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MARINE PROPELLERS.
MARINE

PROPELLERS

BY
SYDNEY W. BARNABY,

M.I.N.A. AND ASSOC. M. INST. C.E.
GOLD MEDALLIST OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS,

Being a Course of Three Lectures delivered at the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich,
March 1885.

 

E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND, LONDON.
NEW YORK: 35, MURRAY STREET;

1885.
KB
PREFACE,

——

IN preparing these lectures for the students of the
Royal Naval College, I availed myself of informa-
_tion from various sources.

Now that they are published verbatim in book
form, it becomes a duty as well as a pleasure to
acknowledge the assistance thus received.

I am indebted first of all—and who that
studies the subject of Marine Propulsion is not?
—to Professor Rankine. Also to Mr. W. Froude,
Mr. Bourne, Mr. White, Professor Osborne Rey-
nolds, Mr. Sennett, Mr. Maginnis, and Mr. Seaton.

There is, however, much that is new.

The curves in Plate II. which enable the dia-
meter, pitch, and speed of revolution of a screw
suitable for any horse-power and any speed to be
determined, are now made public for the first
time.

For most of the new material, and especially for
permission to publish these curves, and the method
of producing them, I am indebted to Mr. Thorny-

croft.
vi PREFACE.

 

It was my privilege to be associated with him
in making some 550 experiments with model
screws, and a considerable portion of these lectures
is the result of knowledge thus obtained.

I feel some diffidence in putting forward in my
own name information so acquired, as the credit of
it is entirely due to Mr. Thornycroft, but after this
explanation, any merit which may be found in the
following pages will be attributed to the proper
source,

SYDNEY W. BARNABY.

THE HOo.Liigs, CHISWICK MALL,
October 12th, 1885.
INTRODUCTION.

—$———

AFTER these lectures had been delivered it was
considered by the Admiralty officers who had
heard them, that if Mr. Thornycroft would offer
no objection to their publication; much good would
be done by giving them a permanent form, and
making them generally accessible to naval officers,
shipbuilders, and engineers. s

That firm might have been quite willing to allow
Mr. Barnaby to give to the classes at Greenwich the
results of their experimental research, without being
prepared to allow a wider circulation.

They showed themselves superior to the desire
to preserve trade secrets, and gave an immediate
consent to the request made to them.

The screw-propeller has less comparative atten-
tion bestowed upon it than any other part of a
ship. The shipbuilder does not study it and experi-
ment upon it, because it is part of the engine, and
is included in the work allotted to the Marine
Engineer.

The Marine Engineer is concerned with the
viii INTRODUCTION.

 

development of the power of the engine, and

better results may often be obtained in the indica-

tion of power with a screw ill-suited to give speed

to the ship, than with one properly adapted to its .
form and desired speed. He is not responsible

for the speed of the ship: that rests with the ship-

builder, who is often disappointed with results

falling much below his expectations.

Experiments with screws in actual ships are very
costly, and are but rarely made. One notable case
is referred to in these lectures where the prelimi-
nary model experiments on the /yzs promised results
so different from those actually obtained, that it
was determined to endeavour to search out the
cause of the falling off in speed.

Had it not been for these preliminary model ex-
periments, the speed actually obtained in the ship
would perhaps have been accepted in the usual
way, but it turned out that two knots of speed
were being lost by badly-proportioned propellers.

One of the most interesting parts of these
lectures is that relating to the Screw Turbine
devised by Mr. Thornycroft.

This invention has not yet attracted the atten-
tion it claims and deserves.

It has, I believe, a great future before it.

All that has been done at present is to obtain
INTRODUCTION. ix

 

exceedingly high results in speed in boats having
only a few inches draught of water.

In this respect it may be said with certainty
that the stern wheel propeller is doomed. It will
be replaced without doubt by this screw turbine in
those shallow waters where the stern wheel has
hitherto done good service.

The more brilliant future to which I think it is
destined, relates to large ships which, whether
regularly built for war purposes or not, may have
to be exposed to artillery fire in war.

Armour has been largely employed to protect far
more than the propelling and steering mechanism
in war ships, but it is gradually being brought
down even in France, where the system was
invented, so as to cover in the largest ships only a
height of about 3 or 4 feet out of the water.

In smaller vessels the engines are kept below
the water, and are covered by a bomb-proof deck
instead of side armour,

Marine engines working vertically—as it is best
they should work—require so much height that
only vessels of considerable draught of water can
keep the machinery below water, even when there
are twin screws. By using three or four screws,
greater security might_be obtained in vessels of
moderate draught. ;
x INTRODUCTION.

 

Experiments have been made in France, at the
instance of Monsieur de Bussy, to ascertain whether
multiple screws would so interfere with each other
as to give bad results in steaming. Hitherto the
experiments have not justified any beyond two
screws. But the screw turbine alters the condition
of the problem. Interference with mutual action is
reduced to a minimum, and is almost completely
under control. We may therefore expect to see
three or more screws introduced into the large
French ships.

But this is by no means the most important
result to be anticipated.

What chiefly distinguishes the regular ship of
war from the fast steamship of commerce, is that
in the latter, the propelling engines stand high
above water, and as there is only one propeller, the
steering apparatus is also necessarily above water.

If multiple engines and screw turbines existed
in such ships, they would have a protection for
their vital machinery which would make them
almost as defensible as the regular ship of war.

It must be for the general interest of mankind,
and therefore for the interest of England, that
ships built for commerce should have offensive and
defensive power, and that standing navies should
gradually play a less important part and be less
INTRODUCTION. xi

 

necessary for the security of commerce on the
seas.

There appears to be no reason, why an Atlantic
liner should not have three or four engines with
screw turbine propellers, the whole of the machinery
being under water, and having a light steel deck
over to receive cargo or coal.

If such vessels existed, the Government would
be forced to recognise their importance, and to take
measures for incorporating them into a great
system of national defence.

N. BARNABY,
Late Director of Naval Construction.
MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

LECTURE I.

THE principle upon which nearly all marine pro-
pellers work, is the projection of a mass of water
in a direction opposite to that of the required
motion of the vessel. The only exception to this
rule is met with in the case of a few river steamers
and ferry-boats, where a chain or rope lying in the
bed of the river passes over a drum or wheel in the
vessel itself.

When a vessel is in motion at a regular speed,
the reaction of the mass of water projected back-
wards by the propeller is exactly equal to the
resistance experienced by the vessel.

Simple, and almost axiomatic as this statement
appears at first sight to be, it is very important
that its full bearing should be grasped.

When it is clearly understood that propulsion is
obtained by the reaction of a mass of water pro-
jected sternwards with a velocity relative to still
water, the absurdity is at once seen of attempting

B
2 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

to get a propeller to work without slip. If there is
no slip, there is no resultant propelling reaction,
except in the limiting case where the mass of water
acted upon is infinite.

The whole problem, therefore, resolves itself to
this :—What is the best proportion between the
mass of water thrown astern and the velocity with
which it is projected? That is, if the screw-pro-
peller is under consideration, the ratio between
its diameter and its pitch.

In symbols—If W = weight of water acted on,
S = slip,
= 32°2,

Reaction = us
&

How big shall we make W?

How big shall we make S?

The considerations which should guide us in the
decision will be treated of later on.

There are four different kinds of propellers :—
The oar, the paddle-wheel, the screw, and the
pump.

The first and oldest of them, the oar, may be
used in two ways. The action may be inter-
mittent as in rowing, when water is driven astern
during half the stroke and the instrument brought
back above the water; or its action may be con-
tinuous, as in sculling. When used as in rowing,
it is exactly analogous to a paddle-wheel, while
MARINE PROPELLERS. 3

 

the action of the scull closely resembles that of
the screw.

It is supposed that in the ancient galleys, which
were propelled by a large number of oars in several
tiers or banks, the oars hung vertically, and worked
inwards and outwards with a sculling action. They
were not removed from the water, but served as
props when the vessel was aground; the oars were
always propelling the vessel in both parts of the
stroke. The rowers generally sat with their faces
outwards and forwards. There was great overhang
of the sides to allow of several tiers of rowers one
above another.

One or two mechanical arrangements have been
tried for imitating the action of the scull, but the
reciprocating motion causes vibration and makes
it unsuitable for the application of steam-power.

The oar, as used in rowing, is a very efficient
instrument. To obtain the maximum efficiency
out of it, a constant pressure should be maintained
upon the oar, so that the water is started gradually
from rest, and the acceleration uniformly increased
throughout the whole of the stroke.

It is a common thing to see men giving a terrific
jerk at the commencement, and then allowing the
oar to trail after the water for the rest of the
stroke. A glance at a University crew will show
that the stroke is kept up with a uniform pressure
with no jerk anywhere.

The radial paddle-wheel was introduced in 1812,

B 2
4 MARINE PROPELLERS,

 

and with the exception that the floats are now
generally made to feather, as it is called, it remains
much the same as when originally introduced.

The screw was brought into successful operation
as a propeller, by Ericsson and Smith, in 1836.
The Archimedes, a screw vessel of 237 tons burthen,
was built by the latter in 1839. The screw used
was a single-threaded screw of one complete
convolution.

A double thread with half a convolution was
afterwards tried and found to be an improvement,
but the best result was obtained with two threads,
and one-sixth of a convolution.

Three strings wound spirally round a cylinder
make a three-threaded screw.

If, instead of strings, flat blades be wound edge-
wise round a cylinder, and each blade has an edge
soldered to the cylinder, then, if a slice be cut off
the cylinder, there will be one piece of blade
attached to the cylinder if the screw have one
thread, two pieces if two threads, and so on.
(Fig. 1.)

The pitch of a screw may be defined as the
distance it would travel in one revolution if working
in a solid nut.

One of the last things Robert Griffiths said
about the screw-propeller, and he was a man who
has made perhaps more experiments, and worked
more at the screw, than any one else, was, that
‘four strips of plate iron set at an angle on the
*

MARINE PROPELLERS. 5

 

“shaft which would hold the engine to the speed
“you required would give you within half a knot
“of the best screw ever made.” Now, although I

   
 

 

I!
am not prepared to endorse this altogether, having
tried a propeller of that sort myself, I think it
would be safe to say that a uniform pitch screw,
of the proper diameter and pitch, of the shape
finally used on the Archimedes, will give within
half a knot of the best screw ever made.

In the early trials, various devices of hook-joints,
bevel wheels, &c., were resorted to in order to avoid
taking the screw-shaft into the ship below the water.

The patentee of the arrangement shown in Fig. 2
says that it may be worked either by horses or by
a steam-engine, as may be found most convenient.
Guy lines were to be attached to the fore end of
the screw-shaft so that the propeller could be made
to assist in steering.

There is a disadvantage connected with an
inclined shaft which has been generally overlooked.

The result of depressing the end of a screw-
shaft is to cause the pitch of the propeller to vary
through every part of the revolution. If the incli-

    
6 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

nation is supposed to be 45°, for example, that
part of the blade which is intended to have a pitch

Fic. 2.

 

 

 
=~

MARINE PROPELLERS. 7

 

of three diameters has a pitch in reality varying
from nothing to infinity.

It is of course obvious that the pitch of the
blades of a screw zz relation to the axis is un-
changed by any alteration of the direction of the
shaft.

It is also clear, that if a screw does not move
along, but has a motion of rotation only, the
opposition of the water is the same whatever be
the direction of the shaft. But if the propeller
be allowed to move along, while at the same time
it be constrained to move horizontally, the shaft
being inclined to the horizontal, then the opposi-
tion or resistance of the water is not uniform, but
varies over every part of the revolution.

It is necessary to come to a clear understanding
as to what is meant by the “ pitch” of a screw.

If I show you this model of a boat, and ask you
whether you considef it well proportioned, you will
probably say, “ Well! the length is about 22 inches,
and the beam about 3 inches; I should say that was
a well-proportioned model.”

But you would now be making an assumption.
You are assuming that the model is to travel end-
wise through the water; but if I were to tell you
that it was intended to travel broadside through
the water, you would say, “That is another matter
altogether. The virtual length is now 3 inches
and the beam is 22 inches, that is ot a well-pro-
portioned model.” In the same way, a screw may
8 VWARINE PROPELLERS.

 

have a certain pitch in relation to its axis, but if
it be placed vertically out through the bottom of
a ship, the «7rfwal pitch, or the pitch measured in
the direction of motion, is w7/.

Now let us examine the phases through which a
blade of the screw passes during one revolution.

It is convenient and suitable to consider the
action of a screw as similar
to that of an inclined plane
moving past the stern.

In Fig. 3, the full line
represents the upper blade
as a plane moving from
port to starboard, the
dotted line represents the
lower blade as a plane moving from starboard to
port.

In Fig. 4, the shaft is shown horizontal, and the
full line shows the blade going down, the dotted
line the blade coming up.

In Fig. 5, the shaft is inclined at 45°, the full line
shows the blade going down, and the dotted line
the blade coming up.

Now as the ship moves forward, the water flows
to the screw in horizontal lines. The blade, which at
one part of the revolution is edgewise to the water,
at another is square on to it, and the result is a
succession of shocks causing violent vibration.

Another way of looking at it is this. A particle
of water meeting the ascending blade has its motion

Fic. 3.
WARINE PROPELLERS. 9

 

relative to the vessel arrested altogether, while a
particle first meeting the forward edge of the
descending blade would require to have its velocity
infinitely accelerated in a horizontal direction to

Fic. 4. Fic. 5.

no

 

 

enable it to escape from under it. This is what is
meant by saying that in the above example the
pitch varies from nothing to infinity during each
revolution.

In a torpedo-boat built for the Government by
Mr. Herreshoff of the United States, this difficulty
was most ingeniously and boldly met.

Mr. Herreshoff desired to place his screw com-
pletely below the bottom and almost amidships. In
order to do so, he inclined his shaft sufficiently to
bring it through the bottom of the boat; he then
“sprung” it to such an extent that the axis of the
screw was nearly horizontal.

Although this brought a considerable strain upon
the shaft bearings, little inconvenience seems to
have been experienced, and the result was that the
boat went astern as fast as she went ahead. The
   

10 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

boat was a small one, and the shaft of small
diameter.

An attempt has since been made to place the
screw in the same position below the bottom of a
Ist Class Torpedo-boat, in the hope thereby to get
a good speed astern. But Mr. Herreshoff’s novel
expedient could not be adopted with the large
diameter of shaft, and the difficulty it was de-
signed to meet appears to have been overlooked
or insufficiently appreciated.

The shaft was taken through the bottom at a
considerable inclination, and the vibration and loss
of efficiency caused by the varying pitch of the
propeller was so great that the screw had to be
replaced in the ordinary position.

Fic. 6.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Woodcroft’s gaining pitch screw was originally
proposed, as shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
ATARINE PROPELLERS. II

The connecting-rod works out through the side
above water.

Fic. 7.
p tw

 

 

The Earl of Dundonald in 1843 patented a pro-
peller with the blades thrown back as shown in Fig. 8,

 

the object being to counteract the supposed centri-
fugal action of the water caused by the rotary
motion imparted to it by the screw.

In 1849, Robert Griffiths patented a self-adjusting
propeller, which he thus describes :— If the screw
13 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

moves with greater velocity than usual, the increased
resistance of the leading edge shall correspondingly
increase the pitch, thus increasing the resistance
and bringing down the revolutions.”

In 1851, Woodcroft patented the feathering screw,
for manceuvring purposes. The blades are feathered

    

FIG. 9.

    

|
TALON aa

    

so as to pass edgewise through the water during

one part of the revolution.
In 1853, twin screws were proposed to assist in

manceuvring.
MARINE PROPELLERS. 13

 

The form of Griffiths’ screw which is most in use
is represented in Fig. 9.

I think the principle feature in his propeller is
the large boss one-fourth the diameter of the pro-
peller, which, while not impairing the efficiency,
enables the blades to be fixed in such a manner
that the pitch can be readily altered. This is an
important consideration, as it is very difficult to fix
upon exactly the right pitch in designing a new
propeller, and it is extremely convenient to be able
to alter the pitch without making a new propeller.

The Hirsch screw (see Fig. 10), The features of
this propeller are that the pitch increases in the
direction of its length, and that the propelling
surfaces are so formed as to throw the water
somewhat towards the axis, with the view of
counteracting the centrifugal force. The outline
is curved, possibly with the idea of having
less edge resistance, because of its cutting through
the water more easily than a straight-edged blade.
This is a fallacy, because a blade cannot cut its
way gradually into water when it is wholly
immersed.

Mangin’s screw (Fig. 11) consists of two narrow
screws set behind one another on the screw shaft,
with a space between them. It is supposed not
to rotate the water so much as other screws.

Rigg’s screw had a fixed screw or guide blades
set behind the revolving screw, with the blades
set at the reverse angle, so as to take the rotation
 
 

 

 

 

 
16 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

out of the water and leave it moving directly
astern.

Rankine and Napier patented a modification of
this idea in the form of a twisted rudder, of
which the part above the screw-shaft bends in one
direction and the part below in the opposite,

Screws have been tried with the pitch in the
centre less than the pitch at the circumference, so as
to allow the central part to follow up the water as in
a nut—the circumferential part doing the most work
—the design being to prevent a centrifugal motion
being given to the water by the action of the
central part of the screw.

The Thornycroft torpedo-boat screw, which has
been a very successful screw, has an increasing pitch
at the middle of the blade, but the pitch gradually
becomes uniform towards the roots and towards the
tips, the reason being that towards the roots the rota-
tion given to the water is already excessive, and it is
consequently not advisable to increase it by in-
creasing the pitch, and towards the tips, if it is
attempted to accelerate the water too much, it
escapes round the tips to the back of the blade,
“short circuits” it in fact. The tip of the blade
does very little good, only you must have a tip.
The blades are also thrown back after the fashion
of the Dundonald propeller, but, instead of being
straight like his, they are convex on the driving
face. The object is to counteract centrifugal force,
and as the rotation which produces it is greatest
MARINE PROPELLERS. 17

 

at the root and diminishes towards the tips of the
blades, the angle to which the blade is inclined to
the axis varies in a similar way.

We have made a number of experiments at
Chiswick with models of propellers which I shall ,

Fic. 12.

 

ie
describe more particularly in another lecture, but
I may say that this propeller was superior to any
tried.

As, however, it is very important to prevent the
propeller breaking the surface of the water, and as
the draft of the torpedo-boat is small, it has been
found a great improvement to use a smaller pro-
peller with broad blades (Fig. 12), which can be
completely immersed, although the older form,

Cc
18 ATARINE PROPELLERS.

 

with long thin blades, if completely immersed, is
slightly superior. With regard to the immersion,
it appears that provided a screw is sufficiently
far below the surface to prevent it from drawing
air, any further immersion within the limits that
can practically be obtained is of little value.

The speed with which water can follow up the
blades of a screw, depends upon the head of water
over it, but when the immersion is sufficient to
exclude air, a head of water equivalent to 30 feet
is supplied by the atmosphere ; this is a fact which
has been overlooked by many writers, but was
clearly pointed out by Professor Osborne Reynolds.

We found by experiments on the model of the
Thornycroft screw, that the efficiency which is
as much as 70 per cent. when properly immersed,
falls to about 50 per cent. when breaking the
surface of the water.

As a result of a change from a diameter of
5 feet 10 inches to 4 feet 6 inches, the speed of the
Ist Class Torpedo-boat was increased from 18 to 20
knots, other conditions remaining the same. This
is a most important feature in the screw. It is a
common thing to see screw-steamers, in their light
condition, with the tips of the blades of the pro-
peller 2 feet or 3 feet above the surface. This
implies an immense loss of efficiency.

When steam power has to be applied as an
auxiliary to sails, it is best if possible to arrange
to lift the screw out of the water. If disconnected
MARINE PROPELLERS. 19

 

and allowed to revolve it still causes considerable
resistance,. Last year, Messrs. Thornycroft sent
the torpedo-boat Chi/ders out to Australia under
steam and sail. The ordinary screws of these
boats are so large in proportion to the midship
section that they prevent the boat from making
any speed under sail. A screw of the kind
described by Griffiths, with perfectly flat blades
set at an angle, was made, and the blades so
atranged that they could be turned round so as
to be in the same line as the shaft, thus affording
no impediment to progress under sail.

So far from realising Griffiths’ prediction, this
propeller required just double the horse-power for
a given speed, required by the ordinary propeller.

When the screw cannot be raised out of the
water, a screw with two narrow blades, which can
be set up and down in a line with the stern-post,
will probably be found to be the best.

RACING.

The racing of screws is due to either of two
causes.

If the propeller breaks the surface of the water
as the stern rises in a sea-way, it will draw air
down, and the resistance is immediately very
much reduced. Referring to Plate I., showing the
thrust at a given number of revolutions of a pro-
peller, in one case completely immersed and also

C2
20 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

when splashing, we see that in the former con-
dition it exerts a thrust of 11 lb, at 680 revolu-
tions.

When it is drawing air, the same thrust is
exerted at 1000 revolutions, so that we see that
this propeller, if delivering a constant thrust, would
vary its revolutions instantly from 680 to 1000 if
alternately raised and lowered as in the action of
pitching. But it is not only when the screw breaks
the surface of the water that it will race. When
a vessel is pitching heavily there may be racing,
even although the screw does not rise within
several feet of the surface.

Mr. Froude pointed out that this was probably
due to the oscillating motion of water in waves.
There is no real motion of translation in waves.
The water which is travelling in one direction at
the crest returns in the opposite direction in the
trough of a wave. This oscillating motion of the
water extends to some distance below the surface.
A screw therefore finds the resistance of the water
alternately augmented or reduced, as it is beneath
the trough or crest of a wave, and reduces or
increases its speed accordingly.

POSITION OF SCREW.

It has been proposed, at various times, to place
the. screw in the bow, on either side of the bow,
on either side amidships, on either quarter, and in
MARINE PROPELLERS. 21

 

a tunnel amidships. In a vessel recently built on
the Thames, one screw was placed in the forefoot,
and one aft, in the usual position, working on the
same shaft.

It was intended to realise a speed of 18 to 20
knots. The highest speed obtained has been about
g knots. How much of this failure is due to the
position of the screws I cannot say, but it is certain
that the forward screw is in a very unfavourable
position, as it causes a great increase in the surface
friction of the hull.

There is no doubt that the stern is the best
position.

As a vessel passes through the water, the fric-
tion imparts motion to the layer of water rubbing
against the sides and bottom. This layer increases
in thickness toward the stern, so that, after the
vessel has passed through, a considerable quantity
of water is left with a motion in the same direction
as the vessel.

If the screw works in this water, it is able to
recover some of the energy which has been ex-
pended by the ship in giving it motion. The speed
of this wake, which Rankine estimates may be as
much as one-tenth the speed of the vessel, does not
depend upon the form, but upon the nature and
extent of the surface. It would not be desirable
to manufacture or increase the speed of the wake
for the purpose of improving the efficiency of the
propeller, because this very surface friction proves
22 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

to be the largest portion of the resistance of the
ship at moderate speed, but, as it is a necessity
that there should be a wake, it is a distinct advan-
tage to place the propeller in it, and allow it to
utilise as much as possible of the energy it finds
there.

It is important not to confound this water,
which has had motion given to it by the sides and
bottom of the ship, with the wave of replacement ;
that is, the water filling in behind the ship. It
should be the aim to avoid interfering with this
motion as much as possible, as such interference
augments the resistance of the ship very consi-
derably, even in well-formed ships. It was thought
at one time that the further aft the propeller could
be placed, the better, but it is now believed that
there is a position where the loss caused by the
augmented resistance of the hull is more than
balanced by the reduction of slip in the screw due
to its working more in the water that has been
rubbed by the vessel.

In the small, high-speed steam-launches, the
propeller has been kept outside the rudder with
advantage, but this is not practicable in the case
of large steamers. All that can there be done is,
to make the run fine, so that the water has given
out upon the stern of the ship the energy put
into it by the bow, before reaching the screw.

If a screw-propeller is placed behind a bluff
stern, so that its supply of water is imperfect, it
MARINE PROPELLERS. 23

 

will draw in water at the centre of the driving
face and throw it off round the tips of the blades,
exactly like a centrifugal pump. The effect upon
the ship is then peculiar. Sir Frederick Bramwell
tells of a vessel which went astern whichever way
the screw was driven. The reason was, that the
bluff stern caused the screw to act as described,

roducing a loss of pressure upon the stern of the
vessel.

A screw causes lateral motion to the stern of a
vessel, which has to be counteracted by the rudder.
This effect is very much greater when going astern
than when going ahead, and I think that the cause
is not the same in the two cases. When going
ahead, Professor Osborne Reynolds has pointed
out that the onward motion of the wake is very
different at the surface and at the keel. Heagrees
with Rankine that the mean-speed in a fine vessel
may be 10 per cent. of the vessel’s speed, but
thinks it varies from 20 per cent. at the surface to
nif at the keel: the upper blade of the screw
thereupon experiences more resistance than the
lower, and drives the stern of the ship round.

When going astern, this explanation does not
hold. It will be generally observed that in going
astern, the engines will go very much faster than
when going ahead, will race in fact, at the same
time causing very little effect upon the ship.

The propeller is then drawing air, and the upper
blades suffer most, so that the lower blades now
24 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

experience the most resistance, and drive the stern
round. This takes place quite independently of
the rudder, but Professor Reynolds has pointed out
a very peculiar result which follows the reversing
of the engine.

If a vessel which is in motion has its engine
suddenly reversed, and the helm put over before
way is off the vessel, the head will fall off in
exactly the opposite direction to that it should
do from the position of the helm. It is thus
explained—

Suppose one vessel is in danger of collision with
another approaching upon its starboard bow. If
the helm is starboarded, and the engines at the
same moment reversed in order to stop the way
of the vessel, the water is driven away from the
fore side of the rudder, and an increase of pressure
produced upon the after side, driving the stern to
port. The vessel, therefore, turns to starboard,
and the danger of collision is increased.

It is probable that the inequality in the onward
motion of the layers of water forming the wake
accounts to some extent for the vibration caused
by the screw.

Each blade in revolving, meets with an alter-
nately diminished and increased resistance as it
passes through the layers, and thus causes a series
of shocks. It is probable, too, that this affords
some explanation of the inefficiency of large
screws. This inefficiency is, of course, partly due
MARINE PROPELLERS. 25

 

to increased friction, but the larger the diameter
the greater the inequality of motion of the water
in which the upper and lower blades work.

An ingenious mechanical arrangement was in-
vented by Griffiths, by which the blades were able
to adjust their pitch to suit the resistance. The
blades in passing the upper part of the circle had
their pitch reduced, while the opposite blades had
their pitch correspondingly increased. The appara-
tus would probably not stand much wear and tear.

Twin screws possess very many advantages over
a single screw, and do not appear to have any less
efficiency. In very fine ships, the length of the
outside shafting becomes a serious consideration,
and the necessary support for it adds considerably
to the resistance of the ship. It would probably
be an advantage in such cases to allow the discs
to overlap,* setting one screw in front of the other,
and cutting a hole in the dead wood to allow the
_ blades to pass through, as shown in Figs. 13 and
teem.

The reduced resistance of stern tube and appen-
dage would probably more than compensate for
any small reduction of efficiency of the screws.

For very high-speed vessels, the use of several pro-
pellers would enable the weight of the machinery
to be kept down.

* Screws set with discs overlapping have been fitted in the

Buzzard, one of the small coasting steamers belonging to
Mr. John Burns.
26 ALARINE PROPELLERS.

Fic. 13.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 27

 

The weight of an engine of a given type per
I.H.P., varies inversely as the number of revolutions
per minute. That is, the greater the number of
revolutions the less the weight per I.H.P., because
the cylinder capacity is reduced in proportion as

FIG. 134.

 

 

 

the revolutions are increased, and in similar engines
working with the same steam-pressure, the weight
per cubic inch of cylinder is nearly a constant
quantity.

Now the number of revolutions per minute at
28 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

which a propeller will work at its maximum effi-
ciency, varies inversely as the diameter for a given
speed. That is, the larger the diameter, the slower
should be its rate of turning.

The diameter varies as the square root of the
I.H.P. for a given speed. Therefore the weight
varies as the diameter of the propeller and as the
square root of the I.H.P.

In symbols—

If W = weight of engine, not including boiler,

per I.H.P.,

I
Revs.’

We

I
Revs. « D’

D « /TH.P.
“.We«D,

1. W & 4/LELP.

To take an example :—If an engine of 900 I.H.P.

can be made for 37°3 lb. per I.H.P., the weight

per I.H.P. of a similar engine of 1800 I.H.P. would

4/1800 _
4/900

speed of the engines is such as to allow each screw
to run at the revolutions best suited for it.

The weight of boilers also is affected when we
pass to more than one boiler.

A single locomotive boiler may be made to give
out from 800 to 1000 I.H.P., but it will not be

be 37'°3 x = 52:2 lb, supposing that the

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 29

 

possible to obtain this power out of several boilers
at the same time. In the first place, there is a
difficulty in regulating the supply of water to each
boiler; but there is a greater difficulty still. A
man can give his whole mind to one boiler, and
will work it to its utmost limit, but ask him to do
the same with half-a-dozen boilers, and he will
certainly fail. The case of the Polyphemus is an
example. There were in her ten locomotive boilers,
and the horsepower required from each was only
500, but it could not be obtained. Every European
navy now is asking for what are called torpedo-
boat hunters ; that is, vessels of larger size than a
torpedo-boat, and possessing equal or superior
speed. We are frequently asked to design en-
gines of large power for them, and are generally
allowed a weight per I.H.P. based upon the
results obtained with torpedo-boat engines of 700
or 800 I.H.P.

It is inevitable, that as the power of the engines
increases, the revolutions should be reduced and the
weight increased, for at these speeds everything, as
far as possible, must be designed to work in its
best condition, and a large propeller will not work
satisfactorily at the same speed as a small one,
even if the engine would.

By using several small propellers instead of one
large one, the engines can be made to run at a high
speed, and thus can be made light.
30 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

Another method would be to gear a number of
engines upon one screw-shaft, so that while the
engines would run at a high speed, the screw
would turn at a slower speed adapted to its large
diameter.

The expedient of putting a number of engines
tandem upon a shaft is only of value for keeping
the height of the engines down, to get them under
an armoured deck, or below the water-line.
MARINE PROPELLERS. 31

 

LECTURE II.

PROFESSOR RANKINE, in a paper on the theoretical
limit of the efficiency of propellers,* which I would
advise any one intending to pursue the subject to
read, lays down a certain theoretical limit towards
which the efficiency of propellers may be made to
approximate by mechanical improvements, and
points out certain causes which make the actual
efficiency fall short of that limit.

He states that, “If the propelling instrument be
so constructed as to act on each particle of water
at first with a velocity equal to the velocity of
feed, and gradually increasing at an uniform rate
up to the velocity of discharge, then the loss of
work is the least possible.”

It is certain that no actual propelling instrument
has ever attained this limit of efficiency. The oar,
when a uniform force is applied to it by the oars-
man, thus producing a gradual acceleration of the
water laid hold of by the blade, approaches more
closely to it than the paddle or ordinary screw, and
the guide-blade or screw-turbine propeller more
closely still.

* The ‘ Engineer,’ 1867, vol. xxiii. p. 25; and ‘ Miscel-
laneous Scientific Papers, edited by W. J. Millar, p. 544.
32 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

There is a certain quantity of work which must
be lost under all circumstances, and it is equal to
the actual energy of the discharged water moving
astern with a velocity relative to still water. As
this energy varies as the weight multiplied by the
square of the velocity, if we double the quantity
of water acted upon, we double the loss from this
cause, but if we double the velocity with which
the water is discharged, we increase the loss
fourfold.

This shows the advantage of acting upon a large
column of water and leaving it with as small a
speed as possible relative to still water.

It explains also why the jet propeller, which is
forced to act upon a much less area of column than
the screw, appears at such a disadvantage when
compared with the latter.

From the above considerations it would appear
that the larger the diameter of a screw and the
smaller the slip, the greater the efficiency would be.
There is, however, an element which has not yet
been considered, which imposes a limit to the size
of a screw in order to obtain the best efficiency.
This element is the friction of the screw blades.
It is well known what a large proportion of the
resistance of a ship is caused by the friction of
the surface, and a screw is subject to exactly the
same conditions.

How large the effect of this element may be is
shown by the case of H.M.S. /ris. This ship was
MARINE PROPELLERS. 33

 

originally fitted with two four-bladed propellers
18 feet diameter and 18 feet pitch. She obtained
a speed with these propellers of 15% knots with
an expenditure of 6369 I.H.P. Two blades were
then taken from each propeller, reducing the total
number from eight to four. The I.H.P. then
required for the same speed was 4369, or 2000
less H.P., and this 2000 I.H.P. was employed in
driving the four additional blades.

This was a very extraordinary and unexpected
result.

The causes of loss of work in propellers of
different kinds may be thus summed up :—

First. Suddenness of change from velocity of feed
to velocity of discharge. Propellers which suffer
from this cause are, the radial paddle-wheel and
the common uniform pitch screw; while those
which in varying degree avoid it are, the gaining
pitch screw, the feathering paddle-wheel, Ruthven’s
form of centrifugal pumps, and the oar.

Second cause of loss, Transverse motion im-
pressed on the water. Propellers which lose in
efficiency from this cause are, ordinary screw-pro-
pellers, which impart rotary motion ; radial wheels,
which give both downward and upward motion in
entering. and leaving the water, and oars, which
impart outward and inward motions at the com-
mencement and end of the stroke respectively.
This loss is greatly reduced in the guide-blade
propeller as the guides take the rotary motion out

D
34 MARINE PROPELLERS.

”

 

of the water and utilise it in so doing. It may
be entirely avoided in the turbine propeller.

Third cause of loss, Waste of energy of the feed-
water. This is experienced by the jet-propeller
only, as generally applied, and is one of the causes
of its inefficiency.

It is not necessary now to enter into any
argument as to the superiority of the screw over
the paddle-wheel. “Sz argumentum queris, cir-
cumspice.’ The paddle-wheel has everywhere
been driven out of the field by the screw, except
in cases of vessels built for very shallow drafts,
for which, until the successful introduction of the
screw-turbine, it was alone available. Asa propelling
instrument the paddle is not inferior to the screw,
and some of the best recorded performances have
been obtained with it. Owing, however, to the
necessarily slow speed of revolution, the machinery
for the paddle-wheel requires to be larger, costlier,
heavier, and demands more space than screw
engines of the same power.

To ascertain the adaptability of the screw for’
towing purposes, an experiment was made in the
early days of screw-propulsion.

The Rattler and the Adecto, the former a screw,
and the latter a paddle-wheel vessel of the same
size and power, were lashed stern to stern, The
Rattler towed the Adecto astern against the whole
power of her engines at the rate of 2°8 knots
per hour.
MARINE PROPELLERS. 35

 

The revolutions and power of a screw are about
the same whatever the speed of the vessel, and
even if the vessel be moored, nearly the full power
can be developed. If on the other hand a paddle-
vessel is prevented from getting away at her proper
speed, the full power of the engines cannot be de-
veloped, and this explains why the Rattler had
such an advantage; because her engines were
developing 300 I.H.P. while the Alecto was only
able to develop 140*I.H.P.

Vessels intended for towing require propellers
of much larger diameter than would otherwise be
suitable.

Some years ago it was proposed by M. Bazin, a
Frenchman, to build a steamer to cross the Channel
at a high rate of speed, the greater part of the
floating power of which was to be supplied by six
large hollow drums or wheels capable of revolving.
The object of the design was to reduce the surface
friction. The six wheels were caused to rotate by
separate engines, while the propulsive power was
obtained by screws in the ordinary way.

It was supposed that the effect of friction upon
the rotating wheels would be got rid of, and the
speed of the vessel thereby greatly increased.

Mr. W. Froude showed conclusively in one of
the ablest investigations he ever made, that the
resistance of such a vessel would be greatly in
excess of that of aship-shape form. The immersed
area of the central part is very large in proportion

D2
36 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

to the displacement, and in addition, the resistance
of the wheels to passage through the water is very
great.

The motion of the wheel through the water may
be compared to the motion of a cart-wheel on land.

Fic. 14.

     
 

vb

|
P
As the centre of the wheel moves from a to 4,
the point P is stationary, that is to say, the wheel
may for the moment be said to pivot about the
point P. As the wheels are immersed nearly up
to their centre, it is easily seen that so far from
there being no surface friction, every portion of the
surface except the point P is moving through the
water and causing friction ; thus, while the centre

moves from a to 4, the point ¢ moves to d, and
similarly with any other point.

 

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 37

 

It is not necessary to assume that the stationary
point is in the outer circumference.

If the rolling floats be making positive slip,
the point P will be in a circumference of less
diameter than that of the floats, but the same
construction holds. It can be proved that the
float must make negative slip, and the point P will
then be in a proportionably enlarged circumference.
Mr. Froude calculates that the frictional resistance
alone of the floats will be about half of what it
would amount to if the wheels were locked and
incapable of revolving. Altogether the form gives
exceptionally great resistance.

In 1879 a vessel called the Hydromotor was
built in Germany, from the design of Dr. Fleischer.
She was propelled by the reaction of jets of water.
In this vessel, the water is acted upon directly by
the steam without the intervention of a pump.
The arrangement is as follows :—There is a cylin-
der, lined inside with wood, at the bottom of which
is a large pipe leading to a nozzle at the bottom of
the vessel. A float of nearly the same diameter as
the cylinder works up and down in it. The cylinder
being now full of water, and the float consequently
at the top, steam is admitted by a valve above the
float, and driving it down, ejects the water through
the nozzle. On reaching the bottom of its stroke,
the float opens the exhaust, and the steam passes
into the condenser. The vacuum thus created in
the cylinder causes the water to rise partly through
38 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

the nozzle, but principally through a suction-valve
in the bottom of the condenser. The cylinder is
thus filled with water and the float rises to the top,
in doing which it closes
Fic. 15. the exhaust and opens
the steam - valve, when
the operation is repeated.
The loss by conden-
sation appears to have
been less than might
have been expected in
a cylinder filled alter-
nately with steam and
with water, but as the cylinder is not entirely
emptied at each stroke, a layer of boiling water
always remains at the top and adheres to the
wooden lining as the float descends. The data
obtainable are unreliable, as no proper measured
mile trials have been made. All calculations made
upon indicated horse-power cards are of little value
in this system, as the loss between the boiler and
the indicator, which is probably large, is thereby
ignored. The only correct basis for comparison
with either screw or turbine propulsion, is coal
consumption.

 

 

 

 

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 39

 

DESIGN OF PADDLE WHEELS.

To find the sectional area of a pair of feathering
floats of a paddle wheel for a given vessel at a
given speed, working with a given slip in undis-
turbed water. First estimate the probable resist-
ance of the ship at the given speed, then fix
upon a suitable slip—15 to 20 per cent. is a fair
average.

Then, if R = resistance,

S = speed of centre of float relatively
to the water,
V = speed of the vessel,

R
Sey Leas

If the wheel works in disturbed water, then,
If A = area in undisturbed water,

A, = » water having forward velocity,
V =speed of ship,
v = forward velocity of water,
: AxV-v.
i V-—24

To find the area of floats for radial wheels, pro-
ceed as for feathering wheels, supposing the slip
to be that of the lower edge of the float.

In radial wheels the number of floats should
equal the number of feet in the diameter, and
40 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

the breadth of a float may be # inch or I inch for
each foot of diameter.

In a feathering wheel, the floats should be half
as numerous and twice as broad as the floats of a
radial wheel. The width of the wheel should be
from one-third to one-half the breadth of the ship.

When fully laden the wheel should not be
immersed to more than one-fourth its diameter.

The size of the wheel is determined by the
intended speed of the ship, the slip, and the
number of revolutions considered most suitable,
generally from 20 to 30 per minute, although
sometimes as high as from 40 to 45 per minute.

Example.
Speed of ship, 15 knots = say 1500 feet per minute.
Slip, 16 per cent. = say 300 +s -
.’. Circumferential velo-
city of wheel = 1800 ‘i 3
Revolutions, 30 per minute.
Fic, 16,

D x 3°14 X 30 = 1800
‘, D= to feet.

The floats of a feathering
wheel are constructed to cleave
the water without shock.

If a in the above triangle (see Fig. 16) represent
the motion of a descending float in a given time if

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 41

 

the vessel is stationary, and 4 = the travel of the
ship in the same time. Then the actual path of the
float is represented by the resultant. The plane of
the float entering the water should coincide with this
line.

It is found in practice, that lines drawn from the
summit of the wheel F (see Fig. 17), tothe points of

Fic. 17.

 

 

 

intersection of the circumference with the water-line
B and D, give the direction of the floats with suffi-
cient accuracy. Levers about three-fifths of the
depth of the float are fixed perpendicularly at their
centres Bé,Cc, Dd The centre of a circle, in
the circumference of which the ends 4, c, and d of
these three levers lie, is the centre of the eccentric
necessary to produce the required motion of the
floats.
42 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

MANUFACTURE OF SCREWS.

Screws are generally made of cast iron in the
mercantile marine, the whole propeller being a
single casting. In the Royal Navy they are usually
made of gun-metal and the
blades cast separate from
the boss, to which they are
bolted, the holes in the
flanges of the blades being
elongated so as to allow
the blades to be shifted
round and the pitch ad-
justed. In torpedo-boats
the general practice is to
make the blades of hammered steel and to key
them on to the boss, as shown. The root of the
blade is made wedge-shaped as well as the key, the
latter being tapered in the direction of its length
also. When this key is driven hard in, the blade
is held absolutely fast without any projecting bolts
or flanges. By making the blades of forged steel,
they can be made very thin and sharp, which is a
matter of great importance.

A forged propeller is made as follows:—A
wooden block is first prepared from the drawing.
This is built up of layers of wood of equal thick-
ness, the section of the blade at each layer being
given on the drawing. From this block, an iron
one is cast.

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 43

 

The blades are first forged flat and made roughly
to the proper thickness and shape. They are then
hammered on to the cast blocks and given the
required twist.

The roots are planed, and the blade ground
smooth on a grindstone, care being taken that each
blade shall weigh the same when finished. They
are then keyed into the boss, also of forged steel,
the grooves of which have been slotted to the
required angle. The propeller is finally put upon
a mandril and balanced. In order to do this it is of
course necessary that not only shall the blades be
of the same weight, but that the centre of gravity
of each blade shall be at the same distance from
the centre of the boss. When thus carefully
balanced, the screw causes no vibration in the
boat.

SLIP OF SCREW.

If v = speed of screw = revs. x pitch,
V= » ship,

ov _

v

 

x 100 = percentage of apparent slip.

The following are the average proportions of the
screws of a few of the latest and largest ocean-
going steamers.

Slip per cent. from — 3 per cent. to 12 per cent.
for four blades.

Pitch, 1} times the diameter.

Diameter, 20°7 feet. Pitch, 27°9 feet.
44 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

The pitch runs generally from 1 to 14 times the
diameter, and is slightly increasing, being 5 per
cent. less than the mean on the leading edge, and
5 per cent. more than the mean on the following
edge.

The surface of the blades is 35 per cent. of the
disc area.

Thickness at root of blade, $ inch to x inch per
foot of diameter, and 2 inches from the tip, the thick-
ness is about I inch or 1} inch.

Rankine gives the following formula for the
thickness of the blade.

If D is the diameter of the shaft,

De <2
No. of blades x length at root

The factor 2 is to be used if the blades are of
material having equal strength with the shaft, and
4 if of gun-metal.

Having thus found the thickness at the axis,
equal say toA C, Fig. 19, draw a straight line from
C to the tip of the blade B. This will give the
section of the blade at any point. As the top
cannot be made quite sharp, it must be thickened
up slightly. This method of construction does not
give a blade of equal strength throughout, but a
blade which, if it breaks at all, will probably break
near the tip and leave a portion still available.

It is sometimes useful to be able to estimate
roughly the pitch of a screw at sight.

This may be done by observing at what part of

 

 

= thickness at axis.
MARINE PROPELLERS.

45

 

the blade an angle of 45°
is made with the axis.
The pitch is equal to the
circumference at this point.

The pitch of the small
models used for experi-
mental purposes was rea-
dily and accurately mea-
sured in the following
manner.

A. wooden cylinder was:

made having a diameter
about two-thirds that of
the propeller. A hole was
bored through the axis
into which the screw-shaft
was fixed. A sheet of
paper wrapped round the
cylinder was cut accu-
rately to fit the face of
the screw-blade.

The direction of the axis
should be marked upon the
paper. The paper is then
taken off the cylinder and
unrolled. If the propeller
be of uniform pitch, the
edge which fitted the face
of the blade will form a
straight line as y, Fig. 20.

FIG. 20.

 
46 ASILARINE PROPELLERS.

 

If # be the diameter of the cylinder, then

6 _ Pitch
a2” £X 3°14"
If the blade is not of uniform pitch, the template
which fitted it will form a curved line. The pitch
at the leading and after edge can be measured

separately in the same manner, and the mean
pitch found.
MARINE PROPELLERS. 47

 

LECTURE III.

IN the first of these lectures I said that the whole
problem of screw-propulsion was to fix upon the
best diameter of a propeller, and the best ratio of
pitch to diameter under given conditions.

I now propose to give what hints I can which
will assist you in solving this problem.

As the only way in which it is possible to arrive
exactly at the resistance of a ship is by making
experiments with a model, so the only exact way
of arriving at the efficiency of a propeller is by
experimenting upon a model.

I will show directly how this should be done.

But it is obvious that when it is required to
design a propeller for a given ship, some simpler
and more expeditious method than this must be
resorted to.

It is sufficient in most cases to take an actual
propeller which is known to give a good per-
formance and to treat that propeller as a model.

It is advisable that the ship upon which the
propeller you propose to take as your model is
fitted, should be somewhat similar in general
proportions.

Then the following rules will enable you to find
the diameter and revolutions suitable.
48 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

To find the diameter of a propeller for a given
I.H.P. and a given speed from the diameter of
another smaller similar propeller at a different
1.H.P. and a different speed.

The diameter is proportional to the 4/I.H.P.
and inversely proportional to the cube of the

. Speed.
If d = diameter of model,
D = diameter of required propeller,
2 =1H.P. of model,

P= 4 required propeller,
v = speed of vessel with model propeller,
V= 5 i ‘ required propeller,
Then Dan/d x? x™.
Example.
If d = 5:0 feet,
p = 670 I.H.P.,
v = 18 knots,
P = 1800 L.H.P.,
V = 20 knots,
Then
D= =,/3" x pe 5 x. = 7 feet (if model smaller).
70

If the model is larger ratios are reversed.

_670 Me =5 feet (if model larger).
D= n/p x22 x ® ee 5 feet (if mo ger)
MARINE PROPELLERS. 49

 

I would say here that in designing the machinery
for a new vessel the thing to start with is the size
of the propeller and not the size of the engines.

The engines exist only to drive the propeller,
and should be subordinated to it.

Having therefore a given speed of vessel and a
given horse-power to start with, fix upon the
diameter of the propeller, then upon the revolu-
tions suitable for the propeller.

With these things fixed it is then easy to find
the size of the engine. It is an entire reversal of
the proper process to say, 1 will run my engine
at such and such a speed and make a propeller
to suit.

Slight variation from the most suitable number
of revolutions is admissible, more especially in the
direction of increasing the number of revolutions
for the sake of lightening the machinery, but the
engine should not run at a slower speed than
that dictated by the propeller, because, as will
be presently shown, the efficiency of the pro-
peller decreases very rapidly when it is run too
slowly.

To find the suitable number of revolutions for
a given propeller at a given speed from the revolu-
tions of a smaller similar propeller at a different
speed.

The revolutions per minute are proportional to
the speed and inversely proportional to the

diameter.
E
50 MARINE PROPELLERS.

If D = the diameter of given propeller,
= es of smaller model,
given speed,

= speed of model,

= revolutions of given propeller,
i ss model,

Then RerxY xf

VWI dsR
I

D

Example,
If D = 7 feet,
ad = 5 feet,
V = 20 knots,
v = 18 knots,
ry = 400 revs.,

20 5

Then R= 400 x = x al 318 revs.

18

If the model used is larger than the given
propeller the ratios are reversed.

The pitch of the propeller should then be made
the same ratio to the diameter as in the model.

When a screw has to be designed to suit
certain engines and these engines do not run at
the number of revolutions which would be best
for the propeller, the diameter may be obtained as
described and the pitch made such as will give a
slip of about 15 per cent.

The pitch should never exceed 24 times the
diameter.
@ MARINE PROPELLERS. 51

 

This may be looked upon as the outside limit.
When the engines run very slowly a smaller
amount of slip than 15 per cent. should be allowed
for.

In making experiments with models, it is
necessary first to’fix upon the size of model which
will be convenient. It must not be of such large
size as to give too great a thrust, as the dynamo-
metric apparatus is more convenient if moderately
small. On the other hand, the scale of the mcdel
must be sufficiently large to allow of accurate
measurements of the results.

About 9 inches diameter is a suitable size, as
thrusts not exceeding 25 or 30 lb. will then have
to be dealt with.

The model is made as follows:—A wooden
block is prepared from the reduced propeller
drawing, a blade is moulded upon this block in
paraffine, and a cast is taken in plaster of Paris.
An alloy is run into this cast consisting of tin and
aluminium, the latter in small proportions. This
is sufficiently soft to allow of scraping and cutting
with a knife, while being strong enough to retain
its form. It of course does not rust.

The cast blade is then filed and burnished and
is accurately fitted to the block.

The blades are secured in the boss by screws in
such a way that the pitch may be varied to any
desired extent.

Tn our experiments a steam-launch was fitted

E 2
52 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

up with a small shaft to carry the model through
the bow, the shaft projecting sufficiently in front
of the launch to ensure that the model should
work in undisturbed water.

This shaft could move very freely in its bearings
to and fro, and the end of it was attached by
means of a steel pianoforte-wire to a spring, so
that the thrust exerted by the propeller could be
recorded.

This shaft was made to revolve by means of a
gut working on toa pulley and driven by a small
engine of I or 2 H.P.

All that requires to be measured is :—

1. The thrust exerted by the model.

2. The revolutions of the model.

3. The speed of the launch.

4. The turning effort expended in driving the
model.

5. Equal intervals of time.

It is also necessary to measure the constant
friction of the engine and shafting so as to get the
true zero for the turning effort diagram.

In order to obtain these different measurements
we had a dynamometer consisting of a revolving
drum driven at a uniform speed by means of clock-
work. A piece of paper was wrapped round this
drum. A number of pens over the drum were
each connected to an electro-magnet in such a
way that as long as no current flowed round the
MARINE PROPELLERS. 53

 

magnet the pens were stationary and merely traced
straight lines upon the paper as it revolved beneath
them. a

The moment contact was made, however, the
pens gave a little jerk, making a lateral indent
in the line.

One pen was electrically connected with a small
clock, so that it measured intervals of time,
making an indent every twelve seconds. A second
pen recorded the revolutions of the main engine
driving the launch, these revolutions forming a
check upon the speed of the launch. A third
pen recorded the revolutions of the model, a
counter on the shaft: making contact every 50
revolutions.

The speed of the launch was measured by
running backwards and forwards along a fixed
distance on shore of 300 feet. The time of
passing the posts was marked by an electric pen
actuated by the observer pressing a button. As
the observations were taken in a tideway two runs
were necessary to determine the speed for every
observation, one up stream and one down.

Another pen was connected to the spring
before mentioned, to which the model shaft was
attached, and recorded the extension of the
spring.

The last pen shows the tension of the gut
driving the model, and thus measures the turning
effort expended.
54 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

This tension was obtained by the arrangement
shown in Fig. 21, where
72 t= Px.

2l,

 

Turning moment = (T. — T,) x 277 X revs. of 7.

O

ke-Le -

Fic, 21.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ts T

 

 

The speed of the launch being kept constant at
from 4 to 44 knots, a number of observations were
taken at different revolutions of the model, and
these plotted as shown on Plate I.

1. Thrust line.
MARINE PROPELLERS. 55

 

2. Work done by propeller in foot-lbs. being
thrust x speed through the water.

3. Turning effort in foot-lbs. The work done
divided by the work expended gives the’efficiency
of the propeller.

It will be seen that this reaches a maximum at a
certain number of revolutions depending upon the
propeller. It will be seen too that if run too slowly
the efficiency falls very rapidly, but if too fast, not
nearly so rapidly. This shows that if a propeller
is too large, the efficiency will suffer largely, but a
propeller may be made considerably smaller than
its most suitable diameter without suffering much
loss.

The efficiency obtained by the model shown
reached a maximum of °7.

The result of several trials seemed to indicate
that this was rather high.

A more probable average for a good propeller is
"65.

If the propeller be tried at two or three different
pitches, the variation being obtained by twisting
the blades round on the boss, it can easily be found
what ratio of pitch to diameter gives the best result.
By trying it also with 2, 3, and 4 blades, the best
ratio of surface to disc area can be determined.

Having now found a good propeller, and at what
thrust and number of revolutions it will work at
maximum efficiency, a curve can be made, as shown
in Plate II., giving the diameter, pitch, and number
56 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

of revolutions, for any speed and any horse-
power.

For instance, the model of the Thornycroft
propeller whose performance is shown in Plate L,
had a diameter of 9 inches, and gave its maximum
efficiency when utilising 4000 foot-lbs.=*121 H.P.
at 600 revs. and at 4°06 knots, the speed of the
launch.

Therefore the diameter for 1 H.P. at 4°06 knots

Vfl
f° 121

We can now plot the diameter for 1 H1.P. at
any speed, because we know the area is inversely

proportional to the cube of the speed.
Therefore for 20 knots the diameter for one H.P. is

a/ 28°85? x £08" = 2°6,

and so on for any speed, Sins giving us the curve
on Plate II.

‘Now take an example :—

Diameter for 430 I.H.P. at 20 knots is 2'6 x
4/430 = 54 inches. This is the actual diameter
of the propeller in 1st Class Torpedo-boats.

Now take a propeller for the /rzs at 18} knots
and 3867 H.P., the maximum H.P. put through one
of her screws.

From curve 2°85 inches x 4/3867 = 178 inches

= 14°8 feet.

As the pitch of the 9-inch model was 10°3 inches,

 

 

= 9x = 28°5 inches.

 
MARINE PROPELLERS. 57

 

178 inches

; = 204 inches
9 inches 4

Therefore 10'3 inches x

= 17 feet pitch.

The revolutions can be plotted in the same
manner from the performance of the model,
remembering, as before stated, that they are pro-
portional to the speed, and inversely proportional to
the diameter.

From the curve we find the revolutions for one
I.H.P. at 18} knots is 7800. The corresponding
diameter being 2°85 inches. We have therefore
for the /ris—

7800 X 2S 125 revs. per minute ;
178
or, more simply, dividing the revolutions found on
the curve by the / 1.H.P.—

Having made such a diagram as this, all we have
to do is:—

To find the diameter—Multiply the diameter
found on the curve by the square-root of the given
horse-power.

To find the revolutions—Divide the revolutions
found on the curve by the square-root of the given
horse-power.

* The screws of the /rzs are 16 feet in diameter and have
a pitch of 20 feet, but the engines only run at 97 revolutions
instead of 125.
58 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

THE JET PROPELLER.

THERE are many reasons why what is called a jet
propeller would be preferred in certain cases to a
screw or a paddle if an economical result could be
obtained from it. The large pumping power
available in case of leaks, and the comparative
safety of the propelling apparatus from accident,
either from shot or from touching the bottom, or
from fouling, render it tempting either for warlike
or mercantile purposes.

There are, however, so many drawbacks connected
with it, and the efficiency of the apparatus is neces-
sarily so small, that at the present moment I
believe there is not a single vessel using the pro-
peller for commercial purposes.

Two years ago a torpedo-boat 66 feet long, pro-
pelled by a centrifugal pump, was built by Mr.
Thornycroft, for competition with a similar vessel
fitted with a screw. Both vessels were of about
the same size and displacement and the I.H.P.
developed by each was the same.

The speed obtained by the screw was 17°3 knots
per hour, and by the hydraulic was 12°6.

This latter speed was obtained by the screw-boat
with about half the power exerted by the other ;
that is to say, there is a loss of power corresponding
to about 50 per cent. experienced by the jet pro-
peller, compared with the screw.

The causes of this loss are not hard to find. In
MARINE PROPELLERS. 59

 

the case of the Waterwitch and other hydraulic
vessels, the water is received into the ship through
a hole in the bottom in such a way as to suddenly
check all the velocity which it has relatively to the
ship. In other words, the entering water strikes the
ship and has the velocity of the ship impressed

FIG. 22.

 

 

upon it before it gets into the turbine. If the
bottom is formed into a scoop, as shown in Fig. 22
and Plate IIL, and the water caused to change its
direction gradually, without having its velocity
relatively to the ship checked at all, then this cause
of loss may be avoided.
60 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

In such a case, if the vessel is towed along with
the turbine removed, the water is scooped up,
passes through the casing of the turbine, and flows
out at the nozzles. The water then would leave
the nozzles with a velocity relative to the ship
equal to the speed of the ship, and with no velocity
relative to still water except such as was given by
the friction of the passage.

The second cause of loss is due to the small quan-
tity of water acted upon, and the consequently high
velocity with which it has to be discharged. The
loss of work due to this cause varies as the square
of the velocity of slip, as has been already
explained.

The reason why the quantity of water acted
upon is of necessity small is that the size of the
orifice which it is advisable to make in a ship’s
bottom is necessarily restricted by structural con-
siderations, and must be very small indeed com-
pared to the size of a screw’s disc.

Then again, the weight of water admitted into
the ship is a serious consideration, as it represents
so much loss of displacement.

The third cause is the loss by the friction of the
water in the pipes and passages, and by the sudden
changes in direction which it is necessary to give
the water in passing in through the bottom, and
out through the sides in a fore-and-aft direction.
For these reasons the hydraulic propeller is
essentially wasteful.
MARINE PROPELLERS. 61

 

In the screw and turbine competitive torpedo-
boats the total efficiency of the propelling machinery
was proved to be, screw 0°5 and turbine 0°254.

I will now describe the propeller which is repre-
sented by the model on the table, and which is
called the screw-turbine propeller, being a sort of
cross between a screw and a turbine.

It will be seen that it has guide-blades behind
the screw, as proposed by Rigg, but there is one
very important feature in this propeller which was
not in that of Rigg.

It will be necessary first to recapitulate what
I have already said about the advantage of
gradually impressing the required velocity upon
the water.

When this is done—and this is a very important
point to bear in mind—the loss from the slip is
only one-half that experienced when the full
velocity of discharge is impressed suddenly.

If one propeller imparts the acceleration gradu-
ally and another imparts it suddenly, the first one
may havea final velocity of discharge of double that
of the second, with the same efficiency, and therefore
the propeller which accelerates gradually need act
upon only half the quantity of water that its com-
petitor does.

In other words, the same reaction and efficiency.
will be obtained from the propeller with the gradual
acceleration as the other, although it have only
half the disc area.
62 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

This causes it to be eminently suited for vessels
of shallow draught.

Now in what way does it differ from other
increasing-pitch propellers, for all such propellers
have this object more or less inview. They all fail,
as may be easily shown. Suppose an ordinary
increasing-pitch propeller, enclosed in a casing.
(See Fig. 23.)

Fic. 23.

 

 

A certain quantity of water comes out of the
casing at the final velocity of discharge, but however
much water comes out at one end in a minute, the
same quantity must go in at the other in the same
time, and therefore it must go inat the same speed
that it comesout. The propelling apparatus there-
fore must accelerate the stream previously to its
entry into the tube, and before being touched by
the blades. Thus the advantage of the increasing
pitch is lost.

In the case of the screw-turbine, Fig. 24, the size
of the channel is so proportioned as to exactly suit
the speed of the water passing through it. Thus at
MARINE PROPELLERS. 63

 

the fore end of the casing is a large opening which
will admit a certain quantity of water at a velocity
equal to that of the ship.

Fic. 24.

 

 

 

 

 

 

At the after end is a smaller channel, which will
allow of the exit of the water at the accelerated
velocity which has been imparted by the screw-
blades in passing through it.

The long tail is simply a prolongation of the
boss to allow of the streams of water uniting
gradually without forming eddies.

As the greatly increasing pitch causes consider-
able rotation of the water, the guide-blades are so
formed as to direct the water into a straight line
aft.

The whole of the transverse motion caused by
the propeller is thus utilised without loss.

When this model was experimented upon, the
thrust of the revolving blades was measured sepa-
rately from the thrust of the fixed guides.

The latter was found to be quite considerable ;
64 MARINE PROPELLERS.

 

in the case of the model shown, as much as one-
third of the total thrust.

In the launch illustrated by the model on the
table and by Plate IV., a further device was re-
sorted to, in order to reduce the draught. A tunnel
is formed in the bottom of the boat, the top of which
rises above the surface, but the ends are submerged.

In this tunnel a screw-turbine propeller 16 inches
diameter is placed.

As the boat has only 12 inches draught of water
one-fourth of the diameter of the propeller is above
the water level.

As soon as the propeller starts, however, water is
drawn up into this tunnel and the air is expelled,
after which the tunnel remains full of water and the
propeller works completely submerged.

There is no loss.of power involved in lifting the
water this 4 inches, because in falling it gives out
the work employed in raising it.

There is an incidental convenience in this arrange-
ment. An air-tight door is placed at the summit
of the tunnel, which can be taken off from inside the
boat. As soon as air is admitted the water falls to
the level of that outside and the propeller is partially
emerged, thus offering peculiar facilities for exami-
nation and for allowing it to be cleared if fouled.
In the case of twin screws this operation can be
performed upon one propeller while the other is
still kept going slowly.

Five large steamers, 140 feet by 21 feet, and
MARINE PROPELLERS. 65

 

I foot 9 inches draught of water, are being built
upon this principle by Mr. Thornycroft for the Nile
expedition.

They will be propelled by two screw-turbines of
32 inches diameter, raised in tunnels in the manner
described.*

A launch built last year, 56 feet long and 15
inches draught of water, attained a speed of 16}
knots with one screw-turbine 20 inches diameter.

* Since the delivery of these lectures, one of these vessels
has been tried upon the measured mile, and obtained a
speed of 15+ knots an hour.

 

LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED,
STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

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500 600 700 800 200 1000 1100
Plate 1 Revolutions per Minute.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

THORNYCROFT PATENT PROPELLER. 3 BLADES. DIAR 9 INS MEAN PITCH 10-3 INS

 

 

® Power capended inv tivt-pounds, + Usetiil work in foot -pounds, © Thrust in pounds.
Datted lines shew same propella splashing the wate:
 

‘yattadOWd ANIGUNL MANOS HO J3qviG-aGINS HLIM dallid HONNYT Wyals
1885.

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tion— River Works — Harbours— Lighthouse Buildings Native Labour The Principal
‘Trees of India—Money—Weights and Measures—Glossary of Indian Terms, ete.

A Practical Treatise on Casting and Founding,
‘including descriptions of the modern machinery employed in the art. B
N, E. Spretson, Engineer. Third edition, with 82 plates drawn t
scale, 412 pp., demy 8vo, cloth, 185.

Steam Heating for Buildings ; or, Hints to Steam
Fitters, being a description of Steam Heating Apparatus for Warming
and Ventilating Private Houses and Large Buildings, with remarks on
Steam, Water, and Air in their relation to Heating. By W. J. BALDWIN.
With many illustrations, Fourth edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 10s. 6d.,
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON.

tae

 

Lhe Depreciation of Factories and their Valuation.
By Ewine Matueson, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth, 6s.

«1 Handbook of Elcctrical Testing. By H.R. Kewre,
ACS UIE, Third edition, revised and enlarged, crown Svo, cloth, 155.

Gas Works : their Arrangement, Construction, Plant,
and Machinery. By F. Corver, M. Inst. CE. Werk 31 selding plates,
Svo, cloth, 245.

The Clerk of Works: a Vade-Mecum for all engaged
in the Superintendence of Building Operations. By G. G. Hoskrxs,
F.R.LB.A. Third edition, fcap. $vo, cloth, 1s. 6¢.

American Foundry Practice: Treating of Loam.
Dry Sand, and Green Sand Moulding, and containing a Practical Treatise
upon the Management of Cupolas, and the Melting of Iron. By T. D.
West, Practical Iron Moulder and Foundry Foreman. Second edition,
wits numerous illustrations, crown Svo, cloth, tos. 6¢.

The Maintenance of Macadamiscd Roads. By T.

Coprixetox, M.LC.E, F.G.S., General Superintendent of County Roads
for Soath Wales, Svo, cloth, 6s.

Hydraulic Steam and Hand Power Lifting ava

Pressing Machinery. By FREDERICK COLYER, M. Inst. CE., M. Inst. ME.

IP22 73 plates, 3vo, cloth, 18s.

Pumps and Pumping Machinery. By F. Coryer,
M.LCE, MIME. With 23 jolding plates, 8vo, doth, 12s. 6d.

The Municipal and Sanitary Engineer's Handbook.
. By H. Percy Bounois, Mem. Inst. C.E., Borough Engineer, Ports-
mouth. J %t# numercus illustrations, demy Svo, cloth, 125. 62.

CONTENTS:

‘The Appointment and Duties of the Town Surveyor—Traffiic—Macadamised Roadways—
Steam Rolling— Road Metal and ing—! Pavements—Asphalte—Wood Pavements
—Footpaths—Kerbs and Gatters—Street Naming and Numberi-g—Street Lighting— ewer-

Veatilation of Sewers—Disposal of Sewage-——House Drainage—Disinfection—Gas and
Water Companies, &c., Breaking up S T of Private Streets— Borrowing
Powers—Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings—Public Conveniences—Scavenging, includins
Svreet Cleansing— Watering and the Removing of Snow— Plantag Street Trees—Deposit of
Plans—! Build H i bstructions—I=praing Street Lines—Cel
ee lic Pleaswre foe ee Ce and Ordinary Bake
~~Public Slanghter-houses, evc—Giving numerocs Forms-of Notices, Specifications, anc
‘General Information upon these and other subjects of great impertance to Nanicipal F=<i-
meers and others engaged in Sanitary Work. z

  

|

 
6 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

Tables of the Principal Speeds occurring in Mechanical
Engineering, expressed in metres in a second. By P. "KEERAYEFF, Chief
Mechanic of the Obouchoff Steel Works, St. Petersburg ; translated by
SERGIusS Kern, M.E. Fcap. 8vo, sewed, 6d.

A Treatise on the Origin, Progress, Prevention, and
Cure of Dry Rot in Timber; with Remarks on the Means of Preserving
Wood from Destruction by Sea- Worms, Beetles, Ants, ete. By THomas
ALLEN Britton, late Surveyor to the Metropolitan Board of Works,
etc., etc. With 10 plates, crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.

Metrical Tables. By G& i. Mo.egsworty, M.I.C.E. :
32mo, cloth, 1s. 6d.
ConTENTS,

General—Linear Measures—Square Measures—Cubic Measures—Measures of Capacity—
Weights—Combinations—Thermometers.

Elements of Construction for Electro-Magnets. By

Count TH. Du MonceEt, Mem. de l'Institut de France. Translated from
the French by C. J. WHARTON. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d.

Electro-Telegraphy. By Freprrick S. BEecuey,
Telegraph Engineer. A Book for Beginners. Ji/ustrated. Fecap. 8vo,
sewed, 6d.

Flandrailing: by the Square Cut. By Joun Jonzs,

Staircase Builder. Part Second, with eight plates, 8vo, cloth, 35. 6d.

Practical Electrical Units Popularly Explained, with
numerous illustrations and Remarks. By JAMES SWINBURNE, late of
J. W. Swan and Co., Paris, late of Brush-Swan Electric Light Company,
U.S.A. 18mo, cloth, Is. 6d.

Philipp Reis, Inventor of the Telephone: A Biographical

Sketch, With Documentary Testimony, Translations of the Original
Papers of the Inventor, &c. By SILvaANuS P. THompson, B.A., Dr. Sc,
Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol. With
illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.

A Treatise on the Use of Belting for the Transmis-
ston of Power. By J. H. Cooper. Second edition, s/ustrated, 8vo,
cloth, 15s.
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 7

 

A Pocket-Book of Useful Formule and Memoranda

Sor Civil and Mechanical Engineers. By GUILFORD L. MoLEsworTH,
Mem. Inst. C.E., Consulting Engineer to the Government of India for
State Railways. With numerous illustrations, 744 pp. Twenty-first
edition, revised and enlarged, 32mo, roan, 6s.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS:

Surveying, Levelling, etc.—Strength and Weight of Materials—Earthwork, Brickwork,
Masonry, Arches, etc.—Struts, Columns, Beams, and Trusses—Flooring, Roofing, and Roof
Trusses—Girders, Bridges, etc.—Railways and Roads—Hydraulic Formule—Canals, Sewers,
Waterworks, Docks—Irrigation and Breakwaters—Gas, Ventilation, and Warming—Heat,
Light, Colour, and Sound—Gravity: Centres, Forces, and Powers—Millwork, Teeth of
Wheels, Shafting, etc.—Workshop Recipes—Sundry Machinery—Animal Power—Steam and
the Steam Engine—Water-power, Water-whcels, Turbines, etc—Wind and Windmills—
Steam Navigation, Ship Building, Tonnage, etc.—Gunnery, Projectiles, etc.—Weights,
Measures, and Money—Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and Curves—Telegraphy—Mensura-
tion—Tables of Areas and Circumference, and Arcs of Circles—Logarithms, Square and
Cube Roots, Powers—Reciprocals, etc.—Useful Numbers—Differential and Integral Calcu-
lus—Algebraic Signs—Telegraphic Construction and Formule. :

Spons Tables and Memoranda for Engineers ;

selected and arranged by J. T. Hurst, C.E., Author of ‘ Architectural
Surveyors’ Handbook,’ ‘ Hurst’s Tredgold’s Carpentry,’ etc. Seventh
edition, 64mo, roan, gilt edges, 1s. ; or in cloth case, Is. 6d.
This work is printed in a pearl type, and is so small, measuring only 2¢ in. by r¥ in. by
2 in. thick, that it may be easily carried in the waistcoat pocket. ;

‘Tt is certainly an extremely rare thing for a reviewer to be called upon to notice a volume
measuring but 2} in. by 13 in., yet these dimensions faithfully represent the size of the handy
little book before us. The volume—which contains 118 printed pages, besides a few blank
pages for memoranda—is, in fact, a true pocket-book, adapted for being carried in the waist-
coat pocket, and containing a far greater amount and variety of information than most people
would imagine could be compressed into so small a space. . . . . The little volume has been
compiled with considerable care and judgment, and we can cordially recommend it to our
readers as a useful little pocket companion.” —E gineering.

A Practical Treatise on Natural and Artificial
Concrete, its Varieties and Constructive Adaptations. By HENRY REID,
Author of the ‘ Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland Cement.’
New Edition, wth 59 woodcuts and 5 plates, 8vo, cloth, 15s.

Hydrodynamics: Treatise relative to the Testing of
Water-Wheels and Machinery, with various other matters pertaining to
Hydrodynamics. By JAMES EMERSON. Wath numerous iliustratins,
360 pp. Third edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 45. 6d.

Electricity as a Motive Power. By Count Tu. Du
MonczL, Membre de l'Institut de France, and FRANK GERALDY, Ingé-
nieur des Ponts et Chaussées. Translated and Edited, with Additions, by
C. J. WHARTON, Assoc. Soc. Tel Eng. and Elec. With 113 engravings
and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 62.

Hints on Architectural Draughtsmanship. By G. W.

‘TUXFORD HALLATT. Fcap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. 6d.
8 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

Treatise on Valve-Gears, with special consideration
of the Link-Motions of Locomotive Engines. By Dr. Gustav ZEUNER,
Professor of Applied Mechanics at the Confederated: Polytechnikum of
Zurich, Translated from the Fourth German Edition, ‘by Professor J. F.
Kern, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. ///sstrated, 8vo, cloth, 125. 6d,

The French-Polisher's Manual. By a French-
Polisher; containing Timber Staining, Washing, Matching, Improving,
Painting, Imitations, Directions for Staining, Sizing, Embodying,
Smoothing, Spirit Varnishing, French-Polishing, Directions for Re-
polishing. Third edition, royal 32mo, sewed, 6d.

Hops, their Cultivation, Commerce, and Uses in
various Countries. By PL. SimMoNDS. Crown 8vo, cloth, 45. 6a.

A Practical Treatese on the Manufacture and Distri-

bution of Coal Gas. By WILLIAM RicHaRDS. Demy 4to, with mzmerous
wood engravings and 29 plates, cloth, 285. ~ | Mae :

Synopsis OF CONTENTS: a

Introduction— History of Gas Lighting— Chemistry of Gas Manufacture, by Lewis

Thompson, Esq., M.R.C.S.—Coal, with Analyses, by J. Paterson, Lewis Thompson, and

G. R. Hislop, Esqrs—Retorts, Iron and Clay—Retort Setting—Hydraulic Main—Con-

densers — Exhausters — Washers and Scrubbers— Purifiers— Purification — History of Gas

Holder— Tanks, Brick and Stone, Composite, Concreté, Cast-iron, Compound Annular
Wrought-iron — Specifications —— Gas Holders — Station Meter — Governor — Distribution—
Mains—Gas Mathematics, or Forniule for the Distribution of Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq—
Services—Consumers’ Meters—Regulators—Burners—Fittings—Photomerer—Carburization
of Gas+Air Gas and Water Gas—Composition of Coal Gas, by Lewis Thompson, Esq—
Analyses of Gas—Influence of Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature on Gas—Residual
Products—Appendix—Description of Retort Settings, Buildings, etc., etc. .

Practical Geometry, Perspective, and Engineering
Drawing; a Course of Descriptive Geometry adapted to the Require-
ments of the Engineering Draughtsman, including the determination ‘of
cast shadows and Isometric Projection, each chapter being followed by
numerous examples ; to which are added rules for Shading, Shade-lining,
etc., together with practical instructions as to the Lining, Colouring,
Printing, and general treatment of Engineering Drawings, with a chapter
on drawing Instruments, By GEorGR S. CLARKE, Capt. R.E. Second
edition, wth 21 plates. 2 vols., cloth, Ios. 6a. a

Lhe Elements of Graphic Statics. By Professor
Kart Von OT, translated from the German by G. S. CLARKE, Capt.
R.E., Instructor in Mechanical Drawing, Royal Indian Engineering
(College. FVith 93 illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, $s.

The Principles of Graphic Statics. By Grorce
SYDENHAM CLARKE, Capt. Royal Engineers. With 112 sllustrations.
qto, cloth, ras.6¢@..0 |. :

Dynamo-Electric Machinery: A Manual for Students
.of Electrp-technics. By Syivanus P. THompson, B.A., D.Sc., Professtr
of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol, etc. etc. Second
edition, i/ustrated, 8vo, cloth, 125, 6d. - :
PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 9

 

The New Formula for Mean Velocity of Discharge
of Rivers and Canals, By W.R. KuTrTer. Translated from articles in
the ‘Cultur-Ingénieur,’ by Lowis D’A. Jackson, Assoc. Inst. C.E.
8vo, cloth, 125. 6d.

Practical Hydraulics ; a Series of Rules and Tables

for the use of Engineers, etc., etc. By THomas Box. Fifth edition,
numerous plates, post 8vo, cloth, 55.

A Practical Treatise on the Construction of Flori-
zontal and Vertical Waterwheels, specially designed for the use of opera-
tive mechanics. By WILLIAM CULLEN, Millwright and Engineer. lth
11 plates. Second edition, revised and enlarged, small 4to, cloth, 125. 6d.

Tin: Describing the Chief Methods of Mining,

Dressing and Smelting it abroad ; with Notes upon Arsenic, Bismuth and
Wolfram. By ArTHuR G, CHARLETON, Mem. American Inst. of
Mining Engineers. With pilates, 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d.

Perspective, Explained and Illustrated, By G. S.

CiarkE, Capt. R.E, With illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.

The Essential Elements of Practical Mechanics ;
based ox the Principle of Work, designed for Engineering Students. By
OLIVER Byrne, formerly Professor of Mathematics, College for Civil
Engineers. Third edition, witk 148 wood engravings, post 8vo, cloth,
7s. 6d.

CONTENTS:
Chap. 1. How Work is Measured by a Unit, both with and without reference to a Unit
of Time—Chap. 2. The Work of Living nts, the Influence of Friction, and introduces
one of the most beautiful Laws of Motion—Chap. 3. The principles expounded in the first and

second cha} are applied to the Motion of Bodies—Chap. 4. The Transmission of Work by
simple Machines—Chap. 5. Useful Propositions and Rules.

The Practical Millwright and Engineer's Ready

Reckoner; or Tables for finding the diameter and power of cog-wheels,
diameter, weight, and power of shafts, diameter and strength of bolts, etc.
By Tuomas Dixon. Fourth edition, 12mo, cloth, 3s.

Breweries and Maltings: their Arrangement, Con-
struction, Machinery, and Plant. By G. ScaMELL, F.R.ILB.A. Second
edition, revised, enlarged, and partly rewritten. By F. Colyer, M.LC.E.,
M.LM.E. HW ih 20 piates, 8vo, cloth, 18s.

_A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of Starch,
Glucose, Starch-Sugar, and Dextrine, based on the German of L. Von
Wagner, Professor in the Royal Technical School, Buda Pesth, and
other authorities. By JuLius FRANKEL; edited by ROBERT HUTTER,
proprietor of the Philadelphia Starch Works. Ji7%th 58 idtustrations,
344 pp., 8vo, cloth, 18s.

BS
To CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

A Practical Treatise on Mill-gearing, Wheels, Shafts,

Riggers, etc.; for the use of Engineers. | By.THomas Box. Third
edition, with 11 plates. Crown 8vo, cloth, 7s. 6d.

al

Mining Machinery: a Descriptive Treatise on the
Machinery, Tools, and other Appliances used in Mining. .. By. G. G.
ANpRE, F.G.S., Assoc, Inst. C.E., Mem. of the Society of Engineers.
Royal 4to, uniform with the Author’s Treatise on Coal Mining, con-
taining 182 Plates, accurately drawn to scale, with descriptive text, in
2 vols., cloth, 32. 125.

CONTENTS :

Machinery for Prospecting, Excavating, Hauling, and Hoisting—Ventilation—Pumping—
Treatment of Mineral Products, including Gold and Silver, Copper, Tin, and Lead, Iron
Coal, Sulphur, China Clay, Brick Earth, ete. ry

Lables jor Setting out Curves for Railways, Cinals
Roads, ete., varying from a radius of five chains to three miles. By A.
Kennepy and R, W. Hackwoop. — Lidustrated, 32mo, cloth, 25. 6d.

The Science and Art of the Manufacture of Portland

Cement, with observations on some of its constructive applications. With
66 illustrations, By. Henry Reip, C.E., Author of ‘A Practical
Treatise on Concrete,’ etc., etc. 8vo, cloth, 18s.

The Draughtsman’s Handbook of Plan and Map

‘Drawing; including instructions for the preparation of Engineering,
Architectural, and Mechanical Drawings. With numerous illustrations
in the text, and 33 plates (15 printed in colours). By G. G. ANDRE,
| F.G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E, 4to, cloth, 9s. . See Te

CONTENTS:

‘The Drawing Office and its Furnishings—Geometrical Problems—Lines, Dots, and their.
Combinations—Colours, Shading, Lettering, Bordering, and North Points—Scales—Plotting
—Civil Engineers’ and Surveyors’ Plans—Map Drawing—Mechanical and. Architectural
Drawing—Copying and Reducing Trigonometrical Formulz, etc., etc.

The Boiler-maker s and Iron Ship-builder s C. companion,
comprising a series of original and carefully calculated tables, of the
utmost utility to persons interested in the iron trades. By JAMES FODEN,
author of ‘ Mechanical Tables,’ etc. Second edition eset ah tllustra-
tions, crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.

Rick Blasting : a Practical Treatise on the means
employed in Blasting Rocks for Industrial Purposes. By G. G. ANDRE,
F,G.S., Assoc. Inst. C.E. Weel 56 cllustrations and 12 12 plates, 8v0, cloth,
10s, 6d. -

Painting and Painters Manual: a Book of Facts

for Painters and those who ‘Use or Deal in Paint Materials. By C. L.
Conpit and J. SCHELLER. J/lustrated, 8vo, cloth, Ios. 6d.
i

PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 11

 

A Treatise on Ropemaking as practised in public and

private Rope-yards, with a Description of the Manufacture, Rules, Tables

_ of Weights, etc., adapted to the Trade, Shipping, Mining, Railways,

Builders, etc. By R. CHAPMAN, formerly foreman to Messrs. Huddart

and Co., Limehouse, and late Master Ropemaker to H.M. Dechyarss
Deptford. Second edition, 12mo, cloth, 3s,

‘Laxton's Builders. and Contractors’ T. ables ; for the
use of Engineers, Architects, Surveyors, Builders, Lard - Agents, and
others. Bricklayer, containing 22 tables, with nearly 30,000 calculations.
4to, cloth, 5s.

Laxton’s Builders’ and Contractors’ Tables. Ex-
cavator, Earth, Land, Water, and-Gas, containing 53 tables, with nearly
24,000 calculations. 4to, cloth, 5s.

Sanitary Engineering: a Guide to the Construction
of Works of Sewerage and House Drainage, with Tables for facilitating
the calculations of the Engineer. By BALDwin LATHAM, C.E., M. Inst.
C.E., F.G.S., F.M.S., Past-President of the Society of Engineers. Second
edition, with numerous plates and woodcuts, 8vo, cloth, 12. 10s. °°

Screw Cutting Tables for Engineers and Machinists,
giving the values of the different trains of Wheels: required to ptoduce
Screws of any pitch, calculated by Lord Tans M.P., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
.ete. Cloth, oblong, 2s.

Screw Cutting Tables, for the use of Mechanical

Engineers, showing the proper arrangement of Wheels for cutting the

. Threads of Screws of any required pitch, with a Table for making the

Universal Gas-pipe Threads and Taps. By W. A. MarTIN, Engineer.
Second edition, oblong, cloth, 1s., or sewed, 6d.

A Treatise on a Practical Method of. Designing Slide-
Valve Gears by Simple Geometrical Construction, based upon the principles
enunciated in Euclid’s Elements, and comprising the various forms of

-sPlain Slide-Valve and Expansion Gearing ; together with Stephenson’s,
Gooch’s, and Allan’s Link-Motions, as applied either to reversing or to
variable expansion combinations. By EDWARD J. COWLING WELCH,
Memb. Inst. Mechanical Engineers. Crown 8vo, cloth, 6s.

Cleaning and Scouring : a Manual for Dyers, Laun-
dresses, and for Domestic Use. By S. CHRISTOPHER. 18mo, sewed, 6d,

A Handbook of House Sanitation ; for the use of all
persons seeking a Healthy Home. A reprint of those portions of Mr.
.., Bailey-Denton’s. Lectures on Sanitary Engineering, given before the
School. of Military , Engineering, which related to the ‘‘ Dwelling,”
enlarged and revised by his Son, E. F. BAtLtey-DENTON, C.E., B.A.
With 140 illustrations, 8vo, cloth, 8s. 6d.
12 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS

 

 

 

A Glossary of Terms used in Coal Mining. By
“WILLIAM STUKELEY GRESLEY, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., F.G.S., Member
of the North of England Institute of Mining Engineers. J//ustrated with
numerous woodcuts and diagrams, crown 8vo, cloth, 5s.

A Pocket-Book for Boiler Makers and Steam Users,

comprising a variety of useful information for Employer and Workman,
Government Inspectors, Board of Trade Surveyors, Engineers in charge
of Works and Slips, Foremen of Manufactories, and the general Steam-
using Public: By Mauricz JoHN Sexton. Second edition, royal
32mo, roan, gilt edges, 55.

Electrolysis: a Practical Treatise on Nickeling,
Coppering, Gilding, Silvering, the Refining of Metals, and the treatment
of Ores by means of Electricity. By HiPPpoLYTE FONTAINE, translated
from the French by J. A. BERLY, C.E., Assoc. S.T.E. With engravings.
8vo, cloth, gs.

A Practical Treatise on the Steam Engine, con-

taining Plans and Arrangements of Details for Fixed Steam Engines,
with Essays on the Principles involved in Design and Construction. By
ARTHUR RiGG, Engineer, Member of the Society of Engineers and of
the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Demy 4to, copiously illustrated
with woodcuts and 96 plates, in one Volume, half-bound morccco, 2/, 2s.;
or cheaper edition, cloth, 25s.

This work is not, in any sense, an elementary treatise, or history of the steam engine, but
is intended to describe examples of Fixed Steam Engines without entering into the wide
domain of locomotive or marine practice. To this end illustrations will be given of the most
recent arrangements of Horizontal, Vertical, Beam, Pumping, Winding, Portable, Semi-
portable, Corliss, Allen, Compound, and other similar Engines, by the most eminent Firms in
Great Britain and America. ‘The laws relating to the action and precautions to be observ
in the construction of the various details, such as Cylinders,. Pistons, Piston-rods, Connecting-
rods, Cross-heads, Motion-blocks, Eccentrics,-Simple, Expansion, Balanced, and Equilibrium
Slide-valves, and Valve-gearing will be minutely dealt with. In this connection will be found
articles upon the Velocity of Reciprocating Parts and the Mode of Applying the Indicator,
Heat ae Expansion of Steam Governors, and the like. It is the writer’s desire to draw
illustrations from every possible source, and give only those rules that present practice deems
correct. i

Barlow's Tables of Squares, Cubes, Square Roots,

Cube Roots, Reciprocals of ali Integer Numbers up to 10,000. Post 8va,
cloth, 65.

Camus (M.) Treatise on the Teeth of Wheels, demon-
strating the best forms which can be. given to them for the purposes of
Machinery, such as Mill-work and Clock-work, and the art of finding
their numbers. Translated from the French, with details of the present
practice of Millwrights, Engine Makers, and other Machinists, by
Isaac HAWKINS. Third edition, witk 18 plates, 8vo, cloth, 55.
PUBLISHED ‘BY E. & F. N..SPON. °: 13

 

A Practical Treatise on the Science of Land and

Engineering Surveying, Levelling, Estimating Quantities, '¢tc., with a
general description of the several Instruments, required. for Surveying,
Levelling, Plotting, etc. By H. S. MErrert. Fourth edition, revised
by G.. We UsiLt, Assoc. Mem. Inst.*C.E. 41 Bie we wllustrations
oe tables, royal 8vo, cloth, 125..6d, nb AGI :

PRINCIPAL CONTENTS :

| Part © Introduction and the. one: of Geometry, Part 2. Land Surveying; com-
Peae f General Observations—The Chain—Offsets Surveying: by the Chain: ‘only—Surveying
illy Ground—To Survey an ae or Parish by the Chain only—Surveying with the
Theodolite—Mining and Town Surveying—Railroad Surveying—Mapping—Division and
Laying out of Land—Observations on Enclosures—Plane Trigonometry. Part 3. Levelling—
“Simple and Compound Levelling—The Level’ Beek ene Plan and Section—
Levelling with a Theodolite—Gradients—Wooden Curves—To Lay out a Railway Curve—
Setting out Widths. Part 4. Calculating Quantities generally for Estimates—Cuttings and
Embankments—Tunnels—Brickwork—Ironwork—Timber Measuring. art's. Description
and Use of Instruments in Surveying and Plotting—The Improved Dumpy Level—Troughton’s
Level —The Prismatic Compass — Proportional Compass— Box Sextant—Vernier — Panta-
graph—Merrett’s Improved Quadrant—Improved Computation Scale—The Diagonal Scale—
Straight' Edge and Sector. Part 6. Logarithms of Numbers— Logarithmic Sines and
Co-Sines, ‘Tangents: and Co-Tangents—Natural. Sines and. Co-Sines—Tables for Earthwork,
for, Setting out Curves, and for various Calculations, etc., ‘ete. 3 OC.

Saws: : the History, Development, Action, Classifica-
tion, and Comparison of Saws of all kinds. By. ROBERT GRIMSHAW.
With 220 illustrations, ato, cloth, 12s. 6d.

A Supplement to the above; containing additional
practical matter, more especially folate: to the forms of Saw Teeth for
special material and conditions, and to ‘the behaviour of Saws under
particular conditions. Wi2th-120 illustrations, cloth, 9s.

A Guide for the Electric Testing of Telegraph Cables.
: By Capt. V. Hoskicar, Royal Danish Engineers. With illustrations,
‘ second edition, crown 8vo, cloth, 45. 6d.

Tine and Repairing Electric T: elegraph Cables. By

: rear . Hosxiar, Royal Danish Engineers. ° Crown 8vo, cloth,
"35. 6

A Pocket. Book of Practical Rules for the fn

of Modern Engines and Boilers for Land and Marine purposes. By pte
- BuRGH. Seventh edition, royal game; roan, 45, 6d).

F, he Assayer’s Manual: an Abridged Treatise on
the Docimastic Examination of, Ores and’ Fuimace. dnd other Artificial
. Products.. By BRUNO KERL. ‘Translated, by Ww. T. BRaNnNT. With 65
illustrations, 8vo, cloth, r2s.6d@ 6 ~

The Steam Engine considered as a Heat Engine: a

’ ‘Treatise on the Theory of thé Steam Engine, illustrated by Diagrams,
Tables, and Examples: from Practice. By Jas. H. Correrit1, M.A.,
F.RS., Professor of ‘Applied Mechanics in the Royal - Naval: College.
8vo, cloth, 125, 6d,
14 CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.

 

Llectricity: its ‘Theory, Sources, and Ap lications.
By J. T. Spracuz, M.S.T.E. Second edition, revised and enlarged, with
numerous illustrations, crown 8vo, cloth, 155.

The Practice of Hand Turning in Wood, I vory, Shell,

eéc., with Instructions for Turning such ;Work in Metal as may be required
in the Practice of Turning in Wood, Ivory, etc. ; also an Appendix on
Ormamental Turning. (A book for beginners.) By FRANCIS CAMPIN.
Third edition, with wood engravings, crown 8yo, cloth, 6s..
: . a CONTENTS :
On, Lathes—Tirning Tapls—Turning =Wood—Drilling—Screw Cutting—Miscellaneous
eee Processes—Turning Particular Forms—Staining—Polishing—S) inning Metals

aterials—Ornamental Turning, etc.

ffealth and Comfort in. House Building, or Ventila-

tion with Warm Air by Self-Acting Suction Power, with Review of the
mode of Calculating the Draught in Hot-Air Flues, and with some actual
Experiments. By J. DrysDALE, M.D., and J. W. Haywarp, M.D.
Second edition, with Supplement, with plates, demy 8vo, cloth; 7s. 6d,

Treatise on Watchwork, Past and Present. By the
“Rev, H. L. NELTHROPP, M.A., F.S.A. With 32 illustrations, crown
8vo, cloth, 65. 6d.
CONTENTS :

' Definitions of Words and Terms used in Watchwork—Tools—Time—Historical Sum-
mary—On Calculations ofthe Nunibers for Wheels ‘and Pinions; their Proportional Sizes,
Trains, etc.—Of Dial Wheels, or Motion Work—Length of Time of Going without Winding
up—The Verge—The Horizontal—The Duplex—The Lever—The phronemster Bepeseae
Watches—Keyleés Watches~The Pendulum, or Spiral Spring—Compensation—Jewelling of
Pivot Holes—Clerkenweli—Fallacies of the Trade—Incapacity of Workmen—How to Choose
and Use a Watch, etc.

Notes in Mechanical Engineering. Compiled prin-
cipally for the use of the Students attending the Classes on this subject at

the City of London College. By HENRY ADAMS, Mem. Inst. M.E,,
Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Soc, of Engineers. Crown 8vo,; cloth, 25. 6d.

Algebra Self-Taught. By W. P. Hices, M.A.
D.Sc., LL.D., Assoc. Inst. C.E., Author of ‘A Handbook of the Differ-
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‘ CONTENTS :

Symbols and the Signs of Operation—The Equation and the Unknown Quantity—
Positive and Negative 1 ego pee tip eee rae ae ewe SL ative Expo-
nents—Roots, and the Use of, Exponents as Logarithms—Logarithins—Tables of Logarithms
and Proportionate Parts— Transformation of System of Logarithms—Common Uses of
Common Logarithms—Compound Multiplication and the Binomial Thedorerh—Division,
#rtactions, and Ratio—Continued Proportion—The Series and the Summation of the Series—
Limit of Series—Square and Cube Roots—Equations—List of Formula, etc,,..

Spons Dictionary of Engineering, Civil, Mechanical,
| Military, and, Naval; with technical terms in French, German, Italian,
and Spanish, 3100 pp., and early 8000 engravings, in super-royal 8vo,
in.8. divisions, 5/. 8s. Complete in 3 vols., cloth, 5/.'5s, Bound in a
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PUBLISHED BY E. & F. N. SPON. 15

 

Canoe qnd Boat Building: a complete Manual for
Amateurs, containing plain and comprehensive directions for, the con-
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By W. P. StEepHens, . With numerous illustrations and 24 plates of
Working Drawings. Ctown 8vo, cloth, 7s.6¢4. 9. 7 ss

Cultural Industries for Queensland: Papers on the
cultivation of useful Plants suited to the climate of Queensland, their
value as Food, in the Arts, and in Medicine, and methods of obtaining
their products. By L. A. Bernays, F.LS,, F.R.G.S. 8vo, half calf,

~ 4s. 6d. The samé, in cloth, 65. ~ | aed <

Proceedings of the National Conference of Electricians,
Philadelphia, October 8th to 13th, 1884. -18mo, cloth, 3s. :

Dynamo - Electricity, its Generation, Application,
Transmission, Storage, and Measurement. By G. B. Prescott. With
545 2lustrations. 8vo, cloth, 12. 15. ih aes :

Domestic Electricity for Amateurs. Translated from
the French of E. Hospitatier, Editor of ‘‘ L’Electricien,” by C. J.
WHarTOoN, Assoc. Soc. Tel. Eng. Numerous illustrations, Demy 8vo,
cloth, 9s. et he SN a ae Bib de Pa

2
Conrents: / seg

‘x. Production of the Electric Current—2: Electric Bells—3. Automatic Alarms—4. Domestic
Telephones—s. Electric: Clocks—6. Electric Lighters~—7. Domestic Electric Lighting—
8. Domestic Application of the Electric Light—g. Electric Motors—ro. Electrical Locomo-
tion—zz. Electrotyping, Plating, and Gilding—12. Electric Recreations—13. Vanous appli-
cations—Workshop of the Electrician.’ Ca eins .

Wrinkles in Electric Lighting. By Vincent STEPHEN.
With illustrations. 18mo, cloth, 2s. 6a.

CoNnTENTS:

1. The Electric Current and its production by Chemical means—2. Production of Electric
Currents by Mechanical; means—3. Dynamo-Electric Machines—4. Electric Lamps—
5. Lead—6. Ship Lighting. ao af i ‘

The Practical Flax Spinner ; being a Description of
the Growth, Manipulation, and Spinning of Flax and Tow. By LEsLiE
C. MARSHALL, of Belfast. With illustrations. 8vo, cloth, 155.

Foundations and Foundation Walls for all classes of
Buildings, Pile ‘Driving, Building Stones and Bricks, Pier and Wall
construction, Mortars, Limes, Cements, Concretes, Stuccos, &ce. 64 zlus-
trations, By G, T. POWELL and F. BAUMAN. 8vo, cloth, 105, 6¢.  —

The British Fugernath. Free Trade! Fair Trade!!

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Manual for Gas Engineering Students. By D. Lex.

18mo, cloth 1s.

Hydraulic Machinery, Past and Present. A Lecture
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Twenty Years with the Indicator. By Tuomas Pray,
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2 vols., royal 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d.

Annual Statistical Report of the Secretary to the
Members of the Iron and Steel Association on the Home and Foreign Iron
and Steel Industries in 1884. Issued.March 1885.. 8vo, sewed, 55.

Bad Drains, and How to Test them; with Notes on
the Ventilation of Sewers, Drains, and Sanitary Fittings, and the Origin
and Transmission of Zymotic Disease. By R. Harris REEVES. Crown
8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. oa

Standard Practical Plumbing; being a complete
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Gas Fitters, Hot-water Fitters, Ironmongers, Lead Burners, Sanitary’
Engineers, Zinc Workers, &c.. ///ustrated by over 2000 engravings. By
P. J. Davies.’ Vol. 1, royal 8vo, cloth, 75. 6d. ‘

Pneumatic Transmission .of Messages and Parcels
between Paris and London, vid Calais and Dover. By J. B. BERLIER,
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List of Tests (Reagents), arranged in alphabetical’
order, according to the names of the originators. Designed especially
for the convenient reference of Chemists, Pharmacists, and. Scientists.
By Hans M. WILDER. Crown 8vo, cloth, 4s. 6d. © :

Ten Years’ Experience in Works of Intermittent

Downward Filtration. By J. Battery DeEnton, Mem. Inst. C.E.
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A Treatise on the Manufacture of Soap and Candles,
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The Stability of Siebs explained simply;and calculated
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Steam Mae or “Boiliv Practice By Cuartzs A.
SMITH, C.E. 8vo, cloth, 9s. Rat

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x.:The. Nature of Heat and the Properties of Steam—2. Combustion.—3. Externally Fired

tationary Boilers—4. Internally Fired Stationary Boilers—s. Internally Fired Portable
Locomotive and Marine Boilers—6., Design, Construction, and Strength of. Boilers—7. Pro-
portions of Heating Surface, Economic Evaporation, Haplesentr Miscellaneous Boilers,
Choice of Boiler Fittings and Appurtenances.

The Fireman 's, Guide ; a ‘Handbook on the Care of

Boilers. By TEKNOLOG, {foreningen T. I. Stockholm. Translated from
the third edition, and revised’ by ae) P. DauisTRom, M.E. Second
edition.” Feap.. 9 cloth, 25, '

At, realise on Modern Steam Engines and Boilers,
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use of Students. By FREDERICK CoLvER, M. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. M.E.
With 36 plates. to, cloth. | (early ‘ready.)

ConTENTS: ,

I. esate =o: Original Engines—3. Boilers—4. . High- -Pressure ae Engines—s.
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Pressure Engines—g, Special Engines—zo. Portable Engines—11, Locomotive Engines—
12. Marine Enos:

Steam Engine Management; a Treatise on the

Working and Management: of Steam Boilers. e F. CoLyer, M. Inst.
C.E., Mem. Inst. ME, 18mo, cloth, 2s. :

Land Surveying on the Meridian and oe

System. By WILLIAM PENMAN, ‘C.E. 8vo, cloth, 85, 6d.

The Topographer, his Instruments and Methods,

designed for the use of Students,. Amateur Photographers, Surveyors,
Engineers, and all persons interested in the location and; construction. of
works based upon Topography. Jilustrated with numerous plates, maps,
and engravings. By. = M Havet, A.M. ore: cloth, 185. ~

A Text-Book of Ti unning, embracing the Preparation
of all kinds of Leather. By Harry R. Procror, F.C.S., of Low Lights
Tanneries. W2th illustrations, Crown aro, cloth, 0s, 6d,
In super-royal 8vo, 1168 pp., wzth 2400 illustrations, in 3 Divisions, cloth, price 135. 6d.
each ; or 1 vol., cloth, 2. ; or half-morocco, 2/, 8s.

A SUPPLEMENT

SPONS’ DICTIONARY OF ENGINEERING.

EDITED BY ERNEST SPON, Mens. Soc, ENGINEERS.

Abacus, Counters, Speed
Indicators, and Slide
Rule.

Agricultural Implements
and Machinery.

Air Compressors.

Animal Charcoal Ma-
chinery.

Antimony.

Axles and Axle-boxes.

Barn Machinery.

Belts and Belting.

Blasting. Boilers,

Brakes,

Brick Machinery.

Bridges.

Cages for Mines.

Calculus, Differential and

_ Integral.

Canals,

Carpentry.

Cast Iron.

Cement, Concrete,.
Limes, and Mortar.

Chimney Shafts.

Coal Cleansing
Washing.

and

 

Coal Mining.
Coal Cutting Machines.
Coke Ovens. Copper.
Docks. Drainage.
Dredging Machinery.
Dynamo - Electric and
Magneto-Electric Ma-
chines.
Dynamometers.
Electrical Engineering,
Telegraphy, Electric
Lighting and its prac-
ticaldetails, Telephones
Engines, Varieties of.

Explosives. Fans.

| Founding, Moulding and

the practical work of
the Foundry.
Gas, Manufacture of.
»Hammers, Steam and
other Power.
Heat. Horse Power.
Hydraulics.
Hydro-geology.
Indicators. Iron.
Lifts, Hoists, and Eleva-
tors.

 

Lighthouses, Buoys, and
Beacons.

Machine Tools.

Materials of Construc-
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Meters,

Ores, Machinery and
Processes employed to
Dress.

Piers.

Pile Driving.

Pneumatic Transmis-
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Pumps,

Pyrometers,

Road Locomotives.

Rock Drills.

Rolling Stock,

Sanitary Engineering. |

Shafting. ‘

Steel.

Steam Navvy.

Stone Machinery.

Tramways.

Well Sinking.

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 126, Strand.,
New York: 35, Murray Street.
NOW COMPLETE.

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SPONS’ ENCYCLOPADIA

OF THE

INDUSTRIAL ARTS, MANUFACTURES, AND COMMERCIAL

PRODUCTS.

Epitep By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK, F.LS.

Among the more important of the subjects treated of, are the

following :—

Acids, 207 pp. 220 figs.
Alcohol, 23 pp. 16 figs.
Alcoholic Liquors, 13 pp.
Alkalies, 89 pp. 78 figs.
Alloys. Alum.
Asphalt. Assaying.
Beverages, 89 pp. 29 figs.
Blacks.
Bleaching Powder, 15 pp.
Bleaching, 51 pp. 48 figs.
Candles, 18 pp. 9 figs.
Carbon Bisulphide.
Celluloid, -9 pp.
Cements. Clay.
Coal-tar Products, 44 pp.
14 figs.
Cocoa, 8 pp.
Coffee, 32 pp. 13 figs.
Cork, 8 pp. 17 figs.
Cotton Manufactures, 62

Dyeing and Calico
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Dyestuffs, 16 pp.
Electro-Metallurgy, 13
PP. .
Explosives, 22 pp. 33 figs.
Feathers.
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PP: 79 figs.
eee 16 pp. 21

Food Preservation, 8 pp.
Fruit, 8 pp.

 

Fur, 5 pp.

Gas, Coal, 8 pp.

Gems.

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Graphite, 7 pp.

Hair, 7 pp.

Hair Manufactures.

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Indiarubber Manufac-
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Ink, 17 pp.

Ivory.

Jute Manufactures,
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II

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Lace, 13 pp. 9 figs.
Leather, 28 pp. 31 figs.
Linen Manufactures, 16

pp. 6 figs.

Manures, 21 pp. 30 figs.

Matches, 17 pp. 38 figs.

Mordants, 13 pp.

Narcotics, 47 pp-

Nuts, 10 pp.

Oils and Fatty Sub-
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Paint.

Paper, 26 pp. 23 figs.

Paraffin, 8 pp. 6 figs.

Pearl and Coral, 8 pp.

Perfumes, 10 pp.

 

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fi

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Pigments, 9 pp. 6 figs.

Pottery, 46 pp. 57 figs.

Printing and Engraving,
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Rags.

Resinous and Gummy
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Rope, 16 pp. 17 figs.

Salt, 31 pp. 23 figs.

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Silk Manufactures, 9 pp.
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Skins, 5 pp.

Small Wares, 4 pp.

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Spices, 16 pp.

Sponge, 5 pp-

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Sugar, 155 pp.. 134
figs.

Sulphur.

Tannin, 18 pp.

Tea, [2 pp.

Timber, 13 pp.

Varnish, 15 pp.

Vinegar, 5 pp.

Wax, 5 pp.

Wool, 2 pp.

Woollen Manufactures,
58 pp. 39 figs.

 

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, Crown 8vo, cloth, with illustrations, 5s.

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,

FIRST SERIES.

By ERNEST SPO.

Bookbinding.

Bronzes and Bronzing.

Candles.

Cement.

Cleaning.

Colourwashing.

Concretes.

Dipping Acids.

Drawing Office Details.

Drying Oils.

Dynamite. ;

Electro - Metallurgy —
(Cleaning, Dipping,
Seratch-brushing, Bat-

teries, “Baths, and
Deposits of every
description).

Enamels.

Engraving on Wood,

Copper, Gold, Silver,
Steel, and Stone.
Etching and Aqua Tint.

Firework Making —
(Rockets; Stars, Rains,
Gerbes, Jets, Tour-

billons, Candles, Fires,
Lances, Lights, Wheels,
Fire-balloons, and
minor Fireworks).
Fluxes.
Foundry Mixtures.

SyNopsis OF CONTENTS,
Freezing, , Paper.

Fulminates. Paper Hanging.
Furniture Creams, Oils, Painting in Oils, in Water

Polishes, Lacquers,, Colours, as well as
and Pastes. | Freseo, House, Trans-
Gilding. | parency, Sign, and
Glass Cutting, Cleaning, _ Carriage Painting.
Frosting, Drilling, ' Photography.

Darkening, «Bending, : Plastering,
Staining, and Paint- Polishes.
ing. ; Pottery—(Clays, Bodies,

>
Glass Making. |  Glazes, Colours, Oils,
Glues. Stains, Fluxes, Ena-
. Gold. mels, and Lustres).
' Graining. Scouring.
Gums. Silvering.
Gun Cotton. | Soap. .
Gunpowder. | Solders.
| Horn Working. | Tanning.
‘ Indiarubber. * | Taxidermy.

Japans, Japanning, and Tempering Metals.
kindred processes.» Treating Horn, Mother-

Lacquers. -o'-Pearl, and like sub-
Lathing. stances,

Lubricants. | Varnishes, Manufacture
Marble Working. and Use of.

Matches. | Veneering.

Mortars. | Washing.
Nitro-Glycerine. | ‘Waterproofing.

Oils. : | Welding.

 

\

Besides Receipts relating to the lesser Technological matters and processes,
such as the manufacture and use of Stencil Plates, Blacking, Crayons, Paste,
Putty, Wax, Size, Alloys, Catgut, Tunbridge Ware, Picture Frame and
Architectural Mouldings, Compos, Cameos, and others too numerous to

mention. .

 

London: E.

New

& F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
York: 35, Murray Street.
Crown 8vo, cloth, 485 pages, with illustrations, 5s.

YORKSHOP RECEIPTS,

EVs, = SECOND SERIES.

By ROBERT HALDANE.

- t
Bows 2? . '

SYNopsis OF CONTENTS.

Acidimetry and ,Alkali-| Disinfectants.. y/ .. | Isinglass.

metry. Dyeing, ie and | Ivory substitutes.
Albumen. : Colouring, - - . »| Leather.
Alcohol. , | Essences, so") Luminous ‘bodies.
Alkaloids, Extracts. Magnesia,
Baking-powders. Vireproofng. =. | Matches.
Bitters. Gelatine, Glue, and Soe Paper.
Bleaching. 9 nits Glycerine. va * | Parchment.
Boiler Incrustations.,. | Gut. .: | Perchloric acid.
Cements and Lutes. | gd peroxide, _ | Potassium oxalate.
Cleansing. : Ink ‘ ' ) Preserving.
Confectionery. eee vk " :
Copying. _ | Todoform.

een,

Pigments, Paint, and Painting: embracing the preparation of
Pigments, including alumina lakes, blacks (animal, bone, Frankfort, ivory,
lamp, sight, soot), blues (antimony, Antwerp, .cobait, cceruleum, Egyptian,
manganate, Paris, Péligot, Prussian, smalt, ultramarine), browns (bistre,
hinau, sepia, sienna, umber, Vandyke), greens (baryta, Brighton, Brunswick,
chrome, cobalt, Douglas, emerald, manganese, mitis, mountain, Prussian,
sap, Scheele’s, Schweinfurth, titanium, verdigris, zinc), reds (Brazilwood lake,
carminated lake, carmine, Cassius purple,’ cobalt pink, cochineal lake, colco-
thar, Indian red, maddér lake, red chalk, red lead, vermilion), whites (alum,
baryta, Chinese, lead sulphate, white Jead—by American, Dutch, French,
German, Kremnitz, and Pattinson processes, precautions in making, and
composition of commercial samples—whiting, Wilkinson’s white, zinc white),
yellows (chrome, gamboge, Naples, orpiment, realgar, yellow lakes) ;, Paine
(vehicles, testing | oils, driers, grinding, storing, applying, priming, ‘drying,
filling, coats, brushes, surface, water-colours, removing smell, discoloration ;
miscellaneous paints—cement paint for carton-pierre, copper paint, gold: paint,
iron paint, lime paints, silicated paints, steatite paint, transparent, paints,
tungsten paints, window paint, zinc paints) ; Painting (general instructions,
proportions of ingredients, measuring paint work ; 3; carriage painting—priming
paint, best putty, finishing colour, cause of cracking, mixing the paints, oils,
driers, and colours, varnishing, importance of washing vehicles, re-varnishing,
how to dry paint ; woodwork painting).

 

London: BE. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
JUST PUBLISHED.

Crown 8vo, cloth, 480 pages, with 183 illustrations, §s.

B

WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,
THIRD SERIES. |

By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK.

Uniform with the First anid Second Series.

Alloys,
Aluminium.
Antimony.
Barium.
Beryllium.
Bismuth.
Gadmium.
Ceesium.
Calcium.
Cerium.
Chromium,
Cobalt.
Copper.
Didymium,
Electrics,

Enamels and Glazes.

Erbium.
Gallium.
Glass,
Gold.

SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS.

Indium.
Iridium,
Tron and Steel.
Lacquersand Lacquering.
Lanthanum,
Lead.
Lithium,
Lubricants,
Magnesium.
Manganese.
Mercury.
Mica. |
Molybderium.
Nickel,
Niobium,

| Osmium.
Palladium.
Platinum.
Potassium,
Rhodium.

 

 

Rubidium,
Ruthenium.
Selenium.
Silver.
Slag.
Sodium.
Strontium,
Tantalum.
Terbium.
Thallium.
Thorium.
Tin,
Titanium,
Tungsten.
Uranium.
Vanadium.
Yttrium.
Zinc.
Zirconium,

 

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New York: 35 Murray Street.
WORKSHOP RECEIPTS,

FOURTH SERIES,
DEVOTED MAINLY TO HANDICRAFTS & MECHANICAL SUBJECTS.

By C. G. WARNFORD LOCK.
250 Illustrations, with Complete Index, & a General Index to the Four Series.

Waterproofing — rubber goods, cuprammonium processes, miscellaneous
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Packing and Storing articles of delicate odour or colour, of a deliquescent
character, liable to ignition, apt to suffer from insects or damp, or easily
broken.

Embalming and Preserving anatomical specimens.
Leather Polishes.

Cooling Air and Water, producing low temperatures, making ice, cooling
syrups and solutions, and separating salts from liquors by refrigeration.

Pumps and Siphons, embracing every useful contrivance for raising and
supplying water on a moderate scale, and moving corrosive, tenacious,
and other liquids.

Desiccating—air- and water-ovens, and other appliances for drying natural
and artificial products.

Distilling—water, tinctures, extracts, pharmaceutical preparations, essences,
perfumes, and alcoholic liquids.

Emulsifying as required by pharmacists and photographers.

Evaporating—saline and other solutions, and liquids demanding special
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Filtering—water, and solutions of various kinds.

Percolating and Macerating.

Electrotyping.

Stereotyping by both plaster and paper processes.

Bookbinding in all its details.

Straw Plaiting and the fabrication of baskets, matting, etc.

Musical Instruments—the preservation, tuning, and sepa of pianos,
harmoniums, musical boxes, etc.

Clock and Watch Mending—adapted for intelligent eens

Photography—recent development in rapid processes, handy apparatus,
numerous recipes for sensitizing and developing solutions, and applica-
- tions to modern illustrative purposes.

 

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
JUST PUBLISHED.

In demy 8vo, cloth, 600 pages, St nieg Ilustrations, 6c.
SPONS’
MECHANIC’S OWN BOOK;
A MANUAL FOR HANDICRAFTSMEN AND AMATEURS,

CONTENTS.

Mechanical Drawing—Casting and Founding in Iron, Brass, Bronze,
and other Alloys—Forging and Finishing Iron—Sheetmetal Working
Soldering, Brazing, and Burning—Carpentry and Joinery, embracing
descriptions of some 400 Woods, over 200 Illustrations of Tools and
their uses, Explanations (with Diagrams) of 116 joints and hinges, and
Details of Construction of ‘Workshop’ appliances, rough furniture,
Garden and Yard Erections, and House Building—Cabinet-Making
and Veneering— Carving and Fretcutting — Upholstery — Painting,
Graining, and Marbling— Staining Furniture, Woods, Floors, and
Fittings—Gilding, dead and bright, on various grounds—Polishing
Marble, Metals, and Wood—Varnishing—Mechanical movements,
illustrating contrivances for transmitting’ motion—Turning in Wocd
and Metals—Masonry, embracing Stonework, Brickwork, Terracotta,
and Concrete—Roofing with Thatch, Tiles, Slates, Felt, Zinc, &c.—
Glazing with and without putty, and lead glazing—Plastering | and
Whitewashing — Paper-hanging — Gas-fitting—Bell-hanging, ordinary
and electric Systems — Lighting —-Warming — Ventilating — Roads,
Pavements, and Bridges— Hedges, Ditches, and Drains — Water
Supply and Sanitation—Hints on House Construction suited to new
countries.

London: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand.
New York: 35, Murray Street.
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