pe Se Cornell University Library arV18394 Wi iT 924 031 263 3 olin, a A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY. A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY, aS BY a’ FOSTER, MD. FRS., PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. < ne LANGLEY, M.A, FRS, FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AND SIXTH EDITION. London: MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YORK. 1888 (The Right of Translation is reserved.) ® ACORNELLS UNIVERSITY| \. LIBRARY Z First Edition, Crown 8v0., Fuly 1876. Reprinted April 1877, December 1877, October 1880, November 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883. Revised and Enlarged Edition February 1884. Reprinted 1887, 1888. CONTENTS. £ . LESSON I. Dissection of a Rabbit ond of aDog . LESSON II. Structure of Blood LESSON III. Coagulation of Blood. Characters of Proteids . 3 : ¢ 6 LESSON IV. Hyaline Cartilage . fs . : . LESSON V. Connective Tissue . ‘ fi ‘ ‘ LESSON VI. Modification of Connective Tissue and Hyaline Cartilage LESSON VII. Bone, Ossification, Teeth . 3 is LESSON VIII. Structure of Contractile Tissues . LESSON IX. Properties of Contractile Tissue . 5 LESSON X. Structure of Nervous Tissues. . : LESSON XI. General pee of Nervous Tissue. Automatic Actions 5 a é LESSON XII. Structure and Properties of Blood-Vessels LESSON XIII. Structure and Action of the Heart LESSON XIV. Blood Pressure . ‘ 3 . ‘ PAGE 1—34 35—43 44-51 5257 58—67 68—71 72—79 80—89 90—104 105—115 116—123 124—135 136—146 147—154 CONTENTS. PAGE LESSON XV. Salivary Glandsand Pancreas. Saliva . 155—166 LESSON XVI. Stomach. Gastric Juice. Milk . . 167—177 LESSON XVII. Intestine. Bile. Pancreatic Juice . 178—190 LESSON XVIII. The Lymphatic System . . ~. 191203 LESSON XIX. Structure of Liver. Glycogen . «. 204-210 LESSON XX. The Structure of the Lung. The Me- chanics of Respiration . . Z 3 d . 211—218 LESSON XXI. The Colour of Blood. Respiration . 219—227 LESSON XXII. Structure of the Kidney . : . 228—236 LESSON XXIII. Urine uy ‘ e. a 5 - 237-245 LESSON XXIV. Skinand Touch. . - - « 246—256 LESSON XXV. Taste and Smell . . ss ‘ - 257—262 LESSON XXVI. The Hye . : r : “ - 263—274 LESSON XXXVI. Vision . 6 3 ‘| + 275—290 LESSON XXVIII. The Ear . i. i s . 291—800 LESSON XXIX. The Spinal Cord 3 s . 801—307 LESSON XXX. The Brain . BL Gl SS » . 808—830 LESSON XXXI. Dissection of the Larynx . ri » 831—335 LESSON XXXII. Tissues of Reproduction . ‘ . 836—344 APPENDIX. : ‘ . . . : 345—386 Avpirions To APPENDIX . : 9 . 887—408 InDEx . . . . . . > $ 7 - 604—412 Appitions To INDEX . ‘ ‘ 7 s , é 413 LESSON I. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. In the following, the descriptions in large type apply more particularly to the rabbit, but the general directions for dissection serve also for the dog: some points in which the two animals differ, and some which are better seen in the dog, are printed in small type. A. 1. Make a median incision through the skin, down the whole length of the front of the body from the neck to the pubis, and reflect the skin as far as possible on both sides. In dissecting a female rabbit note, just under- neath the skin, the thin arborescent mammary glands, one to each mamma. - 2. Observe the thin, pale, abdominal muscles. It is better to dissect out the individual mus- cles in the dog as below, but the dissection may be done on the rabbit. In the dog observe a. The tendinous aponeuroses of the abdominal muscles forming in the middle line the linea alba,- L. 1 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, [L. b. The obliquus externus abdominis, a thin muscle, with descending fibres; it arises from the ribs by separate bundles, from the back by a broad tendon and runs to the linea alba and to the pubis. c. The rectz abdominis, one on either side of the middle line, covered by the tendon of the exter- nal oblique. e If & be carefully reflected, there will be seen under- neath : d. ' The internus obliquus abdominis, with ascending fibres, it arises from the pubis and lumbar fascia and runs to the linea alba and lower ribs; and underneath this e The transversalis abdominis, it arises. from the lower ribs, the dorso-lumbar fascia and the pubis, and runs to the linea alba. Lift up the abdominal wall and cut it through in the middle line from the sternum to the pubis, being careful to avoid puncturing the intestine. From the middle of this cut make transverse cuts nearly as far as the spinal column, Hook or pin back the four flaps. Simply turning the parts over without cutting or tearing anything, trace out as far as possible the alimentary canal, noting the narrow eso- phagus entering into the stomach about the middle of its concave upper portion, the pyloric end of the stomach placed on the right side and continuous with the small intestine which is not distinctly divisible into duodenum, jejunum and ileum, the large dark thin-walled cecum I.] ‘DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OFA DOG. 3 having a shallow spiral constriction around it, the rather thick-walled, light coloured appendix proceeding from the end of the cecum, the large intestine of much smaller diameter than the caecum, much puckered in the first part of its course, less puckered in its median portion, and becoming soon quite smooth and passing without change into the rectum. The latter part of the large intestine and the rectum usually contain balls of feeces, 4. Trace out the mesentery which supports the intestine ; observe its continuity with the peri- toneum or membrane lining the abdominal , cavity, note the manner in which the blood- Lf vessels run in it. Observe in the dog the loose fold of mesentery loaded with fat, hanging from the lower border of the stomach and forming the great omentum. Observe the spleen, an elongated dark red body lying near the broad end of the stomach to which it is attached by a mesenteric fold (gastro- splenic omentum). 6. Turn the stomach over to the left’, gently stretch out the duodenum and observe in the mesentery belonging to it, the diffuse, pale-red pancreas ; trace the entrance of the pancreatic duct as a pale thin band into the duodenum: this occurs rather more than a foot below the pylorus, where the duodenum turns back on itself to form a loop. or ’ Right and left are used throughout for the right and left of the animal, 1-2 4 . | ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. ~- {t. tn the dog the pancreatic duct is close-to the entrance of the bile duct (see § 14). Observe the mesenteric lymphatic glands, small greyish white lumps, more abundant in the duodenal mesentery than elsewhere. 7, Turning the stomach and intestines over to the right side observe the dorsal aorta’ and inferior vena cava lying close together in the median line, trace the aorta upwards to the point where it descends through the diaphragm, tearing through the mesentery as little as is consistent with tracing the aorta. 8. Note the right suprarenal body, small, ovoid and yellowish white, lying close to the aorta, carefully tear away the connective tissue above and medially of this and note the solar plexus consisting of three or more greyish semi-trans- parent ganglia connected by bundles of pale nerve fibres. Into the laterally placed ganglion runs the main branch of the splanchnic nerve, trace this up alongside the aorta as far as the diaphragm. 9. Note the celiac artery given off by the aorta a little below the diaphragm, and the superior mesenteric artery given off somewhat lower down, possibly underneath the suprarenal body, and a, little farther down, the renal artery, run- 1 When an artery and a vein run together, as here, they may be distinguished by the artery having thicker walls and containing less blood than the vein; the artery too has generally a bluish-white tint whilst the vein has generally a dark red tint with a tinge of blue. 1] 10, 11. 12. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG, 5 ning to the hilus of the kidney: note the renal vein running parallel to the renal artery into the vena cava. Follow the superior mesenteric artery a short distance and observe the branches given off to the pancreas, these are more easily seen when the intestines are turned to the left. Tearing through the mesentery around the lower part of the cesophagus, observe the right and left pneumogastric nerves (cp. C §§ 17, 24,) dividing into several fibres which spread out over the stomach. One or more branches may be traced to the solar plexus. Observe the number of pale nerves which are given off by the ganglia of the solar plexus; bundles of them may be followed along the celiac, mesenteric and renal arteries. Then turning the stomach and intestines over to the left side, carefully tear away the mesentery over the aorta and note the right splanchnic nerve close beside it, trace the nerve on its course (being careful not to puncture the vena cava) past or underneath the right suprarenal body into a ganglion a little removed from the rest of the solar plexus. Lift up the stomach, and viewing from the right the mesentery below it, note the portal vein, a large vein dividing close to the posterior ‘ surface of the liver and running into it, This vein is formed by the union of the lieno-gastric and mesenteric veins, the former is much the smaller and joins the latter close to the liver; 13. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [. follow for a short distance the course of the mesenteric vein, noting the small numerous branches received by it from the pancreas. Viewing the mesentery from the left side note the juncture of the splenic and gastric veins to form the lieno-gastric. Trace out the branches of the celiac artery; it first gives off the splenic artery which besides giving off a row of smaller arteries to the spleen sends several branches to the greater curvature of the stomach and some small branches to the pancreas, it then gives off at short intervals ‘branches to the lower part of the cesophagus, the stomach and the upper part of the duode- num and a branch, the hepatic artery, which runs to the liver. In the dog, pull the spleen downwards and to the left away from the stomach, a branch of the lieno-gastric artery will be seen sending branches to the spleen and to the greater curvature of the stomach ; the corresponding veins are best seen on turning the spleen over towards the stomach. Double ligature and cut through these vessels, pull. the spleen downwards as before, a-smaller branch of the lieno-gastric artery and vein will be seen; centrally of the lieno-gastric vessels will be seen two or more gastric and pancreatic arteries and veins. Pull the pancreas to the left over the spleen and note the junction of the lieno-gastric and me- senteric veins. Then pull the duodenum over the part of the pancreas previously showing and r] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 7 note the fairly large vein from the pancreas and the upper part of the duodenum joining the previously mentioned vein to form the portal vein; note also the branch from the celiac axis dividing into the hepatic artery and an artery supplying the greater part of the ‘pancreas and the upper part of the duodenum ; it then gives off branches to the lower part of the cesophagus and the stomach and finally divides into two branches, one the hepatic artery going to the liver, the other going: to the lower part of the stomach and the upper part of the duodenum (with branches to the pancreas). 14, Turning the liver up towards the diaphragm, the 16. gall-bladder will be seen in a hollow on the under surface of the posterior right lobe: trace the cystic duct or duct from the gall-bladder to the point where it joins the hepatic duct, proceeding from the liver itself; trace the united duct or common bile duct into the duodenum, close to the pylorus. Ligature the esophagus and the rectum and cut through both, the former above the ligature the latter below it. Turning the intestine to the right, cut through the mesentery close to its abdominal attachment and remove from the abdomen the alimentary canal and its appen- dages except the liver. Observe now the posi- tion and form of the liver, especially i in relation to the diaphragm. Pull the. liver down from the diaphragm, 17. 18. 19, ‘ ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. i through the transparent tendon of the diaphragm the lungs will be seen in close contact with it. Puncture the tendon on the right side and note the collapse of the right lung as soon as air ‘enters the pleural cavity. With the liver still pulled down, note the short hepatic veins proceeding from the liver to join the vena cava inferior just below the diaphragm. Cut through the hepatic veins as close to the liver as possible and remove the liver. Cut open one of the hepatic veins and trace it in this way back into the substance of a liver lobe. Observe on its inner surface the opening of numerous smaller veins; cut through the lobe ‘near its base, and try to distinguish the portal veins from the hepatic by the small bile duct and small thick-walled artery running alongside ' the former. Cut away the mesentery from the alimentary canal, and trace out the latter along. its whole length, observing more fully the features men- tioned in § 3, and noting in addition one or more white patches (Peyer’s patches) on the free sur- face of the ileum, due to clumps of lymph-follicles; ’ also note the connection of the caecum with the small and large intestine, the thin walls of the cecum and the thicker spotted walls of its appendix, ‘Note in the dog, the wider cesophagus entering into the stomach nearer the cardiac end than is the case with the rabbit; note also the shorter I] 20. 21, 22. 24, DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 9 ‘length of the intestine, the small cedum, and the less difference between the large and small intestines. The small intestine may be washed out by tying a funnel into the duodenum, and letting water from a tap stream down the funnel. The large intestine may be similarly treated. Cut through the stomach along the lesser curva- ture, throw away its contents and wash the mucous membrane. Note that the mucous membrane of the greater curvature is pale red, that of the pylorus is greyish-white and semi- transparent. The contrast is more marked when the whitish superficial layer of mucous cells is removed. The mucous membrane may be used to prepare a glycerine extract of pepsin (cp. Lesson xvt.), Wash out the duodenum, its inner surface has a velvéty look which is characteristic of the mucous membrane of the small intestine; it is caused by the villi, examine these with a lens. Observe the openings of the biliary and pancrea- tic ducts, and carefully pass bristles through them into the ducts. Cut open a piece of the large intestine, wash it, and with a lens examine its inner surface ; it has “no villi, . 28,- Note again the position of the suprarenal bodies. Note the position of the kidneys, the left being much nearer the pelvis than the right; observe on either side the ureter, a pale semi-transparent 10 26. 27. 28. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [1. duct passing downwards from each kidney over the muscles of the back towards the middle line; trace them to their entrance into the urinary bladder. . Trace out the renal artery and vein noted in § 9, follow them into the substance of the kidney. Divide one kidney longitudinally, note the single pyramid opening into the pelvis. In dissecting a female rabbit, observe the uterus, with its two cornua, from each cornu proceeds a Fallopian tube which taking a winding course upwards for some little distance ends in a clump of processes or fimbriz. Near the end of each Fallopian tube a little below the kidney will be seen a small, ovoid spotted body, the ovary. In dissecting a male rabbit, observe in each side of the lower part of the abdominal cavity a white convoluted tube the vas deferens. Cut through the symphysis pubis with bone forceps, stretch the halves apart and cut away as much bone on each side as may be necessary. Trace the vasa deferentia downwards cutting open the scrotal sacs; each vas deferens is continuous with a coiled mass of tubes, the epididymis, attached to one side of the testis. Note that the smooth membrane, tunica vaginalis, lining the scrotal sacs is continuous with the peritoneum, Lay open the bladder, observe its neck ending in the urethra, note the openings of the ureters into the dorsal part of the bladder and in the male the openings of the vasa deferentia near its neck. 1] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 11 B. 1. Make a median incision over the skull from the nose to behind the level of the ears. Reflect the skin on each side. Cut away the attachment of the muscles of the neck to the occiput until the occipito-atlantoidean membrane between the occiput and the atlas is laid bare. Carefully divide this with scissors and observe the medulla oblongata. With a trephine saw through the roof of the skull in its broadest part, a little behind the orbits, working very carefully when the bone is nearly sawn through. With a lever raise the circular piece of bone and remove it. Then with the bone forceps cut away piecemeal the rest of the roof of the skull. Note the thickish membrane, the dura mater covering but not attached to the brain, it dips down between the cerebral hemispheres as the falx cerebri and between the cerebrum and cerebellum as the tentoriwm; cut away the dura mater and observe the very thin vascular mem- brane, the pia mater, clinging to the surface of the brain. Make a rough sketch of the exposed cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla oblongata for com- parison with the same parts in the dog. Note particularly that in the rabbit the cerebral hemispheres are smooth and that the olfactory lobes are directly in front of the cerebral ‘hemispheres, being separated from them by a constriction only.’ ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [t. 5. In the dog a, The dura mater is much thicker and the pia mater more obvious. . b. The cerebral hemispheres have deep fissures, c. The pia mater dips down into the ‘fissures, above the pia mater and bridging over the fissures may be observed the thin transparent arachnoid membrane, also distinctly visible as a covering to the pia mater at the base of the brain. In the space between the arachnoid and pia mater is contained the clear watery sub- arachnoid (or cerebro-spinal) fluid. A smaller quantity of fluid also exists between the arachnoid and dura mater. d. Compare the exposed surface with the sketch made of the surface of the brain of the rabbit, noting the relative sizes of the cerebrum and cerebellum in each. With a scalpel divide the front of the cerebral hemispheres from the olfactory lobes. Lift up with the handle of a scalpel the extreme front of the cerebrum, and turning it backwards bring into view the optic nerves. Cut these through with a sharp pair of scissors close to the skull. Still turning the brain back cut through succes- sively all the other cranial nerves. A little behind the optic nerve is the small but evident third nerve (motor oculi), close behind this the considerably smaller fourth nerve (trochlear), farther back in the hollow behind the attach- ment of the tentorium lies the thick fifth nerve, to the median side of which the small sixth 1] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A Doc. 13 (abducens) is fairly conspicuous. A little behind and to -the outside of the fifth, in the hard petrous bone are seen together the seventh (facial) and eighth (auditory). Some distance back and nearer the middle line come the ninth (glossopharyngeal), tenth (pneumogastric), and the small eleventh (spinal accessory). Lastly, still farther back is the twelfth (hypoglossal). Cut through the spinal cord below the medulla oblongata, and remove the brain entirely. The outlying lateral portions of the cerebellum will probably be left in the skull. Do not injure the | skull in attempting to get these out’. 7. Cut and scrape away the tissue above the cervical vertebree ; with bone forceps remove the arches of the vertebree and cut them away at the sides piece by piece so that the spinal cord is well exposed. Pull the cord a little to one side and note the nerves running into it, one between each pair of vertebre, Carefully cut through the dura mater and pull it up with forceps, a row of fine nerve fibres will be seen issuing from the spinalcord; theyconverge and form one bundle the posterior root of the spinal nerve. Cut through these filaments, and pull the dura mater a little farther from the spinal cord; ventrally of the above set of fine nerve fibres will be seen another similar set which unite and form the anterior 1 The brain may be placed in spirit to harden and be dissected later: most of the points of structure of the dog’s brain given in Lesson xxx. can also be made out on the rabbit’s brain. 14 ro ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [. root of the spinal nerve. Observe carefully the roots on the outside of the dura mater, they join almost immediately forming the nerve trunk, on the posterior root at or a little before its junction with the anterior root note the swelling caused by the spinal ganglion. Examine again the diaphragm (cp. A § 16). Observe the large central tendon, with the vena cava and cesophagus passing through and tightly attached to it. The muscular part of the diaphragm consists of a costal and vertebral portion, The former is attached by short tendons to the ribs and sternum. The latter is attached to the upper lumbar vertebra; it is a somewhat thick mass of muscle divided into right and left portions by the descending aorta, the right is much the larger; the two form the pillars of the diaphragm. Pull down the diaphragm by its pillars, on its unpunctured side the lung will follow it. Observe the pectoral muscle proceeding from nearly the whole length of the sternum to the humerus, cut it through together with the vessels and nerves going to the arm and note its attachments. Several muscles will now be exposed, note the serratus anticus major proceeding from the lower part of the internal border of the scapula to the 3rd to 9th ribs inclusive. Cut it through and reflect the parts. 1] 4, my DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 15 Note the sealenus medius running from the neck to the upper ribs (2nd to 5th); cut this through where it is inserted into the ribs and turn it forward, the scalenus anticus will be seen attached to-the Ist rib at its junction with the costal cartilage. The serratus anticus minor running from the upper part of the internal border of the scapula to the lower cervical vertebra and 1st and 2nd rib. The serratus posticus, a thin inconspicuous muscle proceeding by rather a long broad tendon from the cervical vertebre and dorsal fascia. It is inserted into the 4—12th ribs about the middle part of their course. These muscles having been cut through the small scalenus posticus will be seen running from the neck to the Ist rib laterally of the scalenus anticus. The three scaleni originate from one or more of the transverse processes of the 4th to 7th cervical vertebre. Note the thick muscle the longissimus dorsi covering the ribs dorsally ; cut away this and the adjoining muscles and note the inconspicuous levatores costarum proceeding from the trans- verse processes of the dorsal vertebree to the ribs below. Clear away all muscles and tendons attached to any two of the ribs (say 4th and 5th) except the intercostal muscles joining them. Note the external intercostal muscle, the fibres run 16 10. 12. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, [L downwards and ventrally, and are absent between the costal cartilages, here the internal inter- costal muscle is seén; carefully remove the external intercostal, and so follow the internal intercostal towards the vertebrx; the fibres run downwards and ventrally and near the vertebrae are scanty or absent. Observe more closely the costal cartilages and their connection with the ribs and sternum. 11. The above mentioned muscles, especially the thinner ones, should also be observed in the dog, where they are larger. There are some diiferences in arrangement, The pectoral has an upper portion which: runs not to the scapula but to the humerus. The serratus anticus runs from the whole length of the internal border of the scapula to the lower cervical vertebre and first seven ribs, The origins and insertions of the scalent are somewhat different. The serratus posticus is divided as in man into an upper and a lower portion (s. p. superior and s. p. inferior.) Cut through the costal cartilages on either side close to the sternum, cut through the muscles be- tween the 2nd and 3rd and the 8th and 9th ribs, with bone forceps cut through the 3—8th ribs dorsally and remove them. The pleural cavities will be seen to be separated from one another by the median parietal portions of the pleure, between these is a space, the mediastinum. From the surface of the lungs a shred of a fine 1] 13. 14. 16. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 17 membrane, the visceral portion of the pleura, may be torn; note that at the base of the lungs this is continuous with the parietal portion of the pleura attached to the walls of the chest and bounding the mediastinum. Note the position of the heart, In the mediastinum attached to the pleura note on either side the phrenic nerve distributed to the muscular fibres of the diaphragm. With fine forceps tear off the membrane over the phrenic nerve in the middle part of its course; another membrane will be seen under- neath, outside of which the phrenic runs, this is the parietal layer of the pericardium ; cut it through, the heart will be seen to lie in a bag formed by it. Remove the middle and posterior portions of the sternum. Trace the connection of the parietal layer of the pericardium with the covering of the heart and of the roots of the great vessels. 15. Turning in the dog the heart and lungs over to the right, pull up the large aortic trunk, and note the almost transparent thoracic duct, lying alongside the cesophagus; trace it up. to its termination into the venous system (at the junction of the left jugular and left sub-clavian vein, cp. § 20). With a little care the thoracic duct may also be traced in the rabbit. Prolong the median skin incision to the chin and reflect: the skin as far as possible. Observe on 2 18 17. 18. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [T. . each side the external jugular vein arising an- teriorly from two branches: avoid puncturing it. Cut through in the middle line the thin super- ficial muscle (platysma); draw it to -one side, clearing away the connective tissue. Lying on either side of the muscles immediately surround- ing the trachea will be seen the sterno-mastoid muscle (cp. § 28) diverging from the lower part of the neck. Cut through the connective tissue on the inner side of one sterno-mastoid and draw the muscle outwards; there will be seen the common carotid artery, and, running along the outer side of this, the pneumogastric nerve. Free in one place the carotid, and lift it up with a hook. In the underlying connective tissue will be seen two nerves more or less closely united by tissue ; the larger is the sympathetic, the smaller the superior cardiac (depressor). Clear away the connective tissue from the artery. Draw the larynx from the carotid by means of a hook to which is tied a string having a weight at the end. Passing over the carotid at the level of the larynx will be seen the descendens noni, a branch of the 12th nerve. Cut this through and remove it entirely. Passing under- neath the carotid nearly at the same level is the superior laryngeal branch of the pneumogastric. Trace this with especial care; soon after it leaves the pneumogastric it will be seen to give offa small nerve, the depressor, Follow this down the neck, separating it from the sympathetic. Sometimes 19, 20. 21, 22. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 19 the depressor receives a branch direct from the pneumogastric; occasionally this is its sole origin. Remove the first rib and the remains of the sternum, avoiding any injury to the tissues below. Observe the thymus, a fatty looking body covering the roots of the great vessels. It may be torn away. Trace out on each side the junction of the external jugular and subclavian veins to form respectively the right and left vene cave superiores: near the junction ends the internal jugular vein, this brings blood from the brain and may be traced from the foramen jugulare (cp. E. § 21) down the neck laterally of the common carotid and vagus. Observe the right vena cava superior passing straight down to join the right auricle; the left vena cava, superior passing obliquely downwards underneath the left auricle to jo the night auricle; and the inferior vena cava passing upwards from the diaphragm to join the right auricle. Trace up one phrenic nerve. It makes its way out of the thorax by the side of the superior vena cava, and then passes beneath it. Place a double ligature round the vein and divide be- tween the ligatures. Follow up the phrenic to its origin from the 4th and 5th (and also from the 6th and 7th) cervical nerves. 2—2 20 23. 24, 25. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. ibe Trace out the arch of the aorta by clearing away the tissue from its upper surface. Take care not to injure the pneumogastric nerves (see next section). Observe on the right side the innominate artery, which gives off first the left common carotid, and then divides into the right subclavian and right common carotid; on the left side the left subclavian. Note the vertebral artery on either side pro- ceeding from the subclavian. On a level with the anterior part of the larynx, note the division of the common carotid into external carotid and internal carotid. The former curls round the angle of the jaw, the latter enters the skull a little in front and to the median side of the tympanic bulla. Trace both pneumogastric nerves downwards, observing the recurrent laryngeal branches passing on the right side round the subclavian artery, and ou the left round the aorta. Place a double ligature round the innominate artery and divide between the ligatures. Trace the recurrent laryngeal nerves along the back of the trachea to the larynx. Pursue the main pneu- mogastric trunks on the cesophagus to the point where they were seen in A, § 10. Trace the sympathetic nerve downwards to the inferior cervical ganglion lying a little above the subclavian artery, and close to the vertebral artery; follow it thence to the first thoracic ganglion. 19 3 DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 21 Observe the branches going from these ganglia towards the heart. Observe also the depressor nerve passing to the heart. From the first thoracic ganglion trace down the thoracic sympathetic nerve trunk lying on the heads of the ribs with the ganglia (twelve in all) and the rami communicantes connecting each ganglion with its corresponding spinal nerve. Trace out the splanchnic nerve on one side; it will be found to separate from the sympathetic at the 8th, 9th, or 10th thoracic ganglion. At first sight it appears to be the continuation of the sympathetic instead of a branch of it; since the sympathetic at its lower part becomes more transparent, and running in a groove between two muscles, is rather easily overlooked. The splanchnic receives branches from each of the thoracic sympathetic ganglia below its origin. Tie a tube in the trachea and distend the lungs, note the appearance of the distended lungs. Cut out the heart* with the lungs attached, and trace the pulmonary arteries and veins. 28. Having reflected on either side the skin of the neck of the dog, and cleared away the fascia of connective tissue, observe the muscles under- neath, a, The sterno-hyoid close to the median line. It runs from the sternum to the hyoid bone. 1 The heart may be dissected in the manner given for the sheep’s heart in Lesson x11, 22 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [I b. The sterno-thyroid lying laterally of (a) and for the greater part of its course close to it, it runs from the sternum to the thyroid cartilage of the larynx. c. The thyro-yoid, a small muscle running from the thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone, in the upper part of its course it lies lat- erally of (a). d. The sterno-cleido-mastoid lying laterally of (6) and covering it near the hyoid bone, thence it proceeds outwards, and disappears under a white oval mass, the submaxillary glands. These muscles may be dissected in the rab- bit also, the representative of the sterno- cleido-mastoid has however no clavicular attachment and hence is called the sterno- mastoid, it does not come in contact with the submaxillary gland. 29. Carefully separate the sterno-mastoid from the sterno-thyroid; the sympathetic-pneumogastric trunk and the carotid artery will come into view. Observe the following points in which the dog differs from the rabbit : a, There is but one superior vena cava form- ed by the junction of the two innominate veins. (The arrangement of the main arteries is usually that described above for the rabbit, but con- siderable variations occur.) 1] DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 23: B. There is in the neck no separate nerve corre- sponding to the depressor in the rabbit. y. The sympathetic and the vagus run in the neck in a thick sheath common to both. At the lower end of the neck, the sympathetic joins the infe- rior cervical ganglion. From the ganglion run several pale nerves to the heart and lungs, and receives two white ones—the annulus of Vieus- sens—from the first thoracic ganglion, The latter receives rami from the lower cervical and first two dorsal nerves, of these the 2nd dorsal only (the 10th spinal nerve) gives an obvious white as well as a grey ramus to it, 30. Clear away any muscles that may remain around the lower part of the larynx; on either side of it is attached a thin, dark red lobe of the thyroid gland, the lobes run a short way down the trachea, and there join over the ventral surface of the trachea by a very thin connecting piece. D. 1. Cut through the skin in the front of the thigh and turn it back on either side; in the upper median part blood-vessels will be dimly seen through the thin sartorius muscle; cut through this muscle and note the femoral (crural) artery and vein, and the crural nerve run- ning side by side; trace the artery upwards, it unites with other arteries to form the common iliac, which with the common iliac of the other side forms the abdominal aorta; trace similarly the fernoral vein to the common iliac vein and ‘24 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. 1. the inferior vena cava. Follow the crural nerve up to the spinal cord, it arises chiefly from the 5th lumbar nerve (receiving branches also from the 6th and 7th). Remove the skin from the back of the thigh, cut through the tendonous line seen over the femur and pull the outside mass of muscle outwards, the large sciatic nerve will be seen, trace this to the top of the thigh, then turn the rabbit over and follow the nerve to its origin from the spinal cord; it arises chiefly from the 7th lumbar and 1st sacral nerve (receiving branches from the 6th lumbar and 2nd and 3rd sacral nerves.) The Student should have a rabbit’s and a dog’s skull before him, and make out the several openings by which the nerves spoken of below issue from the skull. Carry up to the chin the median skin cut and reflect the skin, place the head on one side; just in front and ventrally of the base of the ear will be seen the thin dorsal part of the parotid gland, often much hidden by fat tissue; the gland stretches ventrally a little past the angle of the jaw. From the anterior border of the parotid gland, issues the greater part of the facial nerve (7th) dividing into several branches which run DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 25 forwards across the masseter muscle to their endings in certain muscles of the face. The duct of the parotid (duct of Stenson) runs forward with the facial nerve, from the gland; it is small, thin-walled and inconspicuous, it may sometimes be made evident by. pressing on the gland and so forcing some fluid into it. The branches of the facial should be carefully isolated close to the gland, the connective tissue being cut through with a fine pair of scissors as close as possible to the nerves lest the duct be inadvertently severed; on pulling the nerves to one side the duct will be seen, follow it forwards to the anterior edge of the masseter where it dips down to the mouth; make a small cut in it with scissors and pass a bristle down it. In the dog the duct is much more obvious, the facial nerve does not accompany it. Cutting through the parotid gland, trace the facial nerve to its exit from the skull by the stylo-mastoid foramen; observing the branches going to the muscles of the ear. Behind the parotid gland will be seen a nerve running from the under surface of the sterno- mastoid muscle (cp. C. § 21) dividing into two branches, and passing up the ear. This is the great auricular, which arises from the 8rd cervical nerve, and is the main sensory nerve for the ear. Trace as far as possible its course in the ear. 26 = ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. {r. In the dog, reflect the skin of the head, note again the position of the submawillary gland (cp. C. § 28 d.) as seen from the surface ; it lies between two large branches of the jugular vein ; attached to the inner part of the posterior extremity of the lower jaw will be seen the digastric muscle; clear away the connective tissue surrounding it, cut it through, taking care not to injure the parts beneath, and reflect the cut ends; the submawillary duct (duct of Wharton) will be seen running from the gland, trace it forwards, it runs underneath (dorsally of) a muscle with transverse fibres, the mylohyoid, cut through this, turn the lateral part as far back as possible, taking care that the fascia on its lower surface is not attached to it and follow the duct forwards. Attached to the anterior end of the submaxillary gland and stretching for some little way along its duct will be seen the smaller sublingual gland, from this runs the sublingual duct, alongside and laterally of the duct of the submaxillary gland. A short distance from the lower border of the mylohyoid muscle the lingual nerve will be seen crossing the ducts and running on to the tongue: pull the tissues on which the lingual rests well away from the jaw, about three quarters of an inch centrally of the point where the lingual crosses the ducts, it will be seen to give off a small nerve the chorda tympani. This curves towards the ducts and then runs alongside them towards the sublingual and submaxillary glands. 10. 11. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG. 27 9. Trace the ducts peripherally, they unite and open underneath the tongue ; trace the lingual nerve peripherally, it supplies chiefly the tip of the tongue. In the rabbit there will be seen lying between the angles of the lower jaw the tolerably com- pact but soft submaxillary glands touching one another in the median line. Each gland is laterally in contact with the ventral lobe of the parotid, its tint is redder than that of the parotid; pull the submaxillary gland laterally and backwards, its small duct will be seen running from it over the muscle attached to the inner surface of lower jaw, and then underneath (dorsally of) the digastric muscle, which here has a conspicuous tendon; cut through the digastric and trace the duct forward underneath the mylohyoid muscle; a short distance from the lower border of the mylohyoid this duct is covered by the lobules of the small sublingual gland, turn this back, the lingual nerve will be seen crossing the duct, with care in dissection fine nerve fibres, chorda tympani fibres, may be seen running from the lingual nerve to the sublingual gland and to the duct of the sub- maxillary gland, the latter fibres are too small to follow towards the gland itself. Now follow up the pneumogastric nerve from the place where it was left in C.§18. A little above the superior laryngeal branch will be seen the pharyngeal nerve, and higher up still a 23 12. 13. 16. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [t. fusiform enlargement, the ganglion of the trunk. Note the hypoglossal, a large nerve running across the pneumogastric a little centrally of its ganglion. Trace it forwards to the muscles of the tongtie. Follow up the sympathetic nerve, it has, at about the level of the ganglion of the pneumogastric, a considerable enlargement, the superior cervi- cal ganglion; observe the fibres which run from this along the carotid artery and its branches. 14. In the dog the sympathetic and pneumogastric nerves which run in a common sheath in the neck (cf. C., § 28 (y)) separate from one another a little distance from their respective ganglia. . Partly saw through the symphysis menti, then use a lever and force the rami asunder, and in the following dissection cut through or remove any muscles necessary. Trace the lingual backwards. It will be found to join the inferior dental (a large nerve entering into the lower jaw), to constitute, with other branches, the inferior maxillary nerve. Trace this back to the front edge of the tympa- nic bulla. 17. Note in the dog the small nerve, chorda tym- pani, which joins the lingual soon after the latter branches off from the inferior dental; trace the chorda tympani centrally, it will be found to make its exit from the tympanic bulla 1] 19. 20. 21. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG, 29 close to the Glaserian fissure. Break through the bulla, and observe the chorda running across the tympanic cavity over the handle of the malleus (cp. Lesson xxvii). This course of the chorda tympani may be followed in the rabbit, but the dissection is not easy. 18. Note also in the tympanic cavity the very small nerve running over the promontory, or projec- tion of the cochlea. This is Jacobson’s nerve, a branch of the 9th. Trace up the pneumogastric beyond its ganglion, to its exit from the skull by the foramen jugulare. Note, passing from the skull with the pneumo- gastric, the small spinal accessory nerve behind and the glosso-pharyngeal in front; the communicating branches between these nerves may be neglected. Trace the glosso-pharyngeal forwards to the tongue and pharynx. It runs nearly in the same direction as, but at a higher level than, the hypoglossal, and may be traced to the hinder part and to the sides of the tongue. Cut through the above three nerves, a little distance from the skull, break away with small bone forceps the tympanic bulla, and trace more thoroughly the exit from the skull of these nerves and of the hypoglossal. The latter issues through the condyloid foramen, which is separ- ated by a distinct width of bone from the foramen jugulare, through which the other three issue. 30 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [I. 22. Saw through the base of the skull and the face, from the occiput to the nose, a little on one side of the median line. The nasal: septum will be seen dividing the nasal cavities except posteriorly. Note the anterior and posterior turbinate bones both consisting chiefly of thin folded laminz, pass a bristle through the anterior nasal opening into the nasal cavity, using bone forceps and scissors trace the passage from the nasal cavity through the posterior nasal opening into the pharynx and trachea; note that the posterior turbinate bones are not in the direct course between the anterior nares and the trachea. Cut through the septum nasi dorsally close to the nasal bones, and remove the nasal bones, note that the posterior turbinate bones and the posterior dorsal part, of the septum are covered with a yellowish mucous membrane which is thicker than that lining the rest of the nasal cavities; this is the olfactory part of the mucous mem- brane (Schneiderian membrane). Trace the olfactory nerve forwards from the brain; it divides into a number of fibres which run to the Schneiderian membrane. 23. Looking down into the pharynx, observe the epiglottis and the way in which it when pushed backwards folds over the opening to the larynx. Put the larynx of the dog into weak spirit for dissection later, (Lesson xxx11.) 24, Look at the side of the pharynx for the opening 26. DISSECTION OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG, 31 of the Eustachian tube, pass a probe up it into the tympanic cavity. Pass another probe down the meatus externus and, rupturing the mem- brana tympani, make sure that the first probe has entered into the tympanic cavity. . Remove one eye from its orbit, cutting through the tissues close to the eye. In the anterior part of the orbit note the white Harderian gland ; in the anterior lower part the pale red infra- orbital gland, the duct of which opens into the mouth near the upper molars; and the lachry- mal gland pale-red like the infra-orbital in the posterior part of the orbit. Observe the point of entrance of the optic nerve into the orbit, In the dog the muscles of the globe of the eye may be dissected out, after removing with bone forceps the roof of the orbit. Immediately below, and in front of the eye, the superior maxillary nerve will be found issuing from a foramen in the superior maxillary bone, to supply the skin of the face, &c., with sensory fibres. Cutting away the bone with a small pair of bone forceps, trace this nerve back along the floor of the orbit. 27. In the upper part of the orbit of the dog note the ophthalmic nerve. It passes from the front of the orbit to the forehead. . The superior and the inferior maxillary nerves and the ophthalmic, when traced back, will be found to unite into one large nerve, the fifth or 29. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [1 trigeminal. Observe on the nerve at the junc- tion of the three branches, the swelling of the Gasserian ganglion. Observe also that the nerve in leaving the brain has two roots, a small and a large, that the small root passes beside the ganglion on the large root, without efitering into it, and that the fibres of the small root are, beyond the ganglion, almost entirely confined to the third or inferior maxillary branch. Cut out the tongue taking care to remove the whole of it; on either side of the posterior upper surface, will be seen a small oval patch, the papilla foliata or lateral taste organ; note the parallel ridges running at right angles to the long axis of the papilla. As an introduction to the methods of preserving and hardening tissues, the following should be done by each student. The tissues should be removed from the rabbit as soon as possible after it has been killed, and sections should be cut when the Lessons dealing with the several tissues are being worked through. Cut out from the greater curvature or fundus of the stomach a piece about 1 c.m. square, wash it for a moment in NaCl. ‘6 p.c. to remove any acid or any food substance on the surface of the mucous membrane; with hedgehog quills or small pins fasten it out on a piece of cork with L] DISSECTION. OF A RABBIT AND OF A DOG, 33 the muscular surface downwards, stretching it slightly, and place it in alcohol about 75 p.c. for about an hour, then remove to 95 p.c. alcohol for a fortnight; keep in 75 p.c. alcohol, Cut out of the small intestine a piece about two inches long; tie into each end a short glass tube with lumen about 5 m.m. in diameter, over the free end of each glass tube slip a piece of india- rubber tubing; by means of a syringe wash out the piece of intestine with NaCl-6 p.c. for about twenty seconds, then inject chromic acid ‘2p.c. When the salt solution has been displaced by chromic acid tie or clamp the peripheral piece of tubing, inject a little more chromic acid to distend slightly the intestine, and tie or clamp the central piece of tubing. Place the distended intestine in ten times its bulk of chromic acid ‘2 p.c. In two to three days cut off both ends of the intestine, cut it open longitudinally, and place it in fresh chromic acid ‘2 p.c.; in about ten days place it in water for some hours, and then in alcohol 30 p.c.; on the next day transfer it to alcohol 50 p.c. renewing the alcohol as long as it becomes coloured and finally place the tissue in strong spirit. Take a piece of costal cartilage about 5 m.m. long and place it in about 10 c.c. of saturated aqueous solution of picric acid; after about ten days wash it well with water and place for a day in 50 p.c. alcohol, then transfer to strong spirit. a 34 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [I. Take of the sciatic or other large nerve a piece about 10 m.m. long and place it in about 10 ¢.c. of ammonium bichromate 2 p.c. In a week renew the ammonium bichromate; in this fluid it may be kept until sections are required, or in a month or more it may be washed with water and placed in spirit as in § 2. LESSON II. STRUCTURE OF BLOOD. A. Buioop oF Froa or Newt. Having destroyed the brain and spinal cord of a frog’, cut through the skin in the median yentral line, cut transversely through the lower part of the sternum just above the epigastric vein, and expose the heart. Cut off the tip of the ventricle ; with a glass rod transfer a small drop of blood to a glass slide and place on it a cover- slip. Examine it under the microscope with a low magnifying power” and observe the numerous corpuscles floating in the plasma. Examine it with a high magnifying power’ and observe the red corpuscles; if a large drop of 1 Cp. Appendix. 2 For convenience the term ‘low power’ will be used throughout for a combination of lenses which magnifies less than 100 diameters, and the term ‘high power’ for a combination of lenses which mag- nifies more than 300 diameters. In Zeiss’ microscope, objective A with ocular 2 magnifies 55 diameters, with ocular 3 it magnifies 75 diameters; objective D with ocular 8 magnifies 320 diameters, with ocular 4 it magnifies 440 diameters. If the tube be drawn out the 3—2 36 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [1I. blood has been taken the corpuscles will pro- bably form a continuous layer, in which case a | drop of ‘6 p.c. sodium chloride solution should be made to run under the cover-slip (cp. § 4). a. d. The red corpuscles are flattened ellipsoids; note their spindle shape as they roll over. They appear homogeneous; if however the specimen be not carefully prepared a certain number of the corpuscles will be altered and show a central oval nucleus. A single corpuscle is pale yellow, the colour- ing substance being equally diffused through- out it; when several corpuscles lie over one another they together appear red. The great majority are of the same size and tint. 2. Examine the colourless corpuscles in parts of the specimen where the red are not very nume- rous. a. b. oP They are much fewer than the red. They are smaller than the red, but vary considerably in size. Most have an irregular form, some are spherical. They are colourless and granular; the gra- nules vary greatly in distinctness and size, magnification is of course greater. The $ inch and 4 inch objectives of English make correspond respectively to the 4 and D objectives of Zeiss. With Hartnack’s microscope the nearly corresponding lenses are oc. 2 or 3, obj. 3 (low power) and oc. 3 or 4, obj. 7 (high power). II] é. STRUCTURE OF BLOOD. 37 The nucleus can seldom be made out, except when the corpuscle is very extended. Do not confound a heap of granules or a protuberance with the nucleus. Choosing a corpuscle either elongated or having several processes, watch carefully its amoeboid movements; make half a dozen drawings of its outline at intervals of about twenty seconds. g. When a drop of blood is first mounted the colourless corpuscles are usually spherical, they soon begin however to put out pro- cesses; if it is desired to watch the move- ments for any length of time a fresh drop should be mounted and protected from eva- “poration in the following manner. With a morsel of blotting-paper dry if necessary the slide at the edges of the cover-slip. Keep the cover-slip in place by gently holding a needle against one edge, and, with a small brush, brush carefully the melted paraffin A.’ (which melts at 39°C.) over the edges all round. The paraffin need not extend more than } or } inch over the cover-slip. With the aid of a camera lucida* make an outline drawing of two or three red corpus- eles; substitute for the specimen a stage micrometer’, and being careful that the mi- croscope and the drawing-pad are in the 1 Op. Appendix, 38 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [II same positions as before, make a drawing of the micrometer lines over the previously made drawing of the corpuscles; then, the real distance between the micrometer lines being known, the diameters of the corpuscles can be at once read off; thus if the micro- meter lines are ;4, mm. apart and in the drawing a corpuscle exactly occupies one division its diameter in that direction is evidently ;1, mm. The drawing of the micrometer lines may be kept as a scale, and any object drawn under the same magnifying power and with the pad and microscope in the same relative positions may be directly measured by it. Substitute for the ordinary eye-piece of the microscope one which has a ledge for sup- porting an ocular micrometer’, the values of which have been determined, the size of the corpuscle can then be at once read off. Mount ‘another small drop of blood, place a small drop of ‘1 p.c. acetic acid on the glass slide so that it just touches the edge of the cover-slip; place a piece of blotting-paper on the opposite side just touching the fluid at the edge of the cover-slip, the acetic acid will then run under the cover-slip and mix with the blood. Note the changes which take place. a. In the colourless corpuscle, the cell sub- stance becomes more transparent but shews 1 Cp. Appendix. Sf STRUCTURE OF BLOOD, 39 several dark granules; a granular nucleus, often irregular or lobed, comes into view, usually more than one nucleus will be seen. In the red corpuscles the nucleus be- comes obvious; it is when first seen nearly homogeneous, and oval in outline, later it becomes granular and usually irregularly rod-shaped. The red corpuscles swell up owing to absorp- tion of water, most after a time become spherical (Cf strong acid be used the cor- puscles usually preserve their.shape). They become colourless, the colouring matter being dissolved; occasionally the colouring matter is massed round the nucleus before complete solution takes place (effect of water) and occasionally the nucleus becomes stained yellow by the colouring matter (effect of acetic acid). Finally the outline of the corpuscles is seen as a faint line at some distance from the nucleus. Observe the not infrequent excen- tric position of the nucleus, Some corpuscles are much more readily acted on than others. Irrigate with a strong aqueous solution of Spiller’s purple or magenta. a. The outline of the red corpuscle becomes distinct, its nucleus stains deeply, around the nucleus a little faintly stained granular 40 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [1r. substance is seen which often stretches out to the periphery of the corpuscle in the form of a star. The nuclei of the colourless cor- puscles also stain deeply. Place several very small drops of blood two or three mm. apart on a slide and leave for a few minutes, then cover with a cover-slip, and put under a high power. Take a little blood from a freshly killed frog and establish a current under- neath the cover-slip from one side of it to the other (cp. § 4). The first small drops will have partially clotted and will serve as an imperfect barrier to the corpuscles in the current; in such places note that the shape of the red corpuscles is easily changed and recovered, and that the colourless corpuscles stick to one another and to the glass more than do the red. After the current has passed a short time largish clumps of colourless corpuscles will be seen. Having destroyed the brain and spinal cord of a frog, expose the heart and cut it across, suck up a little blood in a clean pipette and add it to about five times its volume of 2 p.c. boracic acid, stirring gently. Mounta drop of the mixture at once and observe the red corpuscles with a high power. The nuclei scarcely visible at first become in a short time rather deeply stained with hemo- globin; small spheres of hemoglobin appear also in the body of the corpuscle; occasionally the hemoglobin may appear to stretch in rays from 11.] STRUCTURE OF BLOOD. 41 the nucleus through the body (if the rays are not seen irrigate with 2 to 5 p.c. salt solution, but in this case be careful not to mistake foldings of the corpuscle for rays). Later the corpuscle becomes spherical and its body colourless, Whilst the earlier changes are taking place some of the corpuscles may be seen to extrude their nuclei. Dilute a little fresh blood with twice its volume of ‘6 p.c. salt solution; mount a drop of the mixture ; and place it aside for an hour or so to clot; irrigate it with 30 p.c. alcohol and then with Spiller’s purple dissolved in water or in dilute alcohol. Note the deeply stained network of fibrin fibrils and the numerous long threads of fibrin running from the broken-down colourless corpuscles. B. Brioop or Man, With a needle prick the end of a finger, and squeeze out a small drop of blood and mount it (cp. A. § 1). Observe the red corpuscles. a, They roll about readily, when the cover-slip is lightly touched. 'b. Soon after being taken from the body they stick to one another, and, owing to their shape, usually in rouleaux. c. They: are biconcave discs. Note that on fo- cussing down on the circular face a darkish centre and a light rim is first seen and then 42 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. {ur a light centre with a darkish rim: when viewed in profile and the centre focussed they appear somewhat dumb-bell shaped. d. They appear homogeneous, their colour is like that of the red blood corpuscles of the frog (cp. A. § 1, ¢). e. Towards the outside of the drop, where evaporation is going on, many of the red corpuscles are crenate. jf. They are much smaller than the red corpus- cles of the frog. Measure them (Pp. A. § 3). Observe the colourless corpuscles. They are larger than the red, they resemble the white corpuscles of the frog (A. § 2, c. d. ¢.); to observe their amceboid movements a drop should be protected from evaporation (A. § 2, g) and, pre- _ferably, warmed to the temperature of the body. Irrigate with ‘5 p.c. acetic acid (cp. A. § 4). a. The red corpuscles swell up and become spherical, their hemoglobin is dissolved, leaving the hardly visible stroma, (Effect of water.) b. No nucleus is brought into view. c. The white corpuscles behave like those of the frog (A. § 4, a). Count the red corpuscles with Gower’s hemato- cytometer in the following manner. Fill the larger pipette with sodium sulphate solution of Sp. Gr. 1025 up to the mark on the STRUCTURE OF BLOOD. 43 stem, it then contains 995 c.m.; empty it into the measuring glass. Fill the small pipette with freshly drawn blood up to the line marked 5 c.m.; empty it into the measuring glass, and with the fluid in the measuring glass wash out the blood sticking to the inside of the tube; thoroughly mix the blood and salt solution with the glass spatula, place a small drop of the mixture in the centre of the glass cell and over it lay a cover-slip, arrange the springs on the cover-slip to keep it in position, and under a high power count the number of red corpuscles in ten of the squares which are marked at the bottom of the glass cell, Since the depth of the cell is 1 mm. and the side of each square is ;; mm., there is beneath each square 5}, c.m. of the mixture, @.¢. so¢yqy e.m. of blood, hence the number of corpuscles in 10 squares multiplied by 10,000 gives the number of corpuscles in 1 c. m. blood. DEMONSTRATIONS. The method of using the simple and Stricker's warm stage. The ‘platelets’ of frog’s or newt’s blood (cf. p. 387). Specimens to show the chief stages of indirect nuclear division (cf, p. 395). Norg. If the brain of a frog be destroyed, a drop of curari injected under the skin, and the frog be left for a day in about 4 inch of water, the lymph sacs will become filled with lymph containing numerous white corpuscles, many in a state of active amoeboid movement. LESSON III. COAGULATION OF BLOOD. CHARACTERS OF PROTEIDS: 1. Observe the coagulation of freshly shed blood’; it is at first fluid but soon passes into a jelly which gradually becomes firm; if then placed aside for some time, drops of clear serum will, by the shrinking of the fibrin, be pressed out on the surface of the clot; later the clot shrinks more or less completely from the vessel squeez- ing out more and more serum. 2. With a feather stir slowly about 10 c.c. of freshly shed blood’; a considerable portion of the blood will form a clot on the feather; squeeze out the clot under a stream of water from a tap; the clot shrinks considerably and a small quantity only of fibrin is obtained. 3. Repeat § 2, but. this time stir quickly, filaments of fibrin will be obtained; note that the fibrin is extensible and elastic; leave the defibrinated blood for a day, no further clot is produced, 1 This will be obtained by the Demonstrator. 11.] COAGULATION OF BLOOD, 45 4, Place a small drop of fresh blood on a piece of glazed neutral litmus paper, in about ten seconds wipe off the drop, a blue spot will be left showing that the blood is alkaline. Test also the reaction of serum. 5. Apply the Xanthoproteic and Millon’s test for proteids (cp. § 16) to fibrin chopped up and suspended in water. 6. Take two test-tubes and in each place a few flocks of fibrin. a, Add water and place in water bath at about 39°C. for a day; the fibrin does not dissolve (it thus differs from albumin and peptone). b. Treat similarly but with dilute (1 p.c.) solu- tion of sodic chloride; the fibrin does not dissolve (it thus differs from globulin). 7: Place two or three flocks of fibrin in a test-tube containing a few c.c. of ‘2 p.c. HCl, the fibrin soon swells up and becomes transparent; neu- tralize the acid with Na,CO,, the fibrin shrinks to its original size. If the fibrin is warmed with the acid, solution slowly takes place, acid-albu- min being formed (cp. Lesson IX.), 8. Examine the plasma of horse’s blood kept, by means of cold, from coagulating’. 1 The blood is allowed to run from the animal into a tall narrow vessel contained in a much larger one packed with ice, a little salt may be mixed with the ice, but of course not enough to reduce the temperature so much that the blood is frozen; sometimes also a vessel 46 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [i1y. a, Transfer with a pipette 2 or 3 cc. of the plasma into a small test-tube. Observe the coagulation and compare it with that of § 1. Avoid shaking. Probably the fibrin will adhere so strongly to the sides of the tube that little contraction will take place. On being freed from the glass it will contract. If the clot has already shrunk away from the sides of the vessel, it may since it is colourless be overlooked unless the fluid be carefully examined. b. Dilute 1 cc. of the plasma with 50 cc. of distilled water or normal saline solution. Carefully avoid shaking and leave it till the next day. Observe the fine delicate fibrils of fibrin which are formed. 9. Examine the plasma of blood prevented from coagulating by the presence of neutral salts’. a. Remove 1 or 2 cc. carefully with a pipette, avoiding blood-corpuscles as much as possi- ble, and dilute five to tenfold with water. filled with ice is placed in the one which receives the blood. Horse’s blood is preferable to bullock’s or dog’s, since it clots less readily and the red corpuscles sink more quickly. 1 In preventing coagulation by neutral salts, blood is collected in a vessel containing a saturated solution of magnesic sulphate; as the blood runs in, it must be mixed well with the salt solution, preferably by stopping the flow of blood now and then and turning the vessel upside down. There should be about 1 vol. of the salt solution to 4 vols. of blood. The vessel may advantageously be surrounded by ice or by ice and salt. On either method (§ 9 or § 10) clotting some- times takes place, but the remaining fluid may still give a clot on appropriate treatment. 11.] COAGULATION OF BLOOD. 47 The mixture will clot very speedily if placed in the warm chamber; less speedily if left at the ordinary temperature. . Remove about 10c.c. into a small conical glass. Add powdered sodic chloride to excess, stirring but not more than ts necessary to assist the salt to dissolve. As the point of saturation is reached, a flaky precipitate makes its appearance. If the precipitate be plentiful, remove it with a spatula, put it on a small filter wetted with a saturated solution of sodium chloride and wash with small quan- tities of the same: if the precipitate be small, decant it and the fluid from the undissolved salt; filter, and wash the pre- cipitate on the filter paper with small quan- tities of a saturated sodic chloride solution. Dissolve the substance-so obtained, the plas- mine of Denis, in a small quantity of dis- tilled water, and filter. Probably a portion of it will not dissolve, having already coagu- lated. The clear, colourless fluid filtrate will, if set on one side, clot. Avoid shaking after filtration. If a small quantity only of the fibrin factors be present, the fine threads of fibrin, as they are formed, are loosened by the shaking, and contract; thus the more easily recognized gelatinous stage is lost. This operation is the more successful, the more rapidly it 1s carried on. 10. To 2c. of hydrocele or other serous fluid which 48 11. 12, 13. 14. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY, (uit. has been ascertained not to coagulate, nor to have coagulated spontaneously, add 2c.c. of fresh blood- serum, gently mix, and put on one side. After a while, possibly not until after twenty- four hours, the mixture will have coagulated. The coagulation will be more rapid in the warm chamber. Take 10c.c. of fresh blood-serum and saturate it with magnesic sulphate by adding the salt in powder. Paraglobulin will be precipitated, since like other globulins it is insoluble ina Ss rated solution of a neutral salt; filter (befor filtering the precipitate may be allowed to settle and most of the fluid removed by decantation), wash on the filter with a saturated solution of the salt, then add 5 c.c, water to the precipitate, the salt solution clinging to the precipitate. will be diluted and the paraglobulin dissolved. It does not coagulate spontaneously. Add a small quantity of paraglobulin solution to hydrocele fluid. Coagulation will result. Treat 10 c.c. of hydrocele or pericardial fluid with sodium chloride to saturation, and proceed as in § 11; a precipitate of fibrinogen will be ob- tained, its solution does not coagulate sponta- neously. Add to 1e.c. of a strong solution of fibrinogen an equal volume of blood-serum, and set aside; coagulation will take place. . Take 2c.c. of plasma (§ 9), add to it 16 cc. of IIL] COAGULATION OF BLOOD. 49 water, and determine that the mixture coagu- lates very slowly. Take another 2 c.c. of plasma, and add to it 16 c.c. of an aqueous solution of prepared fibrin fer- ment’; coagulation will quickly take place. 16. Dilute serum ten-fold with water and with it observe the following general reactions of pro- teids. (If sufficient serum is not obtainable, take the white of an egg, cut through the membranes in several places with scissors, add 50 vols, of water, beat up well, filter through flannel and then through filtering paper.) a. Xanthoproteic reaction. Take a little of the 1 The student may prepare fibrin ferment in one of the following ways: a Let blood run into 10 times its volume of water, tilt it upside down once or twice so that the fluids are well mixed, and let it stand for a day. Filter through muslin and squeeze the excess of fluid out of the clot, chop it up and wash with water until all or nearly all of the colouring substance is removed, place it in 10 times its bulk of 8 p.c. NaCl solution, and warm for one to two days; filter; the filtrate contains fibrin ferment. Add alcohol in abundance to serum until no further precipita- tion takes place, filter, and dry the residue over a water-bath at 85°C.; place the residue in a bottle containing an excess of absolute alcohol, and leave for a month; at the end of this time decant as much alcohol as possible, evaporate the rest at a low temperature (under 40°C.); extract the residue with 200 times its volume of water, and filter. The alcohol will have coagulated the greater part of the paraglobulin and albu- min, etc., and so rendered them insoluble in water, hence the aqueous filtrate will contain little else than fibrin ferment, the more so the longer the alcohol has been acting; the compara- tive absence of proteids should be tested by the reactions given in § 16, L. 4 50 ELEMENTARY PHYSIOLOGY. [rI1. dilute serum, add a few drops of nitric acid, and boil. The white precipitate of proteid material at first formed becomes yellow and partially dissolves, forming a yellow solution. If the quantity of proteids present is small, the yellow solution only will be obtained. Place the test-tube in a stream of water from a tap to cool and when cold add ammonia; the yellow is turned to orange. . To another small quantity of the serum add a few drops of Millon’s re-agent’. : Muir.—PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY FOR mapicg St DENTS. ~Specially’‘arranged for the ‘firs Cots M, M. ParrisON MUIR, F.R.S.E. 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