Bost foes ee Geeta) wets Se SS a bettakas ad 2 at a ic re ene a OAC cote I arelaleom ee wan Special Ne to a ee a ee Sees cans) ties a oe ~ Assistant ee of Education, Lope ets7 of One : _ Sometime Fellow in Education, Teachers College, and International bo) ae ; sre rar ha FEW tte ee Uni ci ; ree Pa MYSPACE he ec) rey Eb rie) ce) BONT SU n NIN) 0316 aaa oS aa Mos pees oe oe Cornell Aniversity Library - BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE ’: SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND vo THE GIFT OF Henry W. Sage 1891 7673-2 C A694 .F2. lu Cn 9: TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION No. 7 THE PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL. SYSTEM OF FRANCE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS BY FREDERIC ERNEST FARRINGTON, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Education, University of California Sometime Fellow in Education, Teachers College, and International Fellow for Study in France, Columbia University PUBLISHED BY Teachers College, Columbia University rH CopyricHT, 1906, BY FREDERIC ERNEST FARRINGTON. PREFACE THis account of the French primary schools was prepared chiefly during a sojourn of ten months at the French capital, 1902-1903. The original intention was to undertake a study of the normal schools, but as these are merely the cul- mination of the whole primary school system, the plan was modified so as to trace the entire educational experience of the child from the beginning of the school course until the indi- vidual, now no longer a child, but a vigorous young man or young woman, comes forth ready to find a place in that com- plex, but finely adjusted organization, the French primary school system, and to take his part in turn in developing the moral, physical and intellectual powers of a younger genera- tion. In view of this limitation of the work, many topics that one might otherwise have expected to find here, such as the university extension work (universités populaires), adult classes, lecture courses, school libraries, pedagogical libraries, school savings banks, school funds, benefit and pension so- cieties (mutualité scolaire), will hardly be touched upon. It is an extremely difficult matter for a foreigner to appre- ciate justly and fairly the institutions of another country. Each great people has its own customs and traditions, and its institutions are the slowly and laboriously formed crystallized expression of the most potent of these. A stranger can rarely make these ideas and ideals a part of his own life and thought, hence he must almost invariably judge of their value and in- fluence from an unsympathetic apperceptive basis. In its final analysis, his standard of judgment must necessarily be his own national standards. In spite of any criticisms that may be offered against the present practices in France, the existing conditions may be, and very likely are, the best suited to the temper and needs of the French people, for “what is one 3 4 PREFACE man’s meat is another man’s poison” is also capable of a national application. The authority for whatever may be found herein is derived from two general sources, the literature on the subject, and personal investigation gained from first hand ob- servation of the schools, from interviews with various educa- tional authorities, and from many conversations with the teachers themselves. For the legal basis, constant reference has been made to the compilation of M. Gréard, Législation de I’Instruction primaire en France. For the period since 1900, this has been supplemented by the Bulletin. Administratif of the education department. For a general idea of the whole French primary system, the three admirable volumes published by the French government at the time of the Exposition of 1900 are far and away the most valuable. The schools visited were the two écoles normales primatres supérieures at Saint-Cloud and Fontenay-aux-Roses, the de- partmental écoles normales primaires at Paris, Lyon, Valence, Privas, Avignon, Douai, and various primary schools in these same places and at Lille. I was extremely fortunate in being provided with off- cial credentials as holder of the International Fellowship for Study in France from Columbia University; thus every barrier was let down and all possible courtesy and kindness were shown. If everybody to whom I am under obliga- tions were mentioned, the list would become very long, but I desire to testify here to the extreme cordiality of the reception that I met everywhere throughout our sister republic, and especially to the kindness of M. Chaumié, formerly Ministre de PInstruction publique; M. Gasquet, Directeur de I’ Enseigne- ment primaire; M. Liard, Vice-recteur de l Académie de Paris; M. Picavet, Directeur d’études adjoint de Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, et Rédacteur en chef de la Revue Internatio- nale de ’ Enseignement; M. Minet, Inspecteur primaire a Lille; M. Devinat, Directeur de Ecole Normale a Auteuil, Paris; M. Mironneau, Directeur de l'Ecole Normale @ Lyon; M. Kuhn and M. Gricourt, Professeurs d’Anglais 4 Auteuil; M. PREFACE 5 Dr. Phillipe, Chef des travaux au Laboratoire de psychologie physiologique de la Sorbonne; and further to President Butler, Dean Russell, Dr. McMurry, Dr. Cattell, and Mr. James H. Hyde, without whose codperation this study would not have been possible. My thanks are also due to Professor Cohn, Head of the Romance Language Department, Columbia Uni- versity, and to Mr. Robert Dupouey, of the University of Cali- fornia, for many painstaking hours spent in reading my manu- script, although they are in no wise to be held accountable for any errors that may have crept in or for any inability on my part to appreciate justly the French point of view. Finally, I am incalculably indebted to my wife for her tireless assistance and constant inspiration. FREDERIC ERNEST FARRINGTON. BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA, DECEMBER [5, I905. CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE «2 eee tt we eee ew ee eee ee rene 3 CHAPTER I. InrropucTIoN ......-.- $A WOR We als fe aera: RT II. Tue Centra AUTHORITY ..-...-+-- ee ew SES II], Toe Locat AUTHORITIES ... 2-2-2 eee ee eee 26 IV. Tue TEAcHER.......- ee ee ee ee . 357 V. Tue Lower Scuoozs (1) Ecoles Maternelles . . 2. ee eee eee eee eee 73 Classes Enfantines. .... 2... ee ees see we « 380 Ecoles Primaires Elémentaires. ...-..- gee ue BE VI. THe Lower Scuoots (2) Ecoles Primaires Elémentaires Organization 2... 0. ee ee te ee ee ee we OS Gurricultim: :o4e.<6. ee ee le ace he Bh ie We 106 VII. Tue Urrer ScHoors :. 2.2.2. eee ee ee ee ee ee IDO VIII. THe Norma Scwoots (1) Development ... «.. 2... ee ee ee ee ee ee 140 IX. Tue Normat Scuoots (2) Organization ....... dered ia: ferhis Butea dere te oes 168 Pupils ..... UE Se, aw es oe. 179 X. Tue Normar Scwoots (9. Curriculum ......-.5. ever eo eee Boa ee - 188 XI. Tae Norma ScHoo ts (4) Practice Schools. . 1... - 2 ee eee ere eee ee 217 Brevets ..... Be oe cel be ee ee GOR aE aE . . 226 Certificat d’aptitude pédagogique . . . 2. +. se eee 234 XII. Tue Primary Hicuer NorMAL ScHoors. .....- ++ + 238 XIII. Conciusron: Measures or EFFICIENCY .---.---+ > . 253 APPENDIX A. OUTLINE OF THE SCHOOL AUTHORITIES ..... oe ee 261 B. EXAMINATION FOR THE CERTIFICAT, D’ETUDES PRIMAIRES ELEMENTAIRES, LILLE, 1903- - - - - Be Ra Ba te eas 263 C. Procram or THE Ecotzs NORMALES GE) July 30 18§r 6 ue a Re GE a ee 268 (2) July, 1866) 4. es wee a ee 269 (3) Boys’ School, Auteuil, 1902-1903... .-. +s 270 8 CONTENTS : PAGE APPENDIX D. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, ECOLE PRIMAIRE SUPERIEURE . 271 E. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, BREVET ELEMENTAIRE . . 276 F, ExaMINATION QUESTIONS, BREVET SUPERIEUR ....- - 278 G. EXAMINATION QUESTIONS, CERTIFICAT D’APTITUDE PEDA- GOGIQUE ... ecb ist Wy taeasuadeteene: ‘We Gu aap tees AGES ys 281 H. ExaminaTIon Questions, Primary INspecTroR ...- . 282 de MENUS Aeon te Ge ee ak? et ale els 284 J. Paces From STUDENT’s NoTtE-Book sHOWING ADMINISTRA- TION OF THE PRACTICE ScHOOL aT Lyon: (1) Outline to be followed by Critic Teacher in appre- ciating Pupil Teacher’s Work. . ...... 286 (2) Criticism by the Director. ..... 286 (3) Outline for Psychological Study by the pce eseher 287 (4) Rapport personnel ...-........ 287 K. BrBLioGRAPHY.........425 sels Tag Meas ga ne) LO ep 289 INDEX. Gs Sos 5, 6 OE BS OM SS ae a eR OE Se - 297 NOTE The following abbreviations are used in the foot-notes and in the bibliography : Bull. Adm. for Bulletin administratif du Ministére de l’instruction publique et des Beaux-Arts. x Cire. for Circulaires et instructions officielles relatives a l’instruction pu- blique. Gr. for Gréard, Octave. Législation de l’instruction primaire en France depuis 1789 jusqu’a nos jours. of. Mém. et doc. sco. for Musée pédagogique, Mémoires et documents scolaires. These are a series of one hundred and twenty monographs published by the Musée pédagogique and covering a wide range of subjects of educational interest. t wv Rec. des monog. péd. for Recueil des monographies pédagogiques. Expo- sition Universelle de 1889. A series of monographs in six volumes published by the government for the Exposition of 1889, also appearing as the second series of the Mém. et doc. sco, above. Rep. Com. Ed. for Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- cation. Statistique for Statistique de l’enseignement primaire en France. THE PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Tue civil and political organization of France is so en- tirely different from ours in the United States, that a very brief exposition of that organization here may save considerable confusion hereafter. In all Civil and France and Algeria there are ninety depart- oe ments, including the territory of Belfort. Each département is divided into arrondissements, each arrondisse- ment into cantons, and each canton into communes. Roughly speaking, the departments correspond to our states, the arron- dissements to our counties, or perhaps better our congressional districts, and the communes to our towns or cities, the canton being merely an administration district, the seat of a justice of the peace, and serving as a recruitment division, and an electoral unit for councillors. The departments and the com- munes are the only divisions that have a real political organi- zation of their own. At the head of each department is a pre- fect appointed by the central government, with a sub-prefect over each arrondissement, and each commune has its mayor who is elected by the members of the municipal council, in their turn elected by the popular vote. Each of these officials is as- sisted by an advisory council, the prefect having two, one for civil and political matters, the conseil général du département, and the other for educational affairs, the conseil départemental. Il I2 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Besides the communes and the departments, we find the de- partments united for educational purposes into still larger divisions, the académics. There are seventeen of these in France and Algeria, and at the head of each is a rector appointed by the President a? the Republic and responsible for all three degrees of edu- «on, primary, secondary and higher. The national gov- erent exercises a direct control over every department of e:lucation in France, though the smaller political divisions have certain powers of initiative and control. Higher education is given in the universities, with one for each academy; second- «i education is given in the /ycées and the colléges. The dif- ference between these last two is chiefly one of administration, tie lycées being under the direct control of the central gov- eriment, and the colléges in charge of the communes, with the government, however, always exercising a supervising influence. The expressions primary education and secondary education have quite different meanings in France from the same expres- sions with us, and whenever the words occur in Primary and this text they must be always understood in ene the French signification. In the United States, the difference between primary and secondary schools is a latitudinal one: that is, the primary course begins when ‘the child is five or six years of age and continues until he is twelve or fourteen. At this point the primary school course is completed, and the secondary begins. In France we find quite a different state of affairs. There the division be- tween primary and secondary schools is purely a longitudinal one. The primary school course begins theoretically, at least, when the child is six years of age and continues until he is thirteen, although it may be lengthened somewhat at each end by the écoles maternelles, the classes enfantines, the cours ~ complémentaires, the écoles primaires supérieures, or by the écoles manuelles @apprentissage. The first two of these pre- cede the elementary school course, and the last three follow it. The maximum length of the school life, then, covers the period Educational Divisions INTRODUCTION 13 from the child’s third to his sixteenth year. All this educa- tion is absolutely free, even though it may not be open to every child that wants it. The secondary school which begins normally at nine years and continues for nine years has always a preparatory section, so that the child may really enter at six or seven years of age and follow work which is of exactly the same, nature as that given in the primary schools. Such a child, however, is not receiving primary instruction at all, but secondary. At these secondary schools, the lycées and the colléges, there are al- ways fees for instruction which vary according to the class and the school. On account of the fees connected with the secondary schools, one naturally finds there a different social class from that in the primary schools, although from my own observation in the elementary departments of the second- ary schools I have not found the quality of the instruction at all commensurate with the difference in cost to the pupils. The primary school in France is in no sense a preparation for the secondary school, for while transition between the two is not absolutely impossible, yet France has had too many centuries of monarchical and so- The Primary cial traditions to be able to put them aside all School at once. The Revolution made the nation a its: Auin republic for the first time, but changes in the outward ‘habits of a people are always far more easily effected that those in the inner consciousness. Even to-day there is a very marked distinction between the paying pupils in the secondary schools and the non-payirg pupils in the elementary schools. The course in the primary schools is intended to fit the pupils for agricultural, industrial, and commercial life; that in the secondary schools for the university and so for ‘the professional world. The elementary primary instruction— that is, that between seven and thirteen—has been called the ‘minimum of primary instruction, the limit below which it ought not to descend, the just debt which the country owes to all its children.” It is “ sufficiently extensive to make a man 14 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE of the one that receives it, and at the same time sufficiently modest to be realized everywhere.” 7 By means of the liberal courses offered in the secondary schools, the pypil there has no less than four optional courses, the classical, the Latin—modern language, the Latin—scientific, and the modern language— scientific course.? Thus the students may very easily prepareffor any department of the university. The natural close of the secondary course is marked by one of the grades of the baccalawréat, for this degree in France comes at the beginning of the work in higher education and not as with us at its close. It is often said that the course in the French collége or lycée carries the boy just about through the sophomore year in our best American colleges. While this is not true in all the subjects, it is perhaps a fair state- ment of the case. Secondary Courses 1 Guizot, Exposé des motifs des projets de loi sur Vinstruction primaire, June 28, 1833, Gr. II, p. 3. 2 Plan d’études et programmes complets de Venseignement secondaire (the new program for secondary schools, 1902). CHAPTER II Tue CENTRAL AUTHORITY In France, the whole question of education is considered from a national point of view. Ever since the time of the Revolution, at least, the general government has been gradually assuming more and more of the responsibility for the education of tts citi- zens. This centralization reached its maximum in 1889 when the public school teachers all over France were made officers of the State, and began to receive their salaries from the na- tional treasury. To-day the French educational system is one of the most highly centralized systems of the world, and in- deed its uniformity has long been a matter of comment. The almost classic instance of the Minister of Public Instructon, however, who was overjoyed because on the same day and at the same time, in all the lycées of France the pupils of the same class were translating the same page of Demosthenes or Cicero * is fortunately no longer true. Now the present con- dition is far away from that blighting uniformity. Yet even to-day, too little is left for the initiative of the individual teacher. Soon after the new programs of May and July, 1902, for the secondary schools were published, complaints began to come in from the teachers on account of the lack of correlation of the subjects of instruction. The same criticism mght be made of most of the programs in the primary schools. The educational authorities seem to ignore the fact that there is a pedagogical as well as a logical order for the study of a given subject. The work in each subject has apparently been Centraliza- tion om 1Compayré, Organisation Pédagogique et Législation des Ecoles Pri- maires, p. 5. 15 16 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE outlined with the idea of developing that subject logically, ir- respective of the work that is being done in any other sub- ject. Not long since, I visited a class in commercial law in an école primaire supérieure. The lesson of the day was based on the relative advantages of single and double entry book- keeping. As the pupils were leaving the room, I ventured to remark, “I suppose the class has had some little practice in the two systems.” “I do not know,” replied the professor, “but I will find out.” He called up one of the boys and asked him. “Yes,” said the boy, “ we had the two systems last year.” This may have been an unusual instance, yet it serves to show to what extremes a lack of correlation may lead. The control of all this system of education is vested in a minister whose official title is Ministre de [Instruction pu- blique et des Beaux-Arts, and who also inspects a and exercises a certain control over private Oo ubDIic . Instruction Schools as well. This office really dates from 1828. Under the Convention, the educational affairs of the country were administered by one of the com- mittees of the Convention, the comité d’instruction publique of sixteen members.* Soon after this these matters were trans- ferred to the Minister of the Interior under the especial care of a director-general of public instruction. Napoleon’s de- cree in organizing the University” left this still under the same department, but the active head was the Grand Master of the University. This arrangement continued in force until 1824, when the ministry of religious affairs and public instruction was created.* About four years later, the ministry of public instruction was definitely organized in its present form,* and the religious affairs were divided among the departments of education, justice, and the interior. Under the French sys- tem of government, the office of minister is essentially a political one, changing with the varying fortunes of the domi- 1 Loi, 7 Fructidor, An II (Aug. 24, 1794), Gr. I, p. 97. 2 Décret, Mar. 17, 1808, Art. 103, Gr. I, p. 108. 3 Ordonnance, Aug. 26, 1824, Gr. I, p. 328. # Ordonnance, Feb. 10, 1829, Gr. I, p. 340. THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY 17 nant coalition then in control of the government. The fact that no one party in France has a preponderating influence in the national politics tends to make the changes of ministry far more frequent. Indeed from the beginning of the Third Re- public until 1902, there were no less than thirty-two changes of this sort. Except for the fact that the general method of ad- ministration was thoroughly bureaucratic, these rapid changes would have militated seriously against the development of any consistent system of education in France. The Minister owes his position to the President and is directly responsible for the entire conduct of the educational affairs of the nation. With the exception of a very few of the higher educational officers, whose appointment is vested directly in the President of the Republic, the Minister has the power of appointment and removal over all those under him, either by exercise of his individual prerogative or through the delegation of this power to his subordinates. Nevertheless, in ‘this latter case, the ex- ercise of this power is carefully safeguarded. The Minis- ter’s direct power of appointment here includes that of all the faculty of the normal schools, and the directors and all the regular fully certificated teachers in the higher primary schools. In some of these latter establishments, however, where the work is somewhat professional in its character, he shares this power with the Minister of Commerce and In- dustry.* His special communications to the rectors or the prefects are issued under the name of imstructions, and they deal with the minor regulations of the service. The ordi- nary regulations of the Minister which serve to interpret, sup- plement or apply the Jois of the parliament or the décrets of the President are known as arrétés, and for these he alone is responsible. In some of the more important questions, he is compelled to consult the conseil supérieur, and in these cases the arrété always states this fact. To guide him safely through the legal mazes of the various 1 Also, though to a less extent, with various other Cabinet officers, nota- bly the Ministers of War, of the Navy, of Public Works, of Agriculture, of the Colonies, and of the Interior. 18 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE questions that may come before him, the Minister has a kind of cabinet called the comité du contentieux, con- Comité du sisting of seventeen members, almost all of Contentieux : . whom are lawyers. This committee has no real power of its own, and the Minister is under no obligation to consult it; it is an advisory board pure and simple, and can consider only those questions that the Minister chooses to sub- mit to it. When a question is thus referred to the committee, the matter is ordinarily given to one of its members to in- vestigate thoroughly. After this work is completed, the mem- ber reports to the full board, the question is discussed by the committee as a whole, and the opinion of the majority sent to the Minister. On the financial side, the Minister is charged with the prep- aration of the annual budget, and is responsible for the proper expenditure of the money voted for his depart- ment. He consults his immediate heads of de- partments, who have primed themselves in turn from their sub- ordinates, as to the specific need of each phase of the educa- tional work. By the time these estimates reach the Minister, they have been subjected to a course of pruning all along the line. The Minister then examines carefully all the demands, cuts down some, rejects others entirely, and determines upon the schedule ‘he will submit to the Minister of Finance. This minister in his turn brings together the demands of his col- leagues, the council of ministers reviews the whole budget, and finally decides upon what to present to the Parlement. Here again the various amounts are submitted to another scrutiny, and the Minister is often called upon to substantiate the need for his demands on the floor of the Chambers. The Minister is directly responsible for the funds placed at the disposal of his department, and no expense may be undertaken nor any money paid out save on his order. The total amount of the budget for 1903 was 215,939,396 * francs, an increase of some seven and a quarter millions over the previous year. These figures do not include the appropriation for the Beaux-Arts, but 1 Budget des Dépenses de lExercice, 1903, pp. 11-12. Budget THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY 19 include many objects like the Bureau of Longitude and the National Library that are more or less closely connected with educational work. Of this total amount, 163,876,445 * francs represents the amount expended by the State for primary in- struction. These figures do not include the amount expended by the five cities Paris, Lyon, Marseilles, Bordeaux and Lille, which are in the class of cities having more than 150,000 in- habitants. These are in a group by themselves and have to bear the major part of their educational expenses. In 1903 the budget of Paris alone for its primary, higher and professional schools was 28,557,776 francs.” This does not represent the total amount spent annually in France even for the public schools, for the Minister of Agriculture has various agricul- tural schools under his direction and the Minister of Com- merce and Industry has control over many commercial and technical schools in all parts of the country besides the four great national schools at Armentiéres, Vierzon, Voiron, and Nantes. Directly below the Minister are no less than twenty-five bureaux charged with the various matters pertaining to the three grades of education, to the fine arts and to accounts, and divided as follows: cabinet of the Minister, one bureau; higher education, six; secondary education, four; primary education, five; fine arts, six; and accounts, three. At the head of each division of the edu- cational system we find a director. The five bureaus under the authority of the director of primary instruction are occu- Bureaus 1 The remarkable increase in the amount expended by the State on pri- mary education since 1870 is worthy of note here: Budget of 1870 .........0c cece ct eeeeees 9,988,300 francs. Budget: of 1880 sscesaes pecaes cules se esings 26,677,813“ Budget of 1890 ....... 00. ccc eee ee nee 129,388,610 “ Budget of 1899 .........-. eee eee eee eee 153,220,255 “ (Rapport sur ’ Organisation et la Situation de Enseignement Primatre, p. 105.) The striking difference between the figures for 1880 and those for 1890 is due to the fact that during this decade the great educational laws were passed, and the State assumed responsibility for the teachers’ salaries. 2 Ville de Paris, Budget de Exercise 1903, p. 5. 20 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE pied respectively with: (1) the personnel of primary education and of the higher primary schools; (2) dis- Director of | cipline, programs and examinations; (3) con- ae e struction of schools, and school supplies ; (4) teaching force in the elementary primary schools; (5) administration and accounts of the normal schools, and scholarships. Among the directors of primary instruction since the creation of that office in 1868, have been M. Gréard and M. Buisson, two men that have done much for the cause of elementary education in France during the last thirty years. Throughout the French educational system, the idea seems to be to place a single responsible head over each of the vari- ous departments but to provide also an advisory and administrative board that shall limit the field of his action to a greater or less extent. The Minister has his conseil supérieur, the rector the conseil de l’université and the conseil académique, and the prefect the conseil départemental. Ever since the organization of the University under Napoleon I. there has existed some body similar to the conseil supérieur, though its composition and its powers have varied from time to time. For nearly a half- century of its existence, it bore the name, conseil de l’univer- sité. The council in its present form dates practically from 1880." Before this time, besides the officials directly con- nected with education, the great bodies of the state had been represented: namely, the Institut, the magistracy, the clergy, and l’enseignement libre,” the representatives of all being ap- pointed by the President of the Republic. To-day the great majority of the fifty-seven members of this council are elected by their peers, and they belong almost entirely to public in- Superior Council 1 Loi, Feb. 27, 1880, Gr. V, pp. 126-132. 2“The law of June 28, 1833, divided the primary schools into écoles publique and écoles privées. The law of March 15, 1850, gave the name écoles libres to educational institutions founded or supported by individ- uals or societies.” (Buisson: Dictionnaire de Pédagogie, Pt. I, Vol. II, p. 2349.) The great majority of these écoles libres are under the direction of various organizations of the Catholic Church. THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY 21 struction. There are five members of the Institute chosen by their colleagues; nine councilors appointed by the President on recommendation of the Minister and chosen from the pres- ent and past directors of public education, the general inspect- ors, the rectors, the academy inspectors, and the professeurs * of public instruction ; thirty-three representatives of higher and secondary education and six of primary education, all chosen by their fellows; and four representatives of private schools, appointed by the President. The term of office in each case is four years, and there is no limit to the number of terms a councilor may serve. The full council has only two regular meetings per year, the greater part of the work being done by the permanent section, composed of the nine members ap- pointed by the President and six others designated for this pur- pose by the Minister. This sub-committee has among its duties: (1) to study the programs and regulations before these are brought before the whole council; (2) to give advice on the creation of faculties, lycées, colléges, normal schools, on the foundation, transfer or suppression of chairs, on books which ought to be kept out of the class room: or the school library, and finally on all questions of studies, administration, discipline or school affairs in general that the Minister may refer to it.* The powers of the council itself are administra- tive, judicial and disciplinary. Besides those specifically enu- merated above, it advises the Minister on regulating the con- duct of all examinations, exercising surveillance over the private schools, granting the demands of foreigners to teach in, to open or to direct schools. It is also the final court of appeal from decisions of the academic councils in matters of contention or discipline as well as on appeals from the de 1 The term professeur has quite a different connotation in France from what it has in the United States. Besides its use in the university as with us, many other teachers have the right to this title: namely, teachers in the colléges and the lycées that are agrégés, and also those teachers in the field of primary instruction that hold the special certificate for teaching in the normal schools. Some of these last are often found in the higher pri- mary schools. 2 Loi, Feb. 27, 1880, Art. 4, Gr. V, p. 129. 22 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE cisions of the departmental councils forbidding the opening of private schools or excluding public or private school teach- ers permanently from exercising their vocations.* The Comité consultatif is really one of the most active of all the advisory bodies of the ministry. It has now been in existence for almost exactly thirty years, and is the successor of the former committee of gen- eral inspectors. Each of its three divisions, for superior, secondary, and primary education respectively, meets at least once a month. The primary section of this commit- tee is representative, as far as possible, of each one of the separate interests found in the primary system. Its members are: the inspectors general, the vice-rector of the Academy of Paris, the director of the Musée pédagogique, a primary in- spector and the directors of the two normal schools of the de- partment of the Seine, and one of the general inspectresses of the écoles maternelles. The director of primary instruc- tion is a member of the committee ex officio, but the other members not specifically designated above are appointed by the Minister for one year. The special duties of this committee are to give advice on requests of all sorts coming up from the private schools, on the progress of studies in the normal schools, on the composition of the examination papers for the different brevets, on promotions as well as on all questions that the Minister may submit to it.? Like the comité du conten- tieux, however, this commission is merely an advisory body. With all these advisers, it would seem as though the French Minister of Public Instruction would be little more than the mouthpiece of these various boards. Of course the truth of this depends upon the personality of the Minister himself. The system certainly permits a man to leave the real work to others. One hears it said that the Minister really knows very little of the inner working of the educational system, for he must be too much Consulting Committee Work of the Minister 1 Loi, Feb. 27, 1880, Arts. 5, 7, Gr. V, p. 129. 2 Décret, May 11, 1880, Arts. 2, 11. Bull. Adm., 1880, XXIII, p. 495. THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY 23 of a politician. There is so much routine business to be done and so many papers to be signed, which nobody else is per- mitted to do, that this itself constitutes a severe drain on a man’s time and strength. It is not unusual to hear: “The Min- ister is not signing papers this week. That matter of yours will have to wait.” The first of these criticisms does not seem to have been true with the former Minister, M. Chaumié? who is a charming man personally and has for a long time had real educational interests outside his official position. The second of these is unfortunately too true. It is one of the faults of the French system not to give more independence to the subordinate officials, instead of carrying so many things up to the Minister, when after all, his signature is a mere formality. This necessarily makes official matters often move very slowly. All the above-mentioned bodies are directly connected with the ministerial office in Paris and never come into actual con- tact with the schools; they are staff officers and their official information is all gained at Fassia : second hand. We now come toa body of men and women that are, so to speak, the chief field officers—the imspecteurs généraux. ‘This office has been in existence for more than one hundred years, but it was not until after fifty years of activity that 1ts members were definitely made respon- sible for the inspection of primary schools.? At first, two of these inspectors were so designated and their number has been increased at varfous times since then, so that to-day there are eleven, including one specially appointed to inspect accounts in the normal schools, and another imspecteur hors cadre, di- rector of the école normale primaire supérieure at Saint-Cloud. This latter takes as active a part in the inspection as his other duties as head of the normal school will permit. Besides these there is still another, charged with the inspection of drawing, but this one comes more properly under the fine arts depart- 1 Minister from June 7, 1902, to Jan. 24, 1905. 2 Décret, Mar. 9, 1852, Art. 6, Gr. III, p. 494. 24 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE ment of the Ministry of Public Instruction. Since 188r1,* there have been women general inspectors for the écoles maternelles. These are now four in number and are appointed by the Minister of Public Instruction. The men are appointed by the President of the Republic on nomination of the Minister. As an instance of the low salaries paid to educational people in France, it is worth noting that these general inspectors, picked from all France and practically at the top of the educational ladder, receive only 10,- ooo francs per year each. They further divide a sum of 27,000 francs for travelling expenses. Compared with the salaries paid even in somewhat similar positions in the United States, these amounts seem ridiculously small, and besides in some respects living expenses are higher in France than they are with us. For purposes of inspection, France is divided into seven districts,” and the inspectors are assigned to the various fields each year by the Minister. In practice, however, an inspector usually has the same assignment for at least two years, but this is far too short a time to enable a man really to know his district, and if an inspector is not ac- quainted with his assignment, how can he be in position to discharge his just responsibilities? The general inspectors are directly subordinate to the Minister, and serve as his eyes and hands. They are especially useful to him in investigat- ing in his name any subject that demands immediate attention. “They have,” said M. Buisson, then director of primary in- struction, in a report to the Minister, “a three-fold duty : first, and as an essential source of information, to visit the normal schools and a certain number of primary schools; next, to set a value upon the services and the merits of the academy in- spectors, the primary inspectors, and the directors, directresses, and professors in the normal schools;” (to-day the higher primary schools should also be added here) “ finally, to give Salaries and Duties 1 Décret, Aug. 2, 1881, Art. 6, Gr. V, p. 304. 2 Arrété, Mar. 21, 1882. Bull. Adm., 1882, XXV, p. 724. THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY 25 general and comparative information on the progress of pri- mary instruction in the various parts of France. . . . A gen- eral inspector is not a primary inspector on a large scale; he is the direct representative of the Minister, carrying about every- where the instructions and the inspirations of the Minister himself, and interesting himself in everything that the Min- ister would, if he could accomplish personally so great a task.””* Once a year in December, the general inspectors meet with the rectors at Paris and draw up a list of candidates for promotion to be submitted to the Minister. These in- clude the primary inspectors and the teaching force in the nor- mal schools and the higher primary schools. 1 Rapport au Ministre, Feb. 13, 1880. Bull. Adm., 1880, XXIII, p. 170. CHAPTER III Tue Locat AUTHORITIES For purposes of educational administration, all France is divided into seventeen divisions (each made up of several de- partments) which are now known as academies. At the head of each of these divisions is a rec- tor, the highest of the local educational authorities. This organization dates from Napoleon’s creation of the University,* and although subject to various subsequent modifications, it is the one existing to-day. One of the articles of this organic decree of 1808 is rather interesting for the light it throws on the curriculum of the elementary school at that time. The last of the rector’s charges was “the little schools, the pri- mary schools where one learns reading, writing, and the first notions of arithmetic.” * The seventeen academies to-day are: Aix, Alger, Besancon, Bordeaux, Caen, Chambéry, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Paris, Poi- tiers, Rennes, Toulouse, each one bearing the name of the city that is the academy seat, and each of these, except Alger and Chambéry, having its own university with at least a faculty of letters. The head of each of these academies is the rector.*. He is appointed directly by the President of the Republic, and must hold the doctor’s degree.* The rector is the chief of all these departments of education, superior, secondary, and primary, although his powers as far 1 Décret, Mar. 17, 1808, Art. 4, Gr. I, p. 1096. 2 Tbid., Arts. 5-6. 8In the acaderny of Paris, the Minister of Public Instruction himself holds the title of rector, the duties of the ordinary rector being performed by a vice-rector. 4 Décret, Aug. 22, 1854, Art. 16, Gr. III, p. 5904. 26 Academies Rector THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 27 as the last is concerned are chiefly confined to the pedagogical side of the school work. In a circular to the rectors in 1854, the Minister said: “ You are called to give the impetus to the intellectual work of the youth in the primary, secondary, and higher schools. It is a privilege which you divide with no other authority and which nobody will attempt to dispute with you, because it is the very essence of your functions.”* The unification of authority here is necessarily a great advantage, for it helps to keep each division of the educational system in its own sphere and prevents waste of energy by an over- lapping of the fields of work. Except for the short period 1850-1854, the powers of the rectors have not been very ma- terially changed since the creation of the office. Some of the less important ones, however, have been delegated to other officers, especially to the prefect * and to the academy inspector. The normal schools are under the special care of the rector.’ He looks after the pupils during their stay at the school. It is he who authorizes their promotion from class to class or advises the Minister to exclude them _ Relations from the school on the basis of the annual tee examinations and after consultation with the Schools director of the school and with the academy inspector.* The rector’s influence on the governing board of each normal school is most important, for the president of this body is his right-hand man, the academy inspector, and be- sides ‘he appoints four of the other six members, the remain- ing two being members of the conseil général of their depart- ment chosen by their colleagues.” The annual budget as well as other recommendations or suggestions from this board are transmitted to the Minister by the rector, with any comments or qualifications that the latter may desire to make. There is 1 Circ., Sept. 15, 1854, Gr. ITI, p. 598. 2In Algeria the rector has all the powers ordinarily exercised by the prefect in reference to appointing, transferring, or removing teachers. Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 68, Gr. V, p. 699. 3 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 57, Gr. V, p. 732. 4 Ibid., Art. 75, Gr. V, p. 737. 5 Lot, July 19, 1889, Art. 47, Gr. V, p. 185. 28 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE really nothing taking place in the administration of the normal school that escapes the eye of the rector, but he follows es- pecially the regulation and application of the programs and keeps himself in close touch with the moral and intellectual education of the future teachers. Moreover, he has to esti- mate the value of the work of the directors and the teachers, and his reports together with those of the mspecteurs géné- vaux form practically the Minister’s sole source of informa- tion on which to base his removals or promotions. The rector’s relations with the higher primary schools are much the same as with the normal schools, and in most of the academies the former are sufficiently few in With the number to receive a fair share of his attention. - cane Whenever these primary schools have boarding Schools pupils, this department is not conducted by the State, but ordinarily by the director of the school, and here the rector’s inspection considers merely the general influence on the morals and discipline of the pupils. As before, he is chiefly interested in the methods, the programs and the worth of the teaching force. Here too, the teachers appointed by the Minister often form the subject of special re- ports of the rector. These constitute the majority of the teachers in these schools. However, in case of lack of teach- ers provided with the special certificate for teaching in the normal schools or the higher primary schools, certain posi- tions may be filled by adjoints appointed by the prefect.1_ The members of the comité de patronage instituted in connection with each higher primary school and composed of prominent citizens of the community are appointed by the Minister on nomination of the rector. In fact the rector himself and the academy inspector, too, are members ex officio of each of the committees within their jurisdiction. Naturally on ac- count of his multifarious duties, it is quite impossible for the rector to know personally every detail of the work in each 1 Ministerial circular to the prefects, Apr. 15, 1891, in interpreting the laws of 1886 and 1889. Circ., XI, p. 433. 2 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 33, Gr. V, p. 775. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 29 individual higher primary school of his academy, and so the academy inspector acts as a kind of lieutenant or field officer in each department. This latter is the personal representative of the rector and often takes up the work where his superior officer fails for lack of time. In the field of primary instruction proper, the powers and duties of the rector are much more general, and he is con- cerned with movements and conditions rather than with individuals. Hehas only anindirect | With the influence over the externa of the schools, but ae over the interna, that is, the programs, the gen- Schools eral direction of the studies, the control of school exercises, proposed improvements of method, etc., his influence is very strong. Besides this, he starts investiga- tions, transmits ministerial instructions, approves the lists of books to be used in the class room, the library, or as prizes, and by reports of the academy inspectors as well as by per- sonal observation he watches the organization of the cantonal teachers’ conferences in each of the departments under his control. No school examination escapes his influence. He appoints the examining boards for the primary certificate, for the higher primary certificate and for the teachers’ licenses (the two brevets de capacité, and the certificat d’aptitude pédagogique). The rectors also have the right to inspect all private schools, but this inspection is usually limited to the conditions affecting morality and health, and for the subject matter taught to see that it is “ not contrary to moral well- being, the constitution or the law.” * Reference has already been made to the fact that the rector has charge of all three degrees of the educational system. His powers and duties toward the secondary and superior institutions are exactly parallel to those in the primary field. To aid him in this work he is assisted by the conseil académique. his board is composed almost exclusively of representatives of the two higher branches of education and occupies the same relative 1Lo0i, Mar. 15, 1850, Art. 21, Gr. III, p. 328. Academic Council 30 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE position toward their schools that the conseid départemental does toward the primary schools. The academy inspector is the real active head of the pri- mary instruction in each department. Appointed first as a mere local assistant to the rector, and even now representing him) somewhat in higher and secondary education, to-day almost by force of circumstances his attention is chiefly centered upon the pri- mary schools. All the questions relative to primary instruction are either submitted to his approval and by him transmitted to the higher functionaries, or need his intervention at some stage of their progress. In all matters pertaining to methods of instruction and pedagogical affairs in general, he is sub- ordinate to the rector, but in the personal and administrative aspects of primary education, he is quite independent of that authority. The office dates from the time of Napoleon L., but has existed in its present form only about fifty years. To- day there are ninety-nine of these inspectors, one for each department except the Seine, the Nord and the Bouches-du- Rhéne. In Paris there are eight, one of them being the di- rector of primary instruction in this department, and having by courtesy the duties and powers with reference to educa- tional administration that usually devolve upon the prefect. In the Nord and the Bouches-du-Rhéne also, one of the two academy inspectors is specifically charged with primary in- struction. The Minister has full power to appoint and remove these officers,» and in general has chosen them from among the professors of secondary education. This has undoubtedly given some basis for the charge that they are rather indiffer- ent to the interests of the primary schools. Mr. Brereton, in the course of his study of the French schools,” did not find this criticism borne out by the actual conditions. This naturally depends upon temperament, sympathies and viewpoint. In Academy Inspector 1 Décret, Mar. 9, 1852, Art. 3, Gr. III, p. 493. ? Brereton, Rural Schools of Northwest France, Engl. Bd. of Ed. Special Reports, VII, p. 21. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 31 some departments, however, one finds the academy inspector interested in the primary schools in only a general way. His previous preparation—remrember, he is taken from the ranks of secondary education—has not been such as would enable him to approach the problems of the lower schools on the basis of practical experience. Whatever he knows about their methods and their needs has been entirely gained from reading and observation and not from any active first hand experience. The French academy inspector, however, has a particularly delicate mission to perform and he needs to be something of a politician in order to acquit himself of his task creditably. He occupies a kind of middle position in the educational scale, in close enough touch with the actual rank and file of the profession by his frequent visits to the schools to encourage them by ‘his good counsels, and yet near enough to the higher authorities to command their attention and their confidence. ‘‘ To the academy inspectors falls the task of forcing the application of the laws, decrees, arrétés and circulars that have established compulsory, free and lay education, that have reformed the programs, and have assigned the place of honor in the schools to moral and civic instruction. It is their duty to make the teachers under them understand the spirit of all this, to guide them with their coun- sels, to sustain their courage, and to fortify them against weakness. It devolves upon them to see that the schools are properly installed, to arouse the interest of the municipalities, to codperate with the authorities of every degree, with the councils, and the local citizens of importance, in order to create around our schools that current of sympathies which is necessary to their prosperity and development.” * The duties Duties 1L’Inspection Académique, p. v. This most admirable volume devoted to the work of the academy inspectors was prepared expressly for the French educational exhibit at the exposition of 1900. It contains examples of the official circulars and instructions addressed by the academy inspect- ors to their subordinates and also many extracts from their annual reports on the situation of primary instruction in various departments. The wide range of the subjects treated here gives one some idea of the activity of these tireless officials. 32 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE of the academy inspector naturally fall into two general divi- sions, where he is directly subordinate to the rector, and where he works in codperation with the prefect. In conjunction with the rector, the academy inspector is responsible for seeing that the instructions of the Minister and the rector are faithfully carried out. In Relations —_ his relations with the normal schools, he pre- with the é rs : : Biectas sides over the administrative council, and by virtue of this position takes an active part in the financial affairs of the institution. He investigates carefully the candidates for admission and is president of the entrance examination board. As will appear a little later, all this care is not entirely disinterested, for these candidates are the same individuals from among whom three years later he will have to recruit his teachers. He inspects also the class work in the school as well as the accounts of the économe or steward and makes the general condition of the school the subject of an annual report to the rector. As far as the higher pri- mary schools are concerned, his duties are very similar. But with the pensionnats that are connected with some of these schools he has nothing to do except to satisfy himself that their moral and hygienic conditions are beyond criticism. Both he and the rector, however, are ex officio members of the comité de patronage of every higher primary school in the department, and in this way may come into close touch with some aspects of the administration in which otherwise they are not officially concerned. The inspector visits the ele- mentary primary schools as much as his time allows and sup- plements his own observation here by the reports of the primary inspectors. While the rector appoints the members of the examining boards for the various certificates and brevets that come in the life of the primary schools, the academy inspector presides over each one of these commis- sions. Thus a uniformity is given to the conduct of these 1 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 120, Gr. V, p. 753; and Décret, July 28, 1893, Art. 118, Gr. VI, p. 520. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES a examinations, in each department at least, which was not possible under the old arrangement where two of these com- missions chose their own presidents. Besides, he prepares questions for many of the examinations and signs the leav- ing certificates of the lower schools. All the externa of the elementary primary schools and the écoles maternelles are subject to the jurisdiction of the prefect and the conseil départemental, with the academy inspector exercising a restraining -or modifying influence at various points. The most important of the relations between the academy inspector and the prefect are those concerning the teaching force. The academy inspector is in no sense subordinate to the prefect, even though in some things the former cannot act without the cooperation of the latter, but they work together on terms of perfect equality. All the teachers, both men and women, in the elementary primary schools and in the écoles maternelles are divided into two classes: the stagiaires or probationers, and the titulaires or regular teachers.* ‘“‘ No one can be appointed titulaire unless he has been stagiaire for at least two years in a public or a private school, holds the certificat d’aptitude pédagogique and is on the eligible list drawn up by the conseil départemental.”? The power of appointing the stagiaires rests entirely with the academy inspector,® hence we see the reason for the careful watch that this official keeps over the normal schools and their pupils and also his superintendence over the various examination boards. The effect of this regu- lation is to center the authority for passing on the eligibility of any person to enter the teaching force of the elementary schools in the educational authorities where it properly be- longs. The fitulaires are appointed by the prefect but only on recommendation of the academy inspector.‘ Thus the With the =. Prefect 2: 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 22, Gr. V, p. 680. 2 Ibid., Art. 23, Gr. V, p. 680. 8 Ibid., Art. 26, Gr. V, p. 681. 4 Ibid., Art. 27, Gr. V, p. 682. 34 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE powers of these two officials are fairly dove-tailed into each other, for the approval of each is absolutely essential to the permanent appointment of every regular teacher. The pre- fect, however, is under no compulsion to appoint the first nominee of the academy inspector, or even the tenth for that matter, but he cannot appoint on his own initiative. The same conditions prevail in regard to the transfer of a titulaire or the revocation of his right to teach. This dual control would seem to be productive of constant bickerings, but such is not the case. Conflicts between these two authorities are rare, and in case of continued difference of opinion the mat- ter would be carried to the Minister of Public Instruction for final decision. It has one very good feature, however, in that it safeguards the teachers. The initiative of the academy in- spector removes the teacher from the influence of politics, and on the other hand, the action of the prefect protects him from the possible exercise of any personal spite on the part of the academy inspector. The powers of the rectors over private schools have al- ready been noted. The academy inspectors have the same right of inspection and surveillance. In case Powers over 4 person wishes to open a private school, he Private a 3 Schools must notify the waive of the commune, the pre- fect, the academy inspector and the govern- ment attorney. The notification to the academy inspector must also include among other papers his diplomas, the names of the places where the applicant has lived, and a statement of the work he has followed during the last ten years, and if he belongs to an association a copy of the statutes of this or- ganization.” The maire may oppose the opening of a school in the interests of good morals or hygiene; on any other grounds the opposition depends upon the academy inspector, for the sole rights of opposition in such cases are confined to these two officials. The question is then decided by the conseil 1 Lot, Oct. 30, 1886, Arts. 29, 31, Gr. V, p. 683. 2 Tbid., Art. 38, Gr. V, p. 686. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 35 départemental. Either party may appeal to the conseil su- périeur de lV instruction publique, and the decision of this body is final. In any case the academy inspector is really the im- portant official in the matter. In all matters of disciplinary action against a teacher whether public or private, the academy inspector takes the initiative, and in extreme cases he may absolutely suspend the teacher while the matter is being investigated.’ The préfet or chief administrative officer of each depart- mient has had more or less to do with the control of the school affairs ever since his office was created by the First Consul. Originally, the prefect for the department and the sub-prefect for each arrondissement had merely the right of surveillance, and on the basis of this in- spection sent in regular reports to the Minister of the Interior, for at that point the educational affairs were administered by the Department of the Interior. Under the ordinance of 1833,° the prefect’s duties became more specific and he was associated directly with the University authorities. He was to see that the municipal councils established and kept up the primary schools as provided by the law of the previous June. In case of bad faith or neglect in this respect, the royal au- thority could levy a special tax, and have it inscribed in the budget of the commune. This is still essentially true in prin- ciple to-day. The prefect, however, had no direct power over the teachers. From March 1852 until June 1854, under au- thority given by the dictatorial decree of the Emperor, the rec- tors had the power of appointing the primary teachers formerly exercised by the municipal councils. At this latter date a new public instruction law was passed, and the powers of the rec- tors in this respect fell upon the prefects.* At that time the prefect was absolutely free to follow his Prefect 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 39, Gr. V, p. 688. 2 Ibid., Arts. 31, 33, 41, Gr. V, p. 683 ef seq. 3 Ordonnance, July 16, 1833, Art. 8, Gr. II, p. 28. 4 Loi, June 14, 1854, Art. 8, Gr. ITI, p. 588. 36 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE own inclination in the appointment of teachers, and the law of October 1886 still left him the actual ap- pointing power, but restricted him to those teachers that were nominated by the academy inspector." By virtue of his position as president of the conseil départemental, the prefect exerts a powerful influence over the schools of his department. He controls to a certain extent the action of this body, for he calls the members to- gether, submits, after consultation with the academy inspector, the questions which they should consider, and finally sees that their decisions are carried into effect. Moreover, as an officer of the Interior Department, he is the guardian of the administrative and financial interests of the communes within his jurisdiction. Thus a capable man in this position can serve as a balance wheel between the extreme educational en- thusiast with extravagant ideas on the question of school ex- penses, and the narrow-minded politician who would restrict the school budget to the lowest possible amount. After the short-lived departmental academies had ceased to exist in 1854, the new conseils départementaux ? were created. It is rather difficult to find exact parallels between the French school system and our own, but im powers and duties, though not in station, these bodies correspond very nearly to our munic- ipal school boards in the east or the county school boards in the west. Up to that time, as far as primary education is con- cerned, everything has come down from above. Now we find representatives from a lower order with seats in a higher: for example, four primary teachers are elected by their col- leagues to membership in this council. There are fourteen regular members, including the prefect as president and the academy inspector as vice-president. The rest of the mem- bership is made up of four conseillers généraux * chosen by 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 27, Gr. V, p. 682. 2 Loi, June 14, 1854, Art. 5, Gr. III, p. 588. 3 The conseil général du département is the legislative body of the de- partment, and must not be confused with the conseil départmental which is really the departmental school board. Present Powers Departmental Council THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 37 their colleagues, the directors of the two normal schools of the department, the two men and two women teachers elected by their fellow teachers, and two primary inspectors desig- nated by the Minister.” In cases of contention or discipline affecting the private schools, these institutions may be repre- sented by two delegates, appointed by their fellows. This council in no sense represents the popular will, for the in- fluence of the four conseillers généraux can not be very con- siderable in a board of fourteen, especially where the peda- gogical members form so large a majority. It is worth not- ing, however, that a combination between the lay members and the primary teachers would leave the central authorities in the minority. The presence of these primary teachers here, even though they are usually chosen from among the directors of the schools, gives some assurance that the rank and file of the teachers will at least have an opportunity to be heard. The members of this board are chosen or appointed for three years and serve without compensation, save that the primary in- spectors and the primary teachers that do not live at the chef- lieu of the department are allowed their travelling expenses. The powers of the conseil départemental are in their nature educational, administrative or judicial, but they do not extend beyond the limits of primary instruction. The board has no power actually to levy a tax, for in financial matters it is subordinate to the conseil général du département, but it can indirectly make the communes spend money for education. The subject matter of the pri- mary schools, save for subsequent minor modifications, is sub- stantially that outlined by the decree of January 1887. It is the duty of the conseil départemental to see that these off- cial programs are duly followed, and it may pass special regu- lations in the application of these. Furthermore, it considers plans for raising the standard of the schools, deliberates on the Powers 1In the department of the Seine, this council includes eight conseillers généraux, four primary inspectors and fourteen teachers. 2 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 44, Gr. V, p. 691, and Bull. Adm., 1901, LXX. p. 176. 38 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE reports and propositions of the academy inspector, and hears and discusses his annual report on the condition and needs of the public schools and on the state of affairs in the private schools.1 Under its administrative powers, the consetl dé- partemental in conjunction with the municipal council, deter- mines, subject to the approval of the Minister, the number, nature and situation of the public primary schools which should be established in each commune and also the number of teachers necessary for these;* it may allow two or more small communes * to unite for school purposes; * it may allow a male teacher to conduct a mixed school, provided there is a woman appointed to teach sewing.” It appoints one or more delegates in each canton (délégués cantonaux) to supervise the public and private schools.* Finally, it keeps an eligible list, rearranged annually, of the teachers in the department that deserve to be appointed titulaires.’ This function is most im- portant, for it is only from this list that the academy inspector may select his nominations to be made to the prefect. To-day, this promotion list is made up partly on the basis of merit and partly on the length of service, depending upon the teacher’s class. This conseil départemental is concerned in most of the re wards and punishments that may fall to the lot of the pri- mary teacher. It approves all the nominations of the academy inspector or the special commissions for the honorable men- 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 48, Gr. V, p. 692. 2 Ibid., Art. 13, Gr. V, p. 677. 3 This privilege is not very often used, for local communal pride seems to induce the communes to support schools of their own. 1891-1892 1896-1897 I9g0I-1902 Number of communes, France and Algeria. 36,492 36,520 36,551 Legally united for the support of a school. 871 815 793 Number of communes having 100 inhabi- HANS Ort LESS oi ssescceialo gates cane ha Genera eat Se 784 863 976 Statistique, V, 1891-1892, p. xl; VI, 1896-1897, p. xlvi; and VII, 1901- 1902, p. xliii. : 4 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 11, Gr. V, p. 677. 5 Ibid., Art. 6, Gr. V, p. 672. ® Ibid., Art. 52, Gr. V, p. 604. 7 Ibid., Art. 27, Gr. V, p. 681. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 39 tions and medals of bronze and silver that are awarded an- nually by the Minister* In the matter of penalties, the conseil départemental “ plays the réle of a real disciplinary body.” Of the five penalties, varying from the simple reprimand of the academy inspector to the teacher being absolutely for- bidden for all time to teach in any school in France pro- nounced by the conseil départemental, every one except the reprimand must be approved by this body. In the case of the most severe penalties, the teacher may appeal to the conseil supérieur.” The conseil départemental is also called upon to decide the objections that may be raised to the opening of a private school, though here again an appeal may be taken to the conseil supérieur.® “ It is in reality in each department the regulator of the public primary education, the judge of Its teachers, the arbiter of the interests of the communes in matters pertaining to primary instruction; no important act in school affairs can be accomplished without its intervention. Creation and establishment of schools, nomination of teachers, appreciation of their merits or their faults, everywhere the law has appealed to its initiative or to its control.” * As we follow along down through the successive grada- tions of this highly organized system, we finally reach the primary inspectors, the privates, so to speak, of ':.' all the army of inspectors, the officials that carry the influence of the central authority into the little schools in the remotest hamlets of the country and make the modest teacher there feel that behind him is the all- powerful authority of the State ready to support and uphold him in all his educational work. In their official life these inspectors take rank with the directors of the normal schools, and are the first of the authorities thus far considered to de- vote themselves exclusively to the primary school service. The office of a special inspector for primary instruction was first Primary Inspector 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1893, Art. 127, Gr. VI, p. 467. 2 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Arts. 30-32, Gr. V, p. 683. 3 Ibid., Art. 39, Gr. V, p. 688. 4 Organisation et Situation de lEnseignement Primaire, p. 139. 40 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE established by royal ordinance in 1835. One of these offi- cials was to be appointed by the Minister for each department, and soon after that time he was given one or two assistant inspectors to help him. In 1850, the system was better or- ganized, and one inspector was appointed for each arrondisse~ ment.? Although the number has been slightly modified since that time, proportionally it is substantially the same to-day. The law of 1886,° left the number to the discretion of the Minister. According to the Annuaire de I’Instruction Pu- blique for 1903, there were four hundred and fifty-one posts in France and Algeria, twenty of these being in the department of the Seine. On the basis of 106,233 teachers in the ele- mentary public primary schools outside Paris,* each inspector averages about two hundred and forty-six of these teach- ers under his control. In the centers of population where the schools: are all within easy distances of each other, the conditions are bad enough, but in the country districts they are far worse. The result is that in some of the dis- tricts the inspector has hard work to get around to all his schools once a year. To be sure, he tries to concentrate his efforts on the weaker schools and let the stronger ones take care of themselves, but after all a system of inspection to be valuable must be real. These men have already accomplished an almost herculean task in the work they have done during the last twenty years, but the good work done thus far ought to encourage the Minister still further to increase their numbers. Women primary inspectors may be appointed under the law of 1889.° They are chosen in the same way as the men, after submitting to the same examination. They may inspect girls’ schools and écoles maternelles either public or private, and they Women Inspectors + Ordonnance, Feb. 26, 1835, Gr. II, p. 181. 2 Loi, Mar. 15, 1850, Art. 20, Gr. III, p. 328. 3 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 10, Gr. V, D. 675. * Budget 1903, p. 98, note. 5 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 22, Gr. VI, p. 173. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 41 have about the same powers as the men. These, however, do not include any voice in the construction or creation of pub- lic schools, or in reference to the opening of private ones.* These women inspectors are found only in the populous cen- ters, and in fact as yet but two departments have them— Seine and Seine-et-Oise, two in the former and one in the latter. Besides these there are five women inspectors for the écoles maternelles in Paris and five others in as many differ- ent departments. The primary inspectors are the first officials we have thus far met whose selection depends directly upon competitive examination. The appointment of the higher officials rests entirely upon the personal choice pc ea of the President or the Minister, though this 7s tdore mist not be understood as implying that in- capable or undeserving men have been thus honored. From this point down, preferment in the primary system is won through examination and competition. Now for the first time, too, we find superior officers that have risen from the ranks, for these inspectors are usually products of the pri- mary school system and have often been advanced from posi- tions of simple mstituteurs. They are appointed by the Min- ister after a severe competitive examination. Until 1880, there were so many exceptions made in favor of various officials that many found their way into the inspectorate with- out submitting to any practical proof of their fitness for the position. Since that time, however, the examination has been made obligatory for all,? and a special examining board has been appointed each year to give the same examination simul- taneously to the candidates all over France. This test consists of three parts: written, oral, and practi- cal. For the written examination, which may be taken in the chefs-lieux of the various departments, and must be passed in order to be admitted to the succeeding parts of the examination, there are two composi- Examination 1 Décret, Jan. 17, 1891, Arts. 2-3, Gr. VI, p. 339. 2 Décret, June 5, 1880, Art. 1, Gr. V, p. 160. 42 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE tions, one on the subject of pedagogy in general and the other on school administration. Five hours are allowed for each of these. In view of the writer’s general observations on the apparent lack of initiative in the French schools, the subject for the pedogogical question at the series of January 1899, is worth quoting here. “Complaints are made that the spirit of initiative has be- come weaker in France. In what way can the teacher in the elementary and the higher primary school work to quicken and to strengthen this?’ * The successful candidates in this written examination are called to Paris to submit themselves to the other two parts of the ordeal. The oral examination consists of the explana- tion of a passage chosen from a list of books designated by the Minister every three years. The following are the books assigned for the years 1904, 1905 and 1906: MontTaiGneE: Essais, livre I., chapitre XXV. Rousseau: Emile, livre II. Cuannine: L’Education personnelle. MicueEtetr: Le Peuple, 2° et 3° parties. Nos Fils, 2° partie. Pécaut: L’Education publique et la vie nationale, 1'* partie, les 177 premiéres pages. Vessiot: De l'éducation a Técole: chapitres IX. Idées fausses a& redresser;—X. Sentiments & ranimer;—XI. Dé- fauts de l’éducation scolaire;—XV. Petites legons de Védu- cation. Guyau: Education et Hérédité: chapitres IV. But et méthode de l'éducation intellectuelle; V. L’école. Mme. De Réemusat: Essai sur l'éducation des femmes.? Among the writers for the previous three year period, one finds, ‘‘ Horace Mann: Son euvre, ses écrits.” Besides this the candidate is allowed two hours for reflection and another half hour for an exposition of some question of theoretical or practical pedagogy. He is also called upon to an- swer a few questions on school law and school administration. 1 Organisation et Situation de Enseignement Primaire, p. 482. 2 Arrété, Mar. 7, 1903; Bull. Adm., LXXIII, p. 248. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 43 For the practical part of the examination, he is sent to in- spect a normal school, either grade of the primary schools, or an école maternelle, and is then required to make a verbal report on the result of that inspection.» The severity of these examinations is further attested by the fact that of the five hundred and ninety-five candidates that presented themselves at the five examinations during the years 1897-1899, only one hundred and one passed the written part successfully. Of the fifty-five that actually received appointments, forty-four were professeurs in the normal schools or in the higher pri- mary schools and nine were simply imstituteurs.? The primary inspectors are divided into five classes, with salaries ranging at intervals of five hundred francs from three thousand to five thousand francs.*. Besides this each one receives three hundred francs ad- ditional from the department * and also from the State a cer- tain number of days’ travelling expenses at ten francs per day.’ This three hundred francs is merely a minimum, and some conseils généraux add to it very liberally. At least three years’ service in one class is necessary before being promoted to the next higher, but promotion comes by right after six years of service in a given class.° The primary inspectors are immediately subordinate to the academy inspector, and receive instructions only from him, from the rector, the general inspectors and the- Minister.’ It is their duty to inspect all the ce primary schools, both public and private of their district. As far as private schools are concerned, this Salaries 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts, 174-182 and the modifications provided by the Arrété, July 27, 1893, Gr. V, p. 809-810; VI, p. 518. Again modified, Arrété, Dec. 24, 1904; Bull. Adm., LXXVI, p. ro19. 2 L’Inspection de lEnseignement Primaire, p. 45. 8 Loi, July 19, 1880, Arts. 13 and 22, Gr. VI, p. 169 ff. In the depart- ment of the Seine, these salaries are all three thousand francs higher. 4 Loi, July 25, 1893, Art. 23, Gr. VI, p. 506. 5 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 131, Gr. V, D. 755. 6 Loi, July 25, 1893, Art. 25, Gr. VI, p. 507. 7 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 128, Gr. V, p. 755. 44 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE is limited to the work already outlined for the rectors and the academy inspectors: namely, to note the hygienic and moral conditions of the school and to satisfy themselves that the in- struction given is not contrary to the public good, the Con- stitution or the laws. In spite of the fact that some private schools really court a further inspection, the primary inspect- ors are always glad to limit themselves to their prescribed duties, in the first place because they really have little enough time for their public schools, and again because the private schools being usually of a denominational character, there is little sympathy between them and the educational authorities. With reference to the public schools,* they inspect the morality and the hygiene, approve the daily program of the school and see that it carries out the spinit and the law of the official reg- ulations, and “act as masters of method to the teachers.” They are also consulted on the opening of new schools, either public or private, and on the promotion of teachers. They are directly interested in and are often chiefly responsible for the awuvres complémentaiwes of the school: that is, the adult and evening classes, popular lectures, the school savings banks, the school libraries, and the associations of former pupils of the school. The primary inspector presides over the examina- tion board for the primary certificate and is found among the members of several other examining commissions as well as in the conseil départemental. One of the most important of his duties is the organization and direction of the cantonal teachers’ conferences. There are generally two of these meetings each year, one for purely theoretical discussion and the other for the practical application of this theory. Since 1880 the attendance of all public school teach- ers at these conferences has been obligatory.?, These con- ferences correspond in a large measure to the teachers’ con- ventions that are held from time to time in many of our own Teachers’ ‘Conferences 1 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 129, Gr. V, p. 755. 2 Arrété, June 5, 1880, Gr. V, p. 167. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 45 states, and serve as a stimulus to the social as well as the intellectual and professional life of the French teachers. One excellent feature of these conferences is the emphasis put upon the practical side. The autumn meeting is usually de voted to a model lesson given by one of the teachers to his own children and illustrating some phase of the theoretical problem discussed at the spring meeting. After the lesson is finished there is an opportunity given for a general discussion, and the teacher is called upon to defend himself against the criticisms of his fellows. One can readily see that under proper direction, such meetings may be of incalculable value to the teachers. They also enable the primary inspectors to meet their teachers outside the class room and gain consider- able information about them that may be of value when the question of their promotion arises. The primary inspector presides at these conferences, unless the academy inspector happens to be present, and is responsible for the conduct of the meeting. Every inspection of a school by the primary inspector is made the basis of a report to the academy inspector, and as far as possible aims to criticize the good as well as the bad points in the organization or the conduct of the school. Thus the academy inspector, aided by his own investigations, can act intelligently and wisely when he has need to judge of the worth of a teacher in questions of advancement, rewards or punishments. Some time ago,* a ministerial circular recom- mended that the primary inspector leave a memorandum with the teacher embodying the criticisms that he had to make on the work in that particular school, and this method is said to have been productive of very good results. The primary inspector, then, the humblest of the govern- ment inspectors, is really one of the most tireless and im- portant of them all. He comes into intimate relations with the teachers throughout his district and has the best oppor- tunity for improving the standard of the teaching force and the schools. 1 Circulaire aux recteurs, Nov. 19, 1892; Circ. XI, p. 613. 46 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Under the terms of the law of 1886, the only other author- ities that may inspect the schools are the members of the con- seil départemental designated for that purpose, Other the mayors, and the cantonal delegates.* The Authorities hy , ‘ for Tnupeetion conseil départemental may appoint one third of its members to visit all the schools, public or private, in the department,’ but in practice they seldom use this prerogative, for some of their members, the academy in- spector and the primary inspectors, already have this power, and none of the public school teachers may be delegated to in- spect private schools.* The maire may visit any public or private school of his commune or miay have it inspected by a physician,* but the former must practically confine his obser- vations to the installation and conduct of the school from point of view of morals or hygiene, for he has nothing whatever to do with the teachers or the methods they use. The délégués cantonaux are especially intended to repre- sent the lay element in inspecting the schools and stand, so to speak, im loco parentis. Their powers and duties have in no sense been changed since the office was first instituted in 1850, for the law of 1886 simply repeated the provisions of the former law. The conseil départemental may appoint one or more of these offi- cers for each canton but must assign them definite schools to visit.» This appointment is for three years and may be re- voked at any time. These délégués cantonausx may even be present at the meetings of the conseil départemental with de- liberative powers when affairs of interest to their particu- lar schools are under discussion.® At least once in three months, all the delegates of the canton meet at the chief town to discuss matters of common interest and to make recommen- Cantonal Delegates 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 9, Gr. V, p. 673. 2 Ibid. Art. 50, Gr. V, p. 693. 3 Ibid., Art. 9, Gr. V, p. 673. 4 Ibid, » [bid., Art. 52, Gr. V, p. 604. 8 [bid, THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 47 dations to the departmental council.» According to a circular of M. Berthelot, “a little inspection stimulates; too much paralyzes .... these délégués cantonaux are not so many additional primary inspectors.” * They have absolutely noth- ing to do with the subject matter or method of the instruc- tion given, but confine themselves entirely to the material wel- fare of the school, its hygiene and the general attitude of the pupils.* They have in some respects even larger opportunities than the primary inspectors, for they can meet the children on the street, follow them in the every day life of the home, and see exactly what the education that the State provides is doing for each individual child. After all, the worth of an educa- tional system must be measured by its actual influence on the life of the pupil and not by the mere external appearance of the school room. The practical education is the one that best fits for social service, and a system stands or falls by the measure of its conformity to that ideal in its broadest signification. The commission scolatre is a kind of local school board with very restricted powers. These committees were organized one in each commune a little more than twenty years ago * as a natural result of the compul- sory school law passed at the same time and be- cause the authorities felt that for certain work there was great need of local coGperation, without which the schools would fail in a really essential part of their true purpose. These com- mittees are the instruments for developing and encouraging a popular interest in the schools and school affairs. They were primarily established to improve the school attendance, but subsequently their duties have broadened not a little, without ever reaching the point, however, where they were allowed Local School Boards 1In Paris these delegates are appointed for each arrondissement, and meet at least once a month under the presidency of the matre of the arrondissement. 2 Circulaire du Ministre, Mar. 25, 1887, Gr. VI, p, 1. 3 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 140, Gr. V, p. 757. 4 Loi, Mar. 28, 1882, Art. 5, Gr. V, p. 421. 48 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE any right to inspect the school or exercise any control over the action of the teachers or, in fact, even to enter the school itself... Each commission, except in Paris and Lyon, where there is such a committee for each municipal arrondissement, is composed of the maire as president, as many délégués cantonaux as there are cantons in the commune, and a num- ber of members chosen from the municipal council equal to not more than one third the membership of that body. The délégués cantonaux are selected by the academy inspector, and the councilors are chosen by their fellow members on the municipal board. The primary inspector of the district is also an ex officio member of the committee. The committee meets at least once in three months at the call of its president and discusses means for improving the work and influence of the schools. It is one of the duties of this board to draw up every year a list of the children between the ages of six and thirteen in order that the law for compulsory attendance may be en- forced. Naturally it often happens that children are kept away from school on account of lack of suitable clothing. This committee tries to ameliorate these conditions by estab- lishing a catsse d’école, or school fund, which may be drawn upon to supply shoes or warm clothing, to provide little mid- day luncheons or school supplies, and in general to foster every good effort so as to make it possible for every child to improve the educational opportunities that the State offers him. Although the law of 1882 required each commune to establish such a fund,” in the 36,551 communes of France and Algeria in 1902, there were only 17,439 caisses d’école,*® and this too, in spite of the fact that in the poorest communes the ministry gives annually a sum equal to that raised by the local authori- ties.* Among the other auxiliary organizations which an effective committee encourages may be mentioned the school 1 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 154, Gr. V, p. 7509. 2 Loi, Mar. 28, 1882, Art. 17, Gr. V, p. 420. 3 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. cxiii. Cf. lot supra. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 49 library and museum, school savings banks, giving of prizes, associations of former pupils, and evening classes. As has already been indicated, the administrative organ- ization of France embraces the department, the arrondisse- ment, the canton and the commune. The first and the last of these are the only ones that have a real independence with distinct legislative powers and ate gets of their own. Hence these are the only ones that exer- cise any control over the educational machinery. The depart- ment is far the more important of the two, for although France is a republic, yet the influence of the central government dominates all the life of the nation. France is essentially a State and not a union of states as we are on this side of the Atlantic. The government keeps a strong hold on the de- partments through the prefect, who is appointed directly by the authorities in Paris, but the communal life is now quite within the control of local influence. Since the Goblet law of 1884, the conseillers municipaux have been elected by popu- lar suffrage and these in turn choose the maire. Although the communes have practically no voice in the obligatory ex- penses connected with their schools, yet the amounts that they may spend over and above the legal requirements are limited only by the willingness of their citizens to assume the neces- sary financial responsibility. The real school committee in our sense of the term, is the conseil départemental. In this brief treatment of the financial aspects of the French primary school system, the question will be considered from the point of view of the three contributory bodies: The State, the de- partment and the commune. Until the law of 1889, each commune had cared for its own schools, paid the teachers’ salaries and all the other expenses connected with the support of the schools, al- though it must not be overlooked that the grants from the State and the department were of very great assistance. This naturally gave rise to much inequality, for some of the communes were very liberal while others were equally parsimonious. The prevailing conditions were much Finance ‘i The State 50 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE as they are in some of our states to-day, and the schools in the poorer communities suffered accordingly. Only a few years before this, the State had passed the free school law and had quickly followed it with the law of compulsory attendance and laicization of the schools. At this time, July 19, 1889,* the State went one step farther and assumed the responsibility for the payment of the teachers’ salaries. This was extended to include also the living expenses of the normal school pupils and in general all the normal school expenses outside of those connected with the buildings and the equipment. An effort had been made in the spring of 1886 to pass a similar law.’ The project was pushed by the Ministers of the Interior and Finance as well as by the Minister of Public Instruction, but the times were not then ripe for such a measure. Again at the time of the very important legislation in the fall of the same year, another attempt was made. At this time, however, such strong opposition developed that there was danger of im- perilling the law itself, so all the financial questions which naturally presented themselves were deferred until a more favorable moment. This did not come until midsummer, 1889, and the financial legislation enacted at this date supple- mented the organic law of three years before. Except for minor changes made since then, those are the regulations un- der which the primary educational system of France is ad- ministered to-day. ‘As a result of the new law, the obligatory expenses of the State increased from 86,016,880 francs in 1889 to 121,488,778 francs in 1890, while at the same period the expenses of the communes dropped from 71,956,078 to 56,- 580,247.° These amounts do not represent by any means the total outlay for the year, nor do they mean that the State took upon itself all this additional burden. It acts simply as the financial agent of the communes, collects from them a certain tax, and uses the proceeds in turn to pay the teachers. The expenses of the departments which had been 17,907,315 1 Loi, July 19, 18890, Gr. VI, p. 159 ff. 2 Projet de loi, Mar. 13, 1886, Gr. V, p. 654 ff. 3 Statistique, V, 1891-1892, p. civ. THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 51 francs in 1889, at the same time dropped to practically noth- ing. In 1902, the last year for which these statistics are avail- able, the amounts contributed for primary instruction by the State and the communes were 155,098,452 and 81,500,516 francs respectively." Although the State assumed so much responsibility, the only establishments d’enseignement primaire public where the State’s powers and responsibilities are unique are the two higher primary normal schools at Saint-Cloud and Fontenay-aux-Roses.* These institutions are destined specifi- cally to train teachers for the departmental normal schools, and absolutely all the expenses of their maintenance are borne by the State. It is almost unnecessary to add that the State also pays the salaries of the general officers of the department together with the expenses of inspecting the schools. Under the new legislation of 1889, the department’s ob- ligatory expenses in primary education were practically abol- ished, and the few that remain do not involve any great amount. Inthe department, the chief legislative body is the conseil général. The members of this body are elected by popular suffrage, with one representative from each canton. This body, then, is the source of all the departmental appropriations and as such provides the funds for the use of the conseil départemental or departmenital school board. The conseil général must pro- vide the equipment of the departmental normal schools and keep the buildings in repair.* It must also furnish an extra indemnity of at least three hundred francs * to each primary inspector as well as provide and equip a suitable office for the The Department 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. clxxxi. 2 This applies only to the divisions of the educational system under the authority of the Minister of Public Instruction. The various other insti- tutions that really form a part of the educational system of France, such as the écoles pratiques de commerce et d’industrie under the Department of Commerce, the écoles spéciales d’agriculture under the Department of Agriculture, the military and naval schools, etc. are quite outside the limits of this study. 3 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 3, Gr. VI, p. 163. 4 Loi, July 25, 1803, Art. 23, Gr. V, p. 505. 52 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE academy inspector. Furthermore, it must pay the expenses of the master-workmen necessary to help the professors of agricultural, commercial, or industrial work in the schools that the department may establish. Inasmuch as the establishing of these schools is entirely optional, this can hardly be con- sidered an obligatory expense. The most important of all these charges is that for the establishment and support of the normal schools. Since 1879, the State has required each department to provide a school for boys and also one for girls where its teachers might be trained. Until the legislation of 1889, the entire expense of these schools, teaching force and all, fell upon the departments. Since that time, however, the State has assumed the responsibility of the teachers’ salaries, the maintenance of the pupils while at the school, and in general all the expenses except those for the buildings and equipment. In regard to the optional expenses which the conse départemental may undertake, these are limited only by the willingness of the conseil général to grant the necessary funds. This latter body really exercises no little influence over- the educational affairs of its department. It receives every year the report of the academy inspector on the condition and needs of the schools in the department. Then again, the conseil général is represented by four of its members in the conseil départementul, and through these representatives as well as through the reports that the latter body sends from time to time is able to keep in rather close touch with the progress of education within its jurisdiction. Moreover, the demands of the communes for the establishment of new schools or for state assistance may be transmitted to the Minister only with the approval of this council. Besides, two conseillers généraux are found on the governing board of each normal school. Among the various ways in which the departments may materially encourage and extend the work of the schools may be mentioned the grants made to communes to help de- fray the cost of school buildings, the scholarships in the higher primary schools together with those granted to the graduates and teachers of these schools for foreign study of THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 53 the modern languages, prizes of various kinds and the en- couragement given to adult classes, lectures, associations of former pupils and other euvres complémentaires of the school. From this it can readily be seen that although the part played by the department is far less important than that of the State or even that of the commune, yet it has an op- portunity to care for many details that the other two neglect. Even though the State assumed the teachers’ salaries and so much of the school expenses by the law of 1889, yet the communes were by no means relieved from all responsibility in the matter. As has been said mas before, this act of the State was chiefly that of ee a financing agent. The teacher then became a State official and is now absolutely independent of the communes in the matter of salary. Instead of the marked inequality that had previously existed, the salaries for teachers of the same class were made the same all over France. Inasmuch as living ex- penses usually increase with the size of the town, in order to equalize conditions, an extra residence allowance was granted in places where there are agglomérations of more than one thousand people and also for the chef-lieu of each canton. This extra allowance must be paid by the commune.* By the law of 1833, every commune was required to maintain at least one primary school either by itself or in conjunction with another commune.” This provision was not immediately carried out, for in 1834 the 37,187 communes had only 22,641 public primary schools and only 33,695 public and private. In 1837 there were still more than fifty-six hundred communes, or about fifteen per cent of the total number that had no pub- lic school.* During the next decade this number was cut down nearly one half. Since then it has decreased even more rapidly and in 1892 only about one tenth per cent of the communes lacked school accommodation.* The necessity for 1 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 4, Gr. VI, p. 163. 2 Loi, June 28, 1833, Art. 9, Gr. II, p. 13. 3 Statistique, II, p. 10. 4 Ibid., V, 1891-1892, p. xli. 54 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE each commune supporting a primary school was reiterated in the law of 1850 and again in that of 1867. At this latter period, the support of a separate school for girls was made obligatory upon every commune where there were at least five hundred inhabitants, unless specially excused from this obligation by the conseil départemental.* The present Re- public has always taken a deep interest in the educational question, and is responsible for the great strides that have been made in the last thirty years. The first of these was the ex- tension of the normal schools for both sexes to all the depart- ments in 1879; then came the great free education law of 1881; the next year education was made compulsory and was freed from the domination of the Church; and finally in 1889 the communes were relieved of the responsibility for paying the teachers’ salaries directly. The law of 1886 reaffirmed the obligation of each commune to establish and maintain at least one primary school. The State does everything in its power to help the small communes keep to the letter of this law by giving financial assistance in building, reconstructing or enlarg- ing their school houses. Formerly this was purely a matter of influence, but in 1885 a new plan was adopted by which communes whose centime tax is not more than six thousand francs per annum may receive a subsidy from the State for these purposes. The amount granted in any one case cannot be less than fifteen per cent nor more than eighty per cent of the total expense, account being taken of the character of the building, the resources of the community, and the need and importance of the work under- taken.” The poorer the commune, the larger proportionally will be its share. The building subsidies in the budget of 1903 for the needs of primary education amounted to 5,900,000 francs.* However, in order still further to lessen the burden on small communes, the conseil départemental, subject to the 1 Loi, Apr. 10, 1867, Art. 1, Gr. IV, p. 133. 2 Loi, June 20, 1885, Art. 8, Gr. V, p. 615. 3 Budget de 1903, p. 103. State Aid THE LOCAL AUTHORITIES 55 approval of the Minister, may authorize two or more small communes that are near each other to unite for school pur- poses. If this union forms an agglomération of five hundred persons or more, it entails the responsibility of providing a separate school for girls just the same as in the case of single communes of that size. The conseil départemental, after con- sulting the municipal council, determines, subject to the ap- proval of the Minister, the number, nature and situation of all primary schools and also the number of teachers that should be alloted to each. The écoles primaires élémentaires, how- ever, are the only obligatory schools, the ones whose support can be legally charged to the communes. Certain other schools may be established by the communes and then become the so-called conventionally obligatory schools: that is, once started they must be maintained for at least thirty years, if the commune has received State aid for the building or or- ganization of the school.* Formerly these subsidies from the State were given annually for a long period of time, but since 1894, this money has all been given in a lump sum. There are five kinds of schools that come under this provision: écoles maternelles that may be established in communities hav- ing more than two thousand inhabitants, provided there are at least twelve hundred people grouped together in the same ham- let, so to speak; classes enfantines, cours complémentatres, écoles primaires supérieures and the écoles manuelles dappren- tissage. These, as in fact all schools, may be established only in the legal manner outlined above. The State’s responsibil- ity in teachers’ salaries extends to all these obligatory and conventionally obligatory schools, but whenever the com- munes below these limits establish public schools, they alone are responsible for the entire expense. The indemnité de résidence was provided for in the law of 1889 partly in order to counterbalance the effect of the equalization of the salaries. The result of this was: first, to guarantee every teacher a living wage; and secondly, to make 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 11, Gr. V, p. 675. 2 Tbid., Art. 13, Gr. V, p. 676. * Décret, Mar. 28, 1899, Gr. VI, p. 880, 56 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the net income of the town teacher as nearly as possible equal to that of his fellow in the country where the living expenses are naturally lower. This in- demnity applies to towns with more than one thousand inhabitants and varies from one hundred francs to eight hundred francs annually for heads of schools and all teachers in the écoles primaires supérieures or the cours com- plémentaires.*. For ordinary titulaires, the amounts are one half and for stagiaires one fourth these sums. In the depart- ment of the Seine, there is a special schedule with a maximum of two thousand francs for the city of Paris. Each com- munity is responsible for this indemnity, and also for pro- viding a suitable lodging or its money equivalent for each of its teachers. Besides this, the commune must also pay for lighting and heating the schools, the expense of the janitor service as well as the nurses for the écoles maternelles, the necessary school furniture and its repair, including all registers and other rec- ord books, and finally the entire expenses of the master- workmen needed to help the professors of agricultural, com- mercial, or industrial subjects in the schools that the commune may establish.” Such is the power of the State that in case the commune refuses to provide such a school as is deemed necessary, the prefect with the support of the conseil général may proceed to the construction of such a building and charge it on the budget of 'the commune. Finally, the communes have every opportunity to supplement the work of the State and de- partment by encouraging and undertaking other work than the mere minimum prescribed by law, either in those directions already referred ‘to in the case of the departments or in can- tines scolaires (school kitchens), school libraries, school savings banks, or in furnishing free text-books to the children. In spite of all that the State has done to encourage education and lighten its burden upon the poorer people, France is still con- siderably behind the United States in the matter of free text-books. 1 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 12, Gr. VI, p. 167. 2 Ibid. Art. 4, Gr. VI, p. 164. Residence Indemnity CHAPTER IV Tue TEACHER One of the most striking features about the French schools to an American is the great number of men teachers in the primary schools and even in the lower grades. The idea seems to be pretty well grounded Men and with us that the woman with all her latent hi oe mother instincts is far more capable of teach- ing children than is the man. And this is true from our point of view, but the relations between teachers and pupils in France are quite different from those in the United States. The French teacher becomes a little indignant if one asks him about sympathy between himself and his pupils. Of course there is sympathy, but it is always the sympathy between the teacher as such and the pupil as such, not that between friend and equal. Consequently the man teacher in France succeeds very well even with the young children, judged according to the French standard. It must be noted here that the man has comparatively little to do with girls, for every girls’ school must be taught by a woman. Of the twenty thousand mixed schools in France, about two thirds are directed by men,’ but this is allowed only on condition that the commune provide a special sewing teacher for the girls of the school. According to the latest figures at hand,’ in the public primary schools, both elementary and higher, there were 56,705 men and 57,660 women. There has been a large proportional increase in the number of women teachers during the last five years so that the men no longer fill a majority of the 114,365 positions in 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p.1x. In 1901-1902 there were 20,412 mixed schools, 13,194 directed by men, and 7,218 by women. 2 [bid., p. lviii. 57 58 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the public school service. The difference between this figure and 169,245, the total for all the elementary teachers of the country, represents the number of teachers in the private schools, a proportion by no means inconsiderable. The pres- ence of so many men in the small single-school communes is said to be because the maire prefers to have a man teacher in order that he may obtain some secretarial assistance from the school master. As a matter of fact, the normal school courses formerly included elementary instruction in the prep- aration of simple legal papers, and it often happened that the school master was the only one of the community capable of doing this work. For some time past, some of the higher educational authorities have been. much attracted by our cus- tom in America of confining the teaching force of the pri- mary schools almost entirely to women. Besides, too, there has been some little difficulty in finding suitable men for all the vacant positions. Unfortunately all precedent and tradition are against the employment of women teachers in boys’ schools, and though these factors must be reckoned with in France, it is to be hoped that years of republicanism may change this feeling. The relative position of woman everywhere on the continent, as is almost too well known to need repeating here, is below that in the United States. What wonder is it that the woman of Europe does not compare well intellectually with her brother! Look at the disparity in the numbers of the gymnasia for boys and girls in Germany; in Paris, even, note that there are five écoles primawres supérieures for boys and two for girls—in 1902, the corresponding figures for all France were two hun- dred and seven, and ninety-five respectively *—-and it is only since 1879 that the girls’ normal schools in France have been on the same footing with those of the boys. These are only isolated cases but they serve to illustrate the general tendency. The entrance of women into the fields of secondary and higher education has long been frowned on very severely on 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. xxxix. Position of Women THE TEACHER 59 the other side of the Atlantic. Yet one finds able and bril- liant women in France that are interested in and eager to know what we in America are doing to-day along these very lines. Let not any of the women of France that I have had the good fortune to meet take umbrage at these words, for there are thousands of individual cases that I have no intention of in- cluding here. The fact that there are women inspectors and normal school principals in France to-day that have passed successfully the same examinations as the men that fill similar positions is in itself evidence that these conditions do not everywhere prevail. But as one looks at the position of wo- men as a whole, he will be forced to the above conclusion. One is encouraged, however, to take a more hopeful view of the future, for “in spite of the attacks, whencesoever they may come, the cause of the girls’ lycées has already gained ground in public opinion. The secondary education of girls is sure of its future wherever it is in the hands of skilful and intelligent people. It is only necessary to let it advance; it will move forward slowly but surely to victory.” * Of course in these European countries there is an economic reason for excluding women as much as possible from the professions. There where the rate of wages is so low and the competition so keen, man has every reason to fear woman, for under nor- mal conditions the man has many mouths to feed and the wo- man but one. This suggests another point where the French practice is quite different from ours. If the French woman teacher chooses to be married, she does not thereby forfeit her right to teach. In fact the directress of a normal school not far from Paris is a married woman whose husband is a pro- fessor in one of the lycées in the city, and the combined in- come of the family amounts to quite a princely sum for the French teaching profession. The teachers in the écolcs primaires élémentatres are di- vided into two groups, the stagiaires and the titulawes. The second of these are the only ones that may properly be called 1Compayré, Address at the inauguration of the new buildings of the girls’ lycée at Lyon, Nov. 16, 1902. 60 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE regular teachers in full standing, the first occupying a kind of provisional or probationary stage that must Stagiaires continue for at least two years. In the first oe place, nobody can be a primary teacher in any public or private school in France who is not French,t who does not hold the brevet élémentaire, or elementary certificate, and who is not at least eighteen years of age in the case of a man and seventeen in the case of a woman.” During this testing period, for the two years’ ex- perience as stagiaire is really nothing more than this, the young teacher is entirely in the hands of the purely educational au- thorities. These are really the final judges as to the probabil- ity of his attaining the standard established by the department, and of being capable of instructing the youth of the country. Although the civil authorities play an important part in the final appointment of the teacher, yet the initiative belongs to the educational department, and this after all is the important thing. The academy in- spector has full power to appoint the stagiaires, to transfer them from one post to another, and even to remove them en- tirely.* Hence the great care with which he watches over the normal schools and their pupils, for these are the chief sources of supply for his teachers. The inspector is nominally free to seek his teachers where he will, but naturally he ex- hausts the supply of trained candidates before accepting others less desirable. In fact, a ministerial circular * bids him pro- vide places first for the normal school graduates who leave the school with the brevet supérieur, then for those who having finished the course but failed in this examination agree to present themselves for it again during the next two years, next Appointment 1A naturalized foreigner that fulfils the other two conditions as to age and diploma may be authorized by the Minister to teach in a specific pri- vate school. (Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 4, Gr. V, p. 671; Cire. Nov. 13, 1888, X, p. 370.) 2 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 4, Gr. V, p. 670. 3 Ibid., Art. 26, Gr. V, p. 681. *Circ,, Aug. 1, 1888, Gr. VI, p. 123. THE TEACHER 61 the normal graduates of other departments in the same academy, and finally, he may appoint promising candidates that have had no normal training at all. Generally speaking, the normal schools do not supply the needs of their own departments, for the number of pupils in the entering classes is regulated by the probable requirements of the various departments. It is Trained naturally very difficult to estimate this three aren years ahead, and moreover the departments either will not or cannot afford to provide for their own natural wants. The result is that in some of the departments the normal schools provide only one third or one half the teachers. However, France has made such progress during the last generation that she can now truthfully say that the above law of 1886 is practically complied with. The comparatively few persons still teaching without holding the necessary elementary di- ploma are those that were already in service at the time the first law containing this requirement was passed in 1881.1 In spite of all this remarkable progress, the French schools are still some distance behind their ideals, for in 1902, about sixty per cent of the men teachers and about fifty-two per cent of the women were provided with the professional certifi- cate necessary for becoming titulaires under the present law. All this despite the fact that within the previous five years the number of teachers holding the certificat d’aptitude péda- gogique had increased from about 44,523 to 62,820—a gain of more than forty-one per cent.” This is a better showing than any country in the world, with the exception of Germany, can probably make. Certainly we in America are not very strong rivals. After serving two years as stagiatres, the teachers may pre- sent themselves as candidates for the certificat d’aptitude péda- gogique*® and on passing this examination they become eli- gible for appointment as regular teachers in full standing. 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. xvi. 2 Ibid., p. Ixvii. 3 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 23, Gr. V, p. 680. 62 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE At this time, the educational authorities lose their absolute right to control the movements of the teacher, and henceforth he is under the combined control of the educational and the civil authorities, for the academy inspector has to share his authority with the prefect. After the stagiaire has gained this certificate, the academy inspector nominates him as titulare, but these nominations must be made from an eligible list drawn up each year by the conseil départemental,* and the prefect of the department makes the appointment. Each of the authori- ties is absolutely free to act as he pleases with the sole re- striction that the initiative in the matter must invariably be taken by the academy inspector.* This titulaire may become the director (or directress) of a school, that is the head of a school with more than two classes,® or he may become merely an assistant in charge of a class. In the écoles primaires supérieures, the teaching force is divided into two general groups:* first, the directors and those teachers that have a special certificate for In the the professorat in the écoles normales. These = = es latter are called professeurs, together with the Schasls directors are appointed directly by the Minister, and are naturally removable only by him. The others are the institutewrs adjoints, who are regular teachers but have not gained this special certificate for teaching in the normal schools, and the mattres ausxiliaires, who have certifi- cates for teaching special subjects: for example, modern languages, and music. Those belonging to this second gen- 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 23, Gr. V, p. 680. 2 Cire, Aug. 1, 1888, Gr. VI, p. 124. 3 The French word classe signifies a group of children in the charge of a teacher, and is not quite the same as our word class. The French equivalent of the English word class is ordinairly cours, but in the normal schools it is promotion. Thus in the country schools, with a single teacher, we may find three cours, but only one classe, while in the larger schools the number of cours may correspond exactly with the number of classes. In the city schools, it often happens that a single cours is divided into several classes. In this last case, in the United States we should express cours by the term grade. + Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 28, Gr. V, p. 682. THE TEACHER 63 eral group are appointed here regularly or temporarily in the same way that the titulaires receive their appointments. The natural sources of supply for the ordinary teachers in the écoles normales are the two écoles normales primaires supérieures at Fontenay-aux-Roses and Saint- Cloud, though it not infrequently happens that Sources a teacher is called to the écoles normales from ay the ranks of secondary education. Many of this latter class prefer a normal school appointment in or near a large city to a position in a country lycée or collége. In fact, with the help of additional hours of instruction that are usually to be found in the cities, the income there is rather better. So, too, with the teachers in the écoles primaires supérieures, one often finds a teacher properly classed in secondary ranks that has a few hours per week in these primary schools. This un- doubtedly tends to raise the standard of the teaching force in this class of schools. The directors of the écoles normales are taken almost ex- clusively from among the primary inspectors, it being tacitly understood that a tour of five or six years as inspector is a necessary preparation for the directorship. Since the State assumed responsibility for the teachers’ salaries in 1889, the teachers have been very carefully graded. The titulaires are divided into five classes, and the process of transition from one to another was very strictly regulated by the laws of 1889, 1893 and 1900, a certain per cent of the total number being allowed for each class. This rather complicated arrangement was abolished in the spring of 1902 * and reforms were intro- duced looking to bettering the condition of the teachers, the basis of promotion being now length of service. For purposes of classification, the primary inspectors, the directors and teachers in the normal and the higher primary schools for both boys and girls, and the stewards in the normal schools are each likewise divided into five classes. It should be care- Classes of Teachers 1Loi de Finances, Mar. 30, 1902, Art. 69; Bull. Adm., Apr. 12, 1902, LXXI, p. 358. 64. PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE fully noted here that the class of the teacher belongs to the individual and not to the grade of work he may be doing. Under normal conditions, the newly appointed teacher would be named as an assistant in a country school, then assistant in a town or city school, later, head teacher in the country and finally director of a'town school. In this way, a teacher would have a varied experience and be fitted for either class of posi- tions. In practice, however, this regular progression is by no means followed. Owing to the fact that the supply of teachers furnished by the normal schools is not equal to the demand, the towns and cities usually get the best of the teachers. In the case of the girls’ normal school at Batignolles in Paris, the better half of the class usually receive appoint- ments in the écoles maternelles in Paris, while the others are sent to the suburbs as teachers in the écoles primatres élémentaires. All the complicated provisions for promotion from one class to another, depending partly on length of service and partly on merit, and the relative importance of the two varying with the class, were abolished by the financial law of 1902." This was supplemented by some positive legislation one year later,* aimed chiefly at improving the financial position of the teachers. Under the old scheme, promotion was often slow and irregular, and some of the less fortunate spent the best of their years in faithful service and still remained in the lowest classes. Then, too, the number of promotions depended upon the varying mood of the two cham- bers as affected by the peculiar financial situation that each year might bring forth. Criticisms were heard on every side, and the recruitment of men teachers was becoming in- creasingly difficult, due in part to the new law imposing two years of military service on all instead of the one year that had previously been required of all professional men, and in part to various economic considerations. Promotion 1Loi de Finances, Mar. 30, 1902, Art. 69; Bull. Adm., Apr. 12, 1902, LXXI, p. 358. 2Lot de Finances, Mar. 31, 1903, Art. 73; Bull. Adm., Apr. 11, 1903, LXXIII, p. 468. THE TEACHER , 65 By this new legislation, the salaries of the stagiaires, and the titulawres of the fifth grade, were raised to one thousand and to eleven hundred francs respectively... The probationers are now promoted to regular teachers on the first of January next after they gain the certi- ficat d’aptitude pédagogique, provided always that their names are on the department council’s list for promotion. This is equivalent to saying that the academy inspector approves. the advancement, for this list is practically made up upon his re- commendation. In any case, the academy inspector may nom- inate for promotion only teachers whose names appear on this list, but the actual appointment must be made by the prefect. A third clause of this new law provides that beginning with the first of January 1904, teachers shall be promoted from the fifth and the fourth classes after five years of service in each of these grades. Thus length of service is made the basis of promotion, and a regular movement is provided for. There will no longer be any uncertainty about advancement, and every teacher can count on faithful service being rewarded. Parliament is now compelled to provide for a certain number of promotions each year, and it will no longer be possible for any teacher to reach the age of retiring and still be drawing only a fifth class salary. No provision thas thus far been made for promotion to the second and the first classes, and the omission of any mention here would seem to indicate that advancement there might be made on the basis of merit, as has heretofore been the case with all promotions to the highest class. To-day the first class is not only the best paid, but it is composed of the picked teachers of the whole school system, and there is no prob- ability that the conditions will be so changed as to lower the present high standard of that class. Throughout all, the academy inspector is the moving spirit in everything that con- cerns the teacher’s life, for he makes the first appointment as stagiaire and also originates all movements for subsequent promotion. Reform 1 Further increased in 1905. Cf. infra. 66 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE For some years, the directors and regular teachers in the écoles primaires supérieures, the écoles normales and the écoles professionnelles, together with the stewards in the second of these schools, and the primary inspectors have been promoted entirely from choice after not less than three nor more than six years’ service in a particular class,* in every case the promotion being in the hands of the Minister himself. When the State abolished all school fees in 1881, it guar- anteed every teacher a salary equal to the maximum he had received during the previous three years.’ Since 1889 * when the State assumed the re- sponsibility for the salaries, these have been the same for all teachers of the same class all over France. Income Men. Women, SHOP ES: dons caag our meee 1000 * francs. tooo * francs. Titulaires, 5th class........... 1100 5 II00 5 Ate. eiesneeten ye 1200 1200 Bd we iad Suew ausionudions 1500 1400 Ode ezsisvatas tte 1800 1500 TS toe acc deeennienstaces 2000 1600 1 Lot, July 25, 1893, Art. 25, Gr. VI, p. 506. 2 Loi, June 16, 1881, Art. 6, Gr. V, p. 263. 3 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 7, Gr. VI, p. 166. 4JIn 1889 this was 800 francs. It was increased to goo francs in 1893, and to the above figure in 1903. The budget voted April 22, 1905 carried the following general increase of salaries: * Men. Women. SHAQ CS 5 oo cc av ces wi aan id aes 1100 francs. 1100 francs. Titulatres, 5th class.............. 1200 1200 Ath ClasSinc ves vane seve 1500 1400 Bd ClaSSie sedans awed 1800 1600 BAHCASS a sada heise 2000 1800 Est: iClaSSiace vyedeaccee 2200 2000 The salaries of the men and women teachers of the first four classes will reach these new amounts in four years, by annual increment of one fourth the difference between the old figures and the new. The salaries of the men and women teachers of the two lowest classes will reach these new figures in two years, with an annual increment of fifty francs. 5 Increased from 1000 francs in 1903. * Bull, Adm., lxxvti., pp. 538-539. THE TEACHER 67 Teachers that have charge of a school with more than two classes received two hundred francs extra, and this is in- creased to four hundred francs if the school has more than four classes." Each teacher of a cours complémentaire also receives two hundred francs extra.” For the directors and adjoints, both men and women, in the écoles primatres supérieures,® the salaries are as follows :* Directors. Teachers. Sth Classen isi inate eee bs 1800 francs 1200 francs Abh *Classig sds s ee ngewe eee ves Be 2000 1400 6d ClasSivas eet oeuimandwn canes care 2200 1600 20 ClASSi... sae a canaeset cama 2500 1900 DStiClass,. cheat eeme ca teueepcem 2800 2200 The directors and adjoints that have also the certificat aw professorat in the normal schools receive an extra stipend of five hundred francs.° In case of absence on account of ill- ness the teacher’s substitute is paid by the State.° Not more than six months’ absence with pay may be allowed in any year, for the first three on full salary and for the last three on half.” The actual salary, however, does not represent the total in- come of the teacher. There are two other important items to 1 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 8, Gr. VI, p. 166. 2 Ibid., Art. 9. 3 The corresponding figures for the teachers in the écoles normales will be found in the chapter on those schools. + Loi, July 19, 1880, Art. 14, Gr. VI, p. 170, as amended by Loi, July 22, 1893, Art. 15, Gr. VI, p. 505. The budget voted April 22, 1905 carried the following changes in the salary list: * Men Women Directors. Directresses. Teachers. Teachers. Sth classi. .csai vase 2000 francs 2000 francs 1400 francs 1400 francs Ath class) iis. 6 daca 2300 2200 1700 1600 3d clasSS.cc. see cc cee 2600 2400 2000 1800 Ad classe vsisnccarss 2800 2600 2200 2000 Est ClaSsisce scx gas 3000 2800 2400 2200 5 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 20, Gr. VI, p. 172. 6 Loi, July 25, 1893, Art. 42, Gr. VI, p. SII. 7 Circ., Apr. 21, 1897, Gr. VI, p. 763. * Bull, Adm., lxxvit., p. 539- 68 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE be considered, the house provided by the commune, or in de- fault of that an equivalent lodging allowance, and the indemnité de résidence. The law of 1889* required that the communes should provide both these for the teachers in the écoles maternelles, the écoles prumaires élémentaires and the écoles primaires supérieures, in fact all the schools that may properly be called communal schools. Generally speaking, the school teacher in France is very comfort- ably housed. In the smaller communities, the school building, the teacher’s house and the mazrie, or town hall, often form one block. A school garden is almost uni- versal in the country towns, and this is of no little import- ance to the school master, for the industrious teacher can save many a franc by raising his own vegetables. The accommoda- tions for the adjoint and the stagiaire are less satisfactory, but even they are looked out for. The indemnité de résidence is something quite unknown to us in America, but it is really the natural outcome of the equalization of salaries. On account of the octrot, or tax which all towns in France of four thousand inhabitants and over may levy on all commodities, particularly food products, that are brought within their walls, the cost of living in these larger places is much greater than in the country, and generally speaking it varies directly as the size of the town. To compensate as far as possible for this condition of affairs, towns where one thousand or more people are massed together must pay this indemnity to each teacher.* In order that there may be no misunderstanding here, each community in the country is as- signed to one of the eight classes defined by the limits of this article and the exact amount of the allowance is stated for each class. In Paris, this ranges from eight hundred to two thousand francs per year, but in the other towns it varies from Lodging Residential Allowance 1 Loi, July 19, 1889, Arts. 4, 10-12, Gr. VI, pp. 163, 167-168. 2 Tbid., Art. 12, Gr. VI, p. 167. 8 Décret, Dec. 31, 1902; Bull. Adm. LXXII, pp. 1249-1280. THE TEACHER 69 one hundred to eight hundred francs. Outside the capital city, the directors of the elementary schools and all teachers in the cours complémentaires and the écoles primatres su- périeures are entitled to the full amount, while the other reg- ular teachers receive one half, and stagtaires only one quarter of the above figures. The fact that these arrangements are all carried out uni- formly and according to law is one of the good points about the French school system, for it absolutely precludes any “ bidding ” for teachers, and one is by no means sure of finding the best teachers in the largest cities. It is also important to note that nowhere is the French teacher confronted with any “ payment by results” plan, whether in salary, residential allowance or any kind of state support for his school. The first of these depends upon his class, and the other two on the size and importance of the community. Of course every one takes a certain natural pride in having as many pupils as possible gain the primary certifi- cate, but at least he is free from any worry over next year’s grant depending upon their success. The teacher’s tenure of office is practically assured as long as the chooses to continue in active work, and he is sure that he will not be turned out simply to make way for a younger man. Besides, too, wherever he Compensations may be placed, being really a government off- oe cer, he is often upheld by the thought that he Teachet has all the moral support of a great nation to sustain him. He is safe from all political influence whatso- ever, and is dependent upon no man’s petty whim. While from one point of view the income is decidedly poor, yet one must remember that the standard of living in France is below that in the United States, many of the things that we consider necessities being luxuries there, and the teacher is sure of his position in the schools with certain promotion awaiting him while he works and a pension when he retires. The country teacher can sometimes increase his meager salary one or two hundred francs a year by serving as secretary to the Advantages 70 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE moaire. This may seem to be involving the teacher in politics, but the tactful man need have no fear on this score, and he is often in a position to increase the public interest in school affairs if not actually to augment the financial support. Moreover a recent law* grants free tuition in the lycées and colléges to all the sons of public school teachers. The teachers’ regular salaries are all subject to a tax of five per cent to provide for their pensions at retirement.’ Every teacher who has reached the age of fifty- five and has spent at least twenty-five years in active service is eligible to retire on half pay. The amount of this pension is based on the average income of all kinds that has been subject to the above tax for the best six years of the teacher’s life. Time spent in the normal school after the age of twenty may be counted in these twenty-five years, and for every additional year of service the amount of the pension is augmented by one-fiftieth of the salary. In no case, however, may the pension of a man be less than six hundred francs nor of a woman less than five hundred francs. If the teacher has been married at least six years, his widow or minor children receive one third what the husband or father would have received.* There are five grades of punishment that may be inflicted on the teacher:* reprimand, censure, dismissal, temporary debarment from teaching (this cannot exceed five years), and permanent debarment. The first of these is quite simple and is pronounced by the academy inspector. This same official pronounces the censure, but only with the approval of the conseil départemental. In neither of these cases is the teacher allowed any redress. The dis- missal is naturally more serious. Here again the academy in- spector is the moving spirit, but the actual dismissal is pro- nounced by the prefect after the approval of the conseil dé- 1Loi de Finances, Apr. 13, 1900, Art. 29, Gr. VI, p. 916. 2 Loi, Aug. 17, 1876, Gr. IV, pp. 646-647. * Loi, Apr. 28, 1893, Gr. VI, p. 496. 4 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Arts. 31-32, Gr. V, pp. 683-684. Pensions Punishments THE TEACHER 71 partemental. In this event, the teacher may appeal to the Minister. The teachers in the écoles primaires supérieures and the écoles manuelles d’apprentissage as well as all others appointed by the Minister are subject to the reprimand and the censure under the same conditions as the ordinary teachers, but they may be dismissed only by the Minister. The tem- porary and permanent debarments which may even exclude the offender from private school work, are pronounced by the conseil départemental. These partake more of the nature of legal trials, for the accused may here be represented by coun- sel. Appeal may be taken from this decision to the conseil supérieur de linstruction publique. All the teachers in the elementary primary school system are subject to these last two penalties under the same conditions. There are various sorts of rewards that may be bestowed upon-the teachers—honorable mentions, bronze medals and silver medals, open to all teachers. The silver medal also carries with it a violet ribbon with yellow stripes. There is another similar series, except for the ribbon, which is open to the teachers in the écoles mater- nelles.?, Then, too, we find medals with accompanying money prizes given to encourage the work in adult classes. In 1903 there were distributed in France for this purpose seventy-five medals of gilded silver, each with one hundred francs addi- tional, one hundred and twenty-five medals of silver with seventy-five francs additional, and four hundred medals of bronze with fifty francs additional, besides many gifts of books. Besides all these, there are numerous other rewards for the teaching of agriculture, for encouraging vaccination and revaccination among the children—two hundred and fifty- seven stich prizes in 1903 *—as well as various departmental Rewards 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1893, Art. 127, Gr. VI, p. 467. 2 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 128, Gr. V, p. 798. 3 Arrété, July 1, 1903, Bull. Adm., LXXIII, p. 14. 4 Arrété, Oct. 28, 1903, Bull. Adm., LXXIV, p. 1052. As early as 1822, the question of vaccination began to be agitated officially. Since the regu- lation of August 17, 1851, evidence that the child has been vaccinated or has had varioloid has been required before he is allowed to enroll in school. 72 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE prizes. It is not surprising that with this example before the teachers the prize-giving spirit sometimes runs rampant in the French schools. This is one of the striking features of the system to an American at least, and one cannot help wonder- ing if many of the children do not work for the marks and the rewards rather than from the love of learning or “ for the joy of the doing.” * 1A few years ago a questionnaire containing various inquiries pertain- ing to the school life was sent around in the départment du Nord. Of the 37,000 pupils in the cours moyen that were consulted, 15,328 boys and 12,- 518 girls said that they were rewarded by their parents when they got good marks, and 14,468 boys and 12,124 girls said they were punished when they got bad ones. (Une Enquéte Pédagogique:..Revue Pédagogique, Jan., 1900, p. 23.) This at least shows an interest on the part of the parents in the progress of their children in the schools, but it is decidedly question- able if the method followed is really productive of the best results. CHAPTER V Tue Lower ScHoots (1) “ PRIMARY instruction is given in the écoles maternelles and classes enfantines, in the écoles primaires élémentaires, in the écoles primaires supériewres and in the classes of this grade that are attached to the elementary schools and are known as cours complémentaires, and in the écoles manuelles d’appren- tissage.”’* This is the definition of the primary schools as found in the opening paragraphs of the organic law of October 1886. The écoles maternelles, or salles d’asile as they were gen- erally called until 1881, have now existed in France for al- most exactly three quarters of a century. They take the place of our kindergartens and are like them to some extent. They resemble, however, the elementary schools adapted to very young children rather than a radically different conception of child education. Economic conditions in general and the necessity for the chil- dren getting to work early are said to be responsible for this downward trend of the subjects of the curriculum of the ele- mentary school. In the first place the écoles maternelles are nowhere compulsory in France (but once started, however, they are classed among the “ conventionally obligatory ” schools ? and must be maintained for a certain length of time) and the 6,007* schools that existed in 1902 in 3,399 com- munities represent the efforts of those communities to provide for an aspect of education that is constantly becoming more and more important. Although the majority of these schools 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 1, Gr. V, pp. 669-670. 2 Cf. ch. iii, p. 55. 3 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, pp. xxv-xxvi, Lxxxii. Ecoles Maternelles 73 74 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE were private, and most of them were conducted by the con- grégations, or religious bodies, the public schools contained about sixty-one per cent of the children. Compared with the figures of five years previous, these private establishments show a gain of nearly ten per cent.in the number of schools and about four per cent in the number of children, while the corresponding figures for the public schools are nearly one and three respectively. In all places of more than two thou- sand inhabitants where there is an agglomération of at least twelve hundred people, the State also assumes the responsibil- ity for the salaries of the teachers in these schools. The re- quirements for the teachers are exactly the same as for those in the ordinary elementary schools, and the obligations to ward them on the part of the commune for lodging and res- idential allowance are likewise the same. These schools were conducted very indefinitely, until the legislation of 1881 not only included them in the category of schools with free tuition, but also put their organization and supervision. upon a definite and uniform basis.* The principle underlying the organization of the écoles ma- ternelles in France was essentially social and economic rather than educational. Consequently these schools receive very young children and will keep them throughout the day, if the parents wish. They are open to all children from two to seven years of age, and the children may remain at the school from seven o’clock in the morning until seven in the evening in summer, and from eight until six in winter. The time before nine o’clock and after four, however, is occupied solely with supervised play. One of the most interesting features of these schools, at least in Paris, is the cantine scolaire or school kitchen. Here a warm luncheon consisting of meat and vege- tables, or soup and vegetables is provided for those children that wish to remain at school. There is a small charge varying from ten to twenty centimes per day (about two to four cents) for those that can afford to 1 Décret, Aug. 2, 1881, Gr. V, p. 302 ff. School Kitchen THE LOWER SCHOOLS 78 pay, but the others are supplied free. Each child brings his little basket containing bread and something to drink, gener- ally a small bottle of wine, while the school furnishes knife, fork, spoon and plate, as well as the food. All the children sit down and eat together under the supervision of the teacher. Women teachers are obligatory, and a woman to assist in the personal care of the children is attached to each school. This latter, however, is at the expense of the community. Generally speaking, if there are more than fifty children, the teacher has an assistant, and then the work becomes much easier, for the children three or four years of age form one division and the older ones another. The ideas of Froebel have as yet had comparatively little influence on the écoles maternelles of France. These schools have been justly criticised for hurrying the children along too rapidly and making the work of this very elementary school of too serious import. It is chiefly work and little play. Although the educational authorities declare that the école maternelle is not an ordinary school, by a strange transformation, “the ideal of almost all the persons that are either intimately or re motely interested in that sort of an institution has been to make of the école maternelle a school with all the disagree- able features of the school.’”’* The spirit of real enjoyment that seems to underlie the play of our own kindergarten chil- dren in the school room, is quite unknown in the école ma- ternelle in France. No special training is deemed necessary for the teachers in these schools, and in fact the special certificate at one time required was definitely abolished ial a in 1886 and replaced by the brevet élémentaire.* ceunes One finds an école maternelle attached to the practice school of each of the girls’ normal schools in Spirit of the School 1 Anna Tolman Smith, in Educational Review, Sept., 1901. 2 Mmme. Kergomard, Inspectrice générale des écoles maternelles in Les Ecoles Maternelles. Revue Pédagogique, April, 1900, p. 337. ® Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 62, Gr. V, p. 607. 76 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the country, but the prospective teachers take their turns there just as in one of the other cours of the school, and the pupils leave the normal school without knowing whether they are to teach in an école maternelle or in an ordinary primary school. The authorities apparently take the view that “all the women teachers should be familiar with the methods and the processes of the écoles maternelles and should be equally well fitted to teach in all grades of the primary schools” * whether in an école maternelle or in an école primaire su- périeure. As has been said before, in the Paris normal school, the better half of the graduating class are generally appointed to positions in the écoles maternelles in the city, and the oth- ers are sent to primary schools in the suburbs. According to the ministerial instructions accompanying the program of July 28, 1882, “the école maternelle is not a school in the ordinary sense of the word: ? it forms the passage from the family to the school.” The method to be followed “consists in imitating as closely as possible the process of education of an intelligent and devoted mother.” * Since the écoles maternelles are not supposed “to form or to exercise one group of faculties at the expense of the others, but rather to develop them all har- moniously, one ought not to be bound down to follow rigor- ously any of the special methods that are based on a system peculiar and artificial.” * The instruction in the écoles mater- nelles and in the classes enfantines includes: games; various graded movements accompanied by songs; manual work; first principles of moral education; knowledge of the common things; language work, recitation and stories; the first prin- ciples of drawing, reading, writing and arithmetic.° The subjoined program of one of the classes in an école maternelle will give a rather more comprehensive idea of the nature of the work done in these French schools : + Organisation et Situation de lEnseignement Primaire, p. 226. 2 Bull. Adm., 1882, XXVII, p. 247 ff. 3 [bid. * [bid. 5 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 4, Gr. V, p. 721. Curriculum THE LOWER SCHOOLS 77 ProcGramM OF THE SECOND YEAR Crass In THE Ecole Annexe OF THE Giris’ NorMat ScHOOL AT BATIGNOLLES, Paris. Monday Tuesday Wednesday Friday Saturday 83- ot Assembly Singing g}-10L| Reading Language work ‘ Writing 103-10} RECREATION o}-11 Reading from text Dictation ar -11} National Object Descriptive| History Description biography lesson geography Morale of pictures u~ Wh LUNCHEON—RECREATION—ASSEMBLY 1-2 Arithmetic | Arithmetic | Arithmetic | Arithmetic | Arithmetic 2-2} Drawing Drawing Drawing Drawing | Drawing ah 23 RECREATION 2f- 3 ae English | Class study| English a 3-34 Manual Manual Manual Manual hs Manual training training training training training 3k 33 Stories Stories | Stories Stories Stories It is said that on leaving the écoles maternelles “ the chil--— dren can almost all read readily, write legibly and can per- form simple operations in addition, subtraction and multipli- cation.” Certainly much more is attempted in France than in many of our first and second grades in the United States. As far as my observation goes, the use of slates seems to be very general throughout the first years of school life, but the writing is done with white chalk instead of with slate pencil. From the point of view of legibility, this is undoubtedly a great success, but it can hardly be termed hygienic. After some preliminary work in addition and subtraction, I heard the following example given to a third class in an école maternelle: ““A man spends forty-five francs per month for rent, ninety-two francs for food, and thirty-two francs for clothes. Supposing he saves thirty-one francs, how much does he earn?” After one or two children ‘had answered rather wildly on the process to be followed, one indicated the proper Arithmetic Example 78 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE method. These were pupils that would probably average six years of age. It is in this same school—the practice school attached to the girls’ normal school in Paris—that an attempt was made in 1902-1903 to begin the teaching of English in the lowest grade of the école maternelle. Of course the work is all very elementary, being confined to the names of the ordinary objects about the school room and such simple sentences as: “Give me some bread,” “ Take your slate.” One little boy counted up to five in English. A few minutes are devoted to exercises of this sort two or three times a week, and the work is all done by the regular class teachers. The following extracts from ‘‘ The day of a teacher im an école maternelle in Paris” may throw additional light on this grade of schools in France. * English “From the time when the école maternelle opens, at eight o'clock in winter and seven o’clock in summer, the children from two to six years of age come in the company of some member of their family—an older brother or sister who is on his way to the adjoining school, or perhaps the mother. “The teacher on duty receives them and has the children that eat luncheon at the school arrange their baskets in a place by themselves. Then all the little folks take their seats on the benches of the court. Until nine o’clock, the regular ‘hour for opening school, the teacher has the children spend the time in singing or in some light gymnastic work. “We might add that the école maternelle is a mixed school and there is no separation of the sexes in the classroom, in the court or on the playground. “At nine o’clock all the teachers appear. Each one takes charge of her own class, conducts the children to the toilets, in- spects their hands, their handkerchiefs and their clothes, calls the attention of some to their faults, rewards others for their general neatness, and promises to be lenient with those who are very clean the next day. “They sing as they go to their classes. When everybody is seated the class work begins. 1 Quoted in Organisation et Situation de l’Enseignement Primaire, pp. 227-220. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 79 ; “Tn accordance with the program, twenty minutes are spent in reading, five in singing, twenty in writing and ten in language work. : For the reading, movable letters are used or else the teacher writes letters or syllables on the blackboard, always giving the sound with the character. “At quarter past ten there is a half-hour recess. The children play freely ‘but they are under surveillance. “On returning to the class, the roll is called, and then follow simple lessons in history, geography, or object lessons, accord- ing to the program. “At quarter past eleven, the teacher appointed to look after the luncheon hour conducts to the court all the children that eat luncheon at the school. ‘Behind these come the children that go home for the mid- day meal. A teacher sees them to the door of the school where the parents are waiting for them. “The maid helps the teacher in seating the children at the tables and in passing the food. The poor receive their soup and vegetables, sometimes soup, vegetables and meat, free; the others pay ten centimes (about two cents). During the luncheon, the teacher and the maid continually call attention to the need of cleanliness and even interrupt the meal to make important sug- gestions. Luncheon is over at quarter past twelve. “The play of the children is free. The teacher in charge is now relieved by another. The surveillance is usually restricted to preventing dangerous games; but a teacher who really appre- ciates her responsibility directs the play, participates in it and takes personal interest in all the little children who ‘have so much need of good advice or kind words. “At one o’clock, the children are taken to the wash room and the toilets. They sing on their way to their class rooms, and then follow the ordinary class exercises: reading, arithmetic, interspersed with memory work or singing. Then various exer- cises continue until half past two, when there is a recreation period of half an hour. Twice a week, after this period, each class has gymnastics: simple movements of the arms and legs, marches, games. “After the recreation, there is either manual work or de- signing. These exercises consist of folding, weaving, cutting 80 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE or pricking. The design is either drawn in a blank book or fash- ioned with little strips of material. “At four o’clock, the children that go home alone are led to the door, the others await their parents. “The school closes at six o’clock in winter and seven o’clock in summer. “When the children leave the école maternelle at six years of age, almost all of them can read readily, write legibly, and perform some simple operations in addition, subtraction and mul- tiplication. “In some quarters of the great cities, the children are poorly clothed, but generally speaking they are reasonably clean. It is very rare to see a child with a soiled frock on Monday. “The education often leaves much to be desired; the child confided to our care expresses himself in very rough fashion; he strikes his comrades and they retaliate, but he soon loses these bad manners, and all the poor little children who have so much need of affection, like all children of their age, become attached to their teacher. They are very happy when they re- ceive her caress, and take it as a severe punishment when they are deprived of this. So the discipline is reasonably easy. “As for the parents, save for rare exceptions, they are always very polite and decorous toward the teachers. When they have opportunity, they express to us their appreciation for the care we have bestowed upon their children.” The classes enfantines are a direct consequence of the law establishing the gratuité of primary education and the subse- quent assumption of the teachers’ salaries by Ean ae the State. They have really no separate or- ganization of their own, nor can they exist ex- cept in connection with an école maternelle or an école primaire élémentaire.* Nominally they are supposed to form the transition between these two schools, but in actual practice they are so closely assimilated with either one or the other that it is very difficult to differentiate them. The curriculum is the same as that prescribed for the upper section of the école maternelle,? but it is naturally a little more advanced. The 1 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 2, Gr. V, p. 721. 2Cf. supra. p. 76. THE LOWER SCHOOLS Qy children of both sexes from four to seven years of age are admitted there, “and they receive with the education of the école maternelle, the beginning of elementary instruction.” As a matter of fact, the most useful purpose of ‘these classes enfantines is to provide a kind of elementary instruction for the children of those communities that do not fulfil the con- ditions for having the “conventionally obligatory” écoles maternelles. There they form a kind of preparatory class for the ordinary elementary school, and are known under that name, cours préparctoiwe. In fact in many of the communes of the country, the three cours in the elementary school are the cours préparatoire, cours élémentawe and cours moyen, the cours supérieur being entirely lacking. Indeed in the smal towns where there is but a single teacher, it requires no small degree of skill, even with the help of a monitor, to keep three different cours fully occupied. The écoles primaires élémentaires are open to all children between the ages of six and thirteen, though in communes where there is neither école maternelle nor classe enfantine the age for entering is lowered Elementary ‘ Primary to five years. Since 1881, there has been abso- go opoos lutely no charge for tuition of any sort, and it is chiefly during these last two decades that France has made such remarkable progress in education. Before 1833, primary instruction in France was in a very chaotic condition; in fact, officially it had no existence.” M. Guizot is responsible for the re-establishment at that time, and the important reforms that have occurred since then have been due to the inspiration of some great master minds. The philosophers Simon and Pécaut, the ministers Duruy and Ferry, and the administrators Gréard and Buisson have all played their parts. At one time, we can trace oauce the political influence, the desire to fit each Beinsiples citizen of the new republic for universal suf- 1 Gossot, Essai Critique sur Enseignement Primaire en France de 1800 @ 1900, p. ix. 82 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE frage; at a later period, it is the economic needs, when the na- tion is brought face to face with the necessity of rendering every Frenchman better competent to work for France agri- culturally, commercially, and industrially. After all, this intense and ever-quickening struggle for economic supremacy has pushed the nations of the old world to still greater efforts, and in the last analysis this single fact will be found to be the cause of many of the changes in the school curricula. In America, our natural advantages are so great that we have hardly begun to feel this pressure behind us, but when one compares the life in our own country with that of the con- tinental peoples, one begins to realize how much harder the struggle for existence must be in the old world. In spite of all the work that was done before, it is the Third Republic, however, ‘that has made the most striking advances. It is all since 1881 that the three cardinal laws concerning compulsory attendance, free tuition, and the laicization of both instruction and the teaching force have been passed. In spite of the enormous strides that public education has made in France, as late as 1902, of the 91,239 primary schools of all kinds in France and Algeria, 70,441 of these were public and 20,798 were private. In other words, more than twenty per cent of the primary schools were out of the direct charge and responsibility of the State. This has been productive of much trouble, and even now France is certainly passing through a crisis in her educational history. The influence of the congrégations is almost entirely thrown against the government and even against the republic itself, and at times the government off- cials have met armed resistance in attempting to carry out the recent repressive legislation passed against these bodies. Since these figures were published, the struggle has actually resulted in a separation of church and State. The time was when France was one of the staunchest supporters of the Vatican, but to-day even the most conservative admit that the majority of the French people no longer owe allegiance to the The Religious Bodies 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. xxviii. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 83 ‘Catholic ‘Church. In fact, the law of laicization in 1881 sufh- ciently proves that. It is a debatable question, however, if the instruction in morale which has been subtituted for the old religious instruction is satisfactorily supplying the need of education of that nature. Since 1886, the law has required * that every commune shall -be provided with at least one école primaire publique, unless legally joined to one or more neighboring com- munes for school purposes. In 1902, however, Prevalence there were ninety-one communes in France and ane Algeria that had no public school, and fifty-one that had no school at all. Of these latter, strange to say, only one was in Algeria. There were seven hundred and_ninety-three communes that were legally joined for school purposes. These with the 35,667 that support at least one public school make up the total of 36,551 communes.” When the commune or the union of communes above referred to contains at least five hundred inhabitants, a special school for girls must be pro- vided. Many of the communes have a great deal of local pride and do even more than the law requires here, for of the eighteen thousand four hundred and four communes in 1897 that had five hundred or less inhabitants, three thousand seven hundred and ninety-three supported a girls’ public school. Of the eighteen thousand one hundred and forty-seven others, one thousand two hundred and fifty-three had no public school for girls, but six hundred and twenty-five of these supported at least one private school.* Thus there are three distinct kinds of écoles primaires élémentaires, those for girls, those for boys, and the mixed.* After the passage of the compulsory school law of 1882, it was incumbent on the communes to provide adequately for 1 Loi, Oct. 30, 1886, Art. 11, Gr. V, pp. 675-676. 2 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. xliti. 3 Ibid., p. xliv. 4 These were divided as follows in 1902: boys’ and mixed, 44,631; girls’, 23,216; or a total of 67,847. At the same time there were 17,385 private schools, 4,138 for boys, and 13,247 for girls. Ibid., p. xxvit. 84 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the education of their children. As if to clinch the matter, the law of 1886 specifically required this, and put the burden of the expense on the community. Although the conseil départemental is practically the sole au- thority in determining the number and situation of the schools in the department, in case this council refuses to act from any trouble over the congréganiste schools or if for any other reason the law is obviously being disregarded, the prefect may interfere, order the erection of a school and inscribe the ex- penses on the budget of the commune.* This whole process is rather long and tedious, but it may be done as a last resort. The State is often willing to help the poorer communes, but only in erecting new buildings, enlarging old ones, or buying buildings that may be adapted for school purposes. In no case, however, will the State aid a commune the value of whose centime communal is more than six thousand francs.” While previous to the passage of this law, the amount of assistance a given com- mune could obtain was generally dependent upon the activity and strength of the influence it could bring to bear on the educational authorities, now all is arranged very fairly. The amount in any particular case cannot be less than fifteen per cent nor more than eighty per cent of the total cost, and this still further varies inversely according to the resources and the debt, and directly according to the importance of the school work undertaken by the commune.’ The State exercises a careful supervision over the plans and the construction of thesebuildings and demands always that they shall conform to certain specified standards.‘ The windows are always found on the left of the pupils, although some school rooms have them on two other sides also. The class rooms are planned for an ordinary maximum of fifty pupils, each pupil having a surface allowance of 1.25 m. (about seventeen square feet), Buildings State Aid Building Requirements 1 Décret, Apr. 7, 1887, Arts. 41-49, Gr. VI, pp. 27-29. 2 Loi, June 20, 1885, Art. 8, Gr. V, p. 615. 3 [bid. * Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Annexe D, Gr. V, pp. 830-838. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 85 and they must be at least 4 m. (about thirteen feet) in height. The schools are usually swept and dusted by the pupils, dele- gated in turn by the teacher. It seems rather strange to find this same custom prevailing even in the normal schools. Sufficient provision is supposed to be made for heating and ventilating, but from the American point of view at least, these are very inadequate. The rooms are all heated by stoves, and even in winter when Heating and ‘ Ventilating the temperature is down to fifty degrees or thereabouts, it is by no means. unusual to find one or two windows wide open and no fire in the room. When it be comes necessary to close the windows, the last chance for ventilation is gone, and only too often the windows are opened solely at recreation periods. In many a school that I visited last winter, either the temperature was too low to enable one to sit there comfortably even with an overcoat on, or else the air was so close as to be unpleasant. In the arrangements of their school buildings, the French still have much to learn, and they probably will not improve very much until the con- struction of the buildings is confided to architects that have made a special study of schools and their needs. As far as the external appearance of the buildings is con- cerned, there is nothing to be desired. Even in the modern buildings, however, there are no dressing rooms for the pupils, their caps and capes being hung on hooks around the walls of the school rooms. Aside from the trouble and un- sightly appearance of the clothes, in bad weather the wet capes cannot fail to be positively deleterious. The arrangements of the water-closets is generally bad and often totally inadequate. In one of the largest boys’ schools in Paris, which, however, is very old and admittedly unsatisfactory, there are only seven closets and nine urinals for more than seven hundred boys. Here, however, not all the boys have recess at the same time. In another school which is supposed to be a model school—in many respects the best that I have seen in France, and really as far as the teachers and the work are concerned well able to serve as a pattern—I have seen on several occasions a 86 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE whole class wait in line throughout the recess in order to visit the closets, and even then be late in returning to the class room. The commune is responsible for the buildings, all that per- tains to their lighting, heating, furnishing and general care as well as keeping all this plant in good repair. The bare essentials in the way of furniture are a desk and platform for the teacher, a blackboard, a book closet, and desks, benches and clothes hooks sufficient for the pupils. Besides there should be a table of the metric system, a wall map of France, and in girls’ schools the necessary sup- plies for teaching the sewing required by the program.’ In the better schools, one finds in addition other charts for the teaching of reading, history and natural history. The commune must also provide the necessary school registers for the pupils, the catalogue of the library (where the school is fortunate enough to have one) together with other equip- ment necessary for its proper use. The school desks are too often old fashioned and are usually intended for two pupils. There are four different sizes, and thus they serve as best they can the varying ages of the pupils. They are made entirely of wood even to the legs, with a slightly-sloping, stationary top, and a space inside for books. This latter is in use only during school hours, for it is forbidden to have any books in the desk overnight. All books that are common property or need to be kept at the school are collected and put in the book closet. In fact, it is a familiar sight almost anywhere on the continent to seé even the very young children trudging to school in the morning with their books and boxes of luncheon in a kind of knapsack slung over their shoulders. They march along as soberly and sedately as though dimly conscious of the great weight and importance of the knowledge borne upon their backs. The ordinary school seat is a kind of bench generally provided with a backpiece and adapted for as many children as the desk it accompanies. One advantage of the double desk and seat is that in case of lack of accommodations, especially Furniture 1 Décret, Jan. 29, 1890, Art. 1, Gr. VI, p. 226. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 87 with the young children, it is often possible to crowd an extra pupil with this legs astride the dividing rail, in between the rightful occupants of the desk. The disadvantages of this multiple seat system, however, are prefectly obvious in F rance, and the expense involved is said to be the only reason for not adopting our American system. The blackboard space in the ordinary school room is small, almost universally con- fined to a portion of the wall behind the teacher’s desk, and the quality is even worse than the quantity. On account of the prevailing methods, comparatively little blackboard room is needed, but certainly this is all the more reason for that little being good. In all my inspection of the French schools, I re- member seeing only one school where the boards were really excellent. That was a city school where there were slate boards. A regular blackboard eraser is quite unknown, the ordinary appliance for cleaning being a cloth or a dry sponge, though many a pupil and even the teachers do not always stop to find that. One is strangely disappointed at the lack of decoration al- most everywhere noticeable in the public schools of every grade. If the French were not a people noted for their artistic sense and appreciation, perhaps this want would not be so painfully evident. A Minister of Public Instruction said not long since: “ The school, such as we conceive it, is not merely a place of instruction for youth from six to thirteen years of age; it ought to be a homelike place where the adult could return to the scenes of his youth. I desire that these centers of friendship and comradeship should be decorated in a manner appropriate to their pur- pose.” ? Unfortunately these wishes of M. Leygues are yet far from being fulfilled. At that same time, he sent among the schools of the country some colored railroad posters (of course without the advertisements of the companies) representing views in various parts of France. Some of these are accept- able, but the majority are far from satisfactory. It seems to 1Gréard, Education et Instruction, p. 78. 2 Circ., Sept. 24, 1899, Gr. VI, p. 898. Decoration 88 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE be the opinion of many of the teachers that these pictures are not only of little practical value, but on the contrary are ac- tually a positive harm. There is really nothing artistic about most of them, and about all one can say is that they cover an otherwise dingy wall with a dash of bright color. There are so many beautiful photogravures and other reproductions of famous pictures that one can buy very cheaply in France that it seems too bad not to make special efforts to put these be- fore the eyes of the children. One need not spend a large sum at once, but a few francs a year judiciously expended would give a school at least an artistic collection of pictures at the end of a few years. In striking contrast with the general lassitude along these lines, it is only fair to say that here and there one finds a school where the teacher has made the most of small opportunities, and one sees a few pictures evidently mounted and set by the teacher’s own hand in neat looking frames. Besides this must be noted the practical effort that is being made at the boys’ école normale at Lyon to develop a desire for good pictures and to show future teachers how this desire may be gratified at small expense. The school walls are supposed to be done over at least once a year, but general appearances do not seem: to indicate that this provision is very faithfully carried out. In the matter of decoration, there is one school, at least, where the ideal of M. Leygues seems realized, and that is in the girls’ école normale primaire supérieure at Fontenay-aux-Roses. There is a valu- able collection of artistic reproductions of famous pictures here, the building withal is most homelike, and it all stands as a fitting monument to its founder and late director, M. Félix Pécaut. One finds a musée scolaire or school museum in almost every school, and this is often of great assistance in the object lessons. The teacher encourages the children to bring here things that have any unusual in- terest, and they often take great pride in their botanical or natural history collection, necessarily small, but none the less valuable from an educational point of view. In School Museums THE LOWER SCHOOLS 89 the poorer communities, one also finds the simple scientific apparatus that the teacher has been able to gather or to put to- gether with his own hands in order to make clearer the ele- mentary notions of physics that the curriculum demands. The best of these museums contain specimens from the ‘animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, as well as samples of cloths and other manufactured articles together with various ma terials for teaching geography, history, and the metric system. There are no less tham six school registers that must be kept by the teacher:* (1) the matriculation register. Here one finds a good deal of information about each in- dividual child, and by means of this can trace the progress of the pupil throughout his entire school course, or at least as long as he remains in that particular school; (2) the class roll; (3) the inventory register, containing a list of all the school furniture, for which the teacher is to be held responsible; and (4) finally three registers connected with the library—the catalogue, the records of the books loaned, and the account of the receipts and expenses of the library. Although as early as 1862,’ a library was ordered to be established in each public primary school, the central authori- ties seem to have given this matter only desul- tory attention. In fact, the great school laws since then hardly refer to the institution, though it has nevertheless grown to be quite an important fea- ture of the outside work of the school. One can readily see, in a country where the free public library idea has never reached the development it has in the United States, and where there is such an enormous quantity of all sorts of printed mat- ter (one can hardly call it literature) that is positively dan- gerous to put into the hands of children and young people, that these school libraries might really have a very important influence on the social and moral life of the community. From time to time books are acquired through gifts of the Min- ister, the departmental authorities or individuals, or are bought 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 23, Gr. V, Pp. 773- 2 Arrété, June 1, 1862, Art. 1, Gr. III, p. 796. Registers School Libraries 90 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE with the funds of the library itself. All the libraries gener- ally purchase their books of a single firm designated by the Minister and thus obtain special reductions. The growth in the development of these institutions is mainly due to the in- spectors: working through the teachers. The latter can use the libraries as an accessory means of showing the children the need of codperation and a social spirit on the part of every member of the body politic, for here is a case where all can work together for the common good and yet all may share in the common benefit. In 1902,’ there were 43,411 of these school libraries with a total of 6,977,503 volumes, and 8,082, 936 volumes loaned. These figures show a decided increase over the corresponding ones of five years before. The num- ber of loans, however, is not so satisfactory, varying from an average of only twenty-five per year for each library in the department of Lozére to more than six hundred and eight in Pas-de-Calais. The small number of text-books in use in the schools will immediately attract the attention of the American visitor. In fact all the material for individual use is very limited. A note-book for monthly lessons, and the necessary paper, pens and pencils for the ordinary school work are prescribed for all. Besides this, each pupil must have: in the cours élémentaire, a slate and an elementary reading book; in the cours moyen, the note-books for the daily work, a reading book suitable to this grade, an elementary grammar with exercises, an elementary arithmetic, a small elementary atlas, and a history of France; in the cours su- périeur, the necessary note-books as before, a reading book adapted to this grade, a French grammar with exercises, an arithmetic, a history of France or a general history according to the program, an atlas, and a text-book for moral and civic instruction.” The question immediately suggests itself, “ How do the pupils get along with so few text-books?” The answer is very simple, for they make their own. The above 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, pp. 258-250. 2 Décret, Jan. 29, 1890, Art. 7, Gr. VI, p. 228-220. Text-books THE LOWER SCHOOLS gI phrase, “the note-book ‘for the daily work” covers the point in question. In the discussion on method a little later on, this matter will come out more clearly. There is, however, an admirable method of choosing the few text-books that are in use. In fact, it is much more democratic than the ordinary practice in our country, and we might do well to take a sug- Choise of gestion from our French cousins. Only too Seta often with us, the text-books are adopted by a committee that are generally entirely unable to distinguish a good from a bad one. The adoption of a book is due to the persuasive powers of the representative of a given publishing firm rather than to the real merits of the book itself. In France, during the first part of July, the regular teachers of each canton meet in conference, usually under the presidency of the pri- mary inspector, to consider the text-book question.* The pub- lishers have had nearly a year in which to present their new books, and they always receive fair treatment. At this time, each book is the subject of a special report by one or more teachers. This report is then discussed in the conference, and a decision is reached. As a result, a list is made up of books that might profitably be used in the elementary schools. This method of choice serves a double purpose: in the first place, the chances are very much against an inferior book being able to stand the fire of all this criticism; and secondly, it is of no small advantage to the teachers themselves as a means of training their judgment and developing their pedagogical spirit. All these various lists are brought together in the chief town in each department and subjected to the further scrutiny of a commission presided over by the academy in- spector and composed of the primary inspectors, the heads of the two normal schools, and the professors and other regular teachers in these schools. This commission revises and fi- nally determines the list for its own department subject to the approval of the rector. The general result is that only the very best books are designated, for although there is no limit 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts. 20-22, Gr. V, p. 773- 92 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE to the number, it is only confusing to have a cumbrous list to choose from, Changes in the books in actual use are not numerous for they are not only troublesome to bring about, but the parents can ill afford the change. The expenses of furnishing these school supplies is almost always borne by the families, for the free text-book idea has as yet made little progress, although one finds it to a limited extent in some of the large cities. Provision is always made, however, for the very poor. It is one of the duties of the commissions scolaires not only to provide them with books and school supplies, but also with clothes, and in general to remove every obstacle that might prevent the children from going to school. In spite of the fact that so many efforts have been made to improve the attendance, there still remains much to be desired. Since 1882, primary instruction has been obligatory for all children from six to thirteen years of age.* It must be noted, however, that the child may receive this at the public school, at a private school, or even at home. All the State demands is that he shall get the instruction. Reference has already been made to the commissions scolaires and their efforts to solve the attendance problem, and it certainly seems as though they were success- ful in getting the children registered in the schools, if noth- ing more. In 1897, out of the 4,636,381 children of school age in France proper (that is, between six and thirteen) 4,- 465,166 were registered as receiving instruction.” Although these latter figures probably represent many thousand double registrations, yet when one considers the number of children between eleven and thirteen years of age that have gained the primary certificate and are free from further attendance, it will be readily seen that the number of children entirely with- out instruction is reduced to a comparatively small figure. Being registered in school, however, does not always mean much, for in the public schools the average registration in 1 Loi, Mar. 28, 1882, Art. 4, Gr. V, p. 420. 2 Statistique, V1, 1896-1897, pp. ciii, 201. The corresponding figures were not complete in the report for 1901-1902. Attendance THE LOWER SCHOOLS 93 December of that year was only 87.6 per cent of these figures and ona particular day during that month, the fifth, only 78.7 per cent were in attendance." The corresponding figures for the following June and for the fifth of that month were 84.6 and 73.2 per cent respectively.2, In some of the worst de- partments notably Hautes-Alpes and Lozére, the attendance on this specific day in June was only 49.8 and 49.9 per cent re- spectively.* These are the conditions that must be fought, for in many districts, as the grazing season approaches, the children begin to leave school to tend the animals. In fact, it is no unusual sight along the highway to see two goats and a cow feeding quietly together, with a child to watch each one. The children not only lose the work themselves and forget much during their absence, but they also tend to break up the organization of the classes they leave. There is no lack of law to reach these cases, but it is too loosely enforced, for the commissions scolaires often neglect the matter and the maire is afraid of his politi- cal future if he attempts to force matters. In eis 4 case a child is absent at least four half-days during the same month without satisfactory excuse, the maire summons the parent before the commission scolaire and ex- plains to him his duty. Upon a repetition of the offence with- in the year, the commission scolaire orders the parent’s name posted on the bulletin board of the town hall. If this still has no effect, the commission or the academy inspector brings the matter before the district judge, and he has power to punish the offender.* The efforts of these committees in Paris have been attended with greater success, and one can hardly pass a single mairie in the city without finding a list of offenders posted outside on the bulletin board. The cantines scolaires, or school luncheon rooms, and the supervised study periods have been of great importance in furthering the efforts of these committees, for by means of 1 Statistique, VI, 1896-1897, p. 189. 2 Ibid., p. 180. 3 Ibid., p. 187. 4 Loi, Mar. 28, 1882, Arts. 12-14, Gr. V, pp. 426-427. 94 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE these two institutions the parents may send their children to school in the morning and be sure that they will be kept there throughout the day. After luncheon at noon, the children play about the yard under the eye of a teacher. At the close of school in the afternoon there is a similar recreation period, and then the pupils are gathered in one of the school rooms to spend the succeeding hour or hour and a half in quiet study under the supervision of a master. This whole attend- ance question is still a grave one, but as M. Compayré has pointed out, what is needed is not more laws, but better en- forcing of the existing Jegislation.* 1 Compayré, Organisation Pédagogique, p. 269. CHAPTER VI THE Lower ScHoots (2) Unper natural conditions the six years of the écoles pri- matres élémentaires are divided into three cours: the cours élémentaire, including the pupils from seven to nine years of age, the cours moyen, those Organization from nine to eleven, and the cours supérieur, of ths those from eleven to thirteen. However, as Cae has already been noted, in the country schools one often finds, instead of the cours supérieur, the cours préparatoire at the beginning of the school course. The fact that the examination for the graduating certificate of the elementary schools is based upon the work of the cours moyen is doubtless partly responsible for this state of affairs. On the other hand, in more prosperous localities, the work of the elementary school is continued by an extra year of more advanced work, the so- called cours complémentaire. This is intended to provide the pupils of those communities that cannot afford to support an école primaire supérieure with something more than the mini- mum amount of knowledge that the lower schools give. This higher degree of primary education is, however, even under the most fortunate conditions, reserved for a relatively small number of the school population. In 1896, of the 2,257,904 children in France and Algeria between thirteen and sixteen years of age—the time when they would naturally be found in the advanced schools—only 64,658 were enrolled in the cours complémentaires and the écoles primaires supérieures.” Allowance must be made for a few hundred in the écoles professionnelles that are not included in these figures and also for a few thousand children that were to be found in the secondary schools: that is, the lycées and the colléges. At this 1 Statistique, VI, 1896-1897, pp. xcviii-cvi. 95 96 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE same date, the total number of children between these ages in the primary schools of all degrees was 439,626. Of course the great majority of these would represent those above the legal age that were still enrolled in the elementary schools. In the communes where there is an école maternelle, the chil- dren come to the elementary school with at least a fair start. In the others, however, the écoles primaires élémentaires must prepare their own pupils, and so the cours préparatoire has been organized to do this work. The three cours of the elementary school do not treat three distinct or even partially distinct groups of subjects, arbi- trarily supposed to be adapted to the mental ae hd development of the children of the various ages. They all cover exactly the same sub- jects, but presented to the pupils in ever widening circles. In other words, the programs are made up on a concentric circle plan. This after all is the way young children learn outside the schools, and the French programs seem to have been par- ticularly skilful in adapting this method to school purposes. Unfortunately, however, once seized with this idea, they never seem to be able to get away from it, and it forms the basis of the programs in the primary schools of all grades. This does not necessarily mean that all the work of the two upper cours of the elementary school is a mere dry repetition of that of the cours élémentaire. On the contrary, there is a regular de- velopment of the pupil’s knowledge, a gradual extension of his horizon and with it all an entire lack of monotony. Nor- mally, one expects to find two divisions in each of the cours, but obviously such is not possible in schools that have but a single teacher. The promotion from one to the other is not by years but at the discretion of the instructor. In fact, one hears far more of the cours than of the divisions of the cours. Naturally the most important thing in the cours élémentaire is the acquisition of reading and writing, the tools absolutely essential to all intellectual progress. With oe these, however, “it is necessary to teach un- der a familiar form, and as much as possible THE LOWER SCHOOLS 97 by concrete examples, the elementary notions of each group of studies.”* “The object of the cours moyen is to lay the foun- dation of the various kinds of knowledge, . . . to endow the child with that positive group of ideas without which a man to-day will find himself outside society.” * The distinctive feature of the cours supérieur, according to M. Gréard, is the employment of the deductive method, “wherein the child can be trained to descend logically from principle to fact, from tule to application.” ® The discipline in the schools is usually good. The teach- ers generally have their pupils well in hand, and almost all the children work. However, as has already been pointed out, the stimulus ‘for this is too Discipline often an objective one. A French school = a room presents quite a different appearance men from an American one. When a visitor, an inspector, or even the director of the school enters the room, instantly every pupil rises, and if it happens to be a boys’ school every right hand goes up for a military salute. This position is main- tained until the word is given to be seated. The custom is decidedly interesting, and it certainly shows a feeling of re- spect on the part of the pupils. It would seem to be very disturbing for the teachers, however, for it matters not if they are in the midst of a dictation exercise or even the quasi-lec- ture work of the upper classes, the custom is rigidly observed. This idea of respect for visitors and superiors is certainly one of the characteristics of the French child. After I had visited some schools for two or three days, the little fellows almost invariably lifted the hat on meeting me in the street. The school children, boys and girls alike, wear the black tablier, a kind of long apron or frock that reaches a little below the knees and fastens in the back usually with a button at the neck and a belt around the waist. It must be an economical way of 1 Compayré, Organisation Pédagogique et Législation des Ecoles Pri- mares, p. II. 2Gréard, Education et Instruction, p. 84. 8 Ibid. 98 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE dressing, and it certainly presents a very neat appearance. More than nine tenths of the children in the elementary schools and even many of those of the normal schools wear this garb. One might characterize the general discipline of the schools as military or at least semi-military. The pupils always enter and leave the school room and the building in double file, often singing as they march. In fact, in one school room, at every change of lesson, the girls sang while putting away and taking out their books. This naturally was an effective means of preventing conversation between the lesson periods. While the attention of the pupils was not always of the best, prac- tically never have I found a class disturbed by talking during the progress of the lesson. One never sees children wandering into the school room from fifteen to twenty minutes before the beginning of the regular work or staying about the buildings after the lessons for the day are over. The pupils that arrive early assemble in the playground or, in bad weather, in the préau, a kind of covered court or play hall attached to every school, and from there march to the class rooms. Although detention after school hours is one of the recognized means of enforcing discipline, I never happened to see a child so de- tained. One does find, however, supervised study hours be- ing introduced in various schools. It naturally happens that some children find it much easier to study at school than at home, and besides, sometimes both parents are out at work all day and do not want the children left free to wander about the streets after school hours. To meet these conditions, especi- ally in the cities, certain teachers in the building are designated to take charge of all these children from the close of school until half-past five or six o’clock. A few minutes are spent in recreation just after the close of the regular session, and then the pupils are gathered in a class room for study. Some slight extra remuneration is granted by the community, and the director and the teachers that have been engaged in this work divide this among them. Corporal punishment is absolutely forbidden in the public primary schools, and the only means of enforcing discipline THE LOWER SCHOOLS 99 that are recognized by the authorities are: mcuvais points, or bad marks, the reprimand, Rewards and partial deprivation of the recreation period, Penne detention after school in charge of the teacher, and temporary exclusion from the school.t The last may not continue for more than three days, although the academy inspector has power to exclude for a longer period. The first of these is the one most often used, and these mauvais pomts are some- times distributed with a generosity that is really surprising and only exceeded by a still greater generosity in the distribution of bons points. In fact, in one school that I happened to visit, the best boy in the class had gained seven hundred and two of these merits since the beginning of the school year. Dur- ing the same period the “ low boy ” had received about seventy, and had lost all but nine. When I asked the teacher of this same class what he thought of this system of bons and mau- vats points, he replied that when judiciously used it seemed to him a good thing, but some teachers were likely to abuse it. There must be something radically wrong about a system like this, however, that allows one pupil to appear to be nearly one hundred times as good as his classmate. At the end of the month or year, these merit marks are generally exchanged for books, of varying value according to the number of marks they represent. It may be added, however, that the rewards are usually given for correct recitations or written work, and take no account of the effort made by the pupil. “ Without doubt, the true reward for the good pupil is the satisfaction of a task accomplished, the consciousness of intellectual gain com- ing through work.” * Unfortunately these words of one of the foremost educators in France are as yet far from being the gospel ofthe rank and file of the French teachers. From time to time, however, one finds a director or a teacher broad- minded enough to comprehend their full significance, but even these few are very dubious of their general application, at least for the present. 1 Arrété, Jan. 19, 1887. Annexe B. Arts. 19-20. Gr. V., p. 825. 2 Compayré, Organisation Pédagogique, p. 247. 100 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE It is not very long since the schools of France departed from the old Bell-Lancaster system of instruction,* and some of its traces may still be found. While the use of monitors is nowhere officially recog- nized, yet with the present organization they are practically a necessity. Wherever the three-fold division into cours was strictly carried out in the 53,107 schools that had but a single classe in 1902,” it is safe to say that some sort of a monitor system was employed to a greater or less extent. Inasmuch as at the same time, the total number of écoles primaires élémentaires both public and private twas only 85,232, and since that time the conditions have not materially changed, one can readily see that the fundamental ideas of the old mutual sys- tem must still be reckoned with. It is only fair to state that these figures do not indicate the comparative number of pupils that would come under this influence. In 1902, there were 700,132 pupils registered in the mixed schools.* Unfortu- nately no figures are at hand to show the number of boys and the number of girls in the other one-class schools. It seems a conservative estimate, however, to say that at least eleven per cent of all the pupils will be found in schools subject to this monitorial influence. The general practice is to select some of the best pupils in the highest division to take turns in drilling the youngest children. It goes without saying that there are some subjects like morale that must always be taught by the teacher, but on the other hand such things as reading and simple drill work in arithmetic may readily be entrusted to these older pupils. This can hardly be called teaching, but after all, this method to-day is only an expedient. One can easily appreciate the temptation especially for the poorer com- munities to glide along under this old régime semi-officially sanctioned, and it is not surprising that a little less than a cen- tury ago this economical system, at least from the point of Monitors 1 It was to be found in the schools of Paris as late as 1867. Cf. Gréard, Education et Instruction, p. 35. 2 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. xlvi. 3 Ibid., pp. xc-xci. THE LOWER SCHOOLS IOI view of teaching expenses, spread like wildfire over much of the civilized world. The old monitorial system has left other traces on the French schools, and one is likely to find them there for many years to come. These appear in the collective or simul- taneous method of instruction, “the natural and necessary form of primary instruction... Individual in- struction,” M. Gréard continues, “if it were applicable to the school, would be powerless there. Its action, isolated, cold, essentially reflective and logical, is suited only to minds that are discerning, delicately poised and rich in themselves and are continually absorbing the elements of life from the very atmosphere in which they develop. Such are not the condi- tions, such is not the environment of popular education. These natures for the most part undeveloped, need the inspiration of numbers, the stimulus of example, the influence of imitation, the swing of class work. But these very principles must be applied with care.” Unfortunately this last caution has not been well heeded, and the result is that the individuality of the pupil is much neg- lected, for it is always the class that is taught and not the individual. In fact, I sometimes think the teacher loses sight of the individual. One finds the same thing among the teachers themselves, a lack of individuality, a lack of ability to grasp situations, and to adapt means to ends. One of my friends once said: “ We French teachers stand like open-mouthed young birds wait- ing to be fed by their parents. We receive whatever the edu- cational authorities choose to drop down for us.” The teach- ers usually teach just as they have been taught, though at times one finds some that change their methods from year to year. The pupils are not encouraged to any show of individuality and have no opportunity to develop any spirit of leadership. Much of their work is done under the influence of some rule which they are encouraged to quote as often as applied. “Teach not much but well” is a good precept, but it is pos- 1Gréard, Education et Instruction, p. 65. Method Lack of Initiative to2. PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE sible to limit that amount to a very small quantity. It may truthfully be said that the teachers “treat the mind like the stomach and choose for it the food that can readily be as- similated.” * This is perfectly sound and necessary doctrine for infants, but one of the objects of the school should be to teach the older pupils to choose their own mental food from all that is spread before them. I believe firmly that what the French child really knows, he is sure of, but I also doubt strongly his ability to think for himself much outside certain narrow limits. He readily grasps the facts of geography, but he is quite at a loss when brought face to face with the facts of history and asked to draw therefrom his own deductions. As has been already indicated, one finds comparatively few text-books in the elementary schools, and the pupils have to make their own. In some schools there is a special note-book for each subject ; in others the subjects are grouped: that is, a note-book for writing, one for all home work, and another for class work; in a third group and in by far the largest number of schools, one finds a single note-book, cahier wnique, for all subjects. This last is much the most popular because it 1s the most-economical, the easiest to use, and lends itself most readily to inspection. There is a variation in this last form of note-book keeping that is most commendable. It consists in having two sets of books, each one being used on alternate days. It necessarily entails a great amount of work on the teacher, for he examines and marks the books regularly each day. The parents are thus kept in constant touch with the work at the school, for every night the child carries home a note-book which the parent must sign before it goes back to school the next day. I have seen this system tried in some rooms in a large school building, and the improvement shown in writing and in general neatness under its influence was certainly remarkable. The question probably arises: “‘ What goes into these note- books?” In the first place, in the lower schools at least, the children are not given a certain amount of text to study, first, Note-books 1 Organisation et Situation de Enseignement Primaire, p. 279. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 103 because they have practically no texts and secondly from prin- ciple. Every lesson is carefully explained by the teacher be- fore it is assigned to the pupils. In history, for example, the teacher tells the story of the lesson, occasionally putting a few questions to the children, and at the close dictates a summary of the chief points to be written in the note-books. Thus the pupil has in the very words of the teacher himself the exact topics of the lesson for which he will be held responsible. Un- fortunately some of the children commit these summaries to memory, and come to school the next day all primed to repeat them word for word. At the beginning of the next lesson, a few minutes will be devoted to a review of the previous day’s work, and after that the same routine is followed. This general method of peptonized mental food may be said to char- acterize all the work of the entire primary school system and even until one comes to the legitimate lecture courses that are found in some of the better normal schools, as far as my experience goes, the French child is never taught to select the wheat from the chaff for himself. All he has to do is to as- similate what is already selected for him. Undoubtedly there is a certain virtue in this for the young, but followed too far its influence is only debilitating. Again, in arithmetic for instance, the typical examples will be first worked on the board by the teacher, fully explained and then copied into the note-books by the pupils. After that slightly different examples, but always employing the same general prin- ciples, are given to the pupils to solve independently. These are never very numerous, but are all worked through most carefully. In fact, three or four examples even of the sim- plest sort will occupy an ordinary recitation hour. After an example has been worked by all, one of the class is called to the board to do it again. Every step of the calculation is gone over very deliberately, and the reason for every operation stated most minutely. The other pupils then correct their work from this model. No effort is made to induce the class as a whole to take part in the exercise, unless, it may be, to Method in Arithmetic 104 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE call on them to recite a certain rule in concert. If the pupil at the board gets into trouble, it is a rare thing to find a teacher that endeavors to help him reason out the difficulty. After making a perfunctory effort of this nature, he calls upon another member of the class, evidently assuming that the mass can learn nothing from the struggles of the individual, and that time is too valuable to spend upon a single pupil. When a given scholar is thus called up for recitation, he is almost in- variably marked by the teacher, and often that mark is an- nounced to this fellows as well as to him. At such times, it is evidently the desire of the teacher to find out how much that particular pupil knows, whether or not the rest of the class learn anything from the interrogation. The result is that although each one is not called on very often, when that time comes, he is questioned pretty thoroughly, and this method becomes more and more striking as the age of the pupil in- creases. In fact in some of the more advanced schools, I have visited classes where not more than three or four pupils were called upon during the whole hour. Since the organization of the schools in 1882, every pupil has had to have a cahier de devoirs mensuels.* This is a note- book with which the child is provided when aaa, he first enters school, and which must be re- tained throughout his course. From time to time, various regulations have been issued as to how this book should be kept. In the last,” however, M. Leygues left the details entirely to the teachers. In general, some of the first les- sons of each month are entered here regularly just as they are done by the pupils. These are all examined and marked very carefully by the teacher, sometimes even indicating the rank that the particular child holds in the class. The subjects of the lessons are so chosen that one can follow with reasonable accuracy the progress of each pupil in each subject from the very beginning of his school career until the end. These books are kept at the school and are sent home once each month for the signatures of the parents. 1 Arrété, July 27, 1882, Art. 13, Gr. V, p. 455. 2 Circ., Jan. 13, 1895, Gr. VI, p. 596. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 105 There is another note-book in general use throughout the schools,* called the cahier de roulement. Though primarily instituted to facilitate the work of the in- spectors, it also furnishes them an admirable ier de comparative study of the abilities of the pupils; Fears and where it is sent home for the inspection of the parents, it enables them to see how their children are progressing with reference to their classmates. Each class has one of these books, and in this each pupil in turn records the work of one day. By merely glancing at this the inspector can see exactly what the teacher has been doing, if the pupils are well classified, and if the class is making satisfactory progress. In a word he has here a kind of record of the work of the teacher for each lesson, kept by the pupils themselves (for instead of writing in their regular note-books they enter the day’s work directly here), a sort of composite class note-book. The use of this cahier de roulement is really one of the best possible expedients for keeping up the work of the school, for the teacher necessarily feels that everything he does, almost every- thing he says is coming directly under the eye of the in- spector. Thus the latter, although he cannot visit the school very often feels that he can still keep in touch with what is being done there. From time to time there is very serious opposition made to the amount of home work that the children in the primary schools are required to do. And this is not en- tirely without reason, for the school day is a long one, ordinarily from half past eight until half past eleven in the morning and from one to four o’clock in the afternoon. In any case, the length of the daily sessions is always the same, with a recreation period of fifteen minutes in the middle of each. The week-day holiday in France is on Thursday, and Saturday is a full school day like the other days of the week. Besides all this school work, there is a varying amount of home work which increases regularly with the age of the pupils. At first this is only about half or three quarters of 1 Circ. Jan. 13, 1895, Gr. VI, p. 596. Home Work to6 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE an hour per day in the second year of the cours élémentaire, but in the upper grades of the school one finds that the very best of the pupils are expected to spend at least two hours per day outside of school. It is in just such instances as these that the system of supervised study periods previously referred to is an especial boon, for the children can find in the school room that quiet and atmosphere of study that are practically unknown at many of their homes. From our point of view, the amount of outside work is entirely too much for children that are about on a par with those of our upper grammar grades. On the other hand, however, it must be said that the number of prepared lessons practically never exceeds four- teen or sixteen per week even in the higher classes, so there still remains about the same number of hours out of the thirty when the mental strain is not so severe. “ The chief object of the école primaire is to form the man in the child, but it ought at the same time to prepare him as much as possible for practical life, for the Purpose of future that lies before him.” ? To attain this pres purpose the elementary school programs rec- ognize three aspects of education — moral, intellectual, and physical. “ Elementary primary instruction includes: moral and civic instruction; reading and writing; the French language; arith- metic and the metric system; history and geo- graphy, especially of France; object lessons and the first scientific notions, chiefly in their ap- plication to agriculture; the elements of drawing, singing, and manual training (needle work in the girls’ schools) ; and gym- nastic and military exercises.” * The actual arrangement of these various subjects in the cimploi du temps, or daily pro- gram, is left to the teacher or director of the school, subject only to the approval of the primary inspector. There are, however, some general suggestions to aid in this work. Since 1882, moral and civic instruction has headed the list Subjects of Instruction 1 Organisation et Situation de l Enseignement Primaire, p. 297. 2 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 27, Gr. V, p. 725. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 107 of the required subjects in the elementary schools.!. The moral aspect, until that time entirely obscured by the religious instruction, then for the first time Moral took a predominant place in the work of the oes French schools. It represents the efforts of the people who had just forced religious teaching out of the program to find an effective and at the same time non-sectarian means of de- veloping the ethical side of the child’s nature. Undoubtedly, the previous religious instruction was entirely formal and empty, for it consisted merely in going through the various articles of the catechism without comment, but it is very doubtful if its present substitute is much richer in real content. It savors too much of the narrow minded doctrines of our Puritan ancestors. I have visited many classes and talked with still more people on this very subject, but I have yet to find a single class where the teacher ever rose to any ethical basis above the idea of reward and punishment. Whatever may be their real feeling on the matter, their teaching never seems to reach the point of doing right for right’s sake. I am not quite ready, however, to agree with Matthew Arnold when he says: “All direct religious instruction, Catholic or Protestant, is entirely banished from the French schools, and ‘the ‘ moral and civic instruction’ which is the substitute, seemed to me, so far as I could judge from the manual of it which I perused, and from the many lessons in it which I heard, of little or no value.” ? One of the most prominent educators in all France said to me not long since: ‘‘ The work in morale has not succeeded here in France, for the present generation is evidently not so good as the last.” Among the teachers themselves, there is a decided dif- French Opinion 1It is beyond the limits of this study to take up in detail the subjects of the elementary school curriculum and to consider the special method of each. Some subjects, however, have been selected for particular com- ment because they seemed to present certain features that could not or might not be readily learned from the official program. 2 Matthew Arnold, Report on Elementary Education in Germany, Swit- zerland and France, 1886, p. 19. to8 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE ference of opinion on this matter. One is pretty sure, how- ever, to find those people that have broken away from this earlier religious training—and there is a vast number of these even among the teachers to-day—staunch supporters of the new régime, while the church adherents of whatever faith will as stoutly oppose it. From a theoretical point of view, one would expect the children to become very tired of this lay preaching and grow to look upon it all like the other subjects of the school curriculum, to be studied and applied only at certain: periods and never to become a real integral part of their natures. It is always dangerous to make generalizations, especially on a subject of this sort where one finds almost as many vari- ations as persons. It must be added, however, that some teachers succeed remarkably well with this most difficult of all subjects to handle. It is of course too much to expect to send children of eleven or thirteen years of age out into the world with a moral code or standard that will serve them through life, but there is good opportunity for success in teach- ing such children the ideas of protection of song birds, kind- ness toward dumb animals and similar notions of a practical nature that will appeal to their young minds. And this is exactly the line of work that the most successful of the teach- ers follow. This whole religious matter is one of the burning questions of the day in France, and the trouble over the congrégations is stirring the people to the very depths. The recent legislation can be regarded as only a continuation of the work of laicization begun in the schools as a whole a little more than twenty years ago, and still earlier than that in some of the northern departments. But for these efforts to rid the schools of this religious domin- ation, France would soon be in the same position in that re- gard that Spain is today. The disturbance, however, will probably be only temporary, and in the end the ideas of free, public education will be more firmly than ever imbedded in the popular mind. The Religious Question THE LOWER SCHOOLS 109 In spite of what has been said on the general method in arith- metic, I feel sure that the French children age for age are fully as strong as our own in the mechanical . : operations. They certainly have plenty of Spee drill in that work. Much importance is laid upon mental arith- metic even from the very first. At least as early as the second year of the elementary school, they begin to use a shortened form of division. There is certainly a considerable saving in writing figures, but it demands a greater amount of care and mental effort. The children, however, acquire a rapidity and degree of accuracy that is most praiseworthy. Subjoined is a page taken from a text-book in arithmetic * which will show the exact method of procedure. It will also give some idea of the extent to which the use of rules is carried. “ Shortened form of division. Rule.—lIn actual practice, in order to shorten the work, we subtract at the same time that we multiply. Example.—Given to divide 24961 by 137. 24961 137 1126 "182, 0301 027 Divide: How many times is 137 contained in 249? or rather 13in24? It is contained once. Multiply and subtract: 1 X 7, from 9=2; I X 3, from 4=1;1X1, from 2=1. Bring down one figure: We bring down the next figure, 6. Divide: How many times is 137 contained in 1126? or rather 13 in 112? It is contained 8 times. Multiply and subtract: 8 X 7 = 36, from 560, and we carry 5;8X 3=24,+5=29, from 32 == 3, and we carry a: 8 M18, + 3 1, from II =o. Bring down one figure: We bring down the next figure, I. Divide: How many times is 137 contained in 301? or rather 13 in 30? It is contained twice. 1 Leyssenne, La Premiére Année d’Arithmétique, p. 69. tr9o. PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Multiply and subtract: 2X 7=14, from 21=7, and we catty 2j 2X 3==6,-+2—8, from 10=— 2, ad we carry 1: 2X 1=2,+1=3, from 3—0. The division gives a quotient of 182 and a remainder of 27.” Then follow twelve examples by way of illustration, and at the very bottom of the page: ‘“ What is the rule for the shortened form of division?” This shows that even modern text-books retain traces of the old catechetical form. In all work in denominate numbers, the French have an immense advantage over the English-speaking peoples. It is quite unnecessary to-day to suggest any justi- fication of the metric system, for our educators already generally appreciate its advantages. The matter was most forcibly and concretely brought to my attention, how- ever, in a lower division of a cours supérieur. The boys would probably average about eleven years of age. The teacher spent less than half an hour in showing the pupils the relation between the measures of volume and capacity, and the method of transition from one to the other. As far as one could judge from the appearance of the class, every one seemed to under- stand the explanation and to be able to apply it. Although boys of this age would probably be perfectly familiar with these measures, yet how many American boys even after weeks of work could change from cubic inches to quarts with any de- gree of facility? The fact that perhaps we never want to make this particular transition has no bearing on the prin- ciples involved, namely that the metric system is founded upon some logical and scientific basis, while there are few things in the world more utterly unrelated and difficult to understand than our English systems of weights and measures. Work in geometry is carried on simultaneously with that in arithmetic. It is always, however, of a very elementary sort, and even in the higher grades of the lower schools one finds very few strictly geo- metrical proofs. Most of the demonstrations are purely arith- metical, and in fact the geometry as a whole is not much un- Metric System Geometry THE LOWER SCHOOLS itt like the mensuration formerly required for entrance by some of our scientific schools. Reference has already been made to the rapidity with which French children learn to read and write, and they do both well. The general excellence in these two sub- jects is everywhere apparent. I am rather in- Reding and clined to think that some of the excellence in bcc writing is gained at the expense of speed, but one would be willing to take a little more time in order to have the neat, well written cahiers de roulement that I found in most of the schools. The children have not the same liberty as ours in re- gard to the size of the letters, but there are three distinct sizes, large, medium, and small, with heights of six or seven, four or five, and three millimeters respectively. Not only must each pupil be able to write any one of these sizes as the case requires, but also in most of the better schools there are different types of letters—the French call them the round, the mixed, and the Gothic. The first is very much like our verti- cal hand except that every downward stroke is heavily shaded ; the second has the slant of the ordinary writing with the letter form and shading of the round; the Gothic is similar to our old English script. T'wo different kinds of pens are used, for no one kind is suitable for all these styles of letters. The children become very proficient in the various types, and one can readily see what attractive note-books might be made with the combinations. The work in geography and history is confined almost ex- clusively to France and her colonies, most of the other parts of the world receiving only hasty consideration. These two subjects illustrate the concentric method that has already been briefly treated, but some concrete examples taken from a suggested division of the subject matter by months may make this considerably clearer. Geography and History PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE It2 0} pejiduros useq aaey jey} AueU yo au Ajazaw SI ynq ‘Je19ua3 sueaut ou fq st ‘19A9.M0y SALUL ABW [OOYSS B Jo JOPaIIp ay} ‘oInNjeU sIy} Jo UOHENBes Aue jo W[Nejap uy Saou ne [eywauyzsedap ony “SJaUIOD oY} pue UOCOU ay} ‘qyiea 94} ‘fsjouetd ay} ‘uns a4YL “weinqou oy} ‘Aem AxpIw a4} ‘suor}e][a}suU09 24} ‘sieqs ay} ‘suaavoy oy} ‘AjIsueWUT S}I pue asJaalun 9y} Jo apr [Biouar) = ‘asdaAlun = ay, “stead €1-11 WO usIppIyD “ANILAIGNG SANOD “woOUr ay} ‘Y}Jea ay} ‘sjouRld ay} ‘uns ayT, ‘saejs ay} pue SUdARdY aL ‘assJOAIUN ay], “saeod 6-2 Woy uaapyIyD *adrnquansg] 5] SANOD ‘woow ay} pue YyyJeo eYL ‘“Woysks sejos ay} pue uns ay, ‘“suolj}elja}suos oy} ‘s1e4s 94} fasIaatun 94} Jo vapt [eJouer) = ‘asdaarun ¢ ayy “steak I1-6 wold UaIpyIYyD ‘uahoyy sanoD ‘uooul ay1 UO (£) *(SIxe s}I uo pue ‘uns ay} ynoge_ voHNNjOAes sit “WLIO} SH) Yea aYyZUO (z) *sie}s ey} ‘uns ay} UC (I) ‘sHeL *sread £-$ wool uasprryD ‘aUIsUDJUT assvzz "addOLIO dO HLINOW ‘AHAVUD0aD NI NVEDOUg (‘un3aq st sajdoad yuarue ay} jo Apnys ayy ‘enatagdns S4NOP 94} Ul “eM ,sIeax perpunyy ey} 0} pojoAep SI yJUOU 9y} jo yed 390}v013 pue Japurewmer sayy) :010N *gzE1 0} dn soueig jo AIOJsIY 9Y} JO MatAay ‘sea 11-6 Wor UasIppIyD “uahoyy SAN0D “OPTHOTD pue staojy *[ney ul Ayueysiiyy ‘syuesy ay} Joswmojsny ‘syUeIy oy “ese snijnf pue x10}a8urD -JaA ‘[nexy Jo ysonbuoo uew -OY ‘sauoUIasad snosysy *s[nex) 94} JO swojsnD “AY -unod MO Jo sjuRjIqeyur yssy a4L ‘s[ner) 34} pue [ney ‘steak g-£ WOJ} UdIP[IYD “Teak ISI ‘aeevquswmg7y SAnoz ‘HIOM I9Y} DUIZULIIE UT SIDZYOEd} 9Y3 ASISSe ‘sIY} YI] Wesd0Id paplejap W ‘WAO STY Jo autays e no “s[ooyas Ie[NdyWJed 11ay} IO}; UL]d Je[IWIS e aqIIOsesd saUuTaUIOS ‘He Aq pamoyfoy aq 0} ued jeroujo ue you st SIT :Ezi-zexr ‘111-011 ‘dd ‘nb Zoavp7q Uorjos1uvF4Q ‘2ILEAWOD , ‘SIAQ[ID «= ‘SYURIY OUT ‘IOposyy pue syjyOy oyy ‘ely puesuny sys, = ‘suew -Jax) 24} JO uoIseAUy ‘aud “Wy UeWOY 3y} Jopun jner *‘ysonbuod uewoYy 3Y4} aJ0Jaq yney) ‘sjnex ay} pue ney “sievak 6-g WOIy UsIp[IyD *leak{pe ‘aetpquaugyy s4nop *9SBA SUOSSIOG OUT, ‘apyiy -O[D pue SIA] ‘aagtAauesy qureg «pue enIy ‘siesey pue XLOJaSuINIaA *9039]}STUL ay} Bullayyer ‘sfney ay} JO Stojsnd ay} Jo oinzOI1g *sIeaAfZ-S WOY UsIp[IYyD *‘IUYUDIUT assvjD | WAG@OLIO AO HLNOW ‘AWOLSIE] NI WvUDOUg THE LOWER SCHOOLS 113 This partial program in geography does not include all the subjects for the month of October, but there are enough here to indicate the general plan, and to show how the work for each cours is a little more difficult, and covers a somewhat larger field than that of its predecessor. Map study is begun in the cours élémentaire, and the pupils begin to draw for themselves in the next grade. This map-drawing is a very important part of the geography work, and the pupils learn to do this accurately and remarkably quickly. In general, how- ever, I am afraid that the memory still plays an altogether too important part in the geography lessons. Many times these become a mere naming of the departments with their chief towns or a dry recapitulation of statistics that are interesting and valuable in themselves, but have little significance for chil- dren of primary school age. However that may be, on leav- ing the elementary school, the pupils are undoubtedly thor- oughly familiar with the geographical and historical facts of their own country, but whether they appreciate even in a small way the great fundamental principles underlying the changes that France has experienced in both these aspects of her national life is quite another matter. Singing occupies the last place on the program of the sub- jects of intellectual education, and its relative importance seems to be fairly measured by the position it holds. Until the cours moyen, all the music is taught by ear, and it consists almost entirely of one-part exercises. I have heard some very good singing indeed, but on the whole, there still remains much to be desired. The interest in this subject, however, seems to be increasing, for since 1895,* there have been two grades, an elementary and an advanced, of the special certificate for the teaching of singing. Although physical education occupies one third of the pro- grams, its practical value is far from being ap- 7 ‘< preciated. In fact, in their attitude toward nf Moe physical exercise in general, the French boys Drill must be classed with the Germans rather than 1 Décret, Apr. 29, 1895, Gr. VI, p. 610. Singing 114. PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE with the Americans or the English. Very few of them seem to find any real pleasure in the mere modicum of this work that one finds in the schools. The official program is quite a formidable looking document, but I seldom found it fol- lowed. Anything like gymnastic apparatus is almost unknown in the equipment of the elementary schools. Practically all the swimming exercises referred to in the program are performed on dry land, for very few of even the higher schools have any other facilities for this work. The boxing is equally formal. The pupils go through the various movements—and they are more complicated than ours, for the French use their feet as well as their hands—but have only imaginary oppo- nents. The only military drill that I ever found was con- fined to simple marches and squad evolutions entirely without arms. Even this is found but rarely. One thing that tended to prevent any use of gymnasium apparatus even when the ordinary conditions were otherwise favorable was the law holding teachers person- ally liable for all accidents to their pupils while under their charge. At all events there was an actual decrease in the number of public schools that had a more or less complete gymnasium, from sixty-two hundred and thirty-four in 1892 to fifty-one hundred and forty in 1897 and to forty-two ‘hundred and seventy-four in 1902." _ More- over, there seems to be a generally well-established feeling against the so-called heavy apparatus of all kinds, so although the State has assumed * the responsibility previously imposed upon the teachers, there does not seem to be any immediate prospect of the gymnasium returning to popular favor. Comparatively little is done in manual training. In the two lower cours, the subject matter is confined chiefly to paper folding, simple cardboard constructions and modelling for the boys, and to sewing and needle work for the girls. In the cours su- périeur, the boys are supposed to become acquainted with the Responsibility for Accidents Manual Training 1 Statistique, VI, 1896-1897, p. xlv; VII, p. xlii. 2 Lot, July 20, 1899, Gr. VI, p. 803. THE LOWER SCHOOLS LIS common tools employed in wood and iron work, but the fre- quent absence of this upper cowrs and the fact that in the 61,296 school buildings in France and Algeria in 1902, only seven hundred and fifty-nine had a work-shop for manual training, with nearly one fifth of these in the department of the Seine,’ will give some idea of the amount of this kind of instruction given. The little found is confined to a few of the larger towns and cities. Although the expense of any ade- quate installation is a great obstacle to satisfactory work of this nature, yet even the idea does not seem to be strongly pres- ent, for there are plenty of ways of introducing cord work, or grass braiding and weaving that could be employed in even the poorest communities. Although the normal schools attach considerable importance to this subject, yet the teachers have little opportunity to apply what they have learned there in the classes of the lower schools. The most of the work done, however, shows a lack of unity and a poverty of content. The sewing and needle work of the girls is much more satis- factory, although even here the formal aspect is too often predominant. The wish of the authorities to adapt the programs of the manual work to the needs of the various sections is well evi- denced by the introduction of object lessons connected with the life of the sailor or the fisherman in the departments bor- dering on the sea. A similar adaptation is found in the work of the girls, for in the lace-making country of the north much attention is devoted to designing, and in the silk provinces of the south, the culture of the silk worm is the subject of no little concern. In the strictly rural schools, the manual work is entirely devoted to agriculture. For some years past, France as well as other countries has been grappling with the problem of the depopulation of the country dis- tricts. As a means of counteracting this urban movement of the people, the authorities have given much attention during the last six or eight years to improving the agricultural con- 1 Statistique, VII, p. xli. Agriculture 116 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE ditions.* Some of the departmental authorities have become even more actively interested, and in several departments, ac- cording to Mr. Brereton,’ have met with varying success. The reason for the general lack of success is due to the impractical nature of the work attempted. “ The child has in his head the names of grasses he has never seen, Impractical 9 manure of whose composition and properties Nature of j oye the Work he is alike ignorant. He draws on the black- board or in his copy book all the parts of the plough, and he does not know why one ploughs, or why one ploughs deep in one place and shallow in another. ... There is a necessary link between the object and the lessons he learns by heart, but this link escapes him, because there is nothing given in the teaching of a nature to permit him to lay hold of it.’* The government is doing its best to encourage this agricultural work by offering prizes not only to the pupils but also to the teachers that have children among the prize winners. The French pupils are not troubled with a great number of written examinations in course, though there are plenty of them out of course. There are, however, fre- quent reviews. The last week of each tri- mester is generally devoted to a review of the preceding three months; the first week in July is occupied with the review of the last trimester; and finally the last three weeks are spent in a general review of the work of the year. The examinations that come at these periods are almost entirely oral, the only written ones being those in spelling, composition, arithmetic, and writing. The natural culmination of the elementary school course is the certificat d’études primaires élémentaires. This is given as the result of an examination, partly written and partly oral, held near the close of the school year before a cantonal commission. The members of this commission are appointed by the rector Reviews and Examinations Primary Certificate 1Cf. especially Circ., Jan. 4, 1897, Gr. VI, pp. 745-746. 2 Brereton, The Rural Schools of Northwest France, pp. 117-141. 8 Rapport de lVInspecteur d’Académie, quoted in Brereton, ibid., p. 120. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 117 on nomination of the academy inspector,’ and the primary in- spector is president of this body ex officio. For the examina- tion of girls, women necessarily form a part of the member- ship of the committee. Each candidate must be not less than eleven years old on September 30th of the year in which he presents himself.” The written examination*® precedes, and the candidate is required to pass this with an average of fifty per cent in order to be admitted to the oral examination. This written part consists of about fifteen lines of dictation which serves as a test of both (1) Wietiies il : . Examination writing and (2) spelling; (3) two questions in arithmetic based on the metric system; (4) a simple com- position on a subject taken from moral or civic instruction, from geography and history, or from the elementary science lessons. Besides these, the girls are required to do an ordi- nary piece of sewing, and the boys have a few written questions on the work in agriculture, if they are from the country, or a simple exercise in drawing, if they come from the city schools. The oral or second part of the examination, consists of (1) the reading and explanation of a passage selected at random by the examiner, together with the recitation of a few lines of poetry, and (2) some simple questions in geography and history.* The subjects of the first series, except the writing and spelling are allowed one hour each, while the whole second part of the examination does not last more than fifteen minutes for each pupil. Each of these seven subjects is marked on a scale of ten, and thirty-five represents the minimum passing mark. The girls and those boys for whom the questions in agricul- ture are obligatory may also take the examination in drawing if they choose. A mark of at least five in this subject assures Oral Examination 1 Arrété, July 24, 1888, Arts. 254-255, Gr. VI, p. 113. 2 Bull, Adm., 1899, XLVI, p. 14. 3 Arrété, July 31, 1897, Arts. 256-257, Gr. VI, pp. 783-784. * Arrété, July 24, 1888, Art. 258, Gr. VI, p. 115. t18 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the mention of that fact on their certificate. This question, however, is purely optional. * The possession of this primary certificate releases the holder from any further obligation to attend school. The examin- ation, however, is so notoriously easy that its passing does not imply any very great intellec- tual attainments. More than. that, the examination is based only on the work of the cours moyen, which is decidedly a narrow field. The teachers have tried to obviate this by dis- couraging the pupils that have only finished the work of this cours from attempting the examination, but not always with much success. There is still that eager haste on the part of both parents and children to gain this government sanction for leaving school. Besides, the valuations of the various subjects are far from equitable, for ten is the maximum mark for each; that is, the examination in spelling, or in writing, has as much weight as that in arithmetic or composi- tion, and twice as much as that in either geography or history. The fact, too, that the examination does not cover all the sub- jects of even the cours moyen necessarily throws added influ- ence on the required ones at the expense of the others during the last months before the examination. ‘At this same period, moreover, the teacher is tempted to devote himself too ex- clusively to those pupils that are coming up for their examin- ations, and to resolve their work into a kind of “‘ cram.” But after all these are the attendant evils that accompany almost every examination system. One of the more progressive of the Paris directors told me a short time ago that some of his colleagues had long rec- ognized the insufficiency of this examination but had thus far striven in vain to have the standard raised. He further complained that the conditions now were not so strict as for- merly because to-day every pupil that succeeds in the written part of the examination is almost sure to’ pass the oral. Un- Advantages Criticisms ‘For an account of an examination for the primary certificate, cf. Ap- pendix B. THE LOWER SCHOOLS 119 satisfactory though the present requirements may be, time and: effort might better be spent in increasing the number of pupils that gain the certificate rather than in raising the existing standard. In spite of the fact that the number of successful candidates has increased almost steadily from 175,675* in 1893 to 209,168 ” in 1904, on the average not quite eighty per cent of the competitors, this number still represents consider- ably less than one sixth of all the children in the country eleven and twelve years of age. The successful candidates for this primary certificate during the last five years have been as follows: * 1900 IQOI 1902 1903 1904 BOYS. siooiiis ste Chemtahs 106,026 107,674 111,749 112,929 113,390 Gitlst cence sacri S QI,110 04,574 95,181 94,384 95,778 Total ........ Maneiasiae 197,136 202,248 206,930 207,313 209,168 Per cent boys......... 80 70 80 80 81 Per cent girls......... 82 83 83 83 83 Notwithstanding the accompanying drawbacks, this primary certificate has certainly been of great value in bringing up the average of the poorer schools. It sets practically the same standard for all the elementary schools everywhere, and gives the teachers some more definite object to reach than the mere vague idea of implanting in each pupil’s mind the funda- mental principles of primary education. It gives them, too, some measure whereby they can estimate in a rough way the success that they have attained in their efforts. 1 Statistique, VI. 1896-1897, p. clxviii. 2 Bull. Adm., Dec. 24, 1904, LXXVI, p. 1003. 3 Bull. Adm., LXX, p. 1115; LXXIV, p. 1308; LXXVI, p. 1003. CHAPTER VII Tue Upper SCHOOLS “PRIMARY education necessarily has its limits. In the last analysis it includes and it includes only that which it is not possible to be ignorant of and yet be a man, that which it is indispensable to know in order to be a useful man.” * This fairly typifies the work of all branches of the primary school, the first part representing the task of the lower schools and the second that of the upper. The latter are the expression of an attempt to satisfy the wants of the great mass of the people for something more than the mere minimum of knowledge. They form “ the natural trans- ition, not between elementary education and secondary classi- cal education, but rather between primary studies and the studies of the schools of applied science. . .. In a word, theirs is the task of furnishing the under officers for the great army of work and industry, for which, as M. Gréard has said, modern secondary instruction provides the leaders.” ? There are several groups of schools included in this term upper:* the cours complémentatres, the écoles primaires su- périeures, the écoles manuelles d apprentissage pate and the écoles professionnelles. These upper schools are practically codrdinate groups of schools that are adapted to the various needs or means of the communities which they serve, for they all continue directly the work of the lower schools. The écoles primaires su- périeures may be taken as the norm, the cours complémentaires being substituted in places that cannot afford the expense of installation that these schools require, and the écoles manuelles Purpose 1 Gréard, Education et Instruction, Enseignement Secondaire, II, p. 76. 2 Duplan, L’Enseignement Primaire a Paris, II, p. 7. 3 That is, the upper schools of the primary system. 120 THE UPPER SCHOOLS 121 d’apprentissage and the écoles professionnelles as their names imply, providing a minimum of intellectual work with the maximum of practical. These last are higher class apprentice schools. As in the other primary schools, all instruction is ab- solutely free, and besides there are many scholarships, so that often even the expenses of clothes and food are borne by the State or the community. As has been already indicated, how- ever, these schools are open to only a limited number of children, and naturally these places are filled by the most prom- ising pupils. So that as a matter of fact, the child of aver- age ability in France is educated at the expense of the State only through the lower schools. The justification for this is that this higher kind of education is expensive, and the State is not willing to undertake the burden unless reasonably sure that the community will be repaid for it. | M. Guizot was the first to appreciate the need of something beyond the very elementary schools, and the tried to establish these higher schools as early as 1833, in order to fill the gap that existed between the primary and the secondary grades and to offer to a great class of the people an opportunity for “ reaching a certain intellectual de- velopment without imposing upon them the necessity of seek- ing it in the secondary schools, so expensive and at the same time so perilous.” * The few schools that were started had a more or less pre- carious existence. Finally in 1878, the central authorities be- came more interested, and the budget for that year carried 110,000 francs for encouraging the foundation of these schools.2 Since that time, their number has increased rapidly, and to-day, although by no means the largest of the State’s various educational interests, they are assuredly one of the most important. The phrase of M. Duplan quoted above, “ to supply the under officers,” really gives the key to the develop- ment of these schools. In other words, France trusts to their pupils to improve her commercial, agricultural, and industrial First Schools 1 Guizot, Motives of the law of 1833, Gr. II, p. 4. 2 Circ., May 16, 1878, Gr. IV, p. 785. 122 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE position, and a study of the programs of these schools will give some idea of the effort she has made to prepare them for their mission. Although the cours complémentawe and the école primaire supérieure represent different developments of the same idea, in actual practice there is quite a wide distinc- tion between them. The first of these cannot exist by itself but is nothing more than an annex to some école primaire élémentaire and is in charge of the director of that school. It is a prerequisite, however, that the lower school should have its three cours completely organ- ized and that the director should hold the brevet supérieur." The length of the course in the cours complémentaire is limited to one year, whereas in the école primaire supérieure it may be two or three years or even longer.* * Not only is the equip- ment of the former much more limited than that of the latter, but the grade of the instructors is distinctly lower. The teacher in the cours complémentaire is a simple instituteur, and in respect to appointment and classification is reckoned with the teachers of the lower schools. The ordinary teacher in the école primaire supérieure, however, holds the certificat d@aptitude au professorat in the normal schools and so is ap- pointed, promoted or removed directly by the Minister. These continuation classes are established in the same gen- eral. way as the other primary schools; the installation and maintenance of the buildings and the additional remuneration of the teachers are at the expense of the community, while the regular salaries are paid by the State. The State, however, will not do this unless the commune agrees to support this school just as it does the obliga- tory schools for at least five years, and furthermore it will with- draw its support if the number of pupils falls below twelve for three consecutive years.* Since about five years ago, in order Continuation Classes State Aid 1 Décret, Jan, 21, 1893, Arts. 30-31, Gr. VI, p. 472. 2 Ibid. 3In Paris, these schools all have a four-year course, and in the girls’ school at Lille one even finds this extended to five years. * Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 5, Gr. VI, p. 164. THE UPPER SCHOOLS 123 to receive State aid in founding such a school, the commune has had to bind itself to support it for at least thirty years. Pre- vious to 1893, all State aid of this nature was given in the form of annuities running over a long period of years. Then the commune had to support the school at least as long as the annuities continued. Since that time, instead of a series of installments, the amount has been given inalump sum. That, then, is the basis of this thirty year period, for since the State has so many demands for this assistance, it must receive some guarantee that the money will be profitably used and that it will be of more than temporary ‘benefit. The requirements for admission to the cours complémen- taires and the écoles primaires supérieures are exactly the same: _ namely, the possession of the primary certi- ficate and at least one year in the cours supé- rieur of the elementary primary school. On account of the great number of these lower schools, however, that have no upper division, it has been rather difficult to insist on this second condition. Nevertheless, the authorities are very much in earnest in the matter and they will not rest until these re- quirements are fully satisfied. There is no regular curriculum outlined for the cours com- plémentaires. Each year the director and the teacher of the cours supérieur of the lower school draw up their own program, and it is only necessary to have it approved by the superior authorities.2 Here is one of the few places in all the French educational system where any great amount of real freedom is left to the teachers. The re- sult generally is that the work is much better adapted to the abilities of the pupils and the needs of the communities, for the teachers endeavor Ito supplement the work of the elemen- tary school and in order to do this they may select almost at will from the programs of the lower or the upper schools what they find of use there. Of course it is quite out of the question to pursue all the various subjects of the école primaire supé- 1 Décret, Mar. 28, 1899, Art. I, Gr. VI, p. 880. 2 Arrété, Jan. 25, 1805, Art. 2, Gr. VI, p. 599- Pupils Curriculum 124 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE rieure, for the cours complémentaire has only one teacher and continues but a single year, but the pupils can at least be given a taste for a certain amount of culture that is entirely outside the province of the curriculum of the lower schools. Finally, at the end of their course, they may submit to an examination on the work of the year, and if successful have a special men- tion to that effect inscribed in their elementary certificates. The number of these classes has increased quite rapidly during the last decade. The four hundred and eighty-two re ported in 1892, ten years later had increased to Number of Gfteen hundred and twenty-four, of which Cours Complé- : mentaires Seven hundred and two were private.* At best, however, the cours complémentaire is only a make-shift, installed in a community where the population or the prosperity will not warrant an école primaire supérieure. Of late years, in order to encourage the more useful form of the upper schools, the authorities have given all the scholar- ships available for this degree of education to the pupils of the écoles primates supérieures instead of dividing them as here- tofore between these schools and the cours complémentaires.* The écoles primaires supérieures together with the écoles manuelles d’apprentissage and the écoles professionnelles form a much more important though less numerous Other Upper i , Schools group of these upper schools. The écoles j manuelles d’apprentissage are simply a modi- fied form of écoles primaires supérieures. ‘As these upper schools were left somewhat free in their choice of programs, it naturally followed that the schools founded in the great in- dustrial and commercial centers tended more and more to be- come real technical schools. Under these conditions, the Ministry of Education was obviously reaching Schools = over into the field properly belonging to the Under “Pwo Ministry of Commerce, although there was Departments , still no small amount of purely intellectual sub- ject matter left in the programs. In the first place, a com- 1 Statistique, VI, 1896-1897, p. xlii; VII, 1901-1902, p. xxxix. 2 Circ., Sept. 7, 1895, Gr. VI, p. 664. THE UPPER SCHOOLS 125 promise was effected, and those schools that had primarily this industrial or commercial aspect were put under the condo- minium. of both ministers. That is, subventions to these schools were inscribed in the budgets of the two ministers,? and both sent their inspectors to the schools. This arrangement continued with more or less success for several years, until in 1897, there were no less than twenty- nine schools that were controlled in this fashion. Although the two departments worked in perfect harmony, the incon- gruity of the situation became more and: more apparent, until it was finally decided that these schools should either reas- sume their purely intellectual training with a modicum of manual work and so fall back under the Ministry of Public Instruction, or else they should become out and out technical schools with the intellectual work entirely subordinate and thus come under the control of the Ministry of Commerce and In- dustry. This change could not be made all at once, but in 1902 there were only twelve schools under the condominium of the two ministers* and the probability is that this dual con- trol will soon cease to exist altogether. Un- der the new arrangement, these transferred Schools Trans- 7 : ferred to the schools took the name écoles pratiques de COM- yrinicter of merce ou d’industrie and they are controlled Commerce by the department of commerce and industry in exactly the same way as are the ordinary schools by the de- partment of education. At first, twelve schools were thus transferred, since then others have been treated likewise and still other new ones created, so that on December 31, 1899, there were in all thirty-three écoles pratiques. In order to facilitate the classification of these schools, a commission was appointed consisting of the Vice-Rector of the Academy of Paris and eight other members, four being designated by the Minister of Education and four by the Minister of Commerce.* 1 Loi, Dec. 11, 1880, Gr. V, pp. 207-208. 2 Loi de Finances, Jan. 26, 1892, Art. 69, Gr. VI, p. 407. 3 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. XXXIX. * Décret, Jan. 25, 1895, Gr. VI p. 598. 126 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE This transformation thas not been entirely effected as yet, so to- day these schools form three categories: (1) those under the education department; (2) those under the department of com- merce; and (3) those under the condominium of both ministers. In the first of these three groups, intellectual development is the chief object, and the technical work is added solely as a means of providing a certain training for hand and eye, but with no idea of teaching any trade. It is not a “ professional school except in the general sense of being practical and utilitarian. It is a school and not a workshop; one finds there pupils, not apprentices.” * It not only gives the pupils a good general preparation for their life work, but it also provides those that cannot afford the expenses of the secondary schools with a means of enter- ing the higher technical and scientific schools, and so of be- coming the veritable leaders of the industrial and commercial world. The écoles pratiques de commerce et d’industrie, on the other hand, are strictly professional schools. They occupy themselves primarily with this or that aspect of commerce or industry and devote a few hours per week to French, geog- raphy, history, mathematics, and the sciences, solely with the idea of providing a more substantial apperceptive basis for their real work. Here, then, the intellectual subject matter is entirely subordinate,” and they aim to prepare their pupils for the various trades. These are not mere apprentice schools to teach ordinary workmen a trade, but inasmuch as their pupils are a picked set and of more than ordinary intelligence and capacity, they try to combine with mere technical skill a certain training of the creative powers that will enable their students to become intelligent foremen or overseers; in fine, to develop a real love for manual work and not to turn out a class of individuals dissatisfied with their positions in society and only waiting for vacancies in the already overcrowded clerkships and minor government positions that are thought to carry with them certain prestige. The pupils of these schools 1 Circ., Feb. 15, 1893, Gr. VI, p. 485. 2 For the programs of these schools, see infra pp. 135-136. Differentiation of Types THE UPPER SCHOOLS 127 are composed chiefly of the brighter boys and girls of the upper working or small tradesmen class that cannot afford to stay at school much beyond their fifteenth year. The last of these groups of schools forms a sort of hybrid class, and at- tempts to make these two aspects of education of more nearly equal importance. They are gradually disappearing, however, and will soon cease to exist altogether. Then the whole or- ganization of these upper schools will be reduced to a logical basis. The écoles professionnelles or rather the écoles nationales professionnelles * form still a different group. The outgrowth of one of the lessons that France learned from her first exposition under the Republic, these _ National great national schools aim to train a mass of sar industrial workers, but still to train them in- : telligently. In order to do this most effectively, we find not single schools but rather groups of schools, for the children. are received there when they enter school life. Through all the grades, professional instruction finds its place, continuing “progressively from the very first years, where it is almost nothing, up to the very last semester, where it is everything.” ” Besides these lower departments, there are special examinations for admission to the upper school proper which are conducted under similar conditions to those for entrance to the écoles primaires supérieures. There are now four of these great na- tional schools, Vierzon, Armentiéres, Voiron, and Nantes. The first three, although authorized in the early eighties, were not opened until several years later, Voiron in 1886 and Vier- zon and Armentiéres in 1887. Thus it was 1889 before the schools had completed their organization. The school at Nantes was established in 1899. These all have courses in wood work and iron work, while Armentiéres in the midst of the linen industry at the north devotes special attention to spin- 1During the debate on the budget of 1900, these schools which had heretofore been under the joint control of the (Minister of Education and the Minister of Commerce were transferred entirely to the latter. 2 Buisson, quoted in, Organisation et Situation de VEnseignement Pri- maire, p. 420. 128 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE ning and weaving, Voiron in the south to weaving and silk culture in general, and Vierzon in central France has a special workshop for pottery.* Except the cours complémentaires, the écoles primaires supérieures proper are not only the most numerous, but they are also the most important of all these upper Higher schools. They form the natural conclusion to Primary ; c Schools the ordinary primary school course and corre- spond in a general way to the American high schools. Although they are now nearly three quarters of a century old, in their present form they are practically a cre- ation of the last two decades and a half. The course lasts at least two years, and a school is not considered de plein exercice if this does not continue for three years or more. There is no one program prescribed for all schools, but there are several courses from which to choose: namely, general, commercial, industrial, and agricultural. Thus the school is able to adapt its work to the real needs of the community, but it must state clearly at the outset what courses it intends to give and then must confine itself strictly to the regulations prescribed for these. One does not find all four in any one school, but the general course may be combined with any of the others, as, for example, in the large city schools, the general, commercial, and industrial are usually found together. In fact, for the first year the prescribed studies are exactly the same for all groups, and it is not until the second year that any differentiation is allowed. Even here certain subjects are common to all, but the names of the various sections indicate sufficiently clearly the general trend of each. These schools are in no sense obligatory but always repre- sent the expression of a certain amount of public sentiment and educational interest. The initiative is taken by the municipal council, but the conseil dé- partemental practically decides whether or not Courses Establishment and Support 1 Martel and Ferrand, Ecoles Primaires Supérieures, Ecoles d’Appren- tissage et Ecoles Nationales Professionnelles. Monographies Pédagogiques, No. 9. THE UPPER SCHOOLS 129 the school shall be opened. Then it only remains to gain the support of the Minister, and this is almost sure to follow, for the authorities are only too glad to encourage these schools to the utmost of their financial ability. This government as- sistance is given in the form of scholarships, grants of appa- ratus and other material for instruction, while the teachers’ salaries are regularly paid by the State just as in the lower schools. The support will cease, however, if the number of pupils falls below fifteen for each year of work in the school for three consecutive years.* The amount of extra money that the communities may spend is depentlent entirely upon themselves. In ‘fact in Paris, one may truthfully say that these schools have about all that the directors choose to ask for. The city furnishes the books and school supplies, and the use- fulness of the schools is limited only by the utility of the methods, the capacity of the pupils and the ability of the teachers. The teaching force in the écoles primaires supérieures falls into two general groups: those appointed by the Minister, and those appointed by the prefect under the same conditions as in the elementary schools. The first of these form by far the larger of the two groups, fix the standard for the schools and mark their superiority over the lower. They include the director, professors that hold the certificate for teaching in the normal schools, as well as many teachers from the ranks of secondary education that find the work in these large city schools much more attractive socially and financially than that in the country lycées or colléges. The nominees of the prefect are simply instituteurs adjomts, who must hold the brevet supérieur and the certificat d’aptitude pédagogique, and the workshop assistants who are always practical workmen. The expenses of this latter class are reckoned as a part of the general installation of the school and are invariably borne by the community. It is needless to say that the titulaires are appointed ‘only when the Minister cannot fill the vacancies with his own appointees. These pro- 1 Loi, July 19, 1889, Art. 5, Gr. VI, p. 164. ‘Teachers 130 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE fesseurs are not always attached to any one school, but distrib- ute their time among several. This is especially true of the teachers of singing, agriculture, commercial branches, and mod- ern languages. The result is that the number of teachers at first sight seems entirely out of proportion to the number of pupils. In one school in Paris, for example, there are fifty teachers for about five hundred boys. It certainly gives a kind of variety to the character of the instruction, but on the other hand the teachers never really become acquainted with their pupils. In spite of the fact that according to the official regula- tions, in the smaller schools the directors are required to spend from ten to fifteen hours per week in actual teaching—save in those where there are more than one hundred and fifty pupils, in which case they may be relieved of all except the work in moral and civic instruction *—I did not find a single school among those I visited in Paris or in the department of the North where a director or directress gave any regular instruction. In fact this would be quite out of the question in such schools where the number of pupils varies from three hundred to nearly a thousand. The other teachers are expected to spend twenty hours per week in the class room and to devote five hours to the surveillance of study, recreation periods or excursions. The social class of the pupils in the écoles primaires su- péricures varies greatly with the schools. The intellectual re- quirements, however, are the same for all: namely, the possession of the elementary cer- tificate, and at least one year in the cours supérieur. This practically fixes the age for entrance at twelve or thirteen years. In some of the larger cities where the supply of can- didates is far in excess of the accommodations, ‘there is further a special entrance examination, and here one naturally finds the general level of the pupils somewhat higher. In Paris, the successful candidates are allowed as far as possible to choose among the five écoles primaires supérieures for boys, and the two for girls. Pupils 1 Décret, Aug. 14, 1893, Art. 1, Gr. VI, p. 525. THE UPPER SCHOOLS 131 Although all instruction in these schools is practically free, nevertheless one of them, Jean Baptiste Say at Auteuil, is really a semi-pay school. This is legalized by having a pensicnnat or boarding department, by supervised periods of study, and by various extra subjects of instruction for which additional fees are charged. Thus one finds here a distinctly higher social class than in the other similar schools in Paris, yet the letter of the law is kept if not the spirit. About one half of the nine hundred boys are paying pupils of this nature, who come here not only from all over France but even from abroad. The other half enter under the same conditions as in the other schools of the same grade. Of the nine hundred and fifty boys that passed the examinations for entrance to the écoles primaires supérieures of Paris in 1902, Jean Baptiste Say took one hundred and eighty. This school is situated in one of the better quarters of the city, so the charges constitute no real hardship, but merely act as a kind of social sieve. There are a few other schools conducted on a similar plan to be found in various parts of France but they are usually private schools that have been absorbed bodily by the Minister of Education and made to conform to the standards of the or- dinary schools of their grade. Toward the end of the school year, the pupils are con- fronted with a series of examinations called the examen de passage, which cover the work of the year. If a pupil fails here, the parent is usually re- quested to withdraw his child, for the State does not believe in carrying along any unpromising candidates. Those that are so disposed of at the end of the first year will not account for the great decrease in numbers of the second year of the course as compared with the first, and this although the State has put forth every effort to make it possible for the pupils to stay at school. In the seven schools of Paris, only thirteen per cent of the boys and twenty-three per cent of the girls stay more than three years, and at the school Jean Baptiste Say 1Morant, The French System of Higher Primary Schools, Eng- lish Educational Department. Special Reports on Educational Subjects, I, p. 327. Examinations 132 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE where we might expect to find these conditions much better, the per cent of boys in the fourth year from 1888 to 1895 varied from twelve to twenty and gave an average of less than seventeen.’ This is really a very serious defect inasmuch as in general these courses are all planned on a basis of four years. One of the most important ways in which the State has at- tempted to encourage the founding and development of the écoles primaires supérieures has been through a system of scholarships. These are of three sorts: d’internat, d’entretien, and familiales. The first are given to pay the living expenses at the boarding schools, but they can never amount to more than five hundred ‘francs each. The second vary from one hundred to four hundred francs and are given to children that live at home and attend an école primaire supérieure in the vicinity. These fulfil a double pur- pose and serve not only to pay the living expenses of the boys or girls but also to compensate the families in some measure for the loss of any possible income on the part of the children. The bourses familiales, with a uniform value of five hundred francs,—although these as well as the others may be assigned by halves or three quarters—are given in cases where there is no boarding department in connection with the school, and the pupils live with private families in the town. Each year, the Minister has about a thousand of these scholarships at his disposal,” and they are invariably awarded after a searching competitive examination. All candidates must be between twelve and fifteen years of age. The ex- amination is partly written and partly oral, and is very similar to that for the brevet élémentaire, with the addition of an oral interrogation on moral and civic instruction. It is based on the work of the cours supérieur of the lower school. The in- Scholarships 1 Lévéque, Rapport au Comité de Patronage de l’Ecole Jean Baptiste Say, 1899, pp. 196-197. 2 During the ten years 1889-1899, there were 10,437 national scholarships conferred, of which 6,356 were given to boys and 4,081 to girls. Organisa- tion et Situation de ’Enseignement Primaire, p. 372. THE UPPER SCHOOLS 133 tellectual worth and promise of the candidate are of prime im- portance, but account is also taken of the services that the parent may have rendered the State and the financial situation and the number of children in the family.t. The scholarship ordinarily continues through the school course, or during good behavior and good work on the part of the beneficiary. Be- sides these national bourses, the government makes special grants to needy families for clothing, and there are also de- partmental or local scholarships. The government appointees are usually assigned to schools in their own departments, but this rule is not invariable. Sometimes, when these scholar- ship holders have made brilliant records in the upper schools and have gained the certificate at the end of the course, they may be transferred to the secondary schools and have their scholarships continued.* This is only possible, however, for those under sixteen years of age, and it must not be inferred that this forms any regular way for entering secondary schools, for the primary and secondary schools are each complete sys- tems, and the transition from one to the other is nowhere made easy. In connection with each école primaire supérieure, there is a comité de patronage whose members are appointed by the Minister himself on recommendation of the ; rector.? This committee has absolutely noth- bes cs ing to do with the educational aspect of the school work, but is a kind of godfather to the institution. The director or directress of the school and the primary in- spector are always active members, and the rector and the academy inspector ex officio members of each of these bodies. This committee is especially interested in the material wel- fare of the pupils, is often of much assistance in finding suit- able positions for the graduates, forms a most valuable nucleus about which to center public sentiment and general interest in 1 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 48, Gr. V, p. 731. 2 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 61, Gr. V, p. 781. 3 Ibid., Art. 33, Gr. V, p. 775. 134 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the school and its success, and its members are usually very important persons on all gala occasions. The programs of the écoles primaires supéricures have not been formulated with the idea of training pupils for ultimately reaching any of the so-called liberal profes- sions or even for passing to the secondary schools or the universities. They have, however, tried to “orient their pupils from the first day to the last with refer- ence to the necessities of the practical life which awaits them; . and although reminding them that democracy has re- moved the barriers which formerly confined the individual within narrow limits, the school should strive to make them love and honor their career rather than make them long for the means of escaping it.” + Although the distinction has already been drawn between the écoles primaires supérieures proper and the écoles pratiques de commerce et d’industrie, it may be instructive to put the programs of these two schools together for purposes of comparison. Programs 1 Dupuy, Circ.. Feb. 15, 1893, Gr. VI, p. 485. THE UPPER SCHOOLS “IgE -Oge ‘dd ‘24sDmteg 3 FI IP WOLDNBS 12 UOLIDSIUDTLO , €€ HIE of] I8 %er %or] of of of o¢ of of | o€ of of HI Ae AE uy ye “Ee * ' * + "99TAJas oY] JO spoou ay} oF Burpsosze peusisse aq 0} sinoPy I I I I I I I I I : SUIZUIg z z z z z z Zz 2 BGO RLS SOL}SBUUIAL) f€ of of 9 9 z z 9 9 bom * + *YJOM [BIN}HIIZe Jo yenuepy ml HI WI! 9 9 91% up | I mL mI aI £ £ £ ‘+ + + *Zuyepow pue Surmelq uv AI I I I I St ee *AULOU0IE [eLI} “spur Jo yeonijod ‘me, uourut07 £ £ I I I j++ + taanynornioy pue smyjnousy mqI mI YI I I I I z z I I Toei. oe * reueTscy pue Alojsty [emjeN £ £ £41 £ 41 z z z z z z Zz zz @ : Asiways pue sdisk{yg 9 9 9 "1 z z £ £ I I I I ee *syanosoe pue sutd3ay-yo0g “uy UY € \%P £ £ £ £ z z z z £ £ ¥ ae + soreUoy ey 9 9 9 v v z £ £ ‘sos + + sosensury usepopy € € XI AL KI I I z z I I I I I SB eG te *Aydes00+) AL mI AL HI I I I I I I z I I * | WORSNSUE STAID pae AIOWST EL AI HI € I I I I I I I I I . 7 BUTT € € AV |%1 £ £ z z z z z z ry 6S $s SATS LS -oBenBury youes I I I I £1 I I I I Soret ess 8 8 8 appsORT ‘ITI CIN 1 | IIT “IE oT] IIT “II ‘II ‘Il ‘III ‘ID |W ‘IT I | + * seaR ; : *u01}99) “01499 *wO1}90S *as.mo: ates MR ee ta eeinnel eons jeInyNsy ene "sandy SI{OIT *SOMIDIUIWI] FT SPAUDULBAT S3J0ITT “HIAANHO JO AULSINIGL “NOILOOULSNT OIIANg 40 AALSINIFY (3J99M Jad?sinoy jo zaquinny) SIMLSNaN] ,d La AWAINKO? wa sandiivadg sv¥l00g AHL GNV SIOOHIS AUVNIAgd AIBOIPL SA0Q AHL AO SHIAV]-ANIT, AHL AO NOSTAvdNOD 136 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE CoMPARISON OF THE TIME-TABLES OF THE GIRLS’ HIGHER PRIMARY ScHOOLS AND THE EcOLES PRATIQUES DE COMMERCE ET Dp’ INDUSTRIE.! (Number of hours per week) MINISTRY OF PuBLIC INSTRUCTION. Ecoles Primatres Supérieures.* MINISTRY OF COMMERCE. Ecoles Pratiques. General Course. Industrial. Commercial. Year I. If. WI.| I. I. If. ] I. If. MI. Morale... «ss. I I I I ot. 1% 1% French lengUAe + 4 4 4|3 3 1%] 4% 3. 3 Writing oe | 2 I I 3 1% 1% History and civic in- struction . ; I I 1] 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% Geography I I I} 1% 1% 1% 3. 3 Modern lan guages 3 3 3 4% 4% 4% Arithmetic, geometry or algebra . 2 % 1] 1% 3 t%| 3 4% 4% Book-keeping and ac- counts I I 1%| 4% 4% 4% Natural and physical sci- ences, hygiene 2 2 2! 1% 3 4% 1% 3 3 Comrnon law, political or commercial economy . I 4% Drawing . 3 3 3/6 3 8 1% 1% 1% Manual work and domes- tic economy 4 4 4/27 28% 31% | 3 3 3 Gymnastics... . . I I I Singing ...... I I I 24 24 24/43 44% 4434 | 28% 31% 36 The schedules for the girls’ schools were almost exactly the same as those for the boys, according to the Program Girls’ Schools + Organisation et Situation del’ Enseignement Primatre, p. 38a. arrété of January, 1893, but before they had gone into effect they were modified in the fol- lowing August as above. The most striking For the professional sections of the écoles primatres supérieures a apecial program is drawn up for each school. the academy inspector. This is formulated by the directress, but must be approved by THE UPPER SCHOOLS 137 difference here is in mathematics, which in the girls’ schools loses two hours per week throughout the course. In the applica- tion of the programs, however, the differences are even greater, but they are chiefly due to the difference in sex of the pupils. Thus in the girls’ schools we find that the theoretical work in agriculture is entirely omitted; the manual training takes the form of sewing, dressmaking and domestic economy ; hygiene, the principles of common law and political economy are treated entirely under the influence of the part that woman naturally plays in the life of the world. Suffice it to say that the con- stant aim in all these schools has been to give the pupil the sort of instruction that will be useful in after life. In attempting to arrange courses of study that will benefit great classes of people, and in endeavoring to include every- thing that may possibly be of use, the school work has been fearfully crowded and the minds of the pupils cumbered with a mass of facts that are too numerous to be assimilated prop- erly. It is only fair to state that these official programs rep- resent the maximum amount of work in the various subjects and are by no means to be followed in their entirety; in fact, that would be utterly impossible. No detailed discussion of the work of the higher primary schools will be attempted at this time, for most of the criticism of the general work and the methods in vogue in the normal schools will be equally ap- plicable here. Before leaving this subject, however, I cannot refrain from calling attention to the general excellence of the work in drawing and of the valuable results in correlation where the professor of drawing works in connection with the teacher of manual training. This was especially noticeable in the school at Lille where the girls designed patterns for laces and embroidery which they afterwards worked out in the sew- ing class. At the boys’ school in the same city, I found one of the very few installations of power for the manual work that I saw in France in either écoles primaires supérieures or écoles normales. I can hardly speak in too high terms of the general excellence of the schools in that city. At the end of the course, the pupils of the écoles primaires 138 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE supérieures come up for their certificates.» The examination for this covers the work of the whole course and is divided into three parts: written, oral, and practical, lasting eight, one, and four hours respectively. Although one would naturally expect any final examination to be within reach of a large majority of the candidates with- out any special preparation, such does not always seem to have been true. Up to 1898, about one half of the four thousand candidates that ordinarily presented themselves were success- ful. The next year the new regulations became effective, and then the per cent of failure increased slightly. Since that time there has been a marked improvement. The results of the last five years are as follows: * Certificate Year, Candidates. Passed. 1000: sxccasacntadsdiaat aotdagcendaass 3,431 2,144 TQOU a cieingnien eae haw peep eens Glens 3,816 2,205 TQ02 secs ea oi y hia eee we epensadeae ae cene 4,024 2,847 TOOS si asada Red AAS ARRAS eee 4,702 3,148 TOGA Airs ok WE RRs amen ainuaterese ansiera ae ae 6,095 3,501 The girls have been uniformly much more successful than the boys, for the last four years having an average of seventy per cent, while during the same ,period, less than fifty-six per cent of the latter have succeeded. Beginning with the year 1903, this certificate or that of the écoles pratiques d’industrie is to be required of all candidates for the écoles nationales darts et métiers, the great national scientific schools that are found at Paris and a few of the large provincial cities. The following figures* for the years 1889-1898 inclusive will give a clearer idea of the antecedents and the destination of the pupils of the boys’ higher primary schools, in other words of their real position in the economic life of the nation: Function 1 Arrété, Sept. 17, 1898, Gr. VI, pp. 832-836. 2 Bull. Adm., 1900, p. 1092; 1902, p. 1163; 1904, p. 1004. % Organisation et Situation de l Enseignement Primaire, p. 410. THE UPPER SCHOOLS 139 Agriculture has furnished.............. 10,636 pupils and has received 6,824 Industry has furnished................. 18,728 7 4 17,680 Commerce has furnished............... 14,033 ss us i 12,146 Technical schools have furnished....... — “have “ 5,138 Primary school teachers have furnished 3,243 - fe 5 6,204 Minor officials have furnished.......... 10,854 a s * 7,018 NU KHO WE ieest sic. o-nacace Winlnatanicero ahaa: eon 4,192 2 “ 6,676 61,686 61,686 The most striking proportional change here is in the case of the teaching profession, for while the parents of thirty-two hundred and forty-three boys were primary teachers, nearly twice as many of the pupils entered this calling. “ Higher primary instruction has a character essentially edu- cational, but at the same time clearly professional; it is no exaggeration to say that it is both theoretical and practical; it does not mark the end of any particular apprenticeship, but it prepares seriously for many. The chief care of the teachers is to make each pupil an intelli- gent workman and an honest man who shall become a good citizen,” * im 1 Organisation et Situation de Enseignement Primaire, p. 414. CHAPTER VIII Tue Norma ScuHoors (1) DEVELOPMENT ALTHOUGH the idea of creating a normal school in France is often attributed to the Convention, one must seek farther back for the first traces of this great movement. The need for some such institutions had long been apparent, but it was not until the time of the Convention that we find in actual existence anything that we may fairly call the prototype of the modern normal school. As early as 1681, the Abbé de la Salle, appreciating the need of some special work for his teachers, founded an establishment for this purpose at Reims.* Just how much work La Salle did with and for his teachers we do not know. At all events, he brought them to live with him, “entered more than ever into all the detail of their life and attempted to correct what he found there amiss.” This undertaking continued at least from Easter until the last of June of that same year. Encouraged by the success of this venture, he opened a kind of seminary for teachers a few years later at Paris.» Here the young teachers were taught “the method of Christian teaching” and afterwards took turns in conducting the classes “in order to accustom themselves to the practical work.” Their own course of study seems to have included merely reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing. Little more is known of the organization or the work of this school or the length of its existence. At all events, the suc- cessors of the worthy Abbé abandoned the undertaking. Al- Before the Revolution La Salle 1 Garreau, Vie de Jean Baptiste de la Salle, I, pp. 82, 156. 2 [bid., Il, p. 15. 140 THE NORMAL SCHOOLS I4t though this antedates Francke’s institution at Halle by more than a decade, yet La Salle lacked much of the real pedagogical idea that dominated his German contemporary. Whatever sporadic attempts may have been made in the meantime, we find the question again coming to a head after the expulsion of the Jesuits from France. They tad been the teachers of the secondary schools, and some steps had to be taken to fill their places. The Parliament started an in- quiry on the “ Condition of Instruction in France.” * One of the most striking results of this investigation was the con- clusion that at that moment, there was a body of teachers in the country capable of filling the places of the Jesuits. As a result of the plan of education determined upon by Parliament in September, 1762, some pamphlets appeared on the necessity of establishing at Paris an insti- tution for the preparation of teachers.” The author saw quite clearly the difference between the scholar and the teacher. ‘‘I do not think,” he says, “ there is any public school where one may learn that art (that is, of teaching) so necessary to teachers of the youth. We need, then, an insti- tution where this shall be taught.’’* In the introduction to his second pamphlet, he puts the matter a little more forcibly and says, “It would not be so bad for the nation to lack teachers for a time as to have only bad ones.” * A little later Rolland reiterated the statement of the need for an institution where those that wished to teach might go through a kind of apprenticeship under the direction of the most skilful teachers of the university. This, however, was directed rather toward the preparation of teachers for the secondary schools. At all events, neither the efforts of Abbé Pelletier nor those of Rol- land had any very important results. Abbé Pelletier 1 Jacoulet, “Ecoles Normales,” p. 378. 2L’Abbé Pelletier, Mémoire sur la Nécessité détablir dans Paris une Maison d'Institution pour former des Maitres, et quelques colléges pour les basses Classes, 25 Octobre, 1762. 3 Ibid., p. 17. 4Théry, Historie de ’Education en France depuis le Ve Siécle jusqw’ a nos jours, II, p. 178. 142 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE By that time in Germany, this movement had made no little headway. Francke had lived and died, and his institution at Halle was then in full vigor; Frederick the Great ‘had lent his assistance to the movement; Berlin had started its seminary in 1748; Von Rochow had put new life into the idea. France, on the other hand, was still slumbering. It remained for that tremendous social and polit- ical convulsion of 1789 to recreate the normal school idea in France. Among the legacies, good and bad, that the Revolu- tion has left to the people of France, not the least valuable of them all must be reckoned this most important idea. It seems most remarkable that during the stormy times of the Convention there should have been any consideration given to educational affairs, but really they caused not a little concern. In the summer of 1794, a Barére, in the name of the Comité de Salut Public, complained bitterly of the blighting effect of the con- tinuance of the Revolution on public education. Although at the time he proposed that a school should be founded in Paris for training teachers to be scattered all over France, the question does not seem to have been discussed. The whole matter slumbered apparently until autumn. On the 9 Brumaire, An III. (Oct. 30, 1794), however, in consequence of the report of Lakanal, seven days before, the Convention decreed that there should be created in Paris an “Ecole Normale where citizens of the Republic already instructed in the useful sciences should be taught to teach.”* The wish of the Convention that the pro- fessors in this school should be the most skilful is fully attested by some of the names: Lagrange and Laplace conjointly in mathematics, Berthollet in chemistry, and Bernardin de Saint- Pierre in morale.® The idea of the Convention was as broad and comprehensive as were somany others that proceeded from that famous body. Germany Under the Convention Normal School at Paris 1 Allain, L’Oeuvre Scolaire de la Révolution, p. 158. 2 Décret, 9 Brumaire An III, Art. 1, Gr. I, p. 98. 3 Gr. I, p. 106. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 143 The influence of this school was not to be merely local, but it was expected to reach out into the most remote corners of the new Republic and affect the life of the humblest of its citizens. For that reason its pupils were to be called by districts from all over France on the basis of one for every twenty thousand inhabitants, and every pupil must be at least twenty-one years of age.» The object of this institution was to train its stu- dents in the method of teaching. At the end of the four months’ course, they were to return to their respective districts and open other normal schools, where they should transmit to other citizens who wished to become teachers “ the method of teaching which they had learned in the normal school at Paris.” ? These new courses, in turn, were to continue for four months. The Committee of Public Instruction of the Convention was to have general oversight of all these schools,® the plan of work and the method of instruction, and was re- quired to report to the Convention every ten days on their condition. A detailed plan of the work in the school at Paris is con- tained in the regulation of the Convention of January 14, 1795.*. The daily sessions of the school con- tinued from eleven o’clock in the morning until quarter past one in the afternoon. The program, which included mathematics, physics, descriptive geometry, natural history, chemistry, agriculture, geography, history, morale, grammar, metaphysics and literature, was so arranged that each subject had two periods every ten days, thus giving three lectures per day. On the “quintidis,” the professors were to conduct discussions before the pupils and distinguished men of letters on the elementary text-books in use in the schools of the Republic, and on the “decadis” the ordinary school Program 1 Décret, supra, Art. 2. 2 Tbid., Art. 11. 8 This follows the nomenclature of the revised calendar. The month was divided into three periods of ten days each. The days of each of these periods were named, respectively, primidi, duodi, tridi, quartidi, quintidi, sextidi, septidi, octidi, nonidi, decadi. 4Gr. I, pp. 106-107. 144 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE work was interrupted in order that the students might have opportunities for visiting the libraries and museums of the city. The meetings of the courses were to be devoted alternately to lectures by the professors in developing the principles of the art of teaching, and to conferences and discussions on these lec- tures. This school was opened on January 20, 1795, in the great amphitheatre of the museum. Fourteen hundred pupils from all over France thronged to its courses.* The professional attainments of the body of instructors are far beyond question, but their ability as teachers of teachers is not so evident. The immediate effect of this venture was not very encouraging. The Convention soon realized that the school was not progress- ing according to the ideas of its founders, and it was closed by decree on May 15th, after an existence a little short of what was originally planned. It is perfectly clear that four months is far too short a time for training ordinary teachers, much less for training teachers of teachers. Moreover, it seems quite evident that these professors, able as they were, could not appreciate the idea that they were to teach the best method of teaching their subjects rather than to teach the subjects themselves. Nevertheless, the pupils, realizing the inadequacy of the length of the course, and convinced of the advantages to be derived from such an experiment, plead most earnestly before the Convention that the work of the school might be continued. This address,’ signed by forty-nine of the students of the school, was presented to the Convention and read there April 25, 1795, but the appeal fell upon deaf ears. The whole effort was rather unfortunate, for it was not only unsuccess- ful in itself, but the recollection of its failure discouraged any further attempt in this direction for several years.* It is al- 1 Addresse de plusieurs éléves de Ecole Normale, a la Convention, lue dans la séance du 5 Floréal, An 3 (Apr. 25, 1705), p. 3. 2 Ch. supra. 3 This normal school really cost the Republic no small sum. “There were twelve professors at 1,000 |. per month, four stenographers at 500 lL, six copyists at 333 1. 6 sols. 8 deniers, two employés for distributing the papers of the school at 250 1. and 200 1. respectively, one office attendant at THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 145 most unnecessary to add that the failure of the undertaking in Paris blighted whatever prospects the proposed rural normal schools ever had of succeeding. Nearly thirteen years later Napoleon created the University. In order that reading, writing and arithmetic might be taught in the best manner possible, each Academy was to establish “one or more normal classes to Napoleon and “ , the University , train teachers for the primary schools.”* It 4 is interesting to note that four years after this, the academy inspectors were specifically required to see that the teachers in the primary schools did not carry their instruction beyond the limits of reading, writing and arithmetic.” The contrast be- tween this simple program and that outlined in the normal school of the Convention is most striking. Unlike the Con- vention, however, Napoleon took no further steps to carry his decree into effect. During the Hundred Days we find another normal school—on paper at least. A model school was to be provided at Paris which should eventually become a normal school and should train teachers for service in the primary schools.* A committee was formed to plan the course, but “Waterloo swept away the decree and the Minister” who proposed it.* The decree of 1808 was not without its effect, for in the extreme eastern part of the empire the suggestion seemed to be well received. At all events, thanks to the prefect of the department and the rector of the academy, who were perhaps as much influenced by the progress that Germany had already made in the training of her teachers Strassburg 150 1. This amounts to considerably more than 16,000 1. per month. One must add to this 1,680,000 I. indemnity—1200 1, to each of the 1400 pupils— their teaching expenses, and 30,000 |. for text-books.” Allain, L’Oeuvre Scolaire de la Révolution, p. 191, note. Aside from the traveling expenses, this is equal to more than $350,000, truly no inconsiderable sum to spend for such a short-lived experiment. 1 Décret, Mar. 17, 1808, Art. 108, Gr. I, p. 199. 2 Décret, Nov. 15, 1811, Art. 192, Gr. I, p. 222. 3 Décret, Apr. 27, 1815, Gr. I, p. 237. 4 Jacoulet, Les Ecoles Normales; in Recueil des Monographies Péda- gogiques. Exposition 1889, II, p. 386. 146 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE as by the imperial decree, the first normal school in France was opened at Strassburg in 1811.* This started at first with sixty scholarship pupils, varying in age from sixteen to thirty years, and many others besides. The expenses of these scholarships were divided among the “communes of the department in proportion to their popula- tion, their income, and the number and importance of their schools.” * The course, four years at the beginning, but sub- sequently reduced to three, included instruction in French, Ger- man, geography, arithmetic, physics, calligraphy, drawing, music, some notions of agriculture and gymnastics, and finally, some study of the best methods of teaching. Though this program is incomparably richer than that proposed by Napo- leon’s decree, it is yet much below the plan of the normal school of the Convention. Although undoubtedly far more practical in its actual work, it nevertheless lacked much of the breadth of its famous predecessor. The omission of history is perhaps its most striking feature. This school at Strass- burg met with immediate success, so much, in fact, that its influence rapidly extended outside its own department. The department of the Upper Rhine soon made arrangements to send pupils to be trained at Strassburg. M. Guizot thus testi- fies to the success of the Strassburg school: “ The superiority of the public school in the academy of Strassburg is striking, and the conviction of the country, as just as it is general, attributes this above all to the existence of the normal school.” * The return of the monarchy, however, put a check on the spread of this idea by turning the efforts along ‘this line in another direction. It encouraged the union of several classes under one teacher and sev- eral assistants, with the idea of “ training a certain number of young people in the art of teaching.” * This is the same plan that was adopted again in 1850, at that time with the idea not Other Schools 1 Guizot, Rapport au Roi, Mar. 2, 1833, Gr. I, p. 435. 2 Allard, Ecoles Normales Primaires, p. 3. 3 Op. cit., Gr. I, p. 436. 2 Ordonnance Royale, Feb. 29, 1816, Art. 39, Gr. I, p. 248. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 147 only of preventing the foundation of new schools, but even of killing those already in existence. Fortunately, at this junc- ture some of the academies took up the burden that the State had cast aside, and again one can trace the influence of the school at Strassburg. The academies of Metz and Nancy established normal schools for primary teachers at Helfedange and Bar-le-Duc respectively. The first of these, founded in 1822, was subsequently removed to the academy seat at Metz. The course of each of these schools lasted two years, and at Helfedange, besides the work given at Strassburg, we find geometry, mechanical drawing, the elements of mechanics and astronomy, some notions of coo natural history, hygiene, and practice in draw- ing up simple legal papers,* but still no history. Bar-le-Duc added thistory (with especial emphasis put upon that of France) and surveying, but it lost physics, natural history, hygiene, gymnastics, and the preparation of legal papers. On the whole, it is evident that the introduction of history was rather dearly bought. The presence of ‘these schools, M. Gui- zot goes on to say, had a most remarkable influence on the prevalence of schools in the departments of the Moselle and the Meuse, for in the latter department there were only four small communes that had no schools. There was a great ad- vance, too, in the methods of instruction, and the individual method almost completely disappeared. The foundation of these three schools, at Strassburg, Helfedange, and Bar-le-Duc, may be said to mark the first period in the history of the nor- mal schools in France. About this time attempts were made at Paris, under private enterprise, to provide some professional training for teachers of both sexes, but the results were not of sufficient or lasting importance to merit consideration here. The creation of the office of Minister of Public Instruc- | tion in 1828 * put renewed life into the schools of the nation. A few months later a royal ordinance * restored to the Univer- 1Guizot, Op. cit., Gr. I, p. 436. ~ Ord., Feb. 1oth, Gr. I, p. 340. 3 Ord., Apr. 21, 1829, Gr. I, pp. 340-345. 148 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE sity its authority over the public schools which it had lost some years before. In an official circular,? the new Extension Minister recommended to the rectors of the a a various academies that they use all their efforts to found normal classes patterned after the one tthat had been so successful at Strassburg. This cir- cular was followed by another the next August,’ wherein the Minister gave the rectors many valuable suggestions on the administration and internal arrangements of these normal classes, and the aim and duration of the work to be under- taken. Here for the first time since the Convention, we find the State taking a real live interest in this work and doing something more than merely publishing decrees. These efforts were crowned with no little success. The lower authorities seemed to awake from their lethargy and really to bestir them- selves toward better things. Although checked by the polit- ical events of 1829-1830, yet there is no doubt but that these attempts prepared the people in a way for the far greater work of Guizot. Be that as it may, by 1829 the number of normal schools had grown from three to thirteen, and by the time of Guizot’s report in 1833, ‘on the condition of the normal schools, this number had still further increased to forty-seven. Then, however, the movement was no longer confined to the eastern departments, but had extended from one end of the country to the other. At this period when the whole scheme of primary instruc- tion was entirely reorganized, and an impetus hitherto un- known was given to popular education, at the Condition of time when the higher primary schools sprang me oe fnitto existence, and Guizot had inspired the authorities, from the king down, with a lively interest in the schools, let us see what the normal schools really were. With an existence of a little more than two decades, they had already begun to have an important influ- ence on the personnel of tthe public schools. One must not 1 Circ., May 6, 1828, Gr. I, pp. 345-349. 2 Circ., Aug. 19, 1828, Gr. I, pp. 357-359. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 149 forget, however, that this was long before the days of a highly centralized educational system in France. There were almost as many different grades of work as there were normal schools. In fact, some could hardly be called schools at all, for they were merely normal classes attached to a college or, even as that at Nimes, to a private boarding school.1 Exactly how many pupils were enrolled in ‘the forty-seven schools then in existence or what their real influence was on elementary edu- cation in general, we have no means of knowing. We do know that the equipment and installation were entirely de- pendent upon the generosity of the department which founded the school. Sometimes these were boarding schools, some- times day schools, and again at times a combination of the two, although the greater number belonged to this last class. The value of the bourses, and consequently the living expenses, were practically limited to three hundred francs. These schol- arships were founded by the departments, ‘tthe communes, by private generosity, or, as seldom happened, by grants from the State. Generally speaking, the course continued for two years, although occasionally this was lengthened to three and at other times reduced to one. The plan of the work, too, was about as varied as can readily be imagined. Better days, however, were in store for the normal schools. Guizot became Minister of Public Instruction in October, 1832, and immediately proceeded to bring order out of all this chaos. From the first he was in- tensely interested in the training of teachers, and hence we have the new regulation of December 14, 1832,” - systematizing the normal schools. So fundamental were the changes and so lasting the effects that this regulation has been aptly called the “ chart of the normal schools.” At this period they ceased to be exclusively departmental, and have since been coming more and more under the direction of the central authority. One may be a little surprised at not finding these institutions made obligatory in all the departments. This ap- parent lack, however, was supplied by the new law of the fol- Guizot’s Influence 1 Jacoulet, Op. cit., p. 393. 2Gr. I, pp. 428-433. 150 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE lowing June. This says specifically: ‘“ Each department will be required to support a normal school for primary teachers, either by itself or in connection with one or more neighboring departments.” * The regulation of 1832, however, did provide very carefully for uniformity in curriculum, organization, admission require- ments and general management. The subjects of instruction were to include: moral and re- ligious instruction, reading, arithmetic, includ- ing the legal system of weights and measures (‘that is, the metric system), French grammar, mechanical drawing, sur- veying and other applications of practical geometry, the ele- ments of physics as applied to life, music, gymnastics, geog- raphy and history (especially those of France). Besides these, during the last six months of the course, there was instruction in the preparation of simple legal papers, and also in grafting and pruning trees. The length of the course was two years.” One is immediately impressed with the practical nature of this course, for it has considerably more points of contact with : real life than had that of the Strassburg nor- Comparison with he mal school of twenty years before. The the- Earlier oretical work in education has been supplanted Programs by six months spent “in the practice of the best methods of instruction” in a primary department attached to the normal school. German, which had been in the pro- grams of the earliest schools, and calligraphy have both dis- appeared, and the French has been cut down to merely gram- matical questions. Some other subjects that had appeared at Helfedange, such as the elements of mechanics and astronomy, hygiene and natural history, have alike been swept away. On the other hand, geometry is taught for its application to sur- veying, and the notions of the physical sciences are such as are “applicable to practical life; history and geography deal almost exclusively with France; the work in agriculture is confined specifically to grafting and pruning. We do find, Curriculum of 1832 1 Loi, June 28, 1833, Art. 11, Gr. II, p. 13. 2 Réglement, Dec. 14, 1832, Arts. 1-3, Gr. I, p. 429. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS IS! however, two entirely new subjects: reading, and moral and religious instruction. This latter was to be given to the nor- mal school pupils, according to their belief, by the ministers of the various creeds recognized by the law. The new program was intended to apply only tothe schools to be founded in the future, for Guizot realized that the various schools already in operation under curricula presumably best adapted to satisfy the local needs might better be left unhampered. The sole condition he exacted was that the curriculum should be ap- proved by the Royal Council. _ The Minister was practically in control of all these normal schools, for he appointed the director, approved the rector’s choice of the rest of the teaching force, and named the members of the commission de sur- veillance, who were directly responsible for the care of the school, although the prefect and the rector were interested in the administration to the extent of nominating the director and the governing board. The directors and other teachers were chosen almost exclusively from the ranks of secondary teachers, and it was not until 18457 that the directors were required to be taken from the primary service. The commis- ston de surveillance nominated the teaching force, other than the director, approved the annual budget, determined the num- ber of pupils to ‘be admitted to the school, inspected the school regularly anid examined the pupils in class, decided upon the promotions, conducted the final examinations of the course, and actually granted the certificates to the successful candi- dates.’ The requirements for admission were not very severe. The pupil must be at least sixteen years of age, must present cer- tificates of good conduct and good health, and must pass an examination in reading, writing, French grammar, arithmetic, and the chief tenets of the particular religious belief that he professed.* 1 Ord., Nov. 18, Art. 5, Gr. II, p. 530. 2 Réglement, Dec. 14, 1832, Arts. 17-25, Gr. I, pp. 431-433. 3 Ibid., Art. 11, Gr. I, p. 430. Control Conditions of Admission 152 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Moreover, he must contract to serve at least ten years in the public school service." The great majority of the pupils en- joyed scholarships which paid the board at the school. In 1837 more than seven-eighths of the students were thus sup- ported.” There was one important provision quite generally taken advantage of. Teachers already in active service were en- couraged to attend the courses given in the normal school during the year, and especially during the vacation periods in the public schools “in order to improve the knowledge which they al- ready possessed or to learn to apply better methods.” * Most of the departments gladly voted funds for these extension courses. Thus the sphere of influence of the normal schools was widely extended, and they fulfilled the double purpose of providing new teachers and of improving those already in ser- vice.* The effect of this regulation of 1832 and the law of the following June was very widespread. Guizot wished to make it obligatory for every department to support a normal school of its own. This measure appeared too drastic to the Cham- Extension Courses 1 Réglement, Dec. 14, 1832, Art. 12, Gr. I, p. 431. 2 Actually 2,136 out of a total of 2,406, showing a slight proportional in- crease over 1833 when the corresponding figures were 1,671 scholarship- holders out of 1,944. Statistique, II, p. xcv. 3 Réglement, Dec. 14, 1832, Art. 16, Gr. I, p. 431. * According to Allard, op. cit., pp. 203, 296 and 308, nearly 7,000 of the 30,644 teachers actually teaching on Jan. 1, 1843 in the communal public primary schools were normal school graduates. This represents nearly seven-eighths of the teachers that had entered the service during the last ten years. Of the 23,727 that were not normal graduates, 6,527, or about twenty-eight per cent, had taken advantage of these vacation courses. Unfortunately the official statistics—which, by the way, were compiled in 1877-1880, covering the period 1829-1877—do not confirm these statements. In regard to the total number of teachers, the figures given here are con- siderably below those given in the volume Statistique Comparée de l’En- seignement Primaire 1829-1877. Yet these in turn do not agree with those in the official Rapport au Roi by the Minister of Public Instruction in 1840. However, M. Allard being Secretary to the Minister of Public Instruction in 1843, this figures merit some consideration at least. \ THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 153 ber, and this particular article was amended to read: “ Every department will be required to support a normal school, either by itself or in conjunc- Results of the tion with one or more neighboring depart- gi ei oe ments.” * It is really surprising how com- a paratively few departments availed themselves of the second option contained in this amendment. From forty-seven in 1833, the number of schools increased very rapidly, until when Guizot left the Ministry in 1837 there were no less than sev- enty-four in full operation distributed all over France.* These schools were all for boys, and it was not until five years later that the first girls’ schools were opened in the departments of Jura and Orne.® It is only fair to state, however, that this lack of girls’ schools was in some measure compensated for by the estab- lishment of normal courses in connection with other schools. The religious societies stepped to the front here, but even under the most favorable conditions these could hardly be expected to assume the burden of train- ing women teachers for the whole country. These normal courses spread rather rapidly and cannot be disregarded, for they were the real precursors of the normal schools for girls. In fact, not a few of the first girls’ schools were merely trans- formed normal courses. Naturally these were much less effi- cient than regular normal schools, but they were considerably better than nothing at all. The first was founded at Mens in 1833, and by 1877 the courses for boys and girls numbered seventy, with two hundred and seventy-eight boys and thirteen hundred and eighty-five girls in attendance.* 1 Loi, June 28, 1833, Art. 11, Gr. II, p. 13. 2 Statistique, II, 1829-1877, p. 176. In 1840 this number had increased to seventy-six, with three écoles modéles in addition. Of these sixty-five had a three years’ course, and fourteen a two years. The number of students was 2,684, and the total expenses to the State, departments, communes and families amounted to 1,538,203 francs. Villemain, Minister of Public In- struction, Rapport aw Roi, 1840, p. 54. 8 Statistique, II, 1829-1877, p. 178-180. 4 Ibid., p. xcviii. Normal Courses 154 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE It is rather interesting to note in this connection that Paris had to wait until 1872 before she had a public normal school of her own for primary teachers, either for boys or for girls. The ordonnance of March, 1831, which had provided for the establish- ment at Paris of a school to train teachers for the Academy of Paris, was subsequently modified so that the school could be located in any ‘town of the academy.* Now, inasmuch as the neighboring department of Seine-et-Oise had just founded a normal school at Versailles, the department of the Seine arranged to maintain a certain number of scholarships in the school at Versailles.? Nevertheless, on account of the supe- rior attractions of the city, Paris was able to draw on the country departments for her teachers, and seemed to have little difficulty in getting her share of ‘the best of them. It is perhaps worthy of note that this remarkable and wide- spread interest in the founding of normal schools was really contemporary with the first struggles toward the same end in our own country. James G. Carter had begun the agitation in Massachusetts only a little while before Guizot came into favor in France, and the effort on this side of the Atlantic was finally crowned with success through the influence of Horace Mann. There were, how- ever, troublesome times in store for the movement in France. From iabout 1840 the mutterings against the normal schools grew more pronounced. They were said to be reaching be- yond the regular limits of their instruction, to be growing more and more superficial in their training, and to be sending forth a class of pupils dissatisfied with the positions in society that they were expected to fill. Instead of studying the mat- ter carefully with an earnest desire to seek out the causes of these charges, which unfortunately were more or less true, and to correct the evils, the popular feeling turned against ithe normal schools themselves. The opposition became so wide- 1Ord., Apr. 15, 1831, Gr. I, p. 391. 2 Statistique, II, 1829-1877, p. xciv. Lack of School at Paris Reaction ® Jacoulet, op. cit., p. 406. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 155 spread that even the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences considered very seriously the question: “ The improvement of the primary normal schools considered in relation to the moral education of the youth.” Several essays were submitted in competition for the prize offered by the Academy, among them that of M. Barrau, principal of the college at Chaumont, and a man really very devoted to the cause of primary edu- cation. This pamphlet was a severe tirade against the work that the schools were doing, against their programs, organization, direction and pupils. The remedies that Bar- rau proposed were a thorough simplification from top to bottom, with the idea of abolish- ing the luxury both in curriculum and life that prevented the schools from playing their proper part in the primary educa- tion of the nation. To this end he proposed: (1) that pupils should be chosen from among the poor people of the country that they might better understand and minister to the wants of the rural communities; (2) the course of study should be reduced to a more practical basis with increased emphasis on religious teaching; and (3) all the work, especially that in history, should be concentrated upon developing a stronger feeling of patriotism. In other words, the education should be made essentially primary instead of attempting to reach up into the domains of secondary and university work.* So strong was the feeling against the normal schools that some of the departments—Loire-Inférieure and the Vosges—even went so far as to close their schools entirely. This uncertain and unsatisfactory state of affairs continued until the time of the Second Republic in 1848. Then the opposition took more decisive measures, and shortly after that actually pushed through some legislation which it was confidently hoped would sound the death-knell of the normal schools. This was the famous Falloux law of 1850. 1 Barrau, De ? Education de la Jeunesse 6 VAide des Ecoles Normales Primaires, pp. 132, 159, 166. The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences granted the prize of 2,000 francs to M. Barrau for this work. Barrau’s Pamphlet 156 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Fortunately the law was not so severe as the framers first intended.* As finally passed, it required every department to provide for the recruiting of its teaching force either in “establishments for primary instruc- tion designated by the Academic Council or in the normal school established for that purpose by the department.” * The alternative offered here really gave an indirect means of supplanting the normal schools. The same section of the law went even further and provided definitely for suppressing the schools altogether either by the conseil général of the depart- ment, or by the Minister himself on the recommendation of the Academic Council. The last of these three means had only a nominal existence, for no Minister dared use this power, and only four conseils généraux abolished their normal schools.* The curriculum was revised the following year * so as to cuver almost exactly the same range as that provided for the primary schools in the Falloux law, thus still further reducing the simple program of 1832. By this new arrangement only seven subjects were made obligatory: moral and religious instruction, read- ing, writing, the elements of the French language, arithmetic and the metric system, religious music, and the practical work in the école annexe. During the rest of the three years’ course the following were optional: arithmetic in its practical appli- cations ; the elements of history and geography; some notions of physics and natural history as applied to life; elementary instruction in agriculture, industry and hygiene; surveying, levelling and mechanical drawing; and gymmastics. The practical work in the école annexe occurred during the last two years of the course, while the other obligatory sub- jects continued throughout the three years. There was no 1 Projet de loi sur Instruction publique, présenté dV Assemblée nationale, June 18, 1849, Art. 36, Gr. ITI, p. 178. 2 Loi, Mar. 15, 1850, Art. 35, Gr. ITI, p. 332. 3 Jacoulet, op. cit., p. 414. 4+ Réglement, Mar. 1851, Gr. III, p. 453. Falloux Law Curriculum 1851 THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 157 Opportunity for the optional subjects to begin until the third year, for the regular program as officially outlined included thirty-five hours’ work per week for each of the first two years. Minister Fortoul, in his instructions to the rectors three years later, speaks of the great improvement in the nor- mal schools since the change in 1851, and furthermore asks the rectors not to encourage the normal schools to go beyond the obligatory subjects of instruction required by that law. “Tt is more important for the pupils to know well what they do know, and above all to know how to impart that knowledge to others.” ? The commission de surveillance still retained most of the powers granted to it under the old conditions in 1832, the five members of this body, however, now being . . = Further Modi- appointed by the rector. The Minister ap- fcations by the pointed the director as before, and also fixed Regulation of the number of pupils to be admitted to the a school. Candidates must be between the ages of eighteen and twenty-two, but the competitive examination is abolished. Each individual case is considered by the rector and the pri- mary inspectors, and the former finally decides the question of admission and awards the scholarships. Besides investigat- ing carefully the moral and physical health of the candidates, these officials had to satisfy themselves that the candidates could “ read and write readily, observed the principal rules of spelling, could apply the four rules (that is, arithmetic), and could answer the questions put to them on the catechism and Biblical history.” * The régime was hardly less than that of a lay monastery, for the vacations were limited to two weeks, morning and evening prayers were followed by religious read- ing, no leave of absence was allowed except in very unusual cases, and the pupils were always accompanied on their walks by the director or another teacher. Although the discipline of the normal schools to-day seems unduly severe according to 1 Arrété, July 31, 1851, Art. 3, Gr. IIL, p. 481. 2 Instruction, Oct. 31, 1854, Gr. III, p. 615. 3 Circ., Feb. 2, 1855, Gr. III, p. 624. 758 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE our American ideas, such conditions as these only fifty years ago go far ‘toward explaining the present state of affairs. When Rouland became Minister in 1856, the normal schools fell wpon better times. The regulation of 1851 had limited the teaching force, not including the chaplain and the singing teacher, to the director and two other masters. By the royal decree of August 7, 1861,* the rectors could join with the commission de surveillance in asking the Minister for a third master. As though fearful of the consequences of this new legislation, Rouland, in the min- isterial circular accompanying the decree, suggested that the rectors take advantage of this provision only after consider- ing the local conditions.* The rectors, however, very gener- ally improved the opportunity to increase the teaching force, and by 1863 a large majority of the seventy-six normal schools had at least three regular teachers besides the director. Natu- rally the situation was very materially ameliorated. A few years before, the financial condition of the teachers had been rendered much more satisfactory. In 1855,* the directors and other masters had for the first time been divided into classes, with a maximum and a minimum wage fixed by law. These two bodies were each divided into three groups with minimum and maximum salaries respectively of 2200-3000 francs for the directors and 1000-1800 francs for the regular teachers. Eight years later these figures were all raised two hundred francs. The ministry of Rouland was thus a kind of transi- tion stage between a period of undisguised hostility to the normal schools and one of intense interest and care for their welfare under Duruy. The six years that Duruy was Minister of Public Instruc- tion, 1863-1869, were of much importance to the normal schools. From the first he was their faithful champion. In the early part 1 Décret, Gr. III, p. 781. 2 Circ., Sept. 25, 1861, V, p. 468. 8 Décret, Dec. 26, 1855, Art. 1, Gr. III, p. 670. 4 Décret, Sept. 4, 1863, Art. 2, Gr. IV, p. 13. Transition Duruyy, Minister THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 159 of his ministry, a letter to the prefects! recommends that they take special pains to reserve the vacancies in the schools within their jurisdiction for the young teachers that have passed successfully through the normal schools. In case of a lack of regular positions, these young men, who are necessa- rily provided with “ irrefutable evidence of ability and moral- ity,” should receive temporary appointments, for “ experience has shown that they constitute the very best of our teachers.” The interest shown thus early was manifest all through his ad- ministration. In a circular to the rectors,” he recommended that they use their efforts ‘to introduce gardening into the normal school course in order that the future teachers might learn how 'to care for the school garden skil- fully and might thus suggest to the people of the communities new opportunities for increasing their income. In June of the next year musical instruction was made obligatory for all the pupils—not the simple hymnology as heretofore—but a good, thorough course in singing, reading and writ- ing music from dictation, as well as practice on the organ or the piano. This work, exclusive of the in- strumental practice, was allotted four hours per week through- out the three years.* In the spring of 1865 a normal school was created in Algeria under a special form of organization.* In the circulars to the rectors, September 1, 1865 and May 17, 1866,> Duruy recommended, and then ordered, that they establish pedagogical conferences in the nor- mal schools of their academies. These were to continue through the last trimester of the normal course and were to serve as a kind of review of the lectures in, pedagogy, to “initiate the students into the true Gardening Music Pedagogical Conferences 1 Circ., Oct. 17, 1863, Duruy, Circulaires et Instructions Officielles Rela- tives a V Instruction Publique, p. 55. 2 Circ., Dec. 22, 1864, Duruy, op. cit., p. 195. 3 Arrété, Jan. 30, 1865, Gr. IV, pp. 37-38. * Décret, Mar. 4, 1865, Gr. IV, pp. 38-39. 5 Duruy, op. cit., pp. 282, 356-357. 160 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE principles of education and the principal methods of instruc- tion.”* In December, 1867, a regular pro- gram for ‘the course in agriculture was adopted, and for the future this work was carried on more logically than heretofore.’ The great work of Minister Duruy for the normal schools, however, was the entire reorganization provided by the decree of July 2, 1866, and the ministerial circular of Reorganization the same date.* About the only new subjects Peies m Specifically mentioned here are geometry and bookkeeping. There are, however, many and important changes in the old subjects. The work in history and geography is particularly enriched, for instead of one hour per week for each during the third year, three hours are de- voted to both ‘throughout the entire course. The field is still much attenuated, for the first year is occupied with all of an- cient history and that of France through the tenth century. The last two years furnish a more satisfactory amount of time for French history from that period to the present. We now find for the first time the well-known threefold division of the geography course, which remains practically unchanged to- day: first year, all the world except Europe; second year, all Europe except France; third year, France and her colonies. There is this striking change, however: the optional subjects of 1851 have been generally made obligatory, and most of them continue throughout the entire three years’ course. The irregular work in pedagogy now becomes “ exposition of the best methods; physical, intellectual and moral educa- tion; and school organization,” and receives one hour per week during the third year. Although assigned no regular place in the program, the work in the école annexe is recog- nized as forming the principal part of the pedagogical train- ing of the pupils, and according to M. Duruy this should be a model school in every sense of the word.* As a means of Agriculture 1 Duruy, op. cit., p. 356. 2 Arrété, Dec. 30, 1867, Gr. IV, pp. 183-185. 3 Gr. IV, pp. 90-103. * Circ., July 2, 1866, Gr. IV, p. tor. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 161 still further increasing the importance of this department, its director is put on equal footing with the masters of the nor- mal school itself. The powers of the commission de surveil- lance remain practically unchanged. The director, appointed by the Minister as heretofore, is specifically required to con- duct the class in pedagogy. ; The age for entering is now between sixteen and twenty, and the competitive entrance examination is restored. Instead of the previous simple test, this included a written and an oral examination. Tihe writ- ten examination consisted of writing, dicta- tion, a simiple narrative, and the solution of a few problems in arithmetic. The oral examination covered some questions on religious instruction, reading and the explanation of an easy French text, questions on the elements of French gram- mar, on the theory of the four first operations in arithmetic and the metric system, and also on the history and geography of France. In order ‘to provide still better opportunities for preparation for entering the normal school, M. Duruy recom- mended to the rectors’ that they establish in each normal school a preparatory class for the children of teachers. Ad- mission ‘was restricted to those that had attained the age of thirteen or fourteen years and had completed the ordinary public school course. These classes were to be conducted by the instructors and the members of the third year class of the normal school. The internal conduct of the school was still only a little less than monastic, but the vacations have been lengthened to six weeks, besides the week at Easter. Another one of the recom- mendations of the ministerial circular of July 2, 1866,° de- serves to be noted. It suggests that the third 3 : ; Student year pupils should be used to relieve the teach- Control ers of some of the work of surveillance, for they are soon to go out to be masters in their turn. It is cer- tainly unfortunate that this suggestion has not been accepted. 1 Arrété, Dec. 31, 1867, Gr. IV, pp. 185-187. 2 Circ., Oct. 20, 1868, Duruy, op. cit., pp. 61 1-612. 2 Gr. IV, p. 101. Entrance Examination 162 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE in France, for this seems to be one of the greatest faults in the training of teachers to-day—the neglect of cultivating a spirit of leadership. This is even more intensified by the entire lack of student organizations in the normal schools themselves, or in the country at large, for that matter. While undoubtedly these new regulations left much to be desired from the ideal point of view, yet they worked well practically, and continued almost unmodified until 1881. One of the last official acts of Minister Duruy was to initiate the movement that was to place the normal schools for girls on equal footing with those for boys. The Movement Jaw of 1867+ had recently made it obligatory fe eae for every commune of five hundred inhabitants Girls’ Schools and over * to support separate schools for girls, and as these latter must have women teachers, new difficulties arose forthwith. At that time there were in all France only nine normal schools for girls and fifty-three normal courses,® which satisfied the wants, as best they could, of ten and fifty departments respectively. Under the most favorable condi- tions there yet remained nearly thirty departments that were entirely unprovided for. Besides this, these normal courses were conducted as mere appendages of other educational insti- tutions, many of them outside the direct control of the State, and the instruction was most unsatisfactory. This was the state of affairs that confronted M. Duruy and called forth his letter to the prefects asking for the exact condition of these girls’ schools in the several departments. A few days later M. Duruy retired from the ministry, and the responsibilities of the Franco-Prussian war soon relegated the question of nor- mal schools to a secondary position. For the next few years there was little of absorbing interest. The salaries of the directors and teachers in both the boys’ and 1 Loi, Apr. 10, 1867, Gr. IV, p. 133. 2 The law of Mar. 15, 1850, Art. 51 (Gr. III, p. 336), had made the same requirements for communes of eight hundred inhabitants and over. Al- though this number was later decreased to four hundred, yet to-day it.re- mains as in the law of 1867. 3 Circ., July 6, 1860, Gr. IV, p. 227. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 163 the girls’ normal schools were increased slightly. In 1872 the new Minister began working over the curriculum of the schools. He seemed to feel the need for some improvement, but he did not know exactly where or how it should be made. A succeeding Minister, M. Fourtou, grappled with the prob- lem more successfully. He sought to strengthen the normal course by bringing teachers from the ranks of secondary edu- cation to give some of the work in the normal schools. Al- though he attempted to prepare the way for the innovation by lauding the work already done by the teachers in the normal schools, and also by saying that the undertaking was only an experiment, his criticisms seem well founded, for the teaching force could not help a certain lack of depth in their knowledge, because almost without exception they had come up directly from the primary schools. The new plan was intended espec- ially to apply to the work in physical and natural science. This method of employing secondary teachers in the normal schools still prevails almost exclusively at the écoles normales primaires supérieures at Fontenay-aux-Roses and Saint-Cloud, which prepare the teachers for the écoles normales primaires, but it has practically ceased to exist in the departmental nor- mal schools. The first ministry of Jules Ferry—February 4, 1879 to November 14, 1881—marks the beginning of a new period in the history of the normal schools. Then France had recovered somewhat from the de- pression that immediately followed the Franco-Prussian war, and the time seemed ripe for a new advance. M. Ferry was ably seconded in all his efforts by M. Buisson, then director of primary education, a man who has been intimately associated with all the great educational movements in France for the last twenty-five years. A great number of regulations affect- ing all branches of education followed each other in rapid suc- cession. This period of almost unparalleled activity was fit- tingly terminated by the great laws on free, laic, and compul- sory education. 1 Circ., Feb. 21, 1874, Gr. IV, pp. 511-513. Jules Ferry 164 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE For the normal schools, the important period began a little earlier. The law of 1879 allowed each department four years in which to provide itself with two normal Normal Schools schools, one for boys and the other for girls, Obligatory for : : ‘ bie Both Sexes Unless it received official permission to com- bine with another department for that pur- pose.» Thus for the first time we find the girls’ schools, in the eyes of the law at least, on the same footing with those of the boys. At the time this law was passed, France itself had seventy-nine normal schools for boys and nineteen for girls. Since then the number has rapidly increased, so that in 1905 im France and Algeria there were eighty-five boys’ and eighty- four girls’ schools. By means of combinations in the few re- maining departments, all of them provide for the recruitment of their teachers, and the requirements of this law of 1879 are fully satisfied. : The decree and the regulation of June, 1880,’ provided that nobody could become a regular teacher in the normal schools without first passing a special examination either in letters or sciences, and thus gaining the certificate for the professorship in the écoles normales. Two years later,* an examination was demanded of every candidate, man or woman, for the directorship of a normal school. As a prerequisite for this the candidate must be at least twenty-five years old and hold the certificat d’aptitude au professorat des écoles normales or an equivalent degree in secondary education. The primary inspectors of both sexes were likewise held to the same re- quirements. The great free education law of 1881, one of the most im- portant events in the educational history of France, carried the gratuité even into the normal schools, and abolished all regular fees there even for food and lodging. A few months before this, the Special Ex- amination for the Teachers Fees Abolished 1 Loi, Aug. 9, 1879, Art. 1, Gr. V, p. 72. 2 Décret and arrété, June 5, 1880, Gr. V, pp. 161-162; 165-167. 3 Décret, Dec. 23, 1882, Gr. V, pp. 488-480. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 165 normal school programs that had been in force since 1866 were entirely reformed, only to be changed again slightly in the following July.* The laicization of all public school in- struction the next year caused still ‘further changes in Janu- ary, 1883.” The program of January, 1881 was composed of the fol- lowing subjects: * “Instruction in the primary normal schools, whether for boys or for girls, includes, besides the religious instruction which is re- served for the ministers of the various denominations (appointed as chaplains by the Minister) : (1) Moral and civic instruction ; (2) Reading ; (3) Writing; (4) French language and literature; (5) History,.and particularly that of France down to the present time; (6) Geography, and particularly that of France; (7) Arithmetical operations, the metric system, arithmetic ap- plied to practical work ; some notions of algebraic solutions ; some notions of book keeping’; (8) Geometry, surveying and levelling (for the boys only) ; (9) Some general knowledge of physical science applicable to practical life; (10) Some general knowledge of natural sciences with their principal applications ; (11) Agriculture (for the boys) ; domestic economy (for the girls) ; horticulture ; (12) Drawing ; (13) Singing ; (14) Gymnastics ; (15) Manual work (for the boys); needle work (for the girls) ; (16) Pedagogy. The study of one or more modern languages, as well as of some musical instrument may be authorized by the rector.” 1 Décret, July 29, 1881, Gr. V, p. 269. 2 Décret, Jan. 9, 1883, Gr. V, p. 504. % Décret, Jan. 22, 1881, Gr. V, p. 248. 166 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE The chief innovations as compared with the program of 1866 are: (1) the introduction of elementary algebra; (2) manual work as such for both boys and girls; and (3) the study of a modern language, which ‘had disappeared nearly fifty years before, is now. made optional. The program of the following July added military drill for the boys, and facilitated the introduction of the modern lan- guages. At the revision of 1883 the old religious teaching disappeared entirely, and its place was supplied by a broader interpretation of moral and civic instruction. The spirit of change seemed rampant, for the organic law of 1886 and the amplification of this the following January affected all the primary schools of every grade. A discussion of these points, however, will be reserved for a later chapter. As early as 1878,* M. Chalmet had proposed that an école pédagogique be established at Paris to train women for service in the departmental normal schools. Although futile at first, the effort was finally successful, the decree of July 13, 1880,’ formally pro- vided for such an institution, and the school was opened at Fontenay-aux-Roses, one of the suburbs of Paris, the follow- ing November. Then for the first time in this one particular, the education of girls in France seemed a little in advance of that of boys. But this advantage was only transitory, for a similar school for boys was provided for at Saint-Cloud, not far outside the walls of Paris.* This school had already had a nominal beginning in March, 1882, in consequence of the regulation of the previous year,* which had established a kind of normal course at Paris expressly to prepare for the certificat d aptitude ‘for teaching in the normal schools. These two institutions at Fontenay-aux-Roses and Saint- Cloud form the keystone, as it were, of the public primary school system in France. They provide the natural means of Higher Normal Schools 1 Proposition de loi, Jan. 29, 1878, Gr. IV, p. 771. 2 Décret, July 13, 1880, Gr. V, pp. 200-201. 3 Décret and arrété, Dec. 30, 1882, Gr. V, pp. 498-500. 4 Arrété, Mar. 9, 1881; Bull. Adm., XXIV, p. 513. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 167 transition from pupil in the ordinary normal school to teacher in the same institution. Many of the teachers in the largest écoles primaires supérieures, especially in the science depart- ments, also receive their training here. Although some of the departmental normal schools prepare directly for these two finishing schools, these latter also draw their pupils from among young teachers that have spent a few years in active service, and even from the ranks of secondary education. The former of these two latter classes undoubtedly become the most successful normal teachers, for besides the necessary technical knowledge and cultural attainments, they have had some first- hand acquaintance with the difficulties that are likely to beset their pupils in their later work. CHAPTER IX THE NorMat ScHOooLs (2) ORGANIZATION—PUPILS In the earlier chapters we have followed rather carefully the career of the pupil from the beginning of his school life through the various steps that lead directly up to the normal schools. There now remains to consider the organization of the schools that provide the final preparation for the teaching profession and to see exactly what that training is. The normal schools in France to-day exist primarily because of the law of 1870, that required every department to main- tain two schools of its own. While the Presi- dent of the Republic was given power to authorize combinations of departments for this purpose, yet local pride was an influential factor, and prac- tically none took advantage of this provision. The number of normal schools increased steadily until the high-water mark was reached in 1890, when there were boys’ schools in all the departments of France itself, and girls’ schools in all but two departments. This was really a severe burden and a drawback in the case of the smaller departments, and the results did not seem to jus- tify the expense involved. For instance in 1903, in one of the departments, one of the normal schools numbered only twelve pupils.* It can readily be seen that after dividing these among three classes, the training possible under those circumstances would be really not much more than private coaching. That this is Number of Schools Size of the Schools 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902. MS. copy. (I was indebted to M. Ballet- Baz for permission to consult the MS. copy of the forthcoming volume. F. E. F.) 168 THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 169 not a very extreme case is shown by the following figures from the last report: + Number of schools having fewer than.... 30 pupils. 40 pupils. BOYS ts ccacdattniset (eau a emaEeen vyewaee al 46 GirlShicc as: aee hen 4a MeNw Ie eee eeaee 14 36 This does not mean that there were so many more pupils in the girls’ schools than in the boys’. but simply that in the latter the average variation was greater. At that time the eighty- six boys’ schools had 3,897 pupils, and the eighty-four girls’ schools 4,094. The simplest solution of the question seemed to be to combine the pupils of at least two departments in a single school. This is always a little difficult to do after a de- partment has gone to the trouble and expense of erecting build- ings, and besides, the presence of a normal school in a small town is a source of no little income to the inhabitants. How- ever, the authorities have insisted, and this fusion has already taken place in six departments. So that in 1903, in the eighty- seven departments (including the territory of Belfort) in France there were eighty-four normal schools for boys and eighty-two for girls.? The three departments of Algeria have two of each among them. There is thus no lack of schools for the training of teachers, and comparatively few of them are filled to their capacity. The idea for the necessity of training primary teachers is certainly well grounded in France—in fact much better than it is with us, I regret to admit—but the chief drawback is a lack of funds, or rather of funds for educational purposes. It is this terrible armed peace that is sapping the very life-blood of all the con- tinental nations to-day. We in America have no adequate con- ception of what this means. Compare for a moment the mili- tary and naval budget for 1902 with that of the educational department: 1,022,281,106 francs as against 208,662,781 francs for the schools.* With this France is maintaining an 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, pp. 274-283. 2 These figures must be reduced again, for in 1904 the boys’ schools in Tarn and Haute-Garonne were consolidated. 3 Almanach de Gotha, 1903, p. 789. Effect of Militarism 170 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE army of more than 500,000 men, to say nothing of her navy. Think what a drain this must be on a nation of about thirty- eight millions of people! Is it any wonder that one hears complaints on every side, “‘ The State takes the best of our young men, the best of our horses, the best of our grain, in fact, the best of everything.” The service de deux ans, which was voted by Parliament in 1903, may ameliorate these con- ditions somewhat, but it will probably react on the boys’ nor- mal schools, ‘for this new law is applicable to every able-bodied man, whether preparing for professional life or not. With the three years of service it was possible for teachers and pro- fessional men to escape with one year in the army. Accord- ing to the French idea, this new reform arrangement indicates a broader democratic spirit, inasmuch as all will be treated alike, though there is no reduction of service granted on ac- count of unusual application, and the dullard completes his time as quickly as his more assiduous fellow. The present organization of the normal schools is based upon the organic law and its accompanying decrees of 1886- 1887. In fact, since then the educational authorities have generally tried to make as few changes as possible in the existing conditions, and then only those absolutely necessary. Not that the system is by any means believed to be perfect, but it was arranged at that time with so much care and thought that few important changes have since been found necessary. Under the present conditions every department in France is served by two nor- mal schools, one for boys and the other for girls, wsually situ- ated in the chief town of the department. These are said to furnish about two thirds of all the teachers for the public pri- mary schools. Judging from my own inquiries at the eleven normal schools visited; I should put the figure lower than this. Strange to say, the proportion seems to vary inversely as the size and importance of the department. The normal schools are directly under the charge of the rector of the academy, though most of the inspection devolves upon the academy inspector of the department in question. Organization THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 171 The general inspectors also visit the schools occasionally in the course of their tours. Each school has its own head called a director, or directress as the case may be, and a committee of the professors who meet at least once a month to consider the general work and discipline of the school. The teaching force in the boys’ schools is always composed exclusively of men, and in the girls’ schools almost always of women. In the smaller girls’ schools, however, the drawing teachers are often men. In this latter case the same professor usually has the work at both normal schools and in whatever secondary schools there may happen to be in the town. Each school has also an administrative board composed of the academy inspector as president, four members appointed by the rector and two rep- resentatives of the conseil général of the department who are elected by their fellow councillors. This board receives the report of the director, approves the annual budget, and exer- cises a general supervision over the non-pedagogical interests of the school.* The expenses of these schools are divided between two par- ties, the State and the departments. The department is re- quired to provide the material installation, and its maintenance, while the State pays all sala- ries for instruction and the living expenses of the pupils while at the school. Some of the wealthier departments often do far more than they are actually compelled to do. For ex- ample, the department of the Seine provides the boys at Auteuil with all the clothing sufficient for their whole course. Be- sides this, among other things are the annual excursions dur- ing the summer. At this time twenty-four of the best pupils, one half named by the teachers and one half by the pupils themselves, accompanied by three or four teachers go off on a several weeks’ trip, all the expenses being paid by the de- partment. During the last few years, excursions have been made to England, Germany, Sardinia and southeast France, and Spain. Each pupil is required to write an account of his trip. Unfortunately most of 'the departments are not able to 1 Décret, Mar. 29, 1890, Art. 2, Gr. VI, p. 241. Expenses 172 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE undertake any such expense as this requires. The annual budget of the State for normal school expenses was 7,957,972 francs for France proper in 1902. On a basis of 7,842 pupils that same year, this gives an average per pupil of a little more than one thousand francs. About half of this is expended for salaries and the other half for the living expenses of the pupils. The school buildings are universally substantial structures of stone or brick, and even in the cities are surrounded by spacious grounds, with plenty of room for flow- ers in front and usually for large vegetable gar- dens behind. These latter are often of no little importance, for many of 'the country schools not only raise much of the ‘fruit and vegetables for their own use but they even have some to sell. In one school in the south, the di- rector said that in 1902 they sold more than two hundred francs’ worth of vegetables, besides a good deal of wine from their vineyard. This question of space is really an important consideration in the French normal schools, for the pupils sel- dom leave the premises during term time except on Sundays and occasionally on Thursdays. So most of their recreation must be taken on the grounds themselves. The condition of the buildings that I visited was generally good, that of the boys’ schools at Paris and Lyon, and the girls’ school at Douai being especially commenidable. In the schools as a whole, everything about the buildings was neat and clean, though from my own point of view rather cheerless. One reason for this is that the pupil has no place that he can call his own, no place where he can retire and shut himself away from his fellows. The boys’ sleeping accommodations are either in large open dormitories with thirty to fifty pupils in each, or in little cubicles with plenty of open space above for light and air. In the girls’ schools, I found this latter arrangement generally followed. In no case, how- ever, are the pupils allowed to decorate their rooms as they wish, but everything is subjected to a kind of military sim- Buildings and Grounds Dormitories 1 Statistique, VII, 1901-1902, p. clxxx. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 173 plicity.. The lavatories are ordinarily grouped at each end of the dormitory. The facilities for a full bath were almost everywhere very inadequate, as a rule the pupils getting a hot bath but once in three weeks and a foot bath at least once a week. At the girls’ school at Douai, about thirty of the girls availed themselves of the opportunity to take a cold shower every morning. The pupils’ clothes are usually kept in a separate room in open lockers, and this is always well aired. Everywhere I went, I found an infirmary which I was glad to learn was comparatively seldom used. Each class has its own study room with desks for the in- dividual pupils. Here all the text-books are kept, and here most of the studying is done. There are also other class rooms and special rooms for physics, chemistry, and drawing, as well as work-shops both for wood and iron. Generally speaking, the facilities for individual ex- periments in science—manipulation, the French call it—are not very satisfactory. The dining rooms were invariably large, well lighted and well aired, but the absence of table- cloths gave rather a chilling effect. The bare floors through- out the buildings and the general lack of decoration are not conducive to engendering any home feeling among the pupils. The teaching force of a normal school regularly consists of the director and four professors, two of letters and two of science, but if there are more than sixty pupils, a third professor of science is added. In case, however, the number of pupils falls below thirty-six, one of the professorships may be suppressed and the work divided among the other teachers." Besides these, there are ordinarily special teachers for whatever modern language is taught in the school, for drawing, music, gymnastics and agriculture. These special teachers are often attached to the department of second- ary education, but are delegated by the Minister to give certain hours of instruction in the normal schools. In the smaller schools, one of the professors is appointed économe, a kind of bursar-steward. He is the financial officer of the institution, Study Rooms Teachers 1 Loi de Finances, May 30, 1899, Art. 35, Gr. VI, p. 882. 174 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE buys all supplies, plans the meals, and has general charge of everything pertaining to the buildings and grounds. In schools where there are more than sixty pupils, the économe may be relieved of all class work except penmanship and book- keeping.t The director of the école annexe is usually included in the same category with the professors in the normal schools. We may also fairly consider the class teachers of the école annexe as forming a part of the normal force, (though offi- cially they are reckoned among the teachers in the écoles primaires élémentaires) for they are directly concerned in criti- cizing the practice work. In the largest schools in addition to all these instructors, there are also skilled workmen in the workshops to assist the professor in charge of the manual training. The directors are required to be at least thirty years of age, to hold the certificate for the inspection of elementary schools and direction of the normal schools, and the cer- tificate for the professorat in the normal schools or a degree from secondary or higher education that may be substituted for this latter.» Inasmuch as the first of these certificates may be gained at twenty-five years of age, whereas the actual appointment to the directorship cannot be received before thirty, it practically always happens that the men normal school directors have passed at least five years in the inspector- ate. This is certainly most valuable training for them, for thus they can appreciate far better the difficulties and needs that will confront the young teachers they are to send out into the world. On account of the comparatively small number of women inspectors, few of the directresses of the normal schools have had this field work. They have all, however, had more or less practical experience as teachers. The directors as well as all the other professors or special instructors are ap- pointed directly by the Minister and consequently may be trans- ferred or removed only by him. The regular professors are divided into two classes, those 1 Lot, July 19, 1889, Art. 21, Gr. VI, p. 172. 2 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts. 62, 110, Gr. V, pp. 733, 749. Recruitment THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 175 of letters and those of science, and are required to hold the general certificate for teaching in the normal schools. Besides this the teachers of modern languages, drawing, singing and music, gymnastics, manual training or agriculture, as the case may be, must also possess special certificates for teaching these subjects." These latter certificates are absolutely obligatory for the extra teachers that may be delegated in case the supply of candidates provided with the general normal certificate is not sufficient. Since the higher normal schools at Fontenay-aux-Roses and Saint-Cloud were founded, a little more than twenty years ago, they have prepared a good many teachers for the ordinary normal schools, and to-day Criticism of the they are the natural preparatory schools for Big ea ae ; the Teachers these positions. From the point of view of academic fitness, there is absolutely nothing to be said, but on the practical side there is, however, a very serious objection to the present system. It is perfectly possible for the gradu- ates of these two higher schools to finish their work without ever having had any real experience in school work. Of course they have had a certain amount of practice teaching, but that is far from sufficient to fit them to become normal school teachers. It is only fair to state that some of the pupils, especially at Saint-Cloud, have already spent several years in the elementary schools, but until from three to five years’ service in actual teaching is rigidly required of all pupils at Fontenay-aux-Roses and Saint-Cloud, either as a condition of admission or as a requisite for graduation, it would seem that these two great schools are failing in one of their chief missions. I‘ all that is required of the ordinary normal school teachers is mere academic training, why not take them from the ranks of secondary education? The extra time that this new plan would require would certainly be well spent, and twenty-eight or thirty years is none too old to begin to be a teacher of teachers. The directors, who are always responsible for the work in 1 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 65, Gr. V, p. 734. 176 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE pedagogy and morale, have ordinarily six hours of class work per week, while the other professors have from a aes sixteen to twenty. In the boys’ schools, the director, the économe, and the specially ap- pointed surveillants are the only teachers that live in the build- ings. In the girls’ schools, however, none of the women reg- ular teachers may live outside except with the consent of the rector. These surveillants in the boys’ schools are the only members of the staff that receive their board at the expense of the State. All the other teachers of whatever sort that live at the schools have the sum of four hundred francs each de- ducted from their regular salaries to pay for their living expenses.* The directors and the professors of all the schools are divided into five classes, and their promotion is based entirely upon choice, after not less than three nor more than six years in the class next below.* The salaries of the various classes are as follows: * Men. Women. Directors. Professors. Directresses. Professors. 5th class....... 3500 fr. 2500 fr, 3000 fr. 2200 fr. 4th class....... 4000 2700 3500 2400 3d class....... 4500 2900 4000 2600 2d class....... 5000 3100 4500 2800 Ist class....... 5500 3400 5000 3000 The teachers who are delegated by the Minister to give instruction in the normal schools but who do not hold the gen- eral certificate for the professorat, all receive the same salary, two thousand ‘francs in the boys’ schools and eighteen hundred francs in the girls’.* The regular professors that also have certificates for special subjects receive in addition to their regu- lar salaries an extra remuneration of from one hundred francs per year for gymnastics to three hundred francs for manual 1 Loi, July 25, 1893, Art. 18, Gr. VI, p. 505. 2 Ibid., Art. 25, Gr. VI, p. 506. 8 Loi, July 19, 1889, with amendments July 19, 1893, Arts. 17, 18, Gr. VI, Pp. 171, 505. * Loi, July 25, 1893, Art. 18, Gr. VI, p. 505. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 177 training and modern languages.‘ Thus although not abso- lutely requiring all the professors in the normal schools to be specialists, yet the government by such means as this encour- ages them to devote themselves particularly to certain subjects. Moreover, the teachers that hold these special diplomas are paid at the rate of one hundred francs per year for each hour per week that they are required to teach in excess of the regu- lar number. There is, however, a maximum for this extra remuneration in the various subjects, varying from the three hundred francs for gymnastics to six hundred for modern languages, drawing, and manual training.’ The director of the école anncxe, 1f he holds the regular nor- mal certificate, is subject to the same conditions of class, pro- motion and salary as his fellow professors in the school proper.* In addition to possessing this certificate, he must have had at least three years’ teaching experience in the public primary school system.* If he is not entitled to give instruction in the normal school, he must hold the brevet supérieur and have had at least ten years’ experience as a teacher in order to become director of the practice school.’ It must be noted that the members of this latter class have no legal right to the title directeur, but are simply acting directors. They, as well as the other teach- ers that there may be in the école annexe, are subject to the same conditions of class, salary, lodging and residence in- demnity as the teachers in the ordinary schools. Besides all this, each teacher in the practice school has an extra stipend of three hundred francs per year.° In the girls’ schools similar conditions prevail. There is, however, a directress for the école maternelle attached to many of the normal schools. In order to be appointed to this position, the candidate must be a titulaire with either the certificat d’apti- 1 Loi, July 19, 1890, Art. 2, Gr. VI, p. 283. . 2 Décret, July 19, 1890, Art. 2, Gr. VI, p. 283. : 8 Décret, Oct. 4, 1894, Art. 6, Gr. VI, p. 580. 4 Ibid., Art. 4, Gr. VI, p. 580. 5 Ibid. : 6 Décret, Oct. 4, 1894, Arts. 7, 9, Gr. VI, p. 581. Teachers in the Ecole Annexe In Girls’ Schools 178 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE tude pédagogique, or the old certificate for the direction of the écoles maternelles which was abolished in 1886. Every year the Minister, after recommendations from the rector and the conseil départemental, decides upon the number of pupils to be admitted to the entering class of The Normal each normal school. The ideal naturally is to Schools and supply all the needs of the department, but ob- meee viously it is impossible to estimate these three Supply of | Years in advance, and, more important still, the Teachers Minister has not unlimited means at his dis- posal. The result is that to-day the normal schools are providing from one half to two thirds of the teach- ers necessary for the primary schools. The question immedi- ately arises, “ Where do the other teachers come from?” A few come in every year from the ranks of secondary education to take positions in the écoles primaires supéricures; other appointments are made from among the holders of the higher diploma, the graduating certificate of the higher primary schools, and finally, when all other sources are exhausted, from those that hold the simple elementary diploma. The brevet supérieur, until 1906, might fairly have been termed the leaving examination of the normal schools, inas- much as, though conducted entirely by the general authorities, every member of the graduating class was required to pre- sent himself for this examination. It is nevertheless open to all holders of the brevet élémentaire that are at least eight- een years of age. Occasionally we find a public school mak- ing special preparation for this diploma: for example, the fifth year of the course in the girls’ école primaire supérieure in Lille is devoted entirely to the preparation for this examin- ation. The successful candidates thus save a year in enter- ing the teaching profession, for their classmates that go to the normal school spend three years in the higher primary school and three years more in the normal school, and inas- much as this latter is now providing for only about one half the needs of that department, the holders of the brevet su- périeur are as sure of teachers’ appointments as are the nor- THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 179 mal graduates that have spent six years in preparation for their work. Entrance to the normal schools is always by competitive examination, and the keenness of the competition varies greatly with the departments. In some, the number of candidates is only slightly in excess Recruitment of the number of scholarships—for these nor- cae mal school positions may fairly be considered in this light— whereas in Paris we find more than three times as many can- didates as there are vacancies in the boys’ school, and more than six times as many as in the girls’. In order to be eligible for this examination, each candidate must: (1) be between sixteen and eighteen years of age; (2) hold the brevet élémentaire; (3) agree to continue in the public school service for ten years;* and (4) be in perfectly good physical condition.’ The examination, which is administered by an examining board appointed by the rector, and composed of the academy inspector as president, with the director and teachers of the school and a primary inspector necessarily forming a part of the commission, is divided into two series. The first series is entirely written and serves as Admission 1 As security he must give a bond signed by father, brother or guardian, agreeing, in case this covenant is broken, to reimburse the State for the expenses of food, laundry and books. This is equally applicable to those that leave or are excluded from the school during their course. (Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 78, Gr. V, p. 738). Until 1903 each boy furthermore covenanted with the Minister of War to serve for ten years in educational service. By this means, he was required to serve only one year in the army instead of three. In case he broke this promise, he was bound to re-enter the army and serve out the other two years. This leniency toward the teaching profession had its disagreeable aspect, for if the teacher were dissatisfied with the service or his progress after three or four years, he was practically compelled to stay there, for at twenty-four or twenty-five years of age few would care to spend two more years in the army, and then start out in the world afresh. On this account, at least, the new law requiring two years of service of all is welcomed by many. Some of the teachers feel that this universal two years’ service will make the teaching profession less attractive to young men and that this will inevitably force an increase in salaries. : 2 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 70, Gr. V, p. 736. I8q PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE a kind of preliminary trial, for only those that pass this suc- cessfully are admitted to the second part of the examination, which always takes place at the normal school. This second series of tests lasts about a week, and during that time the candidates live at the school, though at their own expense. The teachers not only subject them to a severe technical ex- amination, but they also take advantage of the opportunity to study their prospective pupils from the point of view of their general intellectual and moral qualifications. The examination of the first series consists of an exercise in dictation, a test of penmanship, a French composition, one or two problems in arithmetic, and finally a composition in drawing. The second series is almost entirely oral. Each pupil is questioned for at least a half hour on each subject, and the examiner has a good chance to find out rather accurately what the candidate is capable of doing. The subjects cov- ered here are: (1) French; (2) arithmetic and the metric sys- tem; (3) French history; (4) geography; and (5) element- ary physics, chemistry and natural history. Besides this, the pupils are required to write résumés of two lectures given by the professors at the school, one on a subject in the department of letters and another in the department of science. There are furthermore examinations in music, singing, and gymnastics, together with military exercises for the boys and sewing for the girls. From the result of these examin- ations, the rector decides upon the admissibility af the candidates. Once in the school, the pupils are known as éléves-maitres, or pupil teachers, and for the next three years are practically supported by the State. Up to 1880, it is said that the discipline was more or less monastic, and even to-day, although far freer than formerly, according to our American ideas, it still savors too much of that ancient régime. Although the actual surveillance varies with the school and in general may be practically disregarded, yet the pupils can never feel free to do as they choose. From morn- ing till night, the disposition of their time is all provided for,. Discipline THE NORMAL SCHOOLS i81 ue and there is almost no opportunity for the exercise of their own spirit of initiative. In the girls’ schools, the rules and regulations are often very numerous. For example, in going to church on Sunday, they are conducted by one or more teachers and must always march through the streets of the town in double file and in perfect silence. It may be interesting to sketch the day of a boy in one of the most important schools. Early rising is everywhere the rule. The pupils here get up at five o’clock in summer and at half past five in winter. Dress- Tite (of z ‘ the Pupils ing and the care of their rooms occupy them for half an hour, and the rest of the time until eight o'clock is spent in study. From the moment they leave their rooms in the morning, they do not return again until they go up to bed at night. In fact, there is no occasion for doing so for they could not study there if they chose. Each class has its own study room with individual desks and open lockers along the wall for books. In this room they keep all their school supplies and here they are all to be found gathered at every study period. Breakfast comes at eight o’clock, and from the time that is over until nine o’clock they are left free to do as they choose. Some of the boys walk about the buildings or grounds, some spend the time in study, and still others may be seen sweeping out class rooms or corridors, for they are responsible for the entire care of all parts of the buildings that they use. For this purpose they are divided up into squads and put in charge of some of the third year boys so that this does not fall very ‘heavily upon any one. The teachers say that this system is not only econom- ical, but at the same time it teaches the boys to work and to control their equals. This is one Shue ne of the few instances in all France where I have Lgatlenshin found any direct training for leadership. So often I have asked, ““ How do you expect to produce teach- ers capable of directing and leading their pupils when you give them absolutely no opportunity to develop that power in your school?” Invariably the teachers are willing to ad- 182 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE mit the force of the question, but they immediately reply, “We cannot begin in this school.” Just before nine o'clock, the boys gather in the study rooms, and as they march from there to the class rooms, the fortu- nate ones receive their mail. From nine until twelve there are three hours of class work with only sufficient intermission to pass from one room to another. Then comes the luncheon, though perhaps the majority of schools have dinner at noon and supper at night. By whatever name they are called these are both hearty meals, the dinner usually consisting of three courses and the luncheon or supper of two.* From personal experience I can certainly vouch for the excellence of the food and the cooking at this particular school. Besides the dishes on the menu, each pupil is allowed a half-bottle of wine or beer, depending on the section of the country, and as much bread as he wants. From then until one o’clock, the boys are free to walk about as they choose. I found a large group of them playing a kind of football with a hard ball a little smaller Lack of | than our baseball. Strange to say the aver- aa age French boy seems to care very little for ath- letic sports. At this same school, the boys had just begun to play football a little, but it will probably never become very popular, for as they have to go so far to find a suitable playground they cannot spare the time more than once a week. At another normal school in the south, the director regretted very much that his boys did not care more for games. He said he had tried several times to interest them in sports. As long as the novelty lasted, the game would be popular, but the boys soon tired of it. They get their pleasure in talking together or in taking long walks in the country. In fact, in all my experience, I have found but one 1.Some specimen menus will be found in Appendix I. These are ar- ranged by the économe for a week in advance, and must also bear the signature of the director and sometimes that of the visiting physician. Thus the inspectors can see what the variety, at least, of the food has been. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 183 organization among the pupils in any normal school in France. That solitary exception was the Anglo-Saxon Society in the normal school at Paris. It was 5 es started by M. Kuhn who had spent some time in England and finally finished with a year at Harvard. This organization meets one evening a week, and the boys seem unusually bright and interested in the work of their club. The time from one o’clock until four is occupied with more class work, and then comes the chief recreation period of the day. From five o’clock until eight is devoted to classes, study or question periods. At eight o'clock, dinner and then free- dom until nine. This is the end of the day, and all retire for the night. T'wo third class boys are left to walk up and down in each dormitory for a few moments until everything is quiet, and then lights are soon extinguished. A surveillant has his own room just outside each dormitory, but he practically never has to exercise his authority. Unfortunately one does not always find this leniency everywhere, especially at the girls’ schools. According to Mr. Brereton, “One directress told me she had never yet caught a single girl talking in dormi- tory, and it was not from lack of trying.”? I came across a case almost exactly parallel in the south of France, the only difference being that the directress did not emphasize the second part of the statement. The girls are everywhere very carefully looked after. At the beginning of the school year, the directress asks the parents of every pupil for a list of the persons with whom their daughter is allowed to correspond. Every letter that leaves the school must be addressed to one of these persons, and every letter that comes must bear the name of the sender on the outside of the envelope. In case any unknown name ap- 1 Mr. Brereton found a rather different situation in the schools he vis- ited, for he speaks of finding football teams at three schools and bands at two. This evident leaning toward sports may possibly be due to the prox- imity of these schools to England. (Brereton, The Rural Schools of North- west France, p. 171.) 2 Brereton, op. cit., p. 158. Discipline in Girls’ Schools 184 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE pears, the directress sends the letter immediately to the girls’ parents. Fortunately the boys are not so closely confined. The present life, however, is so much freer than that of former times, and the French girls in general are confined by so many restrictions that to them the discipline even now does not seem unduly severe. In fact, the pupils everywhere appear very contented and happy and are apparently working with a sincerity and a purpose quite in harmony with the re- sponsibilities of their future profession. In every school, one finds good sized, well-stocked libra- ries at the pupils’ command. The only criticism one might make is that they are too exclusively classical, too much in line with the every day work of the school, for when one is at work so steadily as are most of the pupils here, there is all the more need for a little reading of a lighter sort by way of relaxation. In many of the schools, I am afraid the libraries are not much used except for study. At Auteuil, however, I was glad to find this part of the pupils’ reading well looked after. During the first two years every boy has to read three books a month that are quite aside from the regular required work. He is left practically free to follow his own inclination, but he is naturally encouraged to make a wise selection and to vary the subject matter. Fi- nally, he writes an abstract of each book with a study of the principal characters, if such treatment is possible, and his own impressions of the work. On the opposite page of his note- book there is room for any striking quotations that he wishes to note. Most of the other schools complain that the regular work is so exacting that they have no time for this kind of reading, but at none of those that I visited was the ordinary work any more exacting than at Auteuil. One always finds in these school libraries the important edu- cational magazines as well as the prominent French literary and scientific reviews, most of these latter ap- pearing weekly. The ordinary newspaper, however, is strictly tabooed, for this is invariably too much of a political journal to suit the ideas of the central authorities. Libraries Newspapers THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 185 For the news of the world, then, the pupils have to depend upon the above-named reviews, but practically all the direct- ors use the general assemblies to acquaint the pupils with any striking political events of current importance. This depriva- tion of the newspapers is not at all comparable to a similar re- striction in America, for as a rule the intelligent Frenchman does not read his newspaper for the news he finds there, but for the political or literary articles it contains. This seems to be one of the striking differences between the mental tem- peraments of the people of the two great republics. Another unique feature of the work at Auteuil is the Thurs- day promenades. At the normal schools there is seldom any regular class work on Thursday mornings and never in the afternoons. .So every Thursday afternoon, the boys at Auteuil are sent off by classes to visit the different points of interest in and around Paris. They invariably go under the charge of one or more teachers, and these latter are always ready to furnish whatever explanations are necessary or desirable. The excursions take place rain or shine, so that in the course of the three years at the school each boy will have made about one hundred and twenty of these trips. They include all the principal points of interest, the Louvre, the Salon, and even an occasional matinée when a classic play is being presented. The boys are under abso- lutely no expense for any of these trips. They not only bring the pupils into contact with a much broader culture, but they also teach the boys that live in the surrounding towns to know the city with the wealth of material which it possesses, and thus they fit them for becoming more effective teachers in the schools of the metropolis. Unfortunately, the other departments cannot regularly afford such things, and their pupils have to content themselves with an occasional promenade of this sort and many quiet walks in the country. Some of the teachers, however, use this time for geological or botani- cal excursions. The school vacations in France are neither numerous nor long. Besides the regular holidays, the normal schools have Excursions 186 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE a few days at New Years, about twelve days at Easter and seven weeks in summer. It is diffi- cult to make any more definite statements about Thursdays than those already made. On Sunday, however, the pupils are always free to do as they choose, at least for a part of the day, though in some of the schools the directors take occasion on Sunday morning to call the pupils together in general as- sembly to talk over the work of the school, to give good ad- vice, and as it were, to preach a kind of lay sermon. There is always opportunity for attending church. Although this cus- tom naturally varies in different parts of the country, the num- ber that attend regularly is so small as almost to be negli- gible. If their homes are not far away, the pupils usually find time on Sunday to visit their families. In Paris, all the pupils that do not live in the city are required to have cor- respondents there that shall stand in loco parentis, so that al- most all the pupils there leave the school on Sunday afternoon. Each one carries a small note-book with some report from the principal to the family. This must be signed by the par- ent or correspondent together with the time the boy leaves home to return to the school. He is required to be back again by nine o’clock. In many of the schools, however, there is much more individual freedom in some of these matters. One of the critical moments of the normal school course is the examen de passage, or annual examination. This is held toward the close of the school year in July, and must be passed. In case of failure here, the pupil is usually compelled to withdraw from the school, but this happens comparatively seldom. Of course, allow- ances may be made in cases of sickness. I was much sur- prised to find one directress who said that of late years none of her pupils had been compelled to leave, for if a girl failed in her examination that was all the more reason for her being kept at the school, as she was almost sure to be taken into the schools in any case. This is perfectly true, because, as has al- ready been said, the supply of normal school graduates is not Vacations Examinations THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 187 equal to the demand, and when this is exhausted the next re- source is the pupils that have spent some time at the schools. Occasionally one finds weekly examinations, but this .is not general, for there is almost always a good deal of written work from day to day. On the whole, one may fairly say that the French pupils are not troubled by so many examin- ations in the regular school course as are our American chil- dren, but those that there are have far more serious conse- quences. Note well the phrase, “ in the regular school course,” for French life in general seems full of examinations; every advance from one round of the educational ladder to another is only possible upon passing an examination. All these ex- aminations, even the simple certificat d’études primaires are all given by the academic or the central authorities and never by the teachers that have had the pupils in charge. In fact from the point of view of numbers, several teachers have not in- aptly likened the present conditions to the examination sys- tem in China. CHAPTER X Tue NorMAt SCHOOLS (3) THE CURRICULUM THE present * program in force in the normal schools is 1 Radical changes are now being made in the normal school course, but inasmuch as these will not become fully effective for two years, it does not seem advisable to incorporate them here. Suffice it to say that the modifications are a distinct advance, tending to professionalize the instruc- tion in the third year. This sequestration of the work of the last year is still further emphasized by putting the examination for the brevet supérieur at the end of the second year and demanding this as requisite for promo- tion to the senior class. These innovations will not ibe so noticeable in a school like that at Auteuil, for this on account of its situation in one of the suburbs of Paris has always had unusual opportunities for giving a higher class of instruction than was possible in the country normal schools. The following extract from an official letter of instructions from the Minister to the rectors with reference to the changes in the program. will indicate the general scope of the modifications: “These documents constitute a reform that our most progressive teachers have long been demanding. It has been our ambition and our aim to re- duce the number of hours of class work and to increase the number of those devoted to study and reflection; to banish every method that does not give play to the active faculties of the mind, to multiply the points of con- tact with real life, especially in instruction in the sciences; to eliminate from the programs, by a necessary sacrifice, the non-essentials which en- cumber them, and to make room for such subjects and such notions as will best prepare our teachers for their mission. It has seemed to us that the essential function of the normal schools consists less in preparing for the higher diploma than in giving the students a particular sort of culture in order to fit them for becoming the future teachers of the democracy. After an experience, followed with success for several years and gradually extended to some twenty schools, it has been demonstrated that two years, especially with the programs modified and cut down as they have been, are enough to prepare for the brevet supérieur, and that the third year, freed from the constant worry over an examination that is bound to be of seri- ous moment to the student, ought to be devoted exclusively, in the first 188 THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 189 that decreed in 1887, although the differences between that and the one of six years before have already been indicated. It is important to note that this is absolutely the same for all the schools of France, whether they are providing almost exclusively for the urban schools as in the larg- est cities or chiefly for the country communities _Uniform 5 Curriculum as in most of the smaller schools. In some places certain subjects are more emphasized than others, and the quality of the work varies with the teachers and the pupils, but the schools all follow the same program. The defence for this extreme uniformity always is that the normal schools must prepare teachers both for the city and the country, and it is impossible to foresee what the ultimate destination of any particular individual may be. place, to studies more general in their nature and more specifically social in their significance, that shall not be subject to an examination; and in the second place, to a deeper and more complete acquaintance with peda- gogical processes and methods in conjunction with an enlargement and an extension of the practical work. “So the programs of the third year, besides providing for a rapid re- view of the great facts of human progress and establishing the sequence and the continuity of this progress, include for the boys: practical notions of common law, cosmography, a serious and scientific study of hygiene. and the principal applications of physics and chemistry to the local agri- cultural and industrial conditions; and for the girls: instruction in prac- tical household economy, together with some notions of hygiene, the care of children, and the use of simple remedies. We believe that the schools should never lose sight of apprenticeship for life as their lodestar; should never forget that scientific progress, germinated in the laboratories of the higher education, so slow in developing and penetrating to the lower strata of the people, can have no more useful intermediaries, nor any more atten- tive interpreters for the common good than these young men and women, who have been leisurely trained in our normal schools under the plans and according to the directions laid down by the most eminent teachers of contemporary science.” Bull, Adm., Oct. 14, 1905, LXXVIII, pp. 869-870. 190 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE WEEKLY PROGRAM OF THE BOYS’ NORMAL SCHOOLS.1 Supjyects or INSTRUCTION. YEAR. Literary. L IL. III. Psychology, morale, pedagogy. .........::.ecseeeeeee 2 2 2 French language and literature.................0505- 5 4 4 History and civic instruction.............ce cee eee eee 3 3 3 Geograph yiccucg covers cs pee eeaci sae! dea aamases I I I Writing ices os ebeciices sei Gans staiiamnaee'y vase se SO 2 I Modern: languages....: is. cscvas ce dvecey seas dawncws oe 2 2 2* Dotalie ce cdecede in. cece peo ie Dare GOs weesesniees I5 13 I2 Scientific. Mathematics: .:....ccce0cdees so gs geet sees a4 oe eds 3 4 4 Physics and chemistry ....... 0.6.0. cece cece ee eee ees 2 2 3 Natural science and hygiene. ........ 0c cece cree eens I I I Drawing and modelling ........... 0.00. e cece ee eee 4 4 4 Theory of agricultures.i34 gegnsssasg neue ree er cee I I T Otaliiid enldyedoey ees wens Sue one Gs BR 10 12 13 Manual training and agriculture................00008 5 5 5 'Gymnastics and military drill............... 00.22 eee 3 3 3 Singing and ‘Musi¢ i oi. cs saa seecaneeve seve ees sei eee 2 2 2 SOCAL asainadocboace-daaen va.2 ie a ensure alaupisasepnscsig wick aan atehs 10 10 10 Total number of hours per week.............. 35 35 35 *The conseil supérieur decided that besides these two hours of class work there should be, another hour, taken either from the study periods or from the free time in each year devoted to practice in conversation. Taking this as a basis, each director is free to make up his daily schedule as he chooses. Here, however, as in all the schools, the more difficult subjects are as far as possible as- signed to the morning periods.? One of the first things that strikes the reader here is the great number of different subjects, the consequently small! num- ber of times per week that each occurs and the total number of hours per week scheduled. This gives an average per day of 1 Arrété, Jan. 10, 1889, Annexe A, Gr. VI, p. 135. 2In order to give a more exact idea of this division of time, the daily program of the boys’ school at Auteuil (Paris) will be found in Appendix C (3), p. 270. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS IQI seven hours in class, without reckoning the time spent in study outside. Of course, all these are not prepared recitations, but they all represent class work. It can readily be seen that the position of the French normal school student is no sinecure, and perhaps we may overlook his lack of interest in any regu- lar form of athletics and the absence of real social life that prevails almost everywhere. The programs are undoubtedly much overcharged, and the remarkable thing about it all is that the pupils seem to endure the strain of this exacting life. One cannot help thinking that it might be economy to study some of the subjects more intensively for a shorter period, and then, if necessary, just before the final examinations to spend a little time in review. The pupils could even divide the examinations for the brevet supérieur and take it in two suc- cessive years. Unfortunately, however, the present system of examinations in France requires every candidate practically to prepare himself at each examination in every subject that he has ever studied. A comparison of the subjoined program with that just above will show that in the girls’ schools, the literary part of the program is exactly the same as that pre- scribed for the boys. The allotment of hours in the scientific subjects is materially changed in everything except in drawing, and here the subject matter is distinctly modified. The manual work naturally turns to subjects more in accord with what we commonly think of as woman’s work —dressmaking, sewing, and domestic economy. It also in- cludes kitchen gardening, and a very little attention is devoted to domestic science and home decoration. Girls’ Schools 192 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE WEEKLY PROGRAM OF THE GIRLS’ NORMAL SCHOOLS.1 SuBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION. YEAR. Literary. L IL. IIl. Psychology, morale, pedagogy.............-.. ese eee 2 2 2 French language and literature...................00- 5 4 4 History and civic instruction...............-2-eeeeee 3 3 3 GEOR BAD IY oa s-0 55.5: sede vuanesinringn be aediw S)e ara aapactapbondeolas eal W dae aie I I I WHINE icicsa tet adanereniawsad ise eswadeametenkaous 2 I Modern languagesiicisiesd ey ccines sa aiiseseseiecaaaae 2 2 2¥ RGtell Faces vie eraeunin diane: so eae ea a errasecuneeaee ae oe 15 13 12 Scientific. Mathematics (re incaeis dadetonirase sd palcseg saoeue ye 2 2 2 PHYSiCSia:0.s0 sees Me Absa es ee eed SOF EAR MASSE ESE Cea TS I I Cheniisttys ssesu denice detente eg te ee ois eee 28S I I Natural science and hygiene.............cce cece e eee I I I Domestic economy..... 6... cece cece c eee eee e eee eaes I DD RA WAN SF cate os case ois aneanrueie ata erat wanna aaeouattus aka erated 4 4 4 WOtalis o¢4 tices G eine te Ne ees aoe Rete alee 7 9 10 Sewing and dressmaking............ 0... cceeeeeeeeee 3 2 2 Housekeeping and gardening..............0eceeeeeee 2 2 2 Gy MNaSHES oes seu sexy BEEN eOURe EY ey < 24a OIE ES 2 2 2 Singingand music. <<< ies sduesa suas canara i aienaweasa< 2 2 2 Ota lea nateane en 4a ee aennelninGacite Shad nate eho 9 8 8 Total number of hours per week.............. 31 30 30 * The conseil supérieur has decided that besides these two hours another hour shall be devoted exclusively to conversation. The instruction in all the normal schools that I saw is cul- tural in its general method, but strictly professional in regard to the subjects treated. Its chief object seems — to be to render the pupils well informed on the ee ts topics that they are to teach rather than to give them any specific instructions as to how these should be taught. Of course the pupils get much valuable experience and numerous suggestions from their work in the practice school, but in the ordinary classes in the normal school proper, one practically never hears any reference to teaching younger pupils. In all the scores of classes that I 1 Arrété, Jan. 10, 1889, Annexe B, Gr. VI, p. 136. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 193 visited, I found less than half a dozen exceptions to this state- ment. One result of this is that the work takes the form of lectures far oftener than that of recitations, though at the beginning of almost every class there is a brief period devoted to a review of the last lesson. Some subjects like mathematics and geography obviously do not readily admit of this lecture treatment. These demand recitation ‘work, but even then only a few pupils are called up at each recitation, and these are questioned very exhaustively. I have heard classes of this kind, and by no means infrequently, where three or four pupils would occupy the whole period. The rest of the class sat quietly in their seats either listening in a desultory fash- ion, or studying as the case might be. It is comparatively rare to find a teacher that makes any attempt to induce active, lively attention on the part of every member of his class. Nevertheless, the pupils all keep up their work, rather, however, by virtue of their own individual effort than by anything they learn in general recitation. It is worthy of note that even here in the normal schools, absolutely no lesson is assigned or any work given out without its being thoroughly explained be- forehand by the teacher. . In all the courses, text-books are used very sparingly, the teachers presenting the work to the pupils at one lesson, and the pupils reproducing it the next time. This lack of text-books certainly has its good points, but when pushed to extremes it results in a great waste of time. Granted that our schools in general rely too much on the text-book, the French schools as a whole seem to have run to the other extreme, and by the confession of some of the teachers themselves this is partly due to financial reasons. It is also very rare to find the pupils encouraged to go outside the exact limits of the prescribed work and to do any inde- pendent reading that may throw additional light on the sub- _ject in question. This is especially noticeable in the work in history, which usually leaves much to be desired. One general criticism may be passed upon all the work of the normal schools as well as all the other schools of France, Text-books £94 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE as far as my observation extends—the teachers do too much talking. The pupils have little or no opportunity for any self- expression, and the instructors in general make few efforts to draw out their pupils. Indeed, the art of questioning is not one of the French teachers’ strong points. There is one striking exception to this general lack of individuality, and that is in the work in drawing. It is almost uniformly excellent, and especially in the girls’ schools is strongly in- dividual and original. Psychology, morale, and pedagogy, especially the second, are considered the most important subjects of the curriculum, and the director himself is required to teach all three. Each occupies two hours a week for one year, in the order named, thus allowing the director to come in personal contact with every pupil in the school through- out the entire course. The psychology is chiefly what may be called static psychology, the dynamic aspects of genetic or ex- perimental psychology being entirely neglected. One of the teachers whom I questioned on the subject did not consider any student capable of beginning experimental psychology un- til he was thoroughly familiar with the older aspects of the subject. It had never occurred to him that any progressive combination of the two was at all possible. However, each pupil during his work at the practice school, is required to make a careful study of some particular child in the class where he is teaching. This is the only thing that approaches any child study during the normal course. It is moreover, purely individual, and is not made the basis of any class work or general discussion, being chiefly a matter between the nor- mal pupil and the practice school teacher.* Morale here for the first time reaches what we may rea- sonably call ethics. Running all through this work we find constant reference to the evils of intemperance. Indeed the crusade against alcoholism is one of the unnamed subjects of instruction in the French schools, Psychology Ethics 1This question is considered more at length in the discussion on the Practice Schools, ch. xi. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 195 and the lessons in morale all through the school life furnish a particularly favorable opportunity for these efforts. This must not be understood, however, as an attempt to preach total abstinence. In the girls’ schools this ethical instruction turns also toward the special responsibilities of woman as teacher, wife and mother. All the work whether for boys or for girls occupies a distinctly higher plane than morale in the lower schools. There is no subject of the curriculum that is any more diffi- cult to describe readily than is the work in pedagogy, for al- though all the schools follow the same pro- gram, it is almost impossible to find any two thatagree. This is all due to the interpretation of the phrases : “ Principal pedagogues and their doctrines. Analysis of their most important works.” At best the work is all very hasty, for the whole subject is allotted only two hours a week during the third year of the course. Besides, the first trimester is devoted to a review of the work in psychology and ethics of the first and second years, and sometimes must also be re- served for a few simple notions about political economy. The result is that pedagogy proper receives but comparatively little consideration. One finds directors, however, that, convinced of the inadequacy of the program allowance for the subject, manage somehow to gain a little more time for it. In only one of the schools that I visited did I find any at- tempt to study the history of education at all consecutively, and here the director naturally used Com- payré’s admirable book. The ordinary work consists simply in selecting a few well known pedagogical authors and considering them briefly. The pupils generally make no study of the writer for themselves, but take the appreciation of him given by the teacher. In fact, the time at their disposal is sufficient for nothing more than an eclectic method of procedure like this. The French educa- tional writers, Rabelais, Montaigne, Rousseau and Fénelon, especially the three latter, are found almost everywhere, and Spencer holds his own with these. Comenius is touched Pedagogy History of Education 196 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE upon, but Herbart and Froebel comparatively rarely. In one boys’ school in the south of France, I was much surprised to find that Channing and Horace Mann, the former of course in ethics, were two of the three writers that occupied the greater part of the time in the director’s classes. Some of the teachers take the position that they can find all the great fun- damental ideas of the past in the writers of the nineteenth century and they prefer to seek these doctrines in their modern aspects. The instruction in French includes: (1) memory work and lecture expliquée. This latter consists in reading a certain amount of text and then giving a kind of run- ning criticism and explanation of peculiar or unusual words, phrases or expressions. It is a method of lan- guage study that is very common in France, and work of this sort figures in all the examinations connected with the public school system, from the simple elementary school certi- ficate up to the examination for the direction of a normal school and the primary inspectorship. (2) Technical gram- mar, (3) compositions, and in the last year (4) literary his- tory also make up the program. Five hours per week in the first year and four hours in each of the other two are assigned for all these subjects. There is no stated amount to be com- mitted to memory, and this naturally varies widely with the school, but it is all from the best of the national classics. On the whole, the work in the native tongue is one of the best and most practically taught of all the subjects of the normal school curriculum. Although in all their daily work the pupils are called up before the class for their recitations, they have little oppor- tunity for really addressing an audience. At Lyon, however, there is a noteworthy excep- tion to this. Every boy in the third year has to prepare two lectures, which may be illustrated if he chooses, one in the field of letters and the other in science.» These 1 At Valence, each pupil of the third year class is required to give one public lecture. These lectures take place at the school, and the townsfolk are invited. Oftentimes they have audiences of one hundred and fifty people. French Student Lectures THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 197 are delivered before all the pupils of the school and are criti- cized by the teachers. M. Mironneau, the director, began this Practice some years before at Privas, a small place of some six thousand inhabitants and the chief town of a department. He took the members of his third year class out to some of the neighboring communes, the village people forming the audiences. The second attempt showed such notable im- provement, that afterwards some of the lectures were given in Privas itself. In following this method, at the end of the year each pupil will have two lectures, and: these may be in- creased many fold by changing with his fellows. An impor- tant consideration, however, is that they should all be in very simple language and adapted to the comprehension of the popular mind. The whole scheme is most valuable, for these same teachers are likely to go out into small places where the best social life is very limited, and lectures of this kind will serve to create a lively interest in the schools themselves and ultimately tend to raise the standard of the intellectual life of the community. The Musée Pédagogique in Paris, by means of the lantern slides which it sends gratuitously to teachers all over France, encourages still further the extension of this efficient means of stimulating popular culture. The history in the normal course follows a distinctly chron- ological order, and well it may, for the pupils have by this time been studying the history of their own country for upwards of ten years. It occupies three hours per week throughout the entire course. The first trimester is devoted to ancient history and Greece, the second to Rome, and the third to the Middle Ages up to the Hundred Years’ War. The work of the next two years (the first up te the French Revolution and the second until the present) treats France almost exclusively and seldom digresses except to consider events that are more or less closely connected with the national history. The history of no other modern nation is studied consecutively, the justification of course being that it is not concerned with the elementary school subjects which the pupils will be required to teach. The last trimester of the course treats briefly the civil organization of France. History 198 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE At the end of the program for the first year’s work we find these words: ‘‘ The historical notions about the Orient, Greece and Rome shall put less emphasis on the facts, the wars, the dynasties, the establishment or the dismemberment of empires, than on the customs, the ideas, the monuments, the great works of the people of antiquity, and on the part which they have played in the development of civilization.” So far as I am able to judge from the various lessons in this subject I have seen not only in the normal schools, but also in the schools of other grades, the suggestions given here are by no means followed. Unfortunately, the work generally savours too much of what John Fiske calls the “drum and trumpet history.” I never heard more than one or two recitations where the teacher seemed to have an adequate idea of the true meaning of history and historical study. This statement may seem rather strong in view of the numerous names of really great French historians not only of the past, but also of contemporary life that immediately rush into one’s mind, ‘but it must be remembered that these men are the products of secondary and not of primary education. The teachers themselves complain that their pupils are not strong in history, but they certainly encourage this weakness by dictating so many summaries of lectures or important move- ments instead of requiring the pupils to organize and arrange their own material. One of the teachers claimed that this weakness was due to a national characteristic. ‘“ The French people,” he said, ‘are not a reflecting nation. They have a certain animation and vivacity, but they do not spend very much time in calm reflection; hence they find history so diffi- cult.” On the contrary, it must be acknowledged that when the pupils leave the normal schools, they certainly know the facts of their country’s ‘history with an exactness that is certainly noteworthy. Geography is assigned one hour a week throughout the en- tire course. The first year, the work includes a study of geographical phenomena in general, and treats specifically all the world except Europe; the Subject Matter Geography THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 199 second year all Europe except France; and the third year, France and her colonies. This whole plan is almost univer- sally criticized and is certainly very poorly balanced, for the first year’s work is very much overcrowded. About half this is devoted to general physical geography, and this leaves only a few more than twenty lessons for the western hemisphere, Asia, Africa and Oceanica. In some schools, the two Ameri- cas are finished in four lessons, the same time that is devoted to Africa. These are divided thus: one lesson on the physical and one on the political and commercial geography of North America; one lesson each on South America, and on Mexico and Central America together. Oftentimes the situation is not so bad as this, but surely the commercial and industrial im- portance of the United States would seem to merit rather more than two lessons in a normal school course that occupies up- wards of one hundred and twenty hours’ work and extends over a period of three years. The prime consideration that is never neglected is that the geography should treat France first and last, even though at times this is reduced to a mere dry catalogue of departments, cities, population, rivers, mountains, oT statistics in general. The pupils know the name at least of every nook and corner of their own country. Fortunately most of the work is better than one recitation I happened to see on North America. Here on the map drawn on the board by a pupil and corrected by the teacher, the Hudson and the Connecticut rivers both ran east, and Long Island extended north and south, while New York, Baltimore and Philadelphia were situated in that order. Indeed, except for the presence of these cities the map might readily have been mistaken for the drawing of some sixteenth century navigator. However, in general, map J p.awing drawing is really one of the most striking and the strongest features of all the geography work. The ac- curacy and rapidity with which the pupils dash off a map of France or Europe, marking carefully all the configurations of the coast and indicating numerous cities, bays and capes is really remarkable. 200 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE One of the most interesting and novel lessons in geography that it was my good fortune to see was at Auteuil. Here a boy in the entering class had been very much interested in reading the account of Nansen’s voyages. Encouraged by the professor, he prepared the work with great care, had one of his classmates draw a map illustrating the trip of the Swedish explorer and his companions, and then lectured to his class on the subject. The boy sat at the teacher’s desk, was perfectly self-possessed, told his story simply and directly and illustrated it from time to time with well chosen extracts from the book itself. The whole affair was really most creditable, and it is too bad that such things could not be encouraged more, at least outside the regular class work. The term modern language usually means English or Ger- man, though sometimes it includes Italian and Spanish, and in the normal schools of Algeria even Arabic and Kabyle. The preponderance of the English, however, will readily be seen from the follow- ing table compiled from the Year-book of Public Instruction : * An Unusual Lesson Modern Languages No. of Schools?! Modern Language | English | German | Spanish | Italian 84 Normal Schools Boys 44 29 9 5 82 Girls 61 15 5 3 166 Total « 6% % aos 105 44 14 8 (The apparent discrepancy in figures here is due to the fact that in two of the boys’ schools and in one of the girls’ both English and Spanish are taught, and the two schools in Paris offer the pupils a choice between English and German.) The program arranges for two hours’ instruction per week throughout the course and requires that a third hour be taken 1 Delalain, Annuaire de PInstruction publique, 1903. 2 The four schools in Algeria do not appear in this table. They all teach Arabic. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 201 from the study periods and spent in conversa- ; tion. In some of the girls’ schools this third P?s!s& Tutors hour is in charge of an English répétitrice, a kind of tutor, usually a former training college pupil that has gone to France to perfect herself in the French language with a view to teach- ing it in her own country. It is expressly understood that this young woman shall speak nothing but English to the girls in the normal school. In return the teachers speak French to her. The employment of these répétitrices is an endeavor to give the normal school pupils as much of an English environ- ment as possible, and this is particularly advisable because the modern language teachers are all native born French. At one time, foreigners were frequently employed for this language work, but they were apparently unable to understand the French temperament, and the discipline was very unsatisfac- tory. Since 1886, at least, the law has restricted this in- ‘struction to French people. Under the existing regulations, then, the present composi- tion of the modern language teaching force leaves little to ‘be desired. Some of these teachers come from the ranks of secondary education, others, es- pecially teachers of English, are descendants of the people whose language they teach, still others have come up through a regular line of schools, but almost invariably they have spent at least one year abroad. The last is not so generally true of the teachers of German, but many of these -are recruited from the lost provinces or from those parts of the ‘country where the two languages are used almost indiscrim- inately. In any case the great majority by yearly trips to England or Germany seek to keep the languages of these countries fresh in mind. Indeed the teachers that I had the good fortune to meet spoke with a readiness and a purity of accent that was really striking. Except in one or two re- markable instances they were naturally handicapped slightly by a lack of vocabulary and, what is much more important still, by the inability to appreciate the English point of view. Na- tional life and racial characteristics are so strong, however, Character of the Teachers 202 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE that comparatively few individuals ever become able fully to understand another people than their own, and success in this respect is won only after long years of study and residence abroad. Many teachers in France to-day fully appreciate these facts, but in view. of the early experiences, recognize that the present conditions must continue, and so try to make them yield the best possible results. Within the last few years, the new direct method has made considerable progress. This is primarily a conversational method, as a former Minister of Public In- struction defined the chief aim of modern lan- guage teaching as “to learn to speak and to write.”* Al- though this refers specifically to secondary education, it never- theless represents the aim of all modern language work to-day. The secondary school teachers that also had classes in the nor- mal and higher primary departments naturally carried this new idea over into these latter schools, and some of the more progressive of the primary teachers were glad to get away from former conditions and found the transition acceptable to their inspectors. The result has been that in spite of the fact that the official program remains unchanged (although two re- visory commissions appointed in November and December, 1900” have not yet reported), modern language instruction in the best of the primary schools may fairly be said to be dominated by the direct method idea. Instead of having the pupils learn certain arbitrary lists of words and making these the basis of written work, the teacher uses a picture as a text and talks about the various objects presented there, or con- verses with the pupils on the common things of every day life. The object is to conduct the class entirely in the foreign lan- guage without employing French even for explanations. In fact, I found one enthusiastic teacher who during the entire Direct Method 1 Leygues, Circ., Nov. 15, 1901; Bull. Adm., LXX, p. 896. 2 Commission appointed to revise the scientific programs in the écoles normales primaires. Arrété, Nov. 24, 1900; Bull. Adm., LXVIII, p. 918. Ibid. for literary programs. Arrété, Dec. 6, 1900; Bull. Adm., LXVIII, p. 1107. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 203 first year not only did not speak a single word of French nor use any English text-book, but she did not even allow the pupils to keep note-books. The new system strives to make language study more alive and to avoid much of the merely formal work that is certainly very stupefying. Perhaps, how- ever, it is only the movement of the pendulum and in seeking to avoid one evil it has swung to the other extreme, for all this conversational work consumes an undue amount of time. After all this stress is put upon conversation, comparatively little time is left for reading, and aside from some extremely simple collections of Mother Goose calibre, this is chiefly restricted to the special text-book re- quired for the brevet supérieur, a compilation of easy prose and verse. The English requirements include selections from Aiken and Barbauld’s Evenings at Home, Miss Corner’s Every Child’s History of England, Wordsworth’s Michael, and a few of Longfellow’s better known short poems, the whole book being about one hundred and seventy-five pages. The German text-book is somewhat smaller, but in respect to the poetry, at least, contains a much better selection of rep- resentative classic literature. The prose is entirely taken from Hoffmann, and the poems from Goethe, Schiller and Heine. This same method is being carried down into the higher primary schools, with the idea of rendering the pupils there better fitted for taking places as interpreters or foreign correspondence clerks in the great busi- I" Higher ness houses. In the absence of definite statis- Sdiante tics, it is difficult to state exactly how many pupils this affects, but of the 61,686 children that went out from these schools during the years 1889-1898, only 14,033 entered commercial life and another 3,243 entered the teach- ing profession. Of course the majority of these never had occasion to use their modern language after leaving school, and ten per cent of the whole number of graduates is a sufh- ciently liberal estimate to cover them all beyond the peradven- 1 Organisation et Situation de Enseignement Primaire, chart to face p. 408. Text-books 204 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE ture of a doubt. These ten per cent, then, fix the aim of the modern language instruction and the method to be followed for all the other ninety per cent. Surely not a very good record for the democratic ideas of France. The sponsors of this direct method, whether in the higher primary or the normal schools, believe that their pupils will be much better fitted to make their way in a for- eign country; but even if these expectations were well founded, the number so benefited would be very small. After visiting many classes and talking not only with teachers but with pupils as well, it is perfectly evident that after three years’ work of this nature the pupils will not be able to carry on an ordinary conversation. In fact, I saw one class that had studied English for five years, two years under. the old method and three under the new, and at the end of all that time not only was the pronunciation of the pupils very poor, but they could not understand the very simple English ex- pressions that I used in addressing them. It is still practically necessary for these modern language pupils to go to a foreign country if they wish to attain any facility in the language. The opportunities for real conversation are too transitory and infrequent to produce any satisfactory results. Meanwhile, much time has been sacrificed that might otherwise have been devoted to reading, and after all it is only wide reading that gives the large vocabulary so absolutely indispensable to thorough knowledge of a language. During the first few weeks in the foreign country, the bright pupil that has fol- lowed this new method carefully will undoubtedly have an immense advantage over the one that has read widely, has a reasonable acquaintance with the grammatical principles, and has become a little accustomed to the sound of the language in the class room, but at the end of six months or a year, there is not much doubt as to which one would be the more advanced. This is by no means an argument against the direct method on general principles, for under certain conditions it is the only method to be employed; but in a school where the foreign language has only three hours a week, and where all the rest Criticism THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 205, of the time is spent in an environment entirely at variance with this new language, the mother tongue should not be banished from the class room with impunity nor the direct method used fanatically. Formerly the modern languages were taught exactly as the Latin or Greek, and it is safe to say that the present methods are an improvement over the old, but a compromise between the two would probably produce still better results, I should be very sorry if this adverse criticism, which, be it distinctly understood, is entirely one of method and concerns neither the teaching force nor the place of modern languages in the pro- gram, should ever furnish an argument for minimizing the im+ portance of this instruction in the normal schools. The mod- ern languages stand to-day as almost the only purely cultural subject of the curriculum, and the intellectual horizon of the future primary school teachers could ill afford to undergo any contraction in this respect. As soon as the French primary schools rise above the industrial and commercial influence that is dominating them to-day, the aim of modern language in- struction will no longer be confined to the present utilitarian limits, but these subjects will appear in their truer and nobler aspects, as a means of entering to a certain extent into the life and ideals of contemporary peoples and so of furnishing their pupils with a larger perspective, a broader culture and a more sympathetic and tolerant spirit. The mathematical subjects include arithmetic and the metric system, algebra, book-keeping, geometry and trigonometry. Arithmetic is allotted two hours per week dur- ing the first year and one during the second. Algebra has one hour a week during this same year, and, ex- cept for a little time it has to divide with book-keeping, two hours in the third. The time allotted for arithmetic naturally permits the teacher to devote more attention to theory than to the actual operations. Algebra, on the other hand, treats the theoretical part as hastily as possible and lays much stress upon the practical applications, the progressions, and interest and annuities. Geometry is allowed one hour a week the first Mathematics 206 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE year and two hours for each of the other two years. It in- cludes both plane and solid geometry, trigonometry, and par- ticular attention is paid to surveying and topography. The instruction in mathematics, especially in geometry is almost universally of a very high order. Utility may fairly be said to characterize the work as a whole. In trigonometry, for example, goniometry as such is practically ignored, and all the attention is devoted to the solution of triangles. In fact, trigonometry is merely a tool to be used in surveying. This latter is all of the practical sort, for the teacher often takes advantage of the free period on Thursday to lead his pupils out into the fields and give them real problems to solve. In the girls’ schools, the mathematics is of considerably less importance. It receives only two hours per week throughout , the course, and is confined almost exclusively In Girls’ : * ‘ 3 > Schools to simple arithmetic, the work in geometry in the third year being little more than mere men- suration. Although the program provides for no instruction in algebra, I found a little very elementary work in that sub- ject at Batignolles, the girls’ normal school in Paris. Here, too, the work in mathematics receives an extra hour in both the second and third years. Although they may never de- scend below the requirements of the official regulations, the Paris schools are often allowed to augment their work in some minor details like this. The instruction in science is certainly very broad, but it has the virtue of at least introducing the pupils to the more im- portant subjects and of giving them the funda- mental notions on which each is based. Here again the practical idea is everywhere predominant, for it is not only acquaintance with general scientific facts that is de- sired, but also the bearing of these facts on everyday life. It is the fauna and the flora of the immediate neighborhood that are of particular importance; knowledge of how these, for example, can be of service in the work in agriculture in gen- eral, and to the farmers of the district in particular. Two hours for each of the first two years, and three hours for the Science THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 207 third, are about equally divided between physics and chemis- try; botany has one hour a week the first year; zoology the same amount the second year; while geology and hygiene divide one hour a week throughout the third year. Unfor- tunately the ideas about ventilation and the necessity of fresh air taught in the hygiene class are not generally put in prac- tice, at least during the winter months, for the air of the or- dinary French class room of whatever grade is almost invari- ably bad. The course in hygiene lays much stress on the dangers from alcoholism. In consequence of the report of the commission to investigate the subject in 1895,’ not only the program of the normal schools, but also the Campaign curricula of all the schools of primary and ie a secondary instruction as well were modified ? so as to provide for more determined efforts to strengthen the crusade against this evil. Although the subject is extensively treated in the course on hygiene, it also appears in ethics un- der the guise of temperance in general, and domestic and so- cial duties; in zoology, under the anatomy and physiology of man; in chemistry under the alcohols; and in political economy under the production, the circulation and the uses of wealth. In fact, in order to encourage the consumption of beer and or- dinary wine at the expense of alcohol itself, these former are among the few food products that pay no octrot at the gates of Paris. Although the subject matter of the science courses is so gen- erally practical, experimental work on the pupils’ part has made little headway. The second and third year classes are required to spend some time in manipulation, but this is chiefly confined to the strictly literal interpretation of the word and is restricted to familiarizing the pupils with the construction and use of the simple apparatus that may be adapted to the work in the lower schools. Indeed with one or two exceptions, notably in the boys’ school at Lyon, the laboratory facilities are not such as 1Gr. VI, pp. 646-652. 2 Bull. Adm., 1897, LXI, p. 392. Laboratory Work 208 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE to encourage anything much more extensive than this. At Auteuil, there is an extra hour per week throughout the entire course especially given to this laboratory work. Half the class is taken each time, the first half year being devoted to chemistry and the last half to physics. The subjects in the course in physics are: gravity, hydro statics and acoustics; heat and light; electricity and mechanics. Chemistry treats the metalloids, the metals, and in the third year devotes itself exclusively to organic chemistry. All the experiments are carefully performed by the teacher before the class, who can see the phenomena for themselves, but the ex- perimental work practically stops there. On the whole, the work in science is carried on with no other text-book than the lecture notes which the pupils take themselves from the lips of the teacher, In practically every school, one finds adequate and well selected collections for the teaching of natural history and geology. The only criticism that might be made upon these is that they are usually hidden away in the professor’s private laboratory or in some remote and dusty corner of the building where they are almost inaccessible to the pupils. Thus the majority of them see only the few specimens that the teacher brings into the class room. The schools that I saw almost invariably had fine botanical gardens in connection with their vegetable gardens, and they were all marvels of neatness and thrift. In most of the departments, the departmental pro- fessor of agriculture gives the agricultural instruction at the normal school. The theoretical work occupies forty lessons during the second and third years, and treats not only plant life, but also the farm animals and rural economy. Special attention is devoted to the agricultural interests of that particular section of the country. The Influence — practical part of preparing the soil, sowing, on the ; : : : 3 Goninunlee grafting and pruning is all given in the school garden. There is no idea, however, of turning Natural Science Botany THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 209 out skilled farmers, but rather of providing the necessary train- ing for teaching the work in agriculture required by the ele- mentary school program. Often, however, these students can carry their knowledge into the rural communities and thus be- come effective missionaries for disseminating the latest ideas on scientific farming, such, for example, as the more intelli- gent use of fertilizers and the rotation of crops. This work has all assumed a new aspect during the last six or eight years, for it is hoped that sufficient interest in agricultural pursuits may be aroused to check the urban movement of the population that France in common with most of the other great coun- tries has lately been viewing with increasing uneasiness. In the girls’ schools, the science instruction is considerably reduced. Instead of the seven hours of the boys’ course, we now find only four, equally divided between the second and third years. The physics program of the second year is rather varied, forming a kind of general introduction to the subjects of the third year —heat, light, electricity and magnetism. The chemistry course follows the same plan, the second year forming a gen- eral introduction and attempting to cover very hurriedly the more important metalloids and metals. The third year’s work treats organic chemistry very superficially. The manipulation is taken even less seriously than in the boys’ schools, and in the school where I found a satisfactory laboratory equipment the directress said that little work of that sort was done. The geology program of the boys’ schools is cut down very slightly, botany and zoology remaining unchanged. There is, however, one hour a week in the third year devoted to domestic economy. This by no means attempts the work of our domestic science courses, but merely in- troduces the girls in a very general way to the work of the household, care of the home, wash- ing, ironing, and the preparation of food. In fact the cuisine everywhere in France is so very superior, and the mothers _ take such pains to teach their daughters, that ordinary instruc- tion in cooking has no reason to exist. In some of the schools, In Girls’ Schools Domestic Economy 210.0 6©PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE the washing is all done outside the building, and the girls are required to do their own ironing. In another school, the pupils of the third year class, in groups of ten or a dozen, one group being chosen each week, take entire charge of making ready their own dinner. This includes the preparation of the food, as well as setting the table, but it can be readily seen that one hour a week for a year will not allow a very elaborate treatment of the subject of domestic economy. Except the French language and literature, no subject in the whole curriculum receives more attention than drawing, for it occupies four hours per week throughout the entire course and includes both the free hand and the mechanical aspect. This latter is almost invariably taught by one of the science professors, while the former is often in charge of a special teacher. The free hand work is developed very logically from point to line, from line to angle, and from angle to figure, each of these different bases form- ing the motif, and the pupils being left free to develop the particular design according to their imdividual tastes. The union of the mechanical drawing and the manual training un- der a single teacher gives almost unlimited opportunity for correlation, and it is generally taken advantage of, for all the constructions in wood or iron are worked out from carefully prepared sketches, while absolute accuracy both in sketch and in execution is rigidly required. In the girls’ schools, me- chanical drawing as such is almost entirely neglected, the pupils merely learning the use of the simpler drawing instruments. The work there is practically all freehand and is accompanied by considerable purely decorative work. In the higher pri- mary schools, this aspect is developed even more extensively, and often reaches to practical designing for the textile in- dustry prominent in that particular section of the country. It is always closely allied to the sewing and the needle work. The teachers of this free hand drawing both at the boys’ and girls’ schools are often real artists and not mere drawing teach- ers. -In fact, it is by no means uncommon to find former pupils of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts at Paris engaged in this work. Drawing THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 2II The results everywhere justify the effort that is expended upon the. drawing, for of all the subjects of the French pro- gram, this work is not only the best taught, but the skill of the pupils as a whole is remarkable. The teachers, however, agree that this great progress dates from the Exposition of 1889 and is mainly due to the increased interest in manufactur- ing and commercial affairs since that time. Manual training and farm work together are assigned five hours per week each year. The three devoted to manual training proper are divided among paper fold- ing and card-board work, both finished in the pian first year, wood work, iron work and modeling. ne Although this last subject receives a good deal of space in the official program, in few of the schools did I find the actual work of corresponding importance. In fact, in some it is neglected almost entirely. With rare exceptions, all the manual work is decidedly formal, no attempt being made to construct useful objects. From this point of view, it lays itself open to severe criticism. The wood work aims to ac- custom the pupils to the use of the simpler tools used in join- ing and turning. The iron work devotes a little time the first year to bent iron work, and during the other two years in- cludes welding, joining, turning and brazing. The forging varies greatly in different places, but under the most favorable conditions it requires so much time that the schools can hardly be censured for slighting it. The lack of motive power for the turning both in wood and iron is a serious handicap, and what is still more surprising, the teachers do not seem to feel any serious in- convenience on that account. When ques- tioned on the subject, they invariably reply, “ The pupils will not find any motive power in the schools where they are going and so why introduce it here?” Yet it is quite common in turning, especially in iron, to find one boy providing the motive power for the lathe while another is busy with the actual work. In none of the six boys’ normal schools that I visited was there any power, and in fact I have seen only two schools in France Motive Power 212 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE where there was any to be found, the école normale primaire supérieure at Saint-Cloud and the école primaire supérieure Franklin at Lille. In spite of these difficulties, the shop work is all well executed, and the pupils become very skilful in the use of their tools. Reference has already been made to the advantage of having the drawing and the manual training taught by the same person. This union is productive of ex- cellent results, and the relationship between these two sub- jects is one of the few instances of direct correlation in the whole program. This is even more strikingly apparent in the girls’ schools. The manual work in the girls’ schools is entirely devoted to sewing. This includes preliminary work in weaving and ; ‘.. braiding, knitting, crocheting, plain and fancy stitches, pattern work, cutting out and finish- ing women’s and children’s undergarments and outside clothes. One of the most important things is the reparation of their own clothes by the pupils. During the last two years, they have some opportunity to use a sewing machine. In the third year the sewing assumes a more decorative character, and the pupils are required to work out patterns they have de- signed in the drawing class. In one higher primary school, the girls were making some beautiful underclothing, all trim- ming, insertion and edging having been previously designed in this way. All had the same motif, a flower, a spray of leaves or some conventional form, and each pupil had worked out the particular pattern according to her individual taste. For cutting patterns and for much of the dressmaking work in general, a kind of canvas is much used on account of its cheapness. Some teachers, however, very properly object to work of this kind on account of its formal nature. The instruction in music demands two hours per week throughout the course. It consists sometimes of both vocal and instrumental work, though the latter is by no means general. At Lyon, we find each pupil required to devote an hour and a half per week to the violin. He may spend more, but at all events he is respon- Sewing Music THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 213 sible for the results. The teacher there comes in from out- side, as is generally the case with all instrumental music. Singing, however, is almost invariably taught by one of the regular teachers, for it is very rare not to find in each school one of the staff that holds a certificate for teaching music. This adds two hundred francs a year to the salary the teacher would ordinarily receive. Besides a considerable amount of chorus work, the pupils are still further trained in sight read- ing and musical dictation. On leaving the school they are all able to read readily any simple music of the sort that they are likely to encounter in their school work. The most proficient of them usually carry on their studies still further until they obtain the special certificate referred to above. The program for gymnastics, three hours a week, includes military drill and target practice, besides the ordinary gymnas- tic work. Apparently none of the normal schools that I visited took any notice of the two former, and I found but one school—an école primaire su- périeure in Paris—where there was any practice in shooting.’ Here it is more in the nature of recreation, for in the shooting range in the basement each boy fires six shots three times each year. The weapon used is a smallbore target rifle with the breech mechanism of an old army rifle now long since dis- carded. At another higher primary school where there was some pretence at military drill, it required the services of a workman three or four hours a day to keep the guns in good condition, and as the director said, they were so very differ- ent from the arms in use in the army to-day, that the time spent in teaching the boys to handle them was wasted. At one school where the gymnastic work represents a typical organization of the better sort, the exercises were divided into four groups: ordinary calisthenics ; something Subject Matter approaching single stick work, though without opponents; boxing; and gymnasium work proper with both light and heavy apparatus. The “ single stic ” consists in a combination of thrusts and blows at an imaginary opponent 1 They expect soon to have a shooting range at Auteuil. Gymnastics 214 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE performed in concert at the word of command, the value of the exercise being still further enhanced by varying the position of the body as well as the direction of the stroke. The instru- ments were very simple and were evidently rods that the boys had cut for themselves on some excursions to the woods. In boxing they naturally follow the French system which brings into play the feet as well as the fists. It was entirely an ex- ercise, however, and not a sport, for the work was all done in class and no one was pitted against another. On account of the foot work employed here, and the change of position, the movements admit of great variation, and they bring into action a large number of the muscles of the body. It is an easy matter for the boys to prepare for their gymnastic lesson, for they simply remove coat, waistcoat and suspenders, fasten a belt about the waist, and everything is ready. When the weather permits, the class is conducted in the open air, other- wise in the gymnasium. The French gymnasium is entirely different from anything we have in America. Sometimes it occupies a separate build- ing of its own, but it is often a part of the main building with one side open to the air and looks very much like the carriage shed attached to some New Eng- land farm-house. In every case, inside it is a large barn-like structure, perhaps thirty by sixty feet, with cement walls and a.floor of soft, mealy loam. This latter does away with any necessity for mats. The apparatus is not abundant, a pair of parallel bars, a horizontal bar, parallel flying rings, vertical parallel bars, a rope ladder, a smooth and a knotted rope for climbing, a dorsal ladder, ordinary ladders in various posi- tions, and sometimes a few Indian clubs, dumb-bells and wands along the walls. The light apparatus, the horizontal and the parallel bars, however, are the most frequently used. The dress is the same as for the light gymnastics in the open air. The apparatus is all of very simple construction, the dumb- bells being always of iron and often very heavy, varying from three to twenty pounds in weight. The gymnasiums in the girls’ schools, while theoretically Gymnasium THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 215 boasting a somewhat similar equipment, almost invariably wear the dusty garb of neglect. This apparent condition is verified by the statements of the directresses, for walking and dancing are the chief forms of exercise in these schools.? Reference has already been made to the inadequacy of the bath- ing arrangements. In no case did I find them in connection with the gymnasium; in fact, there seems to be no idea of the relation existing between these two. The exercise in France does not partake of the violent character that one finds in America, for the pupils go through the various evolutions as calmly and deliberately as they follow the work in mathematics and ostensibly without any healthy, spontaneous interest in the exercise for its own sake. The idea of individual effort solely with a view to becoming stronger and healthier and better is a rare incentive for the normal school pupil; he is never found in the gymnasium except at the prescribed hours, nor, in fact, could he go there if he chose, for the door is ordinarily kept locked, and the key rests in the pocket of the gymnasium instructor. The instruction in gymnastics, however, in the boys’ schools is very practical from the point of view of the future teacher, for each pupil has frequent opportunity for conducting the class. At the end of the second year, the pupils usually present themselves for the special certificate for teaching gymnastics. This examination consists of two parts, an oral examination on the sciences closely connected with gymnastic work, and a practical test wherein the candidate has to demonstrate his abil- ity te perform the movements required by the official manual. This examination is not over difficult, for the candidates are generally successful. Before taking the regular entrance examinations for the nor- mal schools, each candidate has to submit to a physical ex- amination conducted independently by two physicians, who afterwards meet and compare notes. This is required in order that the State 1 At the girls’ school at Batignolles, Paris, the official program is fol- lowed carefully and with apparently good results. The girls of the second year class here wore regular gymnasium suits, the only ones I saw. Physical Examinations 216 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE may make sure that the candidate is at least physically able to render adequate return for the expense of his education. Al- though the use of eyeglasses is not necessarily fatal, any seri- ous optical defect would naturally cause rejection. Once safely through this examination, the pupils are seldom troubled again. At Auteuil, however, they have recently introduced the practice of testing the boys physically every three months. This examination is very superficial, for it measures merely lung capacity, strength of the right grip and standing height. If the first of these shows any marked deterioration, the boy is immediately turned over to the regular physician for further examination. This question of physical condition is coming more and more into prominence in France through the Minister of War. In some departments, it is found difficult to recruit young men that satisfy the army standards, and the military and the edu- cational departments are actively striving to discover the real causes for this and the corrective measures to be applied. The subject matter of the normal schools thus briefly treated, lays the foundation, at least, for a liberal culture. It is perhaps too extensive to be very intensive, General but the pupils have been introduced to the fun- Aspects of damental facts and experi f the various the Course BELIetinNe . studies, and these ideas have been thoroughly instilled into their minds. If too little emphasis has been laid upon the how a particular subject should be taught in the ele- mentary school, the pupil has reviewed carefully what he must teach and has gone enough farther to give him a thorough understanding of much of the underlying theory. With the exception of the modern language, he has spent his time on nothing that he cannot apply directly to his future work in the class room. The course is particularly strong in the literary, scientific and aesthetic aspects of human interest, but weak in developing those characteristics that make for individuality, leadership and social efficiency. CHAPTER XI THe Normat Scuoors (4) THE PRACTICE SCHOOLS AND THE TEACHING CERTIFICATES THE practice schools in connection with the normal schools are of two general types: école annexe, when the school is under the immediate control of the director of the normal school and forms an integral part of the institution itself; école d’application, when an ordinary school in the community is specially designated by the Minister as a practice school. Of all the practice schools in France, less than a score of them to-day are found in this second category, although each form has its supporters. The école annexe be- ing more directly under the supervision of the director of the normal school, and the head of the practice school being con- sidered as one of the teaching staff of the training school, this condition permits a closer alliance between the two, and enables the normal pupils to keep in closer touch with their practice field. The criticism that the école annexe is too small to give the future teachers any real practice does not in itself seem well- founded, for in the smaller classes the young teacher can de- vote his attention chiefly to the subject matter of the recitation and need spend comparatively little effort on maintaining dis- cipline, but for this little he himself is alone responsible. As for the écoles d’application, they are ordinarily typical enough as far as numbers are concerned, but the continual presence of the regular teacher in the class room renders the position of the raw recruit somewhat artificial, for the disciplinary problem practically does not present itself under these condi- tions. The école d’application has one peculiar advantage in 217 Types 218 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE that the pupil teacher is always working under direct super- vision, whereas in the ordinary école annexe this is not the case, for it reproduces the actual conditions of the country school only too vividly, and the single teacher often to be found there has to apportion his time among the three cours divided between two rooms. The two écoles annexes at Paris are the only ones that I found where each room had its own permanent teacher. Although the regulations* have long required each girls’ normal school to have an école maternelle in addition to its ordinary practice school, at the present time less than three fifths have complied with this demand,’ but in a few others the want is partially supplied by classes enfantines. All these practice schools are organized to represent as far as possible the conditions actually existing in the lower schools. For this reason, in Paris the two schools are accurate but naturally somewhat ideal repro- ductions of the average city school, with each of the three cours divided into two classes. In the country normal schools, on the other hand, the norm for the école annexe has but a single teacher, though this number is often increased to two in the more important towns; but in any case the work will invariably be arranged so that in at least one room there will be more than one cours. In all the practice schools I visited outside the metropolis, the number of children there corresponded very closely with the number of pupils in the normal school. Of course it need not be said that the instruc- tors here are generally of the best, for they are almost normal teachers themselves and are certainly in a position to be of immense practical assistance to the young teachers. Although the director of each school follows his own ideas Organization 1 Décret, July 31, 1900, Art. 1, Gr. VI, p. 288. 2 Annuaire de I’Instruction Publique, 1903. The actual figures were: Number schools with école maternelle, annexe, or d’application........ 47 Number schools without école maternelle, annexe, or d’application..... 32 Number schools with ciasse enfanting...... 0... ccc cece eect ee 5 THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 219 as to the minor details of this practice work, the total amount is a fairly constant quantity—in all about thirty days. At Batignolles, Paris, for example, — Practice where the observation and the practice work are ae not quite so extensive, each pupil has nine tours or stages in the école annexe. This practice school is very large, contain- ing nearly five hundred children and includes a well organized école maternelle of three classes. The first year pupils never spend more than half a day at a time at the practice school, whereas in the second and third years, one whole day each tour is entirely devoted to the école annexe. During the greater part of the time that the normal pupil is in the class room, she merely watches the gen- eral conduct of the lessons, assisting the regular teacher from time to time in the distribution of material as occasion arises. Thus observation work pure and simple occupies a much more important place as far as time is concerned than the actual teaching. The number of lessons given by the normal girls and the department of the école annexe where these take place will appear in the following table: At Batignolles Year i pS Ee nares are ae ES pe re Boepa as a5, Lessons) 1st tour. | 1 E.P.E. | 2 Ec. Mat. | 2E.P.E, per 2d tour. 2E.P.E. , 2E.P. EL , 2 Ec. Mat. day. 3d tour. | 2E.P.E. Entire session, ; Entire session, ; Ec. Mat. | Ec. Mat. E. P. E. elementary school. Ec. Mat. école maternelle. From this it will be seen that five of the tours are in the primary school proper and four are in the école maternelle. The general tendency also is to begin well up in the primary grades and to work down toward the youngest children. The pupil is never entirely freed from the work in the normal school, and whatever she misses, except manual work, draw- ing and outside written work, she is regularly responsible for. At Auteuil, Paris, however, quite a different system 1s em- 2290 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE ployed. Here instead of the practice teaching continuing practically throughout the course, it is all com- pleted between Easter of the first year and Easter of the third. This has the great advantage of allowing the new pupils to become somewhat acclimated to the normal school life and discipline, and furthermore the pupils of the third year are relieved from the responsibility of the practice work during the last few months of their course when they are working under the shadow of the approaching examinations. Each pupil teacher is assigned to the école annexe for one week at a time, but he spends there only half of each day, either morning or afternoon. The work is so arranged that each of the six classes of the practice school always has a normal pupil, either as observer or as teacher. There is this further difference between Auteuil and Batignolles, that at the former each pupil teaches only one lesson each half day in the class where he happens to be. Here again, then, observation work plays a predominant part. The actual division of the work will be readily apparent from the subjoined diagram: * At Auteuil Before Easter After Easter Cours supérieur. ist division. . | 2 pupils of III yr.| 2 pupils of II yr. 2d division. .|2 ‘‘ of II] ‘'|2 ‘* of II “ Cours moyen. Istdivision. ./2 “ of ID‘ }2 “ of I “ ad division a ef ILS [a2 “ of 1“ Cours élémentaire. ist division . a ‘or Ib 8.2 8 op do ad division. .|2 ‘* of IIT ‘* |! 2 ‘* of II “ 6 pupils of III yr.| 6 pupils of II yr. Totals . oe. 8 4 ele ef ie 6 “ of II‘ Under this arrangement, each pupil spends a week in the practice school about once in six weeks, so that this gives a total of sixty half days and sixty lessons actually taught by each one. These are so divided that every subject of the ele- mentary school curriculum receives its proportionate attention. On being assigned to a certain class in the practice school, 1 Organisation et Situation de l Enseignement Primaire, p. 456. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 221 the pupil is directly responsible for interviewing the class teacher and finding out exactly what the class is doing in order that he may take up the new Relations with work with the least possible disturbance to the the Critic pupils. As has been said before, he is ex- a pected to teach one lesson each half day. Before doing this he prepares a written plan of the lesson which he submits to the class teacher and talks over with him the day before. What- ever modifications the latter may suggest are naturally incor- porated in the lesson on the morrow. All this is written in a special note-book so that at the end of the pupil’s course there is a permanent record of all his lesson plans together with the modifications of the critic teachers, who are of course the regular teachers in the practice school. After the day’s work is over, the critic teacher meets the pupil teacher in order to discuss the lesson of the day, as well as to look over and criticize the new plan for the following day. The pupil teacher is constantly under the supervision of the class teacher in all his work, even during the recreation periods, for at these times he mingles with the children on the playground and endeavors to help in or to modify their games. The sum total of the critic’s appreciation of the normal pupil’s work for the week is made the subject of a special re- port. Here, then, is a second permanent record of each pupil’s ability. Besides his regular observation and practice work, the student is assigned a boy by the class teacher whom he is expected to study psychologically both in class and out, in recitation time or on the playground. The result of this study is embodied in a written paper which is submitted di- rectly to the class teacher, appreciated by him and filed away for future reference. The pupil’s note-book of lesson plans and criticisms forms quite a valuable document at the end of the course, for he can read his successes and his failures and profit by his past experiences when he goes out into a school of his own. od At Lyon, a new method was first put into practice in 1903, embodying certain peculiar advantages for the ordinary rural 222 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE normal school which has to prepare teachers for Graduated the country schools. Under this arrangement, Practice Be ed . Peaphing the pupil is introduced to the work in the prac- tice school by regular stages. In this école annexe, there is a regular cours élémentaire, which includes a classe préparatoire, and a cours moyen of a single division. The third year pupil has entire charge of the former cours, but he has a pupil of the first year to help him with the classe préparatoire in an adjoining room. This latter, however, sim- ply plays the part of monitor and follows the direction of his older comrade. The pupil of the second year is in charge of the cours moyen with its single division. This forms, then, a graduated apprenticeship: first, monitor, then teacher with a single class, and finally the responsibility not only of teaching one class, but also of planning the work for another. In this school also, each pupil teacher receives a carefully prepared outline which he is to keep in mind while making the psychological study of the child assigned to him. Another unique feature employed here is a rapport personnel, a kind of introspective statement made by the student at the end of each tour wherein he notes the particular difficulties of one sort or another that he encountered in any phase of his work and the means he employed in solving them. These records like all the others are preserved in the special note-book used in the practice school, and here too the pupil copies each report on his work that the teachers present to the director of the normal school. Thus this note-book contains not only the lesson plans, duly criticized and corrected, the remarks of the critic teachers and the directors, but also a kind of diary kept by the pupil himself. Even this last is made a subject of comment by the director.* One of the most important features of the training school course is the so-called model lesson. This is not quite a model lesson in our sense of the word, but rather a peculiar form of 1Cf. Appendix J for sample pages taken from a student’s note-book showing form of criticism followed by critic teacher, outline for psycholog- ical study, and plan for this rapport personnel. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 223 practice teaching, for it is almost invariably given by one of the pupils. In one school I Model visited this is actually taught about half the ae time by the director of the normal school and so becomes a model lesson de facto, but this practice here was due to some- what unusual conditions. In this school, as sometimes hap- pens in the smaller normal schools, the model lesson was taught before all three classes, but at the larger institutions this is manifestly impracticable and it is limited to the mem- bers of the third year class. The pupils are invariably one of the classes of the practice school, and the work presented is merely a part of their regular lessons. At Auteuil, for example, there are twenty to twenty-five lessons each year taught to the six classes of the école annexe in succession. Thursday mornings, when both the practice school and the normal school are free from ordinary duties, are chosen for this work. Ona given week the pupils from one of the classes in the practice school are required to come to school at the usual time on Thursday. Two of the normal boys have previously been assigned to prepare a lesson in a given subject to teach to that particular class. Naturally they must have conferred with the class teacher in order to ascertain exactly what the chil- dren have been doing recently, so that the course of their regular lessons may be disturbed as little as possible. Be- sides, too, these two pupils have previously submitted their lesson plans to the class teacher for his criticism and sugges- tions. On the appointed day, the pupils of the practice school ’ occupy their usual places while around the room are grouped the third year class of the normal school. In addition to the regular critic teacher, the directors of the normal school and the practice school, and the professor in charge of that subject at the normal school are also present. Just before the lesson is to begin the two pupils that have prepared the lesson draw lots. One of them actually teaches the lesson, while the other acts as chief critic. At the conclusion of the lesson that I had the pleasure of At Auteuil 224 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE hearing, the pupils of the école annexe were dismissed, and the chief critic began his criticism, with the director of the normal school as presiding off- cer. This pupil was naturally in a much better position to judge the work than his other classmates, for he had already prepared the same lesson with the idea of teach- ing it. The unfortunate teacher was given every opportunity to defend himself and his method, and occasionally had the satisfaction of turning the tables on his critic. The criticism became general, and each normal pupil was invited and en- couraged to take part in the discussion. After the pupils had exhausted their stock of ideas on the subject, the professor at the normal school took up the dis- cussion and improved the opportunity to give many good suggestions on the special method in geography, for that was the subject of the lesson. The directors of the two schools as well as the class teacher expressed their opinions on the teaching as a whole, and on the attitude of the pupil teacher. All the criticisms were remarkably intelligent and well-pointed. In fact the whole exercise could not fail to be of the greatest value not only to the pupils chosen to prepare the lesson, but also to the other members of the normal class, for the criticisms all came from men of large pedagogical knowledge and wide experience. At the end, the teachers held a brief session to discuss privately certain characteristics of the pupil teacher and the lesson that could not be done before the pupils. Some similarly arranged model lessons, though necessarily with local modifications are to be found at nearly all the nor- mal schools, in spite of the fact that the direc- tress of one school told me she had given them up some time ago because she did not feel that the effort was productive of good results. At Batignolles, for instance, four pupils are appointed to prepare each lesson. Just before the recitation, these draw lots; one is chosen to teach the class, and the other three to watch particular points about the work, such as the general disposition of the class, the discipline and Student Critics Teacher Critics At Batignolles THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 225 the method of the recitation. The idea of having several pupils prepare the model lesson is partly due to the fact that in the large schools there is not time for each pupil to give one of these lessons, but by this arrangement every one goes through all the preliminary work, at least. It goes without saying, that the real value of these exercises is in a large meas- ure dependent on the character of the critics. ms At present, all the older normal school teachers have had considerable practical experience in the elementary schools, but during the last twenty years since the estab- lishment of the higher normal schools at Fon- Future tenay-aux-Roses and Saint-Cloud, these two pees schools have been sending out to fill the vacancies in the ordi- nary normal schools from thirty-five to forty teachers every year, and the greater part of these, especially the women, with little or no experience in actual teaching. These two great schools are doing much valuable work in providing the cul- tural food of the future normal school teachers, but they are doing almost nothing on the practical side. Fontenay-aux- Roses demands of each pupil about two weeks of practice teaching, but no amount of work of this nature will take the place of a few years’ service in actual struggle with the real problems of school teaching and administration. No one but a teacher is fitted to become a teacher of teach- ers. The worth of these two higher schools would be con- siderably increased if five years in elementary school work were demanded of all their pupils either before entering the school or immediately after graduation. As a matter of fact, the majority of the candidates for Saint-Cloud have al- ready been primary school teachers, but the authorities make no special effort to increase the number. Even under the present conditions these young and inexperienced normal pro- fessors might improve their practical value by using the école annexe as a laboratory for experimental work on their own account. Indeed, it is not a bad idea for an old normal teacher to get back into active work occasionally. It is a good anti- dote for professional fossilization. 226 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE The chief difficulty with the practice teaching in all the nor- mal schools in France as almost everywhere else, is to find time for enough of this work. M. Bayet, the former Director of Primary Education thus signalizes this want: “In our normal schools, we should . . . strengthen still more the profes- sional apprenticeship; in a word, we should strive first of all to produce educators.” * When one contends that the amount of practical work is insufficient, he is immediately confronted with the statement that after all, the normal schools do not pretend to send out experienced teachers but merely to give their students a broad intellectual foundation upon which they may build. It is further pointed out that they cannot become full fledged teachers until, after two years’ experience, they gain the certificat d’aptitude pédagogique. While this is the natural method of procedure, and each candidate must be at least twenty years of age,” inasmuch as boys may count all the time spent at the normal school after eighteen and girls after seventeen as a part of their stage, it sometimes happens that the normal pupils gain this certificate immediately after leaving the normal school. In fact, some of the heads of the schools are in favor of spending the first two years of the course in direct preparation for the brevet supérieur? and de- voting the last year almost exclusively to work leading to the certificat. In some respects this would be rather unfortunate, for the latter would then be, for the normal students at least and so for about two thirds of the teaching force, a mere academic diploma rather than a certificate of professional ability. The two brevets are very closely related to the work of the teacher and the normal school, for the brevet élémentaire is absolutely required of every teacher in the ele- mentary schools and is a sine qua non for all candidates presenting themselves for the entrance examinations The Diplomas 1 Bayet, Rapport 4 M. le Ministre de l'Instruction Publique, 1900, p. xiv. 2 Décret, June 3, 1902; Bull. Adm., LXXI, p. 865. 3 This is one of the provisions of the reform in the normal school course of August 4, 1905. Cf. infra; also supra, p. 188, note. ‘THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 227 to the normal schools, while the brevet supérieur, until 1906 practically the final examination for the normal course, will henceforth be taken at the end of the second year in the school and be based upon the work of the first two years of the normal school. The candidates for these two brevets must be respectively sixteen and eighteen years old on October first of the year in which they present themselves,’ although the age requirement for the first may be waived in the case of all holders of the higher primary certificate. Furthermore the possession of the elementary is demanded of all candi- dates for the higher diploma. These examinations are held twice each year before commissions of at least seven members who are appointed by the rector, and presided over by the academy inspector. The commission ? for the elementary diploma must include two primary inspectors, a present or past teacher in private schools, a regular teacher in a normal or a higher primary school, and two teachers in the public primary schools. For the higher diploma, the commission must include a primary inspector, the director or the directress of the normal school, two regular teachers in a normal or a higher primary school (one representing the arts and one the sciences) and a public school teacher who holds the higher diploma. The other members are chosen from the present or past representatives of the public educational service, primary, secondary or higher. The examination questions for the brevet élémentaire are divided into three series: * I. (1) About a page of dictation. Several - questions tending to show whether or not the ees pupil has grasped the idea in this extract ;* (one P half hour allowed for rereading and for answering questions) ; 1 Décret, Jan. 15, 1894, Art. 107, Gr. VI, p. 541. 2 Décret, Aug. 4, 1905; Bull. Adm., LXXVIII, pp. 515-516. To take effect in 1906. ; 3 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts. 145-149, as subsequently modified by the arrétés of Jan. 20, 1897, and Dec. 9, 1901, Gr. V, pp. 801-802; VI, pp. 747- 748; Bull. Adm., LXX, pp. 997-998. oa 4 These questions are an important modification introduced about four years ago. Arrété, Dec. 9, 1901; Bull. Adm., LXX, p. 997. 228 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE (2) French composition (two hours) ; (3) An arithmetical question on the metric system and a prob- lem to be solved and analyzed (two hours). II. (1) Writing examination, including three different styles of letters, corresponding roughly to our Spencerian, vertical, and the so-called natural form. The first of these appears in three different sizes of letters (three quarters of an hour) ; (2) Free hand drawing from some simple object in common use—plan, cross section, and elevation for the boys, and outline for the girls (one and one half hours in the former case and one hour in the latter) ; (3) Elementary gymnastics from the lower school program for the boys (ten minutes), and needle work for the girls (one hour). III. Oral examinations (not more than ten minutes on each of the following groups) : (1) Reading and explanation of text; (2) Questions in arithmetic and the metric system; (3) Questions on the elements of national history and civics, also on the geography of France with blackboard map drawing; (4) Questions and elementary exercises in solfeggio; (5) Questions on the most elementary notions of physics, chemistry, natural science, and for the boys, on the principles of agricultural instruction. Each of these groups of examinations is marked on a scale of twenty, except the gymnastics of the second series and the music of the third, where ten is the maximum. The candi- date must receive at least half the maximum mark in each series in order to be admitted to the next, but zero in any subject means exclusion. In practice the examination ex- tends over a period of three days. Even then this entails an enormous amount of work on the examiners, for each paper must be passed on by at least two readers. The work is much facilitated by the small number of questions in each subject. This is possible because the applicants have all followed the same program and there are not, as with us, a number of different standards to satisfy. The number of failures in the second and third series is comparatively small, being under THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 229 ten per cent of the total number of candidates, or less than one fifth of all those rejected. In these examinations of the last few years, the girls have succeeded rather better than the boys. The following table shows the results of the two examinations held each year for the years 1899-1904." Elementary Diploma.—Per cent of Successful Candidates. 1899. 1900. 190}. 1902. 1903. 1904. Ist. | 2d. fist.| 2d. prst.! 2d. frst.| 2d. gist.| 2d. fist. | ad. Boys. .. ++ | §1 | 494 54 | 464 56! so} 54 | So 54 | 43 | 52 | 41 Girls... . . 60} 48 $551 534501 54958 | 48453 | 42] 53 | 47 The questions for all the subjects of the first and second series are chosen by the academy inspector, sent by him under seal to the chairman of the examination board and opened by the latter in the presence of the Marking candidates, but the character of the oral ex- li amination naturally depends upon the individuality of the examiners. The board sitting in committee of the whole de- termines the scale of marking in the various subjects, and de- cides upon what shall constitute “an error.” This is a wise provision for it enables the committee to apply some correct- ive measures if, as sometimes happens, the academy inspect- or’s questions are found to be over severe. In spite of oc- casional assertions to the contrary, these examinations are absolutely fairly administered, for in the written part the pupil writes his name on one ana ie corner of the paper, folds it over and seals it. enna as 4 This seal is in no case broken until after the paper has been read and marked. For the oral questions, the examination board breaks up into commissions of two or more members each and these divide the various subjects among them. This not only relieves the strain on the examiner but also tends to minimize the personal equation, for every mark is thus made up from the combined judgment of at least two members. 1 Bull, Adm., LXVIII, p. 1093; LXXII, p. 1164; LX XVI, p. 1004. 230 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Despite the fact that roughly speaking only about one half the candidates are successful, the examination does not seem very severe, especially when one remembers Importance that the possession of the brevet élémentaire is cea the minimum qualification demanded by th Diploma 'y e State for entering the teaching profession. It is only fair to add, however, that many of the departments are in a position to demand much more than this, but after read- ing some of the questions asked at these examinations one is satisfied that the statement that to-day practically every teacher in France holds this elementary diploma is not of so much im- portance after all." It should be a much prouder boast that between sixty and seventy per cent of the teachers entering the teaching profession each year have had a normal school training. The examination for the brevet supérieur, until now prac- tically the leaving examination of the normal schools, will after ; 1905 come at the end of the second year and be mae based upon the work of the first two years of st -«r the school course. Students will be required to pass this examination as a basis of promotion to the third class. It should be noted, however, that the normal teachers have nothing whatever to do with setting the papers. These as well as those in all the other examinations of the primary school system are under the direct control of the central au- thorities as represented by the academy inspector. Each can- didate for the higher diploma must be at least eighteen years of age, and must already hold the elementary diploma.” These examinations are held twice yearly, the first near the close of the academic year, and the second not long after the re-entry in the fall, before commissions chosen under exactly the same conditions as those for the elementary diploma. A slight modification in favor of the candidates has only recently been introduced. By this each one may submit at the time of the examination his reports for the previous year signed by the ‘For sample examination questions, see Appendix E. 2 Décret, Jan. 15, 1894, Art. 107, Gr. VI, p. 541. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 231 head of the school in which he received his preparation. In case the pupil is slightly below the minimum standard in either part of the examination, a very good record here may help him through.* The examination * consists of two series, the first written and the second oral: * I. (1) A paper composed of two questions: the first on arith- metic (including for the boys only, geometry in its practical applications) ; the second on physics and natural science, with their common applications to hygiene, industry, agriculture and horticulture (four hours for the two parts) ; (2) French composition on a subject from literature or ethics (three hhours) ; 1 Arrété, Dec. 9, 1901, Art. 141; Bull. Adm., LXX, p. 9096. 2 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts. 150-153, as modified by the arrétés of Jan. 24, 1896, July 31, 1897, Dec. 9, 1901, and May 10, 1904, Gr. V, pp. 802-804; VI, pp. 677, 781-782; Bull. Adm. LXX, p. 996; LXXV, pp. 669-671. 3 The new requirements for the examination, which may be followed or not at the candidate’s option during 1906 and 1907, but become obligatory in 1908, modify the existing program somewhat. The drawing is trans- ferred from the first part to the second. The mathematics for the boys in the first part consists of a practical problem in arithmetic or geometry and one theoretical question; for the girls, a problem and a question on arith- metical theory. The chamges in the second part of the examination are so general that it seems best to give them in full: I. Oral questions on (a) Psychology, ethics and their applications to education. (b) The essential facts of French history, and its relations with general history since 1492. (c) Geography of France, with map drawing on the blackboard, to- gether with the facts of general geography. (d) Arithmetic, oral and written, with algebra and geometry for the Doys. (e) Physics, chemistry, and natural history, with their applications. II. Reading and explanation of a seléction in French taken from a list of authors drawn up every three years by the Minister. Fifteen minutes are allowed for preparation. Grammatical questions. III. Reading aloud and rapid translation, after a quarter of an hour for preparation, of an easy selection from a modern language. Simple conver- sation in the foreign language on the text read. IV. Drawing from a model in relief (three hours). V. Examination in music: musical dictation, followed by simple theoret- ical questions on the text dictated. Arrété, Aug. 4, 1905; Bull. Adm. LXXVIII, pp. 518-519. 232 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE (3) Drawing from a model in relief (three hours) ; (4) Modern languages‘ (English, German, Spanish, Italian or Arabic); written questions based upon the modern language programs of the normal schools; written replies also in the for- eign language; use of the dictionary allowed (two hours) ; II. The oral examinations of this series are divided into seven groups: (1) Morale and education ; (2) French, including the reading and explanation of some text taken from a list of authors decreed by the Minister every three years,? and questions on literary history of the authors of the last four centuries; (3) The most important characters and the essential facts of general history and the history of France, with special refer- ence to modern times: that is, since 1453; (4) The geography of France including map drawing, to- gether with general geographical principles ; (5) Arithmetic in its practical applications, book-keeping (and for the boys only, elementary principles of algebra, geometry, surveying and leveling) ; (6) Principles of physics, chemistry and natural history (and for boys only, agriculture and horticulture) ; (7) a. Reading aloud with rapid translation, after a quarter of an hour for preparation, of an easy selection from the language chosen by the candidate (English, German, Italian, Spanish or Arabic). The first part of the examination, devoted chiefly to the pronunciation, accent, and readiness in reading, is marked on a scale of ten; b. Simple conversation in the foreign language on the text read. The candidate is invited to summarize or to reproduce the substance of the passage. Grammar questions, together with 1 This makes an advance over the regulations of January, 1887, for at that time the examination included only a short translation into French with the aid of a dictionary, and was allowed only half as much time. (Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 151, Gr. V, p. 803). At that date modern lan- guage study had only just been made obligatory in the normal schools. The conversation in the foreign language of both the first and the second part were added in 1904. Arrété, May 10, 1904; Bull. Adm., LXXV., pp. 670-671. To take effect in 1905. 2The similarity between this method of procedure and that of our col- lege entrance examinations in English will readily be noticed. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 233 the interpretation of words and phrases found therein. This second part is likewise marked on a scale of ten. Each of these oral examinations is limited to fifteen minutes. The same general conditions as to marking, failure and admissibility to the second series prevail here as in the examinia- tion for the elementary diploma, but by a recent regulation, a candidate that fails on the oral examination may try this part again at the next session without being obliged to repeat the first series. The whole examination continues at least three days, for the French and the science of the first series cannot both come the same day. The following table shows the results of the two examina- tions held each year for the years 1899-1904: Higher Diploma.—Per cent of Successful Candidates.” 1899. 1900. Igor. 1902. 1903. 1904. ; ! Ist. | 2d. frst. ad, fist. ad. fist.| 2d. Hist. ad. brst. ad. (sooner pe eee Boys. ....-. 68 | 42 § 68 | 44 f 73 | 384-74 | 42 # 60 | 43 § 69 | 40 Girls. ... . | 60] 43 § 62 | 46 f 62 | 42 § 50 | 53 | 60 | 46 ¥ 61 | so The girls no longer maintain the general superiority that they showed in the examination for the elementary diploma. The figures for the first session each year are considerably higher than the corresponding ones of the second session. This shows conclusively what one might naturally expect—the superiority of the normal school pupils over the other candi- dates, for inasmuch as these former are obliged to present themselves for this examination, they are all found at the first session which comes toward the end of the school year. In its legal importance, the brevet supérieur does not com- pare with either the elementary diploma which precedes or the certificat d’aptitude pédagogique which follows, these two being the minimum quali- Sw fications for appointment, the former aS = pjipioma stagiaire and the latter as titulatre. The only 1 Arrété, Dec. 9, 1901, Art. 150; Bull. Adm., LXX, p. 996. 2 Bull. Adm., LXVIII, p. 1093; LXXII, p. 1164; LXXVI, p. 1005. 234 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE positions where the higher diploma is actually demanded * are as a minimum requirement for the principal of a primary school which has a cours complémentaire attached, as well as for the ordinary teachers in this latter school and in the higher pri- mary schools.* Nevertheless in actual practice in most of the departments, it is possible for the academy inspector to insist on a higher standard for his primary school teachers than the elementary diploma, for he will naturally make his appoint- ments from the holders of the higher diploma if there are such. It would be a great step forward if this practical con- dition in many of the departments could only be made the ac- tual condition in all, and this higher diploma be made the minimum requirement for entering the teaching profession. A mere casual glance at the subject matter of the two examina- tions will show what this would mean, for, while the stand- ard of the elementary examination is disappointingly low, the range of the higher betokens an introduction at least to a liberal education. The examination for the certificat d’aptitude pédagogique, though less comprehensive than for the elementary and higher diplomas, is naturally far more important, for Certificat this definitely determines whether or not the Boe ae stagiawe can become a full-fledged teacher. All candidates must be at least twenty years of age, must hold the elementary diploma and must have had at least two years of practical teaching experience. Normal school pupils, however, may count for this last requirement the time spent at the normal schools after eighteen years of age.’ The examination commission, appointed by the rector and presided over by the academy inspector, consists of at least ten members. These are chosen from among the primary in- spectors, the directors and professors of the normal and higher 1Cf. the new regulation requiring this as the basis of promotion to the third class of the normal school. Décret, Aug. 4, 1905, Art. 2; Bull. Adm., LXXVIII, p. 520. 2 Décret, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts. 31-32, Gr. V, p. 727. 3 Décret, June 3, 1902; Bull. Adm., LXXI, p. 865. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 235 primary schools, and the regular teachers of the department. The commission holds only one session a year, at a date, for the written examination, fixed by the academy inspector some- time in February. This takes place in the chef-lieu of each arrondissement under the direction of the primary inspector. The practical examination must take place some time before December first of the same year. The examination consists of three series: written, prac- tical, and oral.* The written is an elementary discussion of some question pertaining to instruction or education (three hours). In the practical test the candidate teaches a class, preferably his own, for at least three hours. In the case of women teachers, this takes place in either an école maternelle or an ordinary girls’ school, but this certificate obviously carries the title of titulaire only in the grade of school where the exam- ination is passed. The examining board in this case is a sub- commission designated by the academy inspector, and consist- ing of a primary inspector and two other members. The oral examination for the candidates that have passed successfully the other two series takes place before the whole commission. There are two parts to this: first, in valuing the regular monthly note-books; and second, in questions bearing directly on the work of the second part of the test or on practical peda- gogy (not more than twenty minutes for this whole third series). Each of these series is marked on a scale of twenty, and the candidate must receive at least ten in each, in order to be eligible for the following series. In case of failure in the second or third series, success in the first will be held over until the following session. On passing this triple ordeal (and it is by no means a simple matter, for one reads of can- didates that have presented themselves eight times before suc- ceeding’)? the teacher is “admitted” but is not definitely placed on the list of fitwlaires unless there is a vacancy. 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Arts. 154-164, as modified by thearrétes of July 24, 1888, July 27, 1893, and Dec. 9, 1901, Gr. V, pp. 804-806; VI, pp. I10, 517-518; Bull. Adm., LXX, p. 995. 2 Brereton, Rural Schools of Northwest France, p. 46. 236 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE The following table shows the results of the examination for the years 1899-1904: Certificat a’ Aptitude Pédagogique.—FPer cent of Successful Candidates.1 3 1899. 1900. Igot. | 1902. | 1903. 1904. Men... . 1... 45 43 45 57 54 47 Women...... 48 47 49 58 52 48 Such are the professional examinations that confront the ordinary teacher of the French primary schools—a remark- ably well-organized and well-administered sys- tem of tests. The prevailing division into written and oral examinations is an arrange- ment that to us in America is comparatively unknown. It certainly gives the examiners an opportunity to study the working of the candidate’s mind in a way that a written test never allows, but in the case of unskilful questioners, it is most trying for the nervous unfortunates. In the case of the professional examinations and the entrance examinations to the various schools, the ‘system would seem to have an immense advantage over our exclu- sively written tests, but in the leaving examination of the very elementary schools, it appears as rather a waste of time and energy, especially since it provides no opportunity for helping out a pupil that may have been unfortunate in the written test. Another point that has undoubtedly attracted at- tention is the small number of questions asked in each sub- ject at the written examination, one or at most two. This forms a striking contrast to many of our examination papers. This is one thing that makes possible the rapid correction of papers, for almost invariably these examinations are corrected the same day on which they are written, and the candidates usually know in the evening the result of the day’s trial. The number of candidates that have received the brevets General Characteristics 1 Bull. Adm., LXVIII, p. 1094; LXXII, p. 1168; LXXVI, p. 1005. THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 237 de capacité and the certiwicat d’aptitude pédagogique from 1893 to 1904 are as follows: * Brevet Brevet Certificat d’ Aptitude Meats Elémentaive. | Supérieur. Vidueogigue. 1893... 2 ee 14,771 3,440 3,731 1894. - 14,990 3,430 3,229 1895... +++: 15,433 3,586 3,057 1896... .--- 16,463 3,787 3,054 1897-- 2s ees 16,159 3,086 3,254 1898. . 17,025 3,659 3,321 1899. - 16, 3,713 3,279 1900...---- 17,010 3,620 3,150 WQOl. -- +e 18,509 3,835 3,500 1902... +--+ -- 19,208 4,329 8,904 1903.---:-- 20,399 4,505 3,863 1904. 20,850 4,989 4,089 1 For the years 1893-1897, cf. Organisation et Situation de l Enseigne- Since 1807, cf. the numbers of the Bulletin Ad- ment Primaire, p. 262. ministratif. CHAPTER XII Tue Primary HigHEer NorMAL SCHOOLS In 1879," a new law was passed requiring every department to provide for the training of its women as well as its men teachers either in schools of its own or in those supported in common by two departments. Four years were allowed for complying with this demand. When a similar law? was proposed the year before, only nineteen of the departments had girls’ normal schools, though the great majority of the others partly com- pensated for this want by the so-called normal courses. The conditions as regards the boys’ schools were practically re versed, for these were to be found in nearly all the depart- ments, but even thus compliance with the new law meant founding more than eighty new normal schools and supplying them with teachers. The first of these needs was merely a question of finance, but furnishing the teaching force was quite a different matter. The establishment of the primary higher normal school at Fontenay-aux-Roses was a partial attempt to solve the difficulty. Saint-Cloud followed soon after, and thus the State had completed its primary system. These two schools still remain unique in the annals of educational history. They have done a great work but their need and usefulness are not yet over, for they have to provide for the constant re- newal of the teaching force in the departmental normal schools. The school at Fontenay-aux-Roses was established July 13, 1880.% The first lessons of the initial term were held in the Purpose in Founding 1 Lot, Aug. 9, 1879, Gr. V, pp. 72-74. 2 Proposition presentée par M. Bert, Apr. 1, 1878, also accompanying statistical tables. Gr. IV, pp. 780, 864-876. 3 Décret, Gr. V, p. 201. 238 PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 239 departmental normal school at Paris, and it was not until the following November that the new enterprise was finally installed in its present home. The Fontenay- school is pleasantly situated in a charming eign valley about five or six miles ‘from Paris, and the installation of buildings and equipment is unquestionably the finest I found anywhere in France. The Minister thas always been very generous in gifts to the school, for on every hand one sees beautiful casts and costly pictures. For the first time, the pupils are treated like young women and not like school girls. They are left free to plan their time outside the class room as they see fit and are merely held responsible for accomplishing their work. During the noon hour and the after- noon recreation period, they are even allowed to leave the grounds and walk about the town or country, the only require- ment being that they sign the porter’s book and enter the time of leaving and returning. Each student has her own room where she may do as she pleases, decorate as suits her fancy and spend as much time as she likes. This would hardly be worthy of note were it not so entirely at variance with the rules and regulations that prevail in the lower normal schools. Not only are the pupils here under no expense while they are at the school, but each one receives two hundred francs per year from the State. In return they have to contract to serve at least ten years in the service of public instruction or in case of failure so to do, to reimburse the State for the expense of their living at the school. The school has at its disposal every other Sunday, a loge at the Comédie Frangaise, one of the thea- ters subsidized by the government, and, except for the times when questionable plays are being produced, this is regularly occupied by pupils or teachers. The hour after dinner every evening the girls spend to- gether in dancing or general social intercourse. They cer- tainly ought to enjoy their sojourn at the school, for all the en- vironment is favorable. There are, however, no social organi- zations among the pupils themselves. The teachers mingle Life at the School 240 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE with them somewhat, but even here apparently never let down the barriers that distinguish them from the student body. There are three general study rooms, one for the first and second classes in letters, one for the same two classes in science, and the third for all the last year pupils. Here they do most of their studying, but one finds the young women scattered about the ‘halls in winter or the gardens in summer busily poring over their books. The whole atmosphere of the place is quiet and restful, and one fails to notice any feeling of re- straint in the air. This general freedom and the early suc- cess of the work were due to Félix Pécaut, the practical found- er and first head of the institution. There has always been a directress over the school, but until the year after M. Pécaut retired in 1896, she had no responsibility for the direction of studies. M. Pécaut’s deep philosophical insight into pedagogi- cal problems and his broad sympathy dominated the institution for so long that it has been very difficult to fill the gap caused by his retirement. Admission to the school is entirely by competitive examina- tion, the number of vacancies being determined each year by the Minister. Tio be eligible for this examina- tion, the pupil must be between nineteen and twenty-five years of age; must hold the brevet supérieur, one of the baccalauréats or the secondary diploma granted by girls’ schools, and have entered upon the ten years’ service agree- ment.*. Like the other examinations in France, this consists of two parts, a written and an oral, with some practical work in sewing, the first of these taking place in the chefs-leux of the various departments, and the second at the normal school itself. Ordinarily twice as many candidates are summoned to Paris as there are vacancies to fill, so the examination board has an opportunity to consider something more than mere knowledge in choosing the new pupils. In 1903, twenty out of the eighty-seven original candidates in letters were asked to come up for the oral examination. At present, these pupils seem to be coming in large num- 1 Arrété, Jan. 18, 1887, Art. 114, Gr. V, p. 794. Admission PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 241 bers from the secondary schools, whereas when Fontenay was first started the majority was made up of normal school teach- ers, who found this an easy road to a directorship, or of young women already teaching in the elementary schools. At that time, while there were three Character classes at the school, the third was primarily a c ca training for normal school directresses, and by rue far the great majority of the heads of the girls’ normal schools in France to-day are former pupils of that class. At the pres- ent time, there is still a third year, but since 1896 it has formed an integral part of the regular course. The whole series of entrance examinations is based upon the subject matter of the lower normal schools and covers practically the same ground as that for the brevet supérieur. There is this difference, however, that the pupils have now begun to specialize and their work is entirely devoted to let- ters or to science. Both in the entrance examinations and in the work of the school, the classes in peda- gogy, ethics and modern languages are com- mon to the two divisions. The written ex- aminations for the candidates in letters include: (1) literature or grammar; (2) pedagogy or ethics; (3) history and geog- raphy; and (4) a modern language: for the candidates in science: (1) mathematics; (2) physics, chemistry and natural sciences; (3) mechanical and free hand drawing; (4) a mod- ern language;* and (5) pedagogy or ethics.? The modern language paper, prepared with the help of the dictionary, is allowed two hours and each of the others four. These papers are then all sent on to Paris to be judged by the special commission appointed by the Minister for that purpose, and consisting chiefly of the professors at the school. Written Examination 1The regulation of Jan., 1887, which gave the pupil a choice between English and German has since been modified to include as well Italian, Spanish and Arabic. Arrété, Jan. 9, 1805, Art. 118, Gr. VI, p. 590. Slightly modified by Arrété, May 10, 1904. Bull. Adm., LXXV, p. 668. 2 The scope of these examinations will readily be found by referring to the examinations for the brevet supérieur, Appendix F. 242 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE The best of the writers are invited to Fontenay for the final test. The candidates come from all over France and even from Algeria, but they have to bear their entire traveling ex- . penses. During the three or four days of the examinations, they live at the school, but still at their own expense—a merely nominal sum, however, about three francs per day. This financial arrangement may seem a little severe, for half of those called to Paris are sure to be disappointed. The prize is worth striving for, nevertheless, for the successful young women are practically sure of lucrative and honorable posi- tions all their lives with retirement pensions at fifty-five years ofage. At all events, there is no dearth of candidates. The oral examination is less comprehensive though fully as important. For the candidates in letters it consists in: (1) presentation of a topic in grammar, liter- ature, history or geography; (2) reading and explanation of a text chosen from the list of authors for the brevet supérieur; and (3) a. reading and rapid translation of a selection (English, German, Italian, Spanish or Arabic) taken from one of the books on the list drawn up every three years by the Minister of Public Instruc- tion; b. a conversation in the foreign language; the candi- date is invited to summarize or to reproduce the substance of the assigned text.* For the science candidates, this examination includes: (1) mathematics; (2) physics, chemistry or natural sciences; and (3) a modern language. These questions are made out by the commission and are assigned to the pupils by lot, an hour being given them (except for the modern language) to sit down quietly and think over not only the substance but also the form of the response. During this time, they may make any notes or drafts they choose which they are perfectly free to use in their answers. Indeed, this part of the examination takes the form of an impromptu lec- ture with the examining board as audience. The other pupils 1 Arrété, May 10, 1904. Bull. Adm., LXXV, p. 669. (To take effect in 1905.) Oral Examination PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 243 often file in quietly to listen to their less fortunate companions. After the candidate has finished, the committee usually ask a few questions either on the subject under consideration or some allied branch. In the second part of the science examination above, the examiners have an opportunity to touch lightly upon the other subjects than the one specifically treated, the student’s answer often suggesting lines of questioning to be pursued. There is furthermore a practical test in sewing which is also common to the two sections. The forty-eight pupils* at Fontenay in 1903 were divided evenly between letters and science. The accompanying daily programs will show that in their work at the school they follow the general lines indicated by their entrance examinations, for within these larger limits the graduates are all specialists. The number of subjects here is as small as that in the departmental normal schools is cor- respondingly large. The courses are carried on in rather a peculiar way, for each subject is in charge of a professor, who comes out from Paris about once a week, while there is a resident assistant or tutor to conduct the work during the other meetings of the class. These professors, who by the way are nearly all men, together with their fellows at Saint-Cloud are among the best men to be found in their subjects in the field of secondary and higher education. The assistants, invariably women, are chosen from the ablest teachers of the departmental normal schools, though without any other special training. These regular professors are all specialists of the very first rank and are in a position to give the pupils an orientation and a breadth of real culture that is possible in no other school of the primary system save at Saint-Cloud. Instruction Character of the Teachers 1The budget of 1903 provided for an increase of ten in the number of these students in order to furnish the additional teachers required by the departmental normal schools in consequence of the Jaw of laicization of 1902. (Budget du Ministére de Instruction Publique, 1903, p. 36.) DAILY PROGRAM OF THE PR IMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOL, FONTENAY-AUX-ROSES.? Monpay. TuEspay. Year.... I. II. III. II. III. Letters. 9% tor — 9% to 11% Lecture on ethical or pedagogical questions. Literature and Letters and science. French Com- hosition: 134 to 344 314 to 434 134 to 234 234 to 334 54 to 634 fodern Modern and Elocution. Elocution. Geography. history. contemporary history. - 3% to 514 Geography. Two classes together. Sctence. 0% to xx 9% Lecture on ethical or pedagogical questions. Mathematics. Letters and science. (Each class on alternate weeks.) 34 3% 4 1% Geology. Zodlogy. Geology. Elocution. a 3% Cosmography. Mathematics. WEDNESDAY. THURSDAY. Vear.... I. II. Ill. I. Il. Ill. Letters. 8 tog g to 10 ro to Ir Modern Modern Modern languages. languages. languages. ir to 114 104 to Ir Gymnastics. Gymnastics. 1% to 344 13 to 314 13% to 314 eee ae Cutting and fitting (every two weeks). (every two (every two weeks). Elective. Three classes together. weeks). Two classes together. 334 to 544 3 5% to 7 Psychology. Music. Three classes together. Sctence. 834 834 104 Zodlogy. Laboratory Modern Gymnastics. (every two weeks). languages. at Gymnastics. 1% 3 Physics. Two classes together. ‘4a Cutting and fitting (every two weeks). ‘hree classes together. 3% 5% Psychology. Music. Three classes together. Fripay. SaTurpay. Year.... I. Il. III. I, Il. Ill. Letters. 9% to 114 93 to 11% iterature iterature and French and French composition. composition. 3% to 534 6 to 7% ae Ancient and Two classes together. mediaeval history. - . sre Setvence. 9t4 7% Botany. Chemistry. Two classes together. Alternately for each of the three classes. ; 14 . 1% Literature and French composi- Drawing. tion. Two classes together. 3% Ethics. Three classes together. Two classes together. 244 1 Organisation et Situation de l’ Enseignement Primatre, pp. 472-473-' PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 245 The classes ordinarily last for an hour and a half, the first thirty or forty minutes being occupied by one of the pupils in presenting a given subject previously assigned for her study, subsequently criticized by her classmates and then by the professor, the remainder of the time being occupied with the lecture proper. This is certainly most admirable practice work, for, be it remembered, these are the very students that are to become the professors of the lower normal schools. The classes in the school are so small, only eight or ten pupils, that each one has several opportunities in the course of the year to lecture just as she will have to do later before pupils of her own. The other meetings of the class, in charge of the tutors, are less formal and give more opportunity for personal help. This combination is said to give very satisfactory results, for the resident teachers can come into close touch with the individual pupils and can thus min- ister to their several wants. A very important feature of the work at Fontenay is the general assembly on Monday mornings. At this time the stu- dents are addressed by some of the most prominent educa- tional and literary people of all France. It was through these talks that M. Pécaut was able to exert such a profound and lasting influence upon the minds of his teachers and his stu- dents. These Monday morning lectures are chiefly confined to discussions of large ethical or pedagogical questions of cur- rent interest and form a part of the required work of all the students. A part of the time allotted to psychology is devoted to a systematic study of the history of education, the subject be- ing carefully developed from the time of Xeno- phon down to the present day, treated, how- ever, from the point of view of educational theory rather than of educational practice. It is decidedly un- fortunate that so much of the history of education to-day is built upon that foundation. The term cultural may fairly denominate the work at Fontenay, and the criticisms of subject matter or method of Method History of Education 246 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE presentation of the student’s reports are entirely from the ideal rather than the practical standard. In spite of the fact that the future pupils of these students will be normal school young women, yet it is somewhat difficult to understand how they can train others to be effective teachers unless they themselves are practical teachers. This becomes all the more striking when one considers that the greater part of these students come from secondary schools and yet are destined to become the teachers of the primary normal schools. For about two weeks, the second year pupils are sent to do regular practice teaching either in a communal school at Fontenay or in one of the Paris schools. The student is given over to the charge of the di- rectress and is required to spend all her time at the school. She may be kept in one class throughout the period or sent around to various classes, but at all events she is supposed to become thoroughly conversant with all the work of the school in its various aspects. The assistants at the normal school as well as the primary inspector attend as many of her classes as they can and help her in every possible way. As has already been pointed out, however, this is entirely too superficial a way for the future normal school teachers of France to get their practical knowledge of the primary schools; and here is one condition that will militate seriously against the future usefulness of the school, for these two weeks may be the only time that many of these teachers will ever spend in a primary school. At the close of the three years’ course, the pupils come up for the examination for the certificat d’aptitude au professorat des écoles normales, or special certificate for Normal teaching in the normal schools. Comparatively ee few of the pupils at Fontenay or Saint-Cloud Certificate fail in these examinations, and the few that are so unfortunate usually receive provisional appointments to nor- mal school positions which are made permanent as soon as this condition, so to speak, is passed off. Fontenay is still the training school for the directresses of the normal schools, Practice Teaching PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 247 though Saint-Cloud does not now and never has played exactly the same role for the boys’ schools. As has just been pointed out, Saint-Cloud thas had a some what different mission to perform than has Fontenay, despite the fact that both were started about the same time and under the influence of the same gen- eral spirit. The normal school at Saint-Cloud was formally organized December 30, 1882,* although previous to that time there had been two normal courses. The first, for a few months at the end of the school year 1880-1881,? was estab- lished to fit the young adjunct teachers then in the normal schools for the certificate for the professorship. This had succeeded so well that the following school year another course was organized to continue through- out the year. The students here were recruited by competitive examination, whereas on the former occasion they had been selected by the rectors. During the second semester, the school, which up to that time had been located at Sévres, was moved to its present quarters in a building connected with the old palace at Saint-Cloud. Here the school occupies a com- manding site on a hillside rising abruptly from the Seine, with Paris lying across the plain which stretches away toward the east. In the following December, the decree above referred to was promulgated, and the present school formally began its existence under practically the same régime as to-day. M. Jacoulet, then a general inspector, was the first head of the school, and he was succeeded only about six years ago by the present director, M. Pierre, who is also a general inspector. The course here is only two years as against three years at Fontenay. The students are about evenly divided between the sections in letters and science, having numbered twenty and Saint-Cloud Its Precursors 1 Décret, Dec. 30, 1882, Gr. V, p. 498. 2 Organized by arrété of Mar. 9, 1881, Bull. Adm., XXIV, p. 513. 8 The special normal school created by the decree of Jan. 1, 1884 for the preparation of manual training teachers was amalgamated in the follow- ing September with the school at Saint-Cloud. Since that date, then, the students with particular tendencies toward manual work have been enrolled among the pupils of the science department. 248 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE eighteen respectively for the year 1902-1903. As at Fon- tenay, not only is the school absolutely free, but the State pays each student two hundred and forty francs per year. The conditions for entrance are very similar to those of the sister school, the char- acter of the candidates, however, being quite different. While at Fontenay, the majority of the students come from second- ary schools, at Saint-Cloud a very large per cent come from primary schools. The proportion of secondary school students is increasing slightly. These latter are admittedly the better prepared to take the entrance examinations, but they are not so well fitted for their future work. In contrast to Fontenay, Saint-Cloud does not now and never has attempted primarily to train its students to be heads of normal schools. To-day, even more than ever, the directors of the boys’ normal schools are recruited from among the primary inspectors, and it is practically obligatory to pass at least five years in the inspector- ate in order to become eligible for the directorship. There is no similar source of supply available in the case of the girls’ schools, for at this moment there are only three women pri- mary inspectors in all France, and two of these are in the de partment of the Seine. So Fontenay is likely to continue to be the training school for the heads of the girls’ normal schools. As to the previous life of the students at Saint-Cloud—some come directly from secondary schools, some have been teach- ers in active service and have been hard at work preparing themselves for the entrance examinations, and still others have come from departmental normal schools that have added a fourth year to their course expressly to prepare young men for Saint-Cloud. This extra. year is found at Beauvais, Gre- noble, Lyon and Nancy. What has already been said about the admission to the school at Fontenay-aux-Roses applies equally well to Saint- Cloud, the chief difference being in the manual work. In the practical test, the candidates in the science department are required to make a model in plaster, wood or iron instead of the sewing required of the girls. Contrast with Fontenay Admission PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 249 The course at Saint-Cloud is specialization of a very de- cided type, the students in letters being restricted to purely literary subjects, and those in science to purely scientific subjects. French, modern languages, ethics and psychology, and school administration, however, are common to both sections. The fact that one finds here both English and German—and in some years, Italian, Spanish and even Arabic—does not indicate that more than one modern language is prescribed for any one pupil. Each student pur- sues here the particular language that he presented for admis- sion. Inasmuch as the students come from all over France— and in fact, even foreigners are received here under some con- ditions—one is likely to find any of the modern languages taught in the French schools. There are regular classes in English and German, but in case any of the other three is de- sired, the Ministry provides a teacher for that language, and the student is enabled to continue his study. At the end of the course, there are three or four foreign scholarships, awarded after examination, available for further study in Eng- land or Germany. Each of these grants a year’s residence abroad, and at the end of that time the holder is able to return to France with a magnificent preparation for modern language teaching. The course in manual work is very well organized, and is probably obtaining better results than any other school in France except the special technical schools, wdansat nee which are outside the jurisdiction of the Min- istry of Public Instruction. There is a complete installation of steam power here—being one of the two instances that I found in the public primary school system. The manual work includes five branches: forging, joinery, wood turning, iron turning and carpentry. The subjects are all interrelated, and the correlation with physics and chemistry is constantly emphasized. Two periods of an hour and a half each are devoted to the shop work. Much importance is attached to synthetic construction, and every class works together in mak- ing some elaborate piece either in wood or iron. Course DAILY PROGRAM OF THE PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOL, SAINT-CLOUD,* Monpay. TuEspay. Vear ......1. II. I. II. Letters. 8h 10g Modern history. History of French literature.” ug 3 to 6 Free-hand drawing.? Singing.? Sctence. 10% 8% Literature and French composition.* Chemistry. 1% 1% Free-hand drawing.” Physics.? I, x 4 Question period.? Question period.” WEDNESDAY. THURSDAY. Year .....I. II. I. II. Letters. 844 8% Contemporary history. Grammar. 8% 10% 104 Geography. Political economy. Modern history. 1% 6. Ancient literature or reading and recitation.? Ancient history. 5 School administration.” Sctence. 8% 8% Physics.” Chemistry.” 10l4g Political economy. 124 1236 Manual work. 1% 2% 7 Manual work, 3 Mathematics. Mechanical drawing. \y 3 4 . Mathemsncs: ‘ Mechanical drawing. School administration.” FRipay. SATURDAY. Year ......1, Il. Il. Letters. % French composition. 10% French composition. 10% Ethics and psychology. 1% 2% ol Geography. Ethics and psychology. | Modern languages. 4h Modern languages. Sczence. 8h 8%, Natural history.” Natural history.” 104 Ethics and psychology. 12% 124% 12% 12g Modeling and Manual work. Manual work. Modeling and stereotomy. stereotomy. 2% 2% Modern languages. Topography. 44% 44 Modern languages. Question period.? Each lesson lasts 134 hours. + Organisation et Situation de l'’ Enseignement Primatre, pp. 474-475. 2 Common to both classes. 250 PRIMARY HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS 251 No course is outlined for the school. The Minister has gathered here a group of the best teachers he can find, each one a master in his own subject, and he leaves them to plan their own work. These men are all from secondary or higher institutions. One does not find the complete system of tutors here that prevails at Fontenay, although there are three regular interrogateurs for some of the scientific subjects. On account of the method of admin- istration, the faculty is very large in proportion to the number of students, numbering (in 1903) twenty, aside from the above-mentioned interrogateurs. These are all non-residents. At the school there are only the director, the surveillant- général or house master, and a bursar-steward. The students enjoy almost complete freedom and are even less restricted than the pupils at Fontenay. Their quarters are not nearly so attractive, however, for the large spacious rooms of the old chateau which the school occupies are rather cold and cheerless. The sole means of recreation is apparently confined to walking through the grounds of the neighboring national park. Since its foundation in 1882, the school has received nearly five hundred pupils, aside from the foreigners that have been in attendance. The constancy of their purpose is attested by the fact that up to 1899—the last year for which statistics are available — only one had left the field of education. On leaving Saint-Cloud the pupils come up for the examination for the certificate which allows them to teach in the normal schools, and practically every one passes this. Then they are sent to the various nor- mal schools where vacancies exist. In case there are not enough positions for all the members of the leaving class, they may be assigned to an école primaire supérieure. This is es- pecially true of the science section, and one finds quite a num- ber of former Saint-Cloud pupils at the various higher pri- mary schools all over the country. Formerly some of the The Faculty Student Life Destination of the Pupils 1 Organisation et Situation de VEnseignement Primaire, p. 477. 252 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE graduates received appointments as directors of normal schools immediately on leaving the school, but of late years it has been customary to draw upon the primary inspectors to fill these positions. An appreciable number of the students enter the primary inspectorate, and a small number find their way into secondary education, though almost invariably as modern language teachers. The two schools at Fontenay-aux-Roses and Saint-Cloud are the only institutions of the primary system that are sup- ported exclusively by the State. In the lower and higher primary schools, the government is responsible only for the salaries, the maintenance of the build- ings falling upon the communities. In the case of the normal schools, the departments erect and maintain the buildings, while the State pays the teachers’ salaries and the living ex- penses of the pupils. At these two higher primary normal schools, however, the entire burden falls on the general gov- ernment. The budget for 1905 amounted to upwards of 300,000 francs and was apportioned as follows: * Expenses FonTENAY-AUX-ROSES. Francs. Salaries of teaching force............... 00000. 83,000 Food, maintenance of buildings, supplies, etc..... 89,000 172,000 Satnt-Cioup. Salaries of teaching force.................0.00 89,000 Food, maintenance of buildings, supplies, etc..... 58,500 143,500 315,500 1 Budget, 1905. Lot, Apr. 22, 1905. Bull. Adm., LXXVII, p. 543. CHAPTER XIII ConcLusion. MEAsuRES oF EFFICIENCY In the preceding pages we have traced rather carefully the ramifications of the French primary school system. We have followed its vicissitudes from its inception; we have seen it steadily advancing, naturally not without its temporary retro- gressions, until it stands to-day more effective than ever be- fore, the type of a highly centralized system of education. We may not agree with all that it is, nor even perhaps all that it stands for, but this much we must admit—its efficiency for the people of France, and in the long run this national efficiency is the criterion by which we must measure the worth of an educational institution. In these present days of sentimental- ism, we are perhaps too prone to avoid the terms utility and utilitarian, but in the last analysis this in its broadest and best sense is what counts; whatever is useful persists, and what- ever is not of positive service passes away. So in appreciat- ing the worth of the French system of schools, we must con- sider this one question: Does it work? And really the French primary school system does seem to work uncommonly well. On the whole there is real harmony everywhere, not that the teachers are all satisfied and are not continually hoping for bet- ter salaries, for example, but in spite of material considerations of this nature which are bound to arise as long as human na- ture remains as it is, the whole public school machinery is run- ning extremely smoothly. What, then, are the criteria by which we judge the effective- ness of a given school system? Perhaps the best and the sur- est way is to watch the young people that are coming forth from these schools for a long period of time to see if they are taking up the burdens that their fathers are laying down, yes 253 254 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE and are carrying these even more successfully than did the previous generation. Such an attempt as this has never been seriously undertaken and probably never will be, for the diffi- culties in the way are manifest. Let us look, however, at some of the more patent evidences of an efficient school. In this country there are certain standards of construction to which the best buildings conform more or less closely. In the evolution of educational thought, the assur- ance of social and political progress has de- manded a compulsory attendance law. Inas- much as this requirement is theoretically, at least, imposed upon all children within certain age limits, the conclusion is inevitable that the buildings wherein this attendance is en- forced must be not only not harmful from the hygienic point of view, but should even be of some positive help in the de- velopment of the child physically and morally as well as in- tellectually. For centuries this intellectual aspect of education was So prominent as to monopolize the attention, in some cases even to the neglect of the other two. At the present moment, no country is doing more than our own to change this point of view and to improve the physical conditions surrounding children during their school hours. Much advance has al- ready been made, so that in the most progressive towns and cities almost ideal conditions may be said to prevail, but there is yet need for the boards of education in the smaller communi- ties to advance to a just appreciation of the importance of such questions as lighting, heating, ventilating, and seating the schoolrooms. There is another and a higher reason why much skill and money need to be expended upon the mere physical environ- ment of the school children, and that is that the school is responsible for the esthetic develop- ment of its pupils. We Americans need to make a conscious effort in this direction, for we have as yet corfined ourselves so exclusively to material advancement as to leave almost no time for artistic progress, at least as far as concerns the public consciousness. Reference has been made Physical Environment Esthetic Environment MEASURES OF EFFICIENCY one in the preceding pages to the comparative absence of any such direct efforts in the French schools, but there the neces- sity for this is not so imperative as it is here, for across the Atlantic poor indeed is the community that does not provide some opportunity for satisfying, at least in a measure, the artistic craving of the popular taste. The great galleries of the Louvre, the Vatican and Dresden, to cite only a few, are regularly thronged with thousands of the populace, men, wo- men and children alike, eager to feast their eyes on the price- less treasures of ancient and modern art. Since society here will not or cannot do this on any large scale, it ought to do it in a small way in the schools. All those responsible for the administration of school affairs should feel themselves bound to provide their schools with reproductions in photograph or plaster of the finest treasures of the world of art, as a basis for inculcating a discriminating appreciation of the good and the beautiful in form and color as well as in literature. This remissness in the past, not only in the schools but throughout the whole social world, has been probably the strongest reason why we as a nation have produced very few really great men in any field of the fine arts. The few that we can boast have de- veloped in spite of their environment rather than on account of it. We need to surround the mothers of our future chil- dren with examples of the good and the beautiful, we need to bring up these children in an artistic atmosphere, and thus some of the conditions are present for developing master minds. But artistic feelings and artistic temperaments refuse to be transported bodily from one country to another. They are a development, an evolution if you please, that demands a sympathetic environment for its full maturity. In the actual conduct of the school, we find striking differ- ences between the French ideas and our own. On the con- tinent, the attitude of the teacher toward the pupils is regularly that of officer toward sub- ordinate, a situation undoubtedly due in no small measure to the long-continued existence of the monarchi- cal and military régime. France, although a Republic in School Conduct 256 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE name, with all the apparent evidences of such a form of gov- ernment, still retains many of the ideas and ideals of the royal period, and it would be surprising if she did not. We in this country with our century and a quarter of democracy ‘find it far easier to change our point of view, though even here modi- fications of established custom are difficult enough to effect. In our best schools the martinet or the commander no longer finds a place, and the relations between teacher and pupils are of the most friendly nature, for in the long run these are the most helpful. Our aim is not the fashioning of unthinking hewers of wood and drawers of water, nor on the other hand of those that cast law, custom and conventionality to the winds, but rather to develop vigorous, keen-minded boys and girls, imbued with such a regard for law and order as comes from a consciousness of participation in formulating social reg- ulations, young people of that strength and independence of thought that arise from a confidence in their own ability to think and act for themselves. Too much of the school work has been given with the idea that it would function somewhere in the distant future. Our chief concern is with the affairs of to-day. We fos need to look upon the child from the subjec- tive point of view and to recognize that he is living just as complete an existence, so far as he is concerned, as are we grown people. The transition from childhood to mature life is so gradual that no one can distinguish exactly when it takes place, yet all the characteristics of this earlier stage are found in the later, only larger, fuller, deeper, more significant. Why, then, should not our educational practice take cognizance of this fact and not treat the whole educational process as a preparation for life? It is life. Our children need to acquire general notions that will be of service to them now, not those that may be found useful years hence. It is an old doctrine that we “learn by doing,” and so do we learn to be by being. We become good citizens by being good citizens in our school society, not by accumulating a mass of ideas that we store away in some remote part of our consciousness and MEASURES OF EFFICIENCY 257 expect to draw forth and use at some subsequent time. In the same way we teach the use of good English, not that the in- dividual may use correct speech when he reaches mature life, but that he may use it now. We try to cultivate an apprecia- tion of and a taste for good literature, not that this may begin to function twelve or fifteen years hence, but that it may make our children’s young years more livable, more enjoyable and more helpful. Why not apply these same standards to arith- metic and the various other subjects of our school curriculum and eliminate a great mass of material that has come in through false or remains through antiquated principles of what is really valuable, or perhaps attempts to justify its pres- ence on the deferred payment basis? The attitude with re- spect to these ideas that we find in a school must materially influence our appreciation of that school. The relative proportion of form and content studies is only another aspect of the same question, form in this sense being used to denote tool subjects, and content those possessing some intrinsic value on account of Form and their relation to the social whole. The first of aoe these categories would include such subjects as beginning reading, writing, spelling, the first years of arith- metic, and unfortunately much of the later work that should be found in the second group. Subjects like literature, geog- raphy, history and civics that are closely bound up with the very essence of social life compose the other list. The formal studies should always be subordinate to the content studies, for the former are merely the frame-work, the skeleton, with- out whose careful integration the body of live tissue could not be supported. The introduction of real stories and real literature even in the lowest grades of the elementary school is a welcome indication that a change of feeling is coming about. Keeping in mind our social ideal will give us a cri- terion for ruling out of the important places those subjects or parts of subjects that do not measure up to these standards. Not that these formal studies can ever be dropped out, but they must be relegated to positions quite in harmony with their relative values. 258 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE Again, to what extent does the curriculum give oppor- tunity for developing the creative instinct of the child? One of the very earliest of tendencies and probably the out- growth of the infant’s wild gesticulations, this instinct of which much might be made is usually effectively stunted by the restrictions of the school. It is only comparatively re cently that definite efforts have been made in the schools to en- courage this desire for self-expression, and yet after all is not this the source of individuality, of real power? Our strength along this line in the past has been in spite of the school rather than on account of it. A national ideal that aims to produce mere ‘passive ‘followers rather than to develop leaders never need give heed to this question. But under the influence of democracy we are not satisfied to submit to the restrictions of such an ideal, and therein form a noticeable contrast to the European countries. This is the lesson the kindergarten has been able to teach the elementary schools, but as yet the les- son has not been fully grasped. Within the last two decades many additions have been made to the curriculum in response to this idea, such subjects for example as sewing, cooking, manual training; object lessons have become nature study, music and drawing have taken on new life, and many branches especially on the science side have been vitalized by the intro- duction of laboratory methods. This change is of sufficient significance to consider it a third step in the evolution of method which was begun by Comenius when he turned from stories about things to pictures of things, and carried on an- other stage by Pestalozzi in replacing those pictures by the realities themselves, but withal of a very simple sort. In our third stage, we find the subject matter more closely related to the real life of the world in which the child lives, but the im- portant fact here is that the material is handled by the pupils themselves, learning with the emphasis upon the doing as op- posed to learning where observation is the dominant factor. The relative importance of this dynamic, this creative side in the school activity serves as an indication of the probable worth of the school system. MEASURES OF EFFICIENCY 259 Another important consideration is the position of the school in the life of the community. Where does it stand with refer- ence to the other educational institutions? Does it seem to assume that it is the sole or- Codrdination ganization concerned in educating the youth, ne the and so is it attempting to carry on this work cerned alone, or, recognizing the educational responsibilities of other great institutions like the family, the vocation, the State, the church, to what extent does it attempt to affiliate itself with one or more of these powerful forces? It may fairly be said that at the present moment one can trace two distinct ten- dencies moving toward the attainment of this purpose, the one _ on the continent striving ever to cement more firmly the in- terests of the school and the State, the other in this country, much less definitely and effectively organized, endeavoring to bring the school and the family into closer and more sym- pathetic relations. In France this former tendency appears in the very organization of the school system, having at its head a cabinet member, the Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts. From the time of the Revolution, the interdependence of the national safety and popular education has become more and more recognized. ‘The establishment of the higher pri- mary schools in the early thirties carried this idea forward an- other step, for they were specifically organized to provide for the further education of the under-leaders of the industrial army, while to-day their express purpose is to advance the agricultural, industrial, and commercial interests of the nation. This community of interest was even more firmly established in 1889 when the State assumed entire responsibility for the teacher’s salary and he became as distinctly a state official as the post-office clerk. The paternal care of the State is evi- denced again in the opportunity extended by the Musée Péda- gogique for sending boxes of lantern slides to any school in the country that takes the trouble to ask for them. These slides are used not only in conjunction with the regular work of the school, but also in lectures of a public character. The idea of a kind of paternalism is seemingly being more and 260 PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOL SYSTEM OF FRANCE more fostered in French educational circles. There nearly everything is imposed from above, while comparatively few things spring up from below. In the United States, as was stated above, the tendency to ward a coordination of educational factors seems to be taking the form of a closer alliance between the school and the family, the two institutions that have practically the sole charge of the young during the period of infancy. Each one of these needs the help of the other. The previous absence of codperation was in a large measure due to a lack of acquaintance between them, but through the increased interest taken by the teach- ers in the home environment of their pupils and the growing sympathy toward the schools fostered by mothers’ clubs, par- ents’ associations and similar organizations, these two great factors bid fair to codperate with each other much more ef- fectively for the future. Our school authorities need yet more to foster all efforts to bring about a better understanding between the school and the home. ‘The parents really possess much latent interest in the schools, which requires only a little encouragement on the part of the educational leaders to become effective, for there are few parents that are not vitally concerned in the welfare of their children. The responsibilty for this falls largely upon the school principal, and if he be a man of tact and force, and one that is alive to his opportuni- ties he will have little difficulty in arousing a real and per- manent community interest in schools and school affairs. The extent to which this interest manifests itself in works is a test of its real worth; in the pressure brought to bear upor niembers of the board of education, for example, to provide the best school houses, the most efficient teachers; in the efforts ex- pended in decorating the school rooms and making them more suitable for developing the finer characteristics of the child na- ture. The school and the home each has its own particular field of work, its own problems to solve, but these responsi- bilities can be far more effectively discharged if each has the sympathy and support of the other. APPENDIX A OUTLINE OF THE SCHOOL AUTHORITIES SouRCE OF P AUTHORITIES. piles APPOINTMENT. AND DUTIES. Central Authorities. Minister. President. Comité du Contentieux| Minister. Personal advisory board (17).* Superior Council (57).* Permanent section of this Council (15).* Comité Consultatif. (Three sections, one for each degree of education.) Primary section (25) .* General Inspectors (11) .* Local Authorities. Rectors (17).* (One for each academy.) Academy Inspectors (99).* (In general one for each depart- ment.) Chiefly elected. The nine members ap- pointed by the Presi- dent, together with six chosen by the Minister. Ex-officio. President. President. Minister. * Number of members. _legal questions. & 1, : Tay Advisory, administrative, judicial and discipli- nary powers over the whole system—higher, secondary and primary. Active body of the Coun- cil. Frequent meet- ings. Questions usu- ally considered here before being presented to the full Council. Advisory board—peda- gogical questions. All primary schools. Head of higher, second- ary and primary school system in each acad- emy. Chiefly confined to pri- mary education. 2601 262 APPENDIX A Source oF Powers AUTHORITIES. APPOINTMENT. anp Duties. Prefect. (One for each department.) Departmental Council (14).* Primary Inspectors (451) .* Cantonal Delegates. (One for each can- ton.) Maire (of the com- mune.) Commission Scolaire (of the commune). Civil officer—Department of the Interior. Chiefly elected. Competitive examina- tion. Departmental Council. Civil officer—Communal Council. Academy Inspector— Communal Council. President of the Depart- mental Council—Coér- dinate with the Acad- emy Inspector in some respects, chiefly in ref- erence to the appoint- ment of teachers. Practically the depart- mental school board. All primary schools. Each assigned to a par- ticular school to visit. Concerned only with material welfare. President of the Com- mission Scolaire. Re- sponsible for enforcing the compulsory attend- ance law. A kind of local school board. Concerned with the attendance problem and helping needy chil- dren. * Number of members. APPENDIX B EXAMINATION FOR THE CERTIFICAT D’ETUDES PRIMAIRES ELEMENTAIRES THE following extracts from the pages of my note book de- scribing the examination of boys for the primary certificate at Lille im 1903 will give some idea of the working of the French examination system. The examination began at eight o’clock in the morning with one hundred and fifty-seven candidates, each of whom had pre- viously filed with the academy inspector a paper filled out by his teacher and certified by the maire of the community where he lived, containing his full name, the date and place of his birth, the residence of his family, and his own signature. The work began with the following exercise in dictation: Examination at Lille, 1903 Examen du 19 Juin, 1903. Gargons. - I. Dictée. L’automne. Connaissez-vous l’automne? L’automne en pleins champs, avec ses bour- rasques, ses longs soupirs, ses feuilles jaunies qui tourbillonnent au loin, ses sentiers détrempés, ses beaux couchers de soleil, pales comme le sourire d’un malade, ses flaques d’eau dans les chemins. Connaissez-vous tout cela? Je suis au nombre de ceux qui aiment ces choses, et je donnerais deux étés pour un automne. J’adore les grandes flambées; j’aime a me réfugier dans le fond de la cheminée, ayant mon chien entre mes guétres humides. On entend le vent siffler dans la grange, la grande porte craquer, le chien tirer sur sa chaine en hurlant, et, malgré le bruit de la forét qui, tout prés de 1a, rugit en courbant le dos, on distingue les croassements lugubres d’une bande de corbeaux luttant contre la tempéte. La pluie bat les petites vitres: on songe a ceux qui sont dehors, en allongeant ses jambes vers le feu. There were three complete readings of the extract; the first to orient the pupils; the second, a few words at a time for copying; and the third in order that any errors might be noted and cor- rected. Finally, a few minutes were allowed for quiet revision. Ten faults give zero on the test, but there is usually a special 263 264 APPENDIX B standard for a fault. In this case the examiners were very len- ient, for the selection was unusually difficult for elementary school children. II. This same paper served as a test for handwriting. III. One hour was allowed for a composition on. the subject: “The country policeman. (1) How may he be recognized? (2) What are his duties? (3) Some love him, others fear him. Why? Conclusion.” On the whole, rather an easy subject, but somewhat compli- cated by the term garde champétre, an expression with which the city boy is not very familiar. The questions which follow sug- gest the general line of thought to be developed. IV. The two questions in arithmetic, both agricultural in their nature, involving mensuration, were not particularly easy. One hour was allowed for the selection. (1) A farmer sowed field cabbages on a piece of ground con-~ taining 3 hectares 65 ares. The expense of fertilizing and cul- tivating was 175 francs 80 centimes per hectare. The rent of the ground cost him at the rate of 24 francs for 30 ares. The har- vest was 18.60 hectolitres per hectare and brought 22.50 francs per hectolitre. What profit did the farmer realize? (2) A piece of land containing 3.45 ares was sold for 125 francs. At the same rate, what would be the value of a rectan- gular garden 68.25 metres long with the width 34 of its length? V. One hour was allowed for the drawing—a simple conven- tionalized, four-petaled rose enclosed in a square. VI. The boys from the rural schools were allowed to substitute the examination in agriculture for that in drawing. In case they elected to take the drawing also and passed it, this fact would be noted on their certificates. The following were the questions: (1) What is meant by fertilizers? (2) What is the difference between fertilizing and improving? (3) What are the important cereals raised in our department? (4) What fertilizer is particularly good for the cultivation of wheat? (5) After what plants is it advisable to sow corn? Why? These papers were corrected just as they came in by an exam- ining board in charge of the primary inspector. The other mem- bers of the body were one representative from each of the two commussions scolaires (for there were two cantons represented EXAMINATION FOR PRIMARY CERTIFICATE 265 here), the director of the école primaire supérieure at Lille, to- gether with the directors and some assistants of the various ele- mentary schools within the district, making all told some dozen or fourteen persons. Included in this number were two repre- sentatives of private or congréganiste schools, for the government certificate is required of both public and private school pupils if they wish to be free from the obligation to attend school before the legal age, and these bodies are always represented when ques- tions involving their interests are at stake. The examination was administered with absolute fairness, as I believe is everywhere the case, notwithstanding complaints of dis- gruntled private school pupils to the contrary. Each candidate wrote his name and that of his school on the corner of his paper, folded it over and sealed it before beginning the examination. This was not cut open until the paper had been read and marked, so there was no possibility of knowing the writer’s identity. The board worked very rapidly and by about one o’clock all the papers had been corrected. The marking was on a scale of ten, and zero in any subject served to reject the candidate. A mini- mum of twenty on the four compulsory subjects—the drawing and agriculture were reckoned with the afternoon subjects—was required in order to be admitted to the second part of the exam- ination. However, those pupils that had seventeen to nineteen might be admitted conditionally: that is, their report books for the year were examined and marked very good, good, or fair. Those whose books were very good could be admitted with a mark of only seventeen, while those that had only fair on their reports must have received at least nineteen on the written examination. By three o’clock the results were all tabulated, the names of the unsuccessful candidates were given to the principals of the schools represented, and they announced them to their own pupils. Then the second part of the examination began. In this case the examinations in geography and history were written instead of oral. An hour was allowed for the following five questions: (1) What kings (French) took part in wars in Italy? Results of these wars. (2) Name some civil wars that desolated France and show the results of one of these. (3) Tell what you know of the American Revolution under Louis XVI. 266 APPENDIX B (4) Trace the course of the Rhéne and name the cities wat- ered by it. (5) What do you know of the commerce and industries of the following cities: Reims, Saint-Etienne, Rouen, Armentiéres? The answers were all short and simple, at most not more than three or four lines, so there was no difficulty in finishing within the allotted time. The questions for the second part were formulated by the ex- amining board after they had convened for the afternoon session, while those of the morning were sent by the academy inspector in sealed envelopes and were opened by the chairman in the presence of his fellow-examiners. The examination in French was really the only oral examina- tion. The candidates that had been successful in the morning were divided into little groups with one examiner for each. As each boy was called up in turn, he was asked to read from a book and explain the text, or perhaps to recite some lines from any one of a number of short poems which he submitted. The poems were not the same for all the schools, but were the same for all pupils from the same school. As before, some questions were asked tending to show whether or not the subject matter was understood. In order to insure absolute fairness here, the candi- date handed to his examiner a paper folded twice and pinned, on the inside of which he had written hisname. The examiner wrote the mark on the outside, and the paper was not opened until it reached the board room. When the results were tabulated, there were a few that did not have the necessary thirty-five points. In general those were the boys that had been conditionally admitted from the morning. For these there was little hope. In a few exceptional cases, however, where the candidates lacked only one or two points and were above the compulsory school age, the board tried to show a little consideration. School records were looked up again, and every possible allowance was made. Sometimes the pupil just managed to get through, but at other times he was doomed to failute. One case in particular was noteworthy. A boy had only thirty-four and three-quarters points, and was nearly fourteen and a half years old. His reports had been marked only fair, and the case seemed a hard one to handle. On re-reading the reports, it was found that he had repeatedly been careless and troublesome in EXAMINATION FOR PRIMARY CERTIFICATE 267 the class room. Also, he had been absent from two to ten days almost every month, and this in spite of repeated warnings from the teacher. Im the face of all these facts the board refused any indulgence, and the boy failed. The chairman now hastened to announce the results to the anxious children. In the meantime many parents had gathered to hear the announcement, and were quite beside themselves when they found their boys had gained their certificats. With this came the award of the departmental prizes, two for each canton. For the city schools, these were taken with fifty-eight and fifty- seven points respectively out of a possible seventy, for the coun- try schools the corresponding records were fifty-two and a half and fifty-two points. Only a very small number failed in the oral examination, and of all the one hundred and fifty-seven candidates, eighty per cent were successful. In the girls’ examination the following day, eighty-three per cent passed. These figures happen to be exactly the same as those for all France for the last two years. APPENDIX C (1) Procram oF THE NormaL ScHoots? JuLy 31, 1851 (Recitations per week.) YEAR. L II. III. Religious instruction and sacred history.............. 3 3 3 Reading eis acuguvaebaeercengekeng gponee eens ds xara’ 6 6 2 RecitatiOniessiicesradeuidaryte sits Saree de eeta aca 3 3 3 WEE Bia ao: siccsrasdoayrennaeieiday deka e ea Oe Waekeaaee ease 5 5 2 Prench: language csccy: ccpacacc cand nccsn at Siete winsome 9 9 3 Arithmetic, legal system of weights and measures..... 6 Arithmetic, legal system of weights and measures, me- chanical: drawing: s.saeea vasaaamin de aes ta4ds ee 6 Arithmetic in its practical applications................ 6 RENBIOUS: MUSICia6 cacnw ss eaay ewe daa sais eae oe Swan 3 3 MUSIC setts uit dnote ons weasel amamee ete Seedaieels gus 3 Work in the practice school............. 0 ce eee eee eee ¥ . Elements: of séeoctaph yin s acc aunkase tameces oveas dae I Principles of the physical sciences and of natural his- tory, with their applications. Agriculture, horticul- PUD sai: astaca aveiecorie anit aos Sa gs a ta an ae SN SEN ig ah places Toran 3 Surveying, levelling, mechanical drawing.............. 5 Elemerits Of Histofyiss sciswscs os aeeeae te cb e es eases I 35 35 32 * Number of hours not specified. 1 Arrété, July 31, 1851, Gr. III, p. 481. 268 PROGRAM OF THE NORMAL SCHOOLS 269 (2) Program or THE Normat ScHoots! Jury 2, 1866 (Recitations per week.) YEAR. L IL. III. Religious instruction, oc. oi cosedees ee ccanacees ens 2 2 2 Pedagogy. Exposition of the best methods. Physical, * intellectual and moral education. Organization of the Schools: oususax outing Midas caltiantiadibew ei nedeaae I NV ted UAT Be es eat nce atte ahacacccty’ inlaid ce asesoav e epnritan dnl oSte 3 2 2 Reading. Recitation.... 0.0.0.0... cece cece cece e anes 5 4 3 Phen Chi language: adits ecsiarse aaycgeeenxeuenuele 5 5 3 Arithmetic; legal system of weights and measures. Arithmetic in its practical applications. Bookkeep- dB Sur scat Giciclie tae sent alco Oasis ee dyna nd nagd éccoees 5 4 3 Elements of geometry, Surveying and levelling...... I I 2 Mechanical and free-hand drawing................... 2 2 2 Elements of history and geography..................- 3 3 3 SUG Aid OPS AA. asso ease casscanncaeinard on buaigts oedde teuevsodiiasoncisdaeis 3 3 3 Principles of physics, chemistry and natural history, with their practical applications.................0.. 2 3 3 Agriculture and horticulture. Elementary principles of CEAdE sc) iieise ania co niienaime Raaie ee hte eae ates 2 3 3 Feliy Bl OT © a ssyesciashted ce travirneebas tan Gi cavdaes exsun Guanes aueve aavresesinanyeseat I Civil papers and communal administration........... GYMNASTICS: a .e:e0s, a'eswauselnte nation ie aengearsta areata avs hae 33 32 32 1Circ., July 2, 1866, Gr. IV, pp. 102-103. 270 APPENDIX C (3) Datry Program Boys’ Norma Scuoot at AUTEUIL Mownpay. TuEspay. I Il. II, I, II. Il, 5-8 Study. | Study. 8-9 Breakfast, 9-10 | History. French. Authors. Reading. Mathem. Geography. zo-11| French, Authors, History. Mathem. Geog. Reading. t1-12} French, History. Science. Geog. Lit. Mathem. 124 Luncheon. 1-2 | Lab. Free-hand Mechanical Manual Agric. Study. 2-3 Mod. lang. drawing. drawing. training. Mathem. Agric, 3-4 Music. | Mod, lang. | Science. | Pap. fold. | Study. Mathem. 5-6 Morale. | Music. | Mod. lang. _ Study. et Study. 8 Dinner. 84-9 Recreation. 9 Bedtime. WEDNESDAY. THuRsDAyY. I, IL. III. I. Il. Til. 54-8 Study. Study. 7-8 Morale. 8-9 Breakfast. g-to | History. Mathem. Science. Study. | Model lesson. Io-11| Science. History. Mathem. 1t-12| Mathem. Science. History. 124% Luncheon. I-2 Free-hand Manual Music, 2-3 | drawing. training. Lit. een 3-4 Music. | Writing. | Educ. - 5-6 Study. | Mod. lang. Study. 6-7 Mod. lang. | Supervised study 7-8 Mod. lang. Study. mathematics, 8 Dinner. 84-9 Recreation. 9 Bedtime. Fripay. SATURDAY. Te Il. Ill. I. II. III, 5%4-8 Study. Study. 8-9 Breakfast. g-r0 | French. Psychol. Science. Mathem., Lit. Civics. zo-11| French. Science. it. Psychol. Science. Mathem. r1-12| Science. French. Lit. Science. Mathem. Lit. 124% Luncheon. I-2 Mechanical | Lab. Free-hand Writing. History. Manual 2-3 | _ drawing. Mod. lang. drawing. __ French. Mechanical training. 3-4 Writing. ' Music. Mod. lang. History. drawing. Lab. 5-6 Mod. lang. {_ Study. Music. 6-7 Morale. 7-8 Study. 8 Dinner. Yeg Recreation Bedtime. APPENDIX D EXAMINATIONS FOR THE HIGHER PRIMARY CERTIFICATE (1) DEPARTMENT OF THE Garp.‘ JULY, ‘1901 GENERAL QUESTIONS French Composition (boys and girls) In the primary school you have committed to memory and at the higher primary school you have studied several fables of La Fontaine. As you have learned to know this great fable writer better, you have found more reason for admiring him and loving him. ‘Suppose you are writing a letter to one of your friends who is very fond of reading but who knows La Fontaine too little to recommend his fables. Tell simply and sincerely why you like La Fontaine. Try to make your friend share your admiration and your sympathy for the author of so many fine works. Indi- cate carefully the fables that have struck you most forcibly and have interested you the most, and from which he himself can de- rive the greatest pleasure and profit. Science (girls) 1. Find a fraction which reduces to #4 when its terms are diminished by three and to 14 when they are increased by five. 2. Cooking utensils. ‘Common metals used in their manufac- ture. Advantages and disadvantages of each. Precautions to be taken in using them. How kept clean. Science (boys) Mathematics The frustum of a regular pyramid whose lateral edge d has 1 Courrier des Examens de VEnseignement Primaire, Jan. 11, 1903, pp. 25-20. 271 272 APPENDIX D for bases two regular hexagons with sides a and b respectively. What is the total surface and the volume of the solid? Application: a = 3m; b = 2m 50; d = 4m 30. Chemistry Principles in the manufacture of vinegar. Processes em- ployed in commerce. Natural History Description of the human respiratory apparatus. Chemical phenomena of respiration. Morale (boys and girls) Show that drunkenness is a degrading vice, that it debases man below the level of the beasts. Drawing (boys) Greek fillet. Drawing (girls) Embroidery; corner of a rug. Motif; bind weeds and pansies. SPECIAL QUESTIONS Agriculture 1. The American vines: rdéle and use of vine growing. 2. Treatment of limestone in the soil. Drawing A salt cellar. (2) Paris. SEssion oF JULY, 1903? GENERAL, COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL SECTIONS Geometry (boys) An obelisk is in the form of the frustum of a pyramid with a square base. The side of the lower base is Im 50; of the upper base, o m 80; the height, 15m. The frustum is surmounted by a pyramid whose lateral faces are equilateral triangles with one side 0 m 8o. Find the volume and the lateral surface of the obelisk. 1 Courrier des Examens de lEnseignement Primaire, Aug. 9, 1903, pp. 500-504, EXAMINATION FOR HIGHER PRIMARY CERTIFICATE 273 GENERAL AND COMMERCIAL SECTIONS Physics Suppose you buy two lenses and fasten each at the end of a pasteboard tube, so arranged that one will slide within the other. Explain the general arrangement of the lenses and the object in order to have: (1) A camera. (2) A telescope. (3) A microscope. Hygiene Principal adulterations of the common solid and liquid foods. INDUSTRIAL SECTION Physics Manometers. Natural History Describe briefly the human organs of sight and hearing. AGRICULTURAL SECTION 1. Useful and noxious insects. Name the principal ones. Give some details about the bee and the June-bug. 2. The use of flower of sulphur and the cupric solutions. In in- dicating the use, note what plants are to be treated thus and why. Arithmetic (girls) I invest 608 francs for thirty days and 720 francs for fifty- seven days at rates of interest whose difference is 2% per cent. The returns from the two investments are the same. What were the rates of interest? Physics or Chemistry Describe the principal experiments which prove that the air has weight. Deduce the explanation of atmospheric pressure and tell how this pressure is measured. Natural History The circulation of the blood. Morale Boys.—Show what moral lesson includes this thought of one of our most ancient writers: “ There are tribunals, whose juris- 274 APPENDIX D diction man cannot escape: on the outside, reputation; within, his conscience. Girls.—What is the relation between justice and charity? French Composition Boys.—Write a letter saying that on last Sunday you were present at the distribution of prizes of the “Société d’encourage- ment au bien.” The President of the Republic was the presiding officer, thus - indicating the importance of the occasion. The prize-winners were either societies which devote them- selves to the instruction or the succor of the lowly, or to indi- viduals belonging to various classes of society. What reflections did these incidents suggest to you? What is your impression of the future of such a country as ours where all these phases of the good are thus honored? Girls —Imagine that during your stay in the country two swal- lows came and built a nest at the window of your chamber. Recount what you saw and your impressions up to the time when the young brood took flight. Modern Languages Boys. — (Selections in’ English, German and Spanish from which to choose.) English. Sir Walter Scott—Sir Walter Scott was a man full of the milk of human kindness. Everybody loved him. He was never five minutes in a room ere the little pets of the family, whether dumb or lisping, had found out his kindness for all their generation. One day, a dog coming toward him, he took up a big stone, threw it and hit the dog. The poor creature had strength enough left to crawl up to him and lick his feet, although he saw. its leg was broken. The incident had given him the bitterest remorse in his after life. “An early circumstance of that kind, properly re- flected on,” said Walter Scott, when relating the incident to a friend, “is calculated to have the best effect on one’s character throughout life.” S. SMILEs. 1Cf. the moral tendency of this composition work as well as in the suc- ceeding selections from the English. EXAMINATION FOR HIGHER PRIMARY CERTIFICATE 275 Girls. — (Selections in English and German from which to choose. ) English. Power of women.—The greater part of the influence exercised by women on the formation of character necessarily remains un- known. They accomplish their best work in the quiet seclusion of the home and the family, by sustained effort and patient per- severance in the path of duty. Their greatest triumphs, because private and domestic, are rarely recorded, and it is not often, even in the biographies of distinguished men, that we hear of the share which their mothers have had in the formation of their character, and in giving them a bias towards goodness. Yet are they not on that account without their reward. The influence they have exercised, though unrecorded, lives after them, and goes on prop- agating itself in consequences forever. S. SMILES. Drawing Boys.—Copy, from a sketch, with given scale. Architectural ornament, after a plaster model. Girls —Design interlaced capitals A and B, suitable for frame embroidery. These letters, intended for a bed coverlet, should measure ten centimeters in height. APPENDIX E EXAMINATION QUESTIONS BREvET ELEMENTAIRE BOYS. PARIS, JULY 3, 1903+ I. Spelling Dictation, thirty lines. Extract from Challemel-Lacour. Questions on the interpretation of the text. IL. French Composition Develop this thought: “It is impolite to write badly, for it makes trouble for the readers, and it is foolish, for it spoils what is written.” LEGouvE. Til. Arithmetic 1. Theory.—Given two numbers 5544 and 936 and their G. C.D. 72. Find the L. C. M. 2. Problem.—A landowner sells two parcels of land at 48.75 francs per are. One is in the form of a rectangle 100m by 54m. The other is triangular, with the base 95m and the height 64m. With the purchase money, the proprietor bought 3% stock at 82.29 francs. How much stock did he buy? IV. Writing A phrase taken from the dictation. V. Drawing Plan, cross-section, and elevation of a trestle. GIRLS. LILLE, 1903 * I. Spelling Dictation, twenty-eight lines. Extract from Renan. Questions on interpretation of the text. 1 Courrier des Examens, July 26, 1903, pp. 467-469. 2 Ibid., Aug. 2, 1903, pp. 487-489. 276 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 277 Ll. Hrench Composition A candidate is about to come up for the brevet élémentaire. She writes to a member of her family who occupies a position that you may imagine. She asks this person to send a letter of recommendation to the examiners. The person whom the candidate approached replied in a friendly manner, but stated why she would not write the letter. Write this last letter. III. Arithmetic 1. Theory.—What is a cube? If you triple the length of each face, establish and demonstrate the relation between the two cubes. 2. Problem—Two brothers divide a sum of 5,225 fr. 60. The former spends 2 of his part; the second loses 4 of his, and then each has the same sum. What were the two parts? IV. Writing The first lines of dictation. V. Drawing Design a butter-pot with two handles. VI. Sewing Make a sack-20 cm. long by 15 cm. wide, with English seams on the sides, a hem at the end and the mark (R. 5) thereon. Cuff. APPENDIX F EXAMINATION QUESTIONS BREVET SUPERIEUR GIRLS. TOULOUSE, 1902 + I. Arithmetic and Science 1. Problem.—Given an alloy of gold and copper in the propor- tion of 13 cu. cm. of gold to 7 cu. cm. of copper. Assuming the density of gold to be 19 and of copper to be 8.8, find the density of the alloy and its standard. The alloy weighs 1805 gr. 31 and is made into a rectangular plate 2 mm. thick, the length being twice the width. Find these last two dimensions to within 1 mm. 2. Science.—Chlorine; preparation, physical and chemical prop- erties, most important uses. II. French Composition Comment on this expression: “Speech thas been given to man for thought; thought for truth and virtue.” Ill. Modern Languages 1. Sixteen lines of poetry to be translated into English or Span- ish, according to the choice of the candidate present. 2. Likewise a translation from one of these languages into French. The English selection is as follows: “The choice of books. How shall you know what to read? A very important question, for some books will really injure, if they do not destroy you. Others will have no positive effect; but from all a tincture, like that left upon the mind by the com- pany you keep, will remain. Do not expect to read all, or even a small part of what comes out and is recommended in this age of books. You take up a book and read a chapter. How shall 1 Courrier des Examens, Feb. 8, 1903, pp. 83-86. 278 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 279 you know whether it is worth your reading without reading it through? In the same way that you would know whether a cask of wine was good. If you draw one glass, or two, and find them stale and unpleasant, do you need to drink off the whole cask to decide that you do not want it? I have somewhat else to do, in the short day allotted to me, than to read whatever anyone else may think it his duty to write.” IV. Drawing Design one-quarter of a tea napkin. Richelieu embroidery. Character of the ornamentation is left to the choice of the can- didate. Size, 16 om. square. BOYS. PARIS. JULY 16-17, 1903+ I. Arithmetic and Science 1. Problem.—On the inside of each side of a square as a diam- eter, describe a semi-circumference. Calculate the side of the square, if the area of the rosace thus formed is 30 qm. 87. Assume 7 = 22, 2. Science.—Ordinary or ethyl alcohol. Its formation, physi- cal and chemical properties, principal derivatives and their uses. Different commercial methods of manufacture. Fermented liquors, their manufacture. Action of alcohol on the body. Alcoholism, its dangers, means to combat it. II. French Composition Develop and criticize this thought of La Bruyére: “A man of fashion lives but for a time, for fashions pass away: if, by chance, he is a man of merit, he is not effaced, for he lives still by virtue of some good quality; so, worthy of esteem, he is, how- ever, less esteemed.” III. Modern Languages 1. Eight lines from Rousseau to be translated into English or German according to the choice of the candidate. 2. Likewise a translation from one of those languages into French. The English selection is as follows: “A genius developed by accident.—Sir Isaac Newton was the 1 Courrier des Examens, Aug. 9, 1903, pp. 497-500. 280 APPENDIX F most remarkable mathematician and philosopher of his own or perhaps of any other age. He was born in the year 1642, a year doubly remarkable by his birth and the death of Galileo. We owe his great discovery to a very trivial accident. When a stu- dent at Cambridge he had retired during the plague into the country. As he was reading under an apple tree in his garden at Woolsthorpe one of the fruit fell and struck him a smart blow on the head. When he observed the smallness of the apple, he was surprised at the force of the stroke. This led him to con- sider the accelerating motion of falling bodies, from whence he deduced the principle of gravity and laid the foundation of his philosophy.” I. Disrakzxi. IV. Drawing Rosace (no. 2933 of the catalogue of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts.) APPENDIX G WRITTEN EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. CERTIFICAT D’APTITUDE PEDAGOGIQUE (The time allowed in each case was three hours.) DEPARTMENT OF THE COTE-D’oR, 1902?! Mental arithmetic. Its importance. Explain how you assure the application of the program in your school or your class, and with what results. DEPARTMENT OF THE VOSGES, 1902? Develop this thought of Jules Simon: “ Education is a process by which a spirit moulds a spirit, and a mind develops a mind.” Show how a teacher can and ought to realize this in a primary school. DEPARTMENT OF THE AUBE, 1902 ° What is meant by civic instruction? Emphasize its importance in a democratic republic. How shall civic instruction be directed in order to produce the best possible results? Necessity of giving it an intuitive charac- ter. Indicate in detail the means of accomplishing this. (In treating this subject, men should have boys’ schools in mind, and women should have girls’ schools.) DEPARTMENT OF THE PUY-DE-DOME, 1902 * What means do you use for developing in your pupils the ideas of justice and codperation? 1 Courrier des Examens, Feb. 8, 1903, p. 81. 2 Ibid., Jan. 11, 1903, Pp. 17. 8 [bid., Feb. 15, 1903, PD. 97- 4 Ibid., Feb. 22, 1903, p. 113. is 2 APPENDIX H EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. CERTIFICATE FOR PRIMARY INSPECTOR I. WRITTEN. PEDAGOGY * 1896. 2d Session. “ The art of teaching does not consist in descending to the level of your pupil, but in raising him to yours.” (Jules Simon.) Develop and comment upon this thought. 1899. Ist Session Women.—The education of the école maternelle. What should be its principles? 1899. 2d Session All teachers ought to teach their children ideas of order and economy. ‘How can they do this discreetly? How avoid the ex- aggeration of these qualities into defects from which it is partic- ularly important to keep children? I900. rst Session What is meant in primary education by “ preparation for the class?” How would you make the teachers that have spent several years in the service understand that one must “ prepare for the class ” all one’s life? SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION * 1896. 2d Session Powers and duties of the director of a school who is relieved from class work. 1899. rst Session The primary certificate. How was it organized? What mod- 1L’Inspection de l Enseignement Primaire, pp. 52-53. 2 Op. cit., pp. 61-62. 282 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS 283 ification has it undergone? What do you think of the criticisms against it? 1899. 2d Session What are the obligations of the commune in reference to pri- mary education? 1900. Ist Session The higher primary schools. General organization and teach- ing force. (Avoid any detailed discussion of the programs.) IJ. Orat. Pepacocy + (Each candidate has only one of the following questions. He is allowed two hours by himself in which to collect his thoughts and prepare his answer.) In your opinion, how can a teacher extend his educational in- fluence outside and beyond the school ? How would you regulate the use of monitors in the elementary school ? As primary inspector, each year you have to examine the daily programs which your teachers submit to you. Indicate what general rules would guide you in this examination. Reading in the primary school; in the class; in the home. SCHOOL LEGISLATION AND ADMINISTRATION * Regulations in the case of suppressing a public primary school. Powers and duties of the primary inspector in examinations. Right of opposition to the opening of private schools. Closing of these schools. Administrative councils of the primary normal schools. Com- position; powers. 1 Op. cit., pp. 100-I0T. 2 Op. cit., p. 102. APPENDYX 1 (1) Grrus’ NorMAL SCHOOL ar Menus Aprit 26TH To May 2p, 1903. Breakfast. . Tea; Boiled eggs. Sunday...... Dinner,....Meat broth; Beef; Radishes; Spinach, white sauce; Oranges. Supper.....Rabbit stew; Stewed prunes; Breakfast. Monday..... Dinner.... Supper..... Breakfast. Tuesday..... Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Wednesday. .Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Thursday... .Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Friday...... Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Saturday....Dinner..... Cream cheese. .Soup; Chestnut purée. .Soup; Potato croquettes; Fried eggs. Beef; Spinach. -Rice soup; Raisins. .Soup; Meat pie; Potato purée -Roast veal; Carrots. .Vermicelli soup; Chestnut pre- serves. .Soup; Roast mutton; Lima beans. .Roast beef; Rice. -Rice soup; Stick chocolate. .Meat broth; Beef; Fried pota- toes; Fresh cakes. .Beef a la mode; Cheese; Stewed prunes. .Soup; Chestnut purée. .Soup; Sardines; Radishes; Mac- aroni with cheese. -Apple omelet; Peas. -Rice soup; Raisins. Soup; Sliced veal; Spinach, white sauce. Supper.....Roast lamb; Spinach. Dessert of the professors. Oranges. Cream cheese. Chestnut purée. Cheese. Raisins. Oranges. Fresh cakes. Cheese. Fresh cakes. Chestnut purée. Cheese. Fresh cakes. Oranges. (Bread is served at each meal, and at dinner a half bottle of wine is allowed each person.) 284 (2) Girts’ Normat ScHoor at MENUS 285 Menus May 18TH TO 25TH, 1903. Breakfast. Monday...... Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Tuesday..... Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Wednesday. .Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Thursday....Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Friday...... Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Saturday....Dinner.... Supper.... Breakfast. Sunday...... Dinner..... Supper... . Dessert of the professors. .Coffee; Butter. -Soup; Stew with beans; Pre- serves. -Roast beef; Spinach, Whipped cream. .Coffee; Butter. -Soup; Boiled beef; Split peas. Cheese. -Roast veal; Macaroni. Oranges. -Coffee; Butter. i .Soup; Beefsteak; Fried potatoes, ‘Cherries. -Roast mutton; Lentils. Creamed eggs. .Chocolate. .Soup; Ham; Artichokes. Tarts. .Roast beef; Salad; Cakes. Preserves. -Coffee; Butter. .Soup; Fish; Potatoes and butter. Cakes. .Omelet; Spinach; Cheese. Cheese. .Coffee; Butter. «Soup; Boiled beef; Beans. Kisses. -Roast veal; Potato purée. Chocolate pudding. .Coffee; Butter. Soup; Roast pork; Split peas. Asparagus; Tarts. .Roast mutton; Salad; Preserves. Cakes. (Bread is served at each meal, and at dinner a half bottle of wine is allowed each person.) APPENDIX J Boys’ Normat ScHoot at Lyon. EcoLt—E ANNEXE (1) POINTS TO BE FOLLOWED BY CRITIC TEACHER IN APPRECIATING PUPIL TEACHER’S WORK 1. Writing. 2. Preparation for class. (a) Materials. (b) Written. . Exposition of lessons. . Correction of home work. . Condition of note-books. Discipline. ‘Supervision of recreation. . Relations with the children. Attitude of the master. . General appreciation. FO MY AK ERY _ (2) ACTUAL CRITICISM OF A PUPIL BY THE DIRECTOR Ist Tour “This is a very poor week. “ The only encouragement is that you can do better if you wish. I see here an aggravation of your mistakes. You can do well and you do poorly. “ Have you considered that you are the son of a director of an école annewe and that you will be a teacher in a few months? “Tf the next week does not show distinct progress, I shall be very uneasy for your future as a teacher and for that of your pupils. “T hope you will arouse yourself.” 2d Tour “ Results this week prove that you can do well. You are then doubly culpable when you do poorly. I hope this is not an iso- lated or exceptional effort. Men-—and children too—are not judged by what they can do, but by what they do. Take courage.” 286 BOYS’ NORMAL SCHOOL AT LYON 287 (3) PSYCHOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS (BY PUPIL TEACHER) Name of pupil Oo Berea cme mw len ae fr oe Gora Sha Rw BS ese: WEE ces aexuens Cours........., Physical Temperament and normal state of health. condition. { Sense organs, especially the eye and ear. Native and dominant tendencies. ( Personality. ) Characteristic sentiments. ‘Characteristic tastes. Temperament. 4 The will. | Qualities. Faults. Conduct of pupil. L Appreciation of moral worth. ( 1. Kind of attention (application). 2. Normally developed faculties (remarks). 3. Insufficiently developed faculties (remarks). 4. Appreciation of intellectual power (qualities and defects of the mind). . Characteristic tendencies. Intelligence. + General Physical condition. appreciation { Very careful judgment. Temperament. of pupil. Intelligence. CRITICISM BY DIRECTOR ON PUPIL’S OBSERVATIONS “Good attempt at analysis. You have very properly insisted on the causes of the phenomena observed. Try to compare and draw conclusions from these observations. “ Continue to study the same pupil. Consult with your school fellows on certain particular points.” (4) OUTLINE TO BE FOLLOWED BY THE PUPIL IN NOTING THE DIFFICULTIES HE HAS FOUND IN THE PREPARATION OF HIS LESSONS, AND HIS METHOD IN SOLVING THEM Plan of the rapport personnel* (by pupil teacher) I. Preparation for the class. A. Preparation of materials. B. Written preparation; difficulties met. a. Concerning the choice and gradation of the lesson. 1Cf. ch. XI, p. 222. 288 APPENDIX J b. Concerning the plan (general idea, subordinate ideas, details). c. Concerning the choice of method and processes. C. How have you solved these difficulties and what prog- ress dio you think you have made? II. Lessons. A. Questions. B. Methods and processes of development. C. Adaptation of ideas and language. Recall in each subject the difficulties encountered, the means employed to solve them and the results obtained, so far as you are concerned. III. Home work. A. Preparation of pupils. B. Correction and report (French composition). The difficulties encountered. Results obtained, so far as you are concerned. IV. Condition of note-books. Toward what have you directed your efforts? What difficul- ties have you met? What means employed to solve them? Re- sults obtained? V. Discipline. A. In class. B. In recreation. What good habits in general or particular have you tried to instil? Difficulties encountered? Results obtained? Ist, from the teacher’s standpoint ; 2d, from the pupil’s standpoint. VI. Conclusion. General view of principal difficulties encoun- tered, of means employed to solve them, and of those you will use in the future. Personal progress made. What pedagogical qual- ity do you most lack? Resolutions. N. B. In the interest of the pupil teacher, this work should be done in all sincerity. DIRECTOR’S CRITICISM ON A PUPIL’S NOTES OF THE ABOVE “You have touched too lightly on the difficulties encountered and the means employed to surmount them. Useless details in certain places. Nevertheless your account is interesting and, I believe, sincere. It should have been a profitable study for you.” APPENDIX K BIBLIOGRAPHY THE authorities used in the preparation of this account of the French schools were almost entirely French, the chief exceptions being the articles from the English Educational Department Special Reports on Educational Subjects, and these mainly for the facts personally observed by the writers. The other works in English are cited here for the convenience of those to whom the French books may not be readily available. For further literature relating to education in France, see the bibliography appended to each chapter of the Rapport sur Vorganisation et la situation de lenseignement pri- maire public en France. Paris, Imprimerie Nationale, 1900; also Columbia University Library Bulletin No. 2. Books on Educa- tion in the Libraries of Columbia University. N. Y., 1901; and Cubberley, E. P. Syllabus of Lectures on the History of Educa- tion. N. Y., 1902. I. Primary SouRcES Annuaire de l’enseignement primaire. Armand Colin, publisher. Paris. Published yearly since 1886. Annuaire de Vinstruction publique et des beaux-arts. Delalain Fréres, publishers. Paris. Published yearly since 1851. Anrtuoine, E. A travers nos écoles. Souvenirs posthumes. Paris, 1887. 10 + 350 p. Carrive, Pierre. La nouvelle législation de 1l’enseignement primaire; suivie du texte des lois, décrets, arrétés, circulaires et programmes. (May 19, 1874—July 19, 1889.) Paris, 1889. 14 + 658 p. Comptabilité des écoles normales primaires; guide légal et administratif des économes. Mém, et doc. sco. No. 61. Paris, 1888. 124 p. Conporcet. Rapport et projet de décret sur l’organisation générale de instruction publique, présentés 4 l’Assemblée nationale, au nom du Comité d’instruction publique, les 20 et 21 avril 1792, l’an 4 de la li- berté. Paris, 1782. 94 p. 289 290 APPENDIX K Duruy, Victor. Circulaires et instructions officielles relatives 4 l’instruc- tion publique. (1863-1869.) Paris. 24 + 716 p. Gratuité de l’enseignement primaire. Cf. Rapport a l’Empereur du 6 mars 1865 sur l’état de l’enseignement primaire en France pendant lannée 1863, in L’administration de l’instruction publique de 1863- 1869, pp. 188-211. Administration de l’instruction publique. (1863-1869.) Paris. 24 + 932 p. EstourNELLES de ConsTANT, JEAN d’. Lois et réglements sur l’enseigne- ment primaire. (Mar. 15, 1850—July 31, 1890.) Paris, 1890. 1108 p. Ecoles normales. Adresse de plusieurs éléves de l’école normale, a la Con- vention, lue dans la séance du 5 floréal, an III. (Apr. 25, 1795.) Paris. 12 p. Mémoire sur la nécessité d’établir dans Paris une maison d’institu- tion pour former des maitres, et quelques colléges pour les basses classes. (Two memoirs: I. 28 p., II. 34 p.—date Oct. 25, 1762.) Rapport fait 4 la commission des écoles normales, sur 1’état de !’en- seignement dans les écoles normales en général, et particuliérement dans celles des académies d’Amiens, Douai, Metz, Nancy, Strasbourg et Dijon. 23 Oct., 1845. Manuscript. 20 p. Fontenay-aux-Roses. Sujets de concours pour l’admission 4a 1l’école nor- male supérieure d’enseignement primaire, de l’origine a 1897. (Section des lettres.) Paris. 74 p. France. Budget des dépenses de l’exercice de 1903. Ministére de V’in- struction publique et des beaux-arts. Paris, 1903. 181 p. Bulletin administratif du ministére de l’instruction publique et des beaux-arts. 1850- New and present series began 1864. Published monthly until 1881, and weekly since that time. Circulaires et instructions officielles relatives 4 l’instruction publique. 1802- Still continued. 12 volumes through 1900. Extraits du bulletin de l’instruction primaire. Lois, arrétés, instruc- tions. Département de la Seine. 1866-1877. Paris, 1878. 24 + 885 p. Inspection académique. (Direction de l’enseignement primaire.) Paris, 1900. 18 + 628 p. Inspection de l’enseignement primaire. Paris, 1900. 6 + 435 p. Rapport sur Vorganisation et la situation de l’enseignement primaire public en France. Paris, 1900. 15 + 628 p. Statistique de l’enseignement primaire. A quinquennial publication begun in 1877. Volume II covers the period from 1829 to 1877. BIBLIOGRAPHY 291 Gosron, Lours. Législation et jurisprudence de l’enseignement public et de l’enseignement privé en France et en Algérie. Paris, 1900. 995 p. Gréarp, Ocrave. Législation de l'instruction primaire en France depuis 1789 jusqu’ a nos jours. 2¢ édition. Paris. 7 v. (1789-1900. ) Laxanat, JosEpPH. Rapport sur organisation des écoles normales. In Célestin Hippeau. Instruction publique en France pendant la révo- lution. Pp. 408-422. Paris, 1881. Paris, Ville de. Budget de l’exercice de 1903. Paris, 1903. 284 p. Petit, Epovarv. Rapport sur l’éducation populaire en 1899-1900. Minis- tére de l’instruction publique et des beaux-arts. Paris, 1900. Prcwarp, A. E. Nouveau code de linstruction primaire. Paris, 1900. 20 + 764 p. Plan d’études et programmes d’enseignement. Collection Delalain. No. 66. fcoles maternelles. 19 p. No. 65. fcoles primaires élémentaires. 41 p. No. 64. Ecoles primaires supérieures (garcons). 72 p. Ecoles primaires supérieures (filles). 57 p. No. 61. Ecoles normales. 45 p. Renpou, A. Considérations sur les écoles normales primaires de France. 2¢ édition. Paris, 1849. 8 + o2 p. Respecg, E. de. Code de l’enseignement primaire. Lois, décrets et arrétés. Paris, 1887. 4 + 350 p. Covers the period Mar. 15, 1850—Mar. 26, 1887. Saint-Cloud. Sujets de concours pour l’admission a l’école normale supé- rieure d’enseignement primaire, de l’origine 4 1897. (Section des let- tres.) Paris. 66 p. Satvanpy, de. (Ministre.) Instruction primaire: Rapport au roi, cham- bre des députés, 12 avril 1847. Exposé des motifs du projet de loi. Paris, 1847. 50 p. Scumir, Henri. L’organisation de l’enseignement primaire. Commen- taire de la loi du 30 octobre 1886; suivi de la législation en vigueur— lois, décrets et arrétés pris en exécution de la loi. Paris, 1887. 6 + 543 D. VitteMAIN. (Ministre.) La situation de Vinstruction primaire en 1840. Rapport au roi. Paris, 1841. 54 p. II. Seconpary Sources Auain, E. L’oeuvre scolaire de la révolution. 1789-1802. Etudes critiques et documents inédits. Paris, 1891. 7 + 436 p. Auarp. Ecoles normales primaires. Recueil méthodique des lois, ordon- nances, arrétés, et instructions; enseignement, administration et comp- tabilité. Tableaux des résultats jusqu’ 4 ce jour. Paris, 1843. 361 p. 292 APPENDIX K ARNOLD, MattHEew. Special Report on Certain Points connected with Ele- mentary Education in Germany, Switzerland and France. London, 1886. 27 p. Systems of Popular Education in Use in France, Holland, and the French Cantons of Switzerland. London, 1861. 50 + 294 p. Barrau, TH. H. De l'éducation morale de la jeunesse a l’aide des écoles normales primaires. Paris, 1840. 8 + 284 p. Bearp, Mary S. Ecoles maternelles of Paris. English Board of Educa- tion, Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. VIII. No. 8 London, 1902. Pp. 263-280. BrereTon, Cioupestey. Rural Schools of Northwest France. English Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. VII. No. 1. London, 1902. Pp. 1-244. Brouarp, Euctne. Essai histoire de l’instruction primaire en France, de 1789 jusqu’ 4 nos jours. Paris, 1901. 8 + 360 p. Buisson, FERDINAND. Classes enfantines: Documents législatifs et admi- nistratifs, avec introduction. Mém. et doc. sco. No. 62. Paris, 1888. 113 p. Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d’instruction primaire. 2 pts. 4 v. Paris, 1880-1889. Cierc, ALEXIs JuLEs. Orgariisation et administration matérielle des écoles normales. Rec. des monog. péd., vol. II, pp. 455-483. Compayré, GasriEL. Contemporary Educational Thought in France. Educational Review, July, 1891, II, pp. 171-177; Nov. 1895, X, pp. 313-324; Sept., 1898, XVI, pp. 133-146; Jan., 1904, XXVII, pp. 19-35. Histoire critique des doctrines de l’éducation en France depuis le 16e siécle. 5& édition. Paris, 1885. 2 v. Organisation pédagogique et législation des écoles primaires. 12¢ édition. Paris, 1904. 392 p. Dotiveux, Henri. Enseignement primaire supérieur d’aprés l’enquéte sur lenseignement secondaire. Revue pédagogique. May 15, 1900. Durian. Enseignement primaire 4 Paris. Paris, 1889. 2 v. Fitcu, J. G. The French Leaving Certificate. English Board of Educa- tion, Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. II. No. 25. London, 1898. Pp. 634-647. France. Ministére de l’instruction publique et des beaux-arts. Recueil des monographies pédagogiques. Paris, 1889. 6 v. The general sub- jects of each volume are as follows: I. Organization, budget. II. Various grades of schools, including normal schools. III. Musée pédagogique, school libraries, teachers’ certificates, teach- ers’ conferences. BIBLIOGRAPHY 293 IV. Various subjects of instruction. V. School savings banks, graduates’ associations, VI. School museums, hygiene, buildings, private schools, French education abroad. GarrEau, J. C. Vie de Jean Baptiste de la Salle. Nouvelle édition. Paris, 1825. 2 v. Gossor, Emiz. Essai critique sur Venseignement primaire en France de 1800 4 1900. Paris, 1901. 23 + 370 p. Gréarp, Octave. Education et instruction. Enseignement primaire. Paris, 1887. 429 p. Hugues, R. E. Making of Citizens. A study in comparative education. London, 1902. 8 + 4os p. Jacoutet, E. Notice historique sur les écoles normales. Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. II. Pp. 375-451. et Fér1x Pécaur. Les écoles normales supérieures d’enseignement primaire de Fontenay-aux-Roses et Saint-Cloud. Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. II. Pp. 637-682. Jost, GuitraumeE. Les examens du personnel de !’enseignement primaire. Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. III. Pp. 231-377. Kercomarp, Pautine. Les écoles maternelles. (Anciennes salles d’asile.) Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. VI. Pp. 259-309. Les écoles maternelles. Revue pédagogique, avril 1900. Pp. 336- 348. Kiem, L. R. European Schools. France (chiefly Paris). Pp. 317-301. New York, 1891. 16 + 419 p. LacHeier, G. Budget de l’enseignement primaire devant les Chambres. Revue pédagogique, May 15, 1900. Lacomse, H. de. La liberté de l’enseignement. Paris, 1900. 8 +- 123 p. Lavercne, F. Ville de Paris; les écoles et les oeuvres municipales d’en- seignement. Paris, 1900. 11 + 477 p. LavissE, Ernest. Enseignement de l’histoire a l‘école primaire in Ques- tions d’enseignement national, pp. 179-210. Paris, 1885. 30 + 339 p. Lestanc, René. L’enseignement manuel dans les écoles du degré prt maire. Paris, 1895. 8 + 228 p. L’exposition du ministére de l’instruction publique. Revue péda- gogique, July 15, 1900. Leeson, Anpr& and Pau Pever. France as It Is. Mrs. William Arnold, tr. 7 + 348 p. London, 1888. Lfvegue (Directeur). L’école J. B. Say; Rapport présenté au comité de patronage. Paris, 1899. 233 p. 294 APPENDIX K Leyssenne, P. La premiére année d’arithmétique. Théorie (trés simple), 1200 problémes et exercices, calcul mental. 100¢ édition. Paris, 1898. 143 p. Mariuter, L. Public Schools of Paris. Educational Review. Noyv., 1896. Vol. XII. Pp. 313-334. F. L. Luqueer, tr. . Martet, F. et G. Ferranp. Ecoles primaires supérieures, écoles d’appren- tissage et écoles nationales professionnelles. Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. II. Pp. 267-313. : Matrat, Marte. Histoire de l'éducation enfantine publique. Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. VI. Pp. 211-257. Mepp, Joun C. Rural Education in France. English Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. VII. No. 2. London, 1902. Pp. 245-310. Morant, R. L. French System of Higher Primary Schools. English Board of Education, Special Reports on Educational Subjects. Vol. L. No. 12. London, 1807. Pp. 287-374. Musée pédagogique. Monographies et documents scolaires. The first series is composed of 120 monographs covering a great variety of subjects connected with primary education in all its phases. The second series is made up of the already mentioned Rec. des monog. péd. Normal School in France, A. (A girls’ school in southwest France.) Educational Review, Mar., 1897. Vol. XIII. Pp. 291-294. Reprinted from the London Journal of Education. Pape-CARPANTIER, Marie. Enseignement pratique dans les salles d’asile; ou premiéres lecons 4 donner aux petits enfants. 8¢ édition. Paris, 1885. 329 p. Parsons, JamEs RusseLt, Jr. French Schools through American Eyes. Syracuse, 1892. 136 p. Pécaut, F. et E. Jacouret. Les écoles normales supérieures d’enseigne- ment primaire 4 Fontenay-aux-Roses et Saint-Cloud. Rec. des monog. péd. Vol. II. Pp. 637-682. L’éducation et la vie nationale. Paris, 1897. 25 + 376 p. Quinze ans d’éducation. Paris. 23 -+ 487 p. Pierre, A. A Vécole maternelle et a l’école primaire de 1’Exposition. Revue pédagogique, July 15, 1900. RamBaAup, ALFRED. Histoire de la civilisation contemporaine en France. 5e édition. Paris, 1808. Satmon, Lucy M. Training of Teachers in France. Educational Review. Vol. XX. Nov., 1900. Pp. 383-404. BIBLIOGRAPHY 295 Smitu, Anna Totman. Author of most of the articles in the Rep. Com. Ed. Decentralizing Tendencies in the French System of Education. School Review. Vol. VII. Pp. 133-144. Educational Lessons of the Paris Exposition. Educational Review. Vol. XXII. Sept., igor. = TEEGAN, THomas Henry. Elementary Education in France. London, 1891. 15 + 255 p. Technical, Industrial and Commercial Education in France. Lon- don, 1891. 12 -+ 223 p. Tuéry, A. F. Histoire de l’éducation en France depuis le Ve siécle jusqu’ anos jours. 2¢ édition. Paris, 1861. 2 v. United States Bureau of Education. Agriculture in the Rural Schools of France, Instruction in. Rep. Com. Ed. 1897-1898. Vol. II. Pp. 1614-1620. Also 1895-1896. Vol. II. Pp. 1200-1214. Civics, Teaching of, in France. English version of a little text-book by S. A. Nonus. Rep. Com. Ed. 1896-1897. Vol. I. Pp. 253-263. Elementary Education in France. Circulars of Information. 1881. No. 4. Pp. 17-70. Rep. Com. Ed. 1890-1891. Vol. I. Pp. 95-108. 1893-1894. Vol. I. Pp. 187-201. 1894-1895. Vol. I. Pp. 289-305. 1896-1897. Vol. I. Pp. 29-56. 1897-1898. Vol. I. Pp. 704-749. 1898-1899. Vol. I. Pp. 1095-1106. 1899-1900. Vol. II. Pp. 1712-1721. 1go0-1901. Vol. I. Pp. 1082-1103. 1902. Vol. I. Pp. 668-685. Geography in the Schools of France. Rep. Com. Ed. 1896-1897. Vol. II. 1482-1486. Summary of a paper by E. Levasseur, read be- fore the 6th International Congress of Geography. London, July, 1805. Kindergarten, Public. Rep. Com. Ed. 1890-1891. Vol. Il. Part IV of this article by W. N. Hailmann deals with France. Pp. 721-743. Maternal Schools of France. Circulars of Information. 1882, No. 5. Washington, 1882. 14 p. Normal Schools. Programs of the schools for men and women. Rep. Com. Ed. 1885-1886. Pp. 317-319. Technical Instruction in France. Circulars of Information. 1882, No. 6. Washington, 1882. 63 p. Reprint of a report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education. INDEX The following abbreviations are used in this index: cl. en., classe enfantine; com. and ind. s., commercial and industrial school; ec. m., école maternelle; c. p.s., ele- mentary primary school; h. p. s., higher primary school; n. s., normal school; p- b. n. s., primary higher normal school; s., school; ss., schools. The other abbreviations will readily be understood. Absence on account of illness, teacher’s, Academies, 12, 26 Academy inspector, 30; duties, 31; powers, 34; relations with prefect, 33, with rector, 32 Adjoint, 28 Agricultural course, in h. p. ss., 128 Agriculture, in e. p. ss., 115-116; in h. p. ss., 135; in n. ss. 146, 150, 156, 160, 165, 190, 192, 208, 209; inn. s. of the Convention, 143. See also Gardening. ‘ In exam. for elementary diploma, 228; higher diploma, 232 Aid, State, 54, 55, 84; for h.p.ss., 122 Aiken and Barbauld, modern language requirements in n. ss., 203 Alcoholism, crusade against, 194, 195, 207 Algebra, study of, in n.ss., 166, 205, 206 Algeria, n. s. established in 1865, 159 Arithmetic, in c. p. ss., method, 103-104, 109; in p.ss. under Napoleon, 145 Study of, in ec. m., and cl. en., 76- 77; ine. p. Ss., 106, LOQ-IIO, 117, 145; in La Salle’s seminary, 140; inn. ss., 146, 150, 156, 165, 180, 205-206 Armentiéres, national professional s., 19, 127 Arnold, Matthew, quoted, 107 Arrété, meaning, 17 Astronomy, study of, in n. ss., 147, 150 Auteuil, model lessons, 223-224; physical examination, 216; practice teaching, 220; science instruction, 207; student reading, 184 Baccalauréat, 14, 240 Barére, proposition for a n. s. by, 142 Bar-le-Duc, n.s., 147 Barrau, pamphlet against n. ss., 155 Batignolles, 64, 76; model lessons, 224— 225; practice teaching, 219 Bayet, M., director of primary education» quoted, 226 Beauvais, preparatory year for Saint- Cloud, 248 Bell-Lancaster system, 100 Berthelot, quoted, 47 Berthollet, teacher in the n. s. of the Con- vention, 142 Biography, national, study of, in ec. m., 77 Bookkeeping, study of, in com. and ind. 8S., 135, 136; inh. p. ss. 135, 136; in n. $s., 160, 205 Botany, study of, in n, ss., 208-209; in p- h.n. 3. 244 Brevet de capacité, 29, 227 Brevet élémentaire, 75, 132, 178, 226-227, 237, Appendix E. Brevet supérieur, 60, 170, 178, 191, 226— 224, 237, 240, 241-242, Appendix F, Budget, national, for education, 18-19; in 1902, 169 Budget, Paris, educational, 19 Budget, p. h. n. ss., 252 Buisson, director of primary education, 163 Bureaus, ministry of public instruction, 19 Cahiers. See Note-books. Caisse d’école, 48 Calligraphy, study of, in n.s., 146, 150 Cantine scolaire. See School kitchen, Cantonal delegates, 38, 46, 47 Carter, James G., influence for Massachu- setts n. ss., 154 Centralization of educational system, 15 Certificat d’aptitude au professorat, 122, 246 Certificat d’aptitude pédagogique, 29, 61, 178, 226, 234-236, Appendix G. Certificat d’études primaires. See Certifi- cate, primary. Certificate, primary, 116-119, Appendix B. Certificate, teaching, 175, chap. xi. Chalmet, proposition for h, n. s., 166 297 298 Channing, in n. »s. curriculum, 196 Chemistry, in exam. for elementary di- ploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 and note, 232; for p.h.ns., 241, 242 Study of, in com, and ind. ss., 135; in h. p. ss., 135; in n. ss., 173, 180, 190, 192, 206 ff.; in n.s. of the Convention, 143; in p. h. n. S8., 244, 250 Civics, in exam. for elementary diploma, 228 . Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135, 136; in h. p. ss. 135, 136; inn. ss., 165, 166, 190, 192 Classe, 62 n. Classe enfantine, 12, 73, 218; curriculum, 80 Club, English, at Auteuil, 183 Co-education, 57, 80-81 Collége, 63,95; distinguished from lycée, 12 Comenius, influence on method, 258; in n. s. curriculum, 195 Comité consultatif, 22 Comité d’instruction publique, 16 Comité de patronage, 28, 32 Comité du contentieux, 18 Commerce, Minister, partial control over some SS., 124-125 Commercial course, in h. p. ss., 128 Commission de surveillance, early n. ss., 151; in n. ss, 1851, 157; in n. ss. 1861, 158; inn. ss., 1866, 161 Commission scolaire, 47-49, 92 Committee of patronage, 133 Communes, financial responsibility,5 3-56; refusing to support ss., 56; without ss., Compayré, history of education, text-book in n. ss., 195; quoted, 59 ; Composition, in exam. for elementary di- ploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 Study of, in n. ss., 180,196; in p. h. N. SS., 244, 250 Compulsory attendance, 48, 50, 54, 82 Conferences, pedagogical, in n, ss., 159; teachers’, 44-45 Congréganiste ss., 84 Congrégations, 74,108. See also Religious bodies. Conseil, académique, 20, 29 Conseil, de l’université, 20 Conseil départemental, 11, 20, 35, 38, 39, 46, 51, 52, 54) 55, 70; 84, 128, 178. See also Council, departmental. Conseil général du département, 11, 51, 52, 56, 171. Conseil supérieur, 17, 20, 71 Conseillers généraux, 52 INDEX Consulting committee, 22 Content studies, 257 Control, student, in n. ss., 161 Convention, attitude toward n. ss., 142 Corner, Miss, modern language require- ments, in n. ss,, 203 Correlation, lack of, 16 Cosmography, study of in p. h. n. s., 244 Council, departmental, 36; powers, 37-39 Council, superior, 20 Cours, 62 n, 95-97, 130 Cours complémentaire, 12, 95, 120, 122, 123, 124, 128 Cours supérieur, 130, 132 Creative instinct, development of, 258 Critic teachers, 221 ff Décret, meaning, 17 Délégués cantonaux. See Cantonal dele- gates. Department, financial responsibility,51-53 Descriptive geometry, in n. s. of the Con- vention, 143 Dictation, in exam. for elementary di- ploma, 227 Diploma, elementary, 227-230; higher, 230-234; secondary, 240. See also brevet élémentaire, brevet supérieur, certificat. Discipline, 97-99, 180-181 Divisions, civil and political, 11 Domestic economy, study of, in girls’ n. $8., 209-210 Dormitories in n. ss., 172-173 Douai, u. s., 172, 173 Drawing, in exam. .for elementary di- ploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 n, 232; for p. h. u.ss., 241— 242 Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135, 136; in ec. m. and cl. en., 76, 77; in e. p.ss., 106; in h. p.ss., 135 ff; in n.ss., 146, 150, 156, 165, 173, 176, 177, 180, 190, 192, 210, 211; in p. h. n. ss., 244, 250 Duplan, M., quoted, 121 Duruy, influence over the n. ss., 159-162; minister, 1863-1869, 158-159 Ecole annexe, 174,177, 218, Appendix J.; in 1851, 155-157; in 1866, 160-161. , See also Practice schools. Ecoles d’application, 218 n. Practice schools. coles manuelles d’apprentissage, 12, 73, _ 120, 124 Ecoles maternelles, 12, 73, 177; condi- tions for establishing, 74; curriculum, 76-80, 96; teachers not specially _ trained, 75 Ecoles pratiques de commerce et d’indus- See also INDEX trie, 126; program compared with that of h. p. ss., 134-136 Ecoles primaires élémentaires. , mentary primary schools. Ecoles primaires supérieures, (2, 95, 251. ,_ See also Higher primary schools. Ecoles professionnelles, 120, 124, 127 Econome, 32, 173, 174, 251 Education, history of, Fontenay-aux- Roses, 245; in n. ss., 195-196; in p. h.n.s., 245 ; Education, in exam. for higher diploma, 232 Elementary primary schools, 81-83, 95, 106, 107 Subjects of instruction in, 106-116; agriculture, 115-116; arithmetic, 109; geography, I11~I13; geom- etry, 110; gymnastics, 113-114; history, 141-113; manual work, 114-115; military drill, 113-114; morale, 107; reading, 111; sing- 2 ing, 113; writing, 111 Eléves-maitres. See Pupil teachers. Eligible list of teachers, 62 Elocution, study of, in p. h. n.s., 244 English, study of, in ec. m., 77, 78. See also Modern languages. Enseignement libre, 20 Esthetic environment, 254 Ethics, in exam. for higher diploma, 231 u, 232; for p. h. n.ss., 241 Examen de passage, in n. ss., 186-187 Examinations, entrance for n. ss., 161; for certificat d’aptitude pédagogique, Appendix G.; for elementary diploma, 227 ff, Appendix E.; for higher di- ploma, 231 ff, Appendix F.; in e. p.ss., 116-119, Appendix B.; in n. ss., 186- 18 : Racncibie school, 171-172, 185 Extension courses, at early n. ss., 152 See Ele- Falloux law of 1850, against u, ss.. 155—- 156 Hae abolished in n. ss., 164; in second- ary 8S., 13 Fénelon, in n. ». curriculum, 195 Ferry, Minister, 163 Finance, 49-56; State, 49-51, 54; de- partment, 51-53; commune, 53-56 Fontenay-aux-Roses, 51, 88, 163, 175, 225, chap. xi.; budget, 252; daily pro- gram, 244; entrance exams., 241-243; life at the school, 239; opened in 1880, 166, 238; practice teaching, 225; teachers, 243 Form studies, 257 Fortoul, Minister, in 1854, 157 Fourtou, Minister, 163 Francke, n. s. of, 141, 142 299 Franco-Prussian war, effect on n. ss., 162 Franklin, h. p. s. at Lille, 212 Free education law, 164 Free ss, 50, 54, $2 Froebel, slight influence on ec. m., 75 Games, in ec. m. and cl. en., 76 Gardening, instruction in, in n. s., 159, 165, 191 Geography, in exam. for elementary di- ploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 n, 232; for p. h.n.ss., 241-242 Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135, 136; inec.m., 77; ine. p. ss., 106, LI ff, 117; in bh. p.ss., 135, 1365 in n. ss., 146, 150, 156, 160, 165, 180, 190, 192, 198; in n.s. of the Convention, 143; in p. h. n. ss., 244, 250 Geology, study of, in p, h. n. s., 244 Geometry, in exam. for higher diploma, 231 Study of, ine. p. ss. 110-111; in n. $8., 147, 150, 160, 165, 205, 206 German, study of in n. ss., 146, 150. See also Modern languages. Germany, influence of, upon Strassburg D. S., 145 Girls’ ss., separate, 54, 83 Goblet law, 49 Goethe, modern language requirements, N. SS., 203 Grammar, in exam. for higher diploma, 231 n; for p. h.n.ss., 241, 242 Study of, in n. ss., 150, 196; in ns. of the Convention, 143; in p. h.n. 5. 244 Grenoble, preparatory year for Saint- Cloud, 247 Guizot, influence of, on n. ss., 148-149, 152; testifies to success of Strassburg s., 146 Gymnasiums, in n. ss., 214-215 Gymnastics, in e. p. ss,, 106, 113-114; in h. p. ss., 135, 136; in n. ss. 146, 147, 150, 156, 165, 176, 190, 192, 213 ff; inp. h.n.s., 244 In exam. for elementary diploma, 228 Heine, modern language requirements in N. SS., 203 Helfedange, u. s., 147, 150 Higher primary schools, 166, chap. xii; aim, 139; certificate in, 138; courses, 128; development, 121; dual control, 124-127; entrance exam., 130; estab- lishment, 128-129; examinations, 131 Appendix D.; fees, 131; function 138-139; modern language methods 203-204; practical nature of the work ’ 300 137; programs, 134-137; pupils, 130- 131; purpose, 120; scholarships, 132- 133; social class of pupils, 130-131; teachers, 62, 66, 67, 129, 130, 167 History, in exam. for elementary diploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 n; 232; for p. h.n.ss., 241, 242 Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135, 136; in ec. m., 77; ine. p. ss. 106,111 ff, 117; inh. p. ss., 135, 136; in n. ss., 147, 150, 156, 160, 165, 180, 190, 192, 197; in n. s. of the Convention, 143; in p. h. n. $8., 244, 250 Weakness in, 198 Holidays, 105 Hundred Days, n. s., during, 145 Hygiene, study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135; in h, p.ss., 135 ff; in n.ss., 147, 150, 156, 190, 192, 207 Indemnity, residential, primary inspector, 51; teacher, 53, 55, 68, 74 Industrial course, in h. p. ss., 128 Industrial work, in national professional $s., 127-128 Initiative, lack of, 101-102 Inspecteur d’académie. inspector. Inspecteur général, 23, 28 Inspectors. ec. m., 24; general, 23, 28; primary, 39-45, 51, Appendix H. Institute, 20 Instructions, meaning, 17 See. Academy Jacoulet, M., director of n. s., Saint- Cloud, 247 Jura, department of, first girls’ n. s., 153 Jesuits, expulsion of, 141 Kuhn, M., teacher at Auteuil, 183 Lagrange, teacher in n. s. of the Conven- tion, 142 Laicization of the ss., 50, 54, 82, 165 Lancaster (Bell-) system, 100 Language, study of, in com. and ind. ss., 126, 135, 136; in ec. m.and cl. en,, 76, 77; in e. p. ss. 106; in h. p. ss., 135, 136; in n.ss., 146, 156, 165, 180, 190, 192 Lantern slides, sent out by Musée péda- gogique, 259 Laplace, teacher in n. s. of the Conven- tion, 142 La Salle, training s. of, 140 Libraries, in n. ss., 184; school, 89, 90 Lille, e. p. s. specially prepares for teach- er’s diploma, 178 Literature, history of, in n. ss., 196 INDEX Literature, in exam. for higher diploma, 231 n, 232; for p. h.n.ss., 241, 242 Study of, in n. ss., 165, 190, 192; in n. s. of the Convention, 143; in p. h, n. ss., 244, 249, 250 Lodging allowance, 68, 74 Loi, meaning, 17 Loire-Inférieure, closing of n. s., 155 Longfellow, modern language require- ments in n. Ss., 203 Lycée, 63, 95; distinguished from collége, 12 Lyon, graduated practice teaching, 221- 222; n. »., 178; preparatory year for Saint-Cloud, 248; science laboratory, 207-208; student lectures, 196-197; study of music, 212-213 Maire, power of s. inspection, 46 Mann, Horace, influence for Massachu- setts n. ss., 154; inn. s. curriculum, 196 Manual work, in com, and ind. ss., 126, 135,136; in ec.m and cl. en., 76, 77; ime. p. Ss., 106, 114-115, 117; in h. p. ss., 135 ff; in u. ss., 165, 166, 173, 176, 190 ff, 211-212; in p. h. n. ss., 244, 247, 250 In exam. for elementary diploma, 228; for p. h. n.ss., 243, 248 Saint-Cloud, 249 Map drawing, in n. s. curriculum, 199 Marking system, exam. for the elementary diploma, 229 Mathematics, in exam. for elementary di- ploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 and note, 232; for p.h.u.s., 241, 242 Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 126, 135, 136; inh. p.ss., 135 ff; inn. $8., 190, 192, 205-206; in n. s. of the Convention, 143; in p. h. u. S$S., 244, 250 Mechanics, elementary, study of, in n.ss., 147, 150 Mens, first girls’ normal course in 1833, 153 Menus, in n. ss., Appendix I. Metaphysics, study of, in n. s. of the Con- vention, 143 Method, class, Fontenay-aux-Roses, 245; evolution of, 258 Methods of teaching, study of, in u. ss., 140, 146, 150, 152, 160 Metnic system, advantage of, 110 Mihtarism, effect, 169-170 Military drill, in e. p. ss., 106, 113-114; in n. ss., 166, 190, 192 Military service, two years’, 170 Minister of public instruction, 16, 17, 22. 147; relations with Minister of Com. and Ind., 17, 124, 125 INDEX Mironneau, M., director of n. s., at Lyon, 197 Mixed schools, 83 Model lessons, 222-225 Modern languages, in exam. for higher diploma, 231 n, 232; for p. h. n. S, 241, 242 Methods of instruction, in h. Pp. SS. 203-204; in n. ss., 202 Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135, 136; in h. p. ss. 135, 136; in n. $s., 165, 166, 177, 190, 192, 200; in p. h. n. ss, 244, 249, 250 Text-books, in n. ss., 203 Monitors, 100-101 Montaigne, in n. ». curriculum, 195 Moral instruction, in cl. en., 76, 77; in com, and ind. ss., 136; in ec. m., 76, 77; ine. p.ss., 106 ff; in h. p.ss., 135, 136; in n.ss., 150, 151, 156, 165, 166, 176, 190, 192; in n.s. of the Conven- tion, 143; in p. h. n. ss., 244, 249, 250 Morale, in e. p. ss., 107-108; in n. ss., 194-195; substituted for religious in- struction, 83. See also Ethics, and Moral instruction. Musée pédagogique, 197, 259 Musée scolaire. See School museum. Music, in exam. for elementary diploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 n. Study of, inn. ss., 146, 150, 156, 159, 190, 192, 212, 213; in p. h.n.ss,, 244, 250 Nancy, preparatory year for Saint-Cloud, 248 Nantes, national professional s., 19, 127 Napoleon and the University, 145 Natural history, in exam for elementary diploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231! and note, 232; for p. h. n. $S., 241, 242 Study of, in com. and ind ss., 135; inh p.ss, 135; inn. s., 147, 150, 156, 180; im n.s, of the Conven- tion, 143; mp.h.n.s., 250 Natural science. .S¢e Natural history. Newspapers, 184-185 Nimes, normal class, 149 Normal courses, established for girls be- fore n. ss., 153; in 1877, number, 153 Normal school, at Bar-le-Duc, 147; at Helfedange, 147,150; at Paris in 1872, 154; at Strassburg, 145-146; direct- ors, source of supply, 252; of the Con- vention, 142-145; of the Hundred Days, 145 : Normal schools, admission requirements, 179; Barrau’s pamphlet against, 155; before the Revolution, 140-142; changes in curriculum, 188 n; chart of 301 the, 149; closed in Loire-Inférieure and the Vosges, 155; condition in 1832, 148; curriculum of 1832, 150; curriculum of 1851, 156-157; curriculum of 1881, 165-166; curriculum, present, chap. x; curriculum reorganized in 1866, 160— 162; curriculum revised in 1883, 166; discipline, 180-181, 183, 184; early, extension courses, 152; early, scholar- ships, 149; effect of Franco-Prussian war, 162; effect of militarism, 169- 170; entrance exam., 179-180; estab- lished in Algeria in 1855, 159; exams., 186-187; excursions, 171-172; Feal- loux law of 1850, 155-156; fees abol- ished, 164; first girls’, 153, for girls, Movement toward, 162; in 1832, ad- mission to, 151; in 1832, appointment of teachers, 151; in 1832, control, 151; in 1837, number, 153; in 1863, teach- ing force, 158; in 1866, entrance ex- ams., 161; in 1879, number, 164; in 1890, number, 168; in 1903, number, 169; influence of Guizot, 148-149, 152; inspection, 171; legislation of 1832-1833, 153; life of the pupils, 181— 184; modern language text- books, 203; obligatory for both sexes, 164; organi- zation, chap. ix; pedagogical confer- ences, 159; pupils, chap. ix; reaction against, about 1840, 154; recruitment of pupils, 179; regulation of 1832, 149—- 150; regulation of 1851, 157-158; salaries, 162; salaries in 1855, 158; size, 168-169; special exam. for teachers, 164; student control, 161; subjects of instruction, 194 ff; support, 51, 171; teachers, 173 ff, 210; weekly programs, 190, 192 Note-books, 102-105 Obligatory schools, conventionally, 55 Octroi, 68, 207 Orne, department of, first girls’ n. s., 153 Paris, n. s., established in 1872, 154; n. ss., 172; school budget, 19 Paternalism in French ss., 259-260 Pécaut, Felix, director at Fontenay-aux- Roses, 240, 245 Pedagogy, in exam. for p. h. n.s., 247 Study of, in n. ss,, 159-160, 165,176, 190, 192, 195; in p. h. nv ss., 244, 250. See also Methods of teaching. Pelletier, attitude toward training of teach- ers, 141 Pensions, 70 Pestalozzi, influence on method, 258 Physical environment, 254 Physical exams., in n. ss., 215-216 302 Physics, in exam. for elementary diploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 and note, 232; for p. bh. n. ss., 241, 242 Study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135; in h. p.ss.,135; inn. ss., 146,150, 156, 165, 173, 180, 190, 192, 206 ff; in n. s. of the Convention, 143 Pierre, M., director of n. »., Saint-Cloud, 247 Pohtical economy, study of, in com. and ind. ss., 135,136; in h. p.ss., 135, 136; in p. h.n.s., 250 Practice schools, chap. xi Practice teaching, 156; at Auteuil, 220; at Batignolles, 219; at Fontenay-aux- Roses, 225, 246; graduated, at Lyon, 221-222 Prefect, 35-36, 70 Primary certificate, 187 Primary education, distinguished from secondary, 12 Primary instruction, director of, 20 Primary school, aim, 13. See also Ele- mentary primary school and Higher piimary school. Primary school course, limits, 12 Privas, student lectures, 197 Prizes, 71 Probation, teacher’s period of, 61 Professeur, meaning, 21 n Program, ec. m., 77; e. p. 8s., geography and history, 112; h. p. ss., 135, 136; N. SS, 165, 190, 192; n.». of the Con- vention, 143; p. h. wu. ss., 244, 250, Appendix C. Psychology, in exam. for higher diploma, 231 n Study of, in u. ss., 190, 192, 194; in p. h. n. ss., 244, 245, 249, 250 Punishment in ss., 98-99. See also Dis- cipline. Punishments, teacher’s, 38, 70 Pupil teachers, 180 Rabelais, in n. s. curriculum, 195 Rapport personnel, 222, Appendix J. Reading, in exam. for elementary diploma, 228; for higher diploma, 231 n; in primary ss. under Napoleon, 145 Study of, in ec. m.and cl. en., 76, 77; in e. p. ss. 106, 111, 145; in La Salle’s seminary, 140; in u. ss., 150, 156, 165 Recess, 105 Rector, 26-29 Religious bodies, 82. tions. Religious instruction, in n. ss., 150-151, 156 Religious question, 108 Répétitrices. See Tutors, English. See also Congréga- INDEX Residential allowance, 74. See also In- demnity, residential. Reviews, 116 Rewards, in the schools, 99, see also Discipline; teacher’s, 38, 71-72 Rifle practice, in h. p. ss. and n. ss., 213 Rolland, attitude toward training of teachers, 141 Rouland, Minister in 1856, 158 Rousseau, in n. s. curriculum, 195 Saint-Cloud, 23, 51, 163, 175, 212, 225, chap. xi; admission, 248; budget, 252; contrast with Fontenay-aux-Roses, 248; daily program, 250; opened in 1882, 166, 247; student life, 251; teaching force, 251 Saint-Pierre, teacher in n. s. of the Con- vention, 142 Salaries, 24, 43: 49-50, 55-56, 65-69° 158, 162-163, 176-177 Salles d’asile. See Ecoles maternelles. Schiller, modern language requirements, in n. $8., 203 Scholarships, 132-133; at early n. ss., 149, 152; foreign, 249; in Strassburg n. s., 146 School, administration, study of, in p. h. Nn. S., 249, 250; attendance, 92, 93; board, local, see Commission scolaire; conduct, 255; codrdination with the community, 259-260; equipment, 86; fund, see Caisse d’école; kitchen, 56, 74, 93-94; library, 56, 89; museum, 88-89; organization, 95-96; organiza- tion, study of, in n.ss,, 160; registers, 89; savings banks, 56; support, sources, 49- School buildings, 172; construction super- vised by the State, 84; decoration, 87, 239; heating, 85; legal requirements of, 84; ventilation, 85 Schools, prevalence of, 83; private, 34 Science, study of, in com. and ind. ss., 126, 136; in e. p. ss., 106, 117; in h. p. ss., 136; inn.ss., 165, 206-209. See also under the various branches of science. Secondary education, distinguished from primary, 12 Secondary school, aim, 14; course, 13, 14; fees, 13 Seine-et-Oise, departmental u. s, served Paris until 1872, 154 Sévres, early location of p. h. n. s., 247 Sewing, 57, 114, 117, 212; study of, in girls’ n. ss, 212. See a/so Manual work. Singing, in e. p_ ss., 106, 113; in h. p. 8s., 135, 136; in La Salle’s seminary, 140; inn. ss., 165 Social organizations, at Fontenay aux- Roses, absence of, 239 INDEX Spelling, in e. p. ss., 117 Sports, lack of interest in, 182-183 Stagiaire, 33, 34, 59-60, 233 State, financial responsibility, 49-51, 54 Stereotomy, study of, in p. h. n. s., 250 Strassburg n. s., 145-146 Student lectures, 196-167 Student life, at Fontenay-aux-Roses, 239; at Saint-Cloud, 251 Student organizations, 183 Study periods, surveillance of, 130 Study rooms, in n. ss., 173 Surveying, study of, in n. ss, 147, 150, 156, 165 Teachers, appointment, 60, 129; classes of, 60, 63; in ec. m., 75; in e. p. 3s, 59; inh. p. ss., 62, 129; in n. ss., 173- 174; in n. ss., preparation, 175; in p. h. n. ss., 243; number, 57-58; promo- tion, 63-66; proportion of men and women, 57; qualifications, 60, 129; relations with pupils, 57; salaries, 65- 67; sources of supply, 63,178; trained, 61 Tenure of office, 69 Text-books, choice of, 91; elementary, criticism of, in the n. ». of the Conven- tion, 143; free, 56, 92; required, in e. p- $8.,90; use of, 193 Titulaire, 33, 34, 38, 59-60, 63-66, 233, 2 35 Topography, study of, in p. h. n. s., 250 Trigonometry, study of, in n. ss., 205-206 Tuition, free, 82. See a/so Free schools. 303 Tutors, English, at girls’ n. ss., 201 Union schools, 83 United States, inadequately treated in geography, 199 University of France, 16 University, its authority over public ss., 148 Vacations, 161, 185-186 Vaccination, compulsory, 71 n.; reward for encouraging, 71 Vatican, relations with France, 82 Versailles, n. s., established in 1831, 154 Vierzon, national professional s., 19, 127 Voiron, national professional s., 19, 127 Von Rochow, supporter of u. 3. move- ment in Germany, 142 Vosges, closing of n. 8., 155 Wordsworth, modern language require- ment, in n. ss., 203 Work, home, 105-106 Writing, in com, and ind. ss., 135, 136; in ec. m. and cl. en., 76, 77; ine. p. ss., 106, III, 117, 145; in h. p. ss., 135, 136; in La Salle’s semi- nary, 140; in n. ss., 156, 165, 180, 190, 192; in primary ss. under Napoleon, 145 In exam. for elementary diploma, 228 Zodlogy, study of, in n. ss., 207; in p. h. DN. S., 244