androcium is said to be incomplete, when its stamens are united into two or more bodies. The attachment of the anther is said to be adnate, when it is attached on its back throughout its whole length to the filament. The attachment of the anther is said to be innate, when it is attached to the filament by its base. The attachment of the anther is said to be versatile, when it is attached by a point near its centre to the tip of the filament. When turned inwards, the anther is said to be introrse. When turned outwards, the anther is said to be extrorse. The act of discharging its contained pollen is called the dehiscence of the anther. When the anther splits open longitudinally, its dehiscence is said to be longitudinal. When the anther splits open transversely, its dehiscence is said to be transverse. ; When the anther opens by holes, its dehiscence is said to be porous. When the anther opens by uplifted valves, its dehiscence is said to be valvular. The gynectum is the inner series of the essential organs occupying the centre of the flower, and it is composed of one or more usually sac-like organs. 86 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Carpels are those floral leaves which constitute the gyncecium. Gymnospermous carpels are those which are open and scale-like. The ovary is that part of a carpel which is sac-like and contains one or more ovules. The ovule is a small body borne by the placenta and it becomes the seed when the flowering is over. The placenta is that portion of a carpel where the ovules are produced. The style is that portion of a carpel which is situated between the ovary and the stigma. The stigma is the usually dilated rough apex of a carpel. The cavity of the ovary is termed its cell. The inner suture is the line formed by the union of the leaf-margins of a carpel. The outer suture is the line on a carpel corresponding to the midrib. The apocarpous gynecium is one that consists of one or more separate carpels. The syncarpous gynecium is one that consists of more or less united carpels. The simple apocarpous gynacium is one that consists of but one carpel. The multzple apocarpous gynecium is one that consists of two or more separate carpels. The unilocular syncarpous gynacium is one that is one-celled. The multilocular syncarpous gynecium is one that is two or more-celled. The fruit is the ripened gyncecium, and it contains one or more seeds. The pericarp is the fruit-coat. The endocarp is the inner layer of the pericarp. When thick and very hard the endocarp is termed the stone. The mesocarp is the middle layer of the pericarp. The exocarp is the external layer of the pericarp. Fruits are said to be deciduous when they fall off from the stem. Fruits are said to be persistent when they remain permaziently on the stem. Monothalamic fruits are those which are formed from single flowers. Polythalamic fruits are those which are formed by the combination of several flowers. Apocarpous fruits are those which consist of one or more separate mature carpels. Syncarpous fruits are those which consist of more or less united mature carpels. Simple apocarpous fruits are those which cosist of but one mature carpel. SUMMARY. 87 Multiple apocarpous fruits are those ‘which consist of two or more separate mature carpels. Dry monothalamic fruits are those which become sap-less when fully ripe. Fleshy monothalamic fruits are those which are pulpy. Dry monothalamic fruits are said to be dehiscent when they burst open or separate into pieces. Dry monothalamic fruits are said to be indehiscent when they remain closed. The follicle is one of dry apocarpous fruits dehiscing by one suture alone. The legume is one of dry apocarpous fruits dehiscing by both sutures. The capsule is a dry syncarpous fruit which bursts open when fully matures. The schizocarp is a dry syncarpous fruit which separates into its con- stituent carpels. The nut is an indehiscent dry monothalamic fruit which has w hard pericarp and is usually one-seeded. The indehiscent capsule is an indehiscent dry monothalamic fruit which has not a very hard pericarp and is usually many-seeded. The achene is one of indehiscent dry apocarpous fruits, which is small, seed-like, and is provided with a pericarp separable from the seed or seeds. The grain is one of ‘indehiscent dry apocarpous fruits, which is small, seed-like, and has a thin pericarp consolidated with the seed. The drupe is a fleshy monothalamic fruit which has a very hard endocarp. The berry is a fleshy monothalamic fruit whose pericarp is soft through- out. The pepo is a fleshy monothalamic fruit whose pericarp is soft internally and hard externally. The pome is a fleshy monothalamic fruit whose endocarp is papery, cartilaginous, or bony, and is surrounded by a thick flesh which belongs chiefly to the adnate calyx. Polythalamic fruits are said to be dry when they become sap-less. Polythalamic fruits are said to be fleshy when they are pulpy. The seed is the ripened ovule. The testa is the outer coat of a seed. The tegmen is the inner coat of a seed. The kernel is the body of a seed. The embryo is the rudimentary plantlet formed in a seed. The caulicle is the stem of an embryo. 88 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. The radicle is the lower end of the caulicle. The cotyledon is the leaf of an embryo. The plumule is the upper end of the caulicle. The albumen is any nutritive substance in the kernel of a seed. The monocotyledonous seed is one whose embryo has but one cotyledon. The dicotyledonous seed is one whose embryo has two cotyledons. The polycotyledonous seed is one whose embryo has more than two cotyledons. The petalous flower is one which has the corolla. The apetalous flower is one which wants the corolla. The dialypetalous flower is one whose corolla is dialypetalous. The gamopetalous flower is one whose corolla is gamopetalous. The free dialypetalous flower is one whose corolla is not united with its calyx. The adherent dialypetalous flower is one whose corolla is more or less united with its calyx. The free dialypetalous flower is said to be regular when its floral en- velopes are regular. The free dialypetalous flower is said to be érregular when its floral en- velopes are irregular. . The adherent dialypetalous flower is said to be regular when its floral envelopes are irregular. The adherent dialypetalous flower is said to be irregular when its floral envelopes are irregular. The epigynous gamopetalous flower is one whose calyx-tube is adherent to the ovary. The hypogynous gamopetalous flower is one whose calyx is free from the ovary. The epigynous gamopetalous flower is said to be regular when its floral envelopes are regular. The epigynous gamopetalous flower is said to be irregular when its floral envelopes are irregular. The hypogynous gamopetalous flower is said to be regular when its floral envelopes are regular. The hypogynous gamopetalous flower is said to be irregular when its floral envelopes are irregular. The monochlamydeous flower is an apetalous one which has the calyx. The achlamydeous flower is an apetalous one which wants the calyx. The bisexual flower is one which has both the andrecium and the gyncecium. THE BUD. 89 The unisexual flower is one which has but one essential organ. The neutral flower is one without any essential organ Bracts are said to be scattered when they are singly disposed. Bracts are said to be verticillate when they are disposed in whorls. The term inflorescence denotes the arrangement of the flowers upon the floral axis. The indefinite inflorescence is one in which the lowermost flower expands first. The definite inflorescence is one in which the terminal flower expands first. The indefinite inflorescence is said to be ascending when the flowers are developed on an elongated floral axis. The indefinite inflorescence is said to be centripetal when the flowers are developed on the top of a shortened floral axis. The raceme is an ascending inflorescence with pedicellate flowers. The spike is an ascending inflorescence with sessile or very short pedicellate flowers. The umbel is a centripetal inflorescence with pedicellate flowers. The capitulum is a centripetal inflorescence with sessile flowers. The solitary inflorescence is a definite one with but one terminal flower. The pleiochasial cyme is a general name applied to a definite inflores- cence in which the terminal flower expands first. The false raceme is a definite inflorescence arranged like w raceme in which the true terminal flower is disposed lowermost. Spores are minute globular bodies somewhat corresponding to seeds. The spore-bearing leaf with one function is that which is only related to the formation of spores. The spore-bearing leaf with two functions is that which performs the .action of a foliage leaf besides the formation of spores. CHAPTER IV. THE BUD. In the youngest portion of a stem, the internodes are not elongated and the leaves are folded together so as to cover the stem; such a group, that is, the youngest portion covered with rudimentary leaves, is called a Bud. 90 ’ MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Section 1. KINDS OF THE BUD. The bud varies according to its position, function, and structure, so that it may be classified in three ways. 1. KINDS OF THE BUD ACCORDING TO ITS POSITION. The bud is developed either at the end of a stem, or Fre. 107. Fra. 107.—Shoot of the Sakura, show- ing lateral budsand a terminal one. laterally upon a stem, root, or leaf; the former kind is said to be Terminal, and the latter, Lateral. (See Fig. 107.) KINDS OF THE BUD ACCORDING fe Bud. TO ITS POSITION Lateral Bud. The terminal buds and those lateral ones, which are developed regularly in the axil of a leaf (as in all the flowering plants), or immediately below or by the side of a leaf (as in many flowerless plants), are said to be Normal. (See Fig. 107.) Those lateral buds, which are developed irregu- larly on older parts of stems, roots, or leaves, are said to be Adventttious. 2. KINDS OF THE BUD ACCORDING TO ITS FUNCTION. According to its function, the bud is. either Vegetative or Reproductive. As the vegetative bud produces foliage- leaves, it is also called the Leaf-bud. Some reproductive buds produce flowers; while others, as the globular buds of the Yamanoimo (Dioscorea japonica) and Tsukuimo (D. Batatas) (Fig. 108), or the bulb-like buds of the Oniyuri and Yamayuri, reproduce new plants when they fall to the ground. Those of the former THE PRASFOLIATION. 91 kind are called Flower-buds, and those of the latter Fleshy Buds. Fie. 108. Fie, 108.—Shoot of the Tsukuimo (Dioscorea Batatas ), showing fleshy buds (a). | Vegetative Bud—Foliage Bud. Flower Bud. Fleshy Bud. KINDS OF THE BUD ACCORDING TO ITS FUNCTION Reproductive Bud 3. KINDS OF THE BUD ACCORDING TO ITS STRUCTURE. Some buds are protected by special scales (Bud-scales), as in most trees; while others are not protected by such organs, as in annual herbs. Those of the former kind are said to be Scaly, and those of the latter Naked. KINDS OF THE BUD ACCORDING Scaly Bud. TO ITS STRUCTURE { Naked Bud. Section 2. THE PRAFOLIATION OR VERNATION. The arrangement of rudimentary leaves in the bud is called the Prefoliation ; that of each separate leaf con- 92 MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. sidered independently is the Independent Prefoliation ; and that of the leaves in relation to each other is the Relative Prefoliation. . Independent Prefoliation. Prarorration| Relative Preefoliation. As regards the independent prefoliation the leaves are either Flat as in the Akamatsu and Momi (Abies firma), Folded as in the Mokuren and Momiji, or Rolled as in the Hasu and Warabi. Flat Pref. INDEPENDENT PRarroLIAtioN | Folded Pref. Rolled Pref. As regards the relative prefoliation, the margins of contiguous leaves either touch without overlapping, as the sepals of the Senninso (Clematis paniculata) and Kazakuruma (C. patens), or overlap one another, as the petals of the Fuji and Tsubaki. In the former case the relative preefoliation is said to be Valvate, and in the latter Imbricate. Valvate Pref. RELATIVE PREFOLIATION | Imbricate Pref. Different kinds of prefoliation are represented in the following table. Flat Pref. Independent Pref. | Folded Pref. Rolled Preef. Valvate Pref. Imbricate Pref. PRAFOLIATION Relative Pref. ... { SUMMARY. The bud is an incipient stem with its rudimentary leaves. The terminal bud is one which is developed at the end of a stem. The lateral bud is one which is developed laterally upon a stem, root, or leaf. HAIRS. 93 The vegetative bud is one which produces foliage-leaves. The reproductive bud is one which is related to reproduction. The flower-bud is one which produces floral leaves. 7 The fleshy bud is one which becomes an independent plant when it falls to the ground. The scaly but is one which is protected by special scales. The naked bud is one which is not protected by special scales. The prefoliation is the arrangement of leaves in the bud. The independent prefoliation is the arrangement of each separate leaf in the bud. The relative prefoliation is the arrangement of leaves in relation to each other in the bud. The independent prefoliation is said to be flat when the leaves are not folded in the bud. The independent prefoliation is said to be folded when the leaves are doubled or several times bent. The independent prefoliation is said to be rolled when the leaves are coiled in various ways. The relative prefoliation is said to be valvate when the margins of contiguous leaves touch without overlapping. The relative prefoliation is said to be imbricate when the margins of contiguous leaves overlap one another. CHAPTER V. HAIRS. The Hairs are the protuberances developed from the outermost surface or epidermis of any part of the plant. Section 1. KINDS OF HAIRS. Some hairs secrete fluid-substances, as those on the young branches of the Choshin (Rosa indica) (Fig. 109.a) and Tabako; while others do not secrete any substances, as those on the seeds of the Wata (Gossypium herbaceum) 94. MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. Fra. 109. and Shidareyanagi. Those of the former kind are said to be Glandular, and those of the rH latter Hglandular. Bea { bh Harpe! @andular Hairs. " as Eglandular Hairs. Fig. 109.—a. Glandular hair of * the Chadhin. Cheed Some eglandular hairs are indica). Magnified. flattened, as those on the stems Meet eae and leaves of the Akigumi bellata). Magnified. (Eleagnus umbellata) (Fig. 109.b) and Shishigashira (Fig. 106) ; while others are more or less filiform or needle-shaped, as those on the seeds of the Wata or on the stems of the Tonasu. Those of the former kind are called Scales or Scaly Hairs, and those of the latter Normal Hairs. Scaly Hairs. EGLANDULAR warrs{ Normal Hairs. Among normal hairs, some are developed on roots (see Fig. 8), and others on stems or leaves (see Fig. 5). Those of the former kind are called Root Hairs, and those of the latter Shoot Hairs. Root Hairs. NorMAL HAIRS { Sec e Different kinds of hairs are represented in the following table. Glandular Hairs. Hatrs | Scaly Hairs. Root Hairs. Eglandular Hairs Shoot Hairs. Normal Hairs { SUMMARY. 95 SUMMARY. Hairs are protuberances developed from the epidermis of any part. Glandular hairs are those which secrete fluid-substances. Eglandular hairs are those which do not secrete any substances. Scaly hairs are those which are flattened and do not secrete any sub- stances. Normal hairs are those which are more or less filiform and do not secrete any substances. Root hairs are those normal ones which are developed on roots. Shoot hairs are those normal ones which are developed on stems or leaves. BOOK Ii. HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. INTRODUCTION. All parts of all plants, although they are of various sizes and shapes, may, when examined under the microscope, be found to consist of one or more minute sac-like structures. These minute bodies are called Cells. CHAPTER I. THE CELL. The Cell is the elementary organ of which the fabric of plants is constructed and is usually more or less sac-like. Section 1. PARTS OF THE CELL. If very thin sections are made of the white portions of the leaves of the Negi and examined under the microscope, it will be seen that they are composed of many quadrangu- lar cells, each of which consists of a clear membrane, a layer of granular semifluid substance lying in contact with the inner surface of the latter, a small globular body imbedded in the semifluid substance, and oné or more drops of watery fluid. (See Fig. 110.) The membrane is called the Cell-wall; the semifluid substance, the Protoplasm ; the globular body in the latter, the Nucleus ; and the watery fluid, the Cell-sap. 98 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. When the cell is young, the protoplasm fills the whole cavity; but in the course of growth small drops of the cell-sap appear and increase gradually in number until they finally coalesce into one large mass, while the protoplasmic layer, on the contrary, becomes thinner and thinner. Fie. 110. 4 Fig. 110.—Parenchymatous cells from the leaf of the Negi (Allium fistulosum). n Nucleus; p protoplasm ; s cell-sap; w cell-wall. There are some cells which are not provided with cell- walls ; these are termed Primordial Cells. Cell-wall. Protoplasm. Nucleus. Cell-sap. PaRTs OF THE CELL 1. THE CELL-WALL. The Cell-wall is the outer membrane of the cell, and consists of cellulose (a carbohydrate), water, and ash-consti- tuents. It is usually colorless and transparent. THE CELL-WALL. 99 Marxines.—Sometimes the cell-wall is of uniform thick- ness throughout, but at other times its thickness varies at different points, so that there result several markings. In the case of isolated cells or of free cell-walls, ‘the markings are produced on the outside of the wall, but in that of united cells they are formed on the inside. In the latter, the markings are sometimes definite; among them some result from hollows made on the internal surface of the cell-wall, and. others from prominences on the same surface. Those resulting from hollows. Manxrvas{ Those resulting from prominences. Among the markings resulting from hollows, some are caused by true perforations, and others by canals opening only at that end which is turned inwards. Those resulting from true perforations, Those resulting from canals opening EHOM, BOBROWE only at one end. MARKINGS ae Even the canals opening only at one end become often completely perforated in the course of growth. Those resulting from true perfora- Fre. 111. tions are termed Sieve Markings (Fig. 11]. There are some cells which have markings much resembling the above but not perforated; these are called Latticed Cells. Among the markings resulting from —_—Fia. 111—Cell_ with canals opening only at one end, some tem Se eee consist of tubular canals and appear (Cucurbita Pepo). as bright spots when seen on the external surface; some of almost hemispherical canals widened at their base and 100 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. perforated at their apex, and appear as two concentric circles when seen in front view; and others of transversely elongated canals closely arranged and appear like the rounds of a ladder. Fie. 112. Fie. 118. Fie. 114. | in | a | Ul ° © ° oo ° ° t a ° — Se ee oo = — Bg: 6 €) ————— ed Beg ——> = Soe € Sel 0° “9 arene eet € —s = Fia. 112.—Pitted cells Fia.118.—Cell with Fig. 114.—Cell with from the root of the bordered pitsfrom the scalariform marking from. Tenjikubotan stem of the Kuromatsu __ the rhizome of the (Dahlia variabitis ). (Pinus Thunbergii). Warabi (Pieris aquilina). The markings of the first kind are known as Pits (Fig. 112); those of the second kind as Bordered Pits (Fig. 118); and those of the last as Scalariform Markings (Fig. 114). Pits. Bordered Pits. Scalariform Markings. MARKINGS RESULTING FROM CANALS OPENING ONLY AT ONE END Among the markings resulting from prominences on the inside of the cell-wall, some consist of rings extending around the internal surface ; some of spirals; and others of bands united into a network. The markings of the first kind are said to be Annular (Fig. 115); those of the second kind, Spiral (Fig. 116); and those of the last, Reticulated (Fig. 117). ‘THE CELL-WALL. 101 Fig. 115. Fie. 115.—Annular Fie. 116.—Spiral Fie. 117.—Reticulated vessel from the stem of vessel from vessel from the stem the Hésenkwa the stem of the of the Hosenkwa. (Impatiens Balsamina). Hosenkwa. Annular Markings. Spiral Markings. Reticulated Markings. MARKINGS RESULTING FROM PROMINENCES All kinds of markings are represented in the following table. Those resulting from true perforations— Those result-| Sieve Markings. ing from Pits. “hollows | Those resulting from | Bordered Pits. nals opening only | Scalariform Mark- MarKINGS oe ee at one end ings. Annular Markings. Those resulting from 4 Spiral Markings. prominences Reticulated Markings. Mopirications.—If a leaf of the Jinchdge or Aokiba be carefully broken, a thin transparent elastic skin may be removed from. the body which can be readily found to consist of hard veins and soft green flesh. The walls of the 102 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. cells composing the soft flesh are formed of pure cellulose ; but those of the cells composing the skin are so modified that they are more extensible, highly elastic, and almost impermeable to water, and those of the hard cells among the veins are so converted that they are hard, inelastic, and are easily penetrated by water without absorbing much. When modified as in the skin, the cell-wall is said to be Cuticularized ; and when modified as in the hard cells of veins, it is said to be Lignified. Leaves of the Susuki (Miscanthus japonicus) and stems of the Tokusa (Equisetum hyemale, var. japonicum) are very hard from the deposition of the salts of silica in con- siderable quantity in the cell-wall. In this case the cell- wall is said to be Mineralized. All species of Corallina (Coral-like Algae) and some of Chara become very hard from the deposition of the salts of lime. 7 The external cell-walls of the sea-weeds, as the Kombu and Funori (Glotopeltis coliformis), can absorb a large quantity of water and become gelatinous; such cell-walls are said to be Muctlaginous. Cuticularized Cell-wall. Lignified Cell-wall. Mineralized Cell-wall. Mucilaginous Cell-wall. MODIFIED CELL-WALL 2. THE PROTOPLASM. The Protoplasm consists of albuminous substances, water, and a small proportion of ash-constituents. It is usually a semifluid substance appearing more or ess granular from the presence of starch grains, oil-drops, etc. ; but in a few cases it appears homogeneous. As the pro- toplasm is the seat of all living functions it must contain SPECIAL CONTENTS OF THE CELL. 103 at different times all the constituents of the organism. Although the protoplasm is usually a semifluid substance, it sometimes assumes a solid consistence. 3. THE CELL-SAP. The Cell-sap is a watery solution of various substances and usually makes a large sap-cavity within the protoplasm ; it also saturates the cell-wall and all the other organic structures of the cell. The nature of the cell-sap varies in different cells: in some cells large quantities of cane-sugar are present, as in the stems of the Satokibi (Saccharum officinarum) or in the roots of the Tojisa (Beta vulgaris) ; in some cells large quantities of grape-sugar are found, as in the fruits of the Budo and Nashi ; in some cells inulin exists, as in the roots of the Tampopo and Gobs (Lappa major) ; in some cells red colouring matter occurs, as in the flowers of the Tsutsuji; and in some blue colouring matter is seen, as in the flowers of the Kazaguruma (Clematis patens). Section 2. SPECIAL CONTENTS OF THE CELL. The cell often contains numerous other substances having definite shapes. If thin sections of the leaves of the Tsubaki are ex- amined under the microscope, there will be seen numerous green granules. These bodies are called Chlorophyll- corpuscles (Fig. 118). If thin sections of the tubers of the Jagataraimo are examined under the microscope, there will be seen numer- ous whitish granules with concentric layers. These bodies are known as Starch-grains (Fig. 120). Tf thin sections of the stems of the Shiikaids are examined under the microscope, there will be seen octahedral bodies 104 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. either scattered or aggregated. These are Orystals (Fig. 121). of caleium oxalate. Chlorophyll-corpuscles. SPECIAL CONTENTS OF THE CELL4 Starch-grains. Crystals, etc. If thin sections of oily seeds as those of the Tégoma (Iicinus communis ) and Ténasu are examined under the microscope, there will be seen numerous rounded granules. These are only modified portions of the protoplasm and bear the name of Aleurone-grains. In the cells of the Potato tubers, there are often found cubical bodies of albuminous matter. Although they bear a close resemblance to true crystals, they are readily distinguished from the latter by the fact that they swell up when treated with various reagents. These albuminous bodies are called Crystalloids. Crystalloids are also found within some aleurone-grains as those of the Tégoma and Tonasu. If thin sections of the corolla of the Tampopo are examined under the microscope, numerous yellow granules will be seen. If the root of the Ninjin is examined in the same way, orange-red rectangular plates or rhombs will be found. 1. CHLOROPHYLL-CORPUSCLES. If green leaves are cut into small pieces and put in a vessel containing alcohol, the green colouring matter or Chlorophyll is readily extracted by the solvent, and the pieces become whitish. Nowif thin sections of these pieces are examined under the microscope, there will be seen colourless corpuscles instead of green ones. These colour- less corpuscles are specialized portions of the protoplasm. Each chlorophyll-corpuscle is therefore composed of a colourless granule of the protoplasm distributed by a small quantity of chlorophyll. The corpuscles are mostly sphe- rical, elliptical, or ovate (Fig. 118); but in rare cases they are spiral-shaped as in Spirogyra (Fig. 119.a), star-shaped as in Zygnema (Fig. 119.b), etc. They often contain minute granules which are the first formed starch-grains. STARCH-GRAINS. 105 Fie. 118. Fie. 119. Fre. 118.—Transverse section of Fie. 119.—Chlorophyll-corpuscles. the leaf of the Tsubaki (Camellia a Spiral-shaped chlorophyll-corpuscle japonica), showing chlorophyll-cor- of a Spirogyra ; b star-shaped chloro- puscles. phyll-corpuscle of a Zygnema. 2. STARCH-GRAINS. Starch-grains consist of starch, water, and a small pro- portion of ash-constituents. They have one or more central Fie. 120. Fig. 120.—Starch grains. a Simple starch grain of the Jagataraimo ; b compound starch grain of the same; c starch grains from the seed of the Fujimame (Dolichos cultratus); d starch grains of the Nishikiso (Hu- phordia humifusa); e starch grains of the Satoimo; f starch grain of the Satsumaimo (Ipomea Batatas ). : 106 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. points around each of which concentric layers are disposed ; those with but one centre are known as Simple (Fig. 120.a), and others with two or more central points Compound Starch-grains (Fig. 120.b). Starch-grains vary in their sizes and shapes in different plants: thus, those of the Jagataraimo are very large and ovate (Fig. 120.2 and b); those of the Satoimo are very small and globular (Fig. 120.e); those of the Ingen and Fujimame (Dolichos cultratus) (Fig. 120.c) are large and elliptical; those of the Satsumaimo (Ipomea Batatas) (Fig. 120.f) are large and spherical; those of the Nishikiso (Euphorbia humifusa) (Fig. 120.d) are small and bone- shaped ; and so on. Simple Starch-grains. Srancu-cnarns| Compound Starch-grains. Fig. 121. 3. CRYSTALS. Most crystals consist of calcium oxalate, but a few of calcium carbo- nate. Crystals of calcium oxalate are either octa- hedral as in the Sha- kaidd (Fig. 121.a), or prismatic as in the Hanashobu (Iris levi- gata, var. Kempferi) (Fig. 121.c), or acerose Fra. 121.—Crystal sof calcium exalate. a a ‘ 4 Cluster of octahedral crystals of the. BS in the Suisen (Nar Shikaido ; b acerose crystal of the Suisen cissus Tazzeta, var. (Nar sented ria) sage chinensis); ¢ : ’ : prismatic crystal of the Hanashdbu iver chinensis y) (Fig. 121.b). levigata, var. Kempferi). . FORMATION OF CELLS. 107 Section 3. KINDS OF THE CELL. The form and size of the cell vary greatly, the former being spherical, elliptical, cylindrical, cubical, prismatic, star-shaped, spindle-shaped, etc., and the latter being very large as in Nitella, or very minute as in Bacteria. Longi- tudinal rows of cells often become tulubar by the absorption of their transverse walls. The cells, which are not much longer than they are broad and have rounded or flattened surfaces, are said to be Parenchymatous (Fig. Fic. 122. Fra. 123. 122); those, which are long and spindle- shaped, Prosenchyma- tous (Fig. 123); and those, which are tubu- lar from the absorp- tion of their transverse walls, Vascular (Fig. 115, 116 and 117). The white central Fic. 122—Parenchyma from the stem of . the Yamabuki ( Kerria japonica). portion of the stem Fie. 123.—Prosenchyma from the stem of of the Yamabuki the Hosenkwa. (Kerria japonica) consists of parenchymatous cells; the hemp-fibres consist of prosenchymatous cells ; and the small canals in the wood of the Kiri of vascular cells. Parenchymatous Cells. KINDS OF CELLS Prosenchymatous Cells. Vascular cells. Section 4. FORMATION OF CELLS. The formation of cells takes place in different ways: cells may: be divided into two parts by the formation of new transverse walls, each half becoming a new 108 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. cell ; the whole or a portion of the protoplasmic contents of a mother cell may become one or more new cells; or the protoplasmic contents of two or more cells may coalesce to form a new cell. The formation of cells as in the first case is termed the Cell-division ; as in the second case, the Interior Cell-forma- tion ; and as in the last, the Conjugation. The develop- ment of vegetative organs is accomplished by cell-division ; pollen-grains, spores of the Nokishinobu, Shishigashira, etc. are produced by interior cell-formation; and spores of Spirogyra, Zygnema, etc. are formed by conjugation. Cell-division. FORMATION OF CELLS Interior Cell-formation. Conjugation. SUMMARY. Cells are the elementary organs of plants and are usually more or less sac-like. The cell-wall is the outer membrane of a cell and consists of cellulose, water, and ash-constituents. : The sieve markings of a cell-wall are those which are produced by true perforations. The pitted markings of a cell-wall are those which are produced by numerous canals opening at one end. The bordered pits of w cell-wall are those markings which are produced by hemispherical canals opening at the apex. The scalariform markings of a cell-wall are those which are produced by transverse narrow canals closely disposed one above another. The annular markings of acell-wall are those which are produced by ring- like interior prominences. The spiral markings of a cell-wall are those which are produced by spiral-shaped interior prominences. _ The reticulated markings of a cell-wall are those which are produced by net-like interior prominences. The cuticularized cell-wall is one which is so modified that it is extensible, highly elastic, and almost impermeable to water. SUMMARY. 109 The lignified cell-wall is one which is so modified thatit is hard, inelastic, and is easily penetrated by water. The mineralized ceil-wall is one which is hard from the deposition of mineral matters. The mucilaginous cell-wall is one which becomes gelatinous when it absorbs a large quantity of water. ‘The protoplasm is usually a semifluid substance consisting of albuminous matter, water, and a small proportion of ash-constituents. Primordial cells are those which are destitute of cell-walls. The cell-sap is a watery solution of varigus substances and usually makes a large sapcavity within the protoplasm ; it also saturates the cel]l-wall and all the other organic structures of the cell. The chlorophyll-corpuscle is a green body which consists of a colourless mass of the protoplasm distributed by a small quantity of a green colour- ing matter called chlorophyll. The starch-grain is a minute body which has one or more central points surrounded by concentric layers and consists of starch, water, and a small proportion of ash-constituents. Starch-grains are said to be simple when they are provided with but one central point. Starch-grains are said to be compound when they are provided with two or more central points. Crystals are mostly formed of calcium oxalate and rarely of calcium carbonate. Parenchymatous cells are those which are not much longer than they are broad and have rounded or flattened connecting surfaces. Prosenchymatous cells are those which are long and spindle-shaped. Vascular cells are those which are tubular from the absorption of their transverse walls. When new cells are formed by the division of a mother cell into two parts, that mode is known as cell-division. ‘When one or more new cells are formed within a mother cell, that mode is known as interior cell-formation. When a single new cell is formed by the coalescence of the protoplasmic contents of two or more cells, that mode is known as conjugation. CHAPTER II. TISSUES. Those combinations of cells, which are produced by cell- division and united to each other from the beginning of their existence, are called Tissues. Section 1. KINDS OF TISSUES. Each tissue may be composed either of parenchymatous cells, as in the white central portion of the stem of the Yamabuki, or of prosenchymatous cells with overlapping ends, as in the hemp-fibres, or of vascular cells, as in the minute canals in the wood of the Kiri. In the first case, the tissue is known as Parenchyma (see Fig. 122) ; in the second, as Prosenchyma (see Fig. 123); and in the last, as Vascular Tissue. Parenchyma. KINDS OF mISsUES Prosenchyma. Vascular Tissue. The parenchyma may consist of soft parenchymatous cells, as in the white central portion of the stem of the Yamabuki, or of hard thick-walled parenchymatous cells, as inthe grit of Pears. The former kind may be called the Soft Parenchyma, and the latter the Hard Parenchyma. Soft Parenchyma. Panencuyaa | Hard Parenchyma. There is still another kind of parenchyma, which is composed of those cells that are long and mostly prismatic with their walls thickened along the longitudinal angles. It is known as Collenchyma and is found in the stems of many plants, as the Ténasu, Shikaids, etc. The prosenchyma may consist of soft flexible prosen- cchymatous cells, as in the hemp-fibres, or of hard lignified TISSUE-SYSTEMS.. 111 prosenchymatous cells, as in the wood of the Akamatsu ; the former kind is called the Bast Prosenchyma, and the latter the Woody Prosenchyma. Bast Prosenchyma. PROSENCHY | Maps Woody Prosenchyma. The vascular tissue may consist of soft vascular cells, as in the inner bark of Dicotyledonous Plants, or of hard vascular cells, as in the wood of common trees; the former are called Bast Vessels, and the latter Woody Vessels or Trachee. Bast Vessels. | VASCULAR TISSUE a. Vessels. As the bast vessels have thick transverse walls with numerous closely- set perforations (sieve markings), they are also known as Sieve-vessels or Sieve-tubes. These vessels are filled with protoplasmic contents, and the woody vessels with air or water. There is another kind of vessels containing a milky or coloured fluid as in the Tampopo; they are called Laticiferous Vessels. All the kinds of tissues are represented in the following table. Soft Parenchyma. Hard Parenchyma. Bast Prosenchyma. Woody Prosenchyma. Bast Vessels. Woody Vessels. " . Parenchyma..... { KINDS OF TISSUES Prosenchyma...{ Vascular tissue { Section 2. TISSUE-SYSTEMS. The lowest multicellular plants are composed of uniform tissues, but in the highest ones their bodies are composed of different tissues which are regularly arranged in particu- lar ways in each plant. Hach aggregation of elementary tissues forming a definite portion of the plant-body is called a Tissue-system. 112 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. 1. KINDS OF TISSUE-SYSTEMS. Tf the petiole of the Obako be broken across, tough bundles will be observed, and a thin transparent skin may be easily stripped off from its surface. These bundles are chiefly composed of vessels and prosenchyma, and are called Fibro-vascular Bundles. They traverse the plant-body and form the Fibro-vascular System. The thin skin cover- ing the plant-body is called the Epidermal System. That group of tissues which is situated within the latter and encloses the fibro-vascular bundles, is termed the Funda- mental System. Fundamental System. KINDS OF aISsUE-SvSTENS| Fibro-vascular System. Epidermal System. THE FounpAMEenTAL SysteM.—This system consists principally of parenchyma from which all the other tissues are derived. THE Frero-vascuLaR SystemM.—This system consists of prosenchyma, vessels, and a few parenchymatous cells, arranged in bundles which run longitudinally through the plant-body. . Parts OF THE FIBRo-VASCULAR BUNDLE.—Kach fibro- vascular bundle is composed of two portions, an inner and an outer. The inner portion is hard when well developed and consists of woody vessels, woody prosenchyma, and hard parenchyma; and the outer is comparatively soft and consists of bast vessels, bast prosenchyma, and soft paren- chyma. The former portion is called the Xylen or Wood, and the latter the Phloém or Bast. Xylem. PARTS OF THE FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLE| x Phloém. KINDS OF TISSUE-SYSTEMS. 113 Kinps oF Frero-vascuLaR BunDLES.—Some fibro-vas- cular bundles possess a layer of generating tissue called the Cambium between the xylem and the phloém, as in the stems of the Sakura and Akamatsu; while others want the cambium, as in the Oniyuri and Nokishinobu. Those of the former kind increase the bulk of the xylem and of the phloém by the growth of cambial cells, and are said to be Open ; and those of the latter are incapable of any further growth, and are said to be Closed. Bundles. Closed Fibro-vascular Bundles. KINDS OF FIBRO-VASCULAR BUNDLES Open Fibro-vascular IN REGARD TO THEIR ee THE EPmeRMAL SystEM.—This system consists of more or less modified parenchyma. PaRTs OF THE EPIDER- Fia. 124. MAL SystemM.— When well developed, this system is composed of a membrane, consisting of one or more layers of parenchymatous cells, perforated by numer- ous openings, and pro- Fra. 124.—Epidermis of the leaf of vided with various pro- the Kabura, showing stomata. tuberances. ‘The membrane is called the Hpidermis ; the openings through the latter, Stomata (Fig. 124); and the protuberances on the surface, Hairs. The epidermis consists of those cells which are in close juxtaposition without any intercellular spaces except at the points where it is perforated by the stomata. (See Fig. 118.) The upper cell-walls of the epidermis are usually cuti- cularized and are rendered impermeable to water; but in submersed or very young parts the epidermal cells are not 114 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. cuticularized. When roots or stems grow much in thick- ness, the epidermis is usually ruptured and a new skin is formed from the cortical fundamental tissue. SUMMARY. Tissues are those combinations of cells which are produced by cell- division and united to each other from the beginning of their existence. The parenchyma is a tissue composed of parenchymatous cells. The prosenchyma is a tissue composed of prosenchymatous cells. The vascular tissue is one composed of vascular cells. The soft parenchyma is a tissue composed of soft parenchymatous cells. The hard parenchyma is a tissue composed of hard parenchymatous cells. The bast prosenchyma is a tissue composed of soit flexible prosenchyma- tous cells. The woody prosenchyma is a tissue composed of hard lignified prosenchy- matous cells. Bast vessels are those composed of soft vascular cells. Woody vessels are those composed of hard vascular cells. Lissue-systems are aggregations of elementary tissues forming a definite portion of the plant-body. The epidermal system forms the outer skin of the plant-body. The epidermis is a membrane consisting of one or more layers of parenchymatous cells. Stomata are the openings through the epidermis. Hairs are the protuberances on the surface of the epidermis. The fundamental system is that group of tissues which is situated within the epidermal system and encloses the fibrovascular system. The /ibrovascular bundle is a band chiefly composed of vessels and prosenchyma. ‘The aylem is the hard portion of the fibrovascular bundle. The phioém is the soft portion of the fibrovascular bundle. The jibrovascular system is composed of fibrovascular bundles. CHAPTER III. INTERCELLULAR SPACES. If the stems of Grasses are cut across, there will be found large cavities extending through whole internodes ; and if thin sections of ordinary leaves are examined under the microscope, there will be seen several lacunae between the cells of the fundamental system. All kinds of the above mentioned lacune are termed Intercellular Spaces. Section I. KINDS OF INTERCELLULAR SPACES. Intercellular spaces vary according to their origin and contents, so that they may be classified in two ways. 1. KINDS OF INTERCELLULAR SPACES ACCORDING TO THEIR ORIGIN. Intercellular spaces may be formed either by a splitting of the common wall of adjacent cells as in the leaves of ordinary plants, or by the rupture of certain cells as in the stems of Grasses. * /( Those formed by a splitting of the common wall of adjacent cells. Those formed by the rupture of certain cells. KINDS OF INTERCELLULAR SPACES ACCORDING TO THEIR ORIGIN 2. KINDS OF INTERCELLULAR SPACES ACCORDING TO THEIR CONTENTS. Intercellular spaces contain either air as in the stems of Grasses and ordinary leaves, or certain peculiar substances 116 HISTOLOGICAL BOTANY. as the resin-containing lacune in the leaves and stems of Pines. Those containing air. KINDS OF INTERCELLULAR SPACES! hose containing certain ACCORDING TO THEIR CONTENTS | pecitian Substances SUMMARY. Intercellular spaces are lacune between the cells of a tissue. SEKI BOOK III. PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. INTRODUCTION. For the continual existence of plants on the earth, they must first support their own lives for some time and must next reproduce their kinds. That department relating to the maintenance of their own lives we term Physiology of Nutrition, and that relat- ing to reproduction Physiology of Reproduction. CHAPTER I. PHYSIOLOGY OF NUTRITION. In order to support their living functions, plants must constantly receive proper food and must convert this into bodily substances, because they consume continually the latter for the performance of every function. These func- tions are accomplished by the aid of several external forces such as light, temperature, etc. Section 1. NUTRITION PROPER. 1. LRANSPIRATION. If a tightly closed cylinder containing two or three weighed leaves of the Tonasu and a dish of dry calcic chloride of known weight be examined after exposing it to the sun for a few hours, it will be found that the leaves will 118 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. have withered and lost much weight, and that the salt will have become moistened and much increased in weight. It is clear that what the salt has gained is the water that has been lost by the leaves in the form of vapour. This action is known as Transpiration. Tt is always going on from the surface of all parts of plants which are exposed to the air ; above all, leaves are the organs where the greatest loss of water takes place. In adult leaves the watery vapour is principally carried out from’ the stomata, which regulate transpiration to a great extent, by their opening and clos- ing according to different circumstances. As the cell-walls of the epidermis of submersed plants are not cuticularized, these plants wither rapidly when exposed to the air owing to the evaporation of water from their whole surfaces. 2. RESPIRATION. If some living water plants as Spirogyra be put in an air- . tight flask filled with water made free from oxy een by boil- ing, they will perish after a few days. If a flower-pot with a living plant be put in a closed vessel filled with carbonic acid gas, the plant will die after a. few days. From the preceding experiments it will be understood that oxygen is indispensable to the life of the plant. If a funnel filled with moist seeds of the Daidzu be in- serted into the mouth of a bottle containing a solution of caustic potash, the seeds will gradually commence to germi- nate, the clear solution will slowly turn whitish, and a rise of temperature may be observed in the germinating seeds. In the above experiment the potash solution is turned whitish by absorbing the carbonic acid gas which is evolved ABSORPTION. 119 by the germinating seeds, and the rise of temperature is caused by the oxidation accompanying germination. Now it will be seen that plants, like animals, take up oxygen and give off carbonic acid as long as they live, and this process is Respiration. In this process heat is always set free in plants as it is in the case of animals; but in plants as the process of heat-production is feeble and other conditions lead to rapid cooling, the rise of temperature is usually insignificant. 3. ABSORPIION. If a flower-pot with a living plant be exposed to the sun without being watered, the plant will begin to droop and wither after a few days. Now if a sufficient quantity of water be given to the plant, it will gradually regain its healthy condition. If some living land plants with their roots immersed in pure distilled water be kept for a long time, they will gradually become unhealthy and will finally perish. From the preceding experiments it will be found that plants must absorb water and several other substances for the maintenance of their vitality. It is known from several experiments that the food of plants consists of water, solu- ble salts, oxygen, and carbonic acid. Waiter and soluble salts are absorbed by young roots and root-hairs, oxygen by all living parts, and carbonic acid by all green organs of which leaves are the chief. Submersed plants may absorb nutritious substances through their whole surfaces. Some insoluble substances as marble are decomposed by the acid sap, which saturates the cell-walls of the root, and are brought into solution. 120 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. 4. CONSTITUENTS OF THE PLANT-FOOD. It has been discovered by water culture, which consists in growing plants with their roots immersed in water hold- ing known substances in solution, and analysis, that the elements which are essential to the life of plants are Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Phosphorus, Potas- sium, Calcium, Magnesium, and Iron. Carbon, which is an essential constituent of organic com- pounds, is absorbed by green plants in combination in the form of the carbonic acid which is found in a small quantity in the atmosphere. Hydrogen, which is a constituent of every organic com- pound, is absorbed by all plants in combination usually in the form of water. Oxygen, which is a constituent of some organic com- pounds, is absorbed by plants either free, or in combination in the form of water or of salts. Nitrogen, which is an essential constituent of albuminous substances, is absorbed by plants in combination in the form of nitrates or of compounds of ammonia. Sulphur, which is a constituent of alouminous substances, Mustard oil, etc., is taken up by plants in the form of sulphates. Phosphorus, which is a constituent of some organic com- pounds, is derived from phosphates. It is said that this element bears an important relation to certain metabolic processes of plants. Potassium, which bears a very important relation to the function of chlorophyll and to the storing-up of carbohy- drates, is derived from its salts. Calcium and Magnesium, which are both important for the normal development of plants, are derived from their salts. THE MOVEMENT OF WATER ETC. 121 Iron, which is absolutely necessary for the formation of chlorophyll, is derived from its different compounds. Besides the above mentioned elements, Chlorine, which is derived from chlorides, is necessary to the normal develop- ment of some plants, as the Soba (Fagopyrum esculentum); and Silicon, which is taken up by plants in the form of silicates or silicic acid, is important in some plants, as the Take, in giving firmness and rigidity to their tissues. In order to prepare a solution for water-culture, one of the following groups of chemical compounds may be taken. Le. 2. 3. Distilled water, Distilled water, Distilled water, Potassium nitrate, Potassium nitrate, Potassium sulphate, Calcium sulphate, Potassium superphosphate, Calcium nitrate, Magnesium sulphate, Magnesium sulphate, Maznesium phosphate. Calcium phosphate, Calcium nitrate, Ammonium nitrate, Ferrous sulphate. Ferrous phosphate, Ferrous chloride. Sodium chloride. 5. HE MOVEMEN! OF WALER AND SUBSTANCES IN SOLUTION ABSORBED BY THE ROOT. If a living branch of the Sakura be cut off and put into a vessel containing a solution of anilin-violet, it will be seen that the colouring-matter rises through the xylem with the water. If the bark of the ‘Sakura be cut away in the form of a xing around the circumference, the leaves will not wither. If the stem of the Hechima (Luffa Petola) be cut off ten or more inches above the ground, watery fluid will flow out from the cut surface of that portion of the stem which is connected with the root. From the first and second experiments it will be known that water and substances in solution absorbed by the root are conveyed upward passing through the xylem, in which 122 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. the cell-walls are lignified and made to be easily penetrated by water. From the last experiment it will be seen that the root. has itself the function of carrying up the water it has. absorbed. This action is called the Root-pressure. As the leaves lose continually water by transpiration, the water absorbed by the root ascends towards them to com- pensate for the loss; and in the growing portion a fresh supply of water is necessary, and a sufficient quantity is conveyed towards it. The movement of water is therefore caused by three dis- tinct actions, namely : the root-pressure ; transpiration ; and growth. 6. THE MOVEMENT OF GASES. In the plant-body, the gases dissolved in water are con- veyed by it to the point which is relatively poor in them ;. and the gases in the intercellular spaces move freely, and communicate with the outer air by means of the stomata. 7. ASSIMILATION. Ifa water plant as the Sasamo be placed in a glass vessel containing water, which holds carbonic acid in solution, be covered by an inverted glass funnel, whose narrow portion is again covered by an inverted test tube filled with water, and be exposed to sunshine, it will be seen that bubbles of gas are given off from the plant and accumulate within the test tube. If the accumulated gas be tested, it will be found to consist of oxygen. If water, which does not hold carbonic acid in solution, be used in the above experiment, no bubbles of oxygen gas will be given off. If green leaves are cut off from the stem during the day CONSTRUCTIVE METABOLISM. 123 and thin sections of them are examined under the micros- cope, there will be seen minute starch grains in each chlorophyll-corpuscle. If green leaves are cut off from the stem during the night and are examined in the same way, there will be found no starch grains in chlorophyll-corpuscles. From the first experiment it will be seen that green leaves absorb carbonic acid, decompose it by the help of light, and evolve oxygen. From the second experiment it will be understood that the bubbles of oxygen gas can not be given of without a fresh supply of carbonic acid. From the third and fourth experiments it will be known that starch grains are formed only during the day in chloro- phyll-corpuscles. Now, from the preceding experiments it is clear that chlorophyll-corpuscles absorb carbonic acid, decompose it by the help of light, give off part of its oxygen, and produce starch grains by combining the residue with the elements of water. Starch grains are indeed the first organic com- pounds that can be detected under the microscope. This process of the formation of starch grains in chlorophyll- corpuscles is known as Assimilation. 8. CONSTRUCTIVE METABOLISM. Starch grains produced in chlorophyll-corpuscles are constantly converted into sugar and removed from the corpuscles ; the sugar thus formed may be used up for the formation of cellulose, or albuminous matter combining with other substances, or may be reconverted into starch grains which are stored in different organs for future use. In short, starch grains formed in chlorophyll-corpuscles 124 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. are sources of all the other organic substances of plants, and even the tissues of animals are either directly or in- directly derived from them. 9. DESTRUCTIVE METABOLISM. During the construction of new tissues several com- pounds are formed as by-products. These are Tannin, Organic Acids, Colouring Matters, Alkaloids, Volatile Oils, etc. Old tissues are aften changed into such substances as Gum Arabic, Cherry Gum, etc. These are the products of degradation which can undergo no further modification in plants. In the processes of all vital functions, decomposition is an inevitable occurrence, and the evolution of carbonic acid is the result. 10. EXCRETION. In plants, even wast2 products which are entirely useless to them are mostly retained in their tissues, and only small portions are excreted. The chief excreta of common green plants are all given off in the gaseous form: they are oxygen, carbonic acid, and watery vapour. Although the majority of waste products are retained in plants, they are gradually got rid of by the detachment of the bark, fruits, etc., in which they are abundantly deposited. Section 2. EXTERNAL FORCES. 1. TEMPERATURE. If an herbaceous plant as the Kabura be boiled in water, the plant body will become gradually softened and will be finally killed. GRAVITATION. 125 If an herbaceous plant as the Satoimo be frozen and be quickly thawed, its vitality will be generally destroyed. From the preceding experiments it will be seen that common plants can live only within certain limits of tem- perature. From several experiments it has been assumed that the vital processes of common plants begin at a certain number of degrees above freezing-point and cease at about 50° C.; and that the most favourable conditions of vital activity are generally attained at temperatures from about 25° to 30° C. 2. LIGHT. If the stems of the Udo (Aralia cordata) be covered with soil, they will become whitish after several days. If the seeds of the Daidzu be germinated in complete darkness, the young plants produced will assume a whitish colour. If the same seeds be germinated in places fully exposed to light, the young plants produced will assume a green colour. From the preceding experiments it is clear that the formation of chlorophyll is dependent upon light. The formation of starch in chlorophyll corpuscles, as has been, seen, is also dependent upon light.. Light is therefore indispensable to green plants. Tn regard to growth, many organs are considerably retarded by light; the stems of many plants are caused by this influence to decline towards the sun. 3. GRAVILATION. If a young plant as the Daidzu planted in a flower-pot be inverted, the apex of the stem will be gradually directed upward and the apex of the root downward. 126 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. From the above experiment it will be seen that the root obeys the force of gravitation, while the stem opposes this force. Gravitation is therefore a force which determines the direction of growing parts. 4, ELECTRICITY. Plants are good conductors of electricity and equalise the difference of the electric tension of earth and air ; large trees are therefore often struck by lightning. Besides the above mentioned forces, wind, various living beings, and others also exercise much influence on plants. Thus, wind may modify the direction of the stem, may disperse fruits and seeds to distant places, may carry the pollen grains of one flower to another, and may perform other actions; and other living beings may disperse fruits and seeds to distant places, may carry pollen-grains, may become the hosts of parasitic plants, and may do other actions. Section 3. GROWTH. Growth is brought about by internal processes which enlarge and alter permanently any portion of plants. A sufficient quantity of raw material and water is first indispensable to growth; and proper temperature is next important. In the process of growth, new cells are first formed by repeated cell-division ; these new cells are next enlarged in size ; and they are variously modified in the last. The first stage may be termed Growing ; the second stage, Hlongat- ing; and the last, Fully-developed. Section 4. IRRITABILITY. If the leaves of the Nemurigusa (Mimosa pudica) be touched by a foreign body, their leaflets will be immediately SUMMARY. 127 drawn together and their main petioles will suddenly bend downward. If the same plant be observed during the night, it will be seen that its leaves take just the same form as in the case when touched by a foreign body. This sensitiveness to the action of various external stimuli is known as Irritability. ‘1. YHE IRRITABILITY OF YOUNG ORGANS. The organs of plants are most sensitive in their elongat- ing stage to various external stimuli. Thus, young tendrils are soon caused to curve by a slight touch ; and young stems may soon incline towards sunshine 2. VHE I[RRITABILILTY OF MATURE ORGANS. Fully-developed organs are. mostly much weakened in their irritability, but a few organs of some plants can per- form movements even after they are fully matured. Thus, the leaves of the Nemurigusa change their position day and night, and also when touched; the stamens of the Megi move quickly when they are touched; and the hair-like ap- pendages on the leaves of the Mosengoke curve inwards when touched by a foreign body. SUMMARY. Nutrition is a.general term for all the processes of absorption, respira- tion, transpiration, assimilation, and metabolism. Transpiration is a process of evaporating water from the surface of the plant-body. Respiration is a process of absorbing oxygen and evolving carbonic acid. Absorption is a process of diffusing water and substances in solution through the cell-walls of the epidermis into the interior of the plant-body. Assimilation is a process in which starch grains are formed in chloro- phyll-corpuscles. Metabolism is a general name for all the processes accompanying the construction and the destruction of various tissues. 128 PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY. Growth is a general term for all the processes relating to the permanent. enlargement and alterations of various organs. Irritability is a term denoting the sensitiveness of any organ to the action of external stimuli. CHAPTER II. PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION. Some plants, as the Mume, Daidzu, and Ine, usually reproduce their kinds by seeds; while other plants, as the Jagataraimo and Satoimo, usually reproduce their kinds by separating their subterranean stems. The former process is termed the True Reproduction, and the latter the Vege- tative Reproduction. SUMMARY. True reproduction is a process in wich plants are reproduced by seeds. Vegetative reproduction is a process in which plants are multiplied by the separation of their own parts. BOOK IV. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. INTRODUCTION. Some plants, as the Sakura, Ine, and Akamatsu, produce flowers ; while others, as the Warabi, Sugigoke (Polytrichum commune), and Kombu, do not produce them. Those of the former kind are termed Flowering Plants or Phanerogame, and those of the latter Flowerless Plants or Cryptogame. Notwithstanding the vast number of species of plants, they all are either Phanerogame or Cryptogame. Phanerogame. Prawts| C ryptogamee. CHAPTER I. PHANEROGAM 2. In some Phanerogame, as the Sakura (Fig. 55) and Ingen (Fig. 76), the ovules are enclosed in an ovary; while in others, as the Akamatsu and Sugi, they are naked having no ovary. The former we term Angiospermae, the latter Gymnospermea. Phanerogame are thus divided into the two groups Angiosperme and Gymnosperme. Group I. Angiosperme. Puanzrocama| Group II. Gymnosperme. 180 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. Fic. 125. Fig. 125.—Carpellary scale with two seeds from a ripe cone of the Akamatsu: Group I ANGIOSPERM. Some plants of this group, as the Daidzu and Asagao (Fig. 90) have dicotyledonous seeds; while others, as the: Ine and Omugi (Fig. 89), have monocotyledonous seeds. Those of the former kind are called Dicotyleg, and those of the latter Monocotylee. Angiosperme are thus divided into the two classes Dicotylee and Monocotylee. Class I. Dicotylee. AnarosPEnaa{ Class II. Monocotylez. In the plants belonging to Dicotylee and Gymnosperme, the stem is provided with open fibrovascular bundles arranged in: circles. If the stem of a Sakura which is several years old be transversely cut, numerous concentric layers will be seen in the xylem. These layers are termed Annual Rings. They result from the fact that the cells formed in the spring have a much larger radial diameter than those formed: in the autumn. In the stems of Monocotylew and Cryptogamma, the fibrovascular bundles are irregularly arranged. PHANEROGAMA. 131 Class I. DICOTYLEA:. Some plants of this class, as the Kimpdge and Sakura, have dialypetalous flowers ; some, as the Kikyd and Asagao, gamopetalous flowers; and others, as the Jinchdge and Shidareyanagi, apetalous flowers. Those of the first kind are called Dialypetale; those of the second kind, Gamopetale ; and those of the last, Apetale. Dicotyleee are thus divided into the three subclasses Dialypetale, Gamopetale, and Apetale. Subclass I. Dialypetale. DICOTYLE4 Subclass II. Gamopetale. Subclass III. Apetale. ° Subclass I. DIALYPETALA. Some plants of this subclass, as the Kimpoge and Kabura (Fig. 54), have free dialypetalous flowers; while others, as the Sakura (Fig. 55) and Fuji, have adherent dialypetalous flowers. The former we term Thalamiflore, the latter Calyciflore. Dialypetale are thus divided into the two series Thalami- flores and Calyciflore. Series I. Thalamiflore. Dranyprranas Series II. Calyciflore. Subclass II GAMOPETALA. Some plants of this subclass, as the Hakone-utsugi (Fig. 92) and Tampopo, have epigynous gamopetalous flowers ; while others, as the Asagao and Sagigoke (Fig. 93), have hypogynous gamopetalous flowers. The former we term Gamopetale Epigyne, the latter Gamopetale Hypogyne. Gamopetale are thus divided into the two series Gamo- petale Epigyne and Gamopetale Hypogyne. 1382 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. Series I. Gamopetale Epigyne GamorEratz:{ Series II. Gamopetale Hypogyne. Subclass III]. APETAL. Some plants of this subclass, as the Tsukubane (Buckleya lanceolata) and Kan-aoi (Asarum Blumei), have epigynous. flowers ; while others, as the Jinchdge and Nawashirogumi, (Fig. 94), have hypogynous flowers. The former we term Apetale Epigyne, the latter Apetale Hypogyne. Apetale are thus divided into the two series Apetale Fpigyne and Apetale Hypogyne. Series I. Apetale Epigyne. ApETAL a Series II. Apetale Hypogyne. Class II. MONOCOTYLEA. Some plants of this class, as the Ayame (see Fig. 69) and Oniyuri (Fig. 126), have showy flowers ; while others, as the Fie. 126. Fig. 126.—Flower of the Oniyuri (Lilium tigrinum). Shuro and Ine (Fig. 10), have only inconspicuous scaly floral envelopes or even want them. Those of the former PHANEROGAMA. 133 Jind are termed Petaloidee, and those of the latter Nudi- lore. Monocotylez are thus divided into the two subclasses Petaloidese and Nudiflore. Subclass I. Petaloides. Monocorvia{ Subclass II. Nudiflore. Subclass I. PETALOIDEA.. Some plants of this subclass, as the Ayame (see Fig. 69) and Suisen, have epigynous flowers; while others, as the Oniyuri (Fig. 126) and Tsuyukusa, have hypogynous flowers. Those of the former kind are termed Petaloidee Epigyne, and those of the latter Petaloidee Hypogyne. Petaloideze are thus divided into the two series Petaloidex Hpigynee and Petaloidese Hypogyne. Series I. Petaloidee Epigyne. Prracomya| Series II. Petaloidee Hypogyne. Subelass II. NUDIFLORA. Some plants of this subclass, as the Shuro and Tennansho (Fig. 53), have large scattered bracts which cover clusters of flowers ; while others, as the Ine (Fig. 10) and Suge, have small scattered bracts. Those of the former kind are termed Spadiciflore, and those of the latter Glumiflore. Nudiflore are thus divided into the two series Spadici- flores and Glumiflore. Series I. Spadiciflore. NUDIFLOR a { Series II. Glumiflorer. General classification of Phanerogame are represented in the following table. 134 SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. fe I. Thalamifioree. Subel. I. Dialypetalee { Series II. Calycifloree. Series I. sie vane Epigyne. oe at hos Subel. IT. conte} Series II. Gamopetalee Te Hypogyne. Series I. Apetalze Epigyne. fq Group. I. = ‘uetcaperriee Subcl. TIT. Apetale fee Il. Apetalee