. —~ ‘ er ‘ SWI WS 0S 0S SS SX. CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY MATT ll DEC Loin ed pee | etl eee =a 1 i 1 1 MAR CUUN a a H P fi a eT Z Ny i 5 a i > te | cS | ok o A y A Z} THE BOOK OF THE SWORD LONDON : IRINTED BY SIOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET as THE BOOK OF THE SWORD BY RICHARD EF’ BURTON MAITRE D’ARMES (BREVETE) WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS London . CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY 1884 ea [477 rights reserved “CORNELL ’ UNIVERSITY. LIBRARY A 10795 ( S20 BITh ‘He that hath no Sword (-knife=pdxyaipa), let him sell his garment and buy one.’ St. Luke xxii. 36. ‘Solo la spada vuol magnificarsi, (Nothing is high and awful save the Sword.) Lod, della Vernactia, A.D. 1200, ‘But, above all, it is most conducive to the greatness of empire for a nation to profess the skill of arms as its principal glory and most honourable employ.’ ‘ Bacon’s Advancement of Learning, viii. 3. ‘The voice of every people is the Sword That guards them, or the Sword that beats them down.’ TrEnNyson’s Harold. TO THE MEMORY OF MY OLD AND DEAR COLLEGE FRIEND ALFRED BATE RICHARDS WHO IN YEARS GONE BY ACCEPTED THE DEDICATION OF THESE PAGES FOREWORD. ‘I WANTED a book on the Sword, not a treatise on Carte and Tierce,’ said the Publisher, when, some years ago, my earliest manuscript was sent to him. It struck me then and there that the Publisher was right. Consequently the volume was re-written after a more general and less professional fashion. I have only one wish that reader and reviewer can grant: namely, a fair field and no favour for certain ‘advanced views’ of Egyptology. It is my conviction that this study, still in its infancy, will greatly modify almost all our preconceived views of archzological history. RICHARD F. BURTON. TRIESTE: Movember 20, 1883. INTRODUCTION. THE HISTORY OF THE Sworp is the history of humanity. The ‘White Arm’ means something more than the ‘oldest, the most universal, the most varied of weapons, the only one which has lived through all time.’ He, she, or it—for the gender of the Sword varies—has been worshipped with priestly sacrifices as a present god. Hebrew revelation represents the sharp and two- edged Sword going out of the mouth of the King of Kings, and Lord of Lords. We read of a ‘ Sword of God, a holy Sword,’ the ‘ Sword of the Lord and of Gideon’ ; and ‘I came not to send peace but a Sword, meaning the warfare and martyrdom of man. On a lower plane the Sword became the invention and the favourite arm of the gods and the demi-gods: a gift of magic, one of the treasures sent down from Heaven, which made Mulciber (‘Malik Kabir,’ the great king) divine, and Voelunder, Quida, Galant, or Wayland Smith a hero. It was consecrated to the deities, and was stored in the Temple and in the Church. It was the ‘key of heaven and hell’: the saying is, ‘If there were no Sword, there would be no law of Mohammed’ ; and the Moslem brave’s highest title was ‘ Sayf UNah’—Sword of Allah. Uniformly and persistently personal, the Sword became no longer an abstrac- tion but a Personage, endowed with human as well as superhuman qualities. He was a sentient being who spoke, and sang, and joyed, and grieved. Identified with his wearer he was an object of affection, and was pompously named as a well- beloved son and heir. To surrender the Sword was submission ; to break the Sword was degradation. To kiss the Sword was, and in places still is, the highest form of oath and homage. Lay on our royal Sword your banished hands says King Richard II. So Walther of Aquitaine :— Contra Orientalem prostratus corpore partem Ac nudum retinens ensem hac cum voce precatur. The Sword killed and cured ; the hero when hopeless fell upon his Sword ; and the heroine, like Lucretia and Calphurnia, used the blade standing. The Sword az xii INTRODUCTION. cut the Gordian knot of every difficulty. The Sword was the symbol of justice and of martyrdom, and accompanied the wearer to the tomb as well as to the feast and the fight. ‘Lay on my coffin a Sword,’ said dying Heinrich Heine, ‘for I have warred doughtily to win freedom for mankind.’ From days immemorial the Queen of Weapons, a creator as well as a destroyer, ‘carved out history, formed the nations, and shaped the world.’ She decided the Alexandrine and the Cesarian victories which opened new prospects to human ken. She diffused everywhere the bright lights and splendid benefits of war and conquest, whose functions are all important in the formative and progressive processes. It is no paradox to assert La guerre a enfanté le droit: without War there would be no Right. The cost of life, says Emerson, the dreary havoc of comfort and time, are overpaid by the vistas it opens of Eternal Law reconstructing and uplifting society ; it breaks up the old horizon, and we see through the rifts a wider view. War, again, benefits society by raising its tone above the ineffable littleness and meanness which characterise the every-day life of the many. In the presence of the Great Destroyer, petty feuds and miserable envy, hatred, and malice stand hushed and awe-struck. Very hollow in these days sounds Voltaire’s banter on War when he says that a king picks up a parcel of men who have nothing to do, dresses them in blue cloth at two shillings a yard, binds their hats with coarse white worsted, turns them to the right and left, and marches them away to glory. The Sword and only the Sword raised the worthier race to power upon the ruins of impotent savagery ; and she carried in her train, from time immemorial, throughout the civilised world, Asiatic Africa, Asia, and Europe, the arts and the sciences which humanise mankind. In fact, whatever apparent evil the Sword may have done, she worked for the highest ultimate good. With the Arabs the Sword was a type of individuality. Thus Shanfara, the fleet-foot, sings in his Lamiyyah, (L-poem) :— Three friends : the Heart no fear shall know, The sharp white Sword, the yellow Bow. Zayd bin Ali boasts, like El-Mutanabbi :— The wielded Sword-blade knows my hand, The Spear obeys my lusty arm, And Ziydd El-Ajam thus writes the epitaph of El-Mughayrah: ‘So died he after having sought death between the spear-point and the Sword-edge,’ This ‘ Pundonor’ presently extended westward. During the knightly ages the ‘good Sword’ of the Paladin and the Chevalier embodied a new faith—the Religion of Honour, the first step towards the religion of humanity. These men once more INTRODUCTION. Xiii taught the sublime truth, the splendid doctrine known to the Stoics and the Pharisees, but unaccountably neglected in later creeds :— Do good, for Good is good to do. Their recklessness of all consequences soared worlds-high above the various egotistic systems which bribe man to do good for a personal and private con- sideration, to win the world, or to save his soul. Hence Aristotle blamed his contemporaries, the Spartans: ‘They are indeed good men, but they have not the supreme consummate excellence of loving all things worthy, decent and laudable, purely as such and for their own sakes ; nor of practising virtue for no other motive but the sole love of her own innate beauty. The ‘everlasting Law of Honour binding on all and peculiar to each, would have thoroughly satisfied the Stagirite’s highest aspirations. In knightly hands the Sword acknowledged no Fate but that of freedom and free-will; and it bred the very spirit of chivalry, a keen personal sentiment of self- respect, of dignity, andvof loyalty, with the noble desire to protect weakness against the abuse of strength. The knightly Sword was ever the representative idea, the present and eternal symbol of all that man most prized—courage and freedom. The names describe her quality: she is Joyeuse, and La Tisona; he is Zu ’l-Fikar (sire of splitting) and Quersteinbeis, biter of the mill-stone. The weapon was everywhere held to be the best friend of bravery, and the worst foe of perfidy ; the companion of authority, and the token of commandment ; the outward and visible sign of force and fidelity, of conquest and dominion, of all that Humanity wants to have and wants to be. The Sword was carried by and before kings ; and the brand, not the sceptre, noted their seals of state. As the firm friend of the crown and of the ermine robe, it became the second fountain of honour. Amongst the ancient Germans even the judges sat armed on the judgment-seat ; and at marriages it represented the bride- groom in his absence. Noble and ennobling, its touch upon the shoulder conferred the prize of knighthood. As ‘balhshish’ it was, and still is, the highest testimony to the soldier’s character ; a proof that he is ‘brave as his sword-blade.’ Its pre- sence was a moral lesson; unlike the Greeks, the Romans, and the Hebrews, Western and Southern Europe, during its chivalrous ages, appeared nowhere and on no occasion without the Sword. It was ever ready to leap from its sheath in the cause of weakness and at the call of Honour. Hence, with its arrogant individuality, the Sword still remained the ‘all-sufficient type and token of the higher sentiments and the higher tendencies of human nature,’ In society the position of the Sword was remarkable. ‘Its aspect was brilliant ; its manners were courtly ; its habits were punctilious, and its connections were patrician.’ Its very vices were glittering; for most of them were the abuses which Xiv INTRODUCTION. could not but accompany its uses. It bore itself haughtily as a victor, an arbitrator; and necessarily there were times when its superlative qualities showed corresponding defects. Handled by the vile it too often became, in the ‘syllogism of violence, an incubus, a blusterer, a bully, a tyrant, a murderer, an assassin, in fact ‘death’s stamp’; and under such conditions it was a ‘ corruption of the best, But its lapses were individual and transient; its benefits to Humanity were general and ever-enduring. The highest period of the Sword was the early sixteenth century, that mighty landmark separating the dark Past from the brilliant Present of Europe. The sudden awaking and excitement of man’s mind, produced by the revival of learning and the marriage-union of the West with the East ; by the discovering of a new hemisphere, the doubling of the world ; by the so-called Reformation, a northern protest against the slavery of the soul; by the wide spread of the printing-press, which meant know- ledge ; and, simultaneously, by the illumination of that electric spark generated from the contact of human thought, suddenly changed the status of the Sword. It was no longer an assailant, a slaughterer: it became a defender, a preserver. It learned to be shield as well as Sword. And now arose swordsmanship proper, when the ‘Art of Arms’ meant, amongst the old masters, the Art of Fence. The sixteenth century was its Golden Age. At this time the Sword was not only the Queen of Weapons, but the weapon paramount between manand man, Then, advancing by slow, stealthy, and stumbling steps, the age of gunpowder, of ‘ villanous saltpetre,’ appeared upon the scene of life. Gradually the bayonet, a modern modification of the pike, which again derives from the savage spear, one of the earliest forms of the arme blanche, ousted the Sword amongst infantry because the former could be combined with the fire-piece, A century afterwards cavalrymen learned, in the Federal-Confederate war, to prefer the revolver and repeater, the breech-loader and the reservoir-gun, to the sabre of past generations. It became an axiom that in a cavalry charge the spur, not the Sword, gains the day. By no means a unique, nor even a singular process of progress, is this return towards the past, this falling back upon the instincts of primitive invention, this recurrence to childhood : when the science of war reverted to ballistics it practically revived the practice of the first ages, and the characteristic attack of the savage and the barbarian who, as a rule, throw their weapons. The cannon is the ballista, and the arblast, the mangonel, and the trebuchet, worked not by muscular but by chemical forces. The torpedo is still the old, old petard ; the spur of the ironclad is the long-disused embolon, rostrum, or beak ; and steam-power is a rough, cheap substitute for man-power, for the banks of oarsmen, whose work had a delicacy of manipulation unknown to machinery, however ingenious. The armed nations, which in Europe are again becoming the substitutes for standing INTRODUCTION. XV armies, represent the savage and barbarous stages of society, the proto-historic races, amongst which every man between the ages of fifteen and fifty is a man-at-arms. It is the same in moral matters ; the general spread of the revolutionary spirit, of repub- licanism, of democratic ideas, of communistic, socialistic, and nihilistic rights and claims now acting so powerfully upon society and upon the brotherhood of nations, is a re-dawning of that early day when the peoples ruled themselves, and were not yet governed by priestly and soldier kings. It is the same even in the ‘immaterials,’ The Swedenborgian school, popularly known by the trivial name Spiritualism, has revived magic, and this ‘new motor force, for such I call it, has resurrected. the Ghost, which many a wise head supposed to have been laid for ever. The death-song of the Sword has been sung, and we are told that ‘ Steel has ceased to be a gentleman.’! Not so! and by no means so. These are mere insular and in- sulated views, and England, though a grand figure, the mother of nations, the modern Rome, is yet buta fraction of the world. The Englishman and, for that matter, the German and the Scandinavian, adopted with a protest, and right unwillingly, swords- manship proper—that is, rapier and point, the peculiar and especial weapon, offensive and defensive, of Southern Europe, Spain, Italy, and France. During the most flourishing age of the Sword it is rare to find a blade bearing the name of an English maker, and English inscriptions seldom date earlier than the eighteenth century. The reason is evident. The Northerners hacked with hangers, they hewed with hatchets, and they cut with cutlasses because the arm suited their bulk and stature, weight and strength. But such weapons are the brutality of the Sword. In England swordsmanship is, and ever was, an exotic; like the sentiment, as opposed to the knowledge, of Art, it is the property of the few, not of the many ; and, being rare, it is somewhat ‘ un-English,.’ But the case is different on the continent of Europe. Probably at no period during the last four centuries has the Sword been so ardently studied as it is now by the Latin race in France and Italy. At no time have the schools been so dis- tinguished for intellectual as well as for moral proficiency. The use of the foil ‘bated’ and ‘unbated’ has once more become quasi-universal. A duello, in the most approved fashion of our ancestors, was lately proposed (September 1882) by ten journalists of a Parisian paper, to as many on the staff of a rival publication. Even the softer sex in France and Italy has become cunning of fence ; and women are among the most prosperous pupils of the sadles @armes. Witness, for instance, the ill-fated Mdlle. Feyghine of the Théatre Frangais, so celebrated for her skill in ‘the carte and the tierce and the reason demonstrative.’ Nor is the cause of this wider diffusion far to seek. In the presence of arms of 1 I refer to a vivacious but one-sided article on ‘The Sword,’ in Blackwooa’s Edinburgh Magazine, May 1881, xvi INTRODUCTIOM precision, the Sword, as a means of offence and defence, may practically fall for a time into disuse. It may no longer be the arm paramount or represent an idea. It may have come down from its high estate as tutor to the noble and the great. Yet not the less it has, and will ever have, its work todo. The Ex-Queen now appears as instructress-general in the art of arms. As the mathematic is the basis of all exact science, so Sword-play teaches the soldier to handle every other weapon. ° This is well known to Continental armies, in which each regiment has its own fencing establishment and its salle d’armes. Again, men of thought cannot ignore the intrinsic value of the Sword for stimulating physical qualities. Ce west pas assez de roidir Taéme, il faut aussi roidir les muscles, says Montaigne, who also remarks of fencing that it is the only exercise wherein /esprit s’en exerce. The best of callisthenics, this energetic educator teaches the man to carry himself like a soldier. A compendium of gymnastics, it increases strength and activity, dexterity and rapidity of movement. Professors calculate that one hour of hard fencing wastes forty ounces by perspiration and respiration. The foil is still the best training tool for the consensus of eye and hand ; for the judgment of distance and opportunity ; and, in fact, for the practice of combat. And thus swordsmanship engenders moral confidence and self-reliance while it stimulates a habit of resource ; and it is not without suggesting, even in the schools, that ‘curious, fantastic, very noble generosity proper to itself alone.’ And now when the vain glory of violence has passed away from the Sword with the customs of a past age, we can hardly ignore the fact that the manners of nations have changed, not for the best. As soon as the Sword ceased to be worn in France, a Frenchman said of his compatriots that the * politest people in Europe had suddenly become the rudest.” That gallant and courteous bearing, which in England during the early nineteenth century so charmed the ‘fiery and fastidious Alfieri” lingers only amongst a few. True the swash-buckler, the professional duellist, has disappeared. But courtesy and punctiliousness, the politeness of man to man, and respect and deference of man to woman—that /rauencultus, the very conception of the knightly character—have to a great extent been ‘improved off? The latter condition of society, indeed, seems to survive only in the most culti- vated classes of Europe; and, popularly, amongst the citizens of the United States, a curious oasis of chivalry in a waste of bald utilitarianism—preserved not by the Sword but by the revolver. Our England has abolished the duello without substituting aught better for it: she has stopped the effect and left the cause, So far I have written concerning the Sword simply to show that my work does not come out ‘a day after the fair’; and that there is still a powerful vitality in the heroic Weapon. The details of such general statements will be established INTRODUCTION. xvii and developed in the following pages. It is now advisable to introduce this volume to the reader. During the ‘seventies’ I began, with a light heart, my Book of the Sword, expecting to finish it within a few months. It has occupied me as many years. Not only study and thought, but travel and inspection, were found indispensable ; a monograph on the Sword and its literature involved visiting almost all the great armouries of continental Europe, and a journey to India in 1875-6. The short period of months served only to show that a memoir of the Sword embraces the annals of the world. The long term of years has convinced me that to treat the subject in its totality is impossible within reasonable limits. It will hardly be said that a monograph of the Sword is not wanted. Students who would learn her origin, genealogy, and history, find no single publication ready to hand. They must ransack catalogues and books on ‘arms and armour’ that are numbered by the score. They must hunt up fugitive pamphlets; papers consigned to the literary store-rooms called magazines ; and stray notices deep buried in the ponderous tomes of Recuez/s and general works on Hoplology. They must wade through volume after volume of histories and travels, to pick up a few stray sentences. And they will too often find that the index of an English book which gives copious references to glass or sugar utterly ignores the Sword. At times they must labour in the dark, for men who write seem wholly unconscious of the subject’s importance. For instance, much has been said about art in Japan; but our know- ledge of her metallurgy especially of her iron and steel works, is elementary, while that of her peculiar and admirable cutlery is strangely superficial. And travellers and collectors treat the Sword much as they do objects of natural history. They regard only the rare, the forms which they ignore, or which strike the eye, and the unique specimens which may have no comparative value. Thus they neglect articles of far more interest and of higher importance to the student, and they bring home, often at great expense, mere lumber for curiosity shops. The difficulty of treating the Sword is enhanced by the peculiar individuality which characterises it, evidenced by an immense variety of physique, and resulting as much from unconscious selection as from deep design. One of the characteristics of indigenous art is that no two articles, especially no two weapons, are exactly alike ; and yet they vary only within narrow and measurable limits. The minute differ- entiz of the Sword are endless. Even in the present day, swordsmen will order some shape, size, or weight which they hold—often unwisely enough—to be improvements on the general. One man, wishing to strengthen his arm, devises a weapon fit for a Titan and finds it worse than useless. A tale is told of a Sheffield cutler who, having received from Maroccan Mogador a wooden model to be copied in .steel, made several hundred blades on the same pattern and failed to finda xviii INTRODUCTION. single purchaser. Their general resemblance to the prevailing type was marred by peculiarities which unsuited them for general use; they were adapted only to individual requirement, each man priding himself upon his own pattern having some almost imperceptible difference. Such variations are intelligible enough in the Sword, which must be modified for every personality, because it becomes to the swordsman a prolongation of his own person, a lengthening of the arm. The natural results are the protean shapes of the weapon and the difficulty of reducing these shapes to orderly description. I cannot, therefore, agree with a President of the Anthropological Institute (‘Journal,’ October 1876) when he states : ‘Certainly the same forms of Sword might be found in different countries, but not ofso peculiar a nature (as the Gaboon weapon) unless the form had been communicated.’ Shapes apparently identical start up spontaneously, because types are limited and man’s preferences easily traverse the whole range of his invention. Thus the stumbling-block which met me on the threshold was to introduce sequence, system, and lucid order into a chaos of details. It was necessary to dis- cover some unity, some starting-place for evolution and development, without which all treatment would be vague and inconsequent. But where find the clue which makes straight the labyrinthine paths ; the focut de mire which enables us to command the whole prospect ; the coign of vantage which displays the disposi- tion of details, together with the zerus, the intercommunication, and the progress of the parts and the whole? Two different systems of that ‘ classification, which defines the margin of our ignorance, are adopted by. museums ; and, consequently, by the catalogues de- scribing them. I shall here quote only English collections, leaving to the Continental reader the task of applying the two main principles locally and generally. These are, first, the Topical or Geographical (eg. Christy collection), which, as the words denote, examines the article itself mainly with reference to its media, nature and culture, place and date; and which considers man and his works as the expression of the soil that bears him. The second is the Material and purely Formal (General A. Pitt-Rivers’ collection), which regards only the objects or specimens themselves, without respect to their makers or their media ; and which, by investigating the rival laws of continuity and of incessant variation, aims at extending our knowledge of mankind. Both plans have their merits and their demerits. The Topical is the more strictly anthropologico-ethnological, because it makes the general racial culture its prominent feature ; but it fails to illustrate, by juxtaposition, the origin, the life, and the death of a special article. The Formal proposes to itself the study of specific ideas; it describes their transmissions and their migrations ; and it displays their connection and sequence, their development and degradation. It exemplifies the law of unconscious selection, as opposed to premeditation and INTRODUCTION. xix design. Thus it claims superior sociological interest, while it somewhat separates and isolates the article from its surroundings—mankind. Again, it would be unadvisable to neglect the chronological and synchrono- logical order (Demmin’s). This assists us in tracing with a surer hand the origin and derivation ; the annals, the adventures, and the accidents of an almost universal weapon, whose marvellously chequered career excels in dignity, in poetry, and in romance, anything and everything the world has yet seen. And here I have not been unmindful of Dr. Arthur Mitchell’s sensible warning that ‘the rude form of an implement may follow as well as precede the more finished forms.! Due re- gard to dates enables us to avoid the scandalous confusion of the vulgar museum. Demmin found a large number of swords catalogued as dating with the time of Charles the Bold, when the shapes proved that they belonged to the late sixteenth and even to the early seventeenth centuries. I was shown, in the museum of Aquileja, a ‘Roman sword’ which was a basket-hilted Venetian, hardly two hundred years old. It is only an exact chronology, made to frame the Geo- graphical and the Formal pictures of the weapon, that can secure scientific dis- tribution. In dealing with a subject which, like the Sword, ranges through the world- history, and which concerns the human race in general, it would, I venture to opine, be unwise to adopt a single system. As clearness can be obtained only by methodical distribution of matter, all the several processes must be combined with what art the artificer may. The Formal, which includes the Material, as well as the shape of the weapon, affords one fair basis for classification. The substance, for instance, ranges from wood to steel, and the profile from the straight line to the segment of a circle. The Topical, beginning (as far as we know) in the Nile Valley, and thence in ancient days overspreading Africa, Asia, Europe, and America, determines the distribution and shows the general continuity of the noble arm. It also readily associates itself with the chronologico-historical order, which begins ab znztzo, furnishes a proof of general progress, interrupted only by fitful stages of retrogression, and, finally, dwells upon the epochs of the highest interest. After not a little study I resolved to distribute the ‘Book of the Sword’ into three parts. Part I. treats of the birth, parentage, and early career of the Sword. It begins with the very beginning, in pre-historic times and amongst proto-historic peoples ; and it ends with the full growth of the Sword at the epoch of the early Roman Empire. Part II. treats of the Sword fully grown. It opens with the rising civilisation 1 The Past in the Present, &c. (Edinburgh ; Douglas, 1880). XxX INTRODUCTION. of the Northern Barbarians and with the decline of Rome under Constantine (A.D. 313-324), who combined Christianity with Mithraism; when the world- capital was transferred to Byzantium, and when an imitation of Orientalism, specially of ‘ Persic apparatus,’ led to the art decay which we denote by the term ‘Lower Empire. It proceeds to the rise of El-Islam; the origin of ordered chivalry and knighthood ; the succession of the Crusades and the wars of arms and armour before the gunpowder age, when the general use of ballistics by means of explosives became the marking feature of battle. This was the palmy period of the Sword. It became a beautiful work of art ; and the highest genius did not disdain to chase and gem the handle and sheath. And its career culminates with the early sixteenth century, when the weapon of offence assumed its defensive phase and rose to a height of splendour that prognosticated downfall, as surely as the bursting of a rocket precedes its extinction. Part III. continues the memoirs of the Sword, which, after long declining, re- vives once more in our day. This portion embraces descriptions of the modern blade, notices of collections, public and private, notes on manufactures ; and, lastly, the bibliography and the literature connected with the Heroic Weapon. Part I., contained in this volume, numbers thirteen chapters, of which a bird’s- eye view is given by the List of Contents. The first seven are formally and chronologically arranged. Thus we have the Origin of Weapons (Chapter I.) showing that while the arm is common to man and beast, the weapon, as a rule, belongs to our kind. Chapter II. treats of the first weapon proper, the Stone, which gave rise to ballistics as well as to implements of percussion. Follows (Chapter III.) the blade of base materials, wood, stone and bone, materials still used by races which can procure nothing better. From this point a step leads to the metal blade, in its origin evidently a copy of preceding types. The first, (Chapter IV.) is of pure copper, in our translations generally rendered by ‘brass’ or ‘bronze. The intermediate substances (Chapter V.) are represented by alloys, a variety of mixed metals; and they naturally end with the so-called ‘age’ of early iron, which prevailed throughout Europe at a time when the valleys of the Nile and the Tigris-Euphrates wrought blades of the finest steel. This division concludes with a formal and technical Chapter (VII.) on the shape of the Sword and a description of its several parts. Here the subject does not readily lend itself to lively description ; but, if I have been compelled to be dull, I have done my best to avoid being tedious. The arrangement then becomes geographical and chronological. My next five chapters are devoted to the Sword in its topical distribution and connection, The first (No. VIII.) begins with the various blade-forms in ancient Egypt, which extended throughout the then civilised world ; it ends with showing that the Nile INTRODUCTION, xxi valley gave their present shapes to the ‘white arm’ of the Dark Continent even in its modern day, and applied to the Sword the name which it still bears in Europe. The second (No. IX.) passes to Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor, lands which manifestly borrowed the weapon from the Egyptians, and handed it on to Assyria, Persia, and India. The arms and armour of the ‘ great Interamnian Plain’ afford material for a third (Chapter X.). Thence, retracing our steps and passing further westwards, we find manifest derivation and immense improvement of the Egyptian weapon in Greece (Chapter XI.), from which Mycenz has lately supplied bronze rapiers perfectly formed as the steels of Bilboa and Toledo. The fifth Chapter (No. XII.) continues the ancient history of the Sword by describing the various blades of progressive Rome, whose wise choice and change of arms enabled her to gain the greatest battles with the least amount of loss. To this I have appended, for geo- graphical and chronological symmetry, in a sixth and last chapter (No. XIIL.), a sketch of the Sword among the contemporary Barbarians of the Roman Empire, Dacians, Italians, Iberians, Gauls, Germans, and the British Islands. This portion of the Sword history, however, especially the Scandinavian and the Irish, will be treated at full length in Part II. Here, then, ends the First Part, which Messrs. Chatto and Windus have kindly consented to publish, whilst my large collection of notes, the labour of years, is being ordered and digested for the other two. I may fairly hope, if all go well, to see both in print before the end of 1884. In the following pages I have confined myself, as much as was possible, to the Sword ; a theme which, indeed, offers an ebarras de richesses. But weapons cannot be wholly isolated, especially when discussing origins: one naturally derives from and connects with the other ; and these relations may hardly be passed over without notice. I have, therefore, indulged in an occasional divagation, especially concerning the axe and the spear ; but the main line has never been deserted. Nor need I offer an excuse for the amount of philological discussion which the nomenclature of the Sword has rendered necessary. If I have opposed the Past Masters of the art, my opposition has been honest, and I am ever open to refuta- tion. Travellers refuse to believe that ‘Aryanism’ was born on the bald, bleak highlands of Central Asia, or that ‘Semitism’ derives from the dreary, fiery deserts of Arabia. We do not believe India to be ‘the country which even more than Greece or Rome was the cradle of grammar and philology.’ I cannot but hold that England has, of late years, been greatly misled by the ‘ Aryan heresy’; and I look forward to the study being set upon a sounder base. The illustrations, numbering 293, have been entrusted to the artistic hands of Mr. Joseph Grego, who has taken a friendly interest in the work. But too much must not be expected from them in a book which intends to be popular, and xxii INTRODUCTION. which is, therefore, limited in the matter of expense. Hence they are fewer than I should have desired. The libraries of Europe contain many catalogues of weapons printed in folio with highly finished and coloured plates which here would be out of place. That such a work upon the subject of the Sword will presently appear I have no doubt ; and my only hope is that this volume will prove an efficient introduction. To conclude, I return grateful thanks to the many wzztwerkers who have as- sisted me in preparing this monograph ; no more need be said, as all names will be mentioned in the course of the work. A journey to the Gold Coast and its results, in two volumes, which describe its wealth, must plead my excuse for the delay in bringing out the book. The manuscript was sent home from Lisbon in December 1881, but the ‘ tyranny of circumstance’ has withheld it for nearly two years. RICHARD F. BURTON. Postscript. An afterthought suggests that it is only fair, both for readers and for myself, to own that sundry quotations have been borrowed at second-hand and that the work of verification, so rightly enjoined upon writers, has not always been possible. These blemishes are hardly to be avoided in a first edition. At Trieste, and other places distant from the great seats of civilisation, libraries of reference are unknown ; and it is vain to seek for the original source. Indeed, Mr. James Fergusson once wrote to me that it was an overbold thing to undertake a History of the Sword under such circumstances. However, I made the best use of sundry visits to London and Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and other capitals, and did what I could to remedy defects, Lastly, the illustrations have not always, as they ought, been drawn to scale, they were borrowed from a number of volumes which paid scant attention to this requisite. ~ LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Academy (The), a Weekly Review of Literature, Science, and Art. Agricola, De Re Metallicé, First published in 15S. Akermann (J. Y.), Remains of Pagan Saxon- dom. London: Smith, MDCCCLV. Amicis (Edoardo de), Marocco. Milan: Treves, 1876. Ammianus Marcellinus, Historian of the Lower Empire. Fourth century. Anderson (J. R.), Saint Mark's Rest: the Place of Dragons, edited by John Ruskin, LL.D. Allen: Sunnyside, Orpington, Kent, 1879. Anderson (Joseph), Scotland in Early Christian Times. Rhind Lectures n Archeology for 1879. Edinburgh: Douglas, 1882. Anthropologia (London Anthropological Society. Established Jan. 22, 1873; first number, Oct. 1873; died after fifth number, July 1875.) Anthropological Institute (The Fournal of). London: Triibner. Anthropological Review, Vol. I-III. London: Triibner, 1863-65. Antiquaries of London (Society of), from the beginning in 1770 to 1883. Antiquities of Orissa, by Rajendralala Mitra, 2 vols. fol.; published by Government of India. Apuleius (A.D. 130). Archeologia, or Tracts relating to Antiquity, published by the Society of Antiquaries of London, from the commencement in 1749 to 1863. Archeological Association, vol. iv., Weapons, &c., of Horn. Archeology (Transactions of the Society of Biblical), London: Longmans ; beginning in 1872. Aristophanes. Aristotle, Meteorologica, &c, Arrian (Flavius), A.D. 90, Anadbaszs, &c. Atheneum (The), Journal of English and Foreign Literature, &c. Athenzeus (A.D. 230), Dethnosophists. Baker (Sir Samuel White), The Nile Tribu- ¢arzes. London: Macmillan, 1866. Zhe Albert Nyanza. London, 1868, Balthazar Ribello de Aragéo ; Viagens dos Por- tuguezes, Colleccdo de Documentos, por Luciano Cordeiro, Lisboa, Imprensa Na- cional, 1881. The learned Editor is Secre- tary to the Royal Geographical Society of Lisbon. Barbosa (Duarte), 4 Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar, translated forthe Hakluyt Society, London, by Honour- able Henry E. (now Lord) Stanley, 1866. Written about A.D. 1512-14, and attributed by some to Magellan. Barth (Henry), Zravels, &c., in Central Africa 1849-1855; § vols., 8vo. London: Long- mans, 1875. Barthélemy (Abbé J. J.), Voyage du Feune Ana- charsis en Gréce, &c., 5 vols. 4to. Paris, 1788. Bataillard (Paul) Ox Gypsies and other Matters Société Anthropologique de Paris, 1874. Beckmann (John), 4 History of Inventions, Dis- coveries, and Origins, translated by W. Johnston. London: Bell and Daldy, 1872 (fourth edition, revised). It is a useful book of reference and wants only a few additions. Berosus (B.C. 261), Fragments, edit. Miiller. Bollaert (William), Antiquarian, Ethnological, and other Researches. London: Triibner, 1860. Bologna, Congrés d’Archéologie et d’Anthropo- logie Prthistorigues, Session de Bologna, 1 vol. 8vo. Fava and Garagnani : Bologna, 1871, XXiv Bonnycastle (Captain R. H., of the Royal En- gineers), Spanish America, &c. Philadel- phia: A. Small, 1817. Borlase (William), Observations on the Antiqut- ties, &c, of the County of Cornwall. Ox- ford, 1754. Boscawen (W. St. Chad), Papers in Society of Biblical Archeology. Boutell (Charles), Arms and Armour. London, 1867. Brewster (Sir David), Letters on Natural Magic, 1zmo. London, 1833. Brugsch (Heinrich), 4 History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, &c., by Henry Brugsch-Bey (now Pasha). Translated from the German by the late Henry Danby Seymour ; com- pleted and edited by Philip Smith, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1879. The first part has been published in French, Leipzig, 1859. The archaistic German style of Geschichte Aegypten’s is very difficult. Bulletin del Institut Egyptien. Cairo: Mourés, 1882. Bunsen (Baron C. C. J.), Egypt's Place in Uni- versal History, &c., with additions by Samuel Birch, LL.D., § vols. 8vo. London: Longmans, 1867. Burnouf (Emile), Essaz sur le Veda, ou Etudes sur les Religions, &c., de PInde, 1 vol. 8vo., 1863. ‘L’Age de Bronze,” Revie des deux Mondes, July 15, 1877. Burton (R. F.), 4 Complete System of Bayonet Exercise. London: Clowes, 1853. The Atheneum, Nov. 24, 1880. Camoens, his Life and his Lustads, 2 vols. 12mo., Qua- ritch, 1881. Zo the Gold Coast for Gold. London: Chatto and Windus, 1883. Cesar (Julius), Osera Omnia, Delphin edit., variorum notes, 4 vols. 8vo. Londini, 1819. Calder (J. E.), Some Account of the Wars of Extirpation and Habits of the Native Tribes of Tasmania, Journ. Anthrop. Instit., vol. lil, 1873. Cameron (Commander Verney Lovett, C.B., D.C.L. &c.), Across Africa. London: Daldy and Isbister, 1877. Camoens, Os Lustadas. Catalogue du Bulak Muséum, by the late Mariette-Bey (afterwards Pasha). Cairo: A. Mourés, imprimeur-éditeur. Catalog. Die Ethnographisch-Anthropologische Abthetlung des Museums Godefroy in Ham- éurg, vol. i. 8vo. L. Frederichsen u. Co. 1881. i Caylus (Comte de), Recueil @WAntiquités Egypt- zennes, &c., 8 vols. 4to. Paris, 1752-70. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Celsus (A. Cornelius), De AMedicind, edit. prin- ceps. Florentize, a Nicolao impressus, A D. 1478. Chabas, Etudes sur PA ntiguité Historique a apres les sources Egyptiennes, 1872. Chaillu (Paul B. du), Explorations and Adven- tures in Equatorial Africa, &c. London: Murray, 1861. The Gorz/la-book. Chapman (Captain George), Lod Practice, with a Review of the Art of Fencing. London: Clowes, 1861. Clapperton (Captain H.), Yournal of a Second Expedition into Africa, 1 vol. 4to. London, 18209. Clermont-Ganneau (Charles), Horus et Satnt George, &c. Extrait dela Revue Archéo- logiqgue, Dec. 1877. Paris: Didier et Ci*. The author is a prolific writer and a highly distinguished Orientalist. Cochet (Jean Benoit Désiré, Abbé), Le Tombeau de Childéric I., Roi des Francs. Restitué a Paide de l’archéologie et des découvertes récentes, 8vo. Paris: 1859. Cole (Lieutenant H. H., of the Royal Engineers), Catalogue of Indian Art in the South Ken- sington Museum. Illustrations of Ancient Buildings in Kashmir, prepared under the authority of the Secretary of State for India from photo- graphs, plans, and drawings taken by order of the Government of India. London, 1869. 4to. —— The Architecture of Ancient Delhi, espe- cially the buildings around the Kutb Minar, fol. London, 1872. Cooper (Rev. Basil H.), The Antiquity and the Use of Metals and especially lron, among the Egyptians, Transac. Devonshire Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, 1868, Cory (Isaac Preston), Ancient Fragments of the Phenician, Chaldean, Egyptian, Tyrian, Carthaginian, and other writers, 8vo. London, 1832. Very rare. New edit. Reeves and Turner: London, 1876. Crawfurd (John), On the Sources of the Supply of Tin for the Bronze Tools and Weapons of Antiquity, Trans. Ethnol. Soc., N.S., vol. iii, 1865. Cunningham (General A.), The Bhilsa Topes, &c., 8vo. London, 1854. Lddak, &c., royal 8vo. London, 1854. Archeological Survey of India, 6 vols. 8vo. Simla, 1871- 78. Czoernig (Baron Carl von), jun. Ueber die vorhistorischen Funde im Latbacher Torf- moor. Alpine Soc. of Trieste, Dec. 8 1875. ? LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Daniel (Pére Gabriel), Wistocre de la Milice Frangoise, et des Changemens gui sy sont Saits, depuis Pétablissement de la Monarchie Frangoise dans les Gaules, jusgua la fin du Régne de Louds le Grand,7 vols. 8vo. A Amsterdam ; au dépens de la Compagnie (de Jésus), MDCCXxIv. It is a standard work as far as it goes. Davis (Sir John F.), The Chinese: a general Description of the Empire of China and its Inhabitants, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Knight, MDCCCVI. Day (St. John Vincent), The Prehistoric Use of fron and Steel. London: Triibner, 1877. When sending me a copy of his learned and original study, Mr. Day wrote to me that he is bringing out a second edition, in which his ‘collection of additional matter will modify and correct certain of his former views.’ Demmin (Auguste), M/ustrated History of Arms and Armour, translated by C. C. Black, M.A. London: Bell, 1877. The illustra- tions leave much to be desired ; the Oriental notices are deficient, and the translator has made them worse. Otherwise the book gives a fair general and superficial view. Denham (Major Dixon), Clapperton and Oud- ney’s Travels in Northern and Central Africa, in 1822-24, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1826. Deschmann und Hochstetter, Prahistos ische An- stedlungen, &c., in Krain, Laybach, 1879. Desor (Edouard), Les Palajfittes, ou Construc- tions lacustres du lac de Neuchdtel. Paris, 1865. Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenberger Sees. Frankfurt a. M., 1866. Desor et Favre, Le Bel Age du Bronze lacustre en Suisse, 1 vol. fol. Neufchatel, 1874. Diodorus Siculus (B.c. 44), Bibliotheca Historica, P. Wesselingius, 2 vols. fol. Amstelod., 1746. Dion Cassius (nat. A.D. 155). Dionysius of Halicarnassus (B.c. 29), Opera Omnia, J. J. Reiske, 6 vols. 8vo. Lipsiz, 1774. Dodwell (Edward), A Classical and Topogra- phical Tour through Greece, 1801-6, 2 vols. 4to. London, 18109. Douglas (Rev. James, F.A.S.), Venza Britan- nica, 1793, folio. Diimichen, Geschichte des alten Aegyptens. Berlin, 1879. Ebers (Prof. George), Aegypten und die Biicher Moses. Leipzig, 1868. Followed by sundry Germano-Egyptian romances, Az Egyptian Princess, Varda, & ¢. b XXV Edkins (Rev. Dr.) China’s Place tn Philology: an Attempt to show that the Languages of Europe and Asia have a Common Origin. London, 1 vol. 8vo., 1871. Ellis (Rev. William), Polynestan Researches. London: Murray, 1858. Elphinstone, Azstory of India, 2 vols. 8vo. 1841. Encyclopedia Britannica, —— Metropolitana. —— Penny (one of the best). —— Knight's. Engel (W. H.), Kypros: eine Monographie. 2 vols. 8vo. Berlin: Reimer, 1841. Ethnological Society of London (Fournal of) 7 vols. 8vo. 1848-65. Eusebius (Bishop of Czesarea, A.D. 264-340), Listoriea Ecclesiastice Libri Decem ; denuo edidit F. A. Heinichen, 3 vols. 8vo. Lipsize, 1868. Evans (Dr. John), Zhe Ancient Stone Imple- ments of Great Britain, 1 vol. 8vo. London: Longmans, 1872. Zhe Ancient Implements of Great Britain and Ireland, ibid. 1881. Both works are admirably well studied and exhaust the subjects as far as they are now known. Ewbank (Thomas), Life zz Brazzl, 1 vol. 8vo. New York, 1856; London: Sampson Low and Co., 1856. The Appendix is anthro- pologically valuable. Fairholt (F. W.), A Dzctzonary of Terms of Art, 1 vol. 12mo. Virtue and Hall, London, 1849. Farrar (Canon), Zzfe, Gc, of Saint Paul. Cassell and Co.: London, Paris, and New York (undated). Ferguson (Sir James), Transactions of the Irish Association, Fergusson (James), 4 Aizstory of Architecture, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1874-76. Festus (Sextus Pompeius), De Verborum Signt- Jficatione, K. O. Miller. Lipsiz, 1839. The Grammarian lived between A.D. 100 (Mar- tial’s day) and A.D. 422 (under Theodosius II.). Ficke, vu Orterbuch der Indo-germantschen Grund- sprache, &c. Gottingen, 1868. Florus (Annzus: Zep. Trajan), Rerum Roma- narum libri IV., Delphin edit., 2 vols., 8vo Londini, 1822. Fox (A. Lane-, now Major-General A. Pitt- Rivers). This distinguished student of Anthropology, who ranks foremost in the knowledge of early weapons, happily applied the idea of evolution, development, and pro- gress to his extensive collection, the work of XXvi some thirty years. To show the successive steps he grouped his objects according to their forms and uses, beginning with the sim- plest ; and to each class he appended an ideal type, towards which the primitive races were ever advancing, making innu- merable mistakes, in some cases even retrograding, but on the whole attaining a higher plane. The papers from which I have quoted, often word for word, in my first chapters, are (1) ‘ Primitive Warfare,’ sect. i, read on June 28, 1867 (pp. 1-35, with five plates), and Sect. ii., ‘On the Resemblance of the Weapons of Early Races, their Variations, Continuity, and Development of Form,’ read on June 5, 1868 (pp. 1-42, with eight diagrams); and (2) ‘Catalogue of the Anthropological Collection lent for Exhibition in the Bethnal Green Branch of the South Kensington Museum, with (131) Illustrations ;’ pt. I. and II. (III. and IV. to be published here- after), 1874, &c., 8vo., pp. 1-184. The col- lection, then containing some 14,000 objects, left Bethnal Green for the Western Gal- leries of the Museum in South Kensington. After a long sojourn there it was offered to the public; but England, unlike France, Germany, and Italy, has scant appreciation of anthropological study. At length it was presented to the University of Oxford, where a special building will be devoted to its worthy reception. I have taken the liberty of suggesting to General Pitt- Rivers that he owes the public not only the last two parts of his work, but also a folio edition with coloured illustrations of the humble ‘ Catalogue.’ Genthe (Dr. Hermann), a paper on ‘ Etruscan Commerce with the North, Archiv fiir Anthrop., vol. vi. (from his work Ueber den etruskischen Tauschhandel nach Norden). Frankfurt, 1874. Gladstone (Right Hon. W. E.), faventus Mundt, 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1869. ‘Metals in Homer, Contemporary Review, 1874. Glas (George), ‘The History of the Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands,’ Pzx- kerton, Voyages, vol. xvi. Goguet (Antoine Yves), De ?Origine des Lots, des Arts, et des Sciences, et de leur progres chez les anciens peupies (par A. Y. G., aidé par Alex. Conr. Fugére), 3 vols., plates, 4to. Paris, 1758. Numerous editions and trans- lations. Goguet (M. de), Zhe Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, and their progress among the LIST OF AUTHORITIES. most Ancient Nations. English transla- tion by Thompson, 3 vols., plates, 8vo. Edinburgh, 1761. Gozzadini (Senator Count Giovanni), Dz un antico sepolcro a Ceretolo nel Bolognese. Modena: Vincenzi, 1872. The author has taken a distinguished place in antiquarian anthropology by his various and valuable studies of Etruscan remains found in and around Felsina, now Bologna. I have ventured upon suggesting to him that these detached papers, mostly printed by Fava, Garagnani, and Co., of Bologna, should be collected and published in a handy form for the benefit of students. Graah (Captain W. A.), Narrative of an Expe- dition to the Fastern Coast of Greenland, &¢. Translated from the Danish (Copenhagen, 1832) by C. Gordon Macdougall, 8vo. London, 1837. Grant (Captain, now Colonel, James A.),4 Walk across Africa, or Domestic Scenes from my Nile Fournal, Blackwoods: Edinburgh, MDCCCLXIV. Grose (Captain Francis), A/ziztary Antiquities respecting the History of the British Army. From the Conguest to the Present Time. A new edition with material additions and improvements, 2 vols. 8vo. London, printed for T. Egerton, Whitehall ; and G. Kearsley, Fleet Street, 1801. The first edition ap- peared in 1786, and the learned author died (aet. 52) of apoplexy at Dublin, May 12, 1791. Grote (George), Hzstory of Greece, 12 vols. 8vo. 1846-56. Guthrie (Mrs.), My Year in an Indian Fort. Hurst and Blackett : London, 1877. Hamilton (Will. J.), Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and Armenia, & ¢., 2 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1842. Hanbury (Daniel), Sczence Papers, &c., edited with Memoir by Joseph Ince, 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1876. Heath (Rev. Dunbar Isidore), Exodus Papyrt, 8vo. London, 1855. Phenician Inscrip- tions. London, Quaritch, 1873. ‘ Hittite Inscriptions, Fourn. Anthrop. Institute, May, 1380. Hlerodotus, Rawlinson’s, 4 vols. Murray, 1858. This valuable work wants a second edition revised. Herrera (Antonio, chief chronicler of the Indies), ffistoria Geral, &c., VIII. Decads, 4 vols. folio. Madrid, 1601. Hesiod, Opera et Dies; Scutum, &c. Minores Greeci, vol. i. Poetze LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Holub (Dr. Emil), Seven Years in South Africa, 2 vols. 8vo, Sampson Low and Co. 1881. Homer, Ofera Omnia, by J. A. Ernesti. 5 vols. 8vo. Glasgow, 1814. Horatius, Opera Om., ex edit. Zeunii. edit., 4 vols. 8vo. Londini, 1825. Howorth (H. H.), ‘Archeology of Bronze.’ Trans. Ethno, Soc., vol. vi. Humboldt (Baron Alexander von), Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America, 3 vols. 8vo. Bohn’s Scientific Library, London, 1852. Iron, an Illustrated Weekly Fournal of Science, Metals, and Manufactures in Iron and Steel, edited by Perry E. Nursey, C.E., to whom I have to express my thanks. Isidorus Hispalensis (Bishop of Seville, A.D. 600-636), Ogera Omnia (including the ‘Origines’ and ‘ Etymologies’), published by J. du Breul, fol. Parisiis, 1601. Jacquemin (Raphael), A7stotre Générale du Costume, &c. DulV™ au XIX™e Siécle (A.D. 315-1815). Paris. Jahns (Major Max), Handbuch ecner Geschichte des Kriegswesens von der Ureett an zur Renaissance. Technischer Theil: Bewaff- nung, Kampfweise, Befestigung, Belagerung, Seewesen. Leipzig: Grunow, 1880. Major Jahns, an officer upon the General Staff of the German army, has produced in 1 vol. imp. 8vo. (pp. 640) a most laborious and useful work, accompanied by an atlas of one hundred carefully drawn plates. He quotes authorities literally by the hundred. The work amply deserves to be translated into English, but its public would, I fear, be very limited. Josephus (Flavius). Justinus (Frontinus). Aistory, Fourth and Fifth Century, abridged from Trogus Pompeius. Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, part 1, with a preface and introduction. Printed for the Hindu Kama Shastra Society of London, 1883; for private circulation only. The poet whose name was Mallinaga or Mril- lana (of the Vatsyayana family) lived be- tween the first and sixth century of the Christian AZra. This, too, is only known by his poetry. Hindu-landis rich in Kama literature. Keller (Dr. Ferdinand), Die Kdltischen Pfahl- bauten in den Schweizer Seen. iirich, 1854-66. There is an English translation The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland. King (late Dr. Richard), Zrans. Ethnol. Soc., vols. i, and ii. Delphin XXVil Klemm (Dr. Gustav Friedrich), Werkzeuge und Waffen. Leipzig, 1854. An edition of Klemm’s (G. F.), Die Werkzeuge und Waf- Jen, thre Entstehung und Ausbildung, with 342 woodcuts in the text, 8vo, Published at Sondershausen, 1858. Allgemeine Cul- turwissenschaft, 2 vols. with woodcuts, 8vo. Leipzig, 1874-5. Kolben (Peter) Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, &¢., 2 vols. 8vo., 1738. Kremer (Ritter Adolf von) én Chaldun und seine Culturgeschichte. Wien, 1879. Lacombe, Les Armes et les Armures. 1868. Land and Water, weekly paper published by William Bates ; it contains many articles by the late lamented Mr. Frank Buckland, F.Z.S. Latham (John): this ‘ Assistant-Commissioner for Exhibitions’ (1862, 1867, and 1873), who succeeded in business Messrs. Wilkinson and Son of Pall Mall, and who lately died, gave me copies of his two excellent papers, (1) ‘The Shape of Sword-blades, and (2) ‘A Few Notes on Swords in the Inter- national Exhibition of 1862’ (Yournal of the RUS. Institution, vols. vi. and vii.). With the author’s permission I have freely used these two valuable professional studies, especially in Chapter VII. The late Mr. Latham was a practical Swordsman, and his long experience as a maker of the ‘white arm’ renders his information thoroughly trustworthy. I wish every success to his son, who now fills his place in an estab- lishment famous for turning out good work, Latham (Robert Gordon), Ethnology of the British Islands, 1 vol. 12mo. London, 1852. Descriptive Ethnology, 2 vols. 8vo. 1859. Layard (Sir Henry Austen), Wzzeveh and its Remains, 2 vols. 8vo., 1849. Monuments of Nineveh, tst and 2nd Series, 1849-53. A Popular Account of Discoveries at Nineveh. London: Murray, 1851. fresh Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, 1 vol. 8vo. London: Murray, 1853. Legge (Dr. James), The Chinese Classics, 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1861-76 ; vol.i., ‘ Confucius’ ; ii, ‘Mencius’; iii, ‘She-King or Book of Poetry.’ Lenormant (Francois), Manuel d’ Histoire An- cienne de POrient, 2 vols., 12mo. Paris, 1868. Les Premtéres Civilisations, 3 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1874. Germ. Trans., Jena, 1875. Paris, bez, XXviil Lepsius (Dr. Richard), Denkmdler aus Aegypten und Aethtopien nach den Zeichnungen der Preussischen Expedition. Denkmaler aus Acgypten und Aethiopien (1842-45). Ber- lin, 1845-59. Déscoveries in Egypt, &c., translated by Kenneth R. H. Mackenzie, 8vo. London, 1852. Dze Metalle in den Acgyptischen Inschriften (Akad. der Wiss., A.D. 1871), the latter translated into French 1877. Lindsey (Dr. W. Lauder), Proceedings of Society of Arts of Scotland, vol. v. 327. Livy. Lopez (Vicente Fidel), Les Races Aryennes du Pérou, &c. Paris: A. Franck, 1871. A copy was sent to me by my old friend John Coghlan, C.E., of Buenos Ayres. Lubbock (Sir John W.), Pre-Azstoric Times, 1 vol. 8vo., 1865. Premitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia (Nillson’s), 3rd edit. London, 1868. Ordezn of Civilisation, &c., 8vo. London, 1870. Lucan. Lucretius. Luynes (Duc de), Mum7smatique et Inscriptions Cypriotes. Paris, 1852. Lyell (Sir Charles), Principles of Geology. London: Murray, 1830-3. The Antiguity of Man from Geological Evidences. Lon- don: Murray, 1863. Major (R. H.), Zhe Select Letters of Columbus, &¢. London: Hakluyt Soc., MDCCCLX. Manava-Dharma-Shéstra (Laws of Menu), trans- lated by Houghton. London, 1825. Manetho (B.C. 285). Marchionni (Alberto), Zrattato dz Scherma, &c. Firenze: Bencini, 1847. Markham (Clements R.), Pedro de Czeza (Czeca) de Leon, 1869. Commentaries of the Yncas, 1871. Reports on the Discovery of Peru, 1872. All printed by the Hakluyt Society. Massart (Alfred), Gzsements Métallifires du dis- trict de Carthagene (Espagne). Liége, 1875. Massey (Gerald), 4 Book of the Beginnings. London: Williams and Norgate, 1881. Two volumes were first published, and the two concluding are lately issued. A learned friend writes to him: ‘1 find little to remark upon or criticise. You seem to have got down far below Tylor, and to be making good your ground in many matters. If people will only read your book, it will make them cry out in some way or other. But you require a populariser, and may have to wait a long time for one,’ Mela (Pomponius), De Sztw Ord7s (A.D. 41-54). This little work deserves a modern English LIST OF AUTHORITIES. translation ; but what can be said of geo- graphers whose Royal Geographical Society has not yet translated Ptolemy ? Meyrick (Sir Samuel Rush), Crztécal Inquiry into Ancient Armour as tt existed in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, from the Norman Conquest to Charles the Second, with a Glossary of Military Terms of the Middle Ages. 1 quote from the Second Edition. 3 vols. atlas 4to. London: Bohn, 1844. The first edition was published in 1824 without the supervision of the author, who found fault with it, especially with the colouring. The next edition, in 1844, was enlarged by the author with the assistance of friends, Mr. Albert Way and others. It was followed by Engraved Illustrations of Ancient Arms and Armour, the artistic work of Mr. Joseph Skelton. Milne (John), ‘On the Stone Age of Japan,’ Fourn. Anthrop. Instit., May 1881. Mitchell (Dr. Arthur), ‘The Past in the Present,’ &c., Rhind Lectures, 1876-78, 1 vol. 8vo. Edinburgh: Douglas, 1880. Montaigne (Michel de), Zssazs, translated by William Hazlitt. London : C. Templeman, MDCCCLIII (3rd edition). Monteiro and Gamitto, O Muata Cazembe, 1 vol. 8vo. Imprensa Nacional, Lisboa, 1854. Moore, Ancient Mineralogy. Moorcroft (William) and Trebeck (George), Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of ffindustan and Punjab, &c., from 1819 to 1825, 8vo. London: Murray, 1841. Morgan (Lewis), Zhe League of the Iroguozs. Mortot, ‘On the Swiss Lakes, Bulletin de la Société Vaudorse, vol. vi., &c. ‘Les Métaux dans Age du Bronze’ (A/éi. Soc. Ant. dut Nord, 1866-71). Mortillet (Gabriel de), ‘Les Gaulois de Marza- botto dans PApennin, Revue Archéologigue, 1870-71. This anthropologist has published largely, and did good work at the Congress of Bologna. Movers, Dre Phénizier. Berlin, 1840-56. The book is somewhat antiquated, but still valuable. Much (Dr. M.), ‘Ueber die Prioritat des Eisens oder der Bronze in Ostasien, 7rans. An- throp. Soc. of Vienna, vol. ix. Separat- Abdruck. Miller (Prof. F. Max), Chips from a German Workshop, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1867. Lectures on the Science of Language, 2 vols. t2mo. London, 1873 (7th edit.). Zntro- duction to the Science of Religion, 12m0 London, 1873. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Neuhoff, Travels in Brazil. Pinkerton, vol. xiv. Nillson (Prof. Sven), The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia, translated by Sir John Lubbock. He is illustrated by Colonel A. Lane-Fox (Prim. Warf, p. 135) and by Wilde (Catalogue, &c.). Oldfield, ‘Aborigines of Australia,’ Ethnol. Soc., new series, vol. iii. Oppert (Professor), Ox the Weapons, &c., of the Ancient Hindus. London: Trubner, 1880. Opusculum Fidicularum, the Ancestry of the Violin, by Ed. Heron Allen. London: Mitchell and Hughes, 1882. The author kindly sent me a copy of his work. Orosius (Presbyter Paulus), A.D. 413), Hzstord- arum Libri Septem. The Anglo-Saxon version of Aelfred the Great; translated, &c., by Daines Barrington, 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1773, and by Bosworth, 1859. Osburn (William), Monumental History of Egypt, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1854. Owen (Prof. Richard), Ox the Anatomy of Ver- tebrates, 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1866-68. Palestine Exploration Fund, founded 1865 ; pub- lishes Quarterly Statement. The Society’s office, 1 Adam Street, Adelphi, W.C. Palma (General Luigi di Cesnola), Cyprus, cts Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples, 8vo. London: Murray, 1877. Cyfern. Gena: Leipzig, 1879. Palma (Major di Cesnola), ‘On Phoenician Art in Cyprus? Brit. Archeol. Assoc., Dec. 6, 1882. Paterculus (C. Velleius, B.c. 19). Pausanias (¢emp. Antonin. Pius), Perzeges¢s (or Itinerary) of Greece. The work of a good traveller, translated by Thomas Taylor, 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1824. Percy (Dr. John), Fuel, Fireclays, Copper, Zinc, Brass, &c. London: Murray, 1861. Afvetal- lurgy: Iron and Steel, ibid., 1864. Lead, 1870. Szlver and Gold, parti., 1880. These works are too well known and too highly appreciated to be noticed except by name. Petherick (John), Egypt, the Soudan, and Cen- tral Africa, 8vo. Blackwoods, Edinburgh, MDCCCLXI. The late author was a Cornish miner who had the honesty not to find coal for Mohammed Ali Pasha of Egypt. Petronius Arbiter. Phillips (Prof. John A.), A Guide to Geology, 12mo. London, 1864. ‘A Manual of Me- ' tallurgy, or a Practical Treatise on the Chemistry of the Metals,’ illustrated. Lon- don, 1864: Archeological Fournal, vol. xvi. Trans. XXiX Philo Judzeus (A.D. 40). Pigafetta (Antonio, of Vicenza, who accompanied Magalhaens, the first circumnavigator, 1519-1522), Primo Viaggio intorno al Globo, 4to. Milan, 1800; published by Amoretti. He was best known before that date by Ramusio’s work. Polyzenus the Macedonian dedicated his 8 books of 900 Srparnynyara to M. Aurelius and L. Verus (A.D. 163). Polybius (nat. circ. B.C. 204), Upaypareda, not flistoria. tstoriarum que supersunt. Lips.: Holtze, 1866 ; 5 books and fragments out of 40. The writer was a captain in the field besides being an authority on military art, a politician, and a philosopher, who composed for instruction, not for amuse- ment. Pollux (Julius, A.D. 183), Oxomaséicon. Porter (Rev. J. L.), author of A Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine. Lon- don: Murray, 1868 (1st edition). Porter (Sir Robert Ker), Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia, Ancient Babylonia, &c. (1817-20), 2 vols. 4to. London: Longmans, 1821-22, Procopius (nat. circ. A.D. 500), Hzstories, &c. Ptolemy, Geographia. Ramusio (Giambattista, of Treviso, nat. 1485), Raccolta di Navigazioni « Viaggt, 3 vols. fol., 1550-59 ; the first collection of the kind, which gave rise to many others. Rawlinson (Canon George), The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World, &c., 4 vols. 8vo. London : Murray, 1862-66. Records of the Past, being English translations of the Assyrian and Egyptian monuments, published under the sanction of the Society of Biblical Archzeology, vol. i. (of 12), 12mo. London, 1874. Revue Archéologtgue (under the direction of J. Gailhabaud), année 1-16. Paris, 1844- 59, 8vo. Nouvelle Série, année 1, vol. i. &c., 1860, 8vo. Zable Décennale, nouvelle série, 1860-1869, dressée par M. F. De- launay. Paris, 1874, 8vo. In progress. Rhind (A. Henry), Thebes, tts Tombs and their Tenants, &c. 1862. Richtofen (Baron Ferdinand von), China, Ergeb- nisse etgener Retsen und darauf gegriin- deter Studien. Vol. i. published in 1877 ; vol. ii. (4to.), Remier : Berlin, 1882. It has not yet found a translator. Rivero (Mariano y Eduardo de) y Tschudi (Juan Diego de), Antiguedades Peruwanas, 1 vol. 4to., with Atlas. Vienna, 1851. Zvavels zn Peru, by J.J. von Tschudi, in 1838-42 ; was XXX translated from the German by T. Ross, 8vo. London, 1847. Rossellini (Prof.) J Monument? dell’ Egitto e della Nubia. Pisa, 1832-41. Rossignol (J. P.), Les Métaux dans 0 Antiquité. Paris: Durand, 1863. Roteiro (Ruttier) da Viagem de Vasco da Gama, corrected by the late Professor Herculano and Baron do Castello de Pavia. Imprensa Nacional, Lisboa, MDCCCLI (2nd edition). Rougé (Vicomte E. de), Rztuel Fundtraire des Anciens Egyptiens, &c., imp. folio, Paris, 1861-66. Rougemont, L’ Age de Bronze, 1866. Rowbotham (J. F.), ‘On the Art of Music in Prehistoric Times,’ Yourn. Anthrop. Inst., May, 1881. Sacken (Baron E. von Osten-), Das Grabfeld von Hallstadt und dessen Alterthiimer. Vienna, 1868. Sainte-Croix (Baron de), Recherches Historigues et Critiques sur les Mysteres du Paganisme, revues et corrigées par Silvestre de Sacy, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1817. Sallust. Sayce (Rev. A. H.), ‘On the Hamathite Inscrip- tions,” Trans. Soc. Bibl. Archeol., vol. iv. part 1. Mr. Sayce has read other papers containing notices of more modern ‘ Hit- tite’ finds; but I have failed to procure copies. Schliemann (Dr. Henry), Zroy and its Remains, translated and edited by Philip Smith. London: Murray, 1875. Mycene and Tiryns, ibid. 1878, L/zos, ibid. 1880. Scott (Sir Sibbald David), The British Army, its Origin, Progress, and Development, 2 vols. London and New York: Cassell, Petter, & Galpin, 1868. Sévez, notice of Japanese Iron-works in Les Mondes, tome xxvi., Dec. 1871. Silius Italicus (nat. A.D. 25). Smith (Captain John), General Historie of Vir- ginia, New England, and the Summer Isles, éc., fol. London: Pinkerton, xiii, He made his first voyage in 1606, and his second in 1614, when he changed ‘ North Virginia’ into ‘New England.” On his third (1615), he was captured by a French- man and landed at La Rochelle. Smith (George), Assyrian Discoveries. Lon- don: Sampson Low & Co., 6th edit., 1876. The learned author wore himself out by travel, and died young. Smith (Rev. W. Robertson), 7he Old Testament inthe Fewish Church. Edinburgh ; Blacks, 1881. LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Smith (Dr. William), Dictionaries. London : Taylor & Walton— 1. Greek and Roman Geography, 2 vols. 8vo. 1856-57. 2. Greek and Roman Antiquities, 1 vol. 8vo. 1859. 3. Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 3 vols. 8vo. 1858-61. 4. Of the Bible, 3 vols. 8vo. 1863. Solinus (Ca. Jul. Polyhistor, a/éas ‘Pliny’s Ape’), Geographical Compendium. Speke (Captain James Hanning), Yournal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. Edinburgh : Blackwoods, 1863. Spensley (Howard), Cenni sugli Aborigeni di Australasia, &c. Venezia: G. Fischer, 1881. Stade (Hans), The Captivity of Hans Stade, translated for the Hakluyt Society by Mr. Albert Tootal of Rio de Janeiro. London, 1874. Stanley (Henry M.), Through the Dark Contin- ent, &*c. London: Sampson Low, & Co., 1874. Stephens (J. Lloyd), Zacédents of Travel in Cen- tral America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1842. Germ. trans., Leipzig, 1843. Stevens (the late Edward T.), Flint Chips, a Guide to Prehistoric Archeology, as illustrated in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury, 8vo. London: Bell and Daldy, 1870. Strabo (B.C. 54 ?). Suetonius (C. Tranquillus). Tacitus (Cornelius). Taylor (Rev. Isaac), Etruscan Researches. Lon- don: Macmillan, 1874. Texier, Description de [Aste Mineure. 1849-52. Theophrastus (B.C. 305), Opera Greca et Latina, J. G. Schneider, 5 vols. 8vo. Lipsiz, 1818- 21. Tylor (E. B.), Anahuac. London, 1861. Prz- mitive Culture. London: Murray, 1871 (Germ. trans., 1873). Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the De- velopment of Civiltsation, plates. London: Murray, 1870. Ure (Andrew), Dictionary of Arts, Manufac- tures, and Mines. London, 1863. Vallancey (General), Collectanea de Rebus Hiber- nicis, 6 vols. Dublin, 1770-1804. Varnhagen (the late F. Adolpho de): Azstorta Geral do Brazil, 2 vols. 8vo. Laemmert : Rio de Janeiro, 1854. Useful as ‘docu- ments pour servir,’ Paris, LIST OF AUTHORITIES. Varro (Terentius, nat. B.c. 116), De Lingua Latina. Vegetius (Fl. Renatus, A.D. 375-92), De Re Militaré. Virgil. Vitruvius (M. Pollio, B.c. 46), Architecture, 5 vols. 4to. Utini, 1829. Volney (Const. F.), Zuvres, 8 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1826, Waitz (Professor, Dr. Theodor), Anthropologie der Naturvolker. Leipzig, 1859-72. The first volume, Zntroduction to Anthropology, was translated by J. F. Collingwood and published by the Anthropological Society of London, 8vo., Longmans, 1863. The manuscript of the second volume of this valuable work, also by Mr. Collingwood, was long in my charge ; but the low state of an- thropological study in England (and other pursuits unprofessional, and consequently non-paying) prevents its being printed. Wilde (Sir William R.), Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Royal Irish Aca- demy. Dublin: Academy House, 1863. A Descriptive Catalogue of Materials in the Royal Irish Academy, 8vo., 1857-61. It is regretable that part 1, vol. ii., of this admirable work, which has become a standard upon the subject, has not been printed ; nor has the public been informed of any arrangements for publishing. For permission to make use of the cuts, which were obligingly furnished to Mr. Grego, I am indebted to the courtesy of the Council, Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. Wilkinson (Sir J. Gardner), Zhe Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, their Prt- vate Life, Government, Laws, Arts, Religion, and History (originally written in 1836), 6 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1837-41. The author abridged his life-labour with the usual unsuccess, and called it 4 Popular Xxxi Account of the Ancient Egyptians, 2 vols. post 8vo. London: Murray, 1874. Wilkinson (the late Henry, the eminent Sword- cutlerin Pall Mall), Odservations on Swords ; to which ts added Information for Officers going to join their Regiments in India. Pall Mall, London. No date. Willemin, Chozx des Costumes Civiles et Milt- tatres. Paris, 1798. Wilson (Daniel), Archeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland. Edinburgh: Suther- land and Knox, 8vo., MDCCCLI. Prehistoric Man, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Macmillan, 1862. Wright (the late Thomas), ‘On the True Assign- ation of the Bronze Weapons,’ &c., Zrans. Ethno. Soc., new series, vol. iv. Woldrich (Prof. A.), Mitthetlungen der Wien. Anthrop. Gesell, Wien, 1874. Wood (John George), Natural History of Man, being an Account of the Manners and Cus- toms of the Uncivilised Ways of Men, 2 vols., 1868-70, 8vo. Worsdae (J. J. A.), Afbildninger fra det Kon. Mus. for Nordiske Oldsager ¢ Kyobnhavn, Ordnede og forklarede af J. J. A. W. (aided by Magnus Petersen and Aagaard). Kjébn- havn: Kittendorf, and Aagaard, 1859. The order is in careful accordance with the Three Ages. Worsiae’s Prehistoric Annals of Denmark were translated by W. J. Knox, 8vo., London, 1849, and there is a Lezt Jaden der Nordischen Alterthumerskunde by Worsdae, Kopenhagen, 1837. Wurmbrand (Count Gutaker), Ergebnisse der Pfahibauuntersuchungen. Wien, 1875. Yule (Colonel Henry), The Book of Marco Polo the Venetian, 2nd edit. London: Murray, 1875. The learned and exact writer favoured me with a copy of his admirable work, without which it is vain to read of ‘The Kingdoms and the Marvels of the East.’ CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE FOREWORD 3 5 . 5 ‘ . . © * « 3X INTRODUCTION. ‘ ‘ : é : . s . » xi LIST OF AUTHORITIES . ° ‘ Fi . . s » oe Xxill I. PREAMBLE: ON THE ORIGIN OF WEAPONS : . ‘ , . I II. MAN’S FIRST WEAPONS—THE STONE AND THE STICK. THE EARLIEST AGES OF WEAPONS. THE AGES OF WOOD, OF BONE, AND OF HORN 16 III. THE WEAPONS OF THE AGE OF WOOD: THE BOOMERANG AND THE SWORD OF WOOD; OF STONE, AND OF WOOD AND STONE COMBINED 31 IV. THE PROTO-CHALCITIC OR COPPER AGE OF WEAPONS . , » 53 V. THE SECOND CHALCITIC AGE OF ALLOYS—BRONZE, BRASS, ETC.: THE AXE AND THE SWORD . . : ; . : . ae VI. THE PROTO-SIDERIC OR EARLY IRON AGE OF WEAPONS . ; . 9 VIL THE SWORD: WHAT IS IT? : ; ; : : ; Lo. 123 VIII. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT EGYPT AND IN MODERN AFRICA : . 143 IX. THE SWORD IN KHITA-LAND, PALESTINE AND CANAAN ; PHCENICIA AND CARTHAGE; JEWRY, CYPRUS, TROY, AND ETRURIA . i « « F172 X. THE SWORD IN BABYLONIA, ASSYRIA AND PERSIA, AND ANCIENT INDIA 199 XI. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT GREECE: HOMER; HESIOD AND HERODOTUS : MYCEN/ZE : ‘ ‘ ; , : 5 fs ‘ +. 220 XII. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT ROME: THE LEGION AND THE GLADIATOR. 244 XIII. THE SWORD AMONGST THE BARBARIANS (EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE) » 262 CONCLUSION . ; : . A : . . . » . 280 INDEX. a . . : . : 7 . . : » 281 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG, I. oO HMWw An 10, It. 12, 13. 14. 15. 16. 18, 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28, INDIAN WAGH-NAKH ‘ = é ‘ WAGH-NAKH, USED BY MaRATHAS . . BALISTES CapRiscus; CoTTus DICERAUS; NASEUS FRONTICORNIS * * i SPEAR OF NARWHAL}; SWORD OF XIPHIAS ; RuINOcEROS-Horn ; WALRUS TUSKS . NARWHAL’s SworD PIERCING PLANK . METAL DAGGERS WITH HoRN CURVE . MApu or MAru i : : as THE ADAGA . ‘ i . ‘i ‘ SERRATED OR MULTIBARBED WEAPONS . WEAPONS MADE OF SHARK’S TEETH. . ITALIAN DaGGER, WITH GROOVES AND HOLES FOR POISON . 3 : . SWORD WITH SERRATED BLADE OF SAW- FIsH a 3 m . ¥ ey dk ANCIENT EGYPTIANS THROWING KNIVES JAPANESE WaR-FLAIL . . . . TURKISH WAR-FLAIL * - “a % Mornine STAR ‘ ‘ 5 ‘ ‘ DEER-HorRN ARROW-HEAD . ae HoRN War CLuBS WITH METAL POINTS DousLE SPEAR AND SHIELD . 7 F SPINE OF DIODON < F ‘i ere Wa.rus TOOTH USED AS SPEAR POINT; TOMAHAWK OF WALRUS TOOTH. . STING OF MALACCAN LIMULUS CRAB. THE GREENLAND NUGUIT * ‘i ‘ NARWHAL SHAFT AND METAL BLADE . JapDE PaTTU-PATTUS . . . . Bong ARROW-POINT FOR Porson; IRON ARROW-HEAD FOR POISON . ae cts WILDE’s DAGGER . r j e ‘ HOLLow Bone FOR Poison : q PAGE 8 8 10 Io Ke) Il 12 13 13 13 13 18 21 21 21 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 FIG. 29. 30. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 47. 48. 50. SI. 52. 53. 54 Bone KNIFE . ‘é ‘ a - a Bone ARROW-POINT ARMED WITH FLINT FLAKES , ‘ . . ‘ a BONE SPLINTER EDGED WITH FLINT FLAKES . HARPOON Heap. f ‘ a e & LiskN IN EGYPT AND ABYSSINIA . a LisAN OR TONGUE . ‘ ; ae TRANSITION FROM THE BOOMERANG TO THE HATCHET . * . ‘ ‘ AUSTRALIAN PICKS . P y INDIAN BOOMERANGS ‘ ‘ ‘ x BOOMERANG AND KITE z ci 4 AFRICAN BOOMERANGS . ‘ 5 P TRANSITION FROM THE MAULGA, LEOWEL OR PICK TO THE BOOMERANG 4 THE STICK AND THE SHIELD. 5 ‘ THROW-STICKS . i ‘ . > OLD EGYPTIAN BOOMERANG . - ; BuLak SworD . ¥ F ‘ eae HIEROGLYPHIC INSCRIPTION ON WOODEN SworD oF BULAK i : ‘ é TRANSITION FROM CELT TO PADDLE SPEAR AND SWORD Forms . ee Cups oF Fiji ISLANDS . ‘i i ‘ WooDEN SWORDS AND CLUBS OF BRa- ZILIAN INDIANS ‘ - ‘ 3 PAGAYA, SHARPENED PADDLE ‘ ‘ CLUBS. “ i ‘ 7 ‘ are PADDLES . ‘ 5 ‘i ‘ . SAMOAN CLUB . ‘ . , a WooDEN SABRE ‘ ‘ z . - WoopEN CHOPPER. f ; ee, 8 KNIFE (WooD), FROM VANNA LAVA ‘“ PAGE 26 26 26 29 32 32 34 34 35 36 36 37 38 38 39 39 39 41 41 41 42 43 43 44 44 44 44 XXxvi FIG. 56. IrRisqH Sword. ‘ ‘ - : 57. WOODEN RAPIER-BLADE . é : . 58. FRAGMENTS OF STONE KNIVES FROM SHETLAND ‘ : ss é ih 59. FLINT DAGGERS ‘ , . 60. AUSTRALIAN SPEARS ARMED WITH FLINTS AT SIDE . ‘ . : . eg 61, SwoRD OF SABRE FORM, WITH SHARKS’ TEETH. . 7 : : * ‘ 62. DITTO, ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN . e 63. Woop- AND Horn-PoInts . : 64. MEXICAN SWORD OF THE FIFTEENTH 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72, 73- 74. 75» 76, 78. 79: 80. 81. 82. CENTURY, OF IRON WooD, WITH TEN BLADES OF BLACK OBSIDIAN FIXED INTO THE Woop . . ; 2 ow MAHQUAHUITLS ‘ MEXICAN WARRIOR . . ‘ * MEXICAN SworD, IRoN-Woop, WITH OBSIDIAN . 7 . 3 . ARMED MEXICAN SPEAR-HEAD (FIFTEENTH CEN- TURY), BLACK OBSIDIAN, WITH WOODEN HANDLE . ‘ i A s og New ZEALAND CLUB 2 0‘ i ‘ AUSTRALIAN SPEARS, WITH BITS OF OBSI- DIAN, CRYSTAL, OR GLASS. oe ITALIAN Polson DAGGERS 7 . ARAB SWORD, WITH DOWN -CURVED QUILLONS, AND SAW BLADE . ee SEPHURIS AT WADY MAGHARAH (OLDEST Rock TABLETS). THIRD Dynasty . SoRIS AND THE CANAANITES AT WADY MAGHARAH (OLDEST Rock TABLETS). FourTH Dynasty . . 7 » 4 TABLET OF SUPHIS AND Nu-SUPHIS AT Wapy Macuarau. (FourtH Dy- NASTY.) ‘ : : é 6 : THE WINGED CELT, OR PALSTAVE . . COPPER CELTS IN THE DUBLIN COLLEC- TION . . j ‘ : ‘ . SCYTHE-SHAPED BLADE . ‘ Ro Se STRAIGHT BLADE . ‘ : i . STRAIGHT BLADE x “ x ¢ SCYTHE-SHAPED BLADE . . ‘ ‘ FINE SPECIMEN OF EGYPTIAN DAGGER IN POSSESSION OF Mr. Hayns, BROUGHT BY Mr. HARRIS FROM THEBES ne BRONZE KNIFE, FROM THE PILE-VIL- LAGES OF NEUCHATEL, ‘ ‘ PAGE 45 45 46 46 48 48 48 49 49 50 50 50 50 50 51 51 51 61 61 62 71 72 73 73 73 73 80 82 FIG. 84. 85. 86. 87, 88. 89. 90. gl. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100, Iol, 102, 103. 104, 105. 106. 107, 108, 109. 10. Ill. 112. 113. 114. II5. 116. a 118, 119, 120. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PERUVIAN KNIFE, METAL BLADE, SECURED IN A SLIT IN THE HAFT BY STRONG COTTON TWINE ; ae 18 OLDEST FoRM (?) a ‘ . METAL CELTs . : KNIFE FOUND AT REALON ALPES) - " . . ‘i : (HAUTES THE GLAIVE . ‘ < fi a EGYPTIAN AXES OF BRONZE 5 . IrisH BATTLE-AXE , s e % AXE USED BY BRUCE . ‘ : GERMAN PROCESSIONAL AXE . Sie HALBARDS . . z c x ; HALBARDS F é é é ae BECHWANA’s CLUB AXE; THE SAME, EXPANDED ; THE SAME, BARBED ; SI- LEPE OF THE BasuTos ; HORSEMAN’S AXE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY . HiInpuU HaTCHET FROM RAJPUTANA . GERMAN HATCHET OF BRONZE PERIOD BURGUNDIAN AXE; FRANCISQUE OR TAPER AXE j 4 i : ‘ TRON SCRAMASAX . A 7 ew SCRAMASAX . ‘ a ‘ a : GUNNAR’s BILL 3 4 P es VOULGES : ‘ % ; ‘ s EGYPTIAN SACRIFICIAL KNIVES (IRON) IRON SMELTING FURNACE AMONGST THE MARAVE PEOPLE . F “8 PORTABLE AFRICAN BELLOWS i THE ITALIAN FOIL. ‘ x eo %8 POMMEL ; QUILLONS; PAS D’ANE ‘ DousBLe GUARD (GUARD AND COUNTER- GUARD) ‘ . é A 4 STRAIGHT QUILLONS AND Loops 3 Fantastic Form , 7 ‘x * 4 THE THREE FORMS OF THE SworD . DELIVERING PoINT. ‘ is Sc THE INFANTRY ‘ REGULATION’ SworD ScYMITAR . ‘ % . ‘ CLAYMORE ‘ ‘ , ‘i Ag DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE DIRECT AND THE OBLIQUE CUT. . ‘ SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES ‘ ‘ FOIL WITH FRENCH GUARD . — REGULATION SWORD FOR INFANTRY , PAGE 82 88 88 88 89 89 gI gl ot Qg2 93 93 94 94 94 94 94 95 95 101 118 121 125 125 125 125 125 126 127 129 130 130 130 131 133 133 FIG. 121, 122, 123. 124, 125. 126. 127. 128, 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. 134. 135. 157: 158. 159. 160. LIST OF SCYMITAR-SHAPE , Fi . oe YATAGHAN , : 5 3 ORNAMENTAL YATAGHAN AND SHEATH SECTIONS OF THRUSTING-SWORDS . , PIERCED BLADE . - ‘ . PIERCED BLADE AND SHEATH oF Se FLAMBERGE , ‘ ‘ r 4 ‘i GERMAN MAIN-GAUCHE . j a PATERNOSTER e 2 5 ‘ 3 Maray Kris . 5 F ‘ es WavE-EDGED DAGGER ‘ 4 ‘ SAw-TooTH BLADE, ‘ ‘ he MAIN-GAUCHE . ‘ é 7 . SworRD-BREAKERS . ‘ i i ONE-EDGED WAVE BLADE . i ‘ . COUNTERGUARD i ‘ ji ‘ TOOTHED-EDGE ., * ‘ ‘i . HookeD-EDGE ‘ ‘ : £8 EXECUTIONER’s SwORD ‘i x 6 . JAPANESE TYPE . . . aa CHINESE SABRE-KNIFE r i i OLD PERSIAN SwoRD. f e's ScCYMITAR . ‘ ‘ . 4 ‘ . OLD TURKISH. ‘ ‘ i ‘s . CHINESE é ‘ 7 ‘i ; OLD TURKISH SCYMITAR é * 8 THE Dio . 5 ‘ . , ‘ . SAILOR’s CUTLASS . ‘ ‘ — Hinpou Kirke. , x ‘i . GoLp Coast . : , i ie BRONZE DAGGER; SwWorRD . ¥ ‘ SINGLE-STICK IN EGYPT . . i EGYPTIAN SOLDIER AND SHIELD ; EGYPTIAN SOLDIERS : * ie oe EGYPTIAN SOLDIER . fi e a EGYPTIANS FIGHTING, FROM PAINTINGS OF THEBES; EGYPTIAN SOLDIERS, FROM THEBAN Bas-RELIEFS 4% Bronze HATCHETS IN WOODEN HAn- DLES, BOUND WITH THONGS . 5 POLE-AXES * ‘ ‘i ws ee KHETEN OR WAR-AXES . 7 z DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE EGYPTIAN KuopsH (Kopis), with Ences INsIpE AND OUTSIDE Fi a : 2% ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE FIG. 133 | 161, EcypTian SLING ; UNKNOWN WEAPON ; 134 SHEATHED Daccer; HAatTcHeET; 134 SCORPION, OR Wuir-Goap : . 135 162, EGypTIAN DAGGERS F . oo 136 163. EcyrpTIAN DAGGER OF BRONZE IN 136 BriTisH Museum . . ‘ 136 164, OFFICER OF LirE-GUARD To RAMESES 136 II., APPARENTLY ASIATIC : oe fs 136 165, BRONZE SWORD, FOUND AT AL-Kan- 137 TARAH, Ecypt. ‘ é 3 3 137 166. AXE; SPEAR-HEAD ; KHOPSH ; LANCE- Heap . : . . . o 4 137 167. BELT AND DAGGER . . . . iat 168. EGYPTIAN DAGGERS . 7 se ae 169. ASSYRIAN DAGGERS, SHEATHS, AND 138 BELTS 5 . ‘i y a F 1 170, SHORT SWORD FROM Caucasus . . 138 171, EGYPTIAN CHOPPER-SWORDS z 7 138 | yy2, Ecyprian Kuorso. . wt, 139 | 173. Bronze DaGGERS AND SHEATH . : 139 | 174. SHAPES oF EGYPTIAN BLADES 5s 139 | 175. SwORD-DAGGERS . ‘ 3 : ‘ 139 176, ABYSSINIAN SWORD, A LARGE SICKLE 139 | 177. SMALLER ABYSSINIAN BLADE . Ser 140 | 178, ABYSSINIAN SWORD IN SHEATH . 140 | 179, FLIssA OF KABYLES f ‘ a ky 140 | 180, DANKALI SworpD. . . ‘ E 140 | 181. Conco Sworp ‘ ‘ z oe 140 | 182, UNyoro DaccER-SworD . ‘ 5 140 | 183. ZANZIBAR SWORDS . , : 141 184. GoLD Goasr Sworps . 2 3 145 185. ASHANTI SWORD-KNIFE . : it #6 153 186, Sworps OF KiNG GELELE oF DAHOMY 153 187, BEHEADING SWORD. . 4 153 188. Wasa (Wassaw) Sword. ‘ 153 189. Kinc Biay’s Sworp é ‘ ‘ 190, CAPTAIN CAMERON’S MANYUEMA SWORDLET, SHEATH, AND BELT. 153 | 191. Pokwf OF THE CAZEMBE’S CHIEFS . 192, GABOON SWORDS, BOTH EVIDENTLY 154 EGYPTIAN. r . 5 ‘ ‘ 154 | 193. CLEAVER OF THE HaBsHI PEOPLE. . 154 | 194 FRANKISH BLADE, WITH MID-GROOVE OUT OF CENTRE 3 ‘ i , 195. CYPRIAN DAGGER , : : ‘ 156 | 196. NovacuLa . ‘i ‘ é ‘ F XXXvii PAGE 157 157 157 157 157 158 158 158 159 160 160 160 161 161 161 164 164 164 164 165 165 166 166 167 167 167 168 168 168 169 170 170 170 171 173 189 XxXxviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE FIG. PAGE 197. NOVACULA? , F . : . » 189 | 234. JAVANESE BLADE, SHOWING INDIAN 198. NovacuLa, SICKLE? RAZOR? . . 189 DERIVATION ; HINDU SABRE . =. 215 199. SILVER DAGGER, . ; . . 189 | 235. BATTLE-SCENE FROM A CAVE IN CUT- 200, COPPER SWORD FROM THE ‘TREASURY TACK, First Century A.D, ig Ba OF PRIAM’ ‘ . . 3 . 192 | 236. THE First HIGHLANDER , . + 217 201. MarzapoTTo BLADE . . . . 195 | 237, ARJUNA’S SwoRD . . « « « 217 202, ASSYRIAN SWORD. 7 tn 8 . 199 | 238 JAVANESE ScULPTURES WITH BENT 203. ASSYRIAN LANCE, WITH COUNTER- Sworps .. Re 8 - 218 WEIGHT x “ a‘ ‘ « a 269 239. PEsHAWAR SCULPTURES . P » . 218 204. ASSYRIAN SPEAR-HEAD . : + 203 | 240, TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORD AND ALA- 205. ASSYRIAN ‘Razor’. i . . «203 BASTER Knos, MYCENZ& . : » 223 206. BABYLONIAN BRONZE DaGGER; ASSY- 241. GOLD SHOULDER-BELT, WITH FRAG- RIAN SworpDs; ASSYRIAN BRONZE- MENT OF Two-EDGED BRONZE RAPIER 228 SworD. ‘ < é ‘ + 204 | 242. BLADE FROM Mycen&® : ‘ + 229 207. DAGGER-SWORD IN SHEATH , + + 204 | 243. A LoNG GOLD PLATE . . +» 229 208. DAGGER-SWoRD . . . . + 204 | 244. WEAPONS FROM MYCENZ . . » 229 209. CLUB-SWORD . . . . + + 204 | 245. SworD BLADES FROM MYCEN . . 229 210, Fancy SworD . : : : + 204 | 246. Sworp-BLADES FROM MYCEN& . . 230 211, ASSYRIAN SWORDS . . : » + 205 | 24%, Bronze LANCEHEAD (?) . 7 . «230 212, ASSYRIAN SWORDS =. =» =. 205 | 248, Two-EpcEp BRonzE SWORD AND Dac- 213. ASSYRIAN DAGGER . ‘ ‘ + + 205 GER . . fay’ a 3 . 230 214. ASSYRIO-BABYLONIAN ARCHER . + 206 249. Two-EDGED BRONZE SWORDS AND 215, ASSYRIAN Foor SOLDIER . +. 206 ALABASTER KNOB . . + + 231 216. ASSYRIAN SOLDIER HUNTING GAME . 206 250. RAPIER BLADES OF MyCEN& . . 232 217. Foor SOLDIER OF THE ARMY OF SEN- 251. WARRIOR WITH SworD . 3 4 232 NACHERIB (B.C. 712-707). + + 206 252. BRONZE SWORD FOUND IN THE PALACE, 218. ASSYRIAN WARRIOR, WITH Sworp Mycen& . ‘ 5 7 . . 233 ane eren 7 ‘ ; . » BO 253. BRonzE DaGcEer: Two Babes So.- 219. ASSYRIAN WARRIORS AT A LION HuNT 206 DERED . ; z és . se 233 220, ASSYRIAN EUNUCH , 3 . - 206 | ac4, PHASGANON . 2 P . . . 235 221. BRONZE SWORD, BEARING THE NAME 25s, GREEK PHASGANA . ‘ . 1. 235 OF VUL-NIRARI I,, FOUND NEAR Pineeee ; : aaa 256. SHORT SworD (PHASGANON) OF BRONZE, FOUND IN CRANNOG AT PESCHIARA, 22, PERSIAN ARCHER. 5 ‘ : + 209 AND PROBABLY GREEK , ; . 235 223. PERSIAN WARRIOR. =. =. =. «209 257. TWo-EpGED Bronze SworD AND 224. THE PERSIAN CIDARIS, OR TIARA . 209 ALABASTER POMMEL , ; . 236 225. PERSIAN ACINACES . ; . + + 210 | 268, Kopis wirH PoMMEL . . . . 236 226, PERSIAN ACINACES , ‘ : + 210 | 2°9, Kopis witH Hoox. ; . . . 236 227. SWORD FROM MiTHRAS Group . . 210 | 260, KuKKrr BLADE oF GHURKAS . 236 228. SwORD IN RELIEF, PERSEPOLIS SCULP- 261. THE Dan{fsko. 7 7 ‘ . 237 TURES + + + + + + 210} 262, Greek XipHos . wwii; 238 229. PERSIAN ACINACES . j . a BEE 263. GALLO-GREEK Sworp . : . 4 238 230. DAGGER-FORMS FROM PERSEPOLIS * @YI 264. GALLO-GREEK SworpD. . : . 238 231. ACINACES OF PERSEPOLIS . + « 212 265. MAYENCE BLADE . x is «0 238 232. ACINACES OF MITHRAS GROUP . » 212 | 266. GALLO-GREEK BLADE AND SHEATH . 238 233. Hinpt Warriors . : . +» 215 | 267, BRONZE PARAZONIUM , ‘ +. 239 FIG. 268, 269. 270, 271, 272, 273. 274. 275. 276. 277. 278, LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ‘HopLitres’ (HEAVY ARMED) : GREEK COMBATANTS WITH SWORD AND LANCE . ‘ - , ‘ RoMAN SOLDIER . 7 . . . HELMETS or HASTARII (FROM TRAJAN’S CoLuMN); HELMETs oF HAasTARII; BRONZE HELMET (FROM CANN) . HastTaTus (FROM TRAJAN’s COLUMN) . CENTURION’S CUIRASS, WITH PHALERZ OR DECORATIONS . 7 ‘| es ROMAN SworD; GLADIUS . . . BRONZE Two-EDGED EarLty ROMAN ENsIs . # 4 ‘ ’ 8 SworD OF ROMAN AUXILIARY . 2 RoMAN SworpD . : * 2% SWORD AND VAGINA (SHEATH) . . PAGE 240 240 246 246 247 248 255 255 255 255 256 FIG, 279. 280, 281, 282. 283. 284. 285. 286, 287. 288. 289. 290. 291. 292. 293. XXXiX PAGE SworD AND VAGINA (SHEATH) » . 256 THE Pucio. . ‘ . ‘ . 256 Two-EDGED RoMAN STILETTOS . . 257 Sworp OF TIBERIUS . 5 : . 258 GERMAN OR SLAV SWORD ‘i © @ 263 SCRAMASAX FROM HALLSTADT . . 263 DANISH SCRAMASAX ‘; , » 6 263 BLADE AND HANDLE OF BRONZE WITH ParT OF EAGLE * . » 265 GALLIC SWORD OF BRONZE . 5 266 SWORD FOUND AT AUGSBURG . + 270 BRONZE . . . . . 271 THE SPATHA OF SCHLESWIG . 272 SHorT KeLtic Sworp , : » 5 272 DANISH SWORD . . . . » 274 BRITISH SWORD, BRONZE . ts 278 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. CHAPTER I. PREAMBLE: ON THE ORIGIN OF WEAPONS. MAN’s civilisation began with Fire—how to light it and how to keep it lit. Before he had taken this step, our primal ancestor (or ancestors) evidently led the life cf the lower animals. The legend of ‘Iapetus’ bold son’ Prometheus, like many others invented by the Greeks, or rather borrowed from Egypt, contained under the form of fable a deep Truth, a fact, a lesson valuable even in these days. ‘ Fore- thought,’ the elder brother of ‘Afterthought,’ brought down the semzna famme in a hollow tube from Heaven, or stole it from the chariot of the Sun. Here we have the personification of the Great Unknown, who, finding a cane-brake or a jungle tree fired by lightning or flamed by wind-friction, conceived the idea of feeding Thus Hermes or Mercury was ‘ Pteropédilos’ or ‘ Alipes ;’? and his ankles were fitted with ‘ Pedila’ or ‘ Talaria, winged sandals, to the o7éppa updos with fuel. show that the soldier fights with his legs as well as with his arms.! I will not enlarge upon the imperious interest of Hoplology: the history of arms and armour, their connection and their transitions, plays the most important part in the annals of the world. The first effort of human technology was probably weapon-making. History 1 Frederick the Great declared that an army moves like a serpent, upon its belly. According to Plutarch, the snake was held sacred because it glides without limbs, like the stars. Fire, says Pliny (Vad. Hist. vii. 57, and xiii. 42), was first struck out of the stone by Pyrodes, son of Cilix—sz/ex, or flint, the match of antiquity ; and hence it was called mip ; and Vincent de Beauvais explains: ‘Silex est lapis durus, sic dictus eo quod ex eo ignis exiliat.? It is the Sanskrit frat (shz/a), a stone, both words evidently deriving from a common root, sfz or sv. The ‘religiosa silex’ of Claudian (Ragt. Proserp. i. 201) was probably a block of stone like those re- presenting Zeus Kasios, the Paphian Venus, not to mention the host of stones worshipped in Egyptian al and Arab litholatry, and the old Palladium of Troy transported to Rome. ‘Prometheus,’ who taught man to preserve fire in the ferule, or stalk, of the giant fennel, was borrowed by the Hindus and con- verted into Pramantha, ‘ Pramantha,’ however, is the upright fire-stick, first made by Twastu, the Divine Carpenter, who seems to have been a brother of ‘Eoria, the Hearth ; and hence it has been held to be the male symbol. According to Plato, rip (whence pyrites=sulphuret of iron), #8p, and xvtwy are Phrygian words ; and evidently they date from the remotest antiquity. 7 (sun-heat) is found even in the Quichua of Peru, and enters into the royal name ‘Pirhua.’ The French and Belgian caverns prove that striking fire by means of pyrites was known to primitive man. 2 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. and travel tell us of no race so rude as to lack artificial means of offence and defence.! To these, indeed, man’s ingenuity and artistic efforts must, in his simple youthtide, have been confined. I do not allude to the complete man, created full- grown in body and mind by the priestly castes of Egypt, Phoenicia, Judzea, Assyria, Persia, and India. The Homo sapiens whom we have to consider is the * Adam Kadmon,’? not of the Cabbalist, but of the anthropologist, as soon as he raised himself above the beasts of the field by superiority of brains and hands. The lower animals are born armed, but not weaponed. The arm, indeed, is rather bestial than human: the weapon is, speaking generally, human, not bestial. Naturalists have doubted, and still doubt, whether in the so-called natural state the lower animals use weapons properly so termed. Colonel A. Lane Fox, a diligent student of primitive warfare, and a distinguished anthropologist, distinctly holds the hand-stone to be ¢ke prehistoric weapon. He quotes (Cat. pp. 156-59) the ape using the hand-stone to crack nutshells ; the gorillas defending themselves against the Carthaginians of Hanno; and Pedro de Cieza (Cieca) de Leon 4 telling us that ‘when the Spaniards [in Peru] pass under the trees where the monkeys are, these creatures break off branches and throw them down, making faces all the time.’ Even in the days of Strabo (xv. 1) it was asserted that Indian monkeys climb precipices, and roll down stones upon their pursuers—a favourite tactic with savages. Nor, indeed, is it hard to believe that the Simiads, whose quasi-human hand has prehensile powers, bombard their assailants with cocoa-nuts and other missiles. Major Denham (1821-24), a trustworthy traveller, when exploring about Lake Chad, says of the quadrumans of the Yeou country : ‘The monkeys, or, as the Arabs say, men enchanted (Beny Adam meshood),> were so numerous that I saw upwards of a hundred and fifty assembled at one place in the evening. They did not appear at all inclined to give up their ground, but, perched on the top of a bank some twenty feet high, made a terrible noise, and, rather gently than otherwise, pelted us as we approached within a certain distance’ Herr Holub, also, was ‘designedly aimed at by a herd of African 1 There are still races which are unable to kindle fire. This is asserted of the modern Andamanese by an expert, Mr. H. Man, Fourn. Anthrop. Inst. Feb. 1882, p. 272. The same was the case with highly-interesting volume. The Spaniard travelled in A.D. 1532-50, published the first part of his work in 1553, and died about 1560. Readers who would study the most valuable anthropological parts of the the quondam aborigines of Tasmania. 2 This Adam Primus was of both sexes, the biune parent of Genesis (v. 3)—‘male and female created He them ;’ hence the pre-Adamites of Moslem be- lief. The capital error of Biblical readers in our day is to assume all these myths and mysteries as mere historical details. Men had a better appreciation of the Hebrew arcana in the days of Philo Judeeus. 3 T have noted hislabours in the list of ‘Authorities.’ * Chap. iii. p. 43, translated for the Hakluyt Society by Clements R. Markham, C.B. (London, 1869). It is regretable that « senile Committee of exceeding ‘properness’ cut out so much of this book are driven to the French translation quoted by Vicente Fidel Lopez (Zes Races Aryennes du Lerou, p. 199. Paris, Franck, 1873). ’ We need not go to the classics, Greek and Roman, for the idea of metamorphosis. It is common to mankind, doubtless arising from the resemblance of beast to man in appearance, habits, or disposition ; and it may date from the days when the lower was all but equal to the higher animal. ® Seven Years in South Africa, 1872~79, vol. i. Pp. 245, and vol. ii. p. r99 (Sampson Low and Co., 1881). The Simiads were African baboons, which fear man less than those of other continents. THE ORIGIN OF WEAPONS. 3 baboons perched among the trees ;’ and on another occasion he and his men had to beat an ignominious retreat from ‘our cousins. ‘Hence,’ suggests Colonel A. Lane Fox, ‘our “poor relation” conserves, even when bred abroad and in captivity, the habit of violently shaking the branch by jumping upon it with all its weight, in order that the detached fruit may fall upon the assailant’s head.’ In Egypt, as we see from the tomb-pictures, monkeys (baboons or cynocephali) were taught to assist in gathering fruit, and in acting as torch-bearers. While doing this last duty, their innate petulance caused many a merry scene! I never witnessed this bombardment by monkeys. But when my regiment was stationed at Baroda in Gujarat, several of my brother officers and myself saw an elephant use a weapon. The intelligent animal, which the natives call Hathi (‘the handed ’?), was chained to a post during the dangerous season of the wet fore- head, and was swaying itself in ill-temper from side to side. Probably offended by the sudden appearance of white faces, it seized with its trunk a heavy billet, and threw it at our heads with a force and a good will that proved the worst intention. According to Captain Hall—who, however, derived the tale from the Eskimos, the sole living representatives of the palzolithic age in Europe—the polar dear, traditionally reported to throw stones, rolls down, with its quasi-human forepaws, rocks and boulders upon the walrus when found sleeping at the foot of some over- hanging cliff. ‘Meister Petz’ aims at the head, and finally brains the stunned prey with the same weapon. Perhaps the account belongs to the category of the ostrich throwing stones, told by many naturalists, including Pliny (x. 1), when, as Father Lobo explained in his * Abyssinia,’ the bird only kicks them up during its scouring flight. Similar, too, is the exploded shooting-out of the porcupine’s quills, whereby, according to medizval ‘Shoe-tyes’4 men have been badly hurt 1 Wilkinson, I. 1. Unruliness was punished by Askimeg, or the Abenakin Lskimantsic, meaning “stick and no supper.’ The old Nile-dwellers, like the Carthaginians and the medizval Tartars, were famous for taming and training the wildest animals, the cat o’ mountain, leopards, crocodiles, and gazelles. The ‘war-lions of the king’ (Ramses II.) are famed in history. They also taught domestic cats to retrieve waterfowl, and decoy-ducks to cater or the table. 2 Thus Lucretius (v. 1301) calls the elephant ‘anguimanus.’ As is well known, there is a quasi- specific difference between the Indian and the African animal. The latter is shorter, stouter, and more compactly built than the former; the shape of the frontal bones differ, the tusks are larger and heavier, and the ears are notably longer. The latter trait appears even in old coins, Judging from the illus- trated papers, I should not hesitate to pronounce the far-famed Jumbo to be an Asiatic, and not, as usually held, an African. 8 The word wrongly written ‘ Esquimaux,’ which suggests a French origin, is derived from the Ojibwa ‘eaters of raw flesh.’ Old usage applies it to the races of extreme North America, and. of the Asiatic shore immediately opposite. uit, a more modern term, signifies only ‘ the people,’ like Aoz-khoz (‘men of men’), the Hottentots, and like ‘ Bantu’ (Folk), ap- plied, or rather misapplied, to the great South African race. Junuzt, moreover, is by no means universal. The Eskimos supply a valuable study ; amongst other primeval peculiarities, they have little reverence for the dead, and scant attachment to place. 4 «Brave Master Shoe-tye, the great traveller’ (Measure for Measure, iv. 3). The tale of porcu- pines ‘shooting their quills at the dogs, which get many a serious wound thereby,’ is in M. Polo (i. 28), Colonel Yule quotes Pliny, AZlian, and the Chinese. The animal drops its loose quills when running, and when at bay attempts, hedgehog-like, to hide and shield its head. It is, as the Gypsies know, excellent eating, equal to the most delicate pork ; only some- what dry without the aid of lard. B2 4 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. and even killed. On the other hand, the Emu kicks like an Onager! and will drive a man from one side of a quarter-deck to the other. But though Man’s first work was to weapon himself, we must not believe with the Cynics and the Humanitarians that his late appearance in creation, or rather on the stage of life, initiated an unvarying and monotonous course of destructiveness. The great tertiary mammals which preceded him, the hoplotherium, the deino- therium, and other -theria, made earth a vast scene of bloodshed to which his feeble powers could add only a few poor horrors. And even in our day the pre- datory fishes, that have learned absolutely nothing from man’s inhumanity to man, habitually display as much ferocity as ever disgraced savage human nature. Primitive man—the post-tertiary animal—was doomed by the very conditions of his being and his media to a life of warfare ; a course of offence to obtain his food, and of defence to retain his life. Ulysses® says pathetically : No thing frailer of force than Man earth breedeth and feedeth; Man ever feeblest of all on th’ Earth’s face creeping and crawling. The same sentiment occurs in the ‘Iliad’; and Pliny, the pessimist, writes—‘ the only tearful animal, Man.’ The career of these wretches, who had neither ‘minds’ nor ‘souls, was one long campaign against ravenous beasts and their ‘brother’ man-brutes. Peace was never anything to them but a fitful interval of repose. The golden age of the poets was a dream ; as Videlou remarked,‘ Peace means death for all bar- barian races.’ The existence of our earliest ancestors was literally the Battle of Life. Then, as now, the Great Gaster was the first Master of Arts, and War was the natural condition of humanity upon which depends the greater part of its pro- gress, its rising from the lower to the higher grade. Hobbism, after all, is partly right: ‘Men were by nature equal, and their only social relation was a state of war. Like the children of our modern day, helpless and speechless, primeval Homo possessed, in common with his fellow-creatures, only the instincts necessary for self-support under conditions the most facile. Uncultivated thought is not rich in the productive faculty ; the brain does not create ideas: it only combines them and evolves the novelty of deduction, and the development of what is found existing. Similarly in language, onomatopceia, the imitation of natural sounds, the speech of Man’s babyhood, still endures ; and to it we owe our more pictur- esque and life-life expressions. But, despite their feeble powers, compulsory instruction, the Instructor being Need, was continually urging the Savage and the Barbarian to evolve safety out of danger, comfort out of its contrary. For man, compelled by necessity of his nature to weapon himself, bears within 1 Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii. chap. 4), quoted in chap. 2. 2 Odyss. xviii. 130, 131. ‘Qui multum peregrinatur, raré sanctificatur,’ said the theologians. Hence the modern :— ‘Whoso wanders like Ulysses Soon shall lose his prejudices. THE ORIGIN OF WEAPONS. 5 him the two great principles of Imitation and Progress. Both are, after a fashion, his peculiar attributes, being rudimentary amongst the lower animals, though by no means wholly wanting. His capacity of language, together with secular deve- lopment of letters and literature, enabled him to accumulate for himself, and to transmit to others, a store of experience acquired through the medium of the senses ; and this, once gained, was never wholly lost. By degrees immeasurably slower than among civilised societies, the Savage digested and applied to the Present and to the Future the hoarded wisdom of the Past. The imitative faculty, a preponderating advantage of the featherless biped over the quadruped, taught the former, even in his infancy, to borrow ad /bitum, while he lent little or nothing. As a quasi-solitary Hunter! he was doomed to fray and foray, to destroying others in order to preserve himself and his family: a condition so constant and universal as to include all others. Become a Shepherd, he fought man and beast to preserve and increase his flocks and herds; and rising to an Agriculturist, he was ever urged to break the peace by greed of gain, by ambition, and by the instinc- tive longing for excitement.” But there was no absolute point of separation, as far as the material universe is concerned, to mark the dawn of a new ‘creative period’; and the Homo Dar- winiensis made by the Aristotle of our age, the greatest of English naturalists, is directly connected with the Homo sapiens. There are hosts of imitative animals, birds as well as beasts; but the copying-power is essentially limited. Moreover, it is ‘instinctive, the work of the undeveloped, as opposed to ‘reasoning,’ the process of the highly-developed brain and nervous system. Whilst man has taught himself to articulate, to converse, the dog, which only howled and whined, has learned nothing except to bark. Man, again, is capable of a development whose bounds we are unable to determine; whereas the beast, incapable of self- culture, progresses, under the most favourable circumstances, automatically and within comparatively narrow bounds. Upon the imitative faculty and its exercise I must dwell at greater length. It is regretable that the delicious wisdom of Pope neglected to point out the great lesson of the animal-world in suggesting and supplying the arts of offence and defence :— Go, from the creatures thy instructions take Thy arts of building from the bee receive ; Learn from the mole to plough, the worm to weave ; 1 Sir John Lubbock has calculated that among the North American savages the proportion of man to the animals which feed him is 1 to 750; and, as the hunter is at least four times as long-lived as his prey, the ratio might be increased, 1 to 3000. If this were so, and all the bones were preserved, there would be 3,000 bestial skeletons to one human. Without assuming with Mr. Evans (p. 584) that ‘respect for the dead may be regarded as almost instinctive in man,’ and that human remains would be buried, we here find one cause of the present insufficiency of the geologic record. 2 M. Eduard Pietri distributes Prehistoric Archeo- logy proper into two ages, the Agreutic and the Georgic. Under the former he classifies the Bary- lithic (glacial Drift age) and the Leptolithic. Under the Georgic are included the Neolithic, the Chalcitic (copper and bronze), and the Proto-sideric. 6 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Learn from the little nautilus to sail, Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.’ Man, especially in the tropical and sub-tropical zones—his early, if not his earliest, home, long ago whelmed beneath the ocean waves—would derive many a useful hint from the dreadful armoury of equinoctial vegetation ; the poison-trees the large strong spines of the Acacia and the Mimosa, eg. the Wait-a-bit (Acacia detinens), the Gleditschia, the Socotrine Aloe, the American Agave, and the piercing thorns of the Caryota urens, and certain palms. The aboriginal races would be further instructed in offensive and defensive arts by the powerful and destructive Jere of the sunny river-plains, where the Savage was first induced to build per- manent abodes. Before noting the means of attack and protection which Nature suggested, we may distribute Hoplology, the science of arms and weapons of offence and defence, human and bestial, into two great orders, of which the latter can be subdivided into four species :— 1. Missile. 2. Armes @hast—a. Percussive or striking; 4. Thrusting, piercing, or ram- ming ; ¢. Cutting or ripping ; d@. Notched or serrated. Colonel A. Lane Fox (‘Prim. Warfare, p. 11) thus classifies the weapons of ‘Animals and Savages’ :— Defensive. Offensive. Stratagems. Hides Piercing Flight Solid plates Striking Ambush Jointed plates Serrated Tactics Scales Poisoned Columns Missiles Leaders Outposts Artificial defences War cries My list is less comprehensive, and it bears only upon the origin of the Arme blanche. I. As has been said, the missile, the 8édos, is probably the first form of weapon, and is still the favourite with savage Man. It favours the natural self-preservative instinct. Ll-Khauf maksuim— fear is distributed,—say the Arabs. ‘The shorter the weapon the braver the wielder’ has become a well-established fact. The savage Hunter, whose time is his own, would prefer the missile ; but the Agriculturist, compelled to be at home for seed-time and harvest, would choose the hand-to-hand 1 Essay on Man, iti. 172-6, DISTRIBUTION OF WEAPONS. 7 weapon which shortens action. We may hold, without undue credulity, that the throwing-arm is common to beasts, after a fashion, and to man. Among the so- called ‘missile fishes’! the Toxotes, or Archer, unerringly brings down insects with a drop of water when three or four feet high in the air. The Chetodon, or archer fish of Japan, is kept in a glass vase, and fed by holding flies at the end of rod a few inches above the surface: it strikes them with an infallible aim. This process is repeated, among the mammalia, by the Llama, the Guanaco and their congeners, who propel their acrid and fetid saliva for some distance and with ex- cellent aim. And stone-throwing held its own for many an age, as we read in the fifteenth century :— Use eke the cast of stone with slynge or honde ; It falleth ofte, yf other shot there none is, Men harneyseéd in steel may not withstonde The multitude and mighty cast of stonys.* II. The stroke or blow which led to the cut would be seen exemplified in the felida, by the terrible buffet of the lion, by the clawing of the tiger and the bear, and by the swing of the trunk of the ‘ half-reasoner with the hand.’ Man also would observe that the zebra and the quagga (so called from its cry, wag-ga, wag-ga*), the horse and the ass, the camel, the giraffe, and even the cow, defend themselves with the kick or hoof-blow ; while the ostrich, the swan, and the larger birds of prey assault with a flirt or stroke of the wing. The aries or sea-ram (Delphinus orca) charges with a butt. The common whale raises the head with such force that it has been held capable of sinking a whaler: moreover, this mammal uses the huge caudal fin or tail in battle with man and beast ; for instance, when engaged with the fox-shark or thresher (Carcharias vulpes). These, combined with the force of man’s doubled fist, would suggest the ‘noble art’ of boxing: it dates from remote antiquity ; witness the cestus or knuckle-duster of the classics, Greeks, Romans, and Lusitanians. So far from being confined to Great or Greater Britain, as some suppose, it is still a favourite not only with the Russian peasants, but also with the 1 The sepia (squid, cuttle-fish, Loligo vulgaris) defends itself by discharging its ‘ink-bag ’ embedded in the liver, and escapes in the blackened water. This is as true a defence as a shield. * From the Greek 7 rétov, the bow (and arrow, Iliad, viii. 296), which seems to be a congener of the Latin faxus, the yew-tree, a favourite material for the weapon. Hence /axws, like the Scandinavian ir or #7, the Keltic jubar, and the Slavonian isi, all meaning the yew-tree, denote the bow as well. The Skalds called the bow also a/mr (elm-tree), and askr, or mountain-ash, the weAfa, which the Greeks applied to the spear. From téfoy came tokinbdy, ‘arrow-poison, the Latin ‘fexicwm, whose use sur- vives in our exaggerated term ‘intoxicating li- quors. 8 This I know to my cost, having offended a Guanaco at Cordova, in the Argentine Republic ; it straightway spat in my face with unpleasantly good aim. 4 Strutt, Sports and Pastimes, ii. chap. 2. 5 Not unlike the name of a certain Australian Wagga-Wagga which has been heard in the English law-courts. 6 In Land and Water doubts have been thrown upon these single combats of the whale and thresher. See the late Mr. Buckland’s papers (October 2, 1880) ; Lord Archibald Campbell’s sketch; and the same paper, February 26, 1881. Those on board the wrecked cruiser H.M.S. Griffon, myself in- cluded, witnessed a fight between whale and shark in the Bay of Biafra (1862 ?). The Carcharias family takes its name from the sharp and jagged teeth, ard Tov Kapxapav dddyTwr, 8 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Hausas, Moslem negroids who did such good service in the Ashanti war. A curious survival of the feline armature is the Hindu’s Wagh-nakh. Following Demmin, Colonel A. Lane Fox! was in error when he described this ‘tiger’s-claw ’ as ‘an Indian weapon of treachery belonging to a secret society, and invented about A.D. 16 59. Demmin? as erroneously attributes the Wagh-nakh to Sivaji, the Prince of Maratha-land in Western India, who traitorously used it upon Afzal Khan, the Moslem General of Aurangzeb, sent (A.D. 1659) to put down his rebellion. A meet- ing of the chiefs was agreed upon, and the Moslem, quitting his army, advanced with a single servant; he wore a thin robe, and carried only a straight sword. Sivaji, descending from the fort, assumed a timid and hesitating air, and to all appearance was unarmed. But he wore mail under his flimsy white cotton coat, and besides a concealed dagger, he carried his ‘tiger’s-claw.’ The Khan looked with contempt at the crouching and diminutive ‘mountain rat,’ whom the Moslems threatened to bring back in cages ; but, at the moment of embracing, the Maratha (MT (i j Fic. 1.—INDIAN WAGH-NAKH. Fic. 2.—WAGH-NAKH, USED By MarAruAs (India Museum.) struck his Wagh-nakh into his adversary’s bowels and despatched him with his dagger. The Wagh-nakh in question is still kept as a relic, I am told, by the Bhonsla family.* Outside the hand you see nothing but two solid gold rings encircling the index and the minimus ; these two are joined inside by a steel bar, which serves as a connecting base to three or four sharp claws, thin enough to fit between and to be hidden by the fingers of a half-closed hand. The attack is by 1 Anthrop. Collection, p. 180. Demmin, how- Museum of South Kensington contains a bracelet of ever, is additionally incorrect by making the article “two and a half feet in length’ (Arms and Armour, p- 413, Bell’s edition, London, 1877). In Catalogue of Indian Art in the South Kensington Museum, by Lieut. H. H. Cole, R.E. (p. 313), Sivaji is made to murder the Moslem with the ‘ bichwa,’ or scorpion, a ‘curved double blade.’ This probably refers to the dagger which made ‘ sicker.’ 2 P, 402, where he calls ‘ Sivaji’ Sevaja. 2 Elphinstone’s History, ii. 468. 4 It is, they say, adored at the old fortress and Maratha capital, Sattara (=Sat-istara, the seven stars or Pleiades). Here, too, is Sivaji’s Sword ‘ Bhawani,’ a Genoa blade of great length and fine temper. Mrs. Guthrie, who saw the latter, describes it (vol. i. p. 426) as a ‘fine Ferrara (?) blade, four feet in length, with a spike upon the hilt to thrust with.’ She also notices the smallness of the grip. The Indian seven tiger’s-claws mounted in gold, with a claw clasp (No. 593, 1868). M. Rousselet, who visited Baroda in 1864, describes in his splendid volume one of the Gackhwar or Baroda Rajah’s favourite sfecta- cuda, the ‘ naki-ka-kausti’ (kushti). The nude com- batants were armed with ‘ tiger’s-claws’ of horn ; formerly, when these were of steel, the death of one of the athletes was unavoidable. The weapons, fitted into a kind of handle, were fastened by thongs to the closed right hand. The men, drunk with Bhang or Indian hemp, rushed upon each other and tore like tigers at face and body; forehead-skins would hang in shreds; necks and ribs would be laid open, and not unfrequently one or both would bleed to death. The ruler’s excitement on these occasions often grew to such a pitch that he could scarcely restrain himself from imitating the movements of the duellists, THE ARMS OF ANIMALS. 9 ripping open the belly: and I have heard. of a poisoned Wagh-nakh which may have been suggested by certain poison rings in ancient and medizval Europe. The date of invention is absolutely unknown, and a curious and instructive modi- fication of it was made by those Indians-in-Europe, the Gypsies. III. The thrust would be suggested by the combats of the goat, the stag, and black cattle, including the buffalo and the wild bull, all of which charge at speed with the head downwards, and drive the horns into the enemy’s body. The gnu (Catoblepas G.) and other African antelopes, when pressed by the hunter, keep him at bay with the point. In Europe ‘hurt of hart, a ripping and tearing thrust, has brought many a man to the grave. The hippopotamus, a dangerous animal unduly despised, dives under the canoe, like the walrus, rises suddenly, and with its lower tusks, of the hardest ivory, drills two holes in the offending bottom. The black rhinoceros, fiercest and most irritable of African fauna, though graminivorous, has one or two horns of wood-like fibre-bundles resting upon the strongly-arched nasal bones, and attached by an extensive apparatus of muscles and tendons. This armature, loose when the beast is at peace, becomes erect and immovable in rage, thus proving in a special manner its only use—that of war. It is a formidable dagger that tears open the elephant and passes through the saddle and its padding into the ribs of a horse. The extinct sabre-toothed tiger (AVachairodus latidens), with one incisor and five canines, also killed with a thrust. So, amongst birds, the bittern, the peacock, and the American white crane peck or stab at the eye; the last-named has been known to drive its long sharp mandibles deep into the pursuer’s bowels, and has been caught by presenting to it a gun-muzzle: the bird, mistaking the hole, strikes at it and is caught by the beak.2 The hern defends herself during flight by presenting the sharp long beak to the falcon. The pheasant and partridge, the domestic cock and quail, to mention no others, use their spurs with a poniard’s thrust ; the Argus-pheasant of India, the American Jacana (Parra), the horned screamer (Palamedea), the wing-wader of Australia (Gregory), and the plover of Central Africa (Denham and Claperton), carry weapons upon their wings. According to Pliny (viii. 38) the dolphins which enter © Ml, the Nile are armed with a knife-edged spur on the back to protect themselves from the crocodiles. Cuvier refers this ® allusion to the Sgualus centrina or Spinax of Linneus. The European ‘ file-fish’’ (Balistes capriscus), found in a fossil state, ) . Fic. 3. i is : fa and stil! existing, though rare in British waters, remarkably = (Poeeeisee tontoe ents shows the efficiency, beauty, and variety of that order’s arma- > QQU7CS TERAUS ture. It pierces its enemy from beneath by a strong erectile and cirrated spine on the first anterior dorsal ; the base of the spear is expanded and perforated, and a bolt from the supporting plate passes freely through it. 1 Pliny, xxxii. 6, * Thompson's Pusstons of Animals, p. 225. 10 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. When the spine is raised, a hollow at the back receives a prominence from the next bony ray, which fixes the point in an erect position. Like the hammer of a fire-piece at full cock, the spear cannot be forced down till the prominence is with- drawn, as by pulling the trigger. This mechanism, says the learned and ex- perienced Professor Owen,! may be compared with the fixing and unfixing of a bayonet : when the spine is bent down it is received into a groove in the supporting plate, and thus it offers no impediment to swimming. 3 Zhin * Fic. 5. -NARWHAL’s SwoRD PrercinG PLANK, Fic. 6.—Metrat Daccers witH Horn Curve. ie Guay 4 Mummemen tun ya WALaus Tusks. The pugnacious and voracious little ‘ stickleback’ (Gasterosteus) is similarly provided. The ‘bull-head’ (Cottws diceraus, Pallas®) bears a multibarbed horn on its dorsum, exactly resembling the spears of the Eskimos and the savages of South America and Australia. The yellow-bellied ‘surgeon’ or lancet-fish (Acanthurus) is armed, in either ocean, with a long spine on each side of the tail ; with this lance it defends itself dexterously against its many enemies. The Maseus fronticornis (Lacépéde) bears, besides the horn-muzzle, trenchant spear-formed blades in the 1 Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates, i. 193. 2 Prim, Warfare, i. p. 22. THE ARMS OF ANIMALS. II pointed and serrated tail. The sting-fish or adder-pike (Tvachinus vipera) has necessitated amputation of the wounded limb: the dorsals, as well as the opercular spines, have deep double grooves in which the venomous mucous secretion is lodged—a hint to dagger-makers. The sting-rays (Raia trygon and R. histrix’) twist the long slender tail round the object of attack and cut the surface with the strong notched and spiny edge, inflicting a wound not easily healed. The sting, besides being poisonous, has the especial merit of breaking off in the wound: it is extensively used by the savages of the Fiji, the Gambier, and the Pellew Islands, of Tahiti, Samoa, and many of the Low Islands.2 These properties would suggest poisoned weapons which cannot be extracted. Such are the arrows of the Bushman, the Shoshoni, and the Macoinchi of Guiana, culminating in the highly-civilised stiletto of hollow glass. The sword-fish (X7p/zas), although a vegetable feeder, is men- tioned by Pliny (xxxii. 6) as able to sink a ship. It is recorded to have killed a man when bathing in the Severn near Worcester. It attacks the whale, and it has been known to transfix a vessel’s side with its terrible weapon. The narwhal or sea-uni- corn (Monodon mo- noceros) carries a formidable tusk, a Sword-blade of the same kind similarly used.3 Here may _ be offered a single proof how Man, living among, and dependent for food upon, the lower animals, borrowed from their habits and experience his earliest practice of offence and defence. The illustration represents a ‘Singhauta, 4 ‘Madu’ or ‘Maru’ (double dagger), made from the horns of the common Indian antelope, connected by crossbars. In its rude state, and also tipped with metal, it is still used as a weapon by Fic. 7.—MApvu or MAru. 1 Prim. Warfare, i. p. 21. 2 Tbid, ii. p. 22. 3 The spiral horn is shown by Colonel Yule Arms retains the narwhal horn. The main use of the latter in commerce is to serve as a core for the huge wax-candles lighted during the ceremonies of (Marco Polo, ii. 273, second edition) in an illustra- tion as ‘Monoceros and the Maiden.’ The animal, however, appears from the short tail to be a tapir, not a rhinoceros. That learned and exact writer remarks that the unicorn supporter of the Royal the Roman Catholic Church. 4 So it is called in the Catalogue of the India Museum at South Kensington ; the derivation is evidently from the Hindostani sézgh, a horn, 12 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. the wild Bhils, and as a crutch and dagger by the Jogis (Hindus) and Fakirs (Hindis or Moslems), both orders of religious mendicants who are professionally forbidden to carry secular arms. It also served for defence, like the parrying-stick of Africa and Australia, till it was fitted with a hand-guard, and the latter presently expanded into a circular targe of metal. This ancient instrument, with its graceful curves, shows four distinct stages of develop- ment: first, the natural, and, secondly, the early artificial, with metal caps to make it a better thrusting weapon. The third process was to forge the whole of metal; and the fourth and final provided it with a straight, broad blade, springing at right angles from the central grip. This was the ‘ Adaga’?! of medizeval writers. SSS aT IV. The first idea of a trenchant or cutting instrument would be suggested by various reeds and grasses; their silicious leaves at certain angles cleave to the bone, as experience has taught most men who have passed through a jungle of wild sugar-cane. When full-grown the plants stand higher than a man’s head, and the flint-edged leaves disposed in all directions suggest a labyrinth of sword- blades. Thus the Mawingo-wingo (Pennisetum Benthamz), like the horse-tail or ‘shave-grass’ of Spain, was used as knives by the executioners of Kings Sunna and Mtesa of Uganda, when cutting the human victims to pieces.? Of the same kind are the ‘sword-grass’ and the ‘bamboo-grass.’ Many races, especially the Andamanese and the Polynesian Islanders, make useful blades of the split and sharpened bamboo: they are fashioned from the green plant, and are dried and charred to sharpen the edge. Turning to the animal world, the cassowary tears with a forward cut, and the wounded coot scratches like a cat. The ‘old man kangaroo, with the long nail of the powerful hind leg, has opened the stomach of many a staunch hound. The wild boar attacks with a thrust, followed by a rip, cutting scientifically from below upwards. This, as will appear, is pre- cisely the plan adopted by certain ancient forms of sabre, Greek and barbarian, the cutting edges being inside, not outside, the curve. I may add that the old attack is one of our latest improvements in broadsword exercise.’ Fic, 8.—TuHe Abaca. 1 Boutell (Arms and Armour, fig. 61, p. 269) poniard and buckler. The savage and treacherous engraves a parrying weapon with a blade at right angles to the handle. He calls it a ‘ Moorish Adar- gue’ (fifteenth century). The latter word (with the r) is simply the Arabic word e/-darakah, a shield, the origin of our ‘targe’ and ‘target.’ The adaga (not adarga, cantos i. 87, viii. 29) with which Camoens in The Lusiads (ii. 95, &c.) arms the East Africans is a weapon of the Madu kind. Ihave translated it ‘dag- targe,’ because in that part of the world it combines natives of the Solomon Islands (San Christoval, &c.) still use a nondescript weapon, half Sword and half shield, some six feet long. * Captain Speke’s Discovery of the Source of the Wile, p. 652 (Edinburgh : Blackwoods, 1863). * In the form called Aanchette, or cutting at hand, wrist, and forearm with the inner edge. It is co- piously described in iv. 45-54 of my New System of Sword Exercise, &c. (London : Clowes, 1876). THE ARMS OF ANIMALS. 13 The offensive weapon of the sting-ray, and of various insects, as well as the teeth of all animals, man included, furnish models for serrated or saw-edged instru- ments. Hence Colonel A. Lane Fox observes :! ‘It is not surprising that the first efforts of mankind in the construction of trenchant instruments should so univers- ally consist of teeth, or flint-flakes, arranged along the edge of staves.’ But evidently the knife preceded the saw, which is nothing but a knife-blade jagged. I 2 Fic. 11.—ITALiaNn DAGGER, WITH GROOVES AND Ho ves For Poison. Fic. 9.—SERRATED OR MULTIBARBED WEAPONS. 1. Sting of the common Bee; 2. Sting of Ray. Se =a [A A, ramet | Zig co Fic. 12.—SworD WITH SERRATED BLADE oF SAW-FISH. Fic. 10.—WEAPONS MADE OF SHARKS’ TEETH. Other familiar instances would be the multibarb stings of insects, especially that of the common bee. Again, we have the mantis, an orthopter of the Temperates and the Tropics, whose fights, enjoyed by the Chinese, are compared with the duels of sabrers. For the rasping blow and parry they use the forearm, which carries rows of strong sharp spines; and a happy stroke beheads or bisects the antagonist. To this category belongs the armature of the saw-fish (Pristis), a shark widely 1 Primitive Warfare, p. 24. 14 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. distributed and haunting the arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Its mode of offence is to spring high from the water and to fall upon the foe, not with the point, but with either edge of its formidable arm: the row of strong and trenchant barbs, set like teeth, cuts deeply into the whale’s flesh. Hence, in New Guinea, the serrated blade becomes a favourite Sword, the base of the snout being cut and rounded so as to form a handle. Thus man, essentially a tool-making animal, and compelled by the conditions of his being to one long battle with the brute creation, was furnished by his enemies, not only with models of implements and instruments, and with instructions to use them, from witnessing the combats of brutes, but actually with their arms, which he converted to his own purposes. Hence the weapon and the tool were, as a rule, identical in the hands of primeval man; and this forms, perhaps, the chief test of a primitive invention, The earliest drift-flints ‘were probably used as weapons both of war and the chase, to grub roots, to cut down trees, and to scoop out canoes.’! The Watusi of Eastern Africa make their baskets with their sharpened spear-heads ; and the so-called Kafirs (Amazulu, &c.) still shave them- selves with the assegai. arms and implements of different races resemble one another so closely as to Hence, too, as like conditions engender like results, the suggest a common origin and actual imitation, even where copying was, so to speak, impossible. Let us take as an instance two of the most widespread of weapons, The blow-pipe’s progressive form has been independently developed upon a similar plan, with distinctly marked steps, in places the most remote.2 Another instance is the chevaux-de-frise, the spikes of metal familiar to the classics.3 They survive in the caltrops or bamboo splints planted in the ground by the barefooted Mpangwe (Fans) of Gaboon-land and by the Rangos of Malacca. 1 Sir Charles Lyell, Geological Evidences of An- tiguity of Man, p. 13 (London : Murray, 1863). Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay (Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot. vol. v. p. 327) says of the Maori ¢okzs or stone-hatchets, they were used chiefly for cutting down timber and for scooping canoes out of the trunks of forest trees ; for driving posts for huts; for grubbing up roots, and killing animals for food ; for preparing firewood ; for scraping the flesh from the bones when eating, and for various other purposes in the domestic arts. But they were also employed in times of war as weapons of offence and defence, as a supplementary kind of tomahawk. 2 The French sarbacane, the Italian and Spanish cerbotana, the Portuguese gravatana, and the Ger- man Alasrohr (blow-tube) is, according to Demmin (p. 468), arbotana, or rather carpicanna, derived from ‘Carpi,’ the place of manufacture, and the Assy- rian (ane), Greek and Latin «dyva (canna), whence ‘cannon.’ This tube, spread over three distinct racial areas in Southern Asia, Africa, and America, is used either for propelling clay balls or arrowlets, poisoned and unpoisoned. It is the sumpitan of Borneo, where Pigafetta (1520) mentions reeds of this kind in Cayayan and Palavan Islands. The hollow bamboo is still used by the Laos of Siam, and is preserved among the Malagasy as a boyish way of killing birds. Pére Bourieu notes it among the Malaccan negrito aborigines, whom the Moslem Malays call ‘ Oran- Banua’ (men of the woods) ; the weapon they term zomeang. It is known in Ceylon, in Silhet, and on both sides of the Bay of Bengal. Condamine de- scribes it among the Vameos (South American In- dians) ; Waterlow and Klemm, in New Guinea, and Markham among the Uapes and other tribes on the Amazonas head-waters. In the New World it is of two varieties : the long heavy zarabatana, and the thinner, slighter pucuna. Finally, it has degraded to the ‘pea-shooter ’ of modern Europe. The prin- cipal feature of the weapon is the poisoned dart; it is therefore unknown amongst tribes who, like the Andamanese, have not studied toxics (Yourn. A nthrop. Lnst. p. 270, February 1882). 8 See the hamus ferreus pointed at both ends in ARMS AND ARTS. Is In the early days of anthropological study we read complaints that ‘it is im- possible to establish, amongst the implements of modern savages, a perfectly true sequence,’ although truth may be arrived at in points of detail; and that ‘in regard to the primary order of development, much must still be left open to con- jecture. But longer labour and larger collections have lately added many a link to the broken chain of continuity. We can now trace with reasonable certainty the tardy progress of evolution which, during a long succession of ages, led to the systematised art of war. The conditions of the latter presently allowed society periods of rest, or rather of recovery ; and more leisure for the practice which, in weapons as in other things, ‘maketh perfect.’! And man has no idea of finality : he will stop short of nothing less than the absolutely perfect. He will labour at the ironclad as he did the canoe ; at the fish-torpedo as he did the petard.? From the use of arms, also, arose the rudimentary arts of savage man. Music began when he expressed his joy and his sorrow by cries of emotion—the voice being the earliest, as it is still the best, of music-makers. It was followed by its imitations, which pass through three several stages, and even now we know nothing more in the way of development. When the savage clapped together two clubs he produced the first or drum-type; when he hissed or whistled he originated the pipe-type (syrinx, organ, bagpipe, &c.); and the twanging of his bow suggested the lyre-type, which we still find—‘tickling the dried guts of a mewing cat. 4 Painting and sculpture were the few simple lines drawn and cut upon the tomahawk or other rude weapon-tool. ‘As men think and live so they build, said Herder; and architecture, which presently came to embrace all the other arts, dawned when the Savage attempted to defend and to adorn his roost among the tree branches or the entrance to his cave-den.° After this preamble, which has been longer than I expected, we pass to the first or rudest forms of the Weapons Proper used by Savage Man. »emmin (p. 124) ; and the German Fussdngel (p. 465). Yhe larger caltrop was called tribulus, stylus ox stilus (Veget. De Re Mil. iii. 24). The knights of medi- zeval Europe planted their spurs rowels upwards to serve the same purpose, 1 ‘Make your hand perfect by a third attempt,’ said Timocrates in Athenzeus, i. cap. 4. 2 ¢Hitherto,’ remarks Colonel A. Lane Fox, ‘ Providence operates directly on the work to be performed by means of the living animated tool ; henceforth it operates indirectly on the progress and development of creation, first through the agency of the instinctively tool-using savage, and, by degrees, of the intelligent and reasoning man.’ 3 J, F. Rowbotham : ‘Certain reasons for be- lieving that the Art of Music, in prehistoric times, passed through three distinct stages of development, each characterised by the invention of a new form of instrument ; and that these stages succeeded one another in the same order in various parts of the world’ (Fourn. Anthrop. Inst. May 1881). The author states that the Veddahs (properly Vzediminissu, or ‘ sportsmen’) of Ceylon, the Mincopis (Andamans), and the people of Tierra del Fuego ‘have no musical instruments at all.’ 4 Opuscula fidicularum, &c. (London: Mitchell and Hughes). 5 Specus evant pro domibus, Caverns appear to be divisible into three classes: dwelling-places—in- cluding refuges, where, as Prometheus says (i. 452), * Men lived like little ants beneath the ground in the gloomy recesses of grots’—storehouses, and sepul- chres. All were in Lyell’s third phase. The first was when the rock began to form the channel by dissolution ; the second, when a regular river flowed ; and the third, when earth and air, instead of water, filled the bed. 16 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. CHAPTER II. MAN’S FIRST WEAPONS—THE STONE AND THE STICK. THE EARLIEST AGES OF WEAPONS. THE AGES OF WOOD, OF BONE, AND OF HORN. WHAT, then, was Man’s first weapon? He was born speechless and helpless, inferior to the beasts of the field. He grew up armed, but badly armed. His muscles may have been stronger than they are now; his poor uneducated fisti cuff, however, could not have compared with the kick of an ass. As we see from the prognathous jaw, he could bite, and his teeth were doubtless excellent’; still, the size and shape of the maxilla rendered it an arm inferior to the hyzena’s and even to the dog’s. He scratched and tore, as women still do; but his nails could hardly have been more dangerous than the claws of the minor felines. He had, however, the hand, the most perfect of all prehensile contrivances, and Necessity compelled him to use it. The stone, his first ‘weapon,’ properly so called, would serve him in two ways—as a missile, and as a percussive instrument. Our savage progenitor, who in days long before the dawn of history, contracted the extensor and relaxed the flexor muscles of his arm when flinging into air what he picked up from the ground, was unconsciously lengthening his reach and taking the first step in the art and science of ballistics. His descendants would acquire extraordinary skill in stone-throwing, and universal practice would again make perfect. Diodorus of Sicily (B.c. 44),? who so admirably copied Herodotus, says that the Libyans ‘use neither Swords, spears, nor other weapons; but only three darts and stones in certain leather budgets, wherewith they fight in pursuing and retreating.” The Wanshi (Guanches) Libyan or Berber peoples of the Canarian Archipelago, according to Ca da Mosto (A.D. 1505), confirmed by many, including George Glas,’ were expert stone-throwers, They fought their duels ‘in the public 1 Aristotle Darwin holds (sorrow ! that we should West Africa, i. 116) borrows from the Spanish of Abreu-Galindo. say ‘held’): ‘Our male semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth,’ as is still shown by a few exceptional individuals. Hence we derived the trick of uncovering the eye-tooth when sneering or snarling at ‘ Brother Man.’ 2 Quoted from Mr. Edward T. Stevens in Flint Chips; Col. A. Lane Fox (Caéal. p. 158). 3 History of the Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands, which dates from 1792. The un- fortunate ‘master-mariner’ (see my Wanderings in Mr. F. W. Newman (Libyan Vo- cabulary:; Triibner, 1882) has illustrated the four Libyan languages—the Algerian Kabdail (ancient Numidian), the Moroccan Shilha (Mauritanian), the Ghadamsi (of which we know little), and the Tudrik (guides), or Tarkiya (Geetulian). ‘Guanche’ is a corruption of gwanx (Berber waz), ‘one person,’ and Chinet, or Tenerife Island ; guan-chinet, meaning ‘a man of Tenerife.’ I have returned to this subject in my last book on the Gold Coast (i. chap. 5). STONE-THROWERS. 17 place, where the combatants mounted upon two stones placed at the opposite sides of it, each stone being flat at top and about half a yard in diameter, On these they stood fast without moving their fect, till each had thrown three round stones at his antagonist. Though they were good marksmen, yet they generally avoided those missive weapons by the agile writhing of their bodies. Then arming themselves with sharp flints (obsidian?) in their left hands, and cudgels or clubs in their right, they fell on, beating and cutting each other till they were tired.” An instance is mentioned in which a Guanche brought down with a single throw a large palm-frond, whose mid-rib was capable of resisting the stroke ofan axe. Kolben, who wrote about a century and a half ago, gives the following account of the ape-like gestures of the Khoi-Khoi or Hottentots!:—‘The most surprising strokes of their dexterity are seen in their throwing of a stone. They hit a mark to a miracle of exactness, though it be a hundred paces distant and no bigger than a halfpenny. I have beheld them at this exercise with the highest pleasure and astonishment, and was never weary of the spectacle. I still expected after repeated successes, that the stone would err; but I expected in vain. Still went the stone right to the mark, and my pleasure and astonishment were redoubled. You could imagine that the stone was not destined to err, or that you were not destined to see it. But a Hottentot’s unerring hand in this exercise is not the only wonder of the scene; you would be equally struck perhaps with the manner in which he takes his aim. He stands, not still with a lift-up arm and a steady staring eye upon the mark, as we do ; but is in constant motion, skipping from one side to another, suddenly stooping, suddenly rising ; now bending on this side, now on that; his eyes, hands, and feet are in constant action, and you would think that he was playing the fool, and minding anything else than his aim ; when on a sudden, away goes the stone with a fury, right to the heart of the mark, as if some invisible power had directed it’ Nearer home the modern Syrians still preserve their old dexterity: I have often heard the tale, and have no reason to doubt its truth, of a brown bear (Ursus syriacus) being killed in the Libanus by a blow between the eyes.?, When the Arab Bedawin are on the raid and do not wish to use their matchlocks, they attack at night, and ‘rain stones’ upon the victim, The latter vainly discharges 1 The word, also written ‘ Hiittentiit,’ and ori- American tribes. Professor Mahaffy notices that ginally Dutch, is supposed to be an uncomplimentary imitation of the cluck-like or smack-like ‘sonant,’ which characterises their complicated and difficult language, and which has infected the neighbouring sections of the great South African family of speech. The Hottentots had already reached the pastoral stage when first visited by Europeans ; whereas the Bushmans then, as now, were huntsmen. Some derive the Hottentot-Bushman ‘click’ from the Egyptian article T (4). But Klaproth found it in Circassia, Whitmee amongst the Melanesian Ne- gritos, and Haldeman amongst certain North ‘old women among us express pity by a regular palatal click.’ On the continent of Europe it ex- presses a kind of ‘ Don’t-you-wish-you-may-get-it ?’ Dr. Hahn, who has lately published a scientific work upon the Khoi-Khoi, favourably reviewed by Pro- fessor Max Miiller in the Mineteenth Century, has treated the subject exhaustively. 2 I can bear personal witness to the prowess of the ruffians of Nazareth, who call themselves, most falsely, Greeks. In 1871, when encamped near the. village, three of my servants were so severely wounded with hand-stones that one was nearly killed. 18 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. his ammunition against the shadows flitting ghost-like among the rocks; and, when his fire is drawn, the murderers rush in and finish their work. The use of the stone amongst the wild tribes of Asia, Africa, and America is almost uni- versal. In Europe, the practice is confined to schoolboys ; but the wild Irish, by beginning early, become adepts in it when adults. As a rule, the shepherd is everywhere a skilful stone-thrower. Turner makes the ‘Kawas’ of Tanna, New Hebrides, a stone as long as, and twice as thick as, an ordinary counting-house ruler: it is thrown with great pre- cision for a distance of twenty yards. The same author mentions stones rounded like a cannon-ball, among the people of Savage Island and Eromanga. Com- mander Byron notices the stones made into missiles by the Disappointment Islanders. Beechey, whose party was attacked by the Easter Islanders, says that the weapons, cast with force and accuracy, knocked several of the seamen under the boat-thwarts. Crantz tells us that Eskimo children are taught stone-throwing Fic. 13.—Ancient Ecyptians THrowina Knives, at a mark as soon as they can use their hands. The late Sir R. Schomburg de- ‘scribes a singular custom amongst the Demarara Indians. When a child enters boyhood he is given a hard round stone which he is to hand-rub till it becomes smooth, and he often reaches manhood before the task is done. Observers have suggested that the only use of the practice is a ‘lesson in perseverance, which quality, in the opinion of many people, is best inculcated by engaging the minds of youths in matters that are devoid of any other incentive in the way of practical utility or interest.’ In more civilised times the knife, as a missile, would take the place of the stone. We find that the ancient Egyptians’ practised at a wooden block, and the German Helden (champions), seated on settles, duelled by casting three knives each, to be parried with the shield. The modern Spaniards begin to learn when children the art of throwing the facon,? cuchillo or clasp-knife. The reapers 1 Prof. Maspero, of Bulak, told me that he had Both weapons are thrown in two ways. The more some doubts about the correctness of Wilkinson’s illus- common is to lay the blade flat on the palm, which tration showing ‘ancient Egyptians throwing knives.’ _is narrowed by contracting the thumb and the mus- ® The facon (faulchion) is about two feet long culus guinearum at the root of the little finger. The THE BOW. 19 of the Roman Campagna, mere barbarians once civilised, also ‘ chuck’ the sickle with a surprising precision. The habit of stone-throwing would presently lead to the invention of the sling, which Meyrick considers, strange to say, the ‘earliest and simplest weapon of antiquity.” The rudest form of this pastoral weapon used only on open plains, a ball and cord, was followed by the various complications of string- or thong-sling, cup-sling, and stick-sling. The latter, a split stick which held the stone till the moment of discharge, may have been the primitive arm: Lepsius shows an Egyptian using such a sling and provided with a reserve heap of pebbles. Nilsson suggests that David was thus weaponed when Goliath addressed him, ‘Am I a dog that thou comest to me with staves ?’—that is, with the shepherd’s staff turned into a sling. And this form survived longest in the Roman ‘fustibulus, which the moderns corrupted to ‘ fustibale’?: the latter, with its wooden handle, was used in Europe during the twelfth century, and was employed in delivering hand- grenades till the sixteenth. The primitive ball-and-cord, known to the ancient Egyptians, is still preserved in the Bolas of the South American Gaucho. A simultaneously invented missile would be the hurling or throwing-stick and its modification, the Boomerang, of which I have still to speak. The application of elasticity and resilience being now well known, would suggest the rudest form of the bow’ and arrow. This invention, next in importance (though /ongo intervallo) to fire-making and fire-feeding, is the first crucial evidence of the distinction between the human weapon and the bestial arm. Nilsson and many others hold the invention to have been instinctive and common to all peoples ; and we cannot wonder that it was made the invention of demi-gods—Nimrod, Scythes‘ the son of Jupiter, or Perses son of Perseus.6 The missile arm at once showed man and beast separated by an extensive difference of degree, if not of kind, and it has played the most notable part, perhaps, of all weapons in the annals of humanity or inhumanity. It led to the Greek gastrapheta, the (crossbow®); to the palintonon or balista, and the arblast (an enlarged species of the arcus, intended for throwing darts of giant size) ; to the Belagerungs- balister, a fixed form ; to the catapult, exthytonon, tormentum, scorpion or onager,! Roman arcubalista other is by holding the handle and causing the dart ares (‘ Slinging-Isles’), which had only one strap to reverse, so as to strike point foremost. The best guard is a revolver. 1 Critical Enquiry into Antient Armour, &c., by Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick, Kt., preface, p. viii. (4to, 1842). 2 It is not, as usually supposed, a ‘ bastard French word,’ from fustis, a staff, and BdAAew, to throw. 3 Our ‘bow’ is the Gothic dogo (a bender ?), Scand. bogit, Dan, buc, and Old Germ. oko. (Jahns, p. 18.) The ancients made fine distinctions in slings : thus the three-thonged weapon of Aigeum, Patre, and Dymez was held far superior to that of the Bale- (Livy, xxxviii. 30). 4 Pliny, vii. 57. The legend points to the excel- lent archery of the Scythians (Turanians) and the Persians. 5 Even in modern days Dr. Woodward suggests that the first model of flint arrowheads was brought from Babel, and was preserved after the dispersion of mankind. This is admirably archaic. 5 The crossbow is apparently indigenous amongst various tribes of Indo-China, but reintroduced into European warfare during the twelfth century (Yule’s -Marco Polo, ii. 143). 7 The military engines of the ancients were chiefly c2 20 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. and to other formidable forms of classical artillery which preceded the ‘ cheap and nasty’ invention of chemical explosives. So much for the Hand-stone as the forefather of missiles and of ballistic science. Held in the fist it would give momentum, weight and velocity, force and bruising power, to the blow. Thus it was the forerunner of the club, straight and curved ; the flail, the déton ferré, the ‘morning star,’ the ‘holy-water sprinkler, and a host of similar weapons! that added another and a harder joint to man’s arm. Clubs —which in practice are aimed at the head, whereas the spear is mostly directed at the body *—would be easily made by pulling up a straight young tree, or by tear- ing down a branch from the parent trunk and stripping it of twigs and leaves. The club of Australia, a continent to which we look for original forms, has the branch- ing rootlets trimmed to serve as spikes ; moreover, the terminal bulge has been developed in order to stop or parry the assailant’s weapon. In fact the swell, ball, lozenge, or mushroom-head was the first germ of the Australasian shield. The next step would be to fashion the ragged staff with fire, with friction, and with flint knives, shells or other scrapers, into a cutting as well as a crushing instrument ; and here we have one of the many origins of the Sword and of its diminutives, the dagger and the knife. Pointed at the end, it would become the lance and spear, the spud, spade, and palstave, the pz/wm, the dart, the javelin, and the assagai. Not a few authorities contend that the earliest weapons, the most constant in all ages and continuous in all countries, were the spear and the axe. The first would be a development of the pointed hand-celt®; the latter of the leaf-formed or almond-shaped tool. with a well-developed Stone Age‘; on the torsion principle ; those of the medizevals were of two types, the sling and the crossbow. The ‘tor- mentum’ was so called because all its parts were twisted ; the ‘scorpion’ (or catapult), because the bow was vertically placed, like the insect’s raised tail ; and the ‘ onager,’ because the ‘ wild asses, when hunted, throw the stones behind them by their kicks, so as to pierce the chests of those who pursue them, or to fracture them.’ So at least says A. Mar- cellinus (Hist. xxiii. 4). I cannot but suspect that Anna Comnena’s tidypa is a corruption of onager (Yule’s Marco Polo, ii. 144). 1 The National Museum of Prague, Old Graben Street, now Kolowrat, contains a fine collection of war-flails, especially the huge ‘ morning star’ of John Zsizka, generally called Ziska. 2 Mostly, not always, as I learnt to my cost. 3 In a subsequent work (Bronzes, &c., pp. 27-30) Dr. Evans discusses the suggestions of Beger and of Mr. Knight Watson (Proc. Soc. Ant. and S. vii. 396) that ce/te in Job is a misreading for certe. He justly reprobates the fashion of writing ‘Kelt,’ and the newly-coined French plural ce/ée. The truth is that not a few antiquaries have confounded the instrument with the Keltic or Celtic tribes, The word, meaning But firstly, these would be mostly confined to countries and secondly, the conversion of the hand-stone a stone axe, adze, or chisel, has been erroneously derived from the Celts, property Kelts, and by older philologists @ celando, which would convert it into a congener of calum. It is the Latin cel¢is or celtes, a chisel, possibly a relative of the Welsh cediz, a flint. The word is found, according to Mr. Evans, only in the Vulgate translation of Job, in Saint Jerome, and in a forged inscription. He first met with its anti- quarian use in Beger’s Thesaurus Brandenburgicus (1696), where a metal securts (axe) is called celtes. 4 In 1650 Sir William Dugdale (Hist. of Warwick- shire) spoke of stone celts as the weapons of the An- cient Britons, and in 1766 he was followed by Bishop Lyttelton. In 1797 Mr. Frere drew the attention of the Society of Antiquaries to the Drift (paleolithic) instruments occurring at Hoxne, Suffolk, together with remains of the elephant and other extinct ani- mals. He was one of several; but, as usually hap- pens, the wit of one man collected and systematised the scattered experience of many. The man was M. Boucher de Perthes, whose finds in the drift- gravels of St. Acheul, near Amiens (1858), appeared in the Antiguités Celtigues et Anté-diluviennes, and made an epoch, changing the accepted chronology of mankind. THE CLUB. 2I into an arme d’hast would assuredly be later than the club and the sharpened stick or stake. Herodotus, the father of ancient history in its modern form, a travelled student and a great genius, whose prose poem—for such it is—has proved incomparably more useful to us than any works of his successors, when describing a rock-sculpture of Sesostris-Ramses (ii. 106) makes him carry in his right hand a spear (Egyptian), and in his left a bow (Lybian or Ethiopian), Hence some writers on Hoplology have held that he considered these to be the oldest of weapons. But the ancients did not study prehistoric man beyond confounding human bones with those of ex- tinct mammals. Augustus Czsar was an early collector, according to Suetonius Fic. 14.—JAPANESE War-FLAIL. Fic. 15.—TurKIsH War-Fvalt. Fic. 16.—MorninG STAR. (in ‘ August.’ c. xxii). ‘Sua vero . . . excoluit rebusque vetustate ac raritate notabilibus ; qualia sunt Capreis immanum belluarum ferarumque membra pre- grandia, que dicuntur gigantum ossa et arma heroum.’' The Emperor (whom the late Louis Napoleon so much resembled, even in the matter of wearing hidden armour”) preferred these curiosities to statues and pictures. The ancients also, like 1 The stone-weapon was also called detlus, belemnites, and ceraunius (thunder-stone), ceraun- zune and ceraunia. So Claudian (Laus Serene, Vv. 77)— Pyrenzeisque sub antris Ignea flumineze legere ceraunia nymphe. ‘ Fuerunt auctores’ (says Aldovrandus) ‘ qui hunc lapi- dem ceraunium, nempe fulminarem, indigitaverunt.’ According to Skulius Thorlacius, the stone-axe typified the splitting ; the hammer, the shattering ; and the arrow, the piercing, action of the bolt (Om Thor og hans Hammer). People carried these belemnites about their persons, because lightning was supposed never to strike twice in the same place. 2 According to Suetonius, the Roman Ceesar pre- 22 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Marco Polo and too many of the moderns, spoke of the world generally after studying a very small part in particular. The Halicarnassian here evidently alludes to an epoch which had made notable advances upon the Quaternary Congener of the Simiads. We must return to a much earlier age. Lucretius, whose penetrating genius had a peculiar introvision, wrote like a modern scientist :— Arma antiqua manus, ungues dentesque fuerunt, : Et lapides et item sylvarum fragmina rami ; Posterius ferri vis est, zerisque reperta, Sed prius zeris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus.! Gentleman Horace is almost equally correct :— Quum prorepserunt primis animalia terris, Mutum et turpe pecus, glandem atque cubilia propter Unguibus et pugnis, dein fustibus, atque ita porro Pugnabant armis que post fabricaverat usus.? How refreshing is the excellent anthropology of these pagans after the marvel- myths of man’s Creation propounded by the so-called ‘ revealed ’ religions. For the better distribution of the subject I shall here retain the obsolete and otherwise inadmissible, because misleading, terms—Age of Stone, Age of Bronze, Age of Iron From the earliest times all the metals were employed, without distinction, for weapons offensive and defensive: besides which, the three epochs intermingle in all countries, and overlap one another; they are, in fact, mostly simultaneous rather than successive. As a modern writer says, like the three principal colours of the rainbow, these three stages of civilisation shade off the one sided over the senate with a Sword by his side and a mail-coat under his tunic. 1 De Rer. Nat. v. 1282. He speaks of Italy, where copper and bronze historically preceded iron. 2 Sat. i. 3. 8 Leading to the fourth, or Historic, and the fifth, or Gunpowder, age of weapons. In these ‘ages’ we havea fine instance of hasty and indiscriminate generalisation. They originated in Scandinavia, where Stone was used almost exclusively from the beginning of man’s occupation till B.C. 2000-1000. At that time the Bronze began, and ended with the Iron about the Christian era. Thomsen, who clas- sified the Copenhagen Museum in 1836 ; Nilsson, the Swede, who founded comparative anthropology (1838 -43); Forchhammer and Worsaiee, the Dane, who illustrated the Bronze Age (1845), fairly established the local sequence. It was accepted by F. Keller, of the Zurich Lake (1853), by Count Gozzadini, of Bo- logna (1854), by Lyell (1863), and by Professor Max Miiller (1863, 1868, and 1873), who seems to have followed the Swiss studies of M. Morlot (Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise, tome vi. etc.) Unhappily, the useful order was applied to the whole world, when its deficiency became prominent and palpable. I note that Mr. Joseph Anderson (Scotland in Early Chris- tian Times, p. 19) retains the ‘three stages of pro- gress ’—stone, bronze, and iron. Brugsch (story, i. 25) petulantly rejects them, declaring that Egypt ‘throws scorn upon these assumed periods,’ the re- verse being the case. Mr. John Evans (Zhe Ancient Stone Implements, &c., of Great Britain, p. 2) adopts the succession-idea, warning us that the classification does not imply any exact chronology. He finds Biblical grounds ‘in favour of such a view of gradual development of material civilisation.’ Adam’s per- sonal equipment in the way of tools or weapons would have been but insufficient, if no artificer was instructed in brass and iron until the days of Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent when a generation covered a hundred years. Mr. Evans divides the Stone Age into four periods. First, the Palzeolithic, River-gravel, or Drift, when only chipping was used ; second, the Reindeer, or Cavern-epoch of Central France, and an interme- diate age, when surface-chipping is found ; third, the Neolithic, or surface stone-period of Western Europe, in which grinding was practised; and, lastly, the Metallo-lithic age, which attained the highest degree of manual skill. THE ‘AGES’ 23 into the other; and yet their succession, as far as Western Europe! is concerned, appears to be equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours, though the proportion of the spectrum may vary in different countries. And, as a confusion of ideas would be created, especially when treating of the North European Sword, by neglecting this superficial method of classification, I shall retain it while pro- ceeding to consider the development of the White Arm under their highly conven- tional limits. I must, moreover, remark that the ternary division, besides having no absolute chronological signification, and refusing to furnish any but comparative dates, is insufficient. Concomitant with, and possibly anterior to, the so-called Stone Age, wood, bone, teeth, and horn were extensively used ; and the use has continued deep into the metal ages. Throughout the lower valley of the River of the Amazons, where stone is totally wanting, primitive peoples must have armed themselves with another material. The hard and heavy trees, both of the Temperates and the Tropics, supplied a valuable material which could be treated simply by the use of fire, and without metal or even stone. Ramusio speaks of a sago-wood (zdong or Caryota urens) made into short lances by the Sumatrans: ‘One end is sharpened and charred in the fire, and when thus prepared it will pierce any armour much better than iron would do.”? The weapon would be fashioned by the patient labour of days and weeks, by burying in hot ashes, by steaming and smoking, by charring and friction, by scraping with shells and the teeth of rodents, and by polishing with a variety of materials: for instance, with the rasping and shagreen- like skin of many fishes, notably the ray ; with rough-coated grasses, and with the leaves of the various ‘ sandpaper-trees’ which are hispid as a cat’s tongue. And the first step in advance would be dressing with silex, obsidian, and other cutting stones, and finishing with pumice or with the mushroom-shaped corallines, I shall reserve for the next chapter a description of the sabre de bois, unjustly associated in the popular saying with the pzstolet de parle. Bone, which includes teeth, presented to savage man a hard and durable mate- rial for improving his coarse wooden weapons. Teledamus or Telegonus, son of Circe and founder of Tusculum ’ and Przneste, according to tradition slew his father, Ulysses, with a lance-head of fish bone—aculeum marine bellue. The teeth of the Squalus and other gigantum ossa or megatherian remains supplied points for the earliest projectiles, and added piercing power to the blow of the club. That a Bone Age may be traced throughout the world,‘ and that the phrase a ‘ bone- and stone- using people’ is correct, was proved by the Weltausstellung of Vienna (1873), whose 1 In Denmark the division is marked even by the 3 Servius, ad 4xezd. ii. 44, ‘Sic notus Ulysses.’ vegetation, The Stone Age lies buried under the 4 Col. A. Lane Fox (Prim. War., p. 24) no- fir-trees ; the oak-stratum conceals the Bronzes, and tices the bone implements of the French caves and the Iron Age is covered by birch and elders (Jahns, their resemblance, amounting almost to identity, with p. 2). those found in Sweden, among the Eskimos, and the 2 Yule’s Marco Pols, ii. 208. savages of Tierra del Fuego. 24 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. splendid collection found an able describer in Prof. A. Woldrich. The caves of venerable Moustier (Département Dordogne), of Belgium, and of Lherm (Départe- ment Arriége) contributed many jawbones of the cave bear (Ursus speleus) ; the ascending ramus of the inferior maxilla had been cut away to make a convenient grip, and the strong corner-teeth formed an implement or an instrument, a tool or a weapon. The caves of Peggau in Steiermark (Styria), of Palkau in Moravia, and the Pfahlbauten ? or Pile-villages of Olmiitz, produced a number of bone articles and remnants of the cave bear. These rude implements remind us of the weapon used to such good effect by the Biblical Samson, the Hebrew type of Hercules, the strong man, the slayer of monsters, and the Sun-god (Shamsun).? - u. 17-—DeER-Horn Fic. 18.—Horn War Ciuss Fic. 19. Fic. 20.— FG. 24.1. oe Arrow-HEap. with Metau Points. Dovusie SPpeAR SPINE OF ys Een siete ; (S. America.) AND SHIELD. Diopon. BF OMAN BWI OR VALEUS Tooru. The wilder tribes of Cambodia convert the bony horn of the sword-fish into a spear head, with which they confidently attack the rhinoceros.4 At Kotzebue Sound Captain Beechey found lances made of a wooden staff ending in a walrus- tooth ; and this defence was also adapted to a tomahawk-point. The New Guinea tribes tip their arrows with the teeth of the saw-fish and the spines of the globe-fish (Diodon and Triodon). The horny style of the Malaccan king-crab (Limulus), a 1 Mittheilungen der Wien. Anthrop. Gesellschaft. Vienna, 1874. 2 Pfahibau (pfahl=palus) was originally applied at the autumnal equinox when the ‘ world was made,’ becomes the Biblical Sem, and that ‘Sampson’ is Sem-Kon, or Sun-fire. Jablonski (Pantheon Eeyp- to the pile-villages of the Swiss waters (7he Lake- Dwellings of Switzerland, by Dr. Ferdinand Keller). * Wilkinson opines that the Egyptian Khons or Khonsu, the new moon of the year which appeared tiorum) supported the theory that Son, Sem, Con, Khons, or Djom was the god or genius of the summer sun. * Travels into Indo-China, &c. ii. 147, by Henri Mouhot, 1858-59. THE ‘BONE AGE? 25 Crustacean sometimes reaching two feet in length, is also made into an arrow-pile.! The Australians of King George’s Sound arm their spears with the acute barbules of fishes ; and the natives of S., Salvador, when discovered by Columbus, pointed their lances with fish-teeth. The Greenlander’s ‘ nuguit ’ (fig. 23) is mentioned by Crantz as armed with the narwhal’s horn, and the wooden handle is carved in relief with two human figures. By its side is another spear (fig. 24) with a beam in narwhal-shape, the foreshaft being composed of a similar ivory, inserted into the snout so as to represent the natural defence. Here we see the association in the Fic. 22.—STING oF MALAccaNn Limutus Cras. Fic. 24.—NARWHAL SHAFT AND MEtTAL BLaDE. Fic. 23.—THE GREENLAND NucuITt. Fic. 25.—JaDE Partu-Pattus. maker’s mind between the animal from which the weapon is derived and the purpose of destruction for which it is chiefly used. It also illustrates the well-nigh universal practice amongst savages of making their weapons to imitate animate forms. The reason may be a superstition which still remains to be explained. Foreshafts and heads of bone are still applied to the arrows of the South African Bushmans. They alternate with wood, chert, and metal throughout the North American continent, from Eskimo-land to California. A notable resem- blance has been traced between the bone-club of the Nootka Sound ‘ Indians,’ and 1 © Pile,’ applied to the arrow-head (as ‘quarrel’ the Anglo-Saxon Zz/, apparently a congener of the to the bolt of the crossbow), is a congener of the Latin gi/um. German fei/, an arrow. The Scandinavian is f7/a, 26 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. the jade Pattu-Pattu or Meri of New Zealand. Hence it has been suspected that this short, flat weapon, oval or leaf-shaped, and made to hold in the hand, as if it were a stone celt, was originally an imitation of the os humeri. Like the celt, also, is the stone club found by Colonel A. Lane Fox in the bed of the Bawn river, north Ireland. The long bones of animals, with the walls of marrow-holes obliquely cut and exposing the hollow, were fastened upon sticks and poles, forming formidable darts and spears. The shape thus suggests the bamboo arrowheads of the North Americans, whose cavity also served to carry poison.2, They would, moreover, easily be fashioned by fracture, and by friction upon a hard and rough-grained substance, into Swords and daggers. The Fenni, or Finns, of Tacitus (‘Germ.’ c. 46), having no iron, used bone-pointed arrows. The Innuits, or Eskimos, of Greenland I 2 Fic. 28. Hotiow Bone FOR Polson. Fic. 30. Bone Arrow-Point ARMED WITH FLINT FLAKES. Fic. 29. Bone Knire. Fic. 27. Witpe’s DaGcER, Fic. 26. 1. Bonz ARROW-POINT FOR Porson; 2. Iron ARROw- HEAD FoR Porson. (S. America.) Fic. 31. and other parts of the outer north, form with the ribs of whales their shuttles as well as their Swords. In ‘Flint Chips’ we find that the ancient Mexicans had bone-daggers. Wilde * gives a unique specimen of such a weapon found in the bed of the River Boyne ‘in hard blue clay, four feet under sand, along with some stone spear-heads.’ Formed out of the leg-bone of one of the large ruminants, it measures ten and a sixth inches long, the rough handle being only two and a half inches‘; the blade is smooth, and wrought to a very fine point. This skeyne (the 1 Ulster Fournal of Archaeology for 1857. into a putrid corpse. Hence, they say, Commodore 2 The Dacota tribe is said still to ‘doctor’ the bullet by filling with venom four drilled holes, which are covered by pressing down the projecting lips or rims of the metal. Unfortunately, travellers tell us that the venom is the cuticle of the cactus, which is quite harmless. The Papuans tip their arrows with a human bone, which is poisoned by being thrust Goodenough met his death. ° P. 258, Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Royal Irish Academy, by the late (Sir) William R, Wilde. The Greeks, from the days of Homer, followed by the Romans, considered the use of poisoned arrows a characteristic of the barbarian. *‘ The learned author adds, ‘thus confirming the ‘AGES’ BEFORE THE ‘STONE AGE, 27 Irish ‘ scjan’!) looks like a little model of a metal cut-and-thrust blade (fig. 27). Equally interesting is the knife-blade (fig. 29) found with many other specimens of manufactured bone in the Ballinderry ‘Crannog’® (county Westmeath) : the total length is eight inches, and the handle is highly decorated. Other bone knives are mentioned in the ‘ Catalogue’ (pp. 262-63). Bone prepared for making handles, and even ferules, for Swords and daggers is also referred to (p. 267): the material, being easily worked and tolerably durable, has, indeed, never fallen into disuse. In the shape of ivory,’ walrus-tusk, and hippopotamus-tooth it is an article of luxury extensively used in the present day for the hafts of weapons and domestic implements. Lastly, bone served as a base to carry mere trenchant substances, The museum of Professor Sven Nilsson‘ shows (fig. 31) a smooth, sharp-pointed splinter, some six inches long, grooved in each side to about a quarter of an inch deep. In each of these grooves, fixed by means of cement, was a row of sharp- edged and slightly curved bits of flint. A similar implement (fig. 30) is represented in the illustrated catalogue of the Museum of Copenhagen. shall speak at length when treating of the wooden Sword.’ While bone was extensively used by primitive Man, horn was the succedaneum in places where it was plentiful. The Swiss lake-dwellings have yielded stag’s horn and wooden hafts or helves, with bored holes and sockets; borers, awls or drills ; mullers, rubbers, and various other instruments. The caverns of the Reindeer period in the south of France are not less rich. Stag-horn axes are common in Scandinavia, and one preserved by the Stockholm Museum bears the spirited outline of a deer. Beads, buttons, and other ornaments are found in England. This material, when taken from the old stag, is of greater density than osseous matter and of almost stony hardness, as the cancellated structure contains car- bonate of lime ; moreover it was easily worked by fire and steam. Of this contrivance I Diodorus (iii. cap. 15) describes the Ichthyophagi as using antelopes’ horns in their fishing, ‘for need teacheth all things.’ The earliest mention of a horn-arm is by Homer (‘ Iliad,’ ii. 827, and iv. 105), who describes Pandarus, the Lycian, son of Lycaon, using a bow made of the six-spans-long® spoils of the ‘nimble opinion (deduced from the size of the hafts of our bronze Swords) that the hands of the race who used them were very small.’ I can hardly agree with him, and will give reasons in a future page. 1 Wilde writes: ‘Sceana, which is the plural of scjan, a knife,’ the Scotch sgian-dhw, or skene (Rev. Paul O‘Brien’s Practical Grammar and Vocabulary of the Irish Language, Dublin : Fitzpatrick, 1809).’ 2 It is better to write Crannog, lest the word be pronounced ‘crannoje.’ It derives from the Irish crann (a tree, e.g. crann ola=an olive-tree), and properly means a platform or plank-floor. 8 Pliny, the grumbler, complains (xxxili. 54) : “Our very soldiers, holding even ivory in contempt, have their cafu/z (sword-hilts) inlaid or chased (c@d- entur) with silver ; their vagine (scabbards) are heard to jingle with their silver cate//e (chains), and their belts with the plates of silver (daltea lamints crepi- tant) that inlay them.’ It will be seen that Divus Ceesar had juster and more soldier-like views. Scipio the younger, when shown a fine shield by a youth, said: ‘It is really beautiful; but a soldier should rely more on his right arm than on his left arm.’ 4 Of Lund, Sweden. Zhe Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia, &c., translated by Sir John Lubbock. Nilsson is quoted and illustrated by Col. A. Lane Fox (Prim. War. p. 135), and by Wilde (p. 254) from the Scandinaviska Nordens Ur-Invanare, 1843. 5 Chapter III. 6 A commentator volunteers the information that the bow was tipped with ram’s-horn. Nor is there any need to translate ‘goat’ by sex. 28 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. mountain-goat. The weapon may have retained the original form. The early Greek types were either simple or composite. The Persians! preferred, and till lately used, wood and horn, stained, varnished, and adorned as much as possible. Duarte Barbosa? describes the Turkish bow at Hormuz Island as ‘made of buffalo-horn and stiff wood painted with gold and very pretty colours. The ‘Hornboge ’ occurs in the ‘Nibelungenlied,’ and the Hungarians appeared in Europe with horn-bows and poisoned arrows. The bows of the Sioux and Yutahs are of horn, backed with a strip of raw hide to increase the spring. The Blackfoot bow is made from the horn of the mountain-sheep (Catlin), and the Shoshone of the Rocky Mountains shape it by heating and wetting the horn, which is combined with wood (Schoolcraft). The Eskimos of Polar America, where nothing but drift-timber is procurable, are com- pelled to build their weapons with several bits of wood, horn, and bone, bent into form by smoking or steaming. Admirable bows of buffalo-horn—small, but throwing far, and strong—are still made in the Indus-valley about Multan. For this use the horns are cut, scraped, thinned to increase elasticity ; joined at the bases by wooden splints, pegs, or nails, and made to adhere by glue and sinews. Man would soon learn to sharpen his wooden shafts with horn-points, the spoils of his prey. Hence the ancient Egyptians applied horn to their light arrows of reed. The Christy collection contains an arrow from South America (?) armed with a pile of deer-horn. The Melville Peninsula, being scant of materials, uses as arrow-piles the horns of a musk-ox (ovdbos, more ovis than dos), and the thinned defences of the reindeer strengthened by sinews. Antelope-horns are still used as lance-points by the Nubians, the Shilluks, and the Denkas of the Upper Nile; by the Jibbus of Central Africa, and by the tribes of the southern continent. The ‘ Bantu’ or Kafir races, Zulus and others, make their £zv¢ (kerry) either of wood or of rhinoceros-horn. It varies from a foot to a yard long, and is capped by a knob as large as a hen’s egg or a man’s fist: hence it is called ‘knob-stick’ or ‘throw- stick, The Ga-ne-u-ga-o-dus-ha (deer-horn war-club) of the Iroquois ended in a point of about four inches long ; since the people had intercourse with Europeans they have learned to substitute metal. The form suggests that the martel-de-fer of Persia and India, used by Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was derived from a weapon of this kind: suitable points for arming it have been found in England and Ireland. The Dublin Museum (case 21, Petrie) contains an antler of the red deer converted into a thrusting weapon. The Jumbiyah (crooked 1 Pemberton, Zravels. of the Ancient Egyptians, i. chap. 5, mentions only tips of hard wood, flint, and metals, 2 Hakluyt’s edit., p. 43. The index to this ‘ The Roteiro or Ruttier of the Voyage of Vasco publication is very defective : one must look through the whole volume for a line of quotation. I shall again notice it in the next chapter. 8 Wilkinson (Sir J. Gardner), 4 Popular Account da Gama (p. 5, Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional) speaks of tribes about the Cape of Good Hope armed with horn-weapons ‘worked by fire’ (Awans cornos tos- tados). I should suggest that ‘ coros’ is an error for péos (wooden staves). THE ‘HORN-AGE. 29 dagger) of the Arabs, the Khanjar! of Persia and India, whence the Iberian Alfange (El-Khanjar) and our silly ‘hanger,’ shows by form and point that it was originally the half of a buffalo-horn split longitudinally. The modern weapon, with metal blade and ivory handle, has one side of the latter flat, betraying its origin by retaining a peculiarity no longer required. The same is the case when the whole Jumbiyah is, as often happens, made of metal ? (fig. 6, p. 10). The sufficiency of horn for the slender wants of uncivilised communities was admirably illustrated by the discovery of a Pfahlbau, or crannog, some three miles south of Laibach, the capital of Carniola, and a little north of the Brunnsdorf village. The site is a low mountain-girt basin, formerly a lake or broad of the Lai-cum-Sava river, and still flooded after heavy rains. Surface- finds were picked up in 1854-55, and regular explorations began in July 18753 During that year two hundred articles were dug up. The material was chiefly stag-horn, tines, and beams, the latter often cut at the burr or antler-crown. The chief objects—many of them artistic as those of the French ‘ Reindeer epoch’—were hatchets, hammers, needles, spindles, and punches of horn and split bone ; fish- hooks, pincers, and skin-scrapers of hog’s tusks ; with ornaments set in bone, and teeth bored for stringing. Many of these articles showed signs of the saw-kerf or notch which had probably been cut with sanded fibre acting like a file. There were harpoon-heads of peculiar shape, supposed to be unpierced whistles, the hole not having been bored through‘: evidently they were made to ‘unship’ when striking the Welsen (Sz/urz) of the old lake, some of which must have been Fic. 32. Harpoon Heap. addition to their brazen helmets, they wore the ears and horns of an ox in brass. This horn-helmet shows the savage practice of defending the head with the 1 The khanjar proper is shaped like a yataghan, of which more presently. 2 I avoid treating of armour in a book devoted to the Sword ; but the Horn Age compels me to show, in a few words, how that material, combined with hoofs, gave rise to scale armour. Pausanias, confirmed by Tacitus, informs us that the Sarmatians (Slavs) pre- pared the horse-hoofs of their large herds and sewed them with nerves and sinews to overlap like the sur- face of a fir-cone. He adds that this lorica was not inferior in strength or in elegance to the metal-work of the Greeks. The Emperor Domitian wore a cors- let of boars’-hoofs stitched together ; and a fragment of such horn-armour was found at Pompeii. Ammi- anus Marcellinus describes the Sarmatians and the Quadi as protected by loricas of horn-flakes planed, polished, and fastened like feathers upon a linen sheet. A defence composed of the hoofs of some animal, made to hold together without the aid of an inner jerkin, and used in some parts of Asia, is repre- sented in Meyrick (plate iii.). A stone figure of old type similarly defended, and bearing an inscription in a dialect cognate with Greek, appears in vol. iii. Journ. Archaol. Assoc. Herodotus (vii. 76) tells us of a people, whose name has disappeared, that, in skins of beasts and their appendages. 8 The Pfahlbauten tm Latbacher Moraste were first noticed in the Meue Freie Presse, August 27, 1875; secondly, by the Mewe Deutsche Alpenzeitung, of Vienna, Sept. 4, 1875 ; thirdly, by Herr Custos Deschmann (to whom the discovery is attributed) in his paper Die Pfahlbauten auf dem Laibacher Moore (Verhand. der Wiener K. K. Geolog. Reichsan-. stalt, Nov. 16, 1875); and, fourthly, by Carl Frei- herr von Czoernig, whose study (Ueber die Vorhis- torischen Funde im Laibacher Torfmoor) was read at the Alpine Society of Trieste on December 8, 1875. Between that time and 1880 the subject has been illustrated by many writers. The course of discovery also has been ‘ forwards ;’ and the whole moor was about to be drained in 1881. * Perhaps this may explain the ‘ pierced imple- ments of unknown use’ found with harpoon-heads of reindeer-horn in a cavern near Bruniguel, France, Two picks made of reindeer-antlers were produced by the ‘ Grimes Graves,’ Westing Parish, Norfolk. 30 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. six feet long. The wooden foreshaft, joined by a string to its head, acted as float, and betrayed the position of the prey. This is the third stage of the harpoon: the first would be merely a heavy, pointed stick, and the second a spear with barbs. There were six horn Dolche (daggers), and one peculiar article, an edge of polished stone set in a horn-handle: the latter shows at once the abundance of game, and the value and rarity of the mineral, which probably belonged only to the rich. The eight stone implements were of paleolithic type; the few metal articles—a leaf-shaped sword-blade, a rude knife, lance-heads, arrow-piles, needles, and bodkins—were chiefly copper, five only being bronze ; and the pottery corresponds with that of the neolithic period in the museums of Copenhagen and Stockholm. Thus the find, like several in Switzerland, showed a great preponder- ance of horns, bones, and teeth during a transitional age when the rest of Europe was using polished stone and metal. Prehistoric finds are still common in the Laibacher moorground (1882). Lauerza, a hamlet on the edge of the swamp, supplied (Nov. 7) a large stone-axe (Steznbez!), pierced and polished, of the quartzose conglomerate common in the adjacent highlands. This article was exceptional, most of the stone implements being palzolithic. At Aussergoritz appeared remnants of pottery and Roman tiles, a broken hairpin of bronze, a spear of Roman type, and a ‘palstab,’? also of bronze : the latter is the normal chisel-shaped hatchet with the flanges turned over for fitting to the handle ; it measures 16°5 cent. long by 3°5 of diameter at the lower part. The sands of Grosscup also yielded sundry fine bronze armlets of Etruscan make found upon embedded skeletons. All the finds have been deposited in the Provincial Museum at Laibach. The use of horn, like that of bone, has survived to the present day, and still appears in the handles of knives, daggers, and swords. It is of many varieties, and it fetches different prices according to the texture, the markings, and other minutiz known to the trade? 1 The animal remains were of bears, wolves, lynxes, beavers, badgers (probably the cave-species), hogs, goats, sheep (differing in the jaw-bone from ovis), dogs (common, and not eaten), and cattle with small teeth like those of the aurochs. The bird-bones resembled those of the common duck. Man was rare, suggesting that the pile-villagers buried on the adjacent slopes ; the only human ‘find’ was an inferior maxilla with teeth much worn. 2 The word faalstab, palstab, or palstave is usually translated ‘labouring-staff,’ from a¢ pula or pala, to labour, Zabourer. Dr. John Evans (Bronzes, &c., p. 72) prefers ‘spade-staff,’ the verb being at pala, 1o dig, and the noun fal, a spade, spud, shovel ; the Latin Za/a, the French fed/e, and our (baker’s) eel, or wooden shovel. He confines the term ‘ pal- stave’ to two forms ; the first is the winged celt with the lateral extensions hammered to make a socket ; the second is the spud-shaped form, with a thinner blade above than below the side-flanges. 5 M. Kugelmann, of Hamburg—a wholesale mer- chant, who kindly showed me his warehouse—prer fers the horns of the North American and Japanese stag, especially when buttons are to be made of the crown, 31 CHAPTER III. THE WEAPONS OF THE AGE OF WOOD: THE BOOMERANG AND THE SWORD OF WOOD ; OF STONE, AND OF WOOD AND STONE COMBINED The Sword of Wood. THE ‘ Age of Wood’ began early, lasted long, and ended late. savages shows, the spear was originally a pointed stick hardened in the fire ; and arrows, the diminutives of the spear, as daggers are of the Sword, were tipped with splinters of bamboo, whose Tabdashir or silicious bark acted like stone. The Peru- vians, even after they could beat out plates of gold and silver, fought with pikes having no iron tips, but with the points hardened in the fire! The same was the case with the Australians,’ who, according to Mr. Howard Spensley,? also fashioned Swords of very hard wood: the Arabs of the Tihdmat or Lowlands of Hazramaut (the Biblical Hazramaveth) are still compelled by poverty to use spears with- out metal. I pass over the general use of this world-wide material to the epoch when it afforded a true Sword. The wooden Sword, as we see from its wide dispersion, must have arisen spon- taneously among the peoples who had reached that stage of civilisation where it became necessary.t| These weapons were found in the hands of the Indians of Virginia by the well-known Captain John Smith. Writing in 1606, Oldfield de- scribes swords of heavy black wood in the Sandwich Islands, and Captain Owen Stansley in New Guinea. Mr. Consul Hutchinson notes the wooden swords used by the South American Itonanamas, a sub-tribe of the Maxos. Those preserved in Ireland and others brought from the Samoa Islands will be noticed in a future As the practice of 1 Reports on the Discovery of Peru, by Clements R. Markham, C.B., p. 53 (London: Hakluyt Soc. 1872). 2 Oldfield’s ‘Aborigines of Australia’ (Zvans. Eth. Soc.). The author was employed (1861) in collecting specimens of timber for the International Exhibition. 8 Commissioner for Victoria at the Geographical Congress of Venice, September 1881. 4 It is instructive to note the novel application of old inventions to general use when the necessities of the age demand them. The detonating and explosive force of gunpowder was known, in the form of squibs and fireworks, centuries before firearms were required. The power of steam, as a whirling toy and a copper vessel prove, was familiar to the old Egyptians, and perhaps to the Greeks and Romans under the name of colipyle (aidAov wiAat), But only at the end of the last century its motive force attracted general attention ; it became a necessary of civilised life, and at once superseded the sailer and the stage coach. And by aid of the Past we may project the Future. Man will bungle over the balloon, but he will never fly straight till railways and steamers become too slow for him : when ‘ levitation,’ in fact, shall become a necessity. Now the mode of transit would be an unmitigated evil to humanity. 32 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. page. They may mostly be characterised as flat clubs sharpened at the edge, and used like our steel blades. The shape of the wooden sword greatly varies, and so does its origin. Mr. Tylor fell into the mistake, so common in these classifying, generalising, and sim- plifying days, of deriving the sabre, because it is a cutting tool, from the axe, and the tuck or rapier from the spear because it thrusts. Wooden sword-blades alone have three prototypes, viz. :— 1. The club. 2. The throwstick. 3. The paddle. I. The Bulak Museum (Cairo)! shows two good specimens of the ancient ‘Lisan’ (‘tongue’-weapon) club or curved stick. The first battles, says Pliny (vii. 57), were fought by the Africans against the Egyptians with clubs which they called phalange, The shorter club- sword (1 ft. 11 in.) has a handle ribbed with eighteen fine raised rings. The longer or falchion-shaped weapon (2 ft. 5 in.) is hatched at the grip with a cross pattern. Both are of hard wood blackened by age, and both have the distinct cutting edge. The ancient war-club was tipped with metal and whipped with thongs round the handle for firmer grasp, like the Roman fasces. The modern Lisdn-club, made of tough mimosa-wood and about 24 ft. long, is still used in close combat by the Ne- groid tribes of the Upper Nile. To the Bishdrins and Amri the Lisdn ‘supplies, at dances and on festal occasions, the place of the sword. In Abyssinia there is a lighter variety (1 ft. 6 in.) banded alternately with red, blue, and green cloth, and protected by anetwork of brass wire. The Ababdeh (modern Aithiopians), content with this, the spear, and its pendant the shield, fear not to encounter tribes whose arms are the matchlock and a ‘formidable looking, but really inoffensive sword with a wondrous huge straight blade.’ These pastoral Nomads are of a peculiar Fic. 33-—LisAn 1n Eoypt AND ABYSSINIA. Fic. 34-—LIsAn or Toncuxr. and interesting type. The short stature 1 In the Monuments Civils of the Salle de I’Est, Vitrine A. H., at’ the south side. I can give only the old arrangement, which was changed in 1879-80. During my last visit (November 1882) the new order had not been completed. These club-swords are accompanied by throw-sticks, hatchets, and knob- and the well-curved and delicate limbs, kerries. The old Lisans from Thebes are illustrated by Wilkinson (/oc. ett, i. 5). The name, however, is not ‘lissan,’ and they are zo¢ made of acacia, a soft wood that readily perishes. Why will writers con- found acacia and mimosa ? THE BOOMERANG. 33 whose action is quick, lithe, and graceful as the leopard’s, connect them with the Bedawin of Arabia; while the knotted and spiral locks standing on end, and resembling when tallowed a huge cauliflower, affiliate them to the African Somal. Their arms are more extensive than their dress, a mere waist cloth, the primi- tive attire of tropical man ; and they live by hiring their camels to caravans. The Dublin Museum! also shows the transitional forms between the club and the Sword. The weapon (a2) numbered 143 is some twenty-five inches long: the second (0) is labelled ‘ No. 144, wooden club-shaped implement, twenty-seven inches long.’ The club of the Savage developed itself in other directions to the shepherd’s staff, the bishop’s crozier, and the king’s sceptre ; hence, too, the useless baton of the field-marshal, and the maces of Mr. Speaker and My Lord Mayor. Here we may answer the question why the field-marshal should carry a stick instead of a Sword. The unwarlike little instrument is simply the symbol of high authority :? it is the rod, not of the Lictor, but of the Centurion, whose badge of office was a vine-sapling wherewith to enforce authority. Hence Lucan (vi. 146) says of gallant Captain Cassius Sceva who, after many wounds, beat off two swordsmen :— Sanguine multo Promotus Latiam longo gerit ordine vitem. This use was continued by the drill-sergeant of Europe from England to Russia. The club again survives in the constable’s staff and the policeman’s truncheon. The form of throwing-stick, which we have taught ourselves to call by an Aus- tralian name ‘boomerang,’ * thereby unduly localising an almost universal weapon from Eskimo-land to Australia, was evidently a precursor of the wooden Sword. It was well known to ,the ancient Egyptians. Wilkinson shows (vol. i. chap. 4) that it was of heavy wood, cut flat, and thus offering the least resistance, measuring I ft. 3 in. to 2 ft. long by 14 in. broad. The shape, however, is not the usual seg- ment of a circle, but a shallow S-curve inverted (C), more bent at the upper end, and straighter in the handle, One weapon (p. 236) seems to bear the familiar asp- head.4 The British Museum contains a boomerang brought from Thebes by the 1 The arrangement of the Swords when I last enamelled in black. The king solemnly gave the visited the collection (August 1878) was temporary till classified. The wooden blades referred to were in the Petrie Section (Case 21) to the east. 2 So the sovereign of England appointed his Lord High Treasurer by handing over to him a white rod, and the Lord Steward of the Household by presenting a white staff with the words: ‘Seneschall, tenez le baton de nostre hostiell.? Holding the staff was equivalent to the royal commission, and when not in the presence it was carried by a footman bareheaded. On the death of his liege lord the great functionary broke the staff over the corpse, and his duties were at anend. The Lord Marshall of England was ex- pressly permitted to bear a gold truncheon with the royal arms at one end, and on the other his own ‘Marshall’s rod’ into the hands of Maude, daughter of the Earl of Pembroke, who made it over to her son, Earl Roger. 3 It derives from booroomooroong ; and the latter denotes, among the Maoris, a part of the ceremonies practised when the boys are being made men. The symbol, we are told (Collins, Mew South Wales, p. 346), is knocking out a tooth with the aid of a throwing-stick. Mr. Howard Spenseley (oc. c7t.) makes the average boomerang 60 centimétres long by 0°6 broad and o'15 thick: he gives it a flight of 100 meétres. 4 Strangers in Egypt often suppose the true asp to be the Cerastes, or horned snake. As the hiero- glyphics and the monuments prove, it is invariably 34 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Rev. Greville Chester, and a facsimile was exhibited by General Pitt-Rivers.! The end is much curved ; the blade has four parallel grooves, and it bears the cartouche of Ramses the Great. In no instance have we found the round shape and the re- turning flight of its Australian congener. Three illustrations? show a large sports- Fic. 35.—TRANSITION FROM THE BOOMERANG TO THE HaTcueT (AUSTRALIA). man (the master) bringing down birds which rise from a papyrus-swamp, while a smaller figure (the slave) in the same canoe holds another weapon at arm’s length. Strabo? describes the (Belgian) Gauls as hunting with a piece of wood resem- bling a pilum, which is hand-thrown, and which flies to a distance farther than an Fic. 36.—AUSTRALIAN Picks. 1, 2. Pick of New Caledonia ; 3. Malga or Leowel Pick. arrow. He calls it the 'poo¢os, which is also described as a pilum, dart, or javelin by Polybius ;* but evidently this Grosphus means the throw-stick, usually termed by the Greeks dyxvAn (Ancyle). Silius Italicus arms in the ‘ Punica’ one of the the cobra de capello (Coluber Haja), an inhabitant of Africa as well as of Asia. The colour of this deadly thanatophid—which annually kills thousands in India —varies with its habitat from light yellow to dull green and dark brown. The worst I ever saw are upon the Guinea Coast. 1 Anthrop. Soc. July 11, 1882. General Pitt- Rivers, I believe, would localise the boomerang to the neighbourhood of the Indian Ocean, and deny it to Europe and America. * Loc. cit. vol. i. chap. iv. pp. 235, 236, 237, in the abridged edition. * Lib. iv. 4, § 3. 4 Pragmateia, vi. 22, § 13 a fragmentary but ad- mirable account of the Roman army. THE BOOMERANG. 35 Libyan tribes which accompanied Hannibal with a bent or crossed cateia: the latter is identified with the throw-stick by Doctor (now Sir) Samuel Ferguson, poet and antiquary.' The encyclopedia of Bishop Isidore (A.D. 600-636) explicitly de- fines the cateia to be ‘a species of bat which, when thrown, flies not far by reason Fic. 37.—INDIAN BooMERANGS. 1. War Hatchet, Jibba Negros; 2. Steel Chakra, or Sikh Quoit ; 3. Steel Collery ; 4, 5. Collery of Madras, with knobbed handle, of its weight ; but where it strikes it breaks through with extreme impetus, and if it be thrown with a skilful hand it returns to him who threw it :—rursum redit ad eum qui misit.’ Virgil also notices it :— Et quos maliferze despectant moenia Abell Teutonico ritu soliti torquere cateias. (4m. vii. 740). Jahn (p. 410) * remembers the A/zi/ner, or hammer of Thor, which flew back to the hand. It has been noted that this peculiarity of reversion or back-flight is not generic, even in the true boomerang, but appertains only to specific forms. Doubtless it was produced by accident, and, when found useful for bringing down birds over rivers or marshes, it was retained by choosing branches with a suitable bend. The shapes greatly differ in weight and thickness, in curvature and section. Some are of the same breadth throughout ; others bulge in the centre ; while others are flat on one side and convex on the other. In most specimens the fore part of the lath is slightly ‘dished’: hence the bias causes it to rise in the air on the principle of a screw- propeller. the least resistance. 1 Trans. Irish Assoc. vol. xix. The Romans also called it aclys (én. vii. 730), which the dic- tionaries render as a ‘kind of dart.’ It was an archaic and barbarian weapon; and Virgil (Zn. vii. 730) attributes it to the Osci :— Teretes sunt aclydes illis Tela: sed hzec lento mos est aptare flagello. This would mean that after the weapon is thrown it might be drawn back again with a leather thong. The thin edge of the weapon is always opposed to the wind, meeting The axis of rotation, when parallel to itself, makes the missile Possibly the cate‘a ot Isidore (catefa, to cut or mangle, and ca/an, to fight; the Irish cat and the Welsh dad, a fight or a corps of fighters, Latin caterva), survives in the tip-cat. In the Keltic dialect of Wales cataz is a weapon. 2 See his learned note (p. 410) on the weapon and on Isidore (Orig. xviii. 7) : ‘ Heec est cateia quam Floratius cajam dicit.’ The disputed word probably derives from the Keltic Za¢ten, to cast, to throw. D2 36 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. ascend as long as the forward movement lasts, by the action of the atmosphere on the lower side. When the impulse ceases it falls by the line of least resistance, that is, in the direction of the edge which lies obliquely towards the thrower. In fact, it acts like a kite with a suddenly broken string, dropping for a short distance. But as long as the boomerang gyrates, which it does after the forward movement ends, it continues to revolve on the same inclined plane by which it ascended until it returns to whence it came. This action would also depend upon weight ; the heavy weapons could not rise high in the air, and must drop by mere gravity before coming back to the thrower. From Egypt the weapon spread into the heart of Africa. The Abyssinian Fic. 38.—BooMERANG anv KirE. e 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Iz 12 13 14 15 16 Fic. 39.—AFrican BooMERANGS. i, z. Hunga-munga; 3. African Weapon ; 4. Kordofan Weapon ; 5. The same developed ; 6. Faulchion of Mundo Tribe ; 7. The same developed ; 8, Jibba Negros ; 9. Knob-stick ; ro. Ancient Egyptians (Rosellini); 11. Ol fans os . of Nyam-N yams ; 16. Fan (Mpangwe) Tomahawk ; 17. Dor Battle-axe ; M4 Dine dot See ee ahs HORDES ‘Trombash’ is of hard wood, acute-edged, and about two feet long ; the end turns sharply at an angle of 30°, but the weapon does not whirl back.) The boomerang ' Nile Tributaries, by Sir Samuel W. Baker, ‘tombat,’ a similar weapon in Australia (Col, A p. 51. The word has a curious likeness to the Lane-Fox, Anthrop. Coll. p. 31). THE BOOMERANG. 37 of the Nyam-Nyams is called Audbeda. Direct derivation is also shown by the curved iron projectile of the Mundo tribe on the Upper Nile, a weapon of the same form being represented on the old Egyptian monuments. The ‘hunga-munga’ of the negros south of Lake Chad, and the adjoining peoples, shows a further development of spikes or teeth disposed at different angles, enabling The varieties of this form, with a profusion of quaint ornaments, including lateral blades which answer the purpose of wings, and which deal a severer wound, are infinite. Clapperton give an illustration of a Central African weapon forming the head and neck of a stork. So the the missile to cut on both sides. z 2 3 4 6 Denham and Fic. 40.—TRANSITION FROM THE Maca, LEoweEL or Pick TO THE BOOMERANG (AUSTRALIA). Mpangwe negros! of the Gaboon River, West Africa, shape their missiles in the form of a bird’s head, the triangular aperture (fig. 40, No. 5) representing the eye. 1 The ‘Fans’ of M. du Chaillu, a corruption un- fortunately adopted by popular works. In Goril/a- Land (i. 207) I have noticed the Nayin, or Mpangwe crossbow (with poisoned ede, or dwarf bolt), which probably travelled up-Nile like the throw-stick. The détente and method of releasing the string from its notch are those of the toy forms of the European weapon. The Museum at Scarborough contains a crossbow from the Bight of Benin. The people of Bornu (North-West Africa) also use a crossbow rat- trap. 38 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. The throwing-stick has been found in Assyrian monuments: Nemrutd stran- gling the lion holds a boomerang in his right hand. Thence the weapon travelled East; and the Sanskrit Astara, or Scatterer, was extensively used by the pre- Aryan tribes of India. The Kolis, oldest known inhabitants of Gujarat, call it ‘Katuriyeh, a term probably derived from ‘Cateia’; the Dravidians of the Madras Presidency know it as ‘Collery,’ and the Tamulian Kallar and Marawar (of Fic. 41.—TuHe STIck AND THE SHIELD. a, Various forms of Australian Tamarang or Parrying Shields; 2. Shield of Mundo Negros ; 3., Negro parrying Shield ; 4. Old Egyptian Parrying Shield ; 5. Dowak straight flat Throw- stick (Australia) ; 6. Boomerang that does not return; 7. Boomerang that does return. Fic. 42.—THROw-STICKsS. x Australian Tombat ; 2. Malga War-pick ; 3-6. Australian Waddy Clubs ; 7. Hatchet Boomerang, Madura), who use it in deer-hunting, term it ‘Valai Tadi’ (bent stick). The Pudukota Rajah always kept a stock in arsenal. The length greatly varies, the difference amounting toa cubit or more; and three feet by a hand-breadth may be the average. The middle is bent to the extent of a cubit ; the flat surface with a sharp edge is one hand broad. ‘Its three actions are whirling, pulling, and breaking, and THE BOOMERANG-SWORD. 39 it is a good weapon for charioteers and foot soldiers.’ Prof. Oppert, writing ‘On the Weapons, &c. of the ancient Hindus’ (1 880), tells us that the Museum of the Madras Government has two ivory throw-sticks from Tanjore and a common wooden one from Pudukota; his own collection contains four of black wood and one of, iron. All these instruments return, as do the true boomerangs, to the thrower. The specimens in the old India-House Museum conform with the natural curvature of the wood, like the Australian ; but, being thicker and heavier, they fall without back-flight. Not a few of the boomerangs cut with the inner edge, the shapes of the blade and of the grip making them unhandy in the extreme. From the throw-stick would naturally arise the Chakra, the steel wheel or war-quoit, which the Akalis —a stricter order of Sikhs—carried in their long hair, and launched after twirling round the forefinger.!. The boomerang-shape is also perpetuated in the dreaded Kukkri or Gurkha Sword-knife, now used, however, only for hand-to-hand fighting. I have mentioned the Cuchillo or Spanish clasp-knife- and the Italian sickle-throwing. The Aus- tralian weapon was un- known, like the shield, to Tasmania, whose only missile was the Waddy or throw-stick. As the Australian club, swelling at the end, de- veloped itself in one di- rection, to the Malga (war- pick) and hatchet, so on the other line it became, Fic. 43. Fic. 44. by being narrowed, flat- Hic: 4é: OLD EGyPTIAN Bucak Sworp. : ss Sn fened, and cuued, the Fee boomerang and the boome- rang-sword. Finally, the immense variety of curves—some of them bending at a right angle—were straightened and made somewhat long-oval and leaf-shaped for momentum and impetus. The direct descent of the curved wooden Sword of Egypt from the boomerang is shown in many specimens. The blade becomes narrow, flat, and more curved ; 1 It iscalled chakarani inthe Coasts of East Africa a similar weapon as a bracelet, sheathed in a strip of and Malabar Coast, by Duarte Barbosa or Magel- _ hide. lan (?). The Jibba negroes of Central Africa wear AO THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. the handle proves that it is no longer a mere missile, and the grip is scored with scratches to secure a firmer grasp.! The best specimen known to me is in the Bulak Museum.? It is a light weapon of sycomore wood, measuring in length I métre 30 cent. (4 ft. 3 in.), in breadth nearly 15 cent. (6 in.), and in thickness 02 cent. (0'78 in.), while the depth of the perpendicular connecting the arc with the chord is 10 cent. But what makes it remarkable is that the Sword bears at one side the so-called ‘ Cartouche’? of King Ta-a-a (17th dynasty), and at the other end of the same side in a parallelogram the name and titles of Prince ‘ Touaou, the servant of his master in his expeditions.’ This fine specimen was found with the mummy and other articles at the Drah Abu’l-Neggah, the Theban cemetery. The paddle or original oar, mostly used by savages with the face to the bow,‘ is of two kinds. The long, pointed spear-like implement serves, as a rule, for deeper, and the broad-headed for shallower, waters. Both show clearly the trans- itional state beginning with the club and ending with the Sword. Mr, J. E. Calder,> describing the Catamaran of the swamp tea-tree (A7e/aleuca, sp.) on the southern and western coasts of Tasmania, says (p. 23): ‘ The mode of its propulsion would shock the professional or amateur waterman. Common sticks, with points instead of blades, are all that were used to urge it with its living freight through the water, and yet I am assured that its progress is not so very Spears were employed in parts of Australia to paddle the light bark canoes,® and the Nicobar Islanders have an implement combining spear and paddle: it is of iron-wood, and of pointed-lozenge shape, about five feet in length.” The African paddles, usually employed upon lagoons and inland waters, are broad-headed, either rounded off or furnished with one or more short points at the slow, 1 Col. A. Lane-Fox, Azthrop. Coll., p. 33. For a comparative anatomy of the boomerang the reader will consult that volume, pp. 28-61. I have here originated about the time of the Crusades, personal symbolism being its base. As Mr. Hardwick shows, the horse, raven, and dragon were old familiar badges ; noticed only the most remarkable points. 2 The Sword stood in Case 2 of the Salle du Centre, numbered 695; and was described in p. 225 of the late Mariette Pasha’s catalogue. I cannot quite free myself from a suspicion that it was also a boomerang of unusual size. Some of the South African tribes still use throw-sticks a yard toa yard and ahalflong. ‘They are double as thick at one end as they are at the other,’ says Herr Holub (ii. 340), ‘the lighter extremity being in the usual way about as thick as one’s finger.’ 3 This meaningless word (cartuccia, a scrap of paper) was applied by Champollion to the elliptical oval containing a group of hieroglyphics. It is simply an Egyptian shield (Wilkinson, /oc. c7t, i. chap. 5), and the horizontal line below shows the ground upon which it rested. The old Nile-dwellers, like the clas- sics of Europe and the modern Chinese, use the shield for their characteristics, their heraldic badges, &c. The same was the case with our formal heraldry, which many of our sheep-marks are identical with ‘ ordi- naries,’ and the tribes of Australia used signs to serve as kobongs, or crests. Thus, too, in fortification the shield became the crenelle and the battlement, and it served to ‘iron-clad’ the war-galleys of the piratical Norsemen, 4 So there are two ways of swimming. The civi- lised man imitates the action of the frog, the savage the dog, throwing out the arms and drawing the hands towards his chest. * Fourn. Anthrop. Inst. vol. iii. pp. 7-29, April 1873. An illustration is given in Mr. J. G. Wood's Natural History of Man. He also quotes Mr. F, Baines, who describes the paddles of the North Aus- tralians with barbed and pointed looms. 7 Capt. James Mackenzie, in a paper read before the Ethno. Soc. by Mr. G. M. Atkinson (Yournal, vol, ii. No. 2, of July 18, 1870, The paddle is figured pl. xiv. 2). THE CLUB-SWORD. 41 5 6 7 8 9 IL 12 13 Fic. 46.—TRANSITION FROM CELT TO PapDpLE SPEAR AND SworD Forms. x. Wooden Club Sword from New Guinea ; 2. Paddle from New Guinea; 3. New Zealand Pattu-Pattu, or Meri; 4. Pattu-Pattu from the Brazil; 5. Analogous forms ; 6. Ditto, ditto; 7-10. Club Paddles from Polynesia; 11-13. Wooden Spears from Friendly Islands. $ Fic. 48.—Woopex Sworps AnD CLuBs oF Fic. 47.--CLuss oF Fiyt Is.anps. BRAZILIAN INDIANS. 42 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. end. Every tribe has its own peculiarities, and a practised eye easily knows the people by their paddles. A broad blade, almost rounded and very slightly pointed, is also made in the Austral Isles, in the Kingsmill Islands, and in the Marquesas, The passage of the paddle into the Sword is well shown amongst the wilder ‘Indians’ of the Brazil. The Tupis still employ the Tacapé, Tangapé, or Ivera- pema, which is written ‘Iwarapema’ by Hans Stade, of Hesse, in the charmingly naive account of his travels and captivity.! It was a single piece of the hard, heavy, and gummy wood which characterises these hot-damp regions,? and of different shapes with and without handles.3 The most characteristic implement is a long and rounded shaft with a tabular, oval, and slightly-pointed blade: it was slung by a lanyard round the neck and hung on either side. With a weapon of this kind the cannibal natives slaughtered Pero Fernandes Sardinha, first Bishop of Bahia, and all his suite; the ‘martyrs’ had been wrecked on the shoals of Dom Rodrigo off the mouth of the Coruripe River. The scene is illustrated in the ‘ History’ of the late M. de Varnhagen (p. 321). A similar Brazilian instrument was the Macana, still used on the Rio das Amazonas, and there called Tamarana. It retains the form of the original paddle, while for offensive purposes the pointed oval head is sharpened all round. In parts of the Brazil the Macana was a rounded club; and the sharpened paddle used as a Sword was called Pagaye.* Fic, 49-—Facava, Suarrexep The Peruvian Macana and the Callua—the latter compared with a short Turkish blade—were made of chonta-wood (Guilielma speciosa and Martinezia ciliata) which was hard enough to turn copper tools.5 Mr. W. Bollaert ® tells us that the ‘Macana was said by some to be shaped 1 Translated for the Hakluyt Society (1874) by Mr. Albert Tootal, of Rio de Janeiro, who wisely preserved the plain and simple style of the unlettered and superstition-haunted gunner. 2 In Bacon’s day (Aphorisms, book ii.) gummy woods were supposed to be rather a Northern growth, ‘more pitchy and resinous than in warm climates, as the fir, pine, and the like.’ They are as abundant near the Equator, where the viscidity preserves them from the alternate action of burning suns and torrential rains ; moreover, they are harder and heavier than the pines and firs of the Temperates. 8 Historia Geral do Brazil, by F. Adolpho de Varnhagen, vol. i. p. 112 (Laemmert, Rio de Janeiro, 1854). 4M. Paul Bataillard (p. 409, Sur le Alot Fagaie, Soc. Anthrop. de Paris, 1874) is in error, both when he calls the people of Paraguay ‘ Pagayas,’ or ‘car- riers of lances,’ and when he identifies Pagaya (not a spear, but a paddle-sword) with the ‘sagaia or as- sagai.’ The latter word is of disputed origin, and it is meaningless in the tongues of South Africa. Space forbids me to touch its history, except superficially. ‘Azagay,’ a lance, or rather javelin, appears in Spanish history as far back as the days of Ojeda (1509) ; and in 1497 the Portuguese of Vasco da Gama’s expe- dition use the term ‘azagayas’ (p. 12, Roteiro or Ruttier, before alluded to). I believe both to be derived from the Arabic e/-khazdk, a spit—in fact, the Italian sfzedo, lance, 5 Markham (p. 203, Ciera de Leon) makes ‘ Ma- cana’ a Quichua word ; it also belongs to the great Tupi-Guarani family. ° Antiquarian Researches, quoted by Markham, loc, cit. p. 181, THE PADDLE-SWORD. 43 like a long Sword, by others like a club.’ It was both. The Tapuyas set these broad-headed weapons with teeth and pointed bones. I 2 3 4 5 6 Fic. 50.—Ciuzs. 1-4. Samoa Clubs ; 5. Cross-ribbed Club; 6. Toothed Club (Fiji). Fic. 51.—PApDLEs. 1-3. Spear Paddles; 4, 5. Leaf-shaped ; 6. Austral Isles ; 7. New Ireland ; 8. African, from Gaboon River ; g. African, from Coast of Dahome. . Ojeda, during his famous voyage to Carthagena, found the warlike Caribs wielding great Swords of palm wood, and the women ‘throwing a species of lance 44 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. called Azagay. General Pitt-Rivers’ collection has a fine flat Club-Sword, five feet two inches long, straight and oval pointed, from Endeavour River, Queensland, and a smaller article, about three feet, with a longer handle, from Australia. Barrow River, Queensland, has supplied him with a half-curved wooden blade five fect long. The fine Ethnological Museum of Herr Cesar Godeffroy! of Hamburg and Samoa, illustrating the ethnology of the Pacific Islands, contains many specimens of the knob-stick bevelled on one side of the head to an edge and gradually passing into the Sword. On the right-hand entrance-wall are, or were, two fine sabres (fig. 53) of Eucalyptus-wood, labelled ‘Schwert von Bowen (Queensland).’ The Sandwich Islanders, we see, still wield the Sword-club with sharp-cutting edges, "(Godetizoy Collection}. ease Woops hte, "yen va bere like their neighbours of New Ireland. The savage Solomon Archipelago has sup- plied a two-handed sabre of light and bright-yellow wood ; its longitudinal midrib shows direct derivation from the paddle-club. There is also a lozenge-shaped hand-club, which may readily have given a model to metal-workers. It is of hard, dark, and polished wood, and the handle is whipped round with coir (Tafel xx. p. 97): the length is seventy cent. by four of maximum breadth. The Swords are unfortunately not figured in the catalogue ; but there is a fine wooden knife 1 The Godeffroy Collection has produced a huge It was shown to me by Dr. Graeffe, the naturalist Catalogue of 687 pages (Die ethnographisch-en- often mentioned in ‘ South Sea Bubbles, by the Earl thropologische Abtheilung des Museum Godeffroy % and the Doctor.’ As a rule the Samoans had clubs flamburg, vol. i, 8vo (L. Fricderichsen u. Co. 1881), and spears, but few Swords. THE WOODEN SWORD. 45 forty-nine cent. long by six cent. broad, with open handle and highly-worked grip (Tafel xxi. p. 135). It comes from Vanna Lava, Banks Group, New Hebrides, Polynesia (fig. 55).! The wooden Sword extended deep into the Age of Metal. Articles of the kind have been brought from New Zealand, which are evident copies of modern European weapons. Wilde (p. 452) gives the wooden Sword, found five feet deep in Ballykilmunary near High Park, county Wicklow, with some bog-butter, but he finds no indications of its age. The length is twenty inches (fig. 56). Upon the side of the blade, and of a piece with it, stands a projection whose pur- pose is unknown: it is evidently inconvenient for a toy ; but if the relic be a model for a sand-mould, the excrescence would have left an aperture by which to pour in the metal. This view is supported by the shape of the handle, which resembles the grips of the single-piece bronze Swords found in different parts of Europe. The Dublin Museum also con- tains? a blade apparently intended for thrusting, and labelled ‘Wooden Sword-shaped Object.’ The mate- rial is oak, blackened by burial in bog-earth: it has a mid-rib, a bevelled point, and no appearance of being a model (fig. 57). Whilst wood was extensively used for Swords, the Age of Stone supplied few. The broad and leaf- shaped silex-flakes, dignified by the name of Swords, are only daggers and long knives. The fracture of flint is uncertain, even when freshly quarried. The workmen would easily chip and flake it to form scrapers, Fic. 56. Ir1sH Sworp. Fic. 57.— Wooven RaPIER-BLADE (Dublin Museum). 1 This part of Melanesia has been familiar to the home reader by the life, labours, and death of Bishop Patterson. 2 Case 21, Petrie, No. 142. 3 The village of Abu Rawash, north of the Pyra- mids of Jizah, still works this material in large quan- tities ; and its cadoutewrs, or flint-knappers, have produced excellent imitations of the so-called prehis- toric weapons. I have described the flint finds of Egypt in the Yourn. Anthrop. Instit. (Feb. 1879), and shall have something more to say about them. A Mr. R. P. Greg, who writes in the same Jour- nal (May 1881) on the ‘Flint Implements of the Nile Valley,’ is not aware of the fact that I found worked flints near the larger petrified forest (Cairo). Since that time General Pitt-Rivers made his grand discovery of ‘Chert Implements in stratified Gravel in the Nile Valley’ (Yourn. Anthrop. Inst. May 1882). In March 1881, when visiting the Wady, neat Elwat El-Diban (Hill of Flies) amongst the cliffs of Thebes, he came upon paleolithic flints, flakes worked with bulbs and facets embedded in the hardened grit, six and a half to ten feet below the surface. In the same strata tombs had been cut, flat-topped chambers with quadrangular pillars. The fragments of pottery enabled Dr. Birch to pronounce these excavations ‘not later than the eighteenth dy- nasty, and perhaps earlier.’ The New Empire in question was founded by Amosis (M/ah-mes, or Moon- child) cic. B.C, 17003 it included the three great Tothmes, and lasted about three hundred years, end- ing with the heretic Amun-hotep IV., slave of Amun, ctrc. B.C.1400, and Horemhib, the Horus of Manetho. The worked flints may evidently date thousands of years before that period. This is a discovery of the highest importance, and we may expect, with Mr. Campbell, that the ‘works of men’s hands will be found abundantly underlying the oldest history in the 46 . THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. axes, spear-heads, and arrow-piles ; but after a certain length, from eight to nine inches, the splinters would be heavy, brittle, and unwieldy. Obsidian, like silex, would make daggers rather than swords. Suchare the stone dirk and cutlass in the Kensington Museum. Several European museums preserve these flat, leaf-shaped knives of the dark cherty flint found in Egypt. The British Museum contains a polished stone knife broken at the handle, which bears upon it in hieroglyphics the name of ‘ Ptahmes (Ptah-son), an officer.’ There is also an Egyptian dagger, of flint from the Hay Collection, still mounted in its original wooden handle apparently by a central tang, and with remains of its skin sheath.! The Jews, LLLP Lie eee ZL CLL EEE Fic. 59.—Fiint Daccers. Fic. 58.—FRAGMENTS OF STONE KNives FROM a, Iberian or Spanish Blade (Christy Collection) ; 4. Danish SHETLAND. Flint Dagger ; ¢. Danish Flint Hatchet Sabre. who borrowed circumcision from the Egyptians, used stone knives (tas payaipas tas wetpivas). Atys, says Ovid, mutilated himself with a sharp stone,— Tle etiam saxo corpus laniavit acuto ; and the Romans sacrificed pigs with flints. Several undated poniards in our collections are remarkable: for instance, the English daggers of black and white flint, rare in Scotland and unknown in Ireland ; (a) the Iberian or Spanish blade in the Christy Collection, five and a half inches long, and found at Gibraltar; the Tizcuco blade of chalcedony, eight inches long (zdzd@.); (6) the Danish dagger in the Copenhagen Museum, thirteen and a half inches long (the rounded handle makes it a ‘marvel of workmanship’); and (c¢) the flint hatchet-sabre of the same world, in the hard gravel which underlies the mud ' It is figured (p. 8) by Dr. John Evans (Ancient of the Nile-hollow from Cairo to Assouan.’ Atany Stone Implements, &c.), who offers another ¢ poniard ’ rate, this find disposes of the scientific paradox that (perhaps a scraper) on p. 292. On p. 308 he notes Art has no infancy in Nile-land. The strange fancy the large thin flat heads called ‘ Pechs’? (Picts’ ?) has been made popular by the Egyptologist, who knives.’ threatens to become as troublesome as the Sanskritist. THE STONE-SWORD. 47 collection, fifteen and a half inches in length. It is a mystery how the minute and delicate ornamentation, the even fluting like ripple marks, on these Danish flint-daggers was produced. A better substance than flint was found in the compact sandstone and in granitic serpentine, so called because that rock resembles a snake’s skin. It is easily worked, while it is harder than the common serpentine. A dagger or knife found beside a stone cist in Perthshire is described as a natural formation of mica- schiste. The Stone Age produced nothing more remarkable than the Pattu-Pattu or Meri of New Zealand, which an arrested development prevented becoming a Sword. Its shape, that of an animal’s blade-bone, suggests its primitive material ; and New Guinea has an almost similar form, with corresponding ornamentation in wood. What assimilates it to the Sword is that it is sharp-edged at the top as well as at the side. It is used for ‘prodding’ as well as for striking, and the place usually chosen for the blow is the head, above the ear, where the skull is weakest. Some specimens are of the finest green jade or nephrite,! a refractory stone which must have been most troublesome to fashion. Wood, however hard and heavy, made a sorry cutting weapon, and stone a sorrier Sword ; but the union of the two improved both. Hence we may divide wooden Swords into the plain and the toothed blades, the latter — Armed with those little hook-teeth in the edge, To open in the flesh and shut again. An obvious advance would be to furnish the cutting part with the incisors of animals and stone-splinters. In Europe these would be agate, chalcedony, and rock-crystal ; quartz and quartzite ; flint, chert, Lydian stone, horn-stone, basalt, lava, and greenstone (or diorite) ; haematite, chlorite, gabbro (a tough bluish-green stone), true jade (nephrite), jadite, and fibrolite, found in Auvergne. Pinna and other shells have been extensively used—for instance, by the Andamanese—as arrow-heads and adze-blades.” Tenerife, and the so-called New World, preferred the easily-cleft green-black obsidian,’ of which the Ynkas also made their knives. The Polynesian Islands show two distinct systems of attachment. In the first the fragments, inserted into the grooved side, are either tied or made fast by gum or cement. In the second they are set in a row between two small slats or strips of wood, which, lastly, are lashed to the weapon with fibres. The points are ingeniously arranged in the 1 Nephrite is so called because once held a sovereign cure for kidney disease. Jade is found in various parts of Europe (Page); in the Hartz (or Resin) Mountains ; in Corsica (Bristowe), and about Schweinsal and Potsdam (Rudler), Saussurite, the ‘Jade of the Alps,’ appears about the Lake of Geneva and on Monte Rosa. Mr. Dawkins limits Jade proper in the Old World to Turkestan and China. Fade, the Chinese you, is popularly derived from the Persian 7dai = (the) magic (stone). 2 Tneed hardly notice that the mussel-shell was the original spoon, still a favourite with savages. 3 Humboldt (Pers. Marr. vol. i. p. 100) makes the Guanches call obsidian ‘tabona’; most authors apply the word to the Guanche knife of obsidian. 48 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. opposite direction, so as to give severe cuts both in drawing and withdrawing. The Eskimos secure the teeth by pegs of wood and bone. The Pacho of the South Sea Islanders is a club studded on the inner side with shark’s teeth made fast in the same manner. The Brazilian Tapuyas armed a broad-headed club with teeth and bones sharpened at the point.' In ‘Flint Chips’ we find that a North American tribe used for thrusting a wooden Sword, three feet long, tipped with mussel-shell. Throughout Australia the natives provide their spears with sharp pieces Fic. 61.—Sworp oF Sasre Form, witH SHARKs’ TEETH . outh Pacific). From the Meyrick Collection, now in the British Museum. Fic. 60.—AUSTRALIAN SPEARS ARMED WITH FLINTS Fic. 62.—ARMED WITH OpsIDIAN Av SIDE. (Mexico). of obsidian or crystal : of late years they have applied common glass,” a new use for waste and broken bottles (fig. 70). The fragments are arranged in a row along one side near the point, and are firmly cemented. There is no evidence of this flint- setting in Ireland; but the frequent recurrence of silex implements adapted for such purpose has suggested, as in the Iroquois graves, that the wood which held 1 Neuhoff, Travels, &c. xiv. 874. De Mor. Germ. cap. 45). Pliny (xxxvii.chap. 11) also 2 Our word ‘glass’ derives from elese (gless, gles- notices glasum (amber) and Glesaria Island, by the saria), applied by the old Germans to amber (Tacit. natives called Austeravia. THE SWORD OF WOOD AND STONE. 49 them together may have perished. We read in ‘Flint Chips’ that the Selden Manuscript shows a flake of obsidian mounted in a cleft wooden handle, the latter serving as a central support, with a mid-rib running nearly the whole length. The sole use of the weapon was for thrusting.! The people of Copan (Yucatan) opposed Hernandez de Chaves with slings, bows, and ‘wooden Swords having stone edges.’? In the account of the expedition sent out (1584) by Raleigh to relieve the colony of Virginia, we read of ‘ flat, edged truncheons of wood,’ about a yard long. In these were inserted points of stag-horn, much in the same manner as is now practised, except that European lance-heads have taken their place. Knives, Swords, and glaives, edged with sharks’ teeth,? are found in the Marquesas; in Tahiti, Depeyster’s Island, Byron’s Isles, the Kingsmill Group, Redact Island,t the Sandwich Islands, and New Guinea. Captain Graah notices a staff edged with shark’s teeth on the east coast of Green- -land, and the same is mentioned amongst the Eskimos by the late Dr. King. In the tumuli of Western North America, Mr. Lewis Morgan, the ‘historian of the Fic. 63.—Woov- ann roquois,’ mentions that, when opening the HR SO: ‘burial mounds’ of the Far West, rows of flint- flakes occurred lying side by side in regular order ; they had probably been fastened into sticks or swords like the Mexican. Hernandez® describes the ‘Mahquahuitl ’ or Aztec war-club as armed on both sides with razor-like teeth of ‘Itzli’ (obsidian), stuck into holes along the edge, and Fic. 64.—Mexican Sworo OF THE FIFTEENTH CEN- fastened with a kind of gum. Mr. P. T. Stevens (‘Flint Chips, 78% oF Iron Woop, witH TEN BLADES oF , eS . Brack OpsipiAN FIXED p. 297) says that this Mexican broadsword had six or more x nis Wom: Cis weapon is twenty-five inches teeth on either side of the blade. Herrera, the historian, tong.) mentions, in his ‘ Decads,’ ‘Swords made of wood having a gutter in the fore part, in which the sharp-edged flints were strongly fixed with a sort of bitumen and thread.” In 1530, according to contemporary Spanish 1 Stephens, Yucatan, i. 100. 3 See Chap. I. 2 The curious and artistic rock inscriptions and engravings of the South African Bushmen were traced in outline by triangular flint-flakes mounted on sticks 4 Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde, par M. Louis Choris, Peintre, 1822. to act as chisels. The subjects were either simple 5 Trans. Ethno. Soc. vols. i. and ii. p. 290. » figures ; cows, gnus, and antelopes, a man’s bust and a Caneel by Col, Late Bat, Pete, Wand ae, a woman carrying a load ; or compositions, as ostrich and rider, a jackal chasing a gazelle, or a rhinoceros 7 Prehistoric Man, by Daniel Wilson (vol. i. hunting an ostrich. pp. 216-17). E 50 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. historians, Copan was defended by 30,000 warmen, armed with these and other weapons,! especially with fire-hardened spears. The same have been represented in the sculptures of Yucatan, which imitated the Aztecs. Lord Kingsborough’s ruinous work on Mexican antiquities, mostly borrowed from Dupaix, shows a similar contrivance (6 and c). A Sword having six pieces of obsidian in each side of the blade, is to be seen in a museum in Mexico? 6 c Fic 65.—ManquanulIrtTLs. Fic. 66.—MExIcAN WARRIOR. Fic. Iron-Woob, ARMED WITH OpsIDIAN. eight inches long.) A Mexican Sword of Fic. 68.—MeExIcAn SPEAR-HEAD (FIFTEENTH CENTURY), BLack OBSIDIAN, WITH WOooDEN HAnpDLeE. 67.—Mexican Sworp, (One metre Fic. 69.—Nrw ZEALAND LUB. the fifteenth century is of iron-wood, twenty-five inches long, and armed with ten flakes of black obsidian; and the same is the make of another Mexican Sword nearly four feet long? The next step would be to use metal 1 Incidents of Travel in Central America, &c., p- 51; by J. Lloyd Stephens, The work is highly interesting, because it shows Egypt in Central America. Compare the Copan Pyramid with that of Sakkarah ; the Cynocephalus head (i. 135) with those of Thebes ; the beard, a tuft on the chin; the statue and its headdress (ii. 349); the geese-breeding at the palace (ii. 316) ; the central cross (ii. 346) which for bone and stone. So the Eskimos of denotes the position of the solstices and the equinoxes and the winged globe at Ocosingo (ii. 259). In Yucatan the Agave Americana took the place of the papyrus for paper-making. Indo-China also appears in the elephant-trunk ornaments (i. 156). 2 Prim. War. ii. p. 25. 5 The two latter are in Demmin, p. 84. FIRST USE OF METALS. 51 Davis Strait and some of the Greenlanders show an advance in art by jagging the edge with a row of chips of meteoric iron.! This would lead to providing the whole wooden blade with an edge of metal, when the latter was still too rare and too expensive for the whole weapon. This economy might easily have overlapped not only the Bronze, but the Iron Epoch. The tooth-shaped edge was perpetuated in the Middle Ages, as we see by serrated and pierced blades of Italian daggers, That it is not yet extinct the absurd saw-bayonet of later years proves. We now reach the time when Man, no longer contented with the baser materials—bone and teeth, horn and wood— learned the use of metals, possibly from an accidental fire, when é . a scrap of stone cast on the flame that lit his den Gave out the shining ore, and made the Lord of beasts a Lord of men. Fic. 72,—ARAB SWwoRD, WITH Down-curRvED GUILLONS AND Fic. 70.—AUSTRALIAN SPEARS, WITH Saw Braps. (Musée d’Artil- BITS OF OBSIDIAN, CRYSTAL, OR Fic. 71.—ITavt1an Poison lerie, G, 413, inscription not Gass. Daccers. legible.) The discovery of ore-smelting and metal-working, following that of fire-feeding, would enable Man to apply himself, with notably increased success, to the improve- ment of his weapons. But many races here stopped short. The Australian, who never invented a bow, contenting himself with the boomerang, could not advance beyond the curved and ensiform club before he was visited by the sailors of the West. His simplicity in the arts has constituted him, with some anthropologists, the living example of the primitive and prehistoric genus homo? The native of 1 A specimen is in the British Museum, Depart- tians, ancient and modern, and the dark-coloured ment of Meteorolites. (Prim. War. p. 25.) races of Southern Europe. I have ventured to oppose * The distinguished physicist, Prof. Huxley, _ this theory in Chap. VIII. Mr. Thomas, curious to extends, on purely anthropological grounds, the name say, would make letters (alphabet, &c.) arise amongst « Australioids’ to the Dravidians of India, the Egyp- _ the Dravidian quasi-savages. E2 52 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. New Guinea, another focus of arrested civilisation, was found equally ignorant of the metal blade. The American aborigines never taught themselves to forge either cutting or thrusting Swords; and they entertained a quasi-superstitious horror of the ‘long knife’ in the hands of the pale-faced conqueror. This is apparently the case with all the lower families of mankind, to whom the metal Sword is clean unknown. If the history of arms be the history of our kind, and if the missile be the favourite weapon of the Savage and the Barbarian, the metal Sword eminently characterises the semi-civilised, and the use of gunpowder civi- lised, man. A chief named Shongo, of Nemuro, in Japan, assured Mr. John Milne! that, ‘in old times, when there were no cutting tools of metal, the people made them of Aji, a kind of black stone, or of a hard material called iron-stone. Even now imple- ments of this material are employed by men who dwell far in the interior’ Here, then, is another instance of the stone and the metal ‘ Ages’ overlapping, even where the latter has produced the perfection of steel-work. 1 Trans. Anthrop. Inst. May 1881. Mr. Milne _ one of which (No. 17, pl. xviii.) is a chopper in the brought home some fine specimens of worked stones, shape of the Egyptian flint-knives. 53 CHAPTER IV. THE PROTO-CHALCITIC OR COPPER AGE OF WEAPONS. I WILL begin by noticing that the present age has settled a question which caused much debate, and which puzzled Grote (ii. 142) and a host of others half a century ago, before phosphor-bronze was invented. This was the art of hardening (not tempering) copper and its alloys. All knew that these metals had been used, in cutting the most refractory substances,' granite, syenite, porphyry, basalt, and perhaps diorite,? by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Trojans, and Peruvians. But none knew the process, and some cut the knot by questioning its reality. When you cannot explain, deny—is a rule with many scientists. The difficulty was removed by the Uchatius-gun,? long reported to be of ‘steel-bronze,’* but simply of common bronze hardened by compression. At the Anthropological Congress of Laibach * (July 27-29, 1878), Gundaker Graf Wurmbrandt, of Pettau, exhibited sundry castings, two spear-heads and a leaf-shaped blade of bright bronze (Dowris copper) adorned with spirals to imitate the old weapons. They were so indurated by compression that they cut the common metal. Again, at the Anthropological Congress of Salzburg (August 8, 1881), Dr. Otto Tischler, of Prussian Kénigsberg, repeated the old experiment, showing how soft copper and bronze could be hardened by the opus mallei (simple hammering). Moreover his metal thus compressed could cut and work the common soft 1 Mr. Heath (who directed the Indian Iron and But as he also calls it ‘hard black stone,’ I suspect it Steel Company) opined that the tools with which the to be basalt, as his ‘green stone’ (Zyoy, p. 21) may Egyptians engraved hieroglyphics on syenite and be jade or jadeite. porphyry were made of Indian steel. The theory is, 3 Casting the cannon called after the late General as we shall see, quite uncalled for. Uchatius is still kept a secret ; and I have been un- 2 For instance, the magnificent life-sized statue of able to see the process at the I. R. Arsenal, Vienna. Khafra (Cephren or Khabryes) in the Bulak Mu- 4 Stahl-bronce = steel (i.e. hardened) bronze. The seum, dated B.C. 3700-3300 (Brugsch, History, vol. i. misunderstanding caused some ludicrous errors to the p- 78). Scarabzei of diorite can be safely bought in English press. Egypt, the substance being too hard for cheap imi- 5 IT reported to the Atheneum (August 16, 1879) tation work. Dr. Henry Schliemann constantly — this ‘recovery’ of the lost Egyptian (and Peruvian) mentions diorite in his 7roy and its Remains (1875); secret for tempering copper and bronze, which had for instance, ‘wedges’ (i.e. axes) large and small, long been denied by metallurgists. Copper hardened (pp. 21, 28, 154): he speaks of an immense quantity __ by alloy is described in the Arch@ologia, by Governor of diorite implements (p. 75); of a Priapus of diorite Pownall. Mr. Assay-Master Alchorn found in it twelve inches high (p. 169) ; of ‘curious little sling particles of iron, which may, however, have been in bullets’ (p. 236), and of hammers (p. 285). At the ore, and some admixture of zinc, but neither silver Mycenze he found ‘two well-polished axes of diorite.’ nor gold. 54 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. kinds without the aid of iron or steel. He exhibited two bronze plates in which various patterns had been punched by bronze dies. The hammering, rolling, beating, and pressing of copper for the purpose of hardening are well known to modern, and doubtless were to ancient workmen. The degree of compression applied is the feature of the discovery, or rather re-discovery.} It may be doubted whether old Egypt and Peru knew our actual process of hydraulic pressure, whose simplest form is the waterfall. But they applied the force in its most efficient form. The hardest stones were grooved to make obelisks ; the cuts were filled with wedges of kiln-dried wood, generally sycomore ; and the latter, when saturated with water, split the stone by their expansion. And we can hardly deny that a people who could transport masses weighing 887 tons? over a broken country, from El-Suwan (Assouan) to Thebes, a distance of 130 miles, would also be capable of effecting mechanical compression to a high degree. Buffon (‘ Hist. Nat.’ article ‘Cuivre ’) believed in the ‘lost art.’ Rossignol 3 (pp. 237-242) has treated of the trempe (Sid twos Badijs) gue les anciens donnérent au cutvre ; and relates that the chemist Geoffrey, employed by the Comte de Caylus, succeeded in hardening copper and in giving it the finest edge ; but the secret was not divulged. Mongez, the Academician, held that copper was indurated by immersion and by gradual air-cooling, but that /a trempe would soften it.4 In 1862 David Wilson, following Proclus and Tzetzes, declares the process of hardening and tempering copper so as to give it the edge of iron or steel, a ‘lost art.’ Markham’ supposes that the old Peruvians hardened their copper with tin or silica; and he erroneously believes that tin is scarcely found in that section of South America. Modern archeological discovery has suggested that in many parts of the world we must intercalate an age of virgin Copper between the so-called Stone and Bronze Periods. The first metal, as far as we know, was the stream-gold, washed by the Egyptians ; and, as Champollion proved, the hieroglyphic sign for Nub (gold) is a bowl with a straining-cloth dripping water.6 The fable of glass- discovery by the Sidonians on the sands of the Belus,’ a tale which has Ze charie 1 Of this I shall have more to say in Chap. V. _ ® This was the weight of the statue of ‘ Sesostris,’ Ramses IJ., and his father Pharaoh Seti I.; see Chap. IX. The overseer standing upon its knee appears about two-thirds the length of the lower leg (Wilkinson, Frontisp. vol. ii.). Pliny treats of co- lossal statues, xxxiv. 18. 8 Les Métaux dans [Antiquité, par J, P. Ros- signol. Paris: Durand, 1863. 4 So Professor F. Max Miiller, Lectures on the Science of Language, asserted, with a carelessness rare in so learned a writer (vol. ii. p. 255. London: Long- mans, 1873), that ‘the ancients knew a process of hardening that pliant metal (copper), most likely by repeated smelting (heating ?) and immersion in water.’ This latter is the common process for soffening the metal, 5 Cieza de Leon (Introd. p. xxviii.) : ‘Humboldt mentions a cutting instrument found near Cuzco (‘the City’) which was composed of 0°94 parts of copper and 0°06 of tin, The latter metal is scarcely ever found in South America, but I believe there are traces of it in parts of Bolivia. In some of the in- struments silica was substituted for tin.? The South American tin is mostly impure ; still it was and can be used. * Apparently there are two forms of ‘ Nub’ (gold), the necklace and the washing-bowl. See Chapter VIII. 7 Pliny, xxxvi. 65. €" THE COPPER AGE. 55 des origines, explains, I have said, how a bit of metalliferous stone, accidentally thrown upon the fire in a savage hut, would suggest one of the most progressive of the arts. And soon the ‘featherless biped,’ like the Mulciber and the Mammon of Milton— Ransack’d the centre, and with impious hands Rifled the bowels of their mother earth For treasures better hid. The greater antiquity of copper in Southern Europe was distinctly affirmed, as has been seen, by the Ancients. The use of sheeting, or plating, on wood or stone was known as long ago as the days of Hesiod (B.c. 880-850 ?) : Tots & Hv xdAKea pev Tevxea, yaAkeor S€ rE ofKOL, Xadkg 8 eipydlovro, wédas 8 ovk éoxe oidnpos.—Lyrga, 149. Copper for armour and arms had they, eke Copper their houses, Copper they wrought their works when naught was known of black iron.! Copper sheets? were also used for flooring, as we learn from the ydAxeos ovdés (Copper threshold) of Sophocles (‘CEdip. Col.’); and the treasury-room of Delphi, as opposed to the Adivos oddds (stone threshold). So in the Palace of Alcinous (‘ Odys.’ vii. 75) the walls and threshold were copper, the pillars and lintels were silver, and the doors and dogs of gold. The same practice was continued in the Bronze Period, as Dr. Schliemann proved when exploring the Thalamos attached to the Treasury of Minyas at Orchomenus. Nebuchadnezzar, in the ‘Standard Inscription, declares that he plated with copper the folding-doors and the pillars of the Babylon rampart, and it is suspected that gold and silver sheeted the fourth and seventh stages of the Temple of Bélus, vudge the Tower of Babel. Lucretius? is explicit upon the priority of copper— ‘* Posterius ferri vis est zerisque reperta, Sed prior eris erat quam ferri cognitus usus. Ere solum terrze tractabant, zereque belli Miscebant fluctus et volnera vasta ferebant.—V. 1286. be seen, uses the same material for his arms, axes, 1 Here Elton, like others of his age, mistranslates Chalcos by ‘ brass’ : Their mansions, implements, and armour shine In brass,—dark iron slept within the mine. 2 Engraving on copper-plates is popularly attri- buted to Maso Finiguerra, of Florence, in 1460; but the Romans engraved maps and plans, and the ancient Hindus grants, deeds, &c. on copper-plates. 8 T regret the necessity of troubling the learned reader with these stock quotations, but they are essen- tial to the symmetry and uniformity of the subject. 4 Sophocles and Ovid make Medea, and Virgil makes Elissa, use a sickle of chalcos. Homer, as will and adzes. Pausanias follows him, quoting his de- scription of Pisander’s axe and Meriones’ arrow; he also cites Achilles’ spear in the temple of Athene at Phaselis, with its point and ferrule of chalcos, and the similar sword of Memnon in the temple of Ascu- lapius at Nicomedia. Plutarch tells us that the sword and spear-head of Theseus, disinterred by Cymon in Scyros, were of copper. Empedocles, who (B.C. 444)— ardentem frigidus Aitnam Insiluit— © was betrayed by his sandal shoon with chalcos soles, oe * 56 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. He justly determines its relation to gold— 2 Nam fuit in pretio magis zs, aurumque jacebat, Propter inutilitatem, hebeti mucrone retusum.—V. 1272. And he ends with the normal sneer at his own age— Nunc jacet as, aurum in summum successit honorem.—V. 1274. Virgil, a learned archeologist, is equally explicit concerning the heroes of the fEneid and the old Italian tribes— Afrate micant pelte, micat zreus ensis.—Ain. vil. 743. And similarly Ennius— erate sonant galeze : sed ne pote quisquam Undique nitendo corpus discerpere ferro.! Even during her most luxurious days Rome, like Hetruria, retained in memo- riam the use of copper (or bronze?) for the sclepista or sacrificial knife. When founding a city they ploughed the pomcerium with a share of zs. The Pontifex Maximus and priests of Jupiter used hair-shears of the same material, even as the Sabine priests cut their locks with knives of es. The Ancile or sacred shield was also of zs. Pope, and other writers of his time, translated copper and bronze by ‘brass’ (copper and zinc); and in older English ‘native brass’ was opposed to ‘ yellow copper’ (cuzvre jaune). The same occurs in the A. V. Tubal Cain (the seventh in descent from Adam) is ‘an instructor of every artificer in dvass and iron’? (Gen. iv. 22). Moses is commanded to ‘cast five sockets of dvass for pillars’? (Exod. xxvi. 37). Bezaleel and Aholiab, ‘artists of the tabernacle,’ work in brass (Exod. xxxi. 4). We read of a ‘land whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayest dig drass’ (Deut. viii. 9). Job tells us, ‘Surely there is a vein for the silver, and a place for gold where they fine it. Iron is taken out of the earth, and brass is molten out of the stone.”* Hiram of Tyre was ‘cunning to work all works in dvass’ (casting and hammer-wrought), for Solomon’s Temple, which dates from about two centuries after the time of the Trojan war (B.c. 1200). In Ezra (viii. 27) the text mentions ‘two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold ;’ and the margin reads ‘yellow or shining brass.’ Nor is the old word quite for- gotten: we still speak of a ‘ dvass gun.’ ‘In the Brazen Age, unphilosophically says Schlegel (‘ Phil. of Hist.’ sect. ii.), ‘crime and disorder reached their height: violence was the characteristic of the rude and gigantic Titans. Their arms were of copper, and their implements and 1 See Macrob, Sat. vi. 3. ‘hardly have been done from a metal so difficult to 2 Or ‘a furbisher (whetter, sharpener = acwens) of cast as unalloyed copper.’ He greatly undervalues every cutting tool of copper and iron.’ See Chap. IX. the metallurgy of the Exodist Hebrews, who would 3 I can hardly understand why Dr. Evans (p. 5) have borrowed their science from Egypt. insists upon these sockets being bronze, as they could 4 Lead is also mentioned, but not tin, lHE COPPER AGH, 57 utensils dvass or bronze.” I should generally translate, with Dr. Schliemann and Mr. Gladstone, the Homeric yadxés, ‘copper, not bronze, chiefly because the former is malleable and is bright, two qualities certainly not possessed by the alloy. There are alloys which are malleable,! and others (Dowris copper) which shine ; but this is not the case with common bronze, and no poet would note its brilliancy as a characteristic, Pure copper, however, would generally be used only in lands where tin for bronze, and zinc for brass, were unprocurable : isolated specimens may point only to a temporary dearth. Thus, the Copper Age must have had distinct areas. M. de Pulsky and M. Cartenhac (‘ Matériaux,’ &c.) held to a distinct Copper Age between the Neolithic and the Bronze. Dr. John Evans considers the fabrication due to want of tin or to preference of copper for especial purposes. But the types of copper tools, &c., are not transitional. The native ore was used in many districts of North America. Celts of various shapes from Mhow, Central India, were analysed by Dr. Percy, who found no tin in them. Tel Sifr in Southern Babylonia and the island of Thermia in the Greek Archipelago supplied similar articles. They are also discovered exceptionally in Denmark, Sweden, Austria, and Hungary, France, Italy, and Switzerland. I have noticed the use of the unmixed metal in the Crannogs of Styria. It seems to have prevailed in Istria: at Reppen-Tabor near Trieste, the supposed field of battle with the Romans that decided the fate of the Peninsula (B.c. 178), was found a fine lance-head of pure copper eight and a half inches long: it is now in the Museo Civico. The same was the case with Dalmatia; at Spalato and elsewhere I saw axe-heads of unmixed metal. And we have lately obtained evidence that old Lusitania, like Ireland,? was in similar conditions. Thus the Age of Copper would be simply provisional in certain localities, separating the periods of horn and bone, teeth and wood, from that of alloys; even as the latter led, in the due line of development, to the general adoption of iron and steel for Swords and other weapons. But we have no need for dividing the epochs with the perverse subtilties of certain naturalists, who use and abuse every pretext for creating new species. If there be any sequence, it would be copper, bronze, and brass. In most places, however, the ages were synchronous, and some races would retain the use of the pure metal, even when tin and zinc lay at their doors. The Venus (¢) of alchemy was called in the Semitic tongues zis or nhsh, in Arab nahds, and in Hebrew nechosheth (nvm). The term is popularly derived from a triliteral root signifying a snake, the crooked reptile, the serpent that is in the sea (Job xvi. 13; Is. xxvii. 1; Amos ix. 3, &c.); either because the metal is poisonous, like the Ophide, or from its brightness of burnish. Similarly, dhahad 1 A certain Herr Dromir patented in Germany a ? For Irish copper swords see the Archéologie, process for making malleable bronze. He added vol. iii. p. 555. They will be exhaustively described one per cent. of mercury to the tin, and then mixed in Part IT. it with the molten copper. 58 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. (ant), gold, was named from its splendour; and silver, also meaning money (argentum, argent), was kasaf (902), the pale metal, the ‘white gold’ of Egypt. Both xechosheth and nahds apply equally to copper, bronze, and brass; hence we must probably read ‘copper Serpent’ for ‘drazen Serpent, and ‘City of Copper ’ for ‘City of Brass,’ There is the same ambiguity in the Greek and the Roman terms. The word yards (chalcus) is popularly derived from yadrdew, ‘to loose, because easily melted: I should prefer Khal or Khar, ‘ Phoenicia, whose sons introduced it into Greece. The Hellenes dug it in Eubcea, where Chalcis-town! gave rise to the ‘stone’ yarxiris (chalcites, Pliny, xxxiv. 2). They also knew the ore as 4 xbmpos; and when the Romans, who annexed Cyprus in B.C. 57, worked the mines, their produce, says Josephus, was called yad«os ximpuos. Chalcos is essentially ambiguous unless qualified by some epithet, as Zov@pos (red), pédras (black), at@co (Ethiopian colour=ruddy brown), wéAcos (iron-grey), and so forth. In fact, like @s, it is a generic term for the so-called ‘base metals’ (iron,? copper, tin, lead, and zinc), as opposed to the ‘noble metals’—gold and silver, to which we should add platinum. Worse still, yarxevs (khalkefs), a copper-smith, was applied to the blacksmith,? and even to the chrysochods, or gold-caster, at the court of Nestor (‘ Od.’ iii. 420, 432); and to yaAxela or yadxyia, smithies in general. The Roman @s, opposed to the cyprium or @s cyprium* of Pliny (xxxiv. 2, 9), and smaragdus cyprius or malachite, is equally misleading unless we render it ‘base metal.’ We know not how to translate Varro® when he speaks of the cymbals at the feast of Rhea: ‘Cymbalorum sonitus, ferramentorum jactandorum vi manuum, et ejus rei crepitus in colendo agro qui fit, significant quod ferramenta ea ideo erant zre’ (copper, bronze, brass ?),‘ quod axzzguz illum colebant zre antequam ferrum esset inventum.’ Here he wisely limits the dictum to Greece and Rome. According to S. P. Festus (sud voce),‘zrosam appellaverunt antiqui insulam Cuprum,® quod in ea plurimum eeris nascitur,’ 1 So Chalcis in Mela (ii. 7), now Egripos (Negro- ponte). 2 The confusion with iron appears in the Sans- krit (Pali?) ayas; Latin @s for ahes (as we find in aheneus); the Persian chan ( , ot) ; the Gothic azs, or aiz; the High German er (which is the Assyrian eru and the Akkadian hurud), and the English zvox. J. Grimm (Die Naturvilker) connects “Apys with as. That @s and eris metalla in Pliny mean copper, we learn from his tale of Telephus (xxv. 19), which, by the by, is told by Camoens (Sonnet Ixix.) in a very different way. 3 yarneve 5é Kal 7d otSnpevew xarkéas Tovs Toy olSnpoy épyaoudvous. Onomasticon, viii. v. 10. 4 The full term was @s cyfrium, which Pliny apparently applies to the finer kind; then it became Zreyov, tad Jul. Pollux, We now derive the Sacred Island cyprium, the adjective, which expressed only locality ; and lastly cuprum. The third is first used by Spar- tianus in the biography of Caracalla (No. 5), Cancelli ex ere vel cupro (doors of es or copper). Zlius Spar- tianus dates from the days of Diocletian and Constan- tine (Smith, szd voc.), When Pliny writes zz Cypro prima fuit aris inventio, he leaves it doubtful if as be copper or bronze ; but we should prefer the former. So he makes the best ‘ Missy’ (native yellow copperas) proceed from the Cyprus manufactories (xxxiii., iv.2 5s and xxxiv., xii. 31). The word mds¢ or mzzss¢ is still used in India for a vitriolic powder to stain the teeth. Cypros, the wife of Agrippa, was possibly named from Kafar=the henna plant: the Cyprus of Pliny (xii. §1) is also the Lawsonda inermis. 5 Frag. tom. i. p. 226. Edit. Bipont. ° The island will be further noticed in Chap, VIII, COPPER IN CYPRUS. 59 from ‘Guib’ (pine-tree), ‘er’ (great), and ‘is’ (island) ; ‘Guiberis,’ alluding to its. staple growth. General Palma (di Cesnola') prefers the Semitic ‘kopher’ (Law- Sonia inermis), the henna-shrub, even as Rhodes took its name from the rose or malvacea ; and he finds in Stephanus Byzantinus? that the plant was then abundant. The diggings are alluded to by all the great geographers of antiquity, Aristotle ((de Anim, v. 17%), Dioscorides (v. 89), Strabo (xvi. 6), and Pliny (xii. 60, XXxiv. 20). In Ezekiel (xxvii. 13) the trade in copper vessels is attributed to Javan (Ionia), Tubal, and Meshech; the latter are the Moschi of Herodotus (vii. 78), a Caucasian people who may have originated the ‘ Moscows’ or Russians. Agapenor and his Arcadians were credited with having introduced copper-mining into Neo-Paphos; yet there is no doubt that the Phcenicians had worked metal there before the Greek colonisation. Menelaus (‘Od.’ iv. 83-4) visits Cyprus for copper; and Athene-Mentor fetches it, as well as ‘shining iron’ (steel ?), from Temése (Teueon, ‘Od.’ i. 154).4 These diggings, together with those of Hamath (Amathus, Palzeo-Limassol), Soli, Curium, and Crommyon, are mentioned by Palma, who also alludes to an ‘unlimited wealth of copper.’ Yet, despite this and the general assertion that copper was the most important production of Cyprus, we have found only the poorest mines at Soli in the Mesaoria-plain, the counterslope of the Pedia. The island, it is true, has been wasted and spoiled by three cen- turies of the ‘unspeakable Turk.’ But the researches of late travellers and col- lectors—and these have been exhaustive since the British occupation—have hitherto failed to find extensive traces of mining. The rarity, together with the poverty of the matrix, would suggest the following explanation. Cyprus was probably not so much a centre of production as a depdét of trade which collected the contributions of adjacent places—e.g. the isle of Siphanos (Sifanto), where copper has been found with iron and lead. Such was the general history of islands and archipelagos outlying barbarous and dangerous coasts on the direct lines of commerce, various sections of the world’s great mercantile zone and highway of transit and traffic. The Cassiterides, also, served as store- houses for the stream-tin and the chalcopyrite (copper pyrites) of Cornwall and of Devonshire, whilst they enjoyed the fame of producing it. During the Middle Ages, Hormuz or Ormuz (Armuza), in the Persian Gulf, served, and Zanzibar still serves, as a centre of import, export, and exchange, as a magazine and as a shipping station for its mainland. One of the ores which occurs in the greatest number of places® and in the 1 Cyprus, &c., by General Louis Palma (di Ces- nola). London: Murray, 1877. The author ex- cavated from 1866 to 1876, and opened some 15,000 tombs, mostly Phcenician. 2 Quoted in the Kysros of W. H. Engel (vol. i. p- 14). The two volumes are a mine of information ; much of it now antiquated, but useful to later students who have less leisure to accumulate learning. 3 ¢In Cyprus, where the manufacturers of the stone called chalcitis (copper-smelters) burn it for many days in fire, a winged creature, something larger than a great fly, is seen walking and leaping in the fire.’ A brother of the salamander ! 4 Some commentators (Strabo, vi. 1) confound this place with Ausonian Temésa, or Tempsa, in the land of the Brutii, with Temése of Cyprus. 5 Herodotus (ili. 23) tells us that, copper being of all metals the most scarce and valuable in thiopia, 60 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. _largest quantities ; having a specific gravity ranging from 8°830 to 8-958 ; harder and more elastic than silver ; the most tenacious of metals after iron and platinum ; malleable when cold as well as when hot, so as not to require the furnace ; melting at a temperature between the fusion points of silver and gold (1196° F.); and readily cast in sand-beds and moulds, Copper must have been used in the earliest ages, and has continued to our day, when the art of smelting it—at Swansea, for instance, in South Wales—is perhaps more advanced than that of any other ore. When the stone-and-bone weaponed peoples began their rude metallurgy, they would retain, with similar habits of thought, the same principles of design. The old Celtis, Celt, or chisel of serpentine or silex, would be copied in the newly-introduced and gradually-adopted weapon-tool of metal; and the transition would be so gradual that we trace without difficulty the process of development. The first metal blade was probably a dagger of copper, preserving the older shape of wood, horn, and stone: possibly it resembled the copper knife found at Memphis in 1851 by Hekekyan Bey; and this afterwards would grow to a Sword. Wood, stone, copper, and bronze, iron and steel, must long have been used simultaneously, slowly making way for one another, as the musket took the place of the matchlock, the rifle of the musket. According to Pliny (vii. 57), ‘Aristotle supposes that Scythes, the Lydian, was the first to fuse and temper copper ; while Theophrastus, in Aristotle’s day, ascribes the art to Delas, the Phrygian. Some give the origin to the Chalybes, others to the Cyclopes.’ Achilles, the pupil of Chiron (ibid. v. 20), is represented in pictures as scraping the evugo? or verdigris off a spear into the wound of Telephus, the effect of which diacetate would soon be followed by the discovery of blue-stone (sulphate of copper, blue copperas) or blue vitriol, still a favourite in the East. Pausanias (‘ Aéliaca’) further informs us that Spanish copper, or copper from Tartessus, was the first used. The classics agree that Cadmus (not ‘the foreigner, but the ‘old man, E/-Kadim, or the ‘ Eastern man,’ E/+Kadmz) introduced metal- lurgy into Greece. We have ample evidence of extensive working and use of copper, called ‘ Khomet, by the peoples of the Nile Valley. The ore occurs in the Wady Hammamét, the Egyptian Desert, and the so-called ‘Sinaitic’ Peninsula. As the Pyramids are the oldest of buildings, so the works in Wady Magharah (Valley of Caves) are perhaps the most ancient mines in the world? They were first opened (circ. B.C. 3700- prisoners were there bound with golden fetters. As will be seen, copper has lately been found in Abys- sinia. 1 An awful list of his works is given in Diogenes Laertius. 2 This zerugo was artificially made by the Ancients with acetic acid, converting copper to a green salt (Beckmann, swb v. ‘ Verdigris or Spanish Green’). The green rust of the carbonate of copper is still erroneously termed verdigris (acetate of copper). * Ample information is given by Brugsch (Zgyft under the Pharaohs, vol. i. p. 64) of Senoferu; of the valiant Khufu or Suphis (Cheops) ; of the Pharaoh Sahura, or Sephris ; of Menkauhor (Mencheres) and Tatkara (Fifth Dynasty) ; of the bas-reliefs at Wady Magharah dating from King Pepi (Sixth Dynasty); of Thutmes IIT. or the Great, and his sister Hashop (Eighteenth Dynasty before B.c. 1600), one of whose expeditions produced among other things ninety-seven Swords (Brugsch, i. 327), and who mentions ‘gilt EGYPTIAN COPPER MINES. 61 3600) by the eighth king of the Third Dynasty, the Sephouris of Manetho, the Senoferu (‘he that makes good’) of the inscriptions, who lies buried in the pyramid of Mi-tum(Maydum).! A rock-tablet of this Pharaoh, the ‘ great god, the subduer, Fic. 74.—SoRIS AND THE CANAANITES AT Wapy Macuarau (oLpesT Rock TasBets). Fourtu Dynasty. conqueror of countries,’ shows him holding a foreigner by the hair and smiting the captive with a mace. Above his head are carved a graver (pick?) and a mallet. Soris, first Pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty, ‘ Lord of Upper and Lower Egypt, ever copper’; of Amon-hotep III., also ‘the Great’ 1 Pottery has lately been found embedded in the (Eighteenth Dynasty, about B.c. 1500); and of other __ bricks of the Maydum Pyramid. Pharaohs who worked these diggings. 62 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. living, also strikes down an enemy and shows the same symbols. They again appear in the tablet of Souphis, the Shufu or Khufu of the Tables of Abydos and Sakkara,! and the Cheops of the Great Pyramid, whilst they are wanting in that of his brother Nu-Shufu (Souphis II.) or Khafra (Cephren) of the Pyramid. aS SS 7) Fic. 75.—TaBLeT oF Supuis AND Nu-Supuis aT Wapy MaGHARAH. (FourtH Dynasty.) the name of Mene-Pthah,! one of the supposed Pharaohs of the Exodus. Lf. Are The diggings were not abandoned till the days of Amenemhat, of the Twelfth Dynasty, when the labourers were removed to Sardbit-el-Khadim, the ‘Men-hirs’ (not heights) of the Servant in the Wady Nasb or Valley of Sacri- ficial Stone. of miners, guarded by a strong (as the slag-heaps show) Mafka or Mefka? (copper ? malachite ?3 ‘ black ‘ green Here gangs force, extracted turquoise ?), metal’ (copper), stones’ (mala- chite ?), manganese, and iron. Supt and Athor or Hathor (Venus), the Isis of pure light, who presided over the Mafka-land, and who was the ‘goddess of copper,’ are mentioned ina tablet. Other hieroglyphs contain the names titles of the rulers, and fragments of vases bear The and ‘hands’ left their marks by graffiti or scribblings, and there are extensive remains of slave-quarters, of deep cuts, and of rock-sunk moulds for running the metal 1 The Souphis I. of Manetho is the second king of the Fourth Dynasty following Soris. Souphis IT. is the Khafra of the Tables and the Cephren of the Greeks. 2 The hieroglyphic is of several forms ; —_ Sw 000 = may serve as a specimen. 3 ‘Malachite’ is the Greek molochotis, from the mohokhe, or marsh-mallow; whence the Arabic mulukhtyeh, In Poland, malachite and turquoise preside over the month of December. 4 Meaning the Beloved of Ptah, the Opener, the Artificer God. The word is found in the Arabic fath. It is a better derivation for Hephaestus than ‘Vaish- ravana’; but Sanskrit is so copious that any given word can be derived from it. COPPER IN AFRICA AND ASIA. 63 into ingots. Sardbit-el-Khddim continued working until Ramses IV. (Twentieth Dynasty), the last royal name there found: his date in round numbers would be B.C. 1150. Agatharchides (B.C. 100) reports that chisels of chalcos (AaTopides yad«at) were found buried in the ancient gold mines of Egypt, and hence he deduces that the use of iron was unknown. From Kemi or Xnwa, ‘black-earth land, a/ias Egypt, the art of metallurgy doubtless extended southwards into the heart of Africa. Hence travellers wonder when they see admirable and artistic blacksmiths amongst races whose sole idea of a house is a round hut of wattle and dab. The only coppers in South Africa with which I am familiar are those of Katanga in the Cazembe’s country,! where the Por- tuguese have long traded. Captain Cameron ? was shown a calabash full of nuggets found when clearing a water-hole. In Uguhha he procured a‘ Handa’ from Urua, a Saint Andrew’s cross with central ribs to the arms, measuring diagonally fifteen to sixteen inches by two inches wide and half an inch thick: the weight was two and a half to three pounds. The people prefer this ‘red copper’ to the ‘ white copper, as they call gold. In the Pantheon of Yoruban Abeokuta, ‘Ogun,’ the local Vulcan and Wayland Smith, god of metal-workers and armourers, is symbolised by a dwarf spear of copper or iron, and human sacrifices are, or were, made to it. Barth (vol. iii.) notes the copper (ja-n-Karfi) in El-Hofrah (‘the Diggings ’) of Waday, south of Dar-For ; and in the Kano, the Runga, and the Bute countries. Copper wire is worn by the women of the hill-lands of Gurma, but it is supposed to be brought from Ashanti(?). Africa, however, is as yet unexplored as regards its mineral wealth, and we are only beginning to work our old-world California—the Gold Coast. Farther south the highly-important copper-mines of Pemba, now Bemba, and other parts of the inner Congo and Benguella regions, were discovered by the Capitéo-Mér, Balthazar Rebello de Aragdo, in 1621-233 Still more to the south, Namaqua-land supplies chalcitic ores, a native carbonate, reduced with cow-chips. In Asia mines were worked by the ancient Assyrians for copper as well as lead and iron, and the former was applied to their weapons, tools, and ornaments.‘ The Kurds and Chaldzans still extract from the Tiyari heights about Lizan and the valley of Berwari various minerals—copper, lead, and iron ; silver, and perhaps gold. Upon the Steppes of Tartary, and in the wildest parts of Siberia, the remains of old copper-furnaces, small and of rude construction, are met with, The Digaru Mishmis of Assam have copper-headed arrows. The Chinese declare that in olden times men used the metal for arms, which in the days of the Thsin (B.c. 300) began to be made of iron. Sir John Davis (i. 230) 1 0 Muata Cazembe, by Monteiro and Gamitto, ? R.N., C.B., &c., Across Africa, vol. i. pp. 134, describes the copper works in South-East Africa long 319; and vol. il. pp. 149, 329. known to the natives. I am told by Mr. Hooker, 8 Viagens dos FPortuguezes, Colecgéo de Docu- C.E., that he has lately seen (pace Herodotus) mentos, &c. ‘magnificent specimens of native copper sent from + Layard’s Mineveh, i. 224, ii, 415; 6th edit. Abyssinia.’ 1854. 64 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. confirms the fact that the Chinese Sword and backsword, both wretched weapons, were originally of copper, long ago changed to iron. Dr. Pfizmaier tells us that ‘about Bc. 475 the King of U sent a steel blade to his minister, U-tse-tsui, wherewith to behead himself. According to Pliny, the Seres exported iron to Europe together with their tissues and their skins. The Chinese distinguish between Thse-thung (purple copper) and Thing-sung (green copper) or bronze. They prefer the ‘Tze-lae, or natural ore, gathered in the torrent-beds of Kwei- chow and Yun-nan, and the latter exclusively produces the famous Pe-tung,! or white copper, which takes a fine polish like silver. They made copper the base of their coinage as well as their weapons. Amongst their many charms and talismans are the ‘money-swords,’ a number of ancient copper coins pierced with a square central hole, and connected by a metal bar shaped like a cross-hilted Sword. These are suspended over the testerns of beds and sleeping-couches, that the guardianship of the kings in whose reigns the money was issued may keep away ghosts and spirits. The Japanese copper? is of the finest quality, and is used as a standard of comparison. The superiority of the metal, which contains a percentage of gold, enabled the self-taught native workmen to produce those castings which are the ad- miration and the despair of the European artist. The copper delivered at Nagasaki and Kwashi is from Beshki, Akita, and Nambu; other places produce the more ordinary kinds, The rich red surface is due to a thin and tenaciously adhering film of dioxide: this has been imitated in England. The famous Satzuma copper, held to be the best in the world, was prepared under Government officials, none being sold privately. The ore was roasted in kilns for ten to twenty days, smelted in large furnaces with charcoal, and cast in water to make the well-known Japanese ingots. These were bars measuring about half an inch on the side, by seven to nine inches in length, and weighing some ten taels, nearly equal to one pound. They were packed in boxes each weighing a picul (=125 to 1334 lbs. avoir.), about the load of aman. The price of course greatly varied. The trade was at first wholly in the hands of the Hollanders, who made a good thing of their monopoly. There was also an old traffic in Japanese copper on the eastern coast of India, especially Coromandel. The opening of the empire has caused revolu- tionary changes. Copper was abundantly produced in Europe, and the pure metal was used throughout the continent with the exception of Scandinavia, where specimens are exceedingly rare. The iron age of Denmark begins with the Christian era, and was preceded only by bronze and stone. We know nothing of the discovery of copper in Ireland. It is supposed in legend to have been introduced by the Fir-bolgs (bag-men, Belgz?), or by the Tuatha (gens) de Danaan (the Danes ?). 1 Hence our packfong, or German silver, of China, * The Chinese Repository gives a hundred illus- an alloy of copper (50 per cent.), nickel, and zinc trations of the implements in use by the Chinese and (25 per cent. each), the Japanese, THE COPPER AGE. 65 These oft-quoted races, known to us only by name, have been affiliated with a host of continentals, even with the Greeks! It would be mere guess-work to consider the Irish style of treating the ores—by spalling or breaking the stone, by wasting, fluxing, or smelting. We have, however, many specimens which explain the casting. The metal was called by the natives Uma or Umha, a Keltic word ; also Dearg Umha, red copper, opposed to Ban? Umha (white copper) or tin ; and this term afterwards became ‘stan,’ evidently from stannum (Gall. Estain). There are still traditions of copper mines having existed at an early period ; and, among the wonders related by Nonnius (Archzol. Soc. Ireland), we find Loch Lein, now Killarney, surrounded by four circles of copper, tin, lead, and iron. Of late years «miners’ hammers,’ the native name for stone pounders, have been dug up in the neighbourhood of that lake, in Northern Antrim, at an ancient mine in Ballycastle, and in sundry parts of Southern Ireland. The metal occurs in small quantities at Bonmahon (Waterford) ; copper and cobalt at Mucross, and grey copper ore in Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Galway. Swansea. In 1855 some 1157 tons were shipped to The Greenlanders and Eskimos cut and hammer their pure native copper, without smelting, into nails, arrow-piles, and other tools and weapons. Mackenzie (second voyage) tells us that pure copper was common among the tribes on the borders of the Arctic Sea, whose arrow-heads and spear-heads were cold-wrought with the hammer. Columbus (fourth voyage), before touching the mainland of Honduras, saw at Guanaga Island a canoe from Yucatan ‘ laden with goods, amongst which he specifies ‘ copper hatchets, and other elaborate articles, cast and soldered ; forges, and crucibles.’> At Hayti the great Admiral (first expedition) had mentioned masses of native copper weighing six arrobas (quarters).6 When the Spaniards first entered the province of Tupan they mistook the bright copper axes for gold of low touch, and bought with beads some six hundred in two days:’ Bernal Dias describes these articles as being very highly polished, with the handle curiously carved, as if to serve equally for an ornament and for the field of battle. In North America there are two great copper regions which supplied the whole continent ’—Lake Superior and the lower Rio Grande. The former shows the 1 Fir ox fear (vir,a man), and bolg (Bolgt, Belge), a belly, bag, budget, or quiver. They occupied Southern Britain, and formed the third immigrant colony preceding the ‘ Milesians,’ sons of Milidh or Miledh (Senchus Mor), evidently J@/es, the soldier. He had two sons, Emer and Aitem, from whom the Irish race is descended. Emer, says Prof. Rhys, may represent the Ivernii or pre-Celtic population mentioned by Ptolemy ; and Airem, which means ‘a farmer,’ the Iranian race which introduced agricul- ture amongst a horde of hunters. The fourth colony was the Tuatha (people, e.g. Tuatha-Eireann = people of Erin), named from Danair, a stranger, foreigner, and ‘properly a Dane. We have lately been shown how much true history may be obtained from these names, which had become bye-words, almost ridicu- lous to use. 2 Bén (our corrupted ‘bawn,’ as in ‘Molly Bawn’), white, is the Latin cazzzs. It is also a noun sub- stantive, meaning ‘ copper.’ 8 Wilde, Catalogue, pp. 58, 356. * Meaning Zectetan = ‘1 don’t know.’ So the 4M’ adri on an old English chart of the Euphrates. 5 Select Letters of Columbus, &c. p. 201, lated by R. H. Major, Hakluyt Society, 1870, § Humboldt, Zravels, iii. 194. 7 Commentaries of the Yneas. Clements R. Markham, C.B. 1871. "8 Daniel Wilson’s Prehistoric Aan, vol. i. chap. Trans- Translated by Hakluyt Society, 66 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. first transitional steps from stone to metal. The ore occurs in the igneous and trappean rocks that wall in the vast fresh-water sea, and is found in solid blocks: one, fifty feet long, six feet deep, and six feet in average thickness, was esti- mated to weigh eighty tons. At Copper Harbour, Kawunam Point, a single vein yielded forty thousand pounds. The largest mass in the Minnesota Mine (Feb. 1857) occupied Mr. Petherick and forty men for twelve months: it was forty-five feet long, thirty-two feet broad (max.), and eight feet thick; containing over forty per cent. ore, and weighing four hundred and twenty to five hundred tons. Malleable and ductile, representing an average of 3:10 per cent. native silver, and with a specific gravity of 8°78 to 8°96, it required no crucible but Nature’s ; it wanted only beating into shape, and it needed nothing of the skilled labour necessary for the ores of Cornwall and Devon, which contributed so largely to the wealth of Tyre. The workings are supposed to belong to the race conveniently called ‘Mound-builders, and to date from our second century, when the Damno- nians of Cornwall were in a similar state of civilisation. ‘ Cliff Mine’ supplied fine specimens of weapons and tools, arrow-piles and spear-heads, knives and three- sided blades like the old bayonet. The socket was formed by hammering flat the lower end, and by turning it over partially (without overlapping) at each side, Professor James D. Butler (‘Prehistoric Wisconsin’) The ‘Indians’ called the metal Misko- As is also proved by the Brockville so as to make a flange. facsimiles twenty-four copper implements. pewalik (red iron), opposed to black iron. relics, the people had the art of hardening copper. The mines of the lower Rio Grande supplied Mexico with materials for arms and tools. According to Captain R. H. Bonnycastle,! the metal was found in New Mexico and in the volcanic rocks of Mechoacan (Valladolid, New Spain). Mexico, like Peru, used the crucible and added bronze to copper. The metals were under the god Quetzalcoatl, an Aztec Tubal Cain-ben-Lamech. Another great centre of the Copper Age was the land ‘ where men got gold as they do iron out of Biscay.’ The Peruvian army, a host of three hundred thousand levied from a total population of twenty millions, was armed with bows and arrows, clubs, pikes, javelins, war-axes (of stone and copper), and the paddle-sword ;? while viii; Zhe Metallurgic Arts, Copper (pp. 231-79). Prof. Brush, of Yale College, calculated that 6,000 tons were yielded in 1858. 1R.E., Spanish America, &c. Abraham Small, 1819), p. 49. (Philadelphia : 2 Tt was divided, like the Greek and Roman, into centuries (fachacas), chiliarchies (hurangos), and inspectorships (4okrzkrok), generally under royalties. The organisation was due to the Ynka Inti-Kapak (the Great), B.c. 1500-1600. There was a large fleet (‘magna colcharum classis ’) of ships not smajler than the contemporary European, ‘navigiis velifi- cantur nihili vestris minoribus,’ says P. Martyr (Decad, ii. lib. 3). Neither traveller nor historian has explained how this mighty organisation crumbled to pieces at the touch of a few European adventurers. I have read with interest the able work of M. Vicente F. Lopez, Les Races Aryennes du Pérou (Paris: Franck, 1871): he derives the word from Pirhua, the first Ynka deified to a Creator. He adopts (p. 17) against Garcilasso de la Vega, who gave the Ynkarial Empire 400 years, the opinions of the learned Dr. Fernando Montésinos el Visitador, of the later sixteenth century, who is set aside by Markham, Narratives of the Vucas (Hakluyt, 1873). Montésinos derives the Peruvians from Armenia five centuries after ‘the Flood,’ and assigns 4,000 years with Ior emperors to the dynasty; it begins with Manko Kapak, son of Pirhua Manko ; and Sinchi COPPER IN AMERICA. 67 the people of Anahuac (Mexico) had bows and spears, clubs and axes, knives and Swords one-handed and two-handed, the Mahquahuitl set with obsidian teeth. In the former country the pre-Ynkarial Aymaras, who dug for gold and silver, copper and tin, and who employed alloys, almost ignored for their ‘ Ayri’ (cutting implements) the use of iron and steel, which they called Quella (Khellay). The Andes range is popularly derived from the Quichua word Anta! (copper) : the native ore occurred in the parts above the cultivation-line, and it abounded in the cupriferous sandstones -of Bolivian Corocoro. The Huaunanchuco country (Rivero and Tschudi, p. 203), conquered by the ninth Ynka, produced a fine collection of stone and copper axes, chisels, pins, and tweezers. Blas Valera, one of the earliest writers, still often quoted, tells us that ‘Anta’ served in place of iron, and that the people worked it more than other ores, preferring it to gold (Kor) and silver. Of it were made their knives, carpenters’ tools, women’s dress-pins'(7upzes), polished mirrors, and ‘all their rakes and hammers.’ Garcilasso de la Vega adds: ‘ pikes, clubs, halberts, and pole-axes,’ made of silver, copper, and some of gold, the “tears of the sun,” having sharp points, and some hardened by the fire’; also carpenters’ axes ; adzes and hatchets ; bill-hooks of copper, and blow-pipes of the same metal about a yard long applied to earthen or clay pots which they carried from place to place. A nugget or loose pebble acted as bell-clapper, and copper statuettes were coated or plated with precious metals. The ‘ Royal Commentaries of the Yncas’ tells us Roka (No. xcv. of Montésinos) is Garcilasso’s official castes (p. 396), priests (#azkos and amautas), soldiers founder (p. 25). (aucas, aukas), peasants (zyssus), and shepherds or But I cannot follow M. Lopez in his theories of | nomads (chuis). According to Cieza de Leon (p. 197) * Aryanism’ (Zend and Sanskrit) or ‘Turanianism’ they thought more of the building and adorning of (Chinese and Tartar). The Quichua wants the their tombs than of their houses; their mummies peculiar Hindu cerebrals (which linger in English), | were protected by little idols, and the corpse car- and lacks the ‘1,’ so common in ‘Indo-European’ ried the ferryman’s fee. The pyramid of Copan speech; ‘Lima,’ for instance, should be ‘Rima.’ It (Yucatan), 122 feet high, with its 6-feet steps, is has no dual, and no distinction between masculine that of Sakkarah. The Yucatan beard in statues and feminine. But with the licence which M. Lopez is Pharaohic. The elephant-trunk ornaments allows himself, any language might be derived from (Stephens, ii. 156) are Indo-Chinese. The geese- any other. For instance, chénka from sinha, ‘the breeding (ii. 179) is Egyptian. See also the Toltec lion’ (p. 138); Zakchihis = hashish, ‘intoxicatingherb’; legend of the House of Israel (ii. 172). kekenti, “Shumming-bird,’ from kvan, ‘to hum’; hua- 1 The ‘lovely valley, Andahualas,’ is from Anta jua, ‘son,’ from sv, ‘to engender,’ sunus, &, and Huaylla, pasture—i.e. ‘copper-coloured meadow.’ (when in Egypt we have sw); and mama, ‘mother,’ Anta in Cieza de Leon appears to be copper, whereas from mata, whrnp, mater, when we have mut and other writers make it bronze. mute in Nile-land. For mara, ‘to kill,’ ‘death,’ the old Coptic preserves mer, meran, ‘to die’; and for mayu, ° water,’ 722. I thus prefer the monosyllabic Egyptian for Quichua roots, noting the two forms of pronoun, t isolated (nyoka = 1 =anuk) and affixed (haahua-i, ‘my portable stoves. They knew also the chemical com- son;’ huahua-ki, ‘thy son;’ huahua-u, ‘his son’). binations, sulphate, antimonial, and others 5 and they The heliolatry of the Andes was that of the Nile worked quicksilver. They had ce of Quella Valley ; Kon is the Egyptian 7am, ‘the setting sun.’ (Khellay, or iron), but they found difficulty in ex- The god Papacha wears on his head the scarabeus of | tvacting it. Besides smelting, they could use the Ptah, or Creative Might. The pyramids and mega- tacana (hammer), cast in moulds, inlay, and solder, lithic buildings are also Nilotic. The pottery shows 4 Ewbank, of whom more presently, sketches a three several styles, Egyptian, Etruscan, and Pelasgic. _ well-cust axe (p. 455). He translates ata by bronze The population was divided into the four Egyptian (p. 455). F2 2 Peruvian Antiquities, by Don M. E. de Rivero and J. J. von Tschudi. 3 They abandoned the native silver mines when the ore became too hard, and they smelted it in small 68 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD, that copper served in place of iron for making weapons of war: the people valued it highly because more useful than gold and silver ; the demand was greater than for any other metal, and it paid tribute (vol. i. pp. 25, 43, 48). We find notices of copper hammers, bellows-nozzles, adzes, axes, and bill-hooks (i. p. 102). Cieza de Leon (chap. I xiii.) tells us that the Peruvians placed a piece of gold, silver, or copper in the corpse’s mouth. He mentions vases of copper and of stone (chap. civ.), and small furnaces of clay where they laid the charcoal and blew the fire with thin canes instead of bellows (ibid.). The Introduction (p. lii) notes the Peruvian use of copper-trowels for smoothing and polishing walls, and a ‘ terrible weapon of copper in the shape of a star.’ According to Rivero and Tschudi (chap. ix.) the Peruvians could not work copper as well as gold or silver; yet they made idols, vases, solid staves a yard long with serpents inlaid, and sceptre-heads decorated with condor-like birds. The household vazsse//e of the Ynkas consisted of gold and silver, copper and stone. Rivero, analysing Peruvian weapons and tools (hatchets and chisels), found from five to ten per cent. silica: he could not determine whether it was an artificial or an accidental impurity. Tschudi (1841) discovered copper arms in a tomb three leagues from Huaco, and established the fact that the Peruvians used the paddle-sword and the scymitar,!. A copper axe, found in a Huaca (old grave) at the now well-known Arica, was associated with a thong-sling and with other primitive instruments. The people of New Granada, according to the tale of Bollaert,? ‘ gilt’ their copper by ‘rubbing the juice of a plant on it and then putting it into the fire, when it took the gold colour’—a process which reminds us of Pliny’s ox-gall varnish. Ecuador forged copper nippers for tweezers. The Chitchas, or Muiscas (i.e. men), of Bogota, who knew only gold and ignored copper, tin, lead, and iron, made their weapons and tools of hard wood and stone. Thomas Ewbank,? of New York, catalogues as breast-plates two laminz of copper and one of bronze, the latter being notably the lighter. Out of sundry ‘bronzes’ from Peru he found four of pure copper, Chile had abundant mines of copper, and her metal is held to be the toughest: a bar three-eighths of an inch thick will bend backwards and forwards forty-eight times before breaking. Her chief centres are Copiapo (i.e. ‘turquoise’), Huasco, Coquimbo, Aconcagua and Caléo. The Couche range at Guatacondo, in sight of the desert of Atacama, which gave a name to Atacamite (submuriate of copper), is said to supply from the same vein gold, silver, copper, and coquimbite or white copperas called Pampua (pack-fong?).4 Gillis (Plate viit. 12, 3) described, amongst the antiquities found near the great Ynkarial High- 1 Doubtless copied from Old-World articles. On By William Bollaert. London: Triibner, 1860. the west side of Palenque the Sword is distinctly Egyptian (Stephens, Vicatan). I have attempted to show how easily castaway mariners could be swept by currents from Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. See ‘Ostreiras of the Brazil’ in Axnthropologia, No. 1, October 1873. 2 Antiquarian, Ethnological, and other Researches. We must probably change ‘brass’ into ‘ bronze’ when he says (p. 90) that ‘the Peruvians used tools of brass.’ 3 Appendix to Life iz Brazil (Sampson Low, 1856). ‘ This white copperas was detected by Scacchi on the fumaroles after the Vesuvian eruption of 1855. oh oe COPPER. 69 a a cast copper ane, weighing about three and a quarter pounds: he doubts 8 ee the ents Chilians worked in that metal. The wild Reenvcanti a oo copper (Bollaert, Pp. 184). According to Molina, the Puelche tribe ed trom the mines of Payen a copper containing half its weight (?) in gold ; and the same natural alloy was found in the Curico mines. Returning to the Dil World, we see copper tools denoted in Egyptian hieroglyphs by a reddish-brown tint ;' iron and steel, as in Assyria, being coloured, not grey but water-blue.2 With these yellow tools the old workmen are seen cutting soe blocks and fashioning colossal statues, Dr. John Forbes, of Edinburgh ® had a large chisel of pure copper, showing marks of use, found with a wooden pallet in an Egyptian tomb. A flat piece of copper, apparently a knife-blade, was turned up when boring thirteen feet below the surface where stands the statue of Ramses II. (B.C. 1400).4 The Abbé Barthélemy proved, to the satisfaction of P. J. Rossignol, that the arms of the Greeks were first of copper; that iron was introduced about the date of the Trojan war (circ. B.C. 1200),° and that after this time ‘ Athor- Venus’ was no more in use. Ulysses (Iliad, i. 4, 279) offers Achilles all the gold and copper he can collect, and Achilles will carry off all the gold, the red copper (xadrKov ZpvOpdv), women, and iron or steel (é8npov), when Peleides returns that noble answer: Hostile to me is the man as the hatefullest gateway of Hades, Whoso in thought one thing dare hide and utter another.® Numa ordered the priests to cut their hair with copper, not iron, scissors.” Copper vases and kettles as tomb-furniture were found by Dr. Schliemann at Mycenz: the museum of the Warwakeion at Athens contains seven of these funeral urns. They have also been met with at Etruscan Corneto and Palestrina, and in Austrian Hallstatt,* a cemetery which dates from the days when iron was coming 1 Gold was shown hy yellow, and silver by white. 3 Prehistoric Man, chap. viii. Dr. Evans (Lronze, &c. p. 7) suggests that the 1 It was analysed by Mr. E. Tookey, with the round blue bar used by butchers (Wilkinson, iii. 247) following results : was not of steel; but his reasons are peculiarly un- Copper . : ; . O7'r2 satisfactory. The file is a common implement Arsenié:. . . ; 2°29 amongst savages, ee derived from the practice Tron. : : . 0°43 of cross-hatching wooden grips and handles, Mr. 5 : : A. H. Rhind (Zhedes, &c.) attributes little weight to ee neers -—— 100°0 the diversity of colours employed by ancient Egyp- tians to depict metallic objects, and he finds red and green confused. 2 Thus we have a blue war-helmet of ring-mail (Lepsius, Denkmdler, iii. 115 &c.), a blue war-hatchet with wooden handle, and spears pointed with brown- red and blue (copper and iron) in the tomb of Ramses III. The war-car of an thiopian king, in the days of Tutankamun, has blue wheels and a body of yellow (gold). Lepsius, however, adds: ‘ It is very remarkable that in all the representations of the old empire, blue-painted instruments can scarcely be traced.’ This simply proves that iron and steel were rare. The presence of the tin may have been accidental. The proportion of arsenic (2} per cent.) might have been expected to harden the metal, yet it was so soft as to be almost useless. 5 See chap. ix. * It is equivalent to the Roman’s ‘ Aliud clausum in pectore, aliud in lingua promptum habere.’ 7 So amongst the Jews the sharp knives for cir- cumcision (Josh. v. 2-3) were of the silex which they learned from the Egyptians; and the custom con- tinued long after the invention of metal blades, 8 It was opened by Herr Ramsauer, and carefully described in Das Grabfeld von Hallstatt, by Baron 79 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. into use, and apparently belongs to a much later period than Mycene. The Hindus had a copper coinage, and that of the sub-Himalayan Gangetic provinces appears older than Greek art. There is a copper coin bearing on the reverse the rude figure of a horse, and on the obverse a man with legend in old Buddhist The Jews, who, like the Etruscans, had a As amongst the Philis- tines, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, whose relics have been found in the Cannz The ‘bow of steel’ (Job xx. 24, Ps. xviii. 34) should be rendered ‘bow of copper,’ either copper-plated or (more probably) so tempered as to be elastic. Goliah of Gath (B.C. 1063), who measured nine feet six inches, carried a target, greaves, a spear with an iron head, and a scale-coat? of copper: the spear-head weighed six hundred and the armour five thousand shekels (each 320 grains Troy), or 33°33 and 277°77 lbs3 David was armed (1 Sam. xvii. 38) with a helmet of copper. Ishi-benob (B.c. 1018), who was ‘of the sons of the giant, carried a spear weighing three hundred shekels (about sixteen and a half pounds) of copper. Finally, Buffon believes that the arms of the ancient (Pali) letters Khatrapasa Pagdmashasa.! copper coinage, used the metal for offence and defence. Plain, the metal was at first pure. Asiatics were cuprine. Mr. John Latham declares :‘ ‘ Copper is a metal of which, in its unalloyed state, no relics have been found throughout England. Stone and bone first, then bronze I cannot get over this hiatus, cannot imagine a metallurgic industry beginning with the use of alloys,” But this The simple mineral would soon disappear to make bronze, and we have some pure specimens. Sir David Brewster * describes a large battle-axe of pure copper found on the blue clay, twenty feet deep below the Ratho Bog. Philips® gives the analysis of eight so-called ‘bronzes,’ including three Swords, one from the Thames and two from Ireland: the spear-head was of or copper and tin combined, but no copper alone. is a negative argument. impure but unalloyed copper, 99°71 to 0°28 sulphur. E. von Sacken, in chap. xiii. 1 Prinseps’ Zssays (London, 1858), vol. i. p. 222, pl. xliv. fig. 12, and Journ. R. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. vii. pl. xxxii, fig. 12. Long descriptions of copper smelting in India are found in Scdence Gleanings, pp. 380 et seg., No. 36, Dec. 1831, Cal- cutta, and in Percy (d/ctall. p. 387); the latter by Mr. H. F. Blanford, of the Geol. Survey, who made especial studies in Himalayan Sikkim and the Nepaulese Tirhai. The workmen, who are of low caste, win the stone in small blast-furnaces about three feet high, burning charcoal and cow-chips. They work not only the éasily reducible carbonates, but sulphuretted ores, copper pyrites, with a mixture of mundic (iroa pyrites). 2 Scales are apparently implied by Zaskassin (1 Sam. xvii.), which in Leviticus and Ezekiel applies to fish-scales. 3 The shekel is usually estimated at 220 grs. I shall have more to say of it Dr. Daniel Wilson’ analysed (Troy), which would reduce the weights to 22‘91 and 190'97 Ibs. respectively ; but Maimonides makes it = 320 grains of barley =as many grains Troy. See Park- hurst (Zex., s.v. Amat’). Either figure would form a fair burden for a horse ; and the spear would have been a most unhandy article, unless used by a man ten feet tall. I shall notice the Gathite’s Sword in chap. ix. * Ethnology of the British Islands. We also read: ‘Copper Swords have been found in Ireland ; iron among the Britons and Gauls; bronze was used by the Romans, and probably by the Egyptians ; and steel of varying degrees of hardness is now the only weapon employed.’ (J. Latham: see chap. vii.) 5 Trans. Edinb. Philos, Soc. Feb. 1822. 6 J. A. Phillips, F.C.S. Alemoirs of the Chemical Soc. vol. iv. * Archeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, p- 246. COPPER IN EUROPE. 7i in 1850 seven British ‘bronzes,’ and found one Scottish axe-head, rudely sand-cast, of almost pure copper, the natural alloy of gold and silver not reaching to one per cent. Moreover, the Romans certainly smelted copper in England, where lumps oF pure metal, more or less rounded, have been found, but always in association with bronze articles. Pennant describes a relic discovered at Caerhun (or Caerhen), the old Conovium, near Conway and Llandudno, which still works copper : it was shaped like a cake of beeswax, measuring eleven inches by three and three-quarter inshes in thickness ; it weighed forty-two pounds, and the upper surface bore in deep impression, ‘Socio Rome’ (to the partner at Rome). Obliquely across the legend ran in smaller letters,‘ Natsoc.” It had evidently been smelted upon the spot. In later days our country imported her copper from Sweden and Hungary: this appears in the specification of patent to George Danby, Jan. 21, 1636. Calamine was shipped as ballast. Our great works began during the last century and culminated in Swansea. Fic. 76.—THE WINGED CELTS, oR PALSTAVE. 1. Semilunar blade ; the rounded side edges are ornamented in the casting with a raised hexagon pattern ; they project somewhat above the level of the flat surface of the implement. The curved stops, which are rudimentary, have their concayities facing the handle. 2. In the Palstave celt the loop is usually placed beneath the stock, and in the socketed ones it is always close to the top. The cut, drawn one-third of the actual size, represents the usual position of the loop. The lunette cutting edge, with marked recurved points, presents the appearance of having been ground.'! These implements were cast in moulds of bronze. examples of which have been brought to light at various times. The third illustration represents the upper part of one of these celt moulds and the method of casting : they were for a long time a source of confusion to the discoverers, although Colonel Vallancy assigns them to their true use. Zi Wilde (p. 490) expresses the general opinion when he asserts that ‘the use of copper invariably preceded that of bronze.” He well cxplains by two reasons why so few antique implements of pure copper have been found in Ireland: either a very short period elapsed between the discovery of treating the pure ores and the introduction of bronze ; or the articles, once common, were recast and converted into the more valuable mixed metal. The latter cause is made probable by the early intercourse with Cornwall, one of the great tin emporia. ‘Tin-stone’ (native peroxide of tin or stannic acid) is produced in small quantities by Ireland, and Dr. Charles Smith? declares that he collected it. 1 See Sir W. Wilde’s Cat. Metallic Mat.rials— Celts, Museum of Royal Irish Academy. 2 Listory of Kerry, p. 125. 72 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Wilde also notices, in the Royal Irish Academy, weapons, tools, and ornaments of red metal or pure copper. These are thirty celts of the greatest simplicity and the earliest pattern, rudely formed tools, a few fibulz, a trumpet, two battle-axes, and several Sword-blades of the short, broad, and curved shape usually called scythes, The pure copper celts, formed upon two or three types, are the oldest in the 7 Dublin collection, and were probably the immediate successors of the stone implement. As a rule they have one side smoother than the other, as if they had been run into simple stone moulds ; they are also thicker and of rougher surface than the bronze article. For the most part they are rude and unorna- mented wedges of cast metal: a few are lunette-shaped and semilunar blades. The cleansed specimens show a great variety of colour. When first found, the ‘inet ; a 1 ih aig ll Fic. 77.—Coprer CeLts in THE Duewin CoLtection. brown crust, peculiar to the oxidised metal, readily distinguishes them from the bronze patina, the beautiful varnish of zeruginous or verdigris hue, artificial malachite resembling in colour the true native carbonate of copper. The broad scythe-shaped Swords, numbering forty-one, are supposed to be ‘specially and peculiarly Irish. The straight blades are shown by their large burrs, holes, and rivets either to end in massive handles of metal, or to be attached to wooden staves, long or short. Of this kind some are curved. As many are of ‘red bronze’ (pure copper), darkened by oxidation, it is probable that they are of great antiquity, like the celts of that period. Although ‘in some cases the points have been broken off, yet the edges are neither hacked, indented, nor worn ; hence the conclusion that they were true stabbing Swords. Yet Mr. John Evans declares that he knows no such thing as a copper Sword. In this matter he partially follows Lévesque de la Ravaliére, who declared copper arms unknown to the Greeks ! and Romans, Gauls and Franks : this savant was refuted and charged with unfairly treating his authorities by the Comte de Caylus in a description of seven copper Swords dug up (1751) at Gensal in the Bourbonnais. The Abbé Barthélemy attributed seven copper blades to the Franks in the reign of Childeric. We have ample evidence that ‘ copper’ is ambiguously used by modern travellers. The modern discoverer of Troy? gives us, in his last and revised volume, a full account of exploring fifty-three feet deep of débris and laying bare the stratified ruins of seven cities, including that of the ‘ground floor’ and the Macedonian ruins. The two lowest bear witness to a copper age anterior to bronze, whilst they ' Yet Aéschylus (Agamem.) uses both chalcos and sideros generically fora weapon. 2 Jhos, &c. (London, Murray, 1880). COPPER SWORDS. 73 aoe e object, a copper knife, and the most advanced art in ieee “made pottery.! The second from below was walled, and the oe ee mportant, was the Burnt City, the city of the golden treasures, : ed with Ilios. The explorer claims to have reduced the Homeric Ilium to its anne Proportions. The grand characteristic in his finds is the paucity of iron which appeared only in the shape of oxidised ‘sling-bullets’: tin is also abasit. Both these metals, it is true, oxidise most readily ; yet, had the objects been numerous, they would have left signs, in rust and stains. From ‘Troy’ we learn (p. 22) that ‘all the copper articles met with are of pure copper, without the me a aa ot LADE. ea Es oe ee admixture of any other metal’: the author also finds that ‘implements of pure copper were employed contemporaneously with enormous quantities of stone weapons and implements.’ He will not admit (‘ Troy,’ p. 82) that he has reached the bronze period when he discovers in the ‘Trojan stratum,’ at a depth of thirty- three to forty-six and fifty-two feet, nails, knives, lances, and ‘elegantly-worked battle-axes of pure copper? And we can accept the copper, for much of it was analysed by Professor Landerer, of Athens,‘a chemist well known through his discoveries and writings.’ He examined the fragments found in the ‘Treasury of Priam,’ and made all of them to consist of pure copper, without any admixture of tin or zinc (‘ Troy,’ p. 340). When treating of the Bronze Age, I shall show that alloys were not wanting. 2 The copper bracelet (Zvoy, p. 150, No. 88) with its terminal knobs is the modern trade ‘manilla’ of the West African coast. This survival will again be noticed in chap. ix. 1 Some small objects are reported as wheel-made; but this requires confirmation, according to a writer in the Atheneum (Dec, 18, 1880). 74 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. CHAPTER V. THE SECOND CHALCITIC AGE OF ALLOYS !—BRONZE, BRASS, ETC.: THE AXE AND THE SWORD. THE use of copper, I have said, would be essentially transitional ; and the discovery of smelting one kind of metal would lead immediately to that of others and to their commixture. Moreover, when casting and moulding began to be a general prac- tice, unalloyed copper difficult to smelt, and when melted thick, sluggish, and pasty, would not readily run without some mixture into all the sinuosities of the mould. In this chapter I propose to notice the second chalcitic age—that of the earliest combinations of metals, their workers, and their application to weapons. J. P. Rossignol, following the opinion of the symbolists and mysticists, as the Baron de Saint Croix,? Creuzer, Freret, and Lobechs,’ assigns a Divine origin—after the fashion of the day—to metallurgy, making it resemble in this point Creation, articulate language,’ and the discovery of corn and wine. So he understands the Geonoyovpeva (subjects of a theological nature) alluded to by Strabo (x. 3,§ 7). It is the old hypothesis of supernatural agency in purely natural matters, a kind of luxus-wonder, as the Germans call useless miracles, which had waxed stale, even in the days of Horace—parcus Deorum cultor et infrequens.’ He considers the Curetes and Corybantes, the Cabiri (Kabeiroi) of Lemnos and Imbros, and the Idzi Dactyli of Crete, the Telchines of Rhodes, and the Sinties, Sinti, or Saii of Thrace (Strabo, xii. 3, § 20) as metallurgic da/uoves, or genii prisoned in human form, and typifying the successive steps of the art. In these days we hardly admit the intersit of a deity when human nature suffices to loose the knot ; nor do we believe that our kind began by worshipping types. Man has always worshipped one thing, 1 The word in its older form was written ‘allay.’ Johnson derives it from @ la Joi, allier, allocare: it appears to me the Spanish ¢/ /ey, the legal quality of coinable metal. We have now naturalised in English Jey, meaning a standard of metals. (Sub voc. Dict. of Obsolete and Provincial English, by Thomas Wright; London, Bell and Daldy, 1869.) 2 Recherches sur les Mystires; and Mémoire pour servir & la religion secrete, &c. &e. ’ The ‘ Aglaophemus,’ so called from the initiator of Pythagoras. I see symptoms of a revival in asser- tions concerning a ‘highly cultivated beginning, with the arts well known and practised to an extent which, in subsequent ages, has never been approached; and from which there has not anywhere been discovered a gradual advancement ; but, on the contrary, an immediate and decidedly progressive declension.’ This, however, is a mere question of dates. Man’s civilisation began long before the Mosaic Creation ; and science has agreed to believe that savage life gener- ally is not a decadence from: higher types, not a degeneracy, but a gradual development. 4 We now divide language into three periods: Ist, intonative, like the cries of children and lower animals ; 2nd, imitative, or onomatopoetic ; and 3rd, conventional, the civilised form. THE GOD-SMITHS. 75 himself, and himself only, either in the flesh or in the ghost—that is, in the non- flesh or the objective nothing—till he arrived at the transcendental Man, the super- lative, the ideal of Himself. How little of fact is known about the mysterious tribes above mentioned be- comes evident by a glance at the classics. All six are supposed to be Asiatics, worshippers of Rhea (the earth), the great mother of the gods and queen of the metal workers. Yet Strabo explains Curetes from Greek terms «épou (boys), képau (girls), coupd (tonsure), and xoupotpodeiy (to bring up the Boy, ie. Jupiter). Simi- larly their brethren, the nine Corybantes, were termed from their dancing gait and negro-like butting with the head, xopimtovras. They inhabited Samothrace (Samothracia alta): this venerable and holy island, in hoar antiquity a general rendezvous of freemasonry, or rather of free-smithery, forms a triangle with metallic Thasos and with volcanic Lemnos. The three or four Cabiri! bear a Semitic name, Kabir=the great or the old. They seem at first to have represented Ptah-Sokar-Osiris,? and Herodotus (iii. 37) mentions their temple at Memphis. They became in Phcenicia the earliest boat- men or primordial shipbuilders, identified by some with the Sesennu or Egyptian Octonary ; by others with the seven planets or the stars of Typho, our Great Bear ;3 and by others, again, with the seven Khnemu (gnomes) or pygmy-sons who waited upon their father Ptah-Vulcan. They inhabited Lemnos, where Hephzstus, when expelled, like Adam, from the lowest heaven, took refuge among the Pelasgi (Diod. Sic. lib. v.) : hence the latter preserved their worship. Damascius (‘ Life of Isidorus ’) says: ‘The Asclepius of Berytus is neither Greek nor Egyptian, but of Phoenician origin ; for (seven) sons were born to Sadyk, called Dioscuri and Cabiri, and the eighth of them was Esman (i.e. Octavius, No. 8), who is interpreted Asclepius.’ The Idan Dactyli (fingers or toes) who occupied ‘fountful Ide’* consisted of five brothers, representing the dextra or lucky hand (science, art), and five sisters for the sznzstra or unlucky (witchcraft, ill omens). The names of these ‘hands’ (iron - workers) were Kelmis (fire or heat = the smelter), Damnameneus (the hammer, or who governs by strength, Thor), Hercules (force, animal or mental), and Akmon (the anvil or passive principle). Hence Pyracmon the Cyclop, one of the seven architect brothers who, according to Strabo (viii. 6), came from Lycia 1 Axieros (the earth-goddess), A.xiohkersa (Proser- pine of the Greeks), Axzokersos (Hades), and Cas- milos (Hermes or Mercury). Ennemoser may be right in making the Kabeiroi pygmies (i.e. gnomes), but not in rendering Dactyloi by ‘ finger-size.’ 2 The lame and deformed ‘ artificer of the universe,’ who became Hepheestos (Vulcan) in Greece, and Vishvakarma in India. Sokar has left his name in the modern ‘ Sakkarah.’ ’ The Assyrian cuneiforms allude to ‘the (Great) Bear making its crownship,’ that is, circling round the North Pole. ‘4 The temples of the Cabiri have lately been explored by Prof. Conze for the Austrian Govern- ment at Samothrace, and we may expect to lean something less vague concerning these mysterious ancients, > The Rey. Basil H. Cooper believes that the Phrygian was the original Ida, which gradually passed to Crete ; and here the Ideei were priests of Cybele. Heis disposed to connect with it the Greek 3/8(npo); the German £7sez (and our iron), and the da feldt and Asi of the Norse myths (Day, p. 133). 76 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. and built the ‘Cyclopean Wall’ in the Argolid. These Cyclopes! (monocular giants) worked metal, and under their magic hands, Fluit es rivis aurique metallum ; Vulnificusque chalybs vasta fornice liquescit. By later writers, the Cyclopes, who .. . Stridentia tingunt fEra lacu (x. viii. 445, Georg. iv. 172), were held to be Sicilians. The Telchines (fascinators, from @éAyeuv, to charm) are mentioned as metallur- gists by Stesichorus the Sicilian (nat. B.c. 632): they were the sons of Thalassa, i.e. they came from beyond the sea; they colonised Telchinis, and they made arms and statues of the gods like the Dedalides or artist families of later Athens. The Sinties (plunderers) from 1d civec@azs (to pill), who, according to Hellenicus of Lesbos (nat. B.C. 496), were pirates besides being coppersmiths (yadxvés), and who So Homer (‘ Od.’ viii. 290) speaks of the ‘barbarous Sintian men’ who received Vulcan when kicked out of Paradise. A modern school of Tsiganologues would identify them with prehistoric Gypsies, who have still a tribe called Sindi; but this theory would bring the arts from India westwards, whereas the current flowed the clean contrary way. Finally, Herodotus (i. 28), initiated in the mysteries, makes the Chalybes ? or iron-workers, neighbours (and congeners ?) of the Phrygians. It is not difficult to see the general gist of such legends. All these tribes pro- bably came (like Pelops, Tantalus, and Niobe) from the same place, Phrygia, the fertile plateau of Asia Minor, and its Katakekaumene or volcanic tract. It was, as were eventually murdered by their wives, represented the ancient Lemnians. far as we know, the first western centre which developed the ‘ Aryan’ or non-Semitic element of the old Egyptian tongue. It also formed the point de déart of the European 3 (miscalled ‘ Indo-European ') branch of the family that owned the Arya- land (Airyanem-vaejo), whose ethnic centre was the barbarous region about Ray, Heri, or Herat.*’ Hence, says Herodotus (iii. 2), the Egyptians owned the Phrygians 1 The name is derived by Bochart from Heb. Lud or Lelub, aspen, chiefs of the Libu or Ribu, as the old Egyptians called the Libyans. Hence the Prom. Lilybeeum (Zz-Z/d) and the Sinus ad Libyam or Lilybatanus. 2 We have satisfactory details concerning the Chalybes, who border on Armenia, in the Anabaszs (iv. 5, &c.). They dwell two days from Cotyora, the colony planted by Sinope; they are subject to the Mossyneeci, and they subsist by iron-working (v. 5). Though few, they are a most warlike people, full of fight. Their armour consists of helmets, greaves, and cuirasses of twisted linen-cords, reaching to the groin. They carry spears about fifteen cubits long, ‘having one spike’ (i.e. without ferule); and at their girdles a short faulchion, as large as a Spartan crooked dagger, with which they cut the throats of all whom they can master; and then, lopping off their heads, bear them away (iv. 7). Strabo makes the Chalybes the same as their neighbours the Chaldzi, ’ The well-known inscription on the tomb of Midas, and another given by Texier (Asie Mineure, ii. 57) show the Phrygian tongue to have been a congener of Greek. Even the Békos of Herodotus (ii. 2) is allied to our ‘bake,’ and Bédu to our ‘water.’ We are greatly in want of further informa- tion about Phrygia, and it is to be hoped that Colonel Wilson and Mr. W. M. Ramsay will complete the labours of Texier and Hamilton. ‘4 The Aryans of Herodotus, about the Arius river (Heri-rid), are an undistinguished tribe, a mere ALLOYS. 77 to surpass them in antiquity. The emigrants would pass to the islands Samothrace, Lemnos, Thera,! the Cyclades and Crete ; to Greece, Thessaly and Epirus, Attica, Argos, and the farthest south, where ‘ Pelops the Phrygian, son of King Tantalus, colonised the Morea and founded the Pelopid race. Then they would find a home in Italy, Hetruria, and Iapygia (or Messapia), Peucetia and Daunia, and finally they would settle in Iberia, Spain, and Portugal, where the Briges or Brygi (Phrygians) have left their names in the Braganza of the present day. These Proto-Phrygians and Phrygo-Europeans, of whom several tribes returned to Asia, were the prehistoric metal-workers. The smith (from stan, to strike) was sacred in the dawn of history ; and the Sword-maker was not inferior to him. Those who have witnessed the awe and reverence with which savages and barbarians regard a European mechanic at his forge will see exemplified the emotional feeling which led to the human becoming the superhuman.? The first step in cpatépwya (hardening of metals) was, according to Hesychius, Miékis yadkod kal kacourépov (the mingling of copper and tin). The alloy was known generically as chalcos (base metal), specifically as yad«os pédauvos (black chalcos). The Latins persisted in terming it simply @s; eg. @s tnauratum (gilt bronze). Our word bronze derives from drunus (fuscous, sombre, brown) ; brunumm @s. Hence the Low Latin (A.D. 805) drunea, brunia, or bronza, a lorica or thorax ; and the Low Greek wépras wrpovréwes (pronounce broutzines), ‘ portals of bronze.’ The word is also derived from the Basque or Iberian drozsea. Tin, one of the least durable of metals, at the same time readily fused and one of the easiest to treat metallurgically, was called by the Greeks xaocitepos, and by the Latins cassiteron,3 whence probably the Arab. ,)d.<3, and the Sanskrit aefart. The Hebrew name is $43 (Badil=a substitute, a separation, an alloy). Hut (white metal) in Egyptian includes silver and tin: in Coptic it is Thram, Thran, or Basensh. Kalai (Linschoten’s ‘Calaem’) is the popular term for tin in India: the word is Arabic rather than Turkish. Tenekeh (tin-plate) in Arabic is an evident congener of the Assyrian }¥>< or whether the ore was worked by the ‘ Welsh of the Horn’—the barbarians of Cornwall and Devonshire, who in those days were Brythons,’ has been fancifully derived by the ener- getic Semitiser from Barrat-et-Tanuk = Land of Tin. 1 Ezekiel tells us that the Tyrians received tin, as well as other metals, from Tarshish, or Western ‘Tartessus, in the Bay of Gibraltar. 2M. Emile Burnouf, ‘L’Age de Bronze,’ Revue des Deux Mondes, July 15, 1877, also brings tin from Banca. ‘The island is about 150 miles long by 36 broad; it has no mountain backbone, but the peak of Goonong Maras rises some 3,000 feet above the sea- level. Chinese coolies still work the mines of Min- tok, and in 1852 the yearly yield was some 50,000 piculs (each = 1334 Ibs.) at the cost of nine rupees per picul. 3 Beckmarn (Joc. cét.), like Michaelis, is surprised at the Midianites possessing tin in the days of Moses. These were the views of the last century. I have suggested (Atheneum, Nov. 24, 1880) that the old Nile-dwellers extended through Midian to El-Hejaz and El-Yemen, where they worked the mines which became known to the Hebrews. * In 1866 De Rougemont made Phcenicia supply bronze to Europe, the copper being brought from Cyprus. Besides the Mediterranean, we find a Uralian and a Danubian branch of the industry. Before 1877 France had supplied 650 bronze Swords and daggers, Sweden 480, and Switzerland 86. 5 Alias the CGistrymnides. Borlase was of opinion that the group formed one block, with several head- lands, of which ‘ Scilly’ was the highest, outermost, and most conspicuous. He conjectures the original name to be Sylé, Sulla, or Sulleh, a flat rock dedi- cated to the sun; hence the Lat. S7/éme, Silures, and Sigdeles; the Engl. Sylley, Scilley, and lately Scilly ; the Fr. Sordingues; and the Span. Sorlingas. The Keltic name of the chief feature was Inis Caer. TIN. 79 probably confined to small coast-clearings.! Herodotus, indeed, knows ~tfothing (iii. 115) of ‘any islands called the Cassiterides (tin islands) whence the tin comes.’ These Silures or Scilly Islands were evidently mere depéts, not sites of produc- tion. The Phcenicians kept their secret well, and lost their ships rather than betray it ; so says Strabo (iii. 5, § 11), whose Cassiterides appear to be the Azores.2 The age when the trade was first opened is disputed ; some place it B.C. 1500, others 3 reduce it to B.C. 400. Diodorus Siculus (v. 21-2) tells us that tin was found and run into pigs near the Belerium Promontory (Land’s End) ; thence it was carted to Ictis (Vectis, not the Isle of Wight, but Saint Michael’s Mount and Love Island) ; 4 and lastly horsed across Gaul to the Rhone. There is in the Truro Museum®a pig of tin, flat above and reniform below (the shape of the mould), two feet eleven inches by eleven inches broad, with a particular mark ; it has been suggested that this is Pheenician. ‘Cassiter Street’ in Bodmin is supposed to retain the classical name. The second Thursday before Christmas Day is called in Cornwall (Kern- Walli, Cornu Gallia) ‘ Picrous Day,’ from the man who discovered the ‘ streaming’ (or washing) of ‘stean’ or tin. Strabo gives a bad account of the people of the twelve Cassiterides and their Cornishmen, the latter ‘resembling the Furies we see in tragic representations.’ These pleasant persons would find stream-tin, almost fit for use, lying upon the surface by the side of copper pyrites—the latter harder than tin, but still comparatively soft and ductile. Both ores were easily fused, while iron was comparatively difficult and tedious to smelt; and the two (copper and tin) combined were not only more fusible, but they also continued longer in the fluid state, facilitating casting and moulding. Hence Worsdaee believes that England was an ancient centre of bronze, whence the alloy was diffused throughout Europe. It is usually stated that the bronze-using period in England began between B.c. 1400 and 1200, and lasted eight to ten centuries, the invasion of Cesar taking place during the early ‘Iron Age.’ The great bronze manufacture which we have first to consider is Egypt. The exact average proportion of the alloy is hard to ascertain,® the tin varying from ten to twenty per cent., and the copper from eighty to ninety per cent. A dagger analysed by Vauquelin gave copper eighty-five, tin fourteen, and iron one per cent. Wilkinson’s bronze chisel, nine and a quarter inches long, and weighing one pound twelve ounces, found in a quarry at Thebes, contained in one hundred parts 940 copper, 5‘9 tin, Ol iron; consequently its edge is at once turned by hard stone. He repeatedly mentions bronze chisels (ii. ch. vii. &c.), and he seems to 1 Archeology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, 1 The identification is not settled ; some propose Part II. ‘The Archaic or Bronze Period.’ Daniel the Isle of Thanet. Wises os $ 5 Beckmann, sad voce ‘Tin.’ 2 Pliny represents the Cassiterides as fronting Celtiberia. He considers it » ‘fabulous story’ that 6 According to Messrs. Wibel, Fellemberg, and the Greeks fetched ‘white lead’ from the islands of Damour, who investigated even 38, parts, the the Adriatic. average proportions were j tin to 9 copper; and + 3 Prehistoric Times, by Sir John Lubbock, 4th tin for hard metal, as chisels, &c. M. E, Chauntre, edit. (London: Williams and Norgate, 1878.) —~ Age de Bronze. 3 vols. (Paris: Baudry.) 80 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. suspect that they were sheathed and pointed with steel. Of course, he was puzzled to explain how the ‘bronze or brass blades were given a certain degree of elasti- city.’ } The result of Egyptian metallurgy is admirable, both in material and finish. At what period bronze was introduced we ignore; a cast cylinder, however, bearing the name of Pepi, dates from B.C. 3000 in the Sixth Dynasty of Middle Egypt, which includes Nitaker (Nitocris). Knives appear in the sculptures dating from before that time. A bronze dagger in the Berlin Museum, found by Sig. Passalacqua in a tomb at Thebes, retains a spring which might be of steel. My friend, Mr. W. P. Hayns, of the Alexandrian Harbour Works, showed me a specimen brought from Thebes by the late Mr. Harris, made of bronze still slightly elastic. The total length measures one foot, of which the blade is half; the latter, slightly leaf-shaped, has a minimum breadth of one inch and three-twelfths, and one inch at the shoulder. The tang, which is prolonged to the handle- end (four inches), has a minimum width of five-twelfths. The grip of two plates, hippopotamus hide (?), probably boiled, and not unlike wood, has twenty-six ridges for firmer hold, and there are bronze rivets at the sixth and the twenty-third ridges: it is without pommel, the end being simply rounded off. Fic. 82.— Fine Specimen OF oe ee It is held that mummies of the Eleventh Dynasty were Mr. Harris FROM THEBES. : . ‘ rer es buried with bronze sabres ; and there is a bronze dagger The material is bronze, and still fi i is slightly elastic. There isamid- Of Thut-mes? III. (Eighteenth Dynasty), circa B.C. 1600. rib, but not strongly marked, The tang, which is continued to the As late as Mene-ptah II. of the Nineteenth Dynasty (B.C. pommel, measures 4 inches long by a minimum of oi raetene? 1300-1266), we read in the list of his loot, after the Prosopis has 26 ridges for firmer grasp, and there are rivets of bronze at the battle, of bronze-armour, Swords, and daggers. Among 6th and the 23rd ridges. There is 7 no pommel, but here the handle the Etruscans, before the foundation of Rome, bronze is rounded off between two slices fe ne right statues were known; and Romulus is said to have placed a statue of himself, crowned by Victory, in a bronze qua- driga taken at Comertium. According to Pausanias (iii. 12, § 8), Theodorus of Samos invented casting in bronze (B.c. 800-700): this author discredits the Arcadian legend that Neptune dedicated a bronze statue to Poseidon (the Sidonian ?) Hippios (Wilkinson, ii. chap. vii.). But the Samians cast a bronze vase in B.C. 630. 1 The late General Uchatius, who ‘trusted in secrets. His career was cut short before he leained princes,’ and whose tragical death was greatly Ja- to make the metal and the alloy resilient. mented by his friends, always declared that he had rediscovered (not discovered) the hardening of copper 2 Thut, Tuth, Toth, Thoth, &c., the moon-god and bronze; and that he hoped to arrive at other who became Hermes Trismegistus. METALLURGY IN ASSYRIA. 81 The importance of the Uchatius re-discovery, that is, of hardening bronze as well as copper by hydraulic pressure, not by phosphorus,! becomes evident by Wilkinson’s reflections. ‘We know of no means of tempering copper, under any form, or united with any alloys for such a purpose’ (as hollowing out hieroglyphics). He suggests that the old Egyptian letters, sometimes exceeding two inches in depth, and the alt-reliefs nine inches high, on granite coffins, may have been worked with wheel-drill and emery powder.2, The Egyptians had also the secret of gilding bronze, as many of their remains prove ; moreover, they produced by acids a rich patina of dark and light greens. The Assyrians rivalled in metallurgy their ancient instructors the Egyptians: and the art passed eastwards to Persia, which inherited Assyrian and Babylonian civilisation. Diodorus Siculus, following Ctesias the oft-quoted contemporary of Xenophon, describes immense works of bronze decorating the gardens of Semi- ramis. In Assyria, again, the proportion of the alloy greatly varied. Layard quotes the following assays of Assyrian bronze : No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 Coppe 3 : : . 89°51 89°35 88°37 84°79 Tin. : é ‘ . 0°63 9°78 11°33 14°10 go"r4 99°63 99°70 98°89 No. 1 shows the proportions found in a bronze dish from ‘Nimroud’; No. 4 ina bell ; and the fore-leg of a bull’ yielded 11°33 tin to 99°70 copper. The Mesopota- mians were able to cast their bronze extremely thin, which is no small difficulty ; they fashioned it into weapons, temple utensils, and domestic articles, and they skilfully ‘elaborated it by chasing and by curious ornamental tracery.’ They used it in their most sumptuous decorations, as the thrones prove ; and the beautiful workmanship of their vases shows abnormal skill in the toreumatic treatment of bronze. Gilt specimens of bronze from Nineveh are in the British Museum. Dr. Schliemann questions the popular assertion that the age of Hesiod and of Homer ignored alloys and fusion, knowing only plating, the plates being hammer- 1 Phosphor-bronze, for whose manufacture com- authorities, apt to volatilise with time. At present a panies are now established in London and elsewhere, new form of bronze, the antimonial, in proportions of has the ordinary composition with the addition of red 1-2 per cent., is coming into fashion: it is said to or amorphous phosphorus dropped upon the melted be malleable and ductile, and to resist torsion in a metal in the crucible. Berthier (Zraité des Essais, high degree. Another new bronze is the aluminium, ii. 410) states that a very small quantity of phosphorus whose price has been reduced from 1,000/. to 100/, renders copper extremely hard and suitable for cutting per ton by Mr. Webster, of Hollywood, near Bir- instruments. Percy (Metallurgy) found that copper mingham. will take up 11 per cent. of phosphorus; the metal, 2 So called from Cape Emeri in Naxos. which assumes a grey tint, is quite homogeneous, and 8 Appendix to Layard’s Mineveh and Babylon so hard that it can scarcely be touched by the file. (London: Murray). The proportions are nearly those The addition of phosphorus promotes the reductionof of our day. We may assume our common bronze at the oxides, and enables an exceedingly sound and 11: 100 for large, and 10: 100 for small objects. durable casting to be made; but if it exceed 4 per Cymbals and sounding instruments, however, contain cent. the metal becomes very brittle. Dr, Percy has tin 22: copper 78. described phosphor-silver, phosphor-lead, and phos- 4 Analysed by Mr. Robinson of Pimlico (Day, phor-iron, The phosphorus is, according to some _ p. 110). G 82 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. wrought (‘ Od.’ iii. 425). This explorer found the strata of copper and lead scorize at the so-called Troy from twenty-eight to twenty-nine and a half feet deep. He notes also small crucibles and a mould of mica-schist (twenty-six feet deep), which was probably intended for bronze casting. He finds no iron; but copper and its alloy, bronze, are abundant. M. Damour of Lyon! analysed the drillings of two ‘copper’ battle-axes from ‘Ilium,’ in fact, from ‘Priam’s Treasury’; they con- tained 0'0864 and 0°0384 parts tin to 0'9067 and 0'9580 copper. Nearly the same proportion of alloy was found in a common two-edged axe dug at a depth of three and a quarter feet, and therefore in the remains attributed to a Greek colony. Dr. Percy analysed, with the following results, the handle of a bronze vase and a Sword : Copper (mean). . . 86°36 Tin (mean) : : . 13°06 99°42 The specific gravity (at 60° F.) was 8858. The extreme proportions of the alloy in other articles were 10°28 tin to 89°69 copper (a usual ratio in ancient bronzes *), and o’09 tin to 98°47 copper, the latter being almost pure. Mongez, of the Institut, describing a bronze Sword found in France, gives the proportions as 87°47 per cent. of copper to 12°53 of tin. Analyses of Greek bronzes in the British Museum yielded 87°8 per cent. copper to 12°13 tin. A bronze knife has been found in the Palafittes (Pile-villages) of Neuchatel, Switzerland. Worsaiee (‘ Primeval ie: Be — Bene Kove, “itiquities ”) takes the Bronze Period a... a, —Peanwan Ruern FROM THE age -vetaces in Denmark and Northern Europe begin n Gee at ee (Half-size.) STRONG CoTTON TwINE, about B.C. 500 to 600, and last some 1,100 years. It is not found among the Normans. But it was developed in Ireland and Scotland, in China and Japan, in Mexico and in Peru: Cieza de Leon notes the admirable bronze work of the Ynkarial empire. A Peruvian chisel, analysed by M. Vauquelin, contained 0:94 copper to 0°06 tin. In other tools the proportion of the latter metal varied from two to four, six and even seven per cent. As a rule the people used only half the proper proportion of 1 Schliemann’s Zvoy, p. 361 (London: Murray, The Trojan battle-axes, according to Dr. Schliemann, 1878). yielded only 4, 8, and g per cent. of the former metal. 2 Sir W. Gell found the bronze nails in the ° According to Helbig, the Palafittes and Terra- ‘ Treasury of Atreus’ composed of 12 tinto 88 copper. _mare villagers had spears but not Swords. PROPORTIONS OF ALLOYS. 83 tin, which they called Chayantanka—a name suggesting the Old-World ‘ Tanuk’ Humboldt mentions a cutting tool found near Cuzco with ninety-four per cent. of copper and six of tin. Rivero (i. 201) notices in Peru brass (?) hammers and bellows-nozzles, axes, adzes, bill-hooks, and other tools, of bronze as well as copper. The Mexicans cast their tin ingots in T-shape. The Peruvians hardened copper also with silver for quarrying-tools and crow-bars. Velasco (ii. 70) tells us that when the Ynka Huasca was being led to prison by order of his brother, a woman secretly gave him a bar of metal, ‘silver with bronze, brass, or an alloy of silver, copper, and tin’ (Bollaert, p. 90); by means of this he cut through the jail wall during the night. Hutchison (ii. 330) mentions a buckler from Ipijapa in Ecuador, and Ewbank (p. 454) notices an old Peruvian bronze knife.! The admirable bronzes of China and Japan are well known in the English market, and Raphael Pumpelly,? who studied direct from the native workmen, has printed interesting notes on the ornamental alloys, or Mokume, applied to Swords and other articles. Damask-work is produced by soldering alternately thirty to forty sheets of rose-copper, silver, skakdo (copper one to gold ten per cent.), and gud shz bu ichi (silver and copper). The mass is then cut into deep patterns with the reamer, An alloy of silver (thirty to fifty per cent. of copper) produces the favourite tint, a rich grey colour, and this becomes a bluish black like niello by being boiled after polishing in a solution of sulphate of copper, alum, and verdigris. Dr. Percy (p. 340) describes the liquation of argentiferous copper in Japan.? We owe to Dr. George Pearson ‘ sundry experiments in alloys, which first de- termined that the norm of the Old World and the best proportion for weapons and tools are one tin to nine copper. . Fusing the metals, he found : 1 tin: 20 copper (§ per cent.) produces a dark-coloured bronze with the red fracture of the pure metal. I tin: 15 (64 per cent.) gives a stronger alloy and obliterates the colour. I tin: 12, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 gradually increases hardness and brittleness. 1 tin: 2 makes a mixture almost as brittle as glass. The following table® shows the alloys now in common use, and the purposes to which they are applied : Tin Copper Per cent. Copper II 108 ==) 90°76 . . Cannon, statues, machine brasses. 11 99 = 90 , . Gun-metal’ proper (cannon). II 84 = 84°44 ‘ . Gun-metal,’ machinery bearings. 1 For the tin-ore of Peru see Ethnolog. Fournal, 4M.D., F.R.S., ‘Observations on some Metallic vol. xx, pp. 258-261. Rivero, p. 230, and Garcilasso, Arms and Utensils, with Experiments to determine vol, i. p. 202. their Composition.’ Royal Soc. London, June 9, 2 Amer. Fourn. of Science, &c. v. 42; July 1866. 1796. Lhélosophical Transactions. 2 From descriptions and drawings by Mr. J. H. 5 Taken from Dr. Evans (Bronze Impl. &c. chap. Godfrey, Mining Engineer-in-Chief to the Imperial xxi.). He compiled it from Martineau & Smith’s Government of Japan. Hardware Trade Fournal (April 30, 1879). G2 84 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Tin Copper Per cent. Copper. II 72 = 86°75 Harder composition. I 60 = 84'50 Not malleable. It 44. = 80 ‘ . Cymbals, Chinese gongs. II 48 = 81°35 Very hard, culinary vessels. us 36 } = { gee) \ ‘Bell-metal.’ 12 36 75 00 I 24 = 68°57 Yellowish, very hard, sonorous. II 4 = 26°66 Very white,! specula.? The most popular alloy of copper, next to bronze, is brass, which is harder and wears better than the pure metal. Originally, as now, it was a mixture of copper and zinc, popularly called spelter (old speautre, speauter, spiauter, spialter).® The proportions greatly varied, one part of the latter to two of the former being the older ratio, and the density increasing with the amount of copper from 8°39 to 8°56. Beckmann tells us, in his valuable ‘ History of Inventions,’* ‘in the course of time an ore which must have been calamine (carbonate of zinc) or blende® (sulphuret of zinc), was added to copper, and gave it a yellow colour. The addition made it harder, more fusible and sonorous, easily subject to the lathe, more eco- nomical to work, and a worse conductor of heat than the pure metal.’ We have few specimens of old art-works in ‘brass’ proper, although zinc was discovered by analysis in an ancient Sword, chiefly copper. Gibel assures us that zinc occurs only in Roman alloys, the bronze of the Greeks containing nothing beyond copper, tin, and lead. The Romans also could varnish or lacquer brass, but it is not known whence they derived the art. Percy notes (p. 521) that brass was produced ‘early in the Christian era, if not before its commencement.’ He quotes in proof a large coin of the Cassia Gens (B.C. 20) which contained copper 82°26 and zinc 17°31; a Vespasian (Rome, A.D. 71), an imperial Trajan (Caria, circ. A.D. 110), a Geta (Carian Mylasa, A.D. 189-212), a Greek Caracalla (A.D. 199), and many others. In modern times zinciferous ore was imported by the Portuguese from the East a century before it was common throughout Europe.” In the early seventeenth century the Dutch captured one of their craft laden with spelter, and the secret became known. Bishop Richard Watson says (1783) the cargo was calaem, ‘which he connects with ‘calamine’: the latter, like the German Galmez, derives from cadmia. Amongst the moderns @s gave rise to azrain. The French Zeton, laton, latton, ' Wilkinson remarked that the Egyptian propor- tions of half tin and half copper were whitish. 2 Lord Rosse, in casting specula, preferred using copper and tin in their atomic proportions, or 68:21 per cent. copper to 31°79 per cent. tin. 8 Speltrum was introduced by Boyle. During the last century much zinc was imported from India (possibly supplied by China), and was called tutenag. 4 Bohn’s 7rans. ii. 32-45. The learned German begins by stating that zinc was not known to the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, and then proceeds to prove that it was. The word ‘zinc’ (from zenken or zacken, nails, spikes?) first occurs in the works of the Iatro-chemist, Paracelsus, who died in A.D. 1541. 5 Blende is a generic word, from blenden, to dazzle. § Mongez, Méém. de P Institut. 7 At Goslar, however, according to Lohnriss, brass was made in A.D. 1617. ORICHALCUM. 85 or laiton (cuture Jaune); the Italian Jattone, lottone, and lastly ottone, and the Spanish data and laton, German Latun, and English /atten (thin sheet brass), the latoun of Chaucer (‘ Pardoner’s Prologue,’ 64), are either from /uteum, yellow (metal), or from the plant Zuteum (Reseda luteola), used to stain chrysocolla.! Our brass is probably the Scandinavian bras, cement ; and the German Mosch, Meish, and Messing, from mischen=miscere? It may be advisable to notice the dperyadxov® of the Homerids and Hesiod, which Strabo also calls yevSdpyupos (false silver), and aurichalcum, and which the perverse ingenuity of commentaries has made so mysterious. In the poetic phase, which loves the vague, this ‘ mountain-copper’ was a mythic natural metal, ranking between gold and silver, and chimerical as was the chalcolibanon® of the Apocalypse (i. 15, ii. 18). The name does not occur in Pindar or the Dramatists. Plato (the ‘Critias,’ § ix., treating of Atlantis,® America) makes orezchalc,‘now known only by name,’ the most precious metal after gold. Pliny (xxxiv. 2) tells us truly enough that aurichalcum no longer exists. The next application of the word was to ruby copper (?), a suboxide whose beautiful crystals are formed in the natural state. Pollux and Hesychius the gram- marian (A.D. 380) define it as copper (yaAxés) resembling gold; and Cicero puts the question whether, if a person should offer a piece of gold for sale, thinking he was disposing of only a piece of orichalcum, an honest man ought to inform him ' Pliny, xxxiii. 27. The solder (xypveés and Grimm’s Dictionary, as noticed hy Demmin (chap. i.), KéAAa, glue, or xéAAnows) is attributed by Herod. (i. 25) to Glaucus of Chios, a contemporary of Alyattes. The word £d/lesis is variously rendered ‘soldering,’ ‘brazing,’ ‘welding,’ and ‘inlaying.’ Kollesis was used to agglutinate metals, and treated with a peculiar alkali (Pliny, xxxiii. 24). The ‘gold glue’ (chrysocolla) is usually understood to be a hydrosilicate of copper; not to be confounded with the xpuadioAAa or borax. The Mycenian goldsmiths soldered with the help of borax (borate of soda): Professor Landerer, of Athens, found this salt on an old medal from AWgina. It was called in the Middle Ages, Borax Venetus, because imported by the Venetians from Persia; and it is the Tinkal of modern India. According to Pliny, lead cannot be soldered without tin, or tin without lead, and oil invariably must be used. Later usage substituted for the latter colophonium and other resins: we now solder by means of electricity. The same writer makes Nero use chrysocolla-powder (a siliceous carbonate of copper, a kind of blue-stone which would turn green by exposure to damp) for strewing the circus, to give the course the colour of his favourite faction, the Prasine (green). 2 The Germans, who delight in German deriva- tives for European words, would find Zezton, &c., not in /uteum, but in /othen=to unite. There is little doubt, however, that the first English manufactory of calamine brass at Esher, in Surrey, was set up in the seventeenth century by Demetrius, a German. In bronze is erroneously called messing (brass), 3 Derived from Jdpos, odpos (mountain), or from ’Opelos, the discoverer. Metallic names in Greek are mostly masculine ; in Latin and modern usage, neutral. Ovreichalcum or aurichalcum, a hybrid word, became aurochalcum in the ninth century: the last corruption (middle of the sixteenth century) was archal. 1 De ?Orichalgue. J. P. Rossignol (doc. ciz.). 5 Some translate this word ‘ yellow frankincense’ (Al€avos) colour; others derive it from Aléavos, the Lebanon, and make it male, argurolibanus, while leucolibanus (white) was female. Finally, the word was explained by the old interpreters to be = épei- xaAxkos = brass of Mount (Lebanon). © The tradition of Atlantis, a middle-land in the Atlantic, has strong claims to our acceptance. The identity of the site with the ‘ Dolphin’s Ridge,’ a volcanic formation, and the shallows noted by H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ have been ably pleaded in Atlantis (Ignatius Donnelly; London: Sampson Low, 1882). Perhaps we may trace the vestiges in Saint Paul’s Rocks, the remarkable group of rocky islets situate in the equatorial mid-Atlantic. Mr. Darwin supposed the group to be an isolated example of non-volcanic oceanic insularity; but Prof. Renard finds the ‘balance of proof decidedly in favour of the volcanic origin of the rock.’ It will be remembered that Atlantis was dismembered by earthquakes, eruptions, and subsi- dence. 86 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. that it was really gold, or might fairly buy for a penny what is worth a thousand times as much. Buffon compares it with tombac, or Chinese copper containing gold.” Beckmann (s. v. ‘Tin’) notes aurichalcum or Corinthian brass in Plautus, ‘Auro contra carum.’ Festus speaks of ‘orichalcum (copper), stannum (zinc or pewter ?), cassiterum (tin), and aurichalcum (brass), The same signification occurs in Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (fourth century); in Primasius, Bishop of African Adrumetum (sixth century), and in Isidore, Bishop of Seville (seventh century). Albertus Magnus (thirteenth century), the Dominican monk, in treating ‘De Natura et Commixtione £ris,’ describes how cuprum became aurichalcum. Strabo is mysterious. In one place he tells us that the Cyprian copper alone produces the Cadmian stone, copperas-water, and oxide of copper. In another (lib. xiii.) he says, ‘There is a stone near Andeira which, being burnt, becomes iron. It is then put into a furnace, together with some kind of earth,’ when it (the stone? the earth? or both ?) drops or distils a weuddpyupos (mock silver, zinc ?), which, with the addition of copper, produces what is called the mixture, and which some term oreichalcum.’ Pseudargyros, also found in the neighbourhood of Tmolus, would here seem to mean zinc or Cadmia fossilis (natural calamine or carbonate of zinc). Pliny (xxxiv. 22) confuses with cadmia, furnace calamine, and a particular ore of copper opposed to calchitis. When Dioscorides (v. cap. 84) seems to allude to artificial or furnace-calamine, an impure oxide of zinc, he may mean the more modern ¢éutiya (Avicenna), foutza, thouthia,' cadmie des fourneaux, or tutty. Reduced to powder, and mixed with an equal quantity of wetted charcoal by way of fondant or flux, it is melted with copper to form brass. The Avocat de Launey (1780) and Bishop Watson both agree that Strabo’s orichalcum is brass. Lastly, aurichalcum was made synonymous with electrum, natural or artificial. The word "Hadextpos® is popularly derived from Helios, as rivalling the sun in 1 Quoted by Percy from Watson’s Essays (iv. p. 85, 1786). ? The artificial mixture of copper (four fifths) and gold (one-fifth) was called pyropus (Pliny, xxxiv. 2), from its fiery red tint; it was also made of gold and bronze, and termed chrysochalcos, ‘the king of metals.’ £4 corinthiacum (Pliny, xxxiv. 3), or Corin- thian brass, used for mirrors, composed of copper, silver (steel? zinc?), and gold, was more valuable than gold. According to Pausanias (ii. 3, § 3), this malleable and ductile metal was tempered in the Fountain of Pyrene. The vulgar legend, refuted by Pliny, who tells the tale (xxxiv. 6), dates it from the days of Mummius (B.c. 146). A medal of Corinthian brass was analysed by the Duc de Luynes. Pliny (xxxiv. 3) mentions three kinds, candidum, luteum, and Aepatizon (liver-colour), of equal quantities of metal: this probably resembled our own alloys. Beckmann (sb voc. ‘Zinc’ and ‘ Tin’) gives a list of these and other compositions, Mannheim gold, Dutch gold, Prince’s metal, Bristol brass, &c. * Possibly the Armenian bole (Bol-i-Armani), used Chemical in the East as a flux from time immemorial, The ‘dropping’ or ‘ distilling ’ (ger descensum) must allude to a distillatory or condensing apparatus, and the ‘false silver’ cannot be mercury, lead, or tin. 4 Hence ¢utaneg and tufanego, which sometimes meant an alloy of tin and bismuth. M. Polo (i. 21) describes ‘ tutia’ as very good for the eyes; and his notice of it, and of spodium, reads, according to Colonel Yule, almost like a condensed translation of Galen’s pompholyx, produced from cadmia or carbo- nate of zinc ; and spodos, the residue of the former, which falls on the hearth (De Simp. Med. p. ix). Matthioli makes pompholyx commonly known in the laboratories by the Arabic name ‘tutia.’? The ‘tutia’ imported into Bombay from the Gulf is made from an argillaceous ore of zinc, moulded into tubular cakes, and baked to a moderate hardness. 5 Masc. and fem.; the neut. #Aexrpov is the purest form. Dr. Schliemann, noticing that it also means ‘amber’ (Mycene@, p. 204), derives it from ‘elek, signifying resin in Arabic (?), and probably also in Pheenician (?).’ He found earrings of electrum ORICHALCUM. 87 sheen. According to Lepsius it is the ‘usem’-metal of Thutmes III. ; Brugsch (i. 345) understands by ‘usem’ brass, and thinks Asmara or Asmala equivalent to the Hebrew hasmal or hashmal=electrum. In Bunsen (v. 757) Kasabet and Kakhi are brass (aurichalcum), and Khesbet is a metal connected with Kassiteros =tin. The alloy was known to Hesiod (‘Scut.’ 142) and to the ‘ Odyssey’ ! (iv. 73), not to the ‘Iliad.’ Sophocles (‘ Antig.’ 1037) applied ‘ Sardian electrum’ to gold, not to silver. Herodotus (iii. 115), in the historic age (B.C. 480-30), gives the name of the mythical metal to the ‘tears of the Heliades, which the Latins called succinum (succum), the Low-Latins ambrum, the Arabs andar, and we Amber. Pliny (xxxiii. 23), repeated by Pausanias (v. 12, § 6), notes two kinds, natural (‘in all gold ore there is some silver’) and artificial ; in the latter the proportion of silver must not exceed one-fifth. The staters of Lydian Croesus, held by the Greeks to be the most ancient of coins, were, according to Béckh, of electrum, three parts gold and one part silver. Lucian applies the term to glass (taXos) ; and, lastly, it was taken for brass and confounded with aurichalcum.? I would suggest that this aurichalcum might also be the ‘ Dowris bronze’ of Ireland, so called because: first observed at Dowris, near Parsonstown, King’s County. Wilde (p. 360) supposes with others that the gold-coloured alloy depended upon the admixture of a certain proportion of lead, and compares it with the Cyprus copper termed by the Romans Coroxarzum (used for theatrical crowns), which was coated with ox-gall4 Of this or molu there are many articles in the Dublin Museum, preserving their fine golden-yellow lustre: they had probably been lacquered or varnished like modern brasses ; and the patina might be some gum- resin. When much tarnished, they were cleaned by holding over the fire, and then by dipping in a weak solution of acid, as is done with modern castings. Two specimens, a Sword and a dagger-blade, were analysed (pp. 470, 483), and proved to contain copper 87°67 to 90°72, tin 8°52 to 8:25, lead 3°87 to 0°87, with a trace of sulphur in the Sword.’ The specific gravities were 8819 to 8675. In a spear-head (p. 512), besides copper, tin, and lead, iron 0°31 and cobalt o'09 were found. There were other alloys of which we read but know little; such were the @s agineticum, demonnesium, and nigrum; the @s deliacum, whose secret was in the so-called ‘ Trojan Stratum,’ 30} feet below the surface (Zroy, p. 164). The guanin or gianin of the Chiriquis was an aururet (electrum) of 19°3 per cent. of pure gold, with specific gravity 11°55. The ¢om- bac or tombag of New Granada, used for statuettes, was also a gold of low standard: 63 gold, 24 silver, g copper. Usually ‘tombac’ applies to an alloy like Mannheim gold; the manufacture was introduced into Birmingham, still its chief seat, by the Turner family, A.D. 1740. 1 © Elektron,’ however, is generally translated ‘amber’; and it may be the hargax, or drawer, for it occurs in the same verse with ivory. Amber beads and weapon-handles were amongst Dr. Schliemann’s finds. Rossignol (p. 347) supposes that electrum, the pale-yellow or amber-coloured alloy of gold and silver, gave a name to the gum amber. 2 This text, stating a truth concerning native gold, suggests amongst many that the ancients knew the départ, or separation, of metals. It has been vehe- mently doubted whether they could mineralise the white metal; that is, convert it to sulphide and allow the gold to subside. 5 Rossignol quotes Zonaras, Suidas, and John Pediasimus to prove this position. 4 We now lacquer with shell-lac dissolved in proof-spirit and coloured with ‘ dragon’s blood.’ 5 The lead was found in even larger proportions. See chap. xiii, 88 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. lost in Plutarch’s day, and the Taprjocvos yadxos' from Southern Spain, probably shipped at Gibraltar Bay. Ol/aria or pot-copper (brass) contained three pounds of plumbum argentarium (equal parts of tin and lead) to one hundred pounds of copper. 4s caldarium could only be fused. Finally, grecanicum (Greek-colour) was mould or second-hand copper (/formalis seu collectaneus) with ten per cent. of plumbum nigrum (lead) and five per cent. of silver lead (argen- tiferous galena ?). Metal, when first introduced, must have been rare and dear ; the large modern Sword, axe, or mall would hardly have been imitated in copper, bronze, or iron. The earliest attempts at developing the celt ? would have produced nothing more artful Wo ae RSS SS Din SESS LOM SSS S SSS TAT ich CU {»1, but the phonetic value or pronunciation has not yet been determined. ‘It must have been in use 2000 B.c.,’ and it is found in inscriptions of all ages. The word is supposed to belong to the ancient. Turanian or Proto-Babylonian race (Akkadian ® or Sumirian) that held the river- plains, and it has been grafted into the more recent Assyrian language. In the inscriptions, each god has his sign, and the symbol above given, accompanies, as his attribute, one of the deities of war and hunting: thus it is a parallel to that found in the cartouche of the Egyptian ‘ Iron King.’ Canon Rawlinson,® on the other hand, assigns to the symbol the phonetic value of Hurud, which thus became the Chaldean equivalent for ‘iron’ In concert with his distinguished brother, he came to the conclusion: ‘There are two signs for metals in Assyria, with respect to which there is a doubt which is iron and which is brass (or bronze rather). These are a and =<]. Sir Henry Rawlinson, on the whole, inclines to regard the first as bronze and the second 1 This term seems first to have been used b: Arab. ,&, brass), bronze; anak, tin; eru or erudu 'y “i > > » > Orosius (i. 2) in our fourth century. copper or bronze (Arab. ol, copper or brass); ’ In chap. ix. I shall attempt to show that Naharayn (the dual of Nahr, a river) is also applied to Palestine in such phrases as ‘Tunipe (Daphne- town) of Naharayn.’ hashpu, silver; and kurashu, gold. The learned author discovers in the cuneiforms repeated mention of the ‘ships of Makan’ and the Kur Makannata ’ Dr. Percy found that certain Assyrian bronzes had been cast round a support of the more tenacious metal, thus combining strength with lightness. Makan’: finding it a great centre of copper, he is inclined to confound it with the so-called Sinaitic Peninsula. I have only to refer readers to ‘Makna’ * M. F, Lenormant (‘Les Noms d’Airain et du in my three volumes on the Land of Midian. Cuivre dans les deux Langues . . . de la Chaldée et 5 Akkad is upper, Sumir lower Babylonia. de l’Assyrie, Zrans. Soc. Bibl. Archeology, vi. part 6 The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 2) renders farzil/u, iron; abar, lead; shiparru Eastern World, vol. i. p. 62. London, 1871, (mountain of Makna), which he translates ‘ Pays de- ia aco Ber LRON IN ASSYRIA. as iron, although the former is nowhere rendered phonetically. 105 The latter is rendered in a syllabary as equivalent to Hurud in Akkadian and Zvru in Assyrian. Mr. George Smith reverses the meanings of the two signs. The point is a very doubtful one.’ After the decay of the Proto-Babylonian or Chaldean empire (B.C. 2300-1500), hen the seat of Interamnian rule moved to the Tigris-Euphrates basin, and the three Assyrian periods flourished (B.C. 1500-555),! iron was largely used. It was produced, according to Layard (doc. ct.) in the Tiyari mountains, and it is still found in quantities on the slopes, three or four days’ journey from Mosul. The north-western palace of Nimrid (Kalah) showed, amongst the rubbish-heaps, much rusty iron and a perfect helmet like that represented in the bas-reliefs. There were Swords and daggers, shields and shield-handles, rods, and the points of spears and arrows, which fell to pieces on exposure. Amongst the few specimens pre- served were the head of a trident-like weapon, some Sword-handles, a large blunt spear-pile, the point of a pick, several objects resembling the heads of sledge- hammers, and a double-handed saw of iron or steel (?), about three feet eight inches long by four inches and five-eighths broad, for cross-cutting timber. The British Museum owns a fine collection of Assyrian sheet or plate iron-work ; pieces of unfinished forgings ; a rude triangular lump through which a round hole has been driven (by a heated punch?); several cylindrical bars, straight and curved ; wall-cramps, nails, and door-hinges; a ladle; rings of sizes (one being three inches in diameter) ; a signet-ring containing a silver bezel or seal; and, lastly, a portion of what seems to have been a double-sided comb. In much later days the Assyrians of Xerxes’ army carried, according to Herodotus, shields, spears, daggers, and wooden clubs spiked with iron. The Greeks learned their metallurgy, as they did all their arts, from Egypt ; and, following in the footsteps of the Phoenicians, diffused them throughout the Western World. In Theseus’ time, according to Wilkinson—that is, B.c. 1235— ‘iron is conjectured not to have been known, as he was found buried with a brass (copper, bronze ?) Sword and spear.’ They did not use iron weapons, and pro- bably had no iron during their first foreign campaign—the Trojan war. The Parian (Arundelian) Chronicle (dating its notices from Cecrops, B.c. 1582) and the Rhodian myths refer to a conflagration in the Cretan mountains which taught 1 The first period extended from B.c. 1500 to 909. The second from B.C. 909 to 745: the most marking names being Assurnazirpal=‘Ashur (arbiter of the gods) protects his son,’ who built the north-west palace of Nimrid, B.c. 884; and his son Shal- manezer II. of the Black Obelisk (Brit. Museum), B.c. 850. The third period (B.c. 745-555) numbered Tiglath-Pileser II., B.c. 745-727 (a single generation before the first Olympic, B.c. 776, when the mythic age of Greece emerges into the historical) ; Senna- cherib (705-681); Esarhaddon (680-668), Assur- banipal (668-640); Nebuchadnezzar in 604-561, a contemporary of Solon (B.c. 594); Nergalsharuzur (B.C. 557); and the last Nabonidus (B.c. 555). Herodotus (A.D. 450) wrote about a century after the end of the third period, Ctesias in B.c. 395, and Berosus in B.c. 280, We have, it is clear, absolutely no historic proof that ‘the patriarchal system of com- munities first locally developed itself at the mouth of the Euphrates Valley,’ or began in any part of the great Mesopotamian plain. 106 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. metallurgy to the Idzan Daktyls (Ad«tudoz "Iéaior):! this would, however, be a comparatively late date when we regard Egypt.? With respect to the metal in the Hissarlik remains, Dr. Schliemann remarks (i. 31): ‘The only objects of iron which I found were a key of curious shape and a few arrows and nails close to the surface.’ It is no proof that it was used because Homer some centuries afterwards spoke of the xdavos (cyanus), steel tempered blue, a word which even in antiquity was translated by ydAuy (chalybs, steel). The explorer remarks: ‘Articles of steel may have existed: I believe positively that they did exist; but they have vanished without leaving a trace of their existence ; for, as we know, iron and steel become decomposed much more readily than copper. Yet, so contradictory is the whole book, and so uncertain are its conclusions, we find,’ ‘No. 4. Drillings of one of the Trojan sling-bullets, externally covered with verdigris, and internally the colour of iron’ ; while the assay shows that it consisted chiefly of copper and sulphur. Among the contemporary (?) finds of Mycenz, which not a few authorities have pronounced to be Byzantine, and another observer Keltic,’ Dr. Schliemann met with iron in the shape of knives and keys ; but he holds these articles to be of comparatively late date, not older than the fifth century B.c.6 At that time iron must have been general throughout Greece. In the fourth century, Aristotle ( Meteorologica’) treats at length upon iron and its modifications. One passage runs: ‘Wrought iron may be so cast as to be made liquid and to reharden ; and thus it is they are wont to make steel (rd o7ép4pa) ; for the scoria of iron subsides and is purged off by the bottom, and when it is often defeecated and cleansed, this is steel. But this they do not often, because of the great waste, and because it loses much weight in refining; but iron is so much the more excellent the more recre- ment it has” Daimachus, Aristotle’s contemporary, says of steels (tév cTowapd- tov), ‘There is the Chalybdic,® the Synopic, the Lydian, and the Lacedemonian. The Chalybdic is best for carpenters’ tools; the Lacedzmonian for files, drills, gravers, and stone-chisels; the Lydian also is suited for files, and for knives, razors, and rasps.’ Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina), in his fifth book,‘ De Anima,’ accord- ing to Roger Bacon, has three species of the metal: (1) Iron, good for hammers and anvils, but not for cutting tools; (2) Steel,’ which is purer and has more heat 1 Rey. B. H. Cooper (/oc. cit.) would derive ‘Ida’ from the Semitic 1) (yad, hand), and make the Daktyls, or fingers, its peaks. ? I shall reserve for chap. xi. notices of iron by the classic and sacred poets of Greece. 2 Troy and its Remains, p. 362; the analysis by M. Damour of Lyons. 4 The theory of Stephani, Schulze, and others concerning the Byzantine date and Herulian origin of the Mycenzean graves, has been treated in England with some respect by Mr. A. S. Murray and Mr. Perry. ® According to Pausanias, Alyattes, the Lydian king (ob. B.c. 570), dedicated to his god, amongst other offerings, an inlaid iron saucer. ® Neither from this nor from any other passage can we ascertain whether the Chalybes tribe gave its name to chalybs (steel), or whether the material worked named the workmen. 7 Colonel Yule (AZ. Polo, ii. 96) remarks that in the Middle Ages steel was regarded as a distinct natural species made of another ore, and relates how a native to whom an English officer had explained the process of tempering replied, ‘What, would you have me believe that if I put an ass into the furnace it will come out a horse?’ ROMAN IRON. 107 in it; it is therefore less malleable, but better able to take an edge; and (3) Andena, ductile and malleable under a low degree of heat, and intermediate between iron and steel. Apparently the latter is the Hindiah or Hindiydneh, the Ferrum Indicum and the Ondanique of Marco Polo (i. 17). The Romans, a more cosmopolitan people than the Greeks, paid great atten- tion to the mineral wealth of their conquests, and were careful to choose the best aces‘ for their weapons. Diodorus Siculus? describes the process by which the Celtiberians prepared their iron for Swords. Pliny, who was Procurator of Spain under Vespasian, may have studied iron-mining and ore-working in the country which still produces the Toledo blade. He characterises the metal generally as being universally used and occurring in every part of the world—especially in Ilva, now Elba, where there are mines of oligiste, specular iron or iron glance. His process of steel-making is that of the Greeks. ‘Fornacum maxima differentia est ; in eis equidem nucleus ferri’ (the o/énpos épyaopévos or worked iron of Aristotle) ‘ exco- quitur ad indurandum ; aliter alioque modo ad densandas incudes, malleorumve rostra’ (xxxiv. 41). Hence it appears that the Romans had one way to make steel, and another to harden and temper tools, picks, and anvils. ‘ Possibly,’ says Dr. Martin Lister, ‘the latter were boiled in “sow-metal,” as the term densare seems to suggest.’ Roman mining-operations were often conducted on a large scale. The Forest of Dean and the Wealds of Kent and Sussex, not to mention other parts of England, show heaps of old slag containing classical pottery and coins of Nero, Vespasian, and Diocletian. They obtained the regulus? by the direct process, and used charcoal in rude Catalan furnaces; the work was imperfect, and the scoriz contain a large percentage of metal. Ancient adits and shafts in Shropshire 4 and elsewhere have preserved the rude implements with which they made the natives labour in corvée. The hill-sides of Carthagena on the seaboard of Murcia (South-Eastern Spain) had been explored for lead and silver by the earliest Carthaginian colonists; and the industry was at its height when Nova Carthago, under Roman rule, became (B.c. 200) a flourishing municipium, the centre of a large population. employed. At this time as many as forty thousand hands were regularly In our seventh century the Arab invasion ruined the mines, not only of this district, but of every province occupied by the ‘Moors.’ About the mid- fifteenth century a revival was attempted ; but this was checked at the beginning of the sixteenth, when the mines of Spanish America were opened: the Emperor 1 Acies is properly the edge, that is, the steeled or cutting part of an instrument, which may be case- hardened. Hence the later words aciare, to steel, and aciarium, sharpening steel; hence, too, the neo- Latin acter, acciaio, &c. 2 See chap. xiii. Dr. Evans (Bronze, 275) says, * How far their process of burying iron until part of it had rusted away would, in the case of charcoal iron, leave the remaining portion more of the nature of steel, Iam unable to say.’ It will appear that this burying is often spoken of; I have never seen it practised. 5 Regulus (the ‘little king’) is the residue of pure metal purged of its dross; the old alchemists so en- titled it because they ever expected to find the great king—Gold. 4 At the Anthropological Congress of Austrian Salzburg (Aug. 1881) the tools attributed to the ‘Keltic’ miners were almost the same as those which T had seen near the Wrekin. 108 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Charles V. also would not see the soil of his European dominions disturbed by digging. The miners emigrated in mass, and New Carthage was forgotten till within the last half-century. According to M. Alfred Massart,! the ancient masses of plumbiferous scoria were large enough to pay for re-working. A superficial area of eight square leagues yielded some eight hundred thousand tons of iron-ore, of which two-thirds were ferro-manganese, and twenty thousand to twenty-five thousand tons of lead containing thirty thousand kilogrammes of silver. Asregards the use of iron for many purposes by the ancient Britons before the Roman con- quest, we may fairly, without attaching importance to the legend of ‘ Milesius,’ believe that the industry may also have migrated northwards from a Spanish centre. Hence, Mr. Hutton, the local historian of Birmingham, believes that Sword-blades were made there before the landing of Julius Cesar. From Assyria the use of iron would extend through Persia to India, to Indo- China, and to China and Japan. Professor Max Miiller, as Mr. Day justly observes, differs with himself when he states in one place? that ‘iron was not known previously to the breaking up of the Aryan family’; and in another pas- sage,’ where we are told, ‘ Before the separation of the Aryan race .. . there can be no doubt that iron was known and its value appreciated.’ Here, evidently, the Sanskritist had changed his first opinion, because he had noticed that ‘ Ayas’ may also mean copper or bronze. The Rig Veda mentions mail-coats, hatchets, and weapons of iron ; but so far from assigning to this work the age of B.C. 1300, we may fairly hold that its present shape was assumed in the early centuries following Christianity. We have trustworthy notices of the metal in India only at the beginning of authentic history, when the acumen of the Greeks was applied to the gross absurdities of Hindu fable* The Malli and Oxydrace presented to Alex- ander a hundred talents’ weight of Indian steel (ferrum candidum) in wrought bars, just as Homer’s Achilles (‘Il.’ xxiii. 826), nearly a thousand years before, offered at the funeral games of Patroclus,‘a rudely-molten mass of iron’ (corXov avtoxowvor, sclf-melted ?), which had been used for hurling at the foe by Eétion, and which would supply the farm with metal for five years. The ‘ bright iron’ of Ezekiel, named amongst the wares of Tyre (xxvii. 19) with cassia and calamus, was probably the same material. The Periplus mentions sideros indikos and 1 Ingénieur des Mines: ‘Gisements métalliferes du District de Carthagtne (Espagne),’ Liége, 1875; a contribution to the Proc. Geolog. Soc. Belgium ; and 4 Mr. Day (General Table of Terms, given at end of this chapter) quotes as ‘oldest Sanskrit’ two names the result of extensive geological and mineralogical observation. The coloured map shows the strata- sequence (actual and in ideal order) to be tertiary limestone, iron-ore (carbonated, manganiferous, or plumbiferous) ; schistes; blende ; schistes ; silicated iron and schistes. 2 Lectures on the Science of Language, pp. 254— 55, vol. ii., edit. 1873. 3 Chips from a German Workshop (set up in England), p. 47, vol. ii., edit. 1868. of iron, STL (4 or dra), meaning the planet Mars (47es) or Saturn ; iron (oxide of iron, iron-stone ?), brass (copper ?); and AAG, dyas (whence ayas- kant, a loadstone, and ayaskér, a smith), a word already noticed in connection with es. But Mr. Day adds to his ‘oldest Sanskrit’ ‘ probably B.c. 1500’; and here again we recognise the master-touch of the subtle race— ‘for profound And solid lying much renowned.’ IRON IN INDIA. 109 stémoma (steel) as imports to the Abyssinian harbours. Daimachus and Pliny specify, amongst the dearest kinds of steel, the ferrum Indicum and the ferrum Sericum ; and Salmasius refers to a Greek chemical treatise ‘On the Tempering (aept Bans) of Indian Steel.’ The great iron-working age of India seems to have been in the fourth and fifth centuries of our era, when the blacksmiths must have been skilful and commanded an unlimited supply of the best metal. The Lat or iron-pillar of Delhi, to men- tion no other, is a solid shaft, showing that the people were unable to make a core. This simple piece of wrought metal, calculated to weigh seventeen tons and to contain eighty cubic feet of metal, measures in diameter 16°4 inches tapering to 12°05. The height above ground is twenty-two feet, and excavations of twenty-six fect did not reach the base: the known length therefore is upwards of forty-eight feet! The sundry inscriptions punched upon it are of very various dates: Prinsep? assigns our third or fourth century to the Nagari character in which Rajah Dhava thus ‘renowned it’ :— ‘By him who, learning the warlike preparations and entrenchments of his enemies with their good soldiers and allies, a monument of fame engraved by his Sword on their limbs, who as master of the seven advantages,’ crossing over (the Indus?), so subdued the Vahlikas of Sindhu [N.B.: they can hardly be the ‘people of Balkh’] that even at this day his disciplined force and defences on the south (of the river) are sacredly respected by them,’ &c. &c. Metallurgists dispute as to the way in which this huge iron rod was wrought. One writer,! however, seems to have hit upon the solution of the problem: ‘The column may have been forged standing, by welding on, one over another, thin iron plates or dires, the fire being built round the column as it grew; and the ground raised in a mound to keep the top of the column on a level with the work- place. Pyramid-building has been explained in the same way—a causeway. But the Lat is not the only marvel of Hindu metallurgy. Mr. James Fer- gusson found in the Temple of Kanaruc, or Black Pagoda of the Madras Presi- dency, beams of wrought iron about twenty-one feet in length and eight inches section, to strengthen the roof, which the Hindus, in their distrust of the arch, formed after their usual bracket-fashion. In the fane of Mahavellipore he dis- He assigns to the Black Pagoda, a date between A.D. 1236 and 1241; and to Mahavellipore any time between our tenth and fourteenth centuries.’ covered sockets for similar supports. Colonel Pearse, R.A. presented to the trustees of the 1 Report of Gen. A, Cunningham (Archeolog. § The Persian ha/t-jiish (seven boilings), referred Survey, 1861-62). It speaks highly for Anglo-Indian vis inerti@ and incuriousness when we are told that the ‘whole length of the pillar is unknown,’ and when every observer's account of it differs in essentials. ¢ The savant who first translated the inscription Indian Antiquities, vol. i. p. 319. The dates vary between the tenth century B.c. and A.D. 1052 (!). to by Ibn Batutah in Colonel Vule’s letter, p. 145 (Day, p. 153). ” 4 Quoted by Mr. Day (p. 24) from the United States Railroad and Mining Register. 5 Mr. Day (quoting Fergusson’s J//strations of Ancient Architecture in Hindostan, London, 1848) cautions his readers that ‘Mr. Fergusson’s dates are TIO THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. British Museum a unique collection of archaic tools, iron and steel, gouges, spatule, ladles, and similar articles, dug out of tumuli at Wari Gaon, near Kampti. But there are no grounds whatever for dating them ‘about B.C. 1500, or the time of Moses.’ The ferrum Indicum' of the Classics may still be represented by the famous Wootz or Wutz,? the ‘ natural Indian steel,’ still so much prized for Sword-blades in Persia and Afghanistan. The specimens first sent in 1795 to the Royal Society of London were analysed by Mr. Josiah M. Heath with the results given below.? Colonel Yule remarks that the Wootz was, in part at least, the famous Indian steel, the oidypos "Ivédinds Kal otdpwpa of the ‘ Periplus, the Hunduwani of the medizval Persian traders; the Andanicum or Ondanique of Marco Polo and the Alkinde of the old Spanish. In the sixteenth century the exportation was chiefly from Baticala in Canara. The King of Portugal complains (in A.D. 1591) of the large quantities shipped from Chaul to be sold in the Red Sea to the Turks and on the African coast about Melinde.t| And I would note that this industry by no means argues civilisation in India or elsewhere:° as Dr. Percy remarks, ‘The primitive method of extracting good malleable iron direct from the ore, which is still practised in India and in Africa, requires a degree of skill very inferior to that which is implied in the manufacture of bronze.’ The system of Wootz-making, especially at Salem and in parts of Mysore, has not to be relied on, however important his writings unquestionably are in other respects’ (p. 168). Here again we see the misleading influence of the San- skritists, who have allowed themselves to be cozened by the ‘mild Hindu.’ Mr. Day inclines (p. 151) to the tenth century B.c. (!), when the peoples of India were, we have reason to believe, the merest savages, 1 The modern Hindus call steel Paldah, from the Persian /2déd, the Arab. Fuldd. They apply to Spanish steel the terms /spd/, Sukhela, and Tolad, Their favourite trial of Sword-metal is with a bar of soft gold, which should leave a streak. 2 Colonel Yule does not consider the word genu- ine, and with reason, as the Indo-Phcenician (‘Safa ’) alphabet has no wand no z. The word first appears in ‘Experiments and Observations to investigate the Nature of ‘a Kind of Steel manufactured at Bombay, and there called Wootz,’. . . by G. Pearson, M.D. (paper read before the Royal Soc., June 11, 1795). He notes that ‘Dr. Scott of Bombay, in a letter to the President, acquainted him that he had sent over «specimens of a substance known by the name of wootz, which is considered to be a kind of steel, and is in high esteem among the Indians”’’ (p. 322). In Wilkinson’s Engines of War (1841) we read (pp. 203-206), ‘ The cakes of steel are called wootz.’ Dr. E. Balfour states that wchhd and nlchhd (in Hindustani ‘high’ and ‘low’) are used in the Canarese provinces to denote superior and inferior descriptions of articles, and that Wootz may be a cor- ruption of the former. Colonel Yule and his coadju- tor in the Glossary of Indian Terms, the late lamented Dr. Burnell, hold that it originated in some clerical error or misreading, perhaps from wook, representing the Canarese zkku =steel, s c JS combined 1°333 * Luncombined . 07312 Si. : : : + 0045 Ss. i . or1g1 As... - é 0°037 Fe (by difference) 98°092 100-000 Phillips, Metallurgy, p. 317. Faraday found in Wootz 0°0128—0o'0695 per cent. of aluminium, and attributed the ‘ damask’ of the blades to its presence. Karsten, after three experiments, and Mr. T. H. Henry, failed to detect it, and suggested that it may have been derived from intermingled slag containing silicate of alumina (Percy, Zron, Sc. pp. 183-84). ‘ Archiv, Port. Oriental, fascic. iii. p. 318. 5 M. Keller (Pres. Soc. Ant. Switz.) notes that crudely formed lumps and quadrangular blocks of malleable iron, double pyramids weighing 10-16 lbs., have been found in prehistoric sites. They were probably produced in primitive Catalans. Pieces of iron slag worked by the Kelts were discovered in 1862 on the Cheviot Hills. WOOTZ. III been described by many writers. About a pound weight of malleable iron, made from magnetic ore, is placed, minutely broken and moistened, in a crucible of refractory clay, together with finely chopped pieces of wood (Cassia auriculata). It is packed without flux. The open pots are then covered with the green leaves of the Asclepias gigantea or the Convolvulus lanifolius, and the tops are coated over with wet clay, which is sun-dried to hardness. ‘ Charcoal will not do as a substitute for the green twigs.’ Some two dozen of these cupels! or crucibles are disposed archways at the bottom of a furnace, whose blast is managed with bellows of bullock’s hide. The fuel is composed mostly of charcoal and of sun-dried drattis or cow-chips. After two or three hours’ smelting the cooled crucibles are broken up, when the regulus appears in the shape and size of half an egg. According to Tavernier, the best buttons from about Golconda were as large as a halfpenny roll, and sufficed to make two Sword-blades (?). These ‘cops’ are converted into bars by exposure for several hours to a charcoal fire not hot enough to melt them : they are then turned over before the blast, and thus the too highly carburised steel is oxidised.? According to Professor Oldham, ‘Wootz’ is also worked in the Damudah Valley, at Birbhum, Dyucha, Narayanpur, Damrah, and Goanptr. In 1852 some thirty furnaces at Dyucha reduced the ore to kachhdé or pig-iron, small blooms from Catalan forges; as many more converted it to pakkd (crude steel), prepared in furnaces of different kind. The work was done by different castes ; the Hindis (Moslems) laboured at the rude metal, and the Hindus preferred the refining work. I have read that anciently a large quantity of Wootz found its way westward vzd Peshawar. When last visiting (April 19, 1876) the Mahabaleshwar Hills near Bombay, I had the pleasure to meet Mr. Joyner, C.E., and with his assistance made personal inquiries into the process. The whole of the Sayhadri range (Western Ghats), and especially the * great-Might-of-Shiva’ mountains, had for many ages supplied Persia with the best steel. Our Government, since 1866, forbade the industry, as it threatened the highlands with disforesting. The ore was worked by the Hill- tribes, of whom the principal are the Dhanwars, Dravidians now speaking Hin- dustani.* Only the brickwork of their many raised furnaces remained. For fuel 1 The cupel (of old copel) is the French cozfelle, little coupe. The muffle is a metal cupel. 2 This is the process of working Wootz given by Mr. Heath; others pack the metal with finely- chopped stalks of asclepias as well as cassia. Mr. Mallet has described the Indian manufacture of large iron masses in Zhe Engineer, vol. xxxiii. pp. 19, 20. Beckmann (loc. cit. sub v. ‘Steel’) notices the bloomeries or furnaces. The Fenny Cyclopedia and Ure’s Dict. of Chemistry (the latter the best), London, Longmans, 1839, may also be consulted. Dr. Percy gives a long account (pp. 254-66) of iron- smelting in India from Mr. Howard Blackwell. He notes three kinds of furnaces :— 1. Rude, like chimney-pots; used by the hill- tribes of Western India, the Deccan, and the Car- natic. 2. Simple Catalan forge Central India and the 3. Early form of Stiickofen J’ N.W. Provinces, The anvil is a square iron without beak. Three kinds of Indian bellows are noticed (pp. 255-56). The people, who love stare stuper antiguas vias, ignore the hot blast : this contrivance causes a more active combustion, an ‘ultimate fact’ as yet unex- plained. 3 Report of 1852. 4 The dialect is much more ancient than we usually suppose: it existed long before Akbar the 112 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. they preferred the Jumbul-wood, and the Anjan or iron-wood. They packed the iron and fourteen pounds of charcoal in layers; and, after two hours of bellows- working, the metal flowed into the forms. The ‘Kurs’ (bloom), five inches in diameter by two and a half deep, was then beaten into Tawas or plates. The matrix resembled the Brazilian, a poor yellow-brown limonite striping the mud-coloured clay ; and actual testing disproved the common idea that the ‘ watering’ of the The Jauhar (‘jewel’ or ribboning) of the so-called ‘Damascus’ blade was produced artificially, mostly by drawing out the steel into thin ribbons which were piled and welded by the hammer. My friend afterwards surface is found in the metal. sent me from India an inkstand of Mahabaleshwar iron.! I could not learn from Hindus that they bury iron in the earth till the ‘core’ is reached. But they are well acquainted with tempering by cold immersion, as noticed by Salmasius (‘ Exercit. Plin.’ 763): they still believe with Pliny, Justin, and a host of others, in ‘a Sword, the icebrook’s temper, and all hold that the hardening of metal depends much upon the quality of the water. They quench delicate articles in oil, a method also alluded to by Pliny, but they ignore his statement (xxviii. 41) that rust produced by goat’s blood gives a better edge to iron than the file. I am not aware that they have ever used for quenching pur- poses quicksilver, the best conductor of heat. In Burmah, as in India, the chief peculiarity of iron-smelting is the use of green- wood fuel.?- Throughout the mighty ‘ Hollander’ Archipelago of the Farther East, this metal, known in former days only by importation, is now everywhere common. Java received the Egyptian arts from India, which colonised her about the beginning of the Christian era: the now untravelled Hindu was then a voyager and an explorer. Dr. Percy describes the iron-smelting of Borneo,’ which produces the Parangilang, a peculiar Sword-like weapon equally fit for felling trees and men. At Tahiti (Otaheiti), on the other hand, Captain Cook was unable to make the natives appreciate the use of metal till his armourer wrought an iron adze in shape like the native. The oldest, and indeed the only, Chinese word for iron is $— Earth. il an Sai Metal. iti ° 2200 Hamitic, | | 39 Ba. Pt Egyptian with no Ae ai Jy - Ba’a. Tron, 2300 ‘Hieroglyphs.| | Semitic . i . Earth. ee ; Lar fusion. ! ’aenpe. ’ Infusion 4 h eee: Ba’aenpe Tron Fee ane? J2 Bet. Tron. = Akkadian. HX] Hurud. Tron: Oldest Monu- ments, at least ; — 2000 B.C. Assyrian. n<] Eru. Iron. (nc. 4000?) Semitic. nwin3 n’ghdshah Steel. From Hebrew. Sia baneel ; Anon, 1500 my dna barzel yashith | Bright Iron. B.C. py Sra barzel miitzaq | Cast Iron. downwards. 7 : ge Low, Lowe. Steel. Sporadic Tie ipre Chinese.! poe ah nounced Tit). Iron. 2000 Allophyllian & Gin Metal. Bee: (Turanian). gel Thon: ih TE _ es ATT ie . Oldest Sanskrit. ra. ron. Sanskrit. Probably Aqg Ayas. Tron. B.C. 1500. (B.C. 400 ?) Aryan. xaduy Khalyps. Steel. Homeric cidnpos Sideros. Tron. Age. Greek. ( Blue Metal, A Cya "prob. tem- = KUGVOS yanos. pro em. ( pered Steel. dddpas Adamas. Steel. Hesiod. 1 T observe that M. Terrien de la Couperie has lately derived the oldest civilisation of China from ChaJdzeo-Babylonia of the Akkadian Ages, B C. 2400-2300. 123 CHAPTER VII. THE SWORD: WHAT IS IT? HAVING now reached the early Iron Age, which ends pre-historic annals, it is advisable to answer the question—‘ What is a Sword ?’ The word—a word which, strange to say, has no equivalent in French—is the Scandinavian Svard (Icel. Sverd); the Danish Sveerd ; the Anglo-Saxon Sweord and Suerd ; the Old German Svert, now Schwert, and the Old English and Scotch Swerd. The westward drift of the Egyptian Sf, Sefi, Sayf, Sfet, and Emsetf, gave Europe its generic term for the weapon.'! The poetical is ‘brand’ or ‘bronde,’ from its brightness or burning ; another name is ‘laufi,’ ‘laf, or ‘ glaive,’ derived through French from the Latin g/adius. Of especial modern forms there are the Espadon, the Flamberg, Flammberg, or Flamberge,? the Stoccado, and the Braquemart ; the Rapier and the Claymore, the Skeyne and Tuck, the small-Sword and the fencing- foil, beside other varieties which will occur in the course of the following pages. ‘ Sword’ includes ‘ Sabre,’ which may also derive from the Egyptian through the Assyrian Sibirru and Akkadian Sibir, also written Sapara ; our ‘ Sabre’ is the Arabic Sayf with the Scandinavian terminative r (Sayf-r). Ménage would derive Sabre from the Armoric Sabrenn: Littré has the Spanish Sable, the Italian Sciabola, Sciabla, and in Venice Sabala, from the German Sable or Sabel, which again identifies with other languages, as the Serb Sablja and the Hungarian Szablya. The chief modern varieties of the curved blade are the Broadsword, the Backsword, the Hanger, and the Cutlass, the Scymitar and Diisack, the Yataghan and the Flissa, These several modifications will be considered in the order of their invention. Lastly the Egyptian ‘Sfet ’ originated through Keltic the word Spata or Spatha* (Spatarius =a Swordsman) conserved to the present day in the neo-Latin names of the straight foining weapon—espada, espé, espée, épée. Physically considered, the Sword is a metal blade intended for cutting, thrusting, or cut-and-thrust (fi ef pointe). It is usually, but not always, composed of two ~ 1 Major Jahns (p. 416) would derive Schwert In the hebraising days Sword was derived from (=das Sausende, Schwirrende, i.e. whizzing) from the Sansk. svar, noise; and considers it originally a missile pure and simple. He quotes Isidore, who explains rhomphaa by wafan ; Schwert and framea= asta vel gladius ; ensis=hevas, hevassa; mucro= swert, gladius=wafun ; culter=wafansahs, sahse. Sharat, to scratch, and Sadve from Shabar, to shiver. 2 Of the Flambefge and the ‘ flamboyant,’ or wavy blade, more hereafter. 3 Muratori (Azéig. ii. 487) notes, ‘Spatam sive spontonem, and sponto, spunto, i.e. pugio” (Adelung), Of sfatha more to come. 124 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. parts. The first and principal is the blade proper (a lame, la lama, die Klinge). Its cutting surface is called the edge (/e fi/, il filo, die Scharfe), and its thrusting end is the point (la pointe, la punta, die Spitze or der Ort, the latter mostly opposed to the Mund or sheath-mouth). The second part, which adapts the weapon for readier use, is the hilt, hilts or heft (Za manche, la manica, die Hilse or das Heft), whose several sections form a com- plicated and a prodigiously varied whole. The grip is the outer case of the tang, alias the tongue (da sote, la spina, or il codolo ; der Stoss, die Angel, die Griffzunge or der Dorn), the thin spike which projects from the shoulders or thickening of the blade (/e talon or Pépaulement, il talone, der Ansatz or die Schulter) at the end opposed to the point. Sometimes there are two short teeth or projections from the angles of the shoulders, and these are called ‘the ears’ in English, in German, and in the neo-Latin tongues. The tang, which is of many shapes—long and short, straight-lined or curvilinear, plain or pierced for attachment—ends in the pommel or ‘little apple’ (le pommeau, a pomolo, der Knauf or Knopf), into which it should be made fast by rivets or screws, The object of this globe, lozenge, or oval of metal is to counterpoise the weight of the blade, to prop the ferient of the hand, and to allow of artistic ornamentation. The grip of wood, bone, horn, ivory, metal, valuable stones, and other materials, covered with skin, cloth, and various substances, whipped round with cord or wire, is protected at the end abutting upon the ‘chape’? or guard proper (la garde, la guardia, die Parirstangen, die Leiste or die Stichblitter) by the hilt-piece, which also greatly varies. It may, however, be reduced to two chief types—the guard against the thrust, and the guard against the cut. The former was originally a plate of metal, flat or curved, circular or oval, affixed to the bottom of the hilt, dividing the shoulders from the tang: in fact, it was a shield in miniature (a coguille, la coccia, das Stichblatt). We still use the term ‘basket-hilt, and apply ‘shell’ (a coque, la coccia, der Korb or die Schale) to the semicircular hilt-guards—mostly of worked, chased, embossed, or pierced steel— which appear to perfection in the Spanish and Italian rapiers of the sixteenth century. This hilt-plate has dwindled in the French fencing-foil to a lunette, a double oval of bars shaped like a pair of spectacles. In the Italian foil, which preserves the plate, the section of the blade between that and the grip is called 1 Or ‘die Schneide,’ the older forms being eke, egge; while ‘va/z’ was the middle section of the two- handed Sword. 2 «Chape,’ derived from caga, and a congener of ‘cap’ and ‘cape,’ is differently used by authors. Some apply it to the mouthpiece or ring at the top of the sheath ; others to the metal crampet, bouterolle, or ferule at the scabbard-tip, and others to the guard-plate. In Durfey (Zhe Marriage-Hater Matched) we find ‘the hilt, the knot, the scabbard,’ the chage, the belt, and the buckles’ (of a*Sword). Skinner explains it as vagine miucro ferreus. Mr. Fairholt defines chafe to be the guard-plate or cross- bar at the junction of grip and hilt. Shakespeare, who knew the Sword, speaks of the ‘chage of his dagger’ (Adl’s Well &c. iv. 3) and ‘an old rusty Sword with a broken hilt and chagelesse’ ( Zaming of the Shrew, iii. 2). Commentators mostly explain this by ‘without a catch to hold it.’ Dr. Evans (Bronze, Se, chap. viii.) has exhaustively described the bronze chapes (bouterolles) in the British Islands. WHAT IS THE SWORD? 125 the Rzcasso (a); the parallel bar is the Vette traversale (6, 6); and the two are connected by the archetti 2 unione (joining bows, ©, c). The guard against the cut is technically called the cross- guard (les quillons, le vette, die Stichblitter), This section is composed of one or more bars projecting from the hilt between tang and blade, and receiving the edge of the adversary’s weapon should it happen to glance or to glide downwards. The quillons may be either straight (fig. 109)— that is, disposed at right angles—or curved (fig. 107). When the two horns bend down from the handle-base towards the point they are called @ antennes. Others are turned up towards the hilt, counter-curved or inversed—that is, faced in opposite directions—or fantastically deformed (fig. 110). Opposed to the guard proper is the bow or counter-guard (/a contregarde, [elsa, la contraguardia, der Biigel). It is of two chief kinds. In the first the quillons are recurved towards the pommel: the second is a bar or system of bars con- necting the pommel with the quillons (fig. 108). The former defends the fingers Fic. 106. Tue Itauian Fort. , Fic. 3107. Fic. 108. Fic. 109. Fic. rro. a. PomMEL; 4. QuiLLons ; Dousiz GuarpD (GuARD AND = STRAIGHT Fantastic Form. c. Pas p’ANE, CouNTERGUARD). QuILLons AnD Loops. the latter serves to protect, especially from the cut, the back of the hand and the outer wrist. This modification, unknown to the ancients of Europe, became a “avourite in the sixteenth century, and it is still found in most of our actual hilts. Another product of the early modern age is the pas @dne At the end of the 1 A congener of our ‘quill,’ from the Lat. caudis, astalk. Littré is not satisfactory: ‘Quillon (4¢-Hon, Il mouillées), s.m. Partie de la monture du sabre ou de l’épée, située du cdté opposé aux branches, et dont V’extrémité est arrondie. Dérivé de quille’ (cone) ‘par assimilation de forme’ (in fact, incre- mentative of) ‘quille. Etym. Génev. guile; de I'anc. haut-allem. A’eg7/ ; allem. Kege/, objet allongé en forme conique, gud/e.’ Burn translates guzllon ‘cross-bar of the hilt of an infantry or light-cavalry Sword.’ ? This must not be written, as by some English authors, pas d’ane.’ * Pas d’dne, instrument avec lequel on maintient ouverte la bouche du cheval pour Vexaminer.’ Littré has: ‘Pas d'éne, nom donné, dans les épées du xviéme siécle, & des pices 126 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. fourteenth century it was composed of two circular or oval-shaped bars, disposed on both sides of, and partly over, the fort of the blade. In the sixteenth century it was generally adopted, and became a complicated and highly-decorated adjunct to the handle. The gas @’dne is now almost obsolete: a relic remains in our army- claymore.! We may divide the shapes of blade into two typical forms with their minor varieties : I. The curved blade (sabre, shable, broadsword, backsword, cutlass, hanger, scymitar,? Diisack, Yataghan, Flissa, &c.) is a. Edged on both sides (Abyssinian). b. ‘ concave side (old Greek, Kukkri). 6. ss convex (common sabre). II. The straight blade (Espadon, Flammberg, Stoccado, Braquemart, rapier, claymore, skeyne, tuck, small-sword, &c.): the varieties are: a. The cut-and-thrust, one- or two-handed. 6. The broad and unpointed (headman’s instrument). c. The narrow, used only for the point. It is hardly advisable to make a third type of the half-curved blade, adapted equally for tac et taille (cutting and thrusting), which we find in ancient Assyria, in India, and in Japan. It evidently connects both shapes. The following diagram shows the three forms :3 | Shoulder ae Strong i Half Strong Fic, 111. Ha I have given precedence to the curved blade because cutting is more familiar to man than thrusting. Human nature strikes ‘rounders’ until severe training teaches it to hit out straight from the shoulder. Again, the sabre-form would naturally be assumed by the sharpened club during the wooden age of imperfect edges ; and the penetrating power would be weak and almost zz/ when the point was merely a fire-hardened stick. de la garde qui sont en forme d’anneau, et qui vont des quillons 4 la lame. ‘Le Seigneur le prit et mit un pied sur la lame... alors Collinet s’écria: 2 The word is originally the Persian Shamshir (tat) 3 but as the Greeks have no sh sound, it Venez voir, messieurs, le grand miracle que l’on fait a mon épée ; je l’ai apportée ici avec une simple poig- née et sans garde défensive, et voila maintenant que Von y met le plus beau pas d’4ne du monde.”’’ Francion, vi. p. 237: ‘Pas d’ane, nom vulgaire du tussilage, a cause de la feuille.’ 1 The Scottish basket-hilt, however, requires im- provement, as it does not allow free play to hand or wrist. made its way into Europe curiously disguised. Jean Chartier (temp. Charles VII.) says, ‘ Sauveterres ou cimeterres gui sont maniore Mespée & la Turque.’ Sauveterre became in Italian salvaterra; and in England scymitar was further degraded to semitarge. Ihave no objection to scimitar, but scymitar is the older form. 3 See note at the end of this chapter. CUT AND THRUST. 127 Yet there is no question of superiority between the thrust and the cut. As the diagram! shows, A, who delivers point, has an advantage in time and distance over B, who uses edge. Indeed, the man who first ‘ gave point’ made a discovery Fic. 112. which more than doubled the capability of his weapon. Vegetius tells us that the Roman victories were owing to the use of the point rather than the cut: ‘When cutting, the right arm and flank are exposed, whereas during the thrust the body is guarded, and the adversary is wounded before he perceives it.’ Even now it is remarked in hospitals that punctured wounds in the thorax or abdomen generally kill, while the severest incisions often heal. Hence Napoleon Buonaparte, at Aspronne, ordered the cavalry of the Guard to give point. General Lamoriciére, a scientific soldier, recommended for cavalry a cylindrical blade, necessarily without edge, and to be used only for the thrust: practical considerations, however, prevented its adoption. Moreover, the history of the ‘white arm’ tells us that the point led to the guard or parry proper, and this ‘defence with the weapon of offence’ completed the idea of the Sword as now understood in Europe. Again, the peoples who fought from chariots and horseback—Egyptians, Assyrians, Indians, Tartars, Mongols, Turks, and their brethren the ‘ white Turks’ (Magyars or Hungarians), Sarmatians, and Slavs—preferred for the best of reasons the curved type. The straight Sword, used only for thrusting, is hard to handle when the horse moves swiftly ; and the broad straight blade loses its value by the length of the plane along which it has to travel. On the other hand, the bent blade collects, like the battle-axe, all the momentum at the ‘half-weak, or centre of percussion, where the curve is greatest. Lastly, the ‘drawing-cut’ would be easier to the mounted man, and would most injure his enemy. On the other hand, the peoples of southern latitudes—for instance, those dwelling around the Mediterranean, the focus of early civilisation, where the Sword has ever played its most brilliant and commanding part—are active and agile races of light build and comparatively small muscular power. Consequently they have generally preferred, and still prefer, the pointed weapon, whose deadly 1 As usual, the diagram is an exaggeration. It gonist’s breast, not his eye; nor is it necessary to raise directs the thrusting weapon too low, at the anta- the hand so high in order to deliver the cut. 128 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. : thrust can be delivered without requiring strength and weight. For the inverse reason the sons of the north would chose the Espadon proper, the long, straight, ponderous, two-edged blade which suited their superior stature and power of momentum. Such is the geographical and ethnological view of Sword-distribution, but it gives a rule so general that a multitude of exceptions must be expected. As far as we know, the civilised Sword originated in Egypt, but it had many different centres of development. A gradual and continuous progress can be traced in its history till it was superseded by an even older form of attack— the ‘ ballistic.’ Yet some of the earliest blades show the best forms, and the line of advancement at times becomes distorted or even broken. Again, many Southrons, and races that fought on foot, have used the curved weapon, although the converse, the adoption of the straight, pointed Sword by horsemen, is comparatively rare. I now proceed to consider various points connected with the curved and straight forms of blade. The experience of the Sword-cutter has noticed that the shape of any pattern or model, whether of tool or of weapon, suggests its own and only purpose. This is what we should expect. A swordsman chooses his Sword as a sawyer his saw. Show the mechanic a new chisel, and its form at once explains to him its use: he learns by the general shape, the edge-angle, the temper, the weight, and similar considerations, that it is of made to drive nails, nor to bore holes, and that it zs intended to cut wood or soft substances. Thus, too, the form of the Sword is determined by the duty expected of it. The Sword has three main uses, cutting, thrusting, and guarding. If these qualifications could be combined, there would be no difficulty in determining the single best shape. But unfortunately—perhaps I should say fortunately—each requisite interferes to a great extent with the other. Hence the various modifica- tions adopted by different peoples, and hence the successive steps of progress. The simplest and most effective form of trenchant instrument intended for cutting only is the American broad-axe used by squatters in the backwoods. This revival of the proto-historic celt and headman’s instrument is a plain, heavy wedge of steel, fixed on a light, tough wooden helve or heft, thus concentrating all the force in the head that strikes the blow. Here there is no uncertainty about the use ; and, were it not necessary in swordsmanship to ‘ recover guard’ and to save self as well as disable the assailant, it would be the best, as it is one of the oldest, weapons derived from the club. But the cutting Sword, which in the short curved form is its congener, has a long blade that allows a choice of cut—a good choice and a bad choice. If the blow be made, for instance, at a tree-branch with the Sword-point (the ‘ whole-weak’), its sole effect will be to jar wrist and arm un- pleasantly. The same result will follow a blow with the ‘whole-strong.’ In either case the vibration of the blade shows a waste of strength. By the experiment of cutting along the entire length, inch after inch, and by comparing the effect, the swordsman comes at last to a point, about the end of the ‘half-weak, speaking THE CENTRE OF PERCUSSION. 129 roughly, where there is no jar, and where, consequently, the whole force of the blow becomes effective. But our ‘centre of percussion’ must not be confounded with the ‘ centre of gravity. This balance-position is situated in the middle of the ‘whole-strong, the proper part for guarding, and for guarding only. The late Mr. Henry Wilkinson, of London, a practical man of science, first proposed a formula for determining the centre of percussion without the tedious process of experimenting with each and every blade. His system was based upon the properties of the pendulum. A light rod, exactly 39'2 inches long, capped with a heavy leaden ball, and swung to and fro upon a fixed centre, vibrates seconds or sixty times per minute in the latitude of London, and the three centres of percussion, of oscillation, and of gravity are concentrated within the ball. If it were a mathematical pendulum—a rod without weight—-these three points would lie precisely in the core of the ball, or 39:2 inches from the place of suspension. The blade, to be graduated, is suspended, tight-fastened at the point on which it would turn when making a cut, and is converted by swinging intoapendulum. As Fic. 113. — THE Inrantry ‘ RecuLation’ Sworp. c.G. Centre of Gravity ; c.p. Centre of Percussion. the length is shorter, so the oscillations are quicker: the blade makes eighty move- ments to sixty of the pendulum. A simple formula determines the length of such an eighty-vibrations pendulum to be twenty-two inches. This distance, measured from the point at which the blade was suspended, is marked on the back as the centre of percussion, where there is no jar, and where the most effective cut can be delivered. Again, an examination of the axe shows that the cutting edge lies considerably in advance of the wrist and hand, with the effect of carrying the edge well forward on the ‘line of direction,’ which, in the Sword, passes directly from pommel to point. If the edge were at the back the tendency of the weapon would be to fall away from the line of cut, and this could be overcome only by a certain amount of wasted force. In nearly all curved Swords, except the Japanese, some contrivance is made to give the feeling which we express by ‘the edge leading well forward’ ; and this point has been carefully studied by nations whose attack is the cut. Usually the line of hilt is thrown forward so as to form an angle with the axis of the blade, and the former is made obtuser or acuter in proportion as the latter is more or less curved. By balancing the weapon upon the pommel the effect becomes evident ; the edge falls forward like that of the axe. The superiority of the curved blade for cutting purposes is easily proved. In every cut the edge meets its object at some angle, and the penetrating portion K 130 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. becomes a wedge. But this wedge is not disposed at right angles with the Sword : the angle is more or less oblique according to the curvature, and consequently it Fic. 114.—ScyMITar. Fic. 115.—CLAYMORE, cuts with an acuter edge. The accom- panying figures of a ‘scymitar’ and a clay- more, both trenchant blades, prove that, were the edge to describe a right line (A B) directed at any object (C), it would act as a wedge (D), measuring exactly the breadth of the blade. But the curve throws the edge more forward, and thus the ‘half- weak’ acts like a wedge (£), which is longer and consequently more acute, the extreme thickness (that of the back or base) being a fixed measure. Similarly, by cutting still nearer the ‘weak’ or point, the increased curvature gives a more pro- longed and acuter cuneiform (F). Com- paring the three sections of the same blade (DEF), which differ only in the angle at which the edge is supposed to meet the obstacle, we see the enormous gain of cutting power. The difference between the direct and the oblique cut is still better shown by the annexed diagram: ‘Let ABCD (fig. 116) represent the portion of a Sword-blade, of which AB is the edge and CD the back, measuring about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. Now, if the object to Fic. 116. be cut through is presented to the blade at right angles to the edge, as shown by arrow No, 1, then the section of the blade with which the cut is to be SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES. 131 effected will be as represented in the triangular section FEG (fig. 117). But if the object be presented to the blade obliquely, as shown by arrow No. 2, then the section along the line of the cut will be as represented by the angle CEK. It will readily be seen that in the latter case the acuteness of the angle at E is greatly _ increased, whilst the substance is the same as in the other case. To effect this it is the custom in many parts of the East to strike with a drawing cut, but the same purpose is secured by bending the blade backwards: the curve itself presents the edge obliquely to the object without entailing the necessity of imparting a drawing motion to the stroke.’ ! Par parenthése, it is this drawing motion which, added to the curve of the weapon and its oblique presentation, increases the trenchant power. The‘ Talwar,’ or half-curved sabre of Hindustan, cuts as though it were four times as broad and only one-fourth the thickness of the straight blade. But the ‘drawing-cut’ has the additional advantage of deepening the wound and of cutting into the bone. Hence men of inferior strength and stature used their blades in a manner that not a little astonished and disgusted our soldiers in the Sind and Sikh campaigns. If we consider the sections of cutting weapons, we find them all modifications of that most ancient mechanical contrivance, the wedge, as shown by the following figures: Fic. 118,—SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES. The first form (fig. 118) is the wedge that would be produced by taking for base the dorsal thickness of an ordinary blade, and by continuing it in an even line to the apex of the triangle—the point. The two sides meet at an angle of nine degrees ; consequently the edge lacks the thickness, weight, and strength necessary for every cutting tool. For soft substances it should range from ten to twenty 1 Quoted from Mr. John Latham by Colonel A. have more to say when treating of the ‘Damascus’ Lane Fox, Anthrop. Coll. p. 171. Concerning the _ blade in Part II. drawing cut and its reverse, the thrusting cut, I shall K 2 132 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. degrees, as in the common dinner knife. An angle of twenty-five to thirty-five degrees, being the best for wood-working, is found in the carpenter’s plane and chisel. For cutting bone the obtuseness rises to forty degrees, and even to ninety ; the latter being the fittest for shearing metals, and the former for Sword- blades, which must expect to meet with hard substances. But even an angle of forty degrees will be ineffectual upon a thick head, unless the cut be absolutely true. No. 2 illustrates the angle of resistance (forty degrees) and the entering angle (ninety degrees). No. 3 shows that the true wedge of forty degrees is too thick and heavy for use, requiring some contrivance for lightening the blade, while preserving the necessary angle of resistance. The remaining sections display the principal modes of effecting this object. In Nos. 4 and 6 the angle is carried in a curved and bulging line, thus giving the section a bi-convex form. When the back or base is flat this is the Persian and Khorasani, vulgarly called the ‘Damascus blade.” When baseless and two-edged it is the old ‘Toledo’ rapier—two shallow- crowned arches meeting (3a, fig. 124). In both cases the weapon is strong, but some- what overweighted. In the next shapes (Nos. 5 and 7), the two sides are cut away to a flat surface and represent the ‘Talwar’ of India. When this flat surface is hollowed, as by the black lines of No. 5 (compare No. 8), we have the bi-concave section, as opposed to the bi-convex. This hollowing of the wedge into two broad grooves from the angle of resistance is one of the forms assumed by the English ‘regulation’ Sword: it was considered the lightest for a given breadth and thick- ness, but it is by no means the strongest, and there are sundry technical objections to it. The remaining blades in the illustration are grooved in as many different ways. The function of the cannelure is to obviate over-flexibility ; it also takes from the weight and adds to the strength. By channelling either side of a thin or ‘whippy’ blade it becomes stiffer, because any force applied to bend such a blade sideways meets with the greatest amount of resistance that form can supply. Mechanically speaking, it is to crush an arch inwards upon its crown, and the deeper the arch the greater the resistance. Hence the narrow groove is preferable to a broader channel of the same depth. No. 9, hollowed on each side near the base, is a good old form, superior to the ‘regulation’ (No. 8): its weak point, the space between the grooves where the metal is thinnest, lies in the best place—near the back, where strength and thickness are least required. No. 10, though somewhat lighter, doubles its weak points. No. 11 is better in this respect: it has three grooves which are far shallower, and consequently the metal between them is thicker. The same remark applies to Nos. 12 and 13, which are sections of claymores, single- and treble-grooved. No. 14 shows an ingenious method of obviating the weakness caused by deep cannelures: it is the section of a blade made at Klingenthal (not ‘Klegenthal’), the Sword manufactory established by Napoleon Buonaparte in Elsass-Lothringen. Two very marked grooves are cut in the metal, but not directly opposite each SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES. 133 other, and thus the channels can touch and even overlap the axial line. This disposition gives great stiffness, but,as testing shows, the edge is deficient in cutting power, probably from loss of force by vibration. Nos. 15 and 16 are experimental blades. The former has the groove placed in the base, preserving the wedge-sides intact ; but there is great difficulty about grinding this shape, and, the resistance of the arch-crown being wanting, there is a small increase of stiffening—the Sword, in fact, ‘ springs’ almost as readily as the straight form. No.16 has some good points, but, on the whole, the combination is a failure. Lastly, No. 17, the old ‘ramrod-back’ regulation blade, is perhaps the worst of all: the sudden change from the thick round base to the thin sharp edge makes an equal tempering very difficult, and the weapon cleverly undoes its own work, the base acting as check or stop to the cut. Remains now to consider the Sword as a weapon for point, a use to which, as its various shapes show, it was applied in the earliest ages instinctively, as it were, be- fore Science taught the superiority of the thrust to the cut. We learn from such hand-thrusting instruments —the awl, gimlet, Yj Yj needle, and dinner-fork — that Y the straight weapon may be con- sidered a very acute wedge with a method of progression mostly Y oblique. It is easy to prove Yy, Uj that the proper shape for a thrusting-blade is pre-eminently tae eee the straight, Fig: tig shows the . Boe wis Rucomnen Sone Scymrrar-SHare, foil making a hole exactly its own size. The ‘regulation’ Sword (fig. 120), a shallow curve, opens, when moving in a direct line, about double its own width ; a figure which the scymitar (fig. 121) increases to five or six times, with a proportionate loss of depth at the same expenditure of force. ‘This augmented resistance to penetration is one, but only one, of the many difficulties in using a curved blade for a straight thrust. This difficulty probably suggested the ‘curved thrust,’ a method of pointing which the foil, as opposed to the rapier, has made popular. The point is propelled, not in a straight line, but in the arc of a circle more or less curved to correspond 134 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD.. with the blade. The arm makes this cycloidal movement readily enough, but under a disadvantage ; as in the cut the space traversed is longer than what is absolutely necessary to reach the object. Moreover, the movement cannot well be applied to the lunge, so as to throw the weight of the body into the attack. Like the ‘ thrusting-cut,’ it is more fitted for horseback than for foot. Although doubt- less the best way of pointing with a curvilinear blade, in no case is it better than the straight thrust. The‘ curved thrust’ so imposed upon Colonel Marey, of the French army, that he proposed in an elaborate work on Swords (Strasburg, 1841) to adopt the Yataghan, whose beautifully curved line of blade coincides accurately with the motion of the wrist in cutting, and which he held to be equally valuable for the point. As a regulation Sword for infantry, it was spoilt by a cheap iron scabbard. Asa bayonet it lost all its distinctive excel- lence: the forward weight, so valuable in cutting with the hand, made it heavy and unmanageable at the end of a musket, and none but the strongest arms could use it, especially when the thrust had to be ‘lanced out.’ Yet it lasted for a quarter of a century, and only in 1875 it was super- seded by the triangular weapon attached to the fusil Gras.' Fig. 124 shows sections of the prin- cipal forms of thrusting blades. No. 1, whose section, a lozenge, is nearly square, consists of two obtuse-angled wedges joined at the bases, making a strong, stiff, and lasting, but very heavy, Sword. This form dates from the earliest times: we find it in the bronze rapiers of France and England, and it was preserved in many of the Toledan, Bilbao, Zaragosan, Solingen, and Italian rapiers ; it is known to English armourers as the ‘ Saxon,’ Fic. 122.—YATAGHAN. Fic. 123.—ORNAMENTAL YATAGHAN AND SHEATH. To the latter I 1 The section of the modern weapon shows that the batonnette Gras is fit only for the thrust ; and, as it stops its own cut, it is useless for the menial and servile offices in which the Yataghan-bayonet, like the old couge-choux Sword, did yeoman’s service. I can see no improvement upon the old-fashioned triangular bayonet, which amongst us has been superseded by the short Enfield Sword-bayonet. should prefer even the bowie-knife bayonet, of which the Washington Arsenal was once full, and which has been used even lately in the United States. None but practical soldiers realise the fact that the bayonet is meant to be a bayonet, not a Sword, nor a dagger, nor a chopper, nor a saw. SECTIONS OF THRUSTING-SWORDS. 135 and to workmen as the ‘latchen’-blade. Nos. 2 and 3 show two simple methods of lightening it, the former carrying down the axis a fore-and-aft groove instead of the raised mid-rib on either face, which was used in the days of the Trojan war. No. 4 is the so-called ‘ Biscayan’ shape, the ¢ria/amellum of more ancient days, with three deep grooves and as many blunt edges, by which the parries were made. Theoretically it is good: practically and technically speaking, it is inferior to either of the preceding. There is so much difficulty in making the blade straight and of even temper that many professional men have never seen one which was not either crooked or soft. Yet this is the ‘small-Sword’ proper, the duelling weapon of the last century, which stood its ground as far as the first quarter of the present century. It had a curious modification—the Colichemarde blade, so called from its inventor, Count Koénigsmark. This was a trialamellum very wide and heavy in the ‘whole-strong’ quarter near the hilt, and at about eight inches suddenly passing to a light and slender rapier-section. It was invented about 1680, and became a favourite duelling-blade, the feather-weight at 7 Fic, 124.—SecTIons oF THRUSTING-SworRDs. the point making it the best of fencing weapons. It remained in fashion during the reign of Louis XIV. and then suddenly disappeared.! The small-Sword was introduced into England during the eighteenth century, and only after 1789 it ceased to be the almost universal French weapon in affairs of honour. I believe that the change to the 4¢e de combat and the foil arose from the popular prejudice that the triangular blade is too dangerous for fair duelling, and that a body-wound with it bleeds inwardly and is almost always fatal. This ‘ small- Sword, ? however, left its descendant in our old bayonet, the grooves being shallower and the ribs raised higher. No.6, supposed to be an experimental Sword from the Klingenthal manufactory, dated 1810-14, is a curious attempt to add cutting power sition to ‘broadsword’; but, as the Art of Fencing may be considered a general foundation for swords- manship, all men-at-arms should understand and pre- serve the difference. The writer, however, observes (Notes, pp. 4, 5), that, among the various actions which may canveniently be executed with the tri- 1 Mr. Wareing Faulder (Exhibition of Industrial Art, Manchester, June and July, 1881, Catalogue, p. 24) suggests that the Colichemarde ‘fell into dis- use probably in consequence of its costliness, com- bined with its inelegant appearance when sheathed.’ 2 Captain George Chapman, in his Pod? Practice, &c., 4 book which will appear in the ‘ Bibliography’ (Part III.), rightly distinguishes between the triangu- lar small-Sword, used only for thrusting, and the bi- convex cut-and-thrust ‘rapier,’ a term applied by the Germans to the Schiiger, which has no point. In England most people use ‘small-Sword? only in oppo- angular ‘ Biscayan,’ there are many which cannot be so easily managed with a flat blade, or with the usual weapon of modern combat, however light and handy. Hence ‘fencers among military men should be cautioned against imdiscriminately attempting with the Sword performances usually taught in lessons with the foil.” 136 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. to a quadrangular thrusting blade ; but, as the angles are very acute, the blow will have hardly any effect. No. 7 is an improvement upon the latter, because it has more trenchant capacity. The defect of both these Swords is that they have a Fic. a Fic. eee Fic, 127.—FLAMBERGE Gece tendency to turn over in the hand, and to ‘spring’ at the flat side when the point meets with the least resistance. There are other ways of lightening the blade besides grooving. A favourite fashion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the golden age of the Sword, was to break the continuity by open work, which allowed free play to the ornamenter’s hand. It was also supposed to render the wound more dangerous by admitting the air. As will afterwards be shown, certain Eastern and medieval sabres were hollowed to contain sections or pennations, which sprang out in small lateral blades when a spring was touched. A German main-gauche in the Musée d’Artillerie, Paris (No. J. 485), shows three blades expanding by a spring when a button is pressed in the handle, and forming a guard of great length and breadth, in which the opponent’s Sword might Fic. 129. Paternoster. be caught and snapped. Another rare form was the ‘ Paternoster blade,’ fitted with round depressions, which enabled the pious to count the number of his ‘ vain repetitions,’ even in the dark (fig. 129). OF THE EDGE. 137 It has been shown that the material determines the obtuseness or acuteness of the angle formed by the two planes which meet at the apex to form the edge. There are many varieties of the i The edge proper V, formed by the angles of resistance (forty degrees) and of entrance (ninety degrees), has already been noticed. Besides this there are the chisel-edge, mostly applied to tools such as the plane ; and lastly bevel-edge, or double-slope, ha! , which may be called the chopper-edge: the obtuser angle is used for blades intended to cut lead-bars and similar resisting substances, In the Sword the edge is usually straight. The principal exceptions are the following. The wavy, cutting surface appears in the ‘flamberge,’ to which flame 1OHANNES SOBIESKY Fic. Hog Marae Fic. oo Fic. tae sew radnet Fic. 133.—Main-GaucuE. gave a name!: it is nowhere better developed than in the beautiful Malay kris (crease). The object seems to be that of increasing the cutting surface. The wave- edged form is well shown in an iron dagger (end of fourteenth or early fifteenth century) of the Nieuwerkerke Collection : similar weapons, taken from the Thames, are found in the British Museum, and they abound in Continental collections. Often the waves are broken into saw-teeth: this apparently silly contrivance is found ona large scale in Indian sabres ; its latter appearance farther west is on the precious saw-bayonet, a theoretical multum in parvo equally useless for flesh and 1 Tt was also a proper name applied to the and especially the guards. The latter were shallower Paladin Renaud’s Sword. The flamberge of the and simpler than the rapier form, and were more seventeenth century became a rapiey-blade, and no easily changed from hand to hand, as was the practice longer ‘ flamboyant,’ and the difference is in the hilt, of early fencers, 138 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. fuel. Of somewhat similar kind is the toothed edge, which is found in Arab, Indian, and other Eastern weapons. The deepest indentations are in the so-called Sword-breakers (brise-pées), mostly of the fifteenth century. It is not easy to explain, Fic. 134.—SworD-BREAKERS. except by individual freak, the meaning of the toothed or broken edge which ap- pears in a dagger of the fourteenth century (fig. 137). Lastly, there is the hooked- edge, spur-edge, or prong-edge, whose projections are generally found in the flammberg (flamberge) proper, or two-handed Sword of wavy contour. The hooks Fic. 135.—ONE-Epcep Fic. 136.—CouNTERGUARD. Fic. 137-—TooTuep- Fic. 138.—HooKkep-EpcE. Wave Bape. EpGE. are either single or double, and the evident intention was to receive the adversary’s blade. Asa rule the hollow of the half-crescent is towards the point: some project horizontally, but very few are reversed or hollow towards the hilt, as that shape would lead the adversary’s blade to the forearm. OF THE POINT. 139 The point again differs as much as the edge. The natural point would be the prolongation and gradual convergence of various lines of the solid body, conical, pyramidal, or polygonal, concurring in a common apex. In the Japanese blade the edge-line is bent upwards to meet the back-line. When more strength is wanted the end is bevelled, forming, like the edge, a compound angle between forty and ninety degrees: it is thus fitted to meet hard bodies, and the obtuser the angle the stronger the point. When edge only is regarded, as in the Schlager and the glaive, the Sword of justice or the Scharfrichter’s (headman’s) weapon, the point of the very broad thin blade is rounded off. This, as will be seen, is the case with the early Kelto- Scandinavian Swords, miscalled Anglo-Saxon. Fic. ,139- Fic. 140. Fic. 141. Fic. 142. Fic. 143. EXECUTIONER’S SWORD. JAPANESE TYPE. CHINESE SABRE-KNIFE. OLD Persian SworD. ScyMITAR. There is more variety in the extremities of cutting-blades. The falchion of Ashanti, Dahome, and Benin, the murderous despotisms of western intertropical Africa, terminates ina whorl. This is also the shape of the Chinese sabre-knife, with which criminals were despatched. The old Persian Sword, often called by mistake the Turkish Sword, ends in a point beyond a broadening of the blade. The effect is to add force to the cut ; the weapon becomes top-heavy, but that is of little consequence when only a single slash, and no guarding, is required of it. This peculiarity was curiously developed in the true Turkish scymitar, which we see in every picture of the sixteenth century, and which has now become so rare in our museums. The end gradually developed to a monstrous size ; the length was cut down for the sake of handiness and the guard was almost abolished, because 140 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. parrying was the work of the shield. This exceptional form extended far east- wards and westwards. Some of the Nepaul Swords have a double wave at the end. It was adopted by the Chinese, who, as usual in their arms, reduced it to its simplest expression: the pommel is cap-shaped, the handle corded, and the guard a small oval of metal insufficient to protect the hand (fig. 145). Another good specimen of the ‘Turanian blade’ is the formidable Dao! of the Naga tribe, south-east of Assam. It is a thick, heavy backsword, eighteen inches long, with a bevel where the point should be, worn at the waist in a half-scabbard of wood, and used for digging as well as killing. The Turkish form also extended to Europe and America, where it became one of the multitudinous varieties of the ‘ mariner’s cutlass,’ from ‘curtle-axe’—curtus and axe. The ‘Turanian blade’ is well CEPT iy SHS eecazrosmnctss RS iY N N Ni N y N N My Fic. 148. Fic. 149. Sattor’s CutLass. Hinpu KirtAr. Fic. 147. TuE DAo. Fic. 146. Fic. 145. Otp TurKIsH ScyMITAR. CHINESE. Fic. 144. Op TurKisH. shown in Eastern scutcheons.? Its shape resembles that of a hunter’s horn with a Sword-knot hanging in two ribbons, a survival from remote antiquity. The tincts are purpure, gules and sable, upon a fasce tenné (‘on a fess’ or bar) or, vert and argent. The descriptions are very precise and technical; for instance, Abu ! There is another Dao in the Eastern regions, a large, square, double-edged blade, with a handle attached to the centre. The Dah of Burma is origin- ally the same weapon as the Naga Dao. ? In the Bulletin del Institut Egyptien (deuxieme série, No. 1, année 1880) there is an admirable paper on Eastern heraldry, ‘Le blason chez les Princes musulmans,’ by E. T. Rogers Bey. He proves that a heraldic scutcheon is known to the Arabs as rank, plur. runzk, and that the word is the Persian vang, colour, from which he would derive our (man of) ‘rank,’ a word hitherto unsatisfactorily explained. As regards the tints, ‘azure’ is evidently the Persian /djawardi ; and ‘ gules’ is better derived from gud, a rose, than from Fr. guezdes (jaw), which is L. Lat. guda, reddened skin. These three words suggest that for the origin of heraldry in its present form we must go back to Persia. Of the Sword in European heraldry I shall have more to say in Part II, CHELIDONIAN BLADES. 141 el-Mahdsin thus notices the Rank (armorial badges) of Anuk, son of Abdullah el-Ashraty : ‘The coat was composed of a circle argent cut by a bar vert, upon which was charged a Sword gules. ... This Rank was very pleasing, and the women of the town had it tattoed upon their wrists.’ The Rank was given when a subject was raised to the dignity of Amir. Before ending the subject of the point I must briefly notice the forked or swallow-tailed blade, a curious subject deserving an exhaustive monograph. The Greeks evidently derived their yedidav or yedsddvi0s Eldos,! and the Latins their bidens, from the two-ended chisels so common in Egypt. As will be seen, there was a true forked Sword in Assyria, and the form is commonly found in Indian daggers. The Chelidonian sabre has two distinct shapes. In one the plates are welded together, and separate at the third or the fourth section near the end. Mr. Latham (Wilkinson’s) has a good specimen ; the length of the fork, however, is greater than the united part. In the Prince of Wales Collection (Kensington) there is a two- bladed Sword, the fork only eight inches long, with the additional peculiarity of being saw-edged. In the other form, the Chelidonian proper, the fork is vertical, one prong being above the other. What use it could have supplied in cutting is hard to divine, but the Sword is essentially personal and eccentric. I know only one historical blade of this form, Zw’l-Fikar (Lord of Cleaving), the weapon given by the Archangel Gabriel to Mohammed, and by the latter to his son-in-law Ali bin Ali Talib, who cleft with it the skull of Marhab, the giant Jew warrior of Khaybar Fort. Jt appears upon the arms of the Zeydi princes, lords of Sana’é in El-Yemen, Southern Arabia?: nearer home it may be seen upon the Turkish standard, some twenty feet long, taken by Don John of Austria from the Turk at Lepanto. The weapon probably owes this honour to having been mentioned amongst the Ahadis, or traditional sayings of the Apostle of El-Islam, ‘la Sayfa illa Zu’l-Fikar wa la Fata illa Ali’ (there is no Sword to be compared, for doing damage to the foe, with Zw-Fikar, and no valiant youth but Ali). Amongst the Chelidonian blades proper I do not include the double blade. A fair specimen of the latter is the Orissa Sword‘: two slightly oval forms spring from the same hilt, but separate throughout their length. Another shape is found upon the Gold Coast: the blades are disposed like the astronomical sign of Aries, and its only Fic. 150.—GoLp Coast. 1 Strange to say, these Swcrd-names are carefully omitted from Liddell and Scott, 1869. 2 The information was kindly forwarded to me by Captain F. M. Hunter, Assistant Political Resident, Aden. Along the blade runs the inscription, which will be quoted in Part II., and the characters ap, ear modern. My informant thinks that this Chelidonian does not represent the original Zw’l-Fikar, which was two- edged. 8 This trophy hangs against the staircase wall of the fine armoury belongirg to the Museo del Arsenale (N val Arsenal), Venice. Here, however, it has become a complicated affair with Koranic inscription (ch. xl. vol. i.) ; opei:-jawed dragons’ heads at the hilt, and below the handle a rosette with various complications of ‘Ya’ (Allah !). ‘ It is figured in the illustrations following the Antiquities of Orissa, by Rajendra Lala Mitra, 142 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. use is to slice off noses and ears.) The offending member is placed at the commissure, and an upward shear effects the mutilation. I reserve for a future page the ‘split Swords, two blades in one scabbard, which were used in medieval Europe, and which have been preserved in China. To conclude this long and technical chapter. The Sword should be tightly mounted and well shouldered-up before and behind, leaving no interval between hilt and blade. The grip must be firm, and the tang secured either by rivets or, better still, by a screw at the pommel: if this be neglected, the weapon will not deliver a true edge. In trials both back and edge should be repeatedly struck with force upon a wooden post. Should the handle show no sign of loosening, and the blade ring with the right sound, it is a sign that the mounting is satisfactory : the reverse is the case if the blow jars or stings the hand: this suggests that the cut will not prove efficient. Note.—The type and model of the straight blade is the form of Rapier which we call the Toledo. It is probably derived from the Spatha or long Sword of the Roman cavalryman ; but it assumed its present perfect shape during the reign of Charles Quint (A.D. 1493-1519). The exemplar of the curved blade is the so-called ‘Damascus’ sabre, dating probably from the early days of El-Islam (seventh century), when Eastern armies were chiefly composed of light Bedawi horsemen. Of these in Part IT. 1 Capt. Cameron and I exhibited a specimen, made for us by good King Blay of Attabo, at a special meeting of the Anthropological In:titute of London. 143 CHAPTER VIII. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT EGYPT AND IN MODERN AFRICA. THE present state of our history shows us nothing anterior to Egypt in the civilisa- tion of Language, of Literature, of Science, Art and Arms. We must now modify and modernise the antiquated and obsolete saying—‘ ex Oriente lux’—the fancy that illumination came from India, when the reverse is true. The light of know- ledge dawned and dayed not in the East, but in the South, in the Dark Continent, which is also the High Continent.! Nor can we any longer admit that Westward the course of empire takes its way. As Professor Lepsius teaches us, ‘In the oldest times within the memory of man, we know of only ome advanced culture; of only oe mode of writing, and of only one literary development, viz. those of Egypt. Karl Vogt, a man who has the courage to say what he thinks, bluntly states: ‘Our civilisation came not from Asia, but from Africa.’ For our origin we must return to The world’s great mistress in the Egyptian vale. The modern Egyptologist is reforming the false and one-sided theories based upon the meagre studies of anthropological literature in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Yet in the Nile Valley we are only upon the threshold of exploration —topograph- ical, linguistic, and scientific. Of its proto-Egyptians and its primeval workman- ship as yet we know little; and it is truly preposterous to suppose that man began his artistic life by building pyramids, cutting obelisks, and engraving hieroglyphs. The ‘Cushite School,’ based upon the Asiatic Ethiopians of Eusebius the Bishop,? and unfortunately represented by Bunsen, Maspero, Wilkinson, Mariette, Brugsch, and a host of minor names, has determined that the old Nilotes ‘undoubtedly came from Asia” The theory utterly lacks proof; and the same may be said of the popular assertion, based upon Biblical grounds—‘ The early colonists of Egypt 1 The Austrian geographer, Dr. Josef Chavanne, estimates the mean altitude of Africa at 2,170 feet (round numbers), or more than double that of Europe (971 feet, M. G. Leipoldt). 2 He makes his Ethiopians emigrate from India to Egypt—but where? when? how? The ‘Asiatic “Ethiopians ’ of Herodotus lie between the Germanii (Persian Kerman) and the Indus (iii. 93, &c.). The bas-reliefs of Susiana show negroid types, and Texier found the Lamlam tribe in the marshes round the head of the Persian Gulf to resemble the Bisharin of Upper Egypt. Was ¢he Buddha one of these Cushite Ethiopians ? 144 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. came thither from Mesopotamia.’ We seem to be reading fable when told (by William Osburn '), ‘The skill of these primitive artists of Egypt was a portion of that civilisation which its first settlers brought with them when they located them- selves in the Valley of the Nile.’ My conviction is that the ancient Egyptians were Africans, and pure Africans ; that the Nile-dwellers are still negroids whitened by a large infusion of Syrian, Arabian, and other Asiatic blood; and that Ethiopia is its old racial home. Eschylus had already robed their black limbs in white raiment when Herodotus (ii. 104) made them dark-skinned compared- with the Arabs? and North Africans. Every traveller finds his description hold good to the present day. Blumenbach declared the old Egyptians to be of Berber origin, the race of Psametik, or the Son of the Sun. Hartmann opined that they were not Asiatics but Africans, and Dr. Morton modified his first opinion, finding the cranium to be negroid. I hope to prove their correctness by making a large collection of mummy skulls? It is certain that the modern Egyptian’s hair—that great characteristic of race, accord- ing to Pruner Bey—is not silky,as Professor Huxley says, but wiry like that of his forefathers. Moreover, his type, as distinctly shown by the Sphinx, is melanochroic- negroid. Lastly, there are other signs, which need not here be noticed, distinguish- ing the African—horse as well as human—from the Arabian. There is a history of ancient Egypt, into which we have not yet penetrated. Herodotus (ii. 142) glances at it when he makes the Ptah-priest at Memphis pre- tend to an antiquity of 11,340 years,® during which reigned 341 generations of kings and pontiffs.6 Plato does the same when he speaks of hymns 10,000 years old, and Mela? when he numbers 330 kings before Amasis, who ruled more than 30,000 years. Mena (Menes), the first man-monarch who founded Memphis (B.C. 4560 ?) some centuries before the Hebrew Creation, was preceded for 13,000 years by the 1 Monumental History, &c. 2 The late Mr. Lane, who was greatly attached to Cairo and its population, insisted upon the Arab origin and kinship of the Egyptian. To those who know both races they appear as different as English- men and Greeks. Place an Arab, especially a Bedawi, by the side of a Fellah, and the contrast will strike the least experienced eye. 3 The first instalment was sent in May 1881 to the Royal College of Surgeons for the benefit of Professor Flower and Dr. C. Carter Blake. I am aware of the difficulty in determining mummy-dates, but the fact of mummification shows a certain antiquity whose later limit is sharply defined. The mummy of King Mer en Ra (Sixth Dynasty), found near the Sakkarah pyramids, had been stripped of its bandages ; but the marks impressed upon the skin showed that the system was that of later years. He can hardly be dated later than B.C. 3000 ; and, reckoning from that period to a.D. 700, when mummifying ceased, we have a population of embalmed bodies of some 730,000,000 in round numbers. 4 The hair is of intermediate type between negro and Malay. The Nilotes are ovAdrpixo: and épid- kouot, with woolly locks, slightly flat like ribbons, evenly distributed (not in peppercorns) over the scalp. It is also a mistake to make the Nubians Aroodtpixor : none of the Nile Valley races are lank-haired like Hindis, Chinese, and Australians. 5 The full number of Herodotus is 52,000 years. Mr. Day (p. 59) is scandalised by these dates, which argue for the ‘high antiquity theory’; and appears astonished to find ‘ anything placed centuries previous to the Noahitic Deluge.’ Of this more presently. 6 Each generation contained a ‘ Piromis, son of a Piromis.’” The word, made equivalent to Kalos 2 agathos (=galantuomo), is Pe-Rome, the man, op- posed to Pe-Neter, the god. 7 Mela has been blamed for repeating Herodotus without understanding him. When he states that the sun twice set at the point where it now rises (‘solem bis jam occidisse unde oritur’), he probably means that the greater light left to the west the zodiacal sign which presided at its rising. ANTIQUITY OF EGYPT, 145 ‘Dynasty of the Gods’ (god-kings), suggesting a governmental hierarchy of the fetisheer caste: and this lasted for ages, till the Soldier upset the Priest and raised himself to the rank of Pharaoh! andking. Traces of the proto-Egyptian dynasties in which the men of the Pen controlled the men of the Sword long survived ; and in later times the ecclesiastical order again ruled the military. We know nothing of the hierarchical supremacy but its baldest outline. When our modest chrono- logists allow 6000 years to its incept, they run into the contrary extreme of those who assign to it myriads of centuries. Rodier? is more reason- able ; he opines that the cycle of 1,460 years dates in Egypt from B.C. 14,611. Again, it will probably be found that ancient Egypt was ot ‘the narrowest strip of land in the world running between a double desert.’ The extent of ‘Kemi’? has been arbitrarily con- fined to the Riverine Valley as far as the First Cataract, or seven | hundred by seven miles widening out in the Delta-netherland to a base of eighty-one miles. We may fairly suspect that modern Masr is only a slice from the eastern half of the antique Mizraim. The Greeks made the frontier of Asia extend beyond the Suez isthmus and the Nile to the lands of Libya‘ This Greater Egypt is still suggested by the system of Bahr bila ma, large Fiumare now bone-dry, and by the alignment of the oases in the wilderness west of the River Valley with their giant ruins of a proto- historic Past. These may date from the days when the basin of the Bahr el-Ghazal—a lake like the Tanganyika and the Victoria Nyanza—discharged its annual flood to the North in channels parallel with the ‘River AAgyptus.’> The lacustrine bed would silt up by the natural process of warping, and the surplus water, no longer able to discharge northwards, would force itself eastwards to the Nile. The easier drainage would presently convert the lake into a river-basin and system, and the lands no longer irrigated would become a waste dotted like a leopard skin with oases or watered valleys. 7 Fic. 151.—1. BRONZE Daccer; 2. Sworp (14 inches long). 1 The word at first applied probably to the commander-in-chief. Wilkinson’s day derived it from Phra (pa-Ra), the sun; now it is explained Per-do, the Great House, in the sense of ‘ Sublime Porte.’ 2 Antiguité des Races Humaines. Paris, 1862. 3 The ‘black land,’ opposed to Zesher, the ‘red land’ (Edom, Idumza, Erythrea), the wilds of North-Western Arabia. It is also called on the monu- ments 4% (4an in Pliny) and Za-mera (Mera, Tomera), the ‘inundation region.’ Another old name, Acria, is from 7s, Yior, the Nile. em must not be confounded with Khem, Chemmis, universal nature, the generative and reproductive principle—Pan. When Q. Curtius writes that Chemmis ‘ wmbraculo maxime similis est habitus,’ I would change the first word to ‘umbilico.? The stepped cone in the Ele- phanta Caves exactly explains the latter. 4 Hecatzeus and Anaximander divided the globe into Europe (Zred, Gharb, the West) and Asia (Astyeh, the East). Their successors added Libya (Africa), a term derived from the Libu or Ribu tribes; and the Father of History a most insufficient fourth— the Nilotic Delta. The latter, however, is ethno- logically correct: Egypt is neither Africa nor Asia, but a land fer se. 5 In Homer, ASgyptus always applies to the Nile (Od. xiv. 268). Manetho makes it the name of a king, Sethos=Seti I. M. Maspero proposes as a derivation of the word, Ha Kahi Ptah (the land of the god Ptah). Hence the Biblical Pathros= Ptah- land (Zzck. xxix. 14). Pathyris, the western side of Thebes, and the western Provinces generally, may have named the méra:ko: (Herod. iii. 37), the obscene dwarfs who made Cambyses laugh. 146 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. An abundance of popular literature has familiarised the public with the outer aspect of ancient Egypt, but the world is still far from recognising the message she sent to mankind. We must go back to ‘the Wonderland on the banks of the mighty Nile’ for the origin of all things which most interest us. It is the very cradle-land of language. Her tongue contains all the elements of the so-called “ Aryan,’! Semitic, agd Allophyllian or Turanian families, and dates long before the days of the present distribution. Bunsen’s ‘ Egypt’ first noticed this fact at some length, without, however, dwelling upon its importance. ‘ All Semitic pronouns and suffixes, says M. C. Bertin, ‘can be traced back to Egyptian, especially the Egyptian of the earliest dynasties’; he might have added much about other mechanical forms. Brugsch tells us (i. 3) that the primitive roots and the essential elements of the Egyptian grammar point to an intimate connection of the Indo- Germanic (!) and Semitic languages.’* The Allophyllian or Agglutinative Turanian,? a zer¢tzuse guid which is neither ‘Aryan’ nor ‘ Semitic, is also traceable in old Coptic. What, then, do these facts suggest? Simply that the elements existing in Egyptian travelled from the banks of the Nile and evolved, discreted, and differen- tiated themselves in many centres. found homes in Eastern Europe (Greece, Italy, and the Slavonic or quasi-Asiatic halt) ; in Asia Minor—especially Phrygia—in Mesopotamia, in Persia, and finally in India, where the settlement was comparatively modern. The word-compounding or Iranian scheme This explains how a philologist would derive Sanskrit from Lithuania. This saves us from the ‘ Aryan heresy’;4 this abolishes ‘ Indo-European, and worse still ‘Indo-Germanic ’—that model specimen of national modesty. Both are terms which contain a theory and an unproved theory. Again, the word-developing or Arabian scheme, absurdly termed Semitic (from Shem !), increased, multiplied, and perfected itself in Northern Africa and Arabia, while the Turanian, becoming independent and specialised in Akkadian, overspread Tartary and China. And this one primeval language of Egypt framed for itself an alphabet whence 1 Herodotus (vii. 66) specifies the Arians, a racial name then synonymous with the Medes. This is not the place to enter upon the subject of Aria’s enormous development. 2 As a specimen of the roots—which are most re- markable when they consist of single consonants, whose reduplication made the earliest words—take ‘papa’ and ‘mamma.’ The former is from the Egyptian a-fa (root pf), to produce, the original idea of the begetter ; and the latter is ma-ma (root m), to carry, be pregnant, bear. Aut becomes mdéd, pijrnp, mater, mother: Mer (a-mor), love; meran (mortor), die, and more (mare), the sea. In ‘Semitic’ we have md, Heb. and Arab. md, water ; and a long array of other words (as za, yes, yea; and 7a, nay) too extensive for notice. 8 Characterised chiefly by post- instead of pre- positions, by additions to the verb which make it causal, reflective, and so forth, and by the peculiar form of sentences. Examples: the Finn-Ugrian-Magyar and the Turk-Mongol-Tartar, both probably deriving from the ancient Sadas = Scythians, 4 To Aryan I much prefer the older term ‘Iranian’; Iran (Persia), which once extended from the Indus to the Mediterranean, being one of the great centres where the ‘Aryo’-Egyptian element of language de- veloped itself, and where a typical race is still found. Nor is there much objection to ‘Turanian,’ Turan being the non-Iranian regions to the east, Tartary and China. But ‘Semitic,’ which contains a myth anda theory, should be changed into ‘Arabian.’ Egypto- Arabic attained its purest and highest development in the Peninsula ; Hebrew is a northern and somewhat barbarous dialect ; Syriac is a north-western offspring ; Galla, a western ; and so forth, ORIGINS IN EGYPT. 147 are derived all others. This is proved by the fact that each and all begin, as Plutarch tells us old Coptic did, with the letter A. Of its age in Nile-land we may judge from the cartouche containing Khufu’s name, left by some workman on an inner block of the Great Pyramid.' How many generations of articulate-speaking men must have come and gone before so artificial and artistic a system as the Royal Signature upon the Shield occurred to the human mind! But Egypt did still more. She was the fountain-head of knowledge which overflowed the world. Eastward the great current set through Babylonia and Chaldza, Persia and India, Indo-China, China, and Japan, to Australia and Poly- nesia. Westward it flooded Africa and Europe. It may have reached America by two ways. The Oriental line would extend from China and Japan to the Eastern Pacific coast: the Occidental was practicable vz¢ Atlantis, or possibly in the days when Behring’s Straits did not exist. It found a new Mediterranean in the great Caribbean Gulf, and new Indies in Mexico and Peru. Indeed, the march of intellect from Egypt is conterminous with the limits of the habitable globe. The invention of an alphabet would necessarily lead to literature—poetry, his- tory, and criticism. The earliest known manuscript is the Prisse (d’Avennes) Papyrus, a roll dating from the days of Pharaoh Tat-ka-ra, last of the Fifth Dynasty (circ. B.C. 3000). It is a collection of proverbs, maxims, precepts, and command- ments, of which the fifth is, ‘ Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy life may be long’: the style is admirable for its humorous vein, and for its graphic descrip- tion of old age—‘ Senex bis puer.’ The earliest epic is the heroic poem of Pentaur, laureate to Ramses II. (B.c. 1333-1300) ; it is the prototype of the cyclic songs which, in Cyprus especially, preceded the chef-d’euvre of the Homerid chief ; and it opens with an ‘Arma Virumque cano.’ The ‘ Deadbook’ is the birth of the Drama, and it may date ages before the dialogues of Job. The ‘Canticles of Solomon’ are in the evocations of Isis and Nephthys.? The crztzgue of a young author’s production by a purist in style might add a sting to reviewing in the present day To the Egyptians we must attribute the invention of maps and plans. They first studied heraldry: every nome had its distinctive emblem generally bird or beast ; and each temple and guild its blazon.‘ Literature would be imperfect without art and science, and accordingly we find their head-quarters and old home in Egypt. These studies humanised the people ; their code suggests the mildness of modern penal law ; and their reverence for letters, 1 For whose erection every ‘authority ’ gives his 8 Brugsch, vol. ii. chap. xiv. or her own date. Mr. Proctor’s calculation, based upon the precession of the equinoxes, is B.C. 3350. 4 One nome (Zazzs) carried a crescent and one It appears to me that we also obtain the date from the _ star, others had two and three of the latter. The position of the polar star (« Draconis), which looked emblem passed over to the Byzantine Empire, and down the axis of the great entrance-passage before now we see upon the Egyptian flag the crescent and this long tube was blocked up. We may thus assume Seb, the five-rayed star. It is thus distinguished between B.C. 3440 and B.C. 3350. from the Turkish, which has seven rays. 2 Records of the Past, ii. 120; and Trans. Bibl. Soc. i. ii. 383-85. L2 148 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. for old age, and for the dignity of man, makes them an eternal example to the world. The monuments show their fondness for music and painting. Their know- ledge of statuary is proved by a host of works, especially the wooden Shaykh el- Balad (village chief) in the Bulak Museum—a marvel of skill, probably dating from the Fourth Dynasty, B.c. 3700. In architecture they invented the arch, round and pointed ; eight several orders of columns, including the proto-Doric; Atlantes, Caryatides, and human-shaped consoles. The ‘temple of Jizeh’ near the sphinx is evidently older than the adjoining pyramids ; it is a model of solidity in which the hardest stone is worked like wood. In science they especially cultivated geometry, astronomy, astrology, and ‘alchemy, whose name betrays its origin. Their arithmetic taught decimals and duodecimals. Their mathematics arose from measuring fields and calculating the cubes of altars. They knew the precession of the equinoxes: Rodier (p. 31) con- siders that they learnt it from observing the equinoctial point and the rising of Sothis, the Tuth-star, ‘the axle of the skies,’ in the same zodiacal sign, and that the studies at Syene date from B.C. 17,932. They knew the motion ofthe apsides, and the solar and stellar periods ; they invented latitude and longitude ; they denoted by a cross the intersection of the solstices and the equinoxes, and they published annual calendars. In optics they invented the lens. They were not ignorant of the motive power of steam, and possibly the electric fish had taught them the rudi- ments of electricity. They were great in the mechanical arts. In medicine they dissected and vivi- sected : in agriculture they invented the plough, the harrow, the toothed sickle, the flail, and the tribulum ; in carpentry the dove-tail ; in ceramics the potter’s wheel, and in hydraulics the water-wheel. In gardening they transplanted full-grown trees. They made glass, porcelain, and counterfeit pearls and precious stones ; and they used emery powder and the lapidary’s wheel. They spun silk, and knew the use of mordants for stuffs and dyes for hair. They made ‘babies’ (dolls) and children’s toys of clay, and they moulded masks of papier-m4ché. In some points they were strangely modern. For hunting they wore dresses of ‘suppressed colour,’ not pink nor ‘rifleman’s green’: we are just beginning to find out our mistakes. They affected falconry, and played at the draughts which led to chess; and at morra, the Roman micare digitis. They sat on chairs whose shapes are like ours, not on divans nor on triclinia. In their house furniture they studiously avoided over-regularity ; and Japan is now teaching England and Germany not to weary man’s eye by monotony. And as they were advanced in literature and politics, the religion of earth, so they assiduously cultivated religion, the politics of heaven. The Biblical student has found among the tombs of Nile-land the absolute truth of what Celsus said— namely, that the Hebrews borrowed their tenets and practices from Egypt. Their date of the creation ex nzhzlo (B.C. 4004-4620) was evidently Manetho’s period of the succession of Mena, and it is used even in ourday. Their genesitic cosmogony, EGYPT THE CRADLE-LAND. 149 as Philo Judzus shows, and as Origen expressly declares, was an adaptation of Nilotic allegories and mysteries which the vulgar understood factually and literally. Their ‘Adam’ suggests ‘Atum,’ whence ‘Adima,’ the First Man amongst the Hindus. Their App or Apap (Apophis), whose determinative is a snake transfixed with four knife-blades,' is the great old serpent, the ophid-giant, Sin, Sathanas. The ‘Flood’? is the annual Nilotic inundation modified by the Izdubar legends of the Interamnian Plain. Noah, Nuh, Née, is suspiciously like Nu or Nuhu,’ the Sailor of the Waters, the Lord of the Full Nile. Ham suggests Kam, the black race. The ark is the Bahr or Ua (Baris, Argo navis) of Nu, the sacred vessel portrayed in the ruins of Egyptian Elephanta, the boat of Osiris, or Uasur, the man-formed Sun- god ; and the floating cradle of Moses is a mere replica of Osiris’ ark. In that complicated idolatry of deceased ancestors, based upon a system of monotheism,! or rather the worship of glorified man, which formed the religion of Egypt, the Sun typified human life. He rose as the infant Horus; he was the Lord Ka of the mid-day ; as Tum he became old and set ; and as Hormakhu (Harmachis) he shone to the under world below the horizon, Night and Death being the forerunners of Light and Life.5 The preternatural apparatus of both faiths (original and borrowed) is the same. The four genii of Death—Amset (under Isis), Hapi (Nephthys), Tuamutef (Neith), and Khebsenauf (Sebk)—became the four archangels. Of Urim and Thummim, the latter is the plural of Thmei (Themis), the blind or headless goddess of Truth and Justice.© Even such phrases as ‘I am that I am’’ are loans from the hiero- grammat ; Ankh (J am Life) was rendered Yahveh (Jehovah). This ‘ineffable name’ is borrowed by some, Colenso included, from Semitic heathenism ; but Brugsch shows that Egypt supplied the Mosaic conception of the Creator. There appears, indeed, direct derivation in the unity of the Deity and in the duality of Typhon, Set, Satan, the Evil Spirit. Later ages copied the local Triads of Kemi, in which the third proceeded from the other two. 1 See chap. viii. ? The popular conception of the Noachian Deluge isa study. There have been millions of local and partial floods ; but wherever and whenever a traveller finds the legend of an inundation he incontinently applies it to ‘the Flood.’ Dr. Livingstone could not refrain from so doing at the petty Lake Dilolo. And itis to be noted that the Egyptians, accustomed to annual freshets, utterly ignored one general cataclysm as held by the Greeks. 8 ¢Nuhu’ is found in the Nahrai tomb, Beni Hasan (Osburn, i. 239); other names are Noum, Nouf, and Nef. 4 Amun Ra (Hepheesstus, Vulcan), the veiled Osiris, the ‘Hidden One of Thebes,’ is thus addressed in a papyrus :— He is One only, alone sans equal, Dwelling above in the Holy of Holies. Both ecclesiastical establishments con- Another describes him as ‘ Maker of all things; whose beginning was the beginning of the world; whose forms are various and manifold; the first to exist ; the one only Being, and the Parent of all who live.’ 5 Mr. Froude metaphysicises when he tells us that the religion of Egypt is the adoration of physical forces. Mankind do ‘not worship abstractions; they begin (and mostly end) by adoring man. 6 Blind because she saw with insight, not physica. vision. Her eyes are hidden by blinkers or ‘ goggles.’ Her usual name is Ma, and her ideograph is the ell- measure, 7 Even ‘God save the King’ must be referred back to them. ? 8 Itisan aorist from ‘ Havah ;’ so pvois from pie, and xatura from nascor. Mystically, Ya is the past, Ha the present, and Vah the future. 150 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. tained Prophets (Sez),' High Priests,? Priests, ‘Holy Fathers,’ and Scribes. The Decalogue is a résumé of the forty-two commandments in the Deadbook (chapter 125). The portable shrines of the great Egyptian gods originated the Tabernacle, which grew to be the Temple; it corresponds with the Zy%vn iepd or movable tent of the Carthaginians. The African practice of circumcision was probably in- tended originally as a prophylactic against syphilis, of which traces have been The peculiar Jewish hatred for pork is reasonless Rationalists found in prehistoric bones. unless we explain it by a superstitious horror of the Typhonian beast. tell us that the meat was religiously forbidden because unwholesome in the tropics, a causa non causa: it is the favourite food in the Brazil, in China, and in Christian India; even the Mardathas will eat wild hog ; nor are the habits of the animal more filthy than the duck’s. The truth is that these dietary prohibitions served to make a differentia, to disunite man, to pit race against race and to feed the priest. But while the Hebrews drew largely upon the wisdom (and the unwisdom) of Egypt, they ruthlessly cast out the eminently Nilotic ideas of a Soul, of a Judg- ment of the Dead, and of a future state of rewards and punishments—three tenets which, in modern days, form the very foundation of all faiths. ‘Ifa man die, shall he live (again) ?’ asks Job (xiv. 14), in a chapter showing that life once lost is lost for ever. And apparently from the days of Moses this was the peculiarity of ‘Semitic’ thought ; it lived in the Present and had no Future, or rather it spurned the world to come. ‘Moses,’ says Professor Owen, ‘could not admit the after-life, or teach of reward and retribution in a future state, without risk of tainting his monotheism with some trace of the manifold symbolism environing the “ diviue son of Amen” (Osiris), who after suffering loss of the mortal life, which he had assumed for bettering his kind, became, on resigning his divinity, their judge.’ The Hebrews adopted Soul and Judgment, Heaven and Hell, many centuries after Moses from their Assyrian kinsmen,‘ who also supplied them with their present And their modern descendants by universally accepting a Resurrection have done that against which Moses so carefully guarded. 1 My fellow-traveller, the Rev. W. Robertson Smith, has neglected the derivation of the ‘ Prophet’ grade names for the twelve months and sundry astronomical notions. 4 Abraham, the legendary forefather of the Hebrews, was a Chaldean from Ur of the Chaldees. by Jewry from Egypt; his interesting volume (7he Old Testament, &c.) wants more Egyptianism. The Prophets of Nile-land had their merits ; they foretold that Pharaoh Necho’s Suez Canal would be more useful to strangers than to natives. 2 The High Priest’s robe in Jewry had 366 bells, symbolising the days of the Sothic-sidereal year. In the times of the early Pharaohs, the ‘Queen of the New Year’ appeared in coincidence with the begin- ning of the solar year. The Sothic era had been fixed from observations before Thut-mes III. (Eight- eenth Dynasty, circ. B.C. 1580). * Yet the end of chap. xix, is distinctly teleologi- cal. Were there two Jobs? On the east bank of the Euphrates lies Uru-ki, Erech, or Warka, fronted by Ur, Uru, or Mughayr: the Bedawin still call the latter ‘Urhha’ in memory of ‘Ur.’ Thus Abraham was a hill-man from the harsh and rugged regions fringing Southern Armenia. Hence the ‘Jewish face,’ with its strongly marked features and its wealth of hair and beard, appears everywhere in the sculptures of ancient Babylonia and Persia. Hence, too, the superficial observation that the Afghans and hill-tribes west of the Indus are Jews because they have the typical Jewish look. The reason is that all are derived from the same ethnic centre, a great watershed of race. EGYPTIAN METALLURGY. 151 I need hardly say that the mythologies of Greece, Etruria, and Rome only cor- rupted Egyptian mysteries and metaphysics. Three instances will suffice : Charon is a degraded Horus ; Minos is Mena, and Rhadamanthus contains the word Amenti, the right side (of Osiris), the west. Nor can we be surprised if Egypt is now giving rise to scientific superstitions. Every reader of ‘ Pyramid Literature’ bene the mysterious influence which Kemi is exercising upon the modern mind, In the preceding chapters I have noted the development of metallurgy by the ancient Egyptians. They probably began with gold,? the easiest of all ores to find and to work ; it was abundant in Upper Egypt, and about B.c. 1600 they found a California in ‘Kush’ (4Ethiopia). They called it Tum, Khetem, and Nb, which is variously pronounced Nebu, Neb, and Nub, whence Nubia. It has two hiero- glyphic determinatives ar 7, the necklace and the washing-bowl covered with the straining-cloth. The Kemites called silver ‘white gold,’? showing the movement of invention ; and they could draw silver wire three thousand years ago. Wilkinson (II. chap. viii.) remarks, ‘ The position of the silver-mines is unknown’; but he wrote before the discovery of Midian, where surface-stones have been picked up containing three ounces per ton. As their pictures prove, they worked iron, although little has outlasted the corrosion of Time. They applied the blow-pipe to the works of the whitesmith. They were well acquainted with soldering by lead or alloys,* as is shown by the Shesh or Sistrum of Mr. Burton. I may here remark parenthetically that this crepztaculum used in temple-service gave rise to the Maracd or Tammaraka, the sacred rattle, a gourd full of pebbles worshipped by the Brazi- lian Tupis, who thus acknowledged the mysterious influence of rhythmic sounds.° They were skilful in the damascening ° or inlaying of weapons, an invention claimed writers attribute to the Lydians, the forefathers of the Etruscans. Its representative in the Nile Valley was the ring-money, which extended to ancient Britain, and which is still preserved in many parts of Africa, The golden ‘manillas’ discovered at Dali (Idalium) in Cyprus, where the breaks of the circle are adorned ' Tn this section of the nineteenth century three popular crazes are producing a literature of vigorous growth. The first is the Shakespearian ; not Shake- speare, but Bacon, or some other Palmerstonian pet, wrote Shakespeare. The second, apparently a by- blow of the Book of Mormon, is the descent of John Bull from the ‘ Lost Tribes,’ who were never lost. The third is the Pyramid craze; and the rough common sense of the public has embodied it in ‘the Inspired British Inch’: these Pyramidists mostly forget that the Pyramid is one of three greater and some seventy lesser items which form the cemetery of Memphis. 2 Vet it is remarkable, observes Brugsch (i. 212), that from the earliest ages the curse of the Typhonic gods clings to gold. So Plutarch (/sés and Osiris) tells us that the worshippers were directed not to wear the noble metal; and this still is a general rule in El-Islam. 83 Silver, the ‘next folly of mankind,’ says Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxiii. 31), showing his own, and rivalling Horace’s ‘aurum irrepertum et sic melius situm.’ Strange to say, neither old Egypt nor Assyria had a coinage, which Herodotus (i. 94) and a host of other with the heads of animals, lions and asps, show what the now meaningless thickening of these parts origin- ally meant. 4 “Lead is also united by the aid of white lead (tin) ; white lead with white lead by the agency of oil’ (Pliny, xxxiii. 30). 5 The Captivity of Hans Stade, p. 145. 6 Properly speaking, to ‘damascene’ is confined to ‘grit’ or inlaid iron or steel, the word evidently deriving from Damascus, once so famous for Swords. Johnson (Dict., Longmans, 1805) explains the word ‘damask,’ ‘linen or silk woven in a manner invented at Damas- cus, by which part, by a various direction of the threads, exhibits flowers or other forms.’ Percy (Adetal. p. 185) inclines towards ‘ Damascus’; but he suggests that the ‘word ‘‘damask”’ applied to steel may have been derived, not from the place of manu- 152 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. by those model ‘claimants,’ the Greeks. Their simple process was to cut out the ground, to hammer in gold and silver, and, finally, to file and polish the surface.! The metallurgic proficiency of Old Egypt would lead to the development of arms and armour, and enable the soldier to win easier victories over the ‘ vile, im- pure, and miserable Gentiles ’—i.e. all men except themselves. The god Anhar, or Shu, is ‘Lord of the Scymitar.’ Horus, as a hawk-headed mummied deity, is seated holding two Swords. Amen-Ra, Lord of Hab, is a ‘great god Ramenma, “Lord of the Sword.”’ The ‘wearer of the Pshent or double crown’ (the Pharaoh), the image of Monthu, god of war, was ex-officio ‘His Holiness’ (high-priest) and Commander-in-Chief, who personally led his warriors to ‘wash their hearts’ (cool their valours) as the Zulus wash their spears. Like Horus, he is ‘ valiant with the Sword.’? When going to war he was presented with the ‘ Falchion of Victory,’ and thus addressed : ‘ Take this weapon, and smite with it the heads of the unclean.’ In paintings and sculptures he is a large and heroic figure: he draws the bow, he spears or cuts down the foe, and he drives his war-car over the bodies of the slain. His soldiers are divided into Calasiri (Krashr* or bowmen) and Hermotybians, the latter unsatisfactorily derived‘ from #meTdBoov, a strong linen (waist-?) cloth. The two divisions represent the second of the five castes, ranking below the priestly and above the agricultural: they held one of the three portions into which the land was divided. Recruits were taught in the military schools that originated the Pent- athlon and the Pancratium, the Palestra and the Gymnasium. They were carefully trained to gymnastics, as the monumental pictures in the Beni Hasan tombs show ; they used Mogdars or Indian clubs, and they excelled in wrestling, though not in boxing. The royal statues are those of athletes, with their broad shoulders, thin flanks and well-developed muscles. The soldier practised single-stick, the right hand being apparently protected by a basket-guard, and the left fore-arm shielded by a splint or splints of wood, strapped on, and serving for a shield (fig. 152). The standing army consisted of foot and horse,’ the latter being mostly in chariots ; and they were divided into corps, regiments, battalions, and companies. The men were officered by Chiliarchs (colonels), Hekatontarchs (captains), and Dekarchs (sergeants), as the Greeks called them. The ‘heavies’ were armed with a long strong facture but from a fancied resemblance between the markings in question and the damask patterns on textile fabrics.’ 1 This process resembles our niello (nigellum) inlaying. The oldest composition contained most silver and no lead. Percy (Afetallurgy, p. 23) gives us its history : the first treatise by Theophilus, ad/as Rugerus, a monk of the early eleventh century, was translated by Robert Hendrick (London, 1847). ? Plutarch relates (De /szd. 2) of Ochus (Thirty- first Dynasty), who, amongst other acts of tyranny, caused the sacred bull Apis to be made roast beef, that he was represented in the Catalogue of Kings by a Sword. 8 Krsha, Krasher, or Krershra. The determinative is a squatting archer with bow and arrows. Marvel- lous to say, Brugsch (i. 51) mentions ‘clubs, axes, bows and arrows,’ utterly neglecting the Sword. 4 Egyptian national names give derivation to, but do not derive from, Greek. According to Pollux (vii. 71), however, Hemitybion is Egyptian, evidently corrupted. ® The horse, apparently unknown to the First Dynasty of Memphis, was familiar to the Second. Mr. Gladstone (Primer of Homer, p. 97: Macmillan, 1878) supposes that the animal came from Libya or Upper Egypt; but the African horse probably origi- nates from Asia. The first illustrations of horses and chariots are found at Eileithyias, ¢emp. Aah-mes, Amos, Amosis, B.C. 1500. EGYPTIAN WEAPONS. 153 Fic. 156. PAINTINGS OF HEBES ; 2. YPTIAN > Fic. 155. —EcypTian SOLDIER. SoLpIERS, FROM THEBAN Bas-RELIgFs. —x. EcyptTians FIGHTING, FROM T ; G 154 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. spear and an immense shield provided with a sight-hole. Some carried the ‘ Lisan’- club, the battle-axe, and the mace ; and almost all had for side arms pole-axes,! Swords, falchions, and daggers. The ‘light bobs’ were chiefly archers and slingers, also weaponed with ‘Lisdns, axes, warflails, and Swords. The chariot-corps or cavalry, besides bows and arrows, had clubs and short Swords for close quarters. The battle-axes show clear derivation from the stone celt, which supplied the hiero- glyphs with the word Natr or Netr (Neter, &c.), meaning god, gods, or goddess ie In the Demotic alphabet the axe was K (Keledza). Fic. 157.—BronzE Hatcuets 1x WoopvEn’ HAanbDteEs, ] Bound witH ‘THONGS. (Heads, 3 and 4% inches, Hefts, 153 and 163 inches.) Fic. 158.-—PoLE-AxEs. Fic. 159.—KHETEN OR WAR-AXES. The action began, at the sound of the trumpet, with an advance of light-infantry, bowmen, slingers, and javelineers. Then came the charge by the ponderous pha- lanx of ten thousand men, one hundred in front by one hundred deep, and flanked by chariots and cavalry. Thus the close combat was not the disorderly system of duels that prevailed in the barbarous Middle Ages of Europe. In storming fortified places they used the pavoise and testudo, the ram, the scaling-ladder, the bulwark or movable tower, and the portable bridge. They were also skilful military miners. 1 The pole-axe was three feet long, the handle being two; the blade varied from ten to fourteen inches, and below it was a heavy meta ball, some four inches in diameter, requiring a powerful arm. The club in the British Museum, armed with wooden teeth, is not represented on the monuments, and probally belonged to some barbarous tribe. ° Thave already discussed the Stone Age in Egypt and in Africa (chap. iii.). We must not, however, determine it to be pre-metallic without further study. Herodotus first notices it when he tells us that the Ethiopians in the army of Xerxes used stone-tipped arrows. THE EGYPTIAN SWORD. 155 The Egyptian phalanx was armed with the large shield, lance, and Sword ; the latter was generally called Seft, fl OE leh OF ok also inverted to in a | Setf, = \: it becomes Sifet in /Ethiopia, and in Berber Siwuit. The weapon in the hieroglyphs is of four different shapes. The first is the boomerang- Sword F: mm OY ma, meaning ‘to destroy’: this M is the root of the Hebrew and Arabic Maut and the Prakrit-Sanskrit, War. The second is the Knife-Sword / »Ator Kat, the determinative of cutting. These two are joined x in the root ma (cut, mow). The third is the Khopsh, Khepsh, or Khepshi, Wm, the sickle-Sword, still used in Abyssinia and throughout Africa: with a flattened curve it became the Hindu Kubja, the Greek ‘ Kopis,’ and the Gurkha ‘ Kukkri.’. The second two are combined in the root Smam, 7 “to smite” Other names of the Sword are Ta or ae | Nai, A A ) and Nai, Na’ui, OL Nakhtui, = (]. The falchion (enszs falcatus), called Shopsh, Khepsh, or Khopsh,} is represented as early as the Sixth Dynasty (after B.C. 3000). Hence, says Meyrick, the Kozris of Argos—Argolis being a very mixed province, where the base was Pelasgian and 1 Icannot but suspect the word of being a con- gener of our ‘chop.’ Mr. Gerald Massey, author of A Book of the Beginnings, favoured me with his opinion upon the ‘scymitar Khopsh.’ He identifies it with the hinder thigh ( > —., Shepsh, or \eust, Khepsh), of the ‘old Genitrix’ of the Typhonian type, Kfa or Kefa (force, power, might); the Goddess of the Great Bear and the place of birth. Hence the <> (2x) or ‘mouth’ of the Sword came to be synonymous with the ‘edge’ of the Sword (Genesis xxxiv. 36). In the Denderah zodiac, the central figure, the ‘old Genitrix,’ holds the Khopsh-chopper or falchion with the right hand. The ‘thigh of Khepsh’ is also the Egyptian rudder-oar. The Great Bear Khepsh is one of the earliest measures of the Seasons: the Chinese still say that at nightfall the ‘handle of the northern bushel’ (tail of Ursa Major) points east in spring, south in summer, west in autumn, and north in winter. Mr. Gerald Massey’s two fine volumes have se- cured him, and will secure him, much bitter and hostile criticism from the many-headed who are lynx- eyed as to details while they overlook the general scheme. His object has been to show that religion and literature, science and art, originated in Egypt; and here he is undoubtedly right. Relying upon the self-evident fact that the language of the hieroglyphs contains ‘ Semitic’ as well as ‘Aryan’ roots and de- rivative forms, he traces these throughout the lan- guages of the world. Whether we judge his work conclusive or not, we cannot but admire and applaud ~ the vast reading and research which he has brought to bear upon the most interesting subject. And in another way Mr. Massey has done good. He has uttered a lively and emphatic protest against the Sanskritists and their over-weening pretensions. In vol. ii. (p. 56) he shows how shallow is the con- clusion that Ophir was in India because the produce brought back by Solomon’s fleets had, according to Professor Max Miiller, Sanskrit or Dravidian names. ‘ Koph’ the ape is Kafz in Sansk.; but it is pure Egyptian, Kagz, whence the Gr. kijm-os or 176-0. ‘ Tukkiyim’ (peacocks) resembles the Toki of Tamil and the Togei of Malabar; but the root is evidently the Egyptian 7ekh or Zekat, a symbolical bird. ‘ Shexz habim’ (teeth of elephant =tusks) may derive from the Sansk. //az, an elephant, but the latter is oriyin- ally 4d in Egyptian. These erroneous views, coming from an authoritative source, are at once accepted, copied into popular books, and find their way round the world, to the confusion of true knowledge. They make it our hapless fate to learn, unlearn, and relearn. See ‘ape’ in Smith’s Dict. of the Bible, and, to quote one in dozens, the Zrans. Anthrop. Soc. p. 435, May 1882,—‘the name for ape in ‘‘ Kings” and in Greek authors, both adopted from Sanskrit.’ Mr. Massey unfortunately has not studied Arabic, hence many views which will hardly find acceptance. In interpreting the hieroglyphics he has wisely pre- ferred the ideographic symbolism and the determina- tives which, countless ages ago, preceded the phonetic and alphabetic forms. 156 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. the superstructure was Egyptian ; the latter introduced by Danaus, and followed by the Pheenicians, who founded the town Pheenicia. Quintus Curtius (lib. iii.) says: ‘Copides vocant gladios leviter curvatos, falcibus similes, quibus appetebant bellua- rum manus. Apuleius (‘ Met.’ lib. xi.) also speaks of ‘ copides et venabula, } Evidently the Egyptian Sf, Sefi, Seft, or ‘Sword’ generically,? gave rise to the Mesopotamian Sibir, Sibirru, and Sapara; to the Greek &/p-os; to the Aramzan Saiph, Sipho, and to the Arabic _ ; ., (Sayf-un), the second syllables being merely terminative ; while the Latin sfatha and the German Schwerte, and our Swerde and Sword, are the latest echoes of Sef and Seft. The Germans say rightly, ‘ Nichts wandert so leicht als Waffen und Waffennamen.’ Fic. 160.—DIFFERENT Forms OF THE Ecyptian Kuopsn (Kopis), witH Epces INSIDE AND OursIDE. Another Egyptian name for the sickle-shaped blade is Khrobi,? which suggests the Hebrew Hereb (a weapon, a Sword). We are also sure that the words are primitive Egyptian: the proof is that the symbol of ‘Ma’ (‘destroy’ &c.), the Khopsh or ensis falcatus, is the numeral nine ; and the straight flesh-blade (K”) is the pronoun thou, thee: the two together alluded to the oldest religious practice.4 The falchion, shaped in the pattern of Ursz major (?), was thick-backed and weighted with bronze ; the blade, in later days at least,> was of iron or steel, as shown by the blue colour. Champollion ° notices blue Swords with golden hilts in 1 For further notice of the Kopis, see chap. xi. man was the priest’s stamp denoting pure beasts, fit ? Also v. to decapitate : the Coptic form is Sed¢ or _ for sacrifice. He has noted that this survival points Sef. distinctly to human sacrifice in older days. 3 Bunsen, v. 758. * Yet the tombs at Beni Hasan date goo years + Bunsen’s Zgyf/, v. 429. According to Castor, before the popular era of the Trojan war. the two Swords pointed at the throat of a kneeling ® Monum. 262 fol., plates 11, 15. THE EGYPTIAN SWORD. 157 the tomb of Ramses III., and a ‘weapon Kops’ with the gold, of which the hilt consists, running up the concave back of the blade. ‘The gold was therefore either Fic, 161.—1. Ecyprian SLING; 2. Unknown WEAPON ; 3. SHEATHED DaGGerR; 4. HATCHET; 5. SCORPION, OR Wuip-Goap. Fic. 162,—EcGypTian Daccers, sunk into the iron, or gilded on the back. In other cases the Kops of kings was entirely of gold, or, like other Swords, entirely of brass (copper?). In another Zi AWN . ASS SN ee V SSS\ AM nee Fic, 164.—OFFICER oF Lire-GuaRD To Fic. 165.—Bronze SworD, FOUND Fic. 163.—EGypTian DAGGER oF Ramsss II., APPARENTLY ASIATIC. AT AL-KANTARAH, EcypT. Bronze in British Museum. similar weapon, brass (copper ?) and iron were blended in the blade’ An iron ‘Kops’ was found in a tomb at Gurnah, 158 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. The Khopsh, a sickle in type, and originally a throwing weapon as well as a cutting arm, was always carried by the Pharaoh, who used it indifferently with the pike (Zarz), the mace, axe (Aka, Akhu), battle-axe, or pole-axe (Kheten). Officers and privates, ‘lights’ as well as ‘heavies,’ also wielded it in pictures. Those com- manding infantry-corps are armed with the simple stick like the Roman centurion and our drill-sergeant of bygone days. C 2 3 4 Fic. 166.—1. AxE; 2. SpEAR-HEAD; 3. Kuopsu ; 4. Lance-Heap. Fic. 167.—Brtt anp DaccEr. Fic. 168.—EcyrtTian DaccErs. The fourth or long-straight Sword, which does not appear in the hieroglyphs, had a two-edged cut-and-thrust leaf-shaped blade from two and a half to three feet long,! with a foining point like that of the Somal.? 1 Rosellini shows a long tapering blade with a mid-rib, apparently sunken, and a raised surface on each side. The length is divided into five parts, smooth and hatched (?). ? The Somal have retained three other notable peculiarities of ancient Egypt ; the wig (worn by the These large weapons seem to have old Nilotes) ; the Ués ( . I ) or wooden head-stool acting pillow, which further north was a half-cylinder of alabaster finely carved ; and the ostrich-feather head-gear. The latter was a symbol of Truth among the old Egyptians, because, says Hor Apollo, the wing- THE EGYPTIAN SWORD. 189 been used by foreign mercenaries, The leaf- also becomes a trowel-form, betraying its origin and derivation, the spear-head. The grip was hollowed away in the centre, gradually thickening at either end, and was sometimes inlaid with metal, stones, and precious woods. The pommel of that worn in the Pharaoh’s girdle is sur- mounted by one or more hawk-heads, this bird being the symbol of Ra! (the Sun). The handle is also adorned with small pins and studs of gold, shown through suit- able openings in the front part of the sheath. With this weapon the warrior stabs the enemy in the throat, as Mithras strikes the bull behind the shoulder. A modi- fied form was the Sword-dagger, of which two are sometimes represented with the Pharaoh: it.was generally carried in the belt. This shape of weapon found its : Dn. © 2006 \OOOO© 00000 08 A~Booe © Fic. 169.—Assyr1an Daccers, SHEATHS, AND BELTs. (British Museum.) way to the Caucasus ;? and the Georgian Khanjar, hanging to the girdle in the place of the Sword, is also a survival. The Egyptian weapon is of various lengths. The bronze blade of Amunoph II., found by Wilkinson at Thebes, measures only five and a quarter inches: others rise to seven and even ten. Mr. Salt’s specimen in the British Museum covers eleven and a half inches, including the handle ; and others reach one foot, and even sixteen inches. feathers are of equal length. The Romans adopted it as a military decoration. ‘Your courage has not yet given your helmet wherewithal to shade your face from the burning sun,’ say the Kurds, who add to the crest a new feather for every foe slain in fight. The Somal, after victory or murder, stick the white variety in the mop-head. We still use the phrase ‘a feather in his cap.” The ‘Prince of Wales’ feather’ is an Egyptian ideograph of Truth. Mr. Gerald Massey seems to think that Wilkinson s ‘ ZAmez’ (II. chap. viii.) is ‘only a backward rendering of the Greek ‘‘ Themis’; that the feathers are ‘Shu’ (gf): and Many of these blades taper from an inch and a half to two-thirds that the goddess is ‘//a’ (“""" same), or ‘ Mati.’ But surely the root of Zhemzs would be in ‘ Za-Ma,’ the Goddess (of Truth) ? 1 Compare Aaa, Heb. and Ar., ‘he saw’; Gr. dpdw, and Lat. Ra-dius. ? Colonel A. Lane Fox remarks that the groove which is constant in these Caucasian blades is a little out of the central line, and does not correspond on each side, an alternation showing that it is derived from the ogee form. I have suggested that the idea arose from the arrow-head ‘bellied on a twist,’ and have figured the weapon in the next page (fig. 170). 160 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD of an inch nearthe point. Dr. John Evans! has a Sword, found at ‘Great Kantara’ during the construction of the Suez Canal; the blade is leaf-shaped, and measures seventeen inches, and the whole length twenty-two inches and three-eighths (fig. 165). ‘Instead of a hilt-plate, it is drawn down to a small tang about three-sixteenths of an inch square. This again expands into an octagonal bar about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, which has been drawn down to a point, and then turned back to form a hook, perhaps the earliest mode of hanging to the belt.’ At the base of the blade are two rivet-holes, and the hilt must have been formed of two pieces which clasped the tang. Dr, Evans also mentions a bronze Sword-blade, presumably from Lower Egypt, in the Berlin Museum: it has an engraved line down each Fic. ee FROM THE ea E] %*], Kha-at-te (Khatte) ;? he makes them dwell on ‘the upper Ocean of the Setting Sun.’ The Greeks translated from Hebrew IW Xerruzip, and termed the race Xettuiw and Xerrewvi. They are the éraipor Kyrecoe (Keteian or Cetian? auxiliaries) of Homer (‘Odys.’ xi. 520), whose leader Eurypylus, was slain with ‘the copper’ (Sword), and of whom many perished around him ‘on account of gifts to a woman.’ The cradle of this race, which took the lead of Western Asia during the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries B.c., was the rolling prairie between the Orontes and the Euphrates. Joshua represents the Lord saying: ‘From the wilderness and this Lebanon even unto the great river, the river Euphrates, all the land of the Hittites, and unto the great sea toward the going down of the sun, shall be your coast’ (i. 4). In their palmy days they covered the interval between Egypt and Assyria, extending northwards to Phrygia and Cilicia; eastwards to Meso- potamia and westwards to the Mediterranean. They had walled and fortified cities as ‘Tunep or Tunipa (Daphne) in the land Naharayn’4—the latter here 1 Gen. xxiii. 18. In 2 Sam. xxiv. 6, ‘Aretz them with the Kittaians (Chittim=Cypriots) of tahtim-hodshi’ should be read, ‘ Aretz ha-Hittim Kadesh,’ ‘ the land of the Hittites of (city) Kadesh.’ 2 Trans. Soc. Bib. Archeology, vol. v. part 2, p- 354. They were then the paramount nation in Syria, from the Euphrates to the Libanus; and the Assyrians knew the region as Mat-Khatte. 8 Wild work has been made with this word. Some render it ‘large’ (i.e. whale-like); the scholiast calls the Cetians a people of Mysia; others confound Menander in Josephus (4. F% ix. 14; Cory’s Frag., p. 30; London, Reeves & Turner, 1876); others with the people of Kiti (the circle), the Heb. Galil or Galilee. 4 «Two-river’ (land) is mostly applied to the great Interamnian plain, Mesopotamia. Here it must mean Syria proper; and Aram Naharayn (Highlands of the Two Streams) admirably describes Palestine, which is composed of a double anticlinal LHE HITTITES. 173 meaning Upper Palestine—Arathu (Aradus) ; Hamatu (Hamath, the high city) ; Khalbu or Khilibu (Aleppo) ;! Kazantana (Gozanitis); Nishiba (Nisipis) and Patena, which gave rise to ‘Padan-Aram’ and to ‘Batanea.’ Their northern capital was Carchemish (the Gr. Hierapolis and the modern Yardblus),? on the Euphrates, lately explored : some explain the word as ‘Kar’ (town of) ‘Chemish’ the Moab-god) ; others by ‘Khem’ or ‘Chemmis, the Egyptian Pan. It was captured by Sargon (B.C. 717), and became the head-quarters of an Assyrian Satrapy. Their sacred city was Kadesh (Kays, the holy), a synonym of El-Kuds, the Arabic name for Jerusalem ; and even of the City of David it was said (Ezek. xvi. 3), ‘her father was an Amorite and her mother a Hittite’ A Hittite tribe extended to the southernmost frontiers of Palestine (Gen. xxiii. passé) ; Hebron, one of their settlements, was founded, we are told, seven years before Zoan (‘a station for loading animals’), alias San or Tanis, the capital of the Egyptian ‘ Shepherd-Kings.’ But the allusion must be to Sesostris-Ramses (II.), who also made San his capital under the name of ‘ Pi- (city of) Ramessu,’ not to the original building by King Pepi of the Sixth Dynasty, who pre- ceded Abraham by a thousand years, The Hittites were governed by twelve ‘kings, probably satraps, under the Khita-sir or supreme chief. The ‘kings of the Hittites’ are mentioned as joining the Egyptians (2 Kings iii. 6).3 Although the Hebrews were ordered utterly to destroy the race, their books prove that the Khita were often in intimate relation with the in- truders, as in the case of Uriah the Hittite, one of the thirty of David’s body-guard. They worshipped Baal Sutech (Sutekh) the War-god, the ‘man of war,’ a counterpart of Amun, with his wife (Sakti or active energy), Astartha-Anata, and they also venerated Targatha, Derketo or Atargatis—two Syro-Greek words for one and the same person. The Egyptians at times rank the Khita as a ‘great people? and their habitat as a ‘great country’; holding them, in fact, almost as their peers : they also speak with reverence of their gods. Like their neighbours of Kemi, the ‘Hittites’ were a literary nation: the monuments of Nile-land mention a certain Kirab-sar (or sir), ‘writer of the books of the Chief of the Khita,’ and the determi- native is papyrus or parchment. Hebron was also originally called ‘Kirjath- (Kariyat) Sepher’-—settlement of books. Fic. 195. Cyprian DAGGER. river-valley formed by the Iarunata (Jordan) and the Arunata (Orontes). The whole length and breadth of the country is distributed between the two, with the exception of the small Litani watershed. 1 The ‘Aram wine from Halybon’ was produced at Helbin (Halbaun, the inhabitants call it), a gorge- village near Damascus. Being Moslems, they no longer ferment their grape-juice; but the fruit is still famous. The Helbtin people speak the broadest dialect, and are a perpetual laughing-stock to the Damascus citizens. The Aleppites derive their ‘Halab’ (Aleppo) because Abraham there milked (halaba) a cow; but the place is older than the Genesitic flood, the Flood. 2 This word is corruptly written Jerablus, Jorablus, Jirabis, &c. 3 In Rawlinson’s Herodotus (i, 463) we find that the Southern Hittites numbered twelve kings, 174 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. The Khita were formidable opponents to Kemi between the seventeenth and the fourteenth centuries B.c. They fought doughtily against Thut-mes ITI. (circa B.C. 1600) during his Syrian campaign, when this ‘Alexander the Great of Egyptian history’ overthrew the chief of Kadesh, built a fortress on the Lebanon- range and mastered ‘Naharayn.’' Three centuries later, Kadesh was taken by Osirei or Seti I. (B.C. 1366). A few years afterwards took place the great cam- paign of his son,? Ramses II., or the Great,‘ who made Egypt anew,’ and who is famous as the Sesostris of Herodotus.3 He was nearly defeated at the historic battle of ‘Kadesh, the wicked’; but at last he succeeded in ‘throwing the foe one upon another, head over heels into the waters of the Orontes.’ Wilkinson (i. 400) shows a city with a double moat, crossed by two bridges: at the outer defence, formed by the river running into a lake, a phalanx of the Khita is drawn up as a reserve corps. ‘Wonderfully rich, says Brugsch, ‘is the great picture which represents the fight of the chariots: while the gigantic form of Ramses,’ in the very midst of the hostile war-cars, performs deeds of derring-do, astonishing friend and foe, his gallant son, Prahiunamif, commander-in-chief of the charioteers, heads the attack upon those of the enemy. The Khita warriors are thrown into the river, and among them is the King of Khilibi (Aleppo), whom the warriors try to revive by holding his legs in the air with his head hanging down.’ ® 1 The decisive action is shown on an Egyptian tomb (Brugsch, i. 291). 2 Ramses left as memorials of his invasion three hieroglyphic tablets cut upon the rocks on the south side of the embouchure of the Nahr el-Kalb (Dog or Wolf River, the Lycus), a few miles north of the Venerable Bayrut (Berytus, &c.). They mark the ancient road which ascended the rough torrent-gorge to its origin in Celesyria (El-Buka’a). Even since these pages have been written the coffins and mummies of Ramses II. and his daughter have been found at Dayr el-Bahri in Upper Egypt, and con- veyed from Thebes to Bulak by Dr. Emil Brugsch. The same collector has been equally lucky with the remains of Seti I., although Belzoni, who discovered the tomb, sent the sarcophagus to the Sloane Museum. 3 Sesostris derives from Ses, Setesu, Sestesu, or Sestura, ice. ‘Sethosis, also called Ramses’ (Seti- son?). The Greek Sesostris combines, I have said, the lives of Seti and his son Ramses. According to Brugsch, he is the ‘ Pharaoh of the Oppression,’ and the son of the unnamed Princess (Merris? Ther- mutis ?) who ‘found Moses in the bull-rushes.’ The Princess Thermutis, says Josephus, named Moshe (Moses) from mo (md = water) and zses, those who are saved out of it (ses=to reach land). Possibly it is AZu-se=water-son. Josephus was sorely of- fended by the ‘ calumnies ’ of Manetho ; this Egyptian priest, who wrote under Ptolemy Phi‘adelphus about the time of the LXX, declared that the Hebrews were a familia of leprous slaves who, when expelled from Egypt, were led by a renegade priest cal'ed This was Osarsiph (Osiris-Sapi, god of underworld) ; and that the number was swollen by Palestinian strangers driven out by Amenophis. He gives the number of lepers and unclean at 250,000 (= 50,000 x 5), and the Hyksos, another impure race, number also 250,000. The learned classics accepted this view, duly abusing the ‘gens sceleratissima ’ (Seneca), and the ‘odium generis humani’ (Tacitus). 4 The site of Kadesh and the Buhayrat Hums (Tarn of Emessa) or B. Kutaynah, a ‘broad’ or widening of the Orontes, was first visited by Dr. Thomson of Bayrut in 1846. I rode about the ‘lake of the land of the Amorites’ in 1870; but found no ruins, or rather ruins of no importance everywhere. It was not then known to me that in A.D, 1200 the geographer Yakut (Geogr. Dict. edit. Wiistenfeld) had noticed the water in his day as the ‘ Bahriyat Kuds’ (Tarn of Kadesh). Since that time the Palestine Exploration Fund (July 1881) identified the seat of Atesh or Kadesh with the Tell Nabi Mendeh, a Santon’s tomb on the highest part of the hill where the ruins lie. The site is on the left bank of the Orontes, four English miles south of the ‘ broad.’ The city disappears from history after the thirteenth century B.C., but local legend has preserved its memory. 5 Prof. Ebers, who is familiar with the many por- traits of Ramses-Sesostris, declares that he was a handsome man with fine aquiline features, like Napo- leon Buonaparte. 6 This original and instinctive way to revive the THE HITTITE SWORD. 175 the victory that gave birth to the first of Epic poems, the ‘Song of Pentaur the Scribe.’ The war ended by the Egyptian marrying the Hittite’s daughter, and making with his father-in-law a highly-civilised extradition treaty engraved upon a silver plate!’ Another invasion, however, took place (circa B.C. 1200) under Ramses III. This ‘Rhampsinitus’ of the Greeks, a compound title, Ramessu-pa-Neter (Ramses the god), has left inscriptions concerning his ‘Campaign of Vengeance’ which cover one side of the temple of Medinah Habu :? amongst the conquered foes appears the ‘ miserable King of Khita as a living prisoner.’ In later times the Khita became well known to Assyrian story.3 Shalmaneser II. (B.C. 884-852) mentions the ‘ Hittites and the city of Petra’ (Pethor) ; he takes ‘eighty-nine cities of the land of the Hamathites, and Rimonidri of Damascus. Tiglath-pileser II. (B.c. 745-727) speaks of the ‘city of Hamatti’ (Hamath) and the ‘Arumu’ (Arameans). According to Wilkinson (I. chap. v.) the Khita are represented on the monu- ments, the Memnonium, Medinah Habu, and elsewhere, as a shaven race with light red skins. Their dress is the long Assyrian robe falling to the ankles: the hair is crisply curled and at times covered with the tall cap of Phrygian type. A characteristic article, which appears in their hieroglyphs, is the pointed and up- turned boot, somewhat like the soleret of the sixteenth century. For armour they had square or oblong shields and quilted coats with bracelets defending their arms. Their weapons were bows, spears, and the short straight Sword, the modern flesh-chopper, then in use among their rival neighbours of the Nile Valley. These gallant Canaanites® were proficients in the art of war. The army was distributed into foot and mounted men. The former consisted of a native nucleus called Tuhir (Tahir ?), the ‘ chosen ones,’ and a host of mercenaries under Hir-pits or captains. Amongst these were the Shardana, Sardones, commonly trans- lated Sardinians; Brugsch contends that they were Colchians, and derives from them ‘Sardonian linen.’ They were armed with horned helmets and round shields, spears and long Swords. The Kelau or slingers appear to have been a corps d’élite that waited upon the Prince.’ The tactics included a regular phalanx, a herse or drowned endures to the present day, despite the wrath of the Faculty. Kasios, a name derived from the Egyptian Hazian or Hazina. 2 So called from an old Coptic town, long ruined. 1 Brugsch (ii. 68) gives the terms of the treaty as 3 Rawlinson’s Herodotus, vol. i., Essay VII., and translated by Mr. Goodwin (Records of the Past, iv. 25); and adds instances to prove that it was acted upon. Thus he explains the hitherto mysterious countermarch, the turning back of the Hebrew exodus, at the time when the emigrants were advan- cing straight upon their objective. His strong point is the identification of ‘Baal-Zephon,’ about which all the commentators have made such hopeless guesses. He explains it by ‘Baal of the North (Typhon, Sutekh or Khepsh), the ‘ Mount Kasion’ of Jupiter reference to Black Obelisk in British Museum. Syz- chronous History of Assyria and Fudea, pp. 1-82, vol. iii. pt. i. ; Soc. Bibl. Archeology, 1874. 4 A Keltic word, dof = foot. 5 In popular Hebrew use, ‘Canaanite’ meant a trader. 6 Possibly the ‘pure’ (Hebr. Zohar), in which case the word is ‘Semitic.’ 7 Brugsch, ii. chap. xiv. Asa rule, slingers were the least esteemed of fighting men, 176 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. column of spearsmen like the Egyptian ; and, although the cavalry rode horses their ‘strength was in chariots.’ ‘Hithism’! became a study of late years, after the publication of ‘ Hittite hieroglyphs,’ first discovered at Hamah, then at Aleppo, gave it an impulse. Two rock-inscriptions with bas-reliefs were discovered by the Rev. E. Davis (of Alex- andria) at Ibriz (Ab-riz), three hours south of Eregli, the old Cybistra on the great Lycaonian plain.2. The finds at Carchemish added to the scanty store, and there are said to be Hittite seals in the British Museum. In Dr. Schliemann’s ‘ Troy’ (p. 352), I find a Hittite hieroglyph on the stamped terra-cotta ; the middle figure to the right is apparently the fist or fist-shaped glove, the Egyptian symbol of the hand. I shall presently notice the Lycian coin and a gold incision from Cyprus. Three legible characters—the bull’s head, the cap, and the bent arm—are traced to the so-called prehistoric statue of Niobe, Mount Sipylus. Evidently Hittite, too, is the bronze tablet in M. Peretié’s Museum, Bayrut.3 Modern discoveries enable us to characterise Hittite art as a blending of Egyptian with Assyrian, or rather Babylonian, both considerably modified. The former appears in the two sphinxes of Eyub, and in the winged solar disk, which was also borrowed by Mesopotamia from the Nile Valley. The bas-reliefs and gems of Assyria are reflected in the Hittite representations of the human figure ; but the stature is shorter, the limbs are thicker and more rounded, and the muscles are not so prominent. At Boghaz-Keui some of the deities stand upon animals, a posture believed to be early Babylonian.‘ crowns, the decoration of the Ephesian Artemis, and Prof. Sayce thence infers its Hittite origin. At Eyub is found the double-headed eagle which is supposed to be the prototype of the old Siljukian and modern European monsters.® Here, too, the goddesses wear mural The Hittite syllabary has systematic affinities with the Egyptian, as shown by the boot, the glove (or hand), the bent arm, the battle-axe, and the short straight chopper-knife. But before reading these ideographs it was necessary to determine the language, and here difficulties arose. Prof. Sayce denies that the Khita were Semites or spoke a Semitic tongue ;® and in this he is followed by Mr. W. St. Chad Boscawen. But the former contended with scant success, that the Cypriote 1 The Rev. William Wright, missionary at Da- mascus, first suggested that the Hamath inscriptions were Hittite. The study was begun in 1872 by the late Dr. A. D. Mordtmann at Constantinople, where is the original of the silver Hittite dish represented in the British Museum. 2 Trans. Soc. Biblical Archaol. vol. iv, pt. 2, 1876. * Described by M. Clermont-Ganneau in the Revue Archéologigue, Dec. 1879; and figured in the Palestine Exploration fund, July 1881. 41 In Egypt the king rests his feet upon war- captives; and making a foot-stool of the enemy is a Biblical phrase (Psalm cx. 1) which had a literal signification. 5 For the two-headed eagle in Moslem heraldry (A.D. I190 and 1217), see p. 108 of Rogers Bey’s valuable paper before quoted (chap. vii.). ° His chief argument for their Northern origin seems to be founded upon their boots; he forgets, however, that the Arabs of Mahommed’s day wore ‘Khuff;’ and that legal ablutions were modified to suit them. It is the cothurnus calceatus of Pliny (vil. 19) which, as we see on statues and vases, covered the foot and ankle to the calf. The Assyri- ologist Prof. P. Schrader, followed by Prof. G. Ebers, considers the Khita to be Aramzeans. HITTITE HIEROGLYPHICS. 177 writing was ‘none other than the hieroglyphics of Hamath.’! Mr. Hyde Clarke believes that Khita, Etruscan, and Cypriote are kindred tongues ; and detects their symbols upon the autonomous coins of Spain. Others have supported the Scythic (Turanian) origin of the Hittites: in our day this was inevitable. The Rev. Dunbar I. Heath bravely pronounces the language Semitic and made a gallant attempt at interpreting the syllabary.2 But nothing final can be done under present conditions: we have not even collected all the characters. While the Khita were inlanders, the parallel shore-land of the Mediterranean —Syria and Palestine—was occupied by a host of Semitic and congener tribes. The former is a noble word and by no means the ‘invention of a Greek geo- grapher’ ; Suriyyah denotes the rocky region from Sur or Tsur (it =rock), a tower (turris), Tyre, the Zurai of Tiglath-pileser II., and the Tapau of the hieroglyphs. Thus ‘Syria’ and ‘Tyria’ would be synonyms. Herodotus (vii. 63) fathered a sad confusion when he wrote, ‘The people whom the Greeks call Syrians are called Assyrians by the barbarians. Assyria is from another root, Wx (Ashur), supposed to signify ‘happiness,’ and applied, as will be seen, to one of the gods. Syria is the hieroglyphic Khar, Kharu, or Khalu, the ‘hinder-land, that is, behind or north of Osiris (Egypt), and the Akarru or Akharu of the cuneiforms, both from the ‘Semitic’ root Akhr. ‘Palestine’ (Syria) is simply the ‘land of the Philistines” the Zahi of the hieroglyphs and medieval Filistin ; this powerful family, probably connected with the Hyksos, extended eastward from the confines of Egypt, and built Pelusium—‘ Philistine-town,’ not town of amAds or mud. 1 And Carchemish. ‘On the Hamathite Inscrip- tions,’ Zrans. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. vol. i. pt. 1, 1876, and vii. 298-443, on Tarrik-timmun. 2 Mr. Heath kindly explained to me the key of his system published in the Fourn. Anthrop. Instit. May 1880, The figures at Ibriz having suggested ‘ Semit- ism,’ he separated root-letters from formatives and found three Aramzean suffixes, ¢-va, ¢t-kun, and t-hun. These gave an immense probability that he had hit upon the Zz, 2, 2, and %. Meanwhile Mr. Boscawen (Pal. Expl. Fund, July 1881) contends that our ‘knowledge of Hittite is confined to four syllabic characters and the ideographs.’ The Rev. Mr. Sayce was good enough to explain to me how he had deter- mined eleven values. A comparison of inscriptions, with the silver boss of Tarkodemos asa point de départ, suggested to him that the stirrup-shape (¢)) marks the nom. sing. of proper names, and this in the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments ends ins. He assumes that adjectives agree with their substantives, which they follow by taking the same suffixes. He was at first disposed to make the broken & | or ), which curiously resembles an old Egyptian sign, signify ‘and’ (cop. conjunct.) ; but the incised in- scription found by Mr. Ramsey at Bor (old Tyana) proved it the determinative of an individual. The goat's head seems from the bilingual boss to have the phonetic value ‘ tarku,’ and is interchanged with oe? (Zee), Cc (s), w, and + wy. The two spear-heads with the stirrup ([ T ¢ )) appear to represent a patronymic—Aws. The second sign (=), which seems to be the first pers. sing. of the Aor., can be followed in the same group of characters by @ ; whence Mr. Sayce inferred the latter to be an adjec- tival participial affix=. Similarly | =e, the acc. pluy.; thus © |} =ue. The bilingual boss also shows II or # Qe mi, the third pers. sing. present II tense, and we find indifferently Il and }.. i) gen. plur. is @: but the pronunciation is not deter- The mined, The same is the case with the sock or low boot ( §}), suggested to be the third pers. plur. of the Aorist. Lastly, the ideograph of pluralit attached to nouns and verbs is ) (. 8 Dr. Guyther, visiting the Merash citadel, has found several new characters in a long inscription on a lion, and fragments of stone with other hieroglyphs have been forwarded from Carchemish to the British Museum. 178 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Beyond the Philistines began the Phcenicians—merchants and traders, tra- vellers, explorers, and colonisers—the ‘Englishmen of antiquity.’ When Hero- dotus brings the Phcenicians from the ‘ Erythrean Sea’ he is generally understood to mean the Persian Gulf, where the islands of Tyrus (or Tylos) and Aradus are supposed to be the mother-sites of the homonymous Mediterranean settlements. The popular derivation of ‘ Phoenicia’ is from @ot£, which again may have been, move Greco,a mere translation of the Egyptian Kefeth, Kefthu, Keft, and Kefa, a palm-tree. But the question would be solved if it can be proved that the Phceni- cians are the ‘ Fenekh’! of the monuments and the Moslem El-Fenish. Mariette Pasha derived the term Punoi, Pceni, from Pun or Punt, by which he understood Somali-land ; he is easily reconciled with Herodotus by assuming Punt to mean, as most understand it, the opposite Arabian coast.2. Thus the ‘Port of Punt’ is the mythical Red Sea (primordial matter ?), where red Typhon and the red dragon App or Apap (Apophis) fought against the white god Horus—the prototype of Baldur the Beautiful? The Phcenicians left their mark upon the world. For many generations the Mediterranean was a ‘ Phoenician lake” and they could boast of a general Oaracoo- kpatia, This enabled their merchants and navigators to diffuse civilisation from Egypt and Assyria to the farthest West. They were the carriers of the world. Their ‘round ships’ or merchantmen (yavAo/) and their long war-ships pushed far into the Northern and Southern Atlantic. The topographical lists of Thut-mes III. show a thickly inhabited country (Brugsch, i. 350-51), and, as Mariette Pasha says,a map of Canaan, composed of some hundred and fifteen hieroglyphic names, ‘is a synoptical table of the “Promised Land,” made two hun- dred and seventy years before the exodus of Moses.’ Among the settlements are Debekhu, now Baalbak, the Baal-city ;4 Tum-sakhu, the gate or shrine of Tum, the setting sun, now Damascus; Biarut (4od. Bayrut); Keriman or Mount Carmel and Iopoo, Joppa, or Jaffa. We find the Jordan in the Egyptian Iarutana, and Shabatuan is the Sabbaticus River of Pliny and Josephus.® The chief cities of Phoenicia, Tyre and Sidon, were of unexampled splendour, depéts of the wealth of the East, as early as B.c. 1500. The arch-Homerid, who curiously enough never mentions Tyre, attributes all the finest works of art either ? Under Shishonk (Shishak), the contemporary of Solomon, the conquered tribes of Edom and Judah are termed the ‘ Fenekh and the Aamu (Syro- Arameeans) of a far land.’ Brugsch (ii, 210) ‘has a presentiment’ that these Fenekh are intimately re- lated to the Jews; and he notes the similarity of Aamu with * An,’ the well-known Hebrew term. 2 Some have suspected Punt to be the far later Pandya, or Madura kingdom, in Southern India. Mariette’s Punt extended from Bab el-Mandeb to Cape Guardafui (‘I was a Guard’), 8 Prof. Rugge of Christiania, however, connects Baldur with Achilles. We can hardly accept his scheme until the details shall have been better worked out. 4 © Bak,’ from Beki in Coptic=city, town. 5 «In Judeed rivus Sabbatis omnibus siccatur ’ (Pliny, xxxi. 18). The idea doubtless arose from the intermittent springs (Siloam, &c.) about Jerusalem. Josephus (&. F viii. 5, § 1) makes his Sabbatic R. break the Jewish Sabbath (Saturday) by flowing only on that day and resting during the other six. Hence the fabled Sabbation, whose flood of huge rocks and sand-waves, sixty to two hundred cubits high, issued from the ‘Garden of Eden.’ It still hems in the ten ‘ Lost Tribes,’ and is believed by the Druzes. THE HARPE OF PERSEUS. 179 to the Sidonians or to the gods. The eastern coast of the ‘Inner Sea’ was a centre of civilisation, a school of high culture which added beauty to necessary and useful technical products ; and its arts and handicrafts became patterns to the world, even to Egypt, the mother. We have only a few inscriptions to remind us of its literature; but nothing can be more touching or more poetical than the epitaph of Eshmunazar, King of the Sidonians:!'—‘ Deprived of my fruit of life, my wise and valiant sons ; widowed, the child of solitude, I lie in this tomb, in this grave, in the place which I built” &c. Phcenicia, too, gave not only her letters but her gods to Greece and Rome. Mulciber, for instance, was evi- dently Malik Kabir, the ‘Great King, father of the Cabiri, the patron-saints of Palm-land and the Pelasgi; this deity corresponded with the Egyptian Ptah, the Demiurgus-god denoted by the Scarabzeus, a symbol as common in Phcenicia as in Nile-land. Melkarth,? again, whom Nonnius makes the Babylonian Sun, was the city-god ; farther west he became Herakles, the Etruscan Erkle: the latter was an important commercial personage in Phoenicia, for his dog (according to the Greeks) discovered the murex. Melkarth is the Ourshol of Selden (‘ De Diis Syriis’), who derives the word from ‘Ur, light? Another Syrian people, often occurring upon the Egyptian monuments, is the Shairetana, whom Layard supposes to be the Sharutinians near modern Antioch, They inhabited a country upon a river and a lake or sea. Their armour was a close-fitting cuirass of imbricated metal plates, worn over a short dress and girt at the waist; the helmet had side horns, and its upper dome was surmounted by a shaft-and-ball crest. Their weapons were javelins, long spears, and pointed Swords. The Tokkari, their neighbours, also carried for offence spears and large pointed knives or straight Swords. The Rebo had bows and long straight Swords with very sharp points. The same is the case with Ru-tennu or Rot-n-n, who often pass in review upon the monuments. They appear to have contained two divisions: the Ru-tennu-hir (upper Ru-tennu) were apparently the peoples of Ccelesyria, while the Ruthens or Luthens are mentioned in conjunction with Neniee (Nineveh), Shinar (Singar), Babel, and other places in Eastern Naharayn (Mesopotamia). We have no knowledge of the Phoenician Sword except that supplied to us by the legend of the enigmatical Egypto-Argive hero, Perseus. According to Hero- dotus (ii. 91), his quadrangular fane was at Panopolis-Chemmis in the Theban nome: here his sandal, two cubits long, was shown to devotees ; and the land prospered whenever he appeared, as is the case when it sees El-Khizr, the Green Prophet of El-Islam. The Greeks, whom we need not credit, made him the son of Jupiter by the ‘Acrisian maid’ (Danaé); and the Persians,’ according to the 1 I quote from Phenician Inscriptions, by the Rev. 8 Perhaps trom the Egyptian Uy, old, ancient, Dunbar I. Heath, not from the far more poetical ver- original. sion of the Duc de Luynes. 2 My friend Prof. Socin holds that St. Meklar of Tyre conserves the cultus of Melkarth. 4 The modern Persians, and, indeed, Persian his- tory and legend, know nothing of this wild legend, N2 180 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Greeks, declared his son Perses to be the heros eponymus of their country, and the ancestor of their Hakhmanish or Achemenian kings. His chief exploits were two. At Spanish Tartessus or in Libya (Herod. ii. 91) he slew, with the aid of a ‘magic mirror’ given to him by Neith-Athene, the gorgon Medusa, that old Typhonian head, from whose neck sprang Pegasus and Chrysaor.!. At Phcenician Joppa (Jaffa)? he slaughtered the sea-monster («frTos) and saved ‘Andromeda,’ who is suspiciously like ‘ Anat.’ In both these feats Perseus used a celestial weapon, the Harpé of Cronos, which Zeus had wielded in his duel with Typhon. The giant or bad-god had torn it from the grip of the good-god, whom he presently imprisoned in a cave ; and it was not recovered till the captive was liberated by Thut-Hermes. The Greeks call this Sword “Apzn (Harpé),? and the name is evidently the Phoenician Hereba and the Hebrew Chereb ; whilst its description, dpémavov o€0 (falx acuta, sharp sickle), identifies it with the Khopsh-blade of Egypt. Perseus performed his two exploits as Hercules slew the Lernean hydra; and Mercury cut off the head of Argus (falcato ense), using the harpen Cyllenidas This legend has greatly ‘exercised’ commentators. The hero is connected with Io, Belus, and AEgyptus ; while he is evidently related to the Cypriot Perseuth and the Phoenician Reseph* (flame or thunderbolt). The original fight is the eternal warfare of good, light, warmth, joy, with their contraries. It begins with Osiris-Typhon ; it proceeds to Assyria, where Bel the Sun-god attacks the Tiamat or marine monster with the Sapara-Sword or Khopsh. In Persia it becomes Hormuzd (Ahura-mazda) and Ahriman (Angra-manus): in Jewry it is an affair between Bel and the Dragon ; in Greece between Apollo and Python. The duello is continued by St. Patrick,’ who banished for ever snakes from Ireland ; and it makes its final appearance as ‘ Saint George and the Dragon.’ This expiring effort of Egyptian mythology is held apocryphal by the Roman Catholic Church, and no wonder. ' A terra-cotta relief in the British Museum shows Chrysaor (Xpuodwp) springing from Medusa’s neck. ? Joppa, according to tradition (Pliny, v. 14), was built by Kepheus, king of the A®thiopians, and was his capital before ‘the Deluge.’ The same author is now clean forgotten—at least, all my inquiries failed to find it. The testimony is of the highest character ; unfortunately it testifies to impossibilities—all mon- sters are ‘contradictory beings.’ The Ketos, whale or shark (Cants Carcharias), is evidently the same tells us that Andromeda’s chains were there shown, and that the monster’s skeleton (some fish cast ashore upon the harbour reef?) was brought to Rome by the Curule Adile M. Atmil. Scaurus the younger, who held office in Syria (ix. 4(. The bones were upwards of forty feet long, the backbone one foot and a half thick, and the ribs higher than those of the Indian elephant (a cachelot?). Ajasson de- clared that the remains should have been sent to those who show in their collections the weapon with which Cain slew Abel. Pausanias (second century) saw the Lydda streamlet red with blood, where Per- seus had bathed after killing the ‘Ketos.’ At Joppa St. Jerome was shown the traditional rock in which holes had been worn by Andromeda’s fetters. The spot that swallowed Hercules and Jonah. 8 Mgr. Bianchini very improperly translates Harpé by ‘glaive,’ and other writers absurdly use ‘ scymi- tar.’ They could hardly better describe what it was not. 4 The bronze Perseus of Benvenuto Cellini in the Loggie dell’ Orgagna of Florence holds a falx-Sword or falchion, 5 Hence possibly the town Arstif; and (the Isle of) Seripho, where Perseus was worshipped. ® There seem to be three of the name : Palladius, the first missionary to Ireland; Sen Patrick, who studied under St. Germanus and died a.D. 458-61 ; and Patrick M‘Calphurn, also a pupil of St. Ger- manus, who missionarised about A.D. 440-42. PHGENICIAN SWORDS. 181 Dragons do not, and never did, exist, except in memory as prehistoric mon- sters ; moreover, the traveller in Syria is shown three several tombs of ‘Mar Jiryus’ the Cappadocian, a saint who has spread himself from Diospolis-Lydda throughout the world. Under Justinian, the Theseum of Athens was dedicated to ‘Saint George of Cappadocia, and in Cyprus he had as many temples as Venus, The Saxon teacher thus invoked him : Invicto mundum qui sanguine temnis, Infinita refers, Georgi Sancte, trophzea. He entered the English calendar when Henry II. married Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitaine, the Crusader who chose the ‘flos Sanctorum’ for his patron saint. He is still godfather of the Garter, established by Edward III. in 1350; and the most feudal of existing orders wears ‘the George’ on a gold medallion, and celebrates its festival at Windsor on April 23. One step in the Saint’s progress has been traced by M. Ch. Clermont-Ganneau,} an Orientalist whose archeological acumen is unsurpassed even by his industry. A bas-relief group in the Louvre shows the hawk-headed Horus, mounted and in Roman uniform, piercing with his peculiar spear (an Zamatum, or barb-head), the neck of the crocodile Typhon, Set, Dagon,’ Python—the Devil. This strongly suggests that Horus and Perseus, Saint Patrick and Saint George, are one and the same person. The Hereba-blade has not yet been found in Pheenicia, but Wilkinson argues (II. ch. vii.) that the beautiful Swords and daggers, buried with the Ancient Britons and clearly not of Greek or Roman type, are Phcenician work. Carthaginian blades, however, dug up at Cannz are nowin the British Museum.2 That the nations were congeners we see by the Pcenulus of Plautus, and by such names as Dido (another form of David) and Elissa (El-Isa ,the royal woman) ; by Sichzeus, who derives from the same root as Zacchzus ; by Hannibal and Hasdrubal (containing the root Ba’al), and by the ‘ Suffetes’—magistrates who are the Hebrew Shophetim or Judges. The mercenary armies of Carthage, whose conquests are first alluded to by Herodotus (vii. 165), used Swords of bronze, copper, and tin: Meyrick (i. 7) also mentions brass ; and the highly imaginative General Vallancey compares it with Dowris metal or ‘Irish brass.’ Dr. Schliemann (‘ Mycene,’ p. 76) picked up, at ‘Motyé in Sicily, Carthaginian piles (arrow-heads) of bronze, pyramidal and without barbs (yAwyxéves or ham); he found the same style at Mycene (p. 123). 1 Horus et Saint-Georges, &c. See also a kind of sentimental study cesthetically baptised ‘Saint Mark’s Rest : the Place of Dragons,’ by J. R. Ander- on. : 2 From $7 (dag), a fish, a Ketos, the Phoenician yt (Dajun, Dagon); Dagan is the male, Dalas the female. Simply a fish-god. Sardanapalus was ‘he who knows Anu (the god) and Dagon.’ 3 Others found at Cannz resemble the copper Swords of Ireland, according to the Excyclopedia Metropolitana. 4 The ‘tariff of masses,’ from the temple of Baal at Marseille, speaks of Chaltzibah the Sufet. Other inscriptions inform us that the Carthaginians had a triad, Baal Hammon (Ammon); the Lady Tanith Pen Baal (Tanis or Neith, the tpécwmov, or face, of Baal), and Iolaus.—Phenician Inscriptions, by the Rev. D. I. Heath. 182 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. The Swords of the Lycians probably resembled the Egyptian Khopsh ; and the same was the case with the Cilician falchion. The latter peoples were also armed with the odpioca' (Sarissa); the lance or spear, sixteen to twenty feet long, afterwards used by the people of Epirus and the Macedonian phalanx. It is opposed to the Larissa, the lance of the European Middle Ages, and to the Narissa affected by the Norrenses. The most remarkable point concerning the Sword amongst the ancient Hebrews is our practical ignorance of its shape and size. Although shekels and similar remains have been discovered in fair quantities, that ‘iron race in iron clad,’ the Jews of old, has not left us a single specimen of arms or armour. This is the more curious, as we are expressly told that the blade was buried with its wielder.' And although we are assured (Gen. iv. 22) that Tubal-Cain, son of Lamech and Zillah, was the first metal-smith, there is no direct mention of iron arms amongst the Jews till after the Exodus. Gesenius proposes to make Tubal-Cain a hybrid word, ‘scoriarum faber,’ from the Persian ‘Tupal’ (iron-slag or scoria), and ‘ Kani (faber,a blacksmith). He has been identified with Ptah, Bil-Kan (Assyria), Vulcan, and Mulciber ; and only ignorance of Hinduism prevented medieval commentators discovering him under the a/ias of Vishvamitra, the artificer of the Hindi gods. Maestro Vizani (A.D. 1588), a famous master of fence, attributes the invention of the Sword to Tubal-Cain ; we should now place this worthy in the later bronze and early iron age. Unjust claims to discovery are made by all ancient peoples ; and here it would be hardly fair to adduce Bochart’s ‘Judzi semper mendaces ; in hoc argumento potissimum mentiuntur liberalissime.’ It is, however,amply evident that the Phoenicians and the despised Canaanites were highly-cultivated peoples, whereas the Jews were not. The latter are never alluded to in Egyptian hieroglyphs.2. Even after they had established their principality upon the bleak and barren uplands of Judza, they were dependent for their art upon their neighbours. Although gold was so abundant in the days of David that he could collect about one thousand million pounds (one hundred thousand talents of gold and one million of silver) for building the Temple, yet Solomon, the Wise King, was obliged to seek stone-cutters and even carpenters among the é8oves moAveaioador. Judea had neither science nor art ; architecture, sculpture, paint- ings nor mosaics; comfort nor cookery. The Great Temple that succeeded the Tabernacle of Moses was mainly the work of Hiram of Tyre, the Siromus of Hero- dotus (v. 104), the Hiromus of Dius, Menander and Josephus (‘ Apion, i. 17, &c.), and probably a dynastic name, as ‘Haram’ the Sacred. 1 Ezekiel (xxxii. 27). ‘ And they shall not lie with the mighty that are fallen of the uncircumcised, which are gone down to hell [Sheol=Shuala, the ghost- land of Babylon] with their weapons of war : and they have laid their Swords under their heads, but their iniquities shall be upon their bones, though they were the terror of the mighty in the land of the living.’ ? The Hebrews were probably included under the ‘miserable foreigners,’ who, at that time, numbered about one-third of the Egyptian people. It was the fashion to find ‘Hebrew’ in the ’Aper, ’Apura, ’Aperiu, and ’Apiurui of the monuments ; but Brugsch has shown that these were the original ‘ Erythreans,’ equestrian Arabs of the barrens extending from Helio- polis onward to modern Suez. THE FEWISH SWORD. 183 Another learned master of arms! declares that the first weapon mentioned in Hebrew Holy Writ is the fammeus gladius wielded by the Cherubim (Gen. iii. 24), the ‘Chereb’ which the Septuagint renders ‘Powdada.2 On the Assyrian monu- ments the Kerubi (‘ cherub,’ which derives, like the Arabic ‘ Karrtb, from ‘ Karb’ =Ppropinquity) denotes the colossal figures symbolising the Powers of Good, and guarding the palace-gates. As they prevented the admission of Evil, they found their way to the entrance of the Garden of Eden, whence they warned off sinners and intruders. The ‘flaming Sword, which ‘ turned every way to keep the way of the tree of life,’ was, according to some, the two-pronged blade, the Greek ‘ cheli- donian,’ which served as a talisman. Tiglath Pileser I. made one of these forked Swords of copper, inscribed it with his victories, and placed it as a trophy in one of his castles. But the Genesitic Sword is probably the weapon-symbol of Merodach, the Babylonian god and planet Jupiter. This revolving disc represented, like the Aryan ‘ Vajra, the lightning or ‘ thunderbolt’ with which our classics armed Zeus- Jovi;* and a highly poetical description of it is given in an old Akkadian hymn. Here it is called among other names Z¢tu (or Utz), which is, letter for letter, the same as the first of the Hebrew words translated ‘flaming Sword’ (lahat ha- Chereb) : it may also signify the ‘ Burning of Desolation. M. F. Lenormant?‘ sug- gests that the true meaning is ‘magical prodigy.’ But it is safer to stand by the disc-like Sword, which corresponds with the wheels of Ezekiel’s vision (chap. x. 9,10). In the Chaldean battle of Bel and the Dragon we again find the great flaming Sword, turning all round the circle when wielded by the deity against the ‘Drake.’ So the Egyptians had long before depicted the solar god with a glory of solar rays, a most appropriate symbol ; and his enemy, Apophis >-q DA the serpent of Genesis, whom he destroys, is a monstrous reptile bristling with a dorsal line of four Sword-blades, like flesh-knives, typifying destruction. The Hebrews borrowed their metallurgy, like all their early science, from Egypt. M. de Goguet remarked that they were not destitute of technological skill if they could calcine the golden calf and reduce the metal (probably by using natron) to a powder which could be drunk in water—aurum potabile, The Hebrews called the Sword ‘Chereb’ (197, pl. Chereboth), a word that occurs some two hundred and fifty times in the ‘Old Testament.’ Its root, like the Arabic ‘khrb,’ means to waste, to be wasted ; and the noun denotes any wasting matter.© Mostly it means a Sword (Gen. xvii. 40 ; xxxiv. 25, &c. &c.) ; in other 1 Trattato di Scherma, &c. di Alberto Marchionni (Firenze: Bencini, 1547). 2 This word will be noticed in chapter xi. I cannot wholly agree with Colonel Lane-Fox (Anthrop. Coll. p. 99) when he speaks of a ‘leaf-shaped Sword- blade attached to the end of the spear, like the Thracian romphea and the European Zartisan of medizeval times.’ * May not this older form of Jupiter have derived from the ‘Semitic’ root 7, Jah (Yah), carried west- ward by the Pheenicians? But this is ‘stirring the fire with a Sword,’ against which Pythagoras warns us. 4 ¢Les Figures de l’Histoire d’aprés la Bible,’ &c. (the Athene@um, Feb. 31, 1880). ‘ Lahat’ (the Germ. Johe, our low’ or ‘lowe’) is in the singular a ‘flame’; in the plural ‘spells, enchantments by drugs,’ &c. 5 Mr. Gerald Massey would identify the Jewish Chereb, like the Phoenician Hereba and the Gree 184 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. places it is a knife (Josh. v. 2,3). So we find in Ezekiel (v. 1), ‘Take thee a sharp knife [Chereb]; take thee a barber’s razor’: elsewhere it becomes a chisel (Exod. xx. 25); an axe or pick (Jer. xxxiv. 4; Ez. v. 1, and xxvi. 9), and, finally, violent heat (Job xxx. 30). The Arabic ‘ Harbah’ signifies a dart. We gather from the Hebrew writings that the Sword was originally of copper: hence the allusion to its brightness and its glittering: this would be followed by bronze, and lastly by iron, ground upon the whetstone (Deut. xxxii. 41). It was not of flint ; the ‘sharp knives’ alluded to in Joshua (v. 2), were mere silex-flakes like the Egyptian. The Sword was used by foot-soldiers and horsemen, the latter adding to the ‘light Sword’ a ‘glittering spear’ (Nahum iii. 3). The ‘Chereb’ was not a large or heavy weapon, and we may safely assume that its forms were those of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. The weight of Goliath’s Sword is unfortunately not given (1 Sam. xvii. 45), like that of his spear and his armour; nor are we told anything about the blade which David refused because he had not proved it (2b2d, 39). But the ease with which the son of Jesse drew out of the sheath thereof and used the Philistine’s ‘Chereb, suggests a normal size and weight (202d. 51 and xxi. 9). It was much admired, for the victor said, ‘There is none like that’ (1 Sam. xxi. 9). From the same chapter and verse we learn that the blade was ‘wrapped up in a cloth, still an Eastern practice, ‘behind the ephod’ or priest’s robe! And the fact of a man falling upon his Sword (1 Sam. xxxi. 4, 5) shows that the blade was stiff, short, and straight, like the Egyptian leaf-blade. Ehud the Benjamite, when about to murder Eglon, King of Moab (Jud. iii. 16), ‘ made a two-edged Sword-dagger of a cubit length’ (or eighteen inches), apparently without a sheath. The frequent mention of the double-edged Sword (or straight cut-and-thrust ?) suggests that there were also single-edged blades, back-Swords or, perhaps, falchions. It is hard to understand why Meyrick tells us that the Jews wore the Sword ‘suspended in front, in the Asiatic style’ Ehud (zdzd. 16, 21) girt his weapon under his raiment upon his right thigh, and drew it with his left hand. Again, we read, ‘Gird thy sword upon thy thigh’ (Ps. xlv. 3); and as Joab proceeded to assassinate Amasa (2 Sam. xx. 8), the ‘garment that he had put on was girded unto him, and upon it a girdle with a sword fastened upon his loins in the sheath thereof ; and as he went forth it fell out.’ The allusions to the oppress- ing Sword (Jer. xlvi. 16; 1. 25) recall the Assyrian emblem of the Sword and the Dove, which are both figured in one image. Perhaps we must so understand the Egyptian Ritual of the Dead: ‘I came forth as his child from his Sword.’ Appa- rently the Chereb was worn, as by the civilised Greeks and Romans, only on emergencies and not, like the chivalry of Europe, habitually in peaceful towns. became a Sword—the reaper of men. This is in- Harpé, with the Egyptian Kherp, @ & , the genious, but nothing more: the white arm in Egypt — a’ sign of majesty typified by an oar or rather paddle— el t. Thus the Kherp first cut the water like a propeller, then the grain as a sickle, and at last it shows no sign of derivation from the oar. 1 So Jeanne d’Arc’s Sword was taken from a church, as will appear in Part II. THE FEWISH SWORD. 185 The Cultellarii or Sicarii, whom Josephus and Tacitus! mention, were mere assas- sins, like the French Coustilliers and the English Coustrils or Custrils. That the Hebrews were not first-rate Sword-cutlers, we may infer from the history of Judas the Maccabee.? A vision of Jeremiah the Prophet, preceding the victory over Nicanor, had promised him ‘a Sword of God, a holy Sword,’ not the short Machera but the large Rhomphea (2 Mac. xv. 15). After his war with the Samaritans and the Gentiles of Palestine, ‘Judas took the Sword of Apollonius (the Syrian general) and fought with it all his life’ (2 Mac. iii. 12). And yet how general was the use of the Sword in Jewry we gather from the fact that it assisted in taking the Census: so David, by one account (2 Sam. xxiv. 9) mustered one million three hundred thousand ‘ valiant men that drew the Sword.’? The expression ‘girding on the Sword’ (1 Sam. xxv. 13) denoted adults able to serve as soldiers, and also noted the beginning of a campaign (Deut. i. 41). It has been stated that Saul, son of Kish, used the Sword with his left hand, by virtue of being of the tribe of Benjamin. Of the latter, however, we learn (Judg. xx. 16) that many were ambidexters, fighting and slinging with the left as well as with the right. Finally, to be ‘slain by the Sword’ was evidently as great a misfortune as the ‘ straw-death’ among those muscular Christians, the Scandinavians. The curse of David upon Joab was that there might never be wanting in his house ‘ one that hath an issue, or is a leper, or that leaneth on a staff, or that falleth on the Sword’ (a suicide), All this makes the fact the more singular that no Jewish Sword-blade has ever been found. Of the weapons used by the tribes neighbouring the ancient Hebrews we know little. In the famous muster of Xerxes’ army,’ the Assyrians, according to Hero- dotus (vii. 65), used hand-daggers (éyyevpédva) resembling the Egyptian. The Arabs (vii. 69, 86), like the Indians, were mere savages armed with bows and arrows ; and we may note that the former mounted only camels, the horse not having been naturalised amongst all the tribes in the days of the ‘Great King’ (B.c. 485-465). The Philistine ® weapons are known to us only by the famous duello between David and Goliath of Gath (1 Sam. xvii.). The account is full of difficulties for the ‘ reconciler’ of contradictory texts ; for instance, David is Saul’s 1 Tacitus (Hist, v. 13) calls them a ‘band of murderers.’ The ominous word ‘ Sicarius’ first occurs in Jewish history during Josephus’ time (Bell. Fud. iv. 7; vii. 11}. St. Paul was charged by Lysias with heading four thousand Sicarii, who at great feasts murdered their victims with concealed daggers. Also forty Sicarii bound themselves by the Cherem- oath (the original ‘Boycotting’) to slay Paul. The Sica or Sicca will be noticed in another chapter. 2 The Machabzean epoch is interesting, because during it the idea of a ‘ resurrection’ was established. The word should be written ‘ Makab ’ if derived from Mi Kamo Ka Baalim Yahveh (Ex. xv. 11). ’ The number is given in Chronicles (1, xxi. 5) at one million five hundred and seventy thousand without including Levi and Benjamin. Many attempts have been made to reconcile the little difference of two hundred and seventy thousand souls. ‘ T shall notice Assyrian Arms in chap. a. ® By a curious feat of etymology, this word, or rather the German ‘Philister’ (confounded with Lalestarius or Balesteus, a crossbow-man, the militia of small artisans?) has come to signify in modern parlance one indifferent to ‘intellectual interest’ and the ‘higher culture.’ As applied to the enemy it is simply Prig writ large. 186 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. armour-bearer, and yet unknown at Court.! Nor is it easy to discover where Gath is. It is popularly identified with Kharbat (ruins of) Gat: this heap of ruins lies west of castled Bayt Jibrin, the ‘ House of Giants’ (tyrants), the Arabic name cor- responding with the Hebrew Bethogabra. The field of fight has been found in the Wady El-Samt (Elah of St. Jerome), west of Jerusalem. The people of this part of Palestine, probably descended from the Hyksos or Canaanites, are a fine tall race, bred to fray and foray by the neighbourhood of predatory Bedawin :? armed to the teeth, they are adepts in the use of the huge ‘nebut’ or quarterstaff. The plain of Philistia, which once supported five princely cities, appears very barren viewed from the sea; but the interior shows well-watered valleys, and the succession of ruins proves that the country belonged to an energetic and indus- trious race. Gaza (’Azzah), at the southern extremity, was a place of considerable importance, on account of its fine port and its trade with the adjacent Bedawin. It must not be confused with modern Ghazzah? Goliath, the ‘ champion of the uncircumcised’ (Philistines), and possibly a type of the race, wore armour‘ of ‘brass’ (copper) ; unfortunately the materials of his Sword and sheath are not specified. Leaving Syria, we proceed to Cyprus, which may be considered an outlying part of Palestine. Its size, its position between the east and the west, and its wealth in gold, silver, copper, and iron, made it an important station for the early Pelasgo-Hellenic or Graeco-Italic race which passed westwards, using the Helles- pont and the Bosphorus for ferry-places, and the Atgean Islands for stepping- stones. 1 The Old Testament in the Fewish Church, p. 126, by the Rev. W. Robertson Smith (Blacks, Edinburgh, 1881). 2 Napoleon Buonaparte was right in attributing the instability of the great empires (Egypt, Babylon, Assyria) bordered by the Bedawin, to the destructive action of the Arab race: ‘That most ‘mischievous nation whom it is never desirable to have either for friends or enemies’ (Ammian. Marcell. xiv. 4). I have enlarged upon this subject in Unexplored Syria (i. 210). The first noted outswarming was of the Hyksos or Shepherd-Kings (B.c. 1480 to 1530?). Another, under the influence of Mohammed the Apostle of Allah, changed the condition of the Old World; and in the present day, Turkish dominion in the regions frontiered by Arabia is being seriously threatened. Hence Ibn Khaldin of Tunis, who in A.D. 1332 began to write philosophical history, assigns to empire in the East three generations (= 120 years) and three several steps. The first, youth, is of growth (campaigning and annexing); the religion being fanaticism and the form of government a limited monarchy of a semi-republican type. The second, manhood, is a period of ‘rest and be thankful,’ of not ‘stirring up things quiet’; of enjoyment, of easy Thus Cyprus became the ‘cradle of Greek culture, the cauldron in which Asiatic, Egyptian, and Greek ingredients were brewed together.’ General Palma scepticism, of luxury, of despotism. The third, age, is decline and fall, the triumph of financiers and capitalists ; of aversion from war and from ‘ territorial aggrandisement’.; itis distinguishéd-by employing mer- cenaries, by religious disbelief, by tyrannicrule. (Jin Chaldun und seine Culturgeschichte, Baron A. von Kremer. Wien.) ee ’ This has apparently been done by the Rev. Mr. Porter, the author of that unpraiseworthy Murray's Handbook. His Strabo had told him that Gaza lay seven stadia or furlongs from the sea; and St. Jerome that a new town had been built. Yet we are led three miles from the shore to modern Ghazzah, and are gravely told of Moslem absurdities concerning the Makam or tomb of Samson. The old port of which the Ancients speak has evidently been buried by the sands which are attacking Bayrit, and the only sur- vivor of the past may be the site of Shaykh Tjlin on the coast, south of the Minat or present roads. In noticing Askelon, Mr. Porter tells us all about the old story of Ascalonia, Scallion, Shalot: nothing about the Egyptian Ac-qa-li-na, For a third edition the learned author should take the trouble to consult Brugsch Pasha’s Egypto-Syrian studies. 4 See chap. iv. THE CYPRUS SWORD. 187 (di Cesnola)! has proved, by his invaluable finds, which have ‘added a new and very important chapter to the history of art and archeology,’ that early Cypriote art was essentially Egyptian, modified by Phcenician and Assyrian influences, and eventually becoming Greek. Hence, too, with the dawn of Hellenic civilisation, migrated westwards some of the fairest classical myths. Cyprus was the very birthplace of Venus,? an anthropomorphism which rendered infinite service to poetry, painting, and sculpture. Idalium (Dali) was the capital of Cinyras, Kinnari the harper,’ the Croesus of his day ; it was the site of Myrrha’s sin and the death-place of her son Adonis, The latter, who corresponds with the Tammuz of Palestine and the Assyrian Du-zi (Son of Life), is made by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. 14) an‘emblem of the fruits of the earth cut down in their prime.” Here was the atelier of Pygmalion, Fa’am Aliyun (falleus Deorum), the hammer of the gods ;* and here upon his breathing statue of ivory he begat Paphos, the king. Finally, here flourished the poets who preceded the Homerid chief; and here was born Zeno, the Stoic, the ‘ Phcenician.’ The history of Cyprus begins soon after the beginning. An inscription of Thut- mes III. speaks of the ‘ false breed of the Kittim’; and the island is everywhere on the monuments called Asibi. In the cuneiforms the word is ‘ Kittie’: we also find ‘ Atnd4n’: hence, possibly, the Hellenic ‘Akamantis.” It is the ‘ Chittim’ of the Hebrews (Joseph.‘ A. J.’i. 7), and perhaps their ‘Caphtor’ ; the latter word, how- ever, appears to be the Egyptian ‘ Kefa’ or ‘ Keft’ (a palm or Phoenicia), converted into the son of Javan and grandson of Japhet. ‘Kittim’ and its congeners sur- vive in the Greek Citium, now Larnaca, from ‘larnax,’ a mummy-case, a coffin, I have already noticed (chap. iv.) the disputed origin of ‘ Kypros’ and ‘ Cyprus.’ The Autochthones of Cyprus are supposed upon very slight grounds to have been ‘Aryans’ from Asia Minor, Phrygians,> Lycians,° Lydians, or Cilicians, 1 Cyprus, before quoted. 2 Aphrodite or Venus (Urania and Pandemos, Porné and Hetera), at once the feminine principle in nature, the original mother and the idea of womanly beauty, was a universal personage. In Egypt she was Athor the Goddess of Pleasure, and Ashtar in Nilotic Mendes. Amongst the Arabs she became Beltis, Baaltis the feminine of Bel or Ba’al, and Alitta (Al-ilat the goddess) ; among the Sidonians Ashtoreth (1 Kings xi. 33); in Pheenicia, Ishtar and Astarte, which Gesenius takes to be a Semitisation of the Persian Sitareh, a star (ze. Venus); in Byblos, Dionzea and Dione ; in other parts of Syria, Derceto, Atergatis (Ta-ur-t, Thoueris), and Nani, the latter still surviving in the Bibi Nani (Lady Venus) of Afghanistan. In Cyprus she was Anat, Tanat, or Tanith (Ta-neith = Athene ?); in Persia and Armenia Mitra (Herod. i. 131), Tanata, and Anaitis = Anahid, the planet Venus; and in Carthage, Tanit Pen Baal. 3 In Heb. Kinnur, a lyre of six to nine strings resembling the Nubian article. Hence, probably, «i0dpa, Cithara, Chitarra, Guitar, Zither ; but there is a modification by the Persian Sih-tarah or ‘the three-stringed.’ 4 Thus in Jeremiah (xxiii. 29), ‘Is not my word like as a fire? saith the Lord; and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces?’ 5 I see with pleasure that Mr. W. P. Palmer pro- poses to continue his exploration of Phrygia; his lecture before the Hellenic Society (Dec. 14, 1882) promises much. The western half of the great western plateau of Asia Minor, this land of mono- tonous grandeur, is directly connected with the Egean Sea bya single line of cleavage which extends from Miletus to Celenze. Egyptian art and influence found its way to Greece 774 Phrygia as well as through Pheenicia, especially in the early days of the Argo- nauts and the Jéads, when Greece began to be con- nected with nearer Asia. Hence the wide diffusion of the Midas-myth (B.c. 670): the long-eared king’s tomb was discovered in 1800. I have elsewhere noticed how far Phrygia extended to the West, leaving indelible marks in Spain and Portugal. ® The Lycian tongue, as far as we know, resem- 188 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. There must have been an early ‘ Semitic’ innervation, as we see by such names as Amathus ; this is the Greek form of Hamath, the ‘high town,’ typically explained by the Hebrew ‘ Amath,’ grandson of Canaan. The Phcenicians settled chiefly in the south of the island and made it an outpost of Tyre and Sidon. Herodotus tells us that there were also, according to their own account, Ethiopians (vii. 90), by which he means Cushito-Asiatic tribes from the head of the Persian Gulf. The staple of Cyprus, from the heroic ages to the Roman days, was the copper- trade and the manufacture of arms and armour. To the legendary Tyrio-Cyprian king Cinyras was attributed the invention of the hammer, anvil, tongs, and other metallurgic tools. This favourite of Venus was only the ero eponymus of the Pheenician Cinyradz, who ruled the isle till subdued by Ptolemy Lagi (B.C. 312). They were opposed to a Semitico-Cilician family of priests and prophets, the Tamyride. Homer (‘Il xi. 19) describes the breast-plate of worked and dama- scened steel (? cvavos) adorned with gold and tin, which King Cinyras sent to Agamemnon. Alexander the Great highly prized, for its lightness and temper, the blade given to him by the King of Citium; and we know that he used it in battle, slaying ‘with his Cyprian Sword’ Rhesales the Persian. Demetrius Poliorcetes wore a suit of armour from Cyprus, which had been tested by darts shot from an engine distant only twenty paces. In Herodotus (vii. 90) the Cyprian contingent of Xerxes’ army was weaponed after the manner of the Greeks, Cyprus would derive her art from the Phcenicians, whose bronze dishes were found in the Palace-cellars at Nineveh. Gem-engraving, and working in pretra dura, were highly cultivated, as is proved by General Palma’s works, and by the Lawrence-Cesnola collection,‘ Album of Cyprus Antiquities,’! Glass- and crystal- cutting were well known at a time when Herodotus (ii. 69) could describe the former only as ‘fusible stone’—perhaps, however, alluding to paste gems. But Theophrastus, a century and a half after the historian, mentions glass as reported to be made by melting a certain stone. I have already alluded to the peculiar decency and decorum of the glyptic remains in the Isle of Venus, where the fes- tivals were described as being ultra~-Canopic in character.? The ‘finds’ of Cyprian weapons have little importance; perhaps due care was not devoted to the subject. Dali (Idalium) produced a fine dagger with an open ring for ornament between handle and blade, together with a hatchet and spear- head in copper. Here also was found the bronze tablet of the Duc de Luynes, the bles Zend ; and the coin witha triquetra (Rawlinson’s ' Major di Cesnola On Phenician Art in Cyprus : Herod. i, 212) has three characters apparently Hit- tite. The Lycian confederacy of twenty-three towns (six cities being chief) was strong enough to resist Croesus (Herodotus). Their relationship was by the ‘ distaff-side’ (AZutterrecht), as opposed to the ‘Sword- side’; and we find traces of the same antique and logical practice among the Greeks: adeApds is evi- dently derived from Sergius, the proofs are ‘gold and silver ornaments of remark- able beauty and grace,’ which are said to resemble the produce of Hissarlik. ? The Cyprian Venus was worshipped in the form of an Umbilicus or Meta, according to Ser- vius (ad «im, i. 724), Others compare it with a pyramid. CYPRUS WEAPONS. 189 discoverer of the Cypriote syllabary,' which has caused, and still causes, so much discussion. Fic. 196.—(Plate V.) Novacu.a. a razor, a sickle, and a pruning-hook? supplied copper axes and iron arrow-heads (p. 280), and another There is a charming dagger from the Curium treasure (Pl, X XI. p. 312) ; and we are told (p. 335) of ‘an an iron dagger (p. 276). Fic. 197.—(Prague Museum.) NovacuLa? Fic. 198.—(Klagenfurth Museum.) NovacuLa, SICKLE? Razor? Alambra yielded a number of copper tools, needles, bowls, mirrors, hatchets, spear-heads, and daggers (Cesnola, Pl. V.). them is a sickle-shaped implement (@), of the shape called a ‘razor’ by writers on Etruscanism; it may be anything between Among A tomb at Amathus Fic. 199.—SILVER DacGERr. iron dagger with part of itsivory handle. The straight blade, the flesh-chopper, and the leaf-shaped Egyptian Swords are found on a patera? (p. 329), and the broken 1 Numismatique et Inscriptions Cypriotes, Paris, 1832. The Dali inscription is compared with the Lycian at the end of vol. i. pt 1, Soc. of Bibl. Archeol. 1872. Discussing the eighty characters, the Duc de Luynes found twenty-seven Egyptian, twelve Lycian, and seven Phoenician. This would suggest that the syllabary isa branch of the picture-writing which grew to be an alphabet proper in the Nile Valley, and which, modified by the Phcenicians, passed into Greece. Others hold it to be an imperfect modification of the Assyrian cuneiforms, introduced about B.c. 700 and lasting till Alexander’s day. I have already noticed that the cuneiforms were originally pictures of natural objects ; and that the same is evidently the case with the Chinese syllabary. Some of the Cypriot signs show a faint resemblance to the Devanagari alphabet, which we know to be a modern offshoot from South Arabian or Himyaritic. A gold incision from the Curium treasury (Plate xxxiv. No. 7) consists of two crescents adossed, which may be either Hittite or a simple ornament. Mr. Sayce, indeed, derives the syllabary from Khita-land. Of the crescent and the star I have already spoken; no date can be assigned to it in decorative art. ? I have figured a similar but broader blade as the Novacula in Etruscan Bologna, p. 66. The Prague Museum has about a dozen of these sickles found near Tepl: one (4) with a rivet-hole and a kind of beading. In the collection of Carinthian Klagenfurth I found a sickle (¢, No. 1711) fifteen and a half cent. long by four broad, with an Etruscan inscription M Od A4AdxA. See Chap. X. * The winged Sphinxes upon this patera with hawks’ heads are peculiarly Egyptian. Zhe Sphinx, which may be older than the Pyramids, is a man- 190 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. statue of a warrior from Golgoi carries a falchion or flesh-chopper slung under the quiver to the left side (p. 155). The tombs containing horsemen in terra-cotta invariably yielded one or two spear-heads seven to ten inches long, whilst the figures of foot-soldiers were accompanied by a battle-axe, knife, or dagger. The decapitation of the Gorgon by Perseus adorns a sarcophagus also found at Golgoi (Pl. X.); and the head of Medusa (Pl. XXII.) apparently suggested that of the Hindu Kali, with the tongue lolling out as if gorged with gore. The medizval finds .of arms seem to have been more important than the ancient. There is a tempting notice, but only a notice, of the Venetian weapons taken from the two casements of Famagosta, of old Amta-Khadasta,! the Ammochostos of Ptolemy (v. 14, § 3): especially interesting are the rapiers, whose handles bore the Jeru- salem Cross and the owners’ crests inlaid with gold. On the mainland north of Cyprus lies a most remarkable land which, forming a point of junction, a connecting-link between the East and the West, was one of the tracks of primitive emigration from Asia to Europe, and vice versd. This téte de pont, commanding the island-bridge and the various stepping-stones of rock, is the famous Troas, occupied of old by a branch of the great Phrygian race. Hence the interest attaching to the excavations of Dr. Henry Schliemann. His works are too well known to require any detailed notice of the five (seven ?) cities ‘whose successive layers of ruins, still marked by the fires that passed over them, are piled to the height of fifty (two and a half) feet above the old summit of the Hisdarlik hill’? The explorer’s labours, according to his editor, have passed through the ‘several stages of uncritical acceptance, hypercritical rejection, and discrimi- nating belief’: I can only remark that the question of Troy appears farther from being settled (if possible) than it ever was; we now know only where it was not. The excavator began by placing his city of Priam in the second stratum from below, at a depth of twenty-three to thirty-three feet under the surface ; and after- wards raised it to the third layer. It is regretable that the learned author did not submit his lively volume ‘ Troy’ to a professed archzologist. We should not have heard so much about the Svasti, a Hittite ornament, nor should we have been told that the Trojans used ‘salt-cellars or pepper-boxes’ (p. 79); that the Ramayana Epic was ‘composed at the latest eight hundred years before Christ’ (p. 103), and that the ‘ivory, peacocks, and apes are Sanskrit words with scarcely any headed lion—the ‘ union of force and intellect.’ Later types change the human head to that of an asp, a ram, and a hawk ; and supply the latter with wings. The same is the case with the Sphinx of Troy and Assyria: it is mostly alate. The Grecian Sphinx changed the bearded human head to that of a woman ; the Gyno- the Egyptians threw into the face of the Sphinx have only to study the statue standing to the proper left of the main entrance to Shepheard’s Hotel, Cairo. It came, I believe, from the great Dromos of the Sera- peum, the Apis-tombs of the marvellous Memphis cemetery. Sphinx in Egypt being later than the Andro-Sphinx. We find the female in the doorway of the Xanthus frieze and over the sarcophagus at Amathus (Cyprus, pp. 264-267). Those who would understand the pecu- liar beauty, not only of line but of expression, which ' Meaning Holy Lady or Great Goddess, the Syria Dea. Preceded by the digamma, the word became Famagosta, and was corrupted to Fama Augusti and to Ammochosti, a sand-heap. ? See his diagram, p. 10, Troy and its Remains. TROFAN WEAPONS. IgI alteration.’! When, therefore, I speak of ‘Troy proper, and ‘Trojan stratum,’ I mean only Dr. Schliemann’s Troy. The townlet had preserved, at the time of its destruction, the technological use of stone, which, indeed, was found in the four lower strata, and even in the Acropolis of Athens. It occurs, however, in conjunction with gold and silver, copper, bronze, and traces of iron, but no tin.? The people were, like most barbarians, very expert metallurgists; and if Dr. Schliemann’s diorite be true diorite,? they must have worked with highly-tempered tools. the most common metal: we read of a key, a large double-edged axe, a vase- Copper, either pure or slightly alloyed, was foot, nails, clothes-pins (onda), a curious instrument like a horse’s bit (p. 261) ; a bar, a big ring, a chauldron (Aé@ns), a ridge (dados) for the helmet-crest (Aégos), two whole helmets, three crooked knives, and a lance with a mid-rib (p. 279). Upon the so-called ‘great Tower of Ilios’4 was found a large mould of mica-schist for casting twelve different articles, axes and daggers. Thus we learn something about the long copper knives which the Homeric heroes carry besides their Swords and use in sacrifice: also we may now reasonably conclude that the Iliad-poets could not, as has often been asserted, have ignored the fusion and the casting of metals. Near this important mould appeared a fine lance (p. 279), and long thin bars, either with heads or with the ends bent round, determined to be hair- or breast-pins. often mentions ‘loadstone.’ ® Iron showed only in a sling-bullet, although Dr. Schliemann The ‘upper Trojan stratum’ yielded other moulds for bar-casting and a four- footed crucible, in which some copper was still visible. The gates supposed to be the Sczean or left-handed? had two copper bolts (p. 302). The so-called ‘ Palace 1 See chapter viii. These assertions are fair specimens of the harm done to philology, in uncritical England, by the one-sided and ad captandum views of the ‘Sanskritists.’ Mr. Gerald Massey hardly exaggerates when he says (i. 135), ‘It looks as if the discovery of Sanskrit were doomed to be a fatal find for the philologists of our generation.’ The peculiar mixture of philology, in its specialist form, with the science of religion and the tenebrze of meta- physics has, it appears to me, done much harm to all three ; but it delighted the half-educated public. It met with scant appreciation in acute France and in critical Germany, where the editing, or rather muti- lation, of texts, has been severely chastised. But the Sanskritist, much to the discredit of Oriental studies and of philology in England, has given us an indiges- tion of Sanskritism ; during the last great Oriental Congress in London he almost monopolised time and attention, to the prejudice of Orientalism in general. Apparently a protest is on the point of being raised ; but, unhappily, Teutonism is still a scourge in Great Britain, and the typical Solar myth, ‘like Hermann’s a German.’ 2 Except, of course, in the bronze. 8 Charles Rau (?), an American, by means of a bow, and without using metal, bored a hole through an axe of diorite: it occupied him ten hours a day for four months (Jahns, p. 6). 4 In medizval Romance ‘Ilios,’ ‘Ilion,’ and ‘Tlium’ were applied to the Palace of Priam. 5 Fuventus Mundi, by the Right Hon. W. E, Gladstone, p. 529. 6 May it not be the black hematite used in Cyprus? Compare the goose’s head, the sacred bas- ket, and the frog, Egyptian symbol of embryonic man and of Hor-Apollo (Harpocrates), in General Palma (Appendix, p. 364). But is this able writer sure about his ‘hematite’? 7 Te. to one looking north and therefore west. The old Egyptians faced to the south (Hin or Khount), which they called ‘upwards’ or ‘forwards,’ in oppo- sition to the North, which was the lower (Khir) or hinder part (Pehu). Thus their right was west (Unim) and their left east (Semah): the right leg of Osiris was the western side of the Delta. So Pliny (ii. 6) makes his observer front southwards. The Assyrian and Semites faced east (Kadam or front, opposed to Akhir or Shalam, the sun’s resting-place) : hence their right (Yemen) was the south, and their left (Sham) was north. They introduced this fashion 192 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. of Priam’! produced a dozen long thin pins for hair or dress; and one of a bundle of five, fused together by fire, had two separate heads, the upper lentil-shaped, and the lower perfectly round (p. 312). Thick nails, fitted for driving into wood, were Fic. 200.—Coprer Sworp WITH SHARP END, FROM THE ‘ TREASURY OF PRIAM.’ at a right angle. rare; the labour of two years produced only two. Finally, there were fragments of a Sword, a lance, and other instruments. The first article found in the so-called ‘ Treasury of Priam’ was a copper shield (domls dudaddecoa), an oval salver measuring in diameter less than twenty inches. The flat field is surrounded by a rim (dtv£) an inch and a half high; the umbo (éudanrds) ? measured two and one-third by four and one-third across, and this boss was bounded by a furrow (avAa£) two-fifths of an inch across (p. 324). Thus Antyx and Aulax, suited for mounting a guard of hide, recall Ajax’s seven-fold shield, made by Tychius* (‘IL’ vii. 219-223); and Sarpedon’s targe, with its round plate of ham- mered ‘ Chalcos,’ and its hide-covering attached to the inner edge of the rim by gold wires or rivets (‘ Il’ xii. 294-97). Near the left hand of a Lebes-chauldron, two fragments of a lance and a battle-axe were firmly attached by fusion. There were thirteen copper lances, from nearly seven inches to upwards of a foot long, with one and a half to two and one-third inches of maximum breadth ; the shafts had pin-holes for attachment to the handle ; the Greeks and Romans inserted the wood into the neck of the metal-head of the lance. There was a common one-edged knife six inches long; and of seven two- edged daggers, the largest measured ten and two-thirds by two inches. The grips averaged two to two and three-quarter inches, and the tang-ends, where the pommels should be, were bent round Doubtless the tang had been encased in a wooden haft; had it been of bone some trace would have remained, and the point, which projected about half an inch, was simply turned to keep the handle in place. This anti- into Ancient India, where, consequently, Dakshina (dxtra, the right hand) became the south, and sur- vives in our ‘Deccan.’ The practice even extended to Ireland where £11j1) or yy (Erin, Ierne) has been derived from the Keltic jap, behind, the west ; and 11), an island, the isle lying west of France and Britain. 1 Travellers who have inspected the excavations deride these pompous terms: the ruins look well in book-illustrations, but the reality is mean in the extreme. ? Dr. Schliemann shows the human umbilicus adorned with a cross. The significance of such phrases as ‘ omphalos of the earth’ applied to Delphi and Paphos, is generally misunderstood. Any traveller in India who has seen a Lingait temple would at once explain it, as well as the illustration in Wilkinson (vol. i. ch. iv. p. 270) showing the Lingam-Yoni, whose worshippers are ‘cherubim’ (i.e. winged Thmei). Similarly the symbol of Chemosh of Moab and of sundry classical gods was a cone. The Dea Multimamma, Cybele, miscalled ‘Artemis’ (Diana) of the Ephesians, was a statue, not a cone, but it stood upon an inverted pyramid. The uninitiated as little understand the Crux Ansata or Egyptian Cross, the emblem of life and fecundity, which was adopted by the Coptic Christians. The sacred Tau (Tau of Ezekiel ix. 6) gave rise to the Maltese Cross in Pheenicia, and in Assyria became the emblem of Shamas the sun. * I need hardly remind ‘Grecians’ that Tychius is supposed to have been a personal friend of the arch- Homerid. ALL THE TROYS. 193 quated contrivance is not yet wholly obsolete, especially when the metal is left naked. The only sign of a Sword (p. 332) was a fragmentary blade five inches and two-thirds long by nearly two inches broad, and with a sharp edge at the chisel-like end. Many golden buttons, not unlike our modern shirt-studs, were found in the ‘Treasury’; they had probably served to ornament the belts or straps (teAXapuaves) of knives, shields, and Swords.! We gather from Dr. Schliemann’s labours that his ‘Troy,’ at the time of its destruction, was a townlet still in the local Stone-age ; at the height of the Copper- Bronze Period ; and, perhaps, in the earliest dawn of the Iron-epoch. Apparently it had an alphabet, of which the Grecian enemy could not boast ;? and, comparing its remains with those of Mycene, its culture fully equalled, if not excelled, that of contemporary Hellas. It is curious to observe that the deeper the diggings, from twenty-four feet downwards, the greater were the indications of technological skill. According to Herodotus (ii. 118), the Egyptians bore witness to the power of Troy,’ yet there is an utter absence of Nilotic influence in the remains, and Brugsch denies that there is any allusion to it on the monuments of Egypt. A similar disconnection with Phcenicia and Assyria appears. The resemblance of the terra cottas to those found in Cyprus and in some of the A‘gean islands suggests that there was an early relationship between the Phrygian Trojans and the Phrygian Greeks, both being ‘Indo-Europeans’ ;‘ and that the eternal Trojan war was, like the later contest between Russia and Poland, Federals and Confede- rates, nothing but a family feud, a venomous quarrel of rival cousins. To conclude the ever-interesting subject of Troy. Homer, or the Homerid so called, describes the city according to current legends, as an untravelled English- man of to-day would describe the Calais of Queen Mary. There is no reason to believe that he saw it, much less that he painted like the photographing of Balzac. Hence it is a daring more than sublime, to find the Sczean Gate and the Palace of Priam. Even the number of superimposed settlements differs. Dr. Schliemann (‘ Ilios, &c.) proposes seven, while Dr. Wilhelm Dérpfeld*® reduces the number to six. These, according to Professor Jebb, are as follows: (1) The Greek Ilium of the latest or Roman age, extending to about six feet below the surface. (2) The Greek Ilium of Macedonian age taken by Fimbria in B.c. 85 ; it extends over the plateau adjoining Hisdrlik. (3) A Greek Ilium of earlier age, taken by Charidemus (B.C. 359); it appears confined to the little mound. (4) unproved theory. India did not supply Europe either with speech or with population. The popular belief 1 Upon this point Dr. Schliemann’s AZycene is more explicit. 2 It is, I need hardly say, still a disputed point whether the Homeric Greeks could or could not write. See chapter xi. 3 M. F. Lenormant, the Academy, March 21 and 28, 1874. 4 I must again protest against the use, while compelled by want of another to use the term ‘ Indo- European,’ which, applied to language, contains an appears erroneous as is its appreciation of enn Ey which did zot derive man from monkey. The original Egyptian roots developed themselves into a host of dialects which flourished and perished before Pali and Sanskrit, a professor’s tongue, like medizval Latin, never understanded of the people, assumed their present shapes. 5 North American Review. 194 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Another unimportant village ; possibly No. 3 in its earliest form, when the Aolic settlers occupied Hisdrlik: the evidence of the pottery! suggests these to have been the oldest Hellenic remains. (5) Prehistoric city ; and (6) a distinct stratum of ruins also prehistoric. To these Dr. Schiiemann adds (7) the earliest prehistoric buildings founded on the floor-rock fifty-two feet below the surface and fifty-nine above the present level of the plain. Finally, Mr. W. W. Goodwin? comes to the ‘ultimate conclusion’ about Hisarlik, that it shows only two important settlements. The first is the large prehistoric city extending over the hill and plateau. The second is the historic Ilium in its three phases of primitive AZolic occupation of the Acropolis, the Macedonian city, and the Roman Ilium. The immediate neighbours of Troy were the Lydians, whom history makes the forefathers of the ancient Etruscans.? Herodotus (i. 94) tells the tale of Tyr- rhenus and his emigration, which, however, differs from the account of Xanthus In the ‘Iliad’ (ii. 864), the Lydians appear only as Mzonians. They were a people of Iranian speech, to judge from such words as xav (canis, kyon, svan, &c.,a dog), and ‘ Sardis’ from ‘ Sarat’ or ‘ Sard,’ in old Lydius preserved by Nicolaus of Damascus. Persian Thrade and in modern Persian Sal=a year. Apparently their language had affinities with the Etruscan and Latin; for instance, Myrsilus, son of Myrsus, the Greco-Lydian name of Candaules (Herod. i. 7), has been compared with Larthial- i-sa ; and Servilius from Servius, the 7 denoting son (fi/zus), shows the same pecu- liarity. The Lydians were a civilised people who first coined gold (Herod. i. 94) and stamped silver (zdzd@.) ;4 their name will ever be connected with music. With them twelve was a sacred number ; it formed the perfect Amphictyony of the Ionians, and it survived in the Confederacy of Etruscan cities (Livy, v. 33). Finally, the tomb of Alyattes® is‘apparently a prototype of the Etruscan sepulchres ; and the peculiarity of these ‘homes of the dead’ suggests direct derivation from Egypt rather than coincidental resemblance. Until late years it has been accepted as an historic fact that the old colonisers of Tyrrhenia dwelt for years as conquerors in Lower Egypt. The Tuisa, Tursha Toersha, and Turisa of the monuments wear a close-fitting calotte with a tall point, whence a long thin tassel falls to the back of the neck, like one of the Cyprus caps and the older style of Moslem Fez. But Brugsch” converts the 1 Professor Jebb quotes M. Dumont, Céramique de la Grice Propre. 2 The Academy, Dec. 9, 1882. - § I have treated the question popularly in Etruscan Bologna (London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1876). The study owed its existence to the Rev. Isaac Taylor, who, using the Family Pen once too often, supported the Turanian origin of the Etruscans in a marvellously uncritical and unscholar-like book, Etruscan Researches (London: Macmillan & Co., 1874). The stater of Croesus was the first gold coin known to the Greeks. Most of the classical authors declare that silver was first coined at AZgina by order of Pheidon (circa B.c. 869). 5 Hamilton (Asda Minor, vol. i. pp. 145-6) has carefully described this most interesting monument. ® See the ‘colossal male head’ in General Palma di Cesnola, Cyfrus, p. 123. 7 Preface to History of Egypt, p. xvi; and vol. ii, 124, where a list of racial names is given. Brugsch, it should be noted, is here entirely opposed to his predecessors, De Rougé, Ch»bas, &c. THE ETRUSCAN SWORD. 195 monumental Tursha into Taurians: he wholly discredits the existence of a Pelasgo-Italic confederacy in the days of Mene-Ptah I. and of Ramses III. ; and he positively asserts that the Egyptians of the Fourteenth Dynasty knew nothing of Ilium and the Dardanians, Mysians and Lycians, Lydians and Etruscans, Sar- dinians, Greek Achzans,' Siculians, Teucinians, and Oscans. However that may be, the Etruscans, the acersimi Tusci of Virgil, were a people of high culture, to whose inventive and progressive genius Rome owed her early steps in arts and arms.2 A flood of light has been thrown upon this page of proto-historic lore by the extensive excavations of late years in the Emilian country about Bologna, the Felsina or Velsina of Tyrrhenia. My late friend, the learned and lamented Prof. G. G. Bianconi, forwarded to me the accompanying sketch (fig. 202) of an exceptional iron blade found in the ruins of Marzabotto.? It is described as follows (p. 3) in a work, printed but not published, by the learned archeologist Count Gozzadini of Bologna,‘ Di ulteriori scoperte nell’ antica necropoli di Marzabotto nel Bolognese’ * :— ‘Within a cell only thirty centimétres deep, and disposed two métres distant from one another, lay three skeletons whose heads fronted eastwards. On each was an iron Sword-blade, sixty-two centi- métres long by four and a half broad near the tang (sa), and fining off to an olive-leaf point ; all have the mid-rib or longitudinal spine. Partly attached by oxidation to one blade is a remnant of the iron scabbard, slightly convex posteriorly and showing in the upper part a rectangular projection, perhaps to carry the hook attached to the balteus. The sheath-front has a mid-rib like the blade, and, the wavy mouth is adapted to the Sword-shoulders. On this face only are two buttons (Zorchie) in high relief, connected by a band (/stel/o). The tang, twelve centimétres long, shows the length of the hilt, which, being made of more perishable material, has altogether disappeared.’ The long narrow rapier-blade with the mid-rib is first seen in the Egyptian bronzes ;* the step was easy to the harder metal. That the iron form was common in Etruria as its bronze congener at Fic. 201. Mycenz, is proved by the discovery of three in a single tomb ; ee moreover, as has been said, a fourth has been preserved for years in the Marza- 1 As opposed to the Aqaiuasha or Achzans of the is noticed in p. 359, Zvansactions of the Congress of Caucasus (ii. 124). Bologna in 1871. 4 One vol. folio large quarto, with 17 Tables. It was preceded by ‘Di una necropoli a Marzabotto nel Bolognese,’ 1865, large quarto, with 20 Tables. : Count Gozzadini is one of the earliest students who 1x 35). followed in the steps of M. Boucher de Perthes. 2 Described in Ztruscan Bologna, p. 144. The 5 A fine specimen of a dagger from Thebes with blade is in Count Aria’s collection. The Sword of _ the rapier-blade, and a broad flat hilt of ivory, is in Misanello, ze longue epée de fer, also inthat museum, the Berlin Museum. 2 Tartarus, below Hades,® had a similar threshold, and Atlas in Euri- pides had copper shoulders.” Ornamentation (davddd\Xewv) was applied with gravers, burins, and similar instruments ; to domestic implements (cups and goblets, craters or bowls, cauldrons and tripods) ; to sacred vases for the temple ; and to trumpets,® arms, and armour. Besides the brazier (yaN«eds) we find the gold caster (ypucoyods) who gilds the bull’s horns.® The Homeric bards !° and Hesiod are well acquainted with iron (aé8npos),!' and with steel in its various forms—Cyanus, Addmas, and Chalyps. The former men- tions seven metals, the Haft-Jush (‘seven boilings’), which he, like the Persians, had learned from Egypt. Quenching in water, or tempering, was well known to the ‘Odyssey,’ as we learn from the sputtering of Polyphemus’ eye ? :— And as when armourers temper in the ford The keen-edg’d poleaxe, or the shining sword, The red-hot metal hisses in the lake, &c.}8 And he would, doubtless, know that steel is softened by simple exposure to gradual heating. Séderos is common wrought iron; so we find ovdyjpeov for the 1 The tools known to the J/iad were those of Central Africa, anvil, hammer, and tongs (//. xviii. 477, and Od. iii. 434-5). 2 viii, 145 1x. 41. 8 xxxv. 12, 43. 4 E.g. déomo1, bands or ties ; Ao, studs ; wepdvau, pins, fibule ; and xévrpa, points (/7, xviii. 3793 xi. 634; Pausanias xi. 16). 5 iii. 2, 6 77.viii.20. The Assyrian Hadior Bet Edi, ‘House of Eternity,’ probably Grecised, by an after-thought, to aiS4s—invisible. See the earliest ‘Miracle-play,’ the descent of Ishtar into Hadi; Soc. Bib. Archeol. vol. ii, part i. p. 188. 7 Eur. Jon, 1. 8 From the copper trumpet comes xadxedpwvos, ringing-voiced (7. v. 785). The J/iad applies the epithet to Stentor (Z/. v. 785), and Hesiod (Zheog. 311) to Cerberus, 9 Od. iii. 425. 10 For instance, Stasinus or Hegesias, author of the Kypria or Cyprian Z/iad (Herod. Lib. ii. 117), assigned to the end of the eighth century B.c., when Kypros may have had her ‘Homeric School.’ It was in nine books, of which the argument has been pre- served by Proclus in Photius; and it forms a kind of introduction to the Ziad. See Palma’s Cyprus, p. 13. ‘Homer’ is said to mention iron thirty times. Dr. Evans (Bronze, p. 15) quotes Dr. Beck’s suggestion that the -eros of Sid-eros is a ‘form of the Aryan ais (conf. @s, ers). In another place (Stone, p. 5), he alludes to the possible connection of Sideros with aor)p (a meteor), the Latin Sidera, and the English Star. 2 Od, ix. 391. 18 This is a fair instance of ‘ elegant translation.’ What Homer says is : E’en as a blacksmith-wight some weighty hatchet or war-axe Dippeth in water cold with a mighty hissing and sputt’ring, Quenching to temper, for such is the strength and steeling of iron. The reply will be that Homer does not say it in this way ; and to this reply I have no rejoinder, 222 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Iron Age! and oiSnpos vroduds,? which should be translated, not ‘hoary,’ but iron- grey.” The ‘black’ (dark-blue) ‘Cyanus’ (xvavos) mentioned by the ‘Iliad,’ would be a fusible or artificial steel made to imitate the true blue-stone or lazulite (Theophrastus, 55). The adamas (déduas) of Hesiod,> who specifies the iron of the Cretan Idzi Dactyli, would be a white and tempered metal ; while yaruy (steel in general) either named or was named by the well-known Chalybes. That the harder substance was not rare, we see by the injunction,’ ‘Do not, at a festive banquet of the gods, pare from the five-pointed branch (hand) with bright steel, the dry from the fresh’: i.e. don’t cut your nails at dinner. So at the Battle of the Ships,’ Homer studs a great sea-fighting Xyston (pole), twenty-two cubits long, with spikes of iron; and elsewhere speaks of a ‘cyanus-footed table.’ § Yet copper was ¢e metal for arms and armour. While the shield of Hercules was made of alabaster (not ‘gypsum’), ivory, elektron (the mixed metal) and (pure) gold, the hero is armed with a ‘short spear tipped with gleaming copper’; and he fastens around his shoulders a ‘Sword, the averter of destruc- tion, which the context suggests to be of the same material. The ‘ fair-haired Danaé’s son, equestrian Perseus,’!° bears a Sword of copper with iron sheath hanging by a felt-thong (weddvderov dop).' The seven-hide shield of Ajax !? was yanxeos, of copper—not ‘ brass-bound’ as Lord Derby has it. The lambs’ throats are cut with the ‘cruel copper’ (yad«dés *), and Diomede pursues Venus with the same weapon. Hephaistos makes for Achilles a shield of gold and silver, copper and tin; and canny Diomede’s armour '® is of copper, which he changes for gold, ‘the value of a hundred beeves for the value of nine.’ In the ‘Iliad’ close-handed combat succeeds to missile-using. As Strabo remarks,” Homer makes his warriors begin their duellos by weapon-throwing and then take to their Swords. But the latter is zze weapon, rivalled only by the hand-spear. Hence the Egyptian-taught Argives are insulted as arrow-throwers ; '8 and Diomede reviles his foe as‘an archer and woman’s man.’ The taunts are still known to savage tribes of modern day. The first is Chalcos (copper, and perhaps base metal), used like the Latin /errum. The second is Xzphos, a word still generic in Romaic poetry and prose ; the diminutive being X7zphzdion. The third is Phdsganon, pronounced Phasganon,” and the fourth is dor. Thrace,?! a famous The Homeric Sword has five names. manufactory of art-works even in early ages, produced the best and largest of these 1 Hes, Opera, 174, sq. 2 Ibid, ix, 366. Compare Eurip. Phen. 1091. There is much more 5 xi, 34, 35, &c. * Dr. Schliemann is assuredly singular when translating the Homeric Cyanus by ‘bronze’ (Preface to Mycene, p. x.). Millin (Adindvalogie Homérigue) holdsit tobe tin. The ‘ Cyanus’ of Pliny (xxxvii. 38) is lapis lazuli. 5 Opera, 149; Theog. 161, and Scut. 231. ® Erga, 742-43. © LE, 3.6797; 8 xi, 629. 8 Scut, Li. 125-132. 10 Scut. 216-224. 1 Jbid. So early was that detestable invention, the metal scabbard, introduced. Thus we must under- stand the ¢dayava Kad, peddvdera (/1. xv. 713). to be said concerning ‘ Phasganon.’ 12 7], vii, 220, 3/7), iii, 292, «= TZ, y, 330. 8 J], xviii. 474 sq. 18 Z/. vi. 236. 7 x 1, 18 77. iv, 242, xiv. 479. 9 72. xi, 385, 2 The Romaic gh is, as far as I know, the only modern European representative of the ‘ Semitic’ ghayn, which French writers must transliterate by R: e.g. Razzia for Ghazweh. 21 Even in the army of Perseus we are told by Livy (xliv. 40), the Thracians marched first brandish- ing, from time to time, Swords of enormous weight. THE SWORD IN GREECE. 223 blades; we find a Thracian Xiphos, possibly of steel, ‘beautiful and long,’ in the hands of the Trojan prince Helenos;! and Achilles at the funeral games offers as a prize a Thracian Phdsganon, fair and silver-studded.2 This hero? was drawing his mighty Xiphos‘ from the sheath (oreds, culeus, vagina, scabbard) to assault Agamemnon, when at Athene’s instance, ‘still holding his heavy hand upon the silver hilt, he thrust back the great Sword into the scabbard.’ The Xiphos with silver studs or bosses occurs in sundry places,> and one, with a gold hilt and a silver scabbard fitted with golden rings, belongs to Agamemnon. Dr. Schliemann explains the epithet IIdudasov® by the line of gold bosses lying near one of the Swords; they were broader than the blade and covered the whole available space along the sheath. Thus the Homerid’s Helos (dos), usually rendered ‘stud’ or ‘nail, was applied to the bosses, or buttons, that break the mid-rib or that stud the blade near the handle.’ Paris slings on a copper silver-studded Xiphos.2 Menelaus, with the same weapon, strikes off his enemy’s Phalos—the helmet-ridge bearing the Léphos-tube which confines the Hip- pouris or horse-tail crest. Patroclus, when arming himself? hangs from his shoulders the silver-studded Xiphos of copper (Eipov adpyupénrov, ydAxeov); and Achilles has a large-hilted Xiphos.!® Peneleos and Lycon,!! having missed each other with the spear, ran on with the Xiphos, which is here again called Phasganon; but Lycon’s weapon broke at the hilt (xavrds=caulis), and the Xiphos of Peneleos ‘entered, and only the skin retained it; the head hung down and the limbs were relaxed. On the shield of Achilles!? Hephaistos figures youths wearing the golden Xiphos slung from silver belts. Opposed to the Xiphos, a straight ‘rapier blade,’ as we shall __Fis._240.~Two EDGED BRONZE SWORD presently see, was the ¢doyavov or dirk, probably a throwing- —_gXP,AuanasteR weapon like the Scax and Scramasax. The two are often confounded in the dictionaries. Phdsganon is supposed to be guasi Xpdyavov, a euphonic transposi- tion, like the verb dacydvew (to slay with the Sword). The root is evidently day, which appears in oddyy (slaughter) and in opdryevw (to slay): there is also a form ¢dcdavov for cpddavov. This is a two-edged leaf-shaped blade (fdoyavov addnees):'* Thrasymedes gives one to Diomede, and with it Rhesus is slaughtered in his sleep. The word frequently occurs: black-hilted Phasgana, with massive handles, are mentioned,'’® and the common Phasganon is found in ay = = pee < “S es: Sa ae Gar SS ey Soy a eS See ) xiii, 576. 2 xxiii, 307. 3 i, 210, 220, N77, xvi. 335. 12 xviii. end, 4 71, i. 190, it is called a Phasganon. 13 So Aristophanes (Clouds, 1065) alludes to the ° ii. 45. © Ll, le 30s Sword forged by Hephaistos and presented to Peleus 7 Studs, flat-headed, like rivets, are still let into by the gods, as a prize for resisting the temptations of the iron blade by modern Africans, Atalanta. 8 iil, 334. 9 71, xvi, 130, 10 xx. 475. MOTT, x. 256. 18 xv, 712-12, 224 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. ‘Odys. xi. 48 ; in Pindar (N, 1. 80), and in the Tragedians, In another passage,! however, it becomes a large (uéya) Phdsganon. The fourth term is dop,? usually set down, like the English ‘brand, as poetical ; it is not used in Romaic and the Neo-Greek dictionaries ignore it. The Aor seems to mean a broad, stout, strong blade. With the sharp Aor (dop 6£0) drawn from his thigh, Ulysses digs the furrow one cubit wide, and Hector cuts in two the ashen spear of Ajax.t Automedon draws a long Aor.> This, too, is the weapon of earth-shaking Neptune, the ‘ dreadful tapering Sword’ (ravinnes dop),® ‘ thunder- bolt-like, wherewith it is not possible to engage in fatal fight, for the fear of it restrains mankind.’” Phoebus Apollo has a golden Aor (ypvodwp).2 Here we see the vague meaning of the poetic word, like our ‘hanger,’ for it now means the god’s golden bow and quiver carried on the shoulder. Homer’s fifth is the Mdyacpa, hung by a single belt close to the Sword-sheath, and used for sacrifices and similar uses. It afterwards became a favourite with the Lacedzemonians ; it was then a curved blade, as opposed to the Xiphos or uncurved. Again, in Plutarch and other writers, the Machera seems to mean— like Spatha—a long straight blade. Homer does not mention the xomls, but Euripides uses it® in conjunction with Machzra., We must not expect to see the Sword so frequently drawn in the ‘ Odyssey,’ which, pace Mr. Sayce, appears later than the ‘ Iliad.’ We note in it more character and less movement; more unity and less digression, and, finally, less fighting and more amenity and civilisation, But ‘Othyssefs, the ‘man with whom many were wroth, has been a soldier,and he does not forget his old trade. Besides, com- merce was still armed barter, and voyaging was enlivened by piracy. Copper, or base metal, continues to be the basis of metallurgy, and the hero owns it in quanti- ties, besides gold, silver, and electrum. Euryalus tells Alcinous that he will appease the guest (Ulysses) with an all-copper brand (dop mayyddxeov), whose hilt (kw) is silver, and whose scabbard is of newly sawn ivory.! The suitors would slay Telemachus with the sharp copper.!' In the final struggle, the catastrophe of the poem, Eurymachus, drawing his sharp Sword of copper, calls upon his friends to do the same, and to shield themselves with the tables against the fast-flying shafts. In the ‘Frogs and Mice, the spear is a good long needle ; the ‘all-copper work of Mars.’ ! Wrought iron is prominent in the ‘Odyssey’ as in the ‘Iliad’ Athene- Mentes sails over the dark sea to Temesa (Temessus) for copper, and also brings 1 Tlad. xxiii. 824. 3 Od. xi. 24. 471, xvi. 115. ? Sanskritists hold it to have been originally &cop, > xvi. 473. § 71. xiv. 385. , SS i 7 In his illustrations of the Z/ad, Flaxman rarel nd to derive fi ; wh Se : ¥ a COST STO ata (asi), a Sword ; whence arms his warriors with the Sword, even at the Fight for satfcrar (Adi), 2 swordsman (Fick, Wirerhck the Body of Patroclus. It is to be hoped that artists : . in future will kindly take warning. der indogermanischen Grundsprache). It is probably § ZL. xv. 256; also Hymn to Apollo, 396. connected with aeipw, because ‘carried’ on the ® El. 837. 0 Odys. viii, 401-5. shoulder by the bauldric. " Odys. iv. 695. 1? Line 125. 33 Odys, i. 180, THE SWORD IN HOMER. 225 back shining iron (a¥@wva o(Snpov). Menclaus does the same.!' The ‘cruel iron’ balances the ‘cruel copper.’ — The ‘long-pointed iron,’ so fatal to the Trojans, is apparently the spear, which began the duels. Prudent Penelope places ‘the bow and the grey iron (aodudv te oiSnpov) ready for the suitors; and the Palace contains store of wrought iron (aroAvepnrtos o(Snpos)4 The axe (7édexus), sharpened on both sides,’ is of copper; but the hatchets, through whose rings or handle-holes (creda) the. copper-tipped arrows must be shot, ate of iron.® ‘Iron,’ we are told, ‘of itself draws on a man”? (Tacit. ‘ Hist.’ i, 80), a sentiment repeated elsewhere in the same words. And the Sword is alluded to in more than one place without the material being specified.® In the ‘Hymn to Hermes,’ !° Mercury the god ‘vivisects’ the mountain tortoise with a scalpel of grey iron (yAuddvp odsoio aidnpov). The Gelyphamus ‘was a carving-tool, a chisel, or a knife for reed-pens. The dispute whether the so-called Homeric poems were written or were orally preserved still awaits sentence. We twice find the word ypddeww, but its primary meaning is ‘to mark,’ ‘to cut,’ and, lastly, ‘to write” Thus Ajax,!! when in- scribing (2arvypdypas) the lot, might simply have scraped upon it ‘Ajax his mark.’ Yet there is nothing against writing, and there is much in its favour. For instance— Todas év rivaxe mrvktd OvpopOdpa. roAAd (ojpard).!? ‘Having on tablet writ’ can mean nothing else. Pliny accepts this writing given to Bellerophon on codicilli or tablets! Horace, who was not only a great poet, but a masterful genius, mentions writing in Homer’s day, and makes the early inscriptions laws cut into wood (ges iucidere.ligno). Herodotus tells us that he himself saw Cadmeian (that is, old Phcenician) characters ; and the tradition is that Danaus introduced letters from Egypt, which, I repeat, produced the one alphabet the world knows. Dr. Schliemann (‘Troy,’ Appendix by the Editor) found at seven and a half métres (twenty-five feet) below the surface of the so-called Homeric Troy, many short inscriptions in ‘ancient Cypriote cha- racters,’ and as many Greek epigraphs were discovered at Mycene. Evidently the ‘Iliad’ and the ‘ Odyssey’ might have been cut in rude Pheenician characters upon wooden tablets or scratched on plates of lead. Professor Paley would date the literary Homer from B.C. 400; but that is a different phase of the subject. Herodotus is the outcome of Homer, or, if you please, of the Homerids and of fEschylus. The work of this prose rhapsodist, besides being a history, a logo- graphy, a record of travel, and a study of ethnology and antiquity, is at once an Epic and a Drama. It is epic in the heroic and romantic tone; in the unity of ' iv. 83-4. ® x, 535, xxi. 34 and 119, xxii, 329 &c. 2 xi. 520. In Buckley’s translation (Bell, 1878), 10 Line 4o, 1 ZL, vii. 187. xaAnds is mostly translated ‘steel’ (pp. 62, 72, 198). 2 77, vi, 169. 1S xii. 28, Translators are almost as misleading as dictionaries, 14 He also mentions writing on leaden plates and 3 xxl 3. 4 xxi. IO. 5 vy. 230. on linen cloths as in ancient India; such, probably, ° xxi, 127. 7 xvi. 295. 8 xix, 13. were the books of Numa. 18 vy, 29, : 226 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. action, a mighty invasion-campaign ; and in the frequent digressions which aid, if they retard, the one primary object. It is a tragedy in the scenic displays (the review of Xerxes, for instance), in the action of Destiny, the circle of Necessity, the Nemesiac hypothesis, and the jealousy of the gods (Deus ultor); while the catastrophe is represented in ‘ Calliope’ by the destruction of the Persian host, the home-return of the victors, and the lurid scenes at the close. It ends with an epi- gram, a kind of Vos plaudite: ‘The Persians... chose rather to dwell in a churlish land and exercise lordship, than to plough the plains and be slaves of other men ’—-a sentiment which would ‘bring down the house’ in the Highlands. All is written with a distinct purpose, and the sensible chronology is derived from Egypt. There is something poetical, too, in the enormous numbers. The magni- ficent-impossible host of five millions two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty men,’ and the one thousand three hundred and twenty- seven triremes to be defeated and destroyed by a handful of nine thousand Greeks and three hundred and seventy-eight ships, is highly imaginative. The philosophic and sceptical modern mind will hardly be satisfied till the details are confirmed by the contemporary evidence of inscriptions, for instance, the Behistun, which is a running commentary upon ‘Thalia.’ Hellas ever was, and is, and will be, by virtue of her mighty intellect and her preponderating imagination, ‘ Gracia mendax.’ Eastern history tells us nothing about the marvellous Persian invasion. We may fairly believe that there was a great movement headed by some powerful Satrap,? who determined to crush the wasp’s nest to the West ; but we can go no farther. It is simply incredible that the Great King, who at the time was Lord. Paramount of the civilised world, should lead to so little purpose millions of warriors—men, the flower of Asia, whose portraiture is the most favourable of any we possess, and whom the Father owns to have been not a whit inferior in prowess to the Greeks.’ And for this view I duly apologise to ‘ Herodotus and his shade.’ 2 The poet-historian gives an interesting description of the Sword amongst the Scythians whom the Greeks and Persians call Sace (Shakas) or Nomades.‘ To judge from Hindu legend—for instance, that of Shak-ari, ‘foe to the Shakas,’ a title of the historical Vikramaditya (A.D. 79)—the Sacz were ‘Turanians’— Mongols or Tartars. When he makes them worship Ares-Mars, he probably derives the idea from their adoring the emblem of war, an iron dirk (d«wd«ns avdypeos.? ‘A blade of antique iron, he tells us, ‘is placed on the summit of every such mound (a flat-topped pile of brushwood three furlongs square), and serves as the image of Mars; yearly sacrifices are made to it.’ The victims were cattle, horses, and one per cent. of war-prisoners, ‘Libations of wine are first 1 vii, 186. even engaged in foreign wars without orders of the * From Xshatram (crown, reign) and — fd (de- Great King (Herod. iv. 165-7; Thucyd. i. 115 &c.). fender). These viceroys of Asia Minor, who some- times held more than one province, received and de- spatched embassies, levied armies of mercenaries, and 5 Grote, History of Greece, iii. 323. 3 ix, 62. + vil. 64, THE.SWORD IN HERODOTUS. 227 poured upon their heads, after which they are slaughtered over a vase, and the vessel is then carried up to the top of the pile and the blood poured upon the Akindkes.’ In the Scythian graves of Russian Cimmeria (the Crimea) and of Tartary, the Swords are mostly bronze. Dr. M‘Pherson, however, found one of iron (1839) in the great tomb of Kertch, the old Milesian Panticapzeum, so called from its river, Anticapes ;? it was a short dagger-like thrusting blade, resembling the old Persian, with mid-rib and curved handle. In the days of Attila, a Sword, supposed to be one of the ancient Scythian weapons alluded to by the Greek, -was accidentally found, and was made an object of worship.2 Janghiz (Genghis) Khan when raised to the throne repeated this sacrificial observance, which, however, can scarcely be called a ‘Mongolic custom.’ It seems common to the Sauromate (northern Medes and Slavs), the Alans, the Huns, and the tribes that wandered over the Steppes. The Scythians also swore by the emblem of Mars. ‘Their oaths, says Herodotus,® ‘are accompanied by: the following ceremonies. Into a large earthen bowl («vAvé) pouring wine, they mingle with it blood of the parties to the oath, who wound themselves superficially with a knife or an awl; then they dip into the bowl an Akindkes, and arrows, and a battle-axe (sagaris), and a javelin (akontion), all the while repeating manifold prayers. Lastly, the two contracting parties drink each a draught from the bowl, as do also the most worthy of their followers.’® In the ‘Anabasis,? the Greeks swear by dipping a Sword, and the barbarians a lance, into the victim’s blood. So far these ancient authors: we must now see how they are confirmed by modern authorities. Dr. Schliemann’s investigations at Mycenz® are the more interesting, as the finds are supposed by him to be synchronous with those of Burnt Troy ; and they enable us to compare the former in her prosperity with the latter in her exhaustion. The energetic explorer doughtily supports the use of copper for arms and utensils ; and, with whole truth, makes it the staple metal of the heroic ages. As he found no tin at Mycene or in the great layer of copper scorize at Hisdrlik (Troy), while ‘ Kassiteros’ is repeatedly mentioned by Homer, he contends that the bronze of the Greek city was imported, and therefore rare and 1 This word is erroneously translated ‘Scymitar,’ and emeralds. Herodotus’ description of the scalp- ‘a weapon which, in its present shape, dates from . about the rise of El-Islam. + Rawlinson’s Herodotus, 60. The learned com- mentator quotes Miiller, Hist, Grae. (iv. 429), Amm. Marcellinus (xxxi. 2), Jornandes (De Red. Geticts, cap. xxxv.), Niebuhr’s Scythia (p. 46, E. Tr.), &c. In vol. iii, 60, he gives a ground-plan of the tomb, -whose chief place also yielded a gold shield, a whip, a bow, a bow-case, five statuettes, and an iron Sword. The space by the side contained a woman’s bones, with.a diadem and ornaments in gold and electrum. Other barrows in Russia and Tartary showed bodies resting upon sheets of pure gold weighing forty pounds, with bronze weapons and ornaments set with rubies ing (a@mockv0i¢ew, iv. 64) would apply to the North American ‘Indians’ of our day ; and the sending a messenger to Zalmoxis, god of the Getz (iv. 94), is the practice of modern Dahome and Benin, 3 Rawlinson, iii. 54. 4 ‘Mongol’ denotes an especial race much abused by non-Orientalists, 5 iv. 70. § This process of ‘mixing bloods,’ as a token of brotherhood, is familiar to all travellers in pagan Africa. Til, 2. 8 Afycene, Gc. (London: Murray, 1878). It is regretable that this handsome and expensive volume should be printed upon blotting paper, the word is Q2 228 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. expensive. Unfortunately he did not eneleee the thin copper: wire which carried the necklace-beads. é It is a new sensation to descend with Dr. Schliemann into the old Mycenian tombs where sixteen or seventeen corpses had been simultaneously interred (?). Sepulchre No. 1, attributed to Agamemnon and his two heralds, produced a variety of interesting articles, especially the golden shoulder-belt (TeXapov) that decorated the mummy.?. My photograph ‘shows it attached to a fragmentary two-edged Sword. Between the middle and the southern body lay a heap of broken bronze blades, which may have represented sixty whole Swords: some bore traces of gilding, and several had gold pins at the handle. Two blades lay to the right of the body, and their ornamentation strikingly -resembled the description in the ‘Jliad”’3 The handle of the larger Sword (No. 460) is of bronze, thickly plated with intaglio’d gold ; and a broad plate of the same metal, similarly worked, passes round the shoulders of the Sword. The wooden scabbard must have been adorned with golden studs and a long broad plate (fig. 244), shaped some- what like a man, with a ring issuing from the neck. The other Sword in a similar style of art seems to have been even richer. Dr. Schlie- mann‘ considers No. 463 (fig. 245) a remarkable battle-axe, of which four- ee cee Bice ata” ete ry 7% teen were found in the ‘Trojan treasure. *® It is evidently a Sword- ands and the same may be said of Nos. 464, 465 (fig. 244). At the distance of hardly more than one foot to the right of the mummy-body were found eleven bronze Swords ; two were tolerably preserved, and both were of: unusual size—two feet ten inches and three feet two inches. The golden plate of the wooden Sword-handle is given in p. 305. These weapons, also, had gold plates attached to the pommels by twelve pins of the same metal with large globular heads. The body at the south end of Sepulchre I. was provided with fifteen bronze Swords, of which ten had been placed at its feet. As a rule, the wooden sheaths had mouldered away, but the gold studs or bosses, which adorned them like the 1 71. i. 320. 2 These illustrations are fee photographs bought at Athens. 3 ix; 29-31. : -4 P, 307. 5 Troy, 330-31. ‘THE SWORDS OF MYCENZ. 229 binding of a book, lay along the remains of the warriors who had wielded them The whetstone (Sepulchre I.) was of very fine sandstone. The fourth Sepulchre was almost as interesting in its supply of Swords. Ex- cavating from east to west, the explorer came upon a heap of more than twenty bronze blades, most of them with remnants of wooden scabbards and handles. The flat, round pieces of wood, and the small shield-like or button-like, disks of gold with intaglio-work, seemed to have been glued in un- broken series along both sides of the sheath ; and, the largest being at the broad end with a gradual diminishing in size, Q eae a = Saree = eee ere Sey cy =e eee Fic. 242. Fic. 243.—A Lone Fic. 244. Fic. 245.—Sworp Brapgs. (Sepulchre I. Mycenz.) Goxp. PLATE. Not BaTTLE-AxEs. (Sepulchre 1. Mycenz.) they determined. the width. The wooden hilts bore similar plates of intaglio’d gold ; the remaining space had been studded with gold pins, and gold nails were fixed in the large pommels of wood or alabaster. The quantity of fine gold- dust left no doubt that the handles and scabbards had been gilt. The smith evidently did not possess the knowledge of gilding silver: he first plated the metal with copper and then the copper with gold. The golden cylinder (No. 366), adorned at both ends with a broad border of wave-lines, and the field filled with interwoven spirals, all intaglio-work, probably belonged to a heft of wood. Along the middle runs a row of pin-holes ; there are four flat pin-heads, and in the centre is the head of a larger stud by which it is attached. 230 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Sepulchre IV. also yielded forty-six bronze Swords, more or less fragmentary. Of these ten were short and single-edged: their solid metal measured when entire from two to two feet three inches in length. | The handles are too thick for mount- ing in wood, and the tangs-end in rings for suspension to the ‘Telamon’ or to the girdle (fovn, Gwornp). ,The chopper-shaped blade( fig. 246), evidently of Egyptian derivation, is broken at the point, which may incline either way, probably inwards, The other (fig. 246) is the normal leaf-shape. . Dr. Schliemann believes ! that they explain the Homeric ¢doyavev, which he makes ‘perfectly synonymous with (Sepulchre 1V. Myvene, p. 279.) Lites Cess Lee Men IS. We Xiphos and Aor.” Here I venture to differ with him, holding the Phasganon pro- bably to have been the short Egyptian Sword, used like the boomerang-blade for throwing as well as cutting. The double-edged weapon with the long narrow tube (adAds) was judged to be a dagger-knife, the hollow being intended to save weight ; to me it appears a lance- head, and the attached ring seems to prove its use (fig. 247). The fragmentary two- edged blade of bronze (a fig. 249) shows a mid-rib broken by serrations intended either for ornament or for jagging the wound : the same toothings appear in another weapon (6 fig. 249), which is supposed to be a dagger. No. 446is a short two- Deare 1 P. 279, THE SWORDS OF MYCENA. 231 blade showing at the shoulders, on either side, four large flat head-pins of gold. A gold plate extends all along the middle part of the blade on both sides, and frag- ments of the wooden sheath are visible in the middle as well as at the end. We now come to the most startling part of the collection. It proves indubit- ably, if Dr. Schliemann’s conclusions be correct, and if the blades! do not belong, as they may do, to a later date, that the highest form of Sword, which became the fashion during our sixteenth century, was known in B.C. 1200. It is a curious comment upon the fact, how soon perfection was reached in the ‘White Arm,’ com- pared with the slow progress of fire-arms, which had to await the invention of the self-igniting cartridge. Plate No. 445 (p. 281) gives a two-edged blade with a mid- rib, in fact the rapier, which can be used only for the point. It measures two feet seven inches (a fig. 250), and at the top are attached remnants of its wooden scabbard. The lower end of its neighbour (4 fig. 250) is adorned with three flat golden pin-heads on either face, No. 448, measuring two feet ten inches long, is very well preserved ; by its side lies its alabaster pommel (fig. 249). No. 449 has retained part of its heft, which is gold-plated and attached by gold pins. Vertical lines of intaglio work run along the blade and give it a truly beautiful aspect. Dr. Schliemann (p. 283) notices the length, in some cases exceeding three feet, compared with the narrowness of these grand blades. He adds, ‘So far as I know, Swords of this shape have never been found before.’ I would refer him to the Villanova (Etruscan) blade de- scribed in chapter viii. The fourth Sepulchre also yielded three shoulder- belts of gold. No. 354 measures four feet one and a half inch long by one and seven-eighths inch in width (fig. 241). On either side of the band is a narrow edging made by turning down the gold plate: the field is occu- pied by a row-of rosettes, six oval petals surrounding a central disk and the whole encircled by dots or points. At one end are two apertures in the shape of hour-glasses ; these served to attach the clasp to the other extremity, as is shown by the small hole and two cuts (p. 308). The second ‘Telamon,’ a plain band four feet six inches long by two to two and one-third Fic. 249.— Two-Encep Bronze Sworps AND ALABASTER Kwnos. (Sepulchre IV. Mycenz.) 1 Jahns (pp. 91, 92) cannot but suspect that many of the weapons which show a marked Oriental cast are not Atreidan but Carian. This tribe about the thirteenth century B.C, spread itself, under the my- thical king Minos, over the /“gean Archipelago, and colonised even the seaboard of Greece- Such words. as Hymettos, Lykabettos, &c. are supposed to be Carian. The symbol-of their gods was the double- axe, so common in Mycenz; and, as Thucydides said, their practice ways to bury weapons w.th the dead, which was not customary in Greece. 232 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. inches broad, was, the discoverer stiggests, possibly made for the funeral : it is too thin and fragile for general wear. To some blades were still attached particles of 6 Fic. 250.—RariER-BLADES oF MycENz. well-woven linen, which the discoverer considers to have been sheaths (p. 283). The natives of India and of other hot-damp regions retain, I have said, the custom of bandaging their blades with greased rags. We are also ’ shown (p. 304) a gold tassel probably suspended to a belt of - embroidered work. The first of the tomb-stones found in the Acropolis above the sepulchres (p. 52) shows (very imperfectly) a hunter standing in a one-horse chariot : he grips in his right a long broad-sword. The second tomb-stone (p. 81) has a naked warrior, who holds the horse’s head with his right, and raises in his left a double- Fic. 251.—WaARRIOR witH Sworp. edged blade (fig. 251): Dr. Schliemann finds the figure ‘ full of anguish’ (p. 84) ; the head is in profile, and the body almost fronts the spectator. The ‘THE SWORDS OF MYCENZ:. 233 huntsman-charioteer holds in his left a sheathed Sword of the long dagger type, ending in a large globular pommel. Many such articles were found in the tombs, and the author (p. 225) draws attention to the size of the ‘knob’ upon the signet ring. Mostly they were of wood or alabaster. (p: 281) with golden nails, and fre- quently plated with precious metal. I would suggest that the perforated ball of polished rock-crystal (No. 307) found in Sepulchre III., and the large-mouthed article (No. 308) coloured. red and white inside, were also Sword-pommels. The Treasury supplied ‘five unornamental blades of copper or bronze,’ with rings of the same metal. The large Cyclopean house, which the energetic dis- -coverer would identify with the Palace of ‘the Atreidz, yielded a straight, two- ‘edged, thrusting-blade of bronze: the shoulders’ -were pierced with four holes, and there. are as many in the tang for attaching the handle (fig. 252). The heft was of various substances, wood, -bone, and ivory, amber, rock-crystal, and alabaster, and it was often plated with metals, especially the most -precious. Of the latter; six specimens are given (pp. 270-71), all highly decorated with intaglio work of circles and spirals, rope-bands, and shell- like quaquaversal flutings. The general opinion that Homer. ignored soldering! gives unusual interest to a large bronze dagger found in No. III. Sepulchre, six métres and a half below the surface (p. 164). Two blades are well soldered together in the middle (fig. 253). ‘The same art appears (p. 280).in the attachment of two long narrow plates of thick bronze. Crickets (cicade) and other ‘ornaments were also found of gold. worked in vepoussé and composed of two frye, 252.—Broxze Fic. 253. ~ Bronze ‘halves soldered together. . Sere ae bai cea See The goldsmiths of Mycene were true artists. ; They had work in plenty; Dr. Schliemann estimates. the metallic-value of his finds at five thousand pounds. An admirable bit of work (p. 251) is the goat Standing, like that of Assyria and Istria, with gathered legs upon the top of a pin.2 Another (No. 365) is the lion-cub, apparently cut and tooled. As in modern India, the circles, spirals, and wave-lines are excellently executed, and so is the gold-plating upon buttons of wood (pp. 258-59). The old Greek city, too, had a. peculiar treatment of the whorl, which, combining two and even three—either ‘dextrorsum ox sinistrorsum—about a common centre, and making the ‘lines of. at 1-Yet soldering iron was known to Egypt in where the jugglers teach goats to stand and be hoisted the Eighteen h Dynasty. in that position. 2 The position may be seen in life all over India, 234 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. least two continuous, deserves to be called the ‘ Mycene spiral.’ This ornament passes from the gold trinkets and the tomb-stones of the Acropolis to the ‘ Treasuries’ of much later date. An intaglio of gold is especially interesting, because it represents a Mono- machia or duel. He to the proper right, a tall beardless or shaven warrior, without helmet, and clad only in ‘tights’ and ‘shorts,’ bears the whole weight of his body upon his left leg, extending the right, as in a lunge, and is about to plunge his straight and pointed dagger-blade into the throat of his bearded foe (p. 174). A signet-ring displays a gigantic warrior who has felled one opponent, put to flight a second, and is stabbing a third with a short broad straight blade. The van- quished man attempts to defend himself with a long Xiphos (p. 225). Perhaps the subject may be Theseus clearing out the thieves. A gold button shows a square formed by four sacrificial chopper-knives of Egyptian shape (p. 263, No. 397). The characteristics of the Sepulchres are the orientation of the remains, the heads lying to the East, and their imperfect cremation. The latter is familiar in Hindu-land, although the people hold the fire-funeral to be a fire-birth, when the vital principle called ‘soul’ or ‘spirit’ has been purged of its earthly dross. The regular layers of pebbles, which by ventilating the floor would give draught to the flames, have also been noticed in ancient Etruria! The only véaticum or provi- sions for the dead were unopened oysters: the rest was probably burnt. The utensils are jugs and vases of terra cotta (plain and painted), copper tripods and cauldrons, urns and kettles, and cups and goblets, the latter one- and two-handed. The ornaments, of gold and electrum, are foil-work and plates upon wood, beads of glass and agate, studs and buttons, crosses and breast-covers, lentoid gems and masks, crowns and diadems. The weapons, all of bronze,? are axes and arrows, lances, knives, daggers, and Sword-blades ; while gold and alloys are abundant. We may fairly say that iron is absent from the Acropolis of Mycenz as well as from the Burnt City of the Troad. And there is a remarkable similarity in the pattern and construction of sundry articles, especially the gold tubes with attached spirals.. Dr. Schliemann’s discoveries have been subjected to. much adverse criticism? As far as they go, they prove that the warriors of Mycenz used three varieties of Swords—the Xiphos, the Phasganon, and the Kopis. ' The Etruscans, however, like the Jews, disposed the feet of the corpse eastward, as told in Z¢ruscan Bologna (p. 22). Although the author should not say so, the public has not done wisely to neglect this book ; its most valuable part, the osteological details of the Etruscan, deserved a better fate and, perhaps, secured a failure. Yet it had the prime advantage of angry abuse by a certain critical journal, whose predi- lection for the commonplace (gué commonplace) is expressed by vituperation of all that is not common- place. In my case I may say of it with Diderot: ‘Perhaps they do me more credit than I deserve ; I should-feel humiliated if those who speak ill of so many clever and worthy people took it into their heads to speak well of me.’ ? See ‘ Analysis of Mycenzean Metals’ (pp. 367~- 376, Adycene. But the book is almost as self-contra- dictory as Troy. * For instance, by Mr. W. J. Stillman, a traveller and ascholar. In the New York Wation (August 18) he writes on ‘ The True Age of the Mykenz Finds’ ; and, after a fresh examination, he declares the objects post-classical, ‘ probably representing the burial-place of a colony of Celts between the fifth and the second century B.C.’ What chiefly militates against this theory is the cremation of the human remains. ‘THE SWORD IN GREECE. 235 The Eidos of Mycenz is the long, straight, rapier-shaped, cut-and-thrust (cesim et punctim) blade ; its only guard is a cross-bar, which, like the scabbard, is beauti- fully ornamented. The word Xiphos is still applied in Romaic to a straight Sword opposed to Spati (27rdrz),' the sabre, the broadsword. The ¢doyavov or dirk which Meyrick (PI. IV. fig. 16), and sometimes perhaps the Ancients, confound with the Xiphos, is a straight blade, mostly leaf-shaped and showing its descent from the spear, It is rarely longer than twenty inches. In Romaic poetry the word is still applied to knives and Sword-daggers like the Yataghan, My idea that the Phasganon was used for throwing does not derive from the classics, but from the similarity of the blade to the Seax and the Scramasax. The Kozés, which Meyrick makes an Argive weapon, and which English Fic. 256.—SuHort Sworp (PHASGANoN) OF BRONZE, FOUND IN A CRANNOG AT PESCHIARA, AND PROBABLY GREEK, Fic. 254.—PHASGANON. Fic. 255.—GREEK PHASGANA. translators render simply by ‘Sword,’ has been derived by me from the Egyptian Khopsh, whose ‘inside cutting curve’ it imitates, merely flattening the bend. Writers on hoplology have mostly ignored its origin. . They follow Xeno- phon, who speaks of it as being used by the Persians and Barbarians ; and Polybius, who assigns its use to the Persians before the Greeks—apparently an anachronism. They remark that on vases it is the weapon of the Giants, not of the 1 Dictionaries derive this word from omdw (to | ‘draw). I find it in the Egyptian ‘Sft.’ It is evi- dently a congener of 3Smd6y (dim. omdfioy, also Romaic, and verb oraédw=I wield (the weapon). Spathe means primarily a broad blade of wood or metal ; secondarily a weaver’s spatel or spaddle, a spatula (Latin ze/a); an oar-blade, ‘a ‘scraper (for. horse-currying), and a broadsword. Scotchmen still apply ‘spathe’ to the weaver’s lath (Zhe Past in the Present, p. 11), which preceded the ‘pecten.’ It is also used for Carnifex in Tertullian (De Cult. Fem. cap. xiii.), and in botany for a shoot of fruct fication, In Anglo-Saxon it became Sfad ; Icelandic Sgadi, our spade. The Latins (Tacit. Ann, xii. 35; Veget.. De Re Mil. ii. 15) con- verted it to sfatha ; and hence the neo-Latin espée and éée, espada and spada, from which we derive our (suit of) ‘spades.’ See the play of words upon ‘Metal de Espadas’ in Camoens’ ‘ Rejected Stanzas’ (canto iv. vol. ii. p. 437 of my translation). It has been subjected to other corruptions; and in- _ Chaucer (Knightes T, 1662) ‘Sparth’ is a battle- axe :— ‘He hath a sparth of twenti pound of wighte.’ Even the learned Major Jahns derives ‘ Spatha’ from “Spatel.’ a 230 lH BOOK OF THE SWORD. Gods, and that the Amazons wield it against Hercules, Hence Sefior Soromenho' would assien its Origin to the Arabs, and Colonel A. Lane-Pox tothe Roman lerion- aries. Ihe latter authority, indeed, contends that its form is ‘obviously derived from the straight, leaft-shaped, bronze Sword, of which it is simply a curved variety fiere, I think, he reverses the process. Specimens of the Kopis are rare; one was found in a tomb, said to be Koman, between Madrid and Joledo, and another of the same find is in the British Museum. The peculiarity of the Kopis is, 1 have said, its cutting with the inner, not the outer curve, and thus sugeesting the use of the point and the “drawing cut’ instead of the sheer cut. This peculiarity was inherited from Epypt,and long appeared in Greek blades. It is well shown in the frasment of a bronze Kopis-like broad- sword from the collection of Don Giovanni Bolmarcich, the Arciprete of Cherso: a aaa ee the relic was found in the Island of Ossero with an immense variety of bronzes, Greek,* Roman, and prehistoric or protohistoric. General Pitt-Rivers has a bronze Sword-blade from Corinth—a very fine specimen. The handle has an (Al section, the pomme! measuring two and a quarter inches across, and the erip three and a half inches in length. There is no tang; the blade Springs from the shoulders, which are prominent; the length is twenty-seven inches, and the Section that of the Toledo rapier. It is, however, slightly leaf-shaped. In the Armeria Real of Turin (Section Beaumont to north-west), two Greek blades are shown in a glass case. One is especially interesting. The total length, all being in one piece, is three feet and a halt; the blade has a mid-rib; there is a Straight Simple cross-bar at the shoulders, and the hilt ends in a crutch, like the Hindu antelope-horns and the scroll-hiit of the Danish Swords. ' Quoted by Colonel A. Lane-fox, Azthvop. 2% Ossero (Irieste, 1577). Ihe point is evidently Coll. p. 174. broken Off, @ I have described it in Scoperte Antropologiche ZHME SWORD IN GREECE. 237 The inside €dge has been preserved from days immemorial by the Abyssinian sword ;' an exaggerated sickle Or diminutive scythe. it reappears in various parts Of Africa, as shown by Barth’s Travels (chap. 11. 37 &c.). His ‘Danisko, which he translates “hand-bill,” is used by the people of a hichly interesting province—*Adamawa. Jhe general weapon in the neighbourhood is the *“soliyo” or bill-hook of the Marehi, and the Njiga of the Baghirmi. It is a heavy and clumsy “Khopsh’ of the boomerang type. The inside edge characterises, to a certain extent, the Albanian yataghan, and the Flissa of the Kabail (Kabyles); and it is thoroughiy well developed in the formidable Kora or Kukkri of the Gurkha or 7" "7 | Nepaulese mountaineers, whose edge swells out to a half-moon. The Mycenz finds do not enlighten us upon the subject of the Aop and other forms of the Greek Sword. We know nothing of the Thracian Poydaia, the Rumipia of Gellius (x. 25), which the A.V. translates ‘Sword. Most writers hold 2 it to be a Thracian lance, like the European “partisan ;” and Smith's ‘ Dictionary of Antiquities describes it as a long Spear resembling the Sarissa, with a Sword- like blade. This comes from Livy (xxxi. 39), who tells us that in woodlands the Macedonian phalanx was inetfectual on account of its prz/ong@ “asig, and that the Rhomphzea of the Ihracians was a hindrance for the same reason. But in ~ moder Romaic usage it denotes the fammbere ( 7a7z027e2), or that form of the wavy blade which the Church places in the hands of the angelic host. It is always carried by “Monseigneur saint Michel, the Archangel, the first knight who in the quarrel of God battled with the Dragon, the old enemy of mankind, and drove him out of heaven. * Mycenze supplied no specimen of the versa ( g/aazus Chelz- donius), the broad blade with a bifurcated swallow-tailed point. It is mentioned by Isidore (xviii.) and by Origen (chap. vi.); and I have alluded to it in Chapter Vil. We are unable to specify the shape of the Athenian Kyyore:s (Kxesiezs) or the Lacedzemonian fvivas (Xyenz), which Xenophon calls fuynAar (Xue/e). They may have been, to judge from their use, thick cut-and-thrust dasvers, in fact Coupe-Choux, Nor do we know what kind of blade was Carried by the Xystophori (£vaTomopor) in addition to the Ayston: the latter was either the footmans spear (Gopv) or the horseman’s lance; in the ‘Iliad,.as has been seen, it is a lone pole studded with iron nails. | | According to history, the Greek infantry Sword was a Straight two-edeed blade, rather broad, and of equal width from hilt to point, which was of bevelled shape. ot cavalry they preferred the sabre or cutting weapon.” Iphicratés (B.C. 400), when improving arms and armour, must have found spear anid Sword too short, for he ‘doubled the length of the spear and made the Swords also longer ’ 1 See chap. viii. * Here we find St. Michael a heavenly archetype 2 See chap. ui. Ihe Danisko is ihe hatchet- of St. George. In the vault of the Superga, Turin, yataghan Of Denimin, p. 397. Wlonseigneur Carries a rapier instead of a flamberge. * Gen. ii, 24; Zech. xii. 7 ; Apocalyp. 1. * Xenophon, Ve Az 77. xi. 11. 22 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. (Diod: Sic. xv. 144; Corn. Nepos, xi). Plutarch (in * Lycure.’) tells us that a man in the presence of Agesilaus jcered at the Spartan blade, which measured Only fourteen to fiiteen inches long, saying that a jugeier would think nothing of Swaliowine it ’;? whereto the great commander replied, ‘ Yet our short Swords can pierce our foes” And when a bad work- man complained of his tool; the Spartan suggested with dry heroism, “ You have only to advance a pace, Dodweli* relates that an won blade found in a tomb at Athens was two feet five inches long, in- cluding its handle of the same metal. Most of our museum specimens, both of bronze and iron, are of fair average dimensions. That of Mayence measures nineteen and a half inches (@ tis, 265), and that of the 2 © 0: o ° S o oO = ic So ‘oO o6:Oo Fic. 263.—GALLo- Fic. 264. GREEK (60 cents. long). GALLO-GREEK. a | 2 ils 1@: Eki kee ee os i wo oo 22220 2.2 2 © v Fic. 265. Fic. 266.—GALLO-GREEK BLADE MAYENCE BLADE, AND SHEATH. Museum of Artillery thirty-two. The Pella blade in the K. Antiquarium, Berlin, is only twenty-one centimetres, including four for the heft. The Swords called Gallo-Greek> with bronze blades and sheaths (figs. 263, etc.), 1 A world-wide juggling trick, which seems to have originated im Egypt. In Apuleius (Go/aex Ass, lib. 1.) a c2rcu/ator or itinerant juggler swallows a very sharp two-edged cavalry broadsword and buries in his entrails a horseman spear. his * Thracian Magic” is still practised by the well-known Katai Dervishes. * He figures the blade in his Tour (1. p, 443). * Galatians, Keltic Gauls, who established them- Selves in Western Asia Minor after the destruction of their leader Brennus at Delphi (8.c. 279). Florus (it, 16) calls the Gallo-Greecians ‘adulterated relics of Gauls”; Strabo also alludes to the Phrygians and the three Galatian peoples (iv. 1). As Ammian. Mar- cell, teils us (xv. Cap. ix.), © Galatee is the Greek trans- THE SWORD TN GREECE. 230 ate Of moderate leneth—twenty-fve inches. Pausanias* alludes to perhaps a shorter weapon (Tats payaipars Tov Vaxata@r). And we are told that when Manlius invaded Galatia he found the Swords were pr/ong2 giaazi.* The Greek fashion of carrying the Sword apparently varied with the times, and, perhaps, with the length of the weapon; it is easy to draw a dagger irom the right, but awkward to unsheathe a full-sized blade. Some writers make the Greeks carry the weapon on the right, and others on the leit: Homer seems pur- posely to leave his description vague, ee. — 7H oye Gacyavoy G&v envoaapevos (Or graccapevos) 7apa Ov. ye pacy pucoap p Drawing the prided dirk fro’ the sheath which hung by his thigh-side.* The words para 7zerou are similarly used elsewhere,* but which thigh is not speci- fied. Hectors sharp Sword hangs below his loins both huge and strons, and brandishing it he rushes to his death by Achiiles spear” Ihe Trojan, too, strikes Ajax, who carried his weapon after Assyrian fashion, ‘where the two belts cross upon his breast, both that of the shield and that of the silver-studded Sword’ Ihe ‘Parazonium dageer, with its metal scabbard, was usually attached to the Sword-beit’ on the other side. Shaped like an oOx-tongue (“Anelace, or Lanueue-ae-beu7 ), and measuring twelve to sixteen inches long, it was common to Greece and Rome; 1 have shown its origin in Peypt. The part played by the Hellenes upon the great stage of the worlds history was their development of civil life—of citizenship. As a nation, they wanted the life-long practice Of arms and training for wariatre, brought to absolute pertec- FIG. 267,— BRONzE PARA- ZONIUM (363 inches long). tion by the Romans. Their annual games, as shown by the Pindaric Odes, They had the Bibasis or gymnastic dance, and; to mention no other, the Pyirhic Or Sword-dance, like all ancient and many modem peoples; but these mimic- Were mostly trials Of Speed and agility. ries soon became in the cities mere womens work. They wore side-arms at home only during the Panathenaic fetes, where orchestral actions and attitudes Were displayed; and they had not those military colonies like the Romans, where €very nan was a soldier and every soldier was a veteran. Their eyuasza and Palesir@ were schools for calisthenics, which the sturdier Italians held in lation Of the Roman term Galli.” They consisted of three tribes, each with its capital: the VFolis- tobogii (= Lolosa + Boil) at Pessinus ; the Tectosages (of Aquitaine) at Ancyra, now Angora, famous for wool and cats; and the Jrocmi, with Tavium for principal city, lay to the east bordering on Pontus. This people; like the Gauls, their kinsmen, was “ad- modum dedita religionibus “ (Czes. J. G. v1. 16), "xX. 32, * Livy, xxxvill. c. 17. ’ 7/. 1. 190. * 71. xvi. 437. * 7/7. xxi. 310-60, 6 7/7. xiv. 405. 7 In the 7Zzaa (iv. 185) we find the (@ornp and the (oa different, Menelaus wears the former outside, the Sword below it, and a pirpa or metal plate on the breast. Ihe (waTip was probably a broad girdle strengthened with metal; and considered part of the this (a@vvvueGat, to “gird one’s loins,” is to prepare for battle. OTAG : 240 17 BOOK OF THE SWORD. contempt. They were, like the symmnastic-srounds of the Spartan girls, mere hot- beds for srowme beauty and good breeders; for attaining the perfection of form duly to be transmitted. This process, indeed, began with the bride, who furnished her nuptial chamber with the finest possible models in painting and statuary. Hence every well-bred citizen at Athens, every “gentleman, was expected to be handsome. The Beautiful, the Good, and the Holy stew to be almost synonymous, Physical man was raised to his higshest expression, till he became the mythological, ideal god-man. This anthropomorphism found its final stage in Phidias; the Parthenon was its expression, and Olympus its culmination." Since the ancient man-breedinge and man-shapine system was abandoned, and the race became intimately mixed with foreign blood, chiefly Slav and Hebrew, the reverse has become noticeable: a Greek of the classical type is now rarely seen. Fic. 268.— HopLites (Heavy ArRMED).” Fic. 269.—GREEK COMBATANTS WITH SWORD AND LANCE. Then came the intellectual age of Greece. Already in B.C. 450 Protagoras the Sophist, of the Cyrenaic school, had made ‘man the measure of all things” The individual becomes a duality; as Aristotle expresses it, the animal life is one of Sensation, the divine life of intelligence. And this change of view stadually extin- euished the holy fire of art. The Hellenes; even in their best times, did not pay that attention to the use of aimis which was a daily practice with the more practical Romans. They had no sladiatorial shows, the finest sa//es darmes in the world. The omAcd:danrai (omAc0LoagKOADl) Of aliny waz7es a ares, and professors of the noble arts of offence and defence, were not required by law in Lacedzmon. They practised the Sword, as we learn from Demosthenes; he compared the Athenians “with rustics in a fencing school; who atter a blow always guard the hit part and not before.’ Yet they preferred the pentathlum, the pancration, and military dancing ; the fencing-room was a secondary consideration. Indeed; Plato objected to the useless art of Sword-exercise, because neither masters nor disciples ever became great soldiers——a stupendous Platonic fallacy !* 1 Doubtless Pythagoras and Socrates were mono- MIKH= TEXNH2 (Athens, 1503); the soldier wears theists after the fashion of the Eeyptian priests; but an Etruscan helmet; and the pelta shield resembles the Olympus of the many-headed was peopled bya an ivy leat. = Fri. 1. ‘charming bevy of coguis and coguzies. 4 To name merely the sovzizs: Alexander the 2 Wrom ihe treatise of M. Kodios; Eli] MOAE- ~~ (reat, Humenes, and Ptolemy; Mannibal; Suila, THE SWORD IN GREECE. 241 The soldier at Athens and amongst ail the lonian and kindred races occupied, it is true, an honourable position; in the four castes’ he followed the priestly, and he preceded the peasants and the mechanics. tician. Nor did Helias greatly prize herself upon mere arms. But the Mellene was essentially a citizen—a poli- He chose his magistrates and pontifis, and he could aspire to become one himself. He spent his life in the Agora, canvassine laws and constitutions, treaties and alliances. Hiis minor delight was sossip, euphuistically expressed by Hellas soon learned that her 7ov7e lay in literature, poetry, Oratory, aid philosophy, in engineering, and in the fine arts. She excelled the world in the 6xquisite rules of proportion ; in the breadth of idea, and in the clear- ness and perfection of the literary form: these arts she bequeathed as a heritage to mankind, who have nowhere and never surpassed her. While the grand old Kemites built for eternity, and subjected even size? to solidity, Hellas elaborated the principle of Beauty and carried it to its very acme. ‘hearing new things.’ Her spoilt children were avid Of novelty: they constructed every possible system of cosmiogony, of astronomy, Of geolosy (except the right One); arid they * paraded their knowledge, as Bacon Says, “with fifes and drums. Hence their teachers of the Nile Valiey told them “they were ever children ; and hence they excelled their teachers. This is not the place to discuss Greek tactics, nor is there anythine new to say about them: authors are contented with borrowing from the treatises of A¢lian and Artian, who lived in the days of Hadrian. If will only remind the reader that even during the ‘Miad “ages the Greek army had its scheme of battle. Nestor advises his warriors to keep their ranks in action after the wont Of their forbeats; and in two places® we have allusions to a rude phalanx or oblong rectangle of civilised Egypt and Khita-land. Xenophon~ tells us that the atmy Of Agesilaus appeared all bronze (yaXxov) and red (potviea); the latter Survives in OUr mOst inappropriate British scarlet. For the heavy-armed Hoplite- swordsmen and the light Peltasts;) who had appatently no Swords, the student will consult any ‘ Dictionary of Antiquities,” Another unpleasant feature in Greek warfare was its indifference fo human life, SO much regarded by the Romans. The former preserved their old barbarous practice of putting to death their war-prisoners ; whilst even duting the first Punic War the latter had a system of exchange combined with a money-payment for any number in €xcess on either side. Fabius, Marius, Sertornus, Cato, Brutus, Julius Ceesar, Mark Antony, Pompey, Metellus, Marcellus, Trajan, and Hadrian, Ail these commanders were famous swordsmen, concerning whose personal feats with the weapon we have ample notices. " The Albanians still preserve the four castes which do not intermarry. These are: Soldiers (or Landowners), Tradesmen, Shepherds, and Artisans. * Some of the Greek statues were larger than any Eegypuan. Olympian Jove stood 60 feet, Apoilo 45 (Pausanias), and the Image of the Sun (commonly called the Colossus of Khodes) 105 feet, exceeding everything in the Nile Valley. 1 need not refer to Mount Athos and the Charonion of Antioch. The Oldest known Greek statue Is 2 portrait produced at Miletus in Bic. 550, and inscribed ; “I am Chates, son of Kieisis, ruler of Teichiousa, an offering to Apollo.” The style of this and other archaic works (vases, Xc.), Which are rare, connects it with Assyrianism, about the age of Assurnazirpal (B.C. 330). 3 Jad, 1. 362 and iv. 297 sq. " Le Ages. 242 THE LOOK OF SHEL SWORD. Greece tarcly appears in arms except in defensive wariare (aS against the Persians), in civil wars between citizens and citizens, and im semi-civil wars, as between the Athenians and the Spartans, the Dorians, lonians, and Atolians.” A elance at ally Of their campaigns—the “Anabasis, for instance—sives us their measure as soldiers ; and what else can we expect from a race whose typical men were [hemistocles and Alcibiades ? restless, too impulsive (ever ‘shedding tears ); too seli-assertive to become disci- They were too clever by halt; too vain, too ihey were always ready for a revolt, for a change of In this point, plined men-machines. Ofcers ; and it must have been a serious thine to command them. perhaps, they are rivalled by the Frenchman, one of the best soldiers in Hurope, and also one Of the most difficult to manase. Napoleon Buonaparte, for mstance—shot their recalcitrants by the dozen till the Like the French, too, and the Irish, the They gained victories by the vigour and Great Captains— Turenne and Survivors learned to “tremble and obey, * Greeks had more dash than firmness. eallantry of their attack, but they did not distineuish themselves in a losing game. Here England excels, and hence Marshal Buseaud said, “She has the best infantry in the world ; happily they are not many. Hellas owed her successes in foreign wars mainly to the barbarous condition of We must make them so. her neighbours. The Romans and all the peoples of Asia Minor, save her own colonies, were far behind her when, after the fashion of the equestrian races of Northern Asia, she had exchanged the chariot for the chareer;° and when she borrowed irom Egypt the arts of warfare by land and sea, the paraphernalia of the siege, the best of arms and armour, and even the redoubtable phalanx. But she lost pre-eminence, physical and moral; when the rival races rose to be her equals, and even her superiors, in weapons, Organisation, and discipline. She beean with beating, and she ended with beine thoroughly beaten by, the Romans. Greek literature does not abound, like Roman and Hebrew, in perpetual allu- sions to the Sword: it refers more frequently to the spearand bow. Yet Athenzeus ennobles the end of his curious oa podrzaa (the © Deipnosophists ) with some charming lines alluding to the Queen of Weapons. Ihe first passage begins With :— 1 But who is to do this under a Republic? And means rather to stroll ( 7a7er) on horseback.” As here we foresee troubles for our neighbours in the mext Prusso-Gallic War. 2 Por imstance, the * Holy City’ of Miletus, with its 300 dependent towns. When we speak of ancient Greece we must remember that it extended from Asia Minor to Sicily, Italy, and even Southern France; and from Heypt to Albania. Modern Greece is a mere mutilated trunk. ? Demmiun (p. 100, &c.) tells us that “the Greeks had not even a term to denote the action of riding on horseback *; and that ‘even in French a proper verb does not exist, as the expression chevaucher his Hmglish translator remarks, the assertion 1s hardly admissible in the face of such words as immeverr (egutiare), cavalicare, to ride the horse; (riding), immevs and imnorys (a rider, a Knight), and emiBepyxws, mounted (sez. On horseback). His in- terpretation Of Also called Adseriptii, Slpermumerari, and Velati, because wearing only the sacuz or soldier’s cloak, opposed to the officers patidarzeriiui. Propetly speaking, they were rear-troops, ranged in battle order behind the Tari, During certain epochs the Rorarii stood mext to the ‘Iviarii, and the Accensi, less trustworthy than either, formed the extreme rear. 240 LHE BOOK OF THE SWORD. welitari@) about three feet long in the shaft, with a nine-inch lozenge-shaped head of iron” For close quarters he wore on his right side a Parazonium-dageger, and on the right a broad cut-and-thrust blade of moderate size. Hits defences were an apron Of leather strips, studded with metal; and a Parma,’ the small tound shield, like the Cetra, some three feet in diameter? ee ee Sere ee ey : Oar pre cceeeeeee ren eee 7 Fic. 271.1, 2. HELMETS OF HASTARII (FROM TRAJAN’S CoLuMmN); 3; 4- HELMETS OF HASTARII; 5. GRONZH He_mEer (FROM CANN). The Legion proper was a line or rather a tripie line of Hastarii* or lesionary Spearmen. Livy” briefly describes the “Acies; when it emerged from the Phalanx, aS “drawn Up into distinct companies, divided into centuries, Each cOmpaty contained sixty soldiers.” two centurions, and one ensign or standard- bearer.’ 1 The weapon is well shown in a monumental tablet on the Court wall of the Aquileja Museum. 2 The Clypeus, or Clipeus, of favourite Greek use, was also round, but larger than the Parma: Our *buckler” (Jucculavzus clypeus) takes its name trom having on it an open mouth (dzcca, buccu/a), in Chinese fashion, instead of the 27:00. ’ in Livy’s Phalanx (A4.U.c. 415) the Velites were hight-armed men, carrying only a spear and short iron pula (viii. 7). 4 A congener of the Keltic 4s7= branch ; whence the Fr. are d fast. it was the Greek Koy7os, conius, Or lance, an unbarbed Spear, a royal Scepire : under the Republic it collected the hundreds (Zaszam cenlumiviralem apere) ; it noted auctions ( jws hase), it was the weapon of the light infaniry-man (Zas7a velitarés), and it served to part the bride’s hair (Ovid, Fast. . 500). astarzus and fastatus, hasta and quits are Synonyms ; the 2esum was a heavier weapon. and barbed, and the jacu/em, with its diminutives, Spictlum, vericuléum, Or Veruium, Was a lighter jave- jin. Virgil uses Aas7z/e poetically. ® Loc, cit. First in line stood the Mastati in fitteen companies with twenty Velites.® ® The number of men greatly varied ; the extremes of the Legion are 6,800 including cavalry under Scipio, and 3,500 under Constantine, In Livys Legion there were 5,000 infantry and 300 horse (vil. $). Perhaps we may assume an average of 4,000 fooi— a full Austrian regiment. Each line of the three numbered 10 cohorts, and each cohort three maniples, The latter were named from manipulus, a handful (of grass, &c., Gzore. 1, 400), because this rustic article at the end of a pole was the standard of Romulus. * The Signa, ensions, or standards, were different im the legions. The Vexillum, or colours of cavalry, Was a square of cloth, also called Pannus (wijvos), The word is a congener of the Gothic Faza and Faz ; the Ang. Sax. Faz; the Germ. Fase; the French Ganniere and our banner, ence, 100, Gonjanon = Gunajfano. When the Eagle became imperial, and the Vexillum a Labarum with a cross, this Standard was splendidiy decorated, and led to the French oriflamme. Ihe latter was made of the fine red (Silk ?) stuff cailed cevda/um, cendal, or sendel. * These “light bobs” were re-organised and regu- THE SWORD IN KOME. 247 Behind them were the Principes with heavy shields and complete armour, also numbering fifteen companies. These thirty companies were called Antepilani, because there were fifteen Others placed behind them with the standards; each of the latter consisted of three divisions, and the first division of each they called a Pilus. The first ension was at the head of the third line proper, the Iriarii. Behind them stood the Rorarii, whose ability was less by reason of their youth and inexperience ; and, lastly, in the rear, came the Accensi, a body in which little confidence was reposed. The Hastati beean the fight, and if unable to gain the day, passed to the rear through the ranks of the Principes. The latter now marched forwards to action, the Hastati following. Meanwhile the Triarii continued kneeling behind the Ensigns; the left legs extended to the front, the shields resting On the shoulders; the spear-points erect with butts firmly mxed in the eround, so that the line bristled as if inclosed by a rampart. Ji the Principes failed, “res ad Triarios rediit,” The Triarii, after receiving the Principes and Has- tati into their intervals, closed files and {fell upon the enemy in a compact body.’ This was the most formidable attack, when the eneiny, Navine pursued the vanquished, sud- denly beheld a new line starting up.’ Thus far Livy. I am tempted by the subject of the Koman lesionaries, those ‘ mas- sive hammers of the whole earth, to add, despite its triteness, a few details. The Hastatus or spearman, a young light- Bic. 27a-SHaststus (pzon TRAJAN armed soldier, preceded the colours; hence he was called Antesionanus, He wore for defence a plain or crested helmet which varied with his lesion.® He had a bronze breast-plate thirty-two inches long, Of a Cuirass Of thin metal plates defending the chest and forming shoulder- pieces. AL kilt® of the same material protected his lower body ; sreaves or iegeings (ocve@) his legs, and the Scutum or shield his flank) This article (oxv7os, leather, dog-skin ?),a curved rectangular oblong, larser than the Parma, measured about four feet by two and a half feet; the framework was Of wood, and the covering had a strone boss and metal platings. As his name denotes, the Mastatus was armed with the full-sized spear, and with a long or short “gladius or “ensis, The latter was carried on the right, as a rule; as will be seen, it greatly varied in size and shape. The soldier, when excited in battle, threw away his spear and drew larly established in A:U.C, 541, after the battle of 3 The original kilt was the waist-cloth, man’s Canine. primitive dress in the Tropics and the lower Tempe- “In fact, it formed phalanx, a word originally rates. It became an article of defence tnder the meaning a biock or a cylinder, Greeks and Komans ; and thence it spread over most * The Officer's was adorned by way of hononur- oi Europe. The Maltese long preserved it, and ihe able decoration with three (osirich ?) feathers black Fasvaze//ais still worn in Greece and Albania. In and scariet, Treland if was ancient, as it is modern in Scotland, 249 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. his Sword; the Etruscans did the same” IJhe shield-umbo was also used in close combat to bear dowm the Opponent, The second line, which like the third followed the standards, was composed or the Principes or Proci, soldiers of mature age. The name seems to denote that originally they formed the front line, as the Greek Promachoi and our Grenadiers. Lastly came the Iriarii (third line men), 4 reserve, So called from their position— veterans of tried valour who were expected to retrieve the fortunes of the day. At first they were the only Pilani® (javelincers), aS Opposed to the two frst lines (Antepilani), Their redoubtable weapon, which conquered so much of the old world, and which descended by inheritance to the Franks, was about six feet and three-quatters lons, composed of an iron (two feet) with oval or pyramidal head, set by a broad tans in a wooden socketed shaft treble its iength. The latter was round at the heel and squared about the shouicers, as we learn from Livy,* when describing the Phalarica or fire-missile, Both Principes and Iriarii aiso carried swords, the former at the right hip, the latter above it: as has before been noticed this is a most com- plicated snbject. Ihe bandsmen wore; jiike the sionda-bearers, a peculiar helmet; they consisted of tubicines (using the za, a lone Etruscan trumpet), Of Cornicines (the covzu being a writhed horn), and of buccinatores, blowing a short simple instrument. The Roman Officers were armed like the men. Under the term 277ague militia was included the legionaty Cavalry whose number varied little in pro- portion to the infantry. In Polybius’ day the ratio was two hundred to four thousand, This arm was clad in a complete suit of bronze less heavy than the Greeks and the Gallo-Greeks ;° the buckler of ox-hide was round, Oval, or polygonal. Fic. 273. CENTURION S CUIRASS, WITH PHALERZ OR DECORATIONS. The horsemans weapons were 2 Spear (coz7ws), often accompanied by a javelin, a waist-dageer, and a Sword worn on the right; the latter, unlike ours, preserved the form of the infantry weapon. Ihe Greek cavalry in the Roman service at the siese of jerusalem, as we learn irom Josephus, carried lone Swords suspended to the right flank, Lastly, the Legion was followed by its massive tormenta (artillery): catapuits 1 Livy, ix. 35. 2 Livy, vill. 3. * Pilum, like our * pile, a congener of the Teu- tonic 77e, is not a Roman invention, and was probably borrowed from the Sammnites (Sallust. Caz. 51, 36). Lhe pe/um muraie, used tor piercing walls figures in the text are those of the Mayence pz/um (Jahns, p. 201). * Livy, xxi. 3. © Under Trajan and Septimius Severus the cavalry (Cesar, B. CG. Vv. 40), was a round or quadrangular shatt of three cubits, with an iron of the same length (Polybius, vi. 23, 9). Ihe f2/am was perpetually changing size and proportions; moreover, there were two kinds, the heavy and the light. The adopted the iron or bronze A/amara, hooked metal chains, forming a kind of mail-coat, and the Sqguamata, scales sewn Onto linen or leather. Demmin (p. 121) erroneously makes the latter ‘chain-armour,” and yet his illustration shows the scales. THE SWORD IN ROME. 240 (ior darts) and Ja/zsiz (for stones), escorted by the vezz//aviz or oldest soldiers, under their Own vex7//777, and worked by the Sappers or 7ab72 (/ienariz, &c.). The camp-tollowers (ca/ones, ia) and the bageage (z#zpeazmenia) brousht up the rear. ihe Roman infantry was carefully drilled. WVepetius tells us that recruits were exercised with Osier-bucklers and stakes double the weight of the normal swords. there were also resular champs ae Mars, “sham-nehts’ with wooden Swords and with javelins whose points were sheathed in balls. in the effeminate days of the Empire, shortly after Constantine, military dis- cipline was relaxed, and the decay of the Legion became complete. Instead of shouldering their packs the men carried them in carts. Ihe Hasta was given up, and the helmet atid the cuirass were dispensed with as too heavy. Vegetius’ had reason to ascribe the defeat of the Legion by the Goths to the want of its old defensive armour. It was not Only when campaionine that the Romans studied the use of arms. Inthe Campus Martitis and the other seven ‘parks of the Capital, crowds of young men practised riding, swording, and athletics. Another mighty Sa//2 7 Aries was the Amphitheatre. fo a purely military nation, gladiatorism Nad great merits. “Cestoit, a la verité, says Montaigne? ‘un merveiileux exemple, et de treserand iruict pour Vinstitution du peuple, de veoir touts les jours en sa presence cent, deux cents, voire mille couples d hommes, armez les uns contre les aultres, se hacher €n pieces, avecques une si extreme fermete de courage, qu on ne leur veit lascher une parole de foiblesse Gu commiseration, jamais tourner le dos, ny faire seulement un mouvement lasche pour gauchir au coup de leur adversaire, aims tendre le col a son espee, et se presenter au coup. It appears to me that the nineteenth century wastes much fine sentiment upon the “detestable savagery of the Lanista, * and upon the wretches Butchered to make a Roman holiday. The Yuaus gladzaiorzus* began as a humane institution amongst the Etruscans, who, instead of slaughtering, upon the funeral pyre, slaves amd war-captives, like Achilles and Pyrrhus, allowed them to fight for their lives. The #zzzus at Rome, moreover, was originally conimed to public funerals, and it was an abuse which allowed it at private interments, at entertainments, and at holiday festivals in seneral. According to Livy’ “when Scipio exhibited gladiators at Carthage (B.C. 546) ‘they were not slaves or men who sold their blood, the usual stuif of the Lanistas school. ® Ihe service was voluntary and sratuitous. Combatants were oiten sent by petty princes to show the courage of their people; others came for- 1 De Ke M771. 1. 16. Fphorus that the Mantmeans were the inventors of 2 Fissais de Montaigne, \. u., chap. 24 (Paris: Gladiatorism proper (fovopaxovvres), suggested by Garnier Freres, 1574). One Of their citizens, Demus or Demonax, and that S Or ware darmes, a word borrowed by Rome the Cyreneans followed suit. ® Livy, xxviii, 21. from Etruria, The legionary teachers were termed © In early Roman days the Gladiator was arimidoctores and campidociores. Infamous ; even Petronius Arbiter (Sazy7, cap. 1) 4 Athenreus (iv. 41) relates from Flermippus and uses ‘you obscene gladiator’ as an insult. 250 4H LOOK OF THE SWORD. ward in compliment to the General; and some decided their disputes by the Sword. Amongst persons of distinction were Corbis and Orsua, cousins-serman, who deter- mined to fight out their claims to the city called Ibes, and they ‘exhibited to the army a most interesting spectacle, the elder swordsman easily mastering the artiess attacks of the younger. yen when the gladiators at Rome were condemned criminals and captives whose lives were forfeited by the old laws of wat, some humanity remained. Although the malefactors doomed 2a giadzum were to be slain within the year, these sent only a@ /udum tight Obtain their discharge within three years. And under the Empire to join the shows became “fashionable :” Severus was compelled to forbid freeborn citizens, knights, senators, and even women from enterine the arena. The life of the gladiator was one to make the “honest poor’ curse their [ot. Tie was tramed in the best climates, and fed with the most succulent food (saezza giadiaiovia); hence Cicero” calls rude health and good condition ‘ sladiatoria totius corporis firmitas.” MMe became one of a /a7z7/7a or brotherhood after taking the Oath, which Montaigne sives from Petronius (117) :—* Nous jurons de nous laisser en- chainer, brusler, battre et tuer de glaive, ct de soufirir tout ce que les eladiateurs legitimes soufirent de leur maitres, engageant tres-relicieusement le corps et Vame a son service. In other words, he had plenty of society and he was disciplined. Under the Lanista he practised daily at the schools, and the /zdzs szatutinus near the Coeliolus or little Coclian Hill was frequented by ali classes? Here he “fought the air” (Gepa dépew), a SKrapoyia like our fighting the sack; he contended with the 7wd7s (rod or wooden Sword); he cut at the Palus, the ‘post-practice” of German universities and modern regiments; and he strengthened back and shoulders with the Halteres (dumb-bells, @ombcl/es), and with other airtifices. Thus a wound, fatal t0 a man out of training, would only disable one in such Splendid condition.* Pliny,* indeed, makes light of his danger. Speaking of C. Curios two pivot-theatres, which durine representations could be wheeled inwards or Outwatas, this model srumbler declares: © | he safety of the gladiators was almost less compromised than that of the Koman people; which allowed itself to be thus whirled round from side to side. lf worsted itt Combat and sentenced to receive the Sword ( jevrum reczpere), the sladiator, prepared for his fate, met it with manly firmness. When the down- turned thumbs ranted mercy, the vanquished got his 725520 or discharge for the day. Augustus humanely abolished the barbarity ot Shows szwe mzsstone, where no quarter was given. Ihe victor was presented with palms, whence p/urzzarun palmarum gladiator ; and with cash, which doubtless commended him to the other sex. We read of old eladiators, showing that the career was not necessarily fatal. | Philp. ii. 25. comovat, *reireshing himself with a drink of lye of 2 Marius and Pompey the Great both *‘keptup” ashes. Can they mean the antiseptic charcoal, their swordsmanship imthese schoolsand inthe Champ whose use has been revived of late years? de Mars, ihe latter till the age of filty-cight. * tience his simple medication when ors We 1 Wat. fist. xxxvi. 24. 1HE KOMAN GLADIATOR. 251 These veterans, and sometimes novices who had fought only in a few 7zunera, were, at the request of the people, discharged the service by the Editor or Exhibitor of the games. They were then presented with a Rudis (rae aonait), and, as Kudiatii lived happily ever afterwards. We have also notices of distinguished gladiators, Diogenes Laertius' does not disdain to mention as the fourth Epicurus, “lastly, a gladiator. Spartacus, Crixus, and C2nomaus broke out of Lentulus’ fencins-school, escaped from Capua, and made a Camp at Vesuvius ; they used the Swords made out of iron plundered in the slave-houses to such efiect that Athenzeus declares, “17 Spartacus had not died in battle, he would have caused no ordinary trouble to our countrymen, as Eunus did in Sicily. * Gladiatorial shows were first exhibited (B.C. 246) in the Forum Boarium by Marcus and 1, Brutus at their fathers funeral, during the Saturnalia (our Christmas) and the Minerva feasts.® They were abolished by Constantine ‘the Great” (AD. 306-33), but the edict seemed to sive them fresh life; Prank prisoners were slaughtered by the hundred in the arena of Ireves. They were finally suppressed (A.D. 404) by Honorius, who made a martyr of the monk Telemachus. 1 need hardly reiate how this meddling ecclesiastic rushed into the amphitheatre to separate the com- batants, and was incontinently stoned by “the house, But the time had come for abolishing these Slorious spzcfacu/a; as mostly happens, lone custom and familiarity had merged the use into the abuse, and caused Lactantius to exclaim *tollenda est nobis!” The misuse had besun under Divus Cassar, who collected so many gladiators for the fights that his enemies became alarmed, and restricted the number. Caligula, the * Bootlins,, was devoted to the sport, and made some sladiators Captains of his German euards. He deprived the * Mirmillones”* of certain weapons. One Columbus coming off victorious in a ficht, but slishtly hurt, he caused the wound to be initused with poison, which sot the name of Columbinum. The nervous Claudius (“ Caidius’) assisted at the speciacula “muihed Up in a palliim, a new fashion!’ Having Spared, at the intercession of his four sons,a conquered prize-fishter, he sent a billet round the house remindine the spectators how much it behoved them to get children, sitice these could procure favour and security for a siadiator. In later years he became Savase. Ji a combatant chanced to fall, especially one of the Retiarii, he ordered him to be butchered that he might enjoy the look of the face in the agonies Of death. Iwo combatants Happenine to kill cach other, he ordered some little knives to be made of their Swords. He also delighted in seeine Bestiarii, and he made the sport most brutal and sanguinary. Nero, duxing his ‘golden quinguennium, ordered that no gladiators, ven condemned criminals, should be 1 Subd. Epicurus. ’ The first Roman artist who painted gladiators was Derentius Lucanus (Pliny, 7/7. 7. xxxv. 34). * Dep. vi. 105. Eunus was the slave-leader in + The Mirmilio, a7as Gallus, is supposed to be the servile War, which began §.C. 130 derived from a Keltic word, meaning @ fish, 252 LH#E BOOK OF 1H SWORD. Slain; and he persuaded four hundred senators and six hundred knichts, some of unbroken fortunes and unblemished fame, to fight in the arena. He espoused the cause of the Ihraces or Parmularians, and often joined im the popular demonstra- tions in favour of the Prasine or ‘ereen faction, without, however, compromising his dignity or doing injustice. In his later and crueller days," hearing the master of a family of gladiators say that a Phrax was a match for a Mirmillo, but not so for the exhibitor of the games, he had him draseed from the benches into the arena and exposed to the dogs, with this label) “A Parmularian guilty of speaking Dlasphemy. And, as * Mero ~ scandalised the world by his passion for singing and harping, so Commodus desraded himself by amateur sladiatorship. He was cun- nine of fence, but in the most cowardly way. A powerful man and a practised gymnast, We wore lipenetrabie armour and fought with a heavy Sword, whereas his antagonists were allowed only Blades of tin and lead’ Even the humane Trajan * exhibited after his victories some ten thousand Dacian * monomachists, ‘The militarism of the Romans, however, made them familiar with butchery. Thus Tacitus*® says: “The Germans gratihed us with the spectacle of a battle in which above sixty thousand men were slain. This “gladiatorial show took place near the canal of Drusus, where the Roman guard on the Rhine commanded a view Of the other shore. The giadiators used both forms of Swords, the straisht two-edeed blade and the curved* Whe Dimacheri carried, as the name denotes, two weapons: these may have been either two Swords of the same size, as carried by the Japanese,® ot possibly Sword atid dagser, a practice long preserved on the shores of the Medi- terranean. The same may be said or the 2vos g/adzos borne by the Gaul whom Torquatus slew. Ihe Moplomachi, armed caf-a-p72, must also have been Swords- men. Ihe Mirmillo® was weaponed with a curved blade, cutting inside (‘sladio incutvo et falcato ): in Montfaucon, he carries a lone convex shield and a Sica or short-sword.’ Opposed to the Mirmillio was the Retiarius,; armed with net and trident: Cortez found mnet-soldiers in Mexico, as was natural to fishermen. Winckelmann shows a fight between the two: Retiarius has netted his fish and 1 Ti Nero was the monster represented by the man (Samurai) wore sword and dagger. The blades commentaries and the contemporary Christians, we must wonder how this anti-Christ was loved in lifs by Acte, the ‘sweet and pure-minded Christian “; and why the citizens of Kome sorrowed for his death, And there is much suggestion im the fact that the greatest persecutors of the ¢arliest Christians were the best of the Czcsars; for instance, Vespasian, Litus, Diocletian and Julian, 2 See the character given to him by Eutropius, Vill. 4. 2 De Morib. Germ. xxxiii. 4 Mariette, Aecue2/, No. 92. » The learned Mr. Tylor is notably in error when he informs Mr. Herbert Spencer (Ceremozzal J2s7- dutzo#s, Pp. 174-75) that the Japanese two-sworded used to be or equal length. Of the Japanese sword I shall treat in Part If. 6 Copied by smith (cr. of Ant. p. 456) from Winckelmann ((7onu7nenta Tueaiia, Pl, 197): the latter, by the by, was murdered at Trieste. 7 The word seems to be a congener oi Sas, Sax, or Scax, the weapon supposed to have named the maxons. It was either straight or curved, the main object being to fit it closely tothe body or under thearm- pits. Hlenceit was a favourite with the Sicarius (Ital. secario), the Assassin. Gregory of Tours has (ix. 19) ‘ Caput sicharii sicca dividit.” A fanciful derivation of Sicily is from s7zca, because Cronos threw one away at Drepanum. From the diminutive form Secula and Sidececuia comes the English *sickle.” THE ROMAN GLAVIATOR. 253 proceeds to use the jwsc7wa or ivzaens, while a togad Lanista, rod in hand, stands behind him and points out where to strike. Ihe Sammnites were distinguished by the oblong tribal sczzz7z' and the leat- shaped Greek Sword: sosays the Comte de Caylus ; but on the monument erected Dy Caracalla to Bato, the weapon is straight up and down. Ihe Threecesor [hreces (Thracians proper)? had round shields, and instead of the huge Swords noted by Livy, the short knife called by juvenal ja/7 supzna.* The Thracian’s Sword closely resembles that used in the Isle of Cos. Winckelmann* gives a combat between two Thracians,; each backed up by his Lanista. We find also a naked Gladiator, with Sword and shieid, fighting another in breast-belt, apron (szd/zeacu/uen), and boots, with a shield and a three-thonged fagz//uim or scourse. The Gladiators were an order distinct from the Bestiarii (@7p:ozayor), who fought against wild beasts; these were exhibited in the Forum, those in the Circus. Again, Bestiarii; who can boast that St. Paul once beloneed to them, must not be confounded with the criminals thrown a2 /zoves, without means of detence, like Mentor, Androclus, and early Christian communists. The beast- fighters had their schole bestravum or bestiavriovum where they practised weapons, and they received aucioramenium or pay. Ihe aims were various: mostly they are Shown With a Sword in One hand, a veil in the Other, and the leit les pro- tected By greaves. Under Divus Cesar criminals for the first time encountered wild beasts with silver weapons. Ihe modern Survival is the Spanish bull-fght. Gladiatorism lasted in England after a fashion till the days of Addison ; amongst protessional Swordsmen, the highest surviving name is that of ——— the great Figs, by the prize-fighting swains The monarch acknowledged of Mary bone plais.® To conclude this discuirsus on eladiatorism. Most popular sports are cruel, but Wwe must not confound, as is Giten done, cruelty with brutality. Ihe former may accOmpany greatness of intellect; the latter is the characteristic of debasement. The English fox-hunter and pigeon-shooter‘’ are severe upon bull-fighting and cock- Every nation is disposed to ‘ne-fie” iis neighbours favourite diversion. " This hide-shield, which supplanted the c/ypeus ~~ tale of Androcius is well known ; he was pardoned, or clipeus, the large round article of osier-work, was also Sabine: 2 Petronius Arbiter, chap. i. 7. * Paix is properly a large pruning knife; plain or toothed, with a coulter or bill projecting from the back of the curved head. Besides this, there are many forms; One is a Simple curve; another is a leaf-shaped blade with an inner hook, while a third Dears, besides the spike, a crescent on the back, *Falx” is the origin of our ‘falchion,” an Italian auginentative form, or perhaps the Spanish jacov. Caesar (Covi. ili. 14) speaks of Jalces preacute. 4 Loc. cet., copied by Smith, ® Mentor is mentioned by Pliny (vii. 21). The and presented with his friend the lion, whom he used to lead ahout Rome, doubtiess collecting many coppers. © He is called by Captain Godirey ‘the Atlas of the Sword,” and Hogarth immortalised this valiant ‘rough “in the Aake’s Progress and Southwark Lair, 7 it is repretable to see this unmanly and ignoble ‘sport spreading abroad ; there was pigeon-shooting at Venice durng the Geographical Carnival, a/zas Congress, of September 1661. All honour to the © English Princes who are discountenancing the butchery at home. Fox-hunting is another thing; the chief good done by it seems to be the circulation of about a million of morey per annum, 264 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. hehtine—the classical and Oriental pastime preserved in Spain and in Spanish South America." Ihe boxer, who imitates, at a humble distance, the Cestus-play of the Greeks and Komians, looks scandalised at ’a doze Prancazse, with its gar- nishing Of Savaze; and at the Brazilian ¢2poc77a, who butts with his woolly head, And so vice versa. Absence or presence of fair play should, methinks, condemn or justity all the various forms of sport which are not mere or pure barbarities. And, applying this test, we shail not harsh judge the sladiatorial games of Rome. I now proceed to describe the Sword amongst the Komans, a simpler subject than im Greece: AS the so-termed founding of Rome took place during the early Iron Age of Souther Europe, it is probable that the citizens, like their predecessors the Etruscans, Originaliy made their blades of copper and bronze, the leai-shape being borrowed trom the Greeks, as we see it retained by the eladiators. dhe material would last into the Age of Steel, but even in her early years Kome must have pretetred the harder metal. Pliny expressly tells us that Porsena, after his short- lived conquest, prohibited the future masters of the world from using iron except in agriculture ; it was hardly safe to handle a stylus. Polybius notes that in his day bronze was eitirely restricted to defensive armour—heimets, breast-plates, and Greaves. Jill Offensive weapons, swords and spears, were cither made of, or tipped with, steci. io this stiperiority of material we may attribute the Koman Successes in the second Punic war (B.C. 218-201), and their conquest o1 the gallant Gauls, when their foes could oppose nothing better than bronze. They had reason to call a Sword fe77u77. | The Romans called the Sword Ensis; Gladius, and Spatha. he two former are used as synonyms by Quinctilian, but the first presently became poetical. The derivations are eminently unsatisfactory. Voss would find Ensis in eyyos, Hasta ; Sanskritists in Asz,a Sword, the Zend Azz. Gladius is popularly drawn @ clade Jevrenda, quasi cladius (Varro and Littleton); Voss prefers xAdador (yams), a young branch, the earliest Sword: to others if appears a congener of the Keltic Cad, the destroyer. Of the derivation of “Spatha I have already treated : Suetonius * makes it equivalent to Machaira; but this word and its diminutive Machzerium are loosely used. The Roman Sword was, like their other weapons, longer and larger, heavier and more formidable than that of the Greeks.” The earliest form, the “heros arm ” of Virgil and Livy, was a short single-edeed cutting weapon of bronze, aiso called the ‘Gallic Sword, because long preserved by that people. It is shown in the arm of 1 I have described cockfightine m the Canary Islands (70 7#e Gold Coast for Gold, 1., chap. 9). The celebrated story of Themistocles and the same- cocks made the pastime classical. Alexander the Great is said to have crucified a tax-catherer at Alexandria who killed and ate a famous fightine-cock. Verdict, S. H. Ro * 50 MeAiyw and the O, Germ. As% (an ash-tree) signily a bow: there are many imstances of such nomenclature. * Oumetilian, 7s, Ovat, xi. 13. Marchionni (p. 123) makes the Gladius short and broad foriniantry, and the Ensis long and broad for cavalry, in fact, synonymous with spatha. This view is not unusual, 4 In Clazd, cap. 15. * Florus, u. 17. THE SWORD IN ROME. 255 the Koman Auxiliary (he. 276). Another very early, if not the earliest, shape was the leaf, which varied in length from nineteen inches (the blade found at Mayence) tO twenty-six inches (the Bingen find). The latter is peculiar ; the hilt is orna- mented with bronze, and it has a cross-suard. Upon another blade (fig. 277), of which a cast is in the Artillery Museum, Paris, appears the armourers mark, Satine (Opus). The third form, which is most generally identined with the Koman soldier, greatly resembles that which was introduced into the French army by, not without financial benefit to, Marshal Soult. ihe average length may be assumed at twenty-two inches, with a grip of six inches and a cross-bar (not always present) Fig. 274.1. KOMAN SWORD (to inches long); 2. GLADIUS. Fic. 277. ROMAN Sworp (Musée a Art.). FIG. 276.—SWorD OF ROMAN AUX- ILEARY. fic. 275. — BRonze Two-EDGED EARLY RomAN ENSIs.’ four inches and a half long and four lines thick. Some specimens show a distinct hilt-plate (ag. 274, 2). A mid-rib ran alone the blade, which was either straight or slightly narrowing, and it ended in the bevelled point (augue az carpe) This thick heavy blade, used cvszm ez puncizm, was most eticient for hand-to-hand work, and the Roman soon mastered the truth, unknown to most Orientals, that the cut wounds and the thrust kilis’* Accordingly they soon learned to despise the old Sword, ' ‘This blade greatly resembles one found in Ostir- _ botten, Finland, except that the latter preserves the tang. 17an5, Congress of Bologna of 1571, Pp. 428. The pomt was called ¢cwspzs, which never applies to the mucro, acies, or edge. ‘ Ditiert a mucrone quee 6st acies giadii, says Facciolati. * see chap. vi. In Hugues de Bancors Far//z of Genevento we read ; *Le Rey Charles ” (brother of st. Louis, and then fighting to take Sicily from Manfred)... ‘crioit de sa bouche Royale 2 ses Chevaliers de serrer les Gnmemis, leur disant, 4777722 ae la pointe, Frappes de ta pointe, soldais de Fesus Ci7ist, Et il ne faut pas sen etonner, car ce Prince habile avait In dans le Livre de PArt Militaire gue les nobles Romains navoient pas imagine de meilicire maniere de combattre que de percer les ennemis avec la pointe de epee, 250 1HE BOCK OF 142 SWORD. short and crooked. Ihe national weapon must have been used by Aimilinus at the Battle of Yelamon (B.C. 225), for Polybius notes that the Koman blade could not only deliver thrust but sive the cut with Sood eliect. Shortly aiter that fight the Romans, during their Garliest invasions of the Spanish Peninsula (B.C. 219), intended to subvert Carthaginian rule, adopted the Gladius Hispanus, including the pzezo (fig. 280); and the change from bronze to Stee! became universal aiter the battle of Cannes. The superior material aided The Roman Proconsul M. Fulvius captured (8.C. 192) Toledo (la@Ayrov), Toletum, “a small city, but strong in position ;* and the superior temper of the steel, attributed with truth, f believe, them not a little in conquering their obstinate rivais. to the lagus-water, recommended it to the conquerors. A later conquest Of the Resnum WNoricum? (Styria, B.C. 16) gave them mines of equal excellence. From Pliny and Diodorus Siculus* we Know pertectly how the Celtiberians pre- Pic. 280.~ [HE PuGIo. Fic. 278.—5WORD AND VAGINA (SHEATH). Fic. 279.—DitTo. pared their iron ores. Of this material was made the Spatha or Iberian blade; a Name adopted under the Empire, especially under Hadrian (AD. 117-135). Long, two-edged, and heavier than the short Xiphos-Gladins, it added fresh force to the wupetUus BIaatorum. In Cicero’s time the Sword must Have been of full length to expiain the joke against his son-in-law ; and Macrobius expressly tells us that Lentuius was wear- ing a blade which justified the ‘chat. During the days of Theodosius (A.D. 373- 304), the straight and strong weapon of Hadrian's time again shortened till it was 1 Livy, xxxv. 12. According to Spanish tradition, Toletum (probably a Carthaginian-Punie word) was founded B.C. 540 by Hebrews, who called it Toledoth, in Arab. Tawallud, the ‘mother of cities.” 2 Properly the South-Danube country from the Wienerwaid tothe Inn. The oreat seat of the iron works was at Lauriacum (Lorch, near Enns). After B.c. 16 the province was ruled by a Procurator. 8 See chap. vi. “in Tonin’s Aimint avaniz 7 eva volgare (pp. 31) we read that the Spatha-blade * Come ognuno sa, presso 1 Greci quanto presso 1 Latini, 257 eerus g/adz2 Jatiov7s ; onde Isidore nelle O7zg272 (xviil. cap. 9) fa che alcuni spatham /atine autumant, co quod spatiosa Sat, 22 est lata et ampla.” But this is a dictionary de- rivation. In chap. vii. 1 have traced it back to the Egyptian $727, and in chap. xii. I shall show that it is the straight broadsword as used by the Kelts. 172 KOMAN SWORD. 257 not twice the size of the hilt; in fact it became a‘*Parazonium. The General’s sword (Says Meyrick) was called Cinctorium, because carried at the girdle that surrounded the lorica, just above the hips; “it greatly resembled the Lacedz- monian Sword, The Parazonium, ug70* or dagger, accompanied the Gladius under the later Empire, and was carried in the same, or in another, belt, generally on the opposite flank. The metal was successively pure copper, bronze and steel. “The shape of this two-edeed Stiletto is either lanceolate (he. 280 4),* showing its descent from the spear, or the straight lines converge to a point (77d. 2). It is the Greek éyverpioiov, and we have seen its origin in Egypt. It has a notable resemblance to the dagsers found in Egyptian tombs (2077. c), and the weapon with the Z-section, still used im the Caucasus and in Persia® Ihe tang is usually fitted to receive a wooden plate on either side: a favourite substance was the heart of the Syrian zeved7urz (the ‘oak ~ of Mamre). The bronze hilt of the Gladius was retained lone after a 6 the blade was made of Steel. Ihe common grip was of wood set with metal knobs or rivets; the richer sorts were Of bone and ivory, amber and alabaster, silver and gold. The heft ended in a capu/us; this metal pommel * Was, iff its Simplest State, a plain mound or a stepped pytamid. But presently the “little apple” became the Fic. 281.—lwo-EpcEp ROMAN seat Of decoration ;° Pliny moans over it, and Claudian Saerros. speaks of capulis vadianizbus enses. This fashion lasted deep into the Middle Ages. The haft was often capped with the head of some animal aiter Assyrian fashion, and that of the Gacle recurved was a iavourite in Rome. Inthe Armeria Reale (Turin)® there is a fine Koman chopper-blade with a peculiar handle, and a rams head for hilt! Ihe handle was usually without Suard-plate, and at most it had only a simple cross-bar or a sma!! oval.’ The original vae7za@ (Sheath) was of leather or wood, ending in a 7202/2 or Rali- moon-shaped ferule of metal. Some scabbards on the montments, where the sword, like the helmet and the 77/77, is conventionally treated, show the scabbard with three Opposing rings on either side; arid, as the belt had only one or two, it is not easy to explain the use of the other five.® In the luxurious days of the Empire, the sheath, like the heft, the pommel, and the ferule,; was made of gold 1 Parazonium = mapa + (avy. 2210, our ° po- niard, is from Jze7us (ve), the fist; others take it from Purgere to prick. : 2 Smith (Vict, of Ant. p. $09) borrows figs. 2 and @ trom Beger (7/25. Brand. v., tii. p. 395, 419). # See end of chap. viii. * Smith (4c. 7%. p. *195) renders capzz/us by “hilt.” Pommel, however, best explains Ovid's legend of Theseus (47e7, vit. 423), who, appearing for the first time before his father A‘geus, was known by the carving on his ivory capzi/7s, and thus escaped Medea’s aconite. Moreover, a * golden hilt set with beryls would have been very awkward to handle. © Vire. 477. xii. 942. * Section Beatimont. The prip has four holiows to fit the fingers. Ihis indentation-system has been revived of late years, as shown by the swords of Victor Mmmanuel and General Lamarmora in the Municipal Museum, Turin. * Guard plates, accompanying cross-bars, have been found in Gaul. s These rings appear on the scabbard of liberius. "259 LHE BOOK OF IE SWORD. and silver reliefs, 7efoussée-work, and incrustations of precious stones disposed upoti /@very patt, made it a c#ej-d wuvrve of art. Such is the ‘ sword, or rather ‘ Para- zoniuim, Of liberius dug up at Mayence in 1948, and now in the British Museum. The scabbard, the mouth, the rings on either side, and the ferule are strengthened and beautified by reliets in gold and siiver, and the central field bears the portrait = a Fic. 282.—SwWorRD OF TIGERIUS. Se a ee ( 7 an =) CO en) Se oi the beautiful * Biberius’ Another Parazonium (Angio-Kom. Coll.) has an iron blade and a bronze scabbard. AL reform of this over-luxury ensued under Constantius II. (A.D. 350), and under the noble and glorious julian® “the Apostate. Ihe latter took a lesson from the Eastern Persian, Parthian, atid sSarmatian (Slav ?); moreover, he adopted the iron face-gcuara known at Nineveh, and the maii-coat found upon the Trajan column. These revivals and improvements extended deep into the Age of Chivalry. | The Sword was carried in the Ja/zeuvs, an Etruscan word applied indifferently, it woulda appear, to the bauldric (7reAapoy), or to the waistbelt” (Cory or CaoTnp, cengu/um). Both were of cloth or leather, either plain or decorated with embroidery, with metal plates, Splendid and elaborate rings and fibulze, and buckles and brooches of the most precious material Jt is generally said that fhe Gladius, and its successor the long cut- and-thrust spatha, were worn beited fo the right, as amongst the Persians. “The old Ensis, on the other hand, was slung to the left, like the Epyptians, Assyrians, Hindus, and other “barbarians. 7 The latter fashion enabled the Swordsman to draw his weapon sately by passing hand and ftoreartn across his body under the shield. He would also in this way srip the hilt with the thumb at the black of the blade; where it should ever be held, especially when delivering the cut. I believe, however, that the Sword was worn by the Romans, as amongst the Greeks, on either fank? We have no knowledge, except from books, of Roman fancy-owords. Such, for example, was the C/v@zx or jugalers * shutting "Sword, which fan up into the hilt. “S50 sreat is your fear of steely says Apuleius in his defence, ‘that you are afraid to dance With the “close-Sword.”’ Roman blades of iron are not often found, and yet they must have been made by the million, Captain Grose* fisures a leaf-shaped blade, like that of the 1 Here I rely upon Ammian. Marcell’ (xxiv. 4; there is a double balteus worn round the waist for xxv. 3, 4, and fassezz). 0 great a Teformer could the Spatha, or long Sword, to theright, and the Pugio not escape detraction in its mosf venomous form. to the left, both being carried perpendicularly. Ihe His last words (attributed) Vic7stz, Wazaree, must, 1 Roman Parazonium is also rare in collections. think, have been pronounced in Syriac-Arabic, + Wasar? ya Nasr ant. 2 Jahns, p. 196. xvii. 14) of the *Anneus” monument at Bingen ; 3 In his Matter we must be carctul how we trust to engravings, especially from vases, &c. Jhe care- He gives an illfstration (Pi. ~~ less artist often reverses the figure. 4 Nihiary Aniig., yo\. u. ; Fi. xii, THE ROMAN SWORD. 7 250 modetn Somal, taken irom the Severn mear Gloucester. Meyrick tells us* that Woodchester produced an iron Sword-blade resembling a larse and broad kniic (the oldest form of Gladius ?) and a dagser (77270), nearly one foot longs, and much resembling the modern French bayonet. He mentions another iron Gladius nine- teen and a half inches lone, with a fibula of brass. Kev. I. Douglas, in his * Neenia Britannica * shows the find in a Kentish barrow. The Sword measures thitty-five and a Quarter inches from pommel to point; the iron blade, thirty inches by two inches broad, is flat and two-edged. Ihe wooden grip had decayed ; the scabbard was Of wood covered with leather and the weapon hung by a leather strap to the left side. Excavations at South Shields produced, says the Rev. J. Collingwood Bruce,* five Roman Swords, two to three feet long, with wooden scabbards and bronze crampets or ferules. If Greece produced the golden youth of European civilisation, Rome bore the men Of antiquity. She fausht by example and precept the eternal lesson of in- dividual and national dignity, ot law and justice, and of absolute toleration in reli- sious matters. She had no fear of growing ereat, and scruples about ‘territorial aserandisement were absolutely unknown to her, The gwondam Masters of the World effected their marvels of conquest and colonisation with these arts, urged by a forcetul will, aewill so: single-viewed and so persistent that it levelled every obstacle. A similar eiit of determination and perseverance made the Turks and Turcomans of a former generation, mere barbarians on horseback, bear down all Opposition : hence the Arab still says: ‘Mount your blood mare and the Osinanli shall catch you on his lame ass!’ In virtue of an equal obstinacy, the Kelto- Scandinavian (1 will not call him an ‘Anglo-Saxon ’), the modern Englishman, has trod worthily in the footsteps of the old Italian, and from his angie of the world, his scrap of bleak inclement island, has extended his sway far beyond the orb known to his Cacsars. May he only remember the word “Forwards! and take to heart the fact that to stand still is to fail back. The Roman of the Republic was incomparably the first soldier of his ave; and he equalled the best of the moderns in discipline, in loyalty to his ieaders, and in enduring privations, hardship, and fatigue. Buta siance at any of his campaisns— the famous ‘Commentaries * sufce—shows how completely dependent he was upon the quality of his commander. Handled by seconda- and third-rate men, such as generals mostly have been, are, and will be, he was ignobly defeated, in his most glorious days, by the barbarous Gauls of Brennus; by the half-servile hordes of Hatinibal ; by the degenerate Greeks of Pyrrhus with their ‘huge Carthsshaking ~ beasts, and by the armed mob which the Cheruscan Arminius (@rmin or Her- ‘mann) led against the incompetent Varus. His campaiens, invariably successful in the end, were marked by many reverses ; and in cases of sudden and sinister emer- + Quoting Lyson’s Woodchester Anieqgutties (PL by Six Sibbald David Scott, a well-studied work KXXV, }. containing 4 considerable amount of information, Fi, i. fig. 10. Quoted in 722 Dretsh Avay, oxc., "Sec, of Aiilig., June 29, 1576. ae 260 HE BOOK OF THE SWORD. gencies he was too often scared and put to flicht, In fact, he could not heht a “soldiers battle”; nor has any race done this effectively in modern days except the English and the Siavs. But when following military genius, the Roman soldier performed prodigies of gallantry and valour. A Julius Caesar, a conqueror in fiity pitched battles; whose Practice was to order venz7e not z7e/ whose military instinct could cry at the spur of the moment in the Pharsalian fight, faczem: ferz, mies / and who could reduce muti- neers tO treason by one word, Quzrzies / never failed to point the Way tO Victory. We learn irom the Great Epileptic ‘himself the secret of his unexampled success ; the care with which he cultivated the individual. ‘He instructed the soldiers (when exposed to a new mode of attack), not like the eeneral Of a veteran ariny which had been victorious in so many battles, but like a Lanista training his gladiators. He taught them with what foot they must advance or retire ; when they were t6 Oppose and make good their eround ; when to counterfeit an attack; at what place and in what mariner to launch their javelins.’ * Fis very atrogance was efiective in making him a ruler of men, as when on receiving bad tidings he struck his Sword-hilt, saying,‘ This will give me my dnd of his “politike” (as the Greeks call it) we may judge by what Folyanus* tells us of him. ‘The Romans had been taught by their commanders that a soldier should not be decorated with gold or silver, but place his confidence in his Sword, says Livy.* But Divus Caesar encouraged his men to decorate their weapons with all manner of valuables for a truly soldier-like reason, that they might be the less ready to part with their property in flight. And though he plundered freely and rifled even the fanes Of the sods, according to Suetonius, he was Careful, like a certain modern Condottiere, to see that his men were well fed and resularly paid by means of the ‘loot.’ The Koman soldier had another valuable sift, which has not whoily left the Hie knew the “magic of patience, and was aware that ‘le monde est rights |” Latin race, ' During the critical action at Thapsus, Czesar, according to Plutarch, was 2075 dé comibaz with a fit of epilepsy, the comzzalis morbus (Afric. War, chap. 14). I have noticed in my Commentaries on Camoens (i. 40) the strange fact that some oi the greatest men Of antiquity were subject to this ‘falling sickness,’ The Egyptians held it to be a manifestation of the power oi ITyphon; hence the ‘divine disease’ of Apulems (Defence), and the strange fancies of de- moniac possession which prevailed in the earliest ages, and which have not yet died out. The learned Canon Parrar (77/2, Gc. of Saint Pau’, Appendix, vol. 1.) holds that this perhans was the ‘thorn in the flesh ” (2 Cor. xi. 7) alluded to by the great Apostle. He guotes from Hausrath the *trances~ of Sokrates, the nts of Mohammed, and the famntings and ecstasies of »aints Bernard, Francis, and Catherine of Sienna ; and to these he adds George Fox, Jacob Bohme, and »wedenborg. * This is an illustration of genius taking pains and a lesson to the leader of troops; but how many of the moderms have practised it, or have been cap- able of practising it? Suvorot (Suwarroft), it is true, taught his men bayonet-exercise, with his coat off and his sleeves tucked up: Mediocrity shudders at the idea. The Russian had, by the way, curious ideas concerning the use of the weapon. ‘* Brothers! Never gaze into the enemys eyes; fix your sight on his breast, and prod your bayonet there.” Ihe first rule for the General is to be ever looking after his men, to live, as it were, in the saddle; and to Jead the attack when requisite. What were the habits of poor Lord Ragian and of his successor General (jimmy) Simpson? No wonder that we had the mortification of the Redan afiair. 8 Strarecemata, vil. 26. Ihe * Macedonian” flourished about the middle of the second century (Christian era). 2 ix. AO. L1HE KOMAN SOLDIER. 261 la maison du plus fort. 50 in the Napoleonic days the Spaniards believed chiefly in General “No Importa (no matter), and made little of defeat, hoping it might lead to victory. Nor did the Koman soldier degenerate till the citizen set him the example, Velleius Paterculus dated the deciine of Roman virtue after the de- struction of Carthage, when Civil disputes were decided by the Sword ; others fo the invasion of luxury with Lucullus. Yet Pliny could boast of his fellow-countrymen : “They have doubtless surpassed every other nation in the display of valour. But the Roman soldier generally prevailed arainst faces whom he excelled in Size, weight, and muscular strength. is superiority in arms, like that of the Greek, was not conspicuous when he Came into contact with the * barbarians, * especially with the northern barbarians, after they had learned the moral training and confidence of discipline and the practical art of war, as well as, 1f not better than, himself. For the man of the higher European latitudes has ever surpassed the Southron in strength of constitution, in stature, in weieht, in muscular power, and in the mysterious something called vitality. Hence it is a rule in anthropology that the North beats the South; in the Southern hemisphere the reverse being the case, a5 we sce in the wars of the Hispano-American republics, Chili ve7svs Peru. In Europe I need only point out that the Northmen of Scandinavia conquered Normandy and that Norman-FPrench conquered England. Ihe only exceptions are Gasily explained. Ihe genius of Divus Cassar made his Romans overcome, Overrun, and subjugate Gaul. Napoleon the Great found the road @ 4e7/77 open and easy. But intellectual monsters like these two are the rare produce of lime; and human nature requires a long period of rest before repeating such portents. Those who read history without prepossessions and prejudices are compelled to conclude that the life and career Of a nation are mainly determined by its physical size and its muscular strensth. We have only to learn how many foot- pounds a race Cait raise and we can forecast its so-called “destinies. * 1 This word has a universal history of its own, * Barbaros” broadened its meaning in Rome, and contains a lecture on anthropology. Its form is Onomatopcetic, the earliest form of ex- pression, as the Eeyptian wzza0, for a cat; and if admitably conveys the idea of muttering or stuttering. Again, itisareduplication of sounds; another absolutely primitive construction, and the effect is emphasis. * Berber-ta “ (Gerber-land) was applied by the an- cient Esyptians (Catalogue of [hut-mes I1I.), whence our modern term Barbary, The word in Hebr. * wild beast feeding m waste ~ © migrated to India, and was there corrupted to e]qjq_ (Varvara), a barbarous land, one who speaks un- intellisibly. * Berber ’ passed over to Greece from Egypt, and became BapBapos, meaning 2 foreigner whose lan- guage was mot Hellenic, and who, therefore, was ttle better than a beast. (N.b. Shakespeare would have been a barbarian in Persia and Mahz in Bneland. ) Where it was applied to all peoples who could not Speak Or who mispronounced Greek and Wlatin. mes otravo, xiv. 2, on © Barbaros’ and to * barbarise ’: thus unhappy Ovid could wail: * Barbarus hic €s0 sum quia non intelligor illis.’ Lastly, the ‘ proto-Aryan ” term ‘ Barbarian” has now grown 10 full size, and is applied generally to the rude, the fierce, the uncivilised, and those who contumaciously ignore the © hicher culture,’ 2 This is materialism pure and simple ; butall the teaching Of modem science points to the material, The mysterious “lite~ is no longer ‘vital power”; it Slinply represents the sum total of tne energies and protoplasm. “Life is a property of protoplasm or bioplasm, and is the iatest product of thought and 7e- Search. And I may add that Consciousness, like Will, is a property Of life in certain Of its forms; a state and condition Of cerebral and other atoms ; the mere con- Sequence of hitherto unappreciated antecedents. 202 IE BOCK OF THE SWORD. CHAPTER XII THE SWORD AMONGST THE BARBARIANS (EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE). MOsT works on Arms and Armour, when treating of Rome, describe the weapons of her European neighbours ‘upon whom she sharpened the sword of her valour as On a whetstone.’ The extent of the subject will here confine me to a general slance, beginning with the Dacians on the east and ending with the British Islands. I must reserve details concerning the Kelts, the Scandinavians, the Slavs, and other northern peoples for Part 11, to which they chronologicaily belong. The Dacians, especially of Dacia Trajana, Hungary, and Transylvania, Mol- davia, and Wallachia, are known to us chiefly by the bas-reliefs on the Ifrajan Column. Jt was built by that emperor, who, like Hadrian, followed in the foot- steps of Divus Czsar, to commemorate the conquests of A.D. 103-104; and it dates three years before his death in AD. 114. The Dacian Sword was somewhat sickle-shaped, with an inner edge, like the oldest Greek and its model, the Eeyptian Khopsh. A Dacian Sword on the trophy belonging to Dr. Gregorutti, or Papiriano, is 4 Curved Sabre without a Cross-bar. I have elsewhere noticed the Thracian Sword. Dr. Evans”? mentions the frag- ment Of a remarkable bronze blade from Grecian Thera; it has a series of small broad-edged axes of gold, in shape like conventional battle-axes, inlaid along the middle between two slightly projecting ribs. The same author, speaking oi the beautiful bronze Sword in the Berlin Museum, reported to have been found at Pella in Macedonia, mentions the suspicion that it may belong to the Rhine Valiey. * Ancient Iilyria has transmitted the Roman Gladius to comparatively modern ages. Bosnian tembs of Slavs, Moslem, and Christian, show the short straight thrusting Sword, with simple cross-bar and round pommel, Jt looks as if it had been copied from some Classical coin. The ancient cemetery at Hailstadt in the Salzkammergut, occupied by the Danubian-Keitic Alanni or Norican Tfaurisci, is especially interesting tor two reasons. It shows the Bronze Sword synchronous with the Iron, and it proves that the change of metal invelved little of alteration in the form and character of the weapon. This, however, was to be expected, as both were adapted for the Same purpose—the thrust, not the cut. Of the twenty-eight long Swords, six were 1 Piorus, ii. 3. ® Bronze, &t., p. 299. From Bastian and A. 2 Bronze, &c. p. 297. From Aaroog. 7, Nord, Voss, Die Brouse-Schwerter des A. Mus. 2u Devin, Ol4k. 1979; pls 1- 1878, p. 50, THE OLD KELTIC SWORD. 263 ‘of bronze, nineteen of iron, and three with bronze heits and iron biades; there were also forty-five short Swords, iron blades with bronze or ivory handles. The blade, about One metre long, is leat-shaped, two-edged, and bevel-poimted. The small and euardless srip of 25 centimetres, when made Of bronze, meets the blade in 2 hollow crescent, like the British Sword in the lower, and is fastened with metal rivets. JIhe pommel is cither a cone of metal or a crutch with a whori ending either arm. | Dr. Evans’ mentions that in one instance the hilt aiid poinmel of an iron Sword are in bronze, in another the pommel alone; the hilt-plate of iron being Hat and rivetted like the bronzes. In others the pom- mel is wanting. He has a broken iron Sword irom this cemetery, the blade showing a Central rounded rib, with a Small bead on either side. Also a ‘ beautiful bronze sword from the same locality, on the blade of which aie two small raised beads on either side of the central rib, anid in the Spaces between them a three-fold wavy line punched in Or engraved. In this instance a tang has passed through the hilt; and fic 2a,,-.German on Fic. 284.-Sceamasax Wie. 285, — DAnicn Was formed of alternate Pre rclieh, Halbersted,) Gaius) Century, Copenhagen.) blocks of bronze and of some substance that has perished, possibly ivory. A magnificent iron Sword from Halistadt, now in the Vienna Museum, has the hilt and pommel of ivory inlaid with amber, Other Strips were Of bronze, wood, or bone. The sheaths were mostly Of wood, which seemed to have been covered with leather, Most of the blades were buried without scabbards, and the bronze had been purposely broken. The forty-five short Swords represent the Ensis Noricus (nayvaipa KéXTixa), and were in use till the Roman days. The iron-blades are either leaf-shaped or formed like the peculiarly English anelace or anias, more or less conicai and sharp-pointed ; and the stip o1 bronze orivory ended in 2 simple crutch. Amongst them isa distinct Scramasax which may be compared with the late Danish weapon. ' Droize, St., p. 299, irom Von Sacken and Namsauer in 1340-04 were 6,000 articles from 993 Lindeschmit’s Avzerihumer. The first finds by Herr graves. 204 THE BOOK OF 1HE SWORD. Bronze blades are comparatively rare in Italy, although the use was lone retained atid the weapon is often mentioned by Latin writers in verse and prose.’ This seems to decide the question against the Roman Origin of the North-Furo- pean Sword: of course it is possible that, like the Runic alphabet, they micht have been copied from coins; but there are other points which militate against this view. Dr. John Evans” notes a peculiarity which he has often pointed out Dy word of mouth, but which has not as yet been noticed in print. “It 1s, that there is generally, though not universally, a proportion between the leneth of the blade and the jeneth of the hiit-plate; lone sword blades having, as a rule, lone hilt-plates, and short sword biades short hilt-plates. So closely 1s this rule of pro- portion preserved, that the outline of a large sword on the scale of one-sixth would in some cases absolutely correspond with that of one which was two-thirds of its length if drawn on the scale of one-fourth. This sugeests derivation, as if an Original modulus of the weapon had appeared in a certain racial centre and thence had radiated in ail directions. Nor have we any difficulty in determining that this centre was the Nile Valley. The bronze Swords of Italy present varieties not found in Britain’ The blade-sides are more nearly parallel, and many have a siender tang at the hiit, Sometimes with one central rivet-hole, sometimes with two rivet-holes forming In others the blade slightly narrows for the tang, In many lialian and French loops at either side of the “spine, and each side has two semicircular rivet-notches, Swords the blade is drawn out to a lone tapering point, so that its edges present a sub-ogival curve. On an Italian guzzcuss7s or oblong bronze coin, six inches and five-eighths by three inches and a half, and weishing about three pounds and #@ half, is the representation of a leat-shaped Sword with a raised rib along the centre of the biade.* Upon the reverse appears the figure Of a scabbard with parallel sides and a nearly circular chape. Another coin of the same type; engraved by Carelli, has an almost similar scabbard on the reverse, but the Sword On the obverse is either sheathed or is not leat-shaped, the sides being parallel: the hilt is also curved, and there is a cross-guard. Infactupon the one coin the weapon has the appearance of a Roman Sword of iron, and on the other that of a leat- shaped Sword of bronze, Ihese pieces, says Dr, Evans, were no doubt cast in 8 Brouze, &c., p. 207; taken from Gastaldi, Pellegrini and Gozzadimt. Ihe author remarks (p. 1 T have already noticed the copper Ensis and coppered shield attributed by Virgil (77. vill. 74) to the people of Abella, an Jtalian district under Turnus. 2 Bronze, xc., p. 277. The author also notices the small handles of bronze Swords, ‘a fact which seems to prove that the men who used these swords were but Of moderate stature” (/7¢Xzstorzc 77mes, p. 22). MHedenies their being very small, and he justly believes that the expanding part of the hilt was in- tended to be within the grasp of the hand. J have already explaimed that the hand was purposely con- fined in Order to give more momentum fo the cut. 287) that some of the bronze daggers irom Italy seem also to have had their hilts cast upon the blades im which the rivets were already fixed. IJhis is not unirequent with the Sword, and the object seems mere imitation ; like the Hlauranic stone-doors, panelled as if tO pass for wood, 4 Bronze, &c., Pp. 283, we iimd that the British Museum contains a specimen. Calaloe. s7a/y, p. 23 > Bronze, &c., ibid., quoting from W277. V7. tial. Descript., pl. xu. JHE CELTIBERIAN AND OLD SPANISH SWORD. 205 Umbria, probably in the third century B.C., but their attribution to Ariminum is at Dest doubtiul) From the two varieties of Sword appearing on coins of the same type, the inference may be drawn, cither that bronze blades were then being super- seded in Umbria by iron, or that the original type was some sacred weapon, sub- sequently conventionalised to represent the article in ordinary use. The iron Swords of the Italian tribes are rarely mentioned, and then cursorily. Diodorus Siculus, for instance, tells us (vy. 33) that the Ligures had blades of Ordinary size. JThey probably adopted the Koman shape, which had proved itself SO serviceable in the field. Proceeding further westwatd we find Diodorus Siculus (v. cap. 33) dwelling upon the Celtiberian weapons. “They had two-edged Swords of well-tempered steel ; besides their dasgers, a span long, to be used at close quarters. They make weapons and iron in an admirable manner, for they bury their plates so lone under- Sround as is necessary 10 Gat away the weaker pait, and, toere- fore, they use only that which is firm and strons. Swords and other weapons are made of this prepared steel; and these are so powerlul in cutting, that neither shield nor helm nor bone can Withstand them. Plutarch * repeats this description, which embodies the still prevalent idea concernins the Damascus (Persian) scymitar atid the loledo rapier. Swedenbore* intro- duces burial among the different methods of making steel; and Beckmann, following Thunbers, declares that the process is Still used in Japan. Generali A. Pitt-Rivers collection has two swords from Spain. The first is 2 bronze, sub-leat-shaped, with a thin protracted point. ihe length is twenty-one inches; the breadth at the '% 2%:— Brane anp HANDLE OF BRONZE swell two inches, thinning near the handle to one inch and a (ash. Or EAGLE Quarter ; the tane is broken, and there are two rivet-holes at the shoulder, which is two inches wide. Ihe other, which the owner calls a ‘ Kopis, aiso twenty-one inches long, and two inches and a half in width, has a broad back and a wedge-section. Ihe cutting part is inside, and the whole contour remarkably resembles the Kukkri or Korah of Nepaul, and, in a less deeree, the Albanian Yataghan and the Kabyle “Flissa. The Kopis; however, has a hook- handle as if for suspension ; and there is a swelling in the inside of the grip. ‘As the Celtiberians, continues Diodorus, “are furnished with two Swords, (probably espada 7 daga), “the horsemen, when they have routed their opponents, dismount, and, joining the foot, fight as its auxiliaries” The Lusitanians, most Valiant of the race, inhabited 4 mountain-land peculiarly rich in minerals. Justin* > speaks Of the gold, copper, lead; and vermilion, which last named the * Minho ! See chap. vi. 2 De Garrul. * Lib. xliv. 3. Martial also alludes (1. 49 ; 111, 12, * De Ferro, 1. 195. é&c.) to the metallic wealth of his native province. 260 1H BOOK OF THE SWORD. river. Of the iron he says: ‘itis of an extraordinary quality, but their water is more poweriul than the iron itself; for the metal beine tempered in it becomes keetiet ; nor is atiy weapon held in esteem among them that has not been dipt in the Bilbilis or the Chalybs”* and aris the Lusitanians with poniard and dagger, probably meaning dirk and knife. The Northern neighbours of the Celtiberians—the warlike old Keitic*® Gauls —were essentially swordsmen : they relied mainly upon the Claidab* When they entered Europe they had already leit behind them the Ase of stone ; and they made their blades of copper, bronze, and iron. »trabo* represents Iberia as abounding in metal, The latter, as we learn from history, entered into use during the fourth or fifth century B.C, the later Celtic Period, as it is called by Mr. Franks. all authorities, very poor and mean. edged, about one metre long, thin, straight, and without point (szze wucvrone); it Nad a tang for the attachment of the grip, but no The material appears to have been, according to The blade was mostly two- Hi fl Suard or defence for the hand. | Yet their gallantry enabled the Gauls to do good work with Se ee these bad tools. VF. Camillus, the dictator,” seeing that his enemy cut mostly at head and shoulders; made his Romans wear licht helmets, whereby the Machairee-blades were bent, blunted, or Also, the Koman shield being of wood, he “directed it for the same reason to be bordered with a thin plate of brass” Fic. 2387.— GALLic broken. SWORD OF DRONZE (Jahns). (copper, bronze’). He also taught his men to haridie long pikes, which they could thrust under the enemys weapons. introduces him saying, while he compares Roman and Gaulish arms, that these Dionysius Hialicarnassus Kelts assail the foe only with lone lances and large knives (wayaipas Ko7ides)® 1 Pliny (xxxi. 4, 41) also notices the Salo or Meeting two enemies together, he parried the cut of River Bilbilis (Xalon); and the Celtiberian town of the same name, now Bombola, the birthplace of the poet Martial, is near Calatayud (Kala’at el-Yahud = Jews Fort); or Jobs Castle’ Of the Chalybes | have already spoken. * Roman Archaolopy, by Angelo Maio. 3 The words KeArat, Todaro, PaAXo (meaning Arinati, pugnaces, Kampter, fighters), evidently derive not from Coille, a word, but from the old word Gal (battle), Gala (arms). Ihe name suited their natures ; they were never at peace, and their bravery was pro- verbial : the Greeks called it KeATikov Opacos = Keitic daring. 4 Cladibas or Cladias=p/adzzs. I have noticed the shape when speaking of the Halistadt tinds. > Polyenus, S/vategemata; Dion. Halicar. xiv. chap. 13. . 6 Plutarch (De Ca. cap. xxvu.) also arms the ‘Gauls, when attacking the Capitol, with the Kopis. ‘The first to oppose them was Manlhus.... - ‘sickle-blade with a flattened curve. One who raised a Kopis (xomlda) by hacking off his right hand with a Gladius (étdos). I presume that * Kopis * is here used for the Zzez0, dirk, or shorter sword. Borghesi Guvres Conzpiezes, vol. 11. pp. 337— 387, says : * In use and form, in grip and in breadth of blade, the Kopis much resembles our Sczad/a, (Sabre).” But its comparison with the falx and pruning hook and a medal of Pub. Carisius suggest a substantial difference: while the broadsword 1s edged on the convex side, the Kopis had a sharpened concave. Count Gozzadini, like General A. Piit- Kivers, compares the Kopis with the Khanjar or Yataghan, and quotes Xenophon (C7707. 11. 1, 9; Vi. 2, 10) to prove that it was peculiar to Orientals: I have traced the word to the Egyptian Khopsh or Khepsh, and repeat my belief that it is the old Nilotic But, as might be expected in the case of So old a word, the weapon to which it was applied may have greatly varied im size and shape. THE SWORD OF THE OLD GAULS. 267 of sabre shape (r). This was shortly beiore his defeating and destroying Brennus and the Senonian” Gauls; who had worsted the Romans (B.C. 390) on the fatal aes Alliensis, and who had captured all the capital save the Capitol. The Gauls of Cxsars day* had large iron mines which they worked by tunnelling ; their ship-polts were of the same material, and they made even chain- Cables oi iron. ihey had By no means, however, abandoned the use of bronze Diodorus ° notes that the Kelts wore “instead of short straight Swords (£:dous), lone broad blades arms. Pausanias® also speaks Of Tais payaipars Tov Laratov. (axpas omavas°), which they bore obliquely at the right side hung by iron and copper chains. ... Their Swords are not smaller than the Saunions (cavviav Of Other nations, and the points of their Saunions are bieser than those of their swords, Strabo” also makes the Gauls wear their long Swords hanging to the right. Procopius,” on the other hand; notices that the Gallic auxiliaries of Rome wore the sword on the leit." According to Poseidonius,"" the Gauls also carried a dagver which served the purpose of a knife, and this may have caused some confusion in the descriptions. ©. Claudius QOuadrisarius in Aulus Gellius,* noticing the *monomachy’ of Manlius Dorquatus with the Gaul, declares that the latter was armed with two The Roman, of middling Stature and wUnostentatious Dearing, takes a footmans shield and girds on a gladii. Livy describes the same duel in his best style. Spanish Spatha—arms ft for ready use rather than show. The big Gaul, another Goliah, slittering in a vest of many colours, and in armour Stained and inlaid with fold, shows barbarous Cxultation, and thrusts out his tongue in childish mockery. The friends retire and leave the two in the middle space, ‘ more aiter the manner of a theatrical show than accordine to the law of combat’ Ihe cnormous Northermer, like a huge mass threatenine to crush what was Beneath it, stretched forth his shield with his leit hand and planted an ineffectual cut of the Sword with loud noise upon the armour of the advancing foe. The Southron, raising his 1 Brennus is evidently a congener of the Welsh brenhin {the king). Ihe Senones have leit their name could hardly be thrown. Meyrick and Jahns (p. 390) do not solve the difficulty. in Illyrian Seena, Once a nest of pirates and corsairs, south of Fiume the Beautitul. I shall notice them in a future page. 2 Livy, xxi. 46. 5 Fell. Gali. ui. 133 Vil. 22. * Lib. x. cap. 32. ® Lib. y. cap. 30. ® See chapters vill. and xii. Here the word is evidently applied generically to a straight two-edged broadsword; about 1 metrelong. in the Middle Ages the weapon gave rise 10 many curious varieties, as the Spatha pennara and the Spaiha 7 fusie. * According to Vegetius (11. 15) the Saunion was the light javelin of the Sammnites, with a shait 33 feet long, and an iron head measunne 5 inches. Thus it would resemble the Roman g7z/zz. But Diodorus evidently means another and a heavier weapon which ® Lib, iv. 4, § 3. © Ve Beil. Pers, 1) TheNorthumberland Stone in Montfaucon (vol. Iv. part I, p. 37) shows a Gaul wearing sword and dagger on either side. In Athenzeus, lib. xiv., the celebrated philo- Sopher called the Apamesan or the Khodian, a contemporary of Pompey and Cicero, leit, amongst Other works, one called Teyvy taextiny (ae Acie 772- Sir tenaa), 2 Lib. vil. Cap. 10. It is evident that the Duello did not, as many authors suppose, arise with the Kelis. All we can say is that they may have oripi- nated in Europe the sentiment called pwzdo207 and the practice of defending it with the armed hand. The idea was unknown to the classics; and, with the exception, perhaps, of the Arabs, it is still ignored 266 L772 BOCK OF THE SWORD. sword-poinit, aiter pushing aside the lower part of the enemys shield with his own, closed in, insinuating his whole body between the trunk and arms of his adversary, and By two thrusts, delivered almost simultaneously at belly and groin, threw his Opponent, who when prostrate covered a vast extent of ground. The gallant victor Offered no indignity to the corpse beyond despoiline it of the zorguzs, which, though smeared with blood, he cast around his neck. Polybius,* recountine the battle at Pise, where Aneroestes, kine of the Gasata? aided by the Boi, the Insubres, and the Taurisci (Noricans, Styrians), was de- feated by C. Atilius (A.U.C. 5290=8.C. 225), shows the superiority of the Koman weapons. He describes the Machairze of the Gauls “as merely cutting blades . altogether pointless, and fit only to slash from a distance downwards: these weapons by their construction socn wax blunt, and are bent and bowed ; so that a second blow cannot be Gelivered until they are straightened by the foot” The Saine excellent author, when describing the battle of Canna (B.C. 216), tells us that Hannibal and his Africans were armed like Romans, with the spoils of the preceding actions; while the Spanish and Gaulish auxiliaries had the same kind of shield, but their Swords were wholly unequal and dissimilar. While the Spanish Xiphos was exccilent both for cuttine and thrusting, the lone and pointless Gallic Machaera could only slash from afar. Livy * also notices the want of point and the bending of the soft and ill-tempered Keitic blades. When Lucius Manliis attacked the Gauls, B.C. 1381, the latter carried lone flat shields, too natrow to protect the body° They were soon leit without other weapons but their Swords, and these they had no Gpportunity of using, as the enemy did not coine to close quarters. Phrensied with the smart of missiles rain- ing upon their larse persons; the wounds appearing the more terrible irom the black blood contrasting with the white skin; and furious with shame at being put hors de combat by hurts apparently so small, they lost many by the Swords of the Velites. These “light bobs” in those days were well armed; they had shields three feet long, pz/z for skirmishing, and the G/adzu7s f/7spanus, which they drew alter shiitine the javelins to the left Hand. W6uth these handy blades they rushed in and wounded faces and breasts, whilst the Gallic Swords could not be wielded Without Space. Passing from books to monuments, we see on ani Urban medal of Rimini, dating from the domination of the Senones, a long-haired and moustachiod Gaul, and on the reverse a broad Spatha, with scabbard and chain. This is repeated on another coin Of the same series, where a naked Gaul, protected by an oblong shield; assaiis by the civilised Orientals of our day, especially by ~~ pwisarme, ezsarme, &c. The Gesum probably had a the Moslems. kind of handle and a defence for the hand. 1 Lib, i. Caps. 28, 30, and 33. S Lib. xxii. cap. 46, 2 Simply meaning Spearmen. Gaisate=Zasvazus 4 Lib. xxxvill, 21. from Gaisa (eesum), the Irish gaz, anyspear. Isidore ® The naked bodies and narrow shields are well (Gloss.) translates *Gessum” by ‘hasta vel jaculum shown in the battie-scene on the Triumphal Arch of Gallice, Boxis.” The word survives in the French Orange (Jahns, Plate 20). THE SWORD OF THE CLD GAUCLS. 260 with the same kind of Sword. A third shows the Gaul with two 272777, one shorter than the other.’ According to Diodorus,’ the Gauls advanced to battle in war-Chariots (carpenzui, The scabbards and chains were of bronze or iron. couimus, esscaum). hey also had cavalry ;* but duting their imvasions of Italy they mostly fought on foot. They had various kinds of missiles, javeiins, and the Cateia or Caia (boomerang, or throwing-club), slings, and bows and arrows, poisoned as well as unpoisoned. Ihey then rushed to the attack with unhelmd heads, and their long locks knotted on the head-top. In many fights they stripped themselves, probably for bravado, preserving only the waistcloth and criaments, torques, leslets,and armlets. Ihey cut off the heads of the fallen toes; slune them to their shields or saddlebows, and kept them at home as trophies, still the practice of the Dark Continent. especially with the cou7us or wooden pike, sharpened and fire-hardened. The The large Keltic Stature, their terrible war-cries, and their lone Swords wicided by doushty ariis and backed by stout hearts, enabled them more than Once to triumph over civilised Their girls and women fought as bravely as the men; Wageons ranged in the rear formed a highly efficient “lager” armies, Divus Czesar, who is severe upon Gallic “odz/z/as, (evzias, and 7Hjiviumitas anziuz, employed nine yeats in subduing Gaul (B.C. 59-50). Betore a century elapsed, the people had given up their old barbarous habits and costume, their fur-coats, like the Slay and Afehan fosi7z, with sleeves opening in front; their saga-cloaks or tartan- plaids * which were probably imitations of the primeval tattoo ;° theit Copper torques and their rude chains and armiets. Gallia Comata shore her limed and flowing locks, ana Gallia Bracchata (Provincia, Provence) doiied the “¢vzzs (trews or trowsers) which were strapped at the waist and tied in at tne ankles” Jhei women adopted Roman fashions, and forgot all that Ammiuanus Marcellinus had said of them: “A whole troop of foreigners could not withstand a single Gaul, if he called to aid his wiie, who is Usually very strong and blue-eyed, especially when, swelling her neck, gnashine her teeth, and whirling her sallow arms of enormous bulk, she besins to strike blows, mingled with kicks, as if they were so matiy missiles sent trom the string of a Catapult. Of their old and rugged virtue we may judge by the tale of Ortiagon’s gallant wife and the caitifi centurion.’ IJhus Gaul was thoroughly subdued by * The first use of tattooing was to harden the Skin, @ defence against weather. Ihe second (and this we still find throughout Africa) was to distincuish ations, tribes, and families. © *Galh Bbracchas deposnermnt et fatum claviam Ssumpserunt. Diodorus Sic. (v. 30) has Bparas; in Romaic Spayi ; in Italian braehe, Germ. Sriche, Our * Borghesi (Toninis Aziz, &c., p. 26 and Tables A3 and B6) makes one of these giadu 4 *Kopis.’ * Lib, ¥. cap. 30. 8 The cavalry was organised in the Trmarkisia (three marka, or horses) composed of the *honestior (afterwards the knight), and the clients (squires). he host that attacked Hellas, under Brennus, had 20,400 horsemen to 752,000 foot. 4 The pattern is almost universal. Moorcroft found it in the Himalayas, and | bought © shepherd’s plaid ~ in Unyamwezi, Central Airica. word “Dbreech-es~ or * Breek-s” is a doubie plural; *breek” being the plur. of the A. S. d707, a brooue. Aldus and Other old writers mistranslate the 4raccie by plaid, or upper garment, Jahns more justly renders saguie Dy plaid (p. 431). Livy, xxxvill. 24. 270 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Roman civilisation and the Latin tongue; she contributed to literature her quotum Of poets and rhetoricians ; her cities established schools of philosophy, and she saw nothing to envy in Gallia Togata— Upper Italy. The Alemanni or Germans (Germani) cast of the Khine inhabited, at the time of the Roman conquests, a dismal land of swamps and s7/7@: even in the present day a fin from Mambure to Berlin explains the ancient exodus of tribes bent upon conquering the “promised lands” of the south, and the modern wholesale Cmigration to America. These *warmen ” were formerly surpassed by the Gauls in bravery,” but they had none of the Keltic levity or instability. The national character- istic Was and is the Steadfast purpose. Till lately the German Empire was a Shadowy tradition; yet the Germans managed tO Occupy every throne in Europe save two. They never yet made a colony, yet cuckoo-like they hold the best of those made by others; and their sound physical constitution, strengthened By gymnastics, enables them to resist tropical and extreme climates better than any European people save the Slavs and the Jews. In the sreat cities of the world they occupy the first commercial piace, the result of an education carefully adapted to its end and Object; and their progress in late years seems to promise ‘Germanism an immense future based upon the ruins of the neo-Latin races. We have the authority of Jacitus for the fact that the Germans of his day did not (like the Kelts)* affect the short Fic. 288.— FounD AT Avessure (66 centi Straight Sword; ‘tari... Sladiisutuntur. ~ IThenational weapon metres jong: In Sig- 7 ni Was the spear? of a peculiar kind ; “hastas vel ipsorum vocabulo ? fraimeas Serunt angusto et brevi ferro. The derivation of the word and the nature of the weapon are still undetermined.” Modern authorities hold the oldest 7ra7ze to have been a long spear, with a head of stone, copper, bronze, or iron, shaped like a Palstab or an expanding ‘Ceit;~ and Demimin’ shows the Same broad shovel-shaped base in the Abyssinian lance. It was either thrown or thrust, and the weapon must not be confounded with the enormous Zas7z@ of 1 Tialy has declared herseli Uva. But without Tuesday); the Monthu or Mars of the North, figured considering a multitude of origins, one for almost led in Our modern day b ee rently with each other. a planetary emblem of Mars. ie aiterwards became Po is the frontier, dividing the Greeco-Latin Italians the Sword-god. From the Tyr-rune is derived a to the south from the Gallic and Frankish Itahans ~~ 7 (=hém, the sword), or Aer, which resembles the (Milanese, Piedmontese, ®&c.) to the north. The (ioc. op, and which Jacob Grimm connects with latter, originally Barbari, are the backbone o7 the “Apns, as and Bisex (Jalms, p. 14). modern kingdom : the Southemers are the weak point. 2 Bell. Gall. Vi. 24, $ Jahns (in his Plates 27-30) unites © Kelten und Gemmanien, Germanien und Kelten,’ 4 De Mor. Geri., cap. ©. 5 So we find the god Tyr or Iuisco (resent of ’ Avins, &C., p. 410, im the Kumes as a barbed spear 1 (resembling the @ The older derivation is from /e77za. ‘Jalins (p. 407) gives a host of others——67a77 (thorn, bramble) ; Firiem (punch, awl); 7ame (a border, edging); vamen (to aim, strike), «&c., &c: THE OLD GERMAN SWORD. 271 Tacitus,’ in whose day the Roman spear was fourteen feet lone. It was a formid- able weapon ; those who knew it spoke with awe of ‘illam cruentam victricemaue frameam ; and the Germans long preserved the Sayine “one Spear is worth two words. Yet, strange to say, it is rarely found in graves, where the throwing- axe Of stone and bronze, pierced or unpierced, oOne-edged or two-headed (areAeKxus appicrouos, bipennis), is sO common. In time the word /vamea was apparently applied to wholly different weapons. Thus Augustinus makes it an equivalent Of Spaiha or rhomphaza ; and Johannes de Jjanua (“Glossary ) explains it as ‘glaive aigu d tine part, et d’autre espee, Iron, accordins to Lacitus,7 was known to the Germans, but Was not cominon. His statement is supported by “finds in the oid tumuli and stone rings; Known as Kiesenmauer, Hiunnen- rinse,” Leufelseraben, Burewalle, and others. Ihe myths of is giants, dwaris, and serpents suggest an Hastern origin for the Hl metal. Bronze biades, on the other hand, arecommon. A typical ‘ Specimen irom the Elbe valley in the Klemm collection is thus : described by Jahns* The whole weapon is 23°25 ceitimetres | ; long, the blade being 13%, with a maximum breadth of i 1625. Ihe shape is conical, tapering to the point; a high and Hl rounded midrib is subtended on either side by a deepened line : y 7 which runs to the end. Between shoulders and blade the iront view shows On either side a crescent-shaped notch. Ihe grip | is Natrower at the middle, where there is a lone oval slit for makine fast the handle; and there are two rivet holes on either side of the shoulders, whence the midrib springs. It shows no | ll pommel, the place being taken by a shallow crutch. | Iron Swords are rare: even in the second century B.C, when Fic. 289.—BRONzE. centimetres long ; the Romans had given up the Softer metal; the Gauls atid “Spies of bronze and Germans preserved it. This is especially noticed when Ger- Dees. ae Manicus marched against Arminius, B.C. 15;° and as late as the days of Tacitus, Germany could not work the taw metal” Keimains of iron Spaziz have mostly been found in very bad condition; the material also is poor and badly made, ihe Held or champion used two kinds of blades; and the metre-long two-edged German Sword is not to be distinouished from that of the Kelts. Ihe Spatha was especially affected by three tribes: the Suardones (Sworders?), the Saxones (Dageermen) ’ and the Cherusci ; in process of time it reached the Goths,” 1 Annals, ii. Cap. 14. 7 De Aor, G. cap. 6. 6 Cap. 42 and 6. 8 The szeendysser of Denmark, dolmens of 7 So the Longobards may be Long-halberts, and France, and cromlechs of England. the Pranks Francisca-men. 4 P, 416, Pl. xxviii. 4. «In p. 417 he gives a list ® Vegetins (11. 15) makes them use * sladii majores of many bronze-finds. quas Spathas vocant,” and Isidore (63, 6) says that ® Tacit. Azzals, ii. 14. the e/adi were *utraque parte acuit.” 272 ifili BOOK OF THE SWORD. and at last wajaz (weapon) applied only to the Sword. The blade (4/ar, d/az, in Mid. Germ. va/z), with its two edges (cre, eoe2), was Olten leaf-shaped, as if copied BiG. 291.--sHORT KELTIC SWORD. 40 centimetres longs. Iron biade, bronze grip. From Hallstadt. (Vienna Cabinet of Anti- Guities.) Fic. 290.—THE SPATHA OF SCHLESWic. directly from the bronze Sword. Others were Smaller in the middle than at heit Of point, for facility of unsheathine. Ihe tang reached the pommel end, and the grip Or hilt * was lined with wood (birch or beech), bone, and other material, covered with leather, ishskin,and cloth. There was no cross-bar, but the crescent extending Over the shoulders, and serving to contain the rivets, was sometimes supplied with a euard-plate (aze Lezsze).* had a solid scabbard, oiten of iron, even The weapon when the blade was bronze, and was hung by tiems or leathern straps to the Warrior s left. the other German blade was single- edged and curved : it was a semi-spatha, half the size of the Spatha, and it hung to the warriors right side. This weapon Was probably the Sahs,° Seax, Sax, the favourite of the Saxons ; also called Breitsachs and Kniei (knife), and at later times; ScVamasaaus, acramasax. Ai large iron knite; with a yataghan Curve, it was used 1 In Scandinavian, the noblest of the Germanic tongues, 47a/¢; in O. Germ. Ze/2za; Ang. S. “2/7, Wie, and in Mid. Germ. 2/22, seize {Jahis, p. 419). * Jahns (p. 419) has three kinds of hilts. Ihe oldest is the Crescent, noticed above (fig. 293); it is adored with spirals and various figures. Ihe second; which seems to be more general im the Sans, or short Weapon, fas in the place of pommel a crutch or crescent, with the horns more or less curved, and either disunited or jomed by a cross-bar. Here again Spirals were disposed upon the planes: we shall see them highly developed in the Scandinavian weapons of a later date, Jhe third hilt was a kind of tang, continues the blade, and fitted with rounded edges for making fast wood, horn, or bone: it had generally a bulge in mid-handie. Ihe pommel proper is little developed in these Swords. s * Salis seems to have an alliance with the Latin “saxtim (Jahns, p. 8, quoting Grimm). * Hamar’ (hammer) had the same meaning. From ‘sax’ we may probably derive the Zacco-sword of the Emperor Leo (CA#ronicie); ‘item fratrem nosirum Ligonem cuim zaccone vulneravit.. The Laws of the Visigoths mention both weapons, long and short; *plerosque vero ScUtis, Spatis, scramis~ (battle-axes?) *. instructos habuerit.” * Nimith euere saxes~ (take to your knife-swords), said Mengist, and the oaths ‘Meiner Six! (by my dirk), and * Dunner-saxen ’ (thunder sword) in Lower Saxony, are not forgotten. * I have spoken of the Scramasax in chap. v. Demmin (p. 152) and others deduce *scrama ’(broad- sword) from ‘scamata,” the line traced on the ground between two Greek combatants(!). Hence, too, he would derive *scherma’ and * escrime —-fencine. Others prefer ‘scaran’ (to shear), which gave rise to tne German ‘“schere~ (Scissors), and our “shears” and ‘shear-steel.” Ihe word, however, is evidently a congener of the Germ. *schirmen, to protect, defend. janns (p. 415) observes that the Sahs varied greatly in size. Some authorities make 1t a Mihhili Mezzir {muchel knife), a large cvize//us. But the Frisian Asega-buch shows it to be a murderous Weapon, forbidden to be worn in peace. The finds yield at times a dirk, and at times a broadsword ; Such, for mstance, are the Copenhagen Scramsahs, 90 centimetres long, and that of Fronstetten, which, though imperfect, weighed 4°5 Ibs. Ihe British Museum contains a fine specimen of the Scramasax With engraved Runes. 172 OLD GERMAN SWORD. 273 either as a dirk or a missile. Some of these throw-Swords had a hook by way of pommel! for better securing the hilt’ The Schwertstab (Sword-staft ) or Prachtaxt is described and ngured by Jahns’ as a kind of do/cz* or dageer, attached to a long hollow metal haft, like that of a Persian war-axe. It is a rare atticle, and its rarity leads him to believe it was symbolic of the Saxnot (Sword-god) Zio, fui, or Tuisco. Dr. Evans*® considers the weapon ‘a kind of halberd or battle- ax€; Others, a commanders staf or 4é7o7 of honour ; but the article is too widely used to be so explained. A fine specimen of the Schwertstab with handle and blade of bronze, was found at Arup iil SCania, and an analogous form is shown in a Chinese blade. Flistery, even written by their enemies, shows that the Ancient Germans were an eminentiy military and martial people. The brida! present consisted of a Capatisoned horse, a shield, a Spear, and a Sword. At their festivals, youths danced naked before the Sword-god, amidst drawn blades and couched spears. Their lives were spent in hunting and warfare. Despite their barbarism, a thoroush topographical knowledge of their bogs and bushes, mountains and forests, enabled them to inflict more than Gone crushine defeat upon the civilised Romans. the highly-developed Teutonic brain also invented a form of attack which suited them thoroughly, It was theirs, as the Phalanx, borrowed from the eyptians, became Greek, and its legitimate outcome, the Legion, was Roman ; and, subsequently, the Crescent, adopted by the Kafirs, was Moslem. ‘Acies, Says lacitus,* “per cuneos componitur. Ihe Keil or Wedge was not unknown to the Greeks and Romans ;° but they used it subordinately, whilst with the Germans the * Schweinskopi, the “Syinfylking~ of the Scandinavians, was national: they attributed its invention to Odin, the country god. Ihe apex was composed of a single file° and the numbers doubled in each line to the base; while families and tribesmen, ranged side by side, added moral cohesion to the tactical formation.’ It lasted a thousand years; and it played a conspicuous part in the Battle of Hastings, where the Normans attacked in wedge, and finally at Swiss Sempach. During its long life it underwent sundry modifications, especially the furnishing of the flanks with skirmishers ; evidently the Wedge was admirable for the general advance against line Or even column; but it was equally ill-calculated for a retreat. 1 P. 421. Pi. xxviii. 15. our chessmen shows the Hindu form of attack, the * The word is the Ang. Sax. @o/c, a wound, infantry im front, the horse and elephants (casiles) on which thus gave a name to the weapon that wounded. either wing, and the Rajah or Commander-in-chiet in * Droz, pp. 201-63. Figs. 329 and 330, the centre and not in front. 4 747 a ® In its purest form the Standard-bearer stood = fa i ii, d an a Jatns {p 439) quotss dasciepiodotus {vil 3) i alone at ihe apex, as Ingo in King Odo’ batile at “lian (xviti. 4), who describe the czeers as Scythian : ; ; 7 Mons Panchei (Montpensier), A.D. 392. and Thracian, 2.2. barbarous. Unfortunately Jahns also cites the “Boars head’ of the Laws of Menu 7 *Ouodque preecipuum fortitudinis incitamentum (Houghtons A/anava-Dharma Shastva, vi. 187), est, non Casus, nec fortuita conslobatio turmami aut a the eighth century B.C.; Nienu heme centuries cCuneum facit, sed familice et propimauitates” (Tacit. — aiter Tacitus. I have noticed that the disposal of ~~ Giri. 7). 274 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. Most writers now consider the Cimbri a Keitic people; and possibly congeners of the Cymry or Welsh. Yet in the second century B.C. we find them uniting, as Pliny tells us,* with the German Jeutones or Peutoni ( I hiudisk6, Teutsh, Deutsch): The * Kimpers” of Italian Kecoaro, the supposed descendants of the invaders who escaped the Sword of Marius (8.C. 102); undoubtedly spoke German. Plutarch * describes the Cimbrian Sword as a large heavy knife-blade (peyanais EypavTo Kar Papeiais payaipais), Ihey had also battle-axes, atid sharp, bright degaus Or Gageers: the latter were highly prized, and their cuneiform shape caused them to be considered symbols of the deity.° chiets had terrible names, so as to strike even the hearer with As usual amongst barbarians, the weapons of the fear. heir defensive weapons were iron helmets, mail coats, Eccart holds that these arms and armour must have been taken from the foe: their barrows, and white slitterine shields. in Holstein and elsewhere, having produced only stone-celts and Sspear-heads with a few copper Sword-blacdeés, but no iron. The Scandinavian Goths (Getz) and Vatidals were held by the ancients to have been originally one atid the same people” Their Bronze Age is supposed to have begun about B.c. 1000, and to have ended in Sweden at the opening of They used short Sword-blades, which made them, unlike the Keits, formidable in close combat, and the Christian era. the Goths claimed to have introduced the spear® to cavalry- identical weapons were used by the Lemovi of Pome- The latter lived on the southern shores of the Baltic about Rugenwaid, and this place, mich. iG. 292-—DANIsH SWORD! yania and their kinsmen the Rugii. (Bronze ; 85 centimetres long. Copenhagen.) one of the focuses of the Stone Age,’ preserves, like the Isle of Rugen, the old barbaric name. Ihe Danes mostly atiected the long-handed securis Danica (hasche Danoise), The Fenni (Finns) of Tacitus had neither Swords nor iron: they used only bows and stone-tipped arrows.° Ihe bronze Sword from Finland ‘with flanged hilt-plate and eight rivet-holes,” must have found its way there.” We now proceed to the Keltic population of the ‘Home Islands ot Great 1 Wat, Hist., iv. 14. 2 In Marie, 23. $ In later times they were carefully cleaned for spiedo ; Engl. spit. It seems to ally with the Lat. Spina, and the Germ. Spitze {jahns, p. 413): * The peculiar celts, chisels, spear-poimts, . ) of beasts; birds, and fishes Sends far from earth divided Irish-land.’ on their faces, and not on their faces only, but onthe 7 ‘The word * Pict,’ says Prof. Rhys, is firstapplied whole of the body.” Again we find ourselves in by a writer of the third century to the people ——*infnita, arcana Atrica orrenda, ” 250 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. lance head, derives from the Gaulish spear (/ezs£ez) which Diodorus Siculus terms AayKia, a congener of the Greek Aoyyy and of the low Latin vazcea or /anscea, meaning cither spear (Za@s7z) or Sword. CONCLUSION. WE have now assisted at the birth of the Sword in the shape of a bit of wood, charred and sharpened. We have seen its several stages of youth and growth fo bone and stone, to copper and bronze, to iron and steel, When it had sufhciently developed itself Eeypt save it a name, SFET ; and this name, at least fitty centuries old, still clings to it and will cling to it. In the hands of the old Niiotes the Sword Spread culture and civilisation throughout adjoining Africa and Western Asia. Ihe Phoenicians catried it wide and side over the world then known to man. The Greeks won with it their liberty and developed with it their citizenship. Wielded by the Romans, it enthroned the Reign of Law, and laid the foundation for the Brotherhood of Mankind. Thus, though it soaked earth with the blood of her sons, the Sword has ever been true to its mission—the Progress Of Society. In Part I]. we shall see the Sword attain the prime of life, when no genius, no work of art was 100 precious to adorn it; and when, from a weapon of Offence, it developed exceptional defensive powers. Here begins the Komatice of the Sword. ABD BDERITES, 212 Abella, sword and shield of the people of, 204 7% Abraham and the Egyptians, 163 ; his origin, 1507 Abyssinia, Native copper from, 63 7 Abyssinian lance, 270 — Sword, 163 57., 237 Acacia aetinens (* Wait-a-bit ); 6 Acanthurus (*surgeon” or lancet- fish), 10 Accad inscription (Babylonia), 199 Accensi Velati {Koman soldiers); 245 Acheeans of the Caucasus, 195 7 Achzemenes, 205 Achilles’ shield, 212, 223 — spear pointed with chalcos, 55 7 “Acies instructa~ and “sinuata ” (Roman army), 245 Acies (Gf 4 weapon), 107 7% Acinaces, not a scymitar, 227 7 Acinaces, Persian, 210; with golden Ornaments, 212 Aclys (archaic weapon), 35 7 “Adaga ~ Of medizeval writers, 12 Adam Kadmon, 2 Adam primus, 27 Adam, the Flebrew, 149 Adamas (steel), 221 Adargue (Moorish), 12% Adder-pike or sting-fsn { 77achinus vipera), 11 Adonis (= Tammuz), 137 Adseriptii (Roman soldiers), 245 7 Adze, 207; of copper, 67 — blades of shells and pinna, 47 ##s Ccorinthiacum, $57; segineti- cum, $7; demonnesium, 72. ; nigrum, 20.5; deliacum, 70. ; cal- darium, 88 ; greecanicum, 20. 7Egyptus (meaning of the word in Homer), 145 7 Aiolipylee (aidAou wvAal), 317 /irugo {Or verdipris) om a spear (Achiiles’), 60 v5 and 74715 metalia (their Mmean- ing in Pliny), 537 Afghan Charay, 212 — language, 2107 Africa’ (its mineral wealth unex- plored), 63 — the Sword in, 162 INDE X. AFR African antelopes, 9 — bellows, 120 57. — Telak {arm-knife), 162 Airico-Arab weapons, 163 * Afterthought,’ 1 Afzal Khan (Moslem General of Aurangzeb), 3 Agate splinter (for wooden Swords), 4 Agave (American), 6; used for _ paper-mnaking, 5072 “Age of Wood, 31 ‘Ages, 227 Agesilaus, army Of, 241 AyitvrAy (Greek throw-stick), 34 ‘Agmen pilatum ~ and “quadratum (Roman army), 245 Agreutic (age of primitive Archzco- logy, 5 2 Agriculture in Ancient Egypt, 148 Ahasuerus {= Aerxes), 210 Airain (derivation), 34 Aji (black Stone}, Japanese use of, for weapons, 52 Aka, Akhu (Ancient Heyptian axe), 89, 155 Akhad {= Upper Babylonia), 104 7 "Akivakns, OO 72 Alabaster pommels at 231, 233 Albanian castes, 241 7# — yataghan, 265 Alemanni (Germani), weapons of the, 270 Alexander the Great, 200 Alfange (Iberian; El-Kiianjar), 29 Algebra in Assyria, 2027 Alipes (Mercury), 1 Alkinde (Ondanique), 110 Alle-barde (Teutonic weapon), 92 Aliophyliian or Agelutinative Tura- fiian, 146 Alloy (derivation of the word), 14% Alloys of copper, 53, 57 -—— proportions of, $3; table of alloys in Common Use, $3 57. Aloe (Socotrine), 6 Alorus, king of Babylonia, 199 Aluminium, Si 7 Alyattes, tomb of, 194 Alphabet (whence it came), 51 7, 147 Mycene, ANT Alphabet, Hindu 219 7 — of Troy, 193 Amber, 43, 37 Ambidexter Swordsmen, 135 Ambrum {=amber), 67 American broad-axe, 123 Amesiris (= Esther), 2107 Amphictyony of the lonians, 194 Amuilkta (class of weapons ; Hindu), 214 Amun Ra, 149 7 Amyedaloid greenstone stone ), 1037 Analysis Of 2 copper knife-blade, 69; of so-called ‘bronzes,’ 70; of Assyrian bronze, 31 Anchor, the orginal, 119 7 Ancient Britain, centre of bronze indusiry, 276 — Britons, account of the, 277 — Cypriote characters, 225 — German method of wariare, 273 —— Greece, extent of, 2427 — Hellas, metallurgy of, 220 -— Indians, 213 —- Indian anthropology, 213 — Irish, character of the, 279 -— Koman army (ifs constitution), 245 — Kome (her 70/2 in history), 244 Ancile (sacred shield) of 2s, 56 Andahualas valicy (meaning of the ame), 67 #2 Andamanese (unable to kindle fire), 2h Andanicum (Ondanique), 110 Andena (ductile and malleable iron = Avicenna), 107 Andes (derivation of the name), 67 Andromeda legend, the, 130 7 Andro-Sphinx (egypt), 190 7% Anelace, 263 Angels, the weapon of the, 237 Angle of cuttme instruments, 13% 57. — of resistance, 132 Anglo-Saxon invasion of England, 275 | ‘Anguimanus (the elephant), 3 7% Amimals im Assyrian bas-reliets, 203 — (lower) born armed, 2 Anjan (irom-wood), 112 (* toad= 262 AND Anlas, 263 © Anneeus “monument, 253 7 Annals of Babylon, 260 Anta (copper ; Ouichua), 67 Antelope (Indian) hors used for daggers, II Antelopes horns used in fishing, 27; as lance-points, 23 Antepilani (koman soldiers), 247 57. Antesignani (Roman soldiers), 247 Anthropology, Ancient Indian; 213 — of the pagans, 21 sa. Antimonial bronze, Si 72 Antiquity of bronze in the ile re- gion, 275 — of iron and steel, 93 Amiiseptic charcoal, 250 7 Antler of red deer as a thrusting- Weapon, 26 Anvils, 126 Aor (=Sword, in Homer), 222; etymology of the word, 224 7 Apes, 2 Aphrodite or Venus, account of, 137 2% Apis-tombs of Memphis, 190 7 Apollo and Python, 180 Apophis (serpent: Eeypt), 153 Arabian weapons, 155 Arabic name for sabre, 123 Arab scymitar belonging to King of Kishakkha, 162 Arabs and Epyptians, contrast of, 144 Aram wine, 173 # Ararat of Noah’s ark, the, 202 Arbotana, 14 #% Arblast (enlarged 7777s), 19 Arch, Feyptian, 201 Archeeology, primitive, 5 7 Archaic names of metals, table of, 122 == tools from Wari Gaon, 110 Archal (=au7ichalcum), 35 72 Archangels (whence borrowed), 149 Archer (fish : /ovores), 7 Archers (Ancient Eeyptian army), 154 — Assyrian, 200 — in Momer, 222 Archery, Scythian, 19 7 Architects, Ancient Roman, 245 Architecture, Assyrian, 201 — in Ancient Egypt, 145 —in Hellas, 241 — origin of, 15 Arcubalista (crossbow), 19 Argentiferous copper (liquation of, in Japan), 33 — galena, 35 Arygus-pheasant (Indian bird), 9 Aries (sea-ram 3; Le/phizzz2s orca), 7 Ares-shaped Sword, 141% Atiminium, coins cast in, 265 Arithmetic in Ancient Egypt, 148 Arjuna’s Sword, 217 Arka (Calairopis vipaniea), 218 Arme blanche, 6 Armes d hast, 6, 246 7 Armenia, 200 7 Armetian inscriptions, 200 ARM Armidoctores, 249 Armilla of bronze, Etruscan, 106 Armilets of bronze (Etruscan), 30 Armorial badges (=rank), 141 5s Armour (derivation of the word), 244 — tnade in Cyprus, 153 —of Ancient Egyptian soldiers, 152 $77. Armour of elephants, 216 — of Goliath, 156 Aims among the Ancient Romans, 244 37. — and Armour of Ancient Koman soldiers, 246 59a. — manufactory in Etruria, 193 —of Hannibal and his troops, 203 — oi the Keltic Gauls, 266 s7. -— of Persian troops, 210 Army Of the Aticient Heyptians, 152 3577. *Aprn (sharp sickle), 180 ArTrows, II, 154 — made of reed, 25 Arrow-heads in Ancient Gallic and German graves, 274 7 — of deer-horn, 24; of bone, 25; of bamboo, 26; of fint-flakes, 20; Of pinna and shells, 47 Arrow-piles Of copper, 65 Arrow-throwers (epithet of the Ar- gives, 222 Art and science in Ancient Esypt, 147 Art of the Fiittites, 176 ‘Artemis “ (Diana) of the Ephesians, 192 7 Articulate language (origin of), 74 7 Artificial calamine, 56 — malachite, 72 Aryan (language), 146 7 Aryans, 76 Asclepias gieanted, 111 Asclepius (Beryius), 75 Ashanti Sword-knife, 167 Ashur (Assyrian), 200, 207 Ashuth {msed or cast metal; He- brew), 103 Asia, ancient mines of copper and lead im, 63 Asidhenu (dagger ; Hindu), 215 Asidevata (Sword-sod produced by Brahma), 214 Askelon (site of), 156 Asp (Cobra di capello; Co/uber 11072), 33 % Ass (its method of defence), 7 Assegai used as a razor by the Amazulu, 14 Assytia (etymology of the word), 17] Assytian architecture, 201 — bas-relicis, 176, 201 — books, 201 7 — bronzes, 104 7 — daggers, 159, 205 — @xecutioner, 207 fashion of wearing the Sword, 206, 230 — fortifications, 203 17E BOOK OF THE SWORD BAL Assyrian hand-daggers, 155 — inscriptions (Bayiut), 200 7 — invasion of Egypt, 200 —— Mavic, 202 7 — metaliurgy, 31, 202; bronze, €1 — names for the Sword, 123 — robe, 175 —— skill in arts, 202 — soldiers, 206 — Sphinx, 190 7 Assyrians of Xerxes’ army (their Weapons), 105 Astrolabe in Assyria, 202 7 Astronomy in Ancient Heypt, 143 — of Mesopotamia, 200 7% Asuras (mighty demons: Hindu), 213 Atacamite (submuriate of copper), Athenzeus on the Sword, 242 57. Athietics, Ancient Roman, 249 Athor or Hathor (‘goddess of cop- per), 92, 69 Atlantis, 55 7 Attabo, King Blay of, 142 Auctoramentum (pay of the Bes- iar), 253 Augustins rendering of *framea, 271 Aurichalcum, &5 Aurochs, 30 7% Australian club (development), 39 Authentic annals of England, be- ginning of the, 275 Autochthones of Cyprus, 157 Avicenna s description of iron, 106 Axe (as a weapon), 20, 90 57. ; of copper and stone, 67 — (derivation of the word), 91 7 Axe-heads of pure copper, 57 Ayn (cutting instruments; Peru), ? 5 Avapay’ (in Spanish and Portu- guese), 42 72 Azure (in heraldry ; TAO # derivation), Best Suteckh (Hittite War-god), i Baal-Zephon, site of, 175 7 Babanga (Sword; Gaboon), 165 Babel, Tower of, 55 Baboons, 2 Babylon, conquest of, 209 Babylonia, account Of, civilisation in, 200 Babylonian chronology, 199 2 Backsword, 123; Chinese, 64 Bagpipe, origin of the, 120 Bahuyuddha (class of weapons Hindu), 214 Baionette Gras, 04, 134 Balanitis Aceypiiaca {=Versea ; Egyptian * Tree of Lite’), 202 % Balawat, bronze gates of, 202 Baldur the Beautifal, 175 Baleares (* Slinging-Isles ), 19 7 Balestarius (= crossbow-man), 135 Balistze (Roman artillery), 19, 249 balistes capriscus (*hle-fish ); 9 199 59. $ BAL Ballistics, ¥6 Balloons, 31 7 Ball-steel (Chinese), 114 Bamboo (blades made of), 12, 14 72; atrow-heads, 26 * Bamboo-prass, 12 * Bantu ~ (Polk), 3 7 ban Umnha (white copper: Keltic), 65 ‘Barbarian, history of the word, 261 7 Barbarism of the ancient Germans, 273 Bards Of Greece, the age of the, 220 Barylithic (glacial Drift) ave, 5 7 Barrows, Cimbrian (finds mm), 274 Baizil (iron ; Hebrew), 103 Basalt-splinters for wooden Swords, 4] Basket-hilt of a Sword, 124, 1207 Bas-relicts of Assyria, 176, 201 — of Khorsabad, 209 —— Of Persepolis, 209 Baswa knite (Upper Congo), 170 Baton ferre, 20 Dattering-ram, Assyrian, 203 Battle-axe Gf pure copper, 70 Dattle-gear of gold, 212 Baitle-scene in sculpture (Cuttack), 210 Bauldric, 206 Beaked axe, 05 Bears, polar, 3 Bechwana club-axe, 92 Bedstead of iron (of Og, King of Bashan), 103 Beheading fallen foes (Gallic cus- tom), 269 Beheading Sword, Cutch, 165 Behisttm Inscription, the, 209 7, 226 Belagerungsbalister, 19 Delemmnites (* thiunder-stone 7) 21 7 bel and the Dragon, 150, 133 * Bell-metal,* $4 Bellows, invention of, 119 Bellows oi bullock’s hide, 111 Beliows-nozzles of copper, 63 Belis on 4 Sword-sheath, 169 BeAos, 6 Benipe {meaning of the word), 09, 101 Bent Swords, Javanese, 215 Deny Adam meshood, 2 Bergbarlhe (mine-picks ; German), G1 Berytus (Asclepius), 75 Bestiari (@ladiaters), 251, 253 Bhawani (Sivajis sword), 87 Bibasis (gymnastic dance), 239 Bichwa (weapon used by Sivaji), 3 7 Bilbilis (river ; Lusitania), 266 % Bil-Kan (Assyrian god), 152 Hill (derivation of the word), 04 7 Bill-hooks of copper, 67 Birds (their methods of attack and defence), 9 Bird s-head-shaped missiles, 37 Birth of literature in Greece, 202 7 Bisarme or Guisarme, 95 INDEX. BIS “ Biscayan ’ shape (of swords), 135 Bitumen used to fix flint-chips im wooden weapons, 49 * Black chalcos,° 77 Black Pagoda (Madras), wrought iron 1m, 109 Black sand, 102 Blade of a sword, 124 Blasrohr (blow-tube), 14 7 Blende (suiphuret of zinc), $4; de- tivation of the word, 347 Bloma ferri, 1147 Bloom (of iron), 114 7 Bloomary (= bloomery), 114 7 Bloomeries (ancient furnaces), 114 7 Blow-pipe, 14; of copper, 67 Bine basalt, 100 Blue-stone (sulphate of copper, blue copperas), 60 Boars -hoofs used as armour, 29 72 Boar, wild (its method of attack), 12 Boians (Etruria), 196 Bolas (slings), 19 Bombola (birthplace of Martial), 200 7 * Bone Age, 23 « Bone-and-stone-using people,” 23 Bone as a base to carry trenchant substances, 27 Bone-club of Nootka Sound In- dians, 25 Bone-handies for Swords and dag- gers, 27 Bone-knives, 26 ; -daggers, 26, 27 Bone-points t6 weapons, 23 Boomerang, 19; derivation of the word, 337; Indian Specimens, 35; its movement explained, 30 47. ; ; Boomerans-sword, 39; in Ancient Egypt, 155 Boot (derivation of the word), 175 Borax used for soldering, $5 7 Boundaries demarked by the axe, OT Bouterolles of a Sword, 1247 Bowie-kniie bayonet, 134 7 Bow (derivation of the word), 19 7 — of 4 sword, 125 — of Vishnu, ihe, 213 — the, im Ancient Gaul and Germany, 2747 — and arrow among the Ancient Hindus, 215 Bows and arrows used by the An- cient Romans, 245 Bows, ancient Peypiian, 154 Boxing, 7 * Boycoitne * St. Pani, 155 Bracchee (breeches), 2609 7 Bracelet of copper, 73 7 ‘Brave Master Shoe-tye, the great traveller,” 3 72 Brande or Bronde (Sword), 123 Braquemart, 123 Brass early in Christian era, 34; derivation of the word, 55 * Brass guns, 56 “Brass in the A. V. of the Bible; 50 BUL Breast-belt, gladiatorial, 253 Breastplates of copper, 65 Breeches (etymology of the word), 269 72 Breitsachs (Ancient German wea- pon), 272 bBrennus, 267 Bridal presents of Ancient Germans, 27% Bridle of gold, 212 rise-epees, 135 Britain (*Ynis Prydhain~ Island), 71# British Sword in the Tower, 263 Broad-axe (American squatters’), 125 Br adsword, various forms of, 96, 23 Bronze, 22 72, 74 577. * Bronze Ase, 2272, 23 7 — Age in Britam, 275 — Age in Switzerland, 275 — Age of Scandinavian Goths, 274 — armiets, Etruscan, 30 — armour, 60 — armour-suit 243 — arms of the Gauls, 267 — arrow-heads, Carthaginian, 151 — casting in, SO — chisels, 79 — daggers, 75 72, 50 — deiensive armour (oman), 254 — derivation of the word, 77 — door-sockets, Assyrian, 202 — hardening of, 53 — haiche's in wooden handles; 154 — in Great Britain, source of, 275 —— knives, 50 — lancehead at Mycence, 236 — nails, $2 — parazonium, 239 — quadriga, 30 rapier in lreland, 2797 — sabres, 50 — socketed sickle (British), 276 — Statues (Etruscan), 30 —— Swords, 45, 757, 50; found in Britain, 276 sg.; Gallic, 266; found at Hlallstadt, 262 57. ; of Italy, 264; at Mycenze, 229 sz. — sword-hilt (Biruscan), 197 — supplied from Phoenicia” ito Europe, 75 72 — tablet, Hittite, 176 — work, Assyrian, 202 Buccinatores (musicians ; Roman), 245 © Bucceulanus clypeus” (= buckler), 2402 Buckler (etymology of the word), 240 2% —— of ox-hide, Koman, 243 Bucklers of osier (for recruits: Ko- man), 249 Buckles of a Sword, 1247 Buddhism, 213 Budil, King of Assyria, 205 Buffalo, its manner of attack, 9; arrows made of buitalo-hom, 25 Bull-fights, Spanish, 253 (Koman ~~ Cavalry), 264 BUL Bull (wild), its manner of attack, 6 Bulwark (portable bridge for sieges), 154 Burbur 199 Burewalle, 271 Burial as a method of making steel, 295 Burmese Dalwel (S word), 219 Burying of iron, 107 72, 112 Buttons of gold in Troas, 193 Byzantine (?) finds at Mycenze, 106 inscriptions (Ba>ylonia), ABIRI (Kabeiroi), 74 57. Cadmeian (old Phoenician) characters, 225 Cadniza fosstlts (natural calamine), 36 Cadmian stone, 86 Cadmus (27-Aadinz, or £/-Kadnit), 60 Ceesars treatment of his soldiers, 260 Caillouteurs (flint-knappers), 45 7 Calamine (Carbonate of zinc), 77, 643 derivation of the word, $4 Calasixi (Egyptian bowmen), 152 Caledonia (etymology of the word), 215 Calisthenies, Greek, 239 Callua (paddle), 42 Calones (camp-followers ; Koman), 249 Caltrops (bamboo splints of Gaboon- land), 14 Camel (the kick of the), 7 Cambyses, 200, 211 Camp-followers (Koman), 249 Campidoctores, 2409 72 Canaanite (meaning of the word), 175% Canaanites, 152 Cane bows and arrows, Indian, 211 Canes used as bellows, 65 Canna (kavya; whence “cannon ’)}, 147 Cannelure (of a Sword), 132 Cannon (derivation of the word), 14% — of iron first cast, 117 7 Cannons of gold (Baroda), 162 7% Canticles of Solomon, the, 147 Capoeira (Brazilian fashion of fight- ing), 254 Capulus (Sword-pommiel : Roman), 25/2 *Carbad scarrda” (irish war-car); 2]/ Carcharias vulpes (fox-shark), 7; derivation of Carchavias, 7 2 Carchemish inscription, 177 Carian weapons, 211; (?) at My- cenee, 231 7% — words, 231 7 Carpenter's tools of copper, 07 Carpentras Inscription, the, 209 7 Carpentry in Ancient Heypt, 143 Carpentum (war-chariot), 209 Carpicanna, 14 7 Ancient CAR Carthaginian Mining operations, 107 — names, I1d1 — Sword-blades, 131 Caryota wrens (Nivoug; sago- wood), 6, 22 Cartouche (carizccia; meaning of the word), 407 Cast-copper axe, 69 Caspians 210 Cassia auriculata, 111 Cassiterides, 75 57. Cassowary (its method of attack), i2 Casting (of metal) Ancient Greeks, 221 Cast-iron slab in Sussex century), 117% — sicel, 114 7 Catalan forge, 10272, 111; furnace, 107 Catamaran (Tasmania), 40 Catapults (of Koman army), 243 sg. Cateia (boomerang club), 35, 269 —- meaning of the word, 35 7 Catoblepas Gu, 9 Cats (domestic, among the Nile- dweliers), 3 7% Cavalier and Roundhead, 277 7 Cavalry, Hittite, 176 —in Ancient Beypt, 154 — Roman, 246 72, 245 Caverns (as dwellings, storehouses, Sepulchres), 15 7 —— French and Beigian, I z Cave-tempies (Indian), the Sword in, 216 Ce'estial Empire, the annals of the, Ti257. % Celt, of gold, 212; expanding, 270; transition from, to paddle-spear and Sword forms, 41 Celte (in Job), 20 7 Celiiberian iron Swords, Weapons, 205 Celtis (or ce/7es = a chisel), 20 7% Celts (the proper orthography), among the (14th 20%; celis Of Copper, 57; of sione, 154 Census, Hebrew, 135 Centre of percussion, 129 Centurion’s cuirass, 245 Ceramics in Ancient Egypt, 148 Cerbotana, 14 7 Ceretolo, sepulchre at, 196 Cestus (knuckle-dusier of the classics), 7 Cestis-play, 254 Ceéetian or Keteian (in Homer), 172 Cetra (Roman shield), 246 Chaetodon {archer fish of Japan), 7 Chakarini (war-quoit), 39 7 Chakra (war-quoit), 39 Chaleitic (copper and bronze) Age, 5% Chalcedony dagger-blade, 46; splinters for wooden Swords, 47 Chaicolibanon, 35 Chalcos (= Sword, in Homer), 222 Chaldzean gods, 207 XaAKos (meaning of the word), 53 JME BOOK OF THE SWORD. COR XaXkeos ovoos {* copper threshold’), 30 Chatybes (1ron-workers), 76 * Chalybian stranger {=the sword), o7 Chalybs (river), 97 7 Chalyps (steel), 221 Character of Ancient Gauls, 269 57. Charay (Afgnan Sword), 212 Charms (Chinese) of copper, 64 Chape oi a sword, 124; of a dagger, 124 7% Charay (one-edged knife : Afghan), 161 7 Charcoal in 1ron-smelting, 107 Chariot-corps (Ancient Heypt), 154 Chariots of iron, 103 Chairs in Ancient Eeypt, 148 Charonion of Antioch, 241 7 Chasing (of metals), 31 Chayantanka (tin: Perivian), $3 Chelidonian sabre {yeAidovies Eidos), T4i Chemosh (Moabite god), 192 7 Chereb (Hebrew weapon}, 153, 154 Chert arrow-heads, 25 Chert-splinters for wooden Swords, E50, 47 Cherubim (etymology of the word), 133 Cherusci (ancient German tribe), 271 Chess (showing Hindu form of attack), 216, 2737 Chess in Ancient Egypt, 143 *Chevaucher, meaning of, and Greek @quivalents, 242 7 Chevaux-de frise, 14 Chile copper the toughest, 63 Chinese (ancient) arms of metal, 63 — form of Sword-staff, 273 — iron-works, 115 — language, 113 == methods of working iron, 114 — sabre-knife, 139 — steel for Swords and knives, 115 — Sword of copper (aiterwards of iron), 64 — words for iron, 112 57. Chisels of chalcos, 63; of Stone and copper, 67 — of iron (Etruscan), 197 Chittim (=Cyprus: Hebrew), 157 Chionte splinters for wooden Swords, 47 Chonta wood (Gzz/ieima speciosa), A2 Chopper-blade (Roman), 257 — knife, Hittite, 176 Choppers, Egyptian, 161 Chopper-shaped blade at Mycenze, 229 Christianity in the indian Penin- sula, 219 7% Chrysaor, 150 Chrysochalcos (*the king of metals’), 507 Chrysocolla word), 35 % (derivation of the CID Cidaris or tiara, Persian, 200 Cim! xi, a Keltic people, 273 Cinctorium (Roman generals Sword), 257 Cingulum (waist-belt: Roman), 255 Cinyras (legendary Tyrio-Cyprian king), 188 Circumcision an Atrican practice, 150 — stone knives used in, 46, 69 City of Priam (Troas), 190 Cladibas (claidab), 266 72 Claidab (=Spatha), 196 Classes of Hindu weapons, 214 Claymore, 123, 130 Cleaver of the Habshi people, 170 *Close-Sword, Roman, 255 Clothes-pins in the Troas; 191 Club, 20, 32 — development into the Sword, 39 57. Club-Swords, 327 ; Oueensland, 44 Clubs of copper, 67 Cluden Gjugglers Sword), 255 Clypeus (oman shield), 246 72 Cobait (in Ireland), 65 Cock-fighting in the Canary Isiands, 2547 Codicilli (tablets), 225 Comins of granite, $1 Cohorts (of Roman army), 2467 Coin of copper and zinc, 54 Colchians, 210 Cold-wrought (hammered) copper weapons, 05 Colichemarde blade, 135 *Collery * (throwing-stick), 35 Colophonium (resin used ior sol- dering), 35 7 Colossal Greek statues, 241 2 Coluber Fiaja (Cobra di Capello; asp), 337 Combats of various animals, 9 Comb found in Nimrud’s palace, 10 Combinations (earliest) Of metals, 74 397- Comitialis morbus, 26072 Comparison of Man and the lower animals, 5 Confederacy of Etruscan cities, 104 Cong copper mines, 169 Congo Sword, 165 Contus (Roman cavalry spear), 246, 245 Contus 269 Convolvulus lanzjolus, 11% Coot {its method of attack), 12 Copenhagen scramsahs, 272 7 Copper, 227, 30; alloys, 53, 57; the art oi hardening it, 53 sz: ; cutting instruments of, 5477; copper prior to iron, 55 Copper Age (of weapons), 53; anterior to bronze, 72 =— and brass (alloy), 34 — and gold jalloy), 33 (wooden pike), Gaaliic, INDEX. COP Copper and tin (alloy), 31 arms and armour, Ancient Hel- lenic, 222 — arrow-piles, 65 -— bracelet, 72, 7 — celts, 57, 72 —comage (Chinese), 64; of the Hindus, 70 —hatchets; 65; rakes and ham- mers, 20. ; vases, 66 —in Europe, 64; im America, 65 597. — knives, Trojan, 191 — mines, Chile, 68; Midian, 102; of South-Eastern Airica, 170 # — nails (Greenland, &c:), 65 — placed in a corpses mouth, 65 — sheets for fooring (ancient), 55 — Statuettes (coated with precious metals}, 67 — Swords, 70; in Iroas, 192 — tools in Epyptian hieroglyphs, 69 — trumpets, 221 Copper-trade of Cyprus, 136 “Cops” (of metal), 151 Coptic language, 146 Coquimbite (Panipua or white cop- peras), 05 Core-casting (oi metal), 221 Cornicines, 245 Cornu (musical instrument: IKo- ian), 245 Cornwall, mineral felds of, 275 Coronarium (copper coated with ox- gall), 97 Corrugated iron blades, 119 7 Corrugated Sword of Africa, 171 Corsican forge, 102 7 Coruncum in Midian, 171 # Corybantes, 74 57. Cosmogony, Hebrew, 145 57. Coiton dresses, Ancient Indian, 211 Coins diceraus, 10 Counterfeit pearls in Ancient Esypt, 148 Counter-guard of a2 Sword, 125, 135 Coupe-choux Sword, 134, 1604 Coustilliers, 135 Coustrils or Custrils, 185 Couteau-de-chasse, 210 Covinus (war-chariot), 269 : Cow, (its method of defence), 7 Crane, white (American bird), 9 Crannog, (its derivation), 27 Crease {=Kris, Malay weapon); 137, 166 Creation, Hebrew idea of, 143 s7. Cremation in the Early Bronze Age, 00 — (of bodies) at Mycenze, 234 Crepitaculum (sacred rattle), 151 Crests (in heraldry), 40 7 Cretans (Gel WevoTat), 97 7% Crickets (¢2cad@) aS Oinaments at Ilycenze, 233 Crimea, Scyihian graves in the, 227 Cross of the Coptic Christians, 192 7% Crossbow, 19 7, 105 —— fat-trap, 3/7 # Cross guard of a sword, 125 235 CYR Crucibles {at Schliemann’s Troy), $2 — four-footed, in the Troas; 101 Crucifixion (Assyrian punishment), 203 Cruelties of the Assyrians, 203 Cruithing (= Picts; origin of the name), 279 2 Crusade, the Hirst, 215 Crutch and dapper (combined) of antelope horn, 12 Crux ansata (Hgyptian Cross), 192 7 Crystal chips on Spears, 51 — lens (Nineveh), 202 Crystal-cutting in Cyprus, 133 Cuchillo (Spanish clasp-kniie), 39 Cuirass, Roman ceniurion’s, 245 Cultelarii, 135 Culture in Troy, 193 Cuneiform “imscriptions 200 7% — syllabariim, 200 7 —— symbol for iron, 104 Cuneus (tactical formation), 273 # Cupel (crucible; derivation of the word), 111 7 Cupriferous sandstones, 67 Cup-sling, 19 Curetes,; 74 57. Curium treasure, the; 1389 Currus faleatus (Scythe war-Car ; Ancient Britain), 276 Curtle-axe (=citlass), 140 Curved broadsword, 96 — type of Sword, 127 57. “Curved thrust, 133 57. Cushito-Asiatic (Hthiopian) tribes, 185 Cuspis (pomt of a Sword: Roman), 255 2 Customs of the Ancient Germans, 2/3 Cut-and-thrist weapons, 123 Cutlass, 123, 140, 211 Cutting edge of a Sword, 129 — or trenchant weapons (Origin of), IZ Cyanus (steel), 221; Dr. Schiie- mann’s translation of, 222 7; of Pliny (lapis iazuli), 72. Cybele (Dea Multimamma), 1962 7 Clycopes, 75 s¢. “Clycopean Wall’ (in the Argolid), 70 (Bayrut) j Cylinder of gold at Mycence, 229 Cymbals at the feast of Rhea (in Varro), 58 Cymbals of tin and copper, SI 7 Cynocephahi, 2 Cyprian dagger, 173 =— Venus (worship 01), 153 7 Cypriote (Ancient) characters, 225 — ait, 137 —— contingent of Xerxes army, 153 —Manulactire Of aims and ar- mour, 156 — names of places, 153 — syllabary, 155 $7. Cyprus, its epithet z7osa, 55; deri- vation Of the name, 59; account of, 186 57, Cyrus, 209 236 DAC ] aciAns on Trajan’s column, 262 Dacian Sword, 262 Dagger (derivation of the word), 215% Dagger formed knives, 169 7 Dageer-forms from Persepolis, 211 Dageer-Swords, 165; Assyrian, 204 Daggers, Assyrian, 205 of bone, 26 — of bronze, 732 — of copper, 79 — of iron (Heyptian), Ico —used by the Persians, 270 —with trapier-blade (Theban), 19527 Dagon (etymology of the word), 131 Dah (= Dao: Burmah), 140 Dahone, Swords of the King of, 167 Dalwel (Burmese Sword), 219 Damascened steel, Cyprivie, 188 Damask-work (Oi Weapons), 33, 1107, 112, 151 7% ‘Damascus blade,’ 132, 142 Damascus (Persian) scymitar, 205 Damnameneus, 75 Danish Scramasax, 263 — Swords, 236 *“Danisko” (African weapon, 163, 237 Dankah Sword, 165 Dao (weapon of the Naga tribe, Assam), 140 Darius the Mede, 209 Dark Continent, chief weapons of the, 162 Darts and stones (ancient Lybian weapons), 16 David's sling, 19; his copper hel- met, 70 Deadhock, the, 147 Dears Uimihia {red copper; Ieltic); 65 Decalogue derived from the Dead- book, 150 Decimal and duodecimal systems in Assyiia, 20272 © Deer-horn arrow-heads, 24 Defensive armour of bronze, iKko- man, 254 Defensive weapons (of Animals and Savages), 6 — Gi the Cimbri, 274 Desan (dagger: Cimbrian), 274 Degen (kind of dagger: German), 2157 Degeneration of Roman soldiers, 201 Deinotherium, 4 Deities standing on animals, 176 Denderah Zodiac, 155 7 Densare (meaning of the term), 107 Description of bronze Swords of Ancient Britons, 277 sz. — of the Ancient Britons, 275, 277 Devanagari alphabet, 159 Development of Mai, 5 sq. —— of the celt, $372 Devil, the, 131 . Dha or Dhow (Indian knife), 219 DHA Dianw (personincation of the bow: Find), 214 Dhanurvidya dian), 213 Dies Alliensis, 267 Dimacheri (Sladiators), 252 Dipdoit, 44 Diorite axe bored by means of a bow, 1917 Dionte (? basalt) implements at Mycenze, 537 —— in Ancient Esypt, 171 7 Dioscuri, 75 * Distafi-side ” relationship, 183 % Divination in Assyria, 202 * Doctored ~ bullets, 26 72 Dolche (daggers), 30, 273 Dolis in Ancient Egypt, 143 Dolphins in the Nile, 9 Door-hinges in WNimrud’s palace, 10 Door-sockets of bronze, Assyrian, 202 Double balteus (Roman), 253 7 Double-edged Sword blades (Wa- humila tribe), 169 Doubie-headed eagie (at Eyub), 176 Double-sided comb in WNimrud’s palace, 105 Dowris bronze, 37 ~__ ©Opper, 53 * Dowris metal, 131, 276 Diagon’s blood, 877 Dress-pins (women’s) of copper, 67 Draughts (same of) in Ancient Egypt, 145 * Drawing-cut,” 131 Duel of Manlius Porquatus and the Gaul, 267 -— Origin Of, 267 7% Duelling weapons, 135 Dumb-belis, 250 “Dunner-Saxen (Lower Saxony) 272h Dusack (weapon), 123 (Bow-science: In- Pacts, imperial, 2467 Early tron Ase in Brita, 276 —— — of Weapons, 97 Fars of a Sword, 124 Faster heraldry, 140 Edge of a Sword, 124 EGyPT (Ancient), geography of, 145 — architecture in, 146 == art aid science in, 14757 — heraldry in, 147 57 —— its military system, 152597 — its monotheism, 140 — law code of, 147 music, painting, and sculpture in, 143 the cradle land of language, 146 > the fountain head of knowledge, E47 Egyptian arch, 201 —— choppets, 161 — cutlasses, 211 —— daggers, 157 —— flag (five-rayed star On), 147 7 —— pilding (On bronze), St 17 BOOK OF THE SWORD. EXE Egyptian metallurgy, $0 — names for the Sword, 123, 155 57 — Phalanx, 155 — Sphinx, 190 7 — Swords, 157 ; in Cyprus, 139 — word-roois, 1467 Egyptians (Ancient), their origin, E43 3°97 Fi-darakah (Arabic shield), 12 7 Electricity, the marvellous displays of in Central Africa, 119 Hiecirim (derivation of the word); 50 72 Hiephants armed with Swords, 216 — indian and African, 37 Elephant-sword, 216 Elephant-trunk ornaments, 67 7 Elephant (use oi a weapon Dy) 3; its stroke or blow, 7 El-Khaut maksuim, 6 El-K hizr (the Green Prophet); 179 Emblems of the Egyptian nomes, 14] Emu, 4 Enamel, Assyrian, 202 Enneid Sword-hayonet, 134 72 "Englishmen of Antiquity, 275 Pneglish gladiatorism, 253 Engraving on copper plates, 5572 Ensigns in Ancient Roman army, 246% Ensis, 247 ; etymology of the word, 254 Entering angle, 132 Enthytonon, 19 Epitaph of Eshmunazar, 179 “iipos of Pentaur, 101, 147 Evin (etymology of the name), 192 7 "Epiokopot, 144 7 “ Erythreeans, the original, 15272 Escrime (fencing : derivation of the word), 2727 Essedum (war chariot}, 260, 277 72 Eshmunazar (King of the »ido- Nians), 179 Eskimos, 3 EsSpadon, 123, 101 ‘“Esquimaux (origin of the word, 2% Estain (=stannum ; Gall.), 65 Esther (= Amestris), 2107 ‘“Eotia, 1 7 Ethiopian 154% Etruscan and Latin aiinities with Lydian, 194 — armilla of bronze, 196 ‘Etruscan Bologna,’ 196 Etruscan commerce, 197 — inscriptions, 197 — iron lance-point, 196 —— ocenochoe, 196 — razors, 2027 Etruscans (account of the people), 195 Eucalyptus-wood sabres, 44 Eunuchs, 206, 207 7 Exchange of war-prisoners, Loman, Z24T Executioner, Assyrian, 207 Executioner s sword, 139 Stoné-tipped ~— arrows, EXO Exodus of tribes from Ancient Cermany, 270 Expanding Celt, 270 Experiments in alloys, $3 p*se (Sappers : Roman army), 249 Pace-guard of iron, 253 Facon or Cuchiilo (Spanish clasp- knife, as a missile), 13 Falchion of Ashanti, &c., 139, of Ancient Egypt, 155 57 — of Cilicia, 132 — of gold, 212 FPalchion-shaped weapons, 32 Faiconry in Ancient Egypt, 143 * Falling on the Sword,” 134 5¢ Falx (origin of the falchion), 253 7 Pamaposta (etymology of the name), 190 Famous Swordsmen of old, 2407 Fancy Swords, Roman, 253; weapons, 204 = . ‘Fans (=Mpangwe negros, Ga- boon River), 37 7 Feathers as military decorations, 24] Fecial College, the, 24457 Felidee (their strokes or blows), 7 Fencing-foil, 123 Fencing-schools, Koman, 249, 251 Fenni (Finns), 274 FPerentarii (Roman so'diers) 245 Perro-manganese, 108 Ferrum (= sword ; Roman), 254 — Candidum, 103 — indicum, 107, 109, 110 —— Sericum, 109 Fenekh (= Phoenicians), 173 Pibrolite - splinters for wooden Swords, 47 Pibulee of copper, 72 Field-marshal’s baton, 33 FPige (English prize-fiehter), 253 Fighting-cocks in Ancient Greece, 254% Pil (of a Sword), 137 Fil et pointe (cut-and-thrust wea-= pons), 123 Finds in Cimbrian barrows, 274 — in old tumuli, 271 — oi Cyprian weapons, 156 577. — of Dr. Schliemann im the Jroas, 190 57. Fingal’s war-cars (Ossian), 277 7 Fir-boles (bag-men, Belge 7), 64 Fir-cone, the, as an architectural Ornament, 201 Fire, 1, 272, 20 Fire-arms among the Findus (7), 2147 * First Highlander, the, 217 Fist-sword (stiletto), 215 First lesson in iron, 99 Fishes (their means of attack or defence), 9 57. Five-rayed star (on Heyptian Hag), 147 7 Flagellum 253 Ancient (gladictorial scourge), INDEX. PLA Flail, 20 Flails used a5 weapons, 95 Flamberg, Flainmbere, Flamberge, 123, 130 *Plaming Sword “(of the Cherubim ; Eden), 153 *Hieam-money (among the Pans), 11S Flint-ateliers (ancient), 102 Fiint-flakes; 13; knives, ‘Swords, 45 Flint-knappers (cac//oureu7s), 45 Flint poniards, 46; hatchet-sabre, 20. Plissa (weapon: Worth Africa), 123, 163, 237, 205 * Blood,’ the, 149 Fiuxing (method of treating ores), 05 Foil with French guard, 133 Foiming weapon, 123 * Fonderia di Bologna,” 196 7 * Forethought,’ i Forges, 102 Forked blade, 141 Forked Sword (Assyria), 141 Fortifications, Assyrian, 203 Pox-shark (lhresher; Carchavias Gulpes), 7 Pramea (derivation of the word), 2/02 Framee, the oldest, 270 Francisque or taper axe, 04 Frankish Italians, 270 7 — spear-blade, 171 Pranks (meaning of the name), 271 French feneing-foul, 124 Fronsteiten scramsahs, 272 7 Fuel used in iron-smelting, 121 Funeral ums of copper, 69 Punda (sling of the Etruscans), 245 Fur-coats, Gallic, 260 Furnace-calamine (impure oxide of zinc), &0 Furnaces (Indian) for iron-smelting, I1iz Fuscina (giadiatorial weapon), 253 Fusil Gras, 134 Pussangel, 1 Pustanella (kilt), 247 7 * Fustibale~ {fustibulus), 19 Future state, Eeyptian ideas of a, 150 Fylfot (crutched cross; North of Europe), 2027 20; ABBRO - SPLINTERS for wooden Swords, 47 Gzeesum (Roman weapon), 246 7, 208 Geesatee (= hastati), 205 72 Galatae (=Koman term Ga//z); 235 7% “Tarérot (etymology of the word), 200 7% Galla Sword, 163 Gallia Comata, 260; 10.5; Logata, 270 Gallic daggers, 267 —= Jtalians, 270 2 — javelins, 205 Bracchata, 257 GOD Gallic machairee-blades, 266 — manner of battle, 269 ‘Gallic Sword, 254, 260 Gallic women in battie, 269 Gallo-Greek (= Galatians, Gauls), 2337 — Swords, 233 Ga-ne-11-g2-0-dus-ha {lroquois déer- horn war-club), 25 Gardening in Ancient Egypt, 148 Gasterosteus (* stickleback 7), 10 Gastiapheta, 19 Gath (its site), 156 Gaulish element 190 57. Gaza (site ot), 156 Gem-engraving, Assyrian, 202 — in Cyprus, 133 General “No Importa’ {Spanish) 261 Generals, first duty of, 2607 Genii of Death (Egyptian), 149 (;eography of Ancient Meypt, 145 Geometry in Ancient Eeypt, 145 = in Assyria, 202 7 Georgic (age of primitive Archze- ology), 57 German Empire, 270 — main-gatche, 136 — silver (fackjone; of China) 64 7% Germanit (Alemanni), weapons of the, 270 Germania, Ancient (its land and people), 270 Geéermanism, 270 Gessum (meaning of the word); 260 % Getz (Scandinavian Goths), 274 Gharapuri (Cave-town; Bay of bom- bay), 217 Gilding bronze, $1 Girafte (its kick), 7 Girding on the Sword, 155 ‘Giving point, 127 Gizzin (Assyrian weapon), 204 #7 Glacial Dritt Age, 5 7 Gladims, 247; etymolosy of the word, 254 — Hispanus, 256, 263 Gladiatorial shows, 249, 251 57. Keltic in Etruria (7), | Gladiatorism, 249 57. Giaive (origin of the weapon), 39 72, 123; leai-shaped, 165 Glaives edged with sharks’ teeth, 9 Glass (derivation of the word), 452%; used On Spears, 43; ithe fable Of 1tS discovery by the Sido- Tans, 54 Glass-cutting in Cyprus, 138 Glass-making in Ancient Eeypt, 143 Gleditsclia, 6 Giobe-fish, spines of, 24 Glove, Hittite, 176 Gnu (its method of defence), 9 Goat standing on the top of a pin (figure at Mycence), 233 Goat's horns as yolutes, 201 Goddesses with mural crowns, 176 God kings (=* Dynasty of ithe Gods’: Heypt), 145 236 GOD "God save the King,” of Egyptian origin, 1497 Goidels (Gauls), 275 Gold and silver Cyprus, 153 Gold Coast Swords, 167 —— coined by the Lydians, 1904 — dust at Mycenze, 229 — Feyptian words for, 151 — esteemed (by the ancients) less Valuable than copper, 56 ——its representation in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 69 “Golden axe’ of Ashanti, 167 7 Golden bridle, 212 153 -—— cannons (Baroda), 162 == celf, 212 -—— faichion, 212 — hatchet, 39 — plated wooden (Mycenze), 228 —— scyinitar, 212 — shoulder-belts (Mycenze), 2238, 231 Ornaments in Sword-handle — tiara, 212 Goldsmith's work at Mycenze, 233 Goliath of Gath (his armour of copper), 70 Goliyo (weapon : 23] Gonfanon (its 6tymology), 246 z Gorillas, 2 Goths, Scandinavian, 274 *‘ Groecia mendax, 226 Greeco-Italic race, the, 136, 2707 Granite coiiins, $f Vpapew (its original meaning), 225 Graver ({pick?) in rock tablets (Wady Magharah), 61 Gravine-points, 171 7% ‘Great Armenia, 2007 Great Pyramid, the, 147 Greaves, 247 ; Gi copper, 70 Grecian sphinx, 1907 Greek accents, 2207 — bronzes (analysis of), 2 — Cavalry Swords, 245 == combatants, 240 — epigtaphs at Mycénce, 225 — fashion of Carrying the Sword, 239, 248 — infaniry Sword, 237 — metallursy came from Egypt, 105 — Statues, colossal, 241 7 = tactics, 241 —— Wariare, 241 (Greeks, the, as soldiers, 242 “Greencopper {= bronze: Ciimese), Baghirm), 163, Greenstone- (di rite-) splinters for wooden Swords, 47 Greenwood fuel used in iron-smelt- ing, 112 Grey copper ore (in Ireland), 65 Grip of a Sword, 124 Dpooes {=throw-stick), 34 (Guanaco, 7 Guanches (Wanshi; origin of the word), 162 GUA Guard plates (Sword), 257% Guards of a Sword, 124 Cuzlielma speciosa (chonta-woo0d), 42 Guilloche-scroll (architectural orna- ment), 202 Guillons, 51 Guisarme (Gisarme or Bisarme), 95 Guitar (etymology of the word), 1072 Gules T4072 Gunnar’s bill, 95 Gunpowder age (of weapotis), 20 77; use Of Sinpowder, 31 7 Gymnasia, Hellenic, 239 Gymnastics of the Spartans, 240 Gyno-Sphinx (Heypt); 1907. in Gaul, (im heraldry; derivation), 1 | ACHES votives, 50 Hades (deriv ation Of the word), 221 Fizematite-splinters for Swords, 47 Fiaft-Jush (‘seven boilings’ of metal: Persian), 221 Hair-dyes in Ancient Keypt, 148 Hairpins of bronze, 30 Hair-shears (Roman) of as, 56 Haiberts of copper, 67 Fiall-bard (Icelandic weapon), oF Halistadt, finds of ancient weapons at, 202 Halteres (dumb-belis: Koman), 250 Hamasti (Sword-blade: Assyrian), 204 7% Hamata (Roman armour), 2437 Hamathite Inscriptions, the, 177 Hamatum (barb-head spear), 131 Hlaimered iron-work in Mesopo- famia, 104 Hammers of copper, 67 Hammer-wrought plating, 31 Tiamus ferreus, 14% Hand-celts, 20 Hand-hatchet, $3 Mand-stones, 2; among the HMotten- tots, 17; among modern Syrians and Arab Bedawin, 20. Hand-thrusting istruments, 133 Hanger, 123 Hankow-steel, 115 Harbah (a dart; Arabic), 154 Flarness (derivation of the word), 97 Harpe (aprn: etymology of the word), 160 — of Cronos (Perseus weapon), 130 Fiarpoon-heads of reindeer-horn, 20H Hastarn (Roman soldiers), 246 Fiastati (Roman soldiers), 246 Fiastileé (Roman javelin: Virgil), 240 7% Hatchet-boomerans, 33; Hatchet of gold, 89 Hatchets of iron in the * Odyssey,’ wooden “Sabre, 40 225 ‘Hathi (‘the handed’: Hindoo epithet for the elephant), 3 Hauberks, Assyrian, 263 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. His Hauranic stone: doors, 264 7. Hawk-headed Horus, 131 Tiaye (military term), 245 Fleads of fallen foes kept as trophies (Gallic custom), 269 Headsmans weapon, 139 Hebrew arms and armour, 133 — Iron Age, 103 — lepers in Ancient Egypt, 174 7% —— metallurgy, 133 — tenets borrowed from Egypt, 145 57, Tieft of a Sword, 124 Hlegesias Or Stasinus: his * Kypria,” 221 # Held (champion: German), 271% Melislatry of the Andes, 67 7 Fiellenes, their character, manners and customs, 239, 57: Hellenic gymnasia and palzestree; 239 — reading of the Bards, 220 7 Fieimet of iron, in Nimrud’s palace, 105 Heimets, Roman, 246 Henna-shrub (of Cyprus; 2azsoria tmerntis), 49 Hepheestus (derivation of the word), 62% Heraldry, Eastern, 140 7 —in Ancient Eeypt, 147 Hercules, 75 Hercules’ shield and Sword, 222 Hereba (Phoenician weapon: = Harpe), 130 Hermotybians (Heyptian soldiers), 152 Hern {its method of defence), 9 Tierodotus (character of his work), 225 57. — on the age of Homer and Hesiod, 220 Heroes of Greece, the age of the; 220 “flero’s arm,’ the (Virgil), 254 Flerse {military term), 245 Hesiod, age of, 220 Hidé-scabbard, 160 Flierarchy, Jewish rowed), 150 Hieroglyphic signs for iron, 99 Fit of 2 Sword, 124 Hilts of Ancient German Swords, 272 Hilt-suards of a Sword, 124 Fiilt-plate of a Sword, 124 Hippopotamus, 15 method of attack, 9; home ot the, 205 7% Hindiah or Hindiyaneh (=ferrum indicum), 107 Hindu alphabet, 2197 =— copper coinage, 70 — metaphysics, 214 mythology, 219 7 — names for steel, 1107 — sabre, 215 — trial of Sword-metal, 110 7 — Warriors, 215 Hiram of Tyre, 132 Hisarlik, the finds at, 106, 190 sg7., 227 (whence bore HIs History of Ancient Eeypt, 144 «7. Hithism, 176 Fiittites, 172 sqq. Hittite boots, 176 — bronze tablet, 176 — hieroglyphs, 176 57. —— language, 177 7% — phalanx, 175 representation of the hgure, 176 — seals, 176 —syllabary, 176 Hoang-ta-tie (the Chinese ‘literary Blacksmith’) 155 Holosphyraton (hammer-work), 227 “Holy City’ of Miletus, 242 72. “Moly-water sprinkler,” 20 Homa (Assyrian * Tree of Life’); 202 fiomer, age of, 220 Homeric names for the Sword, 222 Tiomo Darwiniensis, 5 == Sapiens, 5 Eloneysuckle as an architectural ormmament, 202 ficots of animals used as armour, 29 72 Fiooked-edge (of a Sword), 135 Floplites {heavy-armed Greek sol- dier), 240 Fioplolosy, 1; orders of, 6 Hoplomacht (gladiators), 252 Hicplotherium, 4 Pior-Apollo ( = Harpocrates), 191 7 Hormuzd and Ahriman, 150 liorm-helmet, 29 7 i1o0im war-clubs, 24; other msiru- ments, 27; hom-arm in Homer, 27; various Implements, 29 Horse, 1s method of defence, 7; known to the Ancient Egyptians, 1522 }1orse-hoots used as armour, 29 7 Horus (Egyptian god), 175 Flottentots, 3 7 5 origin of the word, 17 Fiouse-furniture in Ancient Egypt, 143 Fiuiman-headed bull, Assyrian, 203 7 Human sacrifcesin Ancient Kgypt, 15607 *“Hunga munga” (weapon: Lake Chad), 37 Hinnenringe, 271 Hiunting among the Ancient Ger- mans, 273 — Assyrian, 203 Tiunting-dresses in Aticient Egypt, 146 Hurud Giron ; Chaldzean), 104 Fiydraulic pressure (an ancient form Gi), 54 == — for hardening bronze, $1 Hydraulics in Ancient Epypt, 145 Ilyksos (Shepherd-kings), 103; 173, 180 7% human APETUS, legend of 1 Iberian Alfange (E1-Kihanjar), 20 — blade {Spatha), 250 LNDEX. bi Iberic blade in Rome, 107 Icelandic Hall-bard, ot Ida (derivation of), 10672 Ideei Dactyli, 74 s7., 100 *“Tiiad,” metal-working tools in the, 221 Ih (hand-sword : Hindi), 215 imbricated armour, Assyrian, 203 imitation and Progress, 5 Impedimentaz (baggage ; _ army), 249 Indian architecture, 219 72 — gold coinage (7), 214 72 — legendary myths, 273 — sabres, 137 — steel, 109, 215 57. — weapons, 155 “Indo-European ~ language), 103 7 “Inefiabie Name,’ the (its origin), 149 Infantry ‘regulation sword, 129 Inflated skins (as floats for soldiers : Assyrian), 203 Ingots of tin (Mexican), $2 Inlaid iron saucer, 106 7 “Inner Sea, 179 Innuit, 3 7 Inscription (Assyrian) on 2 Sword at Nardin, 207 Inscriptions (rock) traced with flint fakes. 49 72 *Inside-edee “ weapons, 235, 237 Intaghod gold at Mycenze, 229 s7¢. Invasion of: England by Anglio- Saxons, 275 [phicrates improvement of Greek aris and armour, 237 Tranian (language), 14672 Irish copper swords, 57 irish race (their origin), 65 7 “Iron Age,” 227%, 237% Iron among the Aryans, 1cé fron among the Romans, 107 “Tron-built” cities of the Ancient Hindus, 219 7 iron cannon first Cast, 117 7 — chain-armour, Assyrian, 203 — chisels (Etruscan), 107 = dirk worshipped by the scythians, 220 - = face-guard, 255 lron-flakes, surface (Cape of Good Hope) Tron glance (specwar iron, ongiste), 107 — hasps and nails, 10o = in Africa, 117 = in Assyria, 105 == in China, 112 57. — in Egypt, 100 -— in German myths, 271 =~ in Flomer, 105 =— in India, 108 57. — in Madagascar, 116 — in the Pentateuch, 103 —in Tacitus, 225 —intreduction of in Greece, 69, 97; derivation of the woid, O7 # — keys at Mycence, 106 1” ~ Roman (applied to a s a a jUT Iron knives, 160, 105 —— known to liomer and Tlesiod, 221 —- on the American continent, 116 — Tare im ancient Germany, 271 —— sheaths for Swords, 222 -— sickle, 100 = sling-bullet,; 1o1 lron-smelting on the Libanus, 103 lron-stone in ancient Bashan, 103 — Weapons, 52 Iron Swords, Etruscan, 195 —-— of Italian tribes, 265 = treaved of by Aristotle, 106 tron-wood, 40 lron-working Age of india, 109 — in Japan, 115 5. Italian foil, 124 -—— poison daggers, 51 Italy (modern), its two 270% Iverapema (* lwarapema *), 42 Tvernii (Trish non-Celts : Ptolemy), 2/9 lvory-carving, Assyrian, 202 races, ACANA American bird), 9 faculum (Roman javelin), 2467 Jade Patiu-Pattus, 25, 47 ; deriva- tion of “jade,” 47 7 Jadite” (and jacle) wooden swords, 47 Janghiz Khan, 227 Japanese blade, 139 — copper, 64 =— ingots, 64 — iron, 116 — liquation of argentiferous copper, 53 — stone-chopper, 52 Jauhar (‘jewel or ribboning oi a “Damascus blade), 112 Javanese blade, 215 — sculptures, 213 Javelineers, Koman, 245 Javelins, 20, 66, 90; Roman, 246 7 -— for recruits, Roman, 249 Javelin of the Samnites, 266 7 Jaya (mother of all weapons: Hindu), 214 Jeanne a’ Arcs Sword, 154 7 Jehovah (Yahveh), its etymology and mystic meaning, 140 7 Jewish coinage of copper, 70 * Jewish face, the, 1507 Jewish manner of wearing the Word, 164 Jizeh Pyramid, 100 Joseph's position in Egypt, 103 judgment after death, Eayptian ideas Of, 150 Julian the Apostate (his armour), 250 Julius Ceesar as a general, 260 Jumbiyah (crooked daccer of the Atabs), 29 Jumbul wood, 112 Jutland, Celis, wc., of, 2747 (Parra ; Splintets for Ancient KA kK SBEIROI (Cabiti), 74 sy. Kabyle Plissa, 265 Kachha (pig-iron), 11 Kadesh, site of, 1747 Kakhi (brass), 37 Kakku (Assyrian weapon), 204 7 Kama-shastra (Ars amoris : Flindu), 214 Khanaruc, Lemple of, 109 Kangaroo (its method of defence), 12 Kavve (Lat. cava; whenee *can- non ), 14 7% Kan-top, Indian, 204 Iasabet (brass), 37 INasios (Zeus), I 7 Kaskara (Swords : Baghirm1), 162 * Kassiteros, in Homer, 227 Katuriyeh (?= Cateia ; Gujarat), 38 “Kawas (hand-stone), 13 Keil (wedge; cuneus) form of at- tack, 273 Kelan (Hittite slingers), 175 Kelmis, 75 KeArot (ctymolopy of the word), 200% Keltic aborigines of the British Isles, 275 —(r) finds at Mycenze, 106 — Gauls, weapons of, 266 — miners tools, 107% KeATixov Opacos, 260 7 Kelto-Scandinayian swords called Anglo-Saxon), 139 Kemi (meaning of the word), 145 7 Keinite copper mines (in Midian), 102 Keteian or Cetian (in Homer), 172 Ketos (Cazzs Carcharias), 130 Kettles of copper, 69 Key-pattern {architectural ment), 202 Keys of iron at Mycenz, 106 Khadga (Mindu Sword), 214 579. Khanjar, 266 Khanjar-dageer, 212 Khanjar (Georgian weapon), 159 —- of Persia and india, 20 Khesbet (metal connected with tin), 87 Kheten (wat-axes ; Egyptian), 154, 155 Khita (Tittites), 200 — people, description of, 175; their armour, weapons, &c., 72, Khita-land, the sword in, 17257. i hoi-Khoi, 372, 17 Khnemu (gnomes), 75 Khopsh (kopis; Egyptian Sword), 156; 266 Khorasan blades, 114 7 Khukkn blade of Ghurkas, 236 iit, ancient, 247 7 king Blay of Attabo, Sword made Dy, 14272, 1608 King-crab (772m7lus), 24 King Kotlee’s umbrella, 167 # iKinnur (Hebrew lyre), 187 7 Kinya (arm-knife; Baghirmi), 162 Kirab-sar (Tittite writer of books), 173 (mis- Orlla= 17 LOOK OF Kik nity (kerry: Katiy weapon), 25 Kitar (Hindu weapon), 140 Kieydy (Welsh Sword), 279 Kimgenthal Sword-manutfactory, 132 Kyyjores (Athenian weapons), 237 Kmiet (ancient German weapon), 272 Knite-Sword (Ancient Hpyptian), rs5 Knife; the (preceded the saw), 13; as a missile, 15 Knights of Malta: their Swords, 162 Knives edged with sharks’ teeth, 49 — of iron at Mycenze, 106 Knobkernes, 32 7 Knopbstick (development into the Sword), 44 Knuckle-duster (cestus of the clas- Sics), 7 Kobongs (Australian tribal “crests’), A402 Komis, not mentioned in Homer, 224,=Ueyptian * Khopsh,” 235; the weapon of the Giants, and of the Amazons, 235 57. ; peculiarity of the weapon, 236 Kopis of the Gauls, 266 7 —— Spanish, 265 Korah (Nepaul weapon), 265 Koran-reading, 220 7 Kodotan, rude kind of bellows in, 120 Kris (=crease: 137, 1606, 212 Kukkni or Gurkha Sword-knife, 39; 217% 205 Kulbeda (weapon of the Nyam- Nyams}, 37 Kuov, 17 Kumpos (meaning of the word), 56 “Kurs (bloom: of metal), 112 Kurush (= Kupos, Cyrus), 209 7 ‘ Kypria Of Stasinus, the; 221 7% Malay weapon), | *bakUM (oman standard), 240% AdBpa (= weAexus : Lydian), 39 Labrandian Jove, 39 "La boxe Francaise,” 254 Lacquer or varnish (on metals), 54 Lance, Assyrian, 202 Lances of sago-wood, 23 Lance-head of bronze at Mycenz, 230 —— 01 fish-bone, 23 — of pure copper, 57 Language, articulate (three periods O1); 74% Lanista (Roman wai/7e a arcs), 249 Lapis lazuli (=cyanus in Pliny), 222n Laqueatores 2107 Larissa (lance, Middle Ages), 182 Larnaca (etymology of the name), 107 Lasso, the, in Ancient Heypt, 2107 =— of the Koman gladiators, 2107 (Roman gladiators), 1HE SWORD, LOR Lasso, South American, 216 77 Lassos of plaited thongs (Persian), 210 Lat {iron pillar of Delhi), 109 *Latchen -blade, 135 Lateral blades (of a Sword) moved by a spring, 136 Laterite, 115 Latin blood in Enelish race, 277 Latrunculi (Roman game), 218 Latten (derivation of the word), 55 Laun or Lat (Sword), 123 Lava-splinters for wooden Swords, 4] Lawsonia tnerimis (* kopher,’ henna- shrub), 59 Laws of the Visigoths, weapons in the, 2722 Lead, scorice of, 32 — and silver in Spain, 107 Lead-bronze in Ireland, 276 Leat-shaped dagger and the rapier, connection of, 273 Leather sheath (for Swords), 160 Lebes-chauldron, 192 Lesion of the ancient Roman army, 245 $7. Leiste (guard-piate: German), 272 Lemovii (Pomerania), 274 Length of Ancient Greck Swords, 233 —— of Ancient Indian Sword, 2167 — of Egyptian Swords, 159 — of Roman spear (Tacitus), 271 Leowel (pick), 37 Lepers, Flebrew, in Ancient Eeypt, 174% Leptolithic age, 5 72 Libyan (Ancient) weapons, 162 © Lite,” 261 72. Iigaunians (Hiruria), 196 Lignarii (Sappers: Koman army}, 249 Limulus (king-crab), 24 Iinen at Mycenze, 232 * Line Of direction’ In a Sword, 129 Iingua di bove (sword shape: Italian), 166, 239 Lion (its stroke or blow), 7 Liquation of argentiferous copper (in Japan), 53 Lisan (‘tongue -weapon), 32, 154 Atocorpiryo, TA4H% Ditholatry, 57% «Live iron’ (=loadstone) 162 Livy's Phalanx, 246 72; Legion) 20. Lixee (camp-followers: Roman), 249 Liama, 7 Loadstone in the Troas, 191 Long-handed Danish Sword, 274 Long-hetted axe (Norman), 90 Longobards, 271 Long-straight Sword, 155 Long-sword, 161 Lord High Treasurers white rad, 33% =— Marshal of England's gold trun- cheon 337 — Steward of the white stall, 33% Hiousehold’s LOR ‘Lords of Asia” (the Persians), 209 "Lost Tribes,” the, 151 # Lotus, the, as an architectural orna- ment, 201 Lucky and unlucky marks on East- ern horses, 216 Ludus gladiatonus, 249 Lusitania, abundance of metal in, 205 57. Dusitamian weapons, 206 Lycian weapons, 182, 217 — tongue, the 157 7 iydians, account of the, 194 Lydian stone splinters for wooden swords, 47 Vi acana, A2 Macedonian phalanx, pons of the; 237 Mace in rock tablets (Wady Ma- gharan), OF Machabees (etymology of the word), 135 2 Macheera (= Sword, in Homer), 224 Machairze-blades, Gallic, 266, 268 Maxatpoe (Angel. Sax. Meche), 161 Machaiwodus latiders (sabre-toothed tiger), 9 Madagascar ivon, F16 Madu or Maru (horn dagger), 11 Mahquahuith set with obsidian teeth, 67 Magic in Assyria, 2027 — mirror of Perseus, 130 Maonet (loadstone), 102 mMail-coat on the Trajan column, 258 Mail-coats Of iron in the Rig Veda, 103 Main-gauche, German, 130 Walachite (derivation of the word), 6272 Malay kris (weapon), 137 Malga war pick, 37, 3 Mall (weapon), 35 Mallet im rock tablets (Wady Ma- phatah), OF Malleable bronze, 57; copper, 66; iron, 99 Maitese cross, 19272 Manchette, 1272 Maniples (of oman army), 2467 Mantis (the fights of), 13 Mantramukta (class of weapons: Hindu), 214 Manutacture of arms and armour in Cypris, 133 Manyuema Swordiet, 169 Maraca (sacred rattle: Tupis), 151 Marave iron-smelting furnace, 113 ‘Nar Jiryus” (Cappadocian saint), 131 Mars worshipped by the Scythians, WCa- Brazilian 227 Martel-de-ter, 25 Mariinesia citaia, 42 Maru or Madu (horn dagger), 11 Maruduk (= Mars; Assyrian Gar), 207 INDEX, MA Marzabotte blade, the (Etruscan), 195 Masks (papier-mache) in Ancient Egypt, 145 ‘Master Shoe-tye, 3 7 Materialism, 261 72 Mathematics in Ancient Feypt, 146 Maushiika (fist-sword; stiletto: Tiindu), 215 Mawingo-wines (Pezn7selium Dei- thaw), 12 Mayence blade, 238 Media, 20072 Medizeval sabres, 136 — Split Swords, 142 Medicine in Ancient Egypt, 143 Medinah Habu, temple of, 175 Melaleuca (swamp tea-tree), 40 Melkarth {Phoenician god), 179 MeAty (ash-tree =a bow), 254 7 Memnonium, the, 175 Meri {New Zealand weapon); 26, A] Merodach (Babylonian god), 133 Mesopotamia, 1ron- Work im, 104 Mesopotamian astronomy, 2007 Metal in the Hissarlik remains, 106 ——Teplaces bone and stone in wea- pons, 50 — scabbards, 222 72 Metal-workers, a wandering race of, 2/5 Metai-working (discovery of), 51 —— in China, 115 Metallic value of Dr. Schliemann’s finds, 233 Metallo-lithic Age, 22 7 Metallurgic Oatpoves, 74 Metallurgy, Assyrian, 202 — developed by ancient Egyptians, IS — extension of from Egypt, 63 —- of the Exodists, 5672; origin of, 74 Metals, archaic names of, 122 — in Ancient Cyprus, 156 — in Ancient Hellas, 220 — in the lroas finds, 191 Metamorphosis, 2 Meteoric-iron chips for weapons, 51 Meteoric iron, 99 Meteorolites, 99 7 Method of warfare, Ancient Ger- man, 273 Mica-schist dagger (natural forma- tion), 47 Mica-schist, mould of, $2, 191 Midas-myth, the, 137 72 Midian copper mines, 102 Mihhili Mezzir (=Sahs), 272 7 Milanese (modern), 270 7 Milesians (Origin of the name), 65 72 Miletus, * Holy City ” of, 242 7 Militarism of the Ancient Romans, 252 Witlitary discipline under the Roman Empire, 249 — mining (Ancient Egypt), 154 tactics of Ancient Hindus, 215 Milites (etymology ot the word), 245 72 Wooden 1D 2) —4 NAP Mimosa, 6, 32 Mineral fields of Comwail, 275 * Miners’ hammers ~“{ =stone-pound- ers; lreland), 65 Miolner (hammer of Thor), 35 Mirmillones, 251 Mirrors (polished) of copper, 67 Missile fishes, 7 —— weapons, 2, 6 Missiles in the //7a2, 222 "Mixing bloods,” 227 7 Modern Irish, character of, 279 7 Mohammed s Sword, 141 Mokume (ornamental alloys), 33 ‘Money swords” (Chinese talis- mans), 64 Mongol, a special race, 227 # Monkeys, (use of missiles by), 2 Monomachia (intaglio of gold) at Mycenze, 234 Monvdon monoceras {Narwhal or Sea-unicorm), 15 Monotheism of Eeypt, 149 «Morning star,” 20 Morra {the game) in Ancient Egypt, 143 Moses’ cradie, 149 Mosiem two-headed eagie (heraldry), 170 7 Mosul (the original Ararat), 202 *‘ound-builders, 66, 116 ‘Mountain copper * {ope:xaAxor), 35 Movable tower (for siezes), 154 iviucro (edge of a Sword ; Roman), 255 2 Mud bricks; Assyrian, 201 Mutie (crucible), 111 # Muktamukta {class of weapons ; Hindu), 214 Miuktasandharita (class of weapons; Hindu), 214 Muleiber (=Malk Kabir; Phoeni- cian), 179 Multibarbed or serrated weapons,13 Mummies, Quichuan, 67 7 Mummy bodies at Mycenze, 225 — skulls, 144 Music connected with Lydia, 194 — origin of, 15 == in Ancient Egypt, 145 Mussel-shell (ihe original spoon), A7 #2; and as 4 tip toa (thrusting) wooden Sword, 46 Miuzak (wrought metal: Hebrew), 103 Mycenes, the discoveries at, 73, 82, 106, 227 5g. ‘Mycenc spiral,” 233 sa. Myceman goldsmiths, 85 7 Mythological depradation of Eayp- tian mysteries, 151 W428 ARKAYN (Meso; ota nia), 104, 172 Nails of copper, 65 “Naki-ka-kausti (a Speceaceu/ium at Baroda), 3 7 Names become by-words, 65 7 Napoleon Bronparte and the Arabs, 150 # tS © NAP Naphiuhim ({(lhulhi=* the fair people), 102 7 Narwhal or sea-unicorn (A/o7z00072 Mmowocevos), 11 LVaseus froticoritis, 10 Wational weapon of ancient Ger- nians, 270 ‘Native brass” opposed to ‘yellow copper ~ (English) 56 Wative iron, 99; steel, 22, Watural alloys, 66, 69 Nayin (Mpangwe crossbow), 37 Nebo (Mercury), 207 Necklace-beads (Mycenz), 225 Necropolis at Marzabotto (Bologna), 195 57; — in Valdichiana, 197 Weo-Latin names for the Sword, 123 — races, the, 270 Neolithic age, 5 7 Nephrite meri, 47 ; nephrite a cure for kidney disease, 47 7 Nero, character of, 252 7 Wickeliferous 1f0n, 09 Niello (72222777712), 33, 152 Wile-dwellers,; 3 7 Wilotes, characteristics of the, 144 4 Nimrud, Palaces of, 202 57. Nineveh, 200; discoveries at, 201 Ninus, date of, 199 7, 200 Nippers of copper, 63 Njiga (weapon; Baghirmi), 163, 2 3 Noah (original of the name), 149 Noah's ark, 149 Noahitic Deluge, the, 144 72, 149 7 Worth beats South, 261 North-Furopean Sword not of Roman origin, 264 Northumberland stone, the, 207 WNovacula, Cyprian, 159 Nuggets (copper) as bell-clappers; 6 / Nuggets of iron, in Africa, 119 Nuguit (Greenland weapon), 25 BELISK®S (method of forming them), 54 Obsidian daggers, 46; splinters for wooden Swords, 47; black ob- Sidian speat-head, 50 Ocreze (greaves or leprings), 247 Odysseus (etymology of the word), 224 ‘Odyssey, the, wrought iron in, 224 (Enocitoe, Etruscan, 196 Offensive weapons {of aniinals and Savases), O Old Coptic language, 146 Old Persian Sword, 139 Old Spanish Swords, 265 Oligiste (iron glance, specular iron); 107 Ollaria (pot copper), 55 “ Omphaios Of the earth, 1927 Onacer, 4; origin of the naine, 20 7 Ondanicic (= ferrin indicum), 107 One-handed words (\lcxican), 67 4ii BOOK OF SHE ONO Onomatopocia, 4 *Oran-Banua ’ (men of the woods: Malaccan negrito aborigines), 14 7 OpetxyarKor, 85 Ore smelting (discovery of), 51 Orichaicum, 35 Orientation of corpses, 234 7 Oriflamme, 246 7 Original alphabet, the, 14657. Origin of tne Ancient Egyptians, 143 s9. — (suggested) of the Smeiting-pro- cess, 115 Orissa Sword (two-bladed), 141 Or molu, 37 Ornamental Swords), 53 Omamentation, Greek, 227 Omaments in sepuichres at Mycenze, 254 — set in bone, 29 Osier-buckiers (for recraits; Ko- man), 349 Osiris and [yphon, 130 Osiris’ ark, 140 Ostrich-feather head-gear, 150 7 Ostrich throwing stones, 3 OvAdrpixol, 14472 Ourshol (= Melkarth), 179 alloys (applied ts PAcHo (club: South Seca Islanders), 45 Pack-fong, 65 Pactyans, 210 Paddie (or original Oar), 32, 40; paddie and spear combined, 7%. ; development into the Sword, 42 Paddle-sword (Peruvian), 66, 63 Pagaya (sharpened paddle), 42 Painting in Ancient Kepyt, 146 —— (Origin Of) 15 Pakka (crude steel), 111 * Palace of the Atreidze” at Mycemz, 33 Palace of the Forty Columms, 211 Palaces of Nimrud, finds in, 202 52. “Palace of Priam {1 roas), 197 57. Paleoitihic flints, 45 7 Palzeoliths of Kelts of the British isles, 275 Paleesirze, Fleilenic, 239 7 alinicaa (\ierned Screamer), 9 Palestine (etymology of ihe word), 1/7 Palintonon, 19 Pailadium of Troy, 17 Palm-wood Swords, 43 Palstab, 270 Palstave, 20; derivation, 307 Paludamentum (Koman officers cloak), 245 # Palus, 250 lidupaivoy (explanation of ‘thie epithet), 223 Panimukta (class of weapons: Hindu), 214 Papacha (Quichuan god), 67 7 Paphlagonians, 210 Hapa zypov (meaning ol tic cxprcs- sion), 239 SWORD. PHt Parazonia (weapons), fot * Parazonium ° dagger, 230, 246 Parazoniim of bronze, 239 Parchment, Assyrian, 201 7 Parian (Arundelian) Chronicle, 405 Parma (Roman shield), 24657. Parmularians, 252 Parrying-shieids, 35 Parryimg stick (Africa and Austra- lia), 12 Partisan (medizeval weapon), 133 7 Pas dane, 125 7, 166 * Paternoster ~ blade, 136 Pathros (meaning of the word}, 145 #2 Pattisha (two-bladed battle-axc: Hindu), 215 Patrick, St., 160 Pattu-Pattus, 25, 47 Pavoise {in sieges ; Ancient Heypt), 154 Pea-shooter, 14 7 Pedila, f Pelaszo-Hellentic race, the, 136 HeAekus, 69, 90 — Geodiarouos (vipers), 271 Pelusiim (etymology of ihe word), 1/7 Pennations (in sabres ; Eastern and medizeval), 136 Pennisciun Bewthame (Mawingo- Wingo), 12 Pennons, Assyrian, 203 Pentaur (Scribe of Ramses I1-), ror, 147 Percussion, centre of, 129 Persea (Evyptian * Tree of Life,’) 202 7 Perseus, 179 57. Persia, 209 Persian cidaris or tiara, 209 — akinakes, 210 -— archer, 209 —— cuneiform, 201, 203 — head-dress, 209 — helmet, 209 =— origin of heraldry, 14072 — sculpture, 209 —— shield, 209 — sword (old), 139 —- Wal-axe, 273 — Wairior, 209 Persepolis sculptures, 205 Persians of Iierodotus, the, 226 Peruvian army, 66; nation, 667; derivation of * Peru, 20. Peshawar sculptures, 215 Phalange, 32 Phalanx of the fiittites, 175 — Ancient Evyptian, 154 —- im Livy, 246 7 Phalarica (fre-missile: 248 Phalerze (military decorations), 246 Phallhte theories, 114 Pharaoh (meaning of the word); 145 Pharsalia, Caesar at, 260 Phasganon (=sword, in tionicr), 222, 230; ctymolovy of the worl, 223 Piilistia, plain of, 166 oman), Pit Philistine (modern use of the word), 155 # = weapons, 185 Phoenicia (etymology of the word), 175 Plicenician art in England, 275 Phoenicians, 175 Phosphor-bronze, 53, $0 Phosphorus mixed with copper, 31 7 Phrygian tongue (a congener of Greek), 767 Phrygian-type cap, 175 Picks made of reinceer-antlers, 20 72 Picrous Day (a Cornish festival), 79 Picts (origin of the name); 279 7 Pierced blade and sheath (Sword), 136 * Piercing-stone” (Babylonian In- scriptions), 17! 7 Piedmontese (modern), 270 7 Pigeon-shooting, 253 7 Pilani (Roman javelineers), 243 Pile (arrow-head ; derivation), 25 7 Pile-dwellings of Olmiitz, 24; of Laibach, 29 Pilum (oman weapon), 246 7 Pilus (division of Koman army), 247] Pinna used as arrow-heads and adze- Blades; 47 Pirhua (the first Ynka deified to a Creator), 6672 Piromis (meaning of the word), 1447 Pir (sun-heat), 1 7 Pisoliths, 102 Pivot-theatres, 250 Plating (or sheeting) on wood or stone, 55 Ploughshare (Roman) of as, 56 Plover of Central Africa (carries Weapons in its wings), 9 Plumbiferous scorice in Spain, 105 Plumbum argentarium {tin and lead), 83 “Plommets in the Western Mounds, 116 Point of a Sword, 139 Poison daggers, 51 — trees, 6 Poisoned arrows, 26 ; bullets, 26 7 ; weapons, 9, IT . Pokwe or Poucue (weapon ; Lunda), 169 Poland (derivation of the name), 02 VPole-axes, 92; Egyptian, 154 == of Silver, copper, gold, 67 Pole, discovery of the, 200 7 -— (pillar; etymology of the word), 1147 Poles of war-cars armed, 277 7 Polished mirrors of copper, 67 Polyzenus on juliis Ceesar, 260 Polybius (his character as a writer), 245 2% Pomme! of a Sword, 123, 140, 159, 165 Poniards of flint, 46 Popular sports, 253 INDEX. POR Porcelain 1 Ancient Egypt, 143 Porcupines “shootme their quills,” 3% Pork, Jewish hatred of, 150 Portable African bellows, 121 — bridge (for sieges; Ancient Egypt); 154 —— Shiines Of Ancient Epypt, 150 Postin (Slay and Afghan dress), 269 POt-copper, 55 Pottery, in the Maydum Pyramid, OF ; of the Ouichuans, 67 7 Potters wheel, invention of the, Tid Poucue (weapon; Lunda), 169 Prachtaxt (ancient German weapon), 2/3 Prahiunami (son of Ramses IT}, 174 Pramantha, 17, 202 Prasa (spear; Hindu), 215 Prasine faction, 252 Pre-Adamites (Moslem), 272 Precious stones on Swords, 255 Predatory fishes, 4, 7 Prehistoric Llium, 104 Prester John, 163 7 Primeeval language E40 57. Primitive man, 3577. Primordial shipbuilders (the Cabin), 75 Principes (Roman soldiers), 247 Prisse Papyrus, the, 147 P7ristis (Saw-Nish), 13 Processes Of making steel, 117 7 Processional axe (German), 91 Proci (oman soldiers), 245 Produce of Ancient Britain, 277 Promachoi (Greek soldiers), 243 Prometheus, 1 * Promised Land, the, 175 Prong-edge (01 a Sword), 138 Proportions of alloys, $3 Proportion in length of biade and hilt-blade, 264 — of man to animals, 5 z Proto-chalcitic Age (of weapons), (Egyptian), 33 Proto-sideric Age, 5 7 — or Early Iron Age of weapons, Provinces of the bronze antiques of Europe, 276 Prydhain (god Britam), 77 7 Pteropedilos (Mercury), 1 Ptolemics, the, 209 Wevdapyupos, o5 Pucuna, 14 7 Pugio (Ancient Koman weapon), 210, 256 ; derivation of the word, 25/# Pukhtu or Pashtu (Aighan language), 210 #2 Punctured wounds, danger of, 127 * Pundonor, 267 worshipped in Punishing prisoners by torture (Assyrian), 203 Ilvp, 17% RES ‘Purple copper (Chinese), 64 Pygmalion in Cyprus, 137 Pyracmon (ihe Cyclop), 75 Pyramid of Copan (Yucatan), 67 7 —— the Great, 147 Pyrites, 1 7 Pyropus (copper and gold alloy) 56 7 Pyrodes, 1 # Pyirhic dance, 239 UADRANGULAK =’ blade, 136 Quadriga of bronze, 30 Quagea (its kick), 7 “Quarrel (bolt of a crossbow) 25 7 Ouarter-staff among the Ancient Findus, 215 Quartz (and quartzite) splinters for wooden Swords, 47 Quaternary Age in England, 275 Ouella (Khellay, iron ; Pern), 67 7 Quenching (of metal) with water, 165; with ou, 1657 Quichua language, 67%; Cchar- acteristics Of the people, 720. ; mummies, 20. Quillons of a Sword, 125, 164 Ouincussis (bronze coin), 264 Quins (= Hasta: Ancient Roman weapon), 2407 thrusting- ACHES, changes in the con- ditions Of, 243 Racial names, 194 Kaa irygon and K. hisivix (Sting- rays), 11 Rakes of copper, 67 Rakshasas (demons ; Hindu), 213 Ram (in sieges: Ancient Eeypt), 154 Ramayana Epic, 190 * Ramrod-back * Sword, 133 Ramses 11,, tablets of (Bayrut) 2007 ‘Rank; man of {derivation of ‘yank ”), 140 Kanseur or onceur, 95 Rapier, 123 Rapier-blades, Etrurian, 195, 275 Rapier in Ancient Britain, 275 Rat-trap, crossbow, 37 # Razors, Assyrian, 20257, *Razor-women of King Gezo (Dahome), 168 inecruit-drill, Koman, 249 * Ked bronze, 72 Reed arrows, 25 Resnum Noricum, 256 *Repulation sword (iniantry); £20; 133 Regulus (of metal), 107 7, 111 Reindeer-antlers used as picks, 29 72 — period, 27, 29 kkelief in gold and silver on Swords, 250 Keligion in Ancient Heypi, 146 Kepoussee work at Mycenw, 233 == work On Swords, 256 Respect ior the dead, 5 7% 204 REL Retiarn (Roman gladiators), 210 7, 25i Khinoceros-horn used for weapons, 25 Rhinoceros (11s armature), 9 RKiesenmauer, 271 Riding practised by Komans, 249 Rig Veda, mention of iron im the, 103 Ring-money, 151 7 Ritual of the Dead, Esyptian, 134 RKock-inscriptions at [briz, 776 Rock-inscriptions traced with flint- flakes, 40 72 — tablets at Wady Magharah, 61 Roman alloys, 34 fashion of wearing the Sword, 256 — fashions adopted by Gauls, 269 — helmets, 246 —— iron, 107 — jurisprudence, 244 — lacquered or varnished brass, 54 —— method of hardening and tem- pering tools, “c., 107 — mining operations, 107 — Names for the Sword, 254 —— shield pordered with brass, 266 Ancient Romans smelted copper in England, © aT Roman soldiers, 259 577. — Swords in England, 259 ‘Poupate, (Thracian weapon), 237 Rongeur or Kanseur, 95 Roraru (Roman soldiers); 245 “Rosa mystica” (of Byzantine art); 202 Roseite, the, as an architectural Ornament, 201 ‘Royal Commentaries of the Ynkas, 67 Royal Swords, Assyrian, 205 57 Rubbings of Pharachnic stone, ~ 102% Ruby copper, $5 Rudis (rod or wooden Sword: Roman), 250 Rup (Baltic), 274 Rumpia (weapon Gelliis), 237 Runes engraved On a Scramasax, 2728 Runic inscriptions on Cimbrian " weapons, 274 7 mentioned "by *“CABBATIC Kiver’ Josephus), 175 7 Sabbation (fabled river), 175 7 Sabbaths, Assyrian, 200 7 mabine shields, 253 72 Sabre, ancient forms, Greek and barbarian, 125 iS Origin, 32 Sabres of eucalyptus-wood, 44 Sabre-toothed tiger (A/achazrodus latideis)\, 9 maces (Shakas; thylans), 220 Sacrilicial blades, 217 7 =— knives cf flint, 46 (Pliny, Nomades : Scy- lH BOCK UF JHE SAC Sacrificial Knives Of iron, 100 Bayopis, OO Sagartian Nomades, 210 Sapina Pladiatoria, 250 mago-tree (/Vzb0u2 > Ca7yora urens), 2 Sagum {homan 245% ahs, eax, sax (Saxon), 272 Sallor’s cutlass, 140 pakkarah pyramids, 144 7 Samians, Casting and among the, 221 Samnite weapons, 253 Samnites, javelin of the, 266 7 Samson s weapon, 24 § tomb, 150 7 Samurai {Japanese two-sworded man), 2527 Sandal of Perseus, 179 Danskritists and philology, 191 7 Sanskrit, terms for iron in, 105 Sappers of Ancient Roman army, 249 Sarbacane, 14 7% «Sardian electrum, * $7 pardones (Shardona), 175 ‘Sardonian linen, 175 warissa (spear), 192, 237 Sarpedon s targe, 192 satrap (etymology of the word), 220% Sattara (= Sat-istara, the Pleiades), oH Satzuma copper (the best in the world), 64 Saucer, inlaid iron, 106 7 Saunion (Samnite javelin), 260 7 Sauromatee (northern Medes and Slavs), 227 Davage Worship Of weapons, 1027 aw-bayonet, 51, 137 Saw, double-handed, of iron or steel, in Nimrud’s palace, 105 Daw-fishi (its armature), £35 teeth of, 24 »paw-kerf, 29 Saws, Assyrian, 203 Saxmot Zio (German Sword-god), 213 maxo (weapon of the saxon or mace), 00 7% Saxon blade, 135 maxones (ancient German tribe), 271 »cabbard of pearl, 212 Sceean gates (I1roas), 191 Scaling-ladder, Ancient Heypt, 154; Assyrian, 203 scalping described by Hierodotus, 22] % Scandinavian Goths and Vandals) — tactical formation, 273 Scarabeei Of diorite (Egyptian), 53 7 ‘ Scatterer “(Sanskrit Astara), 35 Sceptre-heads of copper, 65 scheme of battle, Homeric, 241 Zxivn tepa {portable tent of the _ Carthaginians), 150 »cherma (fencing : derivation of the word), 27272 soldiers cloak), soldering SIVORT), SES schlager {German weapon) £35 77, 139 schiegel on the * Brazen” Age, 56 ecileswig, spatha of, 272 Schliemanns ¢€xavations in the Troas, 190 ‘Schweinskopi (Ancient German tactical formation), 273 Schwertstab (Sword-stall), 273 mcience In Egypt, 147 57. scilly Islands (origin of the name) 75 tt Scipios fleet, arms supplied to, 198 Scissors (etymology of the word), 272 — of copper, 79 sclepista (Roman sacrificial knife) Of copper (or bronze 7), 56 | Scoriee of lead (at Schliemann’s Troy), 52 Scorpion (Or Onager), 19, 207 — (whip-goad: Ancient Egypt), 157 scourge, Assyrian, 206 »cramasax, octamma scax, 04, 223, 235; (derivation of the word), 272% — from Hallstadt, 263 Scramsans, Copenhagen, 272 7% sculpture in Hoypt, 145 — (origin Of), 15 Sculptures of Chehel Munar, 217 scutum (Roman shield), 247, 253 mcymitar, 123, 130, 139; ety- mology of, 126 7 — among the Peruvians, 65 — of gold, 212 mcymitar-shaped sword, 133 Scythe-shaped Swords, 72, 95 Scythes of copper, 72 -—— used 25 weapons, 95 scythe warecar (of Ancient Britons} 270 Scythian weapons, 227 Scythians, 226 seals, Flitttite, 176 sea-unicorn {Narwhail ; W1OMOCEFOS), U1 eax (weapon = 5ax0), 9077 second cChalcitic age of alloys, 74 599: pections of Sword-blades, 131 = of thrusting Swords, 135 ecuris, 90; Danica, 274 Semiramis, 207 Semitic (language), 146 7 Senonian Gauls, 267 Sentinum, war-cars of Gauls at the battle of, 277 z Sepulchres at Mycene, 228 s77. pequence of metals —copper, bronze, brass, 57 Serpentine (stone), 47 serrated Or saw-edged instruments, Afonodtor 13 pet (Satan, the Evil Spirit of Egyptian religion), 149 Sesostris, weight of the statue of, 54; derivation of the name, 1747; date of, 1907 SlV Seven-rayed star (on Turkish flag), 147 # hairetana (Syrian people), 179 ~hah and Shabanshah (derivation of the word), 210 7 shak-ari (*foe to the Shakas ’)) 226 Sham-hehts, Roman, 246 shapes of Ancient Epypiian Sword- blades, 161 —— Of cutting instruments, 132 -—— of Sword blades, 126 Shardana (Sardones), 175 mharks teeth used to eige Swords, a9 Sharpened stake, 21 “Shave-prass,” 12 shear-steel, 114 72 sheeting (or plating) on wood, 55 slieet (Or plate) 1ron-work, Assyrian, 105 hell-lac, 37 7 shell of a Sword, 124 shells as arrow-heads and adze- bladés, 47 shepherd-kings (Elyksos), 103, 173 ‘shepherds plaid* in” Central Africa, 260 7 mehield, Australian, 20 shield-handles, 105 shield of Achilles, 223 —— 01 Ajax, 222 — of Hercules, 222 with Concentric rings (British), 276 Shieid-umbo, 246 phields as Neraldic badges, 40 7 — Hittite, 175 Shinar, Plain of, 199 hotel (Abyssinian Sword), 163 pioulder-belts of gold (Mycence), 225, 231 phovel-shaped base of spear, 170 sica (short Sword ; Roman), 252 mica, 135 picarius (* assassin ), 25272 sicily (derivation of the name), 252% sickle of chalcos, 55 7 pickie-sword (Ancient Eeypt), 155, 161 sickle-throwing Campagna), 19 pickles used as weapons, 953; of iron, 100 sicula (= Enelish “sickle ), 2527 Sideros indikos, 105 siderite (loadstone), 101 Ziypiris AlWos (magnet), TOT zZioypos (wrought iron), Hellenic, 221; etymology of the word, 221 2 | —— epyaopevos (worked iron of Aristotle), 107 Signa, in Ancient Roman army, 246 % mignet-ring in Nimrud’s palace, 105 sigurd's sword, 95 Silepe (Dasiito weapon), 94 »in-tarah (Persian lyre), 137 2 Silex, 172; Silex relipiosa, 70. pilex arrow-hieads, 102 72 (in the Roman INDEX, SIL Silex-flake knives, Hebrew, 134 pilex-Hake * Swords, 45 Silk-spinning in Ancient Egypt, 149 A Silver and lead in Spain, 107 — coinage at Atsina, 194 7 — dagger, Cyprian, 159 — im Ancient Egypt, 151 — in Midian, 151 ——its representation in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 69 — lead, $6 — mines (ancient) of Peru, 67 2 welure (Welsen), 29 Siljukian monsters, 176 Simiads (se Of missiles by), 2 Sindi (Gypsies), 76 inghanta (horn dagger), 11 Single-srooved Claymore, 132 Single-stick among the Ancient Hindus, 215 Sinties (Sinti or sali), 74, 76 Sion, iron Sword discovered at, 107 Sivaji (Prince of Maratha-land), 3 Skeyne (Irish scja7z), 27 -— (Sword), 123 Skull-cap (namms) Ancient Eeyp- tian, 204 Slav (or German) Sword, 263 sling-bullet of iron, 191 plingers, Hittite, 175 -— in Ancient Egyptian army, 154 Slings (various kinds), 19, 49 Small handles of bronze Swords, 204 7% Smail-Sword, 123, 335 Smelting, 65, 36 Smith (derivation of the word), 77 Silake (Sacred), 1 72 pocketed celt (Yorkshire), 276 Socotrine Aloe, 6 ‘Solar myth,” 191 7 Solder (ancient), 357 poidered blades at Mycenze, 233 eolderme among the Ancient Greeks, 221 Soldering in Ancient Esypt, 151 Soldiers’ headdresses, Assyrian, 203 soldier's position in Hellas; 241 Soleret (boot ; 16th century), 175 Solid scabbard of metal (German), 272 Solomon Islands (nondescript wea- pon used in), 127 Solomon’s Pemple, 132 —- Temple (the * brass in), 56 Soma (4sciepzas prsaniea) 202 # somal, 259 Source of bronze im Great britam, 2] Souk American lasso, 210 72 Southern Italans (modem), 270 7 Sow-metal, 107 Spade, 20 Spalling (method of treating ores), 6 5 Spanish (Ancient) Swords, 265 bull-fights, 253 == Xiphos, 203 Dpaitan sword-blade, 233 295 oe parth {= battle-axe ; 235% pata Or Spatha, 123, 142, 156 patha of Schleswig, 272 — pennata, 267 — Koman, 255 7 Spathee, Ancient British, 279 — of iron, German, 271 spathe (= weavers lath), 235 7 mart (komaic sabre ; etymology of the word), 235 7 Spear, 20 ; Origin of, 31 ; in Homer, 223 —and paddle combined, 40; Spears armed with flints, 43 Spear, favourite weapon of the Dark Continent, 162 pear-head, Assyrian, 203 pear; its name in various lan- guages, 274 Spear of the ancient Germans, 270 Speatmen, Koman, 247 — Hittite, 176 pectacuia, Roman, 251 Specular iron (iron glance, oligiste); 107 Smepua mupos, TF Spelter (copper and zinc), 64 spetum (Spiedo or Spit), 95 Sphinxes, 176 Sphyraton (plate work), 221 Spiculum (Koman javelin), 2467 »plit-bone implements, 29 Split Swords, 142 podium, 6672 Spur-edge (of a Sword), 135 Spud, 20 Squalus cenirina OY Spiiax, Linn, 9; 23 »quamata (Roman armour), 245 7 Stabbing Swords of copper, 72 Stag-horn axes, 273 inserted im wooden timnmcheons, 49 *‘Stahl-bronce = steel (2.2, hardened) Dronze, 53 7 Stamped-clay literature (Assyrian); 201 Stan (Irish term for tin), 65 Standard-bearer (German), station of, 273 Standard-bearers, Assyrian, 203 Standards in Ancient Roman Army, 246 7 * Standard Inscription, 55 Staple of Cyprus, 135 Star (derivation of the word), 221 7% Star-shaped weapon Of copper, 63 Stasinus or Hegesias : his © Kypria,’ 2212 Stater (gold coin) of Croesus, 194 7 Staves of copper inlaid with figures, 65 Chaucer), Steam, motive power of, known to Ancient Esyptians, 143 ‘Steel bronze,’ 53 steel (Chinese) for Swords and knives, 115 — early known, 93 — im China, 113 —its ‘keprescntalion in Meyptian hieroplyphs, 69 200 STt steel, processes of making, 117 7 -—— words, Roman, 256 — treated of by Aristotle, 106 — wheel (Chahra ; war-quoit), 39 »t. George and the Dragon, 180 «7. * Stickleback ~ (Gaszeras/eus), 10 stick-slins, 10 stiletto, 11 — Hindu, 215 — italian (derivation of the word), 2157 stilettos, two-edeed {Ancient Ko- man), 257 Sting-hsh or adder-pike (77achza75 vipera), 11 »toccado, 123 . Stomoima (Steel), 166, 100, 110 * Stone Age, 227, 237% Stone anchors, 11072 tone-axe, 207 stone-hatchets, 14 7 Stone spear-heads, 26 ; implements, 30 Stone-splinters in wooden Swords, mtone-tipped arrows (Ethiopian), 154 7% stone-throwing, 7 »tone-weapons of the Komans, 21 77 tones aS weapons, 1657. Stork’s-head-shaped weapon, 37 storm-caps Of iron, 102 St. Michael, weapon of, 237 ot. Paul and the Sicari, 135 Stratagems (O01 Animals and Sav- ages), 6 «Straw-death (Scandinavian), 135 iream-gold, 54 Stream-tin, 59, 75 miring-sling, 19 Strokes or blows of various animals, 7 Stylus Or stilus, 15 7 Suardones (ancient German tribe), 271 Subligaculum (gladiatorial apron), 253 Succinum (amber), 57 Suffetes (Carthaginian magistrates), TO] Suit of Cypriote armour, 133 Suits Of iron armour, 102 Sumir (=lower Babylonia), 104 Sumpitan (Borneo), 147 Sun-dial, discovery of the, 200 7 Sun, the, in Egyptian religion, 149 Superimposed settlements of Troy, 193 Superiority of the curved blade, 129 Supernumerarii (Koman soldiers), 245 2 Surface ironstone of Africa, 117, 119 ‘Surgeon or iancet-hsh (Aca77h- urus), TO SuvoroH and his soldiers, 260 72 Svasti (Hittite symbol), 202 72 ‘Svintylking’ (Scandinavian tactical formation), 273 Swallowing Swords (by jugelers of oll), 235 Swallow-tailed blades, 141 SW A Swallow-wort (Ca/a/rapzs ezcanted), 215 Swimming (two ways of) 407 wainp tea-tree (/7z/a/ezca), 49 SwWORD— Abyssinian Sword, 237 acinaces (Persian), 21057.; with golden Ornaments, 242 Afghan Charay, 212 ancient Greck infantry Sword, 237 among the Barbarians, 262 s7q. —— — scythians, 226 Axjuna s Sword, 217 as a Weapon for point, 133 Asidevata (*Sword-god *; Hindu), 214 Assyrian fashion Of carrying the Sword, 230 == Swords, 199, 204 57. as the instrument Of punishment in Persia, 211 bladés of gold given Zo70715 causa, 212 blades, shapes of, 126 bronze swords of Italy, 264 —— (Scythian) in the Crimea, 227 Burmese Dalwel (fighting-Sword), 219 Carthaginian blades, 131 Celtiberian and Old Spanish Swords, 265 Ceretolo, Etruscan Sword found at, 196 Cilician, 211 cinctorium (Koman Sword), 257 club-sword (Assyrian) 204 cluden (jugssler’s sword : Roman), 250 Cypriote Swords, 133 dagger-Swords, 204 Danish Swords, 236 definition of the weapon, 123 derivation of the word, 123 72 description of Koman Sword, 254 57. double-bladed, 141 double Sword (Assyrian), 204 ‘“Dunner-Saxen™ (thunder- Sword), 2727 edged with sharks teeth, 49 elephant-Sword, 216 ensis NOricus, 263 ethnological view of Sword-dis- tribution, 125 Eiruscan Sword, 195577. executioners, 139 ‘falx supina of the Thracians, 253 fancy Sword (Assyrian), 204 *fetrum, “eladius, *ensis,’ 254 57. fist-sword (stiletto: Hindi), 215 Nesh-knife Sword (Ee@yptian), 212 forged by Hephaistos (in Aristo- phanes), 2237 forked, 141 from Mithras group, 210 German or Slav Sword, 263 ladiators Swords, 252 sy. generals oz > THE BOOK OF THE SIVORD. SwWO SWORD Greek fashion of carrying the sword, 236 Hercules’ Sword, 222 hereba-blade, 131 Fiittite, 175 in Ancient Rome, 247 577. im Britain 275 sa¢. in Greek literature, 242 m Homer, 222 im India, 213 sg¢. in Mosiem Africa, 162 in Persia, 200577. In relict (Persepolis sculptures), 210 in the Dark Continent, 162, 166 in [roas, 193 its parts described, 124 57. Khadga, As, or Asi Sword), 214, 216 Keltic Sword, 272 length of Ancient Greek Swords, (Hindu 237 Marzabotto blade, the, 195 Mayence Sword, 255 mMatshtika (fist-sword; stiletto: Hindu), 215 Mohammed ’s, 141 names for the Sword in Homer, 222 ot Alexander the Great, 188 of Ancient Hlyria, 262 of bronze, 75 72, $2 Of Copper, 57, 72; copper and zinc, 4 Of copper (Cimbrian), 274 of Goliath, 184 of Greek cavalry, 243 of iron (of the Celtiberians), 107 Of iron discovered at Sion, 197 Of iron in Ancient Germany, 270 of iron-wood and obsidian, 49 of Isernia, 197 of Jeanne d“Arc, 184% Of justice, 139 of Misanello, 195 7 of Perseus (“Apmy), 180 of Scandinavian Goths, 274 Of Scymitar shape, 133 Of Sigurd, 95 of the Alanni, 262 57. ofthe Alemanni (Germani), 27057. of the Ancient Heyptian army, 155 of the Ancient Hebrews, 152, 154 of the Bosnians, 262 of the Cherubim (Eden), 133 of the Cimbrians, 274 of the Dacians, 262 of the Danes, 274 of the Early Bronze Age, 96 of the Penni, 274 of the Gold Coast, 167 of the Irish, 276 of the Keltic Gauls, 266 of the King of Danome, 167 of the Lemovu (Pomerania), 274 of the Ligures, 205 of the Lycians, 132 of the Phoenicians, 170, 151 of the Rebo (Syria), 179 of the Rugiu (faltic), 274 SswO SwoRD— of the Kuthens (Syria), 179 Oi the Scotti, 279 of the Shairetana (Syria), 179 or the [hracians, 262 oi the Tokkari (Syria), 179 of the Welsh, 270 of Tiberius, 255 or Vandals, 274 of Victor Emmanuel, 257 7 of Vul-nirari I. (Assyrian), 203 of wood, 31; palm-wood, 43 of wood and Stone combined, 47 Of wood with stone edges, 49 on Italian (ancient) coins, 264, 263 ornamented with alloys, $3 Persian Swordlet (wepaikoy fipi- O10v), 211 royal Swords (Assyrian), 205 57. *‘rudis (rod or wooden sword, 250 Saminite Sword, 253 Sa-pa-ra (Assyria), 204 Saul’s Sword, 135 scythe-shaped, 72, 95 Sections Of Sword-blades, 431 Spanish Xiphos, 266 swallowing Swords (by jugelers Of oid), 235 Swallow-tailed or iorked, 141 sword and the Dove (Assyrian emblem), 134 words found at Mycenze, 223577. Swords found in ancient cemetery at Hlallstadt, 262 ‘Sword of Goda { jeremiah), 135 Thracian Swords, 22257. with blades like Aries (astronomi- cal Sign), 141 with iron blades (Roman), 253 With saw blade, 5% with wood- and horn-points, 49 women (Hindi) insiructed in the use Of the Sword, 215 wooden Swords m sham-fenhts (Roman), 240 zacco-sword Of Emperor Leo, 2j2uz word and spear of copper or bronze ( Theseus’), 105 Swords and Sword-handles in Nim- rud’s palace, 105 Sword-bayonet, Enneld, 134 7 Sword-belt and scabbard of Darius, 212 sword-belts, Assyrian, 206 sword-blades Of copper, 72 »word-breakers, 133 sword-cuilers, Hebrew, 135 sword-dageer, two-edged, 154 sword-daggers (Ancient Egyptian), 159, 161 Sword-dance, 163, 165 Sword-disiribution, view Ol, 125 Sword-exercise ainong the Ancient Greeks, 240 Swoid-fish (X27/7as), 11; its horn as a spear-head, 24 ‘> word-orass,” 12 sword-knife (Kukkii), 39; of Ashanti, 167 ethnological INDEX. >wO ~word-like weapon of Borneo, 112 sword-piay of North Africa, 163 Sword-makers, 77 Sword-metal, Hindu trial of, 110 7 sword-pommels at Mycenze, 231, 2 ‘Sword-side ’ relationship, 135 7 Swordsmen of old, famous, 24072 »yenite (hieroglyphics engraved on), 55% »yllogistic puzzle of Eubulides, 97 7 Syphilis, traces of, in prehistoric bones, 150 Syria (etymology of the word), 177 Syrian terebinth, 257 ABASHIR (Silicious Dark of Damboo), 31 Tabernacle, the Jewish (whence imitated), 150 Table of alloys in common use; 33 S97. Table of archaic names of metals, 122 Tacape (paddle), 42 Tac et taille (cut-and-thrust), 126 Tactical formation of Ancient Ger- mans, 273 Tactics in Ancient Greece, 241 Talaria, I Talismans (Chinese) of copper, 64 Talwar (Hindustan sabre), 13% sg. Tamarana (paddle), 42 Tamarang (Australian shield)), 33 Tammaraka (sacred rattle; Brazi- han Dupis), 151 Tangape (paddie), 42 Tang (tongue) of a Sword, 124 Tanged dagger, 275 — tazor (British), 276 Taper-axe, 91, 94 “Taree or * Target’ (derivation of), 127 Tara (Egyptian war-pike, 158 Tasso’s description of the Irish, 279 Tattooing (its origin), 269 72 Tax levied on iron in China, 114 ‘Tears of the Heliades* (=amber), 37 “Tears of the sun, 67 Tectosages (Phiygia), war-cars of the, 277 72 Telak (African arm-kniie), 162 *“Telamon, at Mycenz, 231 57. Telchines, 74, 76 Telluric iron, 09 Tempering (of iron) by cold immer- Sion, 112, 165; by oil, xc., 165 7 Temple-caves of Hlephanta (Bay of Bombay), 217 Temple of Baal at Marseille, 131 7 — of Belus (vu7e0 Lower of Babel), parryine- - — of Kanariic, 109 Tempies of Babylonia, 199 Tevedios meAckus (Origin Of the pro- verb), 90 Teérebinth, Syrian (*oak of Mamie), 25] x 207 TRA Terra cottas in Cyprus, 190; in Troy, 193 Testudo (in sieges ; Ancient Peypt), 154 . Teutelseraben, 271 Thane (derivation of the word), 215 7 Thapsus, Czesar at the battle of, 200 7% The *First Highlander, 217 Thera (Grecian), bronze sword from, 202 Thermutis (the prmcess who found Mosés), 1747 Thiudisk6 (= Teutons), 274 Thong-siing, 19, 63 Thraces, 252 Thracian dance (in arms), 163 7 “Thracian Mapic,’ 235 7 Thracians, 210 Thracian Swords, 222 57., 262 = Weapons, 253 Three-sided blades, 66 Thresher (fox-shark: Carvcharzas vulpes), 7 Throw-spears ot the Ancient Ko- mans, 245 Throw-stick, 32, 407 Throw-swords, German, 273 Thrusting blades, 134 57. * Thrusting cut,” 134 Thrusting weapons (origin of), 12 Thuhi (= WNaphtuhim), 162 Tiara of gold, 212 Tiger (its stroke or blow), 7; the Sabre-toothed tiger, 9 Tin, 543 origin of the word, 77 ; mines (ancient), 73 Tinkal (borax; Jndia), $5 7 Tin-ore of Peru, 33 © Tin-stone ’ (native peroxide of tin), a1 Titanilerous ores, 102 Toadstone (=todstein; German), 103 7 Tokkari (Syria), 179 Toletam (Spanish tradition of its origin), 2507 Toledo blade, 107, 132; rapier, 205 Tomahawk, 14 72, 36 Tombac (copper and gold alloy), 30, 37 7 Tombat (Australian weapon), 36 7, 3 Tomb o1 Alyattes, 194 ——- of Samson, 1306 72 Tomb-stones at Mycenze, 232 Tomeang (Malaccan weapon), 14 7% Tools of bronze, Assyrian, 202 Toothed-edge (of a Sword), 136 Topographical lists of Thut-mes lit, 173 Tormenta (artillery : Roman), 245 Tormentum, 19, 207 Torgues (Gallic ornament), 263 Tower oi Babel, 55 © Tower of Ilios’ (Troas); 19r Toxotes (Archer fish), 7 Toys in Ancient Egypt, 145 Trachinus vdipera (sting-nsh or adder-pike), 11 208 IRA Training for wariare, Roman, 230, 249 Transparent glass, Assyrian, 202 Transplanting full-grown trees (Ancient Egypt), 146 «Treasury of Priam” (lroas), 192 Treble-srooved claymore, 132 «Tree-planting ~ {= vivi-interment : Assyrian), 203 Trenchant or cutting ‘weapons (origin Of), 12, 13 Tpia kKénna KoKioTa, 07 7 Trialamelum, 135 Triangular small-Sword, 135 7 Triaru (Roman soldiers), 245 7 Tubulus, 15 7 Tribute-articles of Yu 112 57. Tribute paid in copper, 63 Tridens (gladiatorial weapon), 253 Trident-ike weapon in Nimiruds palace, 105 Trilingual Behistun Inscription, the, 209 7% Trimarkisia (class of cavairy : Gaul), 260 7% 771000n, 24 Triumphal Arch of Orange, 263 7 Troas, site of, 190 Trojan alphabet, 193 —— battle-axes of copper and tin, $27 — sphinx, 1907 war, date of, 220 -— weapons, 191 Trombash (Abyssinian weapon), 36 Trowel-form blade, 159 Trowels of copper, 65 Troy, the age of, 193 Trumpets of copper, 72, 221 Trincheons (wooden) with stag-horn imserted, 49 Truth-telling races, 2090 7 Tuba (Etruscan trumpet), 248 Tuba!l-Cain (etymology of the name), 12 Tubicines, 245 Tuck (rapier), 32, 123, 279 Tuisco or Tyr (regent of Tuesday), 2/07 : Tumuli, finds m, 271 “Turanian * blade, 140 Turanian (Chinese) Babylonia, 200 — language, 146 Turkish flag (seven-rayed star on), 147% — scymitar, 139, 161, 166 Turquoise, 62 ‘Tuscan ~ border (architectural or- nament), 202 Tutenag (zinc from India), 34 7 Tuitiya (oxide of zinc), 36 i wastu, 17 Tweezers of copper and stone, 67 Twelve lables, the, 244 Two-bladed Sword, 141 Two-edged axe (at Schliemann’s Troy), 32 — bronze Swords at Mycenze, 230 sa. — German Sword, 271 — knives (pokwe), 176 (Chinese), element in IWO iIwo-édged Roman stilettos, 257 -— Spanish Swords, 265 — Sword-dasger, 154 Two-handed espadon (mediczeval), 161, 566 — Swords, 67, 135 Two-headed eagle (Mosiem herald- Ty), 1767 “ Two-river -land (Naharayn : Me- Sopotamia), 172 Iwo-wheeled war-cars, 277 7 Typhon (in Egyptian religion), 149 Tyr or Inisco (regent of Tuesday), 270% Tidypa (2 corruption of 07742977), 2072 "TROP, 17% Uma or Umha (copper ; Keltic), 65 Umbrella, King Koftee’s, 165 77 Umbria, coins cast in, 264 s7. Unicorn {on the Royal Arms), 117 Unyoro dagser-Sword, 166 Urim and Jhummim (whence de- rived), 149 Ursus spelets (remains 01), 24 Umickh (=‘pater Orchamus), 199 % ‘ Usem "-metal, 37 Uses of the Sword, 123 Utensils of bronze, Assynan, 202 — in sepulchres at Mycence, 234 AGINA (Sword-sheath; Ko- man), 250 *Valai Tadi~ (Madura throwing- Stick), 35 Valley of Caves (Wady Magharah), the most ancient mines in the world, 60 Vandals, Scandinavian, 274 Various forms of Swords found at Hiallstadt, 262 sv. == names for Aphrodite, 157 7 — names for the Sword, 123 Vases of copper and of stone, 63 Velati (Roman soldiers), 245 7 Velites (Roman soldiers), 245 Venetian weapons at Pamazosia, 190 Venus (of alchemy := 2), 57 Verdigris irom 4 spear { Achilles’), 60 Vericulum (Roman javelin), 246 7 Veritum (Roman javelin), 24672 Vexillari (Roman soldiers), 249 Vexillum (Ancient Roman Sstand- ard), 24607 Viaticum (provisions for the dead), 234 Virtue of the Ancient Gauls, 269 Visisoths, weapons of the, 2727 Viinol (blue), 6o *Vivisection,” 225 Volcanic mud, 115 Voulge, 95 ADDY clubs (Australian), 35 Wady Magharah (Valley of Caves), the most ancient mines im the world, 60 THE BOOK OF THE SWORD. WHA Waesons, military, as a ‘lager’ (Gallic), 269 Wagh-nakh (Hindu weapon), $ Wait-a-bit (Acacza dezzi7s), 6 Wall-cramps, in Nimrud’s palace, 105 Walrus (how killed by polar bears), 33 1s method of attack, 9; ifs tooth as a spear-point, 24 Wandering race of metal-workers, 2715 Wanshi stone-throwers, 16 War-axes, 66, 154 War-clubs, 24, 32, 154 War-deities of Ancient Eeypt, 152 Wartlare (primitive), 457. War-flails, 2077, 154 War-hatchets (English), 91 Warlike character of Britons, 279 ‘War-lions of the king” (Raises IT.), 37 Warmen (German), 279 War-prisoners, treatment of, by Greeks and by Romans, 241, 249 War-quoit, 39 War-scythe, 95 Wasa or Wassaw (Sword), 165 Wattle and dab (huts of), 63 Wave-edged dagger, 137 Wave-paitern (architectural oma- ment), 202 ‘Wayland omuith,’ the legend of, 121 WEAPONS in the Laws of the Visigoihs, 272 in sepulchres at Mycenze, 234 of Ancient Kome, 245 577. of Animals and Savages, 6 of bronze, Assyrian, 202 of gold, as royal presents, 212 of the Alemanni (Germani), 270 of the Ancient Esyptian soldiers, 1522 of the Ancient Hindus, 214 s7. of the Ancient Irish, 279 of the Ancient Picts, 279 of the Ancient Scots, 279 of the Ancient Welsh, 279 of the Arabians, 135 of the Assyrians, 203 of the Carthaginians, 15! of the Cherusci, 271 of the Cimbri, 273 of the East Indians, 135 of the Fenni (Finns), 274 of the Gauls, 266, 269 of the Goths, 274 of the Lemovu (Pomerania) 274 of the Philistines, 195 of the Phoenicians, 179 57. of the Rusii (Baltic), 274 Of the Sammnites, 253 Of the Saxones, 271 Of the Suardones, 271 of the Syrians, 179 of the Ihracians, 253 of the Vandals, 274 of the warriors of Mycene, 23457. St. Michael's weapon, 237 Weapon-making, 1 Weapon-symbo! of Merodach, 153 Ancient WHA ‘Weapon-throwing in Homer, 222 Wedge-form tactical formation (Ancient German), 273 Welsen (52/277), 29 *Weish of the Fiorn,” 78 West and Hast, Peyptian, 191 7 Whale (its method of attack), 7 W heel-drill and emery for alt-reliets, SI Wheeled tower, Assyrian, 203 “White copper” (South African name for gold), 62 © White lead” {of Pliny), 73, 797 Whorl, combined forms of the, 233 Wigs (of the Nilotes), 158 7 Winged bulis, Assyrian, 201 7 — Celts (or palstave), 71 —- circle, the, as an architectural Omament, 20f — Sphinxes in Cyprus, 159 7 Wing-wader of Australia (carries Weapons in its wings), 9 Women instructed in the use of the Sword, «&c, (Hindu), 215 Women’s dress-pins of copper, 67 Wood, Age of, 31 Wooden blades with metal edges, 51 —— clubs spiked with iron, 105 —— handles to bronze hatchets, 154 —— Sabres, 44; chopper, 20.; knife, 20.; rapier-blade, 45 — Sword of Esypt, 39 — Sword-sheaths (Mycenze), 223 SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., INDEX, . WOO Wooden weapons with meteoric-iron chips, 51 Wootz or Wuiz (‘natural Indian steel’), 110, 111 Word-compounding lanenages (Iran- ian), 146 Word-developing lanouases (Arab- Jan), 146 Worked flints, 45 7 — hematite, 116 Worship offered to weapons, 162 7 Writing on leaden plates, 225 z —— on linen cloths, 225 7 Wrought iron inthe ‘Odyssey, 224 ERXES army, Cypriote contin- Sent in, 165 — aimy of, 210 “A tphias (Sword-fish), 11 Xiphos, Xiphidion {=Sword, in Homer), 222, 230 ~iphos-Gladius, 256 Xiphos, Spatish, 263 BunAa. {Lacedzemonian weapons), 237 EvoTopopol, 227 ABVEH (Jehovah), its ety- mology and mystic meaning, 149% - LONDON: PRINTED BY AND PARLIAMENT STREET SS NEW-STREET SQUARE 299 ZUL Yantramukia {class of weapons: Hindu), 214 Yataghan-bayonet, 13472, 164 Yataghan (weapon), 123, 134, 163, 166, 265 "Yellow copper’ Opposed to ‘native brass” (English), 56 Yellow frankincense, 35 7 Ynka mines of iron, 116 Ynkas, “Koyai Commentanes of the, 67 Yucatan (Origin of the word), 65 7 Yunan (= fonia), 209 7 PN2IBAR Swords, 166 Zarabatana, 14 7 Zebra (its kick), 7 Zeno, the Stoic, in Cyprus, 137 Zeus-Jovi {= Jupiter), 133 Zeus Kasios, 172 zine, 57; alloy with copper, 34; derivation of the word, $4 7 Zineiferous ore imported irom the East, $4 Zio (Saxnot: German Sword-god), 213 Zodiac, Denderah, 155 7 Zoortnp (meaning of the word), 239 : Zi l-Fikar (Mohammed's Sword), IAT